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                                                                    Review
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                                                                                  Date
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     Engineering Handbook  for  Hazardous  Waste  Incineration
Summary ot Directive
     Technical  description  of  incineration  design,  operation,  sampling
     and  some aspects  of  permitting  relating to combustion.
Key  Words:

Typt o< Directive iMtnutl. Policy Oirtctive. Announcement, etc.!
                                              Status
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                                                                               Date
Signature of OSWER Directives Officer
                                                          | Date

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IPA
           United States
           Environmental Protection
           Agency
             Office of Water and
             Vvaste Management
             Washington DC 20460
SW-889
September 1981
Engineering
Handbook for
Hazardous Waste
Incineration
                                    OSWER POUCY DIRECTiYE S&
                                   9 4 '-

-------

-------
                                      SW-889
                                September 1981
        ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATION
      U.S.
      Offi
            rlease return to:
            Pat Wheeler
            Incineration Research Branch
            IPCD, IESL
            26 W. St. Clair St.
            Cincinnati, Ohio 45268

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            ENGINEERING HANDBOOK FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATION
                                     by

  T. A. Bonner, C. 1. Cornett, B.  0.  Desai,  J.  M.  Fullenkamp,  T.  W.  Hughes
M. L. Johnson, E. D. Kennedy, R. J. McCoraick,  J.  A.  Peters and D.  L.  Zanders
                                                                             I
Monsanto Research Corporation
     1515 Nicholas Road
     Dayton, Ohio  45407

                                                        —i  ^B
              EPA Contract No. 68-03-3025; Work Directive SDM02
                  Project Officer:  Mr. Donald A. Oberacker                      {
                                                                                 I
                                                                                 (
                Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
             Office of Environmental Engineering and Technology                  '
                           Cincinnati, Ohio  45208                              _^
                                Prepared for

                    U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                     Office of Research and Development
                            Washington, DC  20460

-------
                                    PREFACE
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) authorizes the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to regulate owners/operators of facili-
ties that treat hazardous waste in incinerators.  Pursuant to the legislative
mandates specified in RCRA, the EPA has proposed regulations to ensure that
hazardous waste incinerators are operated in an environmentally responsible
manner.  Specifically, the proposed regulations include an operational per-
formance standard, general design and construction requirements, combustion
and destruction criteria, waste analysis, trial burns, monitoring and inspec-
tions, recordkeeping and reporting, emission control criteria, control of
fugitive emissions, and closure.

The proposed regulations rely upon the technical advisory information con-
tained in this document - Engineering Handbook for Hazardous Waste
Incineration.  The proposed regulations provide very little specificity per-
taining to actual hazardous waste incineration performance requirements.
Permitting officials will develop best engineering judgments for each site
based primarily on suggested minimums or acceptable ranges for performance
parameters-contained in this report.  As a result, each permitting official
will set a "standard" for each hazardous waste incineration facility based on
the application of the criteria or factors contained in the proposed regula-
tions and this document.  In turn, each owner/operator, in preparing a permit
application, can determine what may be acceptable to the permitting official
by utilization of the Permit Writers Guidelines for Hazardous Waste
Incineration.
                                      no.

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                                   CONTENTS


                                                                         Page

1.   INTRODUCTION	   1-1

2.   CURRENT PRACTICES 	   2-1

    2.1  Introduction	2-1

    2.2  Generic Incineration Processes 	   2-11

         2.2.1   Incineration of Gaseous or Liquid Waste with no Appre-
                   ciable SO  or NO  Production	2-11
         2.2.2   Incineration of Gaseous Liquid Waste to Control SO  or
                   C12/HC1	.  .   2-13
         2.2.3   Incineration of Gaseous or Liquid Wastes to Control
                   NO	2-14
         2.2.4   Incineration of Gaseous or Liquid Waste to Control NO
                   and C12/HC1	7   2-15
         2.2.5   Incineration of Gaseous or Liquid Waste to Control
                   Particulates 	   2-15
         2.2.6   Incineration of Solid Waste with No Appreciable SO
                   or NO  Production	  .   2-17
         2.2.7   Incineration of Fine Solids in Gaseous Waste to Control
                   Particulates 	   2-18
         2.2.8   Incineration of Fine Solid Waste to Control NO ....   2-19
         2.2.9   Incineration of Solid Waste to Control Particulates.  .   2-19
         2.2.10  Incineration of High Nitrogen Crude to Control NO  .  .   2-20
                                                                  A
    2.3  Incinerator System Components	2-21
         2.3.1   Incinerator Technology 	   2-21

                 2.3.1.1  Rotary Kiln	2-21
                 2.3.1.2  Liquid Injection	2-23
                 2.3.1.3  Fluidized Bed 	   2-27
                 2.3.1.4  Multiple Hearth 	   2-29
                 2.3.1.5  Coincineration	2-31

         2.3.2   Emerging Incineration Technology 	   2-32

                 2.3.2.1  Starved Air Combustion/Pyrolysis	2-33

         2.3.3   Air Pollution Control Devices	2-34

                 2.3.3.1  Afterburner 	   2-35
                 2.3.3.2  Gas-Atomized Spray Scrubber (Venturi) ....   2-37

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                             CONTENTS  (continued)
                 2.3.3.3  Packed Bed Scrubber 	   2-40
                 2.3.3.4  Spray Tower 	   2-43
                 2.3.3.5  Plate Scrubber	2-44
                 2.3.3.6  Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)	2-46
                 2.3.3.7  Wet Electrostatic Precipitator (WEP)	2-48

         2.3.4   Heat Recovery Technology	2-50

    2.4  Foreign Technologies	2-51

         2.4.1   Introduction	2-51
         2.4.2   Cement Kilns	2-56
         2.4.3   Japan		2-57
         2.4.4   West Germany	2-57

    2.5  Incinerator Manufacturers	2-60
    2.6  References	2-67
    WASTE CHARACTERIZATION	3-

    3.1  Introduction 	   3
.t
    3.2  Waste Characterization Background Information	3-1
         3.2.1  Information Available from Waste Generators 	   3-1
         3.2.2  Information Available from Transporters 	   3-1
         3.2.3  Additional Information Sources	3-2

    3.3  Waste Sampling	3-22

    3.4  Basic Analysis of Waste	3-24

    3.5  Supplemental Analysis of Waste 	   3-28

    3.6  Analysis Test Methods	3-29

    3.7  Thermal Decomposition Unit Analysis.  ...  	   3-30

    3.8  Work Sheet	3-32

    3.9  References	3-36

4.  INCINERATOR AND AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN
      EVALUATION	4-1

    4.1  Introduction	4-1
                                       VI

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                         CONTENTS (continued)

                                                                     Page

4.2  Destruction and Removal Efficiency 	   4-2

     4.2.1  Definition	4-2
     4.2.2  Sample Calculation	4-3

4.3  Incinerator Evaluation 	   4-4
     4.3.1  Basic Design Considerations 	   4-6

            4.3.1.1  Liquid Injection Incinerators	4-6
            4.3.1.2  Rotary Kiln Incinerators 	   4-7

     4.3.2  Physical, Chemical,  and Thermodynamic Waste
              Property Considerations 	   4-8

            4.3.2.1  Liquid Injection Incinerators	4-8
            4.3.2.2  Rotary Kiln Incinerators 	   4-20

     4.3.3  Temperature, Excess Air, Residence Time, and
              Mixing Evaluation  	   4-22

            4.3.3.1  Liquid Injection Incinerators	4-23
            4.3.3.2  Rotary Kiln Incinerators 	   4-37

     4.3.4  Auxiliary Fuel Capacity Evaluation	4-44

            4.3.4.1  Liquid Injection Incinerators	4-44
            4.3.4.2  Rotary Kiln Incinerators	4-46

     4.3.5  Combustion Process Control and Safety Shutdown
              System Evaluation  	   4-46

            4.3.5.1  Liquid Injection Incinerators	4-46
            4.3.5.2  Rotary Kiln Incinerators 	   4-48

     4.3.6  Construction Material Evaluation	4-50

4.4  Air Pollution Control and Gas Handling System Design
       Evaluation	4-50

     4.4.1  Emission/Air Pollution Control Device Matching
              Criteria	4-53

            4.4.1.1  Particulate Removal	4-54
            4.4.1.2  Gaseous Pollutant Removal	4-56

     4.4.2  Air Pollution Control Device Design and Operating
              Criteria Evaluation 	   4-57

            4.4.2.1  Venturi Scrubbers	4-57
            4.4.2.2  Packed Bed Scrubbers .	4-61
            4.4.2.3  Plate Tower Scrubbers	4-67
                                   vii

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                             CONTENTS  (continued)
         4.4.3  Quenching and Mist  Elimination  Considerations  	  4-69
         4.4.4  Prime  Mover Capacity Evaluation 	  4-71
         4.4.5  Process Control and Automatic Shutdown  System
                  Evaluation	4-76
         4.4.6  Material of Construction  Considerations 	  4-77

    4.5  Worksheets	4-79

    4.6  References .	4-116

5.   OVERALL FACILITY DESIGN, OPERATION, AND  MONITORING	5-1

    5.1  Introduction	5-1

         5.1.1  Purpose	5-1
         5.1.2  Hazardous Waste Incinerator  Facility Design 	  5-2

    5.2  Incinerator Facility Site  Selection and Operation	5-2

         5.2.1  Site Selection Concerns	5-2
         5.2.2  Operation of the Facility	5|$

                5.2.2.1  Operations Plan	5»5
                5.2.2.2  Operations Manual	  5-6
                5.2.2.3  Emergency  Manual or Handbook 	  5-6
                5.2.2.4  Leak Detection and  Repair Plan	5-13
                5.2.2.5  Hazardous  Chemical  Spill Handling Plan ....  5-13
                5.2.2.6  Facility Security	5-15
                5.2.2.7  Operator Practices  and Training	5-15
                5.2.2.8  Loss Prevention  Program	5-16

    5.3  Waste Receiving Area	  .  .  .  5-16
         5.3.1  Typical Operations  and Layouts	5-17
         5.3.2  Laboratory for Waste Verification and/or
                  Characterization	'	5-18
         5.3.3  Liquids Unloading 	  5-20
                5.3.3.1  Safety/Emergency Provisions	  5-26
                5.3.3.2  Spill and  Runoff Containment 	  5-28
                5.3.3.3  Static Electricity  Prevention	5-28

         5.3.4  Container Unloading.	5-30

         5.3.5  Bulk Solids Unloading	   5-32
                5.3.5.1  Mechanical Conveyors  ... 	   5-32
                5.3.5.2  Pneumatic  Conveyors	5-33
                                     Vlll

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                         CONTENTS (continued)
5,4  Waste Storage Area	   5-34

     5,4.1  Types of Storage	5-35

            5,4.1.1  Liquid Storage 	   5-35
            5.4.1.2  Bulk Solids Storage	5-38
            5.4.1.3  Container Storage	5-41
            5.4.1.4  Tank Cars	5-42

     5.4.2  Segregation of Wastes During Storage	5-42

     5.4.3  Safety Provisions for Storage Areas 	   5-43

            5.4.3.1  Fire Safety	5-43
            5.4.3.2  Spill/Toxicity Safety	5-44

5.5  Waste Blending and/or Processing Before Incineration 	   5-49

     5.5.1  Waste Compatibilities 	   5-49
     5.5.2  Liquid Feed and Blending Equipment	5-50
     5.5.3  Pumps and Piping	5-53

            5.5.3.1  Positive-Displacement Pumps	5-55
            5.5.3.2  Centrifugal Pumps	5-55
            5.5.3.3  Pump Emission Control	5-56
            5.5.3.4  Pump and Piping Safety	5-59

     5.5.4  Valving and Controls	5-62

     5.5.5  Valving and Control Safety Consideration	5-63

            5.5.5.1  Safety Shutoffs	5-63
            5.5.5.2  Gages, Meters, and Gage Glasses	5-66
            5.5.5.3  Operating Controls 	   5-66

     5.5.6  Solids Feeding Equipment	5-68
            5.5.6.1  Shredders	5-68
            5.5.6.2  Explosion Suppression and Safety Considera-
                       tions for Shredders	5-69
            5.5.6.3  Feeders	5-70
            5.5.6.4  Container Feeding Equipment	5-72

     5.5.7  Backup/Redundancy Provisions	5-73

     5.5.8  Waste Processing Instrumentation	5-75

5.6  Combustion Process Monitoring	5-75

     5.6.1  Temperature Monitoring	5-76
            5.6.1.1  Metal Tubes	5-81
            5.6.1.2  Ceramic Tubes	5-82
            5.6.1.3  Metal-Ceramic Tubes	5-82

                                   ix

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                         CONTENTS  (continued)                            4

                                                                     Page

     5.6.2  Oxygen Monitoring 	   5-82

     5.6.3  Gas Flow Measurement	5-83

            5.6.3.1  Orifice Plates 	   5-84
            5.6.3.2  Ventura Tubes	   5-84
            5.6.3.3  Pitot Tubes	5-85

     5.6.4  Solid Waste Retention  Time and Mixing Characteristics
              Information	5-85

5.7  Air Pollution Control Device  Inspection and Monitoring ....   5-86

     5.7.1  Wet Scrubbers	5-86
            5.7.1.1  Temperature	5-86
            5.7.1.2  Liquid and Gas Flows	5-86
            5.7.1.3  pH	   5-87
            5.7.1.4  Pressure Drop	   5-87
            5.7.1.5  Residue Generation ...  	   5-89

     5.7.2  Fabric Filters	|-89

            5.7.2.1  Temperature	5-89
            5.7.2.2  Gas Flow and Pressure Drop	5-93
            5.7.2.3  Residue Generation 	   5-93

     5.7.3  Electrostatic Precipitators 	   5-94

            5.7.3.1  Rapping Cycle Practice 	   5-94
            5.7.3.2  Temperature,  Resistivity,  and Gas Moisture
                       Effects	5-95
            5.7.3.3  Applied Voltage (Power Supply Control) ....   5-96
            5.7.3.4  Gas Flow	5-97
            5.7.3.5  Residue Generation Rate and Dust Removal
                       Capacity	5-98
            5.7.3.6  Internal System Pressure 	   5-98

     5.7.4  Mist Eliminators	5-98

            5.7.4.1  Temperature	5-98
            5.7.4.2  Gas Flow and Pressure Drop	5-99
            5.7.4.3  pH Level	5-99
            5.7.4.4  Maintenance	5-99

5.8  Scrubber Waste Stream Treatment Inspection and Monitoring.  . .   5-99

     5.8.1  Flow Measurement and Monitoring	5-99
     5.8.2  Flow Control	5-99
     5.8.3  pH Monitoring	5-99

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                         CONTENTS (continued)
     5.8.4  pH Control Systems.  .  ,	5-100

            5.8.4.1  On-Off Controller,  .  .  	   5-101
            5.8.4.2  Proportional  Controller	5-101
            5.8.4.3  Resetting Derivative  Controller	5-101
            5.8.4.4  Flow Proportional Controller 	   5-101

     5.8.5  Scrubber Solution pH Control	5-101

5.9  Continuous Monitoring Instrumentation for Gaseous Components .   5-102

     5.9.1  Available Systems 	   5-103

            5.9.1.1  Extractive Systems 	   5-105
            5.9.1.2  In-Situ Monitoring Systems 	   5-109

     5.9.2  Analyzers	5-110

            5.9.2.1  NDIR Analyzers  	   5-110
            5.9.2.2  Nondispersive Ultriviolet Analyzers (NDUV) . .   5-110
            5.9.2.3  Polarographic Analyzers	5-111
            5.9.2.4  Electrocatalytic Oxygen Analyzers	5-112
            5.9.2.5  Paramagnetic  Oxygen Analyzers	5-112

5.10  Manual Stack Sampling and Analysis Approaches 	   5-113

      5.10.1  Hydrochloric Acid Emissions  	   5-116
      5.10.2  Principal Organic Hazardous  Constituents	5-116
      5.10.3  Calculation of Sample  Volume Required to Show 99.99%
                DRE	5-123

5.11  Plant Condition Monitoring Systems	5-125

      5.11.1  Machine Vibratory Signature  Analysis	5-126
      5.11.2  High Frequency Acoustic Emission Analysis 	   5-126

5.12  Scrubber/Quench Water and Ash  Handling	5-126
      5.12.1  Description of Potential Incinerator Wastes 	   5-127
              5.12.1.1  Quench Water	5-131
              5.12.1.2  Scrubber Effluents	5-136
              5.12.1.3  Ash	5-136

      5.12.2  Sampling and Analysis  of Quench/Scrubber Water and
                Ash	5-137

      5.12.3  Handling of Quench/Scrubber  Wastewater	5-139

      5.12.4  Handling of Ash	5-139
                                   XI

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                             CONTENTS (continued)
    5.13  Fugitive Emissions	5-139

          5.13.1  Significance of Observed Emissions	5-139
          5.13.2  Fugitive Emission Control 	  5-143
          5.13.3  Fugitive Emission Measurement Devices and Methodology  5-143
                  5.13.3.1  Area Monitoring 	  5-143
                  5.13.3.2  Fixed-Point Monitoring	  5-143
                  5.13.3.3  Source Monitoring	, .  .  .  .  5-143
                  5.13.3.4  Current Instrumentation 	  5-143

    5.14  Materials of Construction .'	  5-144

          5.14.1  Metals	  .  5-145
          5.14.2  Nonnetallics	5-148

    5.15  Miscellaneous Concerns	5-152
          5.15.1  Personnel Health and Safety 	  5-152
          5.15.2  Facility Housekeeping 	  5-153
          5.15.3  Maintenance 	  5-lfc4
          5.15.4  Firefighting/Emergency Personnel and Equipment.  .  .  .  5-1E6
          5.15.5  Stonnwater Diversion	5-lo7
          5.15.6  Flue Gas Plume Aesthetics 	  5-158

    5.16  Technical Assistance	5-158

    5.17  References	5-159

6.  ESTIMATING INCINERATION COSTS 	  6-1


    6.1  Introduction	6-1

    6.2  General Principles of Cost Estimation	6-2

         6.2.1  Capital Costs	6-2
                6.2.1.1  Purchased Equipment Costs	6-2
                6.2.1.2  Installation Costs 	  6-3

         6.2.2  Annualized Costs.	6-3

                6.2.2.1  Direct Operating Costs 	  6-3
                6.2.2.2  Indirect Operating Costs	6-4

    6.3  Capital and Operating Costs for Hazardous Waste Incineration
           Facilities and Air Pollution Control Devices 	  6-5

         6.3.1  Hazardous Waste Incinerators	6-5
                6.3.1.1  Capital Investment for Hazardous Waste
                           Incinerators 	  6-5
                                      xii

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                             CONTENTS (continued)
                6.3.1.2  Operating Costs of Hazardous Waste
                           Incinerators  .  . .  . '	6-8

         6.3.2  Air Pollution Control Devices  	  6-8

                6.3.2.1  Air Pollution Control Device Capital Installed
                           Costs	6-8
                6.3.2.2  Electrostatic Precipitator 	  6-20
                6.3.2.3  Fabric Filter	6-20
                6.3.2.4  Mechanical Collectors	6-20
                6.3.2.5  Incinerators 	  6-20
                6.3.2.6  Venturi Scrubbers	6-21
                6.3.2.7  Example Calculation	6-21

    6.4  Cost of Particulate Fugitive Emission Control	6-22

    6.5  Cost Effects of Hazardous Waste Incineration Facility
           Modifications	6-24

         6.5.1  Cost Effects on Material of Construction	6-24
         6.5.2  Cost Effects Using Equipment Modules	6-24

    6.6  Trial Burns	6-28

         6.6.1  Normal Operations 	  6-30
         6.6.2  Trial Burn Activities	6-30
                6.6.2.1  Site Survey	6-30
                6.6.2.2  Equipment Preparation	6-30
                6.6.2.3  Equipment Set-Up and Takedown	6-30
                6.6.2.4  Stack Sampling 	  6-30
                6.6.2.5  Sample Analysis	 .  6-30
                6.6.2.6  Equipment Cleanup	6-31
                6.6.2.7  Report Preparation 	  6-31

    6.7  References	6-31

APPENDICES

A.  Subject Index	A-l
B.  Glossary of Terns	B-l
C.  Conversion Factors	C-l
D.  Bibliography	D-l
E.  Laboratory-Scale Thermal Decomposition Analytical  Data	E-l
F.  Trial Burn Summaries	F-l
                                     xiii

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                                LIST OF FIGURES

Number

 2-1      Incineration process configurations for disposal of gaseous
            or liquid waste with no appreciable SO  or NO  production.   2-13
                                                  X      X
 2-2      Incineration process configuration for disposal of gaseous
            or liquid waste with control of excessive SO  or C12/HC1 .   2-14
                                                        X
 2-3      Two stage combustion process for disposal of gaseous or
            liquid waste with control of excessive NO  	   2-15

 2-4      Incineration process for disposal of gaseous or liquid waste
            with control of excessive NO  and C12/HC1.	   2-16
                                        X
 2-5      Incineration process configurations for disposal of gaseous
            or liquid waste with control of excessive particulate
            matter	    2-3

 2-6      Incineration process configurations for disposal of fine
            combustible solid waste with no appreciable SO  or NO
            production	    2-17

 2-7      Incineration process configurations for disposal of gaseous
            waste containing fine solid particles with control of
            particulates	    2-18

 2-3      Incineration process for disposal of fine solid waste with-
            out control of NO	    2-19
                             X
 2-9      Incineration process for disposal of solid plastic waste
            containing catalyst with control of particulates	    2-20

 2-10     Two-stage combustion process for disposal of high nitrogen
            crude with control of NO	    2-20
                                    X
 2-11     Rotary kiln incinerator schematic 	    2-21

 2-12     Horizontally-fired liquid injection incinerator schematic  .    2-24

 2-13     Vertically-fired liquid injection incinerator schematic .  .    2-24

 2-14     Tangentially-fired vortex combustor liquid injection
            incinerator schematic 	    2-25
                                      xiv

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FIGURES (continued)
Number
2-15
2-16
2-17
2-18
2-19
2-20
2-21

2-22
2-23
2-24
2-25
2-26
3-1
3-2
3-3

3-4

4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-5
4-6

Typical fluidized bed incinerator schematic 	
Typical multiple hearth incinerator schematic 	
Starved air combustion/pyrolysis schematic 	
Basic afterburner flow scheme 	
Venturi scrubber schematic 	
Packed bed scrubber schematic 	
Packed tower pressure drop as function of gas rate and
liquid rate 	
Spray tower schematic 	
Plate tower schematic 	
Electrostatic precipitator schematic 	
Wet electrostatic precipitator schematic 	
Heat recovery/ gas-to-water 	
Field sampling chain of custody form 	
Decomposition of hexachlorobiphenyl 	 . .
Decomposition of pentachlorobiphenyl in different gaseous
atmospheres 	
Relative concentration of hexachlorobenzene in "Hex" wastes
after different thermal exposures 	
Incinerator design evaluation criteria 	
High heat release burner for combustion of liquid waste . .
Internal mix nozzle 	
External mix nozzle 	
Sonic atomizing nozzle 	
Equilibrium constant versus temperature 	
Page
2-27
2-29
2-33
2-35
2-28
2-40

2-42
2-43
2-45
2-47
2-49
2-50
3-24
3-30

3-30

3-31
4-5
4-6
4-9
4-9
4-10
4-15
        XV

-------
                              FIGURES (continued)

Number                                                                   Page

 4-7      Relationship between activation energy and heat of
            combustion	     4-16

 4-3      Adiabatic temperature of combustion gases from typical
            liquid wastes	     4-17

 4-9      Adiabatic temperature of combustion gases from typical
            gaseous wastes	'	     4-18

 4-10     Heat of combustion of chlorinated hydrocarbons	     4-19

 4-11     Nomograph for checking the internal consistency of proposed
            excess air rate and combustion temperature in hazardous
            waste incinerators	     4-24

 4-12     Energy balance for combustion chamber  	     4-26

 4-13     Enthalpy balance for combustion processes 	     4-27
 4-14     Logic diagram for air pollution control and gas handling
            system design 	    4
.1
 4-15     Pressure drop versus cut diameter for gas-atomized scrubber  .
            systems (experimental data from large Venturis, other
            gas-atomizers, scrubbers, and mathematical model) ....    4-60

 4-16     Pipe flow chart	    4-73

 4-17     Total frictional pressure drops in 90° bends	    4-74

 4-18     90° Bends (a) smooth bend, (b) segmental bend	    4-74

 5-1      Typical incinerator facility layout 	    5-3

 5-2      Typical incinerator facility flow diagram, solid and liquid
            wastes	    5-4

 5-3      Spill-response diagram illustrating the interrelating
            information available, decisions to be taken, and
            improvements needed  	 	    5-14

 5-4      Flow diagram showing handling procedures for incineration
            of hazardous wastes  	    5-17

 5-5      Layout for  liquid  receiving area	    5-18

 5-6      Typical tank trailer  (car) with parts identified	    5-21
                                      xvi

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                              FIGURES (continued)

Number                                                                   Page

 5-7      Typical tank car with parts identified	    5-22

 5-8      Tank car unloading station	    5-22

 5-9      Bonding and grounding of a flammable liquid tank truck
            and loading rack	    5-23

 5-10     Compressed inert gas transfer method	  .    5-25

 5-11     Fail-safe transfer line for hazardous fluids	    5-25

 5-12     Fail-safe transfer line inlet and outlet assemblies ....    5-26

 5-13     Containment curb type spill catchment system, depressed
            area form	    5-29

 5-14     A tank car unloading siding showing rail joint bonding,
            insulated track joint, detail, and track grounding.  .  .  .    5-29

 5-15     Fluidizing outlets for hopper cars	    5-32

 5-16     Diagram of pneumatic railcar unloading	    5-34

 5-17     Typical shapes for storage vessels	    5-36

 5-18     Typical tank condenser vent system	    5-37

 5-19     Dike drain detail Type "A" diversion box	    5-47

 5-20     Compatibility matrix for neutralized hazardous wastes  .  .  .    5-51

 5-21     Compatibility matrix when wastes cannot be neutralized.  .  .    5-51

 5-22     Example of a baffled mixing vessel	    5-51

 5-23     Slurry injection and monitoring system	    5-53

 5-24     Liquid feed 5ystem with redundant recirculation 	    5-54

 5-25     Pump classification chart	    5-55

 5-26     Reciporacting pumps:  (a) Principle of reciprocating pump,
            (b) principle of fluid-operated diaphragm pump, (c) direct-
            acting steam pump, (d) principle of mechanical diaphragm
            pump, (e) piston-type power pump, (f) plunger-type power
            pump with adjustable stroke, (g) inverted, vertical,
            triplex power pump	    5-56
                                     xvii

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                              FIGURES (continued)

Number                                                                   page

 5-27     Rotary pumps:  (a) External-gear pump,  (b) internal-gear
            pump, (c) three-lobe pump,  (d) four-lobe pump,
            (e) sliding-vane pump,  (f)  single-screw pump,
            (g) swinging-vane pump,  (h) cam or roller pump,  (i) cam-
            and-piston pump, (j) three-screw pump,  (k) shuttle-block
            pump, (1) squeegee pump,  (m) neoprene vane pump	    5-57

 5-28     Centrifugal pumps:  (a) Principle of centrifugal-type pump,
            (b) radial section through volute-type pump, (c) radial
            section through diffuser-type pump, (d) open impeller,
            (e) semi-enclosed impeller, (f) closed impeller, (g)
            nonclog impeller	    5-58

 5-29     Two safeguards for piping of highly toxic liquids 	    5-61

 5-30     Three areas of a typical gate valve that can leak and
            result in fugitive emissions	    5-64
 5-31     Cross-section through a nonreversible horizontal shredder .    5-19

 5-32     Continuous feeding of sludge to fluid bed incinerator .  . .    5-72
 5-33     Continuous type containerized toxic material thermal
            disposal process	    5-74

 5-34     Example of a waste-charging door	    5-74

 5-35     Liquid waste incinerator schematic	    5-75

 5-36     Schematic diagram showing typical monitoring locations for
            a liquid injection incinerator	    5-78

 5-37     Schematic diagram showing typical monitoring locations for
            a rotary kiln incinerator 	    5-79

 5-38     Recommended measurement and inspection locations	    5-93

 5-39     Typical vibratory rapper	    5-95

 5-40     Recommended measurement location	    5-96

 5-41     Power supply system for modern precipitators	    5-97

 5-42     Elements of a typical pH control system	    5-102

 5-43     Two-step neutralization flow schematic	    5-103

 5-44     Elements of pollutant monitoring system  	    5-104
                                     XVlll

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                              FIGURES (continued)

Number                                                                   Page

 5-45     Schematic diagram of hydrogen chloride sampling train .  .  .     5-117

 5-46     Modified EPA Method 5 sample train for POHC collection.  .  .     5-118

 5-47     Adsorbent sampling system 	     5-119

 5-48     Temperature controlled cooled probe 	     5-120

 5-49     SASS schematic	     5-122

 5-50     Various quenching devices 	     5-128

 5-51     Generalized schematic of incinerator facility 	     5-130

 5-52     Schematic of rotary kiln facility with quench spray chamber
            and venturi scrubber	     5-130

 5-53     Single-pass scrubber system 	     5-133

 5-54     Recirculating scrubber system 	     5-133

 5-55     Incineration system with two-stage scrubber 	     5-135

 5-56     Incineration system with three-stage scrubber 	     5-135

 5-57     Incineration process with emissions treatment and disposal
            options	     5-138

 5-58     Possible process leakage areas	     5-141

 6-1      Total capital investment for a rotary kiln incinerator.  .  .     6-6

 6-2      Total capital investment for a liquid injection
            incinerator	     6-7

 6-3      Total annual operating cost for a rotary kiln incinerator  .     6-9

 6-4      Total annual operating cost for a liquid injection
            incinerator	     6-10

 6-5      Capital and annualized costs of fans and 30.5 length of  duct   6-11

 6-6      Capital and annualized costs of fan driver for various head
            pressures	     6-12

 6-7      Capital and annualized costs of electrostatic precipitator
            carbon steel construction 	     6-13
                                      xix

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                              FIGURES (continued)

Number                                                                   Page

 6-8      Capital and annualized costs of fabric filters, carbon
            steel construction	    6-14

• 6-9      Capital and annualized costs of fabric filters, stainless
            steel construction	    6-15

 6-10     Capital arid annualized costs of mechanical collectors,
            carbon and steel construction 	    6-16

 6-11     Capital and annualized costs of incinerators	    6-17

 6-12     Capital and annualized costs of venturi scrubbers, carbon
            steel construction	    6-18

 6-13     Capital and annualized costs of venturi scrubbers, stainless
            steel construction	    6-19
 6-14a    Capacity vs. installed cost for a fan	    6-27

 6-14b    Capacity vs. installed cost for a steam boiler	    6-E7

 6-14c    Capacity vs. installed cost for an incinerator	    6-28

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                                LIST OF TABLES

Number                                                                   Page
 1-1      ENGINEERING HANDBOOK FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATION -
            CHAPTERS AND THEIR CONTENT	    1-2

 2-1      PERTINENT INCINERATION PROCESSES AND THEIR TYPICAL
            OPERATING RANGES	    2-2

 2-2      APPLICABILITY OF AVAILABLE INCINERATION PROCESSES TO
            INCINERATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE BY TYPE	    2-3

 2-3      WASTE CHEMICAL STREAM CONSTITUENTS WHICH MAY BE SUBJECTED
            TO ULTIMATE DISPOSAL BY CONTROLLED INCINERATION 	    2-4

 2-4      INDUSTRIAL WASTE AND POLLUTION PROCESS	    2-12

 2-5      TECHNOLOGIES APPROPRIATE FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATION  .    2-52

 2-6 -     SELECTED INDUSTRIAL WASTE INCINERATION FACILITIES IN EUROPE
            AND JAPAN	    2-61

 2-7      HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATOR VENDORS 	    2-62

 3-1      HAZARDOUS WASTES RATED AS GOOD, POTENTIAL, OR POOR CANDI-
            DATES FOR INCINERATION BY APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGIES. ...    3-4

 4-1      KINEMATIC VISCOSITY AND SOLIDS HANDLING LIMITATIONS OF
            VARIOUS ATOMIZATION TECHNIQUES	    4-11

 4-2      EVALUATION PROCEDURE FOR PHYSICAL WASTE PROPERTY/
            ATOMIZATION TECHNIQUE COMPATIBILITY  	    4-12

 4-3      STOICHIOMETRIC OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS AND COMBUSTION PRODUCTS
            YIELDS	    4-13

 4-4      CHEMICAL AND THERMODYNAMIC WASTE PROPERTY EVALUATION
            PROCEDURE	    4-21

 4-5      TEMPERATURE/EXCESS AIR EVALUATION PROCEDURE 	    4-34

 4-6      GAS RESIDENCE TIME EVALUATION PROCEDURE 	    4-35

 4-7      MIXING EVALUATION PROCEDURE 	  	    4-36
                                      XXI

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                              TABLES (continued)

Number                                                                   Paqe
 4-8      TEMPERATURE/EXCESS AIR EVALUATION PROCEDURE FOR ROTARY
            KILN/AFTERBURNER INCINERATORS 	    4-42

 4-9      KILN RETENTION TIME EVALUATION PROCEDURE	    4-44

 4-10     COMBUSTION PROCESS CONTROL EVALUATION PROCEDURE 	    4-48

 4-11     COMBUSTION PROCESS CONTROL EVALUATION PROCEDURE .......    4-49

 4-12     GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SILICA AND ALUMINO-SILICATE
            REFRACTORY BRICK	    4-51

 4-13     PROCEDURE TO COMPARE PARTICULATE REMOVAL REQUIREMENTS WITH
            PROPOSED CONTROL STRATEGIES  	  „  .    4-55

 4-14     PROCEDURE TO COMPARE GASEOUS POLLUTANT REMOVAL REQUIREMENTS
            WITH PROPOSED CONTROL STRATEGIES	    4-58
4-15     VENTURI SCRUBBER DESIGN EVALUATION PROCEDURE,

4-16     TYPICAL VALUES OF K a 	
                            g
                                                                         <-n.
                                                                         4-61
 4-17     PACKING DEPTH REQUIRED TO ACHIEVE SPECIFIED REMOVAL
            EFFICIENCY	    4-64

 4-18     PACKED BED SCRUBBER EVALUATION PROCEDURE	    4-66

 4-19     MURPHREE VAPOR PHASE EFFICIENCY FOR PLATE TOWERS	    4-67

 4-20     PLATE TOWER SCRUBBER EVALUATION PROCEDURE 	    4-69

 4-21     SUDDEN CONTRACTION-LOSS COEFFICIENT FOR TURBULENT FLOW.  .  .    4-76

 5-1      HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATOR MALFUNCTIONS AND REMEDIAL OR
            EMERGENCY RESPONSES  	    5-7

 5-2      TYPICAL STEEL DRUM SPECIFICATION FOR HAZARDOUS MATERIALS.  .    5-31

 5-3      TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF DRY BULK STORAGE	    5-39

 5-4      MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION FOR POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS  .    5-54

 5-5      FEEDERS FOR BULK MATERIALS	    5-71

 5-6      LIMITS OF ERROR FOR THERMOCOUPLES	    5-80

 5-7      DEVICES FOR LIQUID FLOW MEASUREMENT	    5-88
                                      JOEll

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TABLES (continued)
Number
5-8
5-9
5-10
5-11
5-12
5-13
5-14
5-15

5-16
5-17

5-18
5-19
5-20
5-21
6-1

6-2

6-3
6-4
6-5

6-6
6-7

A GUIDE TO PRESSURE SENSING ELEMENT SELECTION 	
ANALYZERS CAPABLE OF MEASURING GASEOUS COMPONENTS 	
INFRARED BAND CENTERS OF SOME COMMON GASES 	
EXTRACTIVE MONITOR SUMMARY 	
IN-SITU MONITOR SUMMARY 	
OXYGEN ANALYZER SUMMARY 	
POTENTIAL AIR POLLUTANTS FROM HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATION.
SCRUBBER WATER AND WASTE PARAMETERS FOR TWO LAND-BASED
LIQUID INJECTION INCINERATORS 	
SCRUBBER WATER QUALITY 	
POSSIBLE SOURCES OF FUGITIVE EMISSIONS FROM HAZARDOUS WASTE
INCINERATOR SYSTEMS 	
CONTROL ALTERNATIVES FOR FUGITIVE DUST 	
BRAND NAMES OF POLYMERIC MATERIALS 	
PROPERTY COMPARISONS - NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC RUBBERS. . . .
PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE PLASTICS 	
ESTIMATES OF LIFE OF MATERIALS, PARTS, AND EQUIPMENT FOR
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS 	
TYPICAL COST OF WET SUPPRESSION OF INDUSTRIAL PROCESS
FUGITIVE PARTICULATE EMISSIONS 	
COST ESTIMATES FOR WET SUPPRESSION OF FUGITIVE DUST ....
COST ESTIMATES FOR STABILIZATION OF FUGITIVE DUST 	
COST ESTIMATES FOR SWEEPING AND FLUSHING OF FUGITIVE DUST
SOURCES 	
MATERIAL COST FACTORS 	
TRIAL BURN COST COMPONENTS (DOLLARS) 	
Page
5-90
5-104
5-111
5-114
5-115
5-115
5-131

5-134
5-134

5-140
5-142
5-149
5-150
5-151

6-5

6-23
6-24
6-25

6-26
6-26
6-29
        tiii

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                              TABLES (continued)





Number                                                                   Pace
 ._ i .1 ml ._                                                                    i -* —




 6-8      HOURLY FUEL COSTS	    6-31




 6-9      MATERIAL COST FACTORS	    6-33




 6-10     TRIAL BURN COST ASSUMPTIONS	    6-36
                                      XXIV

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                                  CHAPTER 1

                                INTRODUCTION
Millions of tons of industrial waste materials are generated each year in the
United States.  A sizable fraction of this waste is considered hazardous (an
estimated 57 million metric tons in 1980).  In recent years, incineration has
emerged as an attractive potential alternative to hazardous waste disposal
methods such as landfill, ocean dumping, and deep-well injection.

Incineration possesses several advantages as a hazardous waste disposal
technology:

     - Toxic components of hazardous wastes can be converted to harmless
       compounds or, at least, to less harmful compounds.

     - Incineration provides for the ultimate disposal of hazardous wastes,
       eliminating the possibility of problems resurfacing in the future.

     - The volume of hazardous waste is greatly reduced by incineration.

     - Heat recovery makes it possible to recover some of the energy
       produced by the combustion process.

It is likely that incineration will be a principal technology for the dis-
posal of hazardous waste in the future because of the above advantages.

This engineering handbook is a compilation of information available in the
literature and describes current state-of-the-art technology for the incin-
eration of hazardous waste.  The handbook is designed to serve as a technical
resource document in the evaluation of hazardous waste incineration operations.
This document is intended to serve as a useful technical resource for Federal,
regional, and state EPA officials; designers of hazardous waste incineration
facilities, owners and operators of hazardous waste incineration facilities,
and the general technical community.

Each chapter in the handbook addresses a separate topic involved in hazardous
waste incineration.  A brief abstract for each chapter is presented in
Table 1-1.

The user is encouraged to make use of the references cited in each chapter
if additional information is required.
                                     1-1

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             TABLE 1-1.   ENGINEERING HANDBOOK FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE
                         INCINERATION - CHAPTERS AND THEIR CONTENT


Chapter                                 Abstract

   1      Introduction

          Describes the utility of the handbook and its structure, specifying
          where various types of information are available.

   2      Current Practices

          Provides an overview of incineration systems for various types of
          waste.  Commercially available technology, emerging technology,  and
          foreign technology are included.   The components of these systems
          are described in detail, including air pollution control devices and
          heat recovery systems.  A matrix of the types of components appli-
          cable to different generic types of waste is provided,  along with a
          list of U.S. incinerator manufacturers.
          Waste Characterization                                          »

          Describes the basic types of analysis required to characterize
          wastes, and discusses how the resulting data are used to match a
          waste to an appropriate type of incinerator.  Hazardous wastes
          listed under Section 3001 of the RCRA regulations are evaluated for
          their suitability for incineration.

          Incinerator and Air Pollution Control System Design Evaluation

          Provides detailed information and procedures for evaluation of in-
          cinerator and air pollution control device design and operating con-
          ditions.  Basically, this involves a series of internal consistency
          checks designed to determine whether (1) acceptable temperatures,
          residence times, oxygen concentrations, and mixing can be achieved
          and maintained in the incinerator, (2) the various components of the
          system have sufficient capacity to accommodate the quantities of
          waste to be burned, (3) appropriate air pollution control device
          operating conditions can be maintained, (4) the design includes
          process control and automatic shutdown safeguards to minimize re-
          lease of hazardous materials in the event of equipment malfunction,
          and (5) proper materials of construction are used.  Individual eval-
          uation procedures are provided for liquid injection and rotary kiln
          incinerators, and for several types of wet scrubbers.

                                                                 (continued)
                                     1-2

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                             TABLE 1-1 (continued)
Chapter	Abstract
          Overall Facility Design,  Operation,  and Monitoring

          Provides engineering background information on the technical capa-
          bilities necessary for the incineration facility to process hazard-
          ous waste safely and effectively.   The chapter discusses overall
          facility layouts; equipment requirements common to all facilities,-
          waste receiving equipment, procedures, and storage,- personnel
          safety,- emergency procedures and provisions; monitoring procedures
          and instrumentation; sampling and analysis equipment and methodolo-
          gies,- sources of fugitive emissions and their control; scrubber/
          quench water handling and disposal;  and ash collection systems.

          Estimating Incineration Costs

          Examines the economic factors involved in the construction of new
          facilities and the operation of existing facilities.  Capital costs
          for incinerators and air pollution control devices are discussed.
          The costs involved in changing incinerator operating conditions
          (temperature, percent excess air,  residence time) and the removal
          efficiency of air pollution control devices are examined.  The
          costs involved in performing trial burns are also addressed in this
          chapter.
Appendices
          Provide a subject index, glossary of terms, tables of conversion
          factors, bibliography, and descriptions of equipment used for
          laboratory-scale thermal chemical waste decomposition experiments.
          The results of laboratory experiments and trial burn studies are
          also summarized.
                                     1-3

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                                   CHAPTER 2

                               CURRENT PRACTICES
2.1  INTRODUCTION

Incineration has developed over a number of years as a means for disposal of a
wide variety of waste materials.  Recently, applying incineration to hazardous
waste disposal has been given an increasing amount of attention as an alterna-
tive to more expensive and controversial treatment and disposal technologies.
Besides the economics involved, another advantage of incineration is that it
does not necessarily need to be carried out at land-based facilities.  Ship-
board incineration is currently being studied and utilized in destruction of
dangerous chlorinated hydrocarbon wastes [1, 2].

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that in 1979 only 5% of the
country's total hazardous waste stream was managed by incineration, yet 60% of
the total wastes could have been successfully destroyed using current incin-
erator technology [1, 2].

The EPA estimates further that in 1979 about 39 million short tons (35 million
metric tons) of hazardous wastes were generated in this country by some
270,000 industrial plants and other facilities.  The majority of these wastes
(65%) were produced in ten states.-  Texas, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Louisiana,
Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Tennessee, West Virginia, and California.  It is
expected that the quantities of hazardous waste generated will increase annu-
ally by 3%.  Based on these figures, incineration is becoming an increasingly
more important option in solving hazardous waste disposal problems [3, 4].

Incineration is an engineered process using thermal oxidation of a waste
materiel to produce a less bulky, toxic, or noxious material.  A waste must be
combustible to some extent in order for incineration to be a viable disposal
method [5].  The 3 T's of combustion, temperature, residence time, and turb-
ulence, are crucial in controlling operating conditions.  Table 2-1 summarizes
the typical ranges for temperature and residence time in six incineration
processes.  Chapter 4 deals with turbulence and oxygen availability.

The waste characteristics are likewise important parameters, including chemi-
cal structure and physical form.  Table 2-2 presents a summary of those phy-
sical forms suitable for each of the six types of incinerators.  Table 2-3
lists candidate compounds for destruction by incineration.

This chapter outlines the basic variations of incinerator processes and illu-
strates the individual components and their applications.  Included are six
types of incinerator technologies, along with pertinent air pollution control


                                      2-1

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        TABLE 2-1.  PERTINENT INCINERATION PROCESSES ANC THEIR TYPICAL
                    OPERATING RANGES [6]
            Process
 Temperature
range, °F (°C)
     Residence time
Rotary kilne
Liquid injection
Fluidized bed
Multiple hearth
Coincineration
Starved air combustion/pyrolysis
1,500 to 2,900
 (820 to 1,600)

1,200 to 2,900
 (650 to 1,600)

  840 to 1,800
 (450 to 980)

  Drying zone
  600 to 1,000
 (320 to 540)
 Incineration
1,400 to 1,800
 (760 to 980)

  300 to 2,900
 (150 to 1,600)

  900 to 1,500
 (480 to 820)
Liquids and gases, seconds;
  solids, hours
0.1 to 2 seconds

Liquids and gases, second!;
  solids, longer

0.25 to 1.5 hours
Seconds to hours

Tenth of a second to
  several hours
aA highly developed hazardous waste incineration technology; covered in detail
 in Chapter 4.
                                      2-2

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J3

  X
                                    x x
                                   X X
                                                   X X
                                                             «»   ^
                                                            V  «M
                                                                 a
ope
                                         - s rs -a

                                        •8 "S0  BS
                                        •H *J y h, k.
                                         2. C -H o  o
                                         O1 o *J o
                                        •^ u 0 o w
                                        ^    I fM 3
                                        •^ V O  .Q
                                         W -W V. N «

                                        2 § «~g,

                                        •g*       <
                                        (0
                                                                  y  «o
                    2-3

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     TABLE 2-3.  WASTE CHEMICAL STREAM CONSTITUENTS WHICH MAY BE SUBJECTED
                 TO ULTIMATE DISPOSAL BY CONTROLLED INCINERATION [7]
ORGANIC

Acetaldehyde
Acetic acid
Acetic anhydride
Acetone
Acetone cyanohydrin-.   oxides of nitrogen are removed from the effluent gas by
  scrubbers and/or thermal devices.
Acetonitrile.-  oxides of nitrogen are removed from the effluent gas by scrub-
  bers and/or thermal devices.
Acetyl chloride
Acetylene
Acridine:  oxides of nitrogen are removed from the effluent gas by scrubber,
  catalytic, or thermal device.
Acrolein:  1500°F, 0.5 sec minimum for primary combustion,- 2000°F, 1.0 sec for
  secondary combustion, combustion products C02 and H20.
Acrylic acid
Acrylonitrile:  NO  removed from effluent gas by scrubbers and/or thermal
  devices.                                                                    |-
Adipic acid                                                                  I
Allyl alcohol                                                                *
Allyl chloride:  1800°F, 2 sec minimum.
Aminoethylethanolamine:  incinerator is equipped with a scrubber or thermal
  unit to reduce NO  emissions.
Amyl acetate
Amyl alcohol
Aniline:  oxides of nitrogen are removed from the effluent gas by scrubber,
  catalytic, or thermal device.
Anthracene
Benzene
Benzene sulfonic acid:  incineration followed by scrubbing to remove the S02
  gas.
Benzoic acid
Benzyl chloride:  1500°F, 0.5 sec minimum for primary combustion; 2200°F,
  1.0 sec for secondary combustion; elemental chlorine formation may be alle-
  viated through injection of steam or methane into the combustion process.
Butadiene
Butane
Butanols
1-Butene
Butyl acrylate
n-Butylamine:  incinerator is equipped with a scrubber or thermal unit to  re-
  duce NO  emissions.
Butylenesx
Butyl phenol
Butyraldehyde

                                                                    (continued)


                                      2-4

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                             TABLE 2-3 (continued)
Camphor
Carbolic acid (phenol)
Carbon disulfide:  a sulfur dioxide scrubber is necessary when combusting sig-
  nificant quantities of carbon disulfide.
Carbon monoxide
Carbon tetrachloride:  preferably after mixing with another combustible fuel;
  care must be exercised to assure complete combustion to prevent the forma-
  tion of phosgene; an acid scrubber is necessary to remove the halo acids
  produced.
Chloral hydrate:  same as carbon tetrachloride.
Chlorobenzene:  same as carbon tetrachloride.
Chloroform:  same as carbon tetrachloride.
Creosote
Cresol
Crotonaldehyde
Cumene
Cyanoacetic acid:  oxides of nitrogen are removed from the effluent gas by
  scrubbers and/or thermal devices.
Cyclohexane
Cyclohexanol
Cyclohexanone
Cyclohexylamine:  incinerator is equipped with a scrubber or thermal unit to
  reduce NO  emissions.
Decyl alcohol
Di-n-butyl phthalate
Dichlorobenzene:  incineration, preferably after mixing with another combusti-
  ble fuel; care must be exercised to assure complete combustion to prevent
  the formation of phosgene.  An acid scrubber is necessary to remove the halo
  acids produced.
Dichlorodifluoromethane (freon):  same as dichlorobenzene.
Dichloroethyl ether:  same as dichlorobenzene.
Dichloromethane:  (methylene chloride) same as dichlorobenzene.
1,2-Dichloropropane:  same as dichlorobenzene.
Dichlorotetrafluoro*thane:  same as dichlorobenzene.
Dicyclopentadiene
Diethnolamine:  incinerator is equipped with a scrubber or thermal unit to re-
  duce NO  emissions.
Diethylamine:  sane as diethanolamine.
Diethylene glycol
Diethyl ether:  concentrated waste containing no peroxides; discharge liquid
  at a controlled rate near a pilot flame.  Concentrated waste containing
  peroxides; perforation of a container of the waste from a safe distance fol-
  lowed by open burning.
Diethyl phthalate
Diethylstilbestrol
Diisobutylene
Diisobutyl ketone

                                                                   (continued)

                                      2-5

-------
TABLE 2-3 (continued)
                                             i
Diisopropanolamine:   incinerator is equipped with a scrubber or thermal unit
  to reduce NO  emissions.
Dimethylamine:  same as diisopropanolamine.
Dimethyl sulfate:   incineration (1800°F,  1.5 sec minimum)  of dilute,  neutral-
  ized dimethyl sulfate waste is recommended.   The incinerator must be  equip-
  ped with efficient scrubbing devices for oxides of sulfur.
2,4-Dinitroaniline:   controlled incineration whereby oxides of nitrogen are
  removed from the effluent gas by scrubber, catalytic,  or thermal device.
Dinitrobenzol:  incineration (1800°F,  2.0 sec minimum)  followed by removal  of
  the oxides of nitrogen that are formed using scrubbers and/or catalytic or
  thermal devices.  The dilute wastes  should be concentrated before incin-
  eration.
Dinitrocresol:  incineration (1100°F minimum) with adequate scrubbing and ash
  disposal facilities.
Dinitrophenol:  incinerated (1800°F, 2.0 sec minimum) with adequate scrubbing
  equipment for the removal of NO .
Dinitrotoluene:  pretreatment involves contact of the dinitrotoluene contami-
  nated waste with NaHC03 and solid combustibles followed by incineration in
  an alkaline scrubber equipped incinerator unit.
Dioxane:  concentrated waste containing no peroxides; discharge liquid at
  controlled rate near a pilot flame.   Concentrated waste containing
  peroxides:  perforation of a container of the waste from a safe distance
  followed by open burning.
Dipropylene glycol
Dodecylbenzene
Epichlorohydrin:  incineration, preferably after mixing with another combus-
  tible fuel.  Care must be exercised to assure complete combustion to prevent
  the formation of phosgene.  An acid scrubber is necessary to remove the halo
  acids produced.
Ethane
Ethanol
Etahnolamine:  controlled incineration; incinerator is equipped with a scrub-
  ber of thermal unit to reduce N0x emissions.
Ethyl acetate
Ethyl acrylate
Ethylamine:  controlled incineration;  incinerator is equipped with a scrubber
  or thermal unit to reduce N0x emissions.
Ethylbenzene
Ethyl chloride:  incineration, preferably after mixing with another combusti-
  ble fuel.  Care must be exercised to assure complete combustion to prevent
  the formation of phosgene.  An acid scrubber is necessary to remove the halo
  acids produced.
Ethylene
Ethylene cyanohydrin:  controlled incineration  (oxides of nitrogen are removed
  from  the effluent gas by  scrubbers and/or thermal devices).
Ethylenediamine:  same as ethylene  cyanohydrin.
                                       (continued)
          2-6

-------
                             TABLE 2-3  (continued)
Ethylene dibromide:  controlled incineration with adequate scrubbing and ash
  disposal facilities.
Ethylene dichloride:  incineration, preferably after mixing with another com-
  bustible fuel; care must be exercised to assure complete combustion to pre-
  vent the formation of phosgene.  An acid scrubber is necessary to remove the
  halo acids produced.
Ethylene glycol
Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether:  concentrated waste containing no peroxides,-
  discharge liquid at a controlled rate near a pilot flame.  Concentrated
  waste containing peroxides; perforation of a container of the waste from a
  safe distance followed by open burning.
Ethyl mercaptan:  incineration (2000°F) followed by scrubbing with a caustic
  solution.
Fatty acids
Formaldehyde
Formic acid
Furfural
Glycerin
n-Heptane
Hexamethylenediamine:  incinerator is equipped with a scrubber or thermal unit
  to reduce NO  emissions.
Hexane        x
Hydroquinone:  incineration (1800°F, 2.0 sec minimum) then scrub to remove
  harmful combustion products.
Isobutyl acetate
Isopentane
Isophorone
Isoprene
Isopropanol
Isopropyl acetate
Isopropylamine:  controlled incineration (incinerator is equipped with a
  scrubber or thermal unit to reduce NO  emissions).
Isopropyl ether:  concentrated waste containing no peroxides; discharge liquid
  at a controlled rate near a pilot flame.  Concentrated waste containing
  peroxides; perforation of « container of the waste from a safe distance fol-
  lowed by open burning.
Maleic anhydride:  controlled incineration; care must be taken that complete
  oxidation to nontoxic products occurs.
Mercury compounds (organic):  incineration followed by recovery/removal of
  mercury from the gas stream.
Hesityl oxide
Methanol
Methyl acetate
Methyl acrylate
Methylamine:  controlled incineration (incinerator is equipped with a scrubber
  or thermal unit to reduce NO  emissions).
Methyl amyl alcohol           x

                                                                   (continued)

                                      2-7

-------
                             TABLE 2-3 (continued)
n-Methylaniline.-  controlled incineration whereby oxides of nitrogen are
  removed from the effluent gas by scrubber,  catalytic or thermal device.
Methyl bromide:  controlled incineration with adequate scrubbing and ash dis-
  posal facilities.
Methyl chloride:  same as methyl bromide.
Methyl chloroformate:  incineration,  preferably after mixing with another com-
  bustible fuel; care must be exercised to assure complete combustion to pre-
  vent the formation of phosgene.  An acid scrubber is necessary to remove the
  halo acids produced.
Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl formate
Methyl isobutyl ketone
Methyl mercaptan:  incineration followed by effective scrubbing of the efflu-
  ent gas.
Methyl methacrylate monomer
Morpholine:  controlled incineration (incinerator is equipped with a scrubber
  or thermal unit to reduce NO  emissions).
Naphtha
Naphthalene                                                               i
B-Naphthylamine:  controlled incineration whereby oxides of nitrogen are  I*
  removed from the effluent gas by scrubber,  catalyst or thermal device.  I
Nitroaniline:  incineration (1800°F,  2.0 sec minimum) with scrubbing for
  NO  abatement.
Nitrobenzene:  same as nitroaniline
Nitrocellulose:  incinerator is equipped with scrubber for NO  abatement.
Nitrochlorobenzene:  incineration (1500°F, 0.5 sec for primary combustion;
  2200°F, 1.0 sec for secondary combustion).   The formation of elemental
  chlorine can be prevented through injection of steam or methane into the
  combustion process.  NO  may be abated through the use of thermal or cataly-
  tic devices.
Nitroethane:  incineration, large quantities of material may require N0x
  removal by catalytic or scrubbing processes.
Nitromethane:  same as nitroe thane.
Nitrophenol:  controlled incineration; care must be taken to maintain complete
  combustion at all times.  Incineration of large quantities may require
  scrubbers to control the emission of NO  .
Nitropropane:  same as nitroethane.
4-Nitrotoluene:  same as nitrophenol.
Nonyl phenol
Octyl alcohol
Oleic acid
Oxalic acid:  pretreatment involves chemical reaction with limestone or calci-
  um oxide forming calcium oxalate.  This may then be incinerated utilizing
  particulate collection equipment to collect calcium oxide for recycling.
Paraformaldehyde
Pentachlorophenol:  incineration (600° to 900°C) coupled with adequate scrub-
  bing and ash disposal facilities.

                                                                    (continued)


                                      2-8

-------
                             TABLE 2-3  (continued)
n-Pentane
Perchloroethylene:  incineration, preferably after mixing with another combus-
  tible fuel; care must be exercised to assure complete combustion to prevent
  the formation of phosgene.  An acid scrubber is necessary to remove the halo
  acids produced.
Phenylhydrazine hydrochloride:  controlled incineration whereby oxides of ni-
  trogen are removed from the effluent gas by scrubber, catalytic, or thermal
  device.
Phthalic anhydride
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's):  incineration (3000°F) with scrubbing to
  remove any chlorine containing products.
Polypropylene glycol methyl ether:  concentrated waste containing no perox-
  ides; discharge liquid at a controlled rate near a pilot flame.  Concentra-
  ted waste containing peroxides; perforation of a container of the waste from
  a safe distance followed by open burning.
Polyvinyl chloride:  incineration, preferably after mixing with another com-
  bustible fuel; care must be exercised to assure complete combustion to pre-
  vent the formation of phosgene.  An acid scrubber is necessary to remove the
  halo acids produced.
Propane
Propionaldehyde
Propionic acid
Propyl acetate
Propyl alcohol
Propylamine:  controlled incineration (incinerator is equipped with a scrubber
  or thermal unit to reduce NO  emissions).
Propylene
Propylene oxide:  concentrated waste containing no peroxides;  discharge liquid
  at a controlled rate near a pilot flame:  Concentrated waste containing
  peroxides; perforation of a container of the waste from a safe distance fol-
  lowed by open burning.
Pyridine:  controlled incineration whereby oxides of nitrogen are removed from
  the effluent gas by scrubber, catalytic, or thermal devices.
Quinone:  controlled incineration (1800°F, 2.0 sec minimum).
Salicylic acid
Sorbitol
Styrene
Tetrachloroethane.-  incineration, preferably after mixig with another combus-
  tible fuel; care must be exercised to assure complete combustion to prevent
  the formation of phosgene.  An acid scrubber is necessary to remove the halo
  acids produced.
Tetraethyllead:   controlled incineration with scrubbing for collection of lead
  oxides which may be recycled or landfilled.
Tetrahydrofuran:  concentrated waste containing peroxides; perforation of a
  container of the waste from a safe distance followed by open burning.
Tetrapropylene
Toluene

                                                                   (continued)


                                      2-9

-------
                             TABLE 2-3 (continued)
Toluene diisocyanate.-  controlled incineration (oxides of nitrogen are re-
  moved from the effluent gas by scrubbers and/or thermal devices).
Toluidine.-  same as toluene diisocyanate.
Trichlorobenzene:  incineration, preferably after mixing with another com-
  bustible fuel; care must be exercised to assure complete combustion to pre-
  vent the formation of phosgene.  An acid scrubber is necessary to remove the
  halo acids produced.
Trichloroethane:  same as trichlorobenzene.
Trichloroethylene:  same as trichlorobenzene.
Trichlorofluoromethane:  same as trichlorobenzene.
Triethanolamine:  controlled incineration (incinerator is equipped with a
  scrubber or thermal unit to reduce NO  emissions).
Triethylamine.-  same as triethanolamine?
Triethylene glycol
Triethylene tetramine:  same as triethanolamine.
Turpentine
Urea:  same as triethanolamine.
Vinyl acetate
Vinyl chloride:  incineration, preferably after mixing with another combusti-
  ble fuel; care must be taken to assure complete combustion to prevent tha-
  formation of phosgene.  An acid scrubber is necessary to remove the halo I
  acids produced.
Xylene

INORGANIC

Inorganic chemicals which may be disposed of (after indicated pretreatment in
some cases) by controlled incineration are:

Boron hydrides:  with aqueous scrubbing of exhaust gases to remove B203 par-
  ticulates.
Fluorine:  pretreatment involves reaction with a charcoal bed.  The product
  of the reaction is carbon tetrafluoride which is usually vented.  Residual
  fluorine can be combusted by means of a fluorine-hydrocarbon air burner fol-
  lowed by a caustic scrubber and stack.
Hydrazine:  controlled incineration with facilities for effluent scrubbing to
  abate any ammonia formed in the combustion process.
Hydrazine/hydrazine azide:  the blends should be diluted with water and
  sprayed into an incinerator equipped with a scrubber.
Mercuric chloride:  incineration followed by recovery/removal of mercury from
  the gas stream.
Mercuric nitrate:  same as mercuric chloride.
Mercuric sulfate:  same as mercuric chloride.
Phosphorus (white or yellow):  controlled incineration followed by alkaline
  scrubbing and particulate removal equipment.

                                                                   (continued)
                                      2-10

-------
                              TABLE 2-3  (continued)
 Sodium  azide:  Disposal may be  accomplished by  reaction with  sulfuric  acid
  solution  and sodium nitrate in  a hard  rubber  vessel.  Nitrogen dioxide  is
  generated by this  reaction and  the  gas  is run through a  scrubber before  it
  is  released to  the atmosphere.  Controlled  incineration  is  also acceptable
  (after mixing with other combustible wastes)  with  adequate  scrubbing and ash
  disposal  facilities.
 Sodium  formate:   pretreatment involves conversion  to formic acid followed  by
  controlled incineration.
 Sodium  oxalate:   pretreatment involves conversion  to oxalic acid followed  by
  controlled incineration.
 Sodium-potassium  alloy:  controlled incineration with subsequent effluent
  scrubbing.
devices, and heat recovery techniques.  Foreign technological advances are
studied, followed by a listing of manufacturers of incinerator systems and
components.

2.2  GENERIC INCINERATION PROCESSES

Incineration of hazardous wastes is an engineered process, with waste destruc-
tion being the ultimate goal.  As previously stated, a waste's chemical makeup
and physical form are important parameters, particularly in selecting the
proper incineration process.  A system has been devised to classify industrial
wastes into five physical forms/combinations as shown in Table 2-4.  The
system also takes into account the waste's chemical makeup by noting pollu-
tants in the resulting off-gases.  This section  includes ten processes,
corresponding to the numbers in the last column, which are appropriate for
thermal destruction of the listed wastes.  These wastes are not characteristic
of all possible hazardous waste combinations, but the intent of this section
is only to present process options.  Section 2.3 will look at each process
component in more detail and include more complete waste applications [8].

2.2.1  Incineration of Gaseous or Liquid Waste With No Appreciable SO  or NO
       Production                                                    K*

Figure 2-1 contains four diagrams, one for each of the four configurations of
a process to dispose of either a gaseous or liquid waste which produces a flue
gas containing acceptable amounts of SO  and/or NO .  Configuration 2-1.1 is
simply an incinerator which is supplied^with waste, fuel, and combustion air.
Fuel is required when the waste's combustion energy is insufficient (endo-
thermic) to produce a design operating temperature.  An exothermic waste only
requires fuel for pilot start-up.  A highly exothermic waste requires a cool-
ing medium such as excess air, steam, or water for temperature control.

Configuration 2-1.2 is an incinerator fitted with a heat recovery boiler.  The
boiler, with economizer,  can recover approximately 70% of the heat energy
supplied to the incinerator by the waste and fuel.


                                      2-11

-------
         TABLE 2-4.   INDUSTRIAL  WASTE AND POLLUTION PROCESS [8J
Classification
Gas










Gas/solid






Liquid














Liquid/solid







Solids






Industrial waste
Asphalt fumes
Chloroform
Hydrocarbon fume
HCN H2
H2S vents
Methyl chloride
NH3
M0x
Phosgene
Tail gas
VCM vents
Air/maleic anhydride
Air/phthalic anhydride
Air/polyethylene
CO H2/C
CO H2/C ash
Hydrocarbon/C ash
Propehe/Al203
Acrylonitrile
Carbon tetrachloride
Chloroamine
Herbicides
Hexachlorobenzene
Hydrazine
HjO creosote
H20 isocynates
Nitrosamine
Organic acids
Pesticides
PCS
Pyridine
VCM
High N2 crude
APPA solvent/catalyst
Biosludge
Dye solution
Melanine slurry
Phosphorous sludge
Salt solution
TPA /catalyst
Polypropylene/catalyst
APPAb/ catalyst
Coal fines
Coke fines
DNT cellulose
Polyethylene
Sodium organic salts
Wood chips
Pollutant

C12/HC1
Conf
2-1.
2-2.
•I:
• 1 ,
2-1.1,
*°x
S0x
CLjT/HCl
"°x
NO*
C1J/HC1

C12/HC1




Particulate
Particulate
Particulate
N0x
C12/HC1
C12/HC1, NO
C12/HC1
C12/HC1
N0x
A

NOV
X
C12/HC1
C12/HC1
^x
C12/HC1
N0x
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate
NO
H3P04
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate
NO,,
X
Particulate
Particulate
2-3
0
2-2.1,
2-2.
2-3
.1,
.0
:iguration number
2-1
2-2
2-1

2-2
2-2

.2,
.2
.2,

.2
.2

2-1

2-1.




3,

3,




2-1.4

2-1 4




2-3.0
2-2
2-1
2-2
2-1
2-1
2-6
2-6
2-7
2-7
2-5
2-3
2-2
2-4
2-2
2-2
2-3
2-1
2-1
2-3
2-1
2-2
2-2
2-3
2-2
.1.
.1,
.1,
.1,
.1,
.1,
.1,
.1,
.1,
.1,
.0
.1,
.0
.1,
.1,
.0
.1,
.1,
.0
.1,
.1,
.1,
.0
.1,
2-2
2-1
2-2
2-1
2-1
2-6
2-6
2-7
2-7
2-5

2-2

2-2
2-2

2-1
2-1

2-1
2-2
2-2

2-2
.2
.2,
.2
.2,
.2,
.2,
.2,
.2
.2
.2,

.2

.2
.2

.2,
.2,

.2,
.2
.2

.2

2-1.

2-1
2-1
2-6
2-6


2-5






2-1
2-1

2-1





.3,

.4
.4
.3
.3


.3






.4
.4

.4





2-1.4










1.











2-10.0
2-5
2-5
2-5
2-8
2-5
2-5
2-5
2-5
2-9
2-7
2-7
2-8
2-6
2-7
2-7
.1,
.1,
.1,
.0
.1
.1,
.1,
.1,
.0
.1,
.1,
.0
.1,
.1,
.1,
2-5
2-5
2-5


2-5
2-5
2-5

2-7
2-7

2-6
2-7
2-7
.2,
.2,
.2,


.2,
.2,
.2,

.2
.2

.2,
.2
.2
2-5
2-5
2-5


2-5
2-5
2-5




2-6


.3
.3
.3


.3
.3
.3




.3


















*Vinyl  chloride monomer.
 0,0-Dunethyl-phthalimidiomethyl-dithiophosphate.
cPhorbol  acetate, rayristate.
                                      2-12

-------
                WASTE

                GAS

                LKXJIO
EXAMPLE

TAIL GAS

ORGANIC ACID
PBOOUCTS OF OXIDATION

FLUE GAS, NOX. SOX

FLUE GAS, NOX
                                    FLUE GAS
WASTE •*
AIR-*

iSC'N
!«»TO«
t
FUEL


?
A
K

                              CONFIGURATION 2-1.1

WASTE — *
AW— »

INON
f»»TO»
T
FUEL
STEAM
4





i
c
GL
-*
                                             FLUE CAS
                              CONFIGURATION 2-1.2
                             	}
                                             FLUE GAS
                         FUEL    WASTE (GAS)

                              CONFIGURATION 2-1.3
                WASTE-
                                         STEAM

                                           t
                                                  r-»Fu* GAS
                             	  i«T1  m^
                                nott^ami^ BUILe
                         T^       t~
                         FUEL      AIM

                             CONFIGURAnON 2-1.4
Figure  2-1.   Incineration process configurations for disposal of  gaseous
               or liquid  waste with no appreciable SO  or NO  production.
                                       2-13

-------
Configuration 2-1.3  is  an  incinerator fitted with a gas-to-gas heat  exchanger.
In the heat exchanger the  flue  gas  is cooled and the waste gas heated.

Configuration 2-1.4  is  an  incinerator fitted with a gas-to-gas heat  exchanger
and a heat recovery  boiler.   The  preheater heats the incoming combustion  air
and the boiler extracts the  heat  available in the flue gas from exchanger
outlet temperature.  This  configuration offers flexibility in the  amount  of
steam produced versus fuel usage.

2.2.2  Incineration  of  Gaseous  Liquid Waste to Control SO  or C12/HC1
                                                          X"""
Figure 2-2 contains  two block diagrams,  one for each of the two configurations
of a process to dispose of either a gas or liquid waste which produces  flue
gas containing excessive amounts  of SO  or C12/HC1.
                O»*
               LIQUID
                                nrnoou
mooucn o* omxme*
  *G NO. Cl.'Nd
  re NO, ci.'MQ
  KL NO.. a,/Ma
                             CONFIGURATION 2-2.1
                  GAS
                 LIQUID
                                   VCM
  FG NO, CI..HCI
  TO NO i CI./HO
  FG NO,. a,/MCI
            •tin
                              CONFIGURATION 2-2.2
  Figure 2-2.  Incineration process  configuration for disposal of gaseous
               or liquid waste with  control of excessive SO  or C12/HC1.
                                                            X
                                       2-14

-------
Configuration 2-2.1 consists of an incinerator, a quench  section which  cools
the flue gas to its saturation temperature by directly contacting  it with
water, two adiabatic absorbers which remove  inorganic acids and chlorine and
an unlined (no refractory) vent stack.

Water is used in the first absorber to remove a majority  of the HC1 from the
flue gas.  The remaining HC1 and virtually all the entering C12 leaves  the
absorber with the flue gas.  A second absorber with caustic is used when
either the C12 or HC1 in this stream exceed  allowable levels.  This occurs
when excessive C12 is formed in the incinerator, or when  the first absorber is
used to make strong HC1.

Configuration 2-2.1 consists of an incinerator, a heat recovery boiler which
produces steam in cooling the flue gas, two  adiabatic absorbers, the first
being fitted with a lower section of ceramic packing which cools the flue gas
to saturation temperature prior to its entry into the acid absorption section.
A second absorber for residual HCl and C12 removal and an unlined vent stack
follow.

Note that cool flue gas (recycle gas) is recycled to the incinerator for
control of operating temperature when the waste is highly exothermic.

2.2.3  Incineration of Gaseous or Liquid Wastes to Control NO

Figure 2-3 is a block diagram of a two stage combustion process to dispose of
either a gas or liquid that, when oxidized (one stage process), produces a
flue gas containing excessive amounts of NO  .  It consists of a reduction
furnace in which a high temperature reducing environment (less than stoichio-
metric air) converts the fuel into H2, H20, C02, and CO which converts the NO
present into N2, quench section which cools the water gas by directly contact-
ing it with cool recycle gas, an incinerator which converts the H2 to H20 and
CO to C02, heat recovery boiler which produces steam in cooling the flue gas,
and an unlined vent stack.  Recycle gas cooling in lieu of air, steam, or water
is an integral part of this process to minimize NO  formation and maximize
heat recovery.                                    X

2.2.4  Incineration of Gaseous or Liquid Waste to Control NO  and C12/HC1

Figure 2-4 is a block diagram of a process to dispose of either a gas or
liquid that produces a flue gas containing C12/HC1 and excessive amounts of
NO .   It consists of a reduction furnace in which a high temperature reducing
environment converts NO  into N2, the C12 into HCl, and fuel into water gas; a
quench station which cools the water gas by directly contacting it with recycle
gas,-  an incinerator which converts the H2 to H20,  CO to C02 and allows the HCl
to come to equilibrium producing C12/HC1; a heat recovery boiler which produces
steam in cooling the flue gas,- an adiabatic absorber, fitted with a lower
section of ceramic packing which cools flue gas to saturation temperature
prior to its entry into the acid absorption section which removes the inorganic
acids; and an unlined vent stack.  Recycle gas cooling is an integral part of
this  process to minimize NO  formation and maximize heat recovery.
                           A
                                      2-15

-------
         WASTE CATEGORY
              GAS
             LIQUID
     WASTE

       AIM
                EXAMPLE
                  NH,
              NITROSAMINE
  MOWCTIO* .
•41 'UMNACf I
    j'


   *U«L
             OUfMCM
                        CO.
                        M,
                        CO
                        N,0
                        Ni
                                       INON
PRODUCTS OP OXIDATION
    RIJE GAS  NO,
    FUIE GAS . NO,
                                                               »I.U€ CAS
   •OH.EM
                                        MCCTCLi CAS
                                                                         f





                                                                         I
  Figure 2-3.  Two stage combustion process  for disposal  of gaseous
               or liquid waste  with control  of excessive  NO .
                                                               X
                                                         QfOMMTIOH
                                                      MLT
                                    THERMAL OXIDIZCT
Figure 2-4.   Incineration process  for disposal  of gaseous or  liquid
              waste with control of excessive N0x and
                                    2-16

-------
2.2.5  Incineration of Gaseous or Liquid Waste  to  Control Particulates

Figure 2-5 is three block diagrams, one for each of  three configurations  of  a
process to dispose of either a gaseous or liquid waste which produces flue gas
containing excessive amounts of particulate matter.

Configuration 2-5.1 consists of an incinerator, a  quench section which cools
the flue gas to its saturation temperature by directly contacting it with
water, a venturi scrubber which removes the particulate matter, and a vent
stack.

Configuration 2-5.2 consists of an incinerator; a  conditioning tower which
cools the flue gas to either 600°F or 350°F depending upon the dry particulate
removal system selected, by directly contacting it with water; either an
electrostatic precipitator or bag house for particulate removal; and an unlined
vent stack.

Configuration 2-5.3 consists of an incinerator; a  conditioning tower, fitted
with a Salt Master, which lowers the flue gas to below salt fusion temperature
by directly contacting it with recycle gas,- a heat recovery boiler which
produces steam in cooling the flue gas; either an  electrostatic precipitator
or bag house for particulate removal; and an unlined vent stack.  The Salt
Master removes salt from the bottom of the conditioning tower before it can
build up to the level sealing the inlet duct to the boiler.  This would cause  -
high system pressure drop causing system shutdown.  Note, recycle gas may be
used for cooling to maximize heat recovery.

2.2.6  Incineration of Solid Waste with no Appreciable SO  or N0_ Production
                                                         X""1"~~~' ~* X    ~~ —i —

Figure 2-6 is three block diagrams, one for each of three configurations of a
process to dispose of a waste containing combustible fine solids (less than
500 u) which produces flue gas containing acceptable amounts of SO  and/or
NO .                                                               *
  X

Configuration 2-6.1 consists of a cyclonic incinerator in which a high radial
gas velocity causes the denser solid particles to be preferentially "slung" to
the wall,  thus markedly increasing their retention time, and a refractory
lined stack.

Configuration 2-6.2 consists of a cyclonic incinerator fitted with a heat
recovery boiler which produces steam in lowering the flue gas temperature, and
an unlined vent stack.

Configuration 2-6.3 consists of a cyclonic incinerator, fitted with a gas-to-
gas heat exchanger, which heats the incoming combustion air,  and a heat recov-
ery boiler which recovers the heat available in the flue gas, and an unlined
vent stack.   This configuration offers flexibility in the amount of steam
produced versus fuel usage.
                                      2-17

-------
                   LIOUIO/SOUO
                                      P.IMEIE

                                    NAO
                                      E*OOUCTS O* O»IOATi(X

                                       FG. NO, »»*T1CUL»TE

                                       K. MO.
                          IMC >K
                                CONFIGURATION 2-5.1
     uou«/souo
                                                    moeucrt QN
                                                        ., MMTKULATE
                                                         SJmcuuf!
                                   CONFIGURATION 2-5.2
                     msri
                                  CONFIGURATION 2-5.3
Figure 2-5.
Incineration process configurations for disposal of gaseous or

liquid waste with control of excessive  particulate matter.
                                         2-18

-------

/M
>
WASTE 	 » / " l
AIR - «
CYCLONIC J C
. TWrTMCDATno M K 1


1
FUEL
CONFIGURATION 2-6.1
STEAM
t
WASTE 	
AIR




"* CYCLONIC nm .- J
^INCINERATOR °OIIIR 1

FUEL
CONFIGURATION 2-6.2
T
CYCLONIC ft HEAT
INCINERATOR EXCHANGER *
T T
FUEL AIR
• » FLUE GAS
^
C
K 1
STEAM J-i
X m



                                                                     FLUE GAS
                          CONFIGURATION 2-6.3
Figure 2-6.
Incineration process  configurations for disposal of fine
combustible solid waste with no appreciable SO  or NO
production.                            •        x      x
                                   2-19

-------
2.2.7  Incineration of Fine Solids in Gaseous  Waste_to Control Particulates

Figure 2-7 consists of two block diagrams,  one for each of two configurations
of a process to dispose of a gaseous waste  containing a combustible fine solid
(less than 500 u), which produces flue gas  containing acceptable amounts of
SO  and/or NO  and excessive amounts of particulate.
  X          X

WASTE 	 »
AIR »






CYCLONIC
INCINERATOR

f OR
FUEL




H20
^
CONDITION-
~* ING T-*
TOWER !
1
OR1
1
350°F

VtWUKl
*

ESP
i
BAG-
HOUSE
1
DRY ASH
— »


-

r

                                                       FLUE CAS
                     CONFIGURATION 2-7.1
ii i i
CYCLONIC '
INCINERATOR
FUEL
r : 	
_» HOT
CYCLONE
i
1
1 ,


CONDITION -
TOW^B
i
i
STEAM
t



— J
OR'
ESP
DRY ASH
8AG-
HOUSE

^
i
RECYCLE GAS i
                                                                           FLUE GAS
                                                                                         V
                                                                                         I
                                                          DRY ASH
                             CONFIGURATION 2-7.2
Figure 2-7.  Incineration process  configurations for disposal of gaseous waste
             containing  fine  solid particles with control of particulates.
                                       2-20

-------
Configuration 2-7.1 consists of a cyclonic  incinerator  and  either  a  quench
column, which by directly contacting  the  flue gas with  water,  cools  it  to its
saturation temperature, and a venturi scrubber which  removes  the particulate
matter, or a conditioning tower which by  directly contacting  the flue gas with
recycle gas cools it, depending on the dry  particulate  removal system selected,
and either an electrostatic precipitator  or bag house for particulate removal,
and an unlined vent stack.

Configuration 2-7.2 consists of a cyclonic  incinerator, a hot  cyclone for
large particulate removal and/or conditioning tower which by directly
contacting the flue gas with recycle  gas  cools it to below  ash fusion tempera-
ture, a heat recovery boiler which produces steam in cooling the flue gas,
either an electrostatic precipitator  or bag house for particulate  removal, and
an unlined vent stack.  Recycle gas may be  used for cooling to maximize heat
recovery.

2.2.8  Incineration of Fine Solid Waste to  Control NO
                                                     A

Figure 2-8 is a block diagram of a process  to dispose of a  waste that contains
combustible solids in the size range  of 10  to 500 M that produces  a  flue gas
containing excessive amount of NO .   It consists of a cyclonic  reduction
furnace in which a high radial velocity,  high temperature reducing environment
(less than stoichiometric air) converts the bound nitrogen  into N2 and the
fuel into water gas, a quench section  which cools the water gas, and an incin-
erator which coverts the H2 to H20 and CO to C02, a heat recovery boiler which
produces steam in cooling the flue gas and  an unlined vent  stack.  Recycle gas
cooling, (not air,  steam, or water) is an integral part of  the process to
minimize NO  formation and maximize heat  recovery.
           A
        WASTE1
        AIR —
>
-»
+

CYCLONIC
REDUaiON
FURNACE
FUEL




CONDITION-
ING
TOWER
t



INCIN-
ERATOR



f
BOILER


1
RECYCLE GAS
I
                         C02

                         CO
                         HjO
      Figure 2-8.   Incineration process for disposal of fine solid waste
                   without control of NO .
                                      2-21

-------
2.2.9  Incineration of Solid Waste to Control Particulates

Figure 2-9 is a block diagram of a process to dispose of plastic chunks con-
taining catalyst which produces flue gas containing excessive amounts of
particulate.  It consists of a reduction furnace which burns the waste in a
pool on the furnace floor in a reducing environment producing a moderate Btu
gas; an incinerator; a conditioning tower which, by directly contacting the
flue 'gas with recycle gas, cools it to below salt fusion temperature; a heat
recovery boiler which produces steam in cooling the flue gas,- either an elec-
trostatic precipitator or bag house for particulate removal; and an unlined
vent stack.  Recycle gas may be used for cooling to maximize heat recovery.
<
POOL
REDUCTION 	 » INCINE
FURNACE
t ;
/ r
FUEL
<

CONDITION-
TOWER
k ' '
STEAM
t



35C
M

ES?
*
5RY SALT
BAG-
HOUSE
1
3RY SALT

— ^
4
i
/
     Figure 2-9.  Incineration process for disposal of solid plastic waste
                  containing catalyst with control of participates.
2.2.10  Incineration of High Nitrogen Crude to Control NO
                                                         x
Figure 2-10 is a block diagram of a two stage combustion process to burn a
high nitrogen crude that, when oxidized (one stage), produces a flue gas
containing excessive amounts of NO .
                                  X
 WASTE-

 AIR —
                                                               FLUE GAS
i
-*









CYCLONIC
REDUCTION
FURNACE
T
FUEL




i •







1 I
r
^
TOR —-** BOILEN "" *]
/

RECYCLE GAS
CC,
H2
CO
H20
"2




        Figure 2-10.  Two-stage combustion process for disposal of high
                      nitrogen crude with control of NO  .
                                      2-22

-------
 This process  is  similar  in  concept  to process  three.   It  consists  of  a  reduc-
 tion boiler,  substituting for process three's  reduction furnace,  in which  a
 high temperature reducing (less  than stoichiometric air)  converts  the high
 nitrogen  crude into H2,  H20, C02, and CO which limits  the formation of  NO  and
 reduces any formed NO  into N2,  a smaller  quench  section  than process three
 which  cools the  waterxgas by directly contacting  it with  cool recycle gas, an
 incinerator which converts  the H2 to H20 and CO to C02, convection boiler
 which  produces steam in  cooling  the flue gas,  and an unlined vent  stack.
 Recycle gas cooling (in  lieu af  air, steam, or water)  is  an integral part  of
 this process  to  minimize NO formation  and maximize heat  recovery.

 2.3  INCINERATOR SYSTEM  COMPONENTS

 This section  deals with  the individual  components introduced in the previous
 sections.  Commercially  available and emerging incineration technologies are
 examined, as  well as pertinent air pollution control devices and heat recovery
 techniques.   An  accompanying matrix (Table 2-5) integrating particular  waste
 types  with these various components is  presented  at the end of Section  2.3.

 2.3.1  Commercially Available Incineration Technologies

 Five technologies will be studied in this  subsection, with emphasis given  to
 two major hazardous waste destruction techniques, rotary  kiln and  liquid
 injection incineration.  The less frequently used techniques are fluidized bed*
 and multiple  hearth incinerators, along with the  fifth technique,  coincinera-
 tion,  usually involving  a variation of  rotary  kiln or multiple hearth
 applications.  Each technology is described, illustrated, and discussed as to
 its advantages,  disadvantages, and applications.

 2.3.1.1  Rotary  Kiln [6, 7, 9-14] —

 Operation -

 Rotary kiln incinerators are generally  refractory-lined cylindrical shells
mounted at a  slight incline from the horizontal plane.  The speed  of rotation
may be used to control the  residence time  and mixing with combustion air.
They are generally used  by  industry, the military, and municipalities to
 degrade solid and liquid combustible wastes, but  combustible gases may  also be
oxidized.   Recently, rotary kiln incinerators have been used to successfully
dispose of obsolete chemical warfare agents and munitions.  Figure 2-11 is a
schematic of what a general rotary kiln system involves [7, 9].  This sche-
matic is typical  of most rotary kilns,  including  small portable units cur-
rently being used in hazardous waste disposal  site restoration and demilitari-
zation projects.

Two types of  rotary kilns are currently being manufactured in the  U.S.  today,
cocurrent (burner at the front end with waste  feed) and countercurrent  (burner
at the back end).  For a waste which easily sustains combustion, the position-
ing of the burner is arbitrary from an  incineration standpoint; both types
will destroy a waste.   However, for a waste having low combustibility (such as
                                      2-23

-------
                                RJEl
 TO *?C3
AND STACK
                                               ASH

               Figure 2-11.  Rotary kiln incinerator schematic.

a high water volume sludge), the countercurrent design offers the advantage of
controlling temperature at both ends, which all but eliminates problems such
as overheating the refractory lining.  The countercurrent flow technique has
been reputed to carry excessive ash over into the air pollution control system
due to the associated higher velocities involved, however, this condition also
increases the turbulence during combustion which is generally a desirable
factor*.

Optimal length to diameter (L/D) ratios have ranged from 2 to 10, and rota-
tional speeds of 1 to 5 FPH at the kiln periphery are common,, depending on the
nature of the waste.  Residence times vary from a few seconds; for a highly
combustible gas, to a few hours for a low combustible solid waste.  A typical
feed capacity range is 600 kg/hr to 2,000 kg/hr for solids, and 630 L/hr to
2250 L/hr for liquids at temperatures ranging from 800°C to 1600°C.  Since
rotary kilns are normally totally refractory-lined and have no exposed metal-
lic parts, they may operate at high incineration temperatures while experienc-
ing minimal corrosion effects.  Solid wastes, sometimes packed in fiber drums,
are generally fed to the kiln by conveyor.  Liquids and sludges are pumped in,
with liquids usually being strained, then atomized with steam or air.  The
kiln and liquid burner are equipped with natural gas ignitors and gas burners
for initial refractory heating, flame stability, and supplemental heat if
necessary [7, 9].

Afterburners are commonly used to ensure complete combustion of flue gases
prior to treatment for air pollutants.  Resource recovery (depending on the
waste) and heat recovery are also common practices as initial steps to treat-
ment of flue gases.

Types of Wastes -

Numerous hazardous wastes which previously were disposed of in potentially
harmful manners (ocean dumping, landfilling and deep-well injection) are cur-
rently being safely and economically destroyed using rotary kiln incinerators
*Per phone call to Will Kepner of Bartlett-Snow, Chicago,  Illinois
                                      2-24

-------
combined with proper flue gas handling.  Included in this list of primarily
toxic wastes are polyvinyl chloride wastes, PCB wastes from capacitors, obso-
lete munitions, and obsolete chemical warfare agents such as GB, VX, and
mustard.  Beyond these specific wastes, the rotary kiln incinerator is gen-
erally applicable to the destruction and ultimate disposal of any form of
hazardous waste material which is combustible at all.  Table 2-5, at the end
of this section, helps illustrate this fact.  Unlikely candidates are non-
combustibles such as heavy metals, high moisture content wastes, inert mater-
ials, inorganic salts, and the general group of materials having a high
inorganic content.

Advantages -

 (1) will incinerate a wide variety of liquid and solid hazardous wastes.
 (2) Will incinerate materials passing through a melt phase.
 (3) Capable of receiving liquids and solids independently or in combination.
 (4) Feed capability for drums and bulk containers.
 (5) Adaptable to wide variety of feed mechanism designs.
 (6) Characterized by high turbulence and air exposure of solid wastes.
 (7) Continuous ash removal which does not interfere with the waste oxidation.
 (8) No moving parts inside the kiln (except when chains are added).
 (9) Adaptable for use with a wet gas scrubbing system.
(10) The retention or residence time of the nonvolatile component can be con-
     trolled by adjusting the rotational speed.
(11) The waste can be fed directly into the kiln without any preparation such
     as preheating,  mixing, etc.
(12) Rotary kilns can be operated at temperatures in excess of 2,500°F (1,400°C),
     making them well suited for the destruction of toxic compounds that are
     difficult to thermally degrade.
(13) The rotational speed control of the kiln also allows a turndown ratio
     (maximum to minimum operating range) of about 50%.

Disadvantages -

 (1) High capital cost for installation.
 (2) Operating care necessary to prevent refractory damage; thermal shock is a
     particularly damaging event.
 (3) Airborne particles may be carried out of kiln before complete combustion.
 (4) Spherical or cylindrical items may roll through kiln before complete
     combustion.
 (5) The rotary kiln frequently requires additional makeup air due to air
     leakage via the kiln end seals.
 (6) Drying or ignition grates,  if used prior to the rotary kiln, can cause
     problems with melt plugging of grates and grate mechanisms.
 (7) High particulate loadings.
 (8) Relatively low thermal efficiency.
 (9) Problems in maintaining seals at either end of the kiln are a significant
     operating difficulty.
(10) Drying of aqueous sludge wastes or melting of some solid wastes can
     result in clinker or ring formation on refractory walls.
                                      2-25

-------
 2.3.1.2  Liquid  Injection  [3, 5, 6, 10, 11, 13-15]--

 Operation  -

 Liquid injection incinerators are currently the roost commonly used incinerator
 for hazardous waste disposal.  A wide variety of units is marketed today, with
 the 2 major  types being horizontally- and vertically-fired units.  A less
 common unit  is the tangentially-fired vortex combustor; all three of these
 units are  schematically represented in Figures 2-12 through 2-14.  As the name
 implies, the liquid injection incinerator is confined to hazardous liquids,
 slurries and sludges with a viscosity value of 10,000 SSU* or less [7].  The
 reason for this  limitation being that a liquid waste must be converted to a
 gas prior  to combustion.  This change is brought about in the combustion
 chamber, and is  generally expedited by increasing the waste surface area
 through atomization.  An ideal size droplet is about 40 p or less, and is
 attainable mechanically using rotary cup or pressure atomization, or via
 gas-fluid nozzles and high pressure air or steam.

 The key to efficient destruction of liquid hazardous wastes lies in minimizing
 unevaporated droplets and unreacted vapors.  Just as for the rotary kiln,
 temperature, residence tine, and turbulence may be optimized to increase
 destruction efficiencies.  Typical combustion chamber residence tine and
 temperature ranges are 0.5 to 2 seconds and 700°C to 1650°C, respectively.     ,
 Liquid injection incinerators are variable dinensionally, and have feed rates
 up to 5,600 L/hr.

 The combustion chamber is a refractory-lined cylinder.  Burners are normally
 located in the chamber in such a manner that the flames do not inpinge on the
 refractory walls.  The combustion chamber wall can be actively cooled by
process air prior to its entry into the combustion zone, thus preheating the
 air to between 150°C and 370°C .

Liquid waste fuel is transferred from drums into a feed tank.  The tank is
pressurized with nitrogen, and waste is fed to the incinerator using a remote
 control valve and a compatible flowmeter.  The fuel line is purged with N2
 after use.  A recirculation system is used to mix the tank contents [17].
Normally a gas (for example, propane) preheats the incinerator system to an
 equilibrium temperature of approximately S15°C before introduction of the
waste liquid.

Of the three types of units discussed earlier, the horizontal and vertical are
basically similar in operating conditions.  The tangentially-fired unit is
known to have a much higher heat release and generally superior mixing than
 the previous two units, making it more attractive for disposal of high water
content wastes and less combustible materials.  However, these conditions lend
 to increased deterioration of the refractory lining from thermal effects and
erosion [7].
*To obtain the Saybolt universal viscosity equivalent to a kinematic viscosity
 determined at t°F, multiply the equivalent Saybolt universal viscosity at
 100°F by 1 + (t - 100) 0.000064; e.g., 10 centistokes at 210°F are equivalent
 to 58.8 x 1.0070, or 59.2 SSU at 210°F.  (Handbook of Chemistry and  Physics,
 45th edition).

                                      2-26

-------
                                                 r*


                                                 u
                                                 U
                                          1     -5
                                 2£g°
                                 ££i 5
                                 «A ^ o
                                                •H
                                                •n
                                                •H
                                                §•
                                <
                                               U

                                               =
                                              PH

                                               «
                                               U

                                               &
                                              •H
                                              U.
2-27

-------
     FREE STANDING
     INTERLOCKING REFRACTORY
     MODULES
     TEMPERATURE MEASURING
     INSTRUMENTS
             TURBO-BLOWER
        IGNITION CHAMBER

          HIGH VELOCITY
          AIR SUPPLY
      AIR-WASTE ENTRAPMENT
      COMPARTMENT
              WASTE UNF
                           EFFLUENT DIRECTLY TO ATMOSPHERE
                           OR TO SCRUBBERS  AND STACK    FRESH AIR INTAKE
                                                       'FOR TURBO-BLOWER
   AND AFTERBURNER FAN

   AIR CONE
                                                       UPPER NACELLE
DECOMPOSITION CHAMBER

DECOMPOSITION STREAM


  AFTER-BURNER FAN
     FLAMES ENS HIZER

   TURBULENCE COMPARTMENT
   LOWER NACELLE

  AUXILIARY FUEL LINE
                                               ELECTRICAL POWER LIME
Figure  2-13.  Vertically-fired liquid injection incinerator schematic [7]
                                       2-28

-------
                      ANNUL*! S'ACf flUfO
                      WIIH All UNOtl
                           rot iur»(S
                                        tfHUINt TO SCIUMiK
                                        ANO SlACK
                                              «FIAC1O*Y WAU
                                               — COMBUSTION AII
                                               f— IO TUYtltS
                                                    Mf*ACTO*Y
                                                    COOlINC All

                                                    COMtMTION
                                                    All
          B
          OH SHAY
                     COOLING AH
                     CAST IN If FIACTOIV SLU
                                                    M»U SMI U
            Figure  2-14.
Tangentially-fired vortex combustor  liquid
injection incinerator schematic  [7].
Types of Wastes -
Liquid injection incinerators  are capable of handling any combustible liquid
hazardous waste with  the viscosity constraints previously mentioned.  They have
been widely used in industry for a broad range of liquid wastes, as shown in
Table 2-5 (at the end of Section 2.3).   In the case of the rotary kiln inciner-
ator, wastes which are unlikely candidates for destruction are noncoobustibles
such as heavy metals, high moisture content wastes, inert materials, inorganic
salts, and the general group of materials having high inorganic content.

Advantages -

 (1) Capable of incinerating a wide range of liquid hazardous wastes.
 (2) No continuous ash removal system is required other than for air pollution
     control.
 (3) Capable of a fairly high  turndown ratio.
 (4) Fast temperature response to changes in the waste fuel flowrate.
 (5) Virtually no moving parts.
 (6) Low maintenance  costs.

Disadvantages -

 (1) Only wastes which can be  atomized through a burner nozzle can be
     incinerated.
 (2) Heat content of waste burned must  maintain adequate ignition and incin-
     eration temperatures or a supplemental fuel must be provided.
 (3) Burners susceptible to  pluggage (burners are designed to accept a certain
     particle size; therefore,  particle size is a critical parameter for
     successful operation).
 (4) Burner may or may not be  able to accept a material which dries and cakes
     as it passes through the  nozzles.
                                       2-29

-------
2.3.1.3   Fluidized  Bed  [6,  10,  11,  13-15,  17,  18]--

Operation -

Fluidized bed  incinerators  are  vessels  containing  a bed of inert  granular
material,  usually sand, which is  kept at  temperatures  in a range  from 450 to
850°C.   Fluidizing  air  is passed  through  a  distributor plate  below the bed and
agitates  the heated granular material.  Hazardous  waste material  and auxil-
liary fuel are  injected radially  in proportionately small amounts and mixed
with the  bed material which transfers heat  to  the  waste.   The waste in turn
combusts  and returns energy to  the  bed  [7].

This process is pictured in Figure  2-15,  which represents a typical fluidized
bed incinerator.  The reactor vessel is commonly about 7-8 meters in diameter
and 10 meters high.  Bed depths are typically*1 meter  while at rest, and
2 meters  during operation.  Variations  in the  depth affect both residence time
and pressure drop,  resulting in a compromised  depth which optimizes residence
time and  excess air to  ensure complete  combustion  [18].
                  FLUE GAS -^
                 MAKEUP SAND
                  ACCESS DOOR
 AUXILIARY BURNER
/ (OIL OR GAS)
                                                ;— WASTE INJECTION


                                                r- FUJIDIZINC AIR
                                ASH REMOVAL

          Figure 2*15.  Typical fluidized bed  incinerator  schematic.

Bed temperatures are restricted by the softening point of  the bed medium,
which is about 900°C for sand.  These high  temperatures allow for reaction of
gaseous wastes and combustion gases above the  bed  as well.   Gas velocities in
the bed are generally maintained near 2 meters per second.   The gas velocity
is constrained by the terminal velocity,, and thus  particle size.  Too high a
velocity results in bed attrition and heavy particulate loading of the flue
gas, while a lower velocity reduces pressure drop  and  results in lower power
requirements.  The residence tine is generally around  12 to 14 seconds for a
liquid hazardous waste [7, 18].
                                       2-30

-------
       Types  of Wastes  -

       Most fluidized bed  applications  to hazardous waste  in  the literature involve
       incineration  of  sludges  and  slurries.  The  type and composition of the waste
       are key design parameters determining  feed  mechanisms, processing, and bed
       specifics.  A homogeneous combustible  liquid may be immediately injected, but
       a nonhomogeneous sludge  having moderate combustion  potential and interspersed
       with large  solid matter  will require sorting, drying,  shredding, and special
       feed considerations prior to entering  the reactor.  Despite the need for pre-
       treatment,  the fluidized bed is  capable of  handling most any waste that the
       rotary kiln can, depending on the heat limitations  of  the bed material.

       Advantages  -

       (1) General  applicability for the disposal of combustible hazardous solids,
           liquids, and gaseous wastes.
       (2) Simple design  concept,  requiring  no moving parts  in the combustion zone.
       (3) Compact  design due  to high  heating rate per unit volume (100,000 to
           200,000  Btu/hr-ft3  (900,000 to 1,800,000 kg-cal/hr-m3) which results in
           relatively  low capital  costs.
       (4) Relatively  low gas  temperatures and excess air requirements which tend to
           minimize nitrogen oxide formation and  contribute  to smaller, lower cost
           emission control systems.
       (5) Long incinerator life and low maintenance costs.
       (6) Large  active surface area resulting from fluidizing action enhances the
           combustion efficiency.
       (7) Fluctuation in the  feed rate and  composition are easily tolerated due to
           the large quantities of heat stored in the bed.
       (8) Provides for rapid  drying of high-moisture-content material, and combus-
           tion can take place in  the  bed.
       (9) Proper bed material selection suppresses acid gas formation; hence,
           reduced emission control requirements.
i       (10) Provides considerable flexibility for  shockload of waste; i.e., large
f           quantities of waste being dumped  in the bed at a single time.

I      Disadvantages -

       (1) Difficult to remove residual materials from the bed.
       (2) Requires fluid bed preparation and maintenance.
       (3) Feed selection must avoid bed degradation caused by corrosion or
           reactions.
       (4) Hay require special operating procedures to avoid bed damage.
       (5) Operating costs are relatively high, particularly power costs.
       (6) Possible operating difficulties with materials high in moisture content.
       (7) Formation of eutectics  is a serious problem.
       (8) Hazardous waste incineration practices have not been fully developed.
       (9) Not well suited for irregular, bulky wastes, tarry solids, or wastes with
*           a fusible ash content.
                                            2-31

-------
2.3.1.4  Multiple Hearth  [1,  3,  5,  6,  10,  13  -  15]--

Operation -

A typical multiple hearth  furnace  includes  a  refractory-lined steel shell,  a
central shaft that rotates, a  series of  solid flat  hearths,  a series of rabble
arms with teeth  for each hearth, an air  blower,  fuel  burners mounted on the
walls, an ash removal system,  and  a waste  feeding system.   Side  ports for tar
injection, liquid waste burners, and an  afterburner may  also be  included.
Figure 2-16 illustrates the incinerator  and its  typical  flow scheme.
                                   RETURN AIR
                        SOLID
                      WASTE FEED
        BUCKET ELEVATOR
           ASH BIN

            ASH
         CONDITIONER
           HAULING
                                                       —  "1 APCD
       \
       ^
      FUEL
     BURNERS
     ill00ID AND
      GASEOUS
      WASTE)
COOLING AIR FOR RABBLE
ARMS AND DRIVE SHAFTS
         Figure 2-16.  Typical multiple hearth  incinerator schematic.

Sludge and/or granulated solid combustible waste  is  fed through the furnace
roof by a screw feeder or belt and flapgate.  The rotating air-cooled central
shaft with air-cooled rabble arms and teeth distributes the waste material
across the top hearth to drop holes.  The waste falls  to the next hearth and
then the next until discharged as ash at the bottom.   The waste is agitated as
it moves across the hearths to make sure fresh  surface is exposed to hot
gases.

Units range from 1.8 m to 7.6 m in diameter and from 3.6 m to 23 m in height.
The diameter and number of hearths are dependent  on  the waste feed, the
required processing time, and the type of thermal processing employed.  Gen-
erally, the uppermost hearth is used as an afterburner.  Normal incineration
usually requires a minimum of six hearths, while  pyrolysis applications require
a greater number [6].
                                      2-32

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The  rabble arms and  teeth located on the central shaft all rotate in the same
direction; additional agitation of the waste  (back rabbling) is accomplished
by reversing the angles of the rabble teeth.  Waste retention time is con-
trolled by the design of the rabble tooth pattern and the rotational speed of
the  central shaft  [3].

Liquid and/or gaseous combustible wastes may be injected into the unit through
auxiliary burner nozzles.  This utilization of liquid and gaseous waste repre-
sents an economic  advantage because it reduces secondary fuel requirements,
thus lowering operating costs [3].

A multiple hearth  unit generally has three operating zones, the uppermost
hearths where feed is dried ( 350° to 550°C), the incineration zone (800° to
1000°C), and the cooling zone (200° to 350°C).  Exit gases have good potential
for heat recovery, being around 300° to 600°C.  Temperatures on each hearth can
be maintained using  supplemental fuel [7].

Types of Waste -

Multiple hearth units are best suited for hazardous sludge disposal.  As in
the case of fluidized bed incinerators, solid wastes generally have to be
pretreated prior to  successful incineration.  Allowing for this, multiple
hearths are capable  of handling the sane hazardous wastes as rotary kilns.
Unlikely candidates  are heavy metals, inert materials, inorganic salts, and
the general group  of materials having high inorganic content.

Advantages -

 (1) The retention or residence time in multiple hearth incinerators is usu-
     ally higher for hazardous materials having low volatility than in other
     incinerator configurations.
 (2) Large quantities of water can be evaporated.
 (3) A wide variety  of wastes with different chemical and physical properties
     can be handled.
 (4) Multiple hearth incinerators are able to utilize many fuels including
     natural gas,   reformer gas,  propane, butane, oil, coal dust, waste oils,
     and solvents.
 (5) Because of its multizone configuration, fuel efficiency is high and
     typically improves with the number of hearths used.
 (6) Fuel burners can be added to any of the hearths to maintain a desired
     temperature profile.
 (7) Multiple hearth incinerators are capable of a turndown ratio of 35%.
 (8) High fuel efficiency is allowed by the multizone configuration.

Disadvantages -

 (1) Due to the longer residence times of the waste materials, temperature
     response throughout the incinerator when the burners are adjusted is
     usually very slow.
 (2) It is difficult to control the firing of supplementary fuels as a result
     of this slow response.
                                      2-33

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  (3)  Maintenance  costs are high because of the moving parts (rabble arms, main
      shaft,  etc.)  subjected  to combustion conditions.
  (4)  Multiple hearth  incinerators are susceptible to thermal shock resulting
      from  frequent feed interruptions and excessive-amounts of water in the
      feed.   These  conditions can lead to early refractory and hearth failures.
  (5)  If used to dispose of hazardous wastes, a secondary combustion chamber
      probably will be necessary and different operating temperatures might be
      necessary.
  (6)  Not well suited  for wastes containing fusible ash, wastes which require
      extremely high temperature for destruction, or irregular bulky solids.

2.3.1.5  Coincineration—

Operation  -

Hazardous  waste coincineration has been performed in a rotary kiln pyrolyzer
and a multiple hearth incinerator on a test basis.  This technique is used to
supply needed Btu's when the principal waste to be burned possesses insuffi-
cient heat content to be autogenic.  Coincineration generally refers to the
joint incineration of hazardous waste, in any form, with refuse and/or sludge.
This  is not  a unique technology; any existing incineration process can be used
for this special case of mixing waste streams to obtain better destruction of
a particularly intractable waste material.

The rotary kiln pyrolyzer test unit used for Kepone incineration contained the
following components  [21]:

      •  Waste feed system         •  Afterburner
      •  Rotary kiln pyrolyzer     •  Air pollution control device system

Kepone-contarainated sludge was simulated by the mechanical mixing of appro-
priate amounts of  Kepone solution in acetic acid into sludge in the feed tank.
The latter was a cylindrical vessel, 86 cm in diameter and 60 cm high fitted
with  a pneumatic stirrer.   The 10 on outlet port in the conical bottom of the
feed  tank was fitted with a screen and connected to a two-stage, variable
speed pump.  The discharge line was fitted with a pressure relief valve and
with  provisions to inject sludge from the feed tank or water from the mains.
The feed line,  which entered the kiln within the kiln discharge line, was
water-jacketed to prevent caking within the feed line.  At the end of a run,
the feed line was  flushed with water [20].

The rotary kiln pyrolyzer 1.5 m in diameter and 3.0 m in length, was fitted
with  rotary  seal charge and discharge connections so as to minimize the leak-
age of gases into  or out of the kiln.  It was heated directly by the hot gases
from  a 0.923-J/s burner to maintain a nominal temperature of 500°C.  Normally
this  kiln was batch fed through cover doors on the side, but for the purposes
of the coincineration experiments the sludge feed was accomplished through a
water-cooled feed  line which entered the kiln through the discharge pipe.  The
maximum feed rate was a nominal 45 kg/hr.  Cake buildup within the kiln was
prevented by 10 rows of link chain within the kiln  [20].
                                      2-34

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 The  afterburner, with  a  residence  chamber volume  of  2.4 m3, was  fired by  two
 0.147-J/s  throat mix burners  and an  auxiliary  gas supply.  The incinerator was
 equipped with  a  temperature controller  and  a high limit safety shutoff
 instrument.  In  this configuration,  the maximum temperature that could be
 sustained  was  1,260°C  with residence  times  on  the order of several  seconds [20]

 The  multiple hearth test unit used for  pesticide  and PCS incineration con-
 tained  the following components [15]:

        Waste feed  system               •  Air  pollution control  device system
        Multiple hearth incinerator

 The  PCB's  in the form  of a solution  in  kerosene were fed from a  burette into
 the  sludge cake feed screw at a rate  of 22.5 g/hr.   The test PCS was a prep-
 aration Aroclor 1254 which is a combination of some  14 to 16 PCB's  [15].

 The  DDT feed was accomplished by a hopper arrangement placed over the screw-
 feed mechanism used to conduct the dewatered sludge  from the centrifuge to the
 top  hearth of  the  furnace.  The mechanical  properties of the powdered DDT
 preparation used were  such that the  simple  gravity feed device was  not partic-
 ularly  satisfactory; one might elect  to go  to  a more elaborate vibratory feed
 system  in  practice.  The feed device  used did  not effect a constant feed rate,
 a factor which was less  serious than  might  be  supposed [15].

 The  furnace was equipped with a scum  line feeding into the third hearth.  The
 injection  of 2,4,5-T solution was  accomplished by gravity feeding the netered
 solution into  the  scum flow,  incinerating  temperature was 635°C and after-
 burner  temperature was 650°C  [15].

 Types of Wastes -

 The  type of incinerator  used in coincineration dictates the limitations on
 types of hazardous wastes which may be  disposed.

 Advantages  -

 (1) Will potentially  incinerate any  thermally destructible hazardous waste.
 (2) Incorporates  the  advantages of the type of incinerator used.
 (3) Provides  for  the  incineration of two different  wastes simultaneously in
     the same  facility,  thus increasing return on investment.
 (4) Provides potential  for hazardous waste incineration in existing incinera-
     tion  facilities.

Disadvantages  -

 (1) Incorporates the disadvantages of  the  type of incineration  used.

 2.3.2  Emerging Incineration Technology

This section deals with  a technology  that is in a research and development
stage.   It is not currently a recommended technique  for hazardous waste
disposal.
                                      2-35

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2.3.2.1  Starved Air Combustion/Pyrolysis [3, 6, 8, 10, 19, 25]--

Qperation -

The terms "starved air combustion" and "pyrolysis," while often used inter-
changeably, are not one and the same.  Starved air combustion uses less than
the stoichiometric amount of oxygen required for complete combustion.  Pyroly-
sis is defined as the thermal decomposition of a compound in the absence of
oxygen.  Figure 2-17 shows a schematic for a device utilizing starved air
corabustion/pyrolysis.

                                APCO OR
                              RECOVERY UNIT
                   FEED
PYROLYTIC REACTOR
• SUPPLEMENTAL FUEL


•COMBUSTION AIR
                                        ASH

           Figure 2-17.  Starved air combustion/pyrolysis schematic.

Pyrolytic conversion processes are generally custom engineered according  to
input volumes and types of waste being treated.  With respect to waste car-
bonaceous material, pyrolysis represents a means of converting the unwanted
waste into a usable commodity with economic value.  Modifications to  the
pyrolysis process involve treatment of converter effluents.  The pyrolysis
oils may be sent through a hydrotreating unit and converted to industrial fuel
oil.  The pyrolysis effluent gas may be cooled and the resultant condensate
separated into its components (namely, acetic acid, methanol, furfural, ace-
tone, butyric acid, propionic acid, methyl ethyl ketone, light fuel oil,  and
other water soluble volatile organics) through the use of conventional separa-
tion techniques.  The cooled wet gas may be dried and utilized as fuel gas.
The charlike pyrolysis residue can be further treated and converted into
activated carbon [1].

Other variations include the pyrolyzer itself, which may be incorporated  into
a specific incinerator unit (i.e., rotary kiln, molten salt, etc.).   A typical
rotary kiln pyrolyzer, for instance, is a sealed, airtight retort cylinder
with an insulated shell.  The retort is mounted on a slight incline and rotates.
Without oxygen, the wastes in the retort chamber cannot burn; they are broken
down (pyrolyzed) into steam, carbon oxides, volatile vapors, and charcoal.
Gases formed during pyrolysis are combusted in an afterburner..

Operational temperatures will vary with waste type, incinerator  type, and
desired products.  Operating temperatures are usually in  the 650°C ±  150°C
                                       2-36

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 range, with  the  lower operating temperature generally resulting in greater
 residue  (coke),  tar, and light oil yields, and lower gas yields.  Residence
 times will range from a fraction of a second  (for flash pyrolysis) to hours
 (for solids)  [1].

 Types of Wastes  -

 The general  types of hazardous waste which are potential candidates for this
 technology are all physical forms of compounds having carbon, hydrogen, and/or
 oxygen.  Wastes containing nitrogen, sulfur,  sodium, silicon, phosphorous,
 fluorine, bromine, chlorine, or iodine aren't acceptable.

 Advantages -

 (1) Potential for byproduct recovery.
 (2) Reduction of sludge volume without large amount of supplementary fuel.
 (3) Thermal efficiency is higher than for normal incineration due to the
     lover quantity of air required for this process.
 (4) Reduced air emissions are sometimes possible.
 (5) Converts carbonaceous solids into a gas which is more easily combustible.
 (6) Allows for the suppression of particulate emissions.
 (7) Allows for some treatment of the hot fuel gas stream prior to combustion
     to  suppress the formation of acid gases.

 Disadvantages -                                                              I

 (1) Potential source of carcinogenic decomposition product formation.
 (2) Not capable of functioning very well on  sludge-like or caking material
     alone unless cake-breaking capabilities are included in the design.

 2.3.3  Air Pollution Control Devices

 The products of combustion in any well-designed and operated incinerator are
 primarily carbon dioxide and water (vapor), but trace amounts of undesirable
 additional products (pollutants) are also formed, depending upon the composi-
 tion of  the incinerated waste.  Among these, CO, SO , NO , HXj, x£, and par-
 ticulate are most commonly encountered and oust be Minimized to the point of
 emission standards outlined in Part 264 of RCRA [7].

 An optimum pollution control process serves to minimize fuel usage, and/or
 maximize energy recovery, while converting an industrial waste into an envi-
 ronmentally acceptable form.  This section looks at how such emission control
processes are selected for various incineration technologies.

Application of air pollution control processes depends on operating character-
 istics of the components or devices, the physical/chemical characteristics of
 the waste to be treated, and the emission standards iaposed by government
 regulations.   In addition to the use of standard treatment devices of both the
 dry control and wet control methods (Table 2), the control of air pollutants
 with off-gas cleaning systems is the subject of rapidly developing technologies.
                                      2-37

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As each new generation process or device is introduced, it is evaluated and
employed where warranted by  the fast-developing state of the art  [7].

Organic pollutants emitted as a result of incomplete combustion of waste
material are often present in effluents from the primary combustion chamber at
low concentration levels well under the lower flammability limit.  The control
of the emission of these organic pollutants can be handled by continued com-
bustion at high temperatures using afterburners (also termed secondary com-
bustion chambers).

Scrubbers are also used to control pollutant emissions.  They operate by
removing pollutants from the gas stream instead of changing the pollutants, as
afterburners do.  Afterburners and four types of scrubbers are covered in this
section, as are electrostatic precipitators (ESP) and wet electrostatic pre-
cipitators (WEP).  The subsections presented for each control device include
operating principles, status with hazardous waste incinerators, suitable waste
streams, advantages, and disadvantages.

2.3.3.1  Afterburner--

Afterburners are simple combustion chambers (incinerators) designed to improve
destruction efficiencies.  As a first step to an air pollution control process,
the afterburner acts to continue the combustion process and greatly decrease
pollutants in the flue gas.  This in turn creates less pollutant  loading on    I
downstream emission control devices which require less servicing  and main-     I
tenance, and produce less residue as a result.  Figure 2-18 shows a basic
afterburner flow scheme.
    INCINERATOR	^     AFTERBURNER     	^  EiFFLUENT TO STACK
     EFFLUENT                     CHAMBER                       OR APCD
                          AUXILIARY
                       BURNER AND FUEL

                 Figure 2-18.  Basic afterburner flow scheme.

Three types of afterburners are discussed here:  direct flame,  thermal,  and
catalytic.  Direct flame and thermal use a similar principle  in thermally
destroying combustible material.  Direct flame afterburners pass the  flue  gas
directly through a burning fuel stream, while thermal afterburners  involve the
flue gas flowing through a high temperature zone.  Catalytic  units  incorporate
a catalytic surface to accelerate the oxidation of uncombusted  gas  constituents.
                                      2-38

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 Thermal  afterburners  are  used more  predominantly  than  direct  flame  incinerators.
 Temperatures  ranging  from 650°C  to  1,300°C  are  generally  required for  success-
 ful  operation of  these  devices.  Hydrocarbon  levels  can usually be  satisfac-
 torily  reduced at temperatures below  about  760°C, but  higher  temperatures may
 be required to simultaneously oxidize the CO.   The following  temperatures are
 often used as guidelines  [5]-.

                  To oxidize  hydrocarbons.-   500  -  700°C
                  To oxidize  carbon  monoxide:  700° - 800°C

 Depending  on  the  type of  pollutant  in the gas stream,  residence times  ranging
 from 0.2 s to 6.0 s are required for  complete combustion.  The residence time
 in most practical afterburner systems is dictated primarily by chemical kinet-
 ic considerations.  To  ensure good  mixing,  afterburners are operated at high
 velocity gas  flows.  Gas  velocities in afterburners  range from S to 15 m/s.  A
 typical afterburner will  be  10 m long, 4m  high,  and 4 m wide [5].

 From a chemical viewpoint, two main types of  reactions occur  in afterburner
 systems:   oxidation and pyrolysis reactions.  In  general, the detailed mecha-
 nisms for  the oxidation and  pyrolysis of even the simplest organic compounds
 are  not completely understood, but  it is well established that the reactions
 occur in many complicated sequential  and concurrent  steps involving a multi-
 tude of chemical  intermediates [5].

 An auxiliary  fuel is fired to supply  the heat to warm  the gases to a temper-I
 ature that will promote oxidation of  the organic vapors.  Usually a portion
 the  gas stream supplied the  oxygen  necessary for organic vapor oxidation.

 Both gaseous  and  liquid fuels  are used to fire  afterburners.  Gaseous fuels
 have the advantage of permitting firing in  multiple jet (or distributed)
 burners.   Oil firing has  the disadvantage of producing sulfur oxides (from
 sulfur in  the oil) and  normally  produces higher nitrogen oxides emissions [5].

 Catalytic  afterburners  are applied  to gaseous wastes containing low concentra-
 tions of combustible materials and  air.  Usually noble metals such as platinum
 and  palladium are  the catalytic  agents.  A  catalyst is defined as a material
 which promotes a  chemical  reaction  without  taking a part in it.  The catalyst
 does not change nor is  it  used up.  However, it may become contaminated and
 lose its effectiveness  [1].

The  catalyst  must be supported in the hot waste gas stream in a manner that
will expose the greatest  surface area to the waste gas so that the combustion
 reaction can  occur on the  surface,  producing nontoxic  effluent gases of carbon
 dioxide, nitrogen, and  water vapor.   Most of the combustion occurs during flow
 through the catalyst bed which operates at  maximum temperatures of 810°C to
870°C.   The ability to  carry out combustion at  relatively low temperatures
while achieving high destruction efficiencies is a major advantage of the
catalytic  incinerator for  gaseous wastes [1].

Residence  time for catalytic  oxidation is about 1 second  [1].
                                      2-39

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Due to the form of the waste material to be treated (dilute and in the gaseous
state), the catalytic afterburner is best suited for use at the processing
site where the waste material is generated [1].

Generally, catalytic afterburners are considered for operation with waste con-
taining hydrocarbon levels that are less than 25% of the lower explosice
limit.  When the waste gas contains sufficient heating value to cause concern
about catalyst burnout, the gas may be diluted by atmospheric air to ensure
operating temperatures within the operating limits of the catalyst.  Burned
gases are discharged through a stack to the atmosphere if they are not sent to
a waste heat recovery unit [6].

Applicable Waste Streams - Thermal afterburners are suitable for any gaseous
material that is also suitable for incineration or which has been produced by
auxiliary equipment; i.e., a rotary kiln.  Catalytic afterburners are appli-
cable to the destruction of combustible materials in low concentrations (they
are not applicable to chlorinated hydrocarbons due to the HCl formation).

Advantages -

     Thermal or Direct Flame

 (1) Destroys those pollutants that were not destroyed in the primary
     incineration.
 (2) Allows more flexibility in incinerator operation.

     Catalytic

 (I) Carries out combustion at relatively low temperatures (more economical to
     operate than other afterburners).
 (2) Clean heated gas produced is well suited for waste heat recovery units.

Disadvantages -

     Thermal or Direct Flame

 (1) Auxiliary fuel requirements.
 (2) Afterburner costs.

     Catalytic

 (1) Burnout of th« catalyst occurs at temperatures exceeding 815°C.
 (2) Catalyst system* are susceptible to poisoning agents, activity suppres-
     sants,  and fouling agents.
 (3) Occasional cleaning and eventual replacement of catalyst is required.
 (4) Maintenance costs are high.

2.3.3.2  Gas-Atomized Spray Scrubber (Venturi)—
One of the most predominant air pollution control devices for hazardous waste
incinerators is a venturi scrubber (Figure 2-19).  A typical venturi  scrubber
is a duct with a constricted area (throat).  Generally, liquid  is  introduced
into the venturi at the throat.  Incinerator exhaust gas enters the venturi at


                                      2-40

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                                LIQUID
                   Figure-2-19.  Venturi scrubber schematic.

a velocity of approximately 30 to 120 m/s.  The moving gas atomizes the liquid
into fine filaments and droplets which allow a large surface area for mass
transfer.  It is the gas/liquid contact that permits removal of gaseous con- t
taminants.                                                                   I*

Prior to passage of the incinerator exhaust gas into the venturi, the gas is
quenched to reduce the temperature.  While it is recognized that the quench
systems when utilized will effect some degree of particle removal, the primary
function of these units is to reduce flue gas volume and downstream materials
and operating problems through gas cooling.  As a result of quenching, inlet
temperatures for venturi scrubbers range from 60°C to 150°C.

Some hazardous waste incineration facilities employ sequential venturi and
plate type or packed bed scrubbers.  For these systems, a gas quench is op-
tional since the venturi may be utilized to effect gas cooling by the mecha-
nism of adiabatic expansion of the gases.  Such systems are capable of han-
dling a variety of incineration gas compositions and dust loadings.  Plate
towers or packed beds, when used in conjunction with gas-atomized spray scrub-
bers, serve the dual function of eliminating the entrainment of liquid drop-
lets from upstream and further reducing the emission levels of gaseous con-
taminants .

Incinerating hazardous waste may produce effluent gases with corrosive con-
taminants, such as HC1.  It is possible to neutralize the acid with a caustic
solution.  The scrubbing solution is determined by the waste burned and its
exhaust gas.  In addition to corrosion, erosion is a particular problem in
venturi scrubbers.  This is due to the high gas velocities and particulate
loadings encountered during normal duty.  Throat and elbow areas are generally
subject to the most wear.  Acid-resistant tile liners, polymeric liners, and
Inconel 625 are often used for scrubber construction.
                                      2-41

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Venturi scrubbers have been used to control emissions of S02, HF, and HC1.            fj
Several of  the primary operating parameters that will affect the removal of
these gaseous contaminants are pressure drop, liquid-to-gas ratio, contact
time, and gas flow rate.  Pressure drops in venturi scrubbers for controlling
gaseous emissions from incineration of hazardous wastes are typically in the
7.5  to 12.5-kPa water gage (WG) range [21J.  It is necessary to use the cor-            ,
rect pressure drop to ensure efficient removal.  A higher than needed pressure
drop will result in wasted energy,- a lower than needed pressure drop will
result in a lower removal efficiency.  As a prime operating parameter, the
pressure drop should be as low as possible yet yield the needed removal
efficiency.

The liquid-to-gas ratio is a design and operating parameter of prime impor-
tance.  It is needed in the determination of the scrubber diameter, and has an
effect on the unit dimensions.  Normal liquid-to-gas ratios for venturi
scrubbers are 0.7 to 2.7 L/m3 [21].

Higher efficiencies are attained by allowing the gas and liquid phases to be            '
in contact for a longer period of time.  The contact time required for gas
absorption is a function of the rate of mass transfer.  The mass transfer               I
rate, in general, is dependent upon four separate resistances:  gas-phase               \
resistance, liquid-phase resistance, chemical reaction resistance, and a
solids dissolution resistance for scrubbing liquids containing solid            .        •,
reactants.  For absorption of gaseous contaminants that are highly soluble or   I*
chemically reactive with the scrubbing liquid, such as the absorption of HC1    |
by caustic solution, the contact tine required for 99% removal is extremely     '        (
short (of the order of 0.4 to 0.6 s).  The less reactive and less soluble
pollutants require a longer contact tine [21].

The rate at which a flue gas from waste incineration must be processed by a
particle control device depends primarily on the waste composition, the quan-
tity of excess combustion air used, the initial gas temperature, and the
method(s) by which the gas has been cooled, if cooling is used.  Hence these
parameters, in conjunction with control device size or geometry, will dictate
the velocity at which the gas will pass the particle collection elements [21].          '

It has been shown that the pressure drop across a venturi is proportional to            I
the square of gas velocity and directly proportional to the liquid-to-gas               I
ratio.  Therefore, within limits, increasing gas velocity will result in
increasing pressure drop, other parameters being equal [21]..  Typical gas
velocities employed commercially are 30 to 120 m/s.  The low end of this
range, 30 to 45 m/s, is typical of power plant applications, while the upper
end of the range has been applied to lime kilns and blast furnaces [21].

Particle cut diameter (diameter of particles in which there is a 50% collec-            k
tion) is a frequently used parameter for describing the particle collection
performance of venturi scrubbers.  One reason for this is because plots of
collection efficiency versus particle diameter tend to be rather steep in the           (
region where inertial impaction is the predominant collection mechanism.  High
energy venturi scrubbers provide the highest wet scrubber efficiency with cut
diameters in the 0.3 to 0.5 Mm range [21].
                                      2-42

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Applicable Waste  Streams  -  Suitable for particles,  and fairly effective in
removing noxious  gases  that are  highly soluble (HCl,  HF)  or reactive with the
scrubber solution (S02, NO  , HCN).
                          A

Advantages -

 (1) Simultaneous gas absorption and dust  removal.
 (2) Suitable for high  temperature,  high moisture.
 (3) Particulate  removal  efficiency is high.
 (4) Scaling not  usually  a  problem.

Disadvantages -

 (1) Corrosion and erosion  problems.
 (2) Dust is collected wet  and the  wastewater  will  have to be treated.
 (3) Moderate to  high pressure drop;  large amount of  energy needed.
 (4) Requires downstream  mist eliminator.

2.3.3.3  Packed Bed Scrubber—
Packed bed scrubbers are  used in hazardous waste incineration facilities
because of their  high removal efficiency for gaseous  emissions.   Designed
properly, a packed bed scrubber  will  remove >99% of the halogens from inciner-
ator exhaust gases.  The  inherent nature of the design does not,  however,
allow for removal  of particulates from exhaust gases  with high particulate  I-
loadings.  Unless  prior treatment is  used,  this type  of waste stream will   I
cause clogging in  the packed bed scrubber  [21].

The packed bed scrubber is  a vessel filled with packing material as  shown in
Figure 2-20.   The  scrubbing liquid  is fed  into the  top of the vessel,  with gas
flowing in either  a cocurrent, countercurrent, or crosscurrent node.   As the
liquid flows through the  bed, it wets the  packing material and provides inter-
facial surface area for mass transfer with the gas  phase  [21].
                         GAS FROM
                        INCINERATOR
                                            4 LIQUID IN
PACKING
EUMCNTS

  GAS DISTRIBUTOR
      AMD
  PACKING SUPPORT
                                   LIQUID OUT

                 Figure 2-20.  Packed bed scrubber  schematic.
                                      2-43

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 Differences between packed bed scrubbers include the flow mode, the packing
 material,  and  the depth of packing.  The choice of flow mode is dependent upon
 the  particular  application.  Crossflow scrubbing is generally applied to
 situations where the bed depth is less than 2 meters, and countercurrent
 design  is  applied at bed depths of 2 meters or more [21].

 Packing material varies in shape and type.  Shapes used include rings, spiral
 rings,  and saddles.  Packing materials are usually made of ceramic or some
 other material  that will withstand corrosion from acids [21].

 The  primary parameters that affect scrubber design and the removal of gaseous
 emissions are discussed below.  These include pressure drop, liquid-to-gas
 ratio,  contact  time, and gas flow rate [21].

 Packed  beds used for gaseous emission control in hazardous waste incineration
 facilities usually have a pressure drop range from 0.5 to 1.8 kPa.  The total
 pressure drop across the packed bed is directly proportional to the depth of
 packing and affects the gaseous removal efficiency  in the packed bed scrubber.
 Normal  liquid-to-gas ratios in packed beds vary from 0.8 to 10 L/m3, with most
 units operating between 3 and 7 L/m3 [21].

 In gas  absorption devices, higher efficiencies are attained by allowing the
 gas  and liquid  phases to be in contact for a longer period of time.  Removal
 efficiencies for gaseous contaminants in packed beds are directly related to
 the  depth of packing, which in turn determines the contact time [21].

 The  contact time required for gas absorption is a function of the rate of mass
 transfer.  The mass transfer rate, in general, is dependent upon four separate
 resistances:  gas-phase resistance, liquid-phase resistance, chemical reaction
 resistance, and a solids dissolution resistance for scrubbing liquids contain-
 ing  solid reactants [21].

 In the  design of gas absorption devices,  the cross-sectional area for gas-
 liquid  contact  is determined by the superficial gas velocity selected.  The
 greater the gas velocity selected, the smaller will be the scrubber diameter
 but  the larger will be the pressure drop [21].

 There are two additional factors to be considered in the selection of gas
velocity.  First, the gas velocity through the scrubber should allow suffi-
 cient residence time for gas-liquid contact.  Second, in a countercurrent
 packed bed, the gas velocity should not exceed the flooding velocity.  At the
 flooding point, the pressure-drop-versus-gas-rate curve becomes almost verti-
 cal, and a liquid layer starts to build up on top of the packing.  The flood-
 ing poing represents the upper limiting conditions of pressure drop and fluid
 rates for practical tower operation (Figure 2-21).  A margin of 30% to 40% of
 the  flooding velocity should be allowed in designing these scrubber types.
The most common gas velocities in packed beds range from 2.1 to 3.0 m/s [21].

As in the case with other wet scrubbers,  mist eliminators are often used down-
 stream of the packed bed scrubber for proper pollution control..  When a wet
 scrubber follows or precedes a packed scrubber, mist eliminators are often not
                                      2-44

-------
          1    2
o
a.
5
I
                1

              0.8
*   0.6
a."
O
ac
&   0.4

t/l
«

    0.2
              0.1
                  -3/4 -m. RINGS
                   WATCR-AIR-SYSTEM
                   I-SUPERFICIAL LIQUID
                   RATt. MhrXsq «>
                   PRESSURE • 1 «m
                              FLOOOINC
                              REGION
LOADINC
                L - _
                13.000   7-50D"
                                       z
                                           T500
                                              L
                            L
                100
  200        400    600     1,000       2,000 3,000

 G, SUPERFICIAL GAS RATE, lb/(hrMsq ft)
           "From PLANT DESIGN AND ECONOMICS FOR CHEMICAL ENGINEERS.
           by Peters & Tinmerhaus.   Copyright 1968, McGraw-Hill
           Used with the permission of McGraw-Hill Book  Company".

               Figure 2-21.  Packed tower pressure drop  as  function
                             of  gas rate and liquid rate.

used.  A packed bed scrubber is often sequential to a venturi in a hazardous
waste incineration facility.

Most commonly,  packed scrubbers are used with liquid injection incinerators
because of the low particulate  loading in the exhaust gas.   The particulates
in gas streams tend to clog up  the bed and decrease removal efficiency.  When
packed beds are used to control gaseous emissions from  rotary kilns and fluid-
ized bed incinerators, venturi  scrubbers are usually incorporated upstream as
the primary APCD.
                                        2-45

-------
Applicable Waste Streams - Most suitable for the removal of noxious gases  in
streams containing low or no particulate loading.

Advantages -

  (1) High removal efficiency for gaseous and aerosol pollutants.
  (2) Low to moderate pressure drop.
  (3) Engineering principles controlling the performance of packed bed scrub-
     bers are well developed and understood.
  (4) Availability of corrosion-resistant packings to withstand corrosive
     materials.

Disadvantages -

  (1) Low efficiency for fine particles.
  (2) Not suitable for high temperature or high dust loading applications.
  (3) Requires downstream mist eliminator.
  (4) Potential scaling and fouling problems.
  (5) Possible damage to the scrubber if scrubber solution pumps fail.

2.3.3.4  Spray Tower—
Preformed spray towers are chambers in which a liquid is atomized by high
pressure spray nozzle.  The gas stream usually enters the bottom of the cham-
ber and flows countercurrent to the liquid, although both cocurrent and cross-
current modes have been used.  The gas may travel in a single path (as in
Figure 2-22) or may be directed by a series of baffles.  The atomized liquid
forms droplets and mass transfer occurs at the droplet surface.  The finer the
droplets, the more gas absorption is enhanced.  Impurities which are soluble
in the scrubbing liquid are removed by the gas absorption process.

                                      CAS OUT
                               S«AYS
                          CAS FROM  ft
                          INCINEBATO*
                                                 LIQUID IN
Figure 2-22.
                                     LIQUID OUT

                                   Spray tower schematic.
Several of the primary operating parameters  that will  affect,  the  removal of
gaseous contaminants in preformed towers are discussed here.   These include
the pressure drop, liquid-to-gas ratio, contact time,  and gas flow rate.  A
normal pressure drop for a preformed spray tower is  0.125 to  0.996 kPa WG [21]
                                      2-46

-------

 Liquid-to-gas  ratios  are  strongly dependent upon  the  control device  and  the
 specific  application.  Under normal  operating conditions, preformed  spray
 towers  employ  liquid-to-gas ratios in  the  range of 4  to 14 L/ra3  [22].

 In  gas  absorption  devices, higher efficiencies are attained by allowing  the
 gas and liquid phases  to  be in contact for a longer period of time.  The
 contact time required  for gas absorption is a function of the rate of mass
 transfer.  The mass transfer rate, in  general, is dependent upon four separate
 resistances:   gas-phase resistance,  liquid-phase  resistance, chemical reaction
 resistance, and a  solids  dissolution resistance for scrubbing liquids contain-
 ing solid reactants.   For absorption of gaseous contaminants that are highly
 soluble or chemically  reactive with  the scrubbing liquid, such as the absorp-
 tion of HC1 by caustic solution, the contact time required for 99% removal is
 extremely short (of the order of 0.4 to 0.6 s).  The  rate at which flue gas
 from a  waste incinerator  must be processed by a particle control device de-
 pends primarily on the waste composition,  the quantity of excess combustion
 air used,  the  initial  gas temperature,  and the method(s) by which the gas has
 been cooled, if cooling is used.  Hence these parameters, in conjunction with
 the control device size or geometry, will  dictate the velocity at which the
 gas will  pass  the  particle collection  elements.  Because inertial impaction is
 the principal  particle collection mechanism it is beneficial to operate with a
 high relative  velocity between the gas and the collection element.   Practical
 relative  velocity  limitations occur  as a result of the increased operating
 costs associated with high pressure  drops, flooding, or other considerations.
 The most  common gas velocities in spray towers range from 2.1 to 3.0 m/s [21]*

 Applicable Waste Streams  - Spray towers are suitable for gas streams with
 particles and  gaseous pollutants.

 Advantages -

 (1) Simultaneous  gas absorption and dust  removal.
 (2) Suitable  for  high temperature,  high moisture, and high dust loading
     applications.
 (3) Simple design.
 (4) Rarely have problems with scaling.

 Disadvantages  -

 (1) High efficiency may  require high  pump discharge pressures.
 (2) Dust  is collected wet.
 (3) Nozzles are susceptible to plugging.
 (4) Requires  downstream  mist eliainator.
 (5) Structure is  large and bulky.
 (6) Lower particulate collection efficiency than a high pressure venturi.
 (7) Lower absorption efficiency than  a packed tower.

 2.3.3.5  Plate Scrubber—
 Plate scrubbers, like all wet scrubbers, remove gaseous contaminants in a gas
 absorption process that depends on intimate gas/liquid contact.  The basic
 design of a plate  scrubber is a vertical cylindrical column with a number of
plates or trays inside as in Figure  2-23.  Each plate has openings which can


                                       2-47

-------
                                       GAS OUT
                                              tl LIQUID IN
                            LIQUID
                          DOWNCOMER
                            PUTE5
                        CAS FROM
                       INCINERATOR
                                     LIQUID OUT

                     Figure 2-23.  Plate tower schematic.

be in the form of perforations or slots.  The scrubbing liquid is introduced
at the top plate and flows across it, then down to the next plate.  A down-
comer, located on alternate sides of each successive plate, permits the down-
ward movement of the liquid.  The scrubbing liquid exits along with the
pollutants at the liquid outlet located at the tower bottom.

Incinerator gas enters the bottom of the tower and passes up through the plate
openings before exiting at the top.  The gas has enough velocity to prevent
the liquid from flowing through the holes in the plates.  Gas absorption is
promoted by the breaking up of the gas phase into little bubbles which pass
through the volume of liquid in each plate.
At hazardous waste incineration facilities, plate towers with two sieve trays
are typically used as an absorber/mist eliminator in conjunction with a high
energy venturi scrubber.

The primary operating parameters that will affect the removal of gaseous con-
taminants such as S02 are discussed here.  These include the pressure drop,
liquid-ta-gas ratio, contact time, and gas flow rate.

Total pressure drop across the plate towers is similar to that of packed beds
and in the 0.5 to 1.8 kPa WG range.  In plate towers pressure drop is not used
as an operating parameter to estimate removal efficiency.  Rather, the number
of plates is the primary parameter that determines removal efficiency [21].

The liquid-to-gas ratio is a design and operating parameter of prime impor-
tance.  It is needed in the determination of the scrubber diameter, and has an
effect on the height of a transfer unit.  A high liquid-to-gas ratio will lead
to the requirement of a larger diameter, but at the same time will also reduce
the height of a transfer unit.  Normal liquid-to-gas ratios in plate towers
vary from 0.8 to 10 L/m3 with most units operating at between 3 and 7 L/m3  [21]
t
i
                                      2-48

-------
       Higher efficiencies are attained by allowing the gas and liquid phases to be
       in contact for a longer period of time.  Greater depths of liquid on the trays
       lead to higher tray efficiency through longer contact time.   An increase in
       the number of plates and the column height also improves removal efficiency.

       In the design of gas absorption devices,  the cross-sectional area for gas-
       liquid contact is determined by the superficial gas velocity selected.  The
       greater the gas velocity selected, the smaller will be the scrubber diameter
       but the larger will be the pressure drop.

       There are two additional factors that must be considered in the selection of
       gas velocity.  First,  the gas velocity through the scrubber should allow
       sufficient residence time for gas-liquid contact.  Second, in countercurrent
       plate towers, the gas  velocity should not exceed the flooding velocity (the
       upper limiting conditions of pressure drop and fluid rates for practical
       operation).  A margin  of 30% to 40% of the flooding velocity should be allowed
       in designing these scrubber types.  The most common gas velocities in plate
       towers, range from 2.1 to 3.0 m/s.

       Parameters that affect the particle collection performance of a plate scrubber
       include pressure drop, liquid-to-gas ratio, gas velocity,  dust loading,  and
       particle size distribution.  High particulate loadings and fine particles are
       unfavorable conditions.
I
       Plate towers are appropriate when particle size is not less than 1pm.   Unlike
       absorption efficiency,  particle collection efficiency will not necessarily
       improve with an increased number of plates, but decreased perforation diameter
       does increase particle  collection efficiency.  The other parameters have been
.       discussed previously and will not be addressed [22].

1       Applicable Waste Streams - Most suitable for the removal of noxious gases with
       low particulate loadings.
\
I      Advantages -

/        (1) Simultaneous gas absorption and dust removal.
,        (2) High removal efficiency for gaseous and aerosol pollutants.
        (3) Low to moderate pressure drop.
        (4) Mass transfer increases with multiple plates.
        (5) Handles high liquid rates.

       Disadvantages -

        (1) Low efficiency for fine particles.
        (2) Not suitable for high temperature or high dust loading applications.
        (3) Requires downstream mist eliminator.
        (4) Limestone scrubbing solution causes scaling.
        (5) Not suitable for foamy scrubbing liquid.
                                             2-49

-------
 2.3.3.6   Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)—
 Electrostatic precipitation is a process by  which particles suspended in a gas
 are  electrically charged and separated from  the gas  stream.  In this process,
 shown  in  Figure 2-24,  negatively charged gas ions are formed between emitting
 and  collecting electrodes by applying a sufficiently high voltage to the
 emitting  electrodes  to produce a corona discharge.   Suspended particulate
 matter is charged as a result of bombardment by the  gaseous ions and migrates
 toward the grounded  collecting plates due to electrostatic forces.   Particle
 charge is neutralized at the collecting electrode where subsequent  removal is
 effected  by periodically rapping or rinsing.  A majority of industrial EPS's
 used today are the single-stage, wire and plate type; charging and  collection
 take place in the same section of the ESP.   Two-stage ESP;s,  often  called
 electrostatic filters,  utilize separate sections for particle charging and
 collecting, and are  not generally employed for controlling particulate emis-
 sions  from combustion sources.
                   O£AM CAS OUT
                                                NEGATIVE ELECTRODE CONNECTED TO
                                                EUCTUICAL POWER SOURCE
                                                NEGATIVELY CHARGED WIRE

                                                OROUNDED COUfCTING PLATE
                                                WITH POSITIVE CHARGE
                    DIRTY CAS IN

                   HOPPER TO
                   DISCHARGE

Reprinted by permission

Electrostatic precipitator schematic.
              Figure 2-24.
charge is neutralized at  the collecting electrode where subsequent removal is
effected by periodically  rapping or  rinsing.   A majority of industrial EPS's
used today are the single-stage, wire  and plate type;  charging and collection
take place in the same section  of  the  ESP.  Two-stage  ESP,-s, often called
electrostatic filters, utilize  separate sections for particle charging and
collecting, and are not generally  employed for controlling particulate emis-
sions from combustion sources.

Electrostatic precipitators have been  widely  used in conjunction with utility
boilers and with municipal and  industrial incinerators.  ESP's have been
employed by European facilities where  hazardous wastes are incinerated, al-
though the wastes generally do  not contain highly chlorinated compounds.  When
halogenated wastes are incinerated,  careful waste blending is employed to
protect ESP's from corrosion, so that  HCl concentrations do not exceed 1,000
ppm and usually average 300 ppm [23].   Dry ESP's are not capable of removing
acid gases and, therefore, facilities  burning halogenated wastes must employ
two-stage gas cleaning if ESP's are  used for  particulate emission control.
                                       2-50

-------
ESP components that are in direct contact with the process gas stream include
the shell, electrodes, high voltage frames, rapper rods and gas distribution
plates.  On the basis of mild steel construction, such components constitute
approximately 68% of the total precipitator weight and account for 45% of the
total unit cost [23].  Hence, the applications requiring exposure to corrosive
gas streams have substantial impact on ESP design and ultimate cost.  Lead
linings, used in acid mist ESP's, are not generally suitable for use in incin-
erator gas treatment due to poor resistance to attack by gaseous halogens.
Fiber glass reinforced plastic (FRF) has been successfully utilized for inlet
and outlet plenums as well as collecting electrodes; however, the latter
application requires provision of adequate conductivity to permit current flow
to ground.

ESP's are carefully designed and constructed for maximum electrical safety;
however, normal high voltage precautions must be observed.  Design features
such as interlocks between access doors and electrical elements should be
employed.  Also, access after deenergizing should be delayed to allow for
static charge drainage.

Compared to those of wet scrubbers, pressure and temperature drops across
ESP's are very small.  The pressure drop across an ESP is typically below
0.25 kPa WG as compared with wet scrubbers which may operate with pressure
drops up to 15 kPa WG.  Additionally, ESP's provide generally higher removal,
efficiencies for particles smaller than 1 \m in diameter than do wet scrubbers.
A standard gas temperature range is up to 370°C and the voltage normally    |
applied ranges from 30 kV to 75 kV.

Applicable Waste Streams - Effective for the collection of fine particles
(less than 1 urn in diameter), but unable to capture noxious gases.  Performs
poorly on particles with high electrical resistivity.

Advantages -

 (1) Dry dust collection.
 (2) Low pressure drop and operating cost.
 (3) Efficient removal of fine particles.
 (4) Collection efficiency can be improved when stream is treated (i.e.,
     highly conducting dust treated with S02).

Disadvantages -

 (1) Relatively high capital cost.
 (2) Sensitive to changes in flow rate.
 (3) Particle resistivity affects removal and economics.
 (4) Not capable of removing gaseous pollutants.
 (5) Fouling potential with tacky particles.

2.3.3.7  Wet Electrostatic Precipitator (WKP)—
The wet electrostatic precipitator (Figure 2-25) is a variation of the dry
electrostatic precipitator design.  The two major added features in a WE?
system are:  (1) a preconditioning step, where inlet sprays in the entry
section are provided for cooling, gas absorption, and removal of coarse


                                      2-51

-------
particles, and  (2) a wetted collection surface, where liquid is used to con-
tinuously flush away collected materials.  Particle collection is achieved by
introduction of evenly distributed liquid droplets to the gas stream through
sprays located above the electrostatic field sections, and migration of the
charged particles and liquid droplets to the collection plates.  The collected
liquid droplets from a continuous downward-flowing film over the collection
plates, and keep them clean by removing the collected particles.  To control
the carryover of liquid droplets and mists, the last section of the WEP is
often designed so that mists can be collected on baffles [24] .


                                   CAS aow IN
                                          CAS FLOW OUT
                    HIGH VOLTAGE
                      UADS
                                                - WATER PI PES
            Figure 2-25.  Wet electrostatic precipitator schematic.

The WEP overcomes some of the limitations of the dry electrostatic precipita-
tor.  The operation of the WEP is not influenced by the resistivity of the
particles.  Further, since the internal components are continuously being
washed with liquid, buildup of tacky particles is controlled and there is some
capacity for removal of gaseous pollutants.  In general, applications of the
WEP fall into two areas:  removal of fine particles, and removal of condensed
organic fumes.  Outlet particulate concentrations are typically in the 2 to
24 mg/m3 range. [24].

Data on capability of the WEP to remove acid gases are very limited.  WEP's
have been installed to control HF emissions from Soderberg aluminum reduction
cells [23].  With a liquid-to-gas ratio of 0.67 L/m3 and a liquid pH between 8
and 9, fluoride removal efficiencies higher than 98% have been measured.
Outlet concentration of HF was found to be less than 1 ppm.

There are no WEP installations at hazardous waste incineration facilities.  A
potential application is to consider use of the WEP in conjunction with a low
pressure drop venturi scrubber upstream, where a major portion of the gaseous
contaminants and heavy particles will be removed.  The WEP will then serve  as
                                      2-52

-------
a second stage control device for removal of the submicron particles and
remaining gaseous pollutants.  Because of its limited application history,
extensive pilot testing prior to design and installation may be necessary [24]

Applicable Waste Stream - Effective in removal of fine particles and of con-
densed organic fumes.

Advantages -

 (1) Simultaneous gas absorption and dust removal.
 (2) Low energy consumption.
 (3) No dust resistivity problems.
 (4) Efficient removal of fine particles.

Disadvantages -

 (1) Low gas absorption efficiency.
 (2) Sensitive to changes in flow rate.
 (3) Oust collecton is wet.
2.3.4  Heat Recovery Technology

As Section 2.3.1 on incinerator technology in hazardous waste incineration
pointed out, temperatures during incineration may range up to 1600°C.  The
flue gas from such a process has a substantially high heating value, especi
ally if the volumetric flow rate is great.  Some form of waste heat recovery
is beneficial at any rate.
:l
Three basic types of waste heat recovery are possible in any incineration
process.  These include gas-to-water, gas-to-air, and gas-to-organic fluid [7].

Since steam has a tremendous heat energy per unit weight, gas-to-water systems
producing steam are the most commonly used heat recovery systems.  This steam
in turn is generally used as a power source in other site processes.  Steam
generation is usually accomplished by directing flue gases immediately from
the last incineration step into a heat recovery boiler.  A simple version of
this heat exchange process is included in Figure 2-26.  Gas flow may be regu-
lated, usually by a damper, to control the amount of heat recovery.  This
system, depending on the volume and temperature of the flue gas, can act as
the primary or secondary source of process steam when combined with a conven-
tional boiler system.

Gas-to-air systems are also commonly used heat recovery systems, usually using
heated air as combustion air in the incineration process.  The same heat
exchange principle as in gas-to-water is practiced in heating air.  Heating of
combustion air lessens the need for auxilliary combustion fuel, as the temper-
ature of the air-waste-fuel mixture is much closer to the waste's oxidation
point.  Research is also being done to determine the value of heating air for
use in power generation.
                                      2-53

-------
                             SHAM OUT
                                T-«T
                               PL

FLUE GAS FROM
INCINERATOR *~



(-*-
h

EXCHANGER TUBES
i >•' ::
EXCHANGER TUBES |
u
^ *

I ;;*•.-:•; -:•<-.,. ,-«»,: :,,^:,^
l^>


EXCHANGER TUBES
\

~~ KUt GAb !0 tMlbblON
CONTROL SYSTEM

^^'
                                                             I
                  WATER IN


                   Figure 2-26.  Heat recovery/gas-to-water

 Gas-to-organic fluid heat exchange also uses a heat exchange principle out-
 lined  in Figure 2-26.  This process can be used in heating mineral oil or
 ethylene glycol, which is in turn used in controlling temperatures of addi-
 tional processes [7].

 2.4  FOREIGN TECHNOLOGIES

 2.4.1  Introduction

 Foreign incinerators are basically the sane as found in the United States.
 The rotary kiln is widely used for the simultaneous incineration of solid,
 liquid, and semisolid wastes of all calorific values.   In addition, the fixed
 firebox/muffle furnace is used for liquid and/or gaseous wastes,- fluidized bed,
 multiple chamber, and liquid injection incinerators are utilized less frequently.
 Heat recovery is incorporated into hazardous waste incineration systems more
 frequently than in the United States.

 In nearly all waste-to-energy combustion units, energy is recovered through
production of sttam, either with classic fire-tube boilers or newer waterwall
boilers.  Some combustion units do without a boiler and use the hot combustion
 gases directly.   Coincineration of municipal wastes and selected hazardous
wastes is a common practice in a number of foreign countries, particularly the
Netherlands.   Countries with strict environmental legislation are more likely
 to segregate  hazardous wastes for treatment in separate facilities.  Selected
hazardous waste  incineration technologies of Canada, Japan, and Germany are
discussed in  the following three sections.  Table 2-6 presents a partial list-
ing of industrial waste facilities outside the United States.
                     2-54

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                     TABLE 2-6.  SELECTED  INDUSTRIAL WASTE  INCINERATION
                                 FACILITIES  IN EUROPE AND JAPAN.
1
I
Plant
BASF
Ladvigshafen
Boehnnqer Pharma
Ingeir.em
Bocnuin
BASF
Ludvigshafet
Continental
Hannover
Ope.
Russelsneim
Chemical Works Huls
Marl
Explosives factory
Dottikon
Alfa Sud
Pomigliano (Naples)
Kobe Steel
Kobe
Komnune Kemi
Nyborg
Gelsenberg-Hannesmann
Unveltschutz
Bochum
Kobe Steel
Kakogawa
Oenki Kagaku
Ohni
Entsorgungsbetriebe
Sinner ing
Vienna
Hessische Industnemull
Biebesheu»
Svensk Avfallskonvertering
Norrtorp
Explanation of symbols:
0 »
K >
H *
r -
M *
Country
Germany
Germany
Germany
Germany
Germany
Germany
Germany
Switzerland
Italy
Japan
Denmark
Germany
Japan
Japan
Austria
Germany
Sweden
Start-up
1960
1962
1963
1964
1964
1966
1966
1969
1973
1974
1975
1976
1976
1977
1980
1980
1981
Type of furnace
Srate furnace
Rotary kiln
Hearth- type furnace
fluidized bed furnace
Halting chamber
waste to be treated
solid industrial waste
solid chemical waste, timber
waste paper, garbage
waste paper, timber, plastic,
garbage, waste paint
solid, scan-solid and liquid
chemical waste, waste oil,
waste paint, solvents
carbon black, waste paper,
rubber, grease, waste oil
waste paper, timber, plastic
garbage, waste paint
solid, seai-solid and liquid
chemical waste, carbon black,
rubber, timber
acid sludge, distillation re-
sidues, waste oil. activated
carbon, waste paper, timber
waste paper, timber, plastic.
garbage, waste paint
waste oil, grease, plastic,
timber, rubber, waate paint
solid, saai-solid and liquid
industrial waste
waste oil, solvents, slurries,
puapable chemical waste
waste oil, grease, plastic,
timber, rubber, waste paper
tar, plastic, rubber, vasts
oil , slurries
sewage sludge
solid, seal-solid and liquid
industrial waste
solid, seau-solid and liquid
industrial waste
solid, seai-solid and liquid
industrial waste
Kind of heat recovery
s Steam for internal use)
S Steaa for sale
h Hot water for internal use
H Hot water for sale
e Electric potter for internal v
E Electric power for sale
Capacity
Gcal/h
15
2
4
7 2
7.5
6.2
12
3.2
4
4
20
30
1.8
1.1
14. S
2S.8
IS
17.4
ue
furnace recover".
G s
G none
G none
K s
G s
G s
K s
H none
G none
K none
K s h H I'
H s e E
X none
K none
t ' s h e H
K s h e H
K He
K s h e E

                                             2-59

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2.4.2
T
There are two t-eaionai incineration facilities with a possible third in the
planning stag* .   All are privately owned and financed.  Licensing of these
facilities is the responsibility of the government of the provinces in which
the incinerators are locate.  Conventional methods for treatment and disposal
of hazardous wastes generated by the petroleum and organic chemical industries
have proven inadequate for the volume of such wastes.  Experimental programs
to determine the feasibility of utilizing a cement kiln for destruction of
hazardous wastes have been conducted by the Environmental Protection Service
of Canada under partial sponsorship of the U.S.  Environmental Protection
Agency.

The use of cement kilns for the disposal of waste liquids was recommended in
Canada at first in 1974 in a report issued by Environment Canada.  It was
suggested to use cement kilns for the disposal of waste oil, thereby recover-
ing the heat value of the oil and as well as retaining the inorganic constitu-
ents of the oil in cement clinker.

An extensive series of experimental waste oil burns was conducted in the
spring of 1974.   The result verified that the emissions of toxic substances to
the atmosphere were negligible, and there were no adverse effects on cement
quality.  Heavy metal contaminants were chemically combined into the lattice
structure of the cement in a manner similar to the glazing of pottery.         j

Severe temperature conditions required for the thermal destruction of other
hazardous wastes, such as chlorinated hydrocarbons, are customarily maintained
in the cement kiln.  In addition, hydrochloric acid and calcium chloride are
added to the cement kiln feed for purposes of alkali reduction.

The use of kilns for the destruction of chlorinated hydrocarbon wastes con-
taining up to 46% (by weight) chlorine was investigated in joint U.S. - Canada
incineration tests.  The waste used included a variety of chlorinated hydro-
carbons in the series of program phases designed to progress from easily
combusted chlorinated hydrocarbons (chlorinated aliphatics) to those which are
combusted with difficulties (chlorinated aromatics and alicyclics).  The last
phase consisted of 50-100 percent polychlorinated biphenyl wastes.

The results of the stack gas sampling analyses indicated a minimum combustion
efficiency of the waste feed to be 99.986%, and although traces of volatile
low molecular weight hydrocarbons were found (approximately 50 ppb), there was
no evidence of the existence of polychlorinated biphenyls at the limits of
detection of the methods and procedures, 3 micrograms per cubic meter.

It was concluded in early 1976 that cement kilns could be a viable alternative
for the destruction of liquid hazardous wastes and in fact an approval or
license was issued to a Canadian cement works.  But it may be added that the
public was totally and completely unaware of these investigations, and speci-
fically of the positive results.  When it became generally known that this
company was handling PCB's, the public reaction was swift and intensive, and
                                      2-60

-------
finally so effective that the company voluntarily surrendered back to the
provincial agency, its license for PCS disposal.  Therefore at present no
PCB's are burned.

The Canadian experience with the use of cement kilns has spanned five years.
It has proven that cement kilns represent an environmentally secure system for
the destruction of liquid chlorinated hydrocarbons if they are properly equip-
ped, operated, and regulated.  But it has also shown that introducing a new
waste disposal method for hazardous wastes means involving the public at an
early stage of the development, such that their concerns could be recognized,
and the appropriate answers developed in a rational and scientific manner.

2.4.3  Japan [24, 26, 31]

The rotary kiln is the incinerator most commonly used in Japan.  Takuma Boiler
Manufacturing Company designed a continuous synthetic polymer waste disposal
plant for destruction of PVC products.  A rotary kiln is used in this system
for pretreatnent of PVC products under dry distillation conditions.  PVC
products are dry distilled at about 300°C; when air is excluded this produces
HC1.  After HCl is vaporized from the resin material, the carbonized resin
materials are burned in the incinerators (the same way as other techniques).
The HCl gas from the rotary kiln passes through a multi-cyclone and a gas
cooler.  It is then reacted with ammonia gas to produce ammonium chloride,   i
separated, collected by a dust collector, and finally carried away by a con- I"
veyor to a storage point.                                                    |

Kawasaki Heavy Industries utilize fluidized bed incinerators for the burning
of liquid plastic wastes.  Recently, this type of incinerator has been used
for drying various kinds of chemicals in many industries.  For further infor-
mation on the operation of fluidized beds consult Section 2.3.3.3.

The FLK process has been developed by Ebara Infilco Company incorporating
equipment invented by Dr. Johannes Wotchke and currently in use at Volkswagen-
werk of West Germany for destruction of defective automobile tires (at the
rate of 250 per hour).  The Ebara FLK process incorporates the small flame
chamber (FLK) incinerator for complete high temperature incineration (up to
1500°C).  The process can be used to burn either solid wastes (such as tires
or high-polymer plastics) or liquids (such as waste oils or solvents).

Emission control technologies utilized in Japan and other countries are those
in use in the United States - the spray tower, centrifugal spray scrubber,
venturi scrubber, electrostatic precipitator, and cyclone.

2.4.4  West Germany [25, 28, 29, 32]

West Germany has the most stringent environmental emission standards in West-
ern Europe, yet incineration is the preferred method for disposal of certain
hazardous industrial wastes.  Co-incineration is seldom conducted since the
method of disposal of industrial waste is determined by government regulation.
Waste oil, plastics, solvents, and other wastes of organic origin can be
incinerated with or without chemical or physical pretreataent.  Five incin-
erator technologies are used for the destruction of most hazardous wastes:
                                      2-61

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  (1) rotary kilns and burn-out chambers
  (2) fluidized bed kiln
  (3) combustion chamber kiln
  (4) turbulator action kiln
  (5) grate kiln

The general rules for the application of these kiln types are:

  (1) Rotary kiln:  the most versatile kiln for all kinds of waste in solid,
     pasty, or liquid condition.  Very flexible by distribution of the liquid
     waste feed between rotary kiln head and secondary combustion chamber.

  (2) Fluidized bed kiln:  for pasty and liquid wastes like sludges and efflu-
     ents from refineries, petrochemical plants, and water purification plants,-
     flexible for fluctuating throughput rates and wastes of varying
     composition.  Wastes with low calorific value need a support firing.

  (3) Combustion chamber with special nozzles:  for effluents with low calori-
     fic value to be used where the expensive fluidized-bed kiln is not
     necessary.
                                                                             1
 (4) Turbulator:  a high-temeprature combustion chamber with turbulent gas
     flow for liquid wastes with high calorific value.  Due to' special refrac
     tory lining it can stand great thermal loads.

     Suitable for pyrolysis and breaking-up of metal chlorides.  Due to high
     gas velocities, solids and dust are carried over.  Therefore the off-gas
     cleaning is very important.

 (5) Grate:  types utilized in incinerators with longitudinal over thrust
     grates and rotating basket grates, mostly in combination with steam
     boiler systems.

A description of the operation of the Bavarian regional hazardous waste dis-
posal plant follows*:

The central plant has a laboratory to check all incoming wastes and to dis-
tribute then to the proper storage and treatment areas.

The annual capacity is approximately 100,000 t/year of solid, pasty, and
liquid residues with a mean calorific value of 3,300 kcal/kg.  The thermal
capacity is 25 Gcal/h.  It is processed in two parallel rotary kilns having
one common after-burner chamber.  The plant is designed for adding a third
kiln some tine in the future.

Bunkers for the solids have a capacity of 900 m3.  They are controlled by a
crane operator from a stationary location.

For pasty residues 4 steam-heated bunkers of 100 m3 capacity each are provided.
*Reference 28.
                                      2-62

-------
        The tank yard for liquid wastes has a total storage capacity of 200 m3.
        Beside it is located the barrel melting cabinet.

        Each rotary kiln can handle either 5 t/h solids with a net calorific value of
        2500 Kcal/kg, or 3.1 t/h pasty wastes with a net calorific value of 4000 Kcal/Jcg
        or any combination which does not exceed 12.5 Gcal/h.

        The afterburner chamber handles the off-gases from:

         (1) 2 rotary kilns without burning additional liquids,  or
         (2) 1 rotary kiln and in addition 2.4 t/h liquid wastes with a net calorific
             value of 5200.  These liquids are burned in the side walls.

        The vertical gas velocity is 3.5 m/s in the afterburner chamber at  a thermal
        load of 25 Gcal/h.

        The off-gas at a rate of 66,000 Nm3/h leaves the afterburner chamber at  a
        temperature of 1000°C.

        Heat is recovered in a steam boiler.  The gases leave  the boiler at 270°C.
        Steam is generated at 25 atm and superheated to 250°C  at a rate of  34 t/h.

        A steam turbine generates electric power at the rate of 1320 kv/h consuming |-
        22 t/h steam.  The remainder is condensed in an air condenser.   This electric
        energy is sufficient to supply the entire plant's demand requirements.   The
        steam from the turbine  - 3 atm - is utilized for heating the building and for
        process heat in the central plant.

        The off-gas is cleaned with high efficiency by an electrostatic precipitator
        followed by a two-stage radial flow scrubber.   Oust, HCl,  and HF are nearly
        completely removed; S02 removal is on the order of 70  percent.   The scrubbing
        liquid is circulated at a rate of 150 m3/h.   Since 2 m3/h are discharged to
 <       keep the concentration  at a constant value,  and 10 m3/h are vaporized in the
1       two scrubber stages,  some 12 m3/h fresh water is  supplied to the system.   The
        discharged water carries sludge from the neutralizing  agents and is further
;       processed in the central plant.  The saturated off-gases are reheated before
        leaving the stack to avoid condensation of the gas stream.   This is accom-
        plished in a heat exchanger and by addition of preheated air before the  gases
        are exited to the stack.

        The gases leaving the stack are almost completely free from toxic ingredients.
        They consist of nitrogen,  oxygen,  C02,  and H20 as they normally exist in the
        atmosphere.

        Slag and ashes are deposited at a selected sanitary landfill and constitute
        approximately l/10th of the original volume of the materials charged.

J        The Bavarian incineration facility was designed to comply with stringent West
        German environmental  regulations.   Ownership of the  plant is shared by indus-
        try and municipal and state governments.
                                              2-63

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2.5  INCINERATOR MANUFACTURERS                                                     fl

This section lists vendors of various types of hazardous waste incinerators.
The listing does not necessarily include all manufacturers of hazardous waste
incineration equipment.  It should also be noted that inclusion in this list
does not guarantee that the organization listed is currently a supplier of
hazardous waste incineration equipment, nor does it represent an endorsement
of any such equipment manufacturer by EPA.

The following list (Table 2-7) of vendors was taken from an EPA-sponsored
report and represents only manufacturers who were willing to provide the
additional information shown.  For the most part, names, addresses, and some
phone numbers were obtained from one or more listings in four current vendor
directories.  These directories include;

 (1) 1981 Chemical Engineering Catalog.
 (2) February 1981 Buyers' Guide, Solid Waste Management Magazine.                    f
 (3) 1981 Catalog and Buyers' Guide, Pollution Equipment News (Nov. 1980,
     Vol. 13, #6).
 (4) 1980-81 Directory and Resource Book, Air Pollution Control Association.          P

A later report [33] estimated that, of the 340 hazardous waste incinerators in
service, 219 are liquid injection, 57 are fixed hearth (controlled air), 42     i      I
are rotary kiln (primarily cocurrent), and the remaining 22 are of several      I*      (.
modified and other types of designs.                                            J
                                                                                       f
                                                                                       I
                                      2-64

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     TABLE  2-7.   HAZARDOUS  WASTE  INCINERATOR  VENDORS
 Air Resources
 600 N.  First Bank Dr.
 Palatine,  IL   60067
 (312)  359-7810

 Basic  Environmental Engineering, Inc.
 21  W.  161  Hill Avenue
 Glen Ellyn, IL 60137
 (312)  469-5340

 Baumco,  Inc.
 Pittsburgh, PA 15219
 (412)  216-3555

 Bayco  Industries of California
 2108 Davis Street
 San Leandro, CA  94577
 (415)  562-6700

 Bigelow-Liptak Corp.
 21201  Civic Center Drive
 Southfield, MI  48076
 (313)  353-5400

 Brule  C.E.&E., Inc.
 13920  Southwestern Avenue
 Blue Island, IL  60406
 (312)  388-7900

 C.  E.  Raymond  Co.
 Bartlett-Snow  Division
 200 West Monroe Street
 Chicago, IL  60606
 (312)  236-4044

 CICO,  Inc.
 1600 W. Haskell
 Appleton, WI   54911
 (414) 734-9861

 Coen Company
 Burlingane, CA
 (415) 697-0440

 Commercial Fabrication & Machine Co., Inc.
 P.O. Box 472
Mount Airy, NC  27030
 (919) 786-8374
                                           (continued)
                          2-65

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                 TABLE 2-7 (continued)
Copeland Associates, Inc.
125 Windsor Dr.
Oak Brook, IL  60521
(312) 986-8564

Dorr Oliver, Inc.
Stamford, CT  06904
(203) 358-3676

Ecologenics Corp.
P.O. Box 348
Red Lion, PA  17356
(717) 244-8549

Econo-Thera Energy Systems Corp.
11535 K-Tel Drive                                                          |
Minnetonka, HN  55343                                                      ;
(612) 938-3100

Enercon Systems, Inc.                                              I-
16115 Puritas Avenue                                               I
Cleveland, OH  44135
(216) 267-0555                                     .

Energy, Inc.
Idaho Falls, ID  83401
(208) 529-1000

Entech Industrial Systems, Inc.
The Woodlands, TX  77380                                                   '
(713) 353-2319                                                             '

Environmental Control Products, Inc.                                       i
11100 Nations Ford Road                                                    ft
P.O. Box 15753
Charlotte, NC  28210                                                       (
(704) 586-1620
Environmental Elements Corp.
(Sub. of Koppers Co., Inc.)
Baltimore, MD  21203
(301) 796-7334

Fuller Co.
Bethlehem, PA
(215) 264-6011
                                           (continued)
                          2-66

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                 TABLE 2-7  (continued)
Fuller Co.
Bethlehem, PA
(215) 264-6011

HPD, Inc.
Glen Ellyn, IL  60137
(312) 357-7330

Hirt Combustion Engineers
931 South Maple Avenue
Hontebello, CA  90640
(213) 728-9164

Industronics, Inc.
489 Sullivan Ave.
P.O. Drawer G
S. Windsor, CT  06074
(203) 289-1551

International Incinerators, Inc.
P.O. Box 19
Columbus, GA  31902
(404) 327-5475

John Zink Co.
Tulsa, OK  74105
(918) 747-1371

Kelley Co., Inc.
6720 N. Teutonia Avenue
Milwaukee, WI  53207
(414) 352-1000

Met-Pro Corporation, Sys. Div.
160 Cassell Rd.
P.O. Box 144
Harleysville, PA  19438
(215) 723-6751

Midland-Ross Corp.
2275 Dorr Street
Toledo, OH  43691
(419) 698-4341

Morse Boulger, Inc.
53-09 97th PI.
Corona, NT  11368
                                           (continued)
                          2-67

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                 TABLE 2-7 (continued)
Peabody International Corp.
4 Landmark Sq.
Stamford,  CT  06901
(202) 327-7000

Plibrico
1300 N.  Kingsbury Avenue
Chicago, IL  60614
(312) 549-7014

Prenco,  Inc.
29SOO Stephenson Hwy.
Madison Heights, MI  48071
(313) 399-6262

Pyro Magnetics Corp.
200 Essex Street
P.O. Box 288
Whitman, MA  02382
(617) 447-0448

Shirco,  Inc.
2451 Stemmons Hwy.
Dallas,  TX  75207
(214) 630-7511

Sunbeam Equipment Corp.
Comtro Division
180 Mercer Street
Meadville, PA  16335
(814) 724-1456

Sure-Lite Corp.
Santa Fe Springs, CA  90670
(213) 693-0796

TR Systems, Inc.
239 Connerce Street
So. Windsor, CT  06033
(203) 528-3728

Tailor & Co., Inc.
P.O. Box 587
Davenport, IA  52805
(319) 355-2621
                                            (continued)
I
                          2-68

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                                   TABLE 2-7  (continued)
                  Thermal Processes,  Inc.
                  507 Willow Springs  Road
                  La Grange, IL   60525
                  (312) 747-6600

                  Trane Thermal Co.
                  Conshohocken, PA  19428
                  (215) 828-5400  (x45)

                  Trofe, Inc.
                  Pike Road  .
                  Mt. Laurel, NJ  08054
                  (609) 235-3036

                  United Corporation
                  1947 N. Topeka  Blvd.
                  Topeka, KS  66608
                  (913) 232-2349

                  U.S. Smelting Furnace Co.
                  C.E. Industries Corp.
                  Belleville, IL
                  (618) 233-0129

                  Vulcan Iron Works,  Inc.
•                  United Penn Bank Bldg., Roon 1050
                  Wilkes Barre, PA  18701
                  (717) 822-2161

                  The Washburn &  Granger, Inc.
1                  85 5th Avenue
                  P.O. Box 304
                  Patterson, NJ   07524
                  (211) 278-1965
                                            2-69

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 2.6  REFERENCES

 1.  Ottinger, R.; Blumenthal, J.; Dalporto, D.; Gruber, G. ;  Santy, M.;  and
     Shih, C.  Recommended methods of reduction, neutralization, recovery, or
     disposal of hazardous waste.  Volume III.  Disposal processes descrip-
     tions, ultimate disposal, incineration, and pyrolysis processes.  Cin-
     cinnati, OH; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,- 1973  August.  251 p.
     PB 224 582.

 2.  Stevens, J. ,- Crumpler, S.,- and Shih, C.  Thermal destruction of chemical
     wastes.  -Presented at the 71st annual meeting of the American Institute
     of Chemical Engineers; 1978 November 16.  45 p.

 3.  Dawson, R.  Hazardous sludge criteria procedures.  Sludge Magazine. '
     2(1) .-12-21, 1979 January-February.

 4.  Chementator.   Chemical Engineering.  87(5):72, 1980 March 10.

 5.  Barnes, R. H.; Barrett, R. E.; Levy, A.,- and Saxton, M.  J.  Chemical
     aspects of afterburner systems.  Research Triangle Park, NC; U.S. Envi-
     ronmental Protection Agency; 1979 April.  117 p.  PB 298 465.

 6.  Hitchcock, 0.  Solid-waste disposal:  incineration.  Chemical Engineering.!
     86(11):185-194, 1979 May 21.                                              I

 7.  Sittig,  M.  Incineration of industrial hazardous wastes  and sludges.
     Noyes Data Corporation, 1979.

 8.  Cegielski, J. M.  Waste disposal by thermal oxidation.  1981.

 9.  Ackerman, D.; et al.  Destroying chemical waste  in commercial-scale
     incinerators, facility report No. 6, Rollins Environmental Services.
     Washington, DC; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1977 June.  162 p.
     PB 270 897.

10.  Destructing chemical wastes in commercial-scale  incinerators; technical
     summary,  Volume I (preliminary draft).  Washington, DC;  U.S. Environmental
     Protection Agency; 197S March.  PB 257 709.

11.  Farb, D.; and Ward,  S.  Information about hazardous waste management
     facilities.  Cincinnati, OH; U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency,-
     1975 July.  130 p.  EPA-530/SW-145.

12.  Genser,  J.; Zipperstein, A.; Klosky, S.; and Farber, P.   Alternatives for
     hazardous waste Management in the organic chemical pesticides, and explo-
     sives industries.  Washington, DC;  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,-
     1977 September 2.  286 p.  PB 278 059.

13.  Technical briefing report:  optmizing the energy efficiency of incin-
     erators for the disposal of industrial waste (second draft).  Argonne,
     IL; Argonne National Laboratory; 1972 June 20.  Contract 31-109-38-4223.
                                      2-70

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      14.  Scurlock,  A.;  Lindsay.  \. ;  Fields,  T.,  Jr.;  andHuber,  D.   Incineration
           in hazardous waste m^n^gement.   Washington,  DC;  U.S.  Environmental  Pro-
           tection Agency;  1975.   110  p.  PB 261  049.

      15.  Wilkinson, R.;  Kelso,  G.; and Hopkins,  F.  State-of-the-art-report:
           pesticide  disposal research.  Cincinnati, OH;  U.S. Environmental  Protec-
           tion Agency; 1978 September.  247 p.   PB  284 716.

      16.  Clausen, J.,- Johnson,  R.; and Zee,  C.   Destroying  chemical  wastes in
           commercial-scale incinerators,  facility report No. 1, Marquardt Company.
           Washington, DC;  U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency; 1976  October.
           116 p.   PB 265  541.

      17.  Hanson,  L.; and Unger,  S.   Hazardous material incinerator design  criteria.
           Cincinnati, OH;  U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency; 1979  October.
           100 p.   PB 80-131 964.

      18.  Ackerman,  D.; Clausen,  J.;  Johnson, R.; and  Zee, C.   Destroying chemical
           wastes  in  commercial-scale  incinerators,  facility  report No. 3, Systems
           Technology, Inc.  Washington, DC; U.S.  Environmental  Protection Agency,-
1           1976 November.   PB 265  540.

      19.  Ferguston, T.;  Bergman, F.; et  al.  Determination  of  incineration operat-4
           ing conditions  necessary for  safe disposal of pesticides.   Cincinnati,   I
           OH;  U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency; 1975 July.  400 p.  PB  251 131J

      20.  Bell, B. A.; and Whitmore,  F. C.   Kepone  incineration test  program.
           Cincinnati, OH;  U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency,- 1978  Hay.   148 p.
           PB 285  000.

      21.  Calvert, S.; Goldschmid, J.;  Leith, D.; and  Mehta, D.   Wet  scrubber
           system  study, Volume  I  - scrubber handbook.   Report prepared by A.P.T.,
           Inc., for  the U.S.  Environmental  Protection  Agency, 1972 August.  EPA-R2-
           72-118a.

      22.  Peters,  H. S.;  and Tiamerhaus,  K.  D.  Plant  design and  economics  for
           chemical engineers.  New York,  McGraw-Hill Book  Company, 1968, 641-642.

      23.  Novak, R.  G.; and Clark, J. N.   Impact  of RCRA on hazardous waste incin-
           eration  design.   Presented  at the CMA Seminars on Disposal  of Hazardous
           Wastes;  Newark,  NJ; 1979-80.

      24.  Bakke, E.   Wet electrostatic  precipitators for control  of submicron
           particles.  Journal of  the Air  Pollution  Control Association.  25(2):
           163-167.  1975 February.

      25.   Disposal of hazardous wastes:   thermal  treatment.  NATO CCMS pilot  study,
           phase II.   Draft report.  Federal Republic of Germany,  1979.  72 p.

      26.   Berry, R.   Cement:  building  a  new future.   Chemical  Engineering.  86(10):
           33-35, 1979 Hay  7.
                                           2-71

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27.  Neff, W.; Skinner, D.; and McDonald,  L.   The destruction of chlorinated
     hydrocarbons including PCB's in a cement kiln.   Proceedings of the 32nd
     Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University,  Lafayette,  IN.   1977 May
     10-12.  pp. 507-517.

28.  Sinning, B.  Technologies and equipment  for removal of industrial resi-
     dues and wastes.  Proceedings of the 1976 National Waste Processing
     Conference, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,  New York,  1976.
     pp 329-358.

29.  Sundberg, A; and DeBorms, C.  Solid waste treatment arid resource recovery
     in the european economic community (EEC):  a status report.  .Proceedings
     of the 1976 National Waste Processing Conference,  American Society of Me-
     chanical Engineers, New York, 1976.  pp. 447-451.

30.  Enelco-VonRoll thermal systems for waste and refuse disposal.  Baltimore,
     HD; Environmental Elements Corporation;  1980.  20 p.

31.  McDonald, L.; Skinner, 0.; Hopton, F.; and Thomas, G.   Burning waste
     chlorinated hydrocarbons in a cement kiln.  Washington, DC; U.S. Envi-
     ronmental Protection Agency; 1978.  240  p.  PB  280 118 (EPA-530/SW-147C).

32.  European waste-to-energy systems, an overview.   Washington, DC; U.S.
     Energy Resource and Development Administration,-  1977 June.   Report CONS -
     2103-6.  62 p.

33.  Frankel, Irwin.  Draft report.  Vendor information on rotary kiln and
     liquid injection incinerators.  Draft report:  Mitre Corporation, EPA
     Contract 68-03-3021, 1981 August.
                                      2-72

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                                   CHAPTER 3

                            WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
3 . 1  INTRODUCTION

Waste characterization is a major factor in assessing the feasibility of
destroying a hazardous waste material by incineration.  It affects the design
of the incinerator and its emissions control system and helps determine the
compatibility of a waste with a proposed or available facility.  It also plays
a part in determining incinerator operating conditions for complete destruction
of a specific waste.

This chapter discusses the importance of the physical, chemical, and thermo-
dynamic properties of hazardous wastes in evaluating them for incineration and
in selecting a compatible incineration technology type.  It also classifies
RCRA Section 3001 hazardous wastes and other hazardous wastes as good, poten-l-
tial, or poor candidates for incineration, based on technical considerations,!
and identifies compatible incineration technology types for these wastes.  In
addition, it presents information on sampling and analysis of hazardous wastes
for characterization, and it provides a work sheet to help in evaluating a
waste for incineration.

3.2  WASTE CHARACTERIZATION BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Background information about the hazardous waste(s) is generally available.
Such information may have been generated under Section 3001 (Identification
and Listing of Hazardous Waste), Section 3002 (Standards Applicable to Gener-
ators of Hazardous Waste), or Section 3003 (Standards Applicable to Transporters
of Hazardous Waste) of the RCRA regulations.  Additional information can usu-
ally be obtained from studies of the process(es) generating the waste(s).
This background information is helpful in evaluating waste for incineration.

3.2.1  Information Available from Waste Generators

A generator of hazardous waste should be able to provide the Standard Industrial
Classification (SIC) code of the industry from which  the waste originates, the
EPA hazardous waste number, and a short description of the waste.  The generator
may also provide a detailed description of the process that generates the
waste.

3.2.2  Information Available from Transporters

Federal or state regulations regarding transportation of the waste may give
additional waste characterization information.  The manifest that accompanied
                                      3-1

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a waste shipment will identify the waste hazard class according to DOT regula-
tions.  Also, waste data sheets (forms) that are used prior to discharge of any-
waste at a disposal operation may be available.  These types of information
are  helpful in evaluating a waste or planning provisions for personnel and
environmental safety during storage and handling of the waste at the facility.

3.2.3  Additional Information Sources

Additional information relevant to hazardous waste incineration can be obtained
by contacting the following sources.-

A.  EPA regional offices.-

    Region I
    John F. Kennedy Federal Building
    Room 2203
    Boston, MA  02203                                                                  ,
    Telephone:  (617) 223-7210

    Region II                                                                          F
    26 Federal Plaza, Room 1009
    New York, NY  10007
    Telephone:  (212) 264-2525                                                 j       f
                                                                               I       l
    Region III                                                                 1
    Curtis Building                                                                   M
    6th & Walnut Streets                                                              ^
    Philadelphia, PA  19106
    Telephone:  (215) 597-9814

    Region IV
    345 Courtland Street, NE
    Atlanta, GA  30308                                                                 I
    Telephone:  (404) 881-4727                                                         fc

    Region V                                                                           t
    230 S. Dearborn Street                                                             J
    Chicago, IL  60604
    Telephone:  (312) 353-2000

    Region VI                                                                          »
    First International Building
    1201 Elm Street
    Dallas, TX  75270
    Telephone:  (214) 767-2600

    Region VII
    1735 Baltimore Street                                                              '
    Kansas City, MO  64108
    Telephone:  (816) 374-5493
                                      3-2

-------
    Region VIII
    1860 Lincoln Street
    Denver, CO  80203
    Telephone:  (303) 837-3895

    Region IX
    215 Fremont Street
    San Francisco,  CA  94105
    Telephone:  (415) 556-2320

    Region X
    1200 6th Avenue
    Seattle, WA  98101
    Telephone:  (206) 442-1220

B.  Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
    U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
    5555 Ridge Avenue
    Cincinnati, OH  45268
    Telephone:  (513) 684-4303

C.  Office of Solid Waste
    U.S. Environmental Protection Agency                                     i
    401 M Street,  SW                                                         j'
    Washington, DC  20460                                                    |
    Telephone:  (202) 755-9206 .

D.  State Environmental Protection Departments

Table 3-1 can also be consulted relative to RCRA Section 3001  hazardous wastes
and other hazardous wastes which are good,  potential,  or poor  candidates for
incineration with appropriate incineration technologies, based on technical
considerations.  This table was prepared using available background documents
for some of the listed waste, trial burn data, and engineering judgment based
on chemical fonnula(s) of compound(s) present in the waste.  The following
criteria were used to structure engineering judgment:

	Waste containing	   Incineration category

• Carbon, hydrogen, and/or oxygen                          Good

• Carbon, hydrogen, <30% by weight chlorine and/or
    oxygen                                                 Good

• Carbon, hydrogen, and/or oxygen, >30% by weight
    chlorine, phosphorus, sulfur, bromine,  iodine,
    or nitrogen                                            Potential

• Unknown percent of chlorine                              Potential

• Inorganic compounds                                      Poor

• Compounds containing metals                              Poor

Other factors to be considered in evaluating waste for incineration are:


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-------
i
                          3-19

-------
   •  Moisture content
   •  Potential pollutants present in incinerator  effluents
   •  Inert content
   •  Heating value and auxiliary fuel requirements
   •  Potential health and environmental  effects
   •  Physical form
   •  Corrosiveness
   •  Quality
   •  Known carcinogenic content
   •  PCB content.

Table 3-1 should be used with caution.   The information is  indicative rather
than conclusive.  Conclusive decisions  can be  made  only after studying the
actual physical, chemical, and thermodynamic characteristics  of the material(s)
along with trial burn data (if available), and comparing expected behavior with
the known behavior of a similar material (similar composition or physical,
chemical, and thermodynamic characteristics) undergoing thermal destruction.

The incineration technology ratings in Table 3-1  are influenced by the physi-
cal form of the waste.  In general, liquid wastes can be incinerated by a
liquid injection incinerator, rotary kiln, or  fluidized bed incinerator.
Waste in gas, liquid, solid, and mixture forms can  be incinerated by either
a rotary or fluidized bed incinerator.   The kinematic viscosity of the liquid
waste has to be considered in determining its  suitability for incineration
by liquid injection incinerators.
I
Liquid injection, and rotary kiln incinerators are widely used to dispose of
hazardous wastes.  There is substantial research going on fluidized bed inciner-
ators and they appear to be promising in disposing of hazardous wastes.
Multiple hearths and multiple chambers incinerators have moderate applicability
for incineration of hazardous wastes.  They are widely used for the destruction
of solids (municipal refuse) and sludges (sewage sludges).  If the ash resulting
from incineration of a waste is fusible, multiple hearths incinerators are
not well suited for its disposal.  Multiple hearth incinerators are not capable
of operating at elevated temperatures - so that if a temperature over 2000°F
is needed for destruction, multiple hearths incinerators are not applicable.
Multiple hearths and multiple chambers incinerators have limited applicability
to hazardous wastes, so they are not included in Table 3-1.

It may be possible to blend different wastes or wastes and fuel oils to change
poor or potential candidates into good candidates for incineration.  Such
blending may also change the characteristics of a waste, making it incinerable
in a different incineration type than is identified in Table 3-1.  It is also
possible that soae wastes identified in Table 3-1 as good or potential candi-
dates may turn out to be poor candidates for incineration if mixed with or
contaminated by poor incineration candidates like metals  (arsenic, chromium,
etc.).  Therefore, such factors as blending and waste contamination should
be considered on a case-by-case basis in making decisions.  As mentioned
earlier, Table 3-1 should be used with caution for indicative guidance rather
than conclusive decisions.
                                      3-20

-------
3.3  WASTE SAMPLING [9]

It is important that a representative sample of the waste be collected and
properly handled in determining waste characteristics.   Sampling situations
vary widely and therefore no universal sampling procedure can be recommended.
However, it is important to incorporate quality assurance procedures as necessary
components in any waste sampling plan.

Sampling procedures require a plan of action to maximize safety of sampling
personnel, minimize sampling time and cost, reduce errors in sampling, and
protect the integrity of the samples after sampling.  The following steps are
essential in this plan of action:

 1.  Prior to collecting a sample, check the manifest to see whether dangerous
     emissions can be expected and to make sure that what is sampled resembles
     what is described in the manifest.

 2.  Ask the generator for background information on the waste.

 3.  Determine what should be sampled (truck, barrel, pond, etc.).

 4.  Select the proper sampler (Coliwasa, scoop, bucket, etc.).

 5.  Select the proper sample container and closure (glass, plastic, etc.). I

 6.  Design an adequate sampling plan that includes the following:

     (a) Choice of the proper sampling point, (b) Determination of the number
     of samples to be taken, (c) Determination of the volumes of samples to be
     taken.

 7.  Observe proper sampling precautions (safety of personnel, protective
     gear).

 8.  Handle samples properly (sample preservation).

 9.  Identify samples and protect then from tampering.

10.  Record all sample information in a field notebook.

11.  Fill out chain of custody record.

12.  Fill out sample analysis request sheet.

13.  Deliver or ship the samples to the laboratory for analysis.

Various samplers and their applicabilities; sample containers and their com-
patibility with wastes; sampling points, number of samples and sample volume
requirements,- personnel protective gear and other safety precautions; sample
preservation requirements; sampling procedures for various situations; and
sample handling (labeling, field logging, chain of custody, analysis  request
form and sample shipping) are discussed in detail in "Samplers and Sampling


                                      3-21

-------
Procedures for Hazardous Waste Streams"  (EPA-600/2-80-018,  January 1930).
This source can be consulted prior to sampling.

Chain of custody procedures recommended  by EPA's  National  Field Investigation
Center are described below:

 1.  The laboratory director designates  one full-time  employee  (usually the
     laboratory supervisor) as a sample  custodian and  one  other person as  an
     alternate.  In addition, the laboratory sets aside  a  "sample storage
     security area."  This is a clean, dry, isolated room  which can be
     securely locked.

 2.  All samples are handled by the minimum number of  persons.

 3.  All incoming samples are received only by the custodian or, in his absence,
     the alternate, who indicates receipt by signing the sample transmittal
     sheets and, as appropriate, sample  tags,  accompanying the  samples and re-
     taining the sheets as permanent records.
                                                                              I
4.  Immediately upon receipt, the custodian places the sample in the sample
    room, which is locked at all times except when the samples are removed or
    replaced by the custodian.  To the maximum extent possible, only the
    custodian is permitted in the sample room.

5.  The custodian ensures that heat-sensitive or light-sensitive samples, or
    other sample materials having unusual physical characteristics, or
    requiring special handling, are properly stored and maintained.

6.  Only the custodian, or in his absence, the alternate, distributes samples
    to, or divides them among, personnel performing tests.  The custodian
    enters into a permanent log book the laboratory sample number, tine and
    date, and the name of the person receiving the sample.  The receiver also
    signs the entry.

7.  Laboratory personnel are then responsible for the care and custody of the
    sample until analytical tests are completed.  Upon completion of tests un-
    used portion of the sample together with all identifying tags and labora-
    tory records are returned to the custodian, who records; the appropriate
    entries in the log book.  These, and other records are retained as
    appropriate.

8.  The analyst records in his laboratory notebook or worksheet the name of
    the person from whom the sample was received, whether it was sealed, iden-
    tifying information describing the sample (by origin and sample identifi-
    cation number), the procedures performed, and the results of the testing.
    If deviations from approved analytical procedures occur, the analyst is
    prepared to justify this decision under cross-examination.  The notes are
    signed and dated by the person performing the tests.  If that person is not
    available as a witness at time of trial the government may be able to
    introduce the notes in evidence under the Federal Business Records Act.
                                      3-22

-------
Samples, tags, and laboratory records of tests may be destroyed only upon the
written order of the laboratory director, who ensures that this information is
no longer required.

The Field Sampling Chain of Custody Form should be completed by the field
sampling team and included with the shipping container when sent to the con-
tractor's laboratory.  A separate form should be included with each box of
samples, listing the samples contained in that box.  A sample of a completed
form is included for reference (Figure 3-1).

A copy of chain of custody procedures can be obtained by contacting:

     National Field Investigation Center
     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
     Denver Federal Center
     Building #53, Box 25227
     Denver, Colorado  80225
     Telephone:  (303) 234-4650

Other reference materials that can be consulted before developing a sampling
plan are listed below.

 1.  Sampling petroleum and petroleum products; Method ASTM D270.            j.

 2.  Sampling industrial chemicals; Method ASTM E300.                        »

 3.  Benedetti-Pichler, A. A.  Theory and principles of sampling for chemical
     analysis.  In:  Walfer, E. J.; and Bell, G., eds.  Physical methods in
     chemical analysis, Vol. 3.  New York, Academic Press, Inc., 1956.

 4.  Preparing coal samples for analysis; Method ASTM 02013.

 5.  Sampling coke for analysis,- Method ASTM D345.

 6.  Guidelines establishing test procedures for the analysis of pollutants,
     proposed regulations.  Federal Register.  44(233).-69464-69575, 1979
     December 3.

 7.  Procedures for level 2 sampling and analysis of organic materials.
     Research Triangle Park, NC; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency;
     1979 February.  164 p.  EPA-600/7-79-033.

 8.  Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste - Physical/Chemical Methods,- SW-
     646-1980.

 9.  Hazardous Waste and Consolidated Permit Regulations, Federal Register.
     45(98):33063-33285.  1980 May 19.

3.4  BASIC ANALYSIS OF WASTE [10, 12]

This section discusses the basic physical and chemical information about a
waste that may be required in determining its feasibility for incineration and


                                      3-23

-------
                                FIELD SAMPLING CHAIN CT CUSTODY FORM
     LEADER               HAMZ OF SURVEY OH ACTIVITY             DATE OF COLLECTION            SHEET
     Melvin	Priority Pollutant Survty  523.10	9/12/84	1 of  1
 DESCRIPTION OF  SHIPMENT
                       TYPE OF SAMPLE   Mater S«^l««
 TOTAL NUMBER SAMPLE CONTAINERS    10	  _          	
 COK7EKTS OF SHIPMENT	|	
   FIELD     NO. OF CONTAINERS/TIELD NO.	AMALYSE5 REQUIRED - CHECK WHERE APPROPRIATE	
 SAMPLE NO.    PLASTIC   GLASS   VOA	CYANIDE   PHENOLS  ASBESTOS  PESTICIDES  METALS  VOA   SEMI-

   0876         1                            /

   0895                  2                                              /

   1992         1                                                                  /

   3862         1        •                                    /

   3812                         3                                                        /

   6413                  1                          /

   6863                  1
PERSONNEL CUSTODY RECORD
RELINQUISHED BY (SAMPLER)    HECZrVZD BY              DATE        TIME          REASON
    H. Mclvin                  H»rpy Aitlin.i        10/1/84      1600             DcUvvry to l«b
               DNSEALEP     X  SEALED     UMSEALED                              _
      _
RELINQUISHED BY             RECEIVED BY              DATE        TIME          REASON
    AirUn« _ V«ndor _ 10/3/84 _ 900


                   Figure  3-1.  Field sampling  chain of custody  form.
                                                  3-24

-------
its compatibility for a given incineration facility and in designing an
incineration facility.  Basic hazardous waste data helpful in selecting an
incineration system are as follows:

   • Type(s) of waste:  Physical form - liquid,  gas,  solid,  or
                        mixture

   • Ultimate analysis:  C,  H, 0,  N, S, P, Cl, F,  Br,  I,  ash,
                         moisture

   • Heating value:  Btu/lb

   • Solids.-  Size, form, and quantity

   • Liquids:  Viscosity as a function of temperature, specific gravity

   • Sludges:  Density, viscosity, and percent solids

   • Slurries:  Density, viscosity,  and percent solids

   • Gases:  Density

   • Special characteristics:  Toxicity, corrosiveness, and                 |.
                               other unusual features                       I

   • Disposal rate:  Peak, average,  and minimum (present and
                     future)

   * Trace metals:  As, Ba,  Cd, Cr,  Pb, Hg, Se,  Ag

   • Major organic compound groups.-   e.g., aroma tics,  aliphatics, etc.

It may not be necessary to follow the complete,  elaborate analysis protocol
for each shipment of waste from the same source, unless the material is entire-
ly different from earlier shipments.  How often the shipments should be sampled,
and for what parameters samples should be analyzed, should be determined on a
case-by-case basis using best engineering judgment by the user of this
handbook.

In matching different wastes with commercial incineration facilities, the
physical form (solid, liquid, etc.) of the wastes is very important.  The
criteria used for matching different wastes to the various incineration
facilities are:

     (1)  Physical form:

            Gas, liquid, slurry, sludge, or solid

     (2)  Temperature range required for destruction:

          (a)  >2,000°F (>1,087°C)
          (b)  1,400-2,000°F  (757-1,087°C)
          (c)  700-1,400°F (367-757°C)
          (d)  <700°F (<367°C)


                                      3-25

-------
     (3)  Off-gases:

          (a)  Essentially oxides of carbon and nitrogen,  and
               water vapor
          (b)  Halogen,  sulfur,  phosphorus or volatile  metal
               species

     (4)  Ash:

            Nonfusible,  fusible, or metallic

     (5)  Heating value:

          (a)  10,000 Btu/lb (>23 MJ/kg)
          (b)  5,000-10,000 Btu/lb (12-23 MJ/kg)
          (c)  5,000 Btu/lb.(<12 MJ/kg)

Liquid injection, fluidized bed, and rotary kiln incinerators are widely used
to dispose of hazardous waste.   A particular incinerator may  be better suited
for incineration of a particular type of waste based on the physical character-
istics of the waste.   Solids,  sludges, and slurries of high viscosity liquids
can be disposed in rotary kiln or fluidized bed incinerators, but not in a
liquid injection incinerator.   If the ash resulting from the  incineration of a
waste is fusible, fluidized bed incinerators are not well suited for its
disposal.  Furthermore,  fluidized bed incinerators are not capable of opera-    f-
ting at elevated temperatures,  so if a temperature over 2,000°F (1,087°C) is    I
needed for destruction,  rotary kilns or liquid injection incinerators are
applicable.   Fluidized bed incinerators are generally not operated at temperatures
above 1,500°F.

The percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,  sulfur, halogens, and
phosphorus in the waste, as well as its moisture content, need to be known to
calculate stoichiometric combustion air requirements and to predict combustion
gas flow and composition.  The presence of halogenated and sulfur-bearing
waste can result in the formation of HC1, HF, H2S, and SOa in the incinerator
gases.  These must be removed with suitable scrubbing equipment before dis-
charge to the atmosphere.  Also, in the incineration of organic wastes contain-
ing chlorine, sufficient hydrogen should be provided by either the waste or
auxiliary fuel for the chlorine to form HC1 and not C12.  Nitrogen oxides are
produced during high temperature combustion by reaction between nitrogen and
oxygen in the air.  Their formation can be reduced by reducing combustion
temperature or excess air, but such controls may cause the formation of other
pollutants.   Nitrogen content of waste material is generally low, but the
presence of nitrogen-containing materials (nitrates, ammonium compounds, etc.)
can greatly increase the NO  emissions.
                           A

Trace metals  (arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, mercury, lead, selenium, and
silver) are a potential cause for concern in incinerator emissions.  Analyses
for them should be performed unless it is known that they are or are not
present in the waste.  Wastes containing significant amounts of metals will
generally be poor candidates for incineration.  Such wastes will require
postcombustion emission control of a  special type, and the effluent or solid
waste from the emission control device must in turn be treated as a hazardous
                                      3-26

-------
        waste,  although  considerably  reduced  in volume  and weight  from  the original
        hazardous  waste.

        Ash content  of the waste  should be determined to evaluate  the potential for
        excessive  slag formation  as well  as potential particulate  emissions from the
        incinerators.  Kinematic  viscosity and the  size and concentration of solids in
        a  liquid waste are the most important physical properties  to consider in
        evaluating a liquid  waste incinerator design.  The physical handling system
        and burner atomization techniques are dependent on viscosity and solid content
        of the  waste.  Chemically complex .sludges may contain such elements as Na, K,
        Mg,  P,  S,  Fe, Al, Ca, Si,  02, N2, C and H2.  Several chemical reactions can be
        expected to  take place in the high temperature  oxidizing atmosphere of an
        incineration operation of chemically  complex sludges.  Resulting ash may
        contain Na2S04,  Na2C03/ NaCl, etc.  Pure Na2S04 has a melting point of
        1,623°F.   Pure Na2C03 has a melting point of 1,564°F.  However, mixtures of
        these two  compounds  have  melting  points lover than either  one of the two by
        themselves.   At  47%  Na2S04 -  53%  Na2C03, the melting point is 1,552°F.  Sodium
        chloride has a melting point  of 1,472°F.  In combination with Na2C03, sodium
        chloride will lover  the melting point of the mixture.  At  62 mole % Na2C03,
        the eutectic melting point is 1,172°F.  Likewise, mixtures of NaCl and Na2S04
        form low melting mixture  with the eutectic  melting point of 1,154°F for a 65
        mole %  Na2S04 mixture.  When  all  three of these compounds  are present, a
        mixture melting  point as  lov  as 1,134°F is  possible.  So sludges containing j.
        substantial  amounts  of sodium can cause defluidization of  fluidized bed by  |
        forming lov  melting  eutectic mixtures.  Furthermore, if the particles of the.*
        fluidized  bed are silica-sand,- Na2S04 vill  react with the  silica to form a
        viscous sodium-silicate glass, vhich  vill cause rapid defluidization.

        The heating  value of a vaste  corresponds to the quantity of heat released when
        the vaste  is burned, commonly expressed as  Btu/lb.  It should be considered in
1        establishing an  energy balance for the combustion chamber  and in assessing the
        need for auxiliary fuel firing.   As a rule  of thumb, a minimum  heating value
|       of about 8,000 Btu/lb is  required to  sustain combustion.
t
        Special characteristics of the vaste  such as extreme toxicity,  mutagenicity or
(       carcinogenicity, corrosiveness, fuming, odor, pyrophoric properties, thermal
        instability,  shock sensitivity, and chemical instability should also be con-
        sidered in incinerator facility design.  Thermal or shock  instability are of
        particular concern from a combustion  standpoint, since vastes with these
        properties pose  an explosion  hazard.  Other special properties  relate more
        directly to  the  selection of vaste handling procedures and air  pollution
        control requirements.

        Chapter 4  discusses  detailed procedures for evaluating the design and compati-
        bility  of  incinerators vith the basic physical, chemical,  and thermodynamic
        properties of the vaste.

1        3.5 SUPPLEMENTAL ANALYSIS OF WASTE

        In addition  to its basic  analysis, supplemental analysis of vaste to identify
        and quantify its major chemical components  vill be helpful in evaluating vaste
        for incineration.  This information vill help to determine whether or not  the


                                             3-27

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waste is similar to others that have  been successfully incinerated previously,
in a similar facility or in the existing facility.   The  necessary  supplemental
information may be available from sources described in Section  3.2.   For
example, the waste generator may have previously  analyzed  the waste stream  or
may have a sufficiently thorough understanding of the  process generating  the
waste to adequately characterize it.

The supplemental analyses that may be necessary to determine whether a  waste
can be effectively incinerated and/or whether  a trial  burn is required  are  the
following:

   • Level 1 organic analysis
   • Specific organic analysis
   • Trace metal scan
   • Thermal decomposition unit analysis

3.6  ANALYSIS TEST METHODS

All the physical, chemical, and thermodynamic  analyses of  the waste should be
conducted following ASTM, EPA, or EPA-sponsored equivalent methods.  The  Hay
19, 1980 Federal Register (pages 33130 and 33131) identifies  approved measure-
ment techniques for each organic chemical and  inorganic species (heavy metals)
listed in Section 3001 of RCRA (May 19, 1980 Federal Register).  Additional
reference materials that can be consulted for  analytical guidance are listed
below:

 1.  ASTM books.

 2.  Test methods for evaluating solid waste.   Washington, DC;  U.S. Environ-
     mental Protection Agency; 1980 May.  EPA  SW-846.

 3.  Lentzen, D. E.; Wagoner, D. E.,-  Estes, E. D.; and Gutfcnecht,  W. F.
     IERL-RTP procedures manual:  level 1 environmental assessment, second
     edition.  Research Triangle Park, NC; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency;
     1978 October.  279 p.  EPA 600/7-78-201.

 4.  Guidelines establishing test procedures for the analysis of pollutants,
     proposed regulations.  Federal Register.   44(233):69464-69575, 1979
     December 3.

 5.  Procedures for level 2 sampling and analysis of organic materials.
     Research Triangle Park, NC; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency;
     1979 February.  164 p.  EPA-600/7-79-033.

 6.  Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater,  14th ed.
     Washington, American Public Health Association, 1976.  1193 p.

 7.  Methods for chemical analysis of water and wastes.   Cincinnati, OH;
     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1979 March.  463 p.
     EPA-600/4-79-020.
I
                                      3»28

-------
 8.  Hauser, R.,-  and Cummins,  R.  L.  Increasing sensitivity of 3-methyl-2-
     benzothiazolone hydrazone test for analyses of aliphatic aldehydes in
     air.  Analytical Chemistry.   56:679,  1964.

 9.  Kraak, J. C.,-  and Huber,  J.  F. K.  Separation of acidic compounds by
     high-pressure liquid-liquid chromatography involving ion-pair formation.
     Journal of Chromatography.  102:331-351, 1974.

10.  Smythe, L. E.   Analytical chemistry of pollutants.   In:  Bockris, J.
     O'M., ed.  Environmental chemistry.  New York, Plenum, 1977.

Thermal decomposition unit analysis is briefly discussed in Section 3.7.

3.7  THERMAL DECOMPOSITION UNIT ANALYSIS [11]

In the interest of safety, it may be necessary that knowledge of the thermal
decomposition properites of a toxic organic substance be obtained before
large-scale incineration is conducted.

In response to this need, a laboratory system has been designed and assembled
by the University of Dayton Research Institute (UDRI) under EPA sponsorship.
This thermal decomposition analytical system (TDAS) is a closed, continuous
system which consists of a versatile thermal decomposition unit followed by |
in-line dedicated gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer-data handling computer I*
(GC-MS-COMP).  The objective of this laboratory system is to provide fundamen-
tal thermal decomposition data on a wide variety of organic materials - gases,
liquids, and solids (including polymers).

Thermal decomposition tests were conducted with the TDAS on polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCB's) and on "Hex" wastes.  The PCB's were found to have high
thermal stability in air.  Furthermore, in oxygen-deficient atmospheres their
thermal stability is increased by at least 390°F (200°C) over that experienced
in air.  Several chlorinated,  aromatic compounds were still present after
exposure to 1,470°F (800°C).  Further increases in temperature to 1,830°F
(1,000°C) decomposed all compounds except for low levels of hexachlorobenzene.

Figures 3-2, and 3-3, illustrate decomposition of hexachlorobiphenyl in air,
decomposition of pentachlorobiphenyl in different gaseous atmospheres, respec-
tively.  Figure 3-4 shows the relative concentration of hexachlorobenzene in
"Hex" wastes after different thermal exposures.

The UDRI thermal decomposition analytical system, decomposition experiments,
resulting test data and their interpretation are discussed in detail in Appen-
dix E.  Also, the following articles can be consulted for more information on
TDAS .-

 1.  Rubey, W. A.  Design consideration associated with the development of a
     thermal decomposition analytical system (TDAS).  Dayton, OH; University
     of Dayton Research Institute; 1979 May.  Technical Report UDR-TR-79-34
     (EPA Grant No. R805 117-01-0).
                                      3-29

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               LO
               0.1
               INI
                   TETtAOUmOtiBC
                                           LOGO
                         OPOSUft 1WWAJWK. *C

Figure 3-2.   Decomposition of hexachlorobiphenyl  [11]
uo
LI
Oil
  o   so
SOD  JM   too   ao  m   BO
 Figure 3-3.   Decomposition of pentachlorobiphenyl  in
               different  gaseous atmospheres [1.1].
                           3-30

-------
               200
            2  150
          M
         3*
         5"
           UJ
           oc
               100
                50
                       100   200    300
                                        400
500    600   700    800   900
          Figure 3-4.
                                   EXPOSURE TEMPERATURE, °C

                       Relative concentration of hexachlorobenzene in
                       "Hex" wastes after different thermal exposures.
                                                                            J
 2.  Duvall, D. 5.; Rubey, W. A.,- and Mescher, J. A.  High temperature decom-
     position of organic hazardous waste.  Treatment of hazardous waste, pro-
     ceedings of the sixth annual research symposium.  Cincinnati, OH; U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency; 1980 March,  p. 121-131.  EPA-600/9-80-011.

The temperature, residence time, and oxygen required to destroy a given waste
by incineration can be determined by thermal decomposition unit analysis or by
a pilot- or full-scale trial burn.  It is not necessary to generate tempera-
ture, residence time, and oxygen requirement data for wastes for which such
data already exist.  Trial burn data for some wastes are presented in Appendices  F
and G.

3.8  WORK SHEET

The work sheet presented in this section is designed to help evaluate a waste
for incineration in light of the information presented in this chapter for
waste characterization.
                                  WORK SHEET
1.  Background Information

   • Is background information available and known?
   • Is the SIC code of the waste generating source
       known?
                                                                      Yes   No*
                                      3-31

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                                Yes    No*
   •  Does the waste fall into an EPA hazardous
       waste classification?
   •  If the waste falls into an EPA hazardous waste
       classification,  is the EPA hazardous  waste
       number known?

   •  Any special characteristics of the waste known?
   •  Are principal waste components and their per-
       centages known?

   •  Is the detail of the process generating the
       waste known?

   •  Is the waste hazard class according to  DOT
       regulations known?

2.  Waste Sampling

   •  Is the waste sampled with a compatible  sampling
       device?

   •  Is the waste collected in a compatible  sample
       container?

   •  Was sampling plan  adequate to collect repre-
       sentative samples (determination of sampling
       points, number of samples, and samples'
       volumes)?

   •  Were the samples properly handled (preserva-
       tion, labeling,  and shipping)?

   •  Was pertinent information adequately recorded
       in the field log book?
   •  Were the chain of  custody procedures recom-
       mended by EPA's  National Field Investigation
       Centers followed?

3.  Basic Analysis Information

   •  Are data for specific basic analysis known?

     - Physical state of waste at 25°C
     - Single phase
     - Multiphase
     - Vapor pressure
     - Viscosity
     - Specific gravity
     - Melting point
     - Boiling point
     - Flash point
     - Solids (size, form, and quantity)
3-32
                                _   _|

-------
                                                                      Yes    No*

     - pH                                                             	    	
     - Trace metals (As,  Ba,  Cd,  Cr,  Hg,  Pb,  Se,  Ag)                   	    	
     - Net heating value                                               	    	
     - Elemental analysis (C,  H,  0,  N,  S,  P,  Cl,  F,  Br,  I)             	    	
     - Ash content                                                    	    	
     - Moisture content                                               	    	
     - PCB's                                                          	    	
     - Presence of
         Carcinogen                                                   	    	
         Pesticide                                                    	    	
         Odor                                                         	    	
     - Toxicity                                                       	    	
         Ingestion                                                    	    	
         Inhalation                                                   	    	
         Dermal                                                       	    	
         Eyes                                                         	    	
     - Reactivity                                                     	    	
     - Fire hazard                                                    	    	
     - Radioactivity                                                  	    	

4.  Supplemental Analysis Information                                       I.

   •  Are the major chemical components of the waste and their               J
       percentages known?     .                                        	    	

   •  If waste is known or suspected to contain potentially
       hazardous metals other than those listed in basic analysis
       information, are their percentages known?                      	    	

   •  Has the waste been tested for thermal decomposition analysis?    	    	

   •  Are the temperature  and residence time necessary for destruc-
       tion as determined by IDAS known?                              	    	

   •  Are any principal hazardous particle decomposition products
       identified by IDAS?                                            	    	

   •  Has the waste been incinerated before and, if so, in what
       type of incineration technology?                               	    	

5.  Other Information

   •  Are past disposal practices for the waste known?                 	    	

   •  Are any other wastes similar to the one under consideration
       known for good or  potential incineration?                      		

   •  Has the proposed facility and/or technology been used before
       to destroy a similar or like waste?                            	   	

   •  Are waste generation rates (i.e., peak, average, and niniaua)
       known (present and future)?                                    	   	

   •  Are there any trial  burn data available for the waste?           	   	
                                      3-33

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                                                                      Yes   No'
   •  Are any potential health and environmental  effects of the
       waste known?

6.   Waste Incineration Decision

   •  Can a decision be made about waste incineration with the
       available information about the waste and information
       available from this chapter and Chapter 4?

   •  If answer is no to the above question,  will any additional
       waste characterization information help to make a decision
       about waste incineration?

   •  If answer is no to the above question,  will a trial burn
       be necessary?
*Any response in the "No" column may indicate the possibility that  the  informa-
 tion provided is not sufficient for a decision, and additional information
 may be required.
                                      3-34

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3.9  REFERENCES

 1.  Hazardous waste and consolidated permit regulations.   Federal  Register.
     45(98):33121-33133; 1980 May 19.

 2.  Assessment of industrial hazardous waste practices:   leather tanning  and
     finishing industry.  Washington, DC;  U.S.  Environmental  Protection Agency,-
     1976 November.  233 p.   EPA SW-131C.

 3.  Assessment of hazardous waste practices in the petroleum refining industry.
     Washington, DC; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,-  1976  June.  353 p.
     EPA SW-129C.

 4.  Assessment of industrial hazardous waste practices:   paint  and allied
     products industry, contract solvent reclaiming operations,  and factory
     application of coatings.  U.S. Environmental Protection  Agency;  1976.
     EPA SW-119C.

 5.  Alternatives for hazardous waste management in the organic  chemical,
     pesticides and explosives industries.  Cincinnati, OH; U.S. Environmental
     Protection Agency; 1977.  EPA SW-151C.

 6.  Assessment of industrial hazardous waste practices:   electronic components
     manufacturing industry.  Washington,  DC; U.S. Environmental Protection  I
     Agency;  1977 January.  207 p.  EPA SW-140C.                            '

 7.  Assessment of industrial hazardous waste practices:   special machinery
     manufacturing industries.  Washington,  DC; U.S. Environmental  Protection
     Agency;  1977 March.  328 p.  EPA SW-141C.

 8.  Background document, Resource Conservation and Recovery  Act; Subtitle C
     -Identification and listing of hazardous waste; Section  261.31 and 261.32 -
     Listing of hazardous wastes.  Washington,  DC; U.S. Environmental Protec-
     tion Agency; 1980 May 2.

 9.  Sampling and sampling procedures for hazardous waste  streams.   Cincin-
     nati, OH; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1980  January.   78 p.
     EPA-600/2-80-018.

10.  Hazardous material incineration design criteria.   Cincinnati,  OH; U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency; 1979 October.  110 p.  EPA-600/2-79-198.

11.  Duvall,  D. S.; Rubey, W. A.,- and Mescher,  J. A.  High temperature decom-
     position of organic hazardous waste.   Treatment of hazardous waste, pro-
     ceedings of the sixth annual research symposium.   Cincinnati,  OH; U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency; 1980 March,  p.  121-131.  EPA-600/9-80-011

12.  Becker,  K. P.; and C. J. Wall.  Waste treatment advances:  Fluid bed
     incineration of wastes.  Chemical Engineering Progress.   72:61-68,  1976
     October.
                                      3-35

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                                   CHAPTER 4

                     INCINERATOR AND AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
                           SYSTEM DESIGN EVALUATION
4.1  INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents engineering calculations and general "rules of thumb"
that can be used to determine whether or not incinerator and air pollution
control system design and operating criteria are consistent with good industry
practice and sufficient to meet current emission standards.  The evaluation
procedures are intended to determine if (1) the physical, chemical,  and thenno-
dynamic properties of the waste have been properly considered in the incinera-
tor and air pollution control device design,- (2) the basic design considera-
tions for these units have been addressed; (3) acceptable temperatures,
residence times, oxygen concentrations, and mixing can be achieved and main-
tained in the incinerator,- (4) air pollution control system design and operat-
ing criteria are in line with current industry practice and the desired degree
of pollutant removal; (5) various components of the incinerator, air pollution
control, and gas handling systems have sufficient capacity to handle the
quantities of waste to be burned; (6) the design incorporates process control
and automatic shutdown capability to minimize the release of hazardous material
in the event of equipment malfunction,- and (7) appropriate materials of con-
struction are used.

Evaluation procedures are presented for two generic types of incinerators and
three generic types of air pollution control devices:  liquid injection incin-
erators, rotary kiln/afterburner incinerators, venturi scrubbers, packed bed
scrubbers, and plate (or tray) tower scrubbers.  While liquid injection incin-
erators are used only for disposal of liquid organic wastes, rotary kilns
are used to dispose of both liquid and solid wastes.  Venturi scrubbers are
primarily used for particulate control, while packed bed and plate tower
scrubbers are used for acid gas removal.  It is believed that more than 90% of
the hazardous waste incineration facilities in the United States employ these
generic incinerator and air pollution control device designs.  Electrostatic
precipitators may be used for particulate removal at large incineration
facilities.  However, these devices are extremely difficult to evaluate from a
theoretical standpoint; a compliance test is usually needed to ensure accept-
able performance.  If other types of incinerators and/or air pollution control
devices are being evaluated technical assistance can be requested.

Incinerator and air pollution control system evaluation procedures are pre-
sented in Sections 4.3 and 4.4, respectively.  Section 4.5 presents worksheets
to simplify some of the calculations shown in 4.3 and 4.4.
                                    4-1

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The following section,  4.2,  describes  how the  destruction  and removal  effi-     ™
ciency (DRE) of an incinerator/air  pollution control  system can be  calculated
for the principal organic hazardous constituent(s)  (POHC)  of a waste.   The
determination of how to designate POHC's  is given in  Section 2 of the  Guidance
Manual for Evaluating Permit Applications for  the Operation of Incinerator
Units.  The current state-of-the-art in combustion  modeling does not allow a
purely theoretical prediction of destruction and removal efficiency based on
design and operating parameters for the incinerator/air pollution control
system.  Therefore, the DRE  calculations  presented in Section 4.2 cannot be
applied in preliminary design evaluation  unless  sampling and analysis  data are
available.  However, destruction and removal efficiency calculations are an
integral part of the final design evaluation process.

4.2  DESTRUCTION AND REMOVAL EFFICIENCY CALCULATIONS

4.2.1  Definition

Destruction and removal efficiency  for an incinerator/air pollution control
system is defined by the following  formula:
                            DRE = -*^	~ (100)                          I-
                                      in                                    I


where   DRE = destruction and removal efficiency, %                             ^
        W.  = mass feed rate of the principal organic hazardous constituent(s)
              to the incinerator.
       W    = mass emission rate of the principal organic hazardous constit-
        ou    uent(s) to the atmosphere (as measured in the stack prior to
              discharge.

Thus, DRE calculations are based on the combined efficiencies of destruction
in the incinerator and removal from the gas stream in the air pollution con-
trol system.  The (potential) presence of principal organic hazardous
constituents in incinerator bottom ash or solid/liquid discharges from air
pollution control devices is not accounted for in the DRE calculation as
currently defined by EPA.  Many previous trial burn tests determined only the
"destruction efficiency".  These tests ignored the contribution of the pollu-
tion control devices.

Part 264, Subpart 0 regulations for hazardous waste incineration require a DRE
of 99.99% for all principal organic hazardous components of a waste unless it
can be demonstrated that a higher or lower DRE is more appropriate based on
human health criteria.  Specification of the principal organic hazardous con-
stituents in a waste is subject to best engineering judgment, considering  the
toxicity, thermal stability, and quantity of each organic waste constituent.
DRE requirements in the Subpart 0 regulations do not apply to metals or other
noncombustible materials.
                                    4-2

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Destruction and removal efficiencies are normally measured only during trial
burns and occasional compliance tests,  and are used as a basis for determining
whether or not the incinerator/air pollution control system operating condi-
tions are adequate.  Sections 4.3 and 4.4 present design evaluation procedures
for incinerators and air pollution control devices that are based on state-of-
the-art engineering practice.  However, any conclusions reached through these
evaluation procedures should be supported by trial burn data demonstrating
acceptable destruction and removal efficiency.

4.2.2  Sample Calculation

A liquid injection incinerator equipped with a quench tower, venturi scrubber,
and packed bed caustic scrubber has been constructed to burn a mixture of
waste oils and chlorinated solvents with the following empirical composition:

                              73.0 wt % carbon
                              16.5 wt % chlorine
                              10.5 wt % hydrogen

The principal organic hazardous components are trichloroethylene, 1,1,1-tri-
chloroethane, raethylene chloride, and perchloroethylene.  Each of these com-
pounds constitutes about 5% of the total waste feed to the incinerator.
During a trial burn, the incinerator was operated at a waste feed rate of
5,000 Ib/hr and 50% excess air.  The gas flow rate measured in the stack
19,200 dscfm.  Under these conditions, the measured concentrations of the
principle organic hazardous components were:

                     Trichloroethylene - 4.9 ug/dscf
                     1,1,1-Trichloroethane - 1.0 pg/dscf
                     Methylene chloride - 49 ug/dscf
                     Perchloroethylene - 490 ug/dscf

In order to calculate destruction and removal efficiency for each of these
compounds using the equation,
                                                                         •JL
                            DR£ =    w       (100)
                                      in


it is necessary to calculate the mass flow of each component entering and
exiting the system.  Because each hazardous component constitutes about 5% of
the waste and the total waste feed rate was 5,000 Ib/hr, W.  for each compo-
nent is:                                                  in
                    Win ~ °-05 <5'000 l*/hr) = 250 Ib/hr


The mass flow rate of each component exiting the stack is then calculated by
the following equation:
                                    4-3

-------
                   W  .  = C.  X
                    out     i
(19,200  dscfm)  (60  min/hr)
     4.54 x 10*  pg/lb
where  W    = mass flow rate of component  i exiting the  stack,  Ib/hr

         C. = concentration of component i in the  stack,  gas,  pg/dscf

Using this equation to calculate W    for  each component and  the  previously
cited equation for destruction and removal efficiency,  the  following  results
are obtained:
Component
Trichloroethylene
1 , 1 , 1-Trichloroe thane
Methylene chloride
Perchloroethylene
Vf lb/hr
out ,
0.0124
0.00254
0.124
1.24
ORE, %
99.995
99 . 999
99.95
99.5
These results indicate that the required 99.99% destruction and removal effi-
ciency was achieved in the trial burn for trichloroethylenc and 1,1,1-tri-  i
chloroethane, but not for methylene chloride and perchloroethylene.         I

Worksheet #1 in Section 4.5 presents a generalized procedure for destruction
and removal efficiency calculations.

4.3  INCINERATOR EVALUATION

A logic diagram for evaluating both liquid injection and rotary kiln incinera-
tor designs and operating criteria is shown in Figure 4-1.  It consists of six
separate evaluation procedures intended to answer the following questions:

  •  Are the basic incinerator components properly incorporated in the design?

  •  Have the physical, chemical, and thennodynamic properties of the waste
     been properly considered in the incinerator design and proposed operating
     conditions?

  •  Are the proposed temperature/excess air/residence time combinations
     internally consistent and achievable?  Can adequate turbulence and mixing
     be achieved under these conditions?

  •  Is the auxiliary fuel firing capacity acceptable?

  •  Does the design incorporate suitable combustion process control and
     safety shutdown interlocks?

  •  Are appropriate materials of construction employed?

Subsections 4.3.1 through 4.3.6 present background  information and procedures
for answering questions.


                                    4-4

-------
                     BASIC DESIGN
                    CONSIDERATIONS
                     SECTION 4.3.1
                 PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND
                  THERMODYNAMIC WASTE
                PROPERTY CONSIDERATIONS
                      SECTION 4.3.2
                          I
                 TEMPERATURE/EXCESS AIR7
                  RESIDENCE TIME/MIXING
                       EVALUATION
                      SECTION 4.3.3
                          I
                  AUXILIARY FUEL FIR ING
                  CAPACITY EVALUATION
                      SECTION 4.3.4
                          i
                  COMBUSTION PROCESS
                   CONTROL EVALUATION
                      SECTION 4.3.5
                          1
                MATERIAL Of CONSTRUCTION
                    CONSIDERATIONS
                     SECTION 4.3.6
Figure 4-1.   Incinerator  design evaluation criteria.
                        4-5

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4.3.1  Basic Design Considerations

4.3.1.1  Liquid Injection Incinerators--
Liquid injection incinerators are usually simple,  refractory-lined cylinders
(either horizontally or vertically aligned)  equipped with one or more waste
burners.  Liquid wastes are injected through the burner(s),  atomized to fine
droplets, and burned in suspension.   To heat the unit to operating temperature
before waste is introduced, however, all liquid injection incinerator designs
should also include an auxiliary fuel firing system.  This may consist of
separate burners for auxiliary fuel, dual-liquid burners, or single-liquid
burners equipped with a premix system whereby fuel flow is gradually turned
down and waste flow is increased after the desired operating temperature is
attained.  If auxiliary fuel firing is needed during routine operation the
same types of systems are needed:  fuel/waste premix, dual-liquid burners, or
separate auxiliary fuel burners.

Each burner, regardless of type, is generally mounted in a refractory block or
ignition tile (see Figure 4-2 for an illustration).  This is necessary to
confine the primary combustion air introduced through the burner, to ensure
proper air/waste mixing, and to maintain ignition.  The shape of the ignition
tile cavity also affects the shape of the flame and the quantity of primary
air which must be introduced at the burner.   Some burners and tiles are ar-  t
ranged to aspirate hot combustion gases back into the tile,  which aids in    I*
vaporizing the liquid and increasing flame temperature more rapidly.         J


                                 *   . BURNER BLOCK
                       SCANNED      ru  '
       "Reproduced courtesy of Trane Thermal Company, Conshohocken, Pa."

                   Figure 4-2.  High heat release burner for
                                combustion of liquid waste [1].

The dimensions of the burner block, or ignition tile, vary depending on  the
burner design.  Each manufacturer has his own geometrical specifications,
which have been developed through past experience.  Therefore, it  is not pos-
sible to specify a single burner block geometry for design evaluation purposes.
However, this aspect of the design can be checked to eliminate systems that  do
not provide for any flame retention.
                                    4-6

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The  location of each burner in the incinerator and its firing angle, relative
to the combustion chamber, should also be checked.  In axial or side-fired
nonswirling units, the burner is mounted either on the end firing down the
length of the chamber or in a sidewall firing along a radius.  Such designs,
while simple and easy to construct, are relatively inefficient in their use of
combustion volume.  Improved utilization of combustion space and higher heat
release  rates can be achieved with the utilization of swirl or vortex burners
or designs involving tangential entry.  Regardless of the burner location
and/or gas flow pattern, however,' the burner is placed so that the flame does
not  impinge on refractory walls.  Impingement results in flame quenching, and
can  lead to smoke formation or otherwise incomplete combustion.  In multiple
burner systems, each burner should be aligned so that its flame does not
impact on other burners.

Engineering judgment is used in predicting whether or not these undesirable
phenomena will occur with a specific incinerator design.

4.3.1.2  Rotary Kiln Incinerators--
To insure complete waste combustion rotary kiln incinerator designs normally
include an afterburner.  The primary function of the kiln is to convert solid
wastes to gases, which occurs through a series of volatilization, destructive
distillation, and partial combustion reactions.  However, an afterburner is
almost always required to complete the gas-phase combustion reactions.  Tie
afterburner is connected directly to the discharge end of the kiln, wherejjy
the gases exiting the kiln turn from a horizontal flow path to a vertical-flow
path upwards to the afterburner chamber.  The afterburner itself may be hori-
zontally or vertically aligned.

Both the afterburner and kiln are usually equipped with an auxiliary fuel
firing system to bring the units up to the desired operating temperatures.  As
explained in Section 4.3.1.1 for liquid injection incinerators, the auxiliary
fuel system may consist of separate burners for auxiliary fuel, dual-liquid
burners designed for combined waste/fuel firing, or single-liquid burners
equipped with a premix system, whereby fuel flow is gradually turned down and
liquid waste flow is increased after the desired operating temperature is
attained.

If liquid wastes are to be burned in the kiln and/or afterburner, additional
considerations are:

  •  flame retention characteristics of the burners,

  •  burner alignment to avoid flame impingement on refractory walls, and

     in multiple burner systems, burner alignment to avoid interference with
     the operation of other burners.

These topics are discussed in Section 4.3.1.1 under liquid injection incinera-
tor evaluation.

One difference between liquid injection incinerators and rotary kilns burning
liquid wastes in conjunction with solids is that in the kiln liquid wastes may


                                    4-7

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be fired either at the feed or discharge end of the unit.   Cocurrent and
countercurrent firing designs are both widely used.

4.3.2  Physical,  Chemical,  and Thermodynamic Waste Property Considerations

4.3.2.1  Liquid Injection Incinerators--
Before a liquid waste can be combusted,  it must be converted to the gaseous
state.  This change from a liquid to a gas occurs inside the combustion cham-
ber and requires heat transfer from the hot combustion gases to the injected
liquid.  To cause a rapid vaporization (i.e., increase heat transfer),  it is
necessary to increase the exposed liquid surface area.  Most commonly the
amount of surface exposed to heat is increased by finely atomizing the liquid
to small droplets, usually to a 40 pM size or smaller.  Good atomization is
particularly important when high aqueous wastes or other low heating value
wastes are being burned.  It is usually achieved in the liquid burner directly
at the point of air/fuel mixing.

The degree of atomization achieved in any burner depends on the kinematic
viscosity of the liquid and the amount of solid impurities present.  Liquids
should generally have a kinematic viscosity of 10,000 SSU or less to be satis-
factorily pumped and handled in pipes.  For atomization, they should have a
maximum kinematic viscosity of about 750 SSU.  If the kinematic viscosity    .
exceeds this value the atomization may not be fine enough.  This may cause   I*
smoke or other unburned particles to leave the unit.  However, this is only |
rule of thumb.  Some burners can handle more viscous fluids, while others
cannot handle liquids approaching this kinematic viscosity.

Viscosity can be reduced by heating with tank coils or in-line heaters.  How-
ever, 400-500°F (200-260°C) is normally the limit for heating to reduce viscos-
ity, since pumping a hot tar or similar material becomes difficult above these
temperatures.  Should gases be evolved in any quantity before the desired
viscosity is reached, they may cause unstable fuel feed and burning.  If this
occurs, the gases should be trapped and vented safely, either to the incinera-
tor or elsewhere.  Prior to heating a liquid waste stream, a check should also
be made to insure that undesirable preliminary reactions such as polymerization,
nitration, oxidation, etc., will not occur.  If preheating is not feasible,
based on these considerations, a lower viscosity and miscible liquid may be
added to reduce the viscosity of the mixture; fuel oil for example.

Solid impurities in the waste can interfere with burner operation via plug-
gage, erosion, and ash buildup.  Both the concentration and size of the  solids,
relative to the diameter of the nozzle, need to be considered.  As discussed
in Chapter 5, filtration may be employed to remove solids from the waste prior
to injection through the burner.

Liquid waste atomization can be achieved by any of the following means:

     rotary cup atomization
   •  single-fluid pressure atomization
     two-fluid, low pressure air atomization
     two-fluid, high pressure air atomization
     two-fluid, high pressure steam atomization


                                    4-8

-------
In air or steam atomizing burners,  atomization can be accomplished internally,
by impinging the gas and liquid stream inside the nozzle before spraying;
externally, by impinging jets of gas and liquid outside the nozzle; or by
sonic means (see Figures 4-3 through 4-5).  Sonic atomizers use compressed gas
to create high frequency sound waves which are directed on the liquid stream.
The liquid nozzle diameter is relatively large, and little waste pressuriza-
tion is required.  Some slurries and liquids with relatively large particles
can be handled,without plugging problems.
    AIR OR
    STEAM
                               MECHANICAL Ria TIP BODY  , CONE FUME TIP
                                                                    FINAL
                                                                    SPRAY
                                      STEAM       MIXING
                                      ORIFICES   CHAMBER

          "Reprinted by permission of Chemical Engineering Progress."

                    Figure 4-3.  Internal mix nozzle [2J.
                                                         ATCM2ED
                                VV\\\\\\
                                \  \  \ \ \  N N \ I — »
              uouc
      "Reproduced courtesy of Trane Thermal Company, Conshohocken, Pa."

                   Figure 4-4.  External mix nozzles [1].

The rotary cup consists of an open cup mounted on a hollow shaft.  The cup is
spun rapidly and liquid is admitted through the hollow shaft.  A thin film of
the liquid to be atomized is centrifugally torn from the lip of the cup and
surface tension reforms it into droplets.  To achieve conically shaped flames
an annular high velocity jet of air (primary air) must be directed axially
around the cup.  If too little primary air is admitted the fuel will impinge on
the sides of the incinerator.  If too much primary air is admitted the flame
will not be stable and will be blown off the cup.  For fixed firing rates, the
proper adjustment can be found and the unit operated for long periods of time
without cleaning.  This requires little liquid pressurization and is ideal for
                                    4-9

-------
                                             onnuum
                                              'o uouu
                             • MHC
                Reprinted by permission of Fluid Kinetics, Inc.

                  Figure 4-5.  Sonic atomizing nozzle [3].


atomizing liquids with relatively high solids content.  Burner turndown is
about 5:1 and capacities from 1 to 265 gal/hr, (1-280 cm3/S) are available.

In single-fluid pressure atomizing nozzle burners, the liquid is given a swirl
as it passes through an orifice with internal tangential guide slots.  Moder-
ate liquid pressures of 100-150 psi provide good atomization with low to
moderate liquid viscosity.  In the simplest form, the waste is fed directly to
the nozzle but turndown is limited to 2.5 to 3:1 since the degree of atomizah
tion drops rapidly with decrease in pressure.  In a modified form, involving a
return flow of liquid, turndown up to 10:1 can be achieved.                .1

When this type of atomization is used, secondary combustion air is generally
introduced around the conical spray of droplets.  Flames tend to be short,
bushy, and of low velocity.  Combustion tends to be slower as only secondary
air is supplied and a larger combustion chamber is usually required.

Typical burner capacities are in the range of 10 to 105 gal/hr.  Disadvantages
of single-fluid pressure atomization are erosion of the burner orifice and a
tendency toward pluggage with solids or liquid pyrolysis products, particu-
larly in smaller sizes.

Two-fluid atomizing nozzles may be of the low pressure or high pressure vari-
ety, the latter being more common with high viscosity materials.  In low
pressure atomizers, air from blowers at pressures from 0.5 to 5 psig is used
to aid atomization of the liquid.  A viscous tar, heated to a viscosity of
15-18 centistokes, requires air at a pressure of somewhat more than 1.5 psig,
while a low viscosity or aqueous waste can be atomized with 0.5 psig air.  The
waste liquid is supplied at a pressure of 4.5-17.5 psig..  Burner turndown
ranges from 3:1 up to 6:1.  Atomization air required varies from 370 to
1,000 ft3/gal of waste liquid.  Less air is required as atomizing pressure is
increased.  The flame is relatively short as up to 40% of the stoichiometric
air may be admixed with the liquid in atomization.

High pressure two-fluid burners require compressed air or steam at pressures
from 30 to 150 psig.  Air consumption is from 80 to 210 ft3/gal of waste,  and
steam requirements may be 2.1 to 4.2 Ib/gal with careful control of  the oper-
ation.  Turndown is relatively poor (3:1 or 4:1) and considerable energy  is


                                    4-10

-------
employed for atomization.  Since only a small fraction of stoichiometric air
is used for atomization, flames tend to be relatively long.  The major ad-
vantage of such burners is the ability to burn barely pumpable liquids without
further viscosity reduction.  Steam atomization also tends to reduce soot
formation with wastes that would normally burn with a smoky flame.

Table 4-1 identifies typical kinematic viscosity and solids handling limita-
tions for the various atomization techniques.  These data are based on a
survey of 14 burner manufacturers.  In evaluating a specific incinerator
design, however, the viscosity and solids content of the wastes should be
compared with manufacturer specifications for the particular burner employed.

        TABLE 4-1.  KINEMATIC VISCOSITY AND SOLIDS HANDLING LIMITATIONS
                    OF VARIOUS ATOMIZATION TECHNIQUES

Atomization type
Rotary cup
Single-fluid pressure
Internal low pressure
air (<30 psi)
External low pressure air
Maximum
kinematic
viscosity,
SSU
175 to 300
150
100
200 to 1,500
Maximum solids
mesh size
35 to 100

200 (depends on
Maximum solids
concentration
20%
Essentially zero
Essentially zero
30% (depends on
                                           nozzle ID)           nozzle ID)

External high pressure     150 to 5,000  100 to 200 (depends        70%
  air                                      on nozzle ID)

External high pressure     150 to 5,000  100 to 200 (depends        70%
  steam                                    on nozzle ID)
A procedure for evaluating whether or not a given burner atomization technique
is suitable for the waste under consideration is presented in Table 4*2.

Chemical and thermodynamic properties of the waste that need to be considered
in incinerator design evaluation are its elemental composition, its net heat-
ing value, and any special properties (e.g., explosive properties) that may
interfere with incinerator operation or require special design considerations.
The percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, halogens, and
phosphorus in the waste, as well as its moisture content, need to be known to
calculate stoichiometric combustion air requirements and to predict combustion
gas flow and composition .  In these calculations, the following reactions are
assumed:
 Air requirements, combustion gas flow, and gas composition form the basis
 for many subsequent evaluation procedures.
                                    4-11

-------
                                 C + 02 " C02

                               H2 + 1/202 •* H20

                                   H20 -» H20

                                    N2 - N2

                           C12 + H20 - 2HC1 + 1/202

                            F2 + H20 •* 2HF + 1/202

                                   Br2 •» Br2

                                    I2 - I2

                                 S + 02 •* S02

                               2P + 2.502 •» P205

     TABLE 4-2.  EVALUATION PROCEDURE FOR PHYSICAL WASTE
                 PROPERTY/ATOMIZATION TECHNIQUE COMPATIBILITY               |.



1.   Identify the atomization technique employed.

2.   Identify the kinematic viscosity of the waste at the proposed injection
     temperature.

3.   Check Table 4-1 and/or burner manufacturer specifications to determine if
     the waste viscosity and atomization technique are compatible.

4.   Identify the solids content of the waste and the maximum size of the
     particles (after pretreatment, if any).

5.   Check Table 4-1 and/or burner manufacturer specifications to determine if
     the solids content of the waste and the atomization technique are
     compatible.
Table 4-3 shows the stoichiometric or theoretical oxygen requirements and com-
bustion product yields for each of these reactions.  Once the weight fraction
of each element in the waste has been determined, the stoichiometric oxygen
requirements and combustion product yields can be calculated on a Ib/lb waste
basis.  The stoichiometric air requirement is determined directly from the
stoichiometric oxygen requirement via the weight fraction of oxygen in air.

Of course, the reactions listed above are not the only ones that occur in com-
bustion processes.  Carbon, carbon monoxide, free hydrogen, nitrogen oxides,
free chlorine and fluorine, hydrogen bromide and iodide, sulfur trioxide, and


                                    4-12

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                TABLE 4-3.  STOICHIOMETRIC OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS
                            AND COMBUSTION PRODUCTS YIELDS
Elemental
  waste
component
                        Stoichiometric
                      oxygen requirement
                           Combustion
                          product yield
          C
          H2
          02
          N2
          H20
          C12
          Br2

          S
          P
          Air N2
 2.67 Ib/lb C
 8.0 Ib/lb H2
-1.0 Ib/lb 02
-0.23 Ib/lb C12

-0.42 Ib/lb F2
 1.0 Ib/lb S
 1.29 Ib/lb P
                                  3.67 Ib C02/lb C
                                  9.0 Lb H20/Ib H2

                                  1.0 Ib N2/lb N2
                                  1.0 Ib H20/lb H20
                                  1.03 Ib HCl/lb C12
                                 -0.25 Ib H20/lb C12
                                  1.05 Ib HF/lb F2
                                 -0.47 Ib H20/lb F2
                                  1.0 Ib Br2/lb Br2
                                  1.0 Ib I2/lb I2
                                  2.0 Ib S02/lb S
                                  2.29 Ib P205/lb P
                                  3.31 Ib N2/lb
          Stoichiometric air requirement = 4.31 x (02)
                                                      stoich
hydrogen sulfide, among other'compounds, are also formed to some extent when
the corresponding elements are present in the waste or fuel being burned.
However, these combustion product yields are usually small in comparison to
the yields of the primary combustion products identified above, and need not
be considered in gas flow scoping calculations.  (They do, however, need to be
considered to determine the potential products of incomplete combustion).  For
most organic wastes and fuels, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor are
the major combustion products.  When excess air is factored into the combus-
tion gas flow, oxygen also becomes a significant component of the gas.  Excess
air requirements are discussed in Section 4.3.3.  Worksheet 4-2 can be used
to calculate the stack gas composition for major components, e.g., N2/ 02,
C02, HC1. S02.

Exceptions to the aforementioned combustion stoichioraetry can occur when
highly chlorinated or fluorinated wastes are being burned and insufficient
hydrogen is present for equilibrium conversion to the halide form.  Since
hydrogen halides are much more readily scrubbed from combustion gases than
halogens themselves, sufficient hydrogen should be provided for this equili-
brium conversion to take place.  If the waste itself contains insufficient
hydrogen, auxiliary fuel or steam injection is needed to supply the necessary
hydrogen equivalents.  The Stoichiometric (absolute minimum) requirements are
1 Ib H2/ 35.5 Ib Clg and 1 Ib Hg/l9 Ib Fg in the waste.

Equilibrium between halogens and hydrogen halides in incinerator gases is
given by:

                           X2 + H20 = 2HX + 1/2 02
                                    4-13

-------
where %2 represents any free halogen.

For chlorine, this expression becomes:

                          C12 + H20 =  2HC1 + 1/2 02

At equilibrium, the concentrations of  C12, H20,  HC1,  and 02  in the combustion
gas (at essentially atmospheric pressure) is given by:
                          P "•   (PC12)
where K  = equilibrium constant

      P. = partial pressure of ith component,  atm

Figure 4-6 presents a plot of the equilibrium constant,  K ,  vs.  temperature
for the conversion of Clj to HCl.  If the combustion temperature is known,  K
can be identified from Figure 4-6 and the following equation can be used to P
predict the extent of conversion of C12 to HCl.                              4


                                    ,i 
-------
     100
      10
8
CO
     1.0
     0.1
                        1832°F
                2732°F
3632°F
•180°F-
                                     i   i
                                                tiii
                        1,000
                1,500
2,000
                            TEMPERATURE ( C)
                                                  (P   ) (P   )l/2
                                                  th      ^     ^
                                             p     (P    ) (P   )
                                                   ir     Ir
       Figure 4-6.  Equilibrium constant versus temperature.
                              4-15

-------
is the quantity of heat needed to destabilize molecular bonds and create
reactive intermediates so that the exothermic reaction with oxygen will pro-
ceed.  Figure 4-7 shows the general relationship between activation energy and
heating value.
                    u
                    OE
                    z
                                          T
                                       ACTIVATION
                                         ENERGY
T
                                        MEAT OF
                                       COMBUSTION

                                          1
                                  KCACTION
  Figure 4-7.  Relationship between activation energy and heat of combustion.

Note.-  The diagram is simplified in the sense that it shows a single activa-T
       tion energy for the reaction.  Reactions with more than one intermediate
       have correspondingly more activation energy levels.
Waste heating values needed to sustain combustion without auxiliary fuel
firing depend on the following criteria:

  •  physical form of the waste (i.e., gaseous vs. liquid vs solid),

     temperature required for refractory waste component destruction,

  •  excess air rate, and

  •  heat transfer characteristics of the incinerator.

In general, higher heating values are required for solids vs liquids  vs  gases,
for higher operating temperatures, and for higher excess air rates, if combus-
tion is to be sustained without auxiliary fuel consumption.  Gases can sustain
combustion at heating values as low as 3,000 Btu/lb, while 4,500  to 5,500 Btu/lb
may be considered minimum heating value requirements for combustion of liquid
wastes in high efficiency burners [1].  Figures 4-8 and 4-9 illustrate the
relationship of adiabatic temperature to heating value for several levels of
excess air for liquid wastes and gaseous wastes, respectively.  Higher heating
values are needed for solid wastes, but the requirements depend on particle
size, and thus, the area available for heat and mass transfer.  In the hazard-
ous waste incineration industry, it is common practice to blend wastes (and
fuel oil, if necessary) to an overall heating value of 8,000 Btu/lb.
                                    4-16

-------
o

 UJ*
 QC



 ae.
 UJ
 a.




 o

 ?

 OD


 O
                  PARAMETERS: % EX CESS AIR
             2000     6000      10,000     14,000

                    HIGHER HEATING VALUE, Btu/lb
18,000
 Figure 4-8.   Adiabatic teapcrature of combustion  gases

               from typical liquid wastes [1].
                          4-17

-------
ac.
                          PARAMETERS: % EXCESS AIR
              i    i    i    i     i     t     i     i
                 200       400       600        800

                     HIGHER HEATING VALUE, Btu/lb
1000
  Figure 4-9.   Adiabatic temperature  of combustion gases
                from typical gaseous wastes [1].
                           4-18

-------
When an organic waste exhibits a low heating value, it is usually due to high
concentrations of moisture or halogenated compounds.  Since water is an ulti-
mate oxidation product, it has no heating value.  In fact, a portion of the
heat generated by combustion of the organic waste fraction is consumed in
vaporizing and heating the moisture up to incinerator temperature.  Therefore,
an increase in the moisture content of an organic waste proportionately de-
creases the overall heating value on a Btu/lb waste basis.

The heating value of a waste also decreases as the chlorine (or other halogen)
content increases, although there is no simple mathematical relationship.
Figure 4-10 shows an empirical relationship between heating value and chlorine
content for pure substances.  At chlorine contents of 70% or greater, auxil-
iary fuel is needed to maintain combustion.  Auxiliary fuel may also be re-
quired for less highly chlorinated waste unless high efficiency burners are
used.
                                         x araunca HSW.TS
                 f
                   W.ODO
                   1.000
      "Reproduced courtesey of Trane Thermal Company, Conshohockon, Pa."
                   Figure 4-10.
Heat of combustion of chlo-
rinated hydrocarbons [4].
In hazardous waste incineration, it is common practice to blend wastes so that
the chlorine content does not exceed 30%.  This is done to maintain sufficient
heating value for sustained combustion and to limit free chlorine
concentration in the combustion gas.

When heating value data are reported for a given waste, it is desirable to know
whether they are "higher heating values," "lower heating values," or "net heating
values."  The difference between the higher heating value and lower heating value
of a material is that the higher value includes the heat of condensation of water
formed in the combustion reaction.  The higher heating value of a material is
sometimes called its "gross heating value."  In the combustion of methane, for
example, the higher heating value is based on the following stoichiometry:
where the subscripts g and i represent gaseous and liquid states, respectively.
The lower heating value is based on:
                                    4-19

-------
                      CH<(g)  + 2°2(g)  * C°2(g)  +  2H2°(g)
The net heating value of a waste is determined  by subtracting from its lower
heating value the energy necessary to  vaporize  any moisture  present in the
waste initially.  Thus,  high  aqueous wastes  may exhibit:  a  negative net heating
value.  Since this quantity represents the  true energy input to the combustion
process, only net heating values should be  used in developing energy balances
for incinerators.

The heating value of a complex waste mixture is difficult  to predict a priori.
Therefore, these values  should be measured  experimentally.   Since healing
values measured using oxygen  bomb calorimeters  are higher  heating values,
conversion to the net heating value is required for energy balance calcula-
tions.  Worksheet 4-3 in Section 4.5 shows  how  this conversion is performed.
Approximate net heating values for common auxiliary fuels  are:

     Residual fuel oil (e.g., No. 6) - 17,500 Btu/lb
     Distillate fuel oil (e.g., No. 2) - 18,300 Btu/lb
     Natural gas - 19,700 Btu/lb (1,000 Btu/scf)

Special characteristics  of a  waste such as  extreme toxicity, mutagenicity or
carcinogenicity, corrosiveness, fuming, odor, pyrophoric properties, thermali
instability, shock sensitivity, and chemical instability should also be con-r
sidered in incinerator facility design.  Thermal  or shock  instability is of.}
particular concern from a combustion standpoint,  since wastes with these    '
properties pose an explosion  hazard.  Other special properties relate more
directly to the selection of  waste handling procedures and air pollution
control requirements.  If potentially explosive wastes are encountered, technical
assistance is advised.

Table 4-4 presents a procedure for chemical and thermodynamics waste property
evaluation.

4.3.2.2  Rotary Kiln Incinerators—
When liquid wastes are to be  burned in the  kiln or afterburner, the kinematic
viscosity of the liquid and its solids concentration and solids particle size
must be considered to determine whether or  not  good atomization can be achieved
with the proposed burner design.  This subject  is addressed in subsection 4.3.2.1
under liquid injection incinerator evaluation.  The procedure outlined in
Table 4-2, along with the discussion preceding this table, can be used to
check physical waste property/burner compatibility for rotary kiln
incinerators burning liquid wastes.

Although liquid wastes are frequently incinerated in rotary kilns, kilns are
primarily designed for combustion of solid wastes.  They are exceedingly
versatile in this regard, capable of handling slurries, sludges, bulk  solids
of varying size, and containerized wastes.   The only wastes that create prob-
lems in rotary kilns are (1)  aqueous organic sludges that become sticky on
drying and form a ring around  the kiln's inner periphery,  and  (2)  solids
(e.g., drums) that tend to roll down the kiln and are not retained as  long  as    '
the bulk of solids.  To reduce this problem, drums and other cylindrical
                                    4-20

-------
                 TABLE 4-4.   CHEMICAL AND THERMODYNAMIC WASTE
                             PROPERTY EVALUATION PROCEDURE
 1.  Identify the elemental composition and moisture content  of the  waste  and
     record this information on Worksheet 4-2 for future  reference.

 2.  Does the waste contain chlorinated or fluorinated materials?   (If YES,
     proceed to checkpoint #3.   If NO,  proceed to checkpoint  #5.)

 3.  Is sufficient hydrogen present in the waste for equilibrium conversion  of
     chlorine and fluorine to hydrogen chloride and hydrogen  fluoride,  respec-
     tively?  See aforementioned evaluation criteria in Section 4.3.2.1.   (If
     YES, proceed to checkpoint #5.  If NO, proceed to checkpoint  #4.)

 4.  Is auxiliary fuel firing or steam injection employed to  provide the
     necessary hydrogen equivalents?

 5.  Identify the major components of the combustion gas, based on the ele-
     mental composition of the waste, that need to be considered in subsequent
     material and energy balance calculations.  See Worksheet 4-2  for the
     recommended procedure.  This procedure also determines the stoichiometric
     air requirement and combustion gas flow, which will  be needed for subs^r
     quent evaluation procedures.                                          |

 6.  Determine the net heating value of the waste.  Worksheet 4-3  shows how
     the net heating value can be calculated when higher  heating values are
     known.

 7.  Does it appear likely that the waste will sustain combustion, based on
     its net heating value?  (If YES, proceed to checkpoint #9.  If NO, pro-
     ceed to the following checkpoint.)

 8.  Is auxiliary fuel to be burned in conjunction with the waste?

 9.  Is the waste potentially explosive when exposed to high  temperature or
     shock?
containers are usually not introduced to the kiln when it is empty.  Other
solids in the kiln help to impede the rolling action.

The major design checkpoint for rotary kiln/physical waste property
compatibility is the type(s) of solid waste feed systems employed.  These feed
systems are discussed in Chapter 5.

Chemical and thermodynamic properties of the waste that need to be considered
in rotary kiln design evaluation are its elemental composition, its net heat-
ing value, and any special properties (e.g., explosive properties, extreme
toxicity) that may interfere with incinerator operation or require special
design considerations.  These are essentially the sane properties that must be


                                    4-21

-------
considered in liquid injection incinerator evaluation.   Therefore,  the back-    ™
ground discussion in Section 4.3.2.1  and the  evaluation procedure  presented in
Table 4-4 can be used for rotary kilns  as well as  liquid injection
incinerators with some modifications.

The first modification relates to the  calculation  procedures for stoichio-
metric air requirement,  combustion gas  flow and composition.  These calcula-
tions are more complex for rotary kiln  incinerators because (a)  liquid and
solid wastes may be fed simultaneously  to the kiln, and (b) liquid wastes and
auxiliary fuel may be fed to the kiln,afterburner,  or both.  Therefore, Work-
sheet 4-4 (See Section 4-5) should be  used instead of Worksheet  4-2 for com-
bustion gas flow calculations.  Worksheet 4-3 can  still be used  to calculate
net heating values.

The second modification relates to the  consideration of special  waste proper-
ties.  As discussed in Section 4.3.2.1  for liquid  injection incinerators,
technical assistance may be required if wastes with explosive properties are
encountered.  For rotary-kilns, technical assistance is also advised if ex-
tremely toxic, mutagenic, or carcinogenic wastes are to be burned.  This
recommendation is based on the fact, that kilns are much more prone to release
of fugitive emissions than are liquid injection incinerators.

Unlike liquid injection incinerators which have no moving parts, rotary kilif-
designs incorporate high temperature seals between the stationary end plates!
and rotating section.  These seals are  inherently difficult to maintain air*    ^
tight, which creates the potential for release of unburned wastes.  Rotary      ^
kilns burning hazardous wastes are almost always operated at negative pressure
to circumvent this problem, however,  difficulties  can still arise when batches
of waste are fed send-continuously.  When drums containing relatively volatile
wastes are fed to the kiln, for example, extremely rapid gas expansion occurs.
This results in a positive pressure surge at the feed end of the kiln  (even
though the discharge end may still be under negative pressure),  which  forces
unburned waste out through the end plates seals.  This phenomenon is known as
"puffing", and can pose a major problem if extremely toxic or otherwise
hazardous materials are being burned.

Fugitive emissions can also exit the kiln through  the feed chute if improperly
designed.  Therefore, the design of the solid waste feed system is an  extreme-
ly important consideration in evaluating rotary kiln incinerators.  This topic
is addressed in Chapter 5.

4.3.3  Temperature, Excess Air, Residence Time, and Mixing Evaluation

Temperature, residence time, oxygen concentration, and  the degree  of  air/waste
mixing achieved are the primary variables affecting combustion  efficiency  in
any incinerator design.  The theoretical significance of  these  interrelated
variables is discussed in  the following  subsection under  "Liquid  Injection
Incinerators."  Subsection 4.3.3.2 addresses  additional temperature,  time,
excess air, and mixing considerations  for rotary kilns.

In general, two major factors are  involved in evaluating  these  variables as      '
they relate to incinerator design.  The  first factor  is whether or not the
temperature, residence time, and excess  air  level,  along  with the degree of

                                    4-22

-------
mixing achieved in the incinerator,  are adequate for waste destruction.   The
second factor is whether or not the  proposed operating conditions are
achievable, since temperature, excess air,  residence time, and mixing are all
interrelated.

At the current state of the art, the adequacy of incinerator operating condi-
tions can only be determined by past experience with the waste or by actual
testing.  Therefore, this factor is  not addressed per se in the following
subsections.  The major focus of the following evaluation procedures is on
whether or not a proposed set(s) of operating conditions is achievable.
Basically, this involves a series of internal consistency checks.

4.3.3.1  Liquid Injection Incincerators--
The most basic requirement of any combustion system is a sufficient supply of
air to completely oxidize the feed material.  The stoichiometric, or theoreti-
cal air requirement is calculated from the chemical composition of the feed
material, as shown in Section 4.3.2.  If perfect mixing could be achieved and
liquid waste burnout occurred instantaneously, then only the stoichiometric
requirement of air would be needed.   Neither of these phenomena occur in
real-world applications, however, so some excess air is always required to
ensure adequate waste/air contact.  Excess air is usually expressed as a
percentage of the stoichiometric air requirement.  For example, 50% excess air
implies that the total air supplied to the incinerator is 50% greater than
stoichiometric requirement.
r
The amount of excess air used- or needed in a given application depends on the
degree of air/waste mixing achieved in the primary combustion zone, process-
dependent secondary combustion requirements, and the desired degree of combus-
tion gas cooling.  Since excess air acts as a diluent in the combustion pro-
cess, it reduces the temperature in the incinerator (e.g., maximum theoretical
temperatures are achieved at zero percent excess air).  This temperature
reduction is desirable when readily combustible, high heating value wastes are
being burned in order to limit refractory degradation.  When high aqueous or
other low heating value waste is being burned, however, excess air should be
minimized to keep the system temperature as high as possible.  Even with
highly combustible waste, it is desirable to limit excess air to some extent
so that combustion chamber volume and downstream air pollution control system
capacities can be limited.

Figure 4-11 maybe used to check the internal consistency of the proposed
excess air rate and temperature, as long as the amount of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen in the stream and its net heating value are known.  To use the
figure, first find the weight fraction of carbon on the scale marked C (on the
far left) and the weight fraction of hydrogen on scale H.  Connect these two
points with a ruler and read the value at its intersection with arbitrary
scale 1 .  Subtract the weight fraction of oxygen in the feed stream from this
number.  Plot this value on the middle graph, using arbitrary scale 1 as the
vertical axis and the excess air scale as the horizontal axis.  Interolate
between the set of curves to find a value for arbitrary scale 2, which is then
plotted on the vertical axis of the right-hand graph, with the net heating
value of the feed plotted on the horizontal axis to determine the combustion
gas temperature.
                                    4-23

-------
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              4-24

-------
For example,  suppose methane (CH4-75% carbon,  25% hydrogen;  net heating value
of 19,700 Btu/lb) is burned with 50% excess air.  Connecting 0.75 on the C
scale with 0.25 on the H gives 4.9 at the intersection with arbitrary scale 1.
Using this value and 50% excess air gives 7.25 on the middle graph.   Plotting
7.25 vertically and 19.7 KBtu/lb horizontally on the right-hand graph shows a
temperature of 2,700°F.  If a temperature of 2,000°F is desired and excess air
is to be calculated, plotting 19.7 JcBtu/lb and 2,000°F gives 9.8 on arbitrary
scale 2.  Then using the middle graph, 9.8 on arbitrary scale 2 and 4.9 on
arbitrary 1 shows an excess air rate of 100%.   Figure 4-11 is accurate so long
as the combustion gases consist of air, 003 and H20, i.e., the wastes consist
mainly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.  The latter part of this section
describes the procedures for more accurate calculations.

In liquid injection incinerators, two excess air rates must be considered:
(1) the excess air present in the primary combustion air introduced through
the burner, and (2) the total excess air, which includes secondary combustion
air.  Normally, 10% to 20% excess air (i.e., 1.1 to 1.2 times the stoichio-
metric requirement) is supplied to the burner to prevent smoke formation in
the flame zone.  When relatively homogeneous wastes are being burned in high
efficiency burners, 5% excess air may be adequate.  Too much excess air
through the burner is also undesirable, since this can blow the flame away
from its retention cone.  Burner manufacturer specifications are the best
source of information for analysis.                                         I-

In general, the total excess air rate should exceed 20% to 25% to insure ade-
quate waste/air contact in the secondary combustion zone.  However, the mini-
mum requirement for a given incinerator depends on the degree of mixing
achieved and waste specific factors.

Four basic questions should be considered in evaluating whether or not a
proposed operating temperature is sufficient for waste destruction:

(1)  Is the temperature high enough to heat all waste components (and combus-
     tion intermediates) above their respective ignition temperatures and to
     maintain combustion?

(2)  Is the temperature high enough for complete reaction to occur at the
     proposed residence time?

(3)  Is this temperature within normal limits for the generic design and/or
     attainable under the other proposed operating conditions?

(4)  At what point in the combustion chamber is the proposed temperature  to be
     measured?

Complete waste combustion requires a temperature, and heat release rate,  in
the incinerator high enough to raise the temperature of the incoming waste
constituents above their respective ignition temperatures (i.e., to provide
energy input in excess of their respective activation energies).  In cases
where combustion intermediates are more stable  than the original waste con-
stituents, higher temperatures are required for complete combustion of the
intermediates than for parent compound destruction.


                                    4-25

-------
 Since  heat transfer,  mass transfer,  and oxidation all require a finite length
 of time,  temperature  requirements must also be evaluated in relation to the
 proposed  residence time in the combustion chamber.   Heat transfer, mass trans-
 fer, and  kinetic  reaction rates all  increase with increasing temperature,
 lowering  the residence  time requirements.  For extremely short residence
 times,  however,  temperatures higher  than those needed for ignition may be
 required  to complete  the combustion  process.

 The current state of  the art in combustion modeling does not allow a purely
 theoretical determination of temperature and residence time requirements for
 waste  and combustion  intermediate destruction.  Therefore,  the only reasonable
 alternative is an examination of temperature/residence time combinations used
 to destroy the same or  similar waste in a similar or identical incinerator.

 After  addressing  the  temperature requirements for waste destruction, it is
 reasonable to determine whether or not the proposed temperature is within
 normal  limits for the generic incinerator design and whether or not this tem-
 perature  can be attained under the proposed firing conditions.  Generally,
 liquid  injection  incinerator temperatures range from 1,400°F to 3,000°F depend-
 ing on  the generic design,  type of waste being burned, and location within the
 combustion chamber.   Usually 1,400°F is the minimum temperature needed to
 avoid  smoke formation.   A more typical hazardous waste incineration tempera-
 ture is 1,800°F,  although temperatures of 2,000°F to 2,200°F or higher are   I.
 usually employed  for  halogenated aromatic wastes.                          .   I

 The question of whether or not the proposed temperature and excess air rate
 are attainable can be resolved by approximate calculations based on a heat
 balance around the combustion chamber.   Figure 4-12 shows the heat inputs and
 outputs for the combustion chamber.
                ENTHALPY OF
               INCOMING WASTE,
               AIR. AUXILIARY
                   FUEL
                                        HEAT LOSS THROUGH
                                          REFRACTORY
  ENTHALPY OF
COMBUSTION GASES
                                        HEAT OF WASTE/
                                        AUXILIARY FUEL
                                        COMBUSTION

             Figure 4-12.  Energy balance  for combustion chamber.

Since liquid waste incineration  is  a  steady state  (or quasi-steady state)
process, the enthalpy of  the waste/auxiliary fuel/combustion air feed plus  the
heat released by combustion must equal  the enthalpy of the combustion gases
                                     4-26

-------
 leaving the  unit  plus  the heat loss through the refractory walls.
 the  general  relationship:
                                                            This yields
     Heat  loss
i through  refractory/
           \.
/  Enthalpy  of
I  incoming feed
Heat released by
   combustion
/ Enthalpy
1  of combus-
\ tion gases
 or
where
                             Q = AH
 Q = heat loss through refractory, Btu/lb waste
AH = overall enthalpy change in the combustion chamber, Btu/lb waste
 Since  enthalpy  is  a  thermodynamic state  function,  the overall enthalpy change
 can be represented by any series  of incremental enthalpy changes,  so long as
 the initial  state  and final  state correspond to the incinerator inlet and
 outlet conditions, respectively.   The  key is to select an enthalpy change
 pathway that simplifies  the  calculations involved,  such as that shown in
 Figure 4-13.

 Using  this approach,  the overall  energy  balance equation becomes:

                       Q = AH  = AHa_2  +  AH2_3 + AH3_4
where  AH. . =  incremental  enthalpy changes,  Btu/lb waste
          *
In Figure 4-13,  the  first  enthalpy change,  AH^.  represents the difference in
feed enthalpy between  injection  temperature and standard conditions of 77°F
(25°C) .  This term is  seldom  significant  unless the combustion air is
preheated to high temperature.
      WASTE AND AIR
       AT INJECTION
       TEMPERATURE
                                                     COMBUSTION PRODUCTS,
                                                     UNREACTED WASTE, AND
                                                   EX CESS AIR AT COMBUSTION
                                                         TEMPERATURE
      WASTE AND AIR

       AT 77°F(25°C)
                                                     COMBUSTION PRODUCTS,
                                                      UNREACTED WASTE. AND
                                                         EXCESS AIR AT
                                                                  77°F (25°C)
           Figure 4-13.
                  Enthalpy balance for combustion processes.

                             4-27

-------
The term AH2_3 represents the heat released by combustion at  isothermal condi-
tions of 25°C.  This corresponds to the way in which heats of combustion are
measured and presented in the literature.   The third term, AH3 4/  represents
the difference in combustion product enthalpy between 25°C and'the temperature
at the combustion chamber outlet.

In mathematical terms, these incremental enthalpy changes are expressed as:

                                 k
                        .2 =
           n.  C .(77
            i   piv
                                                    T.  )
                                                     in/
                               waste
                             components
                         p air
                               <77  -
                                                  177°F
and
AH3_4 = <
                               reactive
                                waste
                              components
                                                - V
        (reaction
        products
                              reactive
                               waste
                             components
                             remaining
      + 4.31 C   .  (02) .. .  . (EA)
              p airv  zystoichv
      *   z
                      "icpi
          inert
          waste
        components
                                            i%
                                    -    E
                                         reactive
                                        components

                                    4-28

-------
where          n.  = Ib ith component/Ib waste

              C .  = mean heat capacity of ith component over the temperature
               pl    range involved,  Btu/lb °F

              T.  = waste injection temperature,  °F

             T  .  = air inlet temperature, °F
              31 r
               X.  = fractional conversion of ith component (X.  = 1.0 at 100%
                    combustion of ith component)
       (AH ).     = heat of combustion of ith component at 77°F (25°C),  Btu/L
          c 177°F
             T    = temperature at the combustion chamber outlet,  °F

       (02)   .  .  = stoichiometric oxygen requirement, Ib 02/lb waste

               EA = excess air, %/lOO
To determine whether or not the proposed temperature/excess air combination is
achievable, it is necessary to specify the desired temperature and calculate
the corresponding excess air rate for comparison with the proposed value.
However, there are far too many unknowns in these equations to solve for EA..
These equations can be simplified considerably by assuming that the combusti
                                          _ a'
reactions go to essentially 100% completion.   With this assumption, the
overall energy balance reduces to:



2 = ~p waste'77 - Tin> + 4'31 ~p air'77 ' T.ir><0*>.toich(1 + EA)
                                                                           1
                                                                           :i|>n
           NHV)77oF + (T    - 77)
                                              n. C .  + 4.31 C
                                      i=1      i  Pi         P air
                                   combustion
                                    products

where  NHV = net heating value of the waste, Btu/lb

From the empirical waste composition (carbon content, hydrogen content, etc.),
proposed excess air rate, and combustion stoichiometry discussed in Section
4.3.2, all the variables in this equation are fixed except the outlet temper-
ature or excess air rate, mean heat capacities of the combustion gases, and
the heat loss through the walls of the combustion chamber.  To avoid rigorous
heat transfer calculations, this heat loss can be assumed to be about 5% of
the heat released in the combustion chamber, based on operating experience
with hazardous waste incinerators.  With this assumption, the energy balance
reduces to.-
 Acceptance of the proposed temperature/residence combination should ensure
 combustion efficiencies close enough to 100% for this value to be used in
 heat balance calculations.


                                    4-29

-------
        C/ T *7
        ( ' 7
 p waste
                     4'31 Cp air(7? ' Tair)(°2>stoich(1 + EA)
                                       4'31       <°2>
                      1=1
                   combustion
                    products
                                               air2stoich
                                                            EA
  (TQut - 77)  * 0
from which the first two terms can be deleted if neither waste nor air pre-
heating is employed.  (The waste enthalpy term can almost always be deleted
anyway.)  This yields:
  0.95 (-NHV) +
r *
S •*
combustion
. products

Si


"31 Cp air<°2>stoichEA

The mean heat capacities of the combustion gases will vary to a small degree""
depending on the incinerator outlet temperature.  For this purposes of approxi-
mate calculations, however, the following values can be assumed:
                         Gas component  C , Btu/lb °F
                         	c	
                           Excess air
                           N2
                           C02
                           H20
                           HC1
                           S02
                                            0.26
                                            0.26
                                            0.26
                                            0.49
                                            0.20
                                            0.18
This yields the expression3:

     0.95 (-NHV) + J0.26 (n^^  + n
                                        0.49
                                               20
                                                                      -  77)  =
   e term n..  in this equation refers  to  the nitrogen present  in the combustion
 gases under2stoichiometric conditions.   It does not include excess air
 nitrogen.
                                    4-30

-------
for wastes containing only carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.   If other
gas components, constitute more than a few percent of the total flow, additional
heat capacity terms must be added.

If auxiliary fuel is to be burned in conjunction with the waste,  a modification
of the previous equation is needed.   This is as follows:
0.95
      n
       fuel
 k
Z
                                               n. C .
                                                i  pi
                                          waste
                                        combustion
                                         products
                  (n.
                    i fuel  pi'
:p air<°2>stoichEA
               fuel
            combustion
             products
                                                        out
                                                            -  77)  =  0
where
           = Ib ith combustion gas component/Ib fuel                  j


           - mean heat capacity of fuel over the applicable temperature
             range, Btu/lb °F

           = heating value of fuel, Btu/lb
           - Ib fuel/lb waste
If only carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are present, the equation can
be simplified to :
        C


        NHV
           r  i
0.95
[
      °'26
                         nfuel <-NHV)fuel]



                         O^ f °'49 "H.,0 + »-
                                                 (TQut - 77) = 0
 In this equation, n^ ,  UCQ , HH Q, (°2)stoich- and EA apply to the combined
 waste/auxiliary fuel mix, and r^  accounts refers to the nitrogen present in
 the combustion gases under stoichiometric conditions.
                                    4-31

-------
By fixing the outlet temperature at the proposed value,  the equations shown
above can be used to estimate the maximum achievable excess air rate for
comparison with that proposed.  Thus,  the equations provide an internal consis-
tency check for proposed temperature/excess air combinations.   Worksheet 4-5
in Section 4-5 shows how the calculation can be performed in a step-by-step
manner .

When identifying a minimum temperature acceptable for waste destruction, it is
also important to identify the location in the combustion chamber at which
this temperature should be measured.   Temperature varies tremendously from one
point to another in the combustion chamber, being highest in the flame and
lowest at the refractory wall or at a point of significant air infiltration
(e.g., in the vicinity of secondary air ports).  Ideally, temperature should
be measured in the bulk gas flow at a point after which the gas has traversed
the combustion chamber volume that provides the specified residence time for
the unit.  It should not be measured at a point of flames impingement or at a
point directly in sight of radiation from the flame.  Chapter 5 discusses
temperature measurement in more detail.

A comprehensive evaluation procedure for temperature/excess air considerations
is shown in Table 4-5.

In addition to temperature and excess air, residence time is a key factor    I-
affecting the extent of combustion.  This variable, also referred to as reterj-
tion time or dwell time, is the mean length of time that the waste is exposecr
to the high temperatures in the incinerator.  It is important in designing and
evaluating incinerators because a finite amount of tine is required for each
step in the heat transfer/mass transfer/reaction pathway to occur.

In liquid waste combustion, discrete (although short) time intervals are re-
quired for heat transfer from the gas to the surface of  the atomized droplets,
liquid evaporation, mixing with oxygen in the gas stream, and reaction, which
itself involves a series of individual steps depending on the complexity of
the waste's molecular structure.  The total tine required for these processes
to occur depends on the temperature in the combustion zone, the degree of
mixing achieved, and the size of the liquid droplets.  Residence tine require-
ments increase as combustion temperature is decreased, as mixing is reduced,
and/or as the size of discrete waste particles is increased.  Typical
residence times in liquid injection incinerators range from 0.5 s to 2.0 s.

Gas residence times are defined by the following formula.-
where  8 = mean residence time, s
       V = combustion chamber volume, ft3
       q = gas flow rate, ft3/s within the differential volume, dv

and gas flow rate is given by:
                                    4-32

-------
          q
            = /Q-79 W T + 460
                        528
4'31 <°2>stoich 68'F 
-------
In the preceding discussion,  all equations  apply to the nominal,  or mean,
residence time in the combustion chamber.   A thoroughly rigorous  approach
would require tracer studies  to determine  residence time distributions  in  the
incinerator.  However,  nominal residence  times  are  sufficient  for evaluation
purposes, so long as the incinerator design is  such that significant channel-
ing (analogous to dead space  in the combustion  chamber) does not  occur.  Chan-
neling is usually prevented by creating abrupt  changes  in flow direction or by
establishing a definite flow  pattern in the combustion  chamber (e.g., cyclonic
flow).

           TABLE 4-5.  TEMPERATURE/EXCESS AIR EVALUATION PROCEDURE.
 1.  Identify the proposed operating temperature.

 2.  Is this temperature sufficient to convert all waste components to their
     ultimate oxidation products,  assuming that adequate residence time,
     oxygen, and mixing are provided?  See the preceding discussion (Section
     4.3.3.1) for general guidelines.  Outside sources of information can be
     consulted for waste-specific  data.

 3.  Identify the excess primary combustion air rate proposed in the permit *
     application.                                                           I
                                                                            *
 4.  Does this excess air rate meet, or exceed the  general requirements identi-
     fied in the preceding discussion and/or burner manufacturer
     specifications?

 5.  Identify the total excess air rate proposed.

 6.  Is this excess air rate acceptable?  General  guidelines are presented in
     Section 4.3.3.1.

 7.  Independently calculate the total excess air  rate needed to maintain the
     proposed operating temperature (see Worksheet 4-5).

 8.  Is this calculated excess air rate greater than or comparable to the
     proposed total excess air rate?  (If YES, proceed to checkpoint til.  If
     NO, proceed to the following checkpoint).

 9.  Is this excess air rate acceptable, even though it is less than the pro-
     posed excess air rate?  See the preceding discussion for general guide-
     lines.  (If YES, proceed to checkpoint #11.  If NO, proceed to the
     following checkpoint.)

10.  Are there any mechanical restraints in the system that would prevent
     increasing the auxiliary fuel-to-waste firing ratio (which would be
     needed to maintain both an acceptable temperature and excess air rate)?
     If necessary, repeat the calculations shown in Worksheet 4-5 for the
     maximum achievable fuel-to-waste ratio.

                                                                    (continued)


                                    4-34

-------
                              TABLE 4-5 (continued)
11.   Identify the location at which temperature is to be measured in the
      incinerator.

12.   Is this location  (a) suitable based on the considerations in the preced-
      ing discussion or  (b) comparable to the location at which temperature was
      measured during an appropriate prior test?
Table 4-6 presents a gas residence time evaluation procedure which can be used
in conjunction with the evaluation procedure for temperature and excess air
shown in Table 4-5, since all three variables are interrelated.
              TABLE 4-6.  GAS RESIDENCE TIME EVALUATION PROCEDURE
 1.  Identify the proposed gas residence tine.
L
 2.  Does this residence time appear adequate, considering the proposed operat
     ing temperature and excess air rate, and assuming that good mixing is
     achieved?  See the preceding discussion for general guidelines and the
     appendices for specific information.

 3.  Does the proposed residence time appear to be achievable?  See
     Worksheet 4-6.
Temperature, oxygen, and residence time requirements for waste destruction all
depend to some extent on the degree of mixing achieved in the combustion
chamber.  This parameter is difficult to express in absolute terms, however.
Many of the problems involved in interpreting burn data relate to the diffi-
culty involved in quantifying the degree of mixing achieved in the incinerator,
as opposed to the degree of mixing achieved in another incinerator of
different design.

In liquid waste incinerators' the degree of nixing is determined by the spe-
cific burner design (i.e., how the primary air and waste/fuel are mixed),
combustion product gas and secondary air flow patterns in the combustion cham-
ber, and turbulence.  Turbulence is related to the Reynolds number for the
combustion gases, expressed as.:
                                    4-35

-------
where  D = combustion chamber diameter, ft
       v = gas velocity, ft/s
       p = gas density, lb/ft3
       ^i = gas viscosity, lb/ft s

Turbulent flow conditions exist at Reynold's numbers of approximately 2,300
and greater.  Below this Reynold's number laminar or transition flow prevails
and mixing occurs only by diffusion.

In conventional liquid injection incinerators or afterburners, it is possible
to simplify the Reynold's number to consideration of superficial gas velocity
only.  Adequate turbulence is usually achieved at superficial gas velocities
of 10 to 15 ft/s.  Superficial gas velocities are determined by
where  q = gas flow rate at operating temperature, ft3/s
       A = cross-sectional area of the incinerator chamber, ft2

When primary combustion air is introduced tangentially to the burner (e.g.,
vortex burners), secondary air is introduced tangentially, or burner alignment
is such that cyclonic flow prevails in the incinerator, actual gas velocitie^-
exceed the superficial velocity.  Thus, adequate turbulence may be achieved *t
superficial velocities less than 10 ft/s in cyclonic flow systems.  However, *
the tradeoff is difficult to quantify.  Turbulence can also be increased by
installing baffles in the secondary combustion zone of the incinerator, which
abruptly change the direction of gas flow.  However, this also increases
pressure drop across the system and is not a common practice in liquid injec-
tion incinerator design.  Steam jets can als.o be used to promote turbulence.

Table 4-7 presents a procedure for evaluating the mixing characteristics of
liquid injection incinerators.  Since mixing is related to the gas flow rate
through the incinerator; this evaluation procedure can be used in conjunction
with that for temperature and excess air, which affect gas flow independent of
the waste feed rate.
                    TABLE 4-7.  MIXING EVALUATION PROCEDURE
 1.  Calculate the superficial gas velocity in the incinerator chamber at
     operating temperature (see Worksheet 4-7).

 2.  Does this velocity meet or exceed the general guidelines provided above
     (i.e.,  10-15 ft/s)?

 3.  If not, is cyclonic flow or some mechanical means of enhancing turbulence
     designed into the system?  If 7ES, somewhat lower superficial velocities
     than those listed above may still provide suitable mixing.
                                    4-36

-------
4.3.3.2  Rotary Kiln Incinerators--
In rotary kiln/afterburner incineration systems, three excess air rates must
be considered:  (1) excess air present in the primary combustion air intro-
duced through liquid waste burners in the kiln or afterburner section,
(2) total excess air fed to the kiln, and (3) the excess air percentage main-
tained in the afterburner.

Normally, 10% to 20% excess air (i.e., 1.1 to 1.2 times the stoichiometric
requirement) must be supplied to liquid waste burners to prevent smoke forma-
tion in the flame zone.  When relatively homogeneous wastes are being burned
in high efficiency burners, 5% excess air may be adequate.  Too much excess
air through the burner is also undesirable, since this can blow the flame away
from its retention cone.  Burner manufacturer specifications are the best
source of information for case-by-case analysis.

As stated in Section 4.3.3.1, 20% to 25% total excess air is a practical
minimum for liquid injection incinerators to achieve adequate air/waste con-
tact.  Higher excess air rates are needed in rotary kilns, however, because
the efficacy of air/solids contact is less than that for air and atomized
liquid droplets.  Typical excess air rates range from 140% to 210% or greater,
depending on the desired operating temperature and the heating value of the
waste.   When high aqueous wastes are being burned, lower excess air rates may
be needed to maintain adequate temperature.  However, less than 100% excess!
air in the kiln may not provide adequate air/solids contact.                I

Since it is usually desirable to maintain the afterburner at a higher tempera-
ture than the kiln, and because only liquid wastes or auxiliary fuel is fired
in the afterburner, the excess air rate in the afterburner is usually less
than that in the kiln.   In a typical system operating at 1,500°F in the kiln
and 1,800°F in the afterburner, approximately 160% to 170% excess air would be
maintained in the afterburner compared to ^210% in the kiln.  Considering 100%
excess air in the kiln as a practical minimum, approximately 80% excess air or
more should be maintained in the afterburner.  This includes air contained in
the kiln exit gases as well as air introduced in the afterburner itself, and
is based on the total stoichiometric oxygen requirement for all wastes and
fuels burned in the system.

In evaluating temperature requirements for a rotary kiln/afterburner system,
seven basic questions should be considered:

(1)  Is the temperature in the kiln high enough to volatilize, partially
     oxidize,  or otherwise convert all organic components of the waste to a
     gaseous state?

(2)  Is this temperature high enough for the aforementioned processes to occur
     within the proposed solids retention time?

(3)  Is the afterburner temperature high enough to heat all volatilized wastes
     (and combustion intermediates) above their respective ignition tempera-
     tures and maintain combustion?
                                    4-37

-------
(4)  Is the temperature high enough for complete reaction to occur within the
     proposed afterburner residence time?

(5)  Is the kiln operating temperature within normal limits and/or attainable
     under the other proposed operating conditions?

(6)  Is the afterburner temperature within normal limits and/or attainable
     under the other proposed operating conditions?

(7)  At what points in the system are the temperatures to be measured?

The current state-of-the-art in combustion modeling does not allow a purely
theoretical determination of time and temperature requirements for solid waste
burnout or combustion in the gas phase.  Therefore, the only reasonable alter-
native is an examination of temperature/time combinations used to destroy the
same or similar waste in a similar or identical rotary kiln/afterburner system.
This information is needed to address questions 1 through 4 above.  The latter
three questions are addressed in the following paragraphs.
Temperatures in rotary kiln incinerators usually range from about 1,400°F to
3,000°F, depending on the types of waste being burned and the location in the
kiln.  Common operating temperatures, measured outside of the flame zone, are
1,500°F to 1,600°F.  The question of whether or not these or other proposed I"
temperatures are attainable at the proposed excess air rate can be resolved fy
approximate calculations based on a heat balance around the kiln (see Sec-
tion 4.3.3.1 for a discussion of how heat balances are formulated).
The difficulty that arises in this calculation is that the extent of combus-
tion, or actual heat release compared to the maximum attainable heat release,
is unknown.  However, the maximum achievable excess air rate in the kiln at
the specified operating temperature can still be estimated by assuming com-
plete combustion.  This corresponds to a worst case analysis.  The maximum
calculated excess air rate must exceed the proposed excess air rate, or the
specified'operating temperature will not be attainable.

The applicable heat balance equation for the kiln, assuming complete
combustion is shown on the following page.

This equation is also based on the assumptions that (a) heat loss through the
kiln walls is about 5% of the heat released on combustion, and (b) waste
preheating, if employed, will result in negligible heat input compared to the
heat released on combustion (which is almost always the case).  This equation
can be solved directly for EA, the maximum attainable excess air rate in the
kiln, once the desired operating temperature is specified.  Mean heat capaci-
ties for common combustion gas components, applicable over temperature ranges
normally encontered, are shown in Section 4.3.3.1.

Worksheet 4-8 in Section 4-5 presents a step-by-step calculation procedure.
                                    4-38

-------
4.31 C
      •pair <77-Tair><°*Wch(k)(1+EV
                       /ni>fHV1 + n2NHV2 + n,
                - 0.95 ( 	

                     k
                                 1 + n
                                      fK
                             i Cpi
Cp air(°2)stoichEAk
                 combustion
                  products
                 Jfrom kiln
                                                               (T
                                                                 out
                                     - 77) = 0
where
             C  . = mean heat capacity of ith component over the temperature
              pi   range involved, Btu/lb °F
            T  .  = air preheat temperature, °F
      (°2)   •  >. = total stoichiometric oxygen requirement for wastes and
          31 lcn   auxiliary fuel fed to the kiln, Ib 02/lb feed           ,
             EA, = percent excess air/100(in kiln)                         I
                                                                           I
              r\i - Ib liquid waste/lb waste
              n2 = Ib solid waste/lb waste
             n^ = Ib fuel/lb waste
            NHV: = net heating value of liquid waste, Btu/lb
            NHV2 = net heating value of solid waste, Btu/lb
            HV.^ = net heating value of fuel, Btu/lb
              n, = Ib ith combustion product/Ib feed
            T    = desired temperature at the kiln outlet, °F
When no combustion air preheating is employed, this equation simplifies  to.-
     /n1NHV1 + n2NHV2 + n
-0.95  —.	;	
     \          1 + n
                     fK
                     k
                    r
                    i=l
                combustion
                 products
                from kiln
/
                                     4'31 Cp air^^stoich^k
                               dout - 77) = 0
                                    4-39

-------
Using the heat capacities presented in Section 4.3.3.1, and assuming that C02,
H20, No, and 02 are the only significant components of the combustion gas, the
equation further simplifies to3:
-0.95
I
                n2NHV2
                   n
                    fK
             i.26  n
                                            co
                                              0.49
                                                            (*out - 77) = 0
Excess air in the afterburner can be estimated in similar fashion, after the
desired operating temperature is specified.  In this calculation, heat inputs
to and from the entire system (kiln and afterburner) are considered.  The
resulting heat balance equation is shown below.

This equation is also based on assumptions of 5% heat loss from the system and
negligible energy input due to waste/auxiliary fuel or air preheating.  Work-
sheet 4-9 presents a step-by-step calculation procedure.
-0.95
              + n2NHV2 +
                I +
                           + n.
                                        n
                                               fA
                              n
                               AK
        combustion
         products
        from kiln
                     niK Cpi
                                         niA Cpi
where
                             combustion
                              products
                             afterburner
                                feed
                                 n
     + 4.31 C_
[<°2>
                                  AK
                        stoich(K)
                               
-------
                        n,  = Ib fuel/lb waste in afterburner
                         fA
                       HVf  = heating value of auxiliary fuel burned in the after-
                          A   burner, Btu/lb

                        n... = Ib ith combustion product from kiln/lb kiln feed
                         IK
                        n.  = Ib ith combustion product from afterburner feed/lb
                              afterburner feed

                       T    = desired afterburner outlet temperature, °F

       Once the major components of the combustion gas have been identified (C02,
       H20, N2, and 02 in most cases), the latter two terms in this equation can be
       simplified by substituting in the heat capacities reported in Section 4.3.3.1.
       A similar substitution is shown on the preceding page for the rotary Kiln heat
       balance equation.

       When quantifying the desired temperatures in the kiln and afterburner, it is
       also important to fix the locations at which these temperatures should be
       measured.  Temperature varies tremendously from one point to another in each
       unit, being highest in the flame and lowest at the refractory wall or at a
       point of significant air infiltration (e.g., in the vicinity of secondary air
       ports, end plate seals, and feed chute).  Ideally, temperatures should be
       measured in the bulk gas flow at a point after which the gas has traversed
       volume of each chamber that provides its specified residence tine.  Tempera
       tures should not be measured at a point of flame impingement or at a point
       directly in sight of radiation- from the flame.  Temperature measurement is
       discussed in more detail in Chapter 5.
•t
       An evaluation procedure for temperature/excess air considerations is shown in
       Table 4-8.
i
       In rotary kiln incineration systems, both the solids retention time in the
'       kiln and the gas residence time in the afterburner must be considered.  After-
I       burner residence time considerations are essentially the same as those for
       liquid injection incinerators, a topic which is addressed in Section 4.3.3.1.
       Therefore, the following discussion focuses primarily on solids retention time
       estimates.  For a discussion of gas residence time estimates and corresponding
       evaluation procedures, see Section 4.3.3.1.

       Solids retention times in rotary kilns are a function of the length-to-diam-
       eter ratio of the kiln, the slope of the kiln, and its rotational velocity.
       The functional relationship between these variables is [5]:

                                     6 = 0.19 (L/D)/SN

       where  9 = retention time, min
              L = kiln length, ft
              D « kiln diameter, ft
              S = kiln slope, ft/ft
              N ~ rotational velocity, rpm
                                           4-41

-------
          TABLE 4-8.   TEMPERATURE/EXCESS AIR EVALUATION PROCEDURE  FOR
                      ROTARY  KILN/AFTERBURNER  INCINERATORS
 1.   Identify the proposed kiln  and  afterburner operating  temperatures.

 2.   Is the kiln temperature  sufficient  for  complete  solid waste burnout,
     assuming that adequate retention  time,  excess  air,  and mixing  are pro-
     vided?  This determination  must be  based on  operating experience and/or
     other burn data.

 3.   Is the afterburner  temperature  sufficient to complete the  combustion
     reactions,  assuming that adequate residence  tune, excess air,  and mixing
     are provided?  See  the preceding  discussion  (Section  4.3.3.2)  for general
     guidelines.

 4.   Identify the excess primary air rates for each liquid waste burner  in the
     kiln or afterburner.

 5.   Does this excess  air rate meet  or exceed the general  requirements
     identified in the preceding discussion  and/or  burner  manufacturer
     specifications?                                                       I-

 6.   Identify the total  excess air rate  for  the kiln.

 7.   Is this excess air  rate acceptable? See the preceding discussion
     guidelines .

 8.   Independently calculate the maximum total excess air  rate  needed to main-
     tain the proposed operating temperature in the kiln (see Worksheet  4-8).

 9.   Is this calculated  excess air rate  greater than  the proposed  total  excess
     air rate?  (If YES, proceed to  checkpoint #12.  If  NO, proceed to  the
     following checkpoint.)

10.   Is this excess air  rate acceptable, even though  it  is less than or compa-
     rable to the proposed excess air  rate?  See  the  preceding discussion for
     general guidelines. (If YES, proceed to checkpoint  #12.   If NO, proceed
     to the following checkpoint.)

11.   Are there any mechanical restraints in  the  system that would prevent
     increasing the auxiliary fuel-to-waste  firing ratio in the kiln (which
     would be needed to  maintain both an acceptable temperature and excess air
     rate).  In other words, is  the  maximum  achievable fuel-to-waste firing
     ratio insufficient  to maintain  an acceptable excess air rate?  Repeat the
     calculations shown  in Worksheet 4-8 at  this  fuel- to-waste ratio, if
     necessary.

12.   Identify the total  excess air rate for the system  (i.e.,  in afterburner).

                                                                    (continued)
                                    4-42

-------
                             TABLE 4-8 (continued)
 13.  Is  this excess air rate acceptable?  See the preceding discussion for
     general guidelines.

 14.  Independently calculate the total excess air rate needed to maintain the
     proposed operating temperature in the afterburner (see Worksheet 4-9).
     Is  the calculated excess air rate greater than or comparable to the
     proposed total excess air rate?  (If YES, proceed to checkpoint #17.  If
     NO, proceed to the following checkpoint.)

 15.  Is  this excess air rate acceptable, even though it is less than the pro-
     posed excess air rate?  See the preceding discussion for general guide-
     lines.   (If YES, proceed to checkpoint #17.  If NO, proceed to the
     following checkpoint.)

 16.  Are there any mechanical restraints in the system that would prevent
     increasing the auxiliary fuel-to-waste firing ratio in the afterburner
     (which would be needed to maintain both an acceptable temperature and
     excess air rate)?  If necessary repeat the calculations shown in
     Worksheet 4-9 at the maximum achievable fuel-to-waste ratio.
17.  Identify the locations at which temperature is to be measured in the
     and afterburner.
t
IS.  Are these locations (a) suitable based on the general guidelines given in
     the preceding discussion, or (b) comparable to the location at which
     temperature was measured during a prior similar burn?
This equation can be used for a rough approximation of the retention time.

Typical ranges for the parameters are L/D = 2-10, 0.03-0.09 ft/ft slope, and
1-5 ft/min rotational speed measured at the kiln periphery (which can be
converted to rpm by dividing by the kiln circumference measured in ft).  Some
examples of retention tine requirements are 0.5 s for fine propellants, 5 rain
for wooden boxes, 15 min for refuse, and 60 rain for railroad ties [5].  How-
ever, the retention tine requirements for burnout of any particular solid
waste should be determined experimentally or extrapolated from operating
experience with similar wastes.

Table 4-9 presents an evaluation procedure for kiln retention time.

In rotary kiln incineration systems, both the degree of air/solids contact in
the kiln and gas mixing in the afterburner must be considered.  Afterburner
mixing considerations are essentially the same as for liquid injection incin-
erators, a topic which is addressed in Section 4.3.3.1.  See Table 4-7 for the
afterburner mixing evaluation procedure.
                                    4-43

-------
             TABLE 4-9.  KILN RETENTION TIME EVALUATION PROCEDURE
 1.  Identify the estimated solids retention time in the kiln.

 2.  Is this retention time acceptable,  based on past experience and/or prior
     burn data?

 3.  Independently estimate solids retention time in the kiln (see
     Worksheet 4-10).

 4.  Does the proposed retention time appear to be achievable?
Air/solids mixing in the kiln is primarily a function of the kiln's rotational
velocity, assuming a relatively constant gas flow rate.   As rotational veloc-
ity is increased, the solids are carried up higher along the kiln wall and
showered down through the air/combustion gas mixture.  Typical rotational
velocities are in the range of 1-5 ft/min, measured at the kiln periphery.

Since solids retention time is also affected by rotational velocity, there
a tradeoff between retention time and air/solids mixing.  Mixing is improve*
to a point by increased rotational velocity, but the solids retention time
reduced.  Mixing is also improved by increasing the excess air rate, but this
reduces the kiln operating temperature.  Thus, there is a distinct interplay
between all four operating variables.

4.3.4  Auxiliary Fuel Capacity Evaluation

4.3.4.1  Liquid Injection Incinerators--
As discussed in Section 4.3.1, liquid injection incinerators should be
equipped with an auxiliary fuel firing system to heat the; unit to operating
temperature before waste is introduced.  Although not essential from an engi-
neering standpoint, it is desirable for the auxiliary fuel system to have
sufficient capacity to attain this temperature at the design air flow rate for
waste combustion.  This capacity requirement can be approximated by the
following heat balance equation :
                  0.95 mf NHVf
'if Cpi  (I»ut  -  77>
aSee Section 4.3.3.1 for a discussion of how heat balances are  formulated.
                                    4-44

-------
                    4-31 mw  (02)stoich(w)   (1 * EA) Cp aif  (T^ - 77
                  - 4.31 mf  (02)stoich(f) Cp air  (Tout - 77)
where                 m, =  required auxiliary capacity, Ib/hr

                    NHVf =  net heating value of auxiliary fuel, Btu/lb
                     N.- =  Ib combustion ith product Ib fuel


                     C~ =  heat capacity of ith component, Btu/lb °F

                    T    =  proposed operating temperature, measured at the
         •                  incinerator outlet, °F

       4.31(02)    . , /  x -  stoichiometric air requirement for waste combustion,
               stoicn(.w;    .,   • yjL ,,_..*.-.
                      m  = proposed waste feed rate  (average), Ib/hr

                      EA = proposed excess air rate, %/100

       4.31(02) ,.  • h/r\ = stoichiometric air requirement for fuel combustioft,
               stoicnir;   -Q, air/lb fuel                                   j

This equation is based on these assumptions:  (a) air is not preheated,
(b) there is a 5% heat loss through the refractory walls, and (c) the air flow
rate for normal waste burning operation exceeds the  air requirements for fuel
combustion during startup.

Since C02, H20, and N2 are the only major components of fuel combustion gases
at stoichiometric firing conditions, this equation can be further simplified
using the heat capacities presented in Section 4.3.3.1  The simplified form
is:

  0.95 mfNHVf = mf  [0.26 (n^ + n^  + 0.49 n^j  (T^ - 77)



          > 1.12 mtf (02)stoich(w) (1 * EA) 
-------
If this rating is reported in Btu/hr rather than Lb/hr, the capacity require-   ^
ment calculated in Worksheet 4-11 can be converted to equivalent units by.-

                                 Qf = mf NHVf

where  Q, = required auxiliary fuel capacity,  Btu/hr

4.3.4.2  Rotary Kiln Incinerators--
In rotary kiln incinerators, both the kiln and afterburner need to be heated
to operating temperature before waste is introduced.  Since the afterburner
temperature is usually higher than the kiln temperature and more critical in
terms of emissions,  it should be sufficient to limit the auxiliary fuel capac-
ity evaluation to the afterburner section.  Th« evaluation procedure described
for liquid injection incinerators can be modified for this purpose in the
following manner:

   • The proposed average waste feed rate (mw) and stoichioraetric air require-
     ment for waste combustion should be based on the combined kiln and after-
     burner waste feed.

   • Temperature (T  t) should be specified at the afterburner outlet.

   • The excess air rate (EA) used in the calculation should be the proposed!"
     excess air level for the afterburner section.                          J

With these modifications, Worksheet 4-11 can be used to estimate the auxiliary   ™
fuel startup requirements for rotary kiln incinerators as well as liquid
injection units.

4.3.5  Combustion Process Control and Safety Shutdown System Evaluation

All incinerators should be equipped with combustion process control systems to
maintain the desired conditions of temperature and excess air.  Incinerators
burning hazardous wastes should also be equipped with automatic shutdown
systems in order to prevent the release of hazardous materials to the environ-
ment in the event of flameout, other combustion process upsets, or air pollu-
tion control device failure.  The following subsections discuss combustion
process control and automatic shutdown procedures related to upsets in liquid
injection and rotary kiln incinerators.  Process control procedures for air
pollution control devices are discussed in Section 4.4.5.

4.3.5.1  Liquid Injection Incinerators—
In most liquid injection incinerator designs, the desired temperature at  the
chamber outlet is preset by the operator, and secondary air is fed to the
system at a constant rate.  Fluctuations in temperature are controlled by
increasing or reducing the waste or auxiliary fuel feed rate to the burner
within the design turndown ratio.  This turndown ratio is fixed, in part, by
the limited range of liquid waste injection velocities required to prevent
flame liftoff or flashback.  If waste is injected through the burner nozzle  at
too high a velocity, the flame will separate from the burner and be extin-         A
guished.  If the injection velocity is too low, the waste will burn in the         ~
nozzle and damage it.  The range of injection velocities needed to prevent


                                    4-46

-------
these occurrences is determined by the flame propagation rate for the wastes
and the flame retention characteristics of the burner.

Since the burner turndown ratio is also limited by the atomization technique
employed (see Section 4.3.1) and the need to maintain air/fuel stoichiometry
in the burner on turndown, the burner must be equipped with a primary air feed
control system.  There are a number of ways to control burner stoichiometry,
depending on whether aspirator burners or forced-draft burners are used and on
manufacturer preference.   For evaluation purposes, a package burner/primary
air control system provided by the same manufacturer can be considered
sufficient.

Problems with the automatic temperature control system described above occur
on loss of ignition, or flameout.  When flameout occurs, the temperature in
the incinerator drops and more waste is automatically fed to the burner.
Without a heat source for ignition, this waste passes through the incinerator
partially or completely unreacted.  Thus, temperature continues to drop, more
waste is automatically injected, and the problem of incomplete combustion is
magnified.

To prevent this phenomenon from occurring, burners are usually equipped with
flame scanners.  These devices sense ultraviolet radiation from the flame.
When used in conjunction with an automatic waste feed cutoff, flame scannerL
immediately terminate the feed to the burner on loss of ignition.          I

Flame scanners are usually designed to sense ultraviolet radiation from gas or
fuel oil flames.  These flames tend to be more stable than the flames from
burning wastes which are usually much more heterogeneous than fuels.  For
example, organic wastes containing a significant amount of moisture burn with
a sputtering flame, particularly when a slug of water passes through the
burner.   Although combustion may continue despite such occurrences, flame
scanners often sense loss of ignition.  This leads to unnecessary waste feed
cutoff.

To prevent unnecessary shutdown, flame scanners can be used in conjunction
with temperature sensors at the outlet of the incinerator.  With this sys-
tem, feed is only cut off by a combination of flameout, as sensed by the flame
scanner, and low temperature at the combustion chamber.  This considerably
reduces  operator problems when relatively heterogeneous wastes are being
burned.   If the low temperature cutoff is preset to the minimum temperature
needed for waste destruction, release of hazardous substances to the environ-
ment is  also prevented.

The other automatic shutdown parameter related to the combustion process is
high temperature at the incinerator outlet.  This can signal loss of secondary
 In aspirator burners, primary air is supplied by an induced-draft fan down-
 stream from the incinerator.  In forced-draft burners, primary air is sup-
 plied by a separate blower, although an induced-draft fan may still be
 employed to pull the combustion gases through the air pollution control system.


                                    4-47

-------
combustion air or other control system malfunctions.   The high temperature
cutoff point should be well above the tolerance level associated with normal
operating temperature fluctuations to prevent shutdown in the event of routine
variations, and should be low enough to prevent damage to downstream air
pollution control equipment.

Table 4-10 lists three checkpoints for liguid injection incinerator combustion
process control evaluation.

4.3.5.2  Rotary Kiln Incinerators--
In rotary kiln incinerators, temperature is controlled within a specified
range by automatically varying the liquid waste or auxiliary fuel firing rate
within the design turndown ratio and/or manually or automatically controlling
the solid waste feed.  Regardless of which technique  is employed, provisions
should be included for the following:

   •  Termination of liquid waste feed on loss of ignition in the burner.  If
     more than one liquid waste burner is employed, feed only needs to be
     terminated in the burner where flameout occurs.   See Section 4.3.5.1 for
     a discussion of flame supervision systems.

   •  Termination of solid waste feed to the kiln when low temperatures are
     sensed at the kiln outlet.  If the feed to the kiln is automatic or     »
     semiautomatic,  then the low temperature cutoff system should also be    J*
     automatic.  If manual feeding is employed, an alarm system is needed to|-
     warn the operator.   The low temperature cutoff point should be such that
     solid waste burnout can be maintained, but at lower than the normal
     operating temperature to avoid shutdown due to routine temperature
     fluctuations.  Engineering judgment must be used to determine an
     acceptable minimum temperature.

   •  Termination of solid waste feed on loss of negative pressure at the kiln
     outlet.

          TABLE 4-10.  COMBUSTION PROCESS CONTROL EVALUATION PROCEDURE
     Is each burner equipped with an automatic flame supervision system, as
     discussed in the preceding subsection, (Section 4.3.5.1)?

     Is the system equipped with an automatic high temperature/low temperature
     control system, employing variable flow of either waste or auxiliary
     fuel?

     Is each burner equipped with an air supply control system so that air:
     fuel stoichiometry is maintained on turndown?
                                    4-48

-------
Afterburner burner temperature can be controlled by varying the liquid or
auxiliary fuel feed or by varying the secondary air flow rate.  Regardless of
which technique is employed, provisions should be included for the following:

    • Termination of liquid waste or auxiliary fuel feed on loss of ignition
     (see Section 4.3.5.1 for a discussion of flame supervision).   This cutoff
     is necessary to prevent the release of unburned waste contaminants (if
     liquid waste is being burned) and to prevent potential explosion on
     release of unburned fuel.  However, it also eliminates the function of
     the afterburner.  Therefore, solid waste feed to the kiln should also be
     terminated on loss of ignition in the afterburner.  To minimize the
     occurrence of flameout in the afterburner,  only "clean," homogeneous
     liquid wastes (or fuel) should be burned.

    • Termination of solid waste feed to the kiln if low temperatures are
     sensed at the afterburner outlet.  The afterburner feed should be main-
     tained, however, to minimize potential release of unburned contaminants.
     As previously stated, the low temperature cutoff point should be such
     that combustion is maintained, but at lower than normal operating
     temperatures to avoid shutdown due to routine fluctuations.

    • Termination of solid waste feed to the kiln if high temperatures are   j
     sensed at the afterburner outlet.  This is necessary to prevent damage to
     the refractory lining and to downstream air pollution control devices. )
     The high temperature cutoff point should be well above normal operating -.
     temperatures, but low enough to avoid damage to the system.  In the event
     of this cutoff, some liquid waste or fuel feed to the afterburner should
     be maintained to complete combustion of off-gases from solid wastes
     remaining in the kiln.

In addition to these criteria, all liquid waste burners in the kiln and after-
burner should be equipped with manufacturer specified primary air control
systems so that air/fuel stoichiometry is maintained on turndown.

Table 4-11 presents a five-point checklist for rotary kiln incinerator combus-
tion process control evaluation.


         TABLE 4-11.  COMBUSTION PROCESS CONTROL EVALUATION PROCEDURE
 1.  Is each burner in the kiln and afterburner equipped with an automatic
     flame supervision system for waste feed shutdown?

 2.  Is the afterburner equipped with an automatic high temperature/low tem-
     perature control system employing variable flow of waste, auxiliary fuel,
     or secondary combustion air?

 3.  Is the kiln equipped with an automatic temperature control system
     employing variable feed of either waste or auxiliary fuel?

                                                                    (continued)


                                    4-49

-------
                            TABLE 4-11 (continued)
 4.  Is the kiln equipped with a pressure monitoring system which alerts the
     operator or automatically terminates waste feed if negative pressure is
     lost?

 5.  Is each burner equipped with an air supply control system so that
     air .-fuel stoichiometry is maintained on turndown?
4.3.6  Construction Material Evaluation

Since hazardous waste incinerators usually operate at temperatures of 1,800°F
or higher (sometimes hundreds of degrees higher for halogenated wastes),
refractory linings are virtually always employed to prevent damage to the
structural steel shell and to reduce heat loss.  Aluminosilicate refractories
backed up by insulating brick are most commonly used, although refractories
made predominantly of silica or specialty refractories may be used in certain
applications.  Table 4-12 lists various types of aluminosilicate and silica j
refractories  along with their approximate chemical compositions, fusion    I*
temperatures, and resistances to degradation by different chemical species- |
that may be encountered in incinerator combustion gases.

Table 4-12, along with the operating temperature range and the chemical compo-
sition of the waste, can be used to evaluate the suitability of a refractory
for a given application.

In addition to refractory composition, the physical form of the material
should also be considered in evaluating liquid injection vs. rotary kiln
incinerator designs.  Suspended refractory brick is normally used in station-
ary liquid injection units and afterburners.  In kilns, however, castable
refractories are normally used to better withstand the physical abrasion and
vibration imparted by rotation and contact with solid wastes.  Castable
refractories are made of the same clays as those used in aluminosilicate
firebrick, but bonding agents are added to impart strength until the
temperature in the incinerator during initial startup is raised sufficiently
high to "cure" the material and develop ceramic bonds.  Castable refractories
are easily installed in much the same manner as cement; thus, they are  also
used for quick repairs and spot patching.

4.4  AIR POLLUTION CONTROL AND GAS HANDLING SYSTEM DESIGN EVALUATION

Figure 4-11 presents a logic diagram for air pollution control and gas  han-
dling system design evaluation.  It consists of six separate evaluation
procedures intended to answer the following questions:
aSee references listed in Table 4-12 for information on specialty  refractions

                                    4-50

-------
          TABLE 4-12.  GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SILICA AND ALUMINO-
                       SILICATE REFRACTORY BRICK (6, 7, 8, 9,  10]

Type
Silica
High- duty
fireclay
Super-duty
fireclay
Typical
composition
95% Si02
5 -% Si02,
40% A1203
52% Si02,
42% A1203
Fusion
temperature, °Fa
3,100
3,125
3,170
Resistant
to
HC1, NH3, acid
slags
Most acids,
slag condi-
tions
HC1, NH3, S02,
most acids
Degraded
bv
Basic slags,
Al, Na, Mg,
F2 , C12 , H2 ,
(>2,550°F)
High- lime
slags, other
bases at high
temperature
Basic slagsj.
Na, Mg, F2,|
Acid-resistant  59% Si02
  (type H)
High-Alumina    50-85%
                A1203
                  3,040
               3,200-3,400
Extra-High-
  Alumina
Mullite
90-99%
A1203
71% A1203
3,000-3,650
   3,290
                 Excellent for
                 most acids,-
                 bases in mod-
                 erate concen-
                 tration

                 HC1, NH3, S02
HC1, HF, NH3,
S02, S2/ HN03,
H2S04, C12

HC1, S02, NH3
                 C12, H2,
                 (>2,550°F)

                 HF, H3P04
Basic slags,
Na, Mg, F2,
C12, H2
(>2,550°F)

Na, F2
(>1,800°F)
Na, F2, C12/
H2 (>2,550°F)
 A safety factor of at least several hundred degrees between refractory fusion
 temperature and incinerator operating temperature is advisable.
                                    4-51

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              EMISSION SPECIES/AIR POLLUTION
          CONTROL DEVICE MATCHING CONSIDERATIONS
                      SECTION 4.4.1
            AIR POLLUTION CONTROL DEVICE DESIGN
             AND OPERATING CRITERIA EVALUATION
                      SECTION 4.4.2
                           1
              QUENCHING AND MIST ELIMINATION
                       EVALUATION
                      SECTION 4.4.3
                           I
             PRIME MOVER CAPACITY EVALUATION
                      SECTION 4.4.4
                           I
              PROCESS CONTROL AND AUTOMATIC
               SHUTDOWN SYSTEM EVALUATION
                      SECTION 4.4.5
                           I
                 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
                      CONSIDERATIONS
                       SECTION 4.4.6
Figure 4-14.
Logic diagram for air pollution control and
gas handling system design.
                         4-52

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 (1)  Are the generic air pollution control device designs appropriate for
     removal of the pollutants present in the combustion gases?

 (2)  Are the air pollution control device designs and operating criteria
     consistent with current industry practice and capable of achieving the
     necessary pollutant removal efficiencies?

 (3)  Have combustion gas quenching and mist elimination been properly con-
     sidered in the system design?

 (4)  Does the prime mover have sufficient capacity to handle the combustion
     gas flow and overcome pressure drops across the air pollution control
     system?

 (5)  Are appropriate process control and safety shutdown interlocks
     incorporated?

 (6)  Are appropriate materials of construction employed?

These topics are addressed in Sections 4.4.1 through 4.4.6

4.4.1  Emission/Air Pollution Control Device Matching Criteria

When incinerating hazardous wastes, air pollutants may arise from two sources:
incomplete combustion of organic waste constituents and conversion of certaf
inorganic constituents present in the waste and/or combustion air to ultimate
oxidation products.  The products of incomplete combustion include carbon
monoxide, carbon, hydrocarbons, aldehydes, amines, organic acids, polycyclic
organic matter (POM), and any other waste constituents or their partially
degraded products that escape thermal destruction in the incinerator.  In well
designed and operated incinerators, however, these incomplete combustion
products are only emitted in insignificant amounts.  The primary end products
of combustion are, in most cases, carbon dioxide (002) and water vapor (H20).

When wastes containing elements other than carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are
burned,  however, ultimate combustion products other than C02 and water vapor
are formed.  These include:

   • Hydrogen chloride (HC1) and small amounts of chlorine (C12) from the
     incineration of chlorinated hydrocarbons,

   • Hydrogen fluoride (HF) from the incineration of organic fluorides,

   • Bromine (Br2) and lesser quantities of hydrogen bromide (HBr) when
     organic bromides are burned,

   • Iodine (I2) from organic iodide compound incineration,

   • Sulfur oxides, mostly as sulfur dioxide (S02), but also including 1% to
     5% sulfur trioxide (S03), formed from sulfur present in the waste
     material and auxiliary fuel,
                                    4-53

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    • Phosphorus pentoxide (P205), formed from the incineration of
     organophosphorus compounds,

    • Nitrogen oxides (NO ) from thermal fixation of nitrogen in the combustion
     air or from organic nitrogen compounds present in tne waste, and

    • Particulates,  including metal salts from the waste,  metal oxides formed by
     combustion, and fragments of incompletely burned material (primarily
     carbon).

Gaseous pollutant concentrations  in the combustion gases  leaving an incinerator
can be estimated by the methods described in Section 4.3.2 .   Step-by-step pro-
cedures for calculating these concentrations are presented in Worksheets 4-2
and 4-4.  Particulate emissions from liquid injection incinerators can also be
estimated from the  ash content of the waste, the combustion gas flow rate cor-
rected to standard conditions of  temperature and pressure (see Worksheets 4-2
and 4-12), and the  oxygen content of the combustion gas.   Oxygen concentration
is important because particulate  loadings are often expressed as gr/scf (mg/m3)
corrected to zero percent excess  air.  A procedure to estimate particulate
concentrations in combustion gases from liquid injection  incinerators is
presented in Worksheet 4-12.  Particulate emissions from  rotary kilns are more
difficult to estimate because sizable fractions of incombustible material art
removed as bottom ash, and the fly ash:bottom ash ratio is usually unknown
prior to actual testing.  In general, particulate emissions from rotary kill
burning solid wastes are greater  than particulate emissions from liquid injec-
tion incinerators.   This is due to the fact that solid wastes frequently have
a higher ash content than liquid wastes.
1
Lr*
As indicated in Section 4.1, venturi scrubbers, packed bed scrubbers, and
plate tower scrubbers are used for air pollution control at the majority of
hazardous waste incineration facilities.  In selecting from among these ge-
neric scrubber designs, the factors most frequently considered are the need
for particulate emission control, particulate loading in the combustion gas
(assuming that control is required to meet emission standards), the types of
gaseous pollutants to be removed, and the desired removal efficiencies.
Particulate loading governs the choice between venturi and packed bed or plate
tower scrubbers for a given application, and the characteristics of the gas-
eous emission species govern the choice of scrubber medium (e.g., water vs.
caustic solution, lime solution, etc.) as well as generic scrubber design.

These factors are discussed in the following subsections.

4.4.1.1  Particulate Removal—
Particulate removal is required when the ash content of the waste is such that
emissions will exceed applicable state, local, or Federal standards.  Particu-
late removal is nearly always required at rotary kiln incineration facilities,
and may or may not be required for liquid injection incinerators depending on
the ash content of the waste.  (See Worksheet 4-12 for a method to estimate
particulate emissions from liquid incinerators.)  Venturi, packed bed, and
aThese procedures are not applicable for products of incomplete combustion.
                                    4-54

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plate tower scrubbers can all be used to control particulate emissions from
hazardous waste incinerators, depending on the particulate loading in the gas.
Packed bed or plate tower scrubbers are commonly used at liquid injection
incinerator facilities where particulate control is considered secondary to
gaseous emission control.  These devices are superior to venturi scrubbers for
removal of gaseous pollutants and they operate at lower pressure drops;  thus
they are more economical to operate.  Both the plate tower and the packed bed
scrubber have some capacity for particle collection, and they are considered
applicable for streams containing low particulate loadings with particles
generally >5 ym in diameter [11].  Cut diameters as low as 1 M"» can be at-
tained with plate scrubbers or packed bed scrubbers employing 1-inch berl
saddles or Raschig rings [12].  However, packed bed and plate tower scrubbers
are not primarily designed for particulate control.  Both devices, particular-
ly packed bed scrubbers, are susceptible to pluggage by solids.  Therefore,
they are seldom, if ever, used as the primary particulate collection devices
at rotary kiln incineration facilities or liquid injecton incineration facili-
ties where high ash content wastes are burned.  Venturi scrubbers are the most
popular devices for these applications.

High energy venturi scrubbers are capable of 99% removal of particulate in the
1- to 2-pm size range and above, 90-99% removal of particulate in the 0.5 - to
1-um size range, and 50% removal of particulate in the 0.3- to 0.5-um size
range [13].  By comparison, particulates emitted from liquid and solid waste!.
incinerators have mean diameters in the 0.5- to 3-um and 5- to 100-um range*,
respectively.  Therefore, venturi scrubbers are capable of efficient particxA-.
late removal for most hazardous waste incineration applications.

Table 4-13 presents a checklist procedure that can be used to compare par-
ticulate removal requirements with proposed control strategies.

             TABLE 4-13.  PROCEDURE TO COMPARE PARTICULATE REMOVAL
                          REQUIREMENTS WITH PROPOSED CONTROL STRATEGIES
 1.  If a rotary kiln incinerator facility is being evaluated, is a venturi
     scrubber provided for particulate control?

 2.  If a liquid injection incinerator facility is being evaluated, does the
     estimated particulate emission rate exceed applicable standards?  See
     Worksheet 4-12 for a procedure to estimate particulate emissions.

 3.  If particulate emissions do exceed standards, is a venturi scrubber
     provided for particulate removal (upstream from other gaseous emission
     control devices)?

 4.  If not, are packed bed or plate tower scrubbers to be used for
     simultaneous particulate and gaseous pollutant removal?

 5.  If so,  can the selected control device function properly in its dual
     role?  (Technical assistance may be needed to make this determination).
                                    4-55

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4.4.1.2  Gaseous Pollutant Removal--                                              •
Gaseous pollutants generated by hazardous waste incineration include HC1,  C12,
SO ,  Br2,, HBr, HF, P205 and NO^, of which NO^ and HC1 are most commonly encoun-
tered. '  '    These compounds are usually removed from the combustion gases by
packed bed or plate tower scrubbers, although venturi scrubbers are used in
some applications for simultaneous particulate and gaseous pollutant removal.
For highly soluble gases such as HC1 and HF,  water can be used in packed bed
or plate tower scrubbers to control emissions.  When water is used as the
scrubbing liquor, an acidic blowdown stream is produced that must be neutral-
ized prior to discharge.  HC1 concentration in the scrubbing liquor is normal-
ly limited to 1-2% by adjusting the makeup water and blowdown rates.  The
scrubber must also be lined with an acid-resistant material, as discussed in
Section 4.4.6.

Caustic solution (typically 18-20 wt % caustic soda in water) is also commonly
used in packed bed and plate tower scrubbers to control HC1 and HF emissions.
Because these compounds react with caustic, the driving force for mass trans-
fer is increased and more efficient removal is achieved at the same liquid-to-
gas ratio and packing depth (or number of trays).  Neutralization is also
achieved "in situ" if sufficient caustic is supplied for complete conversion         I
of HC1 to NaCl.  Unlike water scrubbing, caustic scrubbing can also achieve          ;
high removal efficiencies for S02, Pa^s, and HBr, which are less soluble in
water than HC1 or HF.  When gases such as S02 are being scrubbed, the caustic        ,
addition rate is adjusted to maintain an alkaline scrubbing media.  Alter-   I*
natively, the caustic addition rate can be adjusted to sub-stoichiometric    |
levels.  This reduces the scrubber water makeup and blowdown rates needed to*       •
maintain a specified acid concentration in the scrubber liquor.

Lime slurry, typically 10-32 wt % Ca(OH)2 in water, can also be used to con-
trol emissions of HCl, HF, S02, and PaOj.  However, lime slurries are not
often used as the scrubbing liquid in packed bed designs because of plugging
problems.  Also, the use of lime slurries can lead to plugging of the spray
nozzles and cause scale formation on the surfaces of the scrubber equipment,
particularly scrubber internals and mist eliminator surfaces..  The magnitude
of the scaling problem will depend on the levels of HCl, HF, P20$» and SO  in        '
the incinerator exhaust gases.  Lime solutions are used in plate tower scrub-
bers, however, because lime is less expensive than caustic.  At several haz-         '
ardous waste incineration facilities, venturi scrubbers with lime slurry             i
injection are used to control emissions of HCl, HF, and
 NO  emissions are not economically amenable to control by scrubbing or other
 post-generation removal techniques.  NO  emissions can be minimized by con-
 trolled temperature combustion, but this is seldom possible in hazardous
 waste incineration due to the requirements for efficient, high temperature
 waste destruction.
 1 2 and HI emissions may be an occasional problem as veil.
     is present in conjuncton with HCl, but equilibrium favors HCl formation
 at the high temperatures employed in chlorinated waste incinerators.  C12 and
 the other free halogens are not readily removed by scrubbing.


                                    4-56

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When organic bromine and iodine wastes are incinerated,  the exhaust gases from
the incinerator will contain bromine and iodine both as  hydrogen halides and
as free halogens.  Hydrogen bromide can be readily removed by scrubbing with
caustic soda.  The technology for controlling emissions  of bromine, hydrogen
iodide, and iodine, however, is not well developed.   Some of the methods that
could be considered to control bromine emissions include: (1) absorption in
ammonia solution with the formation of ammonia bromide;  (2) absorption in
caustic soda or soda ash solution in which bromine reacts to form sodium
bromate, sodium bromide, and either water or carbon dioxide,- and (3) absorp-
tion in lime slurry in which bromine reacts to form calcium bromide and cal-
cium bromate.  It is also conceivable that bromine can be reduced by the
sulfur dioxide present in the flue gas, giving rise to the formation of a
spray of fine droplets of hydrobromic and sulfuric acids, which could
subsequently be removed by absorption in caustic solutions or lime slurries.

when combustion gases contain a high particulate loading as well as one or
more of the gaseous pollutants discussed above, venturi scrubbers are often
used in conjunction with packed bed or plate tower scrubbers.  Venturi scrub-
bers remove the particulate from the stream to prevent fouling of the packed
bed or plate tower absorber, and may also remove a significant fraction of
gases highly soluble in water.  However, venturi scrubbers alone are not
considered suitable for removal of low solubility gases,- when water is used
the scrubbing medium, estimated efficiencies are less than 50-75%  [11].
Venturi scrubbers using water are not suitable for highly efficient (>99%)
removal of HCl or HF either.

Table 4-14 presents a checklist procedure that can be used to compare gaseous
pollutant removal requirements with proposed control strategies.  The
following rules of thumb are generally applicable:

  •  Water, caustic, or lime in packed bed or plate tower scrubbers for
     removal of HCl and/or HF,

  •  Caustic or lime in packed bed or plate tower scrubbers for removal of
     other acid gases discussed above, and

     Specialized scrubbing techniques for HBr, Br2, HI,  and I2-  Technical
     assistance is advised in evaluating these systems.

4.4.2  Air Pollution Control Device Design and Operating Criteria Evaluation

4.4.2.1  Venturi Scrubbers--
Venturi scrubbers utilize the kinetic energy of a moving gas stream to atomize
the scrubbing liquid into droplets.  Liquid is injected into the high velocity
gas stream either at the inlet to the converging section or at the venturi
throat.  In the process, the liquid is atomized by the formation and subse-
quent shattering of attenuated, twisted filaments and thin, cuplike films.
These initial filaments and films have extremely large surface areas available
for mass transfer  [14].

Venturi scrubbers are usually designed for particulate collection, but they
can be used for simultaneous gas absorption as well.  However, the design of


                                    4-57

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          TABLE 4-14.   PROCEDURE  TO  COMPARE  GASEOUS  POLLUTANT REMOVAL
                       REQUIREMENTS  WITH PROPOSED  CONTROL  STRATEGIES
     From Worksheet 4-2 or 4-4,  identify the  gaseous  pollutants  present  in  the
     combustion gases in excess  of desired emission levels.
     Is removal of Brg ,  HBr,  Iz,  or HI  required?   If YES,  technical  assistance
     may be required.
 3.  Is removal of SO  or P20s required?   If YES,  proceed to checkpoint #4.
     If NO,  proceed to checkpoint #5.

 4.  Is caustic or lijne slurry scrubbing  to be used for SO ./P205 removal,  as
     described in the preceding pages?  (Water scrubbing afone is usually not
     sufficient to remove these compounds).                                         *

 5.  Is removal of HC1 or HF required?

 6.  Is alkali or aqueous scrubbing in a  packed bed or plate tower scrubber,        F
     or alkali scrubbing in a venturi scrubber, to be used for HCl/HF removal?

                                                                            I       '
 7.  If not, are other methods for HCl/HF removal provided?                  I

 8.  If so,  are these methods acceptable?  (Technical assistance may be needed      4
     to make this determination) .
venturi scrubbers for removal of gaseous contaminants is dependent on the           '
availability of applicable experimental data.   There is no satisfactory gener-
alized design correlation for these types of scrubbers, especially when             I
absorption with chemical reaction is involved.  Reliable design must be based       I
on full-scale data or at least laboratory- or pilot-scale data.

Correlations are available to design venturi scrubbers for particulate removal.     ^
The important design parameters are particulate loading and desired removal
efficiency, particle size distribution, pressure drop, liquid-to-gas ratio,
and gas velocity.

Particulate loading, size distribution, and removal efficiency-If the partic-
ulate size distribution and desired removal efficiency are known, several
correlations can be used to predict the required cut diameter for design             .
purposes.  Calvert et al. [15] have developed parametric plots of overall
penetration versus the ratio of cut diameter to mass median diameter with
geometric standard deviation as the third parameter.  These plots can be used
to determine the required cut diameter if the desired removal efficiency and        *
particle size distribution are known.  Cut diameter can then be related to
pressure drop, liquid-to-gas ratio, and gas velocity for design purposes as
described in the following subsection.                                              »
                                    4-58

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Hesketh [16] has also developed an empirical relationship between penetration
of all particles 5 |jra or less in diameter and the pressure drop across
Venturis based on data from the collection of a variety of industrial dusts.
Assuming that particles larger than 5 |jm are collected with 100% efficiency,
this relationship may be utilized with size distribution data to estimate
overall penetration:

                         Pt = 0.065W(AP)"1-43

where  Pt = fractional penetration
        W = the weight fraction of inlet particles 5 urn or less in diameter
       AP = pressure drop, in. WG

The major drawback in applying these correlations to venturi scrubber design
evaluation is that the particle size distribution will rarely be known until
testing is performed after startup.  The size distribution of particles emit-
ted from an incinerator depends upon the relative number of particles genera-
ted by several factors responsible for the formation of particulate emissions:
(1) mechanical entrainment of combustible and noncombustible particles in the
furnace gases, (2) pyrolysis of hydrocarbons and subsequent condensation, and
(3) volatilization of metallic salts and oxides present in the wastes and
auxiliary fuels.  Further, particle growth due to agglomeration and
condensation of moisture between the incinerator and the control device will |-
affect the particle size distribution.  There is no method for the a priori  I
prediction of particle size distributions resulting from waste incineration. •*
While incineration of liquid wastes may result in mean particle diameters in
the 0.5-.-to 3-um range, mean particle diameters resulting from incineration of
solid waste could range from 5 to 100 urn, depending upon the size distribution
of feed solids, their combustion characteristics, and the incinerator design.
If particle size distribution data is available, methods described in refer-
ences 15 or 16 can be used to determine the required cut diameter.

Pressure drop, liquid-to-gas ratio, and gas velocity—As described above,
particle cut diameter is a frequently used parameter for expressing and deter-
mining the particle collection performance of wet scrubbers.  One reason for
this is because plots of collection efficiency versus particle diameter tend
to be rather steep in the region where inertial impaction is the predominant
collection mechanism.  Because the cut is fairly sharp for venturi scrubbers,
a rough approximation of scrubber performance may be made by assuming that
particles larger than the cut diameter are collected with 100% efficiency
while those saaller will not be collected.  A plot of cut diameter versus
pressure drop for gas-atomized scrubbers is presented in Figure 4-15  [12].
The plot is based on industrial and experimental data as well as mathematical
models, and can be used in conjunction with the methods developed by  Calvert
et al. [15] to estimate penetration as a function of pressure drop.

Available data indicate that Venturis at hazardous waste incineration facili-
ties operate with pressure drops in the 30- to 50-in. WG range.  Based on
Figure 4-15, this indicates that venturi scrubbers at these facilities are
designed for 0.3- to 0.4-(jm cut diameters.
                                     4-59

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         E
         a
             as
             0.4

             0.3


             0.2
            0.1
   Figure 4-15.
                       2
                      (0.50)
                    3   4  5
                  I0.73MLOM1.2)
                               10
                              (2.51
 20
(5.0)
 30  40 50
(7.51 (101(12)
100
(25)
                            CAS PHASC PRESSURE DROP. in-. HjO <*P»)
         Pressure  drop versus cut diameter for gas-atomized scrubber
         systems  (Experimental data from large Venturis,  other gas-
         atomizers,  scrubbers, and mathematical model.)  [12].
Pressure drop in venturi scrubbers is theoretically  related to gas velocity
and liquid-to-gas ratio, as shown in the following relation developed by
Calvert [15].   This relationship assumes that all energy is used to accelerate
the liquid droplets to the throat velocity of the gas.
where
                  AP * 2.12 x 10~5(UG)2 ~


        pressure  drop, in.  WG

   «_ = gas velocity,  ft/s

Q./Q- =* liquid-to-gas ratio, gal/1,000 ft3
 I*  G
A?

U.
An alternative  empirical approach by Hesketh  [16]  indicates that the pressure
drop for Venturis  is proportional to U* and  (0./QG)0*78,  as well as to the
gas density p_  (measured downstream from the  venturi throat) and to A0*133,
where A is the  cross-sectional area of the venturi throat:
                                     4-60

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                                                10.78
                        AP = (U )*P_/

                                     1270

Pressure drop will be relatively unsensitive to changes in A because of the
small exponent,  but density will be inversely proportional to the gas tempera-
ture.  These relationships can be used as internal consistency checks for the
proposed conditions of gas velocity,  liquid-to-gas ratio,  and pressure drop.

Liquid-to-gas ratios for venturi scrubbers are usually in the range of 5 to 20
gal/1,000 ft3 of gas.  At existing hazardous waste incineration- facilities,
liquid-to-gas ratios ranging from 7 to 45 gal/1,000 ft3 of gas have been
reported. : In many cases, a minimum ratio of 7.5 gal/1,000 ft3 is needed to
ensure that adequate liquid is supplied to provide good gas sweeping.  Gas
velocity data are not available at this time for venturi scrubbers operating
at hazardous waste incineration facilities.  Typical venturi throat velocities
for other applications, however, are in the 100- to 400-ft/s range.  The low
end of this range, 100-150 ft/s, is typical of power plant applications, while
the upper end of the range has been applied to lime kilns and blast furnaces.

Table 4-15 presents a procedure that can be used to evaluate proposed design
and operating criteria for venturi scrubbers.                               |-


           TABLE 4-15.  VENTURI SCRUBBER DESIGN EVALUATION PROCEDURE
     Is the design pressure drop comparable to current industry practice
     (i.e., 30-50 in. «G)?
     Are the proposed gas velocity and liquid-to-gas ratio comparable to
     current industry practice?
     Are the design pressure drop, gas velocity, and liquid-to-gas ratio
     internally consistent?  (see Worksheet 4-13.)
4.4.2.2  Packed Bed Scrubbers--
As described in Chapter 2, packed bed scrubbers are vessels filled with ran-
domly oriented packing material such as saddles and rings.  The scrubbing
liquid is fed to the top of the vessel, with the gas flowing in either cocur-
rent, countercurrent, or crossflow modes.  As the liquid flows through the
bed, it wets the packing material and thus provides interfacial surface area
for mass transfer with the gas phase.  Water and caustic solution are both
commonly used as the liquid absorbent.

In the absorption of gaseous contaminants, the rate of mass transfer is direc-
tly proportional to the concentration gradient driving force, and restricted
by both gas and liquid film resistances.  The primary design variables for gas
absorption are the depth of packing, liquid-to-gas ratio, superficial gas


                                    4-61

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velocity, and contact time.   Pressure drop across the bed is also an important
design consideration, but does not directly affect absorption efficiency.
Packed bed scrubbers can be  used for limited particulate collection as well as
gas absorption, but, as explained in Section 4.4.1,  they are not primarily
designed for this purpose.

Packing depth--The depth of  packing required is best calculated from the
following expression [6]:


                                2 = NOG X HOG


where Z is the packing depth, N   is the number of overall transfer units, and
H _ is the height of a transfer unit.

The number of transfer units depends on the removal efficiency requirement.
In gaseous emission control  for hazardous waste incineration, the gaseous
contaminants to be removed usually constitute less than 10% of the total gas
stream because of the presence of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water
vapor as the major gaseous components.  Under these circumstances, the number
of transfer units can be calculated from the expression [6]:
where Y is the actual gas concentration of the contaminant,  Yj is the con-
centration at the scrubber outlet, Yj is the concentration at the inlet,
and Y  is the gas concentration of the contaminant in equilibrium with the
scrubBing liquid.  In industrial applications, the gaseous contaminant is
often very soluble in the scrubbing liquid, as is the case of hydrogen
chloride in water, or reacts very rapidly with the scrubbing liquid, as is the       (
case of hydrogen chloride with caustic solution.  For both of these cases, the
equilibrium gas concentration is negligible and the number of transfer units         .
can be calculated as:

                                          /„  \
                                 NOG =


where Y! and 7% are the inlet and outlet concentrations of the gaseous
contaminant.

The height of a transfer unit is a characteristic of the particular system,
and is influenced by the type and size of packing, gas and liquid flow  rates,
and gas and liquid physical and chemical properties.  It is often taken as a
constant over fixed ranges of operation and is given by the expression  [6]:


                                  HOG


                                    4-62

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where G is the total gas flow rate per unit cross section of bed,  K  is the
overall gas mass transfer coefficient, a is the interfacial surfacegarea per
unit volume of packing, and P is the total pressure.   Values of K a for many
of the more commonly used gas absorption processes have been published in the
literature [17,18].  Typical values of K a are given  in Table 4-16.  For
gaseous contaminants that are highly solible or chemically reactive with the
scrubbing liquid, the height of a transfer unit H   is typically in the 1 to
1.7-ft range.


                    TABLE 4-16.  TYPICAL VALUES OF K  a [18]

           Reprinted with permission from Industrial  and Engineering
           Chemistry, 59(2) Copyright 1967 American Chemical Society

Gas

C12
HC1
S02
C02
S02
C12
Scrubbing
solution

NaOH
H20
NaOH
NaOH
H20
H20
Ib mole
in. H20'ffi-s
.5
1.4 X 10 5
1.1 X 10 6
4.8 x 10 6
1.6 x 10 7
2.2 x 10 8
9.5 x 10

The transfer unit concept can be used to calculate packing depth requirements
if overall gas mass transfer coefficients are available.  For quicker esti-
mates, however, other methods can be used.  In Table 4-17, the estimated
depths of packing beds required are given for various removal efficiencies of
gaseous contaminants that are highly soluble or chemically reactive with the
scrubbing liquid.  These estimated packing depth requirements are based on the
general rule that 1 in. size packings yield an HQ_ (height of a transfer unit)
equal to 1 ft, 1-1/2 in. size packings yield an H   equal to 1.3 ft, and 2 in.
size packings yield an HQ  equal to 1.5 ft [11].

The depth of packed beds for gaseous emission control typically ranges from
4.0 to 9.3 ft.  The depth of packing can also be changed if removal efficiency
is lower than anticipated or if the carrier gas flow rate or waste streams
incinerated change.  However, an evaluation of the packing depth requirement
is still desirable to assure that a packed tower design has sufficient
capacity.

Liquid-to-gas ratio--The liquid-to-gas ratio is a design and operating param-
eter of prime importance.  It is needed in the determination of the scrubber
diameter, and it has an effect on the height of a transfer unit.  A high
liquid-to-gas ratio will lead to the requirement of a larger diameter, but at
the same time will also reduce the height of a transfer unit.
                                    4-63

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                TABLE 4-17.   PACKING DEPTH REQUIRED  TO  ACHIEVE
                             SPECIFIED REMOVAL  EFFICIENCY3  [11]

           Reprinted by permission of Chemical  Engineering  Progress

Removal
efficiency,
percent
90
95
98
99
99.5
99.9
99.99
Packing size
1 in.

2.5
3.0
4.00
4.59
5.24
6.99
9.25
1-1/2 in.

3.2
3.74
4.99
5.74
6.50
8.76
11.5
2 in.
Depth, ft
3.74
4.49
6.00
6.99
8.01
10.5
14.0
3 in.

5.74
6.76
8.99 .
10.2
12.0
15.7
21.0
3.5 in .

6.99
8.50
11.3
13.0
14.8
19.8
26.0

     Applicable only to gaseous contaminants that are highly soluble
      or chemically reactive with the scrubbing liquid.  Also,  there are
      variations in packing depths vs. the type of packing used (approx-
      imately ±25% to 30%) which have not been taken into account.


For each set of design conditions, there is a minimum liquid-to-gas ratio that
is required to achieve the desired removal efficiency.  This minimum ratio can
be computed from equilibrium relationships.  For gas contaminants that are
highly soluble or chemically reactive with the scrubbing liquid, the equili-
brium vapor pressure approaches zero.  Theoretically, there is no minimum
liquid-to-gas ratio for the removal of these gas contaminants,  based on vapor-
liquid equilibrium considerations.  In practice, of course, sufficient scrubb-
ing liquid must be provided to assure that it is not saturated with the gas
contaminants removed, and to keep the packing surfaces thoroughly wet.  When
scrubbing HCl, for example, acid concentration in the scrubber liquor is
normally limited to 1-2%.

The chemical requirement for acid gas neutralization iri a scrubber is directly
proportional to the halogen content, sulfur content, arid phosphorus content of
the hazardous waste streams incinerated.  If caustic soda is used, at 60%  in
excess of the stoichiometric amount, the requirement is given as:

     Caustic soda requirement = 0.0176 x wt % Cl in waste + 0.0328
     (Ib/lb waste)              x wt % F in waste + 0.0604 x wt % P
                                in waste + 0.0389 x wt % S in waste

If the caustic content of the scrubbing solution is known, the minimum  liquid
flow rate for neutralization can  then be calculated  in terms of gallons  of
 60% excess is typical for single pass scrubbing.  When scrubber  liquid  is
 recycled, 5-30% excess can be acceptable  for neutralization.
                                    4-64

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solution per pound of waste incinerated.  The combustion gas yield per pound
of waste (previously calculated in Section 4.3.2) can then be used in conjunc-
tion with this value to determine the minimum liquid-to-gas ratio in units of
gallons per standard cubic foot of combustion gas.

Such methods can be used to determine the chemical requirements and minimum
liquid-to-gas ratio for scrubber water neutralization.  However, complete
neutralization is not required for efficient acid gas scrubbing, as evidenced
by the fact that water is often used as the scrubbing liquor.  When water is
used, acid gas solubilities as functions of temperature must be known to
accurately determine equilibrium relationships and minimum liquid-to-gas
ratios.  A more complex situation is encountered in caustic scrubbing since
absorption in water and reaction occur simultaneously.

A simpler approach to evaluating minimum liquid-to-gas ratio requirements is
to examine current industry practices and/or to rely on actual test data.
Normal liquid-to-gas ratios in packed beds vary from 6 to 75 gal/1000 acf,
with most units operating at between 22 and 52 gal/1000 acf.  In general,
lower liquid-to-gas ratios are needed for once-through scrubbing systems  than
for recycle systems to achieve the same removal efficiency because the driving
force for mass transfer is greater for once-through scrubbing.  Likewise,
increasing the caustic addition rate will lower the minimum required
liquid-to-gas ratio, all other factors being equal.

The upper limit for liquid-to-gas ratio in packed towers is set by the flood-
ing condition.  Generalized correlations of flooding velocities are available
and can be used to estimate the maximum liquid-to-gas ratio [6].  In practice,
however, flooding can be readily detected by sharply increased pressure drop
across the packed bed, and it can be eliminated by adjustment of the liquid
flow rate during operation.  A quick check for proper column diameter sizing
can be accomplished by calculating the superficial gas velocity through the
tower.  For packed beds with countercurrent flow, superficial gas velocities
are normally in the range of 7 to 10 ft/s, corresponding to approximately 60%
of the flooding velocity.  The 40% safety factor allows for fluctuating gas
flows from the incinerator caused by changing waste composition and feed  rate.

Contact time—In gas absorption devices, higher efficiencies are attained by
allowing the gas and liquid phases to be in contact for a longer period of
time.  Removal efficiencies for gaseous contaminants in packed beds are di-
rectly related to the depth of packing, which in turn determines the contact
time.

The contact time required for gas absorption is a function of the rate of mass
transfer.  The mass transfer rate, in general, is dependent upon four separate
resistances:  gas phase resistance, liquid phase resistance, chemical reaction
resistance, and a solids dissolution resistance for scrubbing liquids contain-
ing solid reactants.  For absorption of gaseous contaminants that are highly
soluble or chemically reactive with the scrubbing liquid, such  as the absorp-
tion of HCl by caustic solution, the contact time required for  99% removal is
extremely short (on the order of 0.4 to 0.6 s).
                                    4-65

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Pressure drop — For gas flow through packed beds, the pressure drop may be
calculated using the approximate correlation developed by Leva [6]:


                           AP/Z = C2 10

where AP/2 is the pressure drop in in. WG/ft of packing, U  is the liquid
superficial velocity in ft/s, p_ is the gas density in Lb/rt3, U  is the
'superficial gas velocity in ft/s, and C2 and C3 are constants.  Pressure drops
for the common commercial packings can also be obtained from plots of pressure
drop versus gas and liquid flow rates.  These plots are available from the
packing manufacturers and should be used for more accurate estimation of
pressure drop in the design evaluation process.  For packed beds used for
gaseous emission control in hazardous waste incineration facilities, the
pressure drop usually ranges from 2.0 to 7.2 in. WG.  Since the total pressure
drop across the packed bed is directly proportional to the depth of packing,
it indirectly affects the removal efficiency of gaseous contaminants.  Higher
pressure drops also result in more efficient particulate collection.

Table 4-18 presents a procedure that can be used to evaluate packed bed scrub-
ber design, based on the foregoing considerations of packing depth, liquid-to-
gas ratio, superficial gas velocities, contact time, and pressure drop.

             TABLE 4-18.  PACKED BED SCRUBBER EVALUATION PROCEDURE
 1.  Is the proposed packing depth sufficient to attain the desired gas        (
     absorption efficiency?  See Table 4-17a.

 2.  Is the proposed liquid-to-gas ratio within normal limits, as described  in
     the preceding discussion?

 3.  Is the superficial gas velocity  through the scrubber  reasonable, based  on
     the preceding discussion?   (Worksheet 4-7 shows how superficial gas
     velocities may be calculated for incinerators.  The same procedure may  be
     used  for scrubber velocity  calculation.)

 4.  Are the contact tunes and pressure drops through  the  scrubber reasonable,
     based on the preceding discussion?   (Contact  time can be estimated using
     the methods shown in Worksheet 4-6 for incinerator gas residence  time,
     replacing the incinerator volume term with the total  volume  occupied by
     the packed section of the scrubber:
     where Z = bed depth  and  D  =  column  diameter.)
 Table 4-17  is  only  applicable  for  highly soluble  gases such as HCl and HF.  If
 other gaseous  pollutants  are to  be removed,  technical assistance may be
 requested.                                                                    I
                                     4-66

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4.4.2.3  Plate Tower Scrubbers--
Plate towers are vertical cylindrical columns with a number of plates or trays
inside.  The scrubbing liquid is introduced at the top plate and flows succes-
sively across each plate as it moves downward to the liquid outlet at the
tower bottom.  Gas comes in at the bottom of the tower and passes through
openings in each plate before leaving through the top.  Gas absorption is
promoted by the breaking up of the gas phase into small bubbles which pass
through the volume of liquid on each plate.  Water, caustic solution, and lime
solution can all be used as the scrubbing liquid.

The primary design variables for gas absorption in plate tower scrubbers are
the number of plates or trays, the liquid-to-gas ratio, and the contact time.
Pressure drop is also an important design criteria although it does not direc-
tly affect absorption efficiency.  Like packed bed scrubbers, plate tower
scrubbers can be used for limited particulate collection as well as gas
absorption, but they are not primarily designed for this purpose.

Number of plates--In the design of plate towers for absorption of gaseous
contaminants that are highly soluble or chemically reactive with the scrubbing
liquid, the -umber of actual plates, N_, may be calculated from the
equation [6J:

                               M  _
                               Np - '

where y: and 72 are the inlet and outlet concentrations of the gaseous contam-
inant and £._. is the Murphree vapor phase efficiency.  In developing the above
equation, the assumption is made that £._. is the same for each plate in the
tower.  The Murphree vapor phase efficiencies for the various plate designs may
be obtained from published data for selected gas-liquid systems  [6,17].  These
would normally be in the 25% to 80% range.  A rigorous estimation of the
Murphree vapor phase efficiency is extremely complex.  For the case of absorp-
tion towers operating with low viscosity liquids and without excessive weepage
(liquid dripping) or entrainment, the figures in Table 4-19 can be used.


                 TABLE 4-19.  MURPHREE VAPOR PHASE EFFICIENCY
                              FOR PLATE TOWERS  [19]

    "Reprinted by special permission from CHEMICAL ENGINEERING November 13
    Copyright 1972 by McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, N.Y.  10020."

Perforation
diameter,
in.
1/16
1/16 to 1/8
1/8 to 3/16
1/4 to 3/8
Murphree vapor phase
efficiency,
percent
80
75
70
65
                                    4-67

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Liquid-to-gas ratio--For plate towers, the selection of the optimum liquid-
to-gas ratio depends largely on operating experience.  Experience has indi-
cated that for single-pass crossflow bubble cap trays, the liquid flow should
not exceed 0.72d ft3/s, where d is the diameter of the tower in feet.  Since
the gas flow rate in the tower can be estimated from the Souders-Brown
equation, the maximum liquid-to-gas ratio is given as follows:


                 (Liquid ]    = 630 /  PG   \Q-5,gal/1,000 ft3

                 V Gas  /max   Kd  I PL - PG/

where K is an empirical constant in the Souders-Browri equation, and p_ and p
are the gas and liquid densities, respectively.  Values of K are available
from Chemical Engineers' Handbook [6] or any other standard chemical engineer-
ing reference on mass transfer, distillation, or unit operations.  For towers
with a tray spacing of 24 in., K is typically 0.17.

Contact time—As in packed bed scrubbers, gas/liquid contact time is an impor-
tant factor affecting removal efficiency.  In tray towers, greater depths of
liquid on the plates lead to greater plate efficiency through longer contact
time with the gas.  Typical gas residence times in tray towers are comparable
to those for packed bed scrubbers; for example, 0.4 s to 0.6 s for 99+% ab-
sorption of HC1 in caustic solution.  For absorption of S02 by lime solution,
longer contact times (in the range of 3-9 s) are needed to overcome the ajddi-
tional mass transfer resistance due to solids dissolution.
r
Pressure drop — For plate towers, the pressure drop across a perforated plate
is the sum of the gas resistance in passing through the perforations plus  the
head required to overcome the equivalent liquid depth on the plate:
P, ,  the pressure drop due to gas resistance in in. WG, can be calculated  from
tne equation [20] :
where p.. and p. are the gas and liquid densities, respectively; U   is  the
linear velocity of the gas through perforations in ft/s; and C»Q Is the  ori-
fice coefficient.  Values of C^. are 0.7-0.8 for sieve trays ana 0.6-0.7 for
bubble cap trays.  The pressure drop due to liquid head in  in. WG,  h_ , can be
calculated from a knowledge of weir dimensions:

                         ^ - 1.5 « 10"7 PL (htf +

where p  is the liquid density in lb/ft3, hw is height of weir on  the  tray in
mm, ano; h   is height of weir crest in mm.
                                    4-63

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Total pressure drop can be roughly estimated by:
                                AP  = AP  x N
                                  T     P    P

where  AP_ = total pressure drop

       AP  = pressure drop per plate

        N  = number of plates


Table 4-20 presents a procedure that can be used for plate tower scrubber
design evaluation, based on consideraton of the number of plates required,
liquid-to-gas ratio, contact time, and pressure drop.  The equa~ions presented
above can be used to estimate pressure drop if this information is not
available from the vendor.  However, vendor data are preferable.
             TABLE 4-20.  PLATE TOWER SCRUBBER EVALUATION PROCEDURE
 1.  Are the proposed number of plates comparable to or greater than the      f
     required number of plates, as estimated by the procedures shown in       I
     Worksheet 4-14 .                                                         -I

 2.  Are the proposed liquid flow and liquid-to-gas ratio reasonable and less
     than the maximum acceptable values calculated by the methods shown in
     Worksheet 4-15?

 3.  Are the contact time and pressure drop within reason?


 This procedure is only valid for gases highly soluble in the scrubber liquor.


4.4.3  Quenching and Mist Elimination Considerations

In addition to scrubbers used for particulate and gaseous emission control,
air pollution control systems for hazardous waste incinerators frequently
include quench towers and mist eliminators.  Located upstream from the scrub-
bers, quench towers are designed to reduce the temperature of the combustion
gases leaving the incinerator.  This temperature reduction reduces the volu-
metric gas flow rate,  and thus the scrubber capacity requirement.  Quenching
also reduces evaporative water losses in the scrubber, and allows the use of
low temperature materials of construction such as fiber-reinforced plastic
(FRP) rather than more expensive, high temperature alloys or refractory.

Since venturi scrubbers provide evaporative gas cooling by the very nature of
their design, quenching may be considered optional when these devices are used
for primary particulate and/or gaseous emission control.  Packed bed and plate
tower scrubbers, however, are not designed for evaporated cooling.  When these
devices are used without upstream venturi scrubbing, quenching is nearly
                                    4-69

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always required.   Without quenching,  evaporative water loss from caustic or
lime solution can lead to particulate emissions of sodium or calcium salts .

At existing hazardous waste incineration facilities,  combustion gases are
normally quenched to temperatures of  120-300°F, and below 200°F for FRP scrub-
ber construction.  Typical water consumption rates for quenching are in the
range of 0.75 to 3.75 gal/1000 ft3 (0.1 to 0.5 L/m3)  of gas.

Mist eliminators are widely used to reduce emissions of liquid droplets from
scrubbers.  Mist eliminators are normally installed downstream from, or as an
integral part of, the scrubbing system.  In general,  only one mist eliminator
is needed.  Where two or more scrubbers are used in series, intermediate mist
elimination may be provided, but it is not considered necessary to prevent the
release of liquid droplets to the environment.

The types of mist eliminators most commonly used in hazardous waste incinera-
tion facilities are cyclone collectors, simple inertial separators such as
baffles, wire mesh mist eliminators,  and fiber bed mist eliminators.  Cyclones
are used for collecting very heavy liquid loadings of droplets over 10 urn,
such as those emitted from venturi scrubbers.  The design of cyclone mist
eliminators follows the principles of cyclone design for particles.  For this
type of mist eliminator, therefore, the collection efficiencies for liquid
droplets and solid particles are about the same.  Collection efficiencies of
nearly 100% are possible for droplets in the 10- to 50-um range, which is t
consistent with the liquid droplet sizes emitted from venturi scrubbers.  I"

In the simple inertial separators, the primary collection mechanism is iner-   (
tial impaction, and to a lesser extent interception.  Devices such as louvers,
zigzag baffles, tube banks, and chevrons are simple inertial separators.  The
cut diameter for liquid droplet collection in these devices is typically
10 urn.  Pressure drops are in the 0.02- to 0,12-in. WG (50-to 300-Pa range)
depending on the gas velocity and closeness in spacing of the collection
surfaces.

Wire mesh eliminators are formed from meshes of wire knitted into a cylindri-
cal open weave which is then crimped to give a stable wire configuration.  As
rising mist droplets contact the wire surface, they flow down the wire to a
wire junction, coalesce, run off, and flow freely to the bottom of  the bed.
The depth of the wire pad varies from 2 to 12  in. (50 to 300 mm) with 4-6 in.
pads being the most common.  Pressure drops usually range  from 0.02  to
4.0 in. WG, depending on the gas velocity, the wire density, and the depth of
the pad.  In normal operation, the pressure drop is not likely to be more than
1 in. WG.  Th« cut diameter for  liquid droplet collection  is a strong  function
of the gas velocity, and can range from 1  to  10 urn.  Sizing of the  wire  mesh
mist eliminator is based on the  allowable  gas  velocity, calculated  using the
Souders-Brown equation:


                         u = 0.107
                                    4-70

-------
where u is the gas velocity in m/s,  p  is the density of the scrubbing liquid,
and p. is the gas density.
     u
For collection of fine acid mists, fiber bed mist eliminators are most appro-
priate.  In this type of device, large mist particles are collected on the
fibers by inertial impaction and direct interception, whereas smaller parti-
cles are collected by Brownian diffusion.  Since fiber bed mist eliminators
are designed so that Brownian diffusion is the predominant mechanism for mist
collection, extremely small particles of less than 1 M"i are recovered with
high efficiency.  Typical gas velocities through fiber bed mist eliminators
range from 5 to 10.0 ft/s (1.5 to 30 m/s), with corresponding pressure drops
of 5 to 15 in. WG.  Collection efficiencies are 100% for droplets larger than
3 Mm< and 90% to 99.5% for droplets less than 3 urn.
In wire mesh and fiber bed mist eliminators, plugging by solid deposition is a
potential problem.  This problem can be partially overcome by intermittent
washing with sprays, by selection of a less densely packed design, and by the
use of sieve plate towers or cyclone separators upstream as an additional mist
and particle collection device.  At hazardous waste incineration facilities,
the most common configuration used for gas cleanup is a high energy venturi
scrubber followed by two sieve trays for additional gas absorption, and then
another sieve tray and an inertial separator or a wire mesh eliminator to     |
reduce emissions of liquid droplets.  Operating experience has indicated that I
this is a most effective combination.

In general, three "rules of thumb" can be followed in evaluating provisions
for quenching and mist elimination at hazardous waste incineration facilities.

  •  Quenching should be provided upstream from packed bed or plate tower
     scrubbers unless these devices are preceded by a venturi scrubber.

  •  Quenching is optional when venturi scrubbers are used, although high
     temperature materials of construction may be required if quenching is not
     employed.

  •  A mist eliminator should be provided downstream or as an integral part of
     the last scrubber in the air pollution control system.

4.4.4  Prime Mover Capacity Evaluation

Prime movers in rotary kiln incineration systems are always induced draft
fans, located downstream from the air pollution control devices, while either
induced draft or forced draft systems may be used with liquid injection incin-
erators.  For the overall system to function properly, the prime mover must be
capable of moving the combustion gases through each air pollution  control
device while overcoming the corresponding pressure drops.  As the  total pres-
sure drop through the system increases, the volumetric flow capacity of the
fan decreases.  The functional relationship between these  two variables,
pressure and flow capacity at a specific temperature, should be specified by
the manufacturer.
                                    4-71

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Therefore, it is necessary to (a) determine the combustion gas flow rate at
the fan inlet temperature, (b) estimate the total pressure drop across the
system, and (c) compare the fan capacity at the calculated pressure drop with
the predetermined combustion gas flow rate in order to evaluate whether or not
the fan has sufficient gas handling capacity.  If this capacity is insuffi-
cient the burning rate must be decreased,  the fan capacity must be increased,
or the ductwork must be modified to reduce pressure drop.   The following
discussion focuses on Step (b) above, estimation of the total system pressure
droo.  Combustion gas flow rate calculations are discussed in Section 4.3.2.

The major pressure drops to be considered are the pressure drops across the
various air pollution control devices.  These pressure drops can be determined
from manufacturer specifications once the gas flow rates at the inlets to
these devices are known.  Flow, rates can be calculated c[uite simply as
follows:


                              q =
where     q = combustion gas flow rate, acfm
       q   , = combustion gas flow rate, at standard conditions of 63°F and
              1 atm, scfm (from Worksheet 4-2 or 4-4)
          T = inlet temperature, °F
          P = combustion gas static pressure, atm                         I

Other pressure drops that need to be considered are frictional losses due £o
flow through the ductwork connecting each air pollution control device,  for
any given duct, the total pressure drop may consist of three component pres-
sure drops:  (1) frictional losses due to flow through straight lengths of
ductwork, (2) frictional losses due to flow through bends in the ductwork, and
(3) losses due to sudden constriction of flow at the inlet to the duct.

Pressure drop through a straight length of duct can be estimated using Fig-
ure 4-16, reproduced from Reference 6.  This figure can be used in the fol-
lowing manner-.

(1)  Identify the temperature and average molecular weight of the gas.

(2)  Draw a line through these two points on the temperature and molecular
     weight scales, and extrapolate this line to a point on the viscosity
     scale.

(3)  Identify the inside diameter of the duct and the mass flow of combustion
     gases.

(4)  Draw a line through these two points on the diameter and weight  flow
     scales, and extrapolate this line to the arbitrary reference scale.

(5)  Connect the point on the arbitrary reference scale with the predetermined
     point on the viscosity scale.

(6)  Identify the pressure drop per foot of  duct on  the AP scale at  the  inter-
     section of the line between the reference  and viscosity scales.

                                    4-72

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                             FLOW IN TIT** AMD CBANNEL*
                 Ttrtuttm
      Permission from  McGraw-Hill encyclopedia of scence and technology,
      Vol.  XI.   Copyright  1960, by McGraw-Hill Book Company.
                    Figure 4-16.  Pipe flow chart [6].
(7)  Calculate the  total pressure drop across the length of straight duct as
     follows:
                               *vr w
where  AP = total pressure drop, in. H20
       LS = length  of  straight duct, ft
       PQ = absolute gas pressure, ata
For a reasonable approximation, assume
                            P,, = 1 atm
 From Figure 4-13.
                                   4-73

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If the duct is square or rectangular the following quantities should be used
as equivalent diameters:

     Square duct:  D   = length of a side

     Rectangular duct:  D   = —^-r-
           '             eq   a + D

where  a, b = width and depth of the duct

Pressure drops across bends in "a duct can be estimated using Figure 4-17.
Here, L /D, the equivalent straight-length-to-diameter ratio, is expressed as
a function of the ratio of the radius of curvature of the elbow, R, to the
diameter of the duct.  Figure 4-18 shows the relationship between R and D.
        Figure 4-17.  Total frictional pressure drops in 90° bends [6].
    Permission for Figures 4-17 and 4-18 from Chemical Engineers' Handbook,
    fifth edition.  Copyright 1973 by McGraw-Hill Book Company.

      Figure 4-18.  90° bends (a) smooth bend, (b) segmental bend  [6].


The procedure for estimating pressure drops from Figure 4-14 is  as  follows:

(1)  Determine R/D and read the corresponding Lft/D value  from  Figure  4-14.
                                    4-74

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(2)  Identify the pressure drop across the length of straight duct upstream
     and downstream from the bend and the corresponding length of straight
     duct.

(3)  Convert the L /D value to a pressure drop estimate:
where  AP' = pressure drop across the bend, in.
        AP = pressure drop across the straight segment of duct, in. H20

         D = diameter of the duct, in.
        L  = length of straight duct, ft

If 45° or 180° angle bends are encountered, the corrected pressure drops are:

                                    = 0.65 AP'
and                          AP'O =1.4AP'O
                                              9Q

                                18QO    .'9Q
Additional pressure drops occur at the inlet to a duct because of the sudden
contraction of the gases.  These pressure drops can be estimated by the
following equation:


                            „. . 6 X  (
where     AP" = pressure drop, in.

            V = gas velocity, ft/s

           gc = gravitational constant, 32.2 Ib-m ft/lb-f s2

              = gas density, lb/ft3
         pu n - density of liquid water, 62.4 lb/ft3
           K  = sudden contraction-loss coefficient for turbulent flow

Table 4-21 presents K  values for various ratios of duct cross-sectional  area,
A,, to the cross-sectional area of the unit upstream from the duct, A  .

When the pressure drops through each air pollution control device and segment
of ductwork are calculated and summed, this should provide a rough estimate of
the total pressure drop through the system.

Table 4-22 presents a procedure for evaluating the prime gas mover capacity.
A step-by-step method for performing the necessary calculations  is shown  in
Worksheet 4-16.
                                    4-75

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               TABLE 4-21.   SUDDEN CONTRACTION-LOSS  COEFFICIENT
                            FOR  TURBULENT  FLOW  [6]

              Permission from Chemical  engineers'  handbook,  fifth
              edition.   Copyright  1973  by  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company.
                   A./A   0     0.2    0.4   0.6    0.8    1.0
                    d  p
                   K      0.5   0.45   0.36   0.21   0.0?  0
            TABLE 4-22.   PRIME MOVER CAPACITY EVALUATION  PROCEDURE
Identify the approximate combustion gas flow rate in scfm (see Work-
sheet 4-2 or 4-4).

Identify the temperatures at (a) the incinerator outlet,  (b) the inlet to
each air pollution control device, and (c) the fan inlet.  Record this
information on Worksheet 4-16.
                                                                         1
                                                                          -
 3.   Identify the pressure drops across each air pollution control device, -as
     specified by the manufacturer,  and record this information on
     Worksheet 4-16.

 4.   Estimate the pressure drops across each segment of ductwork between the
     incinerator and the fan,  and add these pressure drops to those determined
     in checkpoint #3 to estimate the total pressure drop across the system.

 S.   Identify the manufacturer specifications for fan capacity at the calcu-
     lated pressure drop and fan inlet temperature.

 6.   Does this capacity meet or exceed the approximate combustion gas flow
     rate?
4.4.5  Process Control and Automatic Shutdown System Evaluation

In the design of the incinerator and scrubber systems, a number of safety
features should be provided to allow for equipment failures and operational
errors.  Process control systems and safety interlocks for incinerators are
discussed in Section 4.3.5.  The following safety interlocks relating to the
scrubber operation are recommended:

(1)  Shutdown of the waste and auxiliary fuel feed systems on loss of scrubber
     water flow.
                                    4-76

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(2)  Shutdown of the waste and auxiliary fuel feed systems if the incinerator
     effluent gas temperature exceeds the maximum design temperature for the
     quench section.

(3)  Shutdown of the waste and auxiliary fuel feed systems if the quenched gas
     temperature exceeds the maximum design temperature for the scrubber.

(4)  Shutdown of the waste and auxiliary fuel feed systems, followed by shut-
     down of the scrubber systems, on failure of forced or induced draft fan.

(5)  Shutdown of the waste and auxiliary fuel feed systems followed by shut-
     down of the scrubber systems, if the pH of the scrubbing liquid does not
     meet specified values.

(6)  Shutdown of the waste and auxiliary fuel feed systems, followed by shut-
     down of the scrubber systems, if the pressure drop across the scrubber
     becomes excessive, indicating unsteady-state operation or clogging
     problems.

When possible, it is desirable to have a time delay between shutting off the
waste to be incinerated and shutting off the auxiliary fuel.  This will help
to ensure an adequate burnout of the waste and minimize emissions of          I
incomplete products of waste combustion and unreacted waste.

In situations when the incinerator effluent gas temperature or the quenched
gas temperature exceeds the maximum design temperature for the next piece of
equipment, it is desirable to have provisions for emergency stack bypass
designed into the system.  An indication of excess temperature should lead to
shutdown of the incinerator through the safety interlock system.  It is recog-
nized, however, that any of the interlock devices can and will malfunction
some o'f the time.  To protect the scrubber system from damage by excess tem-
perature, switches for stack bypass can be provided.  These switches should
only be operated as an emergency measure, and under strict supervision.  To a
limited extent, the additional thermal lift caused by the excess temperature
will raise the effective stack height and alleviate the impact on plant
personnel.

At power plants, chemical plants, and refineries, stack bypass switches are
often provided to enable maintenace to be done on scrubber systems while
process operation continues.  Stack bypass for maintenance purposes is not
recommended for hazardous waste incineration facilities.

4.4.6  Material of Construction Considerations

Effluent gases from incineration of hazardous wastes contain a number of
corrosive contaminants, including HCl, S02, S03, HF, and possibly C12, HBr,
Br2,  P2°5' and organic acids.  The presence of HCl, the principal gaseous
contaminant, is of particular concern because it accelerates pitting and
crevice corrosion of most materials.  The careful selection of the materials
of construction for the quench tower and scrubber system is therefore
extremely important.
                                    4-77

-------
In the quench section where temperatures of approximately 130G°F  are  commonly
encountered, Hastelloy C and Inconel 625 have  found wide  acceptance.   Other
possibilities are the use of carbon graphite or acid resistant  refractories  as
lining material for carbon steel or stainless  steel construction,  but the
quench spray nozzles should still be made of Hastelloy C  or  Inconel 625.

For the scrubber, Hastelloy C or Inconel 625 can again be used  as  materials  of
construction.  At more moderate temperatures,  however,  FRP is  recommended
because it is economical, easily fabricated, and lightweight.   It  also has
good resistance in both acid and alkaline environments, up to  a service tem-
perature of around 200°F.  Polyvinyl chloride  (PVC) can also be considered  as
a material for wet scrubber construction, but  its use is  limited  to tempera-
tures of less than 160°F.

If structural strength becomes a prime consideration because of the size and
weight of the scrubber, carbon steel or stainless steel can be  used with a
suitable lining material to provide the required corrosion protection.  Field
corrosion studies have shown that carbon steel and stainless steel both expe-
rienced severe corrosion problems and are not  recommended as materials of  con-
struction for scrubber systems treating acid gases unless linings are used.
Rubber, carbon graphite, FRP, Teflon, Kynar (polyvinylidene fluoride), acid
resistant bricks, and refractories are examples of suitable lining materials.
Teflon, however, cannot be bonded to a metal surface and  requires multiple
flanges to stay in place.  Kynar is similar to Teflon in  most of  its  proper-
ties, but it is available in sheet form bonded to a glass backing.  In packed
beds, the packing material should be made of ceramic, carbon,  or  plastics fo
withstand attack by corrosive acids.

A special concern is the potential presence of HF in the  incinerator exhaust
gases.  It is veil known that glass and any ceramic material containing silica
are attacked by HF or H2SiF6.  Many grades of  rubber linings also contain
silica as a filler, which could be leached out by HF or H2SiF6-  Common mate-
rials of construction of HF scrubbers include  FRF (with, special shielding
material to prevent attack of the glass fibers), rubber-lined steel,  Kynar,
and graphite-lined steel.  Among the metals, monel has shown good resistance
over wide concentration and temperature ranges.  At one hazardous waste incin-
eration facility, a Monel-lined stainless steel packed tower with polypropyl-
ene Intalox saddles is used to control HF emissions from the incinerator.   In
addition, both Hastelloy C and Inconel 625 have been used as lining material
in hydrofluoric acid service and have demonstrated outstanding corrosion
resistance to HF.

Although the corrosion and temperature aspects of materials selection  are of
primary importance, erosion must also be considered in scrubbers  designed for
particulate control.  Venturi scrubbers  are particularly  susceptible  to ero-
sion due to the high gas velocities  and particulate loadings encountered
during normal duty.  Throat and elbow areas are generally subject to  the most
wear.  FRP does not stand up well  in these  regions and harder, corrosion
resistant, materials are required  for long.service life.

All the foregoing factors should be  considered in  evaluating materials selec-
tion  for the quench tower and scrubber  system.   If materials of construction


                                     4-78

-------
    " th!n th°Se dlscussed above are proposed, the adequacy of these mat
    the temperature/gas environment under consideration should be evaluated
4 . 5  WORKSHEETS
                                 4-79

-------
              WORKSHEET 4-1.  PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE DESTRUCTION
                              AND REMOVAL EFFICIENCY

1.   From trial burn data, identify the following parameters:

          Total waste feed rate, (win)TOTAL = __ Lb/hr
          Mass fraction of each puncysal
          organic hazardous constituent in
          the waste,                     n: = __ Lb/lb waste
                                         n2 = __ Lb/lb waste
                                         1*3 = __ Lb/lb waste
                                         n4 = __ Lb/lb waste
                                         n5 = __ Lb/lb waste
          Gas flow rate in the stack,     q = __ scfm

          Concentration of each prin-
          cipal organic hazardous
          constituent in the stack gas,  Ci                  .   ,
                                   *      l = __ Mg/scf
                                         C2 = __ Mg/scf
                                                          Mg/scf
                                                          Mg/scf
2.   Calculate the mass feed rate of each hazardous constituent to the  inc
     erator, using the following equation:                              .
                                                                           in
                                                                           T
                                   ni (Win>TOTAL
                                               lb/hr
                                               Lb/hr
                                               lb/hr
                                               Lb/hr
                                               lb/hr
3.   Calculate the mass flow rate of each hazardous constituent in  the  stack
     using the following equation:

                          /u   \  =    3 c-i
                                    7.57 a

                            3 " 	 Lb/hr
                          '"out\ = 	 Lb/hr
                                 5 =      	 Lb/hr
4.   Calculate the destruction and removal efficiency  for  each  hazardous
     constituent using the following equation:
                                    4-80

-------
       (W  ). -  (W    )
™>-   ln?»   ),°Utl   <™>
              in i
DRE2 =
DRE3 =
DRE4 =
DRE5 =
          4-81

-------
   WORKSHEET 4-2.  PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE STOICHIOMETRIC AIR REQUIREMENTS
                   COMBUSTION GAS FLOW, AND COMPOSITION (LIQUID"
                   INJECTION INCINERATION)

1.  Identify the elemental composition and moisture content of the waste or
    waste mixture.

                  Carbon, C^-.  	 Ib/lb waste
           Fuel hydrogen, HW:  	 Ib/lb waste
              Moisture, H20w:  	 Ib/lb waste
                  Oxygen, 0^-.  	 Ib/lb waste
                Nitrogen, N  •  	 Ib/lb waste
               Chlorine, Cl*:  	 Ib/lb waste
                Fluorine, FW:  	 Ib/lb waste
                Bromine, Br^-.  	 Ib/lb waste
                  Iodine, I  •  	 Ib/lb waste
                  Sulfur, SjJ:  	 Ib/lb waste
              Phosphorus, PW=  	 Ib/lb waste

2.  If auxiliary fuel is to be burned in conjunction with the waste, identify
    the fuel type and approximate, proposed fuel-to-waste ratio from the per-
    mit application.   (If auxiliary fuel is to be used only for startup,
    proceed to Step #5.)                                                .

         Fuel type:
         Fuel:waste ratio, nf = 	 Ib fuel/lb waste


3.  Determine the approximate elemental composition of the fuel from the
    following table.
          Component



              £
              S*           0.03               0.005

4.  Calculate the composition of the combined waste,/auxiliary fuel feed.

                       Cw * nfCf
                   C:  -T—	— =
Ib Component /Ib fuel [211
Residual fuel Distillate fuel
oil (e.g., No. 6) oil (e.g.. No. 2)
0.866 0.872
0.102 0.123
Natural
gas
0.693
0.227
0.08
                   H:  -— i-i =            Ib/lb feed
                 H2o;  rr-r-    = _  u*/u> feed
                                  4-82

-------
                          1  •*•  n.
                                                lb/lb feed
                   0:   .  "       =  _  lb/lb feed
                        1  + n,       -
                        Clw
                  Cl:   T— r—     =   _  lb/lb feed
                        J.  i   £        ^^^^— ^^^^— ^™.
                   F-.   .  "       =   _  lb/lb feed
                        1 + n,        ^—— __
                        Brw
                  Br:   .  *      =   _  lb/lb feed
                        1 + n^        — — — — — ^







                                                      feed
                       Sw + n
                   S:            =              lb/lb feed
                   P:  •?—  -    =              lb/lb feed
5.   Calculate the stoichiometric oxygen  requirement based on the combustion

    reactions described in Section 4.3.2.1.
                       C x 2.67 ~2 = _  ^ 02/lb feed





                    -   ) x 8.0   ~  =              ib 02/lb feed
                        s x i.o   _| = _  it 02/lb feed





                       P x 1.29 ~2i =              ^ 02/lb fee(J
                          -0(in feed) =  - _  lb 02/lb feed
         stoich = Z • 	 * °2/  *  feed
                                  4-83

-------
 6.   Calculate  the  combustion  cas  mass  flows,  based on  the  stoichiometric
      oxygen  requirement.
  C02:  C x 3.67
               lb CO;
                Ib C
                                           = 	 lb C02/lb feed
H20:
   N2:
         H -
 Cl    F_
35.5 " 19
      (02)
                       x 9.0
                          lb
                              H20(in feed) =  	 lb H20/lb feed
stoich x 3'31 lb
                                     ']•
HC1:  Cl x 1.03


 HF:  F x 1.05


Br2:  Br

 I2:  I
                  lb HC1
                  lb Cl

                 lb HF
                 lb F
  S02:
lb H20
 lb H


(in air)'| + N(in feed) -  	 lb N2/lb feed


                       =	 lb HCl/lb feed


                       = 	 lb HF/lb feed


                       = 	 lb Br2/lb feed

                       = 	 lb I2/lb feed


                       = 	 lb S02/lb feed
 P20S:  P x 2.29
                lb P20s
                  lb P
                                             	 lb P205/lb feed  m
                                                                      J
                                                                      fe<
Combustion products = CP =
                                       Ib/lb feed
 7.  Identify the total excess air rate.

               EA = 	%/lOO

 8.  Calculate the additional nitrogen and oxygen present in  the combustion
     gases due to excess air feed.
          (02)£A = EA X (02)stQich
          (N2)
              EA
       3.31
                                air)
                                             lb 02/lb waste


                                              =       lb N2/lb waste
 9.  Calculate the total combustion gas flow.
     Combustion gases = CG = CP + (02)_. + (N2)-. s
                                      HA       C.A
                                                           Ib/lb waste
10.  Calculate the mass fraction of each combustion gas  component.
               C02:
               H20:
                     CG
                     CG
                                    Ib/lb gas
                                    Ib/lb gas
                                   4-84

-------
                N2(from #6) + (N2)
                                  ,-a
                                   - -
                         CG
            0,:
          HCl:
           CG

         HCl
         CG
           HF-  ^
           HF-  CG
          Br2:
         Br
         CG
             -   Li
             •'   CG
          S02:
         P205:
                S0
                CG
                 CG
                                             Ib/lb  gas



                                            Ib/lb gas


                                            Ib/lb gas


                                            Ib/lb gas


                                            Ib/lb gas


                                            Ib/lb gas


                                            Ib/lb gas


                                            Ib/lb gas
11.  Identify those components that constitute less than 1-2% of the combus-
     tion gas.   These components can be eliminated from further consideration
     in heat and material balance calculations.  In most cases, C02, ^0, N2,
     and 02 will be the only combustion gas components that need to be considered

12.  Calculate  the volumetric flow of the major combustion products at stand-
     ard conditions of 68°F and 1 atm.
  C02:     *  x CG T 0.114 ~

  H20:
   N2:
   02:
              x CG -f 0.0467
             x CG T 0.0727
                                   ~
                  + 0.083

Other:    ~   x CG T (0.00259 M)~
          CG                      SCI
               where  M = molecular weight

                                         scf
                                                           scf/lb feed
                                                           scf/lb feed
                                                           scf/lb feed
                                                           scf/lb feed
                                                           scf/lb feed
Total flow, q =

            q x
                                       Ib feed
                      (lb/hr) f 60

                            4-85
                                                       scfm

-------
 WORKSHEET 4-3.  PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE THE NET HEATING VALUE3 OF THE WASTE (


Basis:  Heating value is reported as a higher heating value (HHV) determined
        at standard 77°F (25°C).
Identify the following:
     HHV =
       H =
      Cl =
       F =
     H20 =
                                        Btu/lb waste
                                        IbH/lb waste
                                        IbCl/lb waste
                                        IbF/lb waste
                                        Ib/moisture/'lb waste
Calculate the net heating value (NHV):


NHV = HHV - 1,050 I H20' + 9(H - -rf^r - fj
                                                                   Btu/lb waste
Seating value:  The quantity of heat released when waste is burned, commonly
 expressed as Btu/lb.  The higher heating value includes the heat of condensa
 tion of the water present in the waste and the heat formed in the combustion
 reaction,- the lower heating vfalue represents the heat formed in the combus-
 tion reaction; and the net heating value is the lower heating value minus  th
 energy necessary to vaporize any moisture present.
                                   4-86

-------
   WORKSHEET 4-4.  PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE STOICKIOMETRIC AIR  REQUIREMENTS,
                   APPROXIMATE COMBUSTION GAS  FLOWS, AND APPROXIMATE  GAS
                   COMPOSITIONS (ROTARY KILNS)

1.  Identify the elemental composition and moisture  content of  the  wastes  fed
    to the kiln.
                    1. Solids  (kiln)   2. Liquids  (kiln)
       Carbon, C
Fuel hydrogen, H
   Moisture, H20
       Oxygen, 0,
     Nitrogen, N
    Chlorine, Cl
     Fluorine, F,
     Bromine, Br
       Iodine, I
       Sulfur, 5
   Phosphorus, P.
Lb/lb waste
Lb/lb waste
Lb/lb waste
Lb/lb waste
Lb/lb waste
Lb/lb waste
Lb/lb waste
Lb/lb waste
Lb/lb waste
Lb/lb waste
Lb/lb waste
2.  Identify the approximate liquid and solid waste feed rates  to  the  kiln, I-
    and calculate the liquid/solid feed fractions.                          I


         Liquid feed rate, mj         = 	 Lb/hr

         Solid feed rate, m2          = 	 Lb/hr

         Total feed, m12 = mj + m2    = 	 Lb/hr

         Liquid fraction, nj = mj/m^ = 	 Lb liquid/Ib waste

         Solid fraction, n2 = 1-nj    = 	 Lb solid/Lb  waste

3.  If auxiliary fuel is to be burned in conjunction with the wastes,  identify
    the fuel type and approximate, proposed fuel-to-waste ratio.

         Fuel type:     	
         Fuel:waste ratio in kiln: n^.. = 	 Lb fuel/lb waste

4.  Determine the approximate elemental composition of the fuel  from  the
    following table.

                        Lb component/Lb fuel [21]
    Component
        S£          0.03          0.005
                                  4-87
Residual
fuel oil
(e.g. No. 6)
0.866
0.102
Distillate
fuel oil
(e.g. No. 2)
0.872
0.123
Natural
gas
0.693
0.227
0.08

-------
5.  Calculate the composition of the combined waste/auxiliary fuel feed  to

    the  kiln.
            Ck:  	TTl^	= 	  U>/lb feed
                 nlHl + n2H2  + n<

            H. :   	r——	—    =	Ib/lb feed
             \         ± T  Jj £              ~~ -    - ~  —"  ~   —
                 "lH2Ol +      „,       =	lb/lb fefid

                      x T n _              ""^""^""-        ^- —^~i™-" -
                                                                Ib/lb feed
                            nf
                           nf
            )    "IT*.  "^2            =	lb/lb feed
             K     j» * n^                  ~ "      --._--.— __ .._- __



            L. :   nlc^l/ n2cl2          =	ib/ib feed
             K      i ••• nf
            F. :   "1*1 + "Z'-z            =	lb/lb feed
             X     1 '  A^                  '"   ""'"'"' ™"""" ~ -~  ~"—-"~
                 »i° i - "2ot2          =	lb/lb feed
             K      i. • n^                ~~~ :  "L^r-    :   ~  ••  ~"
            T:    -1*1 - "2*2            =	ib/ib feed
             K      A * r*^                ^™i^w««^^««^»
-------
            x 1
            x "'
                     -
                   Ib P
                                                          Ib 02/lb feed
         -Ok (in feed)
                                                          lb/02/lb feed
         (02)
             stoich(k)
                                                Ib o2/lb feed
7.   Calculate the combustion gas mass flows, based on the stoichiometric

    oxygen requirement (assume complete combustion is achieved for purposes

    of gas flow estimation).
                S..7
                                                              Ib C02/lb feed
                 clk     Fk
            H  -
            "k   35.5    19
                            3'31
                                  Ib H



                                    H20k (in feed)
                                        (in feed)
                                                                Ib H20/lb feed
                                                              Ib N2/lb feed
                                                                Ib HCl/lb feed
    HIV
                                                              Ib HF/lb feed
        :  Br
                                                              Ib Br2/lb feed






                                                              Ib I2/lb feed
                                                                Ib S02/lb feed
               •) ?Q
               2.29
                       P2°S
Kiln combustion products = CP,
                                                              Ib P205/lb feed
                                                  Ib/lb feed
                                 4-89

-------
 8.  Identify the elemental composition and moisture content of the liquid  '
     wastes to be burned in the afterburner (if any).

                          C3:   	 Ib/lb waste
                          H3:   	 Ib/lb waste
                        H203:   	 Ib/lb waste
                          03:   	 Ib/lb waste
                          N3:   	 Ib/lb waste
                         C13:   	 Ib/lb waste
                          F3:   	 Ib/lb waste
                         Br3:   	 Ib/lb waste
                          I3:   	 Ib/lb waste
                          S3:   	 Ib/lb waste
                          P3 =   I	 Ib/lb waste


 9.  Identify the fuel type and approximate, proposed fuel-to-waste ratio for
     the afterburner.

               Fuel type:  	
               Fuel:  waste ratio, n-A = __ Ib fuel/lb waste


10.  Determine the approximate elemental composition of the fuel from the!
     table shown in Step 4.

                         Cf_ = _ Ib/lb fuel
                         H" * _ Ib/lb fuel
                         N" * _ Ib/lb fuel
                         s   =            Ib/lb fuel
11.   Calculate the composition of the combined waste/ auxiliary fuel feed to
     the afterburner.

                       Ca * nf, CfA
                  C_:    .    **  IA = _ Ib/lb feed
                   A     1 + nfA      -
                    t

                       H3 * nfAHfA
                  H          IA tA  = _ Ib/lb feed
                H20.:  .23        = _ Ib/lb feed
                   A   1 + nfA        -
                                   4-90

-------
                  0.:       -      = _ Ib/lb  feed
                   A   1 + nfA        -
                                                 lb/lbfeed
                                                 lb/lhfeed
                                                 lb/lbfeed
                  V   FV          •  -  lb/lbfeed
                       $3  * nfASfa

                  V     1 + n
                                                      feed
12.   Calculate the stoichiometric  oxygen  requirement for the afterburner feed,

     based on the combustion reactions  described  in Section 4.3.2.1.



          CA x 2.67 ~-2*              = _ ib Q2/lb feed
           HA -  ITS   -  rtx 8-°       =^ °/lb fced
          SA x 1.0  jg-jp               = 	 Ib 02/lb feed






          PA x 1.29 ^  °2               = 	 Ib 02/lb feed





          -0A (in feed)                 = -	 Ib 02/lb feed
                                                     °2/lb feed
                                  4-91

-------
13.  Calculate  the combustion gas mass  flows, based  on  the  stoichiometric
     oxygen  requirement.
                                                                  Ib C02/lb  feed
             H
     5L
 1A   35.5
                                       HoO
                                     Ib H

                                     + H20A  (in feed) =
                                                     Ib H20/lb  feed
         :   (02)
                 StOich(A)
                                         (in feed)
                                                     Ib M2/lb  feed
     HCl.:  Cl, X 1.03
        A     A
                          HC1
HFA:
                   05
                  '05
                         HF
         :  Br.
                                                     Ib HCl/lb  feed


                                                     Ib HF/lbjfeed

                                                                 i
                                                     Ib Br2/lb  feed
                                                                 Ib  I2/lb  feed
                     Ib SO?
                      Ib S
                                                     Ib  S02/lb  feed
            B
         :   P
A
                       Ib P
                                                     Ib  P205/lb feed
    Afterburner combustion products * Cf. * Tj- __ Ib/lb  feed
14.  Calculate the ratio of total afterburner feed to total kiln  feed.
           Liquid waste to kiln:  mi
           Solid waste to kiln:  m2
           Auxiliary fuel to kiln:  (mi •«• na)11
                                                  Ib/hr
                                                  Ib/hr
                                                  Ib/hr
                                   4-92

-------
            Liquid waste to afterburner:   m3      = 	 Ib/hr
            Auxiliary fuel to afterburner:  m3nfa = 	 Ib/hr

           (in]  +  m2)  (1  * nfK)
     n.v  =  	— = 	 lb afterburner feed/lb kiln feed
     AK          m3 nfA           	


 15.  Calculate the total combustion gas  mass flows, based on stoichiometric
     oxygen requirements.

                    C02   + C02A n
             C02:   	-1:—	^—^   = 	 Ib/lb feed
                        1   nAK
             H2Q:   	"     ""	   = 	 Ib/lb feed
                       1    nAK
                       ,  +
                           AK
                        4. n
                          nAK
                             AK
                                                         feed
                   HC1   *  n    HC1
                   	V  *  n  	*    = 	 ^/^ feed
                      1    nAK
                   HF  + n   HF
                       , +	      =  	 Ib/lb feed
                                                   Ib/lb feed
                                                         feCd
                   so2K + n
             S02:  	 T 4. „ 	£   = 	 ^/^ feed
                       1   nAK
                           n   P205

                              - -
Combustion products = CP =    = 	  Ib/lb  feed

                                   4-93

-------
16.  Identify the total excess air rate  for  the  system  (i.e.,  to  be  maintained

     in the afterburner).                                                    (I



                              EA =            %
17.  Calculate the additional nitrogen and oxygen present  in  th«  combustion

     gases due to excess air feed.
            = EA X                                   . _ ^

                                   -
     (N2)EA = 3.31   -   (in air) x (02)£A = __  Ib N2/lb waste
13.  Calculate the total combustion gas flow.



     Combustion gas flow = CG = CP + (02)£A +  (N2)EA = _ Ib/lb feed
19.  Calculate the mass fraction of each combustion gas  component.




                C02:  §§*                  =	Ib/lb gas





                H^O:  •£-                  =     	  Ib/lb gas
                 *    QQ                      • • i— i in-, i —i       —




                      N2(from 15) + (^2)5-1

                 N2:  	pg	== =	Ib/lb gas




                      (02)EA

                 02:  —sp—               * 	 Ib/lb gas
                HC1:                       = 	  Ib/lb gas
                      CG                      -




                 HF:  ^                   « 	  Ib/lb gas
                      CG                              "




                Br2:  5|Z                  s	ib/lb gas





                 I2:                       =	Ib/lb gas
                                    4-94

-------
                S02.-  gp                  = 	 lb/lb gas
                                                             gas
20.  Identify those components that constitute less than 1-2% of the combustion
     gas.   These components can be eliminated from further consideration in
     heat and material balance calculations.   In most cases,  C02,  H20,  N2,
     and 02 will be the only combustion gas components that need to be  considered.

21.  Calculate the volumetric flow of the major combustion products from the
     kiln at standard conditions of 68°F and 1 a tin.

                /    \
          C02: f £22  x CG T 0.114 Ib/scf         = 	 scf/lb
          H20:  (      | x CG ? 0.0467 Ib/scf        = 	 scf/lb
           N2:        x CG r 0.0727 Ib/scf         = 	 scf/lb
           02:        x CG r 0.083 Ib/scf          =     '       scf/lb
        Other:   (^T-p-yx CG T (0.00259 M)  Ib/scf = 	 scf/lb

                    where M = molecular weight
     Total flow,  q =      = _ scf/lb feed
                 q x (mj  + m2)  (1  + n)  (1  + n)  T 60 = _ scfm
                                   4-95

-------
        WORKSHEET 4-5.  PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE EXCESS AIR RATE FOR A       I
                        SPECIFIED TEMPERATURE AND FEED COMPOSITION

     Identify  the following input variables:

     From Worksheet 4-2, Step #5

         <02)stoich= - Ib/lbfeed

     From Worksheet 4-2, Step #6

                             C02 = _ lb/lb feed
                             H20 = _ lb/lb feed
                              N2 = _ lb/lb feed
        Other major component(s) = _ lb/lb feed

     From Worksheet 4-3

         NHVtfastfi = _ _ Btu/lb waste

     From proposed operating conditions

         Operating temperature, T      = _ °F                   t

         Air preheat temperature, T .   = _ °F                   {
              (if applicable)      air                                 --1

     If auxiliary fuel is to be burned in conjunction with the waste, also
     identify the following from Worksheet 4-2.

          n- = _ Ib fuel/lb waste

         HVf = _ Btu/lb fuel

     If air preheating is employed, calculate the corresponding enthalpy
     input to the incinerator.  If the combustion air is not to be preheated,
    proceed to Step #3.
                           Btu/lb feed
                         EA)

3.  Calculate the heat generated by combustion of the waste or waste/
    auxiliary fuel mix.

                        * nf HVf
                          Btu/lb feed
4.  Calculate the heat loss through the walls of the incinerator,  assuming
    5% loss.

                                  4-96

-------
         Q = 0.05 AH2
           = 	 Btu/lb feed
5.  Calculate the enthalpy of the combustion products leaving the incinerator.
         0.26(C02 + N2)(T - 77)    =       	 Btu/lb feed
         0.49 H20(T - 77) =                	 Btu/lb feed
         Other x C~ Qther (T - 77) =       	 Btu/lb feed
         AH3 == _ Btu/lb feed
6.  Calculate the enthalpy of excess air leaving the incinerator.
         AH4' = 1
                           Btu/lb feed
          AH4 = AH4' x EA
7.  Calculate the excess air percentage as follows:

         EA = 100 (X'
                                  4-97

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WORKSHEET 4-6.  PROCEDURE TO ESTIMATE THE MAXIMUM ACHIEVABLE GAS RESIDENCE T

                AFTER THE DESIRED OPERATING TEMPERATURE HAS BEEN ACHIEVED


 1.  Identify the following input variables:


          Volume of the incinerator chamber, V =	ft3


          Combustion gas flow rate, q = 	 scfm


          Operating temperature, T = 	 °F


          Combustion gas static pressure, P =	atm


 2.  Calculate the gas flow in actual cubic feet per second at operating

     temperature.
 3.  Calculate the maximum achievable gas residence time in the incinerator

     after the desired operating temperature has been achieved.



          A    - v                                                       I
          9max ' o                                                       '
                                   4-98

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            WORKSHEET 4-7.   PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE SUPERFICIAL GAS
                            VELOCITY AT OPERATING TEMPERATURE

Identify the following input variables:

     Gas flow rate at operating temperature,  q'  =	acf/s
       (See Worksheet 4-6)

     Cross-sectional area of the incinerator chamber,  A"= 	 ft2

     Calculate:

          Superficial gas velocity,  v = q'/A

                                      = 	 ft/s
                                   4-99

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WORKSHEET 4-8.  PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE THE MAXIMUM ACHIEVABLE EXCESS AIR RA
                FOR A ROTARY KILN OPERATING AT A SPECIFIED TEMPERATURE WITH
                SPECIFIED FEED COMPOSITION
1.  Identify the following input variables:

    From Worksheet 4-4, Step 6
         (0*>
             Stoich
-------
2.   If  air preheating  is employed, calculate the corresponding enthalpy input
     to  the kiln.  If the combustion air is not preheated, proceed to Step 3:


                 = i'06  (Tair ' 77><°*>stoich(K) = - BtU/li> feed
3.  Calculate the maximum heat generated in the kiln by combustion of the
    wastes or waste/auxiliary fuel mix:
                         + n2NHV2 +
         AH2    = - r— -       = _ Btu/lb feed
4.  Estimate the heat loss through the walls of the kiln, assuming 5% loss:

         Q(K) =0.05 AH2(K) = _ Btu/lb feed
5.  Calculate the enthalpy of the combustion products leaving the kiln:

         0.26 (C02(K) + N2(K)\ (TR - 77)       = 	 Btu/lb feed


         0.49 H20(K)  ' 	 Btu/lb feed
                                Btu/lb feed
6.  Calculate the enthalpy of excess air levaing the kiln:
                    '1 (TK ' 77> <°2)          = - BtU/lb
7.  Calculate the excess air percentage as follows:


             = 100
                                       j
                                  4-101

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WORKSHEET 4-9.  PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE EXCESS AIR IN h ROTARY KILN AFTERBURNER.

                FOR A SPECIFIED AFTERBURNER TEMPERATURE AND OVERALL FEED      (

                COMPOSITION
 1.  Identify the following input, variables:




     From Worksheet 4-4,  Steps 6 and 12





          <°2>Stoich(K) = --
                                        °2/li3 afterburner feed
     From Worksheet 4-4,  Step 15



          C02                               = __ Ib/Lb feed


          H20                               * __ Ib/lb feed


           N2                               = __ Ib/Lb feed


          Other major combustion product(s) = __ Ib/lb feed





     From Worksheet 4-4,  Step 14                                           j



     Afterburner/kiln feed ratio, n... = _ Ib afterburner feed/lb kiln feed
                                   Afi.    -




     From Worksheet 4-3



          Afterburner waste heating value,  NHVj = __ Btu/lb



     From proposed operating conditions



          Afterburner temperature, T.   = _ °F


          Air preheat temperature, T .   = _ °F

                (if applicable)     aar





     If auxiliary fuel is to be burned in the afterburner along with liquid

     wastes during normal operation, identify the following from Worksheet  4-4:



           n.. * _ Ib fuel/Ub afterburner waste feed


          HVfA = _ Btu/lb fuel





     From Worksheet 4-8,



          AH2/.,v = _ Btu/lb kiln feed
             (K.)   — ^— — —• -—
                                   4-102

-------
 2.  If air preheating is employed, calculate the corresponding enthalpy input
     to the kiln and afterburner combined.  If the combustion air is not pre-
     heated, proceed to Step 3:
          = 1.06 (Tair - 77)
         = AHj' (1 + EA)
(°2)
    stoich(K)
                                          (°2)
                                              stoich(A)
Btu/lb feed
 3.  Calculate the heat generated in the kiln and afterburner by combustion
     of the total waste/auxiliary fuel feed:
          AH2
                   NHV3
             (A)
                      *fA
                                          Btu/lb afterburner feed
                                                Btu/lb feed
 4.  Estimate the heat loss through the walls of the kiln and afterburner,
     assuming 5% loss:
          Q = 0.05 AH2 =
                               Btu/lb feed
 5.
Calculate the enthalpy of the combustion products leaving the afterburner:

                                          = 	 Btu/lb feed

     0.49 H20 (TA -77)                   = 	 Btu/lb feed

               Ib
          0.26 (C02 + N2) (T. - 77)
                            A
          Other
            Ib feedj x Cp other (TA " 77> *
                             Btu/lb feed
                            Btu/lb feed
7.
Calculate the enthalpy of excess air leaving the afterburner:

AH-. '  = 1 1 (7  - 11)   (On)          + (Oo^
  4        v A     '   v 2/stoich(K)   v 2'stoich(A)

AH4 = AH4' EA

Calculate the excess air percentage in the afterburner:

     ra - inn / AHi '  + AH;? - Q -
     " " 10° I    AH4- - AH,'
                                                                      Btu/lb feed
                                   4-103

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          WORKSHEET 4-10.  PROCEDURE TO ESTIMATE SOLID WASTE
                           RETENTION TIMES IN ROTARY KILNS
Identify the following input variables-.

     Kiln length, L       = 	 ft
     Kiln diameter, D     = 	 ft
     Slope of kiln, S     = 	 ft/ft
     Rotation velocity, N = 	 rpm
Calculation:

     9  = 0.19 (L/D)/SN = 	 min
                              4-104

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WORKSHEET 4-11.  PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE AUXILIARY FUEL CAPACITY REQUIREMENTS
                 FOR STARTUP AT DESIGN AIR FLOW FOR WASTE COMBUSTION

1.  Identify the following input data from the proposed operating conditions,
    Section 4.3.2, and/or Section 4.3.3.

         Auxiliary fuel type:  	
         Fuel heating value, NHV = 	 Btu/lb

         Desired operating temperature, T    = 	 °F

         Average proposed waste feed rate, ra  = 	 Ib/hr

         Stoichiometric oxygen requirement for waste,

           <°*>StOich
                 [0.26(C02 + N2) + 0.49 H2oJ  (T    - 77)
                                                out
                                               Btu/lb fuel
4.  Calculate the heat output from the unit associated with design air flow
    for waste combustion.

         Ql * 1.12 mtf (02)sto.ch(w) (1 + EA) (TQut - 77)

            = 	 Btu/hr
                                  4-105

-------
5.  Calculate "enthalpy" of air consumed in fuel combustion.

         h2 = 1.12 (02)stoich(f) (TQUt - 77)

            =	Btu/lb fuel

6.  Calculate the heat of fuel combustion, less 5% heat loss through the
    refractory walls.

         h3 = 0.95 NHVf = 	 Btu/lb fuel

7.  Calculate the required auxiliary fuel capacity.


         mf " h3 * hi - hl = 	 * fuel/hr

8.  If necessary for comparison with the reported auxiliary fuel rating,
    calculate the required auxiliary fuel capacity in Btu/hr.

         Qf = mf NHVf =	Btu/hr
                                  4-106

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    WORKSHEET 4-12.  PROCEDURE TO ESTIMATE PARTICULATE CONCENTRATION AND
                     EMISSION RATE FROM LIQUID INJECTION INCINERATORS


1.  Identify the following input data:

         Ash content of waste, ASH = 	 wt%

         Average waste feed rate, m  = 	 Ib/hr

         Volumetric combustion gas flow rate, q = 	 scfm

         Volumetric fraction of oxygen in the gas, (Og)  = 	
2.  Calculate the particulate emission rate, based on the ash content of the
    waste

         m  = ASH x m  = 	 Ib/hr
          p          w   	


3.  Correct the volumetric combustion gas flow rate to zero percent excess
    air.

         qa = q  [l - 4.77(02)v J = 	 scfm       j


4.  Calculate the particulate loading in the gas at zero percent excess
    air.
                  m
         c  = 117 -£  = _ gr/scf
                                  4-107

-------
      WORKSHEET 4-13.  INTERNAL CONSISTENCY CHECK FOR PROPOSED CONDITIONS
                       OF GAS VELOCITY, LIQUID TO GAS RATIO, AND  PRESSURE
                       DROP FOR VENTURI SCRUBBERS
1.  Identify the following input data:

                                        QL
          Proposed liquid to gas ratio, — =	gal/1,000  ft-
                                        yG
          Proposed gas velocity (at the throat), U_ = 	  ft/s

          Cross-sectional throat area, A = 	 ft2

          Gas density (downstream of throat), p  = 	  lb/ft3

    p  may be estimated from the ideal gas law:
     3
                                        M P
                                   pa " RT

    where  M = average molecular weight of gas  (normally about 30)
           P = absolute pressure (atm)
           R = gas constant =0.73 atm ft3/°R Ib mol
           T = absolute temperature (°R)                                  J.

2.  Calculate the pressure drop, AP

                   2    0.133 /  \ 0.78
                (U ) p A      /Q
                                    4-108

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        WORKSHEET 4-14.  PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE THE NUMBER OF PLATES
                         REQUIRED FOR A SPECIFIED GASEOUS POLLUTANT
                         REMOVAL EFFICIENCY3
 1.   Identify the desired removal efficiency for pollutant i.

         E  =                      %/ioo
2.  From Table 4-19 or other sources, identify the average Murphree vapor
    phase efficiency for the plate tower

         E   =                           Vioo
3.  Calculate the required number of plates

              In (1 - E.)
         N  =              -
          p   In  (1 -
This procedure is only applicable for gaseous pollutants that are highly
soluble or chemically reactive with the scrubbing liquid.
                                  4-109

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         WORKSHEET 4-15.  PROCEDURE TO  CALCULAT'I  THE  IVIIMUM  i:;'Ji:
                          TO GAS RATIO  FOR  PLATI  TOWERS         *
1.  Identify the inlet  temperature  to  the  tcwar  and  the  tower  diameter.
                          °F + 460 =
         d = _ ft


2.  Identify the volumetric fraction of each major component  in  the  gas

         YC02   = -
         Yother
3.  Calculate the average molecular weight of the gas
                                        Ib/lb mol
4.  Calculate the gas density
         PG = 1'3? T(°R)
5.  Determine the scrubber liquor density

         PL = 	  lb/ft3
                                  4-110

-------
6.  Determine the Souders-Brown constant, K, from Reference 6 or other
    sources. (For 24-in. tray spacing, use K = 0.17)

7.  Calculate the maximum liquid-to-gas ratio
                                 4-111

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        WORKSHEET 4-16.  PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE PRESSURE DROP BETWEEN
                         THE INCINERATOR AND INDUCED DRAFT FAN
1.  Identify and/or calculate the following input data relevant to the
    combustion gas:

    a)   From Section 4.3.2,

         Approximate waste feed rate, m       = __ Ib/hr
         Combustion gas mass flow, CG         = __ Ib/lb waste
         CG x m                               = __ Ib/hr
         Combustion gas volumetric flow, q  , = __ scfm


         Volumetric fraction of each major component in the gas
           yC02
           YH20
            other *
    b)   Calculate the average molecular weight of the gas


             M = 44      + 18 yH2Q + 28 y^ + 32 y^ +


                             Ib/lb mol
2.  Calculate the actual gas flow rate and gas density at the entrance  to
    each gas conditioning or air pollution control device and the  fan using
    the following equations:

                                   / T°F + 460 \
                                       528      '
                                  4-112

-------
         Location (inlet)              q, acfm         gas, Ib/ft3
         Quench tower
         Scrubber
         Demister
         Fan
         Other (specify)
    Approximate gas temperatures at these locations need to be determined.

3.  From manufacturer specifications,  estimate the pressure drop across each
    gas conditioning device for the gas flow rates calculated in the preceding
    step.

         Location                      AP,  in. H20

         Quench tower
         Scrubber
         Demister
         Other (specify) 	    	
              TOTAL


    For the segments of ductwork entering the aforementioned devices, detemjine
    the inner diameter (D),  the cross-sectional area of the duct (A,), the."
    cross-sectional area of the device preceding the duct (A ),  the length of
    straight duct (L), the radius of curvature of any bends^in the duct
    (R), and the gas velocity through the duct.

    If the duct is square,  use the length of a side as the equivalent diameter.
    If the duct is rectangular, calculate an equivalent diameter by the follow-
    ing equation:


         D = a + b'  wnere a ^d b are width and depth of the duct.
    Figure 4-15 in Section 4.4.4 shows how radii of curvature can be estimated.

    Gas  velocities can be calculated by the following equation:

                           ,  ft/s
    Location
    (inlet  duct)   D,  in.   Ad'  ft*   V  ft*  VAp  Ls'  ft  R,  in.   V,  ft/s
    Quench  tower
    Scrubber
    Demister
    Fan
    Other  (specify) 	
                                  4-113

-------
5.  Calculate the pressure drop across each straight length of ductwork
    using Figure 4-13 in Section 4.4.4. and the known diameters of the
    combustion gas mass flow rate, average molecular weight of the gas, and
    temperatures at the specified locations.

    Figure 4-13 yields pressure drop values per length of straight duct.
    These can be converted to total pressure drops by the following
    calculation:


                        AP = (£.} L   in H20
          Location
         (inlet duct)                  AP, in. H?0
         Quench tower
         Scrubber
         Demister
         Fan
         Other (specify)	
6.  Estimate the pressure drop across any bends in the ductwork.        t

    Figure 4-14 in Section 4.4.4 shows L /D values as a function of R/D Jfor
    90° bends,                           e

         where  L  = equivalent length, in.
                 D = diameter, in.
                 R = radius of curvature, in.
    L /D values can be converted to pressure drops by the following calculatio
                                               .  in. H20
    where AP' = pressure drop across the bend in the duct, in. H20

    For 45° bends, AP1 is afcout 65% of that calculated for a 90° bend.   For
    180° bends, AP1 is about 140% of that calculated for a 90° bend.  Thus,

                          '       =0.65AP'(900)
                       ^'(180°)
                                  4-114

-------
          Location
          ;inlet duct                   AP' , in. H20
         Quench tower
         Scrubber
         Demister
         Fan
         Other (specify) 	    	

              TOTAL


7.  Estimate the additional pressure drops due to sudden contraction of flow
    at the entrance to each duct.

                   AP1 = .003 KC p    V2, in. H20

    where   AP" = pressure drop due to contraction, in H2Q

           p    = gas density, lb/ft3
            <^«S
              V = gas velocity, ft/s

             K  = sudden contraction-loss coefficient

                                                                           |
    KC is a function of the ratio of the duct cross-sectional to the cross-l
    sectional area of the preceding vessel, A./A .  Table 4-21 in Section 4.4.4
    shows this relationship.                    "

          Location
         (inlet duet)                  AP", in. H?0

         Quench tower
         Scrubber
         Demister
         Fan
         Other (specify) 	    	

              TOTAL


8.  Calculate the total pressure drop across the system by sunning the totals
    from Steps 3,  5, 6, and 7
                                  4-115

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4.6  REFERENCES                                                              M

 1.  Kiang,  Yen-Hsuing.   Total  hazardous  waste  disposal  through combustion.
     Conshohocken,  PA;  Trane  Thermal  Co.   Reprinted  from Industrial Heating,
     December 1977.

 2.  Santoleri, J.  J.   Spray  nozzle  selection.   Conshohocken, PA; Trane Ther-
     mal Co.   Reprinted from  Chemical Engineering Progress,  1974 September.

 3.  FloSonics) supersonic atomization,  high  efficiency twin  fluid atomizers
     and systems (manufacturer's  brochure).   Fairfield,  OH;  Fluid Kinetics,
     Inc.   Form No.  DX1277-2.

 4.  Trane thermal  waste disposal and recovery  (manufacturer's brochure).
     Conshohocken,  PA;  Trane  Thermal  Co.   Bulletin No. 143-A.

 5.  Manson,  L.; and Unger, S.  Hazardous material incinerator design  criteria.
     Cincinnati, OH; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1979 October.   100
     p.   EPA-600/2-79-198.

 6.  Perry,  R. H.   Chemical engineers'  handbook, fifth edition.  New York,
     McGraw-Hill Book Company,  1973.

 7.  McGraw-Hill encyclopedia of  science  and technology, Vol. XI.  New York,
     McGraw-Hill Book Company,  1960.   409-411.        "                     I"

 8.  Ross, R. D., ed.   Industrial waste disposal.  New York,  Van Nostrand     I
     Reinhold, 1968.  190-239.

 9.  Brown,  R. W.   High-temperature  non-metallics.   Chemical Engineering.
     65(8) .-135-150,   1958 April 21.

10.  Sittig,  M.  Incineration of  industrial  hazardous wastes and sludges.  Park
     Ridge,  NJ; Noyes Data Corp.; 1979.  p.  68.

11.  Hanf, E. W.; and MacDonald,  J.  W. Economic evaluation  of wet  scrubbers.
     Chemical Engineering Progress.   71(83):43-52, 1975  March.

12.  Calvert, S. How to choose a particulate scrubber.   Chemical  Engineering.
     84(18):54-68,  1977 August  29.

13.  Shannon, L. J.; Gorman,  P. G.;  and Reichel, H.   Particulate pollutant
     system study,  Vol. II -  fine particle emissions.  Durham,  NC;  U.S. Envi-
     ronmental Protection Agency; 1971.  PB  203 521  (APTD-0744).

14.  Wen,  C.  Y.; and Uchida,  S.  Gas absorption by alkaline  solutions in a
     venturi scrubber.   Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Process Design
     and Development.  12(4):437-443.  1973  April.

15.  Calvert, S.,- Goldschmid, J.; Leith,  D.; and Mehta,  D.   Wet scrubber
     system study,  Vol. I - scrubbber handbook.  Research Triangle Park, NC;
     U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency,- 1972 August.   PB 213 016
     (EPA-R2-72-118a).

                                   4-116

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16.  Hesketh, H. E.  Fine particle collection efficiency related to pressure
     drop, scrubbant and particle properties, and contact mechanism.   Journal
     of the Air Pollution Control Association.    24(10):939-942,  1974 October.

17.  Shervood, T. K.; and Pigford, R. L.  Absorption and extraction,  2nd ed.
     New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1952.   278 p.

18.  Eckert, J. S.; Foote, E. H.; Rollinson,  L.  R.; and Waller,  L.  F.  Absorp-
     tion process utilizing packed towers.   Industrial  and Engineering Chemistry.
     59(2):41-47. 1967 February.

19.  Zenz, F. A.  Designing gas-absorption towers.   Chemical Engineering.
     79(25):120-138, 1972 November 13.

20.  Fair, J. R.  Sorption processes for gas  separation.   Chemical  Engineering.
     75(15) :90-110, 1969 July 14.

21.  Devitt, T.; Spaile, P.; and Gibbs,  L.  Population  and characteristics  of
     industrial/commercial boilers in the U.S.   Research Triangle Park,  NC;
     U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency;  1979  August.  431 p.
     EPA-600/7-79-178a.
                                  4-117

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                                  CHAPTER 5

              OVERALL FACILITY DESIGN, OPERATION,  AND MONITORING
5.1  INTRODUCTION

Incineration is one controlled combustion process used in the ultimate dispos-
al of unusable hazardous wastes that result from industrial and chemical
manufacture.  Careful selection of equipment and processes for the incinera-
tion of chemical wastes is essential to ensure that the basic obligations of
safe handling and proper ultimate disposal are met in a satisfactory manner.
In addition to fulfilling social obligations, an effective system will satisfy
regulatory needs with minimum, adverse community reaction.

Prior to incineration, the handling, storage, and feeding of hazardous wastes t
require special care to ensure safety and reduce exposure.  During incinera-  I
tion and while the facility operates, certain parameters must be monitored by J
the operators to assure that proper conditions are maintained in day-to-day
operation.

Although the problems are substantially reduced, incineration of hazardous
waste materials alone does not eliminate all of the disposal problems associ-
ated with hazardous waste.  Most incinerators produce combustion products that
must be properly removed prior to discharging gas products to the environment.
These products include ash or inert residues from such things as silica oxides
and/or metals.  Captured gas products, such as HCl, when reacted with caustic
solutions in the scrubber, can also produce dissolved and suspended solids.
These solutions from the quench process and scrubber reactions oust be care-
fully disposed of to ensure the entire sequence of combustion is safe.  When-
ever these wastes are of a nonhazardous nature, standard procedures can be
used for their treatment and ultimate disposal.  However, in some cases the
secondary wastes can be hazardous themselves and require special handling.

5.1.1  Purpose

The purpose of this chapter is to provide the permit writer with engineering
back-up information to supplement the guidance criteria necessary to judge  the
capability of the overall incineration facility to technically and practically
process and monitor hazardous wastes safely and effectively.

This chapter discusses overall facility layouts, requirements common to all
facilities, site and combustor specific requirements, material and process
flows, waste receiving procedures, waste and other storage, material handling
equipment, emergency and safety procedures and provisions, personnel safety,
monitoring for the incineration process itself, monitoring of the air


                                      5-1

-------
pollution control system,  monitoring of waste handling and treatment systems,
monitoring and controlling parts of the overall facility that may become
fugitive emission sources, proper handling and disposal of quench/scrubber
water and ash, and sampling and analysis of wastewaters and ash.

5.1.2  Hazardous Waste Incinerator Facility Design

The overall facility design of hazardous waste incinerators is significantly
influenced by the category of waste involved; i.e.,  solids, liquids,  or sludges.
The systematic approach to facility design, therefore,  requires investigation
of the composition of each class of waste to define  the equipment and operating
procedures for each of the following elements:

      1.  Safety (toxicity, fire explosion)
      2.  Transportation and unloading
      3.  Segregation of wastes during storage
      4.  Storage
      5.  Handling and feeding
      6.  Monitoring
      7.  Fugitive emission control
      8.  Scrubber/quench water treatment
      9.  Residue handling and disposal
     10.  Secondary problems (e.g., stream pollution,  runoff, ground-water
          contamination).                                                    j-

The overall success of an incinerator facility depends upon the successful "•
integration of storage, feeding, and firing equipment; often these are areas
which do not receive as much attention as is necessary.  In the case of hazard-
ous waste incineration it is crucial that these areas require special attention.

Figure 5-1 is a block diagram of a typical incinerator facility layout.  In an
overall facility evaluation, the key areas are the facilities and equipment before
and after the combustor; i.e., waste receiving, waste storage, waste blending,
transfer between these areas, equipment feeding waste to the incinerator, han-
dling and treatment of quench and scrubber waters, and ash disposal.  Figure 5-2
is a schematic diagram of an incinerator facility handling both solid and liquid
wastes; illustrating the interrelationships between the key facility areas.

5.2  INCINERATOR FACILITY SITE SELECTION AND OPERATION

5.2.1  Site Selection Concerns

The Guidance Manual for Location Standards contains guidance for complying
with general (i.e., applicable to all facilities) location standards 11264.18.
Flood plains, holocene faults, and endangered and threatened species are
discussed.

The selection of a site for a hazardous waste incineration facility is a
phased decision process which has occurred prior to making a permit applica-
tion.  Site screening is the process of identifying and evaluating a parcel of
land for its suitability as a hazardous waste disposal site.   Specific site-     M
screening criteria which the permit applicant has addressed  include geologic,    ™


                                      5-2

-------
 INCCMING
RAIL TANK CA9
TRUCK TRAIlfR-HOPPER
• til HOPPER CAR
SEMI-TRAILER
 MET At DRUMS
 FIIER DRUMS
 TON CONTAINERS
PIPELINE iRARE'
BARGE (RARE
|  SECURITV	
  ACCESS
                                          STACK
                                          EXHAUST
                 SECURE FENCE
                Figure 5-1.  Typical  incinerator facility layout.                r

 hydrogeologic, topographic, economic,  social,  and political aspects.  While  many
 sites may exist which meet technical,  economic, and ecological criteria, public
 acceptance or rejection may ultimately decide  the fate of the facility  [1].

 The main geological constraints  that can render a site unsuitable for a hazard-
 ous waste incinerator facility are historical  or predicted seismic activity,
 landslide potential, soil slump  of solifluction, and volcanic or hot spring
 activities.

 The main topographic constraints are susceptibility to flooding, erosion,  and
 offsite drainage runoff.  The site will need sufficient area for the construc-
 tion of a runoff-holding pond (or diversion to an existing holding pond) to
 retain surface runoff which may  contain hazardous substances in solution.  Be-
 cause of the holding pond and flood  protection criteria, siting in flood
 plains is not normally acceptable.

 The primary climatic features which  can adversely affect an incineration site
 are the amount of annual or seasonal precipitation and incidence of severe
 storms.  Copious precipitation will  cause surface runoff and water infiltra-
 tion through the soil.  Runoff,  that amount of rainfall that does not infil-
 trate the soil, depends on such  factors as the intensity and duration of the
 precipitation, the soil moisture content, vegetation cover, permeability of
 the soil, and slope of the site. Normally, the runoff from a 10-year storm
 (recurrence interval of only once in 10 years) or annual spring thaw, which-
 ever is greater, is containable  by the site's  natural topography.  If not,
 berms, dikes, and other runoff control measures must be constructed to  modify
 the site.
                                        5-3

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                                                       Ul
                                                       v

                                                       V)

                                                       3

                                                       ID
                                                       •O
                                                       O
                                                       


                                                       
-------
Ecological site features are those elements determined through earlier studies
and environmental impact statements (EIS)  which determine whether ecosystems at
the site are in a delicate balance.  Whether a site is a habitat for rare and
endangered species,- or used seasonally by migratory wildlife is also a factor
determined for final site selection.

Cultural site features are those elements that are a direct result of human
activities which modify and affect the site's desirability as a hazardous
waste incineration facility—access,  land-use, and aesthetics.  Land areas
zoned for nonresidential uses and adequate buffer zones are generally preferred
for siting a hazardous waste management facility.  The site ideally needs to
contain sufficient land area to provide a concentric ring of unoccupied space
as a buffer zone between active storage, treatment, and disposal areas, and
the nearest area of human activity.  Vegetation, topography, distance, and
artificial barriers are all potential means to screen facility activities
from line-of-sight observations from commercial, residential, or recreational
areas.

One of the most difficult problems faced by a hazardous waste incineration
facility applicant has been that of gaining public approval from a community
for construction of the facility.  No matter how thoroughly the above
parameters have been examined in the facility site selection, public accept-
ance or rejection probably decides the fate of the facility.  Public aware-
ness of the planned facility, early planning input, and active participation
by political leaders, public officials, environmental groups, as well as
other public interest groups and adjacent industry have led to successful
facility sitings in 'the past.

5.2.2  Operation of the Facility

Preplanning of the proper operation of a hazardous waste incineration facility
is necessary to protect and prevent adverse effects of the facility on the
public health or to the environment.  Proper facility operation, on a day-to-
day basis, includes plans and manuals of operation for handling wastes, safety
at the site, monitoring of operating parameters, monitoring to assure protec-
tion of the environment, and operator training.  These plans are developed
within the operating company (and corporate structure) and are done in cooper-
ation with other neighboring or similar organizations and with governmental
agencies.  It may not always be possible for all of them to fully cooperate  or
participate, but through planned action each organization is made aware of
certain available assistances.

5.2.2.1  Operations Plan—
An operations plan includes the following:

     (1)  Classification of wastes to be handled and  estimated quantities

     (2)  Methods and processes utilized

          (a)  Facility capacity
          (b)  Detailed description of each process
                                      5-5

-------
     (3)  Storage and disposal procedures

          (a)  Plans for receipt,  checking,  processing,  segregating
               incompatible wastes,  and odor control
          (b)  Life of facility based on projected use

     (4)  Monitoring Procedures

          (a)  Monitoring of incinerator operating parameters
          (b)  Monitoring and recording of incoming wastes
          (c)  Leachate control and groundwater monitoring
          (d)  Security system
          (e)  System for monitoring water and air pollution affecting area
               outside the site
          (f)  Air pollution control device monitoring

     (5)  Administrative Procedures

          (a)  Hours of operation/day and days/week
          (b)  Security procedures including entry control,  hours manned,
               lighting, and other procedures to prevent unauthorized entry
          (c)  Procedures planned and equipment available in case of break-
               downs, inclement weather, or other abnormal  conditions.
          (d)  Description of recordkeeping procedures,  types of records to
               kept, and use of records by management to control the
               operation.
          (e)  List of general qualifications of key operating personnel
          (f)  Maintenance and inspection schedules
r
5.2.2.2  Operations Manual—
Once in operation, the incinerator facility will maintain operation guides or
manuals, covering the routine workings of the plant.   An operations guide can
include .-

     (1)  A scaled engineering drawing, pictorial flow diagram, or scale model
          of the plant, shoving all major components  by name and function.
     (2)  A set of formal drawings at the plant for reference by operational
          and maintenance personnel
     (3)  Equipment manuals
     (4)  Equipment catalogs
     (5)  Spare parts lists
     (6)  Job or task functions for each assignment during a typical shift

5.2.2.3  Emergency Manual or Handbook—
An emergency manual or handbook is prepared which specifies the plan-of-action
for any type of emergency the incinerator facility may reasonably expect  to
encounter.  These include weather extremes (severe cold, heavy snowfall,  hail
damage, hurricances, tornadoes, high winds, or lightning damage), floods,
earthquakes, power outages, bomb scares, fires and explosion, and spills  (See
Section 5.2.2.5).  The typical remedial actions for emergency situations
presented in Table 5-1 cover many of the items that can be included in  the
                                      5-6

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    -------
    emergency handbook, but other items may be needed as dictated by the anticipated
    emergencies and the available resources.
    
    5.2.2.4  Leak Detection and Repair Plan--
    Any facility that processes hazardous air pollutants as described under Section
    112 of the Clean Air Act must develop a Leak Detection and Repair Plan (LDRP)
    to aid in reducing fugitive emissions [2].  The LDRP must be certified by the
    owner of the facility as meeting the fugitive emission criteria established by
    the EPA under the Clean Air Act.  The plan is to be reviewed and updated, as
    required, once every three years, or within 90 days of a major modification at
    the facility. At the minimum, the LDRP:
    
         (1)  Develops a schedule and recordkeeping program for routine
              surveillance and/or monitoring of fugitive emissions.
    
         (2)  Establishs a written plan for detection and repair of leaks, and a
              reasonable schedule for repair.
    
         (3)  Provides a written plan for sampling procedures, housekeeping (e.g.,
              small spill cleanup) and onsite waste handling.
    
         (4)  Develops recordkeeping procedures for all aspects of the LDRP and      |.
              saves these records for one year.                                      I
    
         (5)  Establishes a written plan for specifying sufficient personnel to
              fulfill the LDRP, and provides a training program with a written
              manual.
    
    5.2.2.5  Hazardous Chemical Spill Handling Plan—
    Most plants' safety, disaster or operating plans and manuals do not fulfill
    the requirement for a spill-handling plan.  The key to adequate spill-handling
    is decision-making.  None of the above manuals or procedures supply the infor-
    mation required to make the decisions necessary to cope with the spill of a
    hazardous material.  Thus, a chemical-spill-handling plan will fill an information
    need, but will not program decisions.
    
    In a spill-handling plan, the decisions that must be made in a spill  incident
    are defined.  First, the plant or plant superintendent must accept the fact
    that a spill has occurred, based on information from his monitoring systems.
    The most immediate steps are those aimed at the protection of human life.  If
    the information obtained about the location and nature of the leak/spill shows
    that the threat to life is "immediate and great," the decision should be to
    "shut down - all persons immediately take cover."  Otherwise, the decision
    should be to "cleanup the area."
    
    The "immediate cover" for persons is a spill response usually described by the
    plant disaster/emergency plan, whereas the protection of employees during the
    "cleanup the area" procedure is ordinarily contained in a safety plan.   It is
    the lack of information between these two extremes that the spill-response
    plan fills.
                                          5-13
    

    -------
    Once  a spill-response  leader has  been chosen, the  decision-making process
    continues toward containment actions and disposition procedures.  Figure 5-3
    diagrams the  decision-making process and information needed in a  spill-
    handling situation, as  well as  the requirements  for improving the  spill
    response.
    
    A spill-handling plan  is written  as an  easy-to-consult document for decision-
    making,  and includes:
    
          (1)  Monitoring all possible spills of materials
               INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS
               SPILL-MONITORING
               INFORMATION
               PLANT-EQUIPMENT CONTENTS
               ANO MATERIAL-HAZARD
               INFORMATION
               SPILL-RES PONSECHAIN-
               OF-COMMAND INFORMATION
               EQUIPMENT AVAILASUUTY
               AND MATERIAL-HAZARD
               INFORMATION
                            DECISION PROCESS
                               IS IT AN
                               IMMEDIATE
                             THREAT TO LIFE ?
                                          WHAT CONTAINMENT\
                                          ACTION SHOULD BE  >
                                              TAKEN?    J
                                             NONE
                                           AVAILABLE
                            WHAT DEPOSnON
                            ACTION SHOULD BE
                                TAKEN?
     NONE
               IMPROVEMENTS
               REQUIREMENTS
    
    
               REVIEW AND/OR
               IMPROVE SPILL
               MONITORING
              REVIEW AND/OR USE
              DISASTER PLAN
                                                      REVIEW SPILL RESPONSE
                                                      CHAIN OF COMMAND
               IMPROVE
               CONTAINMENT
               DEVICES
    AVAILABLE
    IMPROVE
    DEPOSITION
    CAPABILITY
                                              ACTION
    Figure 5-3.
    Spill'response diagram illustrating  the interrelating information
    available, decisions  to be taken, and improvements needed  [3].
                                               5-14
    

    -------
         (2)   Identifying of all plant equipment and other contents it may
              have (can be separated into convenient process groupings or modules)
    
         (3)   Describing hazards of materials that would comprise potential spills
    
         (4)   Designating the chain of command during a spill incident
    
         (5)   Specifying equipment available for containment, and disposition
              alternatives in response to a spill.
    
    Every spill-handling plan has seven relatively independent parts that fulfill
    the five  needs mentioned above.  These parts are kept as autonomous as
    possible  to facilitate the upgrading of each one.  The seven parts are:
    
         (1)   List of contacts for spill emergencies, including plant/shift
              individuals, safety personnel, environmental control personnel, and
              government agency contacts, with home and office telephone numbers.
    
         (2)   Process flowsheets, showing primarily those pieces of equipment
              containing sufficient volume of material to constitute a potential
              spill problem.
    
         (3)   Site map.
    
         (4)   Chemical-effects list for all hazardous materials located within
              the boundaries of the plant.
    
         (5)   Monitoring checklist, consisting of a matrix indicating how equipment
              is monitored for potential spills.
    
         (6)   Containment alternatives matrix, describing the series of contain-
              ments that occur in sequential order for various process equipment.
    
         (7)   Chemical-disposition alternatives, including a listing of equipment
              that are considered alternative places of material disposition for
              recovery, treatment, ultimate disposal.
    
    5.2.2.6  Facility Security
    
    Incineration facility security is management's responsibility.  Basic security
    problems are protection of property and controlling access to the facility.
    Security procedures for hazardous waste disposal-facilities are described in
    the Federal Register, Vol. 45, No. 98, Part 265 - Interim Status Standards for
    Owners and Operators of Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage, and Disposal
    Facilities, Subpart B - General Facility Standards, 265.14 Security, pg.
    33235, May 19, 1980.
    
    5.2.2.7  Operator Practices and Training
    
    Operator practices and training of personnel ensure the smooth, efficient
    running of a hazardous waste incineration facility.  Some of the areas covered
    under practice and training include:
                                          5-15
    

    -------
         (1)  Selection of personnel, pre-employment physicals,  periodic
              examinations
         (2)  Training; e.g., supervisory, operator, emergency
         (3)  Operating manual use; e.g.,  development of the manual,  process
              description, material specifications,  safety considerations
         (4)  Instruction of personnel
         (5)  Start-up and shut-down procedures;  e.g.,  problems  of start-up,
              normal shut-down, emergency shut-down
         (6)  Maintenance and inspection
         (7)  Preparation for emergencies; e.g.,  recognition, alarms, simulated
              emergencies, disaster drills
    
    Operator training procedures and rules are described in the  Federal Register
    (as cited in Section 5.2.2.6), 265.16 - Personnel Training.
    
    5.2.2.8  Loss Prevention Program
    
    A loss prevention program embodies many of the facets of an  emergency handbook,
    operations manual, and personnel training.  Usually, loss prevention
    encompasses a whole facility concept and can include other concerns such as:
    
         (1)  Accident prevention
         (2)  Industrial Health and Hygiene                                     I
         (3)  Environmental Control                                             I*
         (4)  Fires and explosions                                              I
         (5)  Fire prevention measures
         (6)  Explosion prevention measures
    
    5.3  WASTE RECEIVING AREA
    
    The type and nature of hazardous waste received at an incinerator facility
    will dictate the design and equipment of the waste receiving area.  The
    physical types of hazardous waste which may be received are:
    
         (1)  Liquid
         (2)  Containerized materials, liquid and solids
         (3)  Dry solid materials
         (4)  Wet solid materials
              (a)  Pumpable
              (b)  Nonpunpable.
    
    The types of receiving equipment for unloading can be divided into  three
    general areas:
    
         (1)  Pumpable liquid transfer
         (2)  Container transfer
         (3)  Bulk solids transfer.
    
    Figure 5-4 shows a generalized flow diagram of handling procedures  for  incin-
    eration of hazardous wastes.  Careful consideration must be given to  the
    layout, safety, and recordkeeping arrangements of the waste receiving area.
    Unloading material offers  one of the  greatest spill or  toxic exposure
    
    
                                          5-16
    

    -------
                                 IN =>l«K'
                                 INSPICTIOX
                                  c*c«
                                   I
                   INSTCIIWI
                    cua
                   futi
                 Figure 5-4.
    Flow diagram showing handling procedures
    for incineration of hazardous wastes.
    potentials at a hazardous waste facility.  For recordkeeping, the waste
    receiving area poses the first interface with the transporter and manifest
    system.
    
    5.3.1  Typical Operations and Layouts
    
    A detailed flow sheet is a useful guide in laying out receiving areas, partic-
    ularly those handling hazardous materials.  The nature of the materials  and
    handling procedures can be studied and provisions made to eliminate  or control
    hazards.
    
    Access to the incinerator facility will most likely be by truck or rail.   (An
    inspection procedure will be required for all incoming waste.)  Figure 5-5
    illustrates a receiving area layout of a facility designed  to accommodate both
    forms of transport.  Most receiving areas for liquids will  consist of a  dock-
    ing area, pumphouse, and storage facilities.  For solid materials the pump-
    house is replaced with mechanical or pneumatic conveyor devices.  For receipt
    of containers, a suitable docking area with conveyors and inspection appropri-
    ate to the hazardous nature of the containers is necessary.  Later sections
    describe
    in greater detail some of the equipment, handling procedures, and safety re-
    quirements for each form of hazardous waste received.
                                          5-17
    

    -------
                         ft.*. SIDING
                          111
                                        TANK CAR
                                    UNLOADING STATIONS
                           CONCRETE DIKE
      TRUQC TANKER
    UNLOADING STATIONS
     ./X.
    o
    Oi
    O
    0 0
    0 0
    GRACE
    WAS
    D
    D
    D
    PUMP
    HOUSE
    Q D
    D D
    D D
                                                                  ROADWAY
                    Figure 5-5.  Layout for liquid receiving area.
    
    5.3.2  Laboratory for Waste Verification and/or Characterization
    
    Analytical data should be made available for all wastes to be  incinerated.
    The physical and chemical properties and the combustion characteristics  of   i
    each chemical waste or general classification of wastes, will  be  determined J"
    before incineration.  Only after such analysis can successful  waste  disposal!
    be carried out safely and without violation of air or water pollution
    regulations as set forth by state and federal agencies.
    
    A minimal but complete laboratory facility requires a working  area,  including
    office facilities, of about 2,400 sq ft.  Provisions are made  for air, water,
    gas, and electricity, preferably both AC and DC.  The laboratory  furniture  in-
    cludes benches, sinks, fume hood, shelving, glassware racks and a refrigerator.
    Good lighting and air-conditioning are also important.  Identification of
    laboratory equipment needed for analyses of chemical wastes follows.   Specific
    requirements depend on the types of wastes to be processed and type  of inciner-
    ator used.  If the equipment for sophisticated analytical methods is not
    available in-house, the analyses can be performed by commercial analytical
    laboratories.
    
         (1)  Typical laboratory equipment to determine physical properties:
    
              (a)  Specific gravity balance - specific gravity of  liquids.
    
              (b)  Brookfield viscosimeter - viscosity measurement of liquids and
                   sludges.
    
              (c)  Imhoff cones and centrifuge with  graduated tubes -measurement
                   of percent solids by volume.
    
              (d)  Sieving machine for screen analysis  (to  100 micron) and HIAC
                   particle counter  (100-5 micron) - particle size measurement.
                                           5-18
    

    -------
              (e)  Cleveland open cup flash point tester - flash and fire point
                   determinations.
    
              (f)  Oven and balances - percent solids and moisture by weight.
    
              (g)  Gas chromatograph-mass spectrometry and infrared apparatus  to
                   identify organic substances which may be toxic.
    
              (h)  Differential thermal analyzer - explosion characteristics and
                   fusion temperature.
    
              (i)  Juno meter or equivalent - sensitive to alpha,  beta and gamma
                   rays for radioactivity.
    
         (2)  Laboratory equipment to determine chemical properties.
    
              (a)  Muffle furnace,  oven, balances - for percent ash by weight.
    
              {b)  Orsat, fyrite techniques for flue gas analyses to provide data
                   for excess air calculations.
    
              (c)  pH meter and automatic titrator - acidity and alkalinity
                   measurement.
    
              (d)  Emission spectrograph for concentration and presence of metals.
    
              (e)  Atomic absorption spectrometer for concentration of metals and
                   elements.
    
              (f)  Optical microscope for particulate characterization down to the
                   sub-micron size.  Electron microscope may be required for some
                   sub-micron determinations.
    
         (3)  Laboratory equipment to determine combustion properties:
    
              (a)  Calorimeter for heating value and combustibility.
    
              (b)  Orsat (previously listed ) for COj, CO, 0%, Ha and N2 analysis.
    
              (c)  Flue gas analyzer (previously listed) for analysis at various
                   excess air rates.
    
              (d)  Mass spectrometer (previously listed) for hazardous products of
                   combustion.
    
    Reliable, bench-scale,  chemical incineration equipment is generally unavail-
    able.  The present practice appears to follow the line of waste characteriza-
    tion, physical, chemical and combustibility analysis followed by a test burn
    in pilot or plant scale equipment.
                                          5-19
    

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    5.3.3  Liquids Unloading
    
    Liquids will arrive in bulk in tank cars or tank trucks by either  truck or
    rail.  Standard rail tank cars vary in capacity from 6,000 to 26,000  gallons
    and tank trucks carry up to 10,000 gallons.  Figures 5-6 and 5-7  illustrate
    typical tank cars with parts and nomenclature identified.
    
    The unloading stations are not normally located near important buildings or
    facilities.  The site is arranged so that escaping liquid will flow to a safe
    location by utilizing the natural grade or by providing diversionary  dikes  or
    drains.  (For more information, see Section 5.3.3.1).   When possible,  50 feet
    or more of clear space is provided between unloading stations and buildings.
    
    Hazardous liquids and "pumpable" materials are transferred through piping by
    pump, gravity flow, or compressed-gas displacement.  Pumping systems  are most
    commonly used and have an inherent safety advantage in that they  can  easily be
    arranged so that the flow of liquid ceases when the pump is stopped.   Either
    direct-displacement or centrifugal pumps can be purchased in a wide variety of
    capacities suitable for a wide range of liquids.
    
    The safest method of unloading tank cars or trucks is through the top by means
    of a pump, as shown in Figures 5-8 and 5-9, which also illustrate provisions
    for grounding and bonding to prevent static electricity discharges.  Many tihk
    cars are equipped with permanent unloading connections in the dome.  For ca|s
    not so equipped, special covers are available to replace the dome cover during
    unloading.  Bottom unloading, unloading by siphoning,  or unloading by air
    pressure is undesirable, since accidental movement of the tank car during
    unloading may result in the escape of the entire contents of the  car.  Bottom
    unloading may be tolerated under favorable conditions if a remote control or  a
    heat-actuated automatic shutoff is provided at the tank car connection.
    
    Tank trucks are usually unloaded from the bottom by gravity or by pumps
    mounted on the vehicle.  These methods are considered acceptable.
    
    For the best methods when transferring liquid wastes:
    
         (1)  Positive-displacement pumps are preferred
    
         (2)  Centrifugal pumps are suitable for flammable-liquid service but
              cannot be used as shutoffs.
    
    Positive-displacement pumps are preferred because, unlike centrifugal pumps,
    they afford a reasonably tight shutoff and prevent siphoning when not in
    operation.  A relief valve is provided downstream of positive-displacement
    pumps, of sufficient capacity to prevent excess pressure in the system.  The
    relief-valve discharge is then piped back to the supply source or to the
    suction side of the pump.  With liquids having closed-cup flash points  of 0°F
    or lower, the relief valve should be piped to the storage tank; otherwise  the
    churning action of the pump might cause dangerous overheating.
    
    Centrifugal pumps are suitable for flammable-liquid service but cannot  be  used
    as shutoffs, since they usually must take  suction under a head.  Submerged or
    
    
                                          5-20
    

    -------
                                               I
                                               Ul
    
    
    
                                               a
    
                                               JS
                                               u
    
                                               u
    
    
                                               u
                                               V
                                               n>
                                               &
                                               H
                                               vO
                                               I
                                               &
                                              •H
                                              te.
    5-21
    

    -------
    
    T
    /
    •<
    -^
    IITIJC
    4IX3O
    r
    
    \ J
    A. CAR BRAKE
    B. WHEEL BLOCK
    C. IDENTIFICATION NUMBER
    0. CAR SEAL
    E.  SAFETY VALVE
    F.  DOME COVER
    G.  OUTLET  LEG VALVE
    H.  OUTLET  LEG CAP
    J.  DRAIN PAN
    K.  OUTLET NOZZa
    L  "FLAMMABLE" CARD
     Figure 5-7.   Typical  tank car  with parts  identified  [5].
                 1. BONDING WIRE ATTACHCO WITH GROUND OAMP
                 2. RELIEF-VALVE BYPASS
                 3. EXPlOSIONPROOf MOTOR
                 4. INSULATED FLEXIBLE GROUNDING CABLE ATTACHED
                    TO TANK CAR WITH GROUND OAMP; NOT SMALLER
                    THAN NUMBER 4
                 5. NO. 4 STRANDED CABLE SECURED TO PLATFORM
                    COLUMN
                 6. NONFERROUS TUBE
                 7. SAFETY-DOME COVER
                 L GROUND SLOPING AWAY FRON IMPORTANT FACILITIES
                 9. BARE-COPPER CONDUCTOR
                 10. GROUND ROD DRIVEN TO PERMANENT MOISTURE
                    LEVEL
                 11. WATER MAIN. IFAVAILABlf
             Figure 5-8.   Tank  car  unloading station  [6].
                                        5-22
    

    -------
           DOWNSPOUT SHOULD onoio
           TO «/t« (OTTOM Or TAME
           HMiN IOAOIMC.
               PLACE PI« CLAMP ON
               tvt«r nn 4 CONNECT
               TO COMMON MOUND
    
    *.J
    \^ J
    \^ ^J
    \
    ^ _J
    «T
    rr
    Li f
    M
    >•)
                                 CONNECTION IS TO |{ MAK
                                 ICWtt MAMHOU IS OftWO
                          j. N fW USE ON TUCKS MOT EQUIPKO
                          A\ KITH CMUNOINC PiOC
                          f   M"Xr-r'6MUNO MO WITH OAMT
                Figure 5-9.
    Bonding and grounding of a flammable liquid
    tank truck and loading rack [5].
    deep-well  (vertical-shaft) centrifugal  pumps mounted on tanks are  satisfactory
    if  the pump  and bearings are cooled by  the liquid being pumped.  This  is to
    prevent  dry  rotating parts from operating in the vapor space of  the  tank.
    
    A gravity  feed system has the disadvantage of being more difficult to  arrange
    for prompt automatic or manual shutoff  than unloading by pumping.  Another
    disadvantage is that gravity usually maintains constant pressure on  the system,
    whereas  pumps can be easily arranged to permit pressurizing only during demand.
    If  very  volatile liquids cause vapor lock when pumped by conventional  methods,
    gravity  transfer may be necessary,- it is required for many processing
    operations.
    
    Some of  the  safety precautions for a gravity feed system are:
    
         (1)   Installation of emergency shutoff valves in all gravity  transfer
               systems.
    
         (2)   Location of such valves as close to the source as possible.
    
    Inert gas  transfer methods, owing to the compressible nature of  the  transfer
    medium,  have the same disadvantage as the gravity system.  In the  event of
                                            5-23
    

    -------
    breakage or leakage,  flow from the system will be continuous.   Such systems
    also introduce the complication of pressure storage tanks.
    
    Among the disadvantages of the inert gas transfer methods are  these:
    
       .  (1)  A considerable amount of liquid may be discharged in the event of
              pipe failure or careless valve operation.
    
         (2)  Because vapor-air explosions are extremely violent at high pressure,
              transfer by compressed air should be avoided.
    
         (3)  Tanks for inert gas transfer systems have to be constructed,
              installed,  and tested in accordance with ASME or other recognized
              codes for unfired pressure vessels.
    
         (4)  The gas pressure is regulated at the minimum needed to force the
              liquid through the transfer system, and a relief valve with a
              slightly higher setting downstream must normally be installed.
    
         (5)  Provisions need to be made for automatically shutting off the supply
              of inert gas and for bleeding the gas pressure from the flammable-
              liquid system in event of fire.
    
    Transfer can be made by nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or other inert gases.  Thl*
    system is under constant pressure, and the compressibility of the transfer I
    medium results in discharge of considerable liquid if there is pipe failure or
    careless valve operation.
    
    A schematic diagram illustrating the inert gas transfer method is shown in
    Figure 5-10.
    
    Fail-safe transfer lines primarily intended for use in transferring hazardous
    liquids between a mobile transporter and storage facility have been developed
    [7].  The operating principle is based on measurement of flow rate at the
    inlet and outlet of the transfer line, and detection of a leak through
    comparison of the two rates.
    
    The system consists of four items:  an inlet assembly, at flexible hose, an
    outlet assembly, and a control module.  It is designed to transfer hazardous
    fluids, and to automatically close both the inlet  and outlet valves upon
    detection of a leak.  It will also cause the inlet and outlet valves to close
    if electrical power is lost, the valve operating air pressure is  out of toler-
    ance, or if any cable is severed.  Figure  5-11 shows a simplified diagram of
    the system.
    
    The inlet and outlet assemblies  are shown  in Figure  5-12.   They are  identical,
    except that a strainer is included on the  inlet  assembly only.  The  transfer
    hose is a 2-inch diameter,  50 ft. length of  steel-reinforced  steam hose,
    designed to carry about 100 gpm.  The control module is  housed  in an  explosion
    proof junction box, consisting primarily of  a simple hardwired  computing
    device  [7].
                                           5-24
    

    -------
                                                                                         HEAT-RESPONSIVE
                                                                                         DEVICE
                                                                                       PUSH-BUTTON
                                                                                          SWITCH
                                  >-
                                     ORAIM
                   1.  INERT CAS SUPPLY LINE
                   2.  MANUAL CONTROL VALVE
                   3.  GAS COMPRESSOR
                   4.  PRESSURE-REGULATOR VALVE
                   5.  SOLINOID-OPERATtO THREE-WAY TWO-PORT
                      VALVE. WHEN CIRCUIT TO SOLINOID IS COM-
                      PLETED. VALVE INLET IS CONNECTED TO OUT-
                      LET TO SUPPLY INERT GAS TO TANK.  SHOWN
                      WITH CIRCUIT TO SOLENOID BROKEN. VALVE
                      DISCHARGE IS CONNECTED TO DRAIN TO
                      RELIEVE PRESSURE ON TANK.
                   6.  RELIEF VALVE
                               COMPRESSED
                               INERT GAS
    
                               FIAMMABU
                               LIQUID
    
     7   LIQUID-LEVEL DIAL INDICATOR
     t  FILL CONNECTION
     9.  STRAINER
    10.  SOLINOIO VALVE. INTERLOCKED SO THAT IT
        WILL BE OPEN ONLY WHEN VALVE 5 ON INERT
        GAS SUPPLY LINE IS IN THE POSITION SHOWN
        AND VALVE 11 ON DELIVERY LINE IS CLOSED.
    11.  SOLINOID VALVE. ARRANGED FOR MANUAL
        CONTROL AND FOR AUTOMATIC SHUTOFF IN
        EVENT OF FIRE AT PROCESS.
                    Figure  5-10.   Compressed  inert  gas transfer method.[6].
                     AIR SUPPLY
        AIR
     RESERVOIR
      FROM
    TANK CAR
                                              TODISCHAICE
                                                 PUMP
               Figure 5-11.    Fail  safe transfer line for  hazardous fluids  [7].
                                                        5-25
    

    -------
                   WDcc RESERVOIR
                                  PNEUMATIC VALVE      ,
                                    ACTUATOR    r-A-f
                                                 PILOT VALVE
                                                               PORTABLE CA8l£
                                                              TO CONTROL MODULE
               CHECK VALVE
     1/4" AIR LINE
     PORTABLE CABLE
    TO CONTROL MODULE
                   STRAINER
                 (INLET ONLY)
       Figure 5-12.   Fail  safe transfer line inlet and outlet assemblies [7].
    
    The device will  reliably detect leaks of 0.5% or greater.  Average fluid loss
    before valve actuation (closing at 85 gpm and 0.5% leak rate  setting)  was  25C
    ml.  It should be noted that the extremely low fluid loss before  shutdown is|
    only a measure of the  device reaction time and not of the total fluid loss  I
    that may be experienced in the event of a leak. , Fifty feet of 2-inch hose
    holds about 8 gal of fluid;  all of which could be lost through the leak after
    shutdown.
    
    5.3.3.1  Safety/Emergency Provisions—
    Hazardous fluid  unloading and transfer operations offer one of the highest
    likelihoods of accidents; i.e., fire, spills, or worker exposure.   Technical
    bulletins of the Chemical Manufacturers Association (CMA) and the American
    Petroleum Institute  (API) provide excellent guidance for the  unloading of tank
    cars and tank trucks [8-11].
    
    Some of the design provisions and procedures for safely unloading hazardous
    liquids include:
    
          (1) The condition of the cars is examined, and any leaks are to be
              reported immediately.
    
          (2) Before unloading starts the area is checked to be  sure it has no
              exposed lights, fires, or other sources of ignition.
    
          (3) Vents  on tank cars are protected by flame arresters.
    
          (4) In all cases, personnel should be  thoroughly  trained and have been
              given  written instructions suitable for each material they will
              handle.
                                           5-26
    

    -------
     (5) Adequate personal,  protective equipment have been furnished for
         those involved in the loading and unloading of tank cars.   For
         materials that are  corrosive to the skin or that may be absorbed
         through it,  full protective clothing with face masks, rubber gloves,
         rubber shoes,  etc., is required.   When materials that have toxic
         vapor or gas are unloaded,  personnel should be equipped with airline
         respirators  or self-contained breathing equipment.   Protective equip-
         ment not available  at the site should be obtained even though this
         may mean some delay in making the transfer.
    
     (6) First aid and medical procedures  are worked out in advance and
         posted in the unloading area.  Where unusually toxic substances are
         handled, medical personnel  will have information on the character-
         istics of the material and on the medical management needed for
         any material they may encounter.
    
     (7) Fire extinguishers-of adequate type for the material handled are
         distributed  throughout the  area.
    
     (8) Personnel responsible for unloading stay in the immediate vicinity
         of the operation at all times, and ascertain that all conditions
         are normal.
    
     (9) An emergency shower and an eyewash device is available at each
         loading location.  Preferably, these devices are tied to an alarm
         system that  would bring help to any man making use of them.
    
    (10) Safe access  to the  top of the vehicle is one general safety
         requirement  for liquid unloading.  This is particularly important
         for top unloading,  but it may also be necessary for operations such
         as gauging or sampling.  Thus, loading racks with suitable ladders,
         platforms, gangways, or even railings permanently affixed to the
         vehicle are  usually required.
    
    (11) Keeping liquid-unloading facilities usable in adverse weather
         conditions,  such as icing,  may be difficult, but every effort
         must be made to keep them safe.  Good general illumination,
         especially at night, is far preferable to providing the operator
         with an extension light, which he might drop.
    
    (12) Steel pipe and swing joints or flexible hose of the standard metal
         type are usually used for connections to tank cars or tank trucks.
         Metal-reinforced rubber hose of a type resistant to the material
         being handled is acceptable but less desirable.  See Section 5.13
         on materials compatibility.
    
    (13) Each .line and connection should be clearly identified to avoid
         intermixing  materials.
    
    (14) Liquids that require heat within the tank car for pumping purposes
         should be received  only in cars equipped with heater coils.  The
         minimum steam pressure necessary to being the liquid to a fluid
                                     5-27
    

    -------
              state is used.  A regulator adjusted to this pressure  is  installed
              in the steam line,  and a relief valve with a slightly  higher setting
              is provided downstream.
    
         (15) Some tank cars and tank trucks have interior linings of rubber
              or plastic of various kinds.   When such cars are being unloaded,
              special care must be taken to prevent damage to the  lining.
    
         (16) Pumps are preferably-located outdoors so that fire at  the pump will
              not expose property of appreciable value.   They should not be located
              inside diked areas.  Pumps are sometimes located in small detached
              noncombustible pump houses or in cutoff rooms of main  buildings.
              When they are located indoors and handle flammable liquids with
              flash points below 110°F,  positive low-level exhaust ventilation
              of 1.0 ft3/min-ft2 of pumproom floor area is recommended.
              Natural ventilation is acceptable for less hazardous liquids.
    
         (17) Where flammable liquids are handled in a pump house, motors can be
              partitioned and sealed off from the rest of the pump house,  or
              can be of a type approved for use in flammable atmospheres.   It is
              a good operating and safety practice to have a well-marked master
              cutoff switch outside the building.  However, consideration is
              normally given to locating flammable liquid pumps outside of     I-
              buildings whenever feasible.                                      I
    
         (18) As a fail-safe precaution, an interlocked warning light or physical
              barrier system is often provided in unloading areas to prevent
              vehicular departure before complete disconnect of flexible or
              fixed transfer lines.
    
    5.3.3.2  Spill and Runoff Containment—
    Drainage from the unloading area is collected or diverted to allow runoff of
    any spills or runoff from rainfall to permit recovery or at least proper
    disposal.  The basic objective of secondary containment is to prevent the
    discharge of hazardous materials to waterways, sewer systems,  or groundwaters.
    Containment systems which fail under rainstorm conditions are considered
    inadequate.  To the extent feasible, such containment is designed to hold 110%
    of the largest unit handled (or largest unit contents plus the maximum
    24-hr/10-yr rainfall event, if greater).
    
    For tank trucks a system of containment curbs are used for unloading areas,
     •sing ramps to provide truck access into the confines of the containment curb.
    
        led trenching system encompasses the railroad tank car unloading area.
         rench is designed to carry away any spill or runoff to a catchment basin
          ding pond for later treatment.  Figure 5-13 illustrates a containment
           •pe spill catchment system, depressed area form.
    
             Static Electricity Prevention—
             ectricity is generated when fluid flows through a pipe or  from an
              to a tank.  The principal hazards created by static electricity are
      '         're and explosion, which are caused by spark discharges  containing
    
    
                                          5-28
    

    -------
                                                                        SIOPC
                                           KSCKITION
                                                    OPWATION/WtlP.
    ITEM
    1
    2
    3
    «. >
    i
    T
    of PtoncriON
    DUE
    (AISID DRAIN
    TRttCH DRAIN
    SUMP PUMP
    OILUTCSUMP
    COM. SUMP
    PROTECTED
    TANKS
    OVERFLOW, MIPS
    TAMCCM
    ptoass Siwa
    TANK MAT
    pRoasssmu
                                                               SPIOS. MASHING
    
                                                               CONC. SPILLS
    
                                                               UNLOAD. SPILLS
    
                                                               SLUG DISCHARGE
    
                                                               SPILLS
    
                                                               DISCHUBE
                   Figure 5-13.
    Containment curb  type  spill catchment
    system, depressed area form [12].
    sufficient  energy to ignite any flammable or  explosive vapors or dust present.
    A point of  great  danger from a static spark is  the  place where a flammable
    vapor may be present in the air, such as a delivery hose nozzle.
    
    The terms "bonding"  and "grounding" often have  been used interchangeably
    because the terms are poorly understood.  Bonding is done to eliminate a
    difference  in  potential between objects.  Grounding is done to eliminate  a
    difference  in  potential between an object and ground.   Figures 5-3 and 5-9
    (Section 5.3.3)  illustrate bonding and grounding of tank cars during unloading
    operations.  Figure  5-14 shows rail joint bonding and track grounding.
                      QfVATION
               CROUM MO WIRE TO If FASTDK9
               rouas,
         Figure  5-14.   A tank car unloading  siding showing rail joint bonding,
                        insulated track joint,  detail,  and track grounding  [5].
    
    When unloading tank cars through open domes,  it is best to use a downspout
    long enough  to reach the tank bottom.  Generally,  tank cars need not be
                                            5-29
    

    -------
    separately grounded because the resistance of the natural ground through the
    tank car wheels and rails,  and the resistance of piping,  flexible metallic
    joints, or metallic swivel  joints, are considered sufficiently low to protect
    against static electricity.  For detailed information and exceptions to this
    generality, consult NFPA Standard No.  77, "Recommended Practice on Static
    Electricity."
    
    5.3.4  Container Unloading
    
    For hazardous wastes, the choice of container will usually be made from among
    various types of drums, barrels, and special bulk units.   As is true in any
    bulk handling problem, the  first step is to obtain information on the type of
    container which will be received with respect to its handling properties.
    Since it contains a hazardous waste, the container must then meet the regula-
    tions for its transportation set forth by the Department of Transportation and
    RCRA.
    
    Containerized hazardous waste is most likely to arrive for unloading via rail
    boxcar or truck semitrailer.  Due to economics of transportation, the carrying
    capacity of a trailer or boxcar will most likely be near the maximum.  A
    55-gal drum is the most popular form of container; a boxcar can carry 360
    55-gal drums per carload.
    
    In addition to liquid waste, certain dry materials require the strength, wattr
    tightness, weatherability,  and general ruggedness of a steel drum.  Standard;
    specifications for steel drums have been established by the Department of
    Transportation; a typical specification is shown in Table 5-2.  The heavier
    gage drums find use in transporting liquids.
    
    The process for unloading trailers or cars differs by the waste and hauler.
    Drummed material may be placed on pallets or may rest on the bed of the  trail-
    er.  In the latter case, the hauler may be involved with unloading and may
    manually handle the cargo.   A common delivery condition for cargo touching the
    truck bed is "tail gate delivery", whereby the truck driver moves the packaged
    cargo to the tailgate of the trailer, and the recipient removes it.
    
    Alternative methods include industrial trucks with drum-loading attachments,
    or fork-lifts for containers on pallets.  Type EE battery-powered industrial
    trucks have the additional safeguards (electrical equipment enclosed  to  pre-
    vent emission of sparks) needed to work in hazardous locations; Type  EX  trucks,
    which are of explosion-proof or of dust tight construction, are also
    recommended.
    
    After removal steel drums can be handled by  gravity conveyors.  However,  steel
    drums should not be transported on wheel conveyors., because the chime,  or lip,
    at the drum bottom gets hung up on  the wheels.   If roller  conveyors  are  used,
    the rolls need to extend at least 2 in. beyond  the outside  surface  of the
    chime, unless the drums are centered by  guard rails.  Drum loads  up  to 250  Ib
    can be handled on a conventional  1.9-in. roller  conveyor having rollers  spaced
    at 3 in. and positioned at a 1-1/2  in. pitch.
                                           5-30
    

    -------
      TABLE 5-2.  TYPICAL STEEL DRUM SPECIFICATION FOR HAZARDOUS MATERIALS [13]'
                                                                  Steel
               Capacity,   Inside    Inside   Outside   Overall   gage,
                 gal	diameter   height   diameter   height   body
                 30
    22 1/2
    22 1/3
    18 1/4
    32 11/16
    32 11/16
    27 5/16
    23 27/32
    23 27/32
    19 19/32
    34 13/16
    34 13/16
    29
    16
    18
    18
    55C
    55d
    30d
    
    Steel
    gage,
    cover
    16
    16
    18
    
    Steel
    gage,
    bottom
    16
    18
    18
    
    Steel
    gage,
    ring
    12
    12
    12
    
    Tare
    weight . DOT
    (approx.) spec.
    64.5
    55.5
    37.5
    
    17C
    17H
    17C &
    17H
    
                All dimensions given in inches.  Dimensions are within
                normal manufacturing tolerances of ± 1/16 in. (± 1/8 in.
                on height).
    
                Container weights shown are approximate and may vary
                within the allowable limits for manufacturers standard
                gage.
    
                On the 55-gal drum, a third rolling hoop, directly
                below the top rim, gives strength and rigidity to meet
                specifications.
    
                These drums meet Department of Transportation Specifi-
                cations DOE 17H and DOT 17C for storage and shipment of
                hazardous materials.  They also meet Rule 40 of the
                Uniform Freight Classification, and Rule 26C of the
                National Motor Freight Classification; DOT 17H drums
                also comply with ANSI standards.
    Because of the difference in weights between empty and full drums, a roller
    pitch as high as 5 in. can be specified for empties, while a pitch of 3 in.
    may be sufficient for full drums.  Both live-roller conveyors and belt-on-
    roller conveyors can also be used to convey drums.
    
    A host of other special containers have been made for storing, shipping, and
    handling hazardous materials.  Some of these units are designed to hold
    2,000 Lb or more; some designs include metal-walled containers equipped with
    specialized filling and discharge openings and rubberized containers.  A major
    factor to be looked at when a facility receives these types of units is the
    total system concept of handling, with appropriate machinery and design taken
    into account.
                                          5-31
    

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    Once a container has been unloaded,  three possible options  exist for
    distributing the contents:
    
         (1)  Place  the container in storage.
         (2)  Pump  the contents (liquid)  into another storage tank.
         (3)  Dump  the contents (bulk solids) into another receiver.
    
    5.3.5  Bulk  Solids Unloading
    
    Hazardous waste  bulk solids for incineration will arrive for  unloading in
    hopper cars  - both truck and rail.   Due  to the hazardous nature  of the materi-
    al transported,  the hopper cars must be  the covered type, typically with
    bottom unloading ports.  Three types of  unloading systems are used:
    
         (1)  gravity,
         (2)  pressure differential, and
         (3)  fluidized.
    
    Figure 5-15  shows examples of fluidized  unloading ports.  Fluidized unloading
    is preferable for hazardous wastes when  possible, because gravity unloading
    necessitates having a pit located under  the rail spur.
                       WOING SLIDES TO
                       DISCHARGE OPENING
                       ONPAOOMJR
       DISCHARGE
       OPENING
    AIR INJECTED IN TO AREA
    AROUND DISCHARGE
    OKNINC
    OPERATING
    HANOU
    LOCKING WIT
    
    SANITARY 5HHLO
                      PfXMEAm STAINUS
                      STEEL SUJPt SHEETS
                                                      RJJIOniNG AIR Of.
                                      CONTROL VALVE
                  Figure 5-15.   Fluidizing outlets  for  hopper cars [14].
    
    5.3.5.1   Mechanical Conveyors—
    When  a discharge pit is used for unloading, the material is then  conveyed to
    storage  via one or more of  three methods:
                                            5-32
    

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         (1)  screw conveyor,
         (2)  belt conveyor,  and
         (3)  bucket elevator.
    
    The screw conveyor is one of the oldest and most versatile conveyor types.   It
    consists of a long pitch,  steel helix flight mounted on a shaft,  supported by
    bearings within a U-shaped trough.   Screw conveyors are generally easy to
    maintain and inexpensive to replace.
    
    Belt conveyors consist of an endless  belt moving horizontally or on an incline.
    ALr->t all belt conveyors for bulk solids use rubber-covered belts whose inner
    car-ass provides the strength to pull and support the load.  Belt conveyor
    slopes are limited to a maximum of about 30° with those in the 18-20° range
    more common. In an evaluation of a materials-handling system involving belt
    conveyors, the number of belt transfer points should be reduced to a minimum
    to cut degradation, dust,  and cost.  Elevation of all belt lines a few feet
    above ground will ease inspection,  maintenance,  and cleanup.  Belt conveyors
    emit dust almost exclusively at the transfer points.  Placing enclosures
    around transfer points can give effective dust control.  A few simple rules
    are normally followed for dust control:
    
         (1)  Reduce the number of belt transfers point to a minimum
    
         (2)  Be generous in sizing enclosures
    
         (3)  Arrange enclosures in easily removable sections
    
         (4)  Provide access doors on enclosures
    
         (5)  Install skirting and curtains at openings.
    
    Bucket elevators are the simplest and most dependable units for making
    vertical lifts.  They can be totally enclosed to reduce fugitive dust
    emissions.
    
    5.3.5.2  Pneumatic Conveyors—
    Pneumatic conveyors are commonly used to transfer dry granular or powdered
    materials, both vertically and horizontally, to plant areas hard to reach
    economically with mechanical conveyors.  The properties of a material deter-
    mine whether or not it can be successfully conveyed pneumatically.  The materi-
    al must pass through piping and auxiliary equipment without clogging,
    degradation, or segregation, and be readily disengaged from the conveying air.
    Materials from fine powders through 1/4-in. pellets can be handled.
    
    Pneumatic systems can be completely enclosed to prevent contamination, materi-
    al loss, and dust emissions.  Furthermore, some materials are better protected
    from adverse reactions when they are conveyed using an inert gas or dried air.
    
    Pneumatic conveying systems can provide smooth, controlled, hands-off unload-
    ing of bulk rail cars.  The unloading procedure begins with the insertion of a
    material pickup probe into the rail car's discharge port.  The probe controls
    the material-to-air ratio, and probe kits are designed to  fit all  rail cars.
    
    
                                          5-33
    

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    They consist of housing with  slotted  probes  of varying lengths, designed to
    reach different areas or compartments across the rail car.  An air intake
    filter is clamped to the car's discharge  port opposite the material pickup
    connection, and a car hatch filter  attaches  to the top of the rail car to
    relieve vacuum created in the car by  the  material flow.  Figure 5-16 illus-
    trates pneumatic unloading of a  railcar.
    
                               MATWIALUNt
               CAR HATCH
                 FILTER
                                  VACUUM
                                   LINE
                              SILO
    SILO
                                                      IN-PUNT    IN-PIANT CONVEYING
                                                     DISTRIBUTION  VACUUM POWER UNIT
                                                      MANIFOLD
                                        BULK UNLOAD INC
                                       VACUUM POWER UNIT
                                                    MATERIAL
                                                     UNCS
                Figure  5-16.   Diagram of pneumatic railcar unloading.
    
    5.4  WASTE STORAGE  AREA
    
    The manner in which a waste  is  handled on-site is dependent on the  nature of
    the waste (corrosivity,  explosivity, etc.), plant storage facilities,  and heat
    content of the  fuel.  Wastes received for incineration at a disposal  facility
    are either incinerated directly (in some cases via pumping directly from the
    tank truck), or stored until they can be handled more conveniently. A plant
    operator may want to store some of the incoming wastes with higher  heating
    values to possibly  blend with other wastes which have heating values  too low
    to support combustion alone.  At some plants, waste blending occurs prior to
    storage.  For a discussion on waste blending, see Section 5.5.
    
    For further information  on storage of hazardous waste in tanks,  piles or con*
    tainers, see The Permit  Writer's Manual on each of those topics  (prepared by
    Fred C. Hart Assoc., Inc.)
    
    Storage capacity is based on:
    
       •  Seasonal inventory  buildup
       •  Redundancy or  excess incinerator capacity
       •  Maintenance schedules and downtime
                                           5-34
    

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         Operating schedules (i.e., number of shifts vs. inshipment rates)
         Amounts and nature of waste blending to be done.
    
    Depending on the type of incinerator installation, storage facilities may be
    required to hold both liquid and solid hazardous wastes.  If an incinerator
    cannot burn solids, facilities for solid storage are obviously not necessary.
    
    A hazardous waste storage area is designed to address three problem areas.-
    
         (1)  Segregation of incompatible corrosive and reactive waste types;
    
         (2)  Fire hazards due to flammable liquids and solids; and
    
         (3)  Toxic hazards to prevent human exposure during storage, transfer,
              and spill possibilities.
    
    The safety and emergency design provisions for storing hazardous liquid wastes
    are described in Section 5.4.3.
    
    5.4.1  Types of Storage
    
    5.4.1.1  Liquid storage—
    Liquid/fluid waste storage includes temporary holding tanks, batching tanks,    i
    main storage tanks, and transfer pumps (pumps and valving are discussed in      I
    Section 5.5).  Holding tanks provide initial storage of wastes prior to final   ]
    deposition of the material.  Other tanks can store specific waste categories
    which have been analyzed, require segregation, and are ready for incineration.
    Batching tanks are used to prepare an 8-hr shift waste feed for the incinera-
    tor.  Also, tanks may be needed to store fuel oil (or bottled gas) for
    incinerator ignition and auxiliary burners.
    
    The storage tank farm facility is designed for liquids which may have high
    vapor pressure, will be corrosive, will contain suspended solids, and may be
    prone to polymerize.  Tanks should be provided with nitrogen blanketing.  Before
    storing, the suspended solids are largely removed to minimize equipment erosion/
    corrosion and valve sticking.  Tank access is designed to facilitate ease-of-
    entry for cleaning in the event that solidification does occur, and it most
    certainly will at some tine [15].
    
    Container nomenclature is vague but, ordinarily, "tank" means a container
    designed to withstand pressures from atmospheric up to about 15 psig, whereas
    "vessel" refers to a container which can withstand external or internal pres-
    sures exceeding 15 psig.  Tank pressure design of 15 psig is recommended  [15].
    Vapor pressures of 10 psig are not uncommon.
    
    There are several basic types of storage tanks, as shown in Figure 5-17.  The
    aids to design of tanks takes the form of specifications, rules, standards,
    and codes.
                                          5-35
    

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                                     3 DOME ROOF  4 ROAriNG WOF
                                    S ROAT1NC ROOF. 6 EXPANSION ROOF
                                    7 CDK-SOTTOM.
                                     UNSKIRTU
    I SWCM
                                          HORtZONTAL MUM
    
                   Figure 5-17.  Typical  shapes for  storage  vessels [16].
    
    Any of the vessels noted above can be lined or coated with corrosion-resistant
    materials.  All weld spatter is  removed,  and  welds  ground smooth or flush,
    depending on the type of coating to be applied.   Tank nozzles must be large
    enough so a coating can be applied.   Corrosion is an unavoidable problem.  Grit
    scouring destroys surface passivation, and promotes  corrosion, another reason
    for screening the incoming waste [15].
    
    Both vertical and horizontal tanks are available for storing liquids.  Verti-
    cal tanks are acre economical to install, and occupy less space, while horizon-
    tal tanks are easier to maintain and  repair.  Usually the lower maintenance
    generally required by horizontal tanks does not  offset their higher cost and
    greater space requirements,- hence, vertical tanks are normally recommended.
    If, however, it appears that future compartmentation of the tank will be
    likely (as with segregated waste storage),  it is easier to modify a horizontal
    tank.
    
    Installation and maintenance of  aboveground tanks are less troublesome than
    for underground tanks.  With underground storage, the functions of gaging,
    pumping, and leak detection become more difficult.   With storage of hazardous
                                           5-36
    

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    wastes and liquids, underground tanks and their possibility of leakage is dis-
    couraged.  Underground tanks lend themselves to accelerated corrosion and often
    require cathodic protection.  Also, a means of containing leaked or spilled
    materials is necessary for most underground tanks.  However, when very volatile
    materials are stored, underground storage is the only practical alternative.
    
    Depending upon the liquid waste contained, tank storage can also require many
    accessory equipment features such as:
    
    (1)  Flash arrester fill pipes.
    
    (2)  Flame arrester rodding and sampling units.
    
    (3)  Conservation breather vents with pipe-away construction—used where
         pressure or vacuum relief is required and vapors must be piped away
         rather than released into the atmosphere.
    
    (4)  Tank vent condensers—designed to condense and return to the tank vapors
         that could escape, as shown in Figure 5-18.  Due to potential unanticipated
         reactions between physically or chemically incompatible wastes, large
         volumes of organic vapor can be generated and must be vented to some con-
         trol device.  Venting the tanks into the incinerator combustion air intake  ,
         has the potential of creating an explosive condition, even with nitrogen    I
         blanketing.  Chilled water condensers, coupled with knockout tanks, are     J
         best utilized to control emissions from the liquid transfer and storage
         facilities [17].
                            IIQUID LEVEL
     CONDENSING Oft
    CHILLING SYSTEM
                   Figure 5-18.  Typical tank condenser vent system.
                                          5-37
    

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     (5) Steam-heated conservation,  pressure,  or  vacuum  relief vents — designed
         for use on tanks containing liquids  whose  vapors  tend to  crystallize
         at ambient temperatures (also with pipe-away  construction).
    
     (6) Mushroom vent with flame arrester—used  where it  is  not necessary  to con-
         serve vapor losses,  but where low flash  point solvent materials  must be
         protected against fire and explosion from  exterior  sources  of  ignition.
    
     (7) Steam-jacketed flame arrester vents—designed for use on  tanks containing
         hazardous liquids whose characteristics  require steam heating  to prevent
         crystallization of interior vapors;  e.g.,  naphthalene.
    
     (8) Manhole and emergency pressure relief vent covers—to provide  emergency
         pressure relief as well as access for tank cleaning..
    
     (9) Internal safety valve—intended for  use  where tanks  are  required to be
         equipped with valves that close automatically when  subjected to  fire.
    
    (10) Integral internal heating coils—usually steam, designed  to prevent
         freezing of tank contents.
    
    (11) Overflow piping—usually connected to an adjacent tank to mitigate spill
         possibilities.                                                        I-
    
    5.4.1.2  Bulk Solids Storage—                                            " '
    Material received as bulk solids at a hazardous waste  incineration facility
    can be stored in three ways:
    
    (1)  Enclosed bins or silos
    
    (2)  Concrete pits or below-grade concrete hoppers
    
    (3)  Stockpiles
    
    Generally, solid hazardous waste materials which present a toxicity problem to
    plant personnel are stored in totally-enclosed storage,  such as single-outlet
    bins, multiple-outlet silos, and portable bins.  These enclosures protect the
    hazardous material from exposure to the elements,  or guard against dangers
    represented by explosive, flammable, ignitable, or corrosive properties.
    Table 5-3 gives a rough rating of the major types of bulk storage units in
    terms of their capacities and method of reclamation or discharge.
    
    Multiple-Outlet Silos--Multiple-outlet silos are useful for storing  small  or
    medium quantities of material. Because they generally rely on gravity  flow to
    discharge the solids, hopper slopes and outlet dimensions must satisfy the
    minimum requirements for uninhibited  flow.
    
    One of the most common problems with multiple-outlet  silos is structural
    failure caused by nonsymmetric flow patterns.  Side discharge is typically
    used with free-flowing materials  such  as  grain.   With this arrangement, bin
    failures, especially in steel structures, manifest  themselves as dents in  the
    region of the localized flow channel.
    
    
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            TABLE 5-3.  TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF DRY BULK STORAGE [13]
                      Storage technique
                        and method of
                     reclaim or discharge
       Storage capacity
    Small,         Large,
    under          over
    20,000         700,000
      ft3   Med.     ft3
                     Stockpiles
                       Bottom tunnel                 X       X
                       Bucket wheel                          X
                       Scraper truck                         X
                       Front-end loader        X     X
    
                     Multiple-outlet silos
                       Mass flow               X     X
                       Expanded flow           X     X
                       Funnel flow             X     X
    
                     Single-outlet bins
                       Mass flow               X
                       Expanded flow           X     X
                       Funnel flow             X     X
    
                     Portable bins
                       Funnel flow             X
                       Mass flow               X
    
                     Concrete pits
                       Grapple                 X     X
    Single-Outlet Bins--Single-outlet bins are the most common type of storage
    units in industry.  Most of them are funnel-flow type, in which the sidewalls
    of the hopper are sufficiently steep to maintain continuous flow.  Most
    pyramidal hoppers and conical hoppers with slopes of 60° or less from the
    horizontal will display funnel flov.
    
    Portable Bins—These special bulk units, generally limited to volumes less
    than 200 ft-*, are often thought of simply as large buckets used to transport
    homogenous material of a specified size and composition.  Typically, these
    bins are cube-shaped, with a flat hopper leading to a central outlet about 10
    in. or less in diameter.
    
    Some of the solid material characteristics considered when designing a solids
    storage and retrieval system include:
    
     (1) Bulk density
     (2) Moisture content
     (3) Particle size
     (4) Angle of repose
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     (5) Angle of slide
     (6) Temperature
     (7) Pressure differentials
     (8) Abrasiveness
     (9) Cohesiveness
    (10) Material melting point
    (11) Hygroscopicity
    
    Many different types of bin hopper discharging devices have been developed,
    primarily because solid material retrieval is difficult to achieve reliably
    and consistently.  Some of the bin hopper discharging devices  are:
    
     (1) Manual prodding through poke holes to eliminate material  "bridging"
         (definitely not useful for hazardous wastes)
     (2) Chain or cable elements suspended to reduce bridging
     (3) Agitators or "rotating fingers"
     (4) Sweep arms or rotary vanes
     (5) Rotary plows
     (6) Multiple screw bottoms
     (7) Bin activators or vibratory sections
     (8) Electromechanical devices, such as side vibrators
     (9) Pneumatic and hydraulic vibrators
    (10) Air pads, cushions, and slides, wherein air is injected to fluidize the|-
         material.
    t
    If one word could describe the basis of all solids retrieval problems, it
    would be "friction."  Any hopper surface which can reduce friction can mini-
    mize bridging or arching.  Fortunately, for a corrosive-type hazardous solid
    material, the material of construction or lining of the hopper bin can solve a
    dual problem.  Materials to be given consideration are:
    
    (1)  Stainless steel, full thickness or dad-polished
    (2)  Teflon sheets bonded to steel containers.
    
    Items of safety in bin design considerations include:
    
    (1)  Access doors for inspection, routine maintenance, and firefighting
    (2)  Fire detection—sensors; alarming; automatic suppression systems such as
         C02, foam, or water; standpipes for connection to a water source and
         availability of fire hoses
    (3)  Detection of level and pluggage
    (4)  Provisions for dust control
    (5)  Provisions for maintenance removal of bin discharge mechanisms which are
         normally buried under waste.
    
    Concrete Waste Pits—Concrete solid waste pits are in wide use in municipal
    and industrial waste disposal plants which handle nonhazardous wastes.   Bulk
    solid refuse is dumped into the storage pit by packer  truck, load lugger
    bucket, or other collection vehicles.
                                           5-40
    

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    The storage pits are normally under an enclosure to prevent precipitation from
    entering, and there is an approximately 10 ft wide vestibule which trucks back
    into.  Refuse is picked out of the pit by a bridge crane with a bucket or
    grapple, and the crane delivers the solid waste to an infeed system.   Control
    of the crane and grapple is usually :rom an air-conditioned pulpit in which
    the operator sits.  Control is a saturable reactor type which provides cush-
    ioned starting and acceleration.  Protective zones are provided preventing the
    operator from drawing the grapple into a wall, pulpit, etc.  Automatic control
    can be provided.
    
    For fugitive dust control at each truck dumping point, there can be a down
    blast heater.  The vestibule and pit area are designed for complete sprinkler
    protection of fire.  Sprays in both the front and rear wall of the pit can be
    included to suppress dust clouds that arise when a load is dumped.
    
    The entire pit is usually watertight and sloped to troughs and drains for
    dewatering.  When a pit is constructed below grade, it is usually necessary to
    have a sump.  Screening devices to prevent material from entering the sump are
    also used [18].
    
    Stockpiles--Hazardous wastes are occasionally stored in piles, generally small
    in size.  Many are in buldings or maintained outside, under cover, on concrete
    or other pads.  They are most frequently used to accumulate waste composed of
    a single, dry material.
    
    Wind dispersal is controlled, by a cover or windscreen; piles inside a building
    are adequately protected from dispersal.
    
    5.4.1.3  Container Storage—
    Hazardous materials for incineration will often arrive in small container form
    (e.g., 55 gallon drums), and can be stored until used, provided the containers
    are in good condition and are not leaking.
    
    Metal and fiber containers are loaded, stored, and unloaded so as to minimize
    the possibility of container damage.  The containers are stored in a covered
    area, off the ground, in a manner which will preclude damage, weathering, and
    subsequent leakage.  Storage pads of concrete or other impervious materials
    are used as a base to prevent ground water leaching and percolation.  The area
    itself is provided for drainage to a treatment facility in an analogous manner
    to diked storage tank areas.
    
    If some containers contain corrosive substances, these are stored so that,
    should leakage develop during storage, these substances will not corrode
    through adjacent containers.  Waste segregation practices of bulk storage
    (liquid and solid) also prevail with indoor container storage.
    
    All containers in storage are inspected to insure physical and mechanical
    integrity, and the drainage and containment systems are also inspected.
    
    Nonstationary containers can proliferate in a storage area; hence, all con-
    tainers are clearly labeled and records maintained.  In this way the operator
    is able to quickly locate any hazardous waste.
                                          5-41
    

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    Waste containers are sealed to prevent the escape  of vapors.   Gasketed clo-
    sures of containers and containers themselves are  normally of a material  that
    will not be deteriorated by the waste inside the container.   The container
    storage enclosure area is vented to allow for collection and  control of any
    released vapors.
    
    5.4.1.4  Tank Cars--
    Hazardous waste storage can also occur in parked tank cars — both truck  and
    rail.  Usually, the wastes are then pumped directly to the incinerator or
    blending tanks. As with bulk storage, the area is  designed to prevent ground
    contamination and percolation, and diked or drained to collect spills and
    surface runoff.  As with container storage, each tank car is  clearly labeled
    and records maintained to quickly locate each hazardous waste.
    
    5.4.2  Segregation of Wastes During Storage
    
    Hazardous wastes may be segregated at an incineration facility due to waste
    categories for fuel value and are certain to be segregated when incompatible
    waste types are received.  The type of incinerator and nature of wastes which
    can be burned will greatly influence the extent of waste segregation during
    storage.
    
    Incompatible wastes are normally segregated due to corrosive  and reactive   |-
    effects.  Examples of segregation during storage are reactive chemicals whicl
    should be stored in air or water tight containers, oxidizers  which should be-
    isolated from flammable materials, and materials which may polymerize in the
    presence of accelerators. Section 5.5 on waste blending contains a ready and
    quick reference for determining the compatibility reactions of most binary
    combinations of hazardous wastes.
    
    Wastes may also be segregated and stored to allow for fuel blending for maxi-
    mal incinerator performance.  Examples of the categorization of wastes which
    could occur and the storage requirements necessary are as follows [19]:
    
         (1)  Light hydrocarbons and nonaqueous solvents — includes low flash
              point wastes such as paint thinners, aromatics (toluene, benzene,
              xylene, etc.) which reduce viscosity of heavier wastes and assist
              fuel oil in initial heating prior to firing heavy blends.
    
         (2)  Medium to heavyweight hydrocarbons — includes still bottom
              residues, crankcase oils, and discarded transformer oils.  Most have
              high flash points but relatively low ignition temperatures and
              moisture is generally under 10 percent.  Handling  these wastes may
              require use of insulated storage tanks and auxiliary heat  to
              maintain proper fluidity, particularly during cold weather.
    
         (3)  Low-water-content aqueous wastes -- sludges from fatty acids
              production, starches, reject fatty acids, waste soluble oils,  and
              clabberstock.  These wastes may be blended  in limited proportions
              with the heavier wastes in group 2 but  require  storage  in insulated
              and heated tanks to avoid  congealing and  freezing  of contained water
              during winter.
    
    
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         (4;  Dirty solvents -- includes kerosene, soluble inks, oil-solvent
              residues, organic pigments.  Storage tanks do not require insulation
              or heating.
    
         (5)  High-water-content aqueous wastes, semisolids,  sludges, and low
              heating value liquids -- includes aqueous mixture of paint, enamel
              and lacquer oversprays, liquid polymers in water, paint sludges.
    
         (6)  Skimmings from wastewater treatment plants -- floatable material
              skimmed from settling tanks and thickeners such as spent grease.
    
         (7)  Spent earth -- from filters and contaminated areas.  Due to high
              water content this waste can require insulated storage, auxiliary
              heat, and continuous agitation to maintain fluidity and prevent
              freezing in cold weather.
    
    5.4.3  Safety Provisions for Storage Areas
    
    For safe facility design in the storage area, provisions are made to protect
    personnel and the immediate environment from catastrophe—particularly fire
    hazards and material spills.  Liquid and container storage are most likely to
    occur at a hazardous waste incineration facility, and are discussed below.
    
    5.4.3.1  Fire Safety—
    Volume 1 of National Fire Codes (National Fire Protection Association (NFPA),
    Boston) contains recommendations and standards in NFPA 30, "Flammable and
    Combustible Liquids Code," for venting, drainage, and dike construction of
    tanks for flammable liquids.  Also possibly applicable are NFPA 327, "Standard
    Procedures for Cleaning or Safeguarding Small Tanks and Containers", and NFPA
    43A, "Liquid and Solid Oxidizing Materials."
    
    Many of the devices and equipment utilized to prevent fire hazards in the
    liquid storage area were discussed in Section 5.4.1.1.  Some other considera-
    tions which apply to storage of large quantities of flammable liquids include:
    
         (1)  Instrumentation or remotely-operated valves to minimize flow of
              flammables.
    
         (2)  Combustible gas monitors in the storage area which have an alarm
              set below the lower flammable limit.
    
         (3)  Combustible gas monitors'that automatically actuate a deluge system
              or safely shut down systems below lower flammable limit.
    
         (4)  Drainage and collection ponds (equalization basin) to carry away
              liquid spills resulting from a fire incident.
    
    For the storage of drums, many safety precautions can be used for the protec-
    tion of the operators who open and inspect drums prior to incineration.
    Safety features include.-
                                          5-43
    

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          (1) explosion-proof electrical equipment
          (2) automatic fire doors
          (3) a "light water" system
          (4) dry chemical and C02 fire extinguishers
          (5) special safety fork trucks with nonsparking forks
          (6) air-operated pumps
          (7) nonsparking tools
          (8) safety showers and eyewashes
          (9) safety glasses and face shields
         (10) a ventilation system which makes a minimum of three  air volume
              changes per hour in all areas and thirteen (13)  air  volume  changes
              per hour in the drum pumping room or area.
    
    For storage of bulk-solids, evidence of spontaneous heating  is closely moni-
    tored.   Heat-sensitive devices in silos and bins are installed, connected to  a
    continuous temperature recorder at a central control board and arranged to
    sound an alarm if unsafe temperatures are produced.  Excessively wet  materials
    are not placed or permitted in storage silos or bins.
    
    5.4.3.2  Spill/Toxicity Safety—
    The most effective way of addressing a bulk liquid storage area's vulnerabili-
    ty to spill incidents is to prevent them from happening.   Assuming that all 4
    storage tanks are properly designed, equipped with overflow  alarms,  and usea
    only for intended or compatible purposes, the possibility of spills  can be-I
    substantially reduced by:
    
      •  Assuring the continual physical integrity of the vessels  and their
         fittings (inspection and testing).
    
      •  Establishing strong administrative controls covering all  loading/unload-
         ing and in-plant transfer operations (plans and procedures).
    
      •  Providing adequate secondary containment facilities (dikes, diversion
         ditches, equalization basins)..
    
    Physical Testing and Inspections—Spark testing (of lined storage tanks),
    wall-thickness testing, or other appropriate means of nondestructive physical
    testing or inspection are conducted on storage vessels which hold hazardous
    liquids.
    
    The exterior of each bulk storage tank is also visually examined at regular
    intervals.  Each inspection includes an examination of seams,  rivets, nozzle
    connections, valves, and pipelines directly connected to the tank.  Visible
    leaks of waste from tank seams and rivets are then promptly corrected.
    Foundations and/or tank supports are also subject  to inspection.
    
    New and old tank installations are, as far as practical, fail-safe engineered
    or updated to a fail-safe engineered installation.  Design considerations  are
    given to providing the following devices.-
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         (a)   High liquid-level bell or horn alarms with an audio signal at a
              constantly manned operating or listening station; in smaller plants
              an audible air vent may suffice.
    
         (b)   Low liquid-level alarms with an audio signal at a constantly manned
              operation or listening station; such alarms can also have a non-
              bypassing reset device that can be readjusted to a given operating
              level following tank fill or liquid removal.
    
         (c)   High liquid-level pump cutoff devices set to stop flow at a predeter-
              mined tank content level.
    
         (d)   Direct audible or code signal communication between the tank gauger
              and the pumping station.
    
         (e)   At least one fast response system for determining the liquid level
              of each bulk storage tank such as digital computers, telepulse, or
              direct vision gauges.
    
    Tanks are then not knowingly used if the "head" or "top" is in a corroded-
    through condition.  Action is taken to drain such tanks and repair the defec-
    tive member as promptly as possible.
    
    Partially buried tanks for the storage of oil or hazardous materials are
    normally avoided, unless the buried section of the shell is adequately coated
    to prevent rapid corrosion of metallic surfaces buried in damp earth,
    especially at the earth/air interface.
    
    Buried storage tanks represent a potential for undetected spills. A buried
    installation, when required, is wrapped and coated to retard corrosive action.
    In addition, the earth is subjected to electrolytic testing to determine if
    the tank should be further shielded by a cathodic protection system.  Such
    buried tanks are also subjected to regular hydrostatic testing. In lieu of the
    above, arrangements can be made to expose the outer shell of the tank for
    external examination at least every five years.  Alternatively, a means of
    conducting examinations of the tank at regular intervals can be provided,
    e.g., down-hole television.
    
    Tank Overfill—A variety of engineering practices suited to the nature of any
    hazardous material stored are used to prevent tank overfilling, a major source
    of spill incidents.  The following general principles can be used in designing
    a system of protection against tank overfill:
    
         (1)   Tanks are gauged before filling.
         (2)   Overflow pipes are connected to adjacent, compatable waste storage
              tanks, or to secondary containment.
         (3)   Fail-safe devices and level alarms have been tested and insured in
              place.
         (4)   Provisions to prevent static electricity discharge have been
              implemented.
                                          5-45
    

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    Protection of Integral Heating Coils—Many liquids in storage require auxili-
    ary heating to remain in a fluid state.  This is normally accomplished econo-
    mically by integral steam coils inside the storage tank and, often, agitation.
    
    To control leakage through integral heating coils which may become defective
    through prolonged use, the following design factors are considered and applied:
    
         (1)  The past life span of internal steam coils is determined, and a
              regular system of maintenance and replacement that does not exceed
              the anticipated life span is established.
    
         (2)  The temperature and environment is carefully considered when
              selecting heating coil materials to reduce failure from corrosive
              action, prolong life, and reduce replacement costs.
    
         (3)  The steam return of exhaust lines from integral heating coils which
              discharge into an open watercourse is monitored for contamin-
              ation, or passed through a settling tank, or skimmer, etc.
    
         (4)  The nature of the wastes is carefully considered to prevent wastes
              from caking on the heating coils, which reduces their efficiency as
              well as causing waste materials to be contained in a tank thought.
              to be empty.                                                     r
    
         (5)  The feasibility of installing an external heating system is also
              considered, and, if feasible, often is recommended to solve
              problems which may arise from implementation of (1) through (4).
    
    Secondary Containment--All bulk storage tank installations at a hazardous
    waste incineration facility are planned so that a secondary means of contain-
    ment is provided for the entire contents of the largest single tank.  Dikes,
    containment curbs, and pits are commonly employed for this purpose, but they
    may not always be appropriate.  An alternative system would consist of a
    complete drainage trench enclosure arranged so that a spill could collect and
    be safely confined in an in-plant catchment basin or holding pond.
    
    Dikes are generally constructed of concrete, cinder blocks, and/or earth.
    However, dike materials are designed to be chemially resistant and essentially
    impervious (e.g., permeability rate no greater than 10 7 on/s when subjected
    to a head of 1 ft of water) to the substances contained.  Acceptable engineer-
    ing design criteria for a dike will enable it to withstand a sudden massive
    release.
    
    Some of the important design guidelines for dike construction include [20]:
    
         (1)  Single storage tank  — The capacity of diked area is at least ade-
              quate  to hold the entire tank contents plus a reasonable allowance
              for precipitation.  Local regulations may contain more stringent
              requirements.  An alternative design goal is for the diked area to
              contain the volume of the tank plus 1 ft of freeboard.
                                           5-46
    

    -------
    (2)   Clustered storage tanks -- The capacity of the diked area  is  adequate
         to hold the entire contents of the largest tank plus a  reasonable
         allowance for precipitation.  Again, local regulations  may be more
         stringent.
    
    (3)   To the extent feasible, dike walls generally do not exceed a  height
         of 6 ft above interior grade.  A greater height might require the
         observance of tank entry procedures including safety harnesses,
         oxygen deficiency checks, standby observers, and other  precautions
         each time it is necessary to enter the diked area.
    
    (4)   For earthen dikes, a slop of 2.5:1 is preferred.  Earthen  dike walls
         3 ft or more in height are generally designed with a flat  walkway
         section at the top not less than 2 ft wide.
    
    (5)   Dikes may also need to be constructed to provide necessary ramps for
         vehicles needing access to the storage areas.
    
    (6)   The disposal of rainwater and other liquids from within diked areas is
         normally accomplished by a manually activated pump or siphon  system.
         Such accumulated stormwater must be removed in order to maintain
         adequate volume for a maximum spill.  Figure 5-19 shows a  diversion   |
         structure which serves this purpose.  Of course, retained  drawoff wata
         and the rainfall accumulated are checked (analyzed) before release.   J
                 STOftM WATER
                   SUMP
                       BL    3
    OILY WATER
     SEWER
             SEALED
            MANHOLE
                                              STORM WATER   _
                                                PAIN     f=.
                                   PLAN
        Figure 5-19.  Dike drain detail Type "A" diversion box  [21]
                                     5-47
    

    -------
          (7)  For hazardous  and toxic  liquids,  the  ground area within the  dike
              and curbing are  designed to  be  essentially impermeable.   This  can be
              achieved by use  of concrete,  asphalt,  or suitable clays.   Neutraliz-
              ing materials  for the  stored chemical waste such as  limestone  or
              clam shells for  acidic wastes are sometimes used as  a ground cover,
              although neutralizing  ground covers need to be  replaced promptly
              after a spill  or incident.
    
          (8)  Generally,  it  is recommended that there  be no discharge or loading
              pipes through  the dike wall.  However, construction  design has to
              conform to  state and local  regulation, and some local fire regula-
              tions (applicable to flammable  liquids)  require a valved pipe  through
              the dike wall, while others  prohibit  this installation.   If a  drain-
              age valve through the  dike wall is required, it is kept locked in
              the closed  position when not in use and  a chemically resistant seal
              is installed around the  pipe passing  through the wall.
    
          (9)  The storage tanks located immediately adjacent  to the dike itself
              are oriented so  that no  manholes face the dike.  This is considered
              desirable,  so  that, if a manhole fails,  the resulting discharge
              from a full tank will  not be aimed over  or at the dike.   Where
              this design is not feasible,  appropriate baffles are installed    4
              to deflect  potential leaks  and  cause  them to drop within the      I
              contained area.                                                    I
    
         (10)  If storage  tanks located immediately  adjacent to the dike are
              equipped with  fill lines which  enter  the tank near the bottom, and
              if the fluid pumped has  suspended abrasive material, the discharge
              into the tank  should be  on the  dike side, discharging against the
              tank side away from the  dike.  Alternatively, a baffle plate located
              inside the  tank opposite the pump discharge in the area apt to be
              abraded, may be provided.
    
    The final defense in the prevention and containment of liquid and solid spills
    is at the end of the plant storm-drain system.   Here, an automatic system mon-
    itors the storm drain for acidity or alkalinity (pH), turbidity, total oxygen
    demand (TOD), and flow  (variance from normal).
    
    If any of the parameters are sensed beyond normal limits, a diversion gate
    automatically move into position to divert the discharge to a holding pond.
    Such a system provides protection against a spill that goes beyond the process
    area, dikes, and into the storm drains.  Discharges diverted to the holding
    pond are removed to a process area for recycle, treatment, or disposal.
    
    Container Storage—Containers with a capacity of less than 45 gallons are
    stored out-of-doors,  when possible, in rows no more than 30 feet in length,
    five feet in width, and six  feet in height.  Containers which have a capacity
    of 45 gallons or more are stored in rows no more than 30 feet in length and
    two containers in width and  should not be  stacked. A minimum of five feet
    between rows of containers of hazardous wastes  is usually maintained.
                                          5-48
    

    -------
    If exposure of the containers to moisture or direct sunlight (see Section 5.5)
    will create a hazardous condition or adversely affect the containers' ability
    to hold the hazardous waste, the containers are then stored in an area with
    overhead roofing or other covering that does not obstruct the visibility of
    the container labels.
    
    The area under or around the container storage area is built to be able to
    collect or hold any spilled material; e.g., collection drains, trenches, or
    dikes.
    
    5.5  WASTE BLENDING AND/OR PROCESSING BEFORE INCINERATION
    
    The methods by which hazardous wastes are removed from storage, prepared for
    incineration, and fed to the incinerator are dependent on the nature of the
    waste and type of incinerator.  Figure 5-4 in Section 5.3 illustrates the
    various pathways from storage to final feed into the incinerator.  Careful
    design consideration is given:
    
          (a)  To the layout for liquid waste blending, pumping and associated
              pipework, and
    
          (b)  To the handling and feeding arrangements for nonpumpable sludges,    I-
              solids, and containerized wastes, where applicable.                  [
    
    Operating experience has shown that these are areas that do not receive as
    much  attention as is necessary,- the overall success of an incineration
    facility depends upon the successful integration of storage, feeding, and
    firing equipment.
    
    5.5.1  Waste Compatibilities
    
    The "combination of wastes" often presents many problems for the management of
    hazardous wastes.  In some instances, the combination or mixture of  two or
    more  types of the wastes produces undesirable or uncontrolled reactions
    resulting in adverse consequences.  These reactions may cause any one or more
    of the following:
    
          (1)  Heat generation, fire, and/or explosions,
          (2)  Formation of toxic fumes,
          (3)  Formation of flammable gases,
          (4)  Volatilization of toxic or flammable substances,
          (5)  Formation of substances of greater toxicity,
          (6)  Formation of shock and friction sensitive compounds,
          (7)  Pressurization in closed vessels,
          (8)  Solubilization of toxic substances,
          (9)  Dispersal of toxic dusts, mists, and particles, and
        (10)  Violent polymerization.
    
    Available data indicate that hazardous wastes are ill-defined, complex mixtures
    generated by a great variety of sources.  No two types of wastes appear to be
    identical, for even a single process appears to produce different types of wastes.
    Characterization of the wastes by the analysis of the processes and  the materials
    
    
                                          5-49
    

    -------
    used appear to give inaccurate descriptions of the resulting wastes.  The data   '
    indicate that each waste is unique and that individual reactivities may be best
    assessed by identifying respective chemical constituents.
    
    For further information on compatability of hazardous waste refer to the
    Guidance Manual entitled, "Treatment Trial Tests and Hazardous Waste
    Compatability".   Another commonly used laboratory test for waste compatibility
    is ASTM £476-73, "Thermal Instability of Confined Condensed Phase Systems,"
    which measures the temperature at which exothermic reactions begin and amount of
    pressure release.
    
    While empirical data exist concerning the consequences of reactions between
    pure substances under laboratory conditions (mostly binary combinations), very
    little work has been done in the field of waste combination reactions.  Very
    seldom are wastes pure substances.  They are usually sludges, emulsions,
    suspensions, or slurries containing many different compounds.
    
    The chance of combining noncompatible wastes within a specific category can be
    minimized in several ways.  First, the problem is restricted to puntpable
    wastes since nonpumpable scrap is often handled in individual drums or bin
    containers and is not mixed prior to incineration.  Secondly, a single manu-
    facturing location normally uses compatible solvents.  Thus, with knowledge of
    the generator in hand (manifest system), the greatest chance that noncompat-i-
    ible wastes will be combined occurs at the incineration facility.  Basically,!
    proper labelling at the waste generation source and the experience and know- -
    ledge in liquid segregation of the incinerator operators will greatly minimize     4
    the problem.  The primary concern in waste blending is minimizing the reactivity
    of combined wastes.  Other secondary concerns in waste blending are precipitate
    formation, increases in viscosity, and blends which could generate acid gas
    combustion products.
    
    It is evident from the existing data that the largest and most common dangers
    inherent from incompatible reactions involve strong acids or bases.  For this
    reason, it is desirable that acids and bases be neutralized to within a pH
    range of 4.5 to 9 before being mixed with other wastes (sometimes acidic and
    basic wastes are mixed in a controlled manner to achieve pH neutrality).
    Even within this restricted pH range, acids should be segregated from acid-
    soluble sulfide and cyanide salts.
    
    With the above inclusions, an example of a compatibility mcitrix is depicted
    in Figures 5-20 and 5-21.  If it is not feasible to neutralize acid wastes
    and/or caustics to within the prescribed pH range, then the matrix in Figure
    5-21 is used.
    
    5.5.2  Liquid Feed and Blending Equipment
    
    Liquid blending or mixing of hazardous wastes is done as part of an overall
    liquid feed system, which includes a feed pump, usually some recirculation to
    the mix vessel, and associated piping to the incinerator.
    
    An example of a mixing vessel is shown in Figure 5-22.  For hazardous waste         ,
    blending, the vessel is always closed-top rather than open-top to prevent
    
    
                                          5-50
    

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    AMINES &
    ALKANOL AMINES
    MAtOGESiATED CMPDS
    PEROXIOES& ETHERS
    ALDEHYDES fc
    KETONES
    MONOMERS &
    POLYMERI.ZA81.E ESTERS
    ALKYLENE OXIOES,
    NITRIIES fcAClD ANHYDRIDES
    OXIDIZING AGENTS
    1
    X
    X1
    
    X
    X
    
    2
    
    x
    
    X
    
    3
    
    
    x
    
    4
    
    X)
    
    6
    X
    
    «
    ACIOS
    CAUSTICS
    AMINEl 4
    ALKAMOl AWINf S
    MALOGCNATED OM*OS
    KXOIIOft li ETHERS
    ALDIMYOSS 4
    XE TOMES
    MOMOMC«S A
    POLYMf KIZAtLt tfTIMS
    ALKVLIMt OXIDES
    MITDII.ES « ACID ANMYOKIOES
    OXIDI2INC ACCNTS
    1
    V
    X
    x
    ^
    R
    8
    x
    
    i
    
    >3
    X
    x
    X
    x
    
    i
    x
    X
    
    X
    X
    
    4
    
    x
    
    X
    
    s
    
    
    X
    
    1
    
    
    
    r
    X •
            DENOTES INCOMPATIBILITY
                                                    DEMOTES INCOM*ATHILITV
       Figure 5-20.
    Compatibility matrix
    for neutralized
    hazardous wastes [1].
    Figure 5-21.
    Compatibility matrix
    when wastes cannot be
    neutralized [1].
                Figure 5-22.  Example of a baffled mixing vessel  [14].
    
    splashing and vapor escape.  Impeller mixer drives, both  direct  drive  and gear
    drive, are available.  The shaft length and number or configuration  of impel-
    lers must be based on the geometry of the tank and viscosities of the  waste.
    Generally, fuel blending requires a mild agitation or intensity  of blending,
    and the use of baffles increases the turbulence and mixing  characteristics.
    
    Where conditions warrant extreme safety, the blending and feeding process can
    be augmented by the use of a pneumatic compressed air (or gas mixer) motor
    and pneumatically-driven diaphram feed pump.  The pumps used  to  transfer the
    wastes from storage to blending can also be pneumatic diaphram pumps.   Inert
                                          5-51
    

    -------
    gas blanketing with nitrogen of the mixing vessel is almost aways used.  The     '
    blending tanks are also equipped with a pH recorder, an in-tank viscometer,  and
    a sampling port and/or valve.
    
    A typical sequence of activities prior to the injection of a liquid waste blend
    to the incinerator is as follows:  a waste batch arrives at the plant; a grab
    sample is taken to confirm that the shipment is within the contracted specif-
    ications between the generator and the incinerator operator; the waste batch
    is then unloaded and received in an agitated tank to homogenize the batch;
    an integrated sample is taken and analyzed for Btu content, ash content, chlorine
    content, etc., and the batch is then piped to the blending tank(s).  If longer-
    term storage is necessary, the batches received are typically stored according
    to Btu content, ash content, or acid gas generating potential,  as well as
    constraints dictated by waste compatibilities.
    
    Waste blending goals are based on stack emissions limitations and loadings
    on the pollution control system.  Worksheets 4-2 and 4-12 in Chapter 4 describe
    procedures for calculating the pollutant loadings of SOz, acid gas components,
    and particulate matter.  Ash contents of a waste blend are typically targeted
    at 1-1 1/2% in order to meet particulate emission limitations;  if a chlorinated
    feed can be handled, the waste is blended to 15-30% chlorine,- and a final Btu
    content of 7,000-9,000 Btu/lb is desirable (personal communication with Jerry
    Jordan, Rollins Environmental Services, Inc., Bridgeport, NJ, June 1981).   L
    The DRE requirement of 99.99% for the POHC's in the waste blend will have   I
    already been demonstrated in a trial burn or met through similarity criteria?.
    
    The amount of waste blended is usually enough for one day's operation of the
    incinerator.
    
    If the type of incinerator can handle a slurry feed, the piping system should
    be designed to handle slurries.  A slurry piping system has a minimum diameter
    of 4-6 times the particle size being pumped.  All piping is recirculated to
    prevent settling, and possibly, mechanically comminuted to destroy any
    agglomerations which would cause plugging problems. A careful monitoring of
    the pump discharge pressure allows the operator to determine whether the feed
    pump is being influenced by the mixer (entrained air), as a check of slurry
    density, and to point to plugging problems.  Figure 5-23 shows a slurry
    injection and monitoring system.
    
    When slurries cannot be fed to an incinerator, the feed lines to the mixing tanks
    are filtered to prevent solids from reaching the burner nozzles.  If slurries can
    be fed to the incinerator, sometimes an in-line grinder/chopper or grinder pump
    is used to reduce the size of the solids in the liquid waste.
    
    Several stages of waste line filtering are advisable in order that control
    valves and measuring devices on the route to the burner nozzle do not stick or
    clog.  In a waste mixture, solid particulate may form as precipitates or polymer
    seeds in situ.  Frequently, the small beads may be elastomeric as behave in the
    same way as synthetic rubber by extruding through the screens.  To minimize
    these conditions, stategically placed filters in sequence are very helpful
    in maintaining onstream time [15].                                                M
                                          5-52
    

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                        SLURRY
                        CONTROL
                         PANEL
        | SLURRY GUN
        I  PRESSURE
        |   GAGE
            M/
               FUJID BED
               CHAMBER
    SLURRY GUN
     PRESSURE
    TRANSMITTER
                              WATER COOLED
                             SLURRY NOZZEL
                                                               HEADER
                                                              PRESSURE
                                                             TRANSMITTER
    2-1/?" SLURRY HEADER
                                                                    SLURRY
                                                                     aow
                 Figure 5-23.   Slurry injection and monitoring system.
    
    Liquid streams can carry  impurities of every sort.  Furthermore,  they  may be
    highly viscous, which makes handling and atomizing difficult.  Liquids should
    generally have a viscosity of 10,000 SSU or less to be satisfactorily  pumped
    and handled in pipes. For atomization, a viscosity of 750 SSU is  the maximum.
    Table 4-1 in Section 4.3.2 presents the viscosity and impurity limitations
    for various atomization techniques.  Viscosity can usually be controlled by
    steam heating with tank coils or in-line heaters, but careful notice of the
    flash points must be taken.   If preheating is not feasible, a lower viscosity
    and miscible liquid may be added to reduce the viscosity of the mixture.   Line
    heat tracing is a must, taking into account worst case material .freezing points
    and local winter design temperatures [15].
    
    A feed system may have two or more recirculating loops installed,  chiefly to
    keep any solids remaining in the liquid mixture from settling and plugging
    pipelines.  Figure 5-24 illustrates an example of multiple recirculation.
    
    5.5.3  Pumps and Piping
    
    Pump and piping materials of construction are designed to be suitable  for the
    liquids encountered  (See  Section 5.14).  While centrifugal pumps  can be used
    to feed liquids and/or slurries, positive displacement-type (PD)  pumps are
    preferred.  Unlike centrifugal pumps, they afford a reasonably tight shut-off
    and prevent siphoning when not in operation. Table 5-4 displays the materials
    of construction for positive displacement pumps.  Figure 5-25 provides a pump
    classification chart.
                                           5-53
    

    -------
                           TO 1NCINESATC*
                                  TANK ~
                                        MOYNO
                                         PUMP
    
                                SV- GATE VALVE CK» SIO« VALVE
                                P»V-P«ESSURE «UEF VALVE HEARTH
        Figure  5-24.   Liquid feed system with redundant  recirculation.
    
    TABLE 5-4.  MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION FOR POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
    
    
    Pump body
    Plunger pump
    Plunger
    
    Lantern ring
    Diaphragm pump
    Diaphragm
    or bellows
    Steel
    Iron
    Stainless  steel
    PVC
    Alloy 20
    Monel
    Carpenter  20
    Stainless  steel
    Ceramic
    Monel
    Stainless  steel
    Allow 20
    Hastelloy  "C"
    PVC
    Alumina-ceramic
    Elastometer
    Teflon
    Polyethylene
    Buna N
    Neoprene
    Viton
    Resistant  steels
    Check valves
    Valve body
    Steel
    Stainless steel
    PVC
    Alloy 20
    Hastelloy "C"
    Monel
    Ball
    Stainless steel
    PVC
    Hastelloy "C" to "D"
    Alumina-ceramic
    Ball seat
    Stainless steel
    PVC
    Alloy 20
    Monel
    Hastelloy "C"
                                        5-54
    

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                        CENTRIFUGAL
                        HORIZONTAL
                        GENERAL SERVICE
                        CHEMICAL (ANSI)
                        HIGH TEMP. (API)
                        MULTISTAGE
                        SLURRY
                        SELF-PRIMING
                        MIXED FLOW
                        PROPELLER
                        VERTICAL
                        GENERAL SERVICE
                           TURBINE TYPE
                           VOLUTE TYPE
    
                        SUMP TYPE
                        CHEMICAL TYPE IN-LINE
                        HIGH-SPEED IN-LINE
                        CAN TYPE (LOW NPSH)
    POSITIVE
    DIS PLACEMENT
    ROTARY
    GEAR
    SCREW
    PROGRESSING CAVITY
    LOBE
    VANE
    RECIPROCATING
    DIRECT ACTING TYPE
    POWER FRAME TYPE
    PLUNGER OR PISTON
    HORIZONTAL OR VERTICAL
    CONTROLLED VOLUME
    PLUNGER TYPE
    DIAPHRAGM TYPE
    NUMBER OF FEEDS
    TYPE OF STROKE
       ADJUSTMENT
                        Figure 5-25.   Pump classification  chart.
    
    A relief valve is usually provided downstream of PD pumps,  of sufficient
    capacity to prevent excess pressure in the system.  The  relief valve discharge
    is  then piped back to the supply source or to the suction side of the pump.
    
    5.5.3.1  Positive-Displacement Pumpg—
    Positive-displacement pumps have as their principle of operation the displacement
    of  the  liquid from the pump case by reciprocating action of a piston or diaphragm,
    or  rotating action of a gear, cam,  vane, or screw.  The  type of action may be used
    to  classify positive-displacement pumps as reciprocating or rotary.  Figures 5-26
    and 5-27 depict some typical pumps of each type.  When a positive-displacement
    pump  is stopped,  it serves as a  check valve to prevent backflow.
    
    5.5.3.2  Centrifugal Pumps--
    Centrifugal pumps operate by the principle of converting velocity pressure
    generated by centrifugal force to static pressure.  Velocity is imparted to
    the fluid by an impeller that is rotated at high speeds.   The fluid enters at
    the center  of the impeller and is discharged from its  periphery.  Unlike
    positive-displacement pumps, when the centrifugal type of pump is stopped
    there is a  tendency for the fluid to backflow.  Figure 5-28  depicts some
    centrifugal pumps.
                                            5-55
    

    -------
                                           SUCT)ON 'Oil T I OH
                                 ItSCmMC  9 I JC"ilH >l »f
                                  C » I 11 tl^i.mna^a » it t C I I » »
                                 SCHitii
                                                                  COmtCCT ill
                                                                   IOOS
                                                                  ClmiCCT HI
    Figure 5-26.   Reciprocating pumps:   (a) Principle  of  reciprocating pump,
                   (b) principle of fluid-operated diaphragm pump,  (c)  direct-
                   acting steam pump,  (d) principle of  mechanical diaphragm pump,
                   (e) piston-type power pump,  (f) plunger-type power pump with
                   adjustable stroke,  (g) inverted, vertical,  triplex power pump
                   [22].
    
    Power for driving the various types of pumps  is usually derived from electric
    motors or pneumatic drives.  Most  rotary pumps are  driven by electric motor.
    
    5.5.3.3  Pump Emission Control--
    Operation of various pumps in the  handling of fluids can result in the release
    of air contaminants.  Both reciprocating and  centrifugal pumps can be sources
    of emissions.
                                           5-56
    

    -------
               C ' S C « » • G £ 0•! V iN S til*
            10 T0»
          i OLE»OTO
                      I U C T I 0 M
     HOILEI  ECCENTKIC
    
           h
    
    f LEI I HE DUIlEi
       t  TUII
              r-i
                   j^S-S^ST?  '^'^r^V^—r
                   r^b^*	x" ^^— ~/ • /	>• j •     //  "v,^L \\~^r™™i
    Figure 5-27.   Rotary pumps:  (a) External-gear pump,  (b) internal-gear pump,
                   (c) three-lobe pump, (d) four-lobe pump,  (e) sliding-vane pump,
                   (f) single-screw pump, (g) swinging-vane pump,  (h) cam or
                   roller pump, (i) cam-and-piston pump,  (j) three-screw pump,
                   (k) shuttle-block pump, (1) squeegee pump, (m)  neoprene vane
                   pump [22].
    
    The opening in the cylinder or fluid end through which the connecting rod
    actuates the piston is the major potential source of  containants from a recip-
    rocating pump.  In centrifugal pumps, normally the only potential source of
    leakage occurs where the drive shaft passes through the impeller casing.
    
    Several means have been devised for sealing the annular clearance between pump
    shafts and fluid casings to retard leakage.  For most applications, packed
    seals and mechanical seals are widely used.
    
    Packed seals can be used on both positive displacement and centrifugal type
    pumps.  Typical packed seals generally consist of a stuffing box filled with
    sealing material that encases the moving shaft.  The  stuffing  box is fitted
    with a takeup ring that is made to compress the packing and cause it to tight-
    en around the shaft.  Materials used for packing vary with the fluid's tempera-
    ture, physical and chemical properties, pressure, and pump type.  Some
    commonly used materials are metal, rubber, leather, and plastics.
                                          5-57
    

    -------
             0 I SCMMU
                                              VOLUTE  B1MU|IO
                                         IM'ELLE' yANCS  »*"CJ    I ' '
    Figure 5-28.   Centrifugal pumps:   (a) Principle of centrifugal-type pump,
                   (b) radial section through volute-type pump,  (c) radial section
                   through diffuser-type pump, (d) open impeller,  (e) semi-
                   enclosed impeller,  (f) closed impeller, (g) nonclog impeller
                   [22].
    
    Lubrication of the contact surfaces of the packing and shaft is effected by a
    controlled amount of product leakage to the atmosphere.  This  feature makes
    packing seals undesirable in applications where the liquid can cause a pollu-
    tion problem.  The packing itself may also be saturated with some material
    such as graphite or oil that acts as a lubricant.  In some cases cooling or
    quench water is used to cool the impeller shaft and the bearings.
    
    The second commonly used means of sealing is the mechanical seal, which was
    developed over a period of years as a means of reducing leakage from pump
    glands.  This type of seal can be used only in pumps that have a rotary shaft
    motion.  A simple mechanical seal consists of two rings with wearing surfaces
    at right angles to the shaft.  One ring is stationary while the other is
    attached to the shaft and rotates with it.  A spring and the action of fluid
    pressure keep the two faces in contact.  Lubrication of the wearing faces is
    accomplished by a thin film of the material being pumped.  The wearing faces
    are precisely finished to ensure perfectly flat surfaces.  Materials used in
    the manufacture of the sealing rings are many and varied.  Choice of materials
    depends primarily upon properties of fluid being pumped, pressure, temperature,
    and speed of rotation.  The vast majority of rotating faces in commercial use
    are made of carbon.
                                          5-58
    

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    Emissions to the atmosphere from centrifugal pumps may be controlled in some
    cases by use of the described mechanical-type seals instead of packing glands.
    For cases not feasible to control with mechanical seals, specialized types of
    pumps, such as canned, diaphragm, or electromagnetic, are required.
    
    Another specialty category is the sealed pump, which has no external seal or
    potential leakage.  The two major types are the canned-rotor and the magnetic.
    Sealed pumps are used where no leakage can be tolerated, or where pump seal
    failure might cause major trouble.  Such pumps are available in a limited
    range of sizes, most are low-flows, and all are of single- or two-stage con-
    struction. They have been used for both high-temperature and very low-tempera-
    ture liquids.  High-suction-pressure applications avoid the need for a trou-
    blesome high-pressure stuffing box.  The centrifugal-type pumps follow the
    same hydraulic performance rules as conventional centrifugal pumps.  Because
    of their small size, these pumps show a rather low efficiency but, in
    dangerous applications, efficiency must often be sacrificed for safety.
    
    5.5.3.4  Pump and Piping Safety—
    The primary objectives of pumping and piping systems are to prevent escape of
    liquid and to keep to a minimum the quantity lost if the liquid does escape.
    Inherent safety and freedom from human failure can, to a considerable extent,
    be built into a hazardous/flammable liquid system.  Some design
    recommendations which help to attain the above objectives are listed below:
    
          (1)  Complete automatic sprinkler protection is provided in indoor areas
              where pumps, piping, tanks, and other parts of hazardous liquid
              transfer systems are located.  In well-drained areas, sprinkler
              discharge of 0.30 gpm/sq ft of floor area is usually recommended to
              prevent structural and equipment damage.
    
          (2)  Indoor piping is located either overhead or in trenches in the
              floor.  Overhead piping is normally installed close to ceilings or
              beams or along walls at least 6 ft above floor level. If piping is
              located in a trench in the floor, the trench is covered with remov-
              able steel plates and a trapped drain installed to a point of safe
              discharge.  Positive-exhaust ventilation is provided in the trench,
              or the trench is backfilled with sand for liquids having closed-cup
              flash points below 110°F.
    
          (3) Provisions are made to clean out the piping and equipment when long
              or scheduled shutdowns occur.  This is usually done by purging with
              steam.  The condensate is then collected and treated as a wastewater.
    
          (4) Pipe materials are used which are chemically resistant to the liquid
              handled, which have adequate design strength to withstand the maxi-
              mum service pressure and temperature, and which, when possible, are
              resistant to mechanical damage or thermal shock.  Cast-iron, soft-
              rubber, or thermoplastic pipe or fittings of low melting point are
              never used.
                                          5-59
    

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     (5)  If  corrosive  liquids  or high  standards of purity make  special pipe
         necessary,  the  use  of stainless steel, nickel alloys,  or other
         materials having  high resistance  to heat and mechanical damage  or
         steel pipe  with tin,  glass, plastic,  rubber, lead, or  other  lining
         is  preferred  to more  fragile  piping.  If problems of corrosion,
         contaminations, or  sanitation are  the controlling factor,  the use of
         carbon,  graphite, glass, porcelain, thermosetting-plastic, or hard-
         rubber pipe is  acceptable.  Where  specifically needed  for  the liquid
         being handled,  aluminum alloy, aluminum bronze, or lead pipe is
         acceptable.   Extra  care is  then used  in locating, guarding,  and
         supporting  specialty  piping against mechanical injury.
    
     (6)  Each waste  material pipeline  is clearly marked by lettering  (coded
         or  otherwise),  color  banding, or  complete color coding to  indicate
         the product transferred therein.   The coding normally  conforms  with
         company  policy  or standard  plant  practice which, in turn,  should
         conform  with  state  or federal requirements.
     (7)  Each  oil  or  hazardous material product-fill  line which  enters  a  tank
         below the liquid level  has  a  one-way  flow check valve located  as
         closely as possible  to  the  bulk  storage  tank.  In  addition  to  confin-
         ing the product  to the  tank,  in  the event of valve or pipeline
         failure,  the check valve permits overhaul of the main shut-off va^ve
         and should aid in preventing  shock loading of  the  pipeline  and
         valves from  a "slug" of the tank content caused by backflow into
         empty fill line.  The waste feed flow in suction lines  is controlled
         by use of a  positive displacement pump.
    t
     (8)  Buried pipelines  are  generally  avoided.  When  they  do  occur  however,
         buried installations  have  a  protective wrapping  and coating  and are
         cathodically protected if  soil  conditions  warrant.   A  section of the
         line is then exposed  and inspected regularly.  This action is normal-
         ly recycled until the entire line  has been exposed  and examined on a
         regularly established frequency.   An alternative would be the use of
         exposable pipe corridors or  galleries.
    
    (9)   When a pipeline is not in  service,  the terminal  connection at the
         transfer point is capped or  blank-flanged, and marked  as to  origin.
    
    (10)  Wood-to-metal is  normally  avoided  as a pipeline  support since it is
         apt to retain moisture and cause pipeline  corrosion which, when
         coupled with the  abrasive  action caused  by the pulsating action of
         the line, could cause line failure with  resulting  leakage.   Supports
         are generally designed with  only a minimum point of surface  contact
         that allows for the pulsating movement  (expansion  and  contraction)
         inspections at which  time  the general  condition,  of items,  such as
         flange joints, valve  glands  and bodies,  catch  trays, pipeline
         supports, locking of  valves, and metal  surfaces, are assessed.
    
    (12)  Elevated pipelines are also  subjected  to constant  review to  insure
         that the height of vehicular traffic granted plant entry does not
         exceed the lowermost  height  of  the elevated line;  gate check-in and
         in-plant travel are routes which warrant attention in  this  respect.
    
                                     5-60
    

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         (13) Double-walled piping and/or flange shielding may be necessary for
              some above-ground pipelines carrying an especially hazardous or
              toxic waste stream if the pipeline intersects critical locations
              such as highways, driveways, railroads, or small watercourses.  An
              example is illustrated in Figure 5-29.
    
         (14) As far as practical, all pumps feeding the blender are located as
              close as possible to the storage tank.
                           1. A SHIELD PREVENTS SPLASHING IF THE FLANGE FAILS.
    
                           2. OUTER CONCENTRTIC PIPE PREVENTS ESCAPE (AND
                            k INDICATES THE FAILURE) IF INNER, LI QUID-CARRY ING
                             PIPE FAILS.
         Figure 5-29.  Two safeguards for piping of highly toxic liquids [23].
    
    Many liquid wastes are solids at room temperature or become highly viscous  at
    lower temperatures, and require heated piping to keep them in a fluid state
    suitable for transfer through the system.  Liquids from heated tanks can
    usually be handled by providing adequate insulation on the pipe and fittings.
    The following methods of applying heat to piping systems are considered
    acceptable:
    
         (1)  Flammable-liquid lines are often steam-traced.  The minimum steam
              pressure needed is used to make the liquid fluid, and a regulator is
              provided in the steam line with a relief valve downstream of the
              regulator set somewhat higher.  The pipe and tracing are enclosed
              with noncombustible insulation.
    
         (2)  Electric heating cable is usually fastened along the pipe or wound
              spirally around it and the whole covered with noncombustible insula-
              tion.  No splices in the cable should be made, and all connections are
              located outside the insulation-covered pipe.  Individual thermostatic
                                          5-61
    

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              controls for each cable section should be  provided and protected
              with a fuse or fused disconnect switches  of as low a rating as
              practical.   Outdoors,  weather-proof enclosures are provided for
              thermostats, plug assemblies,  and switches,  and in all installations
              are located safely away from the pipelines and out of the flammable-
              liquid area.  Accessories  will introduce  a hazard unless located so
              that the make-and-break contacts will function in a nonexplosive
              atmosphere.
    
         (3)   Thermal-electric conduction may be utilized by passing a low-voltage
              alternating current though the pipe.   This method is commonly used
              to maintain a constant temperature in a system of piping when materi-
              al in the storage tank has been previously wanned.  Sufficient heat
              is supplied to the piping  to compensate for normal heat loss in the
              system without raising the temperature of  the  liquid in transfer.
              Thermal-electric conduction systems is normally installed and tested
              as complete units by the manufacturer or his qualified agent.
              Sections of the piping to  be heated are insulated by electrically
              nonconductive fittings from unheated sections  to confine the current
              paths and to eliminate any current leakage at  hazardous locations.
    
              For thermal-electric conduction systems the following               i
              recommendations usually apply:                                      J"
    
              (a)  An automatic high-temperature-limit  safety cutoff switch is
                   provided in each circuit of each system to prevent overheating
                   of liquid in event of failure of the  operating temperature-
                   control thermostat.
    
              (b)  Each circuit is protected with fuses  or fused disconnect
                   switches of the lowest practical rating.
    
              (c)  All parts of the piping and fittings  are  enclosed in electri-          i
                   cal- and thermal-insulating covering to prevent accidental
                   grounding of the system.
    
              (d)  All switches, transformers, contactors, or other sparking units        \
                   are located in a safe area away from  any  flammable liquid or
                   vapor.
    
              (e)  The system is inspected and tested periodically to .insure its
                   continued safe operation.  Maintenance of the installation is
                   the responsibility of trained employees.
    
    5.5.4  Valving and Controls
    
    Valve functions can be defined as follows:                                            »
    
         (1)   On/off service
         (2)   Throttling service
         (3)   Prevention of reverse flow, or backflow
         (4)   Pressure control
    
    
                                          5-62
    

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         (5)  Special functions:
              (a)  Directing flow
              (b)  Sampling service
              (c)  Limiting flows
              (d)  Sealing vessel or tank outlets
              (e)  Other.
    
    Valve selection requires consideration of three basic and critical details:
    
         (1)  The flow control element
         (2)  The regulating mechanism
         (3)  The seal to contain the fluid within the valve.
    
    In addition to these three important design aspects, features such as mechani-
    cal strength, materials of construction, dimensional arrangement, and types of
    end-connections are considered.
    
    Valves are weak links in fluid transfer systems as regards leaks and fugitive
    emissions.  There are three types of leakage:
    
         (1)  Process fluid escapes downstream, past flow-control element in
              closed position.  Identified as "flow seal" leakage.               i
    
         (2)  Process fluid escapes to the outside of the valve, from around the |
              stem and from the joints (bonnet) with the body.  Identified as
              either stem-seal or bonnet-seal leakage.
    
         (3)  Air leaks into the valve body and to the process medium under
              vacuum.
    
    Figure 5-30 shows a gate valve with the possible leakage areas around the stem
    packing, the bonnet assembly, and between the valve stem and packing gland.
    
    5.5.5  Valving and Control Safety Consideration
    
    5.5.5.1  Safety Shutoffs—
    Hazardous and flammable-liquid pumping and piping systems are equipped with
    emergency shutoffs to stop the flow of liquid in event of fire or accidental
    escape of liquid or vapor.  This can usually be done by safety shutoff valves
    and/or positive-displacement pumps.  In general, these devices are arranged
    for automatic operation in event of fire and for manual or automatic operation
    in event of accidental escape of liquid.  If the location of a possible fire
    can be accurately determined, as would be the case at dispensing locations,
    remote actuation is not necessary. If a fire could occur anywhere at an
    extensive installation, provision for remote actuation of the main safety
    shutoff valve will be needed.
    
         (1)  Safety shutoff valves are needed in flammable-liquid systems in the
              following locations.-
                                          5-63
    

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                                                « POSSI8U
                                                  LEAK AREAS
         Figure  5-30.
    Three areas of a typical gate valve that can
    leak and result in fugitive emissions [2].
         (a)   At connections on supply and feed tanks where transfer is by
              gravity,  centrifugal pump,  inert-gas pressure, or other means
              that permits the maintenance of continuous pressure in the
              system.   The possibility of siphon action through a centrifugal
              pump requires installation  of a safety shutoff valve on the
              pump inlet.
    
         (b)   On feed lines where they enter important buildings or struc-
              tures or on branch lines where they take off from main-supply
              headers.   The valve is located out of doors or immediately
              adjacent to an exterior wall, accessible from outdoors.
    
         (c)   On feed lines at dispensing locations.
    
    (2)   Safety shutoff valves may be of the diaphragm, solenoid, or weight-
         or spring-operated fusible-element types.  They generally
         incorporate some of the following design features:
    
         (a)   Have bodies with the appropriate service rating for the maximum
              pressure and temperature to be encountered. Bodies should be of
              cast steel, except that bronze is acceptable in sizes of 2 in.
              and less if under sprinkler protection.
    
        ."(b)   Close on failure of the operating electrical or air supply.
    
         (c)   Close in the direction of the liquid flow so that system
              pressure tends to hold the valve in the dossed position.
                                     5-64
    

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         (d)   Close  against  a pressure  of  at  least  150  per  cent  of design
              rating.
    
         (e)   Close  within  5 seconds  after actuation.
    
         (f)   Valve  should  not  readily  be  bypassed,  blocked,  or  otherwise
              made  ineffective.
    
         (g)   Have  an  indicator to  show when  the  valve  is open or shut,
              except on packless solenoid  types.
    
         (h)   Be  manually reset, except where the valve-control  circuit  is
              arranged for  manual resetting.
    
         (i)   Have  no  direct connections between  the liquid and  air section
              of  diaphragm  valves that  might  permit leakage of the liquid
              past  the packing  into the air lines.
    
         (j)   Have  packing  and  lubrication, if any,  resistant to the liquid
              being handled.
    
    (3)   Automatic  operation of safety  shutoff valves and/or direct-       '
         displacement  pumps is  normally accomplished by one of the followingl-
         methods:                                                           I
    
         (a)   Actuation by  thermal devices located  at the ceiling and above
              the point, of  flammable-liquid use where spills may be expected.
    
         (b)   Release  of a  dead-man control.
    
         (c)   Operation of  the  fire-protection system.   With automatic sprin-
              kler  systems,  actuation may  be  by waterflow indicators,  alarm
              valves,  or dry-pipe valves with hydraulic-pressure switches.
              With  special  fixed extinguishing systems, actuation is by
              pressure switches.  Drain and alarm tests of  sprinkler system
              are made during  idle periods or arranged that they can be made
              without  operating the safety shutoff.
    
         (d)   If the piping contains fragile  components such as  rotameters
              and sight glasses, the safety shutoff is actuated  automatically
              by excessive  pressure drop downstream from such components.
    
    (4)   Arrange safety shutoff valves  and/or positive-displacement pumps  for
         manual shutdown by use of one  or  more stop buttons or switches at
         safe and accessible locations  throughout the flammable-liquid
         system.   In general,  such stop buttons or  switches are  located near
         points of  egress from the building or structure.
    
    (5)   Self-closing manual valves and dead-man controls of a  type not
         readily blocked open  are recommended as  emergency  safety shutoffs  on
         small systems, where  liquid transfer is  intermittent, and on larger
                                     5-65
    

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              systems that lend themselves  economically  to  such  an  arrangement.
              They require constant  attendance  by  the  operator and  close auto-
              matically if he  leaves.
    
         (6)   If normal flow in piping is  in  one direction  only  and the  piping
              discharges to feed tanks,  receivers,  or  other vessels so  located
              that a leak in the piping upstream of these vessels could  be fed  by
              reverse flow through the piping,  check valves are  installed in the
              piping as close  to the vessel as  possible  to  prevent  the  reverse
              flow.
    
    5.5.5.2  Gages, Meters, and Gage Glasses--
         (1)   Accessories on flammable-liquid piping systems, such  as gages,
              meters, gage glasses,  hydrometers, and sight  glasses  are  designed to
              have strength equal to that  of  the piping  system.
    
         (2)   Gage glasses are particularly susceptible  to  breakage.  Their use is
              generally discouraged.
    
         (3)   Restricted orifices are used in piping to  gages and instruments to
              reduce the amount of leakage in event of failure.
    
         (4)   Armored rotameters or instruments that read indirectly or sample  a  I
              proportion of the flow in preference to  those that enclose the      •'
              entire stream or have the full  flow  directed  to the glass  reading
              chamber are also used.  Vents on  air releases used in conjunction
              with some metering devices are  then  piped  to  outdoors in  order to
              dispose safely of flammable  liquid that  may be discharged if the
              float is inoperative.
    
    5.5.5.3  Operating Controls—
         (1)   Operating control valves are located in  hazardous  and flammable-
              liquid piping systems so as  to  regulate  the control  and flow of
              liquids to connected equipment  and to isolate equipment for mainten-
              ance purposes.  Conventional types of valves  are  suitable for most
              liquids.  Valves are used having  the appropriate  service  rating for
              the maximum pressure and temperature to  be encountered and packing
              or lubrication resistant to the liquid being  handled.  Valve bodies
              are normally of cast steel,  except that  bronze is  acceptable on
              piping 2 in. or less in size in sprinklered locations. Cast-iron
              bodies are usually not used.  If  corrosive conditions or product
              purity require the use of special materials  of construction, stain-
              less-steel, Monel, or lined-steel valves are  preferred to those made
              of more fragile materials.
    
         (2)   Valving is arranged to minimize the likelihood of improper operation.
              Rising-stem or other valves that  indicate whether open or closed are
              preferred.  The following recommendations for valve  arrangements are
              generally followed where applicable:
                                          5-66
    

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         (a)   Three-way two-port valves  are used at all branch lines  so that
              flow can only proceed through one  line.
    
         (b)   Plug-cock valves are  used  with a slotted guard arranged so that
              the handle can be removed  only when the  valve is in the closed
              position.  This arrangement will prevent discharge through
              valves accidentally left open.  One handle can serve all valves
              on the system,
    
         (c)   Electrical or mechanical interlocks are  provided between valves
              so that the position  of one valve with respect to another will
              be automatically determined.
    
    (3)   Where the correct sequence of additions of waste materials to a
         blending tank is of importance, sequence locks are used on valves in
         pipelines.
    
    (4)   Hydraulic accumulators or  safety relief valves are provided on
         pipelines that can be valved off with liquid trapped between valves.
         This prevents damage or overpressure from thermal expansion.  The
         discharge is piped from safety  relief valves  to a collection point.
    
    (5)   Tanks, mixers, and other equipment to which hazardous liquid waste
         is transferred are arranged so  as to prevent accidental overflow.   I
         The best arrangement is a  trapped overflow drain leading back to the I
         source of supply or to- a point  of safe collection.  The capacity of -
         the overflow drain should be at least equal to that of the fill
         pipe.
    
    (6)   If the equipment normally operates under pressure so that an over-
         flow drain is not practical but overflow is possible during filling
         because of open manholes or sampling connections, a liquid-level
         control is provided to stop the liquid flow by closing a valve or
         stopping the pump or to sound an alarm if the maximum safe level is
         approached or exceeded.  Float  valves or switches, pressure switches,
         and various other liquid-level  indicators are available and may be
         used.  Mechanical interlocking of valves on overflow drain and fill
         pipe can sometimes be arranged so that the overflow drain will be
         open when the fill-pipe valve is open.
    
    (7)   The use of accurate measuring devices, such as dispensing meters,
         measuring tanks, or weight tanks will assist greatly in the preven-
         tion of overflows.  Dispensing meters permit a predetermined amount
         of liquid to pass and then automatically stop the delivery.   Such
         meters control a spring-loaded quick-action valve that should be
         designed for manual starting with a hand-trip emergency shutoff.
    
    (8)   If control valves are to be remotely actuated, valves are chosen
         having characteristics described in recommendation 2 of Safety
         Shutoffs and arranged for operation in an emergency situation.
                                     5-67
    

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    5.5.6  Solids Feeding Equipment
    
    Waste material is pneumatically,  mechanically,  or gravity fed into an inciner-
    ator capable of burning solids.  Normally,  heterogeneous waste material must
    be reduced in size (shredded,  pulverized,  etc.) to facilitate the feed system
    operation and allow injection, distribution,  and combustion within the
    incinerator.
    
    In addition to reducing moisture  content and waste material size, separation
    of noncombustible material such as ferrous  and nonferrous metals may often be
    required.  The former is removed using magnetic separators.  Nonferrous metals
    are commonly removed using ballistic-type separators.
    
    5.5.6.1  Shredders —
    To reduce the size of waste materials for easier handling and feeding, shred-
    ders are used.  Also, to expose all surfaces of hazardous waste containers
    (metal and fiber drums), it may be necessary to shred the cc5ntainers.  Usually,
    due to industrial hygiene, safety, and materials handling considerations, drums
    or packs of solidified residues cannot be shredded and must be charged directly
    into the incinerator [17].  Thus, it would be rare that a shredder would be
    used in conjunction with hazardous waste incineration, although in some applica-
    tions, e.g., in-plant dedicated incinerators, shredders may be useful.         I
    
    A shredder capable of consuming 55-gallon steel drums has to be a rugged unit, I
    capable of containing dusts and mists of toxic materials as well as particles
    of steel  thrown around at high velocity.   This type of potential danger
    indicates a need for a hopper feed system to enclose flying debris, with
    mechanical feed from a conveyor so that plant personnel need, never be in the
    vicinity of the hopper opening during operation.  The hopper is elevated for
    gravity feed into the shredder, which also may be above ground level and well
    ventilated.  A suction fan can then draw fumes and dust from the shredder into
    the incinerator or an alternate collection device.
    
    A shredder capable of consuming 55-gallon drums would probably have a capacity
    for handling material several times as fast as the incinerator.  Thus, some
    silo storage is necessary to safely contain the shredded material.  The
    material discharged from the silo would go directly into the incinerator.
    
    A shredding operation normally consists of a shredding unit and a transfer
    network including a variety of conveyors and feeders.  Several types of shred-
    ding devices exist:  vertical and horizontal axis hammer mills, vertical axis
    grinders, and horizontal axis impactors,- horizontal hammer type shredders are
    the most common.
    
    Unlike most other rotating equipment  (pumps, fans, turbines, etc.), there is
    very little design criteria for predictable performance of mixed solid waste
    shredders.  Size, style, and power selection is on an empirical basis, and
    this is not likely to change in view  of the infinite types and combinations of
    input material.
                                          5-68
    

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         There are  three basic  types  of horizontal shaft swing hammer type shredders:
    
               vi)   Topfeed,  single  direction rotor rotation
               (2)   Topfeed,  reversible rotor rotation
               (3)   Controlled feed,  single direction rotor rotation.
         Figure  5-31  illustrates  a cross-sectional view of a horizontal axis shredder.
    
                                   EED
                                   VEYO
    
                                   V
      FEED
    CONVEYOR
                            fEED  MATERIAL
                                                        FEED CHUTE
                                                         HAMMER
                                                              REJECT
                                                              POCKET
     LINERS
    
     MAIN FRAME
                                BREAKER PLATE
                                FOUNDATION
                                 DISCHARGE
                                   CHUTE
                                   DISCHARGE
                                     GRATE
                                                              DISCHARGE
                                                              CONVfYOR
                        Figure 5-31.
          Cross-section  through  a nonreversible
          horizontal  shredder  [24].
    I     5.5.6.2  Explosion Suppression and Safety Considerations for Shredders—
          The  primary explosion in a shredding system is a gas explosion caused by  a  fric-
    I     tion spark and sometimes followed by a more violent dust explosion.  Explosive
          dust mixtures of the type most likely to form in a solid waste shredder require
          a higher energy level for ignition than available from a friction spark.
          Explosion suppression systems have proved effective for gas and dust explosions
          on municipal solid waste shredders and are used on most installations.  Today,
          most systems use a demand-inerting suppression system, whereby metal hemispher-
          ical containers release a suppressant in advance of a flame front.  Such  con-
          tainers are connected to the shredding chamber by piping to channel the
          suppressant toward the interior of the chamber to provide blanket coverage.
          The  most popular suppressant is Halon (short for halogenated hydrocarbon),  a
          family of chemicals which possess unique properties with regard to fire
          extinguishing.
    
          Also,  sufficient pressure relief area is provided in the shredder and connecting
          superstructures such as hoods, ducts, or any connected enclosure.  Excepting  the
          shredder, this can be by means of hinged flaps, tethered blowout panels,  and
          flexible flaps.
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    In addition,  other means for minimizing personal injury and building damage
    are [25] :
    
         (1)   Rigid enforcement of off-limits areas for roving personnel.
         (2)   Complete enclosure protection for the shredder operator.
         (3)   Separate or detached shredder building enclosures with blow-out
              sidewall and roof panels.
         (4)   Partially open walls and/or roof.
    
    5.5.6.3  Feeders--
    Critical components in any system handling bulk solids are the feeders,  which,
    in conjunction with conveyors and other handling equipment, transfer solids at
    a controlled rate from storage into the process, or from point-to-point within
    a process.  Feeders may be called upon to transfer materials from railcar to
    storage bin,  from storage bin to conveyor, or from conveyor to the incinerator.
    
    There are four major types of solids feeders:
    
         (1)   Rotary
         (2)   Screw
         (3)   Vibrating
         (4)   Belt                                                                *
    
    Many specialized feeders are also available.  Table 5-5 relates feeder types J
    to material characteristics.  The most common types of feeders which will be
    encountered in handling hazardous solid wastes are belt feeders and screw
    feeders.
    
    Both belt feeders and screw feeders have their own limitations.  Steps must be
    taken to alleviate dusting during operation of belt feeders.  Total dust con-
    trol can be assured only by enclosing the feeder with the proper dust entrain-
    ment hoods.  Most manufacturers furnish enclosures for belts up to about 36
    inches wide.   These housings can be made gas-tight for inert-gas purging.
    However,  if the user does not monitor feeder operation, or if a poor hopper
    design allows powder to avalanche onto the feeder belt, or if a dust collec-
    tion system has not been provided to remove particles as they become airborne,
    the enclosure will serve only to contain the dust so that it eventually buries
    the feeder.
    
    Caution is advised when using screw feeders with sticky or very cohesive mate-
    rials.  Such materials can build up in short pitch sections, and conveying
    will cease.  For these services, longer-pitch,  smoothly surfaced flights,
    multiple screws with overlapping flights, or ribbons instead of solid flights
    are normally specified.
    
    Oust leakage around covers and along shaft seals is a common problem with
    screw feeders.  "Dust tight" means little  in a  specification.  Because this  is
    an important requirement, "gas tight" to about  one inch w.c.  (water column)
    pressure is a term used.  To ensure continued dust control, followup is  normal-
    ly needed during operation to make sure operators maintain  seals, gaskets, and
    covers.  Shaft seals are difficult to keep dust tight, especially if the
                                          5-70
    

    -------
                        TABLE 5-5.  FEEDERS FOR BULK MATERIALS
          Material characteristics
                   Feeder type
    Fine, free-flowing materials
    Nonabrasive and granular materials,
      materials with some lumps
    Materials difficult to handle
      because of being hot, abrasive,
      lumpy, or stringy
    
    Heavy, lumpy, or abrasive materials
      similar to pit-run stone and ore
    Bar flight, belt, oscillating or vibrat-
      ing, rotary vane, screw
    
    Apron, bar flight, belt, oscillating or
      vibrating, reciprocating, rotary
      plate, screw
    
    Apron, bar flight, belt, oscillating or
      vibrating, reciprocating
    Apron, oscillating or vibrating,
      reciprocating
    trough is gas-purged.  Even with the variety of seals offered, most will leak
    dust within a few hours unless shaft runout at the seal area is minimized.
    There is no standard industry specification covering runout; as much as 1/32  j
    in. runout is not unusual.  Manufacturers will furnish special construction
    for tight sealing, if this requirement is spelled out clearly in the          J
    specification.
    
    Solid Waste Charging To Combustion Zone—The methods of feed to the combusion
    zone can be broken down as follows:
    
         (1)  Batch
              (a)  open charging
              (b)  air lock feeders
         (2)  Continuous
    
    Batch open charging can be as simple as gravity feeding solid waste into a
    chute leading to the combustion zone, as in a rotary kiln incinerator.
    
    An example of a batch air-lock feeder can be a charging hopper located above a
    rotary kiln inlet, charged by a grapple which is controlled from a fully
    air-conditioned operator cab, sealed against the bin space, using TV cameras
    and TV screen in a partially automatic, partially manual operation.  The
    rotary kiln inlet is sealed from the bin space by a lock fitted with two
    sliding gates. When the inclined sliding gate in the drop chute of the rotary
    kiln inlet is closed, a horizontal sliding gate located in the charging hopper
    will open.
    
    An example of a continuous solids feed is given in Figure 5-32, which illus-
    trates a screw conveyor carrying sludge to a rotary feeder which is then
    pneumatically conveyed to a spin air nozzle within a fluidized bed incinerator.
                                          5-71
    

    -------
                                                     TO SCRUBBER
    
                   SCREW CONVEYOR
      FILTER
                         ROTARY
                         FEEDER
                        	HI
                                                       FLUID I2ED
                                                         BED
                                                                             BURNER
                                                                            PI LOT GAS
            PNEUMATIC
            SLUDGE FEED
                                                                    AIR BLOWER
         Figure 5-32.  Continuous feeding of sludge to fluid bed  incinerator.
    
    5.5.6.4  Container Feeding Equipment—
    For the most part, disposal technology for filled containers  is  appropriate
    for toxic materials and for materials which are not readily removable from the
    container. When opening the container might be harmful  to  operations  personnel,
    the container should preferably be processed within a closed  system.   Further-
    more, if the material cannot be easily poured, co-disposal of both the chemical
    and the container is preferable.  Batch feeding of containerized solid wastes
    results in a cyclic waste loading that can contribute to reduced destruction
    and removal efficiencies [17].
    
    In order to prevent the possibility of explosion or rapid  temperature excursions,
    drummed material should not contain free-standing combustible liquids or even
    combustible liquids of high vapor pressure that are bound  within solids or
    sludges.  A series of holes are typically punched in the drums or other contain-
    ers or their covers are removed to provide adequate venting.  Small quantities
    I
    I
    
    I
                                           5-72
    

    -------
    of the material should be tested for thermal stability and exothermic decomposi-
    tion at elevated temperatures before significant quantities are charged into the
    high-temperature environment of the rotary-kiln primary combustion chamber.  It
    is often necessary to regulate the charge size of various containerized solids
    depending upon heat release characteristics [17].
    
    There are three basic types of automated container feeding equipment to
    incinerators:
    
         (1)  Conveyor to air-lock charging to rotary kilns.
         (2)  Hydraulic drum and pack-feeding mechanisms.
         (3)  Conveyor to air-lock vestibule with puncturing apparatus to thermal
              treatment chamber.
    
    Figure 5-33 illustrates a schematic diagram of a rotary kiln incineration
    system using air-lock charging of containers.  A more detailed example of an
    air-lock waste charging system is given in Figure 5-34.  The general practice
    of dropping small containers into a rotary kiln without emptying them has
    process disadvantages.  Occasionally, there will be deflagrations with strong
    soot generation and excessive thermal and mechanical loading of the kiln refrac-
    tories resulting from this practice.  A separate explosion vent for the charging
    system is required to handle possible explosions.
    
    A different type of container handling, feeding, and thermal treatment system I
    is illustrated in Figure 5-35.  The process includes a remote handling opera- I
    tion and a completely enclosed cannister punching operation.  Containers are
    then thermally cleaned in the first thermal stage with the controlled
    volatilization of toxic chemicals.
    
    The process described is excellent in the protection afforded to the operators
    by the remote automated handling, punching, and thermal disposal approaches.
    A wide range of containers or cannisters can be processed, including 55-gallon
    drums, chemical ton containers, munition cannisters, projectiles, and cans.
    Contaminated filter media have also been detoxified using the same technique.
    
    The thermal furnace uses a containerized conveyor to transport the cannisters
    through the thermal process chamber, which is equipped with entry and exit
    vestibules with gas-tight doors at either end to facilitate the total contain-
    ment of vapors which might escape from opened containers.  Mechanized punching
    of the cannisters takes place within the entry vestibule.
    
    5.5.7  Backup/Redundancy Provisions
    
    The functional diagram of an incineration facility indicates that most compon-
    ents of the system are in a "series" configuration; each series component must
    be adequately functioning to avoid degraded performance.  A few process com-
    ponents may be in a "parallel" configuration allowing a switchover to another
    component when problems are detected with an on-stream component.  Examples
    are waste feed line filters which will usually have two or more units in
    parallel.  Critical thermocouples for temperature measurement related to control
    functions and automatic shutoff must be redundant.  Feed pumps are typically
    redundant; if plant processing rates are determined to be especially critical,
    
    
                                          5-73
    

    -------
     Figure  5-33.   Continuous type containerized toxic
                   material thermal disposal process [26].
                                                             TO STACK
                                                                              r
                                                                              t
    Figure 5-34.  Example of a waste-charging  door  [27]
                              5-74
    

    -------
       WASTE IN
        DRUMS
                 PUNCHING
                 O O OO O
                                    FUME INCINERATOR
                                             STACK
    
    
                                               SCRUBBER
                                  THERMAL TREATMENT
                                      COOLING
    OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO O O OOOOOOOO
                                                          u
                 Figure 5-35.   Liquid waste incinerator schematic [26].
    
     redundant level monitors  or extra gaging in critical storage tanks and silos, and
     flow monitoring cells may need backup devices to assure safety. A detailed failure
     mode analysis of each particular incinerator facility will identify the roost  i-
     likely potential malfunctions of each process element and point toward which  I
     safety systems cannot afford to fail for pointing out redundancy needs at a   -
     particular facility.
    
     5.5.8  Waste Processing Instrumentation
    
     An automated instrumentation system is used to transfer hazardous wastes from
     storage to the incinerator.  Electrical and/or pneumatic systems permit obser-
     vation of control, for all material handling, from a graphically illustrated
     control panel which shows such things as discharge valve positions, pump motor
     operation, storage tank and bin levels (high and low), storage tank agitator
     operation, and liquid or  solid waste flow.  The control instrument technology
     has been well developed.   Instrumentation used in oil-burning utility systems
     is excellent.  The difficulty encountered in the hazardous waste liquid applica-
     tion is caused by the nature of the product.  It is invariably corrosive, con-
     tains particulate, and has a nasty tendency to foul the surfaces it contacts.
     The flow-sensing system is the heart of the control problem [15].  Equipment
     operation including belt  conveyors, shredder, bucket elevator, or screw con-
     veyors to the incinerator can also be displayed.
    
     5.6  COMBUSTION PROCESS MONITORING
    
     Before incineration process conditions can be controlled automatically they
     must be measured with precision and reliability.  Instrumentation for an
     incineration process is essential because of the variability of the many
     factors involved in attaining good combustion.  For example, as the heat
    .content of the solid waste rises, changes in the combustion process become
     necessary.  Instrumentation indicates these variations so that automatic or
     manual control adjustments can be made.
                                           5-75
    

    -------
                                             f
    The uses of instrumentation and controls include means of process control,
    protection of the environment, protection of the equipment,  and data collec-
    tion.  A control system must have four basic elements:
    
         (1)  the standard of desired performance•
         (2)  the sensor (instrument) to determine  actual performance;
         (3)  the capability to compare actual versus desired performance (error),
              and
         (4)  the control device to effect a corrective change.
    
    The four major factors governing incineration efficiency for a given waste feed
    are temperature, residence time, oxygen concentration, and the turbulence
    achieved.  Chapter 4 discusses the significance of these factors in incinerator
    design and operation.  Methods to determine appropriate conditions of temper-
    ature, residence time, etc., for a given waste/incinerator combination are also
    described in Chapter 4.
    
    To comply with RCRA and EPA regulations, monitoring is required for combustion
    temperature, waste feed rate, air feed rate, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
    excess oxygen, particulate matter, hydrogen chloride, and nitrogen oxides.
    
    Temperature in the incinerator can be directly measured.  Instrumentation is
    also available to directly monitor CO, C02, and oxygen concentration in the
    combustion gas to insure that excess air levels are maintained.  Residence timeJ
    and mixing efficiency cannot be directly measured, however,  so other parameters
    indicative of these conditions need to be measured instead.
    
    Gas residence time in the combustion zone depends upon the volume of the
    combustion chamber and the volume flow rate.  Since the volume of the chamber
    is fixed for a given unit, residence time is directly related to combustion
    gas volume flow rate.  Therefore, measuring this flow rate is equivalent to
    residence time measurement for a given incinerator.
    
    Mixing in liquid waste incinerators or afterburners is a function of burner con-
    figuration, gas flow patterns, and turbulence.   Burner configuration and gas
    flow pattern are a function of the incinerator design and will not vary from
    baseline conditions.  Turbulence is determined by gas velocity in the combustion
    chamber, which is proportional to gas volume flow rate.  Therefore, combustion
    gas flow rate is an indicator of mixing as well as residence time in liquid
    injection incinerators.
    
    In incinerators burning solid hazardous wastes, other factors need to be consid-
    ered to determine solids retention time and degree of agitation.  These factors,
    which vary from one type of incinerator to another, are discussed in Section
    5.6.4.  Sections 5.6.1 through 5.6.3 discuss where and how temperature, oxygen
    concentration, and gas flow rate can be measured.
    
    5.6.1  Temperature Monitoring
    
    Incinerator temperature is monitored on a continuous basis to assure that
    the minimum acceptable temperature for waste destruction is maintained.
    5-76
    

    -------
    This requires one or more temperature sensors in the hot zone and a strip
    chart recorder or equivalent recording device.
    
    Generally, wall temperatures and/or gas stream temperatures are determined
    using shielded thermocouples as sensors.  Thermocouples are the most commonly
    used contact sensors for measuring temperatures above 1,000°F.  Specifically,
    thermocouples can measure the following thermal parameters:
    
     a.  Average gas temperature - accomplished using a shielded thermocouple with
         relatively large thermal capacity anchored to a relatively large mass.
         The metering circuit is provided with a 30-second time constant to
         further smooth and average the readings.
    
     b.  Instantaneous gas temperature - accomplished using a shielded thermo-
         couple with very small thermal capacity with the output metered by a
         circuit with a 1-second time constant.  (Nominally, the reaction rates
         within the hot gas stream should be strongly temperature dependent; they
         thus should depend on the highest temperature to which the constituents
         are exposed.)
    
     c.  Open flame temperature - obtained using an unshielded low thermal mass
         thermocouple with the output metered by an amplifier with a 30-second
         time constant.                                                           |.
    
     d.  Average wall temperature - obtained using a shielded thermocouple        -
         imbedded in the refractory wall.  (Here, the averaging is accomplished by
         the thermal inertia of the refractory material.)
    
    Optical pyrometers are not recommended for these measurements due to spectral
    bias factors present in the combustion area which can cause unacceptable meas-
    urement error.
    
    The location at which temperature measurements are taken is important, due to
    possible variations from one point to another in the combustion chamber.
    Temperatures are highest in the flame and lowest in the refractory wall or at
    a point of significant air infiltration.  Ideally, temperatures are measured
    in the bulk gas flow at a point after which the gas has traversed the combus-
    tion chamber volume that provides the specified residence time for the unit.
    Generally, temperature measurement at a point of flame impingement or at a
    point directly in sight of radiation from the flame is not recommended.  Figures
    5-36 and 5-37 show typical monitoring locations for liquid injection and rotary
    kiln incinerators, respectively.
    
    The types of thermocouples used include J, K, E, R, S, and B.  The letter
    symbols identifying the thermocouple types are those defined in ANSI Standard
    C96.1.  These symbols are in common use throughout industry:
    
         Type J - Iron versus constantan (modified 1913 calibration)
    
         Type K - Originally Chromel-P versus Alumel
    
         Type R - Platinum 13% rhodium versus platinum
                                          5-77
    

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         Type S - Platinum 10% rhodium versus platinum
         Type T - Copper versus constantan
    
         Type E - Originally Chromel-P versus constantan
    
         Type B - Platinum 30% rhodium versus platinum 6% rhodium
    
    Table 5-6 lists the limits of error for the common thermocouple types;  most
    manufacturers supply thermocouples and thermocouple wire to these limits of
    error or better.
    
                  TABLE 5-6.  LIMITS OF ERROR FOR THERMOCOUPLES [28]
    
    Type
    J
    K
    R, S
    Temperature
    range, °F
    32 to 530
    530 to 1,400
    32 to 530
    520 to 2,300
    32 to 1,000
    1,000 to 2,700
    Limits
    Standard
    ±4°F
    ±3/4%
    ±4°F
    ±3/4%
    ±5°F
    ±1/2%
    of error
    Special
    ±2°F
    ±3/8%
    ±2°F
    ±3/8%
    ±2-l/2°F
    ±1/4%
                             -300 to -75
                             -150 to -75
                              -75 to +200
                              200 to 700
    
                               32 to 600
                              600 to 1,600
                     ±2%
                     ±1-1/2°F
                     ±3/4%
    
                     ±3°F
                     ±1/2%
    ±1%
    ±1%
    ±3/4°F
    ±3/8%
    
    ±2-l/4°F
    ±3/8%
                     B
    1,600 to 3,100   ±1/2%
    Since the thermocouple element in a thermocouple assembly is usually expend-
    able, conformance to established emf-temperature relationships is necessary to
    permit interchangeability.  Calibration of a thermocouple consists of the
    determination of its emf at a sufficient number of known temperatures such
    that with some accepted means of interpolation its emf will be known over the
    entire range in which it is to be used.  The process requires a standard
    thermometer with a high-level calibration to indicate temperatures on a stand-
    ard scale, a means for measuring the emf of the thermocouple, and a controlled
    environment in which the thermocouple and standard can be brought to the same
    temperature [28].
    
    Thermocouples use one of three different types of measuring junctions—grounded,
    ungrounded, and exposed.  The grounded junction is the most popular.  The
    ungrounded junction is the most rugged, but its speed of response is slower than
    that of the grounded type.  The unprotected exposed junction responds the fastest
    but is more vulnerable to corrosion and mechanical damage.
                                          5-80
    

    -------
    A complete thermocouple assembly consists of the following:
    
     1.  A sensing element assembly, including in its most basic form two
         dissimilar wires joined at one end and separated by an electrical
         insulator
    
     2.  A protection tube, either ceramic or metal, or a thermowell.  In some
         cases, both primary and secondary protection tubes are used
    
     3.  A thermocouple head or connector
    
     4.  Miscellaneous type hardware such as pipe nipples or adaptors to join the
         protection tube to the head and thermocouple glands for mounting and
         pressure sealing
    
    Protection tubes and thermowells serve the double purpose of guarding the
    thermocouple against mechanical damage and shielding it from corrosive atmos-
    pheres.  The choice of the proper material for the protection tube or thermo-
    well is governed by the conditions of use and by the tolerable life of the
    thermocouple.  There may be times when the strength of the protection tube is
    more important that the long term stability of the thermocouple.  On the other
    hand, gas tightness, resistance to thermal shock, or chemical compatibility of
    the protection tube with the process may be the deciding factors [28].        |-
    
    The most common forms of protection tubes and thermowells and their applica-  •
    tions are covered in the following subsections [28].
    
    5.6.1.1  Metal Tubes--
    Metal tubes offer adequate mechanical protection for base metal thermocouples
    at temperatures to 1,423 K (1,100°F; 1,150°C).  It must be remembered that all
    metallic tubes are somewhat porous at temperatures exceeding 1,088 K (1,500°F;
    815°C) so that, in some cases, it may be necessary to provide an inner tube of
    ceramic material  [28].
    
     (a) Carbon steels can be used to 973 K (1,300°F; 700°C) usually in oxidizing
         atmospheres.
    
     (b) Austenitic stainless steels (300 series) can be used to 1,143 K (1,600°F;
         870°C), mostly oxidizing although Types 316, 317, and 318 can be used in
         some reducing atmospheres.
    
     (c) Ferritic stainless steels  (400 series) can be used from 1,248 K to
         1,423 K (1,800°F  to 2,100°F; 975°C to 1,150°C) in both oxidizing and
         reducing atmospheres.
    
     (d) High nickel alloys, Nichrome, Inconel, etc., can be used to 2,100°F
         (1,150°C) in oxidizing atmospheres [28].
    
    Where the protection tube is subject to high pressure or flow-induced stresses
    or both, a drilled thermowell often is recommended.  Although less expensive
    metal tubes, fabricated by plugging the end of the protection tube, may satisfy
                                           5-81
    

    -------
    application requirements, more stringent specifications usually dictate the           ^
    choice of gun-drilled bar stock, polished and hydrostatically tested as a
    precaution against failures [28].
    
    5.6.1.2  Ceramic Tubes--
    Ceramic tubes are usually at temperatures beyond the ranges of metal tubes
    although they are sometimes used at lower temperatures in atmospheres harmful
    to metal tubes [28].
                                                                                           I
    The ceramic tube most widely used has a Mullite base with certain additives to
    give the best combination of mechanical and thermal shock properties [upper
    temperature limit 1,923 K (3,000°F; 1,650°C)] [28].
    
    Silicon carbide tubes are used as secondary protection tubes.  This material
    resists the cutting action of flames.  It is not impermeable to gases and,
    where a dense tube is required, a nitride-bonded type material can be obtained
    so that the permeability is greatly reduced [28].
    
    Fused alumina tubes can be used as primary or secondary protection tubes or            I
    both where temperatures to 2,253 K (3,600°F; 1,980°C) are expected and when a          f
    gas-tight tube is essential.  Fused alumina tubes and insulators should be
    used with platinum-rhodium, platinum thermocouples above 2,200°F (1,200°C) in          •
    order to ensure long life and attain maximum accuracy.  [The Mullite types      I-      L
    contain impurities which can contaminate platinum above 2,200°F (1,220°C).      I
    The alumina tubes are more expensive than the Mullite base tubes, but types
    impervious to most gases to 2,088 K (3,300°F; 1,815°C) can be obtained]  [28].          fl
    
    5.6.1.3  Metal-Ceramic Tubes--
    "Cermets" are combinations of metals and metallic oxides which, after proper
    treatment, form dense, high-strength, corrosion-resistant tubes usable to
    about 1,698 K (2,600°F; 1,425°C) in most atmospheres  [28].
    
    5.6.2  Oxygen Monitoring
           —  	                                                               t
    
    Oxygen concentration in the combustion gas is usually measured at a point of
    high turbulence, after the gas has traversed the full length of the combustion         t
    chamber.  A good location for measurement is at the inlet to the duct leading          I
    from the combustion chamber to the quench zone, immediately after the gas has
    gone through a 90° turn.  Figures 5-36 and 5-37 show  this location.                     I
    
    Oxygen measurements are made on a continuous basis.   Commercially available
    instruments are discussed in Section 5.9.  Whichever  type of sensor is used,
    it is typically equipped with a gas conditioning system specified by the
    manufacturer for the gas environment in which the  instrument is used.
    
    When measuring oxygen concentration directly in the high-temperature flow, some
    difficulty can be  experienced because of molten slag  impingement on the  probe.          ,
    Trial-and-error solutions of location and probe length have minimized  this
    problem.  A redundant system for scheduled maintenance is desirable  [15].
                                           5-82
    

    -------
    5.6.3  Gas Flow Measurement
    
    Gas flow rates can be measured or approximated in several ways:  by insertion
    in the flue gas duct of an air pressure measuring element (e.g., pitot tube)
    or by measuring the drop in pressure across a restriction to the gas flow
    (e.g., baffle plate, venturi section, or orifice) downstream of the combustor.
    Exhaust gas flow, however, is the most difficult flow measurement application
    on the incinerator for many reasons:
    
     (1) Because the gas is dusty, moist, and corrosive, pressure taps will tend
         to plug.  For this reason it is extremely important that the connection
         to the duct be made sufficiently large and with cleanout provision.
    
     (2) If the two pressure sensing points are at widely different temperatures,
         the resulting difference in density of the gas in the connecting lines to
         the instrument will create an error in measurement.  For this reason,
         avoid measurement across spray chambers or other locations where gas
         temperature changes radically  [29].
    
     (3) If taken across a restriction to gas flow, the fouling tendencies of the
         dirty gas will cause the restriction to increase with time, thereby
         changing the differential measurement for a given rate of flow [29J.
    
    For the reasons stated above, the usefulness of this measurement as an indication
    of quantitative flow is limited and care should be taken in this application  [19].
    
    Flow measurements are performed at either of two locations:  (1) in the duct
    between the combustion chamber and quench zone, or (2) in the stack (Figures
    5-36 and 5-37).  Both locations have their advantages and disadvantages.  In
    the combustion chamber outlet duct, a sufficiently long length of duct may not
    be available for flow pattern development.  Access to this location can also be
    a problem when the incinerator is vertically oriented and because of the neces-
    sity to breech the duct at a high temperature point.  High temperatures at this
    location may require special materials  of construction (e.g., inconel) for
    measurement elements.
    
    The advantages of flow rate measurement in the stack are relief of the prob-
    lems associated with high temperature gas flow measurement, increased access-
    ibility to the gas flow, and increased  likelihood of having a proper section
    of duct for the flow measurement.  One  minor disadvantage associated with this
    position is the increased possibility that ambient air leaks into the system
    upstream of the draft fan could bias the flow measurement.  This is not a
    common occurrence, however, and good facility management practice will
    normally detect such leaks quickly.
    
    Of the instruments available to measure gas flow in closed conduits, pressure
    or velocity head meters are among the oldest and most common.  The principal
    shortcomings are the need for elements  to be inserted directly into the flow
    paths  (in contact with th gas stream),  making then susceptible to corrosion,
    erosion, and fouling; the requirement for seals; the likelihood that the,con-
    duit may have to be opened for inspection or service; and permanent pressure
    losses caused by restrictions placed in the channels.
    
    
                                          5-83
    

    -------
    Head-type flowmeters incorporate primary elements,  which interact directly
    with the streams to induce velocity changes,  and secondary elements,  which
    sense the resulting pressure perturbations.   The flow rate of interest is a
    function of the differential pressures which  can be detected.
    
    5.6.3.1  Orifice Plates--
    Orifice plates, the predominant primary flow  elements,  can yield accuracy and
    repeatability of ±0.25 to 2% full scale at Reynolds numbers from 8,000 to
    500,000 [29].  Units are offered in a variety of designs,  with flow area
    shapes which can be.-
    
     (1) Concentric
     (2) Eccentric
     (3) Segmental,
    
    and profile cross sections which can be-.
    
     (a) Square-edged
     (b) Sharp-edged
     (c) Quadrant-edged
     (d) Double bevel
     (e) Conical inlet.
                                                                                   i
    Principal advantages include low cost, interchangeability, and installation    '
    with minimal modification of piping systems.   The greatest disadvantages are
    high unrecoverable pressure loss, requirement for skill in installation and
    making pressure connections, need for long runs of unobstructed piping or use
    of straightening vanes upstream and downstream of the primary element to
    achieve accuracy, and sensitivity of measurement reliability to orifice geom-
    etry and surface conditions which can vary as a result of normal use or
    handling [29].
    
    Orifice plates can be specified in corrosion-resistant materials appropriate
    for many operating conditions.  For fluids above 600°F, plate materials should
    be specified that have thermal expansion coefficients matched with those of
    the mounting flanges, and effort should be made to moderate the rate of tem-
    perature change on the complete primary assembly to avoid thermal stresses
    [29].
    
    The most common orifices have sharp, square,  or rounded upstream edges.  Cir-
    cular concentric designs are particularly popular since accuracy is highly
    predictable and extensive performance data are available for broad ranges of
    flow rates, duct sizes, pressure differentials, and other application factors.
    Eccentric and segmental orifice designs may be considered when the measured
    fluid contains suspended materials since these may lead to accumulations
    behind concentric plates and cause erratic or false readings  [29].
    
    5.6.3.2  Venturi Tubes--
    Venturi tube configurations can be standard,  eccentric, or rectangular.  In
    standard designs, cylindrical barrel sections having inner diameters close to
    those of the main pipes connect to the  throat sections through cones of fixed
                                          5-84
    

    -------
    angular convergence; the throats terminate in diverging exit cones which again
    match the inner pipe diameters.  Eccentric venturi elements are available to
    handle flows with mixed phases, and rectangular units can be specified for use
    in noncircular ducts [29].
    
    Venturis handle 25% to 50% more flow than orifices for comparable line size
    and head loss   The flow range for satisfactory measurement is usually con-
    sidered to extend upward from Reynolds numbers of about 200,000.  Advantages,
    in addition to capacity, include high pressure recovery, good accuracy with
    beta ratios greater than 0.75, integral pressure connections, minimal require-
    ments for straight runs of upstream piping, and suitability for dirty applica-
    tions because the streamlined inner surfaces resist erosion and particle
    accumulation.  Purchase cost is high compared with most other primary elements,
    but the greater pressure recovery can result in significant energy savings in
    large ducts.  A more significant problem is that large sizes make the tubes
    awkward to install  [29].
    
    5.6.3.3  Pitot Tubes--
    Pitot tubes are the simplest velocity head sensors.  Models can be specified
    for a variety of difficult fluid services, including high temperature, high
    pressure, and corrosive, dirty gases.  Moreover, the sensors are formed as
    probes, which often are designed to be inserted in conduits without system
    shutdown [29].                                                                I-
    
    Numerous special as well as standard configurations are available; for in-
    stance, models can be ordered to measure velocity direction as well as magni-
    tude.  Limitations include tendency to plug when fluids contain suspended
    solid particles unless provision is made for purging or flushing, narrow
    velocity ranges with standard secondary elements, and sensitivity to local
    distrubances in the flow pattern [29].
    
    Another fundamental problem is that measurement indicates velocity at one
    point in the stream, rather than providing integrated volumetric flows.  The
    probes must be traversed across the pipes or the velocity profiles known in
    advance to calculate average flow.  Moreover, to avoid uncertainty about local
    perturbations, at least 8 diameters of straight smooth pipe are recommended
    upstream of  typical devices [29].
    
    5.6.4  Solid Waste Retention Tijne and Mixing Characteristics Information
    
    Retention time for nonvolatile or solid wastes in an incinerator is different
    from that for volatiles.  When solid wastes are being incinerated using incin-
    erators which have mechanical means for agitating and moving solids through
    the combustion zone such as is possible with rotary kilns and multiple hearth
    incinerators, residence time of nonvolatiles will become a function of these
    variables.  Mixing will also become a variable when rabble arms or other
    mechanical devices are used to tumble or otherwise break up chunks of solid
    material.  Residue analysis is typically performed to ascertain the condition
    of the ash produced at  these conditions.  If analysis shows that insufficient
    agitation or residence  time is being achieved in exposing the solids to com-
    bustion zone conditions, a change of those conditions is normally requested  to
    eliminate the problem.
    
    
                                          5-85
    

    -------
    5.7  AIR POLLUTION CONTROL DEVICE INSPECTION AND MONITORING
    
    5.7.1  Wet Scrubbers
    
    Five parameters are routinely checked on wet scrubbers to monitor their opera-
    tional effectiveness.   These are discussed below.  Gas and liquid flow rates
    are discussed together in Section 5.7.1.2
    
    5.7.1.1  Temperature--
    Deviations from the design temperature can have serious effects on the removal
    efficiency of a wet scrubber, particularly when the scrubber is being used to
    remove gaseous components.  Since incineration inherently produces high tem-
    perature gas to be scrubbed, pre-cooling of the gas stream is necessary.
    Units used for this are commonly called quench towers, and they normally bring
    the gas temperature down to around 150°F prior to entry into the scrubber.
    This scrubber inlet temperature is continuously monitored to assure that
    proper scrubbing conditions are maintained in accordance with the design inlet
    temperature value or range.  Deviations can cause several effects, including
    rapid loss of scrubbing liquid, compromise of absorption efficiency, undue
    corrosion, and structural damage to the unit.  One or more of these occur-
    rences can increase emissions from the unit.  Figures 5-36 and 5-37 show the
    approximate position for temperature measurement.  Emergency shut down        j.
    features regarding this temperature measurement are discussed in Chapter 4.   I
    
    5.7.1.2  Liquid and Gas Flows—                                                     ^
    A wet scrubber must provide good gas-liquid turbulence and optimum contacting       ^|
    surfaces for proper absorption of contaminant gases or removal of particles
    [30].  This provision is typically specified by the vendor and normally ex-
    pressed as the liquid-to-gas ratio (e.g., 5 gpm/1,000 cfm [L/G]).  A certain
    L/G will be necessary to achieve design removal efficiency.  The vendor also          ,
    supplies the sensitivity of the L/G ratio to removal efficiency because each
    design has a somewhat different sensitivity to the L/G ratio.  With this data         >
    in hand, a range of acceptable L/G ratios can be established, consistent with         £
    removal efficiency requirements.  This range serves as the parametric limits
    for acceptable L/G ratio operation.  System gas flow will have been measured
    as part of the incinerator operating requirement covered previously.  There-          r
    fore, scrubber liquid flow rate measurement will provide the remaining neces-         fc
    sary parameter measurement to define the L/G ratio.  This parameter is moni-
    tored often and remedial actions taken by the operator, should the ratio              '
    exceed the parametric limits.  Operator action will normally be  a minor
    adjustment of the scrubber liquid flow rate.
    
    A measurement of the moisture content of the gas leaving the scrubber is made
    in cases where some other device is in the system which can contribute addi-          '
    tional moisture to the total gas flow such as a mist eliminator.  This also
    covers the situation where the gas flow measurement may be made  upstream  of           '
    the quench zone in the hot gas area.  In the case of the hot zone measurement,        ft
    the sum of hot zone gas  flow plus moisture content corrected to  scrubber
    pressure and temperature conditions represent scrubber gas flow.  Obviously,  a        >}
    direct measurement of the gas  flow exiting  the  scrubber may also be used,  but        ^
    this will necessitate another measurement system set-up.                              ^
                                           5-86
    

    -------
    Measurement of the liquid flow rate is accomplished by using any of several
    types of flowmeters, including venturi, orifice, flow tube, pitot tube, mag-
    netic, or acoustic varieties.  Device acceptability considerations are sum-
    marized in Table 5-7.  Figures 5-36 and 5-37 show the appropriate measurement
    location.
    
    5.7.1.3  p_H--
    Ano'ther important parameter in wet scrubber operation is pH.  Materials of
    construction are selected in part based upon the degree of acidity or alka-
    linity provided by the scrubbing liquid during operation.  Deviation from the
    design pH condition or range may result in deterioration of the scrubber
    structure in contact with the liquid.  Furthermore, maintenance of the pH
    design condition is important to scrubber liquid absorption efficiency when
    removing gaseous contaminants.
    
    The liquid composition and its attendant pH will be determined during the
    design phase.  Absorption efficiency can change drastically as a function of
    pH, thereby altering the scrubber removal efficiency, so an acceptable pH
    variation range is designed for the equipment.  The pH is monitored continu-
    ously and either manual (operator) or automatic adjustment made to keep the pH
    within proper operating specifications.  A number of commercially available pH
    monitoring systems can adequately serve this purpose.  These systems normally
    include a direct readout device which can be conveniently located on a control!
    panel for continuous monitoring accessibility.  Figure 5-42, Section 5.8,     I
    shows the measurement location and arrangement for scrubber liquid pH.        I
    
    5.7.1.4  Pressure Drop—
    Pressure drop is an important indicator parameter in monitoring the opera-
    tional condition of a wet scrubber.  It is sensitive to changes in the gas
    flow rate, liquid flow rate, and clogging phenomena in the system.  During the
    design phase, a proper pressure drop value or range to maintain design removal
    efficiency is specified.  Monitoring this parameter provides a continuous,
    additional check on the normal operation of the scrubber.  A change in the
    pressure drop is an indication that other measured parameters in the system
    need to be observed immediately to find the cause of the disturbance and
    corrective action should be taken.  It is also an indicator which covers the
    time span between other routine parameter checks.  If, after checking the pH,
    temperature, and gas and liquid flow rates, all appears in order, then the
    pressure drop measuring system is checked for correct operation and a visual
    inspection of the scrubber conducted to identify possible clogging problems.
    A check of the control efficiency is also routinely made to see if removal
    efficiency is being maintained.
    
    Many kinds of pressure measurement devices are commercially available to meas-
    ure pressure drop across a device; however, a differential pressure gage cali-
    brated in inches of water is usually recommended for this purpose.  The read-
    out device is located in a convenient place for the operator to observe at any
    time.  Figures 5-36 and 5-37 show the location of the pressure taps relative to
    the device.
                                          5-87
    

    -------
               TABLE  5-7.   DEVICES  FOR  LIQUID FLOW MEASUREMENT
    Flow
    measurement
    device
    Ventun meter
    Advantages
    Low permanent
    pressure drop.
    Applicable to
    streams with ap-
    preciable solids
    content. Accurate.
    Disadvantages
    Flow disrupted and
    plumbing modifica-
    tions required for
    installation.
    Expensive.
    Flow range, gpm
    (applicable
    pipe
    diameter)
    0-750
    (1-18 in.)
    Orifice meter   Inexpensive.
    Flow tube
    Pitot tube
                          Flow disrupted and
                            plumbing modifica-
                            tions required for
                            installation.   Large
                            permanent pressure
                            drop.  Solids  may
                            deposit behind device.
                            Moderately accurate.
    
                          Flow disrupted and
                            plumbing modifica-
                            tions required for
                            installation.   Inter-
                            mediate permanent
                            pressure drop.   Mod-
                            erately expensive.
                            Moderately accurate.
    Low permanent pres-   Flow disrupted  and
                                                  0-750
                                                     (0.5-30  in.)
    Applicable to
      streams with
      appreciable solids
      content.
                                                                  0-750
                                                                     (1-18 in.)
                                                                  250-50,000
    Magnetic meter
                      cure drop.   Inez*
                      pensive method for
                      pipes of large
                      diameter.
    Minimum permanent
      pressure drop.
      Applicable to
      streams with ap-
      preciable solids
      content.  Accurate.
    Acoustic meter
    Installation without
      flow disruption.
      Relatively accu-
      rate.  No head
      loss or pressure
      drop.  Applicable
      to streams with
      appreciable solids
      content.  Portable.
                            plumbing modifica-
                            tions  required  for
                            installation.   Solids
                            may cause plugging.
                            High flow velocities
                            may cause instability.
                            Moderately accurate.
    
                          Flow disrupted and
                            plumbing modifica-
                            tions  required  for
                            installation.   Expen-
                            sive.   Electrodes may
                            be fouled by waste-
                            waters containing oil
                            and grease.  Suscep-
                            tible  to electromag-
                            netic  interference fro
                            nearby equipment.
    
                          Expens ive.  Mode ra tely
                            accurate.
    250-20,000
      (0.1-100 in.)
                                                                  250-20,000
                                                                     (pipes of all
                                                                     diameters)
                                           5-88
    

    -------
    In selecting a pressure measuring device, the following items are considered:
    
         Pressure range
         Temperature sensitivity
         Corrosivity of the fluid
         Durability
         Frequency response
    
    A guide to pressure sensing device selection is summarized in Table 5-8.
    
    5.7.1.5  Residue Generation--
    Generation of residue from wet scrubbers results from operational requirements
    of the scrubber liquid in the specific system used.  Vaporization losses in
    the contacting area create the need for make-up liquid to be provided, and
    changes in liquid pH create the need for adjustment.  Collected material (such
    as solid particles) also creates abrasion, contamination, and corrosion prob-
    lems in the scrubbing liquid and/or transport system.  In addition, when
    hazardous materials are collected, a need for further treatment may be created
    prior to disposal.  Sometimes a designer will choose to accommodate these
    problems in an integrated system design approach.  Monitoring requirements
    relative to generation of residue from a wet scrubber are those required for
    observation of waste stream treatment systems and are covered in Section 5.8.
    Control of pH is also discussed.                                              I
    
    5.7.2  Fabric Filters                                                         '
    
    Fabric filters basically consist of a porous layer of flexible, textile mater-
    ial through which a contaminated gas is passed to separate entrained material
    from the gas stream [32].  As collected material accumulates, resistance to
    the gas flow increases.  The collected material is removed periodically by
    vigorously cleaning the filter to maintain proper pressure drop across the
    system.
    
    Certain fabric filter parameters are monitored on a regular basis to evaluate
    operational effectiveness.  These are detailed below.
    
    5.7.2.1  Temperature—
    A limiting factor in filtering hot gases with a fabric filter is the temper-
    ature resistance of the fibrous materials from which the filter cloth is made.
    Therefore, the manufacturers temperature specifications regarding appropriate
    filter material are important for efficient operation.  Continuous recording
    of the temperature of the gas coming into contact with the filter media is
    made to assure that extended excursions above the recommended value are not
    occurring.  Appropriate corrections are then made immediately, either automa-
    tically or by the operator, to maintain inlet temperature within design cri-
    teria.  This helps minimize the occurrence of extraordinary material breakdown
    with resultant increased emissions.  It also aids in keeping maintenance of
    the filter in good order and extending the life of the filter material.
    Measurement technique is similar to that depicted in Section 5.7.1.  Figure
    5-38 shows the appropriate measurement location.
                                          5-89
    

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    5-92
    

    -------
                           LIQUID
                          INCINERATOR
           KILN
                                        INLET GAS
                                       TEMPERATURE
                                       MEASUREMENT
               DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
                GAUGE FOR PRESSURE
                DROP MEASUREMENT
                                                                 TO ATMOSPHERE
                                        UPSTREAM PRESSURE
                                          TAP LOCATION
    ROTARY AIR
    LOCK VALVES
                              DOWNSTREAM
                              PRESSURE TAP
                               LOCATION
                FABRIC FILTER
                                                     vw-
                                                CONVEYOR
    SIGHT PORT
    
    
    PARTI CULATE TO
      TREATMENT
     AND DISPOSAL
            Figure 5-38.  Recommended measurement and  inspection  locations.
    
    5.7.2.2  Gas Flov and Pressure Drop—
    Fabric filter collectors are commercially available  to  handle total  gas  flows
    from 100 cfm to greater than a million cfm.  The quantity of  gas  processed and
    the contaminant concentration in conjunction with  specific flow resistance
    properties of the particulate deposit on the fabric  determine the amount of
    filtration area required for a selected value of operating pressure  drop.   A
    design pressure drop is generally chosen around 3  or 4  inches of  water for
    economic reasons, but some units are designed to operate  higher than 10  inches
    of water pressure drop.  Variation in the pressure drop over  a specified range
    is normal in fabric filter operation.  The operational  cycle  consists of a
    gradual buildup of material on the surface of the  filter  which is periodically
    cleaned off.  The development of this deposition increases the pressure  drop
    with time.*  This cycle usually remains within specified limits.  Continuous
    recording of the operating pressure drop is maintained  by the operator.   The
    pressure drop is maintained within the manufacturer's specified range so that
    undue disturbance of the design filtration efficiency does not occur.  Chapter
    4 provides further information regarding fabric filters.   The pressure drop
    measurement device is essentially the same as described in Section 5.7.1.4.
    Measurement location is shown in Figure 5-38.
    
    5.7.2.3  Residue Generation--
    Accumulated particulate matter is removed and transported to  a central point
    for reprocessing or disposal depending on the hazardous nature of the collec-
    ted material.  Means of preventing gas leakage at  the hopper  discharge is an
                                           5-93
    

    -------
    important design factor.  This is normally accomplished through the use of
    double flap valves or rotary air-lock valves,  although the rotary air lock
    valve will give the most positive seal.
    
    A means of preventing bridging in the hoppers  is also important.   Common types
    are .mechanical, spring loaded rappers,  electric vibrators, and compressed air
    vibrators.  Helicoid screw conveyors are commonly employed for horizontal
    transport of the collected material to a central point.
    
    Residue analysis is needed to ascertain the hazardous nature of the collected
    material and to select appropriate disposal options.   The type of such
    analyses is covered in Chapter 3.
    
    5.7.3  Electrostatic Precipitators
    
    Precipitators are theoretically complex control devices which are almost
    always specifically designed for a given application.  Many technical consid-
    erations are evaluated initially to aid the applicability determination [33].
    In each case, however, a set of operating conditions and checkpoints are
    defined by the vendor as proper and necessary to maintain the design removal
    efficiency.  Compliance with these and other conditions pertinent to
    maintaining the quality of the environment are evaluated; the following
    information serves as a checklist for such items.
    
    5.7.3.1  Rapping Cycle Practice--
    Precipitators use a "rapping" or force impact sequence to remove buildup of
    collected material on the internal surfaces of the equipment.  This causes
    re-entrainment of collected material in the exhaust gas stream which affects
    precipitator removal efficiency.  Three variables are involved; the rapping
    interval, the rapping intensity, and the duration of the rapping cycle.
    
    (1)  Rapping interval - It is desirable to know the time interval of rapping
         for each electrode in the precipitator field, because the upstream fields
         are normally rapped more frequently than the downstream fields as a
         result of the relatively high material buildup in the initial stages.
    (2)  Rapping intensity - How hard an electrode is rapped will affect the
         amount of material removed each rap.
    
    (3)  Cycle duration - How long a time the rap covers affects the degree of
         "cleanliness" achieved.
    
    The intervals for these three variables are designed to be appropriate  for  the
    application.  This choice is normally based on the experience of the company
    with their product.  Common practice ranges from very frequent rapping  (every
    few minutes) to intervals as long as an hour.  The intensity may range  from
    low to high with frequent intervals, but is normally high at  longer  intervals.
    The ability to change the values is normally a part of the precipitator con-
    trols.  A check of the proper settings is made at least  once  a day by  the
    operator and records kept for examination by the EPA upon request.   A  typical
    rapping mechanism is shown in Figure 5-39.
                                          5-94
    

    -------
                           a
    {NO.OSUK
                  maosutt
    
                   VIMATOt
                    MOUNHNC
                  STUFFING (OX 4NO GUIOC
                       CONDUIT
                   CONOUn FITTWS
                                             HOIK INC
                                             — OJUM1C INSUIATINC SHAFT
                                                    run
    
                                              — HICK VOLTA6I mSMNB
                                            T  HIGH TENSION FMMI
    
                                              oncHAnamios
                        Figure 5-39.   Typical vibratory rapper.
    
    5.7.3.2  Temperature,  Resistivity, and Gas Moisture Effects—
    The resistivity  of  the material collected can have an influence  on the collec-
    tion efficiency.  If the resistivity is greater than about 5 x 1010 ohm-cm,
    the electrical field developed in the collected particle layer can exceed the
    breakdown field  strength.  Excessive spark rates and back corona can occur
    which will cause operation at lower than normal current densities  with result-
    ing degraded performance.  If the particle resistivity is less than about 107
    ohm-cm, the electrical forces holding the material to the collection plates
    may be low.  Excessive re-entrainment can occur yielding lower performance.
    
    A resistivity range showing the allowable span for maintenance of  removal
    efficiency is normally supplied with an ESP along with a measurement of the
    resistivity of the  material collected.  As long as the feed material does not
    change, no further  check on the resistivity is usually necessary,  unless
    removal efficiency  changes for no apparent cause.
    
    Increasing moisture content will also lower the resistivity.  A  change in
    moisture content will normally only occur with a change in the feed material
    moisture or a change in steam injection conditions if such a technique is used
    to increase hydrogen ion availability in the combustion zone.
                                           5-95
    

    -------
    Temperature affects precipitator removal efficiency although  not  as  much  as  it
    affects baghouses and wet scrubbers.  Temperature considerations  are normally
    evaluated during the design phase of  the precipitator by  the  vendor.
    
    Specifications are provided by the owner/operator showing the allowable  temper-
    ature range for design removal efficiency.  Continuous  recording  of  the  in-
    coming gas temperature is made by the owner/operator to assure  that  extended
    excursions above or below the recommended range are not occurring.   Appropri-
    ate corrections are then made to maintain inlet temperature within design
    criteria.  The measurement technique must be similar to that  discussed in
    Section 5.7.1.  Figure 5-40 shows the appropriate measurement location.
                     LIQUID
                  INCINERATOR
       TO
    ATMOSPHERE
                                                         ELECTROSTATIC
                                                         PRECIPCTATOR
                                          INLET GAS
                                         TEMPERATURE
                                                                          TO
                                                                        DISPOSAL
                   Figure 5-40.  Recommended measurement  location.
    
    5.7.3.3  Applied Voltage  (Power Supply Control)—
    The overall objective of precipitator design  is  to combine  the  component parts
    into an effective arrangement that results  in optimum collection efficiency.
    A very important aspect toward this objective is the  design, of  the
    precipitator power supply.
    
    The power supply normally consists of four  components as shown  in Figure 5-41;
    a step-up transformer, a high voltage rectifier, a control  element, and a
    sensor for the control system.  A step-up transformer is required because the
    operating voltages (applied voltage) range  from  about 20 to 100 KV.  This
    system is used to maintain the applied voltage at an  optimum value even when
    the material characteristics and concentration exhibit temporal fluctuations.
                                           5-96
    

    -------
        AC VOLTAGE
         INPUT
             CONTROL
             ELEMENT
      STEP-UP
    TRANSFORMER
          MANUAL
    HIGH VOLTAGE
     RECTIFIER
                          AUTOMATIC
                           CONTROL
                           FEEDBACK
                                                                         ELECTROSTATIC
                                                                         PRECIPITATOR
             Figure 5-41.  Power supply system for modern precipitators.          |.
    
    Once normal operating conditions have been established,  continuous  monitoring •
    of the power supply system is typically maintained.  The necessary  indicators
    (meters) for this are normally provided as part  of  the precipitator control
    panel.  Deviations will likely be caused by excessive buildup  of collected
    material in the precipitator or breakdown of the electrical  supply  circuitry.
    Investigation should begin immediately to locate the cause,  and correction
    made, including shut off of feed material and/or shut down for repair if
    removal efficiency drops below specifications.
    
    5.7.3.4  Gas Flow--
    Changes in the gas flow rate can affect removal  efficiency.  This becomes  more
    critical as the particles get smaller.  The precipitator is  designed so that
    the combination of the forces applied on the particles and the time that the
    forces remain on the particle (dwell time) result in the movement of the
    particles to a collection surface.  The smaller  the particle,  the longer it
    takes under fixed conditions to do this.
    
    If the gas flow rate increases beyond design capacity, this  combination
    becomes compromised and a degradation of removal efficiency  will occur.
    
    The gas flow measurement requirement discussed in Section 5.7.3 is  appropriate
    for checking the precipitator flow parameter also.  Sustained  increase in the
    gas flow is usually checked immediately for effect  on  the design removal
    efficiency, and correction made to remain within design  conditions.  This may
    require reduction in input feed material flow or some  other  modification(s).
                                           5-97
    

    -------
    5.7.3.5  Residue Generation Rate and Dust Removal  Capacity--
    It is important to determine that the dust removal system remains working
    properly according to specifications.  Hoppers  are used to collect material
    removed from the collecting surfaces by the rapping sequence.   If the residue
    generation rate exceeds the material removal capacity,  re-entrainment of
    collected material will occur,  greatly reducing precipitator  efficiency.
    Historically, automatic removal of collected material  is one  of the major
    causes of precipitator failure, and daily inspection for proper operation is
    typically required.
    
    5.7.3.6  Internal System Pressure--
    If the precipitator system is operated with internal pressures less than
    ambi-ent, leakage of air through the hopper can also cause a  re-entrainment of
    mate-rial from the hoppers.  A design check to  make sure the  hopper area is
    properly sealed is made to prevent such occurrence.  Section  5.7.2.3 discusses
    appropriate seal techniques.  Further details regarding electrostatic
    precipitators is found in Chapter 4.
    
    5.7.4  Mist Eliminators
    
    Mist eliminators are extensively employed to reduce emissions of entrained
    liquid droplets from wet scrubbers.  The most commonly used types include
    cyclone collectors, simple inertial separators  such as baffles, wire mesh mist
    eliminators, and fiber bed elminators.  In use, the latter three devices work
    by the same principle.  Rising mist droplets strike the mist  eliminator,
    coalesce due to inertial impaction and direct interception, and form larger
    droplets which fall back into the scrubber.
    
    Cyclones differ from the other types of mist eliminators because centrifugal
    force is used to remove the droplets.  The particulates, because of their
    inertia, tend to move toward the outside wall from which they are led to a
    receiver [22].
    
    The choice of mist eliminator equipment is dependent on droplet size, gas  flow
    pressure drop, and cost considerations.  Cyclone collectors are used to remove
    larger droplets (10 to 100 urn range), and are used commonly in conjunction
    with venturi scrubbers.  Simple inertial mist eliminators  (baffle, louvre,  and
    vane-type among others) are effective with droplets about  10 un in size.
    Fiber bed mist eliminators have the highest efficiency of  any of the types of
    eliminators for trapping very fine droplets (as small as 0.5 urn).
    
    Although the different types of mist eliminators vary in design, they have
    common parameters which must be monitored  to evaluate operational  effective-
    ness.  These are detailed below.
    
    5.7.4.1  Temperature—
    Excessive temperatures can adversely effect the performance of a mist elimi-
    nator.  Higher temperatures could  result in a heavier loading and  increased
    corrosion.  Since the mist eliminator  is located  downstream from  the wet
    scrubber, monitoring the temperature of  the scrubber is  sufficient to ensure
    the mist eliminator is operating at  a  suitable  temperature.
                                          5-98
    

    -------
    5.7.4.2  Gas Flow and Pressure Drop--
    For maximum efficiency, flow of gases through the mist eliminator should be
    high enough to be practical while allowing a reasonable retention time.
    Re-entrainment of the liquid droplets can result if the gas flow is too high.
    The optimum gas flow varies according to the particulate mist eliminator used,
    and is normally supplied by the manufacturer.  Pressure drop may vary from 2
    to 12 in. of water gage, in accordance with manufacturers'  specifications.
    
    Continuous recording of the operating pressure drop is typically maintained by
    the owner/operator and such records made available for inspection.  A change
    in the pressure drop would indicate a change in the gas flow rate or, more
    importantly, the accumulation of solids in the equipment, decreasing its
    efficiency.
    
    5.7.4.3  pH Level--
    To prevent excessive corrosion, the mist eliminator is normally constructed of '
    material that is resistant to the pH level of the mist.  pH is monitored in
    the wet scrubber to ensure the mist eliminator is operating within the manu-
    facturer 's recommended pH range.
    
    5.7.4.4  Maintenance—
    Proper maintenance of mist elimination equipment is essential in order to
    maintain optimal efficiency, for collection of solid material in the equipment
    can decrease efficiency.  The equipment can be cleaned by backwashing or by   |.
    automatic spray devices.  Often, daily inspection is required to assure that  I
    the backwash system is operating properly.                                    *
    
    5.8  SCRUBBER WASTE STREAM TREATMENT INSPECTION AND MONITORING
    
    5.8.1  Flow Measurement and Monitoring
    
    In any treatment system unit operation, the measurement and/or control of flow
    is a critical parameter.  In this case, flow is a factor in determining the
    rate of caustic solution addition in the neutralization system.  Flow measur-
    ing and recording devices are described in detail in Section 5.7.1.2.
    
    5.8.2  Flow Control
    
    Automatic monitoring systems are employed to provide advanced warning when the
    water level in the neutralization system has increased above a set operating
    limit.  This enables operators to institute immediate process alterations to
    allow the neutralization system to equilibrate back to normal operations.
    
    5.8.3  pH Monitoring
    
    Sensors for automatic monitoring, recording, and control of pH are especially
    sensitive to process interferences.  It is necessary, therefore, that care is
    taken in the selection of automatic equipment in order to ensure that it will
    function satisfactorily in the treatment scheme.
                                          5-99
    

    -------
    Automatic monitoring of pH has the following advantages.-
    
    (1)  pH is recorded on a continuous basis,  producing a clear  picture of
         variation with time.
    
    (2)  Time lag between sampling and analysis is much shorter than in manual
         sampling.  Problems resulting from the storage cf sampling equipment are
         also eliminated.
    
    (3)  The rate of neutralizing chemical addition can be continuously
         controlled.
    
    (4)  Automatic monitoring can be combined with an alarm system to provide
         warning if the neutralized effluent is of insufficient quality.  When
         this occurs, a by-pass valve could be opened to direct the effluent to a
         storage basin for gradual addition to the treatment system once normal
         operations have been resumed.
    
    Automatic monitoring is not without disadvantages,  however.  Among them are:
    
    (1)  The sensor may not be capable of registering unusual circumstances due to
         probe location.
    
    (2)  The wastewater characteristics, at least in general, must be known in
         advance of monitoring equipment selection.
    
    (3)  The initial cost of automatic equipment is relatively high.
    
    Problems which can be anticipated and need to be addressed in system design
    and operation are.-
    
    (1)  Loss of calibration.  Regular maintenance is necessary to prevent errors.
    
    (2)  Bacterial growth may inhibit sensor operation.  Regular cleaning is
         necessary unless self-cleaning sensors are used.
    
    (3)  Mechanical damage may occur if the probe is unprotected by a screen,
         similar device, or design.
    
    (4)  Miscellaneous problems resulting from power failures, mishandling of
         equipment, pump difficulties, etc.
    
    (5)  Interferences should be analyzed and addressed before equipment selection
         and installation.
    
    5.8.4  pH Control Systems
    
    A pH control system consists of a pH electrode probe, located  in  the flow
    scheme, connected to a controller which reports to a  recorder.  The controller
    regulates the rate of neutralization chemical addition.
                                          5-100
    

    -------
    In the monitoring/control system, several types of valves may be used, depend-
    ing on the consistency of the influent quality and the treatment chemicals
    used.  The types of controllers likely to be employed are on-off, proportional,
    resetting derivative, and flow-proportional.
    
    5.8.4.1  On-Off Controller--
    The on-off controller is the least expensive of the above devices.  If the pH
    exceeds,  in either direction, a certain limiting value, the valve opens and
    neutralizing agent is added until an established corrected value is achieved.
    This system has limited application here due to the potential for large
    chemical overdose.
    
    5.8.4.2  Proportional Controller—
    Proportional controllers are more advanced than on-off controllers and are
    used where a more constant effluent quality is desired.  In its simplest
    application, the proportional controller regulates the amount of neutralizing
    solution in proportion to a deviation from a set point as a means of control-
    ling pH within an acceptable range.
    
    5.8.4.3  Resetting Derivative Controller—
    A resetting derivative controller regulates the speed with which the valve
    opens to add neutralizing agent.  The valve speed is based on the rate of
    derivation from a set point.  This system does not typically operate well with
    high suspended .solids effluent, however.                                      |-
    
    5.8.4.4  Flow Proportional Controller—                                      .•
    If the influent water quality is constant, but flow varies, the neutralization
    control valve may be connected to a flow meter rather than the pH probe.
    Neutralizing agent will be added proportional to the flow.
    
    A schematic of the general elements in a pH control system using lime is given
    in Figure 5-42.
    
    5.8.5  Scrubber Solution pH Control
    
    The particulate removal efficiency of a venturi scrubber and the acid gas
    scrubbing efficiency of a packed tower is affected by maintenance of the pH of
    the incoming scrubbing solution.
    
    If a recirculating mode is utilized, the incoming stream must be neutralized
    after contact with the gas.  Neutralization is necessary to prevent corrosion
    of metal surfaces, construction'materials, and tower packing.
    
    The process of neutralization is the interaction of an acid with a base.  The
    typical properties exhibited^by an acid in solution are due to the concentra-
    tion of the hydrogen ion, (H ).  Alkaline (basic) properties are the result of
    the concentration of hydroxyl ion (OH~).  In an aqueous solution, acidity and
    alkalinity are defined with respect to pH, where pH = -log [H ], or as
    pH = 14+ log [OH"].  Neutralization is typically the adjustment of pH from one
    extreme to a range of pH 6.0 to 8.5.
                                          5-101
    

    -------
               LIVE
        CONTROL
        ELEMENT
    INFLUENT
    CONTROLLER
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    F
    
    
    5
    ^
    
                       MIX TANK
                                    SENSING
                                    ELECTRODES
                                               NOTES
    pH ANALYZER
        FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT MAY
        •E CONTROL VALVE PUMP OR
        DRY FEEDER.
    
        pM CONTROLLER MAY BE CASCADED
        WITH INFLUENT FLOW.
                  Figure 5-42.  Elements of a typical pH control system.
    
    The scrubber and absorber solutions will, after contact with acid gases, be
    acidic in nature, (pH <7).  Neutralization is accomplished by the addition of
    an alkaline material, such as caustic soda (NaOH).  An example of the
    neutralization process is the reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium
    hydroxide:
    
                                HC1 + NaOH •* H20 + NaCl
    
    The product, sodium chloride in aqueous solution, is neutral with pH =  7.0.
    
    Neutralization is usually accomplished by contacting the incoming feed  with
    concentrated caustic or acid solution in a well mixed chamber.
    
    Lagoons, concrete basins, chemically resistant tanks, and in-line static
    mixers are all used for this purpose.
    
    Neutralized water can be piped to storage ponds for subsequent process  reuse,
    solar evaporation, or further treatment, if necessary for NPDES discharge.
    
    A simple schematic of a two-step neutralization system  is given in  Figure  5-43.
    
    5.9  CONTINUOUS MONITORING INSTRUMENTATION FOR GASEOUS  COMPONENTS
    
    Continuous monitoring of at least 02, CO, and C02 gases  in  the exhaust  stream
    of hazardous waste incineration are proposed.  A  number  of  continuous  monitor-
    ing systems are available for this general purpose.  These  monitors are automa-
    ted, and are capable of unattended operation for  days or weeks.  While  such
    instruments have been successfully applied to measuring CO,  C02,  and 02 in
    combustion gases, their accuracy remains somewhat controversial within both
    the technical community and users.
                                   A
                                           5-102
    

    -------
                                  |H WTO CDWTKOUlt
                                         ru*n
        INCOMING *»Tt»
                                                                     WUT1AIIZIW QCMJCAJ.
    
    s
    J*
    9
    0
    t
    I
    -/^
    f
    e»
    \
    \
    s
    B
    1
    a
    NomuuziowAi
                 Figure 5-43.  Two-step neutralization flow schematic.             j
    
    The following text provides a summary of aspects pertinent  to  the evaluation.
    Should greater detail be desired, the permit writer is encouraged to consult
    the EPA Handbook of Continuous Air Pollution Source Monitoring Systems,
    EPA-625/6-79-005, from which most of the following information is derived  [34].
    
    The basic elements of a pollutant monitoring system are shown  in Figure  5-44.
    
    5.9.1  Available Systems
    
    Proposed continuous monitoring systems will likely fall into one or more of
    the following types:
    
      •  Nondispersive infrared analyzers (NDIR)
      •  Polarographic analyzers
      •  Paramagnetic analyzers
      •  Nondispersive ultraviolet analyzers (NDUV)
      •  Electrocatalytic analyzers
    
    Table 5-9 summarizes what component each type of analyzer is capable of
    measuring.
    
    In addition to being categorized according to detection type,  a broader  classi-
    fication of monitoring systems exists which distinguishes between extraction
    and in-stack or in-situ type systems.  All five of these instruments with  the
    exception of the pola.rographic monitor, are available  in both  extractive and
    in situ types.
                                           5-103
    

    -------
                                                                  EXHAUST
       Figure 5-44.  Elements of pollutant monitoring system.
    
    
    
    TABLE 5-9.  ANALYZERS CAPABLE OF MEASURING GASEOUS COMPONENTS
    
    Component
    Detection device
    NDIR
    NDUV
    Paramagnetic
    Polarographic
    Electrocatalytic
    0^ CO,
    xa
    X
    X
    xa x
    xa
    CO
    xa
    X
    
    X
    
    
                     typically used.
                                  5-104
    

    -------
    Discussions of the components,  advantages and disadvantages,  and limitations
    of both extractive and in-situ versions follow.   The general  principles of
    operation discussed for the analyzers themselves may be applied to either
    version, as the differences in the detector mechanics are subtle.
    
    5.9.1.1  Extractive Systems--
    The ability of an extractive, or remote monitoring system, to provide reliable
    data depends upon a properly designed sampling interface.  The total
    extractive system must perform several functions:
    
         Remove a representative gas sample from the source on a  continuous basis.
      •  Maintain the integrity of the sample during transport to the. analyzer
         (within specified limits).
         Condition the sample to make it compatible with the monitor analytical
         method.
         Allow a means for a reliable calibration of the system at the sampling
         interface.
    
    The design of the sampling interface, including the components used in its
    construction, will depend on the characteristics of both the  source gas stream
    and the monitoring instrument.
    
    The design of a sampling interface requires that the system deliver a condi-  j
    tioned, continuous gas sample to the gas analyzer.  A number of different     I
    interface designs may be able to perform this task at a given source.  The    .'
    actual system designed for a specific source generally incorporates a variety
    of trade-offs based on source/analyzer requirements and financial restraints.
    A system typically will include the following components:
    
         In-stack sampling probe
      •  Coarse in-stack filter
         Gas transport tubing
      •  Sampling pump
      •  Moisture removal system
      •  Fine filter
         Analyzer
      •  Calibration system
      •  Data recorder
    
    Sampling Probe—Representative gas sampling requires samples that will demon-
    strate the total pollutant gas emissions from a source.  The temperature and
    velocity traverse across the duct may indicate a necessity for a multipoint
    probe to extract samples from numerous points across the entire duct.  Several
    research studies have shown that, although gas concentration cannot be assumed
    to correspond directly to temperature and velocity gradients in a duct, these
    measurements are excellent indications for positioning gas sampling probes.
    This research has shown that a representative gas sample may be extracted from
    a grid of equal areas laid out in the duct.  A temperature and velocity trav-
    erse is then performed in each row of the grid.  The multipoint gas sampling
    probe is then positioned across the row that indicated temperature and
    velocity readings closest to the average reading in the duct.
                                          5-105
    

    -------
    Gas sampling requires that particulate matter,  which can harm the analyzer and
    shorten the operating life of the sample pump,  be  removed from the gas  stream.
    Directing the probe inlet countercurrent to the gas flow helps prevent  many
    large particulates from entering the system.   Particulates that enter the
    probe can be removed by coarse and fine filters.
    
    Coarse Filters—The coarse filter is usually located at the probe tip in the
    stack, where it then can prevent particulate matter from plugging the sampling
    probe and will not require heat tracing to prevent moisture condensation.
    There are two general types of coarse in-stack filters:  external or internal.
    
    The external coarse filter is a porous cylinder,  typically constructed of
    sintered 316 stainless steel, though it may also be glass, ceramic, or quartz.
    It is essential that the porous cylinder be protected by a baffle to prevent
    excessive particulate buildup on the leading edges.  These porous cylinders
    have an expected utility of approximately 2 to 3 months before they become
    clogged with particulate, depending on the sampling rate.  Although they can
    be regenerated by back flushing, they eventually need replacing.  The nominal
    cost (^525) suggests that it may be easier to replace the filter on a routine
    basis than to install costly automatic backflushing equipment.
    
    Filter material is available from a number of manufacturers.  Glass wool
    filters have been used in some experiments; however, .they have a higher
    pressure drop than the Alundum thimble.
    
    Fine Filters--The majority of extractive stack gas analyzers require almost
    complete removal of all particles larger than 1 micron from the gas stream.
    This is best accomplished by including a fine filter near the analyzer inlet.
    Fine filters are divided into two broad categories:  surface filters and depth
    filters.
    
    Surface filters remove particulates from the gas stream using a porous matrix.
    The pores prevent penetration of particulates through the filter, collecting
    them on the surface of the filter element.  Surface filters can remove particu-
    lates smaller than the actual filter pore size with particulate cake buildup
    and electrostatic forces acting to trap smaller particles.  These filters
    perform well on dry, solid particulates without excessive pressure drop.  A
    surface filter will foul quickly if it becomes wet or if  the particulate  is
    gummy.
    
    Depth filters collect particulates within the bulk of the filter material.  A
    depth filter may consist of  loosely packed fibers or relatively large  diameter
    granules.  These filters perform veil for gunny solids or moist gas  streams
    and dry solids.  In the case of malfunction, their flexibility  can protect  the
    analyzer from damage.  Glass wool packed to a density  of 0.1  gm/cm3  and  a bed
    depth of at least 2 inches can act as an inexpensive depth  filter  for  normal
    gas flowrates.  These filters must be carefully packed to avoid channeling.
    
    Gas Transport Tubing--The gas tubing or sample lines transport  the  extracted
    gas sample from the stack through the interface system and  into the  analyzer.
    When evaluating sampling lines,  it is important to consider:
                                           5-106
    

    -------
          Tube interior-exterior diameter
                                  may  contain  significant quantities of water and
    water ^gfl£c^5 rlliifiRc'S biases ieinVlimMd3*530^10" ultraviolet instfu-
    ment).^0X^ese analyzers do,  however,  require  that gases be kept above the dew
    point to protect against condensation and  corrosion within the analyzer.
           ressure drop is . quite acceptable for  most  sampling  pumps.  ,The  response
    ae  or most sampng pumps.  ,Te response
                                              in
    t.   The calibration gases  enter .. the continu-
                         1"3*6" as a  unit.   The  calibration gases
    ous gas monitoring system as near as possible  to  the  same entrance point  for
    the «t.ck gjs.VTyj^igjsggtuljo^g^J^ S^^sv^^The analyzer is
    then calibratedfat the same gas  flowrate, pressure, temperature, and  operating
    procedure used in monitoring the stack  gas.  Flooding the coarse filter with
                                                                             any
    leaks, blockage, or sorption of gases  taking place  in  the  system will be
                                                                                 in
                   e of stainless steel is enhanced by keeping gases  above  the  dew
     point.   These materials are commercially available in heat traced form.
                                                f«
    ctff&?aitOQ ?9d e«90$0ieiii0ftfl)fiiiBOb^oe «ys$p|ioprobably would incorporate
     stainless steel, Teflon®,  and plastic.
    EPA is currently studying the option of  using National  Bureau of Standards
    sfitfile but are more expensive than commercial gases.
    
                                               System — The best, system does not
                      iuUt*Cit*tohfift$B*C?d.The necessary controls are easily
                                               personnel.   The suggested controls
    includAd«.fl«afolJBw$AO,8 and discharge pressures are developed at flowrates well
          above those needed for gas sampling systems.
         Temperature control at the cold end of the heated sample line.  This is
                   tM«r&fegayf$ea?ei'ia#opia{fet*fn9u«p
     tor pttflfleHilho^ fliatwaiaa[fiJ$stuP6ep6MC«aalrtffiei»hCyanalyzer would be higher,
     but for some analyzers with built-in pressure regulators,  this may be prefer-
                                                                               of
             , _._ 	    	 .__  v'er system function (most analyzers are
         sensitive to pressure changes).
                                          5-W
    

    -------
         Gas flowrate control is installed to make certain the analyzer receives
         the correct gas flow.  This is not critical,  since most analyzers are
         relatively insensitive to minor flowrate change.
    
         Calibration gas valving automatically injects calibration gases once
         every 24 hr.  This can be accomplished with a simple electric solenoid
         valve.  The calibration ,gases should flow through the sampling system at
         the same condition of temperature, pressure,  and flow as does the stack
         gas.
    
    5.9.1.2  In-Situ Monitoring Systems—
    The problems and expense associated with extractive monitoring systems have
    led to the development of instrumentation that can directly measure source-
    level gas concentrations in the stack.  The so-called in-situ systems, do not
    modify the flue gas composition and are designed to detect gas concentrations
    in the presence of particulate matter.  Since particulate matter causes a
    reduction in light transmission, in-situ monitors utilize advanced
    electro-optical techniques to eliminate this effect when detecting gases.
    
    Cross-stack in-situ monitors measure a pollutant level across the complete
    diameter or a major portion of the diameter of a stack or duct.  Stratifica-
    tion effects are lessened by the use of cross-stack instruments, since an
    average reading is taken over a relatively long sample path.  There are tw
    -------
    One of the principal marketing features of cross-stack analyzers is  that a
    single instrument can monitor a number of gases and even opacity.   The cost of
    such a monitor can be comparable to the purchase price of three  or four
    separate instruments combined in an extractive system.
    
    There are, however, a number of disadvantages associated with the  cross-stack
    monitors.  An in-situ cross-stack monitor can monitor only one flue  or stack
    at a time.  Costs might be prohibitive if a number of stacks must  be monitored.
    In such a case, multiple probes and sampling lines leading into  a  single
    extractive system might be the better choice.  Problems with optical misalign-
    ment, vibration affecting the optical systems, and the failure of  electronic
    components also can occur.  It is common among vendors of these  instruments to
    offer service packages whereby the systems are periodically checked by a
    company serviceman.  A service package generally will ensure that  a system
    will continue to function, but the cost involved may bring the operating
    expenses to a level comparable to that of an extractive system.
    
    5.9.2  Analyzers
    
    5.9.2.1  NPIR Analyzers--
    Nondispersive infrared (NDIR) analyzers have been developed to monitor SOj,
    NO , CO, C02, and other gases that absorb in the infrared, including hydro-
    carbons.  NIDR instruments utilize a broad band of light that is centered at
    an absorption peak of the pollutant molecule.
    
    This broad band is usually selected from all the light frequencies emitted by
    the infrared source by using a bandpass filter.  Table 5-10 gives the band
    centers for several of the gases found in source emissions.
    
    In a typical NDIR analyzer, infrared light from a lamp or glower passes
    through two gas cells—a reference cell and a sample cell.  The reference cell
    generally contains dry nitrogen gas, which does not absorb light at the wave-
    length used in the instrument.  As the light passes through the sample cell,
    pollutant molecules will absorb some of the infrared light.  As a result, when
    the light emerges from the end of the sample cell, it will have less energy
    than when it entered.  It also will have less energy  than the light emerging
    from the reference cell.  The energy difference is then sensed by some  type of
    detector, such as a thermistor, a thermocouple, or microphone arrangement.
    
    The advantages of the NDIR-type analyzers are their relatively  low  cost and
    the ability to apply the method to many types of gases.  Generally, a  separate
    instrument is required for each gas, although several instruments have  inter-
    changeable cells and filters to provide more versatility.  Problems associated
    with the method are those that arise from interferring  species, the degrada-
    tion of the optical system caused by corrosive  atmospheres, and in  some cases,
    limited sensitivity.  The microphone type detectors are sensitive to  vibration
    and often require both electronic and mechanical damping,  for example,  by
    placing the instrument on a foam insulation pad.
    
    5.9.2.2  Nondispersive Ultraviolet Analyzers  (NDUV)--
    Several available nondispersive systems use  light  in  the  ultraviolet  and
    visible regions of the spectrum rather  than  in  the  infrared.  Essentially, the
    
    
                                           5-110
    

    -------
                TABLE 5-10.  INFRARED BAND CINTIRf
    
    Gas
    NO
    MO 2
    S02
    H20
    
    
    CO
    
    C02
    
    
    NH3
    CH<
    
    Aldehydes
    Location of
    band centers, v-3v» ?.un±
    5.: -
    55-
    3 -
    3.
    5.0 -
    7.1 -
    2.
    4.
    2.
    5 .
    3 -
    10.
    3.
    7.
    3 m ~"! ™
    - -
    20
    14
    1
    5 . 5
    10
    3
    6
    7
    2
    12
    5
    3
    7
    3.9
    7 - -
    5CO
    700
    1,000
    1,300
    2
    2
    4
    850
    1
    3
    
    1
    3
    2,550
    _ ""*
    •~ J.
    - 1
    - 1
    - 2
    ,200
    ,200
    ,300
    - 1
    ,900
    ,700
    950
    ,300
    ,000
    - 2
    •a r"
    
    ,3CC
    ,250
    ,400
    ,000
    
    
    
    ,250
    
    
    
    
    
    ,950
    
    analyzers measure the degree of absorption at a wavelength in the absorption
    band of the molecule of interest.  This is similar to the NDIR method, but the"
    major different is that a reference cell is not used.  Instead, a reference
    wavelength, in a region where the pollutant has minimal absorption, is
    utilized.
    
    This method of analysis is often differential absorption, since measurements
    are performed at two different frequencies.  This method is not limited to
    extractive monitoring systems, but it also is used in both in-situ analyzers
    and remote sensors.  As with all extractive monitoring systems, particulate
    matter is removed before entering the analyzer.  It is not necessary, however,
    to remove water vapor in some of these systems.  A heated sample line and
    heated cell prevent condensation in the analyzer.  Since water does not absorb
    light in this region of the ultraviolet spectrum, no interference occurs.
    
    5.9.2.3  Polarographic Analyzers—
    Polarographic analyzers have been called voltanmetric analyzers or electro-
    chemical transducers.  With the proper choice of electrodes and electrolytes,
    instruments have been developed utilizing the principles of polarography to
    monitor S02,  N02,  CO, 02, H2S, and other gases.
    
    The transducer in these instruments is generally a self-contained electro-
    chemical cell in which a chemical reaction taxes place involving the pollutant
    molecule.  Tvo basic techniques are used in the transducer:  (1) the utiliza-
    tion of a selective semipenneable membrane that allows the pollutant molecule
    to diffuse to an electrolytic solution, and (2) the aeasuraaent of the current
    change produced at an electrode by the oxidation or reduction of the dissolved
    gas at the electrode.
                                          5-111
    

    -------
    The electrolyte of the cell generally will  be  used up  in  3  to  6  months  of
    continuous use.  The cells can be sent back to the company  and recharged,  or
    new ones can be purchased.  It is extremely important  that  the sample gas be
    conditioned before entering these analyzers.   The  stack gas will come to
    ambient temperature, and the particulate  matter and water vapor  are  removed to
    avoid fouling the cell membrane.
    
    5.9.2.4  Electrocatalytic Oxygen  Analyzers--
    A new method for the determination of oxygen has developed  over  the  past
    several years as an outgrowth of  fuel-cell  technology.  These  so-called fuel-
    cell oxygen analyzers are not actually fuel cells, but simple  electrolytic
    concentration cells that use a special solid catalytic electrolyte to aid the
    flow of electrons.  These analyzers are available  in both extractive and
    in-situ (in-stack) configurations.  This  versatility of design is making them
    popular for monitoring diluent oxygen concentrations in combustion sources.
    
    In basic electrochemistry, one of the common phenomena studied is the  flow of
    electrons that can result when two solutions  of different concentrations are
    connected together.  The electron flow results from the fact that the  chemical
    potential is different on each side and that equilibrium  needs to be reached.
    There are two half-reactions that take place  in this example.
    
    The instruments designed to continuously monitor oxygen concentrations  utilize
    different concentrations of oxygen gas expressed in terns of partial pres-
    sures.  A special porous material, zirconium oxide, serves  both as an
    electrolyte and as a high temperature catalyst to produce oxygen ions.
    
    If the temperature is well stabilized and the  partial  pressure of the oxygen
    on the reference side is known, the percentage of oxygen  in the sample can be
    easily obtained.
    
    One problem with the method is that carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and other
    combustible materials will burn at the operating temperature of the device.
    This will result in a lowering oxygen concentration in the  sample cell, which,
    however, would be insignificant for concentrations of the combustible
    materials on the ppm level.
    
    5.9.2.5  Paramagnetic Oxygen Analyzers—
    Molecules will behave in different ways when placed in a magnetic field.   This
    magnetic behavior will be either diamagnetic or paramagnetic.  Most materials
    are diamagnetic and when placed in a magnetic  field will be repelled by  it.   A
    few materials are paramagnetic; they are attracted by a magnetic  field.   Para-
    magnetism arises when a molecule has one or more  electrons  spinning in the
    same direction.  Most materials will have paired  electrons; the  same number of
    electrons spinning counterclocJcwise as spinning clockwise.  Oxygen, however,
    has two unpaired electrons  that spin  in the same  direction.   These  two elec-
    trons give the oxygen molecule a permanent magnetic moment.   When an oxygen
    molecule is placed near a magnetic field,  the  molecule is  drawn to  the field
    and the magnetic moments  of the electrons become  aligned with it.   This strik-
    ing phenomenon was  first  discovered by Faraday and forms the  basis  of  the
    paramagnetic method for measuring oxygen concentrations.
                                           5-112
    

    -------
    There are two methods of applying the paramagnetic properties of oxygen in the
    commercial analyzers.  These are the magnetic wind or thermomagnetic methods
    and the magnetodynamic methods:
    
      •   Magnetic Wind Instruments (Thermomagnetic)—The magnetic wind instruments
         are based on the principle that paramagnetic attraction of the oxygen
         molecule decreases as the temperature increases.
    
         Several problems can arise in the thermomagnetic method.  The cross-tube
         filament temperature can be affected by changes in the thermal conduct-
         ivity of the carrier gas.  The gas composition should be relatively
         stable if consistent results are desired.  Also, unburned hydrocarbons or
         other combustible materials may react on the heated filaments and change
         their resistance.
    
      •   Magneto-dynamic Instruments—The magneto-dynamic method utilizes the
         paramagnetic property of the oxygen molecule by suspending a specially
         constructed torsion balance in a magnetic field.  When a sample contain-
         ing oxygen is added, the magnet attracts the oxygen and the balance
         swings to realign itself with the new field.  Light reflected from a
         small mirror then can be used to indicate that degree of swing and hence,
         the oxygen concentration.
    
    Water and particulate matter have to be removed before the sample enters this  I
    monitoring systems.  It should be noted that NO and N02 are also paramagnetic  »
    and may cause some interference in the monitoring method if high concentra-
    tions are present.                       - .• •  •
    
    Tables 5-11, 5-12, and 5-13 summarize information on extractives and in-situ
    monitoring instrumentations, including range capabilities, approximate cost,
    and ability to measure specific effluent gas components.
    
    5.10  MANUAL STACK SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS APPROACHES
    
    Incinerators burning hazardous waste are required to achieve a destruction and
    removal efficiency (DRE) of 99.99% for each principal organic hazardous con-
    stituent (POHC) in the waste feed as required under RCRA, as well as meeting
    emissions limitations for HC1 and particulate matter.  These pollutants are
    sampled and analyzed by manual extractive techniques at the exhaust stack.
    
    Stack gas sample volume, stack moisture content, stack gas volume flow rate, and
    particulate emissions are typically determined by EPA Methods 2, 4, and 5 or,
    alternatively, ASTM Method D2928.  Hydrochloric acid emissions are determined by
    midget impinger collection and subsequent titration.  Stack emissions of POHC's
    may be determined using a modified EPA Method 5 apparatus and includes collection
    and analysis of particulate matter, gas phase organics and water present in the
    stack gas, with subsequent analysis done typically on a gas chromatograph/mass
    spectrometer (GC/MS) system.  The following discussions describe in more detail
    each of these manual stack sampling approaches.
                                          5-113
    

    -------
               TABLE 5-11.  EXTRACTIVE  MONITOR SUMHARY'
    Approximate
    
    Instrument
    vendor
    
    Beckman
    
    Bendix
    Esterline
    Angus
    Honba
    Infrared Ind.
    Leeds and
    Northrop
    MSA
    Teledyne
    
    Gases measured
    S02 NO NOo CO, CO 02
    Nondispersive infrared
    XX XX
    
    XX XX
    XX XX
    
    X X X X X
    XX XX
    X X
    
    XX XX
    X X
    
    Measurement
    range
    instruments
    Various ranges
    in ppm or %
    0 . 5 ppm - 50%
    2 ppm - 100%
    
    10 - 2 , 000 ppm
    200 ppm - 10%
    0 • 1,000 ppm
    
    0 - 2,000 ppm
    0 - 1,000 ppm
    cost in
    thousands
    of dollars
    
    3 - 5.4
    
    1 - 4
    5
    
    3-5
    1-2
    5.5
    
    3-4
    11 - 13
    Extract differential absorption instruments
    CEA
    DuPont
    Esterline
    Angus
    Teledyne
    Western
    XX X
    XXX
    X X
    
    X
    ,»• X XX X
    2 - 50,000 ppm
    1 ppm - 100%
    
    
    2 ppm • 100%
    75 - 5,000 ppm
    3-6
    13 - 23
    
    
    12 - 14
    12 - 22
    Polarographic instruments
    Beckman
    IBC/Berkeley
    Dynasciences
    
    InterScan
    Corp.
    Teledyne
    Theta Sensors
    (MR!)
    Western
    Precipitator
    (Joy)
    X
    XXX
    XXX XX
    
    XXX
    
    X
    XX X
    
    X X X X X
    
    
    0 - 25%
    0 - 1,000 ppm
    0.01 - 200,000
    ppm
    
    
    0 - 25%
    1 - 20.000 ppm
    
    0 - 1,000 ppm
    
    
    1 - 1.5
    2 - 5.5
    2-8
    
    1
    
    1.5
    1-4
    
    1.5
    
    
    Electrocatalytic instruments
    CEA
    Dynatron
    Lear Siegler
    MSA
    Teledyne
    Thennox
    X
    X
    X
    X
    X
    X
    0 • 25%
    0 - 25%
    0 - 25%
    0.1 - 20.8%
    0 - 25%
    0 - 25%
    
    
    4.5 - 5.8
    2
    1.5
    2
    Paramagnetic instruments
    Beckman
    MSA
    CEA
    SCOTT
    Ledds and
    Northrop
    Taylor-
    Servomex
    X
    X
    X
    X
    X
    
    X
    
    0 - 25%
    0 - 25%
    
    0 - 100%
    
    
    0 - 100%
    
    
    3
    
    1 - 1.5
    
    
    1 - 1.5
    
    This is a representative listing of  known vendors.   It is not intended
    to be a complete listing of all suppliers of such equipment.
                                   5-114
    

    -------
                           TABLE  5-12.   IN-SITU  MONITOR SUMMARY'
                            Gases aeasured
               Vendor    SO,  NO CO,  C0_  02
                                                                           Approximate
                                              	Method	Measure-    cost in
                                              Opac-   In-   Cross-   «ent     thousands
    
                                                    stack  stack
                                                                  range
                                                                            of dollars
             CEA
    
             Contraves     X   X
              Goerz
    
             Dynatron
    
             Environmental  X   X
              Data Corp.
    
             Lear Siegler   X   X
            Westinghouse
                                   X  X
                                   X   X
    0 - 25\
    
    0 - 5,000
      PP»
                                                                               30
                                                                            20-40
                                                                 0 - 500;   4.5 - 17
                                                                 0 - 1.000;
                                                                 0 - 1,500
                                                                   PP»
            *This  is • representative listing of known vendors.  It is not intended to be «
             complete listing of all suppliers of such equipment.
    
                          TABLE  5-13.   OXYGEN  ANALYZER SUMMARY5
                       X
                       X
                       X
    Electro-
    irographic catalytic
    
    X
    
    X
    
    X
    X
    
    X
    X
    
    X
    X
    
    X
    
    X
    
    x
    
    
    
    X
    
    x
    X
    
    X
    Sampling typ*
    In-Situ Extractive
    
    x X
    X
    X v
    A X
    X
    
    X
    X
    X
    X
    x x
    x
    X
    X
    
    X
    
    X
    X
    X
    
    X
    
    X
    x
    X
        Vendor
    
      Astro
      Beckman
      Cleveland
        Controls
      Corning
      Dynasciences
      uynatron
      Esterline  Angus
     Gas Tech
     Hays-Republic
     Joy
     Lear Siegler
     Leeds and
       Northrop
     Lynn
     MSA
     Scott
     Taylor-
       Servomex
     Teledyne
    The rmox
    Theta Sensors
    westinghouse
    This is  a  representative listing of known vendors.   It is not intended  to
    be a complete  listing of all suppliers of such equipment.
                                            5-115
    

    -------
    5.10.1  Hydrochloric Acid Emissions
    
    The sampling procedure developed for the determination of hydrogen chloride
    emissions from stationary sources is basically a modification of the standard
    procedure for S02 determination (EPA Reference Method 6):  The HC1 method utili-
    zes the same sampling equipment (i.e.,  probe,  glassware,  pump,  dry gas meter,
    etc.) with the exception that a regular midget impinger is used for the first
    impinger in place of the midget bubbler used in Method 6.  Dilute NaOH is used
    as the absorbing solution for HC1.   After pretreatment of the impinger catches
    to remove possible interfering species, samples are analyzed for chloride ion
    by titration with a standard solution of mercuric nitrate [Hg(N03)2].
    
    A heated glass lined probe is used with the temperature maintained at  300 F or
    at stack temperature, whichever is greater.  A pyrex wool plug is inserted in
    the inlet end of the probe in the same manner as required by Method 6.  The
    impinger train, illustrated in Figure 5-45, which should be immersed in an ice
    bath during the sampling, consists of four midget impingers connected by glass
    U tubes and clamps.  Impinger Nos.  1 and 2 should'contain 15 mL of the absorbing
    solution (0.1N NaOH).  Impinger No. 3 should contain 15 mL of 3% H^OZ  solution,
    which will remove S02 from the sample stream.   Impinger No. 4 is a dry impinger
    which functions to remove moisture from the sample stream.  The impinger train
    is interfaced with the probe by using a short, right angle bend glass  adaptor
    with the appropriate standard taper ground glass joints at either end.  A
    standard Method 6 control box with umbilical cord is used to complete  the samp14.
    train.  A sampling rate of 2.0 liters per min is recommended with a total sample
    volume of 2.0 to 10.0 scf per sample, depending on the expected concentrations I
    of HCl to be measured.
    
    The Mercuric Nitrate Method involves titration of Cl" with standard Hg(NOs)2
    solution using bromophenol blue diphenylcarbazone mixed indicator.  Diphenyl-
    carbazone forms an intensely violet colored complex with the first slight excess
    of Hg   beyond the equivalence point.  The bromophenol blue performs two func-
    tions, the first being that it allows for a very accurate adjustment of the
    pH of the solution to be titrated to the range of 3.2 to 3.4 which is necessary
    for accurate results; and, secondly, its yellow color in the acid range serves
    as an excellent background color for detection of the violet colored complex
    formed at the endpoint.
    
    Additional details on the sampling and analysis procedures can be found by
    consulting the Guidance Manual for Evaluating Permit Applications for the
    Operation of Incinerator Units.
    
    5.10.2  Principal Organic Hazardous Constituents (POHC)
    
    The sampling system used to obtain gaseous emission samples  from  the  stack
    gas will be a modified version of that normally employed  to perform EPA
    Reference Method 5 procedures.  The system will consist of a quartz-lined,
    water-cooled sampling probe, a cyclone  (optional), a high efficiency  glass  or
    quartz fiber filter, an XAD-2 sorbent  resin module to  allow  for  the collection
    of volatile organic vapors, four impingers and a control module.  The  sorbent
    module will be located between the filter  assembly and the impinger train.   A
    diagram of the sampling system is shown in Figure 5-46,  and  the  sorbent  module
    
    
                                           5-116
    

    -------
      GLASS WOOL
        FILTER
     REVERSE-TYPE
     PITOTTU8E
     SILICA GEL
    DRYING TUBE
                                       1	_!£!!*!!!__
                    CD * @ MIOGH IMPINGER (15 mC Of a 1 N NjOH)
    
                       (3) MIOGH IMPINGW (15 mL Of 3 *
    
                       0 MIDGET IMPINGER (DRY)
         Figure 5-45.   Schematic diagram of hydrogen chloride  sampling train.
    
    is shown in Figure  5-47.   Sampling probe cooling is required  to prevent severe
    probe damage that would occur if an unjacketed probe was placed in a zone  where
    temperatures exceed 600°C (1100°F).  Furthermore, the water cooling also
    assists in cooling  the  sample gas stream so that existing  probe gas temperatures
    may be regulated to 205°C (400°F) as the gas passes through the filter. A
    schematic of the water  cooled probe assembly is shown in Figure 5-48.  The
    probe is constructed of stainless steel with a quartz liner.   If  the stack
    gas temperature is  low,  then a probe which meets the requirements of EPA Method 5
    sampling may be used instead.
    
    The ball or spherical joint of the probe connects to a glass  cyclone with  a
    collection flask attached.  The use of the glass cyclone is optional.  The
    purpose of the cyclone  is to remove large quantities of particulates to prevent
    plugging of the filter.   In gas streams where the particulate loading is expected
    to be light, the cyclone may be replaced with a glass tube connecting the  probe
    to a glass filter holder.  If used, the cyclone outlet is  connected to the glass
    filter holder.  The cyclone, flask, and filter holder are  contained in an
                                           5-117
    

    -------
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    5-118
    

    -------
                        FLOW DIRECTION
                                  /   28/12 BALL JOINT
       GLASS WATER JACKET    I
    GLASS FRITTED DISC
       GLASS WOOL PLUG
                      N^
      15 mm SOLV-SEAL JOINT
      (OR 28/12 SOCKET JOINT)
                        FLOW DIRECTION
                                         8 mm-GLASS
                                         COOLING COIL
                                         ADSORBENT
          FRITTED
    STAINLESS STEEL DISC
                                          RETAINING SPRING
          Figure 5-47.  Adsorbent sampling system.
                              5-119
    

    -------
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                                                    •§
                                                    u
                                                    a
    
                                                    T3
                                                    o
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                                                    u
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                                                   bb
    5-120
    

    -------
    electrically heated enclosed box,  which is thermostatically maintained at a
    temperature"of [120°C ± 12°C (250°F ± 25°F)]  which is sufficient to prevent
    water condensation in the portion of the train contained in this box.
    
    Downstream of the heated filter,  the sampled gas passes through a module that is
    filled with roughly 20 gms of XAD-2 resin.  The XAD-2 sorbent is a porous polymer
    resin with the capability of absorbing a broad range of organic species.  Before
    reaching the sorbent resin, the sampled gas should be cooled to a temperature
    of 15°C (60°F).  "his cooling operation may cause some of the water vapor
    contained within the sampled stream to condense, which, in turn, may result
    in some of the organic vapor becoming entrained in the condensate.  For this
    reason, the condensate must be allowed to percolate through the resin bed prior
    to it being discharged into the impinger located below the sorbent module.
    
    At the downstream side of the sorbent module, four ijnpingers are connected
    in series and immersed in an ice bath.  The first impinger, connected to the
    outlet of the sorbent module, is of the Greenberg-Smith design, modified by
    replacing the tip with a 0.3 cm (0.5 in.) inside diameter glass tube extending
    to within 1.3 cm of the bottom of the flask.   This iapinger is initially filled
    with 100 ml of scrubbing solution.  The selection of scrubbing solution is con-
    tingent upon the type of inorganic vapors that are suspected of being contained
    in the stack gas.  A caustic solution such as sodium hydroxide or sodium
    acetate is used to collect acid gases such as HCl.  (The sodium acetate is    j.
    used to prevent depletion of scrubbing reagent by carbon dioxide.)  For collec-
    tion of volatile metals (mercury, arsenic, selenium) a strongly oxidizing solu-
    tion (such as silver catalyzed ammonium persulfate) must be used.  The second
    and third .impinger are Greenberg-Smith types modified like the first.  They
    may be filled with an organic liquid with a high boiling point, such as iso-
    octane, in order to trap organics not adsorbed on the resin.  The fourth
    impinger is also a modified Greenberg-Smith and contains approximately 175
    grams of accurately weighed silica gel.  If volatile metals collection is not
    desired, then the impinger section may set up as an EPA Method 5 backhalf, as
    shown in Figure 5-46.
    
    In connecting the sampling train together, no stopcock grease should be used
    on any joint upstream of the sorbent module as it may flow into the sampled
    stream and contaminate the particulate and organic vapor portion of the sample.
    This requirement means that some extra effort is required to achieve a leak
    check.  Nevertheless, it is essential to avoid stopcock grease since its
    presence would make organic analysis virtually impossible.
    
    Alternatively, a source assessment sampling system (SASS) train may be used for
    stack gas sampling when a large sample is required and the stack gas temperature
    is less than 500°F.  The SASS train operates at a 5 cfm flow rate and collects
    a 25.5 m3 sample in a three-hour period.  The SASS train consists of a stainless
    steel probe that connects to three cyclones and a filter in an oven module, a
    gas treatment section, and an impinger series, as shown in Figure 5-49.  Size
    fractionation is accomplished in the cyclone portion of the SASS train, which
    incorporates the three cyclones in series to provide large collection capacities
    for particulate matter nominally size-classified into three ranges.-  (a)  10 urn,
    (b) 3 urn to 10 pm, and (c) 1 um to 3 um.  By means of a standard 142-mm or
    230-mm filter, a fourth cut, 
    -------
                                                 V
    
                                                 u
                                                 M
                                                 en
                                                 in
    
                                                 v
    
    
                                                 I
                                                 •i-4
                                                 Cb
    5-122
    

    -------
    I
          follows the oven unit and is composed of four primary components.-   the gas
          cooler, the sorbent trap, the aqueous condensate collector,  and a  temperature
          controller.  Volatile organic material is collected in a cartridge or "trap"
          containing sorbent,  which is designated to be XAD-2,  a microreticular resin
          with the capability of absorbing a broad range of organic species.  Volatile
          inorganic elements are collected in a series of impingers that  follow the con-
          denser and sorbent system.   The last ixnpinger in the  series  contains silica
          gel for moisture removal.  Trapping of some inorganic species also may occur
          in the sorbent module.  The pumping capacity is supplied by  two 10-ft^/min,
          high-volume vacuum pumps, while required pressure,  temperature,  power,  and  flow
          conditions are regulated through a main controller.   At least 60 A of power at
          100 V is needed for operating the sampling equipment.
    
          The organic "trap" packings may be extracted using a  Soxhlet extractor.  This
          extract and organic liquids in the impingers may be analyzed for POHCs using
          the methods in "Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Wastes," EPA  SW-846,  1980.
          Methods presented in EPA SW-S46 may be used to analyze scrubber water and ash
          samples as necessary to compute a mass balance on POCH's.  In addition,  particu-
          lates collected on the filters and cyclones must be extracted and  analyzed  in
          order to compute the mass balance.   A full mass balance on the  POHC's in the
          waste require monitoring at the following locations:
    
             •  Stack gas                                                               *
    
             •  Particulates collected from the stack gas                               I
    
             •  Ash
    
             •  Scrubber liquid
    
             •  Other residues
    
             •  Waste feed composition
    
          5.10.3   Calculation of Sample Volume Required to Show 99.99% ORE
    1      Incinerators burning hazardous waste must  achieve  a  destruction  and removal
          efficiency  (DRE) of 99.99%  for each principal organic  hazardous  constituent
          (POHC) in the waste feed.   The DRE is  determined from  the  following equation:
    
                                           W.   - W
                                     DR£ =
                                                in
         where   W^ - Mass feed  rate  of  the principal  organic  hazardous  constituent
                       (POHC)  in  the waste  stream  feeding the incinerator,  Ib/hr
                W    = Mass emission rate of the principal organic  hazardous  constituent
                       (POHC) present  in  exhaust emissions prior  to release to  the
                       atmosphere ,  Ib/hr
         Win *s ca^cu^ated using  the  following  formula:
                            (Concentration of POHC  in waste) (Waste  feed rate)
                                                5-123
    

    -------
    POHC concentrations must be expressed in percentages  when  applying this  formula.
    The waste feed rate is expressed in mass per  unit time  and must  be consistent
    with the units used to express W      If a  waste  is co-fired with  auxiliary
    fuel,  the auxiliary fuel feed ra?e  does  not affect the  calculation of W.  .
    
    w    is calculated from stack sampling data and involves  three steps:
    
       • Computation of stack gas sample volume
    
       • Computation of POHC concentration in stack sample
       • Computation of stack gas volume flow rate
    
    Stack gas sample volume and stack gas volume  flow rate  may be determined by
    EPA Methods 2 and 5 or ASTM Method D2928.  Stack  emissions of POHCs may  be
    determined using a modified EPA Method 5 apparatus and  includes  collection  and
    analysis of particulate matter, gas phase organics and  water present in  the
    stack gas.
    
    The following sample calculation will identify  the minimum volume  necessary to
    demonstrate a 99.99% ORE:
    
    Step 1 - Computation of maximum W    to  satisfy 99.99%  DRE
    
         Given:  POHC designated by the permit writer: hexachlorobenzene          I
    
                 Concentration of POHC in waste feed:  1.0%
    
                 Waste Feed Rate:.  1,000 Ibs/hr
    
         W.  = (Concentration of POHC in waste) (Waste feed  rate)
          in = (0.01)(1,000 Ib/hr)
             = 10 Ib/hr
         DRE =    w       x 100
                   in
         W    = W.  (1-DRE)
          °Ut = <}9 Ib/hr) (1-0. 9999)
              = 0.001 Ib/hr
    
    Note:  The expression of the DRE to 5 or 6 decimal places is justified because
           an error by as much as 25% in the W    would affect only the fifth
           decimal place.
    
    Step 2 - Computation of minimum weight of POHC sample that can be collected
    
         Given:  Detection limit of hexachlorobenzene in analytical sample extract
                 as injected in the GC/MS:  1 ng/uL, or 1 vq/mL [35].
                 Average Extraction Efficiency:  60%
                 Because the extracted sample is concentrated via evaporation before
                 injection into the GC/MS, then the minimum weight of collected
                 hexachlorobenzene is independent of extract liquid volume.
    
                                          5-124
    

    -------
                 The minimum detectable total weight of POHC collected as obtained
                 from laboratory analysis
    
                      W    ,  = (Detection limit)/(Extraction efficiency)
                       sample
                              = (1 uL/mL)/(0.60)
    
                              = 1.667 ug
    
    Step 3 - Computation of the POHC stack gas loading
    
         Given:  Stack gas volume flow rate at standard conditions,  Q:  85,382 scf/min
    
                  Total weight of POHC in sample	
          '   Volume of sample at standard conditions
    
    
               out     hr
          9 =  Q   x 60 min
            _  0.001 lb/hr       hr
            ~ 85,382 scf/min   60 min
    
            = 1.95 x 10"10 Ib/scf = 8.85 x 10"7 grams/scf
    
    Note:  This computation assumes 100% collection of the POHC on the filter, resij
           module, and impingers.
    
    Step 4 - Computation of minimum stack gas sample volume
    
                   W
         V       =  saj"Ple
          m(std) ~   Cg
    
                 _  1.667 x 10"6 grans
    
                   8.85 x 10"7 grams/scf
    
                 = 1.884 scf
    
    5.11  PLANT CONDITION MONITORING SYSTEMS
    
    The presence of defects in machinery and mechanical structures can lead to
    catastrophic failure.  Plant facilities which are super-designed for safety
    and minimal downtime (e.g., nuclear power plants and oil refineries) utilize
    large fixed-base condition monitoring systems for lowered repair costs, lower
    production losses, and decreased accident and fire risks.
    
    Defects present are characterized by corresponding abnormalities and changes
    in acoustic and vibratory emission patterns.  By the use of sensors small
    defects in bearings and gears, growing cracks in shafts and weld joints, loose
    parts, and operating deficiencies such as pump cavitation can be detected
    early enough to either allow correction of the problem or provide time for
    predictive maintenance planning.  These plant-wide incipient failure detection
    (IFD) systems can sequentially examine more than 800 channels and quantize
    their vibratory or acoustic energy levels.  The signal is compared with the
                                          5-125
    

    -------
    previously obtained energy level retrieved from the memory bank of a dedicated
    minicomputer.   Significant deviations are programmed to cause  an alarm
    annunciation [36].
    
    5.11.1  Machine Vibratory Signature Analysis
    
    Traditional machinery vibration signature analysis (MVSA)  is a method of
    determining the mechanical condition of an operating machine by monitoring and
    analyzing frequency characteristics produced by internal elements using narrow
    band spectrum analysis techniques.
    
    Vibration signature analysis makes  use of the fact that vibration produced by
    a machine contains a great number of discrete frequencies, some of which can
    be tied directly to the operating dynamics of particular elements within the
    machine.  When the amplitude of a specific frequency or pattern of frequencies
    changes, it represents a change within the machine and possibly a
    deteriorating condition.
    
    Vibration measuring equipment is often used to detect solids build-up on fan
    blades, e.g.,  ID fans.  If the vibration exceeds a preset level, the fans are
    shutdown, clean and repaired, if necessary [15].
    
    5.11.2  High Frequency Acoustic Emission Analysis
    
    The basic premise of high frequency acoustic IFD monitoring is that the pres-
    ence of defects in machinery and mechanical structures is characterized by
    corresponding abnormalities and changes in the acoustic signature and that
    machinery vibration is inevitably accompanied or even preceded by metal defor-
    mation.  Metal deformation generates "acoustic emissions," i.e., noise
    resulting from the propagation of intergranular dislocations in material
    subjected to stress.
    
    For early identification of failure these defects must be detected when they
    first develop and are quite small.   However, the amount of detectable energy
    released from a small defect is usually negligible in comparison to normal
    machinery operating noise.  Fortunately, operating noise tends to be concen-
    trated in the low frequency range of vibration while defect-originated energy
    extends to much higher frequencies.  It is this frequency separation that
    accounts for the success of IFD technology.
    
    High frequency acoustic techniques have been shown to be more effective in
    detecting mechanical failures at a very early stage then the popularly used
    low frequency vibration and sound techniques.  Furthermore, high frequency
    acoustics have very often picked up fluid flow deviations such as pump
    cavitation and mechanical seal leakage.
    
    5.12  SCRUBBER/QUENCH WATER AND ASH HANDLING
    
    5.12.1  Description of Potential Incinerator Wastes
    
    Operation of a hazardous waste incinerator  typically produces  a  number  of
    secondary products, namely quench water, scrubber  effluent, and  ash.  The
    
    
                                           5-126
    

    -------
         following subsections describe each of these possible secondary wastes and
         provide information on their potential composition.
    
         5,12.1.1  Quench Water--
         Following the afterburner section, a quench section is usually installed to
         reduce the combustion gas temperature prior to entering the scrubber.  Enter-
         ing temperatures are approximately 1,800°F to 2,000°F and the exit temperature
         may be below 250°F.  The inclusion of the quench section becomes necessary
         when nonmetallic materials are used for. scrubber construction and packing.
         The upper temperature -limit for sustained operation is about 300°F for poly-
         ester and epoxy fiberglass and 150°F for PVC [37].  The gases are commonly
         quenched with a water spray at a rate capable of reducing the gas temperature
         to a desired level.  Besides lowering the flue gas temperature, this quench
         water functions as a scrubber by removing some particulate matter and certain
         gaseous pollutants from the exhaust stream.
    
    I     Four basic designs are used to generate the water spray in quench towers:
    
    f          (1) Air and water nozzle (2) High pressure sequenced spray nozzles (3)
              Orifice plate (4) Low pressure venturi or variable throat venturi
    
         The type of device used depends upon the composition of the quench water, the .
         composition of the exhaust gas, the type of air pollution control equipment   I
         being used, the initial investment, and maintenance considerations.  Various  j
         quenching devices are illustrated in Figure 5-50.
    
         The air and water nozzle system is the most sophisticated device and requires
         a fresh water feed, free from particles which might clog the spray nozzles.
         It also requires the least amount of water because it produces small, uniform
         droplets which efficiently cover an exhaust area.
    
         High pressure sequenced spray nozzles operate on a demand basis.  Initially,
         certain banks of spray are activated and as the gas temperature rises, addi-
         tional banks come on to maintain a constant temperature.  This system, like
         the air and water nozzle system, cannot operate on clarified recycle water due
         to dissolved and suspended solids; however, where fabric filters or
         electrostatic precipitators follow, these types of systems are necessary to
         prevent damage to these units from excessive heat.
    
         An orifice plate is an effective precleaner capable of removing particulates
         down to 5-10 microns [38].  It is simply a perforated plate through which
         water is forced.  It is very effective preceding a high energy scrubber be-
         cause it removes the larger particles which would create an erosion problem in
         the high velocity throat.
    
         Another device which is essentially maintenance free and works well when used
         ahead of a scrubber is a low pressure venturi.  Water nozzles, located just
         upstream of the venturi throat, saturate the flow and knock out the larger
         particles.  In a variable throat venturi, gas velocities and corresponding
         pressure drop can be varied by adjusting throat diameter.  For any particle
         size, the collection efficiency increases with increased energy consumption.
         Increased energy can be obtained by increasing gas velocities through the
    
    
                                               5-127
    

    -------
    QUENCH SPRAY
      THROAT -
    ADJUSTMENT
             COLD GAS OUT
    
       VARIABLE THROAT VENTURI
                                                            COLD GAS OUT
                                          HOT GAS IN
                                    QUENCH
                                     SPRAY
                                    THROAT
                                                            A A  A  A  A
                                                  HOT GAS IN-
     SPRAY
    NOZZLES
         .QUENCH
          SPRAY
                                        COLO GAS OUT
    
                                           VENTURI
                                                            SPRAY TOWER
                                                                           ORIFICE
                                                                            PLATE
                                                            COLD GAS OUT
                                               ORIFICE
                                                PLATE	*
                                             HOT GAS IN-
                                                               J
                                                                          «	QUENCH SPRAY
                                                        ORIFICE QUENCH TOWER
                           Figure  5-50.  Various quenching devices [38]
                                                 5-128
    

    -------
          variable throat.  Due to their larger and less restrictive water nozzle sys-
          tems, both the orifice plate and low pressure venturi or variable throat
          venturi quenching devices may be operated using recycled quench water, after
          passing through a reduction and clarification process.
    
          A generalized schematic of incinerator facilities and schematic of a rotary
          kiln facility with quench spray chamber and venturi scrubber are illustrated
          in Figures 5-51 and 5-52, respectively.
    
          Material selection of the nozzles is very important because the cooling effect
          of the spray nozzle can cause condensation of the hot acidic gases along the
          wall of the spray nozzle, and these gases will react with the metal at or
          below the dewpoint of the acid.  Also, the water will immediately react with
          the acid gas to form, for example, hydrochloric acid mist in the fine spray
          droplets, if an organochlorine waste is being destroyed.  These are recycled
          and result in direct contact with the nozzle body.
    
          The main body of the quench chamber is in contact with the highly acidic
          solution formed by the partial scrubbing of the combustion gases.  Material
          selection is also important for this section.  Hastelloy alloy B is a material
    1      generally recommended for the quench section, spray nozzles, and the duct work
          leading into the quench chamber.  This material is a nickel-molybdenum alloy
          developed primarily for resistance to the corrosive effects of hydrochloric
          acid.  This alloy also possesses useful high-temperature properties.  In oxi
          dizing atmospheres, the alloy may be used at temperatures up to 1,400°F.  In
          reducing atmospheres, the alloy may be used at substantially higher
          temperatures.
    •\
    f      Hastelloy alloy B is particularly well suited for equipment handling hydro-
          chloric acid at all concentrations and temperatures including the boiling
    1      points.  Hastelloy alloy B is easily fabricated, and can be forged and cold-
          formed by a variety of methods.  Most of the common welding methods can be
    \     used to weld it, although the oxy-acetylene process is not recommended when
    |j     the alloy is to be used in corrosion service.
    
    ,      Inconel alloy 625 and Incoloy alloy 825 are two other materials which show
          good resistance to hydrochloric acid and could thus be used in the quench
          section.
    
          The composition of the quench water depends directly on the wastes being
          incinerated.  Table 5-14 summarizes the possible air pollutants that nay be
          produced and captured by the quench tower and by other air pollution control
          devices.  Because chlorinated organic compounds constitute the most common
          type of hazardous waste disposed of by incineration, quench waters are gener-
          ally acidic and must be neutralized before discharge.  Although hazardous
          species would not typically be present in quench water, this is typically
          verified before the effluent is disposed.  Quench water is normally combined
    1      with the scrubber effluent for treatment and disposal.
                                                5-129
    

    -------
    GAS
    
    OIL'
                 AIR
             AUX.
    REACTION
    CHAMBER
              WASH FEED
                                                         WATER FLOW
                                                QUENCH
    SCRUBBER
                                                                                     STACK
                                          ASH
                 Figure  5-51.  Generalized schematic of incinerator  facility.
                        SECONDARY
                          AIR
                LIQUID
               PUMPA1U
          DRUMMED NON-fUMf
        PLENUM AIR
                                                          ,*HJ   v™,        L_twuca^fut
    
                                                            WUEI/ASM       t  SIEVE TOMDOBNISTU)
                                                                      NATOUASM
                   ASH/DRUMS
                   Figure  5-52.
           Schematic of  rotary kiln facility with  quench
           spray chamber and venturi scrubber.
                                                  5-130
    

    -------
        TABLE  5-14.  POTENTIAL AIR POLLUTANTS FROM HAZARDOUS WASTE  INCINERATION
    
    Likely removal
    
    Hazardous waste
    Air pollutants
    Quench
    tower
    Scrubber
    sites
    Baghouse
    or ESP
    Organic materials containing:
    1.
    2.
    3.'
    4.
    
    5.
    6.
    7.
    8.
    C, H, 0 only
    Cl
    Br
    F
    
    S
    P
    N
    C, N
    b
    Thermal NOx
    HC1
    HBr
    HF
    
    SOx
    PaOs
    NOx
    CH~ compounds
    -
    X
    X
    X
    
    -
    -
    -
    X
    c
    X
    X
    X,
    A
    1C
    xe
    c
    X
    -
    -
    -
    _
    
    _
    _
    -
    -
     Materials  containing some
       morgana c  components: *
    
     1.  Nontoxic minerals only,
           e.g.,  Al, Ca, Na
     2.  Toxic  elements including
           metals,  eg., PS, As,  Sb
    Particulate matter      X
    
    Particulate matter      X
    Volatile  species^
    X
    
    
    X
      Based on  complete destruction  (i.e., oxidation) of hazardous waste.
    
      NOx produced from atmospheric  nitrogen at high temperatures (about 1,100*C) in the
      incinerator.
    
     'NOx is not normally controlled.  Special scrubbers have been developed for NOx con-
      trol in special circumstances.
    
      Alkaline  scrubbers are required for efficient SOx control.
     3
     'Special high efficiency scrubbers are needed to collect phosphoric acid mist.
    
      A portion of the inorganic components may be removed as bottom ash from the
      incinerator.
    
      Certain elements from volatile species (e.g., ASaOj) that condense out in the
      exhaust gas as the temperature falls.  They  can be collected in the gas phase  by
      special scrubbers or as particulate matter at low temperatures by normal particulate
      control equipment.
    5.12.1.2   Scrubber Effluents—
    Characterization of  scrubber effluents varies  considerably  from that of  the
    quench water.  Quench towers are  primarily used to reduce the combustion gas
    temperatures prior to entering  the scrubber, whereas scrubbers are primarily
    used  to reduce noxious gases from the combustion gas prior  to discharge  to
    atmosphere.   Commonly used scrubber types, design, material of construction,
    scrubber  selection for specific applications,  advantages, and disadvantages,
    etc., are covered in detail in  Chapter 4.
                                             5-131
    

    -------
    In an incinerator burning chlorinated organic compounds,  if water is  the
    scrubbing fluid, the wastewater effluent will contain suspended particulates ,
    dissolved HCl (i.e., hydrochloric acid), and other soluble  constituents  which
    may be present (e.g., trace quantities of organics and waste constituents that
    may be soluble).  If alkaline scrubbing solutions  are used,  the HCl will
    undergo neutralization reactions to produce additional water and salts  (either
    NaCl or CaCl2 depending on whether NaOH or Ca(OH)2 was used in the scrubbing
    solution).  Because alkaline materials are often used in  excess,  residual
    amounts of these substances will be present.  The  wastewater will also  contain
    suspended particulates and any soluble combustion  products.
    
    The venturi scrubbing process involves either a single pass of the scrubbing
    fluid or recirculation of the scrubbing fluid.  If recirculation is used,
    scrubber fluid is recirculated through the venturi scrubber until the total
    dissolved solids (TDS) content reaches approximately 3% [39].   When this
    occurs, a portion of the scrubbing fluid is removed (blowdowri) and new scrub-
    bing fluid is added to make up for the fluid lost  as blowdowri.  The blowdown
    from the single pass or recirculation scrubbing systems is  neutralized (as
    needed) before delivery to on-site wastewater treatment processes, on-site
    storage facilities (e.g., evaporation ponds), or dispensing to the municipal
    sewer or a receiving water body.  Single pass and  recirculating scrubber
    systems are illustrated in Figure 5-53 and 5-54, respectively.
    
    Alternative types of scrubber systems have been designed to recover HCl pro-
    duced during organochlorine incineration.  Such systems can produce commercial
    grade hydrochloric acid streams with concentrations ranging between 20% and
    60% HCl [39].  These systems utilize aqueous solutions to absorb HCl  from the
    combustion chamber effluent gas stream, and the resulting solution is concen
    trated via water extraction procedures.  Residual  HCl that  may be left in the
    remaining combustion gas stream can be removed by passing this stream through
    an alkaline neutralization tower, or by using conventional  gas scrubbing
    procedures.
    
    Characteristics of Slowdown from Recirculating Scrubbers—Blowdown from recir-
    cu lation systems occurs when the salinity reaches approximately 3 percent.
    This relates to a TDS value of 30,000 milligrams per liter  [39].  The blowdown
    rate is variable, depending on the amount of chlorine in the liquid
    incinerated and on the liquid feed rate.
    
    Characteristics of Single-Pass Scrubber Effluent--The characteristics of
    single-pass scrubber effluents are highly variable, depending on the chlorine
    content of the liquid incinerated, the  liquid feed rates, the scrubber
    solution feed rates, and the efficiency of  the scrubber, Because single-pass
    systems have so many variables, it is not possible to obtain  a normal or aver-
    age TDS concentration.  However, it is possible to estimate the magnitude of
    TDS concentration.  This has been done by using two sets of data shown  in
    Tables 5-15 and 5-16.  The data were picked because their operating parameters
    produced two extremes in scrubber water quality,  as shown in  Table 5-15.
    Generally, scrubber wastewaters will contain TDS  concentrations  less than
    40,000 milligrams per liter.
                                          5-132
    

    -------
    TO STACK AMO
    ATMOSPKK
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    t
    ;*k
    SCIUSKU SOLUTION
    (NOMINAL lOtMAMI
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    PACKING
    ANONlOH
    $
    auiicn SOLUTION
    HOLOIWTAMC
    PUMP
    
    
    
    
    i
    
    
    
    
    tBBBB
    A ff
    t*»* -:1-
    ^,->-
    fe
    \
    1
    
    
    /
    
    
    — otMisru
    ~ SPtAYS
    
    "- PACMD ICO
    SCDUIKi)
    |
    
    
    WASTE FOT
    Cl TV — "~ — —
    WATCH
    
    "^P^l-
    Hdl OUOCH I
    l?l «-«•
    ^•^ • rn^-
    mAnn
    UOUIO SCJHJIICt
    ffRUCNT
    -.
    i '
    
    NEUTRALIZATION
    TANK
    
    kfiO NCUTRALIZ1NS MOH OR
    ACID AM DILUENT VATER
    PRIOR TO DIS
    MKll
    
    KILN
    
    
    
    
    
           WUTtALIZCD SOLUTION TO STVKI SYSTW (M
                CVAmiATION/STOIACt MMO
       Figure  5-53.   Single-pass scrubber system  [37]
                        TO STACK AND
                        ATMOSPHERE
     SCRU8IER SOLUTION
     (NOMINAL 10 *N«OH)
                   PACXINC
            ADO WATER
             ANOMOH
         OEMISTER
    
         SPRAYS
    
     &— PACKED IED
    WASTE RED
         scautia SOLUTION
           HOLOINB TANK
    ^Q-J
          PUN*
    UQUIOSCWIKX
       EFRUENT
              WUTRAUZAnON
                  TANK
     -AOO NEUTRAL! ZINC HMH OR
       ACID AND DILUENT HATER
         PRIOR TO DISPOSAL
                                                            KILN
     NEUTRALIZED SOLUTION TO SEWER SYSTEM OR
          EVAPORATION/STORAGE PONO
      Figure 5-54.    Recirculating  scrubber  system [37]
                                     5-133
    

    -------
              TABLE 5-15.   SCRUBBER WATER  AND  WASTE  PARAMETERS  FOR  TWO
                           LAND-BASED  LIQUID INJECTION  INCINERATORS  [39
                                                   Waste  incinerated
                                             Hexachlorocyclo-
                                               pentadiene	
                    Nitrochloro-
                      benzene
         Fresh scrubber water feed rate
           (liters/min)
         Caustic solution feed rate
           (laters/min)
         Type of solution used
         Liquid waste feed rate
           (kg/hr)
         Elemental chlorine content of
           the waste
      60
    
      23.8
    
    12% NaOH
      52.8
    
    
      77%
      3,200
    
          8.5
    
    32% Ca(OH).
      1,893
         10%
          Source:  Reference 34.
    
          Source:  Reference 37.
    
                       TABLE 5-16.   SCRUBBER WATER QUALITY [39]
    
    
                                                  Waste incinerated
                                           Hexachlorocyclo-
                                              pentadiene
                  Nitrochloro-
                    benzene
    Chlorides (mg/L)
    Calcium (mg/L)
    Sodium (mg/L)
    Total dissolved solids (mg/L)
    11,000
    —
    25,670
    36,670
    1,300
    530
    —
    1,830
    
    It can be expected that the HC1 recovery processes will have much lower TDS
    concentrations than systems which do not recover HCl because a large propor-
    tion of the dissolved ions would be removed during recovery of the acid.
    
    Scrubber effluents generally contain very little organic material due to high
    waste destruction efficiencies required.
    
    The particular gaseous pollutant of interest may require scrubbing with a medium
    specific for the pollutant.  Water is adequate for a gas such as HCl, but other
    scrubber media may be required for S02, NO , etc.  In some cases, multiple stages
    are required to efficiently remove a combination of gaseous pollutants, with each
    stage specific for given pollutant.  Two-stage and three-stage scrubber systems
    are illustrated in Figures 5-55 and 5-56, respectively.  The type of technology
    illustrated in Figure 5-55 is not normally utilized for a hazardous waste incin-
    erator.  It is presented here for scrubber review.  The three stage scrubber
    system illustrated in Figure 5-56 was implemented for a research project in an
    attempt to very carefully scrub effluent from a pesticide incineration program.
                                           5-134
    

    -------
     FEEDERS
                                                                                   SCRUBBER
                                                                                   WATER IN
                                                                              2- STAGE
                                                                             SCRUBBER
                                         ASH
        SCRU8IER
        WATER OUT
           Figure  5-55.   Incineration system with  two-stage scrubber
               [40].
                    EXHAUST
    INCINERATOR
       FEED
             INCINERATOR
                            ,               .          N
                                        SCJHJ1BEB    CLYC6L
                                        5CRUBBER    SCRUBBE
       SCRUBBER!
                 J
        Figure  5-56.  Incineration  system with  three-stage
    scrubber  [41].
                                           5-135
    

    -------
    5.12.1.3  Ash--
    Ash denotes the solid residue that remains after a material is incinerated.
    Ash produced during incineration is primarily inorganic  and falls  into two             '
    basic categories.  Fly ash consists of the ash that is  entrained in exhaust
    gases leaving the incinerator and which is usually captured in air pollution
    control equipment.  Bottom ash refers to the  ash remaining in the  combustion           1
    chamber after incineration and is normally associated with inerts.  The com-
    position of the ash depends on the composition of the waste being  incinerated
    and can therefore Vary greatly.   Because hazardous waste incinerators are
    designed for complete destruction of toxic organic compounds, the  ash normally
    contains very little carbonaceous material.  Solid materials not susceptible
    to oxidation (e.g., glass or ceramic) consitute the major ash species.  Amount
    of ash produced is very small in relation to  total mass  of waste incinerated.
    
    The relative proportion of fly ash to bottom  ash is influenced by  the waste
    composition and the incinerator design and operation.  As expected, no bottom          ,
    ash and relatively little fly ash result when liquid (except when  liquids are          *
    from a complex chemical process that has inert materials in it or  from a
    blending procedure that creates incompatible  reactions  that produce inerts)  or
    gaseous wastes are incinerated.
    
    5.12.2  Sampling and Analysis of Quench/Scrubber Water  and Ash
    t      1
    Samples collected must be a representative sample of the whole water or ash.
    A .-epresentative sample for water can be collected by using various techniques
    and devices such as a coliwasa, automatic composite samplers like Isco,
    Manning, pond sampler, weighted bottle sampler, etc.  Representative samples
    for ash can be collected by using devices such as a grain sampler, sampler
    corer, trowel or scoop, etc.  Sampling devices and strategies are covered in
    detail in Chapter 3.  Water samples are usually preserved because of any
    unstable species with the addition of appropriate preservatives.  Where pos-
    sible, samples are stored in a cool (4°C) and dark area prior to shipment to
    the laboratory for analysis.                                                           I
    
    The analysis of samples is directed primarily at determining the concentration
    
                                                                                           f
      •  Principal chemical species known to be present in the waste incinerated           •
         and believed to be hazardous.  In some cases these will represent dis-
         crete chemical species such as nitrochlorobenzene and HCB.  In other
         cases, such as those involving the incineration of tarry wastes from               ,
         captan, rubber manufacturing and TDI, the analyses may have to be
         restricted to a general class of chemical species such as  total organic
         chloride, total aromatic amine, etc.
    
      •  Primary decomposition products of waste such as chlorides, phosphates,
         sulfates, nitrates.
                                                                                            i
    Solids can be analyzed via  soxhlet extraction  and water via liquid-liquid
    extraction.                                                                           ^
                                          5-136
    

    -------
    5.12.3  Handling of Quench/Scrubber Wastewater
    
    Quench water and scrubber effluents are normally combined for treatment and
    ultimate disposal.  Depending on the scrubbing liquids used and the gaseous
    contaminants removed, wastewater may contain chlorides, fluorides, sulfites,
    sulfates,  phosphates, bromides, and bromates, as well as particulate matter.
    Liquid waste streams containing sodium fluoride can be treated with lime or
    limestone slurry to yield the insoluble calcium fluoride.  Sulfates, phos-
    phates, and fluorides can be readily removed from the wastewater stream be-
    cause of the low solubility of their calcium salts.  Therefore,  treatment
    normally includes clarification (to remove particulates), neutralization (to
    take care of any residual acid or base that may still be present), and dilu-
    tion (to help control IDS levels).  Particulates which are insoluble in the
    scrubber fluid become suspended solids in the scrubber wastewater.  If the
    particulates dissolve in the scrubber fluid, they contribute to the waste-
    water's IDS level.  Suspended solids in scrubber wastewater generally present
    little, if any, problems because their concentrations are usually less than 5
    mg/L [39].  Suspended solids are usually removed by on-site settling ponds.
    Overflow from settling ponds can be recycled to scrubber.
    
    Wastewater with either high or low pH levels is neutralized prior to final
    discharge (to a municipal sewer, or receiving stream).  This is usually accom-
    plished by adding either acid or base.
    
    The high concentration of total dissolved solids (due to NaCl, CaCl2 and in   I
    some cases the excess NaOH not used to neutralize HCl) is also reduced.  This--
    is usually accomplished by piping scrubber effluents to in-plant treatment
    systems or by diluting with other plant process streams and storing in a hold-
    ing pond or lagoon.
    
    In geographical locations with high evapotranspiration rates, solar evapora-
    tion could be used as a method for disposing of scrubber vastewater.  For such
    a method to be considered environmentally acceptable, the scrubber wastewater
    would have to be devoid of potentially volatile materials which are hazardous.
    The ponds used for evaporation are periodically drained, and the accumulated
    sludge removed.  Quench/scrubber effluents, evaporation sludge and ash treat-
    ment, and disposal options are illustrated in Figure 5-57.
    
    For a discharge to a municipal sever (publicly-owned treatment works - POTW),
    discharge must meet national general pretreatment standards and local POTW
    requirements, and must have approval from local POTW authority for such a
    discharge.  By national pretreatment standards, pollutants introduced into
    POTW by any source of a nondomestic discharge are not to inhibit or interfere
    with the operation or performance of the works.  The following pollutants may
    not be introduced into a POTW:
    
         1.  Pollutants which create a fire or explosion hazard in the POTW
    
         2.  Pollutants which will cause corrosive structural damage to the
             POTW, but in no case discharges with pH lower than 5.0, unless
             the works is specifically designed to accommodate such discharges.
                                          5-137
    

    -------
    AUXI
    FU
    (IF ME
    LIQUID WAST!
    .IARY
    a
    EDED)
    »•)
    AIR 	 ^{_
    BURNER
    
    
    
    COMBUSTION
    CHAMBER
    i
    
    WA
    i
    BURNER
    RESIDUAL
    LANDFILL
    
    fER
    _ CAUSTIC SOLUTION
    ""^ (OPTIONAL)
    _ VENTURI
    SCRUBBER
    
    
    
    S
    EPARAT
    w/DEMI!
    PACKED
    
    NEUTRALIZATION 	 »•
    1
    SOLIDS ON-S.TE
    
    TREATMENT
    
    
    OR TANK
    >TER OR —
    TOWER
    LIQUID
    EFFLUENT
    
    ON-SITE
    STORAGE
    (EVAPORATION)
    'LIQUID
    
    
    
    
    
    SOLIDS
    
    
    *" STACK
    I GASEC
    * EFFLU
    ATMOSPHERE
    (IFNE
    SEWER SYSTEM
    OR OTHER
    WATER BODY
    J
    
    US
    :NT
    TION
    EDED)
                  Figure  5-57.
    Incineration process with emissions
    treatment and disposal options [40].
         3.   Solid or viscous  pollutants  in  amounts which will  cause  obstruc-
             tion to the flow  in sewers,  or  other  interference  with the  opera-
             tion of the POTW
    
         4.   Any pollutant,  including oxygen demanding pollutants  (BOD,  etc.),
             released in a discharge of such volume or strength as to cause
             interference in the POTW.
    
         5.   Heat in amount which will inhibit biological  activity in the POTW
             resulting in interference but in no case heat in such quantities
             that the temperature at the treatment works influent  exceeds 40°C
             (104°F) unless the works is designed to  accommodate such heat.
    
    Compliance with Prohibited Discharge Standards was required beginning August
    25, 1978, except for the heat Standard which must be compiled with within 3
    years, or August 25, 1981.
    
    For a discharge to a receiving body, an NPDES permit will be required.  Such a
    discharge has to meet with the limitations set in the permit.   Wastewater may
    require costly treatments to meet the limitations set in the NPDES permit.
                                          5-138
    

    -------
    The sludges or other sediments collected from settling ponds, evaporation
    ponds, or other types of lagoons may contain unburned wastes or toxic trace
    elements (abstracted from the combustion gases as particulates, or formed as
    precipitates following chemical reactions occurring in the pond).   Sludges
    from scrubber processes are chemical sludges,- these are handled and treated
    carefully and possibly differently from municipal sludges.  In order to insure
    the fewest adverse effects, they sometimes can be properly disposed of in an
    approved hazardous waste landfill in accordance with federal guidelines
    mandated by RCRA.
    
    5.12.4  Handling of Ash
    
    Bottom ash will contain primarily inorganic and carbonaceous compounds.  Less
    than 3% of the total weight of carbonaceous compounds will be trace compounds,
    including heavy metals.  These solids can be disposed of in landfills approved
    for hazardous wastes.
    
    5.13  FUGITIVE EMISSIONS
    
    Fugitive emissions are those which result from occurrences such as leaks in
    valves and piping, entrainment from open vents or piles of material, and
    transfer operations [2].  Such emissions must be minimized and/or eliminated
    at hazardous waste incineration facilities.  This section discusses monitoring4
    and techniques which may be used to control such emissions.  Table 5-17       I*
    illustrates areas having fugitive emission potential.                         I
    
    The most likely areas of process oriented fugitive emissions are around rotat-
    ing seals on kilns, piping joints and valves, ductwork leaks on the positive
    pressure side of induced draft systems, ash handling system leaks, and quench
    water scrubber liquid handling and treatment system leaks.  For illustration
    purposes, these areas are indicated in Figure 5-58.  In the preprocess area,
    handling, storage, and preparation of the waste for feeding into the inciner-
    ator are critical operations to watch for fugitive emissions.  Post-process
    operations also can pose a problem, such as those which transport and treat
    residue streams emanating from quenching, scrubbing, and post-treatment of
    residue.
    
    5.13.1  Significance of Observed Emissions
    
    The two primary concerns regarding inspection and monitoring of fugitive emis-
    sions are protection of the personnel around the operation itself and the
    health and welfare of those residing outside the fence limits of the facility.
    Working conditions within the facility must be in accordance with the exposure
    constraints defined by OSHA regulations.  Such emissions outside the facility
    area are governed by applicable ambient air regulatory constraints.
    
    5.13.2  Fugitive Emission Control
    
    Control of fugitive emissions is best accomplished through implementation of
    good engineering management practice.  Initially, for a new facility a careful
    leak check is performed without hazardous components being treated in the sys-
    tem.  Then during normal operation, visual inspection of all areas is performed
    
    
                                          5-139
    

    -------
          TABLE 5-17.  POSSIBLE SOURCES OF FUGITIVE EMISSIONS FROM
                       HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATOR SYSTEMS
    WASTE PROCESSING AND FEED
    
         Waste shipping
         Waste unloading
         Waste loading to preparation/processing plant
         Waste processing
    
              Crushing
              Sizing
              Washing
           •  Drying
    
         Fine particulate removal or preparation for recycle
         Material transfer in waste processing plant
         Fugitives from loading/unloading storage bins
         Waste feed hopper backflow
    
    WASTE INCINERATION AND POLLUTION CONTROL
    
      •  Waste feed
      •  Waste incineration/feed
      •  Air flow leaks in the incinerator furnace and associated systems
      •  Ash collection
      •  Stack flue gas particulate removal and disposal systems
         Ancillary equipment
    
              Scrubber wastes/neutralization water
           •  Dust collectors
           •  Secondary combustion units (afterburners)
           •  Gas/steam storage lines and transport lines
              Water treatment units
           •  Air coolers
           •  Mixing chambers
      •  Ancillary equipment leaks
    
    REMOVAL OR DISPOSAL METHODS
         Solids removal
      •  Ash transfer and storage
      •  Recycling systems
      •  Transfer lines for scrubber and cooler water
      •  Ash transport vehicles
      •  Ash transport
      •  Ash unloading
      •  Ash disposal
                                     5-140
    

    -------
     I  ****  I   "^*
    1^-25—H T
                                                                   
    -------
     to minimize the occurrence of undetected  leaks.  These  visual inspections
     are then conducted regularly for any  leaks,  spills,  odors,  or other fugitive
     emissions.  All automatic control system  alarms  and  emergency shutdown fea-
     tures are also checked during the inspection to  assure  proper operation.
    
     Any leak detected is recorded in a log.   Immediate repair is accomplished if
     feasible.  If immediate repair is not  feasible,  as judged by the owner/operator,
     a sample of the leak is then taken.   If analysis shows  that a hazardous component
     is leaking at a concentration above 10 ppm,  immediate  temporary or permanent
     repair should be affected.  Maintenance data is  recorded on the leak detection
     and repair survey log.  This includes  a recheck  to make sure the repair was
     effective after maintenance.
    
     For sources of fugitive dust emissions, several  control alternatives are
     possible.  Table 5-18 illustrates the  types  of activities which can generate
     dust (primarily around storage and ash handling), and  the traditional tech-
     niques or types of equipment used for  air pollution  control.  Two decisions
     need to be made initially for the control of particulate matter at a facility--
     the degree of control required, and whether  the  system will handle dust, wet
     or dry.
    
     A wet-type particulate control system has limitations  in that the wastewater
     created must be collected and treated for discharge  and/or recycle.  Recycle    I
     systems are preferred because of compliance  with the NPDES permit program.      I
    
                 TABLE 5-18.  CONTROL ALTERNATIVES FOR FUGITIVE DUST [42]
    
                                             Control techniques	
                                                             Wind breaks
                       Baghouses/  Covers and   Spray  Encrusting  and physical   Paving or
    Type of activity
    Transfer points
    Conveyor belts
    Hoppers, dumpers
    Reclaimer*
    scrubbers
    X
    
    X
    
    enclosures
    X
    X
    X
    
    systems agents
    X
    X
    X
    X
    arrangements spray vehicle
    
    
    
    
    Stockpiling equipment
      (bandwagons)                              X
    
    Roads                                     X
    
    Piles                                     X
    
    Bins, silos, bunkers      X        X
                                            5-142
    

    -------
    5.13.3  Fugitive Emission Measurement Devices and Methodology
    
    Source monitoring, area monitoring, and fixed-point monitoring are methods
    that can be used to detect fugitive emissions.  Each of these is discussed
    below.
    
    5.13,3.1  Area Monitoring--
    To perform area monitoring, a path through the area to be monitored is pre-
    determined so that one following the path will pass within a given distance
    (~3 ft) from all equipment within the area to be monitored.  An instrument
    operator with a portable analyzer follows the predetermined path through the
    area and makes a complete survey around each piece of equipment.  The operator
    must be careful that both the upwind and downwind sides of the equipment are
    sampled.  If a concentration peak is observed, the location is recorded and a
    subsequent, more detailed survey made to pinpoint the exact source.
    
    This is the same general procedure used for the regular visual inspection, but
    with a portable measuring instrument.  An advantage of this method is that
    leaks can be detected quickly.  Disadvantages include the possible detection
    of other emissions from outside the process area or improper readings due to
    wind gusts and wind direction variability.  One outstanding disadvantage cur-
    rently is that continuous portable monitoring equipment for measuring specific
    hazardous air pollutants are in the developmental stage and use would need to t
    be examined carefully for appropriateness and utility.                        I
    
    5.13.3.2  Fixed-point Monitoring—
    In the fixed-point methodology, analyzers are placed at specific points in the
    process area to monitor automatically for fugitive emissions.  Individual sam-
    plers are placed either near specific pieces of equipment or in a grid pattern
    throughout the process area.  If a concentration peak is observed, the
    operator then performs an individual component survey to detect the leak.
    
    5.13.3.3  Source Monitoring—
    In this methodology, leaks are detected by examining each individual component.
    Again, a portable detector is used.  The instrument sample probe is moved
    along the component surface with care that both upwind and downwind areas are
    sampled.  For sources such as drains, residue treatment tanks, and pressure
    relief valves, the probe is placed in the center and then along the periphery.
    
    When no portable instrument is available, individual components can be en
    closed in a plastic bag (where practical).  Any leaks accumulate in the bag
    and are exhausted through a sampling train designed to measure flow and
    prepare the sample for subsequent analysis by applicable laboratory techniques.
    
    5.13.3.4  Current Instrumentation—
    Particulate Measurements—Particulate sampling downwind of potential sources
    can be accomplished using high volume samplers.  These devices consist of a
    pump and filter holder assembly encased in a weatherproof container.  Ambient
    air is drawn across a preweighed filter membrane by a calibrated/feedback pump
    system.  Filters are then weighed to obtain total mass particulate dust levels
    and analyzed for appropriate components.
                                          5-143
    

    -------
    Generally,  a weather station is used to record wind speed,  direction,  tempera-
    ture, atmospheric stability and barometric pressure over the  sampling  period.
    
    Short-term ambient particulate levels can also be obtained  by using either
    piezoelectric or beta attenuation monotors.   These devices  provide quick
    read-outs of ambient dust levels around a source.  A number of readings can be
    obtained over a long period of time.   Analysis of the collections on the sub-
    strate can be achieved as with the Hi-vol filter.
    
    A particle size distribution of fugitive dust levels can be accomplished by
    attaching size - selective units (impactors)  to the inlet of a high volume
    sampler.  Particles are then collected on a substrate in each stage, depending
    upon the aerodynamic diameter of the incoming particles.
    
    Particles less than 15 urn (EPA's definition of inhalable particulates) can be
    measured using dichotomous samplers.   These devices consist of an elutriator
    in series with an impactor.  The elutriator collects particles less than 15 |jm
    and the impactor divides them into two fractions (<2.5 fjm and >2.5 urn to
    15 urn) which are collected on preweighed filters.  Filters  are then weighed
    and analyzed as necessary.
    
    Particles can also be classified using a beta attenuation device by employing
    a small cyclone (inertial separator) in series with the pump.  The cyclone
    collects the >10 urn particles, which then allows an attenuation readout of the
    <10 urn levels.
    
    Measurement of Gases--Certain techniques for quantifying the fugitive gaseous
    emission levels from sources are available, which "can obtain either (1) hydro-
    carbon-less-methane values or (2) if high enough concentrations exist, detec-
    tion of individual components.  In the latter case, a tandem-coupled gas
    chromatograph/mass spectrometer unit or GC alone would be employed for analy-
    sis with samples obtained by capture in a plastic bag for subsequent analysis.
    
    Charcoal and porous polymer tubes connected to air pumps to draw ambient air
    across the median can be employed.  The collection median is then solvent
    eluted for laboratory analysis.
    
    Direct reading of ppm levels can be accomplished using Drager® tubes which are
    reactant impregnated substances.  Ambient air is hand pumped through the col-
    lection median and the ppm levels read according to a color change.
    
    Ambient total hydrocarbon levels can be measured using portable  field  gas
    chromatographs or hand-held flame ionization detectors.  These devices  operate
    on the same principle as the laboratory GC's except they have field use
    capabilities.
    
    5.14  MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
    
    Materials of construction have been discussed  for  specific equipment  through-
    out this chapter.  This section is a repository  of general information on
    various materials which may be encountered at  a  hazardous waste  incineration
                                          5-144
    

    -------
    facility.   Included is information regarding trade names,  corrosion
    resistances,  and typical uses of both ferrous and nonferrous metals and other
    nonmetallic materials.
    
    The general corrosion resistance properties are discussed.   In most inciner-
    ator,  receiving, storage,  feed situations,  and residue handling,  the flow
    stream will contain contaminants, so corrosion problems will be maximal.  This
    section will allow the permit writer to augment his knowledge of the materials
    involved and check the recommended application.
    
    5.14.1  Metals
    
         (1)  Cast Iron - This material is found in many cast process components
              such as pump bodies, impellers, valve parts, etc.   Cast iron is a
              general term applied to high carbon-iron alloys containing silicon.
              Common varieties are:  gray, white, malleable, ductile, and nodular.
              The material is quite susceptible to oxidation or  "rust".
    
              Increasing the silicon content to over 14% produces an extremely
              corrosion resistant material; e.g., Duriron, which is very hard and
              resists erosion-corrosion (notable exception:  hydrofluoric acid).
              The alloy is sometimes modified by the addition of 3% molybdenum;
              e.g., Durichlor or Durichlor 51,  for increased resistance to hydro-
              chloric acid and chlorides.
    \
            •. In addition to alloys.using silicon and molybdenum, other alloys
              using nickel, chromium and copper also produce improved corrosion
              resistance.  Copper addition causes the metal to better withstand
              attack from sulfuric acid.  High nickel-chromium cast irons with and
              without copper; e.g., Ni-Resist and Ni-Hard, produce very tough
              castings to resist erosion-corrosion in near-neutral and alkaline
              solutions or slurries.
    
         (2)  Carbon Steel - Carbon steel is alloyed, in various combinations,
              with chromium, nickel, copper, molybdenum, phosphorous, and vanadium.
              Low-alloy steels (2% total maximum alloying elements or less) are
              generally the more corrosion resistant. However, like cast iron, it
              is very susceptible to rusting.
    
              Steel products are cast and also readily available in sheet, plate,
              and structural forms, as well as in a variety of products.  Steels
              can be easily field cut and welded.
    
         (3)  Stainless Steel - Stainless steel has the same versatility of usage
              as carbon steel, with greatly improved corrosion resistance.  De-
              sired corrosion resistant properties are produced by alloying at
              least 11 percent of chromium.  The chromium is reactive, but sets up
              a passive film to inhibit further corrosion.  The following is a
              brief description of the five types of corrosion resistant alloys
              most commonly used in chemical applications:
                                          5-145
    

    -------
              Type 304  The basic 18% Cr-8% Ni  type  for  relatively mild corrosion
                        resistance.
    
              Type 316  The "18-8" type with 2.0/3.0% Mo for  superior  resistance
                        to pitting and to most  types of  corrosion,  particularly in
                        reducing and neutral solutions.
    
              Type 317  The "18-8" type with 3.0/4.0% Mo,  which has moderately
                        better resistance than  type  316  in some conditions,  such
                        as high concentrations  of acetic anhydride and hot acetic
                        acid.
    
              "20"      A 29% Ni-20% Cr steel with copper and molybdenum,
                        developed specifically  for resistance to sulfuric  acid.
    
              Ni-o-nel  A 42% Ni-21.5% Cr alloy with copper and molybdenum,  devel-
                        oped to meet more severe corrosion and stress-corrosion
                        conditions than can be  handled by the stainless steels but
                        where nickel-base alloys are not needed.
    
    A popular fallacy is that stainless steels  are generally resistant to  all
    environments.  Stainless steels do have widespread application in resisting
    corrosion, but also have limitations.  In fact,  under conditions involving
    chloride-bearing solutions and stressed members, stainless steels are  subject
    to chloride stress corrosion cracking and thus are much less suitable  than
    alloyed steels.  Stainless steels are also  more susceptible than regular
    steels to localized corrosion such as intergranular, crevice, and pitting
    attack.
    
    Consequently, many corrosion failures have  resulted  from the indiscriminate
    use of stainless steels on the assumption that they  were the "best."  In
    practice, stainless steels represent a class of highly corrosion-resisting
    materials of moderate strength and cost that are the bulwark of the chemical
    process industries when used with discretion.
    
         (4)  Aluminum and Alloys - Next to carbon steel and stainless steel,
              aluminum represents a versatile metal for  construction, available  in
              cast form and sheet, plate, and structural forms and in a variety  of
              commercially available process components.
    
              Aluminum is reactive but develops a passive oxide  film which pro-
              tects it from further corrosion in many environments. This  film
              remains stable in neutral and many acid solutions, but is attacked
              by alkalies.  The passive film is produced after contact with  the
              chemical environment, unless the film has been artificially produced
              through anodizing.  Structural members are typically produced  from
              high-copper alloys, whereas process components are usually  con-
              structed of the low-copper or copper-free alloys,  which have better
              corrosion resistance.
    
         (5)  Magnesium and Alloys  - A  lightweight material  often  found on port-
              able devices and vehicles, however one of the  least  corrosion
    
    
                                           5-146
    I
    

    -------
         resistant.   It must generally be physically separated from other
         metals or it will become a sacrificial anode for them.   It is  cap-
         able of forming a good passive film,-  however,  the film  breaks  down
         in salty air conditions, necessitating special coatings or other
         surface preparations.   Magnesium is susceptible to erosion-corrosion.
         It is much more resistant to alkalies than is  aluminum.  It is
         attacked by most acids except chromic and hydrofluoric.  The
         corrosion product in HF acts as a protective film.
    
    (6)  Lead and Alloys - Used often on corrosion resistant applications  in
         such forms as:  sheet linings, solder, cable sheath,  bearings,  and
         piping.  Lead forms protective films  consisting of corrosion prod-
         ucts such as sulfates, oxides, and phosphates.  It is subject  to
         erosion-corrosion because of its softness.  Chemical-resistant lead,
         containing about 0.06% copper, is resistant to sulfuric,  chromic,
         hydrofluoric, and phosphoric acids, neutral solutions,  and seawater.
         It is rapidly attacked by acetic acid and generally not used in
         nitric, hydrochloric,  and organic acids.
    (7)  Copper and Alloys - Copper alloys are found in pump bodies and
         impellers, process component bodies and parts, and in pipe tubing
         and fittings, tanks, bearings, wire and screen.
    
         A good chemically resistant material, copper is not corroded by
         acids unless oxygen or other oxidizing agents (e.g., HN03) are
         present.   Copper-base alloys are resistant to neutral and slightly
         alkaline solutions (exception:  ammonia).  Common alloys are:
         brass, bronze, and cupernickel.  Bronze, aluminum brass, and cupra-
         nickel are stronger and harder than copper and brass and less
         subject to erosion-corrosion.
    
    (8)  Nickel and Alloys - A workhorse in severe corrosion applications,
         nickel and its alloys are found in many commercially available
         process components, expecially pumps, valve parts, and other criti-
         cal process parts.  Nickel is resistant to many corrosives and is a
         natural for alkaline solutions, found in many tough applications on
         caustics.  It shows good resistance to neutral and slightly acid
         solutions. It is not resistant to strongly oxidizing solutions;
         e.g., nitric acid, ammonia.  Among the common varieties.-
    
              Monel - natural for hydrofluoric acid
    
              Chlorlmet 3 and Hastelloy C - two of the most generally
                   corrosion-resistant materials commercially available
    
              Chlorlmet 2 and Hastelloy B - very good in cases where
                   oxidizing conditions do not exist
    
    (9)  Zinc and Alloys - Not a corrosion-resistant metal, chiefly used in
         galvanized steel.
    f
                                     5-147
    

    -------
        (10)  Tin and Tin Plate  -  Usually  found  as  a  coating and used  in  solder
              and babbit bearings,  it  is corrosion  resistant, easily formed and
              soldered;  and provides a good  base for  organic coatings.  Tin has
              good resistance  to dilute mineral  acids  in  the absence of air, and
              many organic acids,  but  is corroded by  strong organic acids;
              generally not used for handling  alkalies.
    
        (11)  Titanium and Alloys  - A  newcomer tc corrosion resistant  construction,
              is available as  castings in  pumps,  valves,  and other process com-
              ponents.  Titanium is a  reactive metal  which depends on  a passive
              oxide film for corrosion resistance.  Titanium has resistance to
              seawater and other chloride  salt solution;  hypochlorites and wet
              chlorine;  and nitric acid.   Salts  such  as FeCl3 and CuCl2/  which
              tend to pit other  metals do  not  corrode  titanium.  It is not
              resistant to relatively  pure sulfuric and hydrochloric acids.
    
    5.14.2  Nonmetallics
    
         (1)  Natural and Synthetic Rubbers  -  Rubber  is an important process mate-
              rial with an extensive range of  uses:  hoses, tanks, tubing, gas-
              kets, pump diaphrams and impellers, sheets, liners, etc. Rubber has
              excellent chemical resistance, and has  been a standard for  handling
              of hydrochloric  acid containers.  Generally, the  synthetic  rubbers
              have better chemical resistance  than  the natural  rubbers. Vulcaniza
              tion, the process  of hardening rubber by adding sulfur and  heating,
              can produce a wide range of  hardnesses  from soft  gaskets to hard
              pump impellers.  Corrosion resistance generally increases with
              hardness.
    -\
              A wide variety of synthetic rubbers  is  available,  including combina-
              tions with plastics.   In developing  the various  products,  plasticiz-
              er fillers and hardeners are compounded to obtain  a large  range of
              properties, including chemical resistance.   Table  5-19 presents a
              list of brand names of plastic materials and the corresponding
              generic type of plastic.
    
              Table 5-20 shows chemical resistance and other properties  of commer-
              cially available rubber products.  One  of the newer elastomers which
              should be added to the list is Hypalon, which has  excellent resist-
              ance to oxidizing environments such  as  90% sulfuric acid and 40%
              nitric acid at room temperature.
    
         (2)  Plastics - Used extensively in chemical process  applications as
              process component bodies and parts,  tanks and tank liners, pipe,
              valves, tubing, and fittings, sheets, structurals, etc., plastics
              are high-molecular weight organic materials that can be shaped into
              a variety of useful forms.
    
              When comparing plastics to metals, the former are softer and weaker,
              more resistant to chloride ions and hydrochloric acid, less resist-
              ant to concentrated sulfuric ad oxidizing acids such as nitric, less
                                          5-148
    

    -------
                    TABLE 5-19.   BRAND NAMES OF POLYMERIC MATERIALS
    Material
    Aeroflex
    Alathon
    Araldite
    Avisco
    Bakelite
    Beelte
    Dacron
    Durcon
    Durez
    Dypol
    Epon
    Excon
    Kel F
    Lauxite
    Lucite
    Lustrex
    Moplen
    Chart classification
    Polyethylene
    Polyethylene
    Epoxy
    Urea
    Phenolic
    Urea
    Polyester
    Epoxy
    Phenolic
    Polyester
    Epoxy
    Polypropylene
    Fluorocarbon
    Urea
    Methyl methacrylate
    Polystryene
    Polypropylene
    Material
    Mylar
    Nylon
    Penton
    Plexiglas
    Plioflex
    Polythene
    Pro-Fax
    PVC
    Resinox
    Saran
    Styron
    Teflon
    Tygon
    Vibrin
    Vinylite
    Viton
    
    Chart classification
    Polyester
    Nylon
    Polyether
    Methyl methacrylate
    Vinyl
    Polyethylene
    Polypropylene
    Polyvinyl chloride
    Phenolic
    Vinyl
    Polystyrene
    Fluorocarbon
    Vinyl
    Polyester
    Vinyl
    Fluorocarbon
    
    
                                                                                 .1
    resistant to solvents,  and have .definitely lover temperature limitations.
    
              Plastics,  when subjected to corrosive environments do not fail as
              metals do.  Rather than dissolving,  they are degraded or corroded
              because of swelling,  loss in mechanical properties,  softening,
              hardening, spalling,  and discoloration.  Table 5-21  lists the
              properties of some commercially available plastics.
    
              For ease of using this table, commonly used tradenames and other
              designations are listed here alphabetically in reference to the
              chart classification to which they belong:
    
         (3)  Other Nonmetallics - Used as materials of construction and lining of
              process systems:
    
              Ceramics - compounds of metallic and nonmetallic elements,- include
                         magnesia,  brick, stone, fused silica, stoneware, glass,
                         clay tile, procelain, concrete, abrasives, mortar, high
                         temperature refractories.  Most ceramics exhibit good
                         chemical resistance, with the exception of hydrofluoric
                         acid and caustic.
    
              Carbon and Graphite - often used for shaft seals; inert to many
                         chemical environments,- good resistance to alkalies and
                         most acids; attacked by oxidizing acids such as nitric,
                         concentrated sulfuric, and chromic; also attacked by
                         fluorine,  iodine, bromine, chlorine, and chlorine dioxide.
                                          5-149
    

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              Wood -     Typical chemically resistant  woods  are  cypress,  pine,
                         oak, and redwood;  generally limited to  dilute  chemicals;
                         strong acids,  oxidizing cards,  and  dilute  alkalies  attack
                         wood.
    
    5.15  MISCELLANEOUS CONCERNS
    
    5.15.1  Personnel Health and Safety
    
    The health and" safety of the public and of plant employees should be  consid-
    ered of major importance in any industrial installation  design  or operation.
    Although the greater part of this manual deals with  possible injury to public
    health and property, the effect of plant emissions on the plant employees is
    also a primary-concern.  Often, plant employees in direct contact with the
    industrial processes for extensive periods of time are in the greatest imme-
    diate danger.  This section will not attempt to define the multitude  of  work-
    related hazards facing hazardous waste  incinerator workers.,  but will  concen-
    ntrate on these areas of concern:  equipment for worker  protection  and
    procedures for worker protection [43].
    
      •  Synthetic Gloves - These provide skin protection for the hand  and arm,  as
         required.  Synthetic means rubber, polyethylene, or other  impervious
         materials.   Full-arm-length gauntlets or sleeve protectors can also be
         used.
    
      •  Synthetic Aprons - Materials specified for synthetic gloves also apply to
         aprons.  Disposable-type coveralls or laboratory coats may be  preferred
         for many tasks at an incinerator facility.
    
      •  Respiratory Protective Devices - There are three types of  these  devices.-
         (1) air-purifying respirators, (2) supplied-air respirators, and (3)
         self-contained breathing apparatuses.
    
         The air-purifying respirators utilize an aerosol filter for protection
         against particulate matter and/or a chemical cartridge for protection
         against certain known gases of vapors.  The choice  of cartridge is
         dictated by the hazard involved.
    
         The supplied-air respirators are supplied with air  remote  from the hazard-
         ous location, usually through a breathing-air manifold and hoses.  The
         self-contained breathing apparatus is normally used only in emergency
         situations.  Use only devices that are certified by NIOSH.
    
      •  Adequate Ventilation - Ventilation in an area must  be sufficient to
         prevent harmful exposure to toxic materials.  The threshold-limit value
         (TLV) for an individual chemical vapor or type of dust refers to the
         time-weighed concentration for a normal workday, under which
         it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed, day
         after day,  without harmful effect.  If this value is exceeded, then a
         "ceiling" value applies.  This ceiling value should not be exceeded
         (emergency situations such as spills require the use of protective
         equipment).  Exposure to concentrations above the TLV
    
    
                                           5-152
    

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         up to the ceiling value are not desirable, but are permitted as long as
         the overall eight-hour time-weighted average (TWA) does not exceed the
         TLV.
    
         If inadequate ventilation is indicated (TLV is exceeded) for any opera-
         tion or area, immediate use of a personal air-supply system is engaged.
         A permanent solution involving good engineering practices is then
         desirable and should be implemented as soon as possible.
    
      •  Full Suit - This is a suit that provides head-to-toe protection for the
         hazard involved.
    
         Line Breaks - Line breaks include broken flanges on lines not previously
         exposed to the atmosphere, and drained and repacking of valves and pumps,
         where there exists a potential for hazardous streams in concentrated form
         or under pressure.  In this type of operation, the following protective
         equipment is usually required:  full-rubber acid-suit consisting of
         rubber coat, rubber pants, acid gloves, rubber boots under the pants, and
         rubber hood.
    
      •  Repairs - Repairs apply to work performed on equipment or lines that
         handled hazardous waste streams, which had previously been opened to the
         atmosphere, and which have been drained and proven to be under no pressures.
         Since the hazardous potential still exists, goggles or an approved hood j
         and gloves are typically required.  After flushing with water—or a     . I
         neutralizer agent where feasible—and the danger potential no longer
         exists, as determined by supervision, hazardous-material protection is no
         longer required.  If the underfoot area is still puddled or vet from
         flushing and draining, rubber overshoes are usually required.
    
         If a pump is not delivering, and troubleshooting or priming is necessary,
         goggles and gloves with coat or apron are worn even though no breaks in
         the line have occurred.
    
    5.15.2  Facility Housekeeping
    
    Good housekeeping plays a key role in occupational health protection.  Basic-
    ally, it is another tool in addition to those other facility safeguards listed
    for preventing dispersion of dangerous contaminants.  Housekeeping is always
    important; where there are toxic materials, it is paramount.
    
    Immediate cleanup of any small spills of toxic material is a very important
    control measure.  A regular cleanup schedule using vacuum cleaners or lines is
    the only truly effective method of removing dust from a work area,  an air
    hose for blowing away dust is never used.
    
    A high standard of housekeeping is the most important single factor in the
    prevention of fire.  Many types of waste and rubbish are susceptible to spon-
    taneous ignition.  Practically all organic materials have a tendency to heat
    spontaneously.  This tendency is greater for those containing oil, solids when
    pulverized, and vegetable or animal fibers, especially when wet.  Many materi-
    als which are safe at room temperature will heat spontaneously after prolonged
    
    
                                          5-153
    

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    exposure to high temperatures,  such as  accumulations  occurring  in  ducts  or  on
    heated pipes.
    
    Accumulations  of all types of dust are  cleaned at  regular  intervals  from
    overhead pipes,  beams,  and machines,  particularly  from bearings and  other
    heated surfaces.  It must be understood that  all organic as  well as  many
    inorganic materials, if ground finely enough  will  burn and propagate flame.
    Roofs also are kept free from combustible refuse.   Such cleaning perferably is
    done by vacuum removal, because blowing down  with  air may  disperse dusts into
    dangerous clouds.
    
    5.15.3  Maintenance
    
    Testing is a prime activity in a maintenance  program, particularly for a
    hazardous waste incineration facility.   While alarm systems, spill-alert sys-
    tems, and fail-safe devices are available,  a  testing program usually peri-
    odically creates situations which require fail-safe devices  to  demonstrate
    their operation.  For instance, pressure testing of pipe,  valves,  and fittings
    along with hydrostatic testing of storage tanks will do this.  Other tasks
    such as visual and electronic inspections will make up the remainder of a
    maintenance program and are included on prepared forms. These  forms state  the
    optimum timing for each inspection as well as the  required frequency.
    
    Incidences of excess emissions can be reduced by good operation and mainten-
    ance (O&M) practices and a comprehensive preventative maintenance  program.
    With these practices, control equipment can provide maximum benefit.
    
    while maintenance activities are not repetitive in-the same manner as operat-
    ing tasks, the maintenance function can be formalized.  Available  to facility
    management are maintenance management information systems, inventory and mate-
    rials control systems, scheduling algorithms, work standards, indirect work
    measurement, and replacement theory.
    
    A mechanism which is becoming more prevalent as equipment  and technologies
    increase in sophistication is contract maintenance.  Air pollution control
    equipment lends itself particularly well to this concept and appears attrac-
    tive to new facilities which own several pieces of control equipment  [44].
    
    From the vendor's perspective, the advantages of providing  a maintenance
    contract are:
    
         (1)  Close surveillance of the system's performance,  especially  during
              the warranty period.
    
         (2)  Immediate  identification and  troubleshooting of malfunctioning
              components.
    
         (3)  Avoidance  of customer complaints.
    
         (4)  Operational  experience  that  facilitates  product improvement.
    
         (5)  Quick handling  of  emergency  situations.
    
    
                                           5-154
    

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               (6)  A well functioning system that is the best recommendation for sales
                   of additional systems.
    
         From  the user's point of view, the benefits of contract maintenance are:
    
                (1)  Plant personnel do not have to be thoroughly trained in equipment
                    maintenance, thus allowing them to devote their time to process
                    equipment.
    
                (2)  Technological troubleshooting and problem diagnosis are not usually
                    in-house resources.
    
                (3)  Plant personnel do not necessarily have the knowledge to improve
                    equipment performance.
    
                (4'  Plant personnel may lack awareness of alternative supplies and
                    suppliers.
    
                (5)  Expenditures for larger crews, repair facilities, tools, and
                    measurement instruments are reduced.
    
                (6)  Previous experience on similar equipment and applications can be
                    used.
    
                (7)  Intrepretations of causes of component failure can be provided.
    
                (8)  Contract maintenance programs are more effectively regulated and
                    administered than are in-house programs.
    
                (9)  Dirty and hazardous jobs do not have to be performed by plant
    »                personnal.
    
    j          (10)  Fluctuating workloads due to startup and seasonal variations can
    g               be handled easily.
    
    ,    An in-house regular maintenance/repairs program entails:
    
    '           (1)  Establishing a record system wherein periodic maintenance of each
                   incinerator component is scheduled for completion by a qualified
                   person.
    
               (2)  Cleaning, lubricating, and adjusting equipment by operating
                   personnel as part of their daily or weekly task.
    
               (3)  Certifying that maintenance has been performed.
    
               (4)  Recording major repairs separately and completely.
    i
               (5)  Thoroughly reporting each inspection, including condition of
                   furnace, repairs performed, and expectation of future repairs
                   or major overhaul.
                                                5-155
    \
    

    -------
         (6)  Inspecting components  subject  to  rapid  wear  or  damage  weekly,  at
              a time when such components  are not being  operated.
    
    5.15.4   Firefighting/Emergency  Personnel and Equipment
    
    In addition to automatic sprinkler and extinguisher  equipment, an  incident
    confined to a limited area and that can  be  safely handled by  a select  emergen-
    cy squad does not directly involve the overall  emergency  control program.   If,
    however, such an incident should escalate beyond  the capability  of these
    forces,  they have the authority  to request  the  activation of  the emergency
    program.
    
    A fire emergency plan includes:
    
         (1)  An emergency squad composed  of personnel from operations,  mainten-
              ance,  front office supervision, and guard  force--specifically
              selected and trained in emergency control  techniques and equipment.
    
         (2)  Emergency planning taking into account  the plant's  alarm system,
              communications, organization responsibilities,  evacuation possi-
              bilites, available emergency equipment, mutual  aid  arrangements,  and
              traffic control.
    
         (3)  Emergency crews engaged in continual  training.
    
         (4)  Emergency squad members thoroughly trained in comprehensive
              first-aid treatment.
    
         (5)  Emergency squad members familiar  with firefighting  equipment.
    
    The emergency squad composed of personnel  from  operations, maintenance, front
    office supervision, and guard force -- specifically  selected, and trained in
    emergency control techniques and equipment.  The  exact number of employees  on
    an emergency squad will vary depending on  the potential hazard and size.  Only
    if an emergency cannot be handled by this  select  squad,  should the emergency
    control organization be activated.
    
    Emergency planning also take into account  the plant's alarm system, communica
    tions, organizational responsibilities,  evacuation possibilities,  available
    emergency equipment (and where it is located),  dangers and emergency situa-
    tions both inside and outside the plant (such as  bomb threats),  mutual-aid
    arrangements and traffic control.  A manual containing the relevant informa-
    tion is prepared and distributed to those  responsible for executing the plan.
    This is reviewed at least annually, and updated as needed.
    
    Emergency crews must undergo continual training because the time available to
    respond to an actual emergency is usually quite  limited.  Furthermore,   the
    infrequency of calls to action can, with time,  erode the ability of crews  to
    respond with the speed usually required.  Crews  are typically provided for all
    shifts,  and be trained to handle all types of emergencies:  fire, toxic-gas
    releases, chemical spills, serious injury,  and personnel rescue.
                                          5-156
    

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    Emergency-squad members are usually thoroughly trained in comprehensive first-
    aid treatment, including cardiopulmonary resuscitation, handling of breathing
    apparatus, and emergency rescue procedures, and are familiar with station and
    ambulance first-aid equipment.  In addition, they learn the different types of
    fires, extinguishing agents, the proper protective clothing for firefighting,
    and become familiar with firefighting equipment,  including hoses, nozzles,
    portable extinguishers, wheel units, fire trucks, and with the plant's fire-
    protection systems.  Finally, field training in firefighting with protective
    clothing includes experience extinguishing "Christmas-tree," impingement, pan
    and spill, and other types of fires.
    
    At a sprinklered property, the most important function of men assigned to the
    emergency organization is to assure at all times that the automatic sprinkler
    protection will operate as intended.  At the start of the fire it must be made
    certain that sprinkler valves are open and fire pumps operating as needed;
    during the fire, that valves are not closed too soon; and after the fire, that
    opened sprinklers are replaced and protection restored promptly.
    
    An emergency squad is designed to be capable of containing small fires, pre-
    venting them from developing into large, uncontrollable ones that can cause
    loss of life and property.
    
    5.15.5   Stormvater Diversion
    
    Stormwater drainage and other innocuous discharges are segregated and handled
    within the battery limits of the incinerator facility. These streams are
    normally collected and directed by pipe, drainage ditches, or area grading
    through one outlet from the area to a local feeder ditch.  The single outlet
    or outfall also contain a spill control structure and gate which can be closed
    to contain contaminated drainage that may occur due to leaks or spills in the
    facility area.  Feeder ditches generally border the plant sites along roadways
    and eventually drain outside the plant [45].
    
    Facility process areas are usually paved and curbed or diked to contain leaks,
    spills, and washdowns, and these directed to a process sump area.  The process
    sumps are pumped to the appropriate waste treatment facility.
    
    Outlying facility storage tanks, pumps, and unloading facilities are curbed,
    diked, or paved for leak and spill control to prevent contamination of area
    drainage.  The contained areas are then drained and valved to allow normal
    storm water drainage.  These valves, which are normally closed, are opened for
    storm water drainage.  In the event a contamination occurs, it is contained
    for subsequent treatment and appropriate disposal.
    
    Other general features relative to plant drainage are:
    
         (1)  Valves used for the drainage of diked areas are normally manual,
              open-and-close design.  The condition of the retained stonowater is
              determined before drainage, especially if such drainage of impounded
              waters goes into water courses and not into wastewater treatment
              plants.
                                          5-157
    \
    

    -------
         (2)  All plant drainage systems,  if possible,  flow into  ponds,  lagoons,
              or catchment basins designed to retain  materials  less  dense  than
              water.   Consideration is  also given  to  possible chemical  reactions,
              if spilled chemicals are  commingled.
    
         (3)  If plant drainage is not  engineered  as  above,  the final  discharge  of
              all in-plant drainage ditches is equipped with a  diversion system
              that could, in the event  of  an uncontrolled spill,  be  returned to
              the plant for treatment,  the objective  being to work  toward  a
              closed-cycle system.
    
         (4)  Where drainage waters are chemically treated in more  than one  treat-
              ment unit, natural hydraulic flow is usually used.  If pump transfer
              is needed, two pumps are  typically provided,  and  at least one  of  the
              pumps is permanently installed.
    
    5.15.6  Flue Gas Plume Aesthetics
    
    Finally, the aesthetics of the flue gas plume  should be considered.  In  a com-
    bustion gas which has been quenched with water, but from which no  heat has  been
    removed, the moisture content can be on the order of 0.5 Ib of water vapor  per
    Ib of dry gas.  This creates a moisture plume  which can persist for a consider-
    able distance depending upon ambient conditions.   A water vapor plume does  not I.
    violate any code but may be undesirable because of its visibility.   A heavy    I
    moist plume falling on a non-plant area may be interpreted  as a nuisance.  This.*
    could be an important aesthetic consideration  which must be specifically
    considered for each case.  A stack gas moisture plume can be  reduced by:
    (1) installing a cooling system for cooling recycled scrubbing water or  by the
    use of cold once-through water for water cooling of the gases,  or  (2) installing
    a gas dehumidification and reheating system to reduce the relative humidity of
    the stack gas [17].
    
    5.16  TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
    
    Other books and manuals which have applicability to overall facility design,
    operation, and monitoring for hazardous waste  incinerators  are:
    
         Peterson, D.  The OSHA compliance manual.  New York, McGraw-Hill,  1980.
         241 p.
    
         Budinski, K.  Engineering materials:  properties and  selection.  Engle-
         wood Cliffs, NJ; Reston Publishing; 1980.  436 p.
    
         Conway, R. A.; and Ross, R. D.  Handbook  of industrial waste disposal.
         New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1980.  565 p.
    
         Metry, A. A.  The handbook of hazardous waste management.  Westport, CT;
         Technomic Publishing Co.; 1980.  446 p.
    
         Scott, R. A., ed.  Toxic chemical  and explosives  facilities:   safety and
         engineering design.  Symposium proceedings; 1978  September,- Miami  Beach.
         Washington, American Chemical Society, 1979.  352  p.
    
    
                                           5-158
    

    -------
    5-17  REFERENCES
    
     1.  Kovalick, W. W.,  Jr.  State decision-makers guide for hazardous  waste
         management.  Washington,  DC,- U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency,-  1977.
         103 p.  EPA-SW-612.
    
     2.  Wallace, M. J.  Controlling fugitive emissions.  Chemical  Engineering.
         86(18):78-92, 1979 August.
    
     3.  Wirth, G. F.  Preventing and dealing with in-plant hazardous  spills.
         Chemical Engineering.  82(17)=82-96, 1975 August.
    
     4.  Development of an emergency response program for transportation  of
         hazardous waste.   Washington, DC;  U.S.  Environmental Protection  Agency,-
         1979 March.  333  p.   EPA-SW-171C.
    
     5.  Accident prevention manual for industrial operations, seventh edition.
         Chicago, National Safety Council,  1974.  1523 p.
    
     6.  Handbook of industrial loss prevention, second edition.    New York,
         McGraw-Hill Book  Company, 1967.
    
     7.  Houghton, A. J.;  Simmons, J. A.; and Gonso, W. E.  A fail-safe transfer   .
         line for hazardous fluids.   Proceedings of the 1976 national  conference   r
         on control of hazardous material spills,- 1976 April 25-28; New Orleans,   j
         Rockville, MD; Information Transfer, Inc.; 29-32.
    
     8.  Recommended good  practices for bulk liquid loss control at terminals  and
         depots.   Washington, DC;  American Petroleum Institute; 1971.   API tech-
         nical bulletin No. 1623.
    
     9.  Recommended practices for bulk loading and unloading of flammable liquid
         chemicals to and  from tank trucks.  Washington, DC; Chemical
         Manufacturers Association,-  1975.  CMA technical bulletin No.  TC-8.
    
    10.  Loading and unloading flammable chemicals, tank cars.  Washington,  DC;
         Chemical Manufacturers Association,- 1975.  CMA technical bulletin No.
         TC-29.
    
    11.  Loading and unloading corrosive liquids, tank cars.  Washington, DC;
         Chemical Manufacturers Association; 1975.  CMA technical bulletin No.
         TC-27.
    
    12.  Huibregtse, K. R.; Sholz, R. C.,- Wullschleger, R. E.; Moser,  J.  M.;
         BoHinge, E. R.;  and Hansen, C. A.  Manual for the control of hazardous
         material spills.   Volume one - spill assessment and water  treatment
         techniques.  Cincinnati,  OH; U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency,-  1977
         November.  490 p.  EPA-600/2-77-227.
    
    13.  Materials handling.   Chemical engineering deskbook.  Chemical Engineering.
         85(24),  1978 October.  152 p.
                                          5-159
    

    -------
    14.  Perry,  R.  J.;  and Chilton,  C.  J.   Chemical engineers' handbook, fifth
         edition.   New  York,  McGraw-Hill Book  Company,  1973.
    
    15.  Gregory,  R. C.   Design of hazardous waste incinerators.  Chemical
         Engineering Progress.   77(4):43-47, 1981 April.
    
    16.  Liquids handling.   Chemical engineering deskbook.  Chemical Engineering.
         85(8) ,  1978 April.   220 p.
    
    17.  Novak,  R.  G.;  and Clark,  J.  N.  Impact of RCRA  on hazardous waste incinera-
         tion system design.   Paper presented  at the  Chemical Manufacturer's
         Association seminars on disposal  of hazardous  wastes.  Newark, NJ; Chicago,
         IL; Atlanta, GA;  Kansas City,  MO;  Houston, TX; and San Francisco, CA;
         1979-1980.
    
    18.  DeMarco,  J.; Keller, D. J.; Leckman,  J.; and Newton, J. L.
         Municipal-scale incinerator design and operation.  U.S. Department of
         Health, Education,  and Welfare, 1969. Public  Health Service Publication
         No. 2012.   98  p.
    
    19.  Bonner, R. F.;  and Petura,  R.  C.   Disposing  of liquid/fluid industrial
         wastes.  Pollution Engineering.   11(10) :46-48, 1979 October.
    
    20.  Shields,  E. F.   Prevention and control of chemical spill incidents.
         Pollution Engineering.  12(4):52-55,  1980 April.
    
    21.  D'Alessandro,  P.  L.; and Cobb,  C.  B.   Hazardous material control for bulk
         storage facilities.   Proceedings  of  the 1976 national conference on
         control of hazardous material  spills; 1976 April 25-28; New Orleans.
         Rockville, MD;  Information Transfer,  Inc.; 39-43.
    
    22.  Danielson, J.  A.,  ed.   Air pollution  engineering manual, second edition.
         Research Triangle Park, NC; U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency;  1973
         May.  987 p.   AP-40.
    
    23.  Payne,  W.  R.   Toxicology and process  design.  Chemical Engineering.
         85(10):83-85,  1978 April.
    
    24.  Franconeri, P.   Selection factors in evaluating  large  solid waste
         shredders.  Proceedings of 1976 national waste processing  conference,-
         1976 May 23-26; Boston.  New York, The American  Society  of Mechanical
         Engineers, 233-247.
    
    25.  Robinson,  W.  D.  Shredding systems for mixed municipal and industrial
         solid wastes.   Proceedings of  1976 national  waste  processing conference,-
         1976 May 23-26; Boston.  New York, The American  Society  of Mechanical
         Engineers, 249-260.
    
    26.  Rinker, F. G.   Controlled disposal of containerized toxic  materials.
         1979 national  conference on hazardous material risk assessment,  disposal
         and management; 1979 April 25-27; Miami Beach.  Silver Spring, MD; Infor-
         mation Transfer,  Inc.; 107-111.
    
    
                                          5-160
    

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    27.   Corey,  R.  C.,  ed.   Principles  and practices  of incineration.   Wiley-
         Interscience,  New York,  NY;  1969.   p.  250.
    
    28.   Gable,  L.  W.   Installation and calibration of thermocouples.   ISA  Trans-
         actions.   13(l):35-39,  1974 January-March.
    
    29.   Slomiana,  M.   Selecting pressure and velocity head primary  elements  for
         flow measurement.   Instrumentation Technology.  26(11):40-49,  1979
         November.
    
    30.   The Mcllvane  scrubber manual,  Vol. I.   Northbrook,  IL;  The  Mcllvane
         Company,-  1976.
    
    31.   Hall, J.   A guide to pressure  monitoring devices.   Instruments and
         Control Systems.   51(4):19-26, 1978 April.
    
    32.   The fabric filter manual,  Vol. 1.   Northbrook, IL;  The  Mcllvane Company;
         1976.
    
    33.   Smith,  W.  B.;  Gushing,  K.  M.,-  and McCain, J.  D.  Procedures manual for
         electrostatic precipitator evaluation.  Research Triangle Park, NC;  U.S.
         Environmental Protection Agency; 1977 June.   421 p.  EPA-600/7-77-059.
                                                                                 |
    34.   Continuous air pollution source monitoring  systems, U.S.  Environmental  I
         Protection Agency handbook.   Cincinnati, OH,-  U.S.  Environmental Protec-  I
         tion Agency;  1979 June.   262 p.  EPA-625/6-79-005.
    
    35.   Draft final report:  sampling and analysis procedures for screening of
         industrial effluents for priority pollutants.  Cincinnati,  OH; U.S.
         Environmental Protection Agency,- 1977 April.   145 p.
    
    36.   Block,  H.  P.   Predict problems with acoustic incipient  failure detection
         systems.   Hydrocarbon Processing.  56(10):191-198,  1977 October.
    
    37.   Shih, C.  C.;  Tobias, R.  F.,- Clausen, J. F.;  and Johnson,  R. J.  Thermal
         degradation of military standard pesticide  formulations.  Washington,  DC;
         U.S. Army Medical Research and Development  Command; 1975 March.  287 p.
    
    38.   The Mcllvane scrubber manual,  Vol. II.  Northbrook, IL; The Mcllvane
         Company;  1976.
    
    39.   Paige,  S.  F.; Babodal,  L.  B.;  Fisher, H. J.,-  Schcyer, K.  H.,-  Shaug,  A.
         M.; Tan,  R. L.; and Thorne, C. F.  Environmental assessment:   at-sea and
         land-based incineration of organochlorine wastes.  Research Triangle
         Park, NC;  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1978 June.   116 p.
         EPA-600/2-78-087.
    
    40.   Whitmore,  F.  C.  A study of pesticide disposal in a sewage  sludge
         incinerator.   Washington,  DC;  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,-  1975.
         193 p.   EPA-SW-116C.
                                          5-161
    

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    41.   Ferguson, T.  L.; Bergman,  F.  J.;  Cooper,  G.  R.;  Li,  R.  T.;  and Honea,  F
         I.   Determination of incinerator  operating conditions necessary for sa:^
         disposal of pesticides.   Cincinnati;  OH;  U.S.  Environmental Protection
         Agency; 1975 December.   417 p.  E.PA-600/2-75-041.
    
    42.   Cross, F. L.   Control of fugitive dust from bulk loading facilities.
         Pollution Engineering.   12(3):52-53,  1980 March.
    
    43.   Morton, W. I.   Safety techniques  for  workers handling hazardous materials.
         Chemical Engineering.  83(21):127-132,  1976 October.
    
    44.   Rimberg, D. B.  Minimizing maintenance makes money.   Pollution
         Engineering.   12(3) .-46-48, 1980 March.
    
    45.   Elton, R. L.   Designing stormwater handling systems.   Chemical
         Engineering.   86(11):64-68, 1980  May.
                                           5-162
    

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                                       CHAPTER 6
    
                             ESTIMATING INCINERATION COSTS
    6.1  INTRODUCTION
    
    This chapter provides the user with tools for assessing the costs associated
    with:   (1) hazardous waste incineration facilities, (2) the most likely modi-
    fications to the equipment and/or operations of such facilities, and (3) trial
    burns.  The modifications may be necessary for a facility to comply with appli-
    cable environmental regulations, and they are closely related to the hazardous
    waste incineration design and operating criteria defined in Chapter 4.  The
    trial burn may be necessary when uncertainties are present relative to the
    ability of a given facility to burn a given waste while preventing hazards to
    the environment and public health.
    The cost data presented in this chapter are intended to be used only for first-
    cut estimating purposes and are believed to be accurate to no more than ±50fc.
    It is impossible to present more accurate data in this chapter for three
    reasons.
    
         1.  All incinerators are not alike.  Differences in design, operation,
             and in the waste burned in a given incinerator have a significant
             effect on costs.
    
         2.  There is a lack of agreement about exactly what costs should be
             considered in determining the capital and operating costs of
             hazardous waste incineration facilities.
    
         3.  Industry has had only limited experience with incinerating bulk
             quantities of hazardous waste.
    
    Work in this area is continuing at EPA and, with the cooperation of industry,
    EPA will hopefully be able to provide more accurate and comprehensive data in
    the future.  The user is encouraged to develop and use estimates which repre-
    sent the conditions of a given facility more accurately and to consult refer-
    ences cited in this chapter and other resources for additional data on costs
    related to hazardous waste incineration.
    
    The chapter contains five more sections.  Section 6.2 is a generalized dis-
    cussion of techniques for estimating capital and operating costs.  Section
    6.3 presents capital and operating cost estimates for liquid injection and
    rotary kiln hazardous waste incinerators, and air pollution control devices.
    Sections 6.4 and 6.5 discuss those costs associated with incineration facility
                                        6-1
    

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    modifications and trial burns, respectively.  Finally, Section 6.6 provides     fl
    references for further assistance.
    
    6.2  GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COST ESTIMATION [1]
    
    Several methods of varying degrees of accuracy are available for estimating
    the capital and operating costs of incineration and air pollution control
    systems.  These methods range from presenting overall installed costs on a per
    unit basis, to detailed cost estimates based on preliminary designs,  schematics,
    and contractor quotes.  The least accurate method is the equating of overall
    capital costs to a basic operating parameter such as tons per hour or cfm.  An
    example is a typical installed cost for a fabric filtration system of approxi-
    mately $7/cfm.  This figure is developed from average costs of many installations
    which may range from $3/cfm to $12/cfm.  The low end of the range might represent
    an installation using standard equipment installed by plant personnel.  The high
    end of the cost range may represent a system designed for:  1) the inclusion of
    standby equipment and redundant systems, 2) provisions for safety, 3) fully
    automated operation with complex controls, and 4) expensive materials of con-
    struction or other custom features.  These factors affect both equipment and
    installation costs,  and therefore the degree of accuracy produced using such
    an estimating method would, at best,  provide accuracies in the "order of
    magnitude" category (probable accuracy of +50%, -30%) [1].  The cost informa-
    tion in this chapter is presented in terms of Btu/hr and acfm and is intended
    only for first-cut estimating purposes.                                      I*
    
    The detailed cost estimate, in turn,  can produce accuracies of ±5 percent        tf
    depending on the amount of preliminary engineering involved.  These estimates    ^
    take many months of engineering effort and require process and engineering flow
    sheets, material and energy balances, plot plans, and equipment arrangement
    drawings before a cost estimate can be developed [1].
    
    6.2.1 Capital Costs
    
    Capital costs consist of the delivered equipment costs for major equipment items
    and all the auxiliary equipment and appurtenances plus the direct and indirect
    costs of installation.  The delivered equipment costs represent a firm cost,
    since these are obtainable from the supplier's quoted prices or from curves
    compiled from average costs for the specific type of equipment.  The cost of
    installation can vary substantially from one pollution control system to
    another depending on such features as:  1) the degree of assembly of the con-
    trol device; 2) the  geographic location of the installation,- 3) the topography
    of the land site; and 4) the availability of utilities [1].
    
    6.2.1.1  Purchased Equipment Costs—
    The purchased equipment costs represent the delivered costs of the control
    device, auxiliary equipment, and instrumentation.  These costs are developed
    by first establishing the design and operating characteristics of the equipment
    that will satisfy the process requirements and then using graphs and/or  tables
    of historical cost data for the various items.  The typical cost factor  for
    instrumentation can be considered as 10% of the equipment costs.  Freight costs
    within the U.S. are  generally 5% of the equipment cost although a cost adjust-   M
    ment must also be included for unusually remote or distant  sites.  The purchased
    
    
                                        6-2
    

    -------
     equipment  costs, which  include  the  F.O.B.  equipment cost,  instrumentation,
     freight  and  taxes,  then become  the  basis  for determining  the direct and
     indirect installation costs.  This  is done by multiplying the appropriate
     factor for each  element by  the  purchased  equipment cost [1].
    
     6.2.1 2  Installation Costs--
     Installation costs  consist  of the direct  expenses of material and labor for
     foundations,  structural supports, handling and erection,  electrical, insulatior
     painting,  site preparation, and facilities,- plus the indirect expenses for
     engineering  and  supervision, construction and field expenses, construction
     fees, start  up,  performance tests,  model  studies, and contingencies.  In
     considering  the  direct  costs, site  preparation, buildings, and facilities are
     items that have  little  or no relationship to the cost of  the purchased equip-
     ment.  Therefore, some  cost adjustment, must be used.  Although handling and
     erection are related to equipment costs,  some adjustment must also be made
     for either field erection or factory assembly as well as  the type of instal-
     lation,  that is, new or retrofit of an existing process [Ij.
    
     Variations in the indirect expenses can be substantial since items such as
     engineering,  construction fees, and contingencies are related to contracting
     methods  and  the  overall magnitude of the  project rather than the equipment
     costs.   These items all require some adjustment based on  system size and con-
     tracting arrangement.   Other cost items such as model studies may appear
     unusual  circumstances such as large electrostatic precipitator systems or
     other systems where the level of previous experience may be limited [1].
    
     6.2.2  Annualized Costs
    
     Typical  annualized costs consist of the direct expenses of labor and materials
     for operation and maintenance,  the  cost of replacement parts, utility costs, anc
     waste disposal; plus the indirect costs of overhead, taxes, insurance, general
     administration,  and capital recovery charges.  Unit costs can vary significantly
     from installation to installation.  In the case of pollution control systems,
     waste disposal costs are only applicable  to those systems where the collected
     pollutant  has no value  and must be  removed to a disposal site [1].
    
     The indirect  operating  costs are basically related to the capital investment
     with the possible exception of  overhead.  Overhead expenses include, for example
     the cost of  employee fringe benefits, medical and property protection, and
     cafeteria  expenses and  are accounted for  as a percentage of direct salaries or
     payroll  [1].
    
     The operating costs must be adjusted for  any credits that are obtained from
     the reuse  or  sale of recovered products or from the recovery of heat and energy
     from the process.  Credits such as  solvent recovery can significantly offset
     control expenses and must be considered as an important factor in an accurate
     cost analysis [1].
    
     6.2.2.1  Direct Operating Costs—
     Labor and  material costs for operation and maintenance vary substantially
    between plants due to the degree of automation, equipment age, and operating
     schedule.  Some generalizations must be made to develop a reasonable method of
    
    
                                        6-3
    

    -------
    estimating these costs.  Normally these costs represent fro.t 2 to 8 percent of™
    the total annualized costs with the remainder reflecting the cost of utilities
    and capital charges.  In general, operating labor and supervision will be
    reduced with increased system automation.  Small systems which operate inter-
    mittently or on demand may require a full-time operator for start-up, control,
    and shutdown while the system is in operation.  In contrast, larger automated
    systems operating continuously may only require a short period per shift for
    monitoring purposes.  The total annual labor cost is also a function of the
    number of 8-hour operating shifts per year.  Small plants may be expected to
    operate one shift per day, five days per week, and fifty weeks per year while
    large plants, such as those in the basic metals, petroleum, and chemical indus-
    tries, would be expected to operate three shifts per day for 365 days.  The
    operator labor, therefore, should be estimated on a man-hours per shift basis
    for the particular types of system.  For large, automated,  continuously operated
    pollution control systems, the operating labor can be estimated.
    
    When periodic replacement of major parts is required, such as the replacement
    of filter bags in a fabric filter, the labor cost for replacement should be
    equal to the material cost of the replacement parts.  For small- to medium-size
    systems where the installed cost is approximately $100,000, or less, the total
    cost of maintenance is assumed to be 5 percent of the installed capital cost  [1] .
    
    The annual cost of replacement parts represents the cost of the parts or corar
    ponents divided by their expected life.  Replacement parts are those components
    and materials such as filter bags and catalyst which have a limited life and|
    are expected to be replaced on a periodic schedule.  Estimates of the life o'f
    pollution control equipment and related replacement parts,  such as are shown
    in Table 6-1, are based on qualitative judgement of the type of application,
    maintenance service, and duty cycle.  The guideline for average life represents
    a process operating continuously with 3 shifts per day, 5 to 7 days per week,
    handling moderate concentrations of non-abrasive dusts or non-corrosive gases.
    The guideline for low-life applications is based on a continuous process handling
    moderate- to high-temperature gas streams with high concentrations of corrosive
    gases or abrasive dusts,  .applications having high life expectancies for parts
    and equipment would be those operating intermittently or approximately one shift
    per day with gas streams with low concentrations and at ambient gas stream
    temperatures [1].
    
    6.2.2.2  Indirect Operating Costs—
    The indirect operating costs include the cost of taxes, insurance, administration
    expenses, overhead, and capital charges.  Taxes, insurance and administration
    can collectively be estimated at 4 percent of the capital cost while overhead
    charges can be considered as 80 percent of the labor charges for operation and
    maintenance of the system.  The annualized capital charges reflect the costs
    associated with capital recovery over the depreciable life of the system and
    can be determined as follows [1]:
                                        6-4
    

    -------
                     TABLE  6-1.   ESTIMATES  OF LIFE OF MATERIALS,  PARTS,  AND  EQUIPMENT
                                 FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS  [1]
    
    
                                                          Length  of service,  years
                        	Item	Low	Average	High
    
                        Materials and Parts
    
                         Filter bags                     0.3      1.5           S
                         Catalyst                        25            8
                         Refractories                    15           10
    
                        Equipment
    Electrostatic precipitators
    Venturi scrubbers
    Fabric filters
    Thermal fume incinerators
    Catalytic fume incinerators
    5
    5
    5
    5
    5
    20
    10
    20
    10
    10
    40
    20
    40
    20
    20
    
    I
    I                  	
    
    
                          Capital  recovery  cost  =  (capital  costs) x  ,j    't"  -  i         I"
    
             where   i =  annual  interest  rate
                     n =  capital recovery period.
    
             6.3  CAPITAL AND OPERATING  COSTS FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATION FACILITIES
                  AND AIR POLLUTION  CONTROL DEVICES  [2-4]
    i
             6.3.1   Hazardous Waste  Incinerators
    i
    1        Information presented in this subsection  aids in determining whether capital
             and operating costs  of  the  hazardous waste incinerator are  in the expected
    j        range compared  to  similar incinerators.   All  costs are shown as a function of
             incinerator heat load and are grouped as  follows:  (1) rotary kiln incinerator
             with and without energy recovery,  and (2) liquid injection  incinerator with
             and without energy recovery.
    
             6.3.1.1  Capital Investment for Hazardous Waste Incinerators—
             Figures 6-1  and 6-2  show the  total capital investment for a rotary kiln incin-
             erator  and  for  a liquid injection  incinerator, respectively.  These costs are
             based on references  2 through 4, representing incineration  of rubber wastes,
             polyvinyl chloride waste, and ethylene.   The  estimated capital  investments
             represent costs for  "grass  roots"  plant installation excluding  land costs.
             Chart accuracy  is  anticipated to be  ±50%  of mid-1980 costs.  The  incinerator
    1         capacity in  Btu/hour includes the  heat release rate from the auxiliary fuel
             as well as  that of the  waste being burned.
    
             The rotary  kiln incineration  system  costs include those for the material
             handling building, the  rotary kiln primary combustion chamber,  an afterburner,
    
    
                                                  6-5
    

    -------
    •s
       1C
    Q.
    
    U
    
    <
    O
      0 1
                                             	NO ENERGY RECOVERY
                                                     WITH ENERGY RECOVERY
        0.01
    0.1                1.0
           INCINERATOR CAPACITY. 107 8tu/hr
                                                               10
                                                           100
                       Figure 6-1.   Total capital investment* for a
                                     rotary kiln incinerator [2-4].
    
                *Expressed in June  1980 dollars, actual  costs expected
                 to be within ±50%  of values  from curve.
                                          6-6
    

    -------
       100
       10
    2  1.0
    S
       o.i
                                                                                I
                                                     WITH ENERGY RECOVERY
    
                                             	NO ENERGY RECOVERY
                                                                     i   i  i  i
        0.01
    0.1                1.0
    
           INCINERATOR CAPACITY. 107 Btu/hr
    100
                   Figure  6-2.  Total capital investment*  for a
                                 liquid injection  incinerator  [2-4].
    
            *Expressed  in June 1980  dollars, actual costs expected
              to be within ±50% of values from  curve.
                                       6-7
    

    -------
    a water quench chamber, a high energy venturi scrubber,  a demister, a fan,
    stack, a scrubber water neutralization system (for HC1 from the combustion
    of vinyl chloride waste), and associated equipment.  The; capital costs for
    rotary kiln incinerator systems were calculated by adding the costs for
    Purchased Equipment Items (PEI) (rotary kiln incinerator and afterburner
    equal 50 to 70% of PEI); adding 15 percent to get Installed Equipment Cost
    (IEC); adding costs for piping (40% IEC), building, structures, and founda-
    tions (35% IEC), and electrical and instruments ($50,000) to get Total
    Physical Plant Cost (TPPC); and then adding 50% of TPPC  for engineering,
    construction, and contingencies.   All costs were adjusted to June 1980
    dollars.  In sizing equipment, on-stream factors of 0.8  to 0.9 were used
    (7000-7900 hours/year).
    
    The liquid injection incineration system costs include those for the building,
    waste storage tank, automated feed system, fuel oil storage tank, liquid
    injection incinerator, high energy venturi scrubber, scrubber water supply
    system,  and pH control system.  The capital costs for the liquid injection
    incinerator system were calculated by adding the costs for the Purchased
    Equipment Items (PEI), (liquid injection incinerator and venturi scrubber
    equal 40 to 60% PEI); adding 10% PEI for labor to get Installed Equipment
    Cost (IEC),- adding costs for piping (90% IEC), buildings, structures and
    foundations (30% of IEC), and electrical (50% IEC) to get Total Plant
    Cost (TPC); and then adding 30% of TPC for overhead to get Total Erected    h
    Cost (TEC) and then adding 20% of TEC for engineering and contingencies     I
    to get Total Capital Investment.   All costs were adjusted to 1980 dollars,  I
    and an on-stream factor of 0.8 to 0.9 was used.
    
    While the useful life of these facilities was not specifically discussed in
    literature cited, a general rule of thumb of 20 years seems appropriate.  This
    is the life experienced by most petroleum and petrochemical facilities.
    
    6.3.1.2  Operating Costs of Hazardous Waste Incinerators--
    Figures 6-3 and 6-4 exhibit annual operating costs for rotary kiln and liquid
    injection incinerators, with and without energy recovery.  Due to savings
    realized by making steam on site, total annual operating costs are generally
    lower when an energy recovery unit is employed.
    
    The term "fuel" is used in sources cited to indicate auxiliary or supple-
    mental fuel (usually No. 2 fuel oil) used to raise combustion zone tempera-
    tures.  The need for supplemental fuel is determined by the heating value
    and/or water content of the waste.
    
    6.3.2  Air Pollution Control Devices [5]
    
    An important cost-related item that should not be overlooked in using inciner-
    ators for hazardous waste disposal is air pollution control to meet Federal,
    state, and local regulations.  The combustion of the waste in the incinerator
    may not end the pollution problem, since dust, fumes, smoke, and particulate
    emissions may be combustion byproducts requiring removal hardware.  Many  of
    the air cleanup devices use recirculating water, which in turn may require wa-
    ter pollution control devices or ultimate chemical treatment.  These  steps can
                                        6-8
    

    -------
            INCINERATOR CAPACITY, 107Btu/hr
    
    
    Figure 6-3.  Total annual  operating cost for
                 a rotary kiln incinerator  [2-4].
                                                            0.01
                      6-9
    

    -------
    _2
    "o
    00
    O
    CL
    O
                                                       10
    100
                                                                                01
                               INCINERATOR CAPACITY,  10' Btu/hr
                    Figure 6-4.  Total annual  operating cost for a
                                 liquid injection incinerator [2-4].
                                        6-10
    

    -------
     add  significant  investment  and operating costs  to  the overall cost of the
     incineration process.
    
     Pollutants  that  are  likely  to show up in the exhaust gases include:  flyash
     and  other noncombustible particulates, sulfur and nitrogen oxides, acidic gas-
     es,  odors,  and smoke.  Figures 6-5 through 6-13 give capital and annualized
     costs  for fans,  electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, mechanical collec-
     tors,  incinerators,  and venturi scrubbers.
    
     6.3.2.1  Air Pollution Control Device Capital Installed Costs--
     A number of cost curves (Figs. 6-5 through 6-13) have been developed that pro-
     vide conceptual  or study estimates of the capital and annualized costs of
     complete air pollution control systems.  These curves presented provide costs
     for  grass-roots  installations.  A retrofitted installation generally costs
     10 to  30 percent more than  a grass-roots installation and, depending on specific
     difficulties at  a given site, the costs can be calculated on the basis of the
     latter percentage.
    
     Figures present  these costs based upon gas volume through the major air pol-
     lution control device types.  The gas volume generated under a given set of
     waste  and combustion conditions can be determined through the methods des-
     cribed in Chapter 4.  For reference purposes, as a rough approximation,  the
     following relationship may be used:
                   scf of SA  _ Gross heating value of fuel (Btu/lb)
                   Ib of feed =                 100
    \
    where SA = stoichiometric air.
    6.3.2.2  Electrostatic Precipitator—
    Figure 6-7 presents cost curves for systems utilizing an electrostatic pre-
    cipitator housed in an insulated, carbon steel shell.  The assumption is made
    that the uncontrolled gas stream is normally vented to a stack.  Thus, the
    necessary fan and ductwork are considered part of the process.  Costs are pre-
    sented for three levels of control efficiency based on medium- and high-
    reactivity dust.  For a given collection efficiency, high-resistivity dust
    requires a greater SCA (specific collection area) and the cost of the ESP is
    thus increased.  For purposes of estimating equipment costs, plate area was
    calculated according to the Deutsch equation with partical drift velocities of
    0.036 m/s for high-resistivity dusts and 0.086 ra/s for low-resistivity dusts.
    Ousts such as fly ash from low-sulfur coal combustion and cement kiln dust
    have high resistivity.
    
    6.3.2.3  Fabric Filters—
    Fabric filters are commonly used across a broad range of exhaust gas volumes.
    Low-temperature and low-volume exhaust streams from conveyor transfer points are
    normally vented to a fabric filter.  On the other hand, high-temperature and
    high-volume exhausts from electric arc furnaces are also often vented to a
    fabric filter.  Figures 6-8 and 6-9 present cost curves for a variety of fabric
    filter applications.  Costs are presented for filters utilizing each type of
                                        6-11
    

    -------
       1,0001
        ioo
     o
     o
     o*
    
     >-
     OS
     <
     ^
    
     <
    
    •^
     o
     to
     O
    10
         10.000
                                                          CAPITAL COST
    
    
                                                          ANNUALJZED COST
    
    
                                                          NOTE - COST OF DUCT
    
                                                                INCLUDES ONE ELBOW
    
                             100,000                  1,000,000
    
    
                                EXHAUST GAS RATE, acfm
    
    
    
                 Figure  6-5.  Capital and annualized costs of
    
                               fans  and 30.5  length of  duct.
    10,000,000
                                           6-12
    

    -------
        iO.OOOr
       i.ooo U
    OS
    
                                                            CAPITAL COST
    
                                                            ANMJAUZED COST BASED ON
                                                            8700 h/yr OPERATION
                                          100,000
                                  EXHAUST GAS RATE, acfm
    1,000.000
                Figure 6-6.   Capital  and annual12cd  cost of  fan
                               driver for various head pressures.
                                      6-13
    

    -------
        lO.OOOr
     or
     s
        1,000
     <
    
    m
     o
          100
          10.000
                                                                       NOTES A & C
                                           SCA • SPECIFIC COU£CTION AREA
        NOTE A • FOR DUST HAVING HIGH RESISTIVITY
        NOTE B - FOR OUST HAVING MODERATE TO LOW RESISTIVITY
        NOTE C • CAPITAL COSTS
        NOTE 0 • ANNUAUZED COSTS
       i.  i  i  i  I	i	i    i    I   i  i   i i
             100,000
    EXHAUST GAS  RATE, acfm
    1,000,000
                 Figure 6-7.   Capital and annualized costs  of electrostatic
                                precipitators,  carbon steel construction.
                                               6-14
    

    -------
         lO.OOOr
               h
    
              L
              L
        1,000
     <
    
    CO
     O
               CAPITAL COST
    	 ANNUALIZED COST
    
     TYPE OF CLEANING MECHANISM
        CURVE 1 - REVERSE AIR
        CURVE 2 - SHAKER
        CURVE 3 - PULSE JET
     AIR-TO-CLOTH RATIO
        CURVE 1   0.46 TO 1
        CURVE 2 - 0.61 TO 1
        CURVE 3 - 2.12 TO I
         100
         10,000
                      BAG MATERIAL
                         CURVE 3 - NYLON
                         CURVE 2 - NYLON
                         CURVE 3 - NOMEX
                   Figure  6-8.
                              100,000
                    EXHAUST GAS  RATE, acfm
    
                 Capital and annualazed cost of  fabric
                 filters,  carbon steel  construction.
                                                                                    1,000.000
                                            6-15
    

    -------
      10,000 r
    >•
    OS
    <
    1,000
                                                               BAG
                                                                      CAPITAL COST
    
                                                                      ANNUAUZED COST
    
                                                                   CLEANING MECHANISM
                                                               CURVE 1 - REVERSE AIR
                                                               CURVE 2 - SHAKER
                                                               CURVE 3 - PULSE JET
                                                                   CLOTH RATIO
                                                               CURVE 1   OM TO 1
                                                               CURVE 2 - 0.61 TO 1
                                                               CURVE 3 - 2.12 TO 1
    
                                                                MATERIAL
                                                               CURVE 3 - NYLON
                                                               CURVE 2 - NYLON
                                                               CURVE 3 - NOMEX
                                                                1  	i	 I   i	 j  I   i_
         10,000
                                           100,000
                                  EXHAUST GAS RATE, acfm
    1,000,000
                 Figure 6-9.  Capital and annualized costs of  fabric
                               filters,  stainless steel  construction.
                                          6-16
    

    -------
       1,000
    2
    
         100
    8
    o
    10
    1.000
                                   I  I  . ,  I  I
                                            10,000
    
                                   EXHAUST GAS  RATE, acfm
    100,000
               Figure 6-10.  Capital  and annualized cost of mechanical
                             collectors,  carbon steel construction.
                                        6-17
    

    -------
       10.000
        1.000-
    f
    
         1009
                                           CAPITAL COST
                                           ANNUAUZED COST
                                           CURVE 1 -CATALYTIC UNIT.  35% HEAT RECOVERY
                                           CURVE 2 - CATALYTIC UNIT.  NO HEAT RECOVERY
                                           CURVE 3 -THERMAL UNIT, 35% HEAT RECOVERY
                                           CURVE 4 - THERMAL UNIT, NO HEAT RECOVERY
             10,000
    EXHAUST GAS RATE, acfm
                                                                                  100,000
    
    
       Figure 6-11.   Capital and annualized costs  of  fume incinerators.
                                         6-18
    

    -------
      10,000
    as
                                                          CAPITAL COST
                                                	ANNUAUZED COST
                                                          PRESSURE DROP. Pa
                                                          CURVE 1 - 14,928
                                                          CURVE 2-  9,952
                                                          CURVE 3-  4,976
         100
         10.000
    i    I
                                            I   I	 I   I 	l
                100,000
       EXHAUST GAS RATE, acfm
    1,000,000
                 Figure 6-12.   Capital and annualized costs  of venturi
                                scrubbers, stainless steel  construction.
                                          6-19
    

    -------
        10,000
        1,000 -
     o
     o
     <
    ff\
                                                     CAPITAL COST
                                                     ANNUALIZED COST
                                                     PRESSURE DROP,  Pa
                                                     CURVE 1 - 14.928
                                                     CURVE 2-  9.952
                                                     CURVE 3 -  4,976
          10
         10,000
            100,000
    EXHAUST GAS RATE, acfm
    1,000,000
            Figure 6-13.   Capital and annualized cost of venturi scrubber,
                           carbon steel construction.
                                        6-20
    

    -------
    bag-cleaning mechanism.  The cost curves assume that the fan and drive are
    process equipment.  The control costs include tie-in ductwork, a dust handling
    conveyor, and a dust storage bin.  The costs of thermal insulation and heaters
    (necessary to prevent condensation in some applications) are not reflected in
    the cost curves.  Separate curves are presented for stainless construction.
    
    6.3.2.4  Mechanical Collectors--
    Capital and annualized cost curves for mechanical collector systems are shown
    in Figure 6-10.  System costs include hooding to capture the exhaust at the
    emission point, ducting, a fan and drive, and a dust storage bin.  The system
    cost is based on carbon steel construction.  Collection efficiency for this
    type of system generally ranges from 80 to 90 percent, depending on the particl<
    size distribution and inlet grain loading.
    
    6.3.2.5  Fume Incinerators--
    Fume incinerators are included in this handbook because it is believed that
    they are sometimes used to cofire hazardous combustible liquid waste as a fuel
    supplement.  Fume incinerators are of two basic types, thermal  and catalytic.
    Although thermal incinerators are less costly from a capital cost standpoint,
    the fuel savings associated with catalytic units make them attractive for
    compatible exhaust streams.  Both types of units may recover heat and thereby
    reduce the fuel requirements.  The additional cost of the heat exchangers must
    be compared with the fuel savings on a case-by-case basis.  Additionally, the
    use of catalytic incinerators for control of particulate matter is limited po
    substances that will not blind or poison the catalytic mesh.  Figure 6-11 p|*e-
    sents cost curves for both types of units, based on an exhaust stream at 2?
    percent of the lower explosive limit (LEL).  The costs of units having a heat
    exchanger are based on a 25 percent heat recovery rate.  Exhaust streams that
    are amenable to incineration are normally exhausted to the atmosphere.  Thus
    for purposes of the cost curves presented herein, *he fan and drive are con-
    sidered process equipment.   The cost curves include the cost of ductwork to tie
    the incinerator into the process vent system.
    
    6.3.2.6  Venturi Scrubbers—
    Venturi scrubber use ranges from control of small process fugitive exhaust
    streams to control of hi$h-volume point sources such as basic oxygen furnaces.
    Figures 6-12 and 6-13 present cost curves for a variety of pressure drops.  The
    costs include a clarifier and circulating pump for the scrubber liquor, a fan
    and drive,  and ductwork sufficient to tie the scrubber into the process exhaust
    stream.
     Note:  Direct-fired incinerators are considered as thermal incinerators for
     purposes of this analysis.
                                        6-21
    

    -------
    6.3.2.7  Example Calculation--
    The following example is presented to illustrate the use of the cost curves
    presented in this chapter.
    
         Example:   (a) Determine the capital and operating costs of a rotary
                    kiln incineration system with a high energy venturi scrubber
                    having a throughput of 10 million Btu/hour, processing a
                    waste with a heating value of 5000 Btu/pound, and operating
                    with 20% excess air.  Assume no heat recovery,
                    b) Determine the differences in capital and operating costs
                    which might be expected if an electrostatic precipitator were
                    used instead of the high-energy venturi scrubber to collect
                    high resistivity dust with 99.5% efficiency.
    
         a) Using Figure 6-1 the 1980 capital cost of the rotary kiln incineration
            system  with a 10 million Btu/hour throughput is estimated to be 3.5
            million dollars.  Using Figure 6-3 the 1980 operating cost of this
            type of system is estimated to be 1,500,000 dollars per year.
    
         b) First,  the exhaust gas rate needs to be determined.
    
    From the relationship given on page 6-11,
    
                      scf of SA  _ H.V. _ 5000 Btu/lb _ 50 scf SA                 |-
                      Ib of feed " 100  ~ 100         ~    Ib/feed                J
    
    Assume stack gas temperature = 2000°F or 2460°R
    
                            - _  scf (T °R) _ 50(2460)  _
                          »« -    4g20R    -   492     - «u
    
    
    at 20% excess air
                         acf = 1.20 x 250 = 300 acf/lb of feed
    
    Therefore the exhaust gas rate is
    
                        .  _ 10M Btu    1 hr      1 Ib     300 acf
                        OT ~     hr    60 min * 5000 Btu *     Ib
    
    exhaust gas rate = 10000 acfm
    
    For a carbon steel venturi scrubber with an exhaust gas rate of 10,000 actual
    cfm at a 5 kPa pressure drop, Figure 6-13 shows a capital cost of 185,000
    dollars for a carbon steel unit, and its annual operating cost is 72,000
    dollars.
    
    For a carbon steel electrostatic precipitator to handle 10,000 actual cfm.
    Figure 6-7 shows a capital cost of 450,000 dollars and an operating  cost of
    140,000 dollars.
    
    The change from a venturi scrubber to an electrostatic precipitator  would,
    therefore, be estimated to result in an increased capital cost of 265,000
    dollars and an  operating cost of 68,000 dollars per year.
    
                                        6-22
    

    -------
    6.4  COST EFFECTS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATION FACILITY MODIFICATIONS
    
    The purpose of this section is to provide the user with the costs associated
    with facility modifications.  Costs presented herein are based on the prime
    operating parameter of the facility component relative to the component's cost.
    
    6.4.1  Cost Effects on Material of Construction
    
    Table 6-2 provides material cost factors which permit determination of a modi-
    fication cost where materials of construction have been changed.  While carbon
    steel is a widely used construction material, higher alloys are often required.
    The cost of a new material may be determined using the cost of the original
    material and factoring up or down using the material cost factors.
    
                         TABLE 6-2.  MATERIAL COST FACTORS [6]
                              Construction          Material
                           	material	factor
    
                           Carbon steel            1.0
                           FRP                     0.95
                           304 Stainless steel     1.55
                           316 Stainless steel     1.85
                           Hastelloy C             5.90
                           Kynar lined FRP         1.55
                           Teflon lined steel      2.95
                           Carbon lined steel      4.05
                           Rubber lined steel      2.30
                           PVC                     1.38
                           Carpenter 20            4.0 (est.)
    6.4.2  Cost Effects Using Euipment Modules
    
    Equipment modifications needed to fit the conditions for a specific inciner-
    ator or a specific waste can vary greatly.  Reference 7 provides the installed
    costs of commonly used equipment nodules.  Where modifications change the ca-
    pacity of a module, the cost of the modifications can be determined by the
    difference in installed costs at the two capacities.  Figures 6-14a through
    6-14c are provided for selected incineration modules.
    
    6.5  TRIAL BURNS
    
    A trial burn is defined as any attempt to incinerate the waste in question for
    a limited period, and it is designed to establish the conditions at which in-
    cineration of waste in a given facility must be carried out to assure protec-
    tion to public health and the environment.  A trial burn aay be requested when
    the EPA believes (1) the information is insufficient to assure protection to
    public health and the environment, and (2) a trial burn can provide informa-
    tion necessary to assure such protection (i.e., to verify 99.99% destruction
                                        6-23
    

    -------
                          100 000 I
                          10.000
                           1.000
                              100
         1.000
     CAPACITY, cfm
    10,000
             Figure  6-l4a.   Capacity vs.  installed cost  for a fan [7a].
    Updated using  Marshall  and Stevens  process  machinery indexes  for 1972 and 1980.
                         1,000,000
                      3   100.000
                           10'°8ooo
                                                          1  '—L-LJ.ii
         100,000
    CAPACITY. Ib STEAM/h
    1,000,000
        Figure 6-14b.   Capacity vs.  installed cost for a steam  boiler  [7a]
                                           6-24
    

    -------
                         1,000,000
                       ~   100.000
                       o
                       (J
                           10, (
                              100
       1,000
    
    CAPACITY, IWh
                                                             10,000
          Figure 6-l4c.  Capacity vs.  installed  cost  for  an  incinerator  [7a]
     Updated using Marshall and Stevens process machinery  indexes  for  1972  and 1980
    
    efficiency).  A trial burn may comprise  either  a  single burn or  a  sequence of
    burns conducted at constant or varied  incineration parameters.
    
    A trial burn will be typically conducted at a given  facility which is applying
    for a permit to incinerate the waste in  question  on  a  more permanent schedule.
    The facility could be a commercial  (full-sized) incinerator, a pilot-scale
    unit operated by an incinerator vendor,  or a pilot-scale unit  operated  by  a
    vendor specializing in trial burns.
    
    A trial burn requires a temporary permit from the EPA  and may be conducted in
    the presence of an EPA official.  A trial burn  itself  should not present any
    serious threat to public or operators' health and the  environment.  To  prevent
    any serious hazard to public and operators' health and the environment, a
    trial burn should provide for (a) rapid  detection in the incinerator effluents
    of hazardous materials in quantities potentially  threatening health and safety
    of the public and/or the operators, and  (b) rapid incinerator  shutdown  upon
    detection of such quantities.
    
    Table 6-3 presents estimated average costs for  various of the  trial burn
    activity.  Costs contained in Table 6-3  are for trial  burns at an  existing,
    full-scale incinerator.  It is assumed that the incinerator is already
    permitted to burn hazardous wastes and that the trial  burn is being conducted
    for the plant to obtain a permit to burn an additional hazardous waste.  These
                                        6-25
    

    -------
                 TABLE 6-3.  TRIAL BURN COST COMPONENTS (DOLLARS)3'b
    
    
    Site survey
    Equipment preparation
    Equipment setup and takedown
    Stack sampling
    Sample analysis
    Equipment cleanup
    Report preparation
    Average
    200°
    i,oooc
    i,oooc
    i,oood
    3,000d
    500°
    i,oooc
    Range
    $ 100 -
    500 -
    500 -
    500 -
    1,000 -
    300 -
    500 -
    500
    2,000
    2,000
    2,000
    5,000
    800
    3,000
    
              aCosts included in this table are estimated averages
               obtained by questioning selected consultants experienced
               in trial burn situations.   Additional costs may be
               incurred under specific conditions.
    
               Mid-1980 estimated costs.
    
               One-time costs.                                                  j*
    
               Costs during trial burn period.   (Dollars per day of             •
               testing.)
    
    costs are based principally on information furnished by privately-owned environ-
    mental laboratory and consulting firms.  The trial burn period is assumed to
    require a minimum of 4 hours but may extend to  several days or weeks,  depending
    upon facility operations and management decisions concerning the number of
    replicative samples to be taken.  Facility operators may choose to conduct
    parallel tests or implement procedures for permit applications simultaneous
    with conducting trial burns.  Any costs incurred through normal operations and
    those related to obtaining a permit under Subtitle C of RCRA are not included
    in the trial burn activity costs.
    
    Specific situations could arise which would increase costs above those repre-
    sented in Table 6-3.  These include costs for incinerating new and unfamiliar
    wastes, new construction, and retrofitting of existing facilities.
    
    6.5.1  Normal Operations
    
    Previously constructed and existing commercial-sized facilities are assumed,
    with normal operating costs (fixed and variable) expected to be recovered
    through established charges for incinerating customers' wastes.  These costs
    include amortized engineering design and capital investment costs, costs for
    analyzing incoming wastes, burn adjustments, supplementary fuel, and expendi-
    tures associated with installing and operating pollution control devices.
    Wastes for the trial burns and related storage facilities,, including use of
    supplementary fuel, are assumed as part of the facilities normal operations
    for which the usual charges offset operating costs.  All costs related to
    
    
                                        6-26
    

    -------
    obtaining a permit under Subtitle C of RCRA are excluded from consideration
    as trial burn costs.
    
    6.5.2  Trial Burn Activities
    
    6.5.2.1  Site Survey--
    Costs include professional services and travel to a local site for inspection
    of the facility to be tested and discussion of plans for trial burns.   Specific
    characteristics of wastes to be incinerated are assumed known or provided by
    waste generators and listed on manifest records or analyzed previously.
    Information on the compatibility of these wastes with the specific facility
    characteristics is assumed available.
    
    6.5.2.2  Equipment Preparation—
    Sampling equipment may be leased by the facility or provided by a consulting
    firm.  Certain costs are incurred in calibrating and loading of instruments and
    transport to facility site; estimates of these average costs are shown in
    Table 6-3.
    
    6.5.2.3  Equipment Setup and Takedown—
    Installation of equipment includes any scaffolding and securing of ports and
    proper sampling instruments at facility stack(s) to ensure the necessary monitor-
    ing and procurement of trial burn samples.
    \
    6.5.2.4  Stack Sampling—
    A minimum of three tests involving 1 to 1 1/2 hours per test is assumed.  Costs
    for testing, instrumentation, and adjustments associated with a permit applica-
    tion are considered separate costs not attributable to the trial burn activity.
    Development of sampling procedures and verification of test methods are presumed
    available and accomplished prior to the trial burns.
    
    6.5.2.5  Sample Analysis—
    Laboratory analysis costs include preservation and transporting of samples to
    an off-site laboratory and makeup of fractional samples.  Compounds to be
    analyzed include those potential air pollutants listed in the previous section
    (Table 5-13).  GCMS testing is conducted for the chlorinated hydrocarbons and
    EPA test methods Nos. 5, 6, and 7 for various other potential pollutants,
    including particulate matter.  GCMS testing at the site is excluded.
    
    Daily testing assumes one EPA Method No. 5, two Method No. 6, and four Method
    No. 7 tests for analyzing single waste trial burns.  Blending of incoming
    wastes could complicate analytical procedures and increase the laboratory
    analysis costs.
    
    6.5.2.6  Equipment Cleanup—
    These costs are the routine costs incurred for cleaning and storing various
    sampling and analysis equipment.
    
    6.5.2.7  Report Preparation—
    The written report displays and interprets the trial burn results.  Preparation
    of this report and the information contained therein is considered independent
    from any information produced for permit negotiations.
    
    
                                        6-27
    

    -------
    6.6  REFERENCES
    
    1.  Neveril, R. B.  Capital and operating costs  of selected air pollution con-
        trol systems.  EPA-450/5-80-002.   Research Triangle Park,  North Carolina;
        U.S. Environmental Protection Agency;  1978 December.   PB 80-157282.
    
    2.  Adams,  J. W. ; Harris,  J.  C. ;  Levins,  P.  L. ;  Stauffer,  J. L. ;  Thrun,  K.  E.;
        and Woodland, L.   Destroying chemical wastes in commercial scale inciner-
        ators,  facility report No.  2.  Washington, DC;  U.S.  Environmental Protec-
        tion Agency; 1976 November.  150  p.   PB  268  232.
    
    3.  Ackerman, D.,- Clausen, J. ;  Grant,  A.;  Johnson,  R. ,-  Shih, C. ,-  Tobias,  R. ;
        Zee, C.,- Adams, J. ;  Cunningham, N. ,• Dohnert, E.; Harris, J. ;  Levins,  P.;
        Stauffer, J.'; Thrun, K.;  and Woodland, L.  Destroying  chemical wastes in
        commercial scale  incinerators;  final  report  - phase II.   Washington,  DC;
        U.S. Environmental Protection Agency;  1978.   130 p.  PB 278 816.
                                                                 *»
    4.  Ackerman, D.; Clausen, J.;  Johnson, R.;  Tobias,  R.;  Zee, C.;  Adams,  J.;
        Harris, J.; Levins,  P.; Stauffer,  J.;  Thrun, K.; and Woodland, L.
        Destroying chemical wastes  in commercial scale incinerators,  facility
        report  No. 6.  Washington,  DC;  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency•
        1977.   173 p.  PB 270  897.
        Alpert, L.  D.;  et al.   Control techniques  for particulate air pollutants
        Washington, DC; U.S.  Department of Health,  Education,  and Welfare;  1969 '
        January.  241 p.  .PB  190 253.
    
        Gilbert, W.  Selecting materials for wet scrubbing systems.   Westfield,
        NJ; Caroll-Reynolds Co., Inc.
    
        Capital and operating costs of pollution control equipment modules,  data
        manual, volume  II. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,- 1973 July.
        183 p.  EPA-R5-73-023b.
    \
                                        6-28
    

    -------
                                                   APPENDIX A
                                                  SUBJECT  INDEX
    Abrasion (see erosion)
    Absorption, 2.2.2
    Acoustic analysis, 5.11.2
    Activation energy, 4.3.2. Appendix E
      (Section 6)
    Afterburner, 2.3.3.1, 4.3, 6.4.2.5
      catalytic, 2.3.3.1
      cost, 6.4.2.5
      direct flame, 2.3.3.1
      general, 2.3.1.1, 2.3.1.4-5
      thermal, 2.3.3.1
    Air pollution
      emissions (see emissions)
      fugitive, 5.1.4.1-2
      nonitonng. 5.7, 5.9, 5.10
    Air pollution control device
      absorption (see absorption)
      applicability, 2.3.3, 4.4.1
      baghouse (see baghouse)
      cost, 6.4
      design. 2.3.3, 4.4.1
      electrostatic precipitator
        (see electrostatic precipitator)
      evaluation, 5.3.1-3
      scrubber (see scrubber)
    Air requirements
      excess air, 4.3.3
        (worksheets. 4-5. 4-8. 4-9)
      stoichiometnc,  4.3.3
        (worksheets. 4-2, 4-4)
    Ash. 5.12.1.3,  5.12.4
    Atomization
      evaluation, 4.3.2.1
      general. 2.3.1.2
      rotary cup, 2.3.1.2. 4.3.2.1
      single fluid. 4.3.2.1
      sonic, 4.3.2.1
      two fluid,  high pressure air,  2.3.1.2,
        4.3.2.1
      two fluid,  high pressure steam,  2.3.1.2.
        4.3.2.1
    Auto ignition temperature, 5.2.2.3.  5.2.2.8
    Automatic sprinkler systesi,  5.5.5.1
    Baghouse. 2.2.S
    Baghouse monitoring,  5.7.2
    Bibliography. Appendix 0
    Bonding, 5.3.3.2
    Bottom ash,  5.7.2.3
    Burner
      atosuzation (see atomixation)
      evaluation, 4.3.2
      general design,  4.3.1
      placement,  4.3.1
      suspension, 4.3.1
    Catalytic afterburner (see afterburner)
    Chain of custody,  3.3
    Co-incineration, 2.3.1.5,  2.4
    Coding, pipe, 5.5.3.4
    Combustible organic*, 2.1
    Combustible inorganics,  2.1
    Combustion gases,  2.2, 2.3.4
    Compatibility matrix, 5.5.1
    Construction materials (see corrosion),  5.14, 6.5.1
    Container (see storage)
    Contract maintenance, 5.15.3
    Control system, 5.6
    Conversion tables, Appendix C
    Conveyors
      mechanical, 5.3.5.1
      pneumatic,  5.3.5.2
    Corrosion, 4.4.6
    Cost
      air pollution control  device,  6.4
      capital, 6.2.1,  6.3.1
      facility modification. 6.5
      operating,  6.3.2
      trial burn, 6.6
    Current practices, 2.2,  2.3
    Cyclone, 5.7.4
    Destruction and removal  efficiency (see
      efficiency)
    Dichotomous sampler, 5.13.3.4
    Differential absorption. 5.9.2.2
    Dikes, 5.4.3.1
    Drager tubes, 5.13.3.4
    Duct design,  4.4.4
    Dust tight, 5.5.6.3
    Ifficiency
      destruction aad removal, 4.2.
        4.5 (worksheet 4.1). 5.10.3
      removal, 2.3.3.  4.4.1
    Effluent (see water pollution)
    Electric heating cable.  5.5.3.4
    Electrostatic precipitator
      cost. 6.4.2.4
      dry, 2.3.3.6
      The  references  are  to section numbers in  the  Handbook.
                                                         A-l
    

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    Electrostatic pr-cipitator (continued)
      dweK time  5 ~ 3 4
      removal efficiency .  5 7 3 2
      step-up transformer,  5733
      two stage. 2.4 6
      wet  2337
    Emergency handbook, 5.2.2.3
    Emergency squad, 5 IS 4
    Emissions
      air pollution  22  233  432,
        441  4.5  lworKSheet 4-12)
      fugitive,  5 13
    Erosion, 2 3 1.2
    Evaluation
      air pollution control  4 4
      incinerator. 4 3
      safety systems. 4.3 5,  4.4.5
    Fan selection. 444
    Foreign technology. 2.4
    Feeder ditch  5.15.5
    Feeders  5 5 6.3
    Filters
      depth, 5911
      surface,  5.9.1 1
    Flame scanner, 4.3.5
    Flyash. 5 12.1.2
    Fuel, 4.3.4, 4.5 (worksheet 4-11)
    Fugitive emissions
      blowdown.  5 12.1.2
      control,  5.13.2
      monitoring, 5.13.3
      significance. 5.13.1
    Gauges, 5.5.5.2
    Glossary. Appendix B
    Grounding,  5.3.3 3
    Hand-held FID, 5.13.3.4
    Hazard Class (DOT). 3.3.2
    Hazardous waste generation, 2.1
    Heat capacity, 4.2.3
    Heat input capacity, 4.3.3-4
    Heat recovery
      economizer, 2.2.1
      general,  2.2
      heat exchanger, 2.2.1
      heat recovery boiler, 2.2
    Heating value
      higher, 4.3.2.1
      lower, 4.3.2.1
      net. 4.3.2.1, 4.5 (worksheet 4-3)
    Housekeeping (facility), 5.15.2
    Hydraulic accuaulator, 5.5.5.3
    Incinerator
      applicability, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3
      coincineration, 2.3.1.5, 2/4
      evaluation, 4.3
      facility design, 5.1.2
      fluidized bed, 2.3.1.3. 2.4
      general discussion, 2.1-3, S.I
      liquid injection (see liquid injection)
      Multiple hearth. 2.3.1.4, 2.4
      operation, 5.2.2
      overall layout, 2.2. S.I.2
    Incinerator  (continued)
      process control, 4.3.5
      rotary kiln,  4.3
      site  selection,  5.2.1
    Inspections  (see monitoring)
    Interlock (see  safety)
    Leak detection  and repair plan,  5.2.2.4
    Liquid  to gas  ratio (see scrubber)
    Liquid injection
      general, 2312  24  43
      horizontally-fired.  2.3.1 2
      tangentially-fired,  2312
      vertically-fired,  2312
    Loss prevention program, 5228
    Maintenance,  5.15.3
    Manufacturers,  2 S
    Mist eliminator, 4.4 3,574
    Mixing, 2.1,  4 3 3
    Mixing vessel.  5.5.2
    Monitoring
      air pollution control system, 4.3.5, 5 7, 5.10
      air pollution emissions,  5 10
      ash, 5.3.3.1, 5.12.2
      continuous, 5.9
      general, 5.2.2.1
      incinerator process,  4.3.5, 5.2.2, 5.6
      interface,  5.9.1.1
      liquid*, 5.7.1.2,  5.8. 5.12.2
      oxygen,  5.6.2
      pH, 5.7.1.3,  5.8.3,  5.8.4
      plant condition, 5.11
      pressure drop, 5.7.1.4
      slurry,  5.7.1.2. S.S.2
      solid waste,  3.6, 5.12.2
      tanks, 5.4.3.2
      temperature,  4.3.3.  5.6.1, 5.7.1.1
      vaste handling, 5.3.3.1
      waste. 5.3.2, 5.5, 5.6.2-3
    Multicyclone (see cyclone)
    Hurphee vapor phase efficiency, 4.4.2                    j
    Neutralization. 5.8.5                                    !
    Nozzle (see atosuzation, burner)
    Operations Manual, 5.2.2.2
    Operation* plan, 5.2.2.1
    Packing, 4.4.2
    Particle size,  2.3.3.2. 4.4.1. 4.4.2
    Penetration, 4.4.2
    Piping, 5.5.3
    Plant disaster emergency plan, 5.2.2.3,  5.2.2.5,  5.2.2.8
    Polymer tube, 5.13.3.4
    POTW disposal restrictions,  5.12.3
    Pressure drop
      calculation (also see fan  selection),  4.4.4
         (worksheet 4-16)
      masure»ent, 5.7.1.4
    Process control  (see incinerator, safety)
    Products of combustion  (see  waste)
    Protection of human health  (see safety)
    Pump house. 5.3.3.1
    Pumps. 5.5.3
    Punching, 5.5.6.4
    Purpose of handbook, 1.1
    Pyrolysis. 2.3.1
    Quench, 4.4.3
    Quench water,  5.12.1.1
    ROtt  regulations, 3.2
    Relief valves,  5.3.3
    Residence time
      delivered by incineration process,  2.1
      evaluation,  4.3.3
      •UUMB, 4.3.3
      requirements,  4.3.3,  4.5 (worksheets 4-6,  4-10)
    Rotary kiln  (see incinerator)
    Run off,  5.2.1,  5.15.5
    Safety
      emergency  handbook,  5.2.2.3
      fire, 5.4.3.1,  5.15
      general.  5.1S.1
      shutdown equipment,  4.3.5, 4.4.5
    k
    
    t
                                                          A-2
    

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    Safety (continued)
      spills.  5.2.2.5. 5.3.3,  5.4.3
      static electricity prevention, 5.3.3.3
      storage,  5.4.3
      training,  5.2.2.7
      unloading hazardous liquids,  5.3.3.1
      valves,  5.5.5
      weather extremes, 5.2.2.3
    Sampling (see monitoring}
    Scrubber
      applicability, 4.4.1-2
      cost,  6.4.2.2
      flooding velocity, 4.4.2
      gas atomized spray, 4.4.1-2
      ionizing (see electrostatically augmented)
      liquid to gas ratio, 4.4.2, 4.5
        (worksheet 4-15), 5.7.1.2
      monitoring, 4.4.5, 5.7.1
      orifice,  5.12.1.1
      packed bed, 2.3.3.3, 4.4.1-2
      plate tower. 2.3.3.3, 4.4.1-2, 4.5
        (worksheet 4-14)
      selection (see applicability)
      sieve tray, 4.4.1-2
      spray tower, 2.3.3.4
      transfer unit, 4.4.2
      venturi,  2.2.5, 2.3.3.2, 2.3.3.5, 4.4.1,
        4.4.2,  4.5 (worksheet 4-13)
      water handling, 5.12
    Seals
      packed, 5.5.3.3
      mechanical. 5.S.3.3
    Security (of facility), 5.2.2.6
    Shipping and receiving, 5.3. 5.3.3-4, 5.4.3.2
    Shredders,  5.5.6.1-2
    Site selection, 5.2.1
    Sludge,  5.12.3
    Slurry,  5.5.2
    Spill and runoff contai
    Spill handling plan, 5.2.2.5
    Spills (see safety)
    Stack, bypass, 4.4.5
    Starved air combustion. 2.3.2,
    Static electricity prevention, 5.3.3.3
    Steam
      injection, 4.3.2
      production, 2.3.4
      requirements, 4.3.2
      tracing, 5.5.3.4
    Stock piles. 5.4.1.2
    Storage
      bulk solids, 5.4.1.2
      containers, 5.4.1.3
      liquid, 5.4.1.1, 5.4.3.2
      safety, 5.4.2-3
      tank cars, 5.4.1.4
    Storm water diversion, 5.15.5
    Tanks (see storage)
    Temperature
      incinerator, 2.3.1, 2.3.3.1, 4.3.3
      measurement. 5.6.1, 5.7.1
    Test burn (see trial burn)
    Testing (see monitoring)
    Thermal afterburner  (see afterburner)
    nt. 5.3.3.2, 5.4.3.2
    Thermal decomposition unit,
    Training. 5.2.2.7
    Transducer, 5.9.2.3
    Transfer lines (fail safe),
    Trenching system. 5.3.3.2
      3.7, appendix I
      5.3.3
                                                     5.12.4
                                                     4.3.3, 4.4.2, 4.5
                                                   .13.2
     3.8
    3.2.1,
                                                                       3.4, 4.3.2
                                                               5.1, 4.5  (worksheet 4-2)
    Trial burn
      results, Appendix F
      use, 4.3.3
    Turbulence (see mixing)
    Unloading
      bulk solids, 53.5
      containers, 5.3.4
      liquids, 5.3.3
    Valves, 5.5.4, 5.12.2,
    Velocity, superficial,
         (worksheet 4-7)
    Vents, 5.4.1.1
    Viscosity
       absolute, 4.3.2
       kinematic, 4.3.2
    Visual inspection, 5.
    Haste (solid)
      blending (see waste preparation)
      characterization, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6,
      compatability with incinerator,
      composition, 3.4. 4.3.2
      monitoring. 5.3.2
      physical properties, 3.4, 4.3.2
      pit, 5.4.1.2
      preparation, 4.3.2, 5.5
      products of combustion, 4.3.2,
      receiving, 5.3
      sampling, 3.3
      segregation, 5.4.2, 5.5.1
      shipping and receiving (see shipping and receiving)
      sources , 5.1
      transport , 5.3
    Hater pollution
      emissions (see emissions)
      monitoring, 5.8, 5.12-2
    Worksheet
      auxiliary fuel capacity requirements, 4.5
        (worksheet 4-11)
      combustion gas flow and composition. 4.5
        (worksheets 4-2, 4-4)
      destruction and removal efficiency, U.S.
        (worksheet 4-1)
      excess air rate at specified afterburner
      temperature and overall feed composition , 4.5
        (worksheet 4-9)
      excess air rate at specified temperature and
        feed composition, 4.5 (worksheets 4-5)
      gas residence time. 4.5 (worksheet 4-6)
      internal consistency in venturi scrubber for
        proposed gas velocity, liquid to gas ratio
        and pressure drop, 4.5 (worksheet 4-13)
      maximum achievable excess air rate at
        specified temperature and feed composition,
        4.5 (worksheet 4-6)
      maximum liquid-to-gas ratio for plate tower
        scrubber, 4.5 (worksheet 4-15)
      act heatiag value of waste, 4.5 (worksheet 4-3)
      particle concentration and emission rste in
        liquid injection incinerator, 4.5
        (worksheet 4-12)
      plate requirement in plate tower scrubber,
        4.5 (worksheet 4-14)
      pressure drop, 4.5 (worksheet 4-16)
      solid waste retention time for rotary kiln
        incinerator, 4.5 (worksheet 4-10)
      stoichiometric air requirements , 4.5
        (worksheets 4-2. 4-4)
      superficial gas velocity, 4.5  (worksheet 4-7)
      waste characterisation evaluation for
        incineration, 3.4
                                                          A-3
    

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                                      APPENDIX B
    
                                       GLOSSARY
    
    
    This appendix is a glossary of terms used throughout this Handbook.
    
    activation energy:  The quantity of heat needed to destabilize molecular bonds
         and form reactive intermediates so that the reaction will proceed
    
    afterburner (or combustor):  A pollution control device that uses combustion to
         reduce the  emission levels of organic gaseous  and particulate matter.
    
    ambient concentration (ac):  The appropriately time-averaged concentration of a
         substance at a location to which the general public has access.
    
    analyzer:  A  device  used to monitor emissions, such as:  (1) a nondispersive
         infrared analyzer (monitors S02> NO , CO, C02, and other gases that abfcorb
      .   light in  the  infrared region of th«  spectrum,  including hydrocarbons I,
         (2) a nondispersive ultraviolet analyzer (monitors gases that absorb light
         in the ultraviolet and visible regions of the spectrum), (3) a polarographii
         analyzer  (monitors  S02/  N02,  CO,  02, and H2S),  (4)  an electrocatalytic
         oxygen analyzer, and (5) a paramagnetic oxygen analyzer.
    
    angle of  repose:   The angle  at  which matter will  lie  or stack in a stationary
         configuration.
    
    ANSI:  American National Standards Institute.
    
    APCD:  Air pollution control device.
    
    ash:  The  solid residue that remains after a material is incinerated.  There
         are two  types:   (1) bottom ash remains  in  the  combustion  chamber  after
         incineration, and  (2)  fly ash is entrained in exhaust gases leaving the
         incinerator.
    
    ash  fusion temperature  (or melting temperature of ash):  The temperature  at
         which ash has the potential to melt.
    
    ASME:  American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
    
    baghouse:  An air pollution  abatement  device used to  trap  particulates by
         filtering gas streams through large fabric bags.
    
    BaP:  benzo(a)pyrene.
                                        B-l
    

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    beta attenuation  monitor:   An instrument  that  measures the  absorption  of
         ^-radiation as it traverses  a small  area  onto  which aerosol  particles  are
         collected by means of inertial impaction.
    
    blowdown:  The portion  of  scrubbing fluid that  is  purged in  order  to  prevent
         buildup of dissolved solids.
    
    BOD:  Biological oxygen demand.
    
    catalytic combustion:   A type of  combustion employing a  catalyst  bed.
    
    coburning:  The burning of waste  and a fuel.
    
    coincineration.-  The  joint  incineration  of hazardous waste and refuse and/or
         sludge.
    
    combustor  (or  afterburner):  A pollution control device that uses  combustion
         to  reduce the emission  levels  of organic gaseous and particulate matter.
    
    dedicated  incinerator:  A privately owned incinerator used  to burn only the
         owner's wastes.
    
    deflagration:  The act  of  burning very suddenly and  violently,  but without*
         a resultant shock wave (detonation).                                   I*
    
    destruction and removal efficiency (DRE):  This  term is  defined
         by the following equation:
    
                                     W.  - W  „
                               DRE =   ln    °Ut
                                       W .
                                        in
         where:
         DRE  = Destruction and removal efficiency
         W.    = Mass  feed rate of principal  organic  hazardous constituent(s)
                in the waste stream feeding the incinerator (kg/min)
         W    = Mass emission rate of principal organic hazardous
          ou    constituent (s) present in exhaust emissions (kg/min)
                [downstream of all air pollution control equipment] .
    
    destruction efficiency (DE):   Same  as  destruction and  removal efficiency
         except W    - mass emission rate of principal organic hazardous
         constituent (s) leaving combustion zone of incinerator (upstream of
         all air pollution control equipment).
    
    dry sorption process:  A  process  that involves contacting the  gas  stream with
         a solid phase  that  can remove one  or more  of the gaseous contaminants.
    
    dwell time:  See residence time.
    
    effluent:  A discharge of pollutants (either gases, liquids,  or solids)  into
         the environment.
                                        B-2
    

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    electrostatically  augmented scrubbers:   Control devices  that  couple the
         mechanisms  of electrostatic  attraction  and  inertial  separation  by
         charging particles prior to entry into a wet collector.
    
    electrostatic  precipitator (ESP):  An  air pollution  control  device that
         removes particulate matter by imparting an electrical charge to particles
         in a gas stream, causing their collection on an electrode.
    
    excess air:   The  air flow rate above that  required  to achieve  theoretically
         complete combustion.
    
    fabric filter:  A device for removing dust and particulate matter from industria
         emissions by filtration through cloth or other porous materials.
    
    flash point:  The lowest temperature at which a material will volatilize to yiel
         sufficient vapor to form a flammable
         gaseous mixture with air.
    
    flooding velocity:   The  gas velocity or narrow  range  of  gas velocities  in a
         packed bed or plate tower scrubber at which (for a given packing or plate
         design and  liquid flow rate)  the liquid flow down the  column  is  impeded,
         and a liquid layer is formed at the tip of the column.  Eventually, liquid
         is blown out the top of the column.                                   I
    
    fluid:  Any substance  (for example, a liquid or  slurry) that tends to flowjor
         conform to the outline of its container.
    
    fluidized bed  incinerator:   An incinerator consisting of a refractory-lined
         vessel containing inert granular material through which gases are blown
         at a  rate sufficiently high  to cause  the bed to expand and  act as a
         theoretical fluid.  The gases are injected through  nozzles that permit
         upward flow the bed but restrict downward flow of the material.
    
    fugitive emissions:   Pollutants arising from  sources  other than stacks and
         effluent pipes.
    
    GC:  Gas chromatograph
    
    general purpose incinerator:  An incinerator that burns miscellaneous types of
         wastes, usually from numerous sources and customers.
    
    HCB:  Hexachlorobenzene
    
    heating value:   The  quantity of heat released when waste is burned, commonly
         expressed as  Btu/lb.   The  higher  heating value  includes  the heat of
         condensation of the water present in the waste and the heat formed  in the
         combustion reaction;  the  lower heating value represents the  heat formed
         in the combustion reaction; and the net heating value  is the  lower  heating
         value minus the energy necessary to vaporize any moisture present.
    
    heat of combustion:   The heat evolved from  the union  of combustible  elements
         with oxygen.
    
    
                                        B-3
    

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    hygroscopicity:  Act of attracting moisture  from the  air.
    
    incinerator:  An engineered apparatus used to burn waste  substances  in which  all
         the combustion  factors  (temperature, retention  time,  turbulence, and
         combustion air) can be controlled.
    
    incinerator, similar.-   Incinerator A is similar to incinerator B if, based on
         the best  engineering judgement, while incinerating identical  waste  as
         incinerator B, the stream leaving the combustion chamber of incinerator  A
         contains equal or  lower  amounts of each,  but no additional,  potentially
         hazardous  components  as  the stream  leaving the combustion chamber
         of incinerator B.
    
    kinematic viscosity:  The ratio of absolute viscosity to  density.
    
    liquid injection incinerator:  An incinerator that uses an atomization device
         or nozzle to feed liquid waste.
    
    mass spectrometer:  An  instrument that  analyzes samples  by sorting  molecular
         or atomic ions according to their masses and electrical charges.
    
    MEG:  See multimedia environmental goals.
    
    microwave plasma destruction (or plasma destruction):  A  method of destructid
         that uses microwave energy to excite the molecules of a carrier gas (sud
         as helium or air), thus raising electron energy levels and forming high]
         reactive free radicals.
    
    mist eliminator:  A control device used to reduce emissions of liquid droplets,
         usually  from  scrubbers.   There are three  types:  (1)  cyclone  mist
         eliminators (2) fiber bed mist eliminators and (3) wire mesh eliminators.
    
    molten salt  incinerator:   An  incinerator  in which waste  is  injected below the
         surface of a molten salt bath.
    
    multimedia environmental goals (MEG's):  The levels of contaminants (in ambient
         air, water, or land, or in emissions or effluents conveyed to ambient media)
         that (1) will not produce negative effects in the surrounding populations
         or ecosystems, or  (2) represent control limits demonstrated to be achievable
         through technology.
    
    multiple chamber incinerator:   An incinerator in which  wastes  are  thermally
         decomposed in the presence of oxygen in the primary chamber, and  decompo-
         sition products are oxidized in the secondary chamber(s).
    
    multiple hearth  incinerator:   An incinerator containing multiple refractory-
         lined hearths, vertically aligned, designed for  staged drying and com-
         bustion of wastes.
    
    NFPA:  National Fire Protection Association.
                                        B-4
    

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    nitrogen oxides  (NO  ):   The  collective term used for  the  gaseous oxides of
         nitrogen, primarily nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (N02).
    
    NPDES:  National pollutant discharge elimination system.
    
    packed tower.-  An air pollution control device in which polluted air is forced
         upward through a tower packed with materials (such as raschig rings, cerami
         saddles, tiles,  marbles,  crushed rock,  or wood chips) while a liquid is
         sprayed  downward on the packing material.   The  pollutants in the  air
         stream dissolve and/or chemically react with the liquid.
    
    PAH.- Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
    
    particulates.-  Minute  solid  or  liquid particles  in  the  air or  in  an emission.
         Particulates include dust, smoke, fumes, mist,  spray and fog.
    
    PCS: Polychlorinated biphenyls.
    
    piezoelectric monitor.-  A type of particle monitor which measures mass
         concentration by utilization  of a vibrating piezoelectric crystal driven
         by a standard oscillation circuit.
                                                                               f
             PNA:  Polynuclear  aromatic  compounds.
    
             POHC:   Principal  organic hazardous  constituent.
    
             POM:  Polycyclic organic matter.
    
             pyrolysis:   The  thermal decomposition of a compound in the absence of oxygen.
    
             pyrophoric:   Capable  of igniting spontaneously.
    
    ,         quench:   To  cool  rapidly.
    
             removal efficiency:  The  ratio  of  the mass rate of flow of the contaminants
                  going into a control  device minus the mass  rate of the contaminants  going
                  out of the control device  to  the mass rate of flow of the contaminants
                  going into the control device.
    
             residence time:   The period of time that the waste is exposed to the reported
                  temperature  in the incinerator.
    
             retention time:   See  residence time.
    
             rotary kiln  incinerator:   An incinerator with a  cylindrical, horizontal,  refrac
                  tory-lined  shell that  is mounted at a slight incline.  Rotation of the
                  shell causes mixing of the  waste with the combustion air.
    i
             scrubber:  An air pollution  control  device that uses  a liquid to remove
                  pollutants  from a  gas stream by absorption and/or chemical reaction.
                  (Scrubbers also  reduce the  temperature of the emission.)
                                        B-5
    

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    similar waste:  Waste A  is  similar to waste B if, based on best engineering
         judgement, the incineration of waste  A in the same  facility and under the
         same operating conditions as those used for waste B would yield a stream
         leaving the combustion chamber that contains  equal  or  lower amounts  of each,
         (but no  additional)  potentially hazardous pollutants  compared to the
         amounts yielded by waste B incineration.
    
    sludge:  A nonpumpable mixture of solids and liquids.
    
    slurry:  A pumpable mixture of solids and liquids.
    
    solifluction:   Liquid seepage.
    
    SSU (standard  saybolt universal):   A unit for measuring kinematic viscosity.
    
    starved air combustion  (or  thermal gasification):  A process  that utilizes
         equipment and process  flows  similar  to those for incineration; but,  in
         this process,  less  than  the  theoretical amount of air for  complete
         combustion is supplied.
    
    TCDD:   Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin.
    
    TDAS:   Thermal decomposition analytical system.
    
    TDD:  Thermal  decomposition device                                           I
    
    TDI:  Toluene  diisocyanate.
    
    temperature:  A measure of  the level of thermal energy  in molecules to which
         a waste is exposed during the incineration process.
    
    TLV (threshold limit  value):   Exposure levels representing  conditions under
         which it  is  believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed
         day after  day without adverse  effects.   For airborne substances,  the
         exposure levels  are  stated as airborne concentrations  and durations of
         exposure, including:
    
         •  Time-weighted average concentrations for a normal 3-hour
            workday or  40-hour workweek  (threshold limit value - time-weighted
            average).
            Maximal concentrations  to which workers  can be  exposed for a  period
            up to 15 minutes (threshold limit value - short-term exposure
            limit).
         •  Concentrations that should not be exceeded even instantaneously
            (threshold limit value - ceiling).
    
         These  values are published annually  by the American  Conference  of
         Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
    
    TOD:  Total oxygen demand.
                                        B-6
    

    -------
    trial burn:   Any attempt to incinerate  the  waste  in question for a limited
         period.  A  trial  burn  is  designated to  establish  the  conditions at vhic.
         incineration  of waste  in  a given facility must be carried out to assurs
         protection  to public health and environment.
    
    trial burn  proposal:   A  detailed plan which  describes  the  procedure  that wil]
         be  used  and  the  precautions  that  will be  ta
    -------
                                      TABLE C-l.    CONVERSION FACTORS
             To convert fro
    acre
    
    
    Btu (Britnh thenul unit)
    
    
    Btu/ainute (8tu/«in)
    Btu/pound (Btu/ Us)
    Stu/ (pound- 'F) (Btu/ (lb-"F)j
    Btu/ second (Btu/*)
    
    calorie (cal)
    
    
    square kilo»et«r (la2)
    iquarc meter (m2)
    square Bile (mi*)
    caloric (cal)
    joule (J)
    kilocalone (kcal)
    joulc/aecond (J/i)
    calorie/gram (cal/g)
    calorie/ (gram-'C) (cal/(g-*C)]
    Kilocalone/hour (kcal/h)
    kilocalone/minute
    Btu
    kilocalorie (kcal)
    joule (J)
    0 00404047
    4,046 36
    0.0015625
    251.99576
    1 054 35
    0.251996
    17.5725
    0.555S5S
    l-.O
    970.185
    15.1197
    0.00396*3207
    0.001
    4.1*4
     calorie/gram (cal/g)
    
     calorie/hour (cal/h)
    
    
     centigrade CO
    
    
     centimetar (cm)
    
     centipoise (cP)
    
     centutokee (cSt)
    
     cubic centimeter (em3)
    
    
    
     cubic foot (ft4)
    
    
    
    
     cubic meter (a4)
    
    
    
    dyne/aquare centimeter
    Fahrenheit CF)
    
    
    foot (ft)
                                     Btu/pound (Btu/tt)
    
                                     Btu/hour (Btu/h)
                                                (erg/a)
    Fahrenheit CF)
    Kelvin CK)
    
    inch (in.)
    
    gram/(centimetar-second)
    
    •aybolt teconda (SSO)
    
    cubic foot (ft4)
    cubic inch (in.4)
    cubic yard (yd4)
    
    cubic centimeter (cm*)
    cubic meter (m4)
    gallon (U.S.  liquid)
    liter (L)
    
    cubic foot (ft4)
    cubic yard (yd4)
    liter (L)
                                    atmoephere (eta)
                                    bar
                                    centimeter of mercury • o*C (em Kg f 0*C)
                                    centimeter of water • 4*C (cm M«0 •  4*C)
                                    inch of mercury • 32»F (in.  Hq  • 32"P)
                                    inch of water 9 4*C (in.  MfO *  4«C)
                                    paacal (Pa)
                                    pound/square inch (lb/in.2)
    
                                    Centigrade CC)
                                    RanJun (•»
    
                                    centimeter (cm)
                                    inch (in.)
                                    meter (•)
                                    millimeter (mm)
    1.8
    
    0.0039683207
    11,622.222
    
    •P " (1.8 i «C) *32
    •H « »C * 273.17
    
    0.39370079
    
    0.01
    
    See Table C-2
    
    3.5314*67 s 10~*
    0.061023744
    1.3079506 * 10~«
    
    28.316.847
    0.02*316*47
    7.4*05195
    28.316*47
    
    35.314667
    1.3079506
    1,000
                                                          9.8*923 x  10-'
                                                          1 < 10 •
                                                          7.50062 s  10-*
                                                          0.00109745
                                                          2.95300 x  10-*
                                                          0.000401474
                                                          0.1
                                                          1.450377 > 10~*
    
                                                          •C - 0.5556  CF - 32*
                                                          •»«•?*  459.7*
    
                                                          30.4*
                                                          12
                                                          0.304*
                                                          304.8
    
                                                                (continued)
                                                                                                              I
                                                      C-l
    

    -------
                               TABLE  C-l  (continued;
    To convert frc
    gallon (L1 K liquid)
    (gal 1
    
    gallon :c 3 lisuid) [gal'
    
    
    
    
    grains 'standard cubic foot
    igr/$cf 1
    grasi (g>
    
    graa/ (centiaeter-second)
    graa/cubic centiaeter (g/ca3)
    
    
    
    
    graa/cubic aeter (g/a3)
    graa/ liter (g/li
    
    graa/ailliliter (g/al)
    
    
    inch of water 9 4°C
    'in H20 9 4°C)
    
    
    
    
    joule (J)
    joule 'second (J/s)
    
    kilocalone (kcal)
    
    
    kilograa (kg)
    
    liter (L;
    
    aeter (a)
    
    
    
    
    pascal (Pa)
    
    
    
    
    
    gallon (L1 S liquid [gal]
    liter (L;
    cubic centimeter ics3)
    cubic foot (ftj)
    cubic inch (in J)
    cubic swter (m1)
    liter (L)
    
    •illigri«/ standard cubic steter
    kilograa (kg)
    pound 'Ib)
    poise (P)
    grain/ailliliter (gr/aL)
    graa/Billiliter (g/at)
    pound/ cubic foot (Ib/ft3)
    pound/cubic inch (lb/m.3)
    pound/ gallon (U.S. liquid) (Ib/gal)
    grain/cubic foot (gr/ft3)
    part/aillion (ppa)
    pound/cubic foot (lb/ft3)
    graa/cubic centiaeter g/ca3)
    pound/ cubic foot (Ib/ft3)
    pound/gallon (U.S.) (Ib/gal)
    
    •taosphert (ata)
    inch of aercury 9 32*T (in. Hg 9 32°F)
    kilopascal (kPa)
    pascal (Pa)
    pound/ square inch (psi)
    Btu
    Btu/ainute (Btu/ain)
    Btu/ hour (Btu/h)
    Btu
    erg
    joule (J)
    pound (avoirdupois) [Ib (avdp)J
    ton (short, 2,000 Ib aaas)
    cubic foot (ft4)
    quart (U.S. liquid) (qt)
    foot (ft)
    inch (in. )
    aile (statute) (ai)
    •illoaicrons (ap)
    y«rd (yd)
    .taosphere (standard) (ata)
    dyne/square centiaeter (dyne/caz)
    inch of water 9 39.2«F (in. H,0 9 39.2«F)
    inch of water 9 60°F (in. HZ0 9 60«F)
    pound-force/square inch ( Ib- force/ in. *) (psi)
    
    : 20095
    0 00668932
    3.785 4118
    0 133630335
    231
    0 0037854118
    3 7854118
    
    2286 . 3
    0.001
    0.0022046226
    1
    15.43279
    1
    32.427961
    0 . 036127292
    8.3454044
    0.43699572
    1.000
    0.06242621
    1
    62.4261
    8.34S171
    
    0.0024582
    O.C73553?
    249,082
    249 . 082
    0.03612628
    0.000948451
    0.0569071
    3.414426
    3 . 9683207
    4.1«4 x 10'
    4,184
    2.2046226
    0.0011023113
    0.03S314667
    1.0566M2
    3.2808399
    39.370079
    0.00062137119
    1 x 10*
    1.0936133
    9.869233 x 10~*
    10
    0.004014742
    0.004018647
    0.0001450377
                                                                                      \
                                                                         (continued)
                                       C-2
    

    -------
                 To  convert
        Pascal -seconds  (?t-s)
    
               '»)
        pound ; ib •
    
        pound/ (foot -second)
          fib/ (ft -$i j
    
        pound cubic foot
    
    
       pound/ cubic inch (Ib/in
                    <„.,.  Uquid)
    
                    (u s- Uquid)
      pound/ square inch (p»i)
    
      saybolt  second*  (ssu)
    
      square foot  (ft2)
     square kiloB,t»r
     square aeter  (•*,
     stoke (St>
    ton (at
                                                 TABLE  C-l  (continued;
         centipose  
    -------
           :ABLE c-2.   KINEMATIC VISCOSITY CONVERSION FACTORS
                       FOR CENTISTOKES TO SSU UNITS3
    
    Centi-
    stokes
    2.0
    3.0
    4.0
    5.0
    6.0
    7.0
    8.0
    9.0
    10.0
    11.0
    12.0
    14.0
    16.0
    18.0
    20.0
    22.0
    24.0
    26.0
    Saybolt
    1CC°F
    32.6
    36.0
    39.1
    42.3
    45.5
    48.7
    52.0
    55.4
    58.8
    62.3
    65.9
    73.4
    81.1
    89.2
    97.5
    106.0
    114.6
    123.3
    seconds
    (SSU)
    13C°F
    32.7
    36.1
    39.2
    42.4
    45.6
    48.8
    52.1
    55.5
    58.9
    62.4
    66.0 '
    73.5
    81.3
    89.4
    97.7
    106.2
    114.8
    123.5
    at
    210°F
    32.8
    36.3
    30.4
    42.6
    45.8
    49.0
    52.4
    55.8
    59.2
    62.7
    66.4
    73.9
    81.7
    89.8
    98.2
    106.7
    115.4
    124.2
    Centi-
    stokes
    28.0
    30.0
    32.0
    34.0
    36.0
    38.0
    40.0
    42.0
    44.0
    46.0
    48.0
    50.0
    60.0
    70.0
    80.0
    90.0
    100.0
    
    Saybolt
    100° F
    132.1
    140.9
    149 . 7
    158.7
    167 . 7
    176.7
    185.7
    194.7
    203.8
    213.0
    222.2
    231.4
    277.4
    323.4
    369.6
    415.8
    462.0
    
    seconds
    (SSU)
    130°F
    132.4
    141.2
    150.0
    159.0
    168.0
    177.0
    186.0
    195.1
    204 . 2
    213.4
    222.6
    231.8
    277 . 9
    324 . 0
    370.3
    416.6
    462.9
    
    at
    2 1 0 ° F
    133.0
    141.9
    150.8
    159.8
    16?. 9
    177.9
    187.0
    196.1
    205.2
    214.5
    223. 8
    233.0
    279.3
    325.7
    372,2
    418.7
    465.2
    
    
    For kinematic viscosity levels above 100 centistokes, use the
    same ratio as the ratio in the table above for 100 centistokes
    (at the temperature of the fluid); e.g., 120 centistokes
    (9 130°F) = 120 x 4.629 = 555.5.
    
    To obtain the saybolt universal viscosity at a temperature not
    shown in te table above, multiply the saybolt universal viscosity
    Q 100°F by [1 + (t - 100) 0.000064], where "t" is the temperature
    in degrees fahrenheit, e.g., 10 centistokes 9 220°F = 58.8 x
    [1 + (220-100) 0.000064]; = 58.8 x 1.00768 = 59.25
                                                                            \
                                   C-4
    

    -------
    Accident prevention manual for industrial operations,  seventh edition
    Chicago  National Safety Council,  1974.   1523 p.
    
    Ackerman, P. G.; H. J. Fisher, R.  J.  Johnson, R F.  Maddaione,  B.  J.  Matthews,
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    of herbicide orange on-board the  m/t  vulcanus.   EPA,  19~3 April,  262 p
    
    Ackerman, D   et ai   Destroying chemical waste in comm<='-cial-scaie
    incinerators, facility report  No.  6,  Rollins Environment „. Services.
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                                                                             we
            Ackerman,  D.;  Clausen,  J.;  Johnson,  R.; Tobias, R.; Zee, C.; Adams, J.;
            Harris,  J.; Levins,  P.;  Stauffer,  J.; Thrun, K.; and Woodland, L.  Destroying
            chemical wastes  in  commercial  scale  incinerators,  facility  report No. 6.
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            Acurex  Corp.,  Test  incineration  of electrical capacitors containing PCB's,
    1        Electric Power Research Institute, 1980 May.
    
    j       Adams,  J.,- Cunningham,  N.;  Harris, J.; et  al.  Destroying chemical wastes  in
    I       commercial-scale incinerators; facility report No. 4, Zimpro,  Inc. Washington,
            DC,-  U.S. Environmental  Protection  Agency,-  1976 December.  85 p. Contract
    ^       68-01-2966.
    
            Adams,  J.  W.;  Harris, J.  C.; Levins, P. L.,- Stauffer, J. L.; Thrun, K. E.,-  and
            Woodland,  L.   Destroying chemical  wastes in commercial  scale incinerators,
            facility report  No.  2.   Washington,  DC; U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency,-
            1976 November.  150 p.   PB  268 232.
    
            Ahling,  B., "The Combustion of Waste Containing DDT and Lindan," The Science
            of  the  Total Environment, 9,  (1978)  pp. 117-124.
    
            Ahling,  Bengt, "A description  of a test plant for  combustion on a pilot
            scale."  Chemosphere, No. 7,  1977, p. 437  - 442.
    
            Ahling,  Bengt, "Destruction of chlorinated hydrocarbons in  a cement kiln."
            Environmental  Science and Technology.   13(11), 1979 pp. 1377-1379.
                                        D-l
    

    -------
    Ahling, Bengt and Lindskog.   "Thermal  Destruction  of  PCB  and  Hexachioro-
    benzene."  The Science of the Total  Environment,  10,  (1978) pp.  51-59
    
    Ahling, Bengt, A. Lindskog,  B.  Jannson,  and G.  Sundstrom,  "Formation of
    polychlonnated dibenzo-p-dioxins and  dibenzo-furans  during the  combustion  of
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    January.  241 p.  PB 190 25"
    
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    Protection Agency; 1977.  EPA SW-151C.
    
    Assessment of hazardous waste practices in the petroleum  refining industry.
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    Assessment of industrial hazardous waste practices:   electronic  components
    manufacturing industry.  Washington, DC; U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency;
    1977 January.  207 p.  EPA SW-140C.
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    finishing industry.  Washington, DC; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,-
    1976 November.  233 p.  EPA SW-131C.
    t
    Assessment of industrial hazardous waste practices:   paint and allied products
    industry, contract solvent reclaiming operations,  and factory application of
    coatings.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1976.   EPA SW-119C.
    
    Assessment of industrial hazardous waste practices:   special machinery
    manufacturing industries.  Washington, DC; U.S.  Environmental Protection
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    A study of pesticide disposal in a sewage sludge incinerator.  Whitmore and
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    Barnes, R. H; Barrett, R. E.; Levy, A.; and Saxton,  M. J.  Chemical aspects of
    afterburner systems.  Research Triangle Park, NC; U.S. Environmental
    Protection Agency; 1979 April.  117 p.  PB 298 465.
                                        D-2
    

    -------
    Becker, K.  ?.,-  and Wall,  C.  J.   Waste treatment advances.-   Fluid bed
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    Bell, Bruce A.; Whitmore, Frank C. ,-  Kepone incineration  test program.  USEPA,
    1978, May,  Grant Wo. R-805112.
    
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    systems.  Hydrocarbon Processing.  56(10) .-191-198,  1977  October.
    
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    study, Volume I - scrubber handbook.  Report prepared by A.P.T., Inc. for tjie
    U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1972 August.   EPA-R2-72-118a.
    
    Capital and operating costs of pollution control equipment modules,  data
    manual, volume II.  U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency,- 1973 July.  183 p.
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    Information Transfer, Inc.; 39-43.
                                        D-3
    

    -------
    Danielson, J. A., ed.  Air pollution engineering manual,  second edition
    Research Triangle Park, NC; U.S.  Environmental  Protection Agency;  1973  May.
    937 p.  AP-40.
    
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    2(1):12-21, 1979 January-February.
    
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    incinerator design and operation.   U.S.  Department of Health,  Education,  and
    elfare, 1969.  Public Health Service Publication No.  2012.   98 p.
    
    Destroying chemical wastes in commercial-scale  incinerators-facility report  2.
    USEPA 1977, Contract 68-01-2966.
    
    ibid., facility report 3.  USEPA 1977, Contract 68-01-2966.
    
    ibid., facility report 4.  USEPA 1977, Contract 68-01-2966.
    
    ibid., facility report 6.  USEPA 1977, Contract 28-01-2966.
    
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    Report.  Washington, D.C., USEPA;  1977,  121 p.  Contract No.  68-01-2966.
    
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    USEPA, 1977.  Contract No. 68-01-2966.                                      -I
    
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    plans, Volume II.  Washington, DC,-  U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency; 1975
    July.  PB 257 710.
    
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    summary, Volume I (preliminary draft).  Washington, DC; U.S. Environmental
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    waste.  Washington, DC; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,- 1979 March.  333
    p.  EPA-SW-171C.
    
    Devitt, T.,- Spaile, P.; and Gibbs,  L.  Population and characteristics of
    industrial/commercial boilers in the U.S.  Research Triangle Park, NC; U.S.
    Environmental Protection Agency,- 1979 August.  431 p.  EPA-600/7-79-178a.
    
    Duvall, D. S.; and Rubey, W. A.  Laboratory evaluation of high temperature
    destruction of Kepone and related pesticides.  Cincinnati,, OH,- U.S.
    Environmental Protection Agency; 1976 December.  59 p.  EPA-600/2-76-299.
    
    Duvall, D. S.; Rubey, W. A.; and Mescher, J. A.  High temperature
    decomposition of organic hazardous waste.  Proceedings of the sixth annual
    research symposium,- 1980 March 17-20; Chicago.   Cincinnati, OH; U.S.
    Environmental Protection Agency,- 1980, 121-131.
                                        D-4
    

    -------
    Duvall, D. S.; Rubey,  W.  A.; and Mescher,  J.  A.   High temperature
    decomposition of organic hazardous waste.   Treatment of hazardous  waste,  pro-
    ceedings of the sixth annual research symposium.   Cincinnati,  OH;  U.S.
    Environmental Protection Agency,- 1980 March,   p.  121-131.   EPA-600/9-80-011.
    
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                                        D-5
    

    -------
    Censer, J ,  Zipperstein,  A.;  Klosky,  S.,-  and  Farber,  F.   Alternatives  for
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    Wastes', April 1979.
    
    
                                         D-6
    

    -------
    Kiang, Yen-Hsuing.  Total hazardous waste disposal through cmbustion.
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    85(24), 1978 October.  152 p.                                             i
    
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                                        D-7
    

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                    i
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    Reprinted from Chemical Engineering Progress, 1974 September.
                                        D-8
    

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                                        D-9
    

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    79(25):120-138,  1972 November 13.
                                        D-10
    

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                                      APPENDIX E
    
                LABORATORY-SCALE THERMAL DECOMPOSITION ANALYTICAL DATA
    1.   INTRODUCTION
    
    Labo-itory-scale thermal decomposition data for hazardous wastes can be help-
    ful ror establishing sampling and analytical protocols for incinerator per-
    formance monitoring, and for determining potential operating conditions for
    incinerator trial burns.  Such data can be generated using laboratory-scale
    thermal decomposition systems such as the Thermal Decomposition Analytical
    System (TDAS) employed at the U.S Environmental Protection Agency research
    program at the University of Dayton Research Institute (UDRI).  The objectives
    of this appendix are to describe how the data are collected and to provide
    guidance for their use.
    
    2.   THERMAL DECOMPOSITION ANALYTICAL SYSTEM (TDAS)                          f
    
    2-1  General Description
    
    This system is designed to evaluate the thermochemical behavior of volatile
    materials under controlled conditions.  As indicated in Figure E-l, it con-
    sists of a modular control panel (where the operating parameters for tests are
    established), several gas cylinders (that supply reaction atmospheres with
    known compositions), a sample insertion and vaporization chamber, a special
    quartz tube reactor in a furnace (for the decomposition of samples), a product
    collection trap, a gas chromatograph, a mass spectrometer, and a minicomputer.
    Figure E-2 is a block diagram shoving a simplified representation of the
    operational relationships of the various components.
    
    2.2  Operation
    
    In operation, several micrograms of a solid, liquid, or gaseous sample are
    introduced into a sample insertion chamber (location K in Figure E-l). The
    chamber is then sealed and flushed with the controlled atmosphere to be used
    for the experiment.  Solid and liquid samples are heated, vaporized at tem-
    peratures up to 300°C (over a controlled time interval), and mixed with a
    continuous stream of the reaction atmosphere.  Samples can be flash pyrolyzed
    or gradually vaporized, depending on the desired reaction conditions.  The
    mixture then passes through a reactor (location M) consisting of an 98-cm
    long, 0.097-mm inside diameter, thin walled, folded quartz tube enclosed in an
    electric furnace.  The furnace and tube can be operated at temperatures up to
    1,150°C.  The temperature of the reactor is monitored by a thermocouple lo-
    cated at a point representing the mean temperature for the reactor furnace [1]
                                          E-l
    

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                                               IN-LINE
                                              GC/MS/DS
    A  HELIUM GAS
    B  COMPRESSED AIR
    C  INERTCARRIETR
    D  PRESSURE REGUALTOR
    E  OXYGEN SCRUBBER
    F  DIRECTIONAL VALVE
    G  FILTER
    H  FLOW CONTROL VALVE
    I   FLOW TRANSDUCER
    j   PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
    K  INSERTION CHAMBER
    L   TEMPERATURE PROGRAMMER
    M  REACTOR IN FURNACE
    N  PRODUCT COLLECTION TRAP
    0  MODULAR CONTROL PANa
     'THE MODULAR CONTROL PANa DID NOT APPEAR IN nc
      ORIGINAL PUBLICATION
      Figure E-l.   Simplified schematic of IDAS [1]
                              E-2
    

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    B-3
    

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    f
    It is estimated that a typical reaction mixture entering the TDA5 reactor
    heats to the reactor temperature within 0.005  second.  Ninety-five percent of
    the molecules are estimated to be exposed to the reported temperature  over
    time intervals with a maximum deviation of 4%  to 10% from the reported mean
    residence time, depending on the conditions of the  test.   The percent  devia-
    tion increases as the mean residence time decreases.    The temperature is
    controlled to within ±2°C across the operating range of the device.   Mean
    residence times between 0.23 and 5.0 seconds may be selected [1],  It  is
    possible to operate the reactor at pressures up to  two atmospheres.
    
    The effluent from the TDAS reactor enters a sorbent trap (Location N)  that can
    be maintained at -110°C.  In the trap,  reactions are quenched and reaction
    products and unreacted sample are collected with a  sorbent (usually Tenax-GC,
    although other materials, such as quartz wool, have also been used).  The
    chemicals collected are then thermally desorbed directly into a capillary
    column gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer for identification and quantifi-
    cation of reaction products and unreacted sample.
    
    The chromatograph has been used with glass and fused silica capillaries coated
    with selected materials (such as a 0.1-um layer of Supelco SP 2100) [2].  The
    mass spectrometer contains an ion detector upstream of the magnetic sector.
    This detector may be calibrated and used to measure quantities of pure sub-
    stances leaving the gas chromatograph at different times.  A photomultiplier
    tube downstream of the magnetic sector of the mass spectrometer responds to
    the ionic fragments of molecules emerging from the magnetic field.  The iden-
    tity of chemicals and mixtures of chemicals emerging from the gas chroma-
    tograph can be determined by comparing the observed ion fragment patterns with
    those of known compounds.  The NIK/EPA Chemical Information Mass Spectral Data
    Base is routinely used to help identify compounds and mixtures.
    
    Samples of effluent from the reactor may be collected on activated  carbon  (or
    other sorbents) simultaneously with the samples collected in the cold sorbent
    trap described above.  These samples could be desorbed with solvents and
    injected into laboratory gas chromatographs or other analytical  devices not
    directly connected to the TDAS.
    
    3.  THERMAL DECOMPOSITION DEVICE  (TDD)
    
    3.1  General Description
    
    Figure E-3 is a schematic diagram of the  thermal decomposition device  (TDD).
    This device is the predecessor to the TDAS.   It consists of a compressed air
    cylinder (to supply the reaction  atmosphere), pressure regulators,  flow regu-
    lators (to adjust the residence time), a  sample insertion  and vaporization
    chamber, a quartz tube reactor in an electrically heated furnace (for  the
    decomposition of samples),  a product collection  trap, and  a flow meter.
    
    3.2  Operation
    
    The TDD is operated in  the  following manner.   Compressed  air is  filtered (at
    location C in Figure E-3) and  its flow  rate is  adjusted  (location D)  to pro-
    vide the desired residence  time.  The gas enters the  inlet chamber (location  G)
    
    
                                          E-4
    

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             DO*
                                     	I  I   J
                                 HIGH TEMPERATURE REGION
                      VENT
     A  COMPRESSED AIR, BREATHING QUALITY GRADE
    
     B  TWO STAGE PRESSURE REGULATOR
    
     C  "HYOROPURGE" FILTER
    
     D  FLOW CONTROL VALVE
    
     E  PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
    
     F  SAMPLE HOLDER, PYREX
    G  HEATED INLET CHAMBER
    
    H  QUARTZ TUBE
    I  HEATED OUTLET CHAMBER
    J  EFFLUENT TRAP, TENAX-GC OR CHARCC
    
    K  FLOW METER
             Figure E-3.  Schematic of thermal decomposition device [3].
    
    which surrounds a sample  holder containing several micrograms of sample (loca-
    tion F).  The chamber is  gradually heated to a maximum temperature of about
    300°C to vaporize the sample  [3].   As material from the sample vaporizes, it
    is swept into the reactor chamber  (location H) by the compressed air flow.  In
    the reactor chamber, the  reaction  mixture is thermally stressed at a con-
    trolled temperature  (up to 1,000°C).   An 84-c» by 0.8-ma ID quartz reaction
    chamber and an 84-cm by 2.14-mm ID quartz reaction chamber are available.  The
    average temperature  of the reactor furnace is controlled to ±5°C; but there
    are temperature gradients in  the furnace of up to 50°C, compared to the
    reported average temperature.   In  most experiments, the residence times in the
    reactor were approximately one  second (±0.04 s), but residence times between
    0.5 s and 3.0 s are  possible  [3].
    
    After the mixture passes  through the  reactor, it is cooled to approximately
    300°C [3].  The partially cooled mixture then enters the effluent trap (loca-
    tion J), where it rapidly cools to ambient temperature.  The effluent trap and
    sorbent (Tenax GC or charcoal)  collect unreacted sample and the products of
    decomposition of the waste.   The sorbents used at room temperature are gener-
    ally suitable for materials with molecular weights between 78 and 800.
                                           E-5
    

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    At the end of a run, the effluent trap is removed from the TDD.   If Tenax is
    the sorbent, the trap is inserted directly into an adapter on a  separate
    laboratory gas chromatograph (GC).   The trap is then heated to desorb the
    products, which are flushed into the GC by a carrier gas.   If activated carbon
    is used as the sorbent,  the products are desorbed with a suitable solvent.   A
    sample of the solvent/product mix is then injected directly into the GC for
    analysis.
    
    4.  DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TDAS AND TDD
    
    Both of these devices were designed for the purpose of studying the thermal
    chemical decomposition of various materials, and their basic designs and
    methods of operation are quite similar.  However, important specifications,
    summarized in Table E-l, are different.
    
    5.  DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INCINERATORS AND LABORATORY DEVICES
    
    While the results obtained with the previously described laboratory devices may
    resemble the performance of an incinerator, there are differences.  The labora-
    tory devices are not designed to simulate incinerator behavior.   They are de-
    signed to generate basic thermal decomposition data at the molecular level.
    The operating conditions in most incinerators are not as simple as those in
    the laboratory devices.  Among the potential complications associated with
    real incinerators (compared to the TDAS and TDD systems) are the following:
    
      •  Wastes may enter the combustion chamber of an incinerator as liquids or
         solids, while only gases enter the reaction zones in the TDAS and TDD.
    \
         Direct combustion of fuel and/or waste supplies the heat required for. the
         reactions in incinerators, and the waste in an incinerator may pass
         directly through a distinct flame or flame front.  The TDAS and TDD are
         indirectly heated.                                                                I
    
         There may be a significant lack of homogeneity in the temperature pro-
         files of incinerators, and the temperature is often not as closely con-
         trolled as in the laboratory devices.  Furthermore, the maximum                   '
         temperature in an incinerator may be higher than the highest temperature          *
         at which laboratory devices can be operated.                                   '
    
         The residence times reported for incinerators often does not really               ,
         represent the exposure times of wastes at the reported operating
         temperatures.  An "upper bound" residence time is the only value reported
         for many incinerators.  This represents the total volume of the incin-
         erator combustion chamber (whether or not it is all at the reported
         temperature) divided by the volume rate of flow of flue gas out of the
         chamber.  All of the waste passing through an incinerator does not have
         the same residence time.  Some waste passes through faster than other             >
         portions of the same charge, resulting in a residence tine distribution.
         The mean residence times in the previously described laboratory devices
         are well controlled and represent true residence times for all of the             '
                                          E-6
    

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                     TABLE E-l.  COMPARISON OF THE TDD AND TDAS
         Parameter
             TDD [3]
           TDAS
    Sample type
    Reactor construction
    Regulation of mean
      reactor temperature
    
    Maximum operating
      temperatures
    
    Range of tempera-
      tures in reactor
    
    Residence time range
    
    Effluent traps
    
    Sampling and
      analysis
    Liquid or soluble solids
      with low volatility
      and molecular weights
      between 78 and 800.
    
    Heavy-wall folded quartz
      84 cm long, 0.8-mm ID
      (an 84. cm long, 2.14-mm
      10 tube is also available)
    
               ±5°C
              l,000°Ca
    
    
              +25°C
              -50°C
    
            0.5 - 3.0 sc
    
    Ambient temperature trap
    
    Sample must be manually
      removed from unit for
      analysis on a nearby GC
    Gas, liquid or solid
      samples with molecular
      weights less than
      about 800.
    
    Thin-wall folded quartz
      (98 cm long, 0.97 mm ID)
              ±2°C
            1,
              ±2°C
    
    
           0.25 - 5.0 s   • '
    
    Cryogenically cooled trap
    
    Sample normally thermally
      desorbed in-situ and
      carried directly to
      GC/MS by the carrier
      gas.
    aLimited by the heating unit.
    
     Limited by the properties of quartz.
    °Personal communication with W. A. Rubey, 8 August 1980.
        waste passing through the devices at the reported temperatures with a
        degree of accuracy seldom (if ever) achieved for incinerators.
    
        Physical and chemical interactions between components of mixtures of
        wastes and reaction products (such as adsorption on particulates and
        catalysis) might inhibit or accelerate the rate of waste decomposition
        and combustion product formation.  Furthermore, interaction of the com-
        bustion products with the walls of the incinerator might affect the
        degree of combustion and the products.  Possible wall effects include
        heat transfer, flame quenching, the adsorption of reactive components on
                                         E-7
    

    -------
         surfaces,  and catalysis.   Some of these  effects  cannot  oe  studied in  the
         TDAS and TDD laboratory units, since solids  and  liquids cannot  enter  the
         reaction chambers of those devices and the wails are  not the  same as  in
         incinerators.
    
         Mixing in an incinerator will be different from  mixing  in  laboratory
         devices   This can result in changes in  the  relative  proportions of
         uncomousted, partially combusted, and completely combusted waste.
    
         In an incinerator, the conditions to which various molecules  are exposed
         can vary greatly in terms of temperature,  oxyger. concentration,  and con-
         centrations of free radicals.
    
         The laboratory devices were usually operated in  such  a  manner that waste
         concentrations were very low, and the amounts of oxygen leaving the
         reactors were not significantly different from the amounts going into the
         reactors.   Furthermore, most experiments were performed with  21% oxygen
         (although 0% to 40% oxygen have also been used).  The oxygen  concentra-
         tions found in incinerator'flue gas are  often much lower than the oxygen
         concentrations used in laboratory experiments.
    
         The feed rate of incinerators may be constant, allowing steady state
         conditions to occur.  The laboratory devices are batch fed.               I
    
    6.  POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS OF LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS                            J
    
    The previously described laboratory devices were  not  designed to simulate
    incinerators, and no systematic studies of the performance of the  TDAS or TDD
    compared to incinerators of different sizes,  designs, and operating conditions
    have been reported.  Furthermore, no systematic studies of the quantitative
    limitations of scaleup methods are available.  As a result,  great  caution must
    be exercised when using data from the laboratory device when designing trial
    burn studies, since the applicability of the data to predicting the behavior
    of hazardous waste incinerators has not been demonstrated.  However,  some
    potential uses for laboratory experiments exist:
    
         The rate constant for the decomposition of a waste and its temperature
         dependence can be identified with the TDAS and the TDD  [4].
    
      •  The TDAS and TDD devices can be used to identify byproducts of decomposi-
         tion of hazardous materials and  the conditions under which they  are
         formed.
    
      •  Experienced combustion chemists  and engineers can obtain evidence  that
         can aid in understanding the detailed operating conditions within  an
         incinerator by comparing the results of laboratory decomposition experi-
         ments to the results of full-scale  test burn  experiments under  similar
         conditions.
    
        • Various thermochemical modeling  techniques used to predict the  behavior
         of full-scale incinerators can be tested using  data  from  laboratory
         experiments.  Once  their accuracy for predicting  the behavior  of waste  in
    
    
                                           E-8
    

    -------
         relatively well controlled circumstances is determined, the models can be
         tested in experiments on incinerators.  Most of these models use an
         activatio-n energy for the reactive species.  An apparent activation energy
         for the reaction of a dilute waste with oxygen can be derived with IDAS
         or TDD laboratory data [4].
    
         Data from laboratory experiments can be compiled and used to help develop
         empirical modeling techniques for full-scale incinerators by simulating
         (insofar  s possible) various microscale regions within an incinerator in
         laboratory experiments and then using the data to help predict what
         happens to waste after it passes through such regions in incinerators.
    
         Data from the device can be used to help determine researcn priorities
         for hazardous waste incineration (when pilot or full-scale trial burn
         data are unavailable) by considering the types, amounts, and potencies of
         the reaction products observed.
    
         Data from laboratory waste decomposition experiments can help to deter-
         mine operating conditions at the beginning of trial burns.  Temperature,
         retention time, turbulence,  and excess air levels at the beginning of
         trial burns should be far enough above those associated with unacceptable
         emissions (based on laboratory data) to give a reasonable confidence of
         having acceptable emissions.  The margins of safety for this purpose ha
         not been systematically studied.
    r
      •  Data from laboratory tests can be used to help determine which compounds
         to monitor during trial burns and at full-scale industrial installations.
    
    Figure E-4 shows the effects of oxygen concentrations on the thermal decom-
    position of a PCB in the thermal decomposition device.  The high sensitivity
    to oxygen is clearly shown.  This suggests that operating laboratory devices
    (or modifying them to operate) with amounts of excess air similar to those
    found in an incinerator may significantly improve the utility of the data
    generated.  If the percent oxygen used in a laboratory experiment is equiva-
    lent to the percent oxygen in incinerator flue gas, the probability of a
    laboratory experiment yielding a lover destruction and removal efficiency than
    that achieved in an incinerator will be increased (compared to operation of a
    laboratory device at 21% oxygen).  This can increase the utility of laboratory
    data for quickly making conservative estimates of acceptable operating condi-
    tions at the beginning of trial burns.
    
    7.  RESULTS OF LABORATORY-SCALE DECOMPOSITION EXPERIMENTS
    
    7.1  Kepone Results
    
    Kepone decomposition experiments were performed in the thermal decomposition
    device.  As can be seen from Table E-2, the destruction of Kepone increases
    rapidly with increasing temperature above 400°C (at a relatively constant
    retention time).  It is also apparent that there are several byproducts.-
    hexachlorobenzene, hexachlorocyclopentadiene [3] and hexachloroindenone.  The
    amounts of byproducts formed are dependent upon the reactor temperature.  This
    information is graphically represented in Figure E-5.
    
    
                                          E-9
    

    -------
         100
    I
    5
    o
    s
         10 :
    1  I-":
    0.
    
    Cn
    *-  0.1 :
        0.01
                                                                             2.5* OXYGEN
                                                                              IM NITROGEN
                                                                         THERMAL DECOMPOSITION
                                                                                   OF
                                                                      2,2', 4,5, y- PENTACHLOROBIPHENYL
                                                                                   IN
                                                                      DIFFERENT GASEOUS ATMOSPHERES
                  50           500    550    600    650    700     750    800    850     900
    
                                                 EXPOSURE TEMPERATURE, °C
    
                      Figure E-4.   Effect of oxygen concentration [5].
    950    1,000
                                                    E-10
    

    -------
                   TABLE  E-2.   KEPONE THERMAL  DESTRUCTION SUMMARY
    
                      Waste:   kepone; sample size.-  40 pg;
                      laboratory  device:  thermal decomposition device.
    Unit
    temperature, Input
    9C ataosphere
    302
    397
    
    435
    
    463
    
    495
    
    
    603
    
    
    708
    
    807
    910
    433
    433
    433
    Air,
    *ir,
    
    Air,
    
    Air,
    
    Air,
    
    
    Air,
    
    
    Air,
    
    Air,
    Air,
    Air,
    Air,
    Air,
    21%
    21%
    
    21%
    
    21%
    
    21%
    
    
    21%
    
    
    21%
    
    21%
    21%
    21%
    21%
    21%
    02
    02
    
    °2
    
    °2
    
    02
    
    
    02
    
    
    02
    
    02
    02
    02
    02
    02
    Destruction
    Retention and removal
    tine, efficiency,
    • %
    0.
    0.
    
    0.
    
    0.
    
    1.
    
    
    0".
    
    
    0.
    
    0.
    0.
    0.
    1.
    1.
    93
    99
    
    94
    
    93
    
    10
    
    
    99
    
    
    91
    
    92
    94
    23
    04
    79
    0
    12
    
    46
    
    96
    
    299.55
    
    
    299.55
    
    
    299.55
    
    299.55
    299.999655
    6
    53
    68
    Relative
    Byproducts, quantity of
    identified^ byproducts
    None
    Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
    Hexachloroindenone*
    He*achlorocyclopentadiene
    Hexachloroindenone
    Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
    Hexacnloroindenone
    Hexachlorocyc lopentadiene
    Hexachloroindenone
    Hexachlorobenzene
    Hexachlorobenzene
    Hfxich 1 9T9 irvdtnont
    HMULChlorocyclop«nt*di«iM
    H*sachlorob«nztn*
    Hcxachloroindinon*
    Itesachlorob«iucn«
    H*sachlorob«&z«n«
    Mot reported
    Not rtporttd
    Mot rtporttd
    None
    0
    0
    0
    0
    0
    0
    0
    1
    
    0
    .05
    .05
    .5
    .75
    .85
    .65
    .65
    •2d
    U
    .04
    1-75
    0
    1
    0
    0
    0
    
    
    
    .05
    .10
    .05
    .45
    .15f |
    MA1
    MA j
    MA
    
     iteuchloroind*none  identified  in a personal eoMwnication with Don Duvall and
     Wayne Rubey,  4 August  1980.
    
     Byproducts collected on  Tenas  GC and detected in quantifiable amounts unless otherwise
     specified.
    
     Reported as relative peak  heights on a flaae ionization detector.
    
     Detected, but below aeasureable levels.
    
    'Collected on activated carbon, desorbed with mixed solvent (acetone,  benzene,  CS2)  and
     quantified with an  electron  capture detector (residual Kepone 138 pg; hexachlorobenzene
     ••200 nanograsu).
    fNot applicable.
                                               E-ll
    

    -------
         100
          30
          10
     S x
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         0.1 r
    
                K  -HEXACHrROCYCLOPENTADIENE
    
                K.  -HEXACHLOROINOENONE
                 D
                   - HEXACHLOROBENZENE
                                          KEPONE
        0.01 I	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1—
            0       200      400      600      800     1,000
                           TEMPERATURE, QC
    
    
      Figure E-5.   Thermal destruction plot for Kepone [3].
                                                                        t
                               E-12
    

    -------
     8.  REFERENCES
    
      1.   Rubey, W. A.
          cal system.
          August.   143
      2.
     3.
    "
                                      E-13
    

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                 Ferguson, T. L. ; Bergman, r. -.; Cooper  j- 3.; '-- , ?. 7.; ar.
                 I. ;  Determination zf ir. c_;.-,er3tcr opera: .r.~ tc-r.ditic.-.5 -ecessary  f;r
                 jafe disposal c: pesticides.  -i.-.ci.-.r.ar.i,  ~H, 'JSEPA,  13 "3 J
                 Contract 63--J-^-35.
    
             2.   Jcsim,  s. J. ; K. M.  Barclay, s. ;,. Gay, ,a,-d L. F. Grantham.  "Disposal of
                 hazardous wastes by molten salt comiusticn," Presented at the American
                 Cheirucal Society (ACS)  symposium on 'The -Itimate Disposal of Hazardous
                 Wastes', April 1979.
    
             3.   Shin,  C. c.; Tobias, H. F.; Clausen, J. F.; and Johnson, R. I.   Thermal
                 degradation  of military standard pesticide formulations.  Washington, D. C.;
                 U.S.  Army Medical Research and Development Command; 1975 Mary 20, 287 p.
                 Contract DAOA 17-73-C-3132.
    
             4.   Ahling,  Sengt, "Destruction of chlorinated hydrocarbons in a cement kiln."
                 environmental Science and Technology.  13(11), 1979 pp.  1377-1379.
    
             5.   A  study  of pesti-ride disposal in a sewage  sludge incinerator.  Whitnore
                 and  Durfee,  Vesar,  Inc.  Contract 68-01-1587.  1975.                    i-
    
             6.   Feldoan, John B.; Leighton, Ira W.; Denenstration teat burn of DDT in  -
                 General  Electric's liquid injection incinerator.  USEPA, Region  I.
    
             7.   Destroying chemical  wastes in eoianereia.JL scale incinerators, phase II.
                 Final Report.   Washington, D.C., USEPA; 197V, 121 p.   Contract No.
                 68-01-2966.
    «
             8.   Ac German, P. G.;  H.  J.  Fisher, R. J. Johnson, R. F. Maddalone,
    I             3. J. Matthews,  S.  L. Moon, K. H. Scheyer,  C. C. Shah; and R. F. Tobias.
    1             At-se-a incineration  of herbicide orange on-board the  n/t Vuleanus.
                 EPA, 1978 April,  263 p.
    I
             9.   Bell, Bruce  A.;  Whitnore, Franfc C.; Kapone incineration test program.
    '             USEPA, 1978, May, Grant No. R-805112.
    
           10.   The PCS  Incineration Test Burn made by Rollins Environmental Services at
                 Deer'Par*, Texas. November 12-16, 1979.  A report to the United States
                 Environmental Protection Agency, Region VI, Dallas, Texas.
    
           11.   TRW Systeou  Group 6  Arthur D. Little, Inc., Destroying chemical  wastes
                 in coaaBereial scale  incinerators, USEPA, 1977 June, 120 p.  Contract
                 No. 68-01-2966.
    
           12.   Destroying chemical  wastes in commercial-scale incinerators-facility
                 report 5.  USEPA, 1977.  Contract No. 68-01-2966.
                                                  F-7
    

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