AP4226
SUPPLEMENT NO. 6
FOR
COMPILATION
OF AIR POLLUTANT
EMISSION FACTORS
SECOND EDITION
Region V*
230 South Dearbom StWtt
- •««»
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Waste Management
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
April 1976
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INSTRUCTIONS
FOR INSERTING SUPPLEMENT NO. 6
INTO
COMPILATION OF AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION FACTORS
• Replace pages iii through xviii with new pages iii through xxi.
• Replace page 1.1-3/1.1-4 dated 4/73 with new page 1.1-3/1.14 dated 4/76.
• Replace pages 1.3-1 through 1.3-4 dated 4/73 with new pages 1.3-1 through 1.3-5 dated 4/76.
• Replace pages 2.4-1/2.4-2 dated 4/73 with new pages 2.4-1 through 2.4-4 dated 4/76.
• Replace page 3.3.2-1/3.3.2-2 dated 4/73 with new page 3.3.2-1/3.3.2-2 dated 4/76.
• Replace page 4.4-5/4.4-6 dated 7/73 with corrected page 4.4-5/4.4-6 dated 4/76.
• Replace page 6.1-1/6.1-2 dated 2/72 with new pages 6.1-1 through 6.1-4 dated 4/76.
• Replace page 6.12-1/6.12-2 dated 2/72 with new page 6.12-1 dated 4/76.
• Replace page 9.1-7/9.1-8 dated 4/73 with revised page 9.1-7/9.1-8 dated 4/76.
• Insert new pages 9.2-1 through 9.2-6 dated 4/76 after page 9.1-8.
• Replace page 10.1-1/10.1-2 dated 5/74 with revised page 10.M/10.1-2 dated 4/76.
• Replace page 10.2-1/10.2-2 dated 5/74 with revised page 10.2-1/10.2-2 dated 4/76.
• Replace page 10.3-1/10.3-2 dated 5/74 with revised page 10.3-1/10.3-2 dated 4/76.
• Insert new page 10.4-1/10.4-2 dated 4/76 after page 10.3-2.
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PREFACE
This document reports data available on those atmospheric emissions for which sufficient
information exists to establish realistic emission factors. The information contained herein is based on
Public Health Service Publication 999-AP-42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, by R.L.
Duprey, and on two revised and expanded editions of Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
that were published by the Environmental Protection Agency in February 1972 and April 1973,
respectively. This document is a reprint of the second edition and includes the supplements issued in
July 1973, September 1973, July 1974, January 1975, and December 1975 (See page iv). It contains no
new information not already presented in the previous issuances.
Chapters and sections of this document have been arranged in a format that permits easy and con-
venient replacement of material as information reflecting more accurate and refined emission factors
is published and distributed. To speed dissemination of emission information, chapters or sections
that contain new data will be issued—separate from the parent report—whenever they are revised.
To facilitate the addition of future materials, the punched, loose-leaf format was selected. This
approach permits the document to be placed in a three-ring binder or to be secured by rings, rivets, or
other fasteners; future supplements or revisions can then be easily inserted. The lower left- or right-
hand corner of each page of the document bears a notation that indicates the date the information was
issued.
1
The availability of future supplements to Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors will be
announced in the publication Air Pollution Technical Publications of the Environmental Protection
^ Agency, which is available from the Air Pollution Technical Information Center, Research Triangle
Park, N.C. 27711 (Telephone: 919—549-8411 ext. 2753). This listing of publications, normally issued in
^ January and July, contains instructions for obtaining the desired supplements.
,, Comments and suggestions regarding this document should be directed to the attention of
J Director, Monitoring and Data Analysis Division, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards,
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. 27711.
111
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Because this document is a product of the efforts of many individuals, it is impossible to acknowledge each
person who has contributed. Special recognition is given to Environmental Protection Agency employees in the
Technical Development Section, National Air Data Branch, Monitoring and Data Analysis Division, for their efforts
in the production of this work. Bylines identify the contributions of individual authors who revised specific
sections and chapters.
IV
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PUBLICATIONS IN SERIES
Issuance
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (second edition)
Supplement No. 1
Section 4.3 Storage of Petroleum Products
Section 4.4 Marketing and Transportation of Petroleum Products
Supplement No. 2
Introduction
Section 3.1.1 Average Emission Factors for Highway Vehicles
Section 3.1.2 Light-Duty, Gasoline-Powered Vehicles
Supplement No.
Introduction
Section 1.4
Section 1.5
Section 1.6
Section 2.5
Section 7.6
Section 7.11
Section 10.1
Section 10.2
Section 10.3
Supplement No.
Section 3.2.3
Section 3.2.5
Section 3.2.6
Section 3.2.7
Section 3.2.8
Section 3.3.1
Section 3.3.3
Chapter 11
Appendix B
Appendix C
Supplement No.
Section 1.7
Section 3.1.1
Section 3.1.2
Section 3.1.3
Section 3.1.4
Section 3.1.5
Section 5.6
Section 11.2
Appendix C
Appendix D
Release Date
4/73
7/73
9/73
7/74
Natural Gas Combustion
Liquified Petroleum Gas Consumption
Wood/Bark Waste Combustion in Boilers
Sewage Sludge Incineration
Lead Smelting
Secondary Lead Smelting
Chemical Wood Pulping
Pulpboard
Plywood Veneer and Layout Operations
Inboard-Powered Vessels
Small, General Utility Engines
Agricultural Equipment
Heavy-Duty Construction Equipment
Snowmobiles
Stationary Gas Turbines for Electric Utility Power Plants
Gasoline and Diesel Industrial Engines
Miscellaneous Sources
Emission Factors and New Source Performance Standards
NEDS Source Classification Codes and Emission Factor Listing
Lignite Combustion
Average Emission Factors for Highway Vehicles
Light-Duty, Gasoline-Powered Vehicles (Automobiles)
Light-Duty, Diesel-Powered Vehicles
Light-Duty, Gasoline-Powered Trucks and Heavy-Duty, Gasoline-Powered Vehicles
Heavy-Duty, Diesel-Powered Vehicles
Explosives
Fugitive Dust Sources
NEDS Source Classification Codes and Emission Factor Listing
Projected Emission Factors for Highway Vehicles
1/75
12/75
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Supplement No. 6
Section 1.3
Section 2.4
Section 3.3-2
Section 6.1
Section 6.12
Section 9.2
Section 10.4
Issuance
Fuel Oil Combustion
Open Burning
Heavy-Duty, Natural-Gas-Fired Pipeline Compressor Engines
Alfalfa Dehydrating
Sugar Cane Processing
Natural Gas Processing
Woodworking Operations
Release Date
4/76
VI
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CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES xvi
LIST OF FIGURES xx
ABSTRACT xxi
INTRODUCTION 1
1. EXTERNAL COMBUSTION SOURCES
1.1 BITUMINOUS COAL COMBUSTION
1.1.1 General
1.1.2 Emissions and Controls
References for Section 1.1
1.2 ANTHRACITE COAL COMBUSTION
1.2.1 General
1.2.2 Emissions and Controls
References for Section 1.2
.1-1
.1-1
.1-1
.1-1
.1-4
.2-1
.2-1
.2-1
.2-3
1.3 FUEL OIL COMBUSTION 1.3-1
1.3.1 General 1.3-1
1.3.2 Emissions 1.3-1
1.3.3 Controls 1.3-3
References for Section 1.3 1.3-4
1.4 NATURAL GAS COMBUSTION 1.4-1
1.4.1 General 1.4-1
1.4.2 Emissions and Controls 1.4-1
References for Section 1.4 1.4-3
1.5 LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS CONSUMPTION l's-1
1.5.1 General 1.5-1
1.5.2 Emissions 1.5-1
References for Section 1.5 15-1
1.6 WOOD WASTE COMBUSTION IN BOILERS ]'.6-l
1.6.1 General \.6-l
1.6.2 Firing Practices l.6-\
1.6.3 Emissions 1.6-1
References for Section 1.6 1.6-2
1.7 LIGNITE COMBUSTION 1.7-1
1.7.1 General 1.7-j
1.7.2 Emissions and Controls 1.7-1
References for Section 1.7 1.7-2
2. SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 2.
2.1 REFUSE INCINERATION 2.
2.1.1 Process Description 2.
2.1.2 Definitions of Incinerator Categories 2.
2.1.3 Emissions and Controls 2
Refeiences for Section 2.1 2
2.2 AUTOMOBILE BODY INCINERATION 2.2-1
2.2.1 Process Description 2.2-1
2.2.2 Emissions and Controls 2.2-1
References for Section 2.2 2.2-2
2.3 CONICAL BURNERS 2.3-1
2.3.1 Process Description 2.3-1
2.3.2 Emissions and Controls 2.3-1
References for Section 2.3 2.3-3
vii
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CONTENTS-(Continued)
Page
2.4 OPEN BURNING 2.4-1
2.4.1 General 2.4-1
2.4.2 Emissions 2.4-1
References for Section 2.4 2.4-3
2.5 SEWAGE SLUDGE INCINERATION 2.5-1
2.5.1 Process Description 2.5-1
2.5.2 Emissions and Controls 2.5-1
References for Section 2.5 2.5-2
3. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE SOURCES 3.1.1-1
DEFINITIONS USED IN CHAPTER 3 3.1.1-1
3.1 HIGHWAY VEHICLES 3.1.1-2
.1 Average Emission Factors for Highway Vehicles 3.1.1-3
.2 Light-Duty, Gasoline-Powered Vehicles (Automobiles) 3.1.2-1
.3 Light-Duty, Diesel-Powered Vehicles 3.1.3-1
.4 Light-Duty, Gasoline-Powered Trucks and Heavy-Duty, Gasoline-Powered Vehicles .... 3.1.4-1
.5 Heavy-Duty, Diesel-Powered Vehicles 3.1.5-1
3.1.6 Gaseous-Fueled Vehicles 3.1.6-1
3.1.7 Motorcycles 3.1.7-1
3.2 OFF-HIGHWAY, MOBILE SOURCES 3.2.1-1
3.2.1 Aircraft 3.2.1-1
3.2.2 Locomotives 3.2.2-1
3.2.3 Inboard-Powered Vessels 3.2.3-1
3.2.4 Outboard-Powered Vessels 3.2.4-1
3.2.5 Small, General Utility Engines 3.2.5-1
3.2.6 Agricultural Equipment 3.2.6-1
3.2.7 Heavy-Duty Construction Equipment 3.2.7-1
3.2.8 Snowmobiles 3.2.8-1
3.3 OFF-HIGHWAY STATIONARY SOURCES 3.3.1-1
3.3.1 Stationary Gas Turbines for Electric Utility Power Plants 3.3.1-1
3.3.2 Heavy-Duty, Natural-Gas-Fired Pipeline Compressor Engines 3.3.2-1
3.3.3 Gasoline and Diesel Industrial Engines 3.3.3-1
4. EVAPORATION LOSS SOURCES 4.1-1
4.1 DRY CLEANING 4.1-1
4.1.1 General 4.1-1
4.1.2 Emissions and Controls 4.1-1
References for Section 4.1 4.1-2
4.2 SURFACE COATING 4.2-1
4.2.1 Process Description 4.2-1
4.2.2 Emissions and Controls 4.2-1
References for Section 4.2 4.2-2
4.3 PETROLEUM STORAGE 4.3-1
4.3.1 General 4.3-1
4.3.2 Emissions 4.3-1
References for Section 4.3 4.3-1
4.4 GASOLINE MARKETING 4.4-1
4.4.1 General 4.4-1
4.4.2 Emissions and Controls 4.4-1
References for Section 4.4 4.4-2
5. CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRY 5.1-1
5.1 ADIPIC ACID 5.1-1
5.1.1 Process Description 5.1-1
5.1.2 Emissions 5.1-1
References for Section 5.1 5.1-2
vui
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CONTENTS-(Continued)
Page
5.2 AMMONIA 5.2-1
5.2.1 Process Description 5.2-1
5.2.2 Emissions and Controls 5.2-1
References for Section 5.2 52-2
5.3 CARBON BLACK 5.3.!
5.3.1 Channel Black Process 5.3-1
5.3.2 Furnace Process 5.3-1
5.3.3 Thermal Black Process 5.3-1
References for Section 5.3 53-2
5.4 CHARCOAL 5.4-1
5.4.1 Process Description 5.4-1
5.4.2 Emissions and Controls 5.4-1
References for Section 5.4 54-1
5.5 CHLOR-ALKALI 5.5-1
5.5.1 Process Description 5.5-1
5.5.2 Emissions and Controls 5.5-1
References for Section 5.5 5.5-1
5.6 EXPLOSIVES 5.6-1
5.6.1 General 5.6-1
5.6.2 TNT Production 5.6-1
5.6.3 Nitrocellulose Production 5.6-1
5.6.4 Emissions 5.6-1
References for Section 5.6 5.6-2
5.7 HYDROCHLORIC ACID 5.7-1
5.7.1 Process Description 5.7-1
5.7.2 Emissions 5.7-1
References for Section 5.7 5.7-1
5.8 HYDROFLUORIC ACID 5.8-1
5.8.1 Process Description 5.8-1
5.8.2 Emissions and Controls 5.8-1
References for Section 5.8 5.8-2
5.9 NITRIC ACID 5.9-1
5.9.1 Process Description 5.9-1
5.9.1.1 Weak Acid Production 5.9-1
5.9.1.2 High-Strength Acid Production 5.9-1
5.9.2 Emissions and Controls 5.9-3
References for Section 5.9 5 9.4
5.10 PAINT AND VARNISH 510-1
5.10.1 Paint Manufacturing 5.10-1
5.10.2 Varnish Manufacturing 5.10-1
References for Section 5.10 5 iQ-2
5.11 PHOSPHORIC ACID 5JO-2
5.11.1 Wet Process 5.11-1
5.11.2 Thermal Process 5.11-1
References for Section 5.11 511-2
5.12 PHTHALIC ANHYDRIDE 5J2-1
5.12.1 Process Description 5.12-1
5.12.2 Emissions and Controls 5.12-1
References for Section 5.12 512-1
5.13 PLASTICS 5.13-1
5.13.1 Process Description 5.13-1
5.13.2 Emissions and Controls 5.13-1
References for Section 5.13 5.13-2
IX
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CONTENTS-(Continued)
Page
5.14 PRINTING INK 5.14-1
5.14.1 Process Description 5.14-1
5.14.2 Emissions and Controls 5.14-2
References for Section 5.14 5.14-2
5.15 SOAP AND DETERGENTS 5.15-1
5.15.1 Soap Manufacture 5.15-1
5.15.2 Detergent Manufacture 5.15-1
References for Section 5.15 515-2
5.16 SODIUM CARBONATE 5J6-1
5.16.1 Process Description 5.16-1
5.16.2 Emissions 5.16-1
References for Section 5.16 5.16-2
5.17 SULFURICACID 5.17-1
5.17.1 Process Description 5.17-1
5.17.1.1 Elemental Sulfur-Burning Plants 5.17-1
5.17.1.2 Spent-Acid and Hydrogen Sulfide Burning Plants 5.174
5.17.1.3 Sulfide Ores and Smelter Gas Plants 5.17-4
5.17.2 Emissions and Controls 5.17-4
5.17.2.1 Sulfur Dioxide 5.174
5.17.2.2 Acid Mist 5.17-5
References for Section 5.17 5.17-8
5.18 SULFUR 5.18-1
5.18.1 Process Description 5.18-1
5.18.2 Emissions and Controls 5.18-1
References for Section 5.18 5.18-2
5.19 SYNTHETIC FIBERS 5.19-1
5.19.1 Process Description 5.19-1
5.19.2 Emissions and Controls 5.19-1
References for Section 5.19 5.19-2
5.20 SYNTHETIC RUBBER 5.20-1
5.20.1 Process Description 5.20-1
5.20.2 Emissions and Controls 5.20-1
References for Section 5.20 5.20-2
5.21 TEREPHTHALIC ACID 5.21-1
5.21.1 Process Description , 5.21-1
5.21.2 Emissions 5.21-
References for Sections 5.21 5.21-
6. FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY 6.1-
6.1 ALFALFA DEHYDRATING 6.1-
6.1.1 General 6.1-
6.1.2 Emissions and Controls 6.1-
References for Section 6.1 6.1-4
6.2 COFFEE ROASTING 6.2-1
6.2.1 Process Description 6.2-1
6.2.2 Emissions 6.2-1
References for Section 6.2 6.2-2
6.3 COTTON GINNING 6.3-1
6.3.1 General 6.3-1
6.3.2 Emissions and Controls 6.3-1
References for Section 6.3 6.3-1
6.4 FEED AND GRAIN MILLS AND ELEVATORS 6.4-1
6.4.1 General 6.4-1
6.4.2 Emissions 6.4-1
References for Section 6.4 6.4-1
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CONTENTS-(C ontinued)
Page
6.5 FERMENTATION 6.5-1
6.5.1 Process Description 6.5-1
6.5.2 Emissions 6.5-1
References for Section 6.5 6.5-2
6.6 FISH PROCESSING 6.6-1
6.6.1 Process Description 6.6-1
6.6.2 Emissions and Controls 6.6-1
References for Section 6.6 6.6-2
6.7 MEAT SMOKEHOUSES 6.7-1
6.7.1 Process Description 6.7-1
6.7.2 Emissions and Controls 6.7-1
References for Section 6.7 6.7-2
6.8 NITRATE FERTILIZERS 6.8-1
6.8.1 General 6.8-1
6.8.2 Emissions and Controls 6.8-1
References for Section 6.8 6.8-2
6.9 ORCHARD HEATERS 6.9-1
6.9.1 General 6.9-1
6.9.2 Emissions 6.9-1
References for Section 6.9 6.9-4
6.10 PHOSPHATE FERTILIZERS 6.10-1
6.10.1 Normal Superphosphate 6.10-1
6.10.1.1 General 6.10-1
6.10.1.2 Emissions 6.10-2
6.10.2 Triple Superphosphate 6.10-2
6.10.2.1 General 6.10-2
6.10.2.2 Emissions 6.10-2
6.10.3 Ammonium Phosphate 6.10-2
6.10.3.1 General 6.10-2
6.10.3.2 Emissions 6.10-3
References for Section 6.10 6.10-3
6.11 STARCH MANUFACTURING 6.11-1
6.11.1 Process Description 6.11-1
6.11.2 Emissions 6.11-1
References for Section 6.11 6.11-1
6.12 SUGAR CANE PROCESSING 6.12-1
6.12.1 General 6.12-1
6.12.2 Emissions 6.12-1
References for Section 6.12 6.12-1
7. METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY 7.1-1
7.1 PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION 7.1-1
7.1.1 Process Description 7.1-1
7.1.2 Emissions and Controls 7.1-2
References for Section 7.1 '. 7.1-8
7.2 METALLURGICAL COKE MANUFACTURING 7.2-
7.2.1 Process Description 7.2-
7.2.2 Emissions 7.2-
References for Section 7.2 7.2-3
7.3 COPPER SMELTERS 7.3-
7.3.1 Process Description 7.3-
7.3.2 Emissions and Controls 7.3-1
References for Section 7.3 7.3-2
7.4 FERROALLOY PRODUCTION 7.4-1
7.4.1 Process Description 7.4-1
xi
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CONTENTS-(Continued)
Page
7.4.2 Emissions 7.4-1
References for Section 7.4 7.4-2
7.5 IRON AND STEEL MILLS 7.5-1
7.5.1 General 7.5-1
7.5.1.1 Pig Iron Manufacture 7.5-1
7.5.1.2 Steel-Making Processes 7.5-1
7.5.1.3 Scarfing 7.5-1
References for Section 7.5 7.5-6
7.6 LEAD SMELTING 7.6-1
7.6.1 Process Description 7.6-1
7.6.2 Emissions and Controls 7.6-3
References for Section 7.6 7.6-5
7.7 ZINC SMELTING 7.7-1
7.7.1 Process Description 7.7-1
7.7.2 Emissions and Controls 7.7-1
References for Section 7.7 7.7-2
7.8 SECONDARY ALUMINUM OPERATIONS 7.8-1
7.8.1 Process Description 7.8-1
7.8.2 Emissions 7.8-1
References for Section 7.8 7.8-2
7.9 BRASS AND BRONZE INGOTS 7.9-1
7.9.1 Process Description 7.9-1
7.9.2 Emissions and Controls 7.9-1
References for Section 7.9 7.9-2
7.10 GRAY IRON FOUNDRY 7.10-1
7.10.1 Process Description 7.10-1
7.10.2 Emissions 7.10-1
References for Section 7.10 7.10-2
7.11 SECONDARY LEAD SMELTING 7.11-1
7.11.1 Process Description 7.11-1
7.11.2 Emissions and Controls 7.11-1
References for Section 7.11 7.11-1
7.12 SECONDARY MAGNESIUM SMELTING 7.12-1
7.12.1 Process Description 7.12-1
7.12.2 Emissions 7.12-1
References for Section 7.12 7.12-2
7.13 STEEL FOUNDRIES 7.13-1
7.13.1 Process Description 7.13-1
7.13.2 Emissions 7.13-1
References for Section 7.13 7.13-3
7.14 SECONDARY ZINC PROCESSING 7.14-1
7.14.1 Process Description 7.14-1
7.14.2 Emissions 7.14-1
References for Section 7.14 7.14-2
MINERAL PRODUCTS INDUSTRY 8.1-1
8.1 ASPHALTIC CONCRETE PLANTS 8.1-1
8.1.1 Process Description 8.1-1
8.1.2 Emissions and Controls 8.1-4
References for Section 8.1 8.1-5
8.2 ASPHALT ROOFING 8.2-1
8.2.1 Process Description 8.2-1
8.2.2 Emissions and Controls 8.2-1
References for Section 8.2 8.2-2
Xll
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CONTENTS-(Continued)
Page
8.3 BRICKS AND RELATED CLAY PRODUCTS 8.3-1
8.3.1 Process Description 8.3-1
8.3.2 Emissions and Controls 8.3-1
References for Section 8.3 8.3-4
8.4 CALCIUM CARBIDE MANUFACTURING 8.4-1
8.4.1 Process Description 8.4-1
8.4.2 Emissions and Controls 8.4-1
References for Section 8.4 8.4-2
8.5 CASTABLE REFRACTORIES 8.5-1
8.5.1 Process Description 8.5-1
8.5.2 Emissions and Controls 8.5-1
References for Section 8.5 8.5-2
8.6 PORTLAND CEMENT MANUFACTURING 8.6-1
8.6.1 Process Description 8.6-1
8.6.2 Emissions and Controls 8.6-1
References for Section 8.6 8.6-2
8.7 CERAMIC CLAY MANUFACTURING 8.7-1
8.7.1 Process Description 8.7-1
8.7.2 Emissions and Controls 8.7-1
References for Section 8.7 8.7-2
8.8 CLAY AND FLY-ASH SINTERING 8.8-1
8.8.1 Process Description 8.8-1
8.8.2 Emissions and Controls 8.8-1
References for Section 8.8 8.8-2
8.9 COAL CLEANING 8.9-1
8.9.1 Process Description 8.9-1
8.9.2 Emissions and Controls 8.9-1
References for Section 8.9 8.9-2
8.10 CONCRETE BATCHING 8.10-1
8.10.1 Process Description 8.10-1
8.10.2 Emissions and Controls 8.10-1
References for Section 8.10 8.10-2
8.11 FIBER GLASS MANUFACTURING 8.11-1
8.11.1 Process Description 8.11-1
8.11.1.1 Textile Products 8.11-1
8.11.1.2 Wool Products 8.11-1
8.11.2 Emissions and Controls 8.11-1
References for Section 8.11 8.11-4
8.12 FRIT MANUFACTURING 8.12-1
8.12.1 Process Description 8.12-1
8.12.2 Emissions and Controls 8.12-1
References for Section 8.12 8.12-2
8.13 GLASS MANUFACTURING 8.13-1
8.13.1 Process Description 8.13-1
8.13.2 Emissions and Controls 8.13-1
References for Section 8.13 8.13-2
8.14 GYPSUM MANUFACTURING 8.14-1
8.14.1 Process Description 8.14-1
8.14.2 Emissions 8.14-1
References for Section 8.14 8.14-2
8.15 LIME MANUFACTURING 8.15-1
8.15.1 General 8.15-1
8.15.2 Emissions and Controls 8.15-1
References for Section 8.15 8.15-2
xiii
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CONTENTS-(Continued)
Page
8.16 MINERAL WOOL MANUFACTURING 8.16-1
8.16.1 Process Description 8.16-1
8.16.2 Emissions and Controls 8.16-1
References for Section 8.16 8.16-2
8.17 PERLITE MANUFACTURING 8.17-1
8.17.1 Process Description 8.17-1
8.17.2 Emissions and Controls 8.17-1
References for Section 8.17 8.17-2
8.18 PHOSPHATE ROCK PROCESSING 8.18-1
8.18.1 Process Description 8.18-1
8.18.2 Emissions and Controls 8.18-1
References for Section 8.18 8.18-2
8.19 SAND AND GRAVEL PROCESSING 8.19-1
8.19.1 Process Description 8.19-1
8.19.2 Emissions 8.19-1
References for Section 8.19 8.19-1
8.20 STONE QUARRYING AND PROCESSING 8.20-1
8.20.1 Process Description 8.20-1
8.20.2 Emissions 8.20-1
References for Section 8.20 8.20-2
9. PETROLEUM INDUSTRY 9.
9.1 PETROLEUM REFINING 9.
9.1.1 General 9.
9.1.2 Crude Oil Distillation 9.
9.1.2.1 Emissions 9.
9.1.3 Converting 9.
9.
9.
9.
9.
9.
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-6
-6
-6
-6
.3.4 Polymerization, Alkylation, and Isomerization 9.1-6
.3.1 Catalytic Cracking 9.
.3.2 Hydrocracking 9.
.3.3 Catalytic Reforming 9.
.3.5 Emissions 9.1-7
9.1.4 Treating 9.1-7
9.1.4.1 Hydrogen Treating 9.1-7
9.1.4.2 Chemical Treating 9.1-7
9.1.4.3 Physical Treating 9.1-8
9.1.4.4 Emissions 9.1-8
9.1.5 Blending 9.1-8
9.1.5.1 Emissions 9.1-8
9.1.6 Miscellaneous Operations 9.1-8
References for Chapter 9 9.1-8
9.2 NATURAL GAS PROCESSING 9.2-1
9.2.1 General 9.2-1
9.2-2 Process Description 9.2-1
9.2-3 Emissions 9.2-1
References for Section 9.2 9.2-5
10. WOOD PROCESSING 10.1-1
10.1 CHEMICAL WOOD PULPING 10.1-1
10.1.1 General 10.1-1
10.1.2 Kraft Pulping 10.1-1
10.1.3 Acid Sulfite Pulping 10.14
10.1.4 Neutral Sulfite Semichemical (NSSC) Pulping 10.14
References for Section 10.1 10.1-6
xiv
-------
CONTENTS-(Continued)
10.2 PULPBOARD 10.2-1
10.2.1 General 10.2-1
10.2.2 Process Description 10.2-1
10.2.3 Emissions 10.2-1
References for Section 10.2 10.2-1
10.3 PLYWOOD VENEER AND LAYOUT OPERATIONS 10.3-1
10.3.1 Process Descriptions 10.3-1
10.3.2 Emissions 10.3-2
References for Section 10.3 10.3-2
10.4 WOODWORKING OPERATIONS 10.4-1
10.4.1 General 10.4-1
10.4.2 Emissions 10.4-1
References for Section 10.4 10.4-2
11. MISCELLANEOUS SOURCES 11.1-1
11.1 FOREST WILDFIRES
11.1.1 General
11.1.2 Emissions and Controls
11.2 FUGITIVE DUST SOURCES
11.2.1 Unpaved Roads (Dirt and Gravel)
1.1-1
1.1-1
1.1-2
1.2-1
1.2-1
11.2.2 Agricultural Tilling 11.2.2-1
11.2.3 Aggregate Storage Piles 11.2.3-1
11.2.4 Heavy Construction Operations 11.2.4-1
APPENDIX A. MISCELLANEOUS DATA A-l
APPENDIX B. EMISSION FACTORS AND NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
FOR STATIONARY SOURCES B-l
APPENDIX C. NEDS SOURCE CLASSIFICATION CODES AND EMISSION FACTOR LISTING C-l
APPENDIX D. PROJECTED EMISSION FACTORS FOR HIGHWAY VEHICLES D-l
xv
-------
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1.1-1 Range of Collection Efficiencies for Common Types of Fly-Ash Control Equipment 1.1-2
1.1-2 Emission Factors for Bituminous Coal Combustion without Control Equipment 1.1-3
1.2-1 Emissions from Anthracite Coal Combustion without Control Equipment 1.2-2
1.3-1 Emission Factors for Fuel Oil Combustion 1.3-2
1.4-1 Emission Factors for Natural-Gas Combustion 1-4-2
1.5-1 Emission Factors for LPG Combustion 1-5-2
1.6-1 Emission Factors for Wood and Bark Combustion in Boilers with No Reinjection 1.6-2
1.7-1 Emissions from Lignite Combustion without Control Equipment 1.7-2
2.1-1 Emission Factors for Refuse Incinerators without Controls 2.1-3
2.1-2 Collection Efficiencies for Various Types of Municipal Incineration Particulate Control Systems . . 2.1-4
2.2-1 Emission Factors for Auto Body Incineration 2.2-1
2.3-1 Emission Factors for Waste Incineration in Conical Burners without Controls 2.3-2
2.4-1 Emission Factors for Open Burning of Nonagricultural Material 2.4-1
2.4-2 Emission Factors and Fuel Loading Factors for Open Burning of Agricultural Materials 2.4-2
2.5-1 Emission Factors for Sewage Sludge Incinerators 2.5-2
3.1.1-1 Average Emission Factors for Highway Vehicles, Calendar Year 1972 3.1.1-4
3.1.2-1 Carbon Monoxide, Hydrocarbon, and Nitrogen Oxides Exhaust Emission Factors for Light-Duty
Vehicles-Excluding California-for Calendar Year 1971 3.1.2-2
3.1.2-2 Carbon Monoxide, Hydrocarbon, and Nitrogen Oxides Exhaust Emission Factors for Light-Duty
Vehicles-State of California Only-for Calendar Year 1971 3.1.2-3
3.1.2-3 Carbon Monoxide, Hydrocarbon, and Nitrogen Oxides Exhaust Emission Factors for Light-Duty
Vehicles-Excluding California-for Calendar Year 1972 3.1.2-3
3.1.2-4 Carbon Monoxide, Hydrocarbon, and Nitrogen Oxides Exhaust Emission Factors for Light-Duty
Vehicles-State of California Only-for Calendar Year 1972 3.1.24
3.1.2-5 Sample Calculation of Fraction of Light-Duty Vehicle Annual Travel by Model Year 3.1.2-4
3.1.2-6 Coefficients for Speed Correction Factors for Light-Duty Vehicles 3.1.2-5
3.1.2-7 Low Average Speed Correction Factors for Light-Duty Vehicles 3.1.2-6
3.1.2-8 Light-Duty Vehicle Temperature Correction Factors and Hot/Cold Vehicle Operation Correction
Factors for FTP Emission Factors 3.1.2-6
3.1.2-9 Light-Duty Vehicle Modal Emission Model Correction Factors for Temperature and Cold/Hot
Start Weighting 3.1.2-10
3.1.2-10 Carbon Monoxide, Hydrocarbon, and Nitrogen Oxides Emission Factors for Light-Duty Vehicles
in Warmed-up Idle Mode 3.1.2-11
.2-11 Crankcase Hydrocarbon Emissions by Model Year for Light-Duty Vehicles 3.1.2-12
.2-12 Hydrocarbon Emission Factors by Model Year for Light-Duty Vehicles 3.1.2-13
.2-13 Particulate and Sulfur Oxides Emission Factors for Light-Duty Vehicles 3.1.2-14
.3-1 Emission Factors for Light-Duty, Diesel-Powered Vehicles 3.1.3-1
.4-1 Exhaust Emission Factors for Light-Duty, Gasoline-Powered Trucks for Calendar Year 1972 .... 3.1.4-2
.4-2 Coefficients for Speed Adjustment Curves for Light-Duty Trucks 3.1.4-2
.4-3 Low Average Speed Correction Factors for Light-Duty Trucks 3J.4-3
3.
3.
3,
3.
3,
3,
3,
3.1.44 Sample Calculation of Fraction of Annual Light-Duty Truck Travel by Model Year 3.1.4-3
3.1.4-5 Light-Duty Truck Temperature Correction Factors and Hot/Cold Vehicle Operation Correction
Factors for FTP Emission Factors 3.1.44
3.1.4-6 Crankcase and Evaporative Hydrocarbon Emission Factors for Light-Duty, Gasoline-Powered
Trucks 3.1.4-6
3.1.4-7 Particulate and Sulfur Oxides Emission Factors Light-Duty, Gasoline-Powered Trucks 3.1.4-6
3.1.4-8 Exhaust Emission Factors for Heavy-Duty, Gasoline-Powered Trucks for Calendar Year 1972 ... 3.1.4-7
3.1.4-9 Sample Calculation of Fraction of Gasoline-Powered, Heavy-Duty Vehicle Annual Travel by Model
Year 3.1.4-8
3.1.4-10 Speed Correction Factors for Heavy-Duty Vehicles 3.1.4-9
3.1.4-11 Low Average Speed Correction Factors for Heavy-Duty Vehicles 3.1.4-10
3.1.4-12 Crankcase and Evaporative Hydrocarbon Emission Factors for Heavy-Duty, Gasoline-Powered
Vehicles 3.1.4-10
xvi
-------
LIST OF TABLES-(Continued)
Table Pa8e
3.1.4-13 Paniculate and Sulfur Oxides Emission Factors for Heavy-Duty Gasoline-Powered Vehicles 3.1.4-11
3.1.5-1 Emission Factors for Heavy-Duty, Diesel-Powered Vehicles (All Pre-1973 Model Years) for
Calendar Year 1972 3.1.5-2
3.1.5-2 Emission Factors for Heavy-Duty, Diesel-Powered Vehicles under Different Operating Conditions . 3.1.5-3
3.1.6-1 Emission Factors by Model Year for Light-Duty Vehicles Using LPG, LPG/Dual Fuel, or
CNG/Dual Fuel 3.1.6-2
3.1.6-2 Emission Factors for Heavy-Duty Vehicles Using LPG or CNG/Duel Fuel 3.1.6-2
3.1.7-1 Emission Factors for Motorcycles 3.1.7-2
3.2.1-1 Aircraft Classification 3.2.1-2
3.2.1-2 Typical Time in Mode for Landing-Takeoff Cycle 3.2.1-3
3.2.1-3 Emission Factors per Aircraft Landing-Takeoff Cycle 3.2.1-4
3.2.14 Modal Emission Factors 3.2.1-6
3.2.2-1 Average Locomotive Emission Factors Based on Nationwide Statistics 3.2.2-1
3.2.2-2 Emission Factors by Locomotive Engine Category 3.2.2-2
3.2.3-1 Average Emission Factors for Commercial Motorships by Waterway Classification 3.2.3-2
3.2.3-2 Emission Factors for Commercial Steamships-All Geographic Areas 3.2.3-3
3.2.3-3 Diesel Vessel Emission Factors by Operating Mode 3.2.3-4
3.2.34 Average Emission Factors for Diesel-Powered Electrical Generators in Vessels 3.2.3-5
3.2.3-5 Average Emission Factors for Inboard Pleasure Craft 3.2.3-6
3.2.4-1 Average Emission Factors for Outboard Motors 3.2.4-1
3.2.5-1 Emission Factors for Small, General Utility Engines 3.2.5-2
3.2.6-1 Service Characteristics of Farm Equipment (Other than Tractors) 3.2.6-1
3.2.6-2 Emission Factors for Wheeled Farm Tractors and Non-Tractor Agricultural Equipment 3.2.6-2
3.2.7-1 Emission Factors for Heavy-Duty, Diesel-Powered Construction Equipment 3.2.7-2
3.2.7-2 Emission Factors for Heavy-Duty, Gasoline-Powered Construction Equipment 3.2.74
3.2.8-1 Emission Factors for Snowmobiles 3.2.8-2
3.3.1-1 Typical Operating Cycle for Electric Utility Turbines 3.3.1-2
3.3.1-2 Composite Emission Factors for 1971 Population of Electric Utility Turbines 3.3.1-2
3.3.2-1 Emission Factors for Heavy-Duty, Natural-Gas-Fired Pipeline Compressor Engines 3.3.2-2
3.3.3-1 Emission Factors for Gasoline-and Diesel-Powered Industrial Equipment 3.3.3-1
4.1-1 Hydrocarbon Emission Factors for Dry-Cleaning Operations 4.1-2
4.2-1 Gaseous Hydrocarbon Emission Factors for Surface-Coating Applications 4.2-1
4.3-1 Hydrocarbon Emission Factors for Evaporation Losses from the Storage of Petroleum Products 4.3-2
4.4-1 Emission Factors for Evaporation Losses from Gasoline Marketing 4.4-2
5.1-1 Emission Factors for an Adipic Acid Plant without Control Equipment 5.1-1
5.2-1 Emission Factors for Ammonia Manufacturing without Control Equipment 5.2-2
5.3-1 Emission Factors for Carbon Black Manufacturing 5.3-2
5.4-1 Emission Factors for Charcoal Manufacturing 5.4.!
5.5-1 Emission Factors for Chlor-Alkali Plants 5.5-2
5.6-1 Emission Factors for Explosives Manufacturing 5.64
5.7-1 Emission Factors for Hydrochloric Acid Manufacturing 5.7.!
5.8-1 Emission Factors for Hydrofluoric Acid Manufacturing 5.8-1
5.9-1 Nitrogen Oxide Emissions from Nitric Acid Plants 5.9-3
5.10-1 Emission Factors for Paint and Varnish Manufacturing without Control Equipment 5.10-2
5.11-1 Emission Factors for Phosphoric Acid Production 5.11-2
5.12-1 Emission Factors for Phthalic Anhydride Plants 5.12-1
5.13-1 Emission Factors for Plastics Manufacturing without Controls 5.13-1
5.14-1 Emission Factors for Printing Ink Manufacturing 5.14-2
5.15-1 Particulate Emission Factors for Spray-Drying Detergents 5.15-1
5.16-1 Emission Factors for Soda-Ash Plants without Control 5.16-1
5.17-1 Emission Factors for Sulfuric Acid Plants 5.17-5
5.17-2 Acid Mist Emission Factors for Sulfuric Acid Plants without Controls 5.17-7
xvii
-------
LIST OF TABLES-(Continued)
Table Page
5.17-3 Collection Efficiency and Emissions Comparison of Typical Electrostatic Precipitator and Fiber
Mist Eliminator 5.17-8
5.18-1 Emission Factors for Modified Claus Sulfur Plants 5.18-2
5.19-1 Emission Factors for Synthetic Fibers Manufacturing 5.19-1
5.20-1 Emission Factors for Synthetic Rubber Plants: Butadiene-Acrylonitrile and Butadiene-Styrene . 5.20-1
5.21-1 Nitrogen Oxides Emission Factors for Terephthalic Acid Plants 5.21-1
6.1-1 Particulate Emission Factors for Alfalfa Dehydrating Plants 6.1-2
6.2-1 Emission Factors for Coffee Roasting Processes without Controls 6.2-1
6.3-1 Emission Factors foi Cotton Ginning Operations without Controls 6.3-1
6.4-1 Particulate Emission Factors for Grain Handling and Processing 6.4-2
6.5-1 Emission Factors for Fermentation Processes 6.5-2
6.6-1 Emission Factors for Fish Meal Processing 6.6-1
6.7-1 Emission Factors for Meat Smoking 6.7-1
6.8-1 Emission Factors for Nitrate Fertilizer Manufacturing without Controls 6.8-2
6.9-1 Emission Factors for Orchard Heaters 6.9-4
6.10-1 Emission Factors for Production of Phosphate Fertilizers 6.10-1
6.11-1 Emission Factors for Starch Manufacturing 6.11-1
7.1-1 Raw Material and Energy Requirements for Aluminum Production 7.1-2
7.1-2 Representative Particle Size Distributions of Uncontrolled Effluents from Prebake and
Horizontal-Stud Soderberg Cells 7.14
7.1-3 Emission Factors for Primary Aluminum Production Processes 7.1-5
7.2-1 Emission Factors for Metallurgical Coke Manufacture without Controls 7.2-2
7.3-1 Emission Factors for Primary Copper Smelters without Controls 7.3.2
7.4-1 Emission Factors for Ferroalloy Production in Electric Smelting Furnaces 7.4-2
7.5-1 Emission Factors for Iron and Steel Mills 7.5-4
7.6-1 Emission Factors for Primary Lead Smelting Processes without Controls 7.6-4
7.6-2 Efficiencies of Representative Control Devices Used with Primary Lead Smelting Operations . . 7.6-5
7.7-1 Emission Factors for Primary Zinc Smelting without Controls 7.7-1
7.8-1 Particulate Emission Factors for Secondary Aluminum Operations 7.8-]
7.9-1 Particulate Emission Factors for Brass and Bronze Melting Furnaces without Controls 7.9-2
7.10-1 Emission Factors for Gray Iron Foundries 7.10-1
7.11-1 Emission Factors for Secondary Lead Smelting Furnaces without Controls 7.11-2
7.11-2 Efficiencies of Particulate Control Equipment Associated with Secondary Lead Smelting
Furnaces 7.11 -3
7.11-3 Representative Particle Size Distribution from Combined Blast and Reverberatory Furnace Gas
Stream 7.11-3
7.12-1 Emission Factors for Magnesium Smelting 7.12-1
7.13-1 Emission Factors for Steel Foundries 7.13-2
7.14-1 Particulate Emission Factors for Secondary Zinc Smelting 7.14-2
8.1-1 Particulate Emission Factors for Asphaltic Concrete Plants 8.1-4
8.2-1 Emission Factors for Asphalt Roofing Manufacturing without Controls 8.2-1
8.3-1 Emission Factors for Brick Manufacturing without Controls 8.3-3
8.4-1 Emission Factors for Calcium Carbide Plants 8.4-1
8.5- Particulate Emission Factors for Castable Refractories Manufacturing 8.5-1
8.6- Emission Factors for Cement Manufacturing without Controls 8.6-3
8.6-2 Size Distribution of Dust Emitted from Kiln Operations without Controls 8.6-4
8.7- Particulate Emission Factors for Ceramic Clay Manufacturing 8.7-1
8.8- Particulate Emission Factors for Sintering Operations 8.8-2
8.9- Particulate Emission Factors for Thermal Coal Dryers 8.9-1
8.10-1 Particulate Emission Factors for Concrete Batching 8.10-1
8.11-1 Emission Factors for Fiber Glass Manufacturing without Controls 8.11-3
8.12-1 Emission Factors for Frit Smelters without Controls 8.12-2
8.13-1 Emission Factors for Glass Melting 8.13-1
xviii
-------
LIST OF TABLES-(Continued)
Table Page
8.14-1 Particulate Emission Factors for Gypsum Processing 8.14-1
8.15-1 Particulate Emission Factors for Lime Manufacturing without Controls 8.15-1
8.16-1 Emission Factors for Mineral Wool Processing without Controls 8.16-2
8.17-1 Particulate Emission Factors for Perlite Expansion Furnaces without Controls 8.17-1
8.18-1 Particulate Emission Factors for Phosphate Rock Processing without Controls 8.18-1
8.20-1 Particulate Emission Factors for Rock-Handling Processes 8.20-1
9.1-1 Emission Factors for Petroleum Refineries 9.1-3
9.2-1 Emission Factors for Gas Sweetening Plants 9.2-3
9.2-2 Average Hydrogen Sulfide Concentrations in Natural Gas by Air Quality Control Region 9.2-4
10.1.2-1 Emission Factors for Sulfate Pulping 10.1-5
10.2-1 Particulate Emission Factors for Pulpboard Manufacturing 10.2-1
10.3-1 Emission Factors for Plywood Manufacturing 10.3-1
10.4-1 Particulate Emission Factors for Large Diameter Cyclones in Woodworking Industry 10.4-2
11.1-1 Summary of Estimated Fuel Consumed by Forest Fires 11.1-2
11.1-2 Summary of Emissions and Emission Factors for Forest Wildfires 11.1-4
11.2.1-1 Control Methods for Unpaved Roads 11.24
11.2.3-1 Aggregate Storage Emissions 11.2.3-1
A-l Nationwide Emissions for 1971 ^-2
A-2 Distribution by Particle Size of Average Collection Efficiencies for Various Particulate Control
Equipment ^-3
A-3 Thermal Equivalents for Various Fuels A_4
A-4 Weights of Selected Substances ^.-4
A-5 General Conversion Factors ^-5
B-l Promulgated New Source Performance Standards-Group I Sources g_2
B-2 Promulgated New Source Performance Standards-Group II Sources 34
xix
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1.4-1 Lead Reduction Coefficient as Function of Boiler Load 1.4-2
3.3.2-1 Nitrogen Oxide Emissions from Stationary Internal Combustion Engines 3.3.2-2
4.3-1 Fixed Roof Storage Tank 4.3-1
4.3-2 Double-deck Floating Roof Storage Tank 4.3-2
4.3-3 Variable Vapor Storage Tank 4.3-3
4.3-4 Adjustment Factor for Small-diameter Fixed Roof Tanks 4.3-5
4.4-1 Flowsheet of Petroleum Production, Refining, and Distribution Systems 4.4-3
4.4-2 Underground Storage Tank Vapor-recovery System 4.4-5
5.6-1 Flow Diagram of Typical Batch Process TNT Plant 5 6_2
5.9-1 Flow Diagram of Typical Nitric Acid Plant Using Pressure Process 59.2
5.17-1 Basic Flow Diagram of Contact-Process Sulfuric Acid Plant Burning Elemental Sulfur 5.17-2
5.17-2 Basic Flow Diagram of Contact-Process Sulfuric Acid Plant Burning Spent Acid 5.17-3
5.17-3 Sulfuric Acid Plant Feedstock Sulfur Conversion Versus Volumetric and Mass SC>2 Emissions at
Various Inlet SO2 Concentrations by Volume 5.17-6
5.18-1 Basic Flow Diagram of Modified Claus Process with Two Converter Stages Used in Manufacturing
Sulfur 5.18-2
6.1-1 Generalized Flow Diagram for Alfalfa Dehydration Plant 6.1-3
6.9-1 Types of Orchard Heaters 6.9-2
6.9-2 Particulate Emissions from Orchard Heaters 6.9-3
7.1-1 Schematic Diagram of Primary Aluminum Production Process 7.1-3
7.5-1 Basic Flow Diagram of Iron and Steel Processes 7.5-2
7.6-1 Typical Flowsheet of Pyrometallurgical Lead Smelting 7.6-2
7.11-1 Secondary Lead Smelter Processes 7.11-2
8.1-1 Batch Hot-Mix Asphalt Plant 8.1-2
8.1-2 Continuous Hot-Mix Asphalt Plant 8.1-3
8.3-1 Basic Flow Diagram of Brick Manufacturing Process 8.3-2
8.6-1 Basic Flow Diagram of Portland Cement Manufacturing Process 8.6-2
8.11-1 Typical Flow Diagram of Textile-Type Glass Fiber Production Process 8.11-2
8.11-2 Typical Flow Diagram of Wool-Type Glass Fiber Production Process 8.11-2
9.1-1 Basic Flow Diagram of Petroleum Refinery 9.1-2
9.2-1 Generalized Flow Diagram of the Natural Gas Industry 9.2-2
9.2-2 Flow Diagram of the Amine Process Gas Sweetening 9.2-3
10.1.2-1 Typical Kraft Sulfate Pulping and Recovery Process 10.1-2
11.1-1 Forest Areas and U.S. Forest Service Regions 11.1-3
11.2-1 Mean Number of Days with 0.01 inch or more of Annual Precipitation in United States 11.2-3
11.2-2 Map of Thornthwaites Precipitation-Evaporation Index Values for State Climatic Divisions 11.2.2-3
xx
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ABSTRACT
Emission data obtained from source tests, material balance studies, engineering estimates, etc., have been
compiled for use by individuals and groups responsible for conducting air pollution emission inventories.
Emission factors given in this document, the result of the expansion and continuation of earlier work, cover most
of the common emission categories: fuel combustion by stationary and mobile sources; combustion of solid wastes;
evaporation of fuels, solvents, and other volatile substances; various industrial processes; and miscellaneous sources.
When no source-test data are available, these factors can be used to estimate the quantities of primary pollutants
(particulates, CO, 862, NOX, and hydrocarbons) being released from a source or source group.
Key words: fuel combustion, stationary sources, mobile sources, industrial processes, evaporative losses, emissions,
emission data, emission inventories, primary pollutants, emission factors.
xxi
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1.1-3
-------
References for Section 1.1
1. Smith, W. S. Atmospheric Emissions from Coal Combustion. U.S. DHEW, PHS, National Center for Air
Pollution Control. Cincinnati, Ohio. PHS Publication Number 999-AP-24. April 1966.
2. Control Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants. U.S. DHEW, PHS, EHS, National Air Pollution Control
Administration Washington, D.C. Publication Number AP-51. January 1969.
3. Perry, H. and J. H. Field. Air Pollution and the Coal Industry. Transactions of the Society of Mining
Engineers. 238:337-345, December 1967.
4. Heller, A. W. and D. F. Walters. Impact of Changing Patterns of Energy Use on Community Air Quality. J.
Air Pol. Control Assoc. 75:426, September 1965.
5. Cuffe, S. T. and R. W. Gerstle. Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants: A Comprehensive Summary. U.S.
DHEW, PHS, National Air Pollution Control Administration. Raleigh, N. C. PHS Publication Number
999-AP-35. 1967. p. 15.
6. Austin, H. C. Atmospheric Pollution Problems of the Public Utility Industry. J. Air Pol. Control Assoc.
70(4):292-294, August 1960.
7. Hangebrauck, R. P., D. S. Von Lehmden, and J. E. Meeker. Emissions of Polynuclear Hydrocarbons and
Other Pollutants from Heat Generation and Incineration Processes. J. Air Pol. Control Assoc. 14:267-278,
July 1964.
8. Hovey, H. H., A. Risman, and J. F. Cunnan. The Development of Air Contaminant Emission Tables for
Nonprocess Emissions. J. Air Pol. Control Assoc. 76:362-366, July 1966.
9. Anderson, D. M., J. Lieben, and V. H. Sussman. Pure Air for Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania Department of
Health. Harrisburg, Pa. November 1961. p. 91-95.
10. Communication with National Coal Association. Washington, D. C. September 1969.
11. Private communication with R.D. Stern, Control Systems Division, Environmental Protection Agency.
Research Triangle Park, N.C. June 21, 1972.
12. Control Techniques for Sulfur Oxide Air Pollutants. U.S. DHEW, PHS, EHS, National Air Pollution Control
Administration. Washington, D.C. Publication Number AP-52. January 1969. p. xviii and xxii.
13. Air Pollution Aspects of Emission Sources: Electric Power Production. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Air Programs. Research Triangle Park, N.C. Publication Number AP-96. May 1971.
1.1-4 EMISSION FACTORS 4/76
-------
1.3 FUEL OIL COMBUSTION by Tom Lahre
1.3.1 General1'2
Fuel oils are broadly classified into two major types: distillate and residual. Distillate oils (fuel oil grades 1 and
2) are used mainly in domestic and small commercial applications in which easy fuel burning is required.
Distillates are more volatile and less viscous than residual oils as well as cleaner, having negligible ash and nitrogen
contents and usually containing less than 0.3 percent sulfur (by weight). Residual oils (fuel oil grades 4, 5, and 6),
on the other hand, are used mainly in utility, industrial, and large commercial applications in which sophisticated
combustion equipment can be utilized. (Grade 4 oil is sometimes classified as a distillate; grade 6 is sometimes
referred to as Bunker C.) Being more viscous and less volatile than distillate oils, the heavier residual oils (grades 5
and 6) must be heated for ease of handling and to facilitate proper atomization. Because residual oils are
produced from the residue left over after the lighter fractions (gasoline, kerosene, and distillate oils) have been
removed from the crude oil, they contain significant quantities of ash, nitrogen, and sulfur. Properties of typical
fuel oils are given in Appendix A.
1.3.2 Emissions
Emissions from fuel oil combustion are dependent on the grade and composition of the fuel, the type and size
of the boiler, the firing and loading practices used, and the level of equipment maintenance. Table 1.3-1 presents
emission factors for fuel oil combustion in units without control equipment. Note that the emission factors for
industrial and commercial boilers are divided into distillate and residual oil categories because the combustion of
each produces significantly different emissions of particulates, SOX, and NOX. The reader is urged to consult the
references cited for a detailed discussion of all of the parameters that affect emissions from oil combustion.
1.3.2.1 Particulates '1 ' - Particulate emissions are most dependent on the grade of fuel fired. The lighter
distillate oils result in significantly lower particulate formation than do the heavier residual oils. Among residual
oils, grades 4 and 5 usually result in less particulate than does the heavier grade 6.
In boilers firing grade 6, particulate emissions can be described, on the average, as a function of the sulfur
content of the oil. As shown in Table 1.3-1 ( footnote c ), particulate emissions can be reduced considerably when
low-sulfur grade 6 oil is fired. This is because low-sulfur grade 6, whether refined from naturally occurring
low-sulfur crude oil or desulfurized by one of several processes currently in practice, exhibits substantially lower
viscosity and reduced asphaltene, ash, and sulfur content — all of which result in better atomization and cleaner
combustion.
Boiler load can also affect particulate emissions in units firing grade 6 oil. At low load conditions, particulate
emissions may be lowered by 30 to 40 percent from utility boilers and by as much as 60 percent from small
industrial and commercial units. No significant particulate reductions have been noted at low loads from boilers
firing any of the lighter grades, however. At too low a load condition, proper combustion conditions cannot be
maintained and particulate emissions may increase drastically. It should be noted, in this regard, that any
condition that prevents proper boiler operation can result in excessive particulate formation.
1.3.2.2 Sulfur Oxides (SOX) " - Total sulfur oxide emissions are almost entirely dependent on the sulfur
content of the fuel and are not affected by boiler size, burner design, or grade of fuel being fired. On the average,
more than 95 percent of the fuel sulfur is converted to S02, with about 1 to 3 percent further oxidized to 803.
Sulfur trioxide readily reacts with water vapor (both in the air and in the flue gases) to form a sulfuric acid mist.
4/76 External Combustion Sources 1.3-1
-------
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1.3.2.3 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)1"6' 8"n' 14 - Two mechanisms form nitrogen oxides: oxidation of fuel-bound
nitrogen and thermal fixation of the nitrogen present in combustion air. Fuel NOX are primarily a function of the
nitrogen content of the fuel and the available oxygen (on the average, about 45 percent of the fuel nitrogen is
converted to NOX, but this may vary from 20 to 70 percent). Thermal NOX, on the other hand, are largely a
function of peak flame temperature and available oxygen - factors which are dependent on boiler size, firing
configuration, and operating practices.
Fuel nitrogen conversion is the more important N0x-forming mechanism in boilers firing residual oil. Except
in certain large units having unusually high peak flame temperatures, or in units firing a low-nitrogen residual oil,
fuel NOX will generally account for over 50 percent of the total NOX generated. Thermal fixation, on the other
hand, is the predominant NOx-forming mechanism in units firing distillate oils, primarily because of the negligible
nitrogen content in these lighter oils. Because distillate-oil-fired boilers usually have low heat release rates,
however, the quantity of thermal NOX formed in them is less than in larger units.
A number of variables influence how much NOX is formed by these two mechanisms. One important variable
is firing configuration. Nitrogen oxides emissions from tangentially (corner) fired boilers are, on the average, only
half those of horizontally opposed units. Also important are the firing practices employed during boiler operation.
The use of limited excess air firing, flue gas recirculation, staged combustion, or some combination thereof, may
result in NOX reductions ranging from 5 to 60 percent. (See section 1.4 for a discussion of these techniques.)
Load reduction can likewise decrease NOX production. Nitrogen oxides emissions may be reduced from 0.5 to 1
percent for each percentage reduction in load from full load operation. It should be noted that most of these
variables, with the exception of excess air, are applicable only in large oil-fired boilers. Limited excess air firing is
possible in many small boilers, but the resulting NOX reductions are not nearly as significant.
1.3.2.4 Other Pollutants *' ' 8"10' 14 - As a rule, only minor amounts of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide
will be produced during fuel oil combustion. If a unit is operated improperly or not maintained, however, the
resulting concentrations of these pollutants may increase by several orders of magnitude. This is most likely to be
the case with small, often unattended units.
1.3.3 Controls
Various control devices and/or techniques may be employed on oil-fired boilers depending on the type of
boiler and the pollutant being controlled. All such controls may be classified into three categories: boiler
modification, fuel substitution, and flue gas cleaning.
1.3.3.1 Boiler Modification •4>°'y>l3>1 _ Boiler modification includes any physical change in the boiler
apparatus itself or in the operation thereof. Maintenance of the burner system, for example, is important to
assure proper atomization and subsequent minimization of any unburned combustibles. Periodic tuning is
important in small units to maximize operating efficiency and minimize pollutant emissions, particularly smoke
and CO. Combustion modifications such as limited excess air firing, flue gas recirculation, staged combustion, and
reduced load operation all result in lowered NOX emissions in large facilities. (See Table 1.3-1 for specific
reductions possible through these combustion modifications.)
1.3.3.2 Fuel Substitution ' - Fuel substitution, that is, the firing of "cleaner" fuel oils, can substantially
reduce emissions of a number of pollutants. Lower sulfur oils, for instance, will reduce SOX emissions in all
boilers regardless of size or type of unit or grade of oil fired. Particulates will generally be reduced when a better
grade of oil is fired. Nitrogen oxide emissions will be reduced by switching to either a distillate oil or a residual oil
containing less nitrogen. The practice of fuel substitution, however, may be limited by the ability of a given
operation to fire a better grade of oil as well as the cost and availability thereof.
4/76 External Combustion Sources 1.3-3
-------
1.3.3.3 Flue Gas Cleaning ' — Flue gas cleaning equipment is generally only employed on large oil-fired
boilers. Mechanical collectors, a prevalent type of control device, are primarily useful in controlling particulates
generated during soot blowing, during upset conditions, or when a very dirty, heavy oil is fired. During these
situations, high efficiency cyclonic collectors can effect up to 85 percent control of particulate. Under normal
firing conditions, however, or when a clean oil is combusted, cyclonic collectors will not be nearly as effective.
Electrostatic precipitators are commonly found in power plants that at one time fired coal. Precipitators that
were designed for coal flyash provide only 40 to 60 percent control of oil-fired particulate. Collection efficiencies
of up to 90 percent, however, have been reported for new or rebuilt devices that were specifically designed for
oil-firing units.
Scrubbing systems have been installed on oil-fired boilers, especially of late, to control both sulfur oxides and
particulate. These systems can achieve SC>2 removal efficiencies of up to 90 to 95 percent and provide particulate
control efficiencies on the order of 50 to 60 percent. The reader should consult References 20 and 21 for details
on the numerous types of flue gas desulfurization systems currently available or under development.
References for Section 1.3
1. Smith, W. S. Atmospheric Emissions from Fuel Oil Combustion: An Inventory Guide. U.S. DHEW, PHS,
National Center for Air Pollution Control. Cincinnatti, Ohio. PHS Publication No. 999-AP-2. 1962.
2. Air Pollution Engineering Manual. Danielson, J.A. (ed.). Environmental Protection Agency. Research
Triangle Park, N.C. Publication No. AP-40. May 1973. p. 535-577.
3. Levy, A. et al. A Field Investigation of Emissions from Fuel Oil Combustion for Space Heating. Battelle
Columbus Laboratories. Columbus, Ohio. API Publication 4099. November 1971.
4. Barrett, R.E. et al. Field Investigation of Emissions from Combustion Equipment for Space Heating. Battelle
Columbus Laboratories. Columbus, Ohio. Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, N.C., under Contract No. 68-02-0251. Publication No. R2-73-084a. June 1973.
5. Cato, G.A. et al. Field Testing: Application of Combustion Modifications to Control Pollutant Emissions
From Industrial Boilers - Phase I. KVB Engineering, Inc. Tustin, Calif. Prepared for Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C., under Contract No. 68-02-1074. Publication No.
EPA-650/2-74-078a. October 1974.
6. Particulate Emission Control Systems For Oil-Fired Boilers. GCA Corporation. Bedford, Mass. Prepared for
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C., under Contract No. 68-02-1316.
Publication No. EPA-450/3-74-063. December 1974.
7. Title 40 - Protection of Environment. Part 60 - Standards of Performance for New Stationary Sources.
Method 5 - Determination of Emission from Stationary Sources. Federal Register. 55(247): 24888-24890,
December 23, 1971.
8. Bartok, W. et al. Systematic Field Study of NOX Emission Control Methods for Utility Boilers. ESSO
Research and Engineering Co., Linden, N.J. Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, N.C., under Contract No. CPA-70-90. Publication No. APTD 1163. December 31, 1971.
9. Crawford, A.R. et al. Field Testing: Application of Combustion Modifications to Control NOX Emissions
From Utility Boilers. Exxon Research and Engineering Company. Linden, N.J. Prepared for Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C., under Contract No. 68-02-0227. Publication No.
EPA-650/2-74-066. June 1974. p.l 13-145.
10. Deffner, J.F. et al. Evaluation of Gulf Econoject Equipment with Respect to Air Conservation. Gulf
Research and Development Company. Pittsburgh, Pa. Report No. 731RC044. December 18, 1972.
1.3-4 EMISSION FACTORS 4/76
-------
11. Blakeslee, C.E. and H.E. Burbach. Controlling NOX Emissions from Steam Generators. J. Air Pol. Control
Assoc. 25:37-42, January 1973.
12. Siegmund, C.W. Will Desulfurized Fuel Oils Help? ASHRAE Journal. 11:29-33, April 1969.
13. Govan, F.A. et al. Relationship of Particulate Emissions Versus Partial to Full Load Operations For
Utility-Sized Boilers. In: Proceedings of 3rd Annual Industrial Air Pollution Control Conference, Knoxville,
March 29-30, 1973. p. 424-436.
14. Hall, R.E. et al. A Study of Air Pollutant Emissions From Residential Heating Systems. Environmental
Protection Agency. Research Triangle Park, N.C. Publication No. EPA-650/2-74-003. January 1974.
15. Perry, R.E. A Mechanical Collector Performance Test Report on an Oil Fired Power Boiler. Combustion.
May 1972. p. 24-28.
16. Burdock, J.L. Fly Ash Collection From Oil-Fired Boilers. (Presented at 10th Annual Technical Meeting of
New England Section of APCA, Hartford, April 21, 1966.)
17. Bagwell, F.A. and R.G. Velte. New Developments in Dust Collecting Equipment for Electric Utilities. J. Air
Pol. Control Assoc. 27:781-782, December 1971.
18. Internal memorandum from Mark Hooper to EPA files referencing discussion with the Northeast Utilities
Company. January 13, 1971.
19. Pinheiro, G. Precipitators for Oil-Fired Boilers. Power Engineering. 75:52-54, April 1971.
20. Flue Gas Desulfurization: Installations and Operations. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, D.C.
September 1974.
21. Proceedings: Flue Gas Desulfurization Symposium - 1973. Environmental Protection Agency. Research
Triangle Park, N.C. Publication No. EPA-650/2-73-038. December 1973.
4/76 External Combustion Sources 1.3-5
-------
-------
2.4 OPEN BURNING
revised by Tom Lahre
2.4.1 General1
Open burning can be done in open drums or baskets, in fields, and in large open dumps or pits. Materials
commonly disposed of in this manner are municipal waste, auto body components, landscape refuse, agricultural
field refuse, wood refuse, and bulky industrial refuse.
2.4.2 Emissions1"17
Ground-level open burning is affected by many variables including wind, ambient temperature, composition
and moisture content of the debris burned, and compactness of the pile. In general, the relatively low
temperatures associated with open burning increase the emission of particulates, carbon monoxide, and
hydrocarbons and suppress the emission of nitrogen oxides. Sulfur oxide emissions are a direct function of the
sulfur content of the refuse. Emission factors are presented in Table 2.4-1 for the open burning of municipal
refuse and automobile components.
Table 2.4-1. EMISSION FACTORS FOR OPEN BURNING OF NONAGRICULTURAL MATERIAL
EMISSION FACTOR RATING: B
Municipal refuse3
Ib/ton
kg/MT
Automobile
h c
components '
Ib/ton
kg/MT
Particulates
16
8
100
50
Sulfur
oxides
1
0.5
Neg.
Neg.
Carbon
monoxide
85
42
125
62
Hydrocarbons
(CH4)
30
15
30
15
Nitrogen oxides
6
3
4
2
References 2 through 6.
"Upholstery, belts, hoses, and tires burned in common.
cReference 2.
Emissions from agricultural refuse burning are dependent mainly on the moisture content of the refuse and, in
the case of field crops, on whether the refuse is burned in a headfire or a backfire. (Headfires are started at the
upwind side of a field and allowed to progress in the direction of the wind, whereas backfires are started at the
downwind edge and forced to progress in a direction opposing the wind.) Other variables such as fuel loading
(how much refuse material is burned per unit of land area) and how the refuse is arranged (that is, in piles, rows,
or spread out) are also important in certain instances.
Emission factors for open agricultural burning are presented in Table 2.4-2 as a function of refuse type and
also, in certain instances, as a function of burning techniques and/or moisture content when these variables are
known to significantly affect emissions.
Table 2.4-2 also presents typical fuel loading values associated with each type of refuse. These values can be
used, along with the corresponding emission factors, to estimate emissions from certain categories of agricultural
burning when the specific fuel loadings for a given area are not known.
For more detailed information on this subject, the reader should consult the references cited at the end of this
section. The background material for this section was prepared for EPA by Pacific Environmental Services, Inc.
4/76
Solid Waste Disposal
2.4-1
-------
Table 2.4-2. EMISSION FACTORS AND FUEL LOADING FACTORS FOR OPEN BURNING
OF AGRICULTURAL MATERIALS8
EMISSION FACTOR RATING: B
Refuse category
Field crops0
Unspecified
Burning technique
not significant"
Asparagus6
Barley
Corn
Cotton
Grasses
Pineapple^
Rice9
Safflower
Sorghum
Sugar cane"
Headfire burning'
Alfalfa
Bean (red)
Hay (wild)
Oats
Pea
Wheat
Backfire burning'
Alfalfa
Bean (red), pea
Hay (wild)
Oats
Wheat
Vine crops
Weeds
Unspecified
Russian thistle
(tumbleweed)
Tules (wild reeds)
Orchard cropsc'k''
Unspecified
Almond
Apple
Apricot
Avocado
Cherry
Citrus (orange.
lemon)
Date palm
Fig
Emission factors
Particulate0
Ib/ton
21
40
22
14
8
16
8
9
18
18
7
45
43
32
44
31
22
29
14
17
21
13
5
15
22
5
6
6
4
6
21
8
6
10
7
kg/MT
11
20
11
7
4
8
4
4
9
9
4
23
22
16
22
16
11
14
7
8
11
6
3
8
11
3
3
3
2
3
10
4
3
5
4
Carbon
monoxide
Ib/ton
117
150
157
108
176
101
112
83
144
77
71
106
186
139
137
147
128
119
148
150
136
108
51
85
309
34
52
46
42
49
116
44
81
56
57
kg/MT
58
75
78
54
88
50
56
41
72
38
35
53
93
70
68
74
64
60
72
75
68
54
26
42
154
17
26
23
21
24
58
22
40
28
28
Hydrocarbons
(asC6H14)
Ib/ton
23
85
19
16
6
19
8
10
26
9
10
36
46
22
33
38
17
37
25
17
18
11
7
12
2
27
10
8
4
8
32
10
12
7
10
kg/MT
12
42
10
8
3
10
4
5
13
4
5
18
23
11
16
19
9
18
12
8
9
6
4
6
1
14
5
4
2
4
16
5
6
4
5
Fuel loading factors
(waste production)
ton/acre
2.0
1.5
1.7
4.2
1.7
3.0
1.3
2.9
11.0
0.8
2.5
1.0
1.6
2.5
1.9
0.8
2.5
1.0
1.6
1.9
2.5
3.2
0.1
1.6
1.6
2.3
1.8
1.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
2.2
MT/hectare
4.5
3.4
3.8
9.4
3.8
6.7
2.9
6.5
24.0
1.8
5.6
2.2
3.6
5.6
4.3
1.8
5.6
2.2
3.6
4.3
5.6
7.2
0.2
3.6
3.6
5.2
4.0
3.4
2.2
2.2
2.2
4.9
2.4-2
EMISSION FACTORS
4/76
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Table 2.4-2 (continued). EMISSION FACTORS AND FUEL LOADING FACTORS FOR OPEN BURNING
OF AGRICULTURAL MATERIALS3
EMISSION FACTOR RATING: B
Refuse category
Orchard cropsc'k''
(continued)
Nectarine
Olive
Peach
Pear
Prune
Walnut
Forest residues
Unspecified"1
Hemlock, Douglas
fir, cedarn
Ponderosa pine°
Emission factors
Participate0
Ib/ton
4
12
6
9
3
6
17
4
12
kg/MT
2
6
3
4
2
3
8
2
6
Carbon
monoxide
Ib/ton
33
114
42
57
42
47
140
90
195
kg/MT
16
57
21
28
21
24
70
45
98
Hydrocarbons
(asC6H14)
Ib/ton
4
18
5
9
3
8
24
5
14
kg/MT
2
9
2
4
2
4
12
2
7
Fuel loading factors
(waste production)
ton/acre
2.0
1.2
2.5
2.6
1.2
1.2
70
MT/hectare
4.5
2.7
5.6
5.8
2.7
2.7
157
aFactors expressed as weight of pollutant emitted per weight of refuse material burned.
"Paniculate matter from most agricultural refuse burning has been found to be in the submicrometer size ranged 2
"•References 12 and 13 for emission factors; Reference 14 for fuel loading factors.
"For these refuse materials, no significant difference exists between emissions resulting from headfiring or backfiring.
^These factors represent emissions under typical high moisture conditions. If ferns are dried to less than 15 percent
moisture, particulate emissions will be reduced by 30 percent, CO emission by 23 percent, and HC by 74 percent.
'When pineapple is allowed to dry to less than 20 percent moisture, as it usually is, the firing technique is not important.
When headfired above 20 percent moisture, particulate emission will increase to 23 Ib/ton (11.5 kg/MT) and HC will
increase to 12 Ib/ton (6 kg/MT). See Reference 11.
^his factor is for dry «15 percent moisture) rice straw. If rice straw is burned at higher moisture levels, particulate
emission will increase to 29 Ib/ton (14.5 kg/MT), CO emission to 161 Ib/ton (80.5 kg/MT), and HC emission to 21
Ib/ton (10.5 kg/MT).
See Section 6.12 for discussion of sugar cane burning.
.'See accompanying text for definition of headfiring.
'See accompanying text for definition of backfiring. This category, for emission estimation purposes, includes another
technique used occasionally for limiting emissions, called into-the-wind striplighting, which involves lighting fields in
strips into the wind at 100-200 m (300-600 ft) intervals.
Orchard prunings are usually burned in piles. No significant difference in emission results from burning a "cold pile"
as opposed to using a roll-on technique, where prunings are bulldozed onto a bed of embers from a preceding fire.
'If orchard removal is the purpose of a burn, 30 ton/acre (66 MT/hectare) of waste will be produced.
mReference 10. Nitrogen oxide emissions estimated at 4 Ib/ton (2 kg/MT).
"Reference 15.
°Reference 16.
References for Section 2.4
1. Air Pollutant Emission Factors. Final Report. Resources Research, Inc., Reston, Va. Prepared for National
Air Pollution Control Administration, Durham, N.C., under Contract Number CPA-22-69-119. April 1970.
2. Gerstle, R. W. and D. A. Kemnitz. Atmospheric Emissions from Open Burning J. Air Pol. Control Assoc
72:324-327. May 1967.
4/76
Solid Waste Disposal
2.4-3
-------
3. Burkle, J. 0., J. A. Dorsey, and B. T. Riley. The Effects of Operating Variables and Refuse Types on
Emissions from a Pilot-Scale Trench Incinerator. In: Proceedings of 1968 Incinerator Conference, American
Society of Mechanical Engineers. New York. May 1968. p. 34-41.
4. Weisburd, M. I. and S. S. Griswold (eds.). Air Pollution Control Field Operations Guide: A Guide for
Inspection and Control. U.S. DHEW, PHS, Division of Air Pollution, Washington, D.C. PHS Publication No.
937. 1962.
5. Unpublished data on estimated major air contaminant emissions. State of New York Department of Health.
Albany. April 1, 1968.
6. Darley, E. F. et al. Contribution of Burning of Agricultural Wastes to Photochemical Air Pollution. J. Air
Pol. Control Assoc. 76:685-690, December 1966.
7. Feldstein, M. et al. The Contribution of the Open Burning of Land Clearing Debris to Air Pollution. J. Air
Pol. Control Assoc. 73:542-545, November 1963.
8. Boubel, R. W., E. F. Darley, and E. A. Schuck. Emissions from Burning Grass Stubble and Straw. J. Air Pol.
Control Assoc. 79:497-500, July 1969.
9. Waste Problems of Agriculture and Forrestry. Environ. Sci. and Tech. 2:498, July 1968.
10. Yamate, G. et al. An Inventory of Emissions from Forest Wildfires, Forest Managed Burns, and Agricultural
Burns and Development of Emission Factors for Estimating Atmospheric Emissions from Forest Fires.
(Presented at 68th Annual Meeting Air Pollution Control Association. Boston. June 1975.)
11. Darley, E. F. Air Pollution Emissions from Burning Sugar Cane and Pineapple from Hawaii. University of
California, Riverside, Calif. Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. as
amendment to Research Grant No. R800711. August 1974.
12. Darley, E. F. et al. Air Pollution from Forest and Agricultural Burning. California Air Resources Board
Project 2-017-1, University of California, Davis, Calif. California Air Resources Board Project No. 2-017-1.
April 1974.
13. Darley, E. F. Progress Report on Emissions from Agricultural Burning. California Air Resources Board
Project 4-011. University of California, Riverside, Calif. Private communication with permission of Air
Resources Board, June 1975.
14. Private communication on estimated waste production from agricultural burning activities. California Air
Resources Board, Sacramento, Calif. September 1975.
15. Fritschen, L. et al. Flash Fire Atmospheric Pollution. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
Service Research Paper PNW-97. 1970.
16. Sandberg, D. V., S. G. Pickford, and E. F. Darley. Emissions from Slash Burning and the Influence of Flame
Retardant Chemicals. J. Air Pol. Control Assoc. 25:278, 1975.
17. Wayne, L. G. and M. L. McQueary. Calculation of Emission Factors for Agricultural Burning Activities.
Pacific Environmental Services, Inc., Santa Monica, Calif. Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, N.C., under Contract No. 68-02-1004, Task Order No. 4. Publication No.
EPA-450/3-75-087. November 1975.
2.4-4 EMISSION FACTORS 4/76
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3.3.2 Heavy-Duty, Natural-Gas-Fired Pipeline Compressor Engines by Susan Sercer
Alan Burgess
Tom Lahre
3.3.2.1 General1 - Engines in the natural gas industry are used primarily to power compressors used for pipeline
transportation, field gathering (collecting gas from wells), underground storage, and gas processing plant
applications. Pipeline engines are concentrated in the major gas producing states (such as those along the Gulf
Coast) and along the major gas pipelines. Both reciprocating engines and gas turbines are utilized, but the trend
has been toward use of large gas turbines. Gas turbines emit considerably fewer pollutants than do reciprocating
engines; however, reciprocating engines are generally more efficient in their use of fuel.
3.3.2.2 Emissions and Controls1'2 - The primary pollutant of concern is NOX, which readily forms in the high
temperature, pressure, and excess air environment found in natural-gas-fired compressor engines. Lesser amounts
of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons are emitted, although for each unit of natural gas burned, compressor
engines (particularly reciprocating engines) emit significantly more of these pollutants than do external
combustion boilers. Sulfur oxides emissions are proportional to the sulfur content of the fuel and will usually be
quite low because of the negligible sulfur content of most pipeline gas.
The major variables affecting NOX emissions from compressor engines include the air fuel ratio, engine load
(defined as the ratio of the operating horsepower divided by the rated horsepower), intake (manifold) air
temperature, and absolute humidity. In general, NOX emissions increase with increasing load and intake air
temperature and decrease with increasing absolute humidity and air fuel ratio. (The latter already being, in most
compressor engines, on the "lean" side of that air fuel ratio at which maximum NOX formation occurs.)
Quantitative estimates of the effects of these variables are presented in Reference 2.
Because NOX is the primary pollutant of significance emitted from pipeline compressor engines, control
measures to date have been directed mainly at limiting NOX emissions. For gas turbines, the most effective
method of controlling NOX emissions is the injection of water into the combustion chamber. Nitrogen oxides
reductions as high as 80 percent can be achieved by this method. Moreover, water injection results in only
nominal reductions in overall turbine efficiency. Steam injection can also be employed, but the resulting NOX
reductions may not be as great as with water injection, and it has the added disadvantage that a supply of steam
must be readily available. Exhaust gas recirculation, wherein a portion of the exhaust gases is recirculated back
into the intake manifold, may result in NOX reductions of up to 50 percent. This technique, however, may not be
practical in many cases because the recirculated gases must be cooled to prevent engine malfunction. Other
combustion modifications, designed to reduce the temperature and/or residence time of the combustion gases,
can also be effective in reducing NOX emissions by 10 to 40 percent in specific gas turbine units.
For reciprocating gas-fired engines, the most effective NOX control measures are those that change the air-fuel
ratio. Thus, changes in engine torque, speed, intake air temperature, etc., that in turn increase the air-fuel ratio,
may all result in lower NOX emissions. Exhaust gas recirculation may also be effective in lowering NOX emissions
although, as with turbines, there are practical limits because of the large quantities of exhaust gas that must be
cooled. Available data suggest that other NOX control measures, including water and steam injection, have only
limited application to reciprocating gas-fired engines.
Emission factors for natural-gas-fired pipeline compressor engines are presented in Table 3.3.2-1.
4/76 Internal Combustion Engine Sources 3.3.2-1
-------
Table 3.3.2-1. EMISSION FACTORS FOR HEAVY-DUTY, NATURAL-
GAS-FIRED PIPELINE COMPRESSOR ENGINES3
EMISSION FACTOR RATING: A
Reciprocating engines
lb/103hp-hr
g/hp-hr
g/kW-hr
lb/106scff
kg/106Nm3f
Gas turbines
lb/103hp-hr
g/hp-hr
g/kW-hr
Ib/106scf9
kg/106Nm39
Nitrogen oxides
(as N02)b
24
11
15
3,400
55,400
2.9
1.3
1.7
300
4,700
Carbon
monoxide
3.1
1.4
1.9
430
7,020
1.1
0.5
0.7
120
1,940
Hydrocarbons
(as C)c
9.7
4.4
5.9
1,400
21,800
0.2
0.1
0.1
23
280
Sulfur
dioxided
0.004
0.002
0.003
0.6
9.2
0.004
0.002
0.003
0.6
9.2
Particulate6
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
aAII factors based on References 2 and 3.
"These factors are for compressor engines operated at rated load. In general, NOX emissions will increase with increasing
load and intake (manifold) air temperature and decrease with increasing air-fuel ratios (excess air rates) and absolute
humidity. Quantitative estimates of the effects of these variables are presented in Reference 2.
cThese factors represent total hydrocarbons. Nonmethane hydrocarbons are estimated to make up to 5 to 10 percent of
these totals, on the average.
dBased on an assumed sulfur content of pipeline gas of 2000 gr/10^ scf (4600 g/Mn3). If pipeline quality natural gas is
not fired, a material balance should be performed to determine SO2 emissions based on the actual sulfur content.
eNot available from existing data.
These factors are calculated from the above factors for reciprocating engines assuming a heating value of 1050 Btu/scf
(9350 kcal/Nm3) for natural gas and an average fuel consumption of 7500 Btu/hp-hr (2530 kcal/kW-hr).
S'These factors are calculated from the above factors for gas turbines assuming a heating value of 1,050 Btu/scf (9,350 kcal/
Nm ) of natural gas and an average fuel consumption of 10,000 Btu/hp-hr (3,380 kcal/kW-hr).
References for Section 3.3.2
1. Standard Support Document and Environmental Impact Statement - Stationary Reciprocating Internal
Combustion Engines. Aerotherm/Acurex Corp., Mountain View, Calif. Prepared for Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. under Contract No. 68-02-1318, Task Order No. 7, November 1974.
2. Urban, C.M. and K.J. Springer. Study of Exhaust Emissions from Natural Gas Pipeline Compressor Engines.
Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas. Prepared for American Gas Association, Arlington, Va.
February 1975.
3. Dietzmann, H.E. and K.J. Springer. Exhaust Emissions from Piston and Gas Turbine Engines Used in Natural
Gas Transmission. Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas. Prepared for American Gas Association,
Arlington, Va. January 1974.
3.3.2-2
EMISSION FACTORS
4/76
-------
For example, a technique used with some underground gasoline storage tanks consists of an arrangement by
which vapors are. recycled to the tank trucks during filling operations through the annular space of a specially
designed "interlock valve" and into a side arm that is connected to the return manifold in the dome cap of the
truck (see Figure 4.4-2). The control efficiency of this method ranges from 93 to 100 percent when compared
with uncontrolled, splash-fill loading (see Table 4.4-1).
VAPOR VENT LINE
MANIFOLD FOR RETURNING VAPORS
TRUCK STORAGE I
COMPARTMENTS
,tt tttttt tint
==: SUBMERGED FILL PIPE
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^— ^^^™ V U
ll t it t it t tit 11\
UNDERGROUND
Figure 4.4-2. Underground storage tank vapor-recovery system"!.
4/76
Evaporation Loss Sources
4.4-5
-------
Table 4.4-1. ORGANIC COMPOUND EVAPORATIVE EMISSION FACTORS
FOR PETROLEUM TRANSPORTATION AND MARKETING SOURCES8
EMISSION FACTOR RATING: A
Emission source
Tank cars/truck s"
Splash loading
lb/103 gal transferred
kg/103 liter transferred
Submerged loading
lb/103 gal transferred
kg/103 liter transferred
Unloading
lb/103 gal transferred
kg/103 liter transferred
Marine vessels'5
Loading
lb/103 gal transferred
kg/103 liter transferred
Unloading
lb/103 gal transferred
kg/103 liter transferred
Transit
lb/wk-103 gal load
kg/wk-103 liter load
Underground gasoline
storage tanks0
Splash loading
lb/103 gal transferred
kg/103 liter transferred
Uncontrolled submerged loading
lb/103 gal transferred
kg/103 liter transferred
Submerged loading with open
vapor return system
lb/103 gal transferred
kg/103 liter transferred
Submerged loading with closed
vapor return system
lb/103 gal transferred
kg/103 liter transferred
Product
Gasoline
12.4
1.5
4.1
0.49
2.1
0.25
2.9
0.35
2.5
0.30
3.6
0.43
11.5
1.4
7.3
0.84
0.80
0.097
Neg
Neg
Crude
oil
10.6
1.3
4.0
0.48
2.0
0.24
2.6
0.31
2.3
0.28
3.2
0.38
NUd
NU
NU
NU
NU
NU
NU
NU
Naphtha jet
fuel (JP-4)
1.8
0.22
0.91
0.11
0.45
0.054
0.60
0.072
0.52
0.062
0.74
0.089
NU
NU
NU
NU
NU
NU
NU
NU
Kerosene
0.88
0.11
0.45
0.054
0.23
0.028
0.27
0.032
0.24
0.029
0.34
0.041
NU
NU
NU
NU
NU
NU
NU
NU
Distillate
oil
0.93
0.11
0.48
0.058
0.24
0.029
0.29
0.035
0.25
0.030
0.36
0.043
NU
NU
NU
NU
NU
NU
NU
NU
4.4-6
EMISSION FACTORS
4/76
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6. FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY
Before food and agricultural products are used by the consumer they undergo a number of processing steps,
such as refinement, preservation, and product improvement, as well as storage and handling, packaging, and
shipping. This section deals with the processing of food and agricultural products and the intermediate steps that
present air pollution problems. Emission factors are presented for industries where data were available. The
primary pollutant emitted from these processes is particulate matter.
6.1 ALFALFA DEHYDRATING by Tom Lahre
6.1.1 General13
Dehydrated alfalfa is a meal product resulting from the rapid drying of alfalfa by artifical means at
temperatures above 212°F (100°C). Alfalfa meal is used in chicken rations, cattle feed, hog rations, sheep feed,
turkey mash, and other formula feeds. It is important for its protein content, growth and reproductive factors,
pigmenting xanthophylls, and vitamin contributions.
A schematic of a generalized alfalfa dehydrator plant is given in Figure 6.1-1. Standing alfalfa is mowed and
chopped in the field and transported by truck to a dehydrating plant, which is usually located within 10 miles of
the field. The truck dumps the chopped alfalfa (wet chops) onto a self-feeder, which carries it into a direct-fired,
rotary drum. Within the drum, the wet chops are dried from an initial moisture content of about 60 to 80 percent
(by weight) to about 8 to 16 percent. Typical combustion gas temperatures within the oil- or gas-fired drums
range from 1800 to 2000°F (980 to 1092°C) at the inlet to 250 to 300°F (120 to 150°C) at the outlet.
From the drying drum, the dry chops are pneumatically conveyed into a primary cyclone that separates them
from the high-moisture, high-temperature exhaust stream. From the primary cyclone, the chops are fed into a
hammermill, which grinds the dry chops into a meal. The meal is pneumatically conveyed from the hammermill
into a meal collector cyclone in which the meal is separated from the airstream and discharged into a holding bin.
Meal is then fed into a pellet mill where it is steam conditioned and extruded into pellets.
From the pellet mill, the pellets are either pneumatically or mechanically conveyed to a cooler, through which
air is drawn to cool the pellets and, in some cases, remove fines. Fines removal is more commonly effected in
shaker screens following or ahead of the cooler, with the fines being conveyed back into the meal collector
cyclone, meal bin, or pellet mill. Cyclone separators may be employed to separate entrained fines in the cooler
exhaust and to collect pellets when the pellets are pneumatically conveyed from the pellet mill to the cooler.
Following cooling and screening, the pellets are transferred to bulk storage. Dehydrated alfalfa is most often
stored and shipped in pellet form; however, in some instances, the pellets may be ground in a hammermill and
shipped in meal form. When the finished pellets or ground pellets are pneumatically transferred to storage or
loadout, additional cyclones may be employed for product airstream separation at these locations.
6.1.2 Emissions and Controls 1'3
Particulate matter is the primary pollutant of concern from alfalfa dehydrating plants although some odors
arise from the organic volatiles driven off during drying. Although the major source is the primary cooling
cyclone, lesser sources include the downstream cyclone separators and the bagging and loading operations.
4/76 6.1-1
-------
Emission factors for the various cyclone separators utilized in alfalfa dehydrating plants are given in Table
6.1-1. Note that, although these sources are common to many plants, there will be considerable variation from
the generalized flow diagram in Figure 6.1-1 depending on the desired nature of the product, the physical layout
of the plant, and the modifications made for air pollution control. Common variations include ducting the
exhaust gas stream from one or more of the downstream cyclones back through the primary cyclone and ducting
a portion of the primary cyclone exhaust back into the furnace. Another modification involves ducting a part of
the meal collector cyclone exhaust back into the hammermill, with the remainder ducted to the primary cyclone
discharged directly to the atmosphere. Also, additional cyclones may be employed if the pellets are
or
pneumatically rather than mechanically conveyed from the pellet mill to the cooler or if the finished pellets or
ground pellets are pneumatically conveyed to storage or loadout.
Table 6.1-1. PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS FOR ALFALFA DEHYDRATING PLANTS
EMISSION FACTOR RATING: PRIMARY CYCLONES: A
ALL OTHER SOURCES: C
Sources3
Primary cyclone
Meal collector cyclone0'
Pellet collector cyclone6
Pellet cooler cyclone*
Pellet regrind cycloneS
Storage bin cyclone"
Emissions
Ib/ton of product13
10C
2.6
Not available
3
8
Neg.
kg/MT of productb
5C
1.3
Not available
1.5
4
Neg.
aThe cyclones used for product/airstream separation are the air pollution sources in alfalfa dehydrating plants.
All factors are based on References 1 and 2.
"Product consists of meal or pellets. These factors can be applied to the quantity of incoming wet chops by
dividing by a factor of four.
cThis average factor may be used even when other cyclone exhaust streams are ducted back into the primary
cyclone. Emissions from primary cyclones may range from 3 to 35 Ib/ton (1.5 to 17.5 kg/MT) of product
and are more a function of the operating procedures and process modifications made for air pollution control
than whether other cyclone exhausts are ducted back through the primary cyclone. Use 3 to 15 Ib/ton (1.5 to
7.5 kg/MT) for plants employing good operating procedures and process modifications for air pollution control.
Use higher values for older, unmodified, or less well run plants.
dThis cyclone is also called the air meal separator or hammermill cyclone. When the meal collector exhaust is
ducted back to the primary cyclone and/or the hammermill, this cyclone is no longer a source.
^his cyclone will only be present if the pellets are pneumatically transferred from the pellet mill to the pellet
cooler.
This cyclone is also called the pellet meal air separator or pellet mill cyclone. When the pellet cooler cyclone
exhaust is ducted back into the primary cyclone, it is no longer a source.
''This cyclone is also called the pellet regrind air separator. Regrind operations are more commonly found at
terminal storage facilities than at dehydrating plants.
Small cyclone collectors may be used to collect the finished pellets when they are pneumatically transferred
to storage.
Air pollution control (and product recovery) is accomplished in alfalfa dehydrating plants in a variety of ways.
A simple, yet effective technique is the proper maintenance and operation of the alfalfa dehydrating equipment.
Particulate emissions can be reduced significantly if the feeder discharge rates are uniform, if the dryer furnace is
operated properly, if proper airflows are employed in the cyclone collectors, and if the hammermill is well
maintained and not overloaded. It is especially important in this regard not to overdry and possibly burn the
chops as this results in the generation of smoke and increased fines in the grinding and pelletizing operations.
6.1-2
EMISSION FACTORS
4/76
-------
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4/76
Food and Agricultural Industry
6.1-3
-------
Equipment modification provides another means of particulate control. Existing cyclones can be replaced with
more efficient cyclones and concomitant air flow systems. In addition, the furnace and burners can be modified
or replaced to minimize flame impingement on the incoming green chops. In plants where the hammermill is a
production bottleneck, a tendency exists to overdry the chops to increase throughput, which results in increased
emissions. Adequate hammermill capacity can reduce this practice.
Secondary control devices can be employed on the cyclone collector exhaust streams. Generally, this practice
has been limited to the installation of secondary cyclones or fabric filters on the meal collector, pellet collector,
or pellet cooler cyclones. Some measure of secondary control can also be effected on these cyclones by ducting
their exhaust streams back into the primary cyclone. Primary cyclones are not controlled by fabric filters because
of the high moisture content in the resulting exhaust stream. Medium energy wet scrubbers are effective in
reducing particulate emissions from the primary cyclones, but have only been installed at a few plants.
Some plants employ cyclone effluent recycle systems for particulate control. One system skims off the
particulate-laden portion of the primary cyclone exhaust and returns it to the furnace for incineration. Another
system recycles a large portion of the meal collector cyclone exhaust back to the hammermill. Both systems can
be effective in controlling particulates but may result in operating problems, such as condensation in the recycle
lines and plugging or overheating of the hammermill.
References for Section 6.1
1. Source information supplied by Ken Smith of the American Dehydrators Association, Mission, Kan.
December 1975.
2. Gorman, P.G. et al. Emission Factor Development for the Feed and Grain Industry. Midwest Research
Institute. Kansas City, Mo. Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C.
under Contract No. 68-02-1324. Publication No. EPA-450/3-75-054. October 1974.
3. Smith, K.D. Particulate Emissions from Alfalfa Dehydrating Plants - Control Costs and Effectiveness. Final
Report. American Dehydrators Association. Mission, Kan. Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, N.C. Grant No. R801446. Publication No. 650/2-74-007. January 1974.
6.1-4 EMISSION FACTORS 4/76
-------
6.12 SUGAR CANE PROCESSING revised by Tom Lahre
6.12.1 General1'3
Sugar cane is burned in the field prior to harvesting to remove unwanted foliage as well as to control rodents
and insects. Harvesting is done by hand or, where possible, by mechanical means.
After harvesting, the cane goes through a series of processing steps for conversion to the final sugar product. It
is first washed to remove dirt and trash; then crushed and shredded to reduce the size of the stalks. The juice is
next extracted by one of two methods, milling or diffusion. In milling, the cane is pressed between heavy rollers
to squeeze out the juice; in diffusion, the sugar is leached out by water and thin juices. The raw sugar then goes
through a series of operations including clarification, evaporation, and crystallization in order to produce the final
product. The fibrous residue remaining after sugar extraction is called bagasse.
All mills fire some or all of their bagasse in boilers to provide power necessary in their milling operation. Some,
having more bagasse than can be utilized internally, sell the remainder for use in the manufacture of various
chemicals such as furfural.
6.12.2 Emissions 2>3
The largest sources of emissions from sugar cane processing are the openfield burning in the harvesting of the
crop and the burning of bagasse as fuel. In the various processes of crushing, evaporation, and crystallization,
relatively small quantities of particulates are emitted. Emission factors for sugar cane field burning are shown in
Table 2.4-2. Emission factors for bagasse firing in boilers will be included in Chapter 1 in a future supplement.
References for Section 6.12
1. Sugar Cane. In: Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Vol. IX. New York, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc. 1964.
2. Darley, E. F. Air Pollution Emissions from Burning Sugar Cane and Pineapple from Hawaii. In: Air Pollution
from Forest and Agricultural Burning. Statewide Air Pollution Research Center, University of California,
Riverside, Calif. Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. under Grant
No. R800711. August 1974.
3. Background Information for Establishment of National Standards of Performance for New Sources. Raw Cane
Sugar Industry. Environmental Engineering, Inc. Gainesville, Fla. Prepared for Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. under Contract No. CPA 70-142, Task Order 9c. July 15, 1971,
4/76 Food and Agricultural Industry 6.12-1
-------
-------
more olefins (noncyclic unsaturated hydrocarbons with C=C double bonds), and alkylation unites an olefin and
an iso-paraffm (noncyclic branched-chain hydrocarbon saturated with hydrogen). Isomerization is the process for
altering the arrangement of atoms in a molecule without adding or removing anything from the original material,
and is usually used in the oil industry to form branched-chain hydrocarbons. A number of catalysts such as
phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, platinum, aluminum chloride, and hydrofluoric acid are used to promote the
combination or rearrangement of these light hydrocarbons.
9.1.3.5 Emissions-These three processes, including regeneration of any necessary catalysts, form essentially
closed systems and have no unique, major source of atmospheric emissions. However, the highly volatile
hydrocarbons handled, coupled with the high process pressures required, make valve stems and pump shafts
difficult to seal, and a greater emission rate from these sources can generally be expected in these process areas
than would be the average throughout the refinery. The best method for controlling these emissions is the
effective maintenance, repair, and replacement of pump seals, valve caulking, and pipe-joint sealer.
9.1.4 Treating
"Hydrogen," "chemical," and "physical" treating are used in the refinery process to remove undesirable
impurities such as sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen to improve product quality.
9.1.4.1 Hydrogen Treating'-In this procedure hydrogen is reacted with impurities in compounds to produce
removable hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and water. In addition, the process converts diolefins (gum-forming
hydrocarbons with the empirical formula R=C=R) into stable compounds while minimizing saturation of
desirable aromatics.
Hydrogenation units are nearly all the fixed-bed type with catalyst replacement or regeneration (by
combustion) done intermittently, the frequency of which is dependent upon operating conditions and the
product being treated. The hydrogen sulfide produced is removed from the hydrogen stream via extraction and
converted to elemental sulfur or sulfuric acid or, when present in small quantities, burned to SC>2 in a flare or
boiler firebox.
9.1.4.2 Chemical Treating1—Chemical treating is generally classified into four groups: (1) acid treatment, (2)
sweetening, (3) solvent extraction, and (4) additives. Acid treatment involves contacting hydrocarbons with
sulfuric acid to partially remove sulfur and nitrogen compounds, to precipitate asphaltic or gum-like materials,
and to improve color and odor. Spent acid sludges that result are usually converted to ammonium sulfate or
sulfuric acid.
Sweetening processes oxidize mercaptans (formula: R-S-H) to disulfide (formula: R-S-S-R) without actual
sulfur removal. In some processes, air and steam are used for agitation in mixing tanks and to reactivate chemical
solutions.
Solvent extraction utilizes solvents that have affinities for the undesirable compounds and that can easily be
removed from the product stream. Specifically, mercaptan compounds are usually extracted using a strong caustic
solution; hydrogen sulfide is removed by a number of commercial processes.
Finally, additives or inhibitors are primarily materials added in small amounts to oxidize mercaptans to
disulfide and to retard gum formation.
4/76 Petroleum Industry 9.1-7
-------
9.1.4.3 Physical Treating1-Some of the many physical methods used to remove impurities include electrical
coalescence, filtration, absorption, and air blowing. Specific applications of physical methods are desalting crude
oil, removing wax, decolorizing lube oils, and brightening diesel oil.
9.1.4.4 Emissions - Emissions from treating operations consist of SC>2, hydrocarbons, and visible plumes.
Emission levels depend on the methods used in handling spent acid and acid sludges, as well as the means
employed for recovery or disposal of hydrogen sulfide. Other potential sources of these emissions in treating
include catalyst regeneration, air agitation in mixing tanks, and other air blowing operations. Trace amounts of
malodorous substances may escape from numerous sources including settling tank vents, purge tanks, waste
treatment units, waste-water drains, valves, and pump seals.
Control methods used include: covers for waste water separators; vapor recovery systems for settling and surge
tanks; improved maintenance for pumps, valves, etc; and sulfur recovery plants.
9.1.5 Blending1
The final major operation in petroleum refining consists of blending the products in various proportions to
meet certain specifications, such as vapor pressure, specific gravity, sulfur content, viscosity, octane number,
initial boiling point, and pour point.
9.1.5.1 Emissions - Emissions associated with this operation are hydrocarbons that leak from storage vessels,
valves, and pumps. Vapor recovery systems and specially built tanks minimize storage emissions; good
housekeeping precludes pump and valve leakage.
9.1.6 Miscellaneous Operations1
In addition to the four refinery operations described above, there are many process operations connected with
all four. These involve the use of cooling towers, blow-down systems, process heaters and boilers, compressors,
and process drains. The emissions and controls associated with these operations are listed in Table 9.1-1.
References for Section 9.1
1. Atmospheric Emissions from Petroleum Refineries: A Guide for Measurement and Control. U.S. DHEW,
Public Health Service. Washington, D.C. PHS Publication Number 763. 1960.
2. Impurities in Petroleum. In: Petreco Manual. Long Beach, Petrolite Corp. 1958. p.l.
3. Jones, Ben G. Refinery Improves Particulate Control. The Oil and Gas Journal. <59(26):60-62. June 28, 1971.
4. Private communications with personnel in the Emission Testing Branch, Applied Technology Division,
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C., regarding source testing at a petroleum
refinery preparatory to setting new source standards. June-August 1972.
5. Control Techniques for Sulfur Oxide in Air Pollutants. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air
Programs, Research Triangle Park, N.C. Publication Number AP-52. January 1969.
6. Olson, H.N. and K.E. Hutchinson. How Feasible are Giant, One-Train Refineries? The Oil and Gas Journal.
70(l):39-43. Januarys, 1972.
9.1-8 EMISSION FACTORS 4/76
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9.2 NATURAL GAS PROCESSING by Harry Butcher and Tom Lahre
9.2.1 General1
Natural gas from high-pressure wells is usually passed through field separators to remove hydrocarbon
condensate and water at the well. Natural gasoline, butane, and propane are usually present in the gas, and gas
processing plants are required for the recovery of these liquefiable constituents (see Figure 9.2-1). Natural gas is
considered "sour" if hydrogen sulfide is present in amounts greater than 0.25 grain per 100 standard cubic feet.
The hydrogen sulfide (f^S) must be removed (called "sweetening" the gas) before the gas can be utilized. If H2S
is present, the gas is usually sweetened by absorption of the H2S in an amine solution. Amine processes are used
for over 95 percent of all gas sweetening in the United States. Processes such as carbonate processes, solid bed
absorbents, and physical absorption methods are employed in the other sweetening plants. Emissions data for
sweetening processes other than amine types are very meager.
The major emission sources in the natural gas processing industry are compressor engines and acid gas wastes
from gas sweetening plants. Compressor engine emissions are discussed in section 3.3.2; therefore, only gas
sweetening plant emissions are discussed here.
9.2.2 Process Description2'3
Many chemical processes are available for sweetening natural gas. However, at present, the most widely used
method for H2S removal or gas sweetening is the amine type process (also known as the Girdler process) in which
various amine solutions are utilized for absorbing H2S. The process is summarized in reaction 1 and illustrated in
Figure 9.2-2.
2 RNH2 + H2S *-(RNH3)2S (1)
where: R = mono, di, or tri-ethanol
N = nitrogen
H = hydrogen
S = sulfur
The recovered hydrogen sulfide gas stream may be (1) vented, (2) flared in waste gas flares or modern
smokeless flares, (3) incinerated, or (4) utilized for the production of elemental sulfur or other commercial
products. If the recovered H2S gas stream is not to be utilized as a feedstock for commercial applications, the gas
is usually passed to a tail gas incinerator in which the H2S is oxidized to sulfur dioxide and then passed to the
atmosphere via a stack. For more details, the reader should consult Reference 8.
9.2.3 Emissions4-5
Emissions will only result from gas sweetening plants if the acid waste gas from the amine process is flared or
incinerated. Most often, the acid waste gas'is used as a feedstock in nearby sulfur recovery or sulfuric acid plants.
When flaring or incineration is practiced, the major pollutant of concern is sulfur dioxide. Most plants employ
elevated smokeless flares or tail gas incinerators to ensure complete combustion of all waste gas constituents,
including virtually 100 percent conversion of H2S to SO2. Little particulate, smoke, or hydrocarbons result from
these devices, and because gas temperatures do not usually exceed 1200°F (650°C), significant quantities of
nitrogen oxides are not formed. Emission factors for gas sweetening plants with smokeless flares or incinerators
are presented in Table 9.2-1.
4/76 Petroleum Industry 9.2-1
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EMISSION FACTORS
4/76
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Table 9.2-1. EMISSION FACTORS FOR GAS SWEETENING PLANTS3
EMISSION FACTOR RATING: SULFUR OXIDES: A
ALL OTHER FACTORS: C
Process13
Amine
Ib/1fj6 ft^ gas processed
kg/1f>* m.3 gas processed
Particulates
Neg.
Neg.
Sulfur oxides0
(S02)
1685Sd
26.98 Sd
Carbon
monoxide
Neg.
Neg.
Hydrocarbons
Neg.
Neg.
Nitrogen
oxides
Neg.
Neg.
aEmission factors are presented in this section only for smokeless flares and tail gas incinerators on the amine gas sweetening
process. Too little emissions information exists to characterize emissions from older, less efficient waste gas flares on the
amine process or from other, less common gas sweetening processes. Emission factors for various internal combustion engines
utilized in a gas processing plant are given in section 3.3.2. Emission factors for sulfuric acid plants and sulfur recovery plants
are given in sections 5.17 and 5.18, respectively.
^These factors represent emissions after smokeless flares (with fuel gas and steam injection) or tail gas incinerators and are based
on References 2 and 4 through 7.
cThese factors are based on the assumptions that virtually 100 percent of all H2S in the acid gas waste is converted to SO2 during
flaring or incineration and that the sweetening process removes essentially 100 percent of the H^ present in the feedstock.
°S is the H2S content, on a mole percent basis, in the sour gas entering the gas sweetening plant. For example, if the H2S content
is 2 percent, the emission factor would be 1685 times 2, or 3370 Ib SO2 per million cubic feet of sour gas processed. If the
H2S mole percent is unknown, average values from Table 9.2-2 may be substituted.
Note: If H2S contents are reported in grains per 100 scf or ppm, use the following factors to convert to mole percent:
0.01 mol % H2S = 6.26 gr H^/IOO scf at 60° F and 29.92 in. Hg
1 gr/100 scf = 16 ppm (by volume)
To convert to or from metric units, use the following factor:
0.044 gr/100 scf = 1 mg/Nm3
ACID GAS
PURIFIED
GAS
STEAM
REBOILER
HEAT EXCHANGER
Figure 9.2-2. Flow diagram of the amine process for gas sweetening.
4/76
Petroleum Industry
9.2-3
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Table 9.2-2. AVERAGE HYDROGEN SULFIDE CONCENTRATIONS
IN NATURAL GAS BY AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION3
State
Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Florida
Kansas
Louisiana
Michigan
Mississippi
Montana
New Mexico
North Dakota
Oklahoma
AQCR name
Mobile-Pensacola-Panama City -
Southern Mississippi (Fla., Miss.)
Four Corners (Colo., N.M., Utah)
Monroe-El Dorado (La.)
Sh reveport-Texark ana-Ty le r
(La., Okla., Texas)
Metropolitan Los Angeles
San Joaquin Valley
South Central Coast
Southeast Desert
Four Corners (Ariz., N.M., Utah)
Metropolitan Denver
Pawnee
San Isabel
Yampa
Mobile-Pensacola-Panama City -
Southern Mississippi (Ala., Miss.)
Northwest Kansas
Southwest Kansas
Monroe-El Dorado (Ariz.)
Shreveport-Texarkana-Tyler
(Ariz., Okla., Texas)
Upper Michigan
Mississippi Delta
Mobile-Pensacola-Panama City -
Southern Mississippi (Ala., Fla.)
Great Falls
Miles City
Four Corners (Ariz., Colo., Utah)
Pecos-Permian Basin
North Dakota
Northwestern Oklahoma
Shreveport-Texarkana-Tyler
(Ariz., La., Texas)
Southeastern Oklahoma
AQCR
number
5
14
19
22
24
31
32
33
14
36
37
38
40
5
97
100
19
22
126
134
5
141
143
14
155
172
187
22
188
Average
H2S, mol %
3.30
0.71
0.15
0.55
2.09
0.89
3.66
1.0
0.71
0.1
0.49
0.3
0.31
3.30
0.005
0.02
0.15
0.55
0.5
0.68
3.30
3.93
0.4
0.71
0.83
1.74b
1.1
0.55
0.3
9.2-4
EMISSION FACTORS
4/76
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Table 9.2-2 (continued). AVERAGE HYDROGEN SULFIDE CONCENTRATIONS
IN NATURAL GAS BY AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION3
State
Texas
Utah
Wyoming
AQCR name
Abilene-Wichita Falls
Amarillo-Lubbock
Austin-Waco
Corpus Christi-Victoria
Metropolitan Dallas-Fort Worth
Metropolitan San Antonio
Midland-Odessa-San Angelo
Shreveport-Texarkana-Tyler
(Ariz., La.,0kla.)
Four Corners (Ariz., Colo., N.M.)
Casper
Wyoming (except Park, Bighorn
and Washakie Counties)
AQCR
number
210
211
212
214
215
217
218
22
14
241
243
Average
H2S, mol %
0.055
0.26
0.57
0.59
2.54
1.41
0.63
0.55
0.71
1.262
2.34
aReference 9.
"Sour gas only reported for Burke, Williams, and McKenzie Counties.
cPark, Bighorn, and Washakie Counties report gas with an average 23 mol % H2S content.
Some plants still use older, less efficient waste gas flares. Because these flares usually burn at temperatures
lower than necessary for complete combustion, some emissions of hydrocarbons and particulates as well as higher
quantities of F^S can occur. No data are available to estimate the magnitude of these emissions from waste gas
flares.
Emissions from sweetening plants with adjacent commercial plants, such as sulfuric acid plants or sulfur
recovery plants, are presented in sections 5.17 and 5.18, respectively. Emission factors for internal combustion
engines used in gas processing plants are given in section 3.3.2.
Background material for this section was prepared for EPA by Ecology Audits, Inc.**
References for Section 9.2
1. Katz, D.L., D. Cornell, R. Kobayashi, F.H. Poettmann, J.A. Vary, J.R. Elenbaas, and C.F. Weinaug.
Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company. 1959. 802 p.
2. Maddox, R.R. Gas and Liquid Sweetening. 2nd Ed. Campbell Petroleum Series, Norman, Oklahoma. 1974
298 p.
3. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Vol. 7. Kirk, R.E. and D.F. Othmer (eds.). New York, Interscience
Encyclopedia, Inc. 1951.
4. Sulfur Compound Emissions of the Petroleum Production Industry. M.W. Kellogg Co., Houston, Texas.
Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. under Contract No. 68-02-1308.
Publication No. EPA-650/2-75-030. December 1974.
5. Unpublished stack test data for gas sweetening plants. Ecology Audits, Inc., Dallas, Texas. 1974.
4/76
Petroleum Industry
9.2-5
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6. Control Techniques for Hydrocarbon and Organic Solvent Emissions from Stationary Sources. U.S. DHEW,
PHS, EHS, National Air Pollution Control Administration, Washington, D.C. Publication No. AP-68. March
1970. p. 3-1 and 4-5.
7. Control Techniques for Nitrogen Oxides from Stationary Sources. U.S. DHEW, PHS, EHS, National Air
Pollution Control Administration, Washington, D.C. Publication No. AP-67. March 1970. p. 7-25 to 7-32.
8. Mullins, B.J. et al. Atmospheric Emissions Survey of the Sour Gas Processing Industry. Ecology Audits, Inc.,
Dallas, Texas. Prepared for Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. under Contract
No. 68-02-1865. Publication No. EPA-450/3-75-076. October 1975.
9. Federal Air Quality Control Regions. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C.
Publication No. AP-102. January 1972.
4/76 EMISSION FACTORS 9.2-6
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10. WOOD PROCESSING
Wood processing involves the conversion of raw wood to either pulp, pulpboard, or one of several types of
wallboard including plywood, particleboard, or hardboard. This section presents emissions data for chemical
wood pulping, for pulpboard and plywood manufacturing, and for woodworking operations. The burning of wood
waste in boilers and conical burners is not included as it is discussed in Chapters 1 and 2 of this publication.
10.1 CHEMICAL WOOD PULPING Revised by Thomas Lahre
10.1.1 General i
Chemical wood pulping involves the extraction of cellulose from wood by dissolving the lignin that binds the
cellulose fibers together. The principal processes used in chemical pulping are the kraft, sulfite, neutral sulfite
semichemical (NSSC), dissolving, and soda; the first three of these display the greatest potential for causing air
pollution. The kraft process accounts for about 65 percent of all pulp produced in the United States; the sulfite
and NSSC processes, together, account for less than 20 percent of the total. The choice of pulping process is de-
termined by the product being made, by the type of wood species available, and by economic considerations.
10.1.2 Kraft Pulping
10.1.2.1 Process Description1-2-The kraft process (see Figure 10.1.2-1) involves the cooking of wood chips
under pressure in the presence of a cooking liquor in either a batch or a continuous digester. The cooking liquor,
or "white liquor," consisting of an aqueous solution of sodium sulfide and sodium hydroxide, dissolves the lignin
that binds the cellulose fibers together.
When cooking is completed, the contents of the digester are forced into the blow tank. Here the major portion
of the spent cooking liquor, which contains the dissolved lignin, is drained, and the pulp enters the initial stage of
washing. From the blow tank the pulp passes through the knotter where unreacted chunks of wood are removed.
The pulp is then washed and, in some mills, bleached before being pressed and dried into the finished product.
It is economically necessary to recover both the inorganic cooking chemicals and the heat content of the spent
"black liquor," which is separated from the cooked pulp. Recovery is accomplished by first concentrating the
liquor to a level that will support combustion and then feeding it to a furnace where burning and chemical recovery
take place.
Initial concentration of the weak black liquor, which contains about 15 percent solids, occurs in the multiple-
effect evaporator. Here process steam is passed countercurrent to the liquor in a series of evaporator tubes that
increase the solids content to 40 to 55 percent. Further concentration is then effected in the direct contact
evaporator. This is generally a scrubbing device (a cyclonic or venturi scrubber or a cascade evaporator) in which
hot combustion gases from the recovery furnace mix with the incoming black liquor to raise its solids content to
55 to 70 percent.
The black liquor concentrate is then sprayed into the recovery furnace where the organic content supports
combustion. The inorganic compounds fall to the bottom of the furnace and are discharged to the smelt dissolving
tank to form a solution called "green liquor." The green liquor is then conveyed to a causticizer where slaked
lime (calcium hydroxide) is added to convert the solution back to white liquor, which can be reused in subsequent
cooks. Residual lime sludge from the causticizer can be recycled after being dewatered and calcined in the hot
lime kiln.
Many mills need more steam for process heating, for driving equipment, for providing electric power, etc., than
can be provided by the recovery furnace alone. Thus, conventional industrial boilers that burn coal, oil, natural
gas, and in some cases, bark and wood waste are commonly employed.
4/76 Wood Processing 10.1-1
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EMISSION FACTORS
4/76
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10.2 PULPBOARD
10.2.1 General 1
Pulpboard manufacturing involves the fabrication of fibrous boards from a pulp slurry. This includes two dis-
tinct types of product, paperboard and fiberboard. Paperboard is a general term that describes a sheet 0.012 inch
(0.30 mm) or more in thickness made of fibrous material on a paper-forming machine.2 Fiberboard, also referred
to as particle board, is thicker than paperboard and is made somewhat differently.
There are two distinct phases in the conversion of wood to pulpboard: (1) the manufacture of pulp from raw
wood and (2) the manufacture of pulpboard from the pulp. This section deals only with the latter as the former
is covered under the section on the wood pulping industry.
10.2.2 Process Description1
In the mmufacture of paperboard, the stock is sent through screens into the head box, from which it flows
onto a mo\mg screen. Approximately 15 percent of the water is removed by suction boxes located under the
screen. Another 50 to 60 percent of the moisture content is removed in the drying section. The dried board
then enters the calendar stack, which imparts the final surface to the product.
In the manufacture of fiberboard, the slurry that remains after pulping is washed and sent to the stock chests
where sizing is added. The refined fiber from the stock chests is fed to the head box of the board machine. The
stock is next fed onto the forming screens and sent to dryers, after which the dry product is finally cut and
fabricated.
10.2.3 Emissions'
Emissions from the paperboard machine consist mainly of water vapor; little or no paniculate matter is emit-
ted from the dryers.3-5 Particulates are emitted, however, from the fiberboard drying operation. Additional
particulate emissions occur from the cutting and sanding operations. Emission factors for these operations are
given in section 10.4. Emission factors for pulpboard manufacturing are shown in Table 10.2-1.
Table 10.2-1. PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS FOR
PULPBOARD MANUFACTURING3
EMISSION FACTOR RATING: E
Type of product
Paperboard
Fiberboardb
Emissions
Ib/ton
Neg
0.6
kg/MT
Neg
0.3
aEmission factors expressed as units per unit weight of finished product.
bReference 1.
References for Section 10.2
1. Air Pollutant Emission Factors. Resources Research, Inc., Rest on, Virginia. Prepared for National Air
Pollution Control Administration, Washington, D.C. under Contract No. CPA-22-69-119. April 1970.
2. The Dictionary of Paper. New York, American Paper and Pulp Association, 1940.
4/76 EMISSION FACTORS 10.2-1
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3. Hough, G. W. and L. J. Gross. Air Emission Control in a Modern Pulp and Paper Mill. Amcr. Paper Industry.
51:36, February 1969.
4. Pollution Control Progress. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. 77:410, June 1967.
5. Private communication between 1. Gellrnan and the National Council of the Paper Industry for Clean Air
and Stream Improvement. New York, October 28, 1969.
10.2-2 Wood Processing 4/76
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10.3 PLYWOOD VENEER AND LAYOUT OPERATIONS
By Thomas Lahrc
10.3.1 Process Description1
Plywood is a material made of several thin wood veneers bonded together with an adhesive. Its uses are many
and include wall sidings, sheathing, roof-decking, concrete-formboards, floors, and containers.
During the manufacture of plywood, incoming logs are sawed to desired length, debarked, and then peeled
into thin, continuous veneers of uniform thickness. (Veneer thicknesses of 1/45 to 1/5 inch are common.)
These veneers are then transported to special dryers where they are subjected to high temperatures until dried to
a desired moisture content. After drying, the veneers are sorted, patched, and assembled in layers with some
type of thermosetting resin used as the adhesive. The veneer assembly is then transferred to a hot press where,
under presssure and steam heat, the plywood product is formed. Subsequently, all that remains is trimming,
sanding, and possibly some sort of finishing treatment to enhance the usefullness of the plywood.
10.3.2 Emissions2-3
The main sources of emissions from plywood manufacturing are the veneer drying and sanding operations.
A third source is the pressing operation although these emissions are considered minor.
The major pollutants emitted from veneer dryers are organics. These consist of two discernable fractions:
(1) condensibles, consisting of wood resins, resin acids, and wood sugars, which form a blue haze upon cooling
in the atmosphere, and (2) volatiles, which are comprised of terpines and unburned methane—the latter occurring
when gas-fired dryers are employed. The amounts of these compounds produced depends on the wood species
dried, the drying time, and the nature and operation of the dryer itself. In addition, negligible amounts of fine
wood fibers are also emitted during the drying process.
Sanding operations are a potential source of particulate emissions (see section 10.4). Emission factors for ply-
wood veneer dryers without controls are given in Table 10.3-1.
Table 10.3-1. EMISSION FACTORS FOR PLYWOOD MANUFACTURING
EMISSION FACTOR RATING: B
Source
Veneer dryers
Organic compound3'*5
Condensible
lb/104 ft2
3.6
kg/103 m2
1.9
Volatile
lb/104ft2
2.1
kg/103 m2
1.1
aEmission factors expressed in pounds of pollutant per 10,000 square feet of 3/8-in. plywood produced (kilograms per 1,000
square meters on a 1-cm basis).
bReferences 2 and 3.
4/76
EMISSION FACTORS
10.3-1
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References for Section 10.3
1. Hemming, C. B. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 2nd hd. Vol. 15. New York. John Wiley and Sons,
1968. p.896-907.
2. Monroe, F. L. et al. Investigation of Emissions from Plywood Veneer Dryers. Final Report. Washington
State University, Pullman. Washington. Prepared for the Plywood Research Foundation and the U.S. Ln-
vironmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park,N.C. Publication No. APTD-I 144. February 1972.
3. Mick, Allen and Dean McCargar. Air Pollution Problems in Plywood, Particleboard, and Hardboard Mills in
the Mid-Willamette Valley. Mid-Willamette Valley Air Pollution Authority, Salem Oregon. March 24, 1969.
10.3-2 Wood Processing 4/76
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10.4 WOODWORKING OPERATIONS by Tom Lahre
10.4.1 General l'5
"Woodworking," as defined in this section, includes any operation that involves the generation of small wood
waste particles (shavings, sanderdust, sawdust, etc.) by any kind of mechanical manipulation of wood, bark, or
wood byproducts. Common woodworking operations include sawing, planing, chipping, shaping, moulding,
hogging, latheing, and sanding. Woodworking operations are found in numerous industries such as sawmills;
plywood, particleboard, and hardboard plants; and furniture manufacturing plants.
Most plants engaged in woodworking employ pneumatic transfer systems to remove the generated wood waste
from the immediate proximity of each woodworking operation. These systems are necessary as a housekeeping
measure to eliminate the vast quantity of waste material that would otherwise accumulate. They are also a
convenient means of transporting the waste material to common collection points for ultimate disposal. Large
diameter cyclones have historically been the primary means of separating the waste material from the airstreams
in the pneumatic transfer systems, although baghouses have recently been installed in some plants for this
purpose.
The waste material collected in the cyclones or baghouses may be burned in wood waste boilers, utilized in the
manufacture of other products (such as pulp or particleboard), or incinerated in conical (teepee/wigwam)
burners. The latter practice is declining with the advent of more stringent air pollution control regulations and
because of the economic attractiveness of utilizing wood waste as a resource.
10.4.2 Emissions1'6
The only pollutant of concern in woodworking operations is particulate matter. The major emission points are
the cyclones utilized in the pneumatic transfer systems. The quantity of particulate emissions from a given
cyclone will depend on the dimensions of the cyclone, the velocity of the airstream, and the nature of the
operation generating the waste. Typical large-diameter cyclones found in the industry will only effectively collect
particles greater than 40 micrometers in diameter. Baghouses, when employed, collect essentially all of the waste
material in the airstream.
It is difficult to describe a typical woodworking operation and the emissions resulting therefrom because of
the many types of operations that may be required to produce a given type of product and because of the many
variations that may exist in the pneumatic transfer and collection systems. For example, the waste from
numerous pieces of equipment often feed into the same cyclone, and it is common for the material collected in
one or several cyclones to be conveyed to another cyclone. It is also possible for portions of the waste generated
by a single operation to be directed to different cyclones.
Because of this complexity, it is useful when evaluating emissions from a given facility to consider the waste
handling cyclones as air pollution sources instead of the various woodworking operations that actually generate
the particulate matter. Emission factors for typical large-diameter cyclones utilized for waste collection in
woodworking operations are given in Table 10.4-1.
Emission factors for wood waste boilers, conical burners, and various drying operations-often found in
facilities employing woodworking operations-are given in sections 1.6,2.3, 10.2, and 10.3.
4/76 Wood Processing 10.4-1
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Table 10.4.1. PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS FOR LARGE
DIAMETER CYCLONES3 IN WOODWORKING INDUSTRY
Types of waste handled
Sanderdustc
Other*
Paniculate emissions'3
gr/scf
0.055d
0.039
g/Nm3
0.1 26d
0.079
Ib/hr
5e
2h
kg/hr
2.3e
0.91 h
aTypical waste collection cyclones range from 4 to 16 feet (1.2 to 4.9 meters) in diameter
and employ airflows ranging from 2,000 to 26,000 standard cubic feet (57 to 740 normal
cubic meters) per minute. Note: if baghouses are used for waste collection, particulate
emissions will be negligible.
"Based on information in References 1 through 3.
cThese factors should be used whenever waste from sanding operations is fed directly into
the cyclone in question.
These factors represent the median of all values observed. The observed values range from
0.005 to 0.16 gr/scf (0.0114 to 0.37 g/Nm3).
^hese factors represent the median of all values observed. The observed values range from
0.2 to 30 Ib/hr (0.09 to 13.6 kg/hr).
These factors should be used for cyclones handling waste from all operations other than
sanding. This includes cyclones that handle waste (including sanderdust) already collected
by another cyclone.
CThese factors represent the median of all values observed. The observed values range from
0.001 to 0.16 gr/scf (0.002 to 0.37 g/Nm3).
"These factors represent the median of all values observed. The observed values range from
0.03 to 24 Ib/hr (0.014 to 10.9 kg/hr).
References for Section 10.4
1. Source test data supplied by Robert Harris of the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, Portland,
Ore. September 1975.
2. Walton, J.W., et al. Air Pollution in the Woodworking Industry. (Presented at 68th Annual Meeting of the Air
Pollution Control Association. Boston. Paper No. 75-34-1. June 15-20, 1975.)
3. Patton, J.D. and J.W. Walton. Applying the High Volume Stack Sampler to Measure Emissions From Cotton
Gins, Woodworking Operations, and Feed and Grain Mills. (Presented at 3rd Annual Industrial Air Pollution
Control Conference. Knoxville. March 29-30,1973.)
4. Sexton, C.F. Control of Atmospheric Emissions from the Manufacturing of Furniture. (Presented at 2nd
Annual Industrial Air Pollution Control Conference. Knoxville. April 20-21,1972.)
5. Mick, A. and D. McCargar. Air Pollution Problems in Plywood, Particleboard, and Hardboard Mills in the
Mid-Willamette Valley. Mid-Willamette Valley Air Pollution Authority, Salem, Ore. March 24,1969.
6. Information supplied by the North Carolina Department of Natural and Economic Resources, Raleigh, N.C.
December 1975.
10.4-2
EMISSION FACTORS
4/76
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
REPORT NO. 2.
AP-42
TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Supplement No. 6 for Compilation of Air Pollutant
Emission Factors Second Edition
AUTHOR(S)
PERFORMING ORG 'VNIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
2. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOONO.
5 REPORT DATE
April 1976
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION
CODE
REPORT NO.
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Supplement
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
5. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
6. ABSTRACT
In this supplement for Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (AP-42)
revised
and updated emissions data are presented for fuel oil combustion, open burning,
heavy-duty, natural-gas-fired pipeline compressor engines, alfalfa dehydrating,
sugar cane processing, natural gas processing, and woodworking operations.
7. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
Emissions
Emission Factors
Air Pollutants
Processes
8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release Unlimited
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
c. COSATI Field/Group
21. NO. OF PAGES
58
22. PRICE
!PA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
F-l
U S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1976—641-301/562
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