xvEPA
            United States
            Environmental Protection
            Agency
Office of Water Regulations
and Standards
Washington, DC 20460
EPA 440/2-82-001
August 1982
            Water
            Economic Impact Analysis
            of Effluent Limitations
            and Standards for the
            Textile Mills Industry
t ^
•
                      QUANTITY

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                            This  document  is  available  at  EPA  Regional  offices,

                            Copies  may  be  obtained  from the  National  Technical

                            Information  Service,  Sprinofield,  Virginia   22161.
r
r.

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                 Development Planning and Research Associates, Inc.
                          P.O. Box 727, Manhattan, Kansas
                            ECONOMIC IMPACT ANALYSIS OF
                                EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
                               AND STANDARDS FOR THE
                               TEXTILE MILLS INDUSTRY
                                         By
                                  Donald J. Wissman
                                 Richard E. Seltzer
                                  Arthur C. Barker
                                    Prepared for
                        U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                          Office of Analysis and Evaluation
                               Washington, D.C.  20460


U.S. Environmental  Protection  Agency
Region V, l^vi/
230 South  Dsnr'oorn Street          Contract Number
Chi wo. Illinois  60604             i  68-01-4632


                                     August 1982

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                                    PREFACE

  This document is a contractor's study prepared for the Office of Water
  Regulations and Standards of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
  The purpose of the study is to analyze the economic impact which could
  result from the application of effluent standards and limitations issued
  under Sections 3-1, 304, 306 and 307 of the Clean Water Act to the textile
  industry.

  The study supplements the technical  study (EPA Development Document)
  supporting the issuance of these regulations.  The Development Document
  surveys existing and potential waste treatment control methods and
  technology within particular industrial source categories and supports
  certain standards and limitations based upon an analysis of the feasibility
  of these standards in accordance with the requirements of the Clean Water
  Act.  Presented in the Development Document are the investment and
  operating costs associated with various control and treatment technologies.
  The attached document supplements this analysis by estimating the broader
  economic effects which might result from the application of various control
  methods and technologies.  This study investigates the effect in terms of
  product price increases, effects upon employment and the continued
  viability of affected plants, effects upon foreign trade and other
  competitive effects.

  The study has been prepared with the supervision and review of the Office
  of Water Regulations and Standards of EPA.  This report was submitted in
  fulfillment of Contract No. 68-01-4632 by Development Planning and Research
  Associates, Inc.  The analysis was completed in November 1981.

                             tion AgenCj
                                    11

\

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                             ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report represents the second phase of work to analyze the economic
impact which may result from the application of effluent regulations on the
textile industry.  The initial report covering the proposed standards was
published in October 1979.  The work covering both reports was conducted by
a research team from Development Planning and Research Associates, Inc.
(DPRA) with Mr. Donald J. Wissman serving as the DPRA principal responsible
for the project.  Mr. Richard E. Seltzer acted as Project Director for the
earlier report and Mr. Wissman acted in that capacity for this phase of the
study.  Much of the detailed analysis was completed by Mr. Arthur C. Barker
of DPRA, assisted by Ms. Sabrina Crooke.

DPRA especially acknowledges contribution of Ms. Mary Brazell  Ives and Ms.
Debra Maness, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water
Regulations and Standards, who served consecutively as the Project Officers
for this phase of the study.  Their assistance and guidance in all aspects
of this project were invaluable.  We also want to recognize the
contribution of Mr. James R. Berlow, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency*,
Effluent Guidelines Division and Mr. Larry J. Oliver, Sverdrup and Parcel
and Associates, Inc., who provided information pertaining to the wastewater
treatment technologies and associated costs utilized in this study.

The cooperation and assistance of the industry trade associations are
acknowledged for their assistance in supplying information on  a large and
complex industry.  In particular, the following individuals and
associations have been helpful: Ms.  Maggie Dean, Mr. George Wino and Mr.
O'Jay Niles of the American Textile Manufacturers Institute; Mr. Karl
Spilhaus of the Northern Textile Association; and Mr. Barry Torrence of the
Carpet and Rug Institute.

Finally, the many textile mill owners and managements who submitted
information and cooperated during staff interviews are acknowledged and
thanked for their cooperation.

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                                 CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY                                                     1

I.    INTRODUCTION                                                     1-1
     A.    Scope of this Report                                        1-1
     B.    Organization of this Report                                 1-2
     C.    Data Sources                                                1-2
          1.    Primary Data Sources                                   1-3
          2.    Secondary Data Sources                                 1-3
II.  METHODOLOGY                                                      II-1
     A.    Industry Structure and Subcategorization                    11-2
     B.    Financial  Profile of the Industry                           11-2
     C.    Model Plants                                                11-4
     D.    Pricing Patterns                                            II-5
     E.    Waste Treatment Technological  Options and Costs             II-5
     F.    Other Regulatory Costs                                      II-6
     G.    Analysis of Economic Impacts                                II-6
          1.    Fundamental Core Methodology                           11-6
          2.    Price, Supply and Demand  Impact Analyses               11-13
          3.    Financial Impact Analysis                              11-14
          4.    Plant Closures and Production Effects                  11-14
          5.    Employment Impact Analysis                             11-16
          6.    Community Impact Analysis                              11-16
          7.    Dislocation Analysis                                   11-16
          8.    Balance of Trade Impact Analysis                       11-17
          9.    Other Impact Analysis                                  11-17

III.  THE STRUCTURE OF THE INDUSTRY
     A.    Subcategorization of the Industry                           III-l
          1.    Conventional Industry Subcategories                    III-2
          2.    Subcategorization of Mills by Type of Process           III-7
     B.    Plant Characteristics                                       111-12
          1.    Ownership Characteristics                              111-14
          2.    Single vs. Multiplant Operations                       111-16
          3.    Number of Plants and Firms                             111-24
          4.    Size of Plants and Firms                                111-29
          5.    Location of Plants (Mills)                             III-33
          6.    Level of Technology                                    111-39
     C.    Employment Characteristics                                  111-50
          1.    Industry Employment                                    111-50
          2.    Industry Wage Levels                                   111-55

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                              CONTENTS (cont'd)
IV.  INDUSTRY PROFILE                                                 IV-1
     A.   Production Profile                                          IV-1
          1.   Production                                             IV-1
          2.   Capacity and Utilization                               IV-8
          3.   Importance of Integrated Facilities                    IV-11
          4.   Level of Diversification                               IV-16
     B.   Market Profile                                              IV-17
          1.   Market Analysis                                        IV-17
               2.   Domestic Market Description                       IV-18
               3.   International Trade                               IV-23
     C.   Financial Profile                                           IV-35
          1.   General Trends in the Industry                         IV-35
          2.   Sales                                                  IV-35
          3.   Operating Costs                                        IV-39
          4.   Interest Expenses                                      IV-42
          5.   Profitability                                          IV-42
          6.   Liquidity                                              IV-46
          7.   Cost of Capital - After Tax                            IV-49
          8.   Assessment of Ability to Finance New Investment        IV-49

V.   PRICE AND PRICE DETERMINATION                                    V-l
     A.   Supply and Demand Relationships                             V-l
          1.   Supply                                                 V-2
          2.   Demand                                                 V-20
     B.   Price Determination                                         V-41
          1.   The Price Determination Process and Influencing
               Factors                                                V-41
          2.   Prices and Marketing Patterns                          V-44
          3.   Raw Material Prices                                    V-48
          4.   Price Indexes                                          V-57

VI.  REPRESENTATIVE MODEL PLANTS                                      VI-1
     A.   Model Plant Development                                     VI-1
     B.   Model Plant Characteristics                                 VI-4
     C.   Operational Characteristics                                 VI-6
     D.   Investment Characteristics                                  VI-9
          1.   Fixed Assets                                           VI-9
          2.   Net Working Capital                                    VI-9
          3.   Total Investment                                       VI-18
          4.   Salvage Value                                          VI-18
     E.   Sales and Cost Characteristics                              VI-19
          1.   Annual Sales                                           VI-19
          2.   Textile and Fiber Materials Costs                      VI-19
          3.   Labor Costs                                            VI-19
          4.   Other Costs                                            VI-20
          5.   Depreciation and Interest Costs                        VI-20
     F.   Model Plant Income and Annual Cash Flow Characteristics     VI-20
          1.   Existing Direct Discharging Models                     VI-34
          2.   Existing Indirect Discharging Models                   VI-34
          3.   New Source Models                                      VI-34

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                              CONTENTS (cont'd)
VII.   WASTEWATER CONTROL COSTS
       A. Discharge and Wastewater Treatment Status                  VII-1
          1.    Current Levels of Wastewater                          VII-1
          2.    Plants Requiring Expenditures                         VII-3
       B. Alternative Treatment Technologies                         VII-3
       C. Wastewater Treatment Costs                                 VI1-5
          1.    Investment Costs                                      VII-5
          2.    Total Yearly Costs                                    VII-11
          3.    Treatment Costs for Water Jet Weavers                 VI1-32
       D. Treatment Options Considered                               VI1-32
       E. Treatment Options Recommended                              VII-41
       F. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)               VII-41

VIII.   PROJECTED ECONOMIC IMPACTS                                    VIII-1
       A. Best Available Technology Economically Achievable (BAT)     VIII-7
          1.    Required Price Increases                              VIII-7
          2.    Financial Effects                                     VIII-8
          3.    Production Effects                                    VIII-18
          4.    Effects of Combining RCRA Costs with BAT               VIII-28
       B. Best Conventional Pollutant Control  Technology (BCT)        VIII-29
          1.    Water Jet Weaving                                     VIII-29
          2.    BCT Impacts on Other Subcategories                    VIII-33
       C. Pretreatment Standards for Existing Sources (PSES)         VIII-34
          1.    Required Price Increases                              VIII-34
          2.    Financial Effects                                     VIII-34
          3.    Production Effects                                    VIII-49
          4.    Effects of Combining RCRA Costs with PSES             VIII-60
       D. Impacts Under Recommended Options - BAT and PSES           VI11-63
          1.    Expected Price Increases                              VIII-63
          2.    Financial Effects of Recommended Options               VIII-64
          3.    Plant Closures                                        VIII-72
          4.    Production Loss                                       VIII-72
          5.    Employment Effects                                    VIII-73
          6.    Community Effects                                     VI11-74
          7.    Dislocational Effects                                 VIII-74
          8.    Balance of Trade Impacts
       E. New Source Performance Standards (NSPS)                    VI11-75
          1.    Required Price Increases                              VIII-76
          2.    Financial Effects                                     VIII-76
          3.    Viability of New Source Models Under NSPS             VI11-82
          4.    Effects of RCRA on New Source Direct Dischargers      VII1-82
       F.  Pretreatment Standards for New Source (PSNS)               VIII-82
          1.    Required Price Increases                              VIII-85
          2.    Financial Effects                                     VIII-85
          3.    Viability of Model Plants Under PSNS                  VIII-93
          4.    Effects of RCRA                                       VIII-93
       G. Summary of Impacts of Recommended Options                  VIII-93

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                             CONTENTS (cont'd)
IX.  THE REGULATORY FLEXIBILITY ACT                                   IX-1
     A.   Definition of "Small" Textile Mills                         IX-1
     B.   Alternative- Treatment Technology                            IX-4
     C.   Baseline Financial Conditions and Impacts for
          Resulting BAT and PSES                                      IX-4
     D.   Production and Employment Impacts                           IX-20

X.   ANNUAL SOCIAL COST                                               X-l
     A.   Introduction                                                X-l
     B.   Components of the Social Cost                               X-l
     C.   Calculations of the Social  Costs of Effluent
          Guidelines for the Textile Mills Industry,
          Point Source Category                                       X-l

XI.  LIMITS OF THE ANALYSIS                                           XI-1
     A.   General Accuracy                                            XI-1
     B.   Range of Error                                              XI-2
     C.   Critical Assumptions                                        XI-2

APPENDIX A - SELECTED REFERENCES

APPENDIX B - MODEL PLANT FINANCIAL PROFILES

APPENDIX C - DATA COLLECTION PORTFOLIO
             (AND TRANSMITTAL LETTER)
                                    vn

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                             EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


                             A.  Introduction

This report analyzes the economic impacts of the imposition of water
pollution controls on the Textile Mills Point Source Category (textile
industry).  Prepared under the supervision and review of the Office of
Analysis and Evaluation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the study,
as required under the Clean Water Act, considers the economic effects of
the controls imposed by that law over the industry's discharge of its
effluents.

The specific economic impacts analyzed in this study include:

     1.  prices, profitability, and growth,
     2.  extent and determinants of capitalization,
     3.  number, type, and size of plants,
     4.  production and employment, and
     5.  community and balance-of-trade effects.

To determine the industry's water pollution control cost impacts, the study
describes the industry's structural, financial, and pricing
characteristics, develops representative model plants; and determines the
economic impacts of control costs (supplied by EPA) on the models.


                           B.  General Approach

The general approach employed in this study was to analyze the textile
industry for its structure and subcategorization, plant and employment
characteristics, financial profile, and pricing patterns.   This analysis
provided the framework for developing model plants to represent the
financial profiles of typical plants, with respect to subcategory, size,
and type of operation.  The model plant concept facilitated the design of
appropriately sized treatment systems, the incorporation of treatment costs
into the model  profiles, and the projection of these profiles into the
future.  By using the net present value (NPV) methodology, microeconomic
effects such as potential closures and price increases could be determined.
Macroeconomic impacts on the industry could then be analyzed for effects on
employment, production, communities and balance of payments.

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Data utilized in this study were obtained from both primary and secondary
sources.  Primary data was acquired directly from the industry through
surveys conducted under the authority of Section 308 of the Clean Water Act
of 1972 as amended by P.L. 95-217 (the Clean Water Act of 1977).   An
initial survey was made in 1977, and a follow-up survey occurred in 1979.
Secondary data was obtained from published sources including development
documents, previous textile studies, industry publications, and pertinent
financial reports.


                      C.  Background of the Industry

The textile industry is comprised of a diverse group of establishments
varying in size, process, and product.  The general characteristics of the
industry establishments range from small family-owned mills utilizing
traditional manufacturing and managerial practices to large multi-mill
corporations who rely on the latest managerial and sophisticated process
practices available.  These establishments are principally engaged in
receiving and preparing fibers; transforming these materials into yarn,
thread, or webbing; converting the yarn into fabric or related products;
and dyeing and finishing these materials at various stages of froduction.
The final products produced by textile establishments range from twine and
tire cords to carpets, blankets, lace and fabrics for apparel.

The industry has been categorized by establishment according to the
manufacturing functions performed at the facility.  This functional
approach, developed in previous EPA studies, is applicable to this study
since in enables the industry establishments to be grouped into
"subcategories" with similar processing characteristics.  Subcategories
include:

     1.  Wool Scouring
     2.  Wool Finishing
     3.  Low Water Use Processing
     4.  Woven Fabric Finishing
         a.  Simple Processing
         b.  Complex Processing
         c.  Desizing
     5.  Knit Fabric Finishing
         a.  Simple Processing
         b.  Complex Processing
         c.  Hosiery Products
     6.  Carpet Finishing
     7.  Stock & Yarn Finishing
     8.  Nonwoven Manufacturing
     9.  Felted Fabric Processing

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Production, capacity and utilization within the textile industry closely
parallel the general economy.  Total U.S. mill fiber consumption has
increased at a rate of about 3.5 percent during the past 15 years.  In
recent years the increase has slowed to under two percent annually.  While
total production has been fairly stable, as reflected in the rate of
consumption of fiber, consumption by types of fiber has changed
dramatically.  Cotton consumption has declined from over 4 billion pounds
in 1965 to 3 billion pounds in 1978; consumption of wool is less than one
third of its level in the early 1960's.  While the consumption of natural
fibers has declined, the consumption of man-made fiber has nearly tripled
during the period.

Sales were $20 billion in 1967 and increased to over $45 billion in 1980.
Although the value of shipments of the textile industry accounts for about
3 percent of the shipments from all  manufacturing industries, profits
have been less than 2 percent of the manufacturing industries.  The after
tax return on total assets has ranged from 4-6 percent over the 1970-1980
period compared with a 7-8 percent return for all manufacturing.  Return on
equity has ranged from 4 percent in 1975 to 12 percent in 1979 compared
with the average of all industries of 9-15 percent.

In the past, the textile industry's pricing process was depicted as the
closest model of pure^competition existing in the major manufacturing
industries in the U.S.*  Today, however, the competitive environment has
changed, and accordingly the applicability of pure competition has been
reduced.  While the available supply and market demands for specific
textile goods are major determinants of the price of the goods, numerous
other factors, such as the supply structure, character of the product,
product specialization and international competition have considerable
influence on the actual price received by the textile manufacturers.  In
addition, demand determinants for textile end-use products include several
fundamentally important variables which are altogether outside
manufacturers' control (e.g., housing starts, per capita disposable income,
total employment).  Briefly, price determination for textile goods is
highly complex and dynamic.


                      D.  Representative Model Plants

Model plants were developed to represent mills and plants - both existing
and new sources - which could be affected by the imposition of effluent
control guidelines.  Models were based on the production sizes and
subcategories contained in the Development Document.  In addition to the
functional subcategorization with its focus on mill waste characteristics,
models were further segmented into type of mill in order to reflect
economic characteristics associated with product ownership and extent of
integration.  Types include commission finishers, own fabric (finishers),
and integrated mills.  The "commission" models represent those plants which
are engaged in job finishing on a commission or fee basis; they do not
purchase the textiles processed.  The own fabric finishers are similar to
commission plants with respect to the processes accomplished but differ in

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economic aspects.  These plants either purchase the textile inputs or are
plants within multiplant firms which are vertically integrated.   The
"integrated" models represent those mills engaged in both gray milling and
finishing operations.   Models were developed for each type of mills because
of the significant differences in the financial profiles and the ability to
absorb pollution control costs.


                       E.  Wastewater Control  Costs

The wastewater control  costs considered in this study were provided in the
Development Document and developed for direct and indirect dischargers,
both existing and new source plants.  The discharge status of the industry
was based on survey data reported by the Technical  Contractor in the
Development Document.   An estimated 80 percent of the wet processors
(indirect dischargers)  are discharging to publicly owned treatment works
(POTW) while the remaining 20 percent (direct dischargers) are discharging
to surface or receiving waters.  Of all the 1,126 wet processors in the
industry, it is estimated only about 20 percent would be affected by the
guidelines.  Ten percent of the direct dischargers have advanced treatment
systems while most of the remainder have biological treatment (BPT) systems
in-place.  Only about 10 percent of the indirect dischargers are
discharging wastes which would require them to add pretreatment controls;
these wastes are those  that contain heavy metals.

A broad range of alternative treatment technologies were considered. These
included chemical coagulation, filtration, flotation, activated carbon
adsorption and ozonation.  After cost analyses (described in the
Development Document),  the more sophisticated technologies such as
ozonation were excluded from further consideration because they were either
too costly or energy intensive.  (However, they are included in this
analysis to demonstrate their impacts).  The remaining technologies were
selected as proposed treatment options for a detailed analysis.   From these
proposed options, EPA has recommended specific options to be used in
establishing limitation guidelines and performance standards.

These options include the following:

     t    Best Available Technology Economically Achievable (BAT) (Direct
          Dischargers):

               Water jet weaving (Option 1) - biological treatment
               Wool finishing (Option 4) - biological treatment plus
                 chemical coagulation plus multimedia filtration
               Felted fabric processing (Option 1) - biological  treatment
               All others (Option 2) - biological treatment plus multimedia
                 filtration.

     •    Pretreatment Standards for Existing Sources (PSES)  (Indirect
          Dischargers):

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               All subcategories (Option 2) - preliminary treatment plus
                 chemical coagulation.

     •    New Source Performance Standards (NSPS):

               All subcategories (Option 2) - biological treatment plus
                 chemical coagulation plus multimedia filtration.

     •    Pretreatment Standards for New Sources (PSNS):

          All subcategories (Option 2) - segregation of toxic pollutant
            waste stream from the waste stream.  Preliminary treatment plus
            chemical coagulation of toxic pollutant waste stream and
            screening for other waste streams.

In addition to an analysis of the costs for the above options, an analysis
was also conducted of the costs of the Resources Conservation and Recovery
Act (RCRA).

Table 1 shows the number of plants in the industry expected to incur costs
for wastewater control and total costs.  These costs include investment
requirements, operating and maintenance (O&M) costs, and annualized cost.
Of a total of 1,126 wet processors in the industry (excluding gray mills),
305 are expected to incur costs.  The total investment requirement for
these 305 plants is estimated to be $122.7 million while O&M and annualized
costs are estimated at $39.9 and $65.5 million, respectively.
     F.  Financial and Economic Impacts of Recommended Control Options

Economic and financial impacts were assessed for the various sizes and
types of plants in the major subcategories using a model plant approach.
Impacts on all alternatives were assessed and discussed in the body of this
report.  However, only those impacts relevant to the recommended options
are discussed in the Executive Summary (Table 2).

The U.S. textile industry will not be able to adequately raise prices to
offset wastewater control expenditures.  Due to the proportion of the
industry that will be required to make control expenditures, the strong
competitive threat from foreign textile producers, and the existing
domestic intra-industry competition.   The projected financial impacts
assume the portion of the industry affected by control compliance
requirements will absorb all the associated wastewater treatment costs.

The impact analysis suggests some textile facilities may not choose to
continue operations after the imposition of control requirements.  Plant
closures and resulting losses in employment in small communities are not
expected to seriously disrupt the industry as a whole.  The lost production)
capacity could be absorbed by existing plants, and their effects on the
national balance of payments would be negligible.

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 Table 1.  Summary of Impacts:   Investment requirements, operating and maintenance costs, and annualized costs



Direct Dischargers (BAT)
Wool scouring
Wool finishing
Woven fabric finishing
Simple processing
Complex processing
Desizing
Knit fabric finishing
Simple processing
Complex processing
Hosiery products
Carpet finishing
Stock & yarn finishing
Nonwoven manufacturing
Felted fabric processing
SUBTOTAL
Indirect Dischargers (PSES)
Wool scouring
Wool finishing
Woven fabric finishing
Simple processing
Complex processing
Desizing
Knit fabric finishing
Simple processing
Complex processing
Hosiery products
Carpet finishing
Stock S yarn finishing
Nonwoven manufacturing
Felted fabric processing
SUBTOTAL
TOTAL (BAT & PSES)
Total
number
of
plants



6
8

35
14
36

24
15
7
11
36
5
1
198

10
26

156
56
31

185
47
153
45
178
26
15
~~928
1,126
Number
of
plants
incurring
costs I/



5
8

23
14
29

22
12
7
6
32
5
1
164

7
18

0
19
16

0
0
51
0
30
0
0
141
305
Total
investment
requirements



652
6,912
33,380
6,829
8,479
18,072
12 ,487
8,537
3,259
691
1,491
8,972
799
308
65,001

2,198
8,408
22,564
-
11,286
11,278
13,210
-
-
13,210
-
11,278
-
.
57,658
122,663
Total
operating and
maintenance
costs



259
2,272
8,370
1,941
2,057
4,372
3,490
2,211
948
331
443
2,522
280
95
17,731

1,023
3,120
8,693
-
4,346
4,347
5,157
-
-
5,157
-
4,190
-
-
22,183
39,914
Total
annual ized
cost



396
3,733
15,430
3,386
3,848
8,196
6,131
4,021
1,634
476
756
4,418
448
161
31,473

1,473
4,852
13,384
-
6,688
6,696
7,847
-
-
7,847
-
6,513
-
-
34,069
65,542
_!/  Number of plants incurring costs include those plants which were not meeting the effluent guidelines in
~   the base year (1979) and will be required to install controls.

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BAT.  Approximately 200 plants in the industry are direct dischargers and
subject to BAT.  A total of 164 of these are expected to incur the BAT
control costs.  Required price increases range from a low of less than 0.5
percent for one of the large simple knit fabric models to a high of 1.3
percent for one of the small stock and yarn models.  The probability of
price pass-through is generally low for all subcategories.   The largest
range of cash flow occurs in the knit fabric subcategories  with flows
ranging between $0.2 million and $53.2 million.  Under controls this range
is reduced to $0.1 million and $52.7 million.  The only negative cash flows
occur for models in the wool scouring subcategory.  The cash flows for the
small wool scouring model are negative both under baseline  and under BAT
controls.  Negative NPV's under baseline occur in three subcategories for
smaller models:  wool scouring, woven fabric finishing and  stock & yarn
finishing.  Under BAT controls, models in two additional subcategories show
negative NPV'S:  wool finishing and knit fabric finishing.   A total  of 9
closures are projected under the costs of BAT control.  These closures are
expected to result in reductions in employment of about 2,000 workers and
loss in capacity of close to 75 million pounds.

PSES.  There are an estimated 928 indirect discharger plants subject to
PSES controls; however, only 141 are expected to be required to incur
costs.   In the woven fabric subcategory, less than 20 percent of the plants
are expected to incur costs while, in knit fabric, only the hosiery plants
will require controls.  Generally, higher price increases are required for
the indirect discharger models as compared to the direct models, primarily
because of the smaller plants in the indirect discharge category.  The
highest increase required is shown for the stock and yarn subcategory at
5.2 percent.

As is the case for direct dischargers, the probability for  price
pass-through for indirect dischargers is low for all subcategories.   All
subcategories show positive cash flows under baseline while two
subcategories show negative flows under PSES controls: wool scouring and
knit fabric (hosiery products).  With the imposition of PSES controls,
negative NPV's are shown for models in wool scouring, wool  finishing, woven
fabric, knit fabric (hosiery products) and stock and yarn finishing.  A
total of 52 plants are projected to close under PSES.  These closures are
expected to account for a reduction in employment of about  10,000 workers
and a loss of capacity of over 200 million pounds.

BAT/PSES.  Under both BAT and PSES,'a total of 61 plants are projected to
close with a resultant loss in employment of over 11,000 workers and
reduction in capacity of 287.5 million pounds.

BCT.  An estimated total of about 10 waterjet weavers are subject to BCT
effluent limitations.  BPT is the recommended option for these plants under
the effluent limitations.  Of the 10 weavers, only 3 have not met BPT and
are expected to incur costs.  Investment requirements for these weavers are
about $1.1 million while the annual costs amount to slightly over $0.5
million.  None of these jet weavers is projected to close under the costs
of control.

-------
NSPS/PSNS.  The feasibility of new source model plants and their viability
under pollution control are shown in Table 3 for both direct (NSPS) and
indirect (PSNS) dischargers.  Models are considered viable under baseline
in all of the subcategories except stock and yarn finishing, nonwoven and
felted fabric.  Models in these subcategories show negative net present
values under baseline as well as under pollution control.   Under the
recommended options for both NSPS and PSNS, one of the desizing models in
woven fabric finishing (own fabric) becomes marginal in addition to models
in the above 3 categories.

RCRA.  Only about 15 percent of the wet processors in the  industry are
expected to be required to incur RCRA costs.  Total investment
requirements, including initial and capital costs, amount  to just over $2
million.  The impacts of RCRA costs on the individual models were minor.
These costs are not expected to result in any plant closures.

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                             I.  INTRODUCTION

The Environmental Protection Agency is charged with the responsibility to
restore and maintain the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the
nation's water.  This authority is granted under the Clean Water Act (the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 as amended by the
Clean Water Act of 1977).

The Act required that all industries discharging into navigable water
achieve the "best practicable control  technology" (BPT) by July 1, 1977.
Now attention is focused on achieving the next major milestone specified by
the Act by July 1, 1984.  At that time the Act required the application of
effluent treatment technology based upon the very best control and
treatment measures.  These effluent limitations require:
                          ^ojr Pi r ec t Pi senargers

     t    Application of the "Best Available Technology Economically
          Achievable" (BAT) for toxic and nonconventional  pollution.

     t    Application of the "Best Conventional Pollutant Control
          Technology" (BCT) for conventional pollutants.

     t    "New Source Performance Standards" (NSPS) are also being
          established for new industrial  dischargers.


                         For Indirect Dischargers

     •    Achievement within 3 years of promulgation of pretreatment
          standards for existing sources  (PSES).

     t    Achievement upon commencement of operations, of pretreatment
          standards for new sources (PSNS).


                         A.  Scope of this Report

This report analyzes the economic impact  of the imposition of water
pollution controls on the Textile Mills Point Source Category.  Prepared
under the supervision and review of the Office of Analysis and Evaluation,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the study considers the economic
effects of the wastewater controls.  The  analysis addresses impacts at both
the micro and macro economic levels.  To  accomplish such analysis, the
total industry, as well as individual firms within the industry, are
represented in this analysis.
                                    1-1

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                      B. Organization of this Report

This report includes a total  of ten chapters.  Chapter II discusses, in
detail, the methodology used in estimating the economic impacts of the
various effluent limitation guidelines and respective control  options.  In
general, model plants were developed to represent the various  sizes and
types of plants found in the industry.  A net present value analysis is
then employed to determine the economic and financial impacts  of the
regulatory alternatives.

Chapter III, IV, and V deal with various aspects of the industry background
such as the structure of the industry including the number, sizes and types
of plants and employment characteristics.  A financial profile of the
industry and a discussion of prices and price determination are also
included.  Chapter VI describes the representative model  plants and how
they are related to the total industry.

The treatment alternatives are discussed in Chapter VII along  with the
investment and operating cost for each alternative.  Various alternatives
are developed for each size and type of plant.  The economic impacts are
described in Chapter VIII.  All alternatives considered for each
regulation, BAT, BCT, e'tc. are discussed, then, summarized for the
recommended options.  The analysis is concluded with a discussion of
impacts on "small" versus "large" firms as required by the Regulatory
Flexibility Act.

This report summarizes the textile industry's structure,  financial
characteristics, marketing and pricing practices, and representative model
plants.  Control costs, which were adapted to the model plant  approach,
were provided in the Development Document.  The specific  types of economic
impacts that are examined in this report include:

     1)   Prices
     2)   Profitability
     3)   Industry Growth
     4)   Capital Availability
     5)   Number of Plants
     6)   Production
     7)   Employment
     8)   Communities
     9)   Balance of Trade
                             C.  Data Sources

Data utilized in the preparation of this report were obtained from both
primary and secondary sources.  Primary sources were those associated with
the industry itself and included plants, mills and textile associations.
Secondary sources were publications prepared by the government, industry,
and private institutions.  Some of the more relevant data and data sources
are discussed below and are reflected in the bibliography at Appendix A.
                                    1-2

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1.  Primary Data Sources

Information acquired directly from mills or from representatives of the
industry were considered primary data.  The major sources of primary data
in this study included an industry survey, mill visits by DPRA personnel,
and informal discussions with industry representatives.

The initial industry survey was concluded in 1977 under the authority of
Section 308 of the Clean Water Act and used in the development of the
economic analysis for proposed standards and published in October 1979 \j
2J .  A follow-up survey was accomplished as a part of the work to develop
this report and used to update the model plants to 1979 conditions.  This
included an additional 173 questionnaires with a response rate of 55
percent.  Also the follow-up survey enabled a more complete data base to be
assembled.  A copy of the data collection portfolio is presented in
Appendix C.

Visits to textile mill operations allowed the authors to gain an important
insight into the operational and managerial characteristics of these
plants.  These visits were coordinated through various industry trade
organizations and the facilities selected are believed to be fairly
representative of a cross-section of the industry.  The information
obtained during these visits supplemented data received from the surveys.

2.  Secondary Data Sources

The published data utilized in this analysis were predominately obtained
from various reports available from both private and governmental sources.
These secondary data sources are utilized throughout this analysis to
depict historical industry trends and to supplement and verify information
received from primary sources.  This latter use of secondary information
was particularly important in the development of the financial model plants
to assure the representativeness and accuracy of the models.  A complete
listing of the major secondary sources utilized in the development of this
report are listed in the Bibliography.
_!_/   EPA "Economic Impact Analysis of Proposed Effluent Limitations
     Guidelines, New Source Performance Standards and Pretreatment
     Standards for the Textile Mills Point Source Category.  Prepared by
     DPRA under Contract No. 68-01-4632, October 1979.

2/   Complete details of the industry survey are contained in the 1979
     economic report covering the proposed guidelines.
                                    1-3

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                            II.   METHODOLOGY
The methodological  approach utilized to assess the likely economic impact
of effluent control limitations on the textile industry is summarized in
this chapter.  In this impact study, economic impact is defined as the
differences between (1) the projections of the likely effects on a plant,
a local area, the United States, and on foreign activity which would
result from an industry's compliance with a given level of effluent
control standards and (2) the projection of industrial  activity and
changes which would likely occur in the absence of control standards
(baseline conditions).

In particular, the principal  economic variables of interest in this study
are:

  (1)  price effects—including effects upon industry's suppliers
       and consumers,
  (2)  profitability—growth and capital availability,
  (3)  number, size, and location of plants that can be expected
       to close or curtail employment,
  (4)  changes in employment,
  (5)  community impacts,
  (6)  dislocation effects,
  (7)  balance of trade consequences,
  (8)  other impacts.

In the case of best available technology economically achievable  (BATEA)
and pretreatment standards for existing sources (PSES), the analysis
focused on price increases, plant closings, curtailments of production,
dislocations of production, unemployment, community impacts, and balance
of trade effects.  For new source performance standards (NSPS) and pre-
treatment standards for new sources  (PSNS), the impacts were assessed
in terms of the effects on industry growth, prices, plant locations
(i.e., domestic or foreign production), and balance of trade.  The
specific bases for effluent control relating to the textile industry
are described in detail in a separate EPA report. I/
I/  Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations, guide!ines,  New
    Source Performance Standards _and Pretreatment Standards for the Textile
    Mills Point Source Category, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
    Effluent Guidelines Division, to be published.

                                  II-l

-------
Several interrelated analyses were used to evaluate likely economic impacts
resulting from effluent control  requirements on the textile industry.  These
in-depth analyses included:  (1) a characterization and subcategorization
of the technical and economic structure of the industry, (2) a description
of the financial profile of the  '.ndustry, (3) the construction of represen-
tative model plants, (4) an evaluation of pricing patterns within the
industry, (5) a description of the technological  options for meeting
designated levels of pollution control and the costs associated with each
option, and (6) the analysis of  economic impacts.

The overall analysis, however, was not a simple sequential one; rather, it
employed interacting feedback steps.   The schematic of the analytical approach
is shown in Exhibit II-l.  Due to the fundamental causal relationships among
the financial and production effects  and other impacts, a greater emphasis
was devoted to plant closure analysis.


              A.  Industry Structure  and Subcategorization


The industry structure and subcategorization analysis primarily involved
describing and segmenting the industry in terms of its past and current
economic characteristics in order to  provide an information base for the
subsequent analytic steps.  In particular, the information on industry
characteristics was useful in determining an appropriate disaggregation
design for industry subcategorization.

The subcategorization involved segmenting the plants within the industry
into relatively homogenous classes with respect to plant size, regional
differences, technology employed, number of products, existing level of
pollution, scale of technological processes, level of output, or other
relevant factors important for assessing the impact of pollution controls.
This delineation of industry subcategories served as the basis for the
definition and construction of representative model plants and the deter-
mination of the wastewater treatment  technological options and costs
appropriate to each.


                 B.  Financial Profile of the Industry


The ability of firms within the industry to finance investment for pollu-
tion control was determined, in part, by the past and expected financial
conditions of those firms.  Under the heading "financial profile of the
industry," various factors were studied to develop insight into the finan-
cial characteristics of actual plants in the industry.  Much of the data
compiled in this section was also useful in determining the financial
profiles of representative model plants.
                                  II-2

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                                  Industry
          Industry
          Structure
          Industry
          Financial
            Data
        EPA Pollution
        Control  Costs
  Base
Closures
Plant Closures
Due to Control
         Employment
          Effects
            I
         Community
          Effects
                     Subcate-
                   gorization
                                      1
                                 Model Plant
                                  Parameters
                                      i
                   Budget Data
                   Development
Industry
Pricing
                                    Model
                                  financial
                                  Analyses
                                      T
                                               Financial
                                               Profiles
Price
Increases
1
Shutdown
Analysis
i
Production-
Expected
Effects
i
Foreign
Trade
Effects



•N

     Exhibit II-l.
      Schematic of economic impact analysis of effluent
             control guidelines
                                 II-3

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Key financial statistics included after-tax profit as a percent of sales,
after-tax profit as a percent of invested capital, sales to total assets
ratios, sales per employee, assets per employee, and after-tax profit to
net worth.  Other financial factors were studied with respect to the
ability of firms to generate funds to finance investment for effluent
management, either internally through cash flow or externally through new
debt or equity issues.  The data compiled in this phase of the analysis
provide an information base useful for projecting key technical and
economic factors and for carrying out subsequent economic impact analysis.


                            C.  Model Plants
The model plant analysis used was a systematic framework within which to
assess likely economic impacts on individual types and sizes of actual
plants within the industry.  Usually more than one model plant was re-
quired for an industry in order to represent various types and sizes of
existing plants or plants which are likely to be constructed after the
promulgation of effluent control guidelines.

The model plant profiles represent a variety of financial, economic, and
technical variables such as sales, investment, fixed and variable costs,
profits, size, and type of process.  The profiles were constructed from
information and data gathered in the industry characterization phase of
the analysis.  This information was generally obtained from an industry
survey, plant visits, discussions with industry representatives, trade
publications, other secondary data sources, and from engineering cost-
synthesis methods.

In developing the model plants, the best data source was the industry surveys
which provided detailed financial data from the various types and sizes of
existing firms.  However, data from the industry surveys were checked with
published financial data to assure the reliability of the data contained in
the surveys.  Also, data from  published sources are available annually which
allow historical trends to be considered as well as enabling the industry's
financial situation to be updated without resurveying the industry.

Thus, the model plants are developed utilizing an eclectic approach which
considers data from both primary and secondary sources.  In a typical
development of a model plant, key economic/financial data (e.g. sales,
production costs, margins, asset structure) are collected from numerous
sources and converted to a common base.  These data are, in turn, analyzed
and compared, considering  also  nonquantifiable aspects of the industry,
to determine the appropriate parameter to use for the particular model
plant.  The consolidation of the various parameters results in the depic-
tion of the key economic and financial components in the form of a
representative model plant.
                                  II-4

-------
The applicability of utilizing model plant data for assessing expected
economic impacts of pollution controls rests principally on the repre-
sentativeness of the selected model plant(s).  For example, the economic
concept of "economies-of-scale" in production is often present in processing
plants, e.g., average unit costs of production are usually lower for large
plants than for medium or small plants of the same type.  Furthermore, there
are expected economies-of-scale in waste treatment, which, in effect, will
compound the economies-of-scale relationships among differing sizes of plants.

In general, economies-of-scale relationships in pollution control costs have
been demonstrated, and this alone would necessitate multiple model plant
analyses to evaluate differential economic effects.  Other processing factors,
e.g., type of manufacturing process employed (technology) may also affect
processing costs and wasteflows.  This again may necessitate a further seg-
mentation of an industry and the inclusion of additional model plants for a
more comprehensive analysis.


                          D.  Pricing Patterns


The analysis of pricing patterns in the textile industry focused on factors
determining supply and demand.  Market structure and the nature of competi-
tion were evaluated, a step which, for the textile industry, involved the
inclusion of the influence that international markets and competition assert
on the domestic industry's prices.  Finally, the ability of plants to recover
the increased costs of pollution  controls was assessed.


           E.  Waste Treatment Technological Options and Costs


Waste treatment options and their associated costs are obviously instru-
mental in the assessment of the economic impacts of water pollution con-
trols.  In general, basic technical and cost data were developed specifi-
cally for various types and sizes of model  plants using the appropriate
discharge method (direct or indirect).  This analysis also examined model
plants reflecting new facilities which were projected most likely to be
built after the promulgation of the guidelines.   In determining appro-
priate options and costs, it was necessary, to specify 1) the points of
final disposition of discharge in each industry segment, and 2) the types
and proportions of effluent systems in place.  This information was
primarily obtained from EPA, Effluent Guidelines Division through the
technical contractor.

Cost data from the technical contractor usually included estimated invest-
ment costs for various treatment options for each model plant and their
respective estimated annual operating and maintenance costs based upon
normal operating rates or annual  production  capacity.
                                  II-5

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                       F.  Other Regulatory Costs


In addition to regulations pertaining to water pollution control, plants
are also subject to other federal regulatory requirements which depend
upon the industry and the nature of its processes and/or products.  These
regulations can pertain to product quality, air pollution, solid waste
disposal, occupational safety and other areas.

Unfortunately these other regulations are not uniformly required or en-
forced.  Also, data reflecting the costs of compliance to these regulations
are not often available.  To the extent possible, the impact analysis con-
sidered the costs associated with these other regulations.


                    G.  Analysis of Economic Impacts
This study's economic impact  analysis  required the establishment of a base-
case of industry conditions that would prevail without pollution controls.
The consequent economic impact  of  pollution controls was estimated by showing
the changes from this basecase.  Thus, in  this study a "dynamic basecase"--a
projection of the industry structure  in  terms of the number of its plants,
production, employment and other parameters over time—was used as opposed to
a "static" basecase descriptive of current industry conditions.


Fundamentally, the impact analysis was similar to that usually required
for any capital budgeting study of new investments in which the problem
is one of deciding whether a commitment of time or money to a project is
worthwhile in terms of the expected benefits.  The analysis was complicated
by the fact that benefits and investments will  accrue over a period of time
and that, in practice, the analyst cannot reflect all of the required im-
ponderables which, by definition,  must deal with future projections.  In
the face of imperfect and incomplete information and of time constraints,
the industry segments were described in the form of financial budgets of
model plants.  Key non-quantifiable factors were considered in the inter-
pretation of the quantified data.   Actual financial results deviated from
the model results; however, these variances were considered in interpre-
tating the findings based on model plants.

The analysis of anticipated economic impacts of water pollution controls
are described as follows.

1.  Fundamental Core Methodology

The fundamentals for analysis are basic to all  impact studies.  The core
methodology is described  here as a unit with the specific impact analyses
discussed under the appropriate headings  following this section.
                                  II-6

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a.  Model Plant Impact Analysis

The core analysis for this study was based upon synthesizing the physical
and financial characteristics of the various industry segments through
representative model plant projections.  Estimated financial profiles
and cash flows are presented in the model plant chapter.  The primary
factors involved in assessing the financial and production impact of
pollution control were profitability changes—a function of the cost
of pollution control and a plant's ability to pass along these costs in
the form of higher prices.  In reality, closure decisions are seldom made
on a set of well-defined and documented economic rules.  They include a
wide range of personal values, external forces such as the inability to
obtain financing, or the relationship between a dependent production unit
and its larger cost center whose total costs must be considered.

Such circumstances include but are not limited to the following factors:

  (1)  Inadequate accounting systems or procedures.  This is especially
       likely to occurin small, independent plants which do not have
       effective cost accounting systems.

  (2)  Inefficient production units.  This is particularly true of plants
       where the equipment is old and fully depreciated, and the owner
       has no intention of replacing or modernizing it.  Production con-
       tinues as long as labor and materials costs are covered until the
       equipment fails entirely.

  (3)  Personal values and goals associated with business ownership that
       override or constrain rational economic rules.  This complex of
       factors may be referred to as the value of psychic income.

  (4)  Production dependence.  This is characteristic of a plant that is
       a part of a larger integrated entity which either uses raw materials
       being produced profitably in another of the^firm's operating units
       or supplies raw materials to another of the firm's operations where
       the source of supply is critical.  When the profitability of the
       second operation more than offsets the losses in the first plant,
       the unprofitable operation may continue indefinitely because the
       total enterprise is profitable.

  (5)  Temporary unprofitability.  This may be found whenever an owner-
       operator expects that losses are temporary and that adverse con-
       ditions will change.  His ability to absorb short-term losses
       depends upon his access to funds through credit or personal re-
       sources not presently utilized.

  (6)  Low (approaching zero) opportunity costs for the fixed assets and
       for the owner-operator's managerial skills labor.  As long as the
       operator can meet labor and materials costs, he will continue to
       operate.  He may even operate with gross revenues below variable
       costs until he has exhausted his working capital and credit.


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 (7)   Plant-site appreciation.  This factor is important in those situa-
       tions where the value of the land on which the plant is located is
       appreciating at a rate sufficient to offset short-term losses.

These factors are generally associated with proprietorships and closely
held enterprises rather than with publicly held corporations.

Although the above factors are present in and relevant to business deci-
sions, they are not always susceptible to quantifiable analysis.  This study's
analytical techniques are sufficient, however, to provide useful and reliable
insight into such potential business responses to required investment and
operating costs for pollution control facilities.  Accordingly this analysis
of the model plants' impacts was primarily based on the determination of the
model plants' net present values (NPV) both before and after expenditures
for controls.  This NPV analysis was then combined with considerations for
unique influencing factors (such as those listed above) so that its assess-
ment of impacts reflects, as accurately as possible, the responses actual
businesses will make.

The computation of the net present values in such an analysis involves the
discounting of the models' cash flows over some period of time (in this
analysis 21 years) through the discounting function:


       NPV =  I  A   (l+K)"n - I
             n=l  n
where:
       NPV = net present value     t,
       A   = the cash flow in the n   year

       K   = discount rate (after-tax cost of capital)
       n   = number of the conversion period, i.e., year 1, year 2, etc.
       t   = total number of conversion periods (years)
       I   = value of facility for nonconforming uses (salvage value
             for existing facilities and initial investment for new
             source facilities)

The resulting net present value indicates the excess of the present value
of projected cash flows for an operating facility over the present value
of what the equity holders could earn if they liquidated in year zero
and invested the resulting money plus any additional investments they would
normally be expected to invest to maintain the facility in operation
during the time period (in this case twenty-one years) at the firm's estimated
cost of capital.  Thus, if the NPV is positive, the equity holders are
earning a return which is greater than the model's cost of capital.  If
the NPV is negative, then the equity holders are earning less than the
cost of capital, and in such a situation, they would be better off liqui-
dating, realizing the salvage value in cash,!/ and reinvesting it at least
at the firm's (industry) cost of capital.
 I/   Salvage  value  is defined  here as the liquidation value of fixed assets
     plus working capital,  i.e. sold for nonconforming uses.

                                  II-8

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                                       0
Model plant NPV's are determined both without and with expenditures for
pollution controls.  Comparison of the base case (without controls) and
the impacted case (with controls) allows the net effects of the controls
to be determined.  These effects in combination with other relevant
economic considerations enable overall impacts to be determined.

b.  Construction of the Model Plant Cash Flow and Capital Outlays

The cash flow and capital outlays used in this analysis of pollution
control costs were constructed in the following manner:

  (1)  The cash flows were presented in current dollars thus requiring
       the use of different cash flows for each of the respective years.

  (2)  For existing model plants, the initial investment, taken in year t
       was considered to be outlays for the model fixed assets (salvage
       value) and working capital.

  (3)  The after-tax cash proceeds were taken for years t, to t .  These
       were adjusted annually for inflation.

  (4)  Annual reinvestment for replacement of depreciated assets was
       estimated for year ti  and was adjusted annually to comoensate
       for inflation and the net between reinvestment and depreciation.

  (5)  Terminal value of the model was taken in year tn and reflected
       the salvageable assets plus the net working capital.

  (6)  Capital outlays for pollution controls, when applicable, were
       added to the models' total assets in increments during years t1
       to t6.

  (7)  Annual pollution control expenses were incurred incrementally
       between years t\ and tg reflecting the stages of construction
       completion for the capital outlays.  After year tg, expenses were
       adjusted annually for inflation.

  (8)  Depreciation of depreciable assets was computed utilizing rapid
       depreciation techniques for tax computations and the straight-line
       method for the pro forma income statements.  Replacement invest-
       ments of pollution control equipment began in year t-,-,.

  (9)  No terminal values of the pollution facilities were computed as it
       was anticipated there would be few, if any, salvageable assets in
       year t  .

Base case cash flows consisted of Steps 1 through 5 and excluded investment
and annual costs associated with pollution controls.  Impacted cash flows
consisted of Steps 1 through 9 and reflected the model plant after the
imposition of environmental requirements.
II-9

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In the construction of the cash flow for the net present value analysis,
after-tax cash proceeds were defined as:

  (1)  After-tax income = (1 - T) x (R - E - I - 0)

  (2)  After-tax cash proceeds *(l-T)x(R-E-D)+0

where

  T = tax rate
  R = revenues
  E = expenses other than depreciation and interest
  I = interest expenses
  D = depreciation charges

Depreciation was included only in terms of its tax effect and was then
added back to obtain after-tax cash proceeds.

There is a temptation to include outlays for interest payments when com-
puting the cash proceeds of a period.  Cash disbursed for interest should
not affect the cash proceeds computation.  The interest factor is taken
into consideration by the use of the present-value procedure.  To also
include the cash disbursement would result in double counting.  The
effect of interest payments on income taxes is also excluded from the
cash proceeds computation.  This was brought into the analysis when
computing the effective rate of interest of debt sources of capital,
which is used in the determination of the cost of capital.

A tax rate of 20 percent on the first $25,000 income, 22 percent on the
second $25,000 income, and 48 percent on amounts over $50,000 was used
throughout the analysis.  Investment credits and carryforward and carry-
back provisions were not used due to their complexity and special limita-
tions.  The annual inflation rate used for this analysis was 6.0 percent.
This rate reflects, approximately, the annual rate for the past ten
years based on the historical implicit price deflators for the gross
national product.  A period of twenty-one (21) years was selected for
the  length of time to discount models' cash flows because this period
of time was determined to be representative of the useful economic life
of actual industry facilities.  The important eonsideration in this length
of time is the length of service of machinery and equipment.  Building life
for  a facility typically is considerably longer than 21 years.  However,
building costs are small relative to the costs of production equipment.
Furthermore, the 21 year period is sufficiently long enough to allow for
business cycles and fluctuations to balance out.

While profitability is an important input to the net present value analysis,
the  overall assessment of a model plant's viability was not totally depen-
dent upon the plant's level of profits.  The NPV concept also considers the
value of the model's equity to the equity holders as well as effects of the
timing of the cash flows including consideration for depreciation schedules.
A more common measure of profitability  is return on investment (ROI) where
after-tax income  (as defined  in  Equation 1)  is expressed as a percent of


                                   11-10

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invested capital (book value) or as a percent of net worth.  Such measures
should not be viewed as necessarily different estimates of profitability
when compared to the net present value concept; rather, these should be
considered as entirely different profitability concepts.  It should be
noted the data requirements for ROI and NPV measures are derived from the
same basic financial information, although the final inputs are handled
differently for each.

c.  Cost of Capital - After-tax
Return on invested capital is a fundamental notion in U.S. business.  It
provides both a measure of the actual performance of a firm as well as its
expected performance.  In the latter case, it is also called the cost of
capital, and this, in turn, is defined as the weighted average of the cost
of each type of capital employed by the firm—in general terms—equities
and interest-bearing liabilities.  Although no methodology yields the
precise cost of capital, it can be approximated within reasonable bounds.

Equi ty capital^.  The cost of equity capital was estimated by two methods—
the dividend yield method and the earnings stock price (E/P ratio) method.
Both are simplifications of the more complex discounted cash flow (DCF)
methodology.  The dividend yield method is:
  where:
       c  = cost of equity capital
       D, = dividend per share expected at end of period 1

       P  = stock price at time o
       g  = growth of dividend per share

The earnings/price ratio method is:
  where:

       c = cost of equity capital
       E = current earnings per share
       P = current stock price

This latter method assumes that future earnings per share will be the
same as the current earnings and that the dividend-payout ratio is 100
percent.
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Debt Capital.   The after-tax cost of debt capital was estimated by using
an estimated cost of debt (interest rate) and multiplying it by 0.52 —
assuming a 48 percent tax rate.

       d =  .52 i

  where:

       d = after-tax cost of debt capital
       i = before-tax cost of debt (interest rate)

Weighted Cost of Capital.  The sum of  the cost of equity and debt capital
weighted by the respective equity to equity plus debt and total debt to
equity plus debt (where debt is long-term debt) ratios yields the esti-
mated average cost of capital (k), after tax.  This is depicted below.

       k  =       Equity            +     Total debt        d
             Debt plus equity          Debt plus equity

d.  Investment Determination

In evaluating the feasibility of new plants, investment was thought of as
outlays for fixed assets and working capital; however, in evaluating
closure of an on-going plant, the investment basis was its salvage value
(opportunity cost or shadow price).!/  For this analysis, salvage value
was taken as the sum of liquidation value of fixed assets plus working
capital (current assets less current liabilities) tied up by the plant.
This same amount was taken as a negative investment or "cash out" value
in the terminal year.

The rationale for using total shadow priced investment was that the cash
proceeds  do not include interest expenses which are reflected in the
weighted cost of capital.  This procedure required the use of total capital
(salvage value) regardless of source.  An alternative would have been to
use as investment, net cash realization upon liquidation of the plant
(total cash realized from liquidation less debt retirement).  In the single
plant firm, debt retirement would be clearly defined.  In the case of the
multiplant  firm, the delineation of the debt by the plant would likely not
be clear.   Presumably this could be reflected in proportioning total debt
to the individual plant on some plant parameter (i.e., capacity or sales).
Under this  latter procedure, interest and debt retirement costs would be
included in the cash flows.
 I/  This  should not be confused with a simple buy-sell situation which
    merely involves a transfer of ownership from one firm to another.
    In this  instance, the opportunity cost (shadow price) of the investment
    may take on a different value.
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The two procedures will yield similar.results if the costs of capital and
the interest charges are estimated on a similar basis.  The former proce-
dure total salvage value was used as it gives reasonable answers and
simplified both the computation and explanation of the cash proceeds and
salvage values.

Replacement investment was considered to be equal to 100 percent times
the annual depreciation.  This corresponds to the operating policies of
some managements and serves as a good proxy for replacement in an on-
going business.

Investments  in pollution control facilities were determined from estimates
provided by EPA.  Only incremental values were used in order to reflect
in-place facilities.

2.  Price, Supply and  Demand  Impact Analyses

Price and supply and demand impact analyses necessarily  have to proceed
simultaneously.  In order to  evaluate these impacts,  two types of analyses
were used: one—the micro level—utilized the model plant  as the basis of
the analysis to arrive at required price impacts to maintain profitability
levels; the other—the industry  level—utilized  supply and demand analysis.

Application of  the  preceding  NPV procedure to these costs  yielded the
present value of pollution control costs (i.e.,  investment plus operating
cost less tax savings).  When  this was known, the price  increase required
to pay for pollution control  could readily be approximated by the formula:^/

       x  =    (PVP)  (100)
               (1-TTTPVR1

  where:

        X  =  required  percentage  increase  in  price
        PVP  =  present value of pollution  control costs
        PVR  =  present value of gross  revenue starting in  the year
              pollution  control  is  imposed
        T  =  average tax  rate

 The  required  price increase  at  the plant level was  evaluated  in light of
 the  price elasticities  of the commodity  involved and the competitive struc-
 ture of the industry.   This  represented  the second  approach using supply
 and  demand  analysis.  The supply and demand analysis provided some insights
 into likely quantities  and supply  responses to different prices.  This
 allowed a preliminary estimate  of  the  production and price impacts of pollu-
 tion control  costs.   Following  this, further analysis  at the micro level was
 I/   The  above  procedure  is  conceptually  correct where  an average tax
     rate is used.   However,  to  insure accuracy  in  the machine program
     where  the  actual  tax  brackets were incorporated, a more detailed
     iterative  process was required.

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performed to obtain a more detailed insight into the plants' responses to
expected price changes, cost absorption, or plant closure (the plant closure
criteria are discussed in Section G-4, below).  The indicated plant shut-
downs were then aggregated to test whether or not the lost production could
be absorbed by the remaining capacity or whether such curtailments would
increase prices.

3.  Financial Impact Analysis

The financial impact analysis involved the preparation of pro forma income
statements and cash flow statements (including computations of the models'
                                                                        ion

industry to finance this investment and estimated financial requirements.
The ability to finance plant investment for pollution control could have a
definite bearing on judgments and estimates with regard to likely plant
closures.

4.  Plant Closures and Production Effects

Plant closures may result from the inability of less profitable plants to
adequately recover required pollution abatement cost through increased
product prices, decreased input prices, or improvements in economic effi-
ciency.  Often closures can be anticipated among older, smaller and less
efficient plants as a result of economies of scale in pollution control
which would lower the overall costs to competing larger operations.  Since
the larger plants, whose unit pollution control costs are usually much less,
will be able to afford to sell at a lower price 'nan the smaller high-cost
plants, the high-cost plants will have no recout ;e other than to sell at
the long run equilibrium price set by the low-cost plants.  Consequently,
the older, smaller, less efficient plants would probably and eventually
yield to the dominance of the larger,more efficient units.  However, in
the short run, a plant may continue to operate even when economic consid-
erations indicate closure, especially when the smaller, high cost plants
are protected by regional markets and other non-price impediments to com-
petition from the larger low cost plants.

Most firms would cease operations if they could not adequately absorb the
required wastewater control expenditures.  The most obvious measurement of
a firm's ability to absorb the costs is its ability to maintain a positive
income or cash flow after incurring control expenditures.  If incomes are
negative, some firms would remain in operation as long as they cover variable
costs  (positive cash flows); however, the requirements for overhead expenses
would eventually cause such firms to cease.

The remaining situation that could arise would be one in which firms main-
tain positive incomes and generate net present values (NPV of their cash
flows  at their cost of capital) which are positive.  This indicates that
these  firms are earning a return on their operation which exceeds their
cost of  capital.  If their NPV's are negative then the firms would liquidate,
realize  salvage value in cash, and reinvest in a more financially viable
investment  (one which would earn at least their cost of capital).

                                 11-14

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A review of the potential financial effects of the imposition of wastewater
controls on the models results in some confusion in the determination of
which plants would be forced to close due to an inability to absorb the
control expenditures; a confusion which can result from a large number of
models and wastewatar control treatment alternatives applicable to each
model.  Accordingly, for this analysis, formalized closure criteria were
developed.  In the development of these criteria, certain necessary assump-
tions were made to simplify the interpretation of the impact results.

The closure criteria utilized are depicted below.  These criteria basically
represent the models' abilities to continue operations after incurring
expenditures for wastewater controls.

        Model's            Net Present               Annual Cash
       Viability       	Value	        	Flow	

       Viable         Positive                  Positive

       Marginal       Slightly Negative \J      Slightly Negative If
       Closure        Negative                  Negative

Based on the above criteria, closure decisions are made for each model at
each treatment level.  The number of existing facilities associated with
the representative models which will cease operations due to wastewater
control expenditure requirements are projected utilizing the following
methodology.

  (1)  Based on the NPV closure criteria described previously, the sub-
       categories and associated models projected to close are identified.

  (2)  Once identified, the following factors are considered in the deter-
       mination of the number of actual existing plant closures associated
       with each projected model plant closure.

       (a)  The number of existing facilities associated with the model.

       (b)  The degree to which existing facilities already have at
            least some of the treatment controls in-place.

       (c)  Historical trends for existing facilities within the sub-
            category as well as projections of the subcategory's future
            expectations (helps establish the base case).

       (d)  The severity by which the model's financial data are reduced.
            Are the. financial data substantially reflective of closure or
            are the data reflective of a borderline situation?
 II  The criterion utilized here was that the positive cash flow must be
    greater than the amount by which the NPV was negative or a positive
    NPV must be greater than the amount by which the cash flow was
    negative.  If not, then the plant was projected to close.

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       (e)  Review of data utilized (both published and survey data) to
            develop models.  This allows the determination of the probable
            distribution of the financial profiles of existing facilities
            when compared to the financial profile of the closing model
            plant.

       (f)  Consideration of the reliability of the data utilized in
            the development of the model plants.

  (3)  Based on the above, the number of existing facilities projected to
       close are made.  These projections are determined qualitatively,
       based on the analyst's knowledge of business and economic principles
       as well as the analyst's knowledge of the industry.

The determination of the production effects resulting from the plant closures
is made by applying the projected number of existing facility closures to
production quantities associated with the applicable model plant.  This is
then viewed from the perspective of whether or not the remaining facilities
have the capability to absorb the lost production and if not, whether the
lost production will be absorbed by increased foreign impacts or whether
it will not be absorbed at all.

5.  Employment Impact Analysis

This analysis was concerned with estimating likely employment losses due
to curtailed production or plant closures as a result of pollution con-
trols.  If the actual plants which are expected to curtail production or
to close could be identified, their employment impacts could be estimated
directly.  When, however, they cannot be identified, the employment impact
analysis must involve the application of estimates of employment changes
by model plants.-  Employment changes in model plants would then be gen-
eralized according to the number of actual plants represented by the model
plant and aggregated to derive an estimate of total employment effects for
the industry.  Employment dislocations are noted, as appropriate.

6.  Community Impact Analysis

The community impact analysis identified the potential impacts on local
community economies when the impacted plant represented a major source
of employment and income.  This analysis was based on a knowledge of the
location of plants, particularly threatened plants, and a general under-
standing of the economic base of those communities and the relative im-
portance of threatened plants to local economies.

7.  Dislocation Analysis

The analysis of the dislocational effects of control requirements addressed
the possibility of  plants  closing their  existing facilities to move to other
locations offering  better  opportunities  either for control compliance or
production or market efficiencies.  The  potential for dislocation was partic-
ularly  true for plants required to install control technologies which were
land  intensive where  the plants were limited in their respective availability


                                   11-16

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of land.  This analysis was based on a general knowledge of trends in the
industry, the availability of land for the industry's plants, and the land
requirements of the treatment technologies.

8.  Balance of Trade Impact Analysis

Balance of trade impact analysis dealt with those products that have
competitive import and export positions.  The analysis considered whether
or not the estimated price changes would hinder the products competitive
positions with regard to exports or increases in foreign imports.  Where
important, estimates on the amount of trade that potentially could be
impacted and total trade levels are presented.

9.  Other Impact Analyses

Other potential impacts may be created by the imposition of pollution
control guidelines.  These are unique to given industries and require
a case-by-case approach.  An illustration of such an impact would be a
plant that produces a critical intermediate, an input for other indus-
tries.  The loss of this plant or large price increases could produce
serious backward or forward effects on producers or consumers.  To the
extent additional impacts were as important, they are noted.
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                   III.  THE STRUCTURE OF THE INDUSTRY


The textile industry is comprised of a diverse group of establishments
varying in size, process, and product.  The general characteristics of the
industry establishments range from small family-owned mills utilizing tradi-
tional manufacturing and managerial practices to large multi-mill  corporations
relying on advanced managerial practices and sophisticated technologies.
The final products produced by textile establishments range from twine, sand-
paper, and tire cords to carpets, blankets, lace, hosiery, and apparel
fabrics.

The characterization of the textile industry structure is difficult
because of the diversity of establishments and the varying levels  of inte-
gration.  The most common structural depiction of the industry is  the Standard
Industrial Classification (SIC) system utilized by the U. S.  Department of
Commerce.  This classification system, which groups establishments according
to similar end products, is useful in that much of the published data
concerning the industry are presented according to SIC classifications.
However, the SIC groupings are often relatively large and thus represent
a variety of types of establishments within a soecific SIC grouping.

Another approach to the structural characterization of the industry i's to
categorize establishments according to the manufacturing functions performed
at the facility.  This functional approach is considerably more applicable
to the industry and, because wastewater characteristics are predominately
dependent upon the process functions performed at a facility, it enables
the industry establishments to be grouped into categories with similar
wastewater characteristics.

The disadvantage of the functional categorization of the industry  is that
there  is very limited published data corresponding to the specific functional
categories.  Accordingly, both categorization approaches are  utilized in this
chapter to describe the industry structure.  When possible, attempts will be
made to relate the two approaches so the industry structure is adequately
represented.


                  A.  Subcategorization of the Industry

The textile industry consists of establishments which typically create
and/or process textile related materials for further processing into apparel,
home furnishings, or industrial goods.  While the SIC groupings are primarily
based on the final product shipped from the establishments, actual  industry
facilities are more realistically classified according to the functions per-
formed at each establishment.


                                   III-l

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The following jnaten'al in this section discusses the subcategorization of the
textile industry using two taxonomies:  (1) SIC industry groups, and (2)
categorization  of plants by manufacturing process.

1.  Conventional Industry Subcacegories

According to the Department of Commerce, the United States textile/aonarel
industry is characterized as being comprised of two distinct industry
groups with one group manufacturing textile products such as fabric and
carpets and the other group manufacturing apparel.   The Census, through
the SIC system, categorizes these two industry groups as the Textile
Mill Products Group (SIC 22) and the Apparel and Other Textile Products
Group (SIC 23), respectively.

The Textile Mill Products Group, or the textile industry, includes 30
separate industries which manufacture approximately 90 classes of pro-
ducts.  These establishments are principally engaged in receiving and
preparing fibers; transforming these materials into yarn, thread, or
webbing; converting the yarn and web into fabric or related products;
and finishing these materials  at various stages of production.  Many of
these establishments produce final consumer products such as thread, yarn,
bolt fabric, hosiery, towels,  sheets, carpets, etc., while the rest produce
transitional products for use  by other establishments in both SIC Groups
22 and 23.

The Apparel and Other Textile  Products Group, or the apparel industry,
includes 33 separate industries which manufacture some 70 classes of pro-
ducts.  The establishments in  this group are principally engaged in
receiving woven or knitted fabric for cutting, sewing, and packaging
for consumer purchase.

The processes associated with  the textile industry are numerous and
some result in  the generation  of wastewaters.  The processes associated
with the apparel industry are  generally considered dry and do not result
in the generation of wastewater.  Consequently, the facilities in the
apparel industry (SIC 23) do not have, nor do they require, wastewater
discharge regulations.  Accordingly, an economic impact evaluation of
SIC 23 will not be necessary and thus this group has been eliminated
from further discussion in this report.

Under the SIC system, the textile industry includes establishments engaged
in performing any of the following operations:  (a) preparing fiber and
subsequent manufacturing of yarn; (b) manufacturing broad woven fabric,
narrow woven fabric, knit fabric, and carpets and rugs from yarn; (c)
dyeing and finishing fiber, yarn, fabric, and knit apparel; (d) coating
and waterproofing fabric; (e)  the integrated manufacturing of knit apparel:
and (f) the manufacturing of felt goods, lace goods, nonwoven fabrics, and
miscellaneous textiles.

The SIC system also divides the textile industry into nine 3-digit industry
groups and thirty 4-digit SIC industries.  At the 3-digit level the overall
industry includes four groups of Weaving Mills (SIC 221-224) with a single


                                   III-2

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4-digit SIC industry classified under each of the groups.  Also at the
3-digit group level are the Knitting Mills (SIC 225), Textile Finishing
(SIC 226), Floor Covering Mills (SIC 227), Yarn and Thread Mills (SIC 228),
and Miscellaneous Textile Goods (SIC 229).

The major characteristics of the 3-digit groups are described below:

1.  Weaving Mills (SIC 221, 222, 223, 224).  This classification covers estab-
    lishments constructing fabric by interlacing yarns of wool, cotton or
    man-made fibers.  These materials can be woven into broad woven (greater
    than 12 inches) or narrow  (12 inches or less) fabrics.

2.  Knitting Mills  (SIC 225).   This classification contains establishments
    constructing fabric by connecting yarns of cotton, wool or man-made
    fibers.  Knit production is more flexible and faster than weaving and
    accordingly knitting machinery allows for rapid pattern changes.  The
    SIC system subclassifies knitting mills into groups including hosiery,
    knit apparel and knit fabrics.
3.  Textile Finishing—Except  Wool (SIC 226).   This classification consists
    of establishments involved in the dyeing and treating of cotton and man-
    made fabrics and yarn.  Fabrics are dyed by different methods, depending
    on the desired  effect, and can be treated to resist wrinkles and static,
    inhibit flames, repel water, or provide any number of other qualities.

4.  Floor Covering  Mills (SIC  227)-  This classification encompasses mills
    producing a variety of carpets and rugs including woven and tufted.

5.  Yarn and Thread Mills (SIC 228).  This classification includes eatablish-
    ments spinning  yarn from fibers of cotton or wool or producing yarns from
    man-made fibers.
6.  Miscellaneous Textile Goods (SIC 229).  This classification covers estab-
    lishments utilizing a variety of processes to produce numerous products
    such as non-woven fabric,  felt, lace qoods, padding and upholstery
    filling, tire cords and cordage, arid twine.

Table  III-l lists the respective 4-digit industries corresponding to the above
3-digit industry grouos and describes their primary operations.

Selected 4-digit industries  can be further classified according to their
respective type of organization.   The industries,  which are predominately
associated with finishing operations,  can  be  classified as one of the follow-
ing:   1)  manufacturer;  2)  commission mill;  or  3)  contractor.   Typically the
manufacturer processes  fabrics  and apparel  utilizing  their own raw materials
while  the commission and contractor firms  process  fabrics owned by others.
The selected 4-digit industries and their  respective  types of organizations
are depicted in Table III-2.   It  should  be noted  that while the organizational
distinction is  not particularly important  from a  technological  point-of-view,
it is  economically significant  as  the financial  profiles  of the various orga-
nizations would differ.

                                    III-3

-------
Description of primary operations
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III-5

-------
    Table III-2.   Type of organizations in the textile industry
SIC
no.
SIC Industry
 SIC
suffix   Type of Organization
2231     Weaving and finishing, wool
2253     Knit outerwear mills
2257     Circular knit fabric mills
2258     Warp knit fabric mills
2261     Finishing plants, cotton
2262     Finishing plants, man-made
2269     Finishing plants, NEC
2282    'Throwing and winding mills
                          11     manufacturers
                          51     jobbers, commission weaving

                          11     manufacturers
                          22     converters
                          33     contractors

                          11     manufacturers
                          22     converters
                          33     contractors

                          11     manufacturers
                          22     converters
                          33     contractors

                          11     finishing own fabrics
                          51     commission finishing

                          11     finishing own fabrics
                          51     commission finishing

                          11     finishing own yarn
                          51     commission finishing

                          11     manufacturers
                          51     commission mills
Source:  U.S.  Department of Commerce,  Bureau  of the Census
                                   III-6

-------
2.  Subcategorization of Mills by Type of Process

While the SIC system categorizes establishments according to their end
product, it has been determined within most SIC groups, substantial dif-
ferences in wastewater characteristics occur.  The reason for these dif-
ferences is that while the general end products of different establish-
ments are similar, the methods of producing the end products may differ.
An example of this would be a fully integrated facility producing a
finished textile product being in the same SIC grouping as an establish-
ment which contracted or commissioned another firm to do the majority
of the processing but yet which retained title to the finished product
and was responsible for shipping the final product.  Therefore, the SIC
system is not an effective means of segmentation of the industry with
respect to manufacturing processes and waste characteristics.

Because of its structure, combinations of end products, types of fiber
consumed and manufacturing and finishing processes, the textile industry
required considerable study to develop well defined groupings with similar
waste characteristics.   Factors that had to be considered were raw materials
used, products, manufacturing processes, sizes and ages of mills and equip-
ment, waste control technology, treatment costs, energy requirements, and
solid waste generation and disposal requirements.  A number of approaches
have been used in the past in addition to the SIC system; however most had
serious drawbacks regarding Subcategorization.

Categorization in some of the more recent studies on textile waste water
characteristics and treatment have been based on raw materials, further
identified by product lines and associated effluents.  One of the most
extensive studies is contained in the 1974 Development Document on Textile
Mills Point Source Category.   It categorized first on the basis of a very
important raw material  distinction, the processing of wool versus other
textile fibers (primarily cotton and synthetics).  It then categorized wool
and other textile fibers based on products that relate by types of wastes.
Using this approach, the subcategories discussed below were developed for
the purpose of segmenting the industry by establishments having discharge
characteristics while maintaining a logical and manageable system.

The nine subcategories and a brief description of the type of facilities
which would be classified in each subcategory are presented below.

Subcategory

   (1)  Wool Scouring.   This  subcategory covers facilities primarily engaged
        in scouring natural impurities from raw wool  and other animal  fibers.
        Integrated mills that perform wool scouring and other finishing
        operations fall  within Subcategory 2 (discussed below).  Wool
        scouring is separated from other subcategories because wool and
                                    III-7

-------
      other animal  fibers  require extensive  preliminary  cleaninq result-
      ing in raw wastes  considerably stronger  than  those of other sub-
      categories.

(2)    Wool  Finishing.   This  subcategory  covers  facilities that  finish
      fabric,  a  majority of  which is wool, other animal  fiber,  or
      blends containing  primarily wool or other animal fibers,  by
      employing  any of the following processing operations  on  at least
      five  percent  of  their  total production:   carbonizing, fulling,
      bleaching, scouring  (not  including raw wool scouring),  dyeing  and
      application of functional  finish chemicals.   Mills that  primarily
      finish stock  or  yarn of wool,  other animal  fibers, or blends
      containing primarily wool  or other animal  fibers and  that
      perform carbonizing  are included in this  subcategory; those >''0ol
      stock or yarn mills  that  do not perform  carbonizing and  scouring
      are covered under  Subcategory  7, Stock and Yarn  Finishing.   The
      processes  comprising a typical  wool  finishing operation  include
      carbonizing,  fulling,  fabric scouring, and dyeing.   Wool  finishing
      is  differentiated  from other finishing categories  because of the
      manufacturing processes (principally carbonizing and  fulling)  and
      dyes  and other chemicals  associated with  wool  operations.   As  a
      result,  wool  finishing operations  generate high  volume wastes  with
      pH  fluctuations  and  oil and grease.

(3)    Low Water  Use Processing.   Low water use  processing operations
      include  establishments primarily engaged  in manufacturing greige
      goods, laminating  or coating fabrics,  texturizing  yarn,  tufting
      and carpet backing,  producing  tire cord  fabric,  and similar
      activities in which  either cleanup is  the primary  water  use or
      process  water requirements  are small,  or  both.  These operations  were
      excluded from analysis since the process-related wastewater generated
      and discharged from  each  facility  is comparatively small.


(4)    Woven Fabric  Finishing.  This  subcategory covers facilities that
      primarily  finish fabric,  a majority of which  is  woven,  by employ-
      ing any of the following  processing operations on  at  least five
      percent of their production:  desizing,  scouring,  bleaching,
      mercerizing,  dyeing, printing, or application of  functional
      finish chemicals.   Integrated mills that  finish  a  majority of
      woven fabric  along with greige manufacturing  or  other finishing
      operations such  as yarn dyeing are included in this subcategory
      and total  finishing  production should  be  applied to the  applicable
      Woven Fabric  Finishing effluent limitations to calculate  discharge
      allowances.   Denim finishing mills are also included in  this cate-
      gory.  Woven  fabric  composed primarily of wool is  covered under
      Subcategory 2 -  Wool Finishing.
                               III-8

-------
      A wide  variety of processes  are used in  finishing woven fabric,
      and,  in terms  of cumulative  flow this subcategory is  the largest.
      Processes  that may be employed include desizing,  scouring,  bleach-
      ing,  mercerizing, dyeing,  printing,  and  application of functional
      finish  chemicals.

      Desizing results in a major  difference in  waste characteristics
      of woven fabric  finishing  facilities,  and  the  amount  of desiz-
      ing practiced  is responsible for differences  in  the waste charac-
      teristics  within the Woven Fabric Finishing subcategory as  well.
      In addition, the number of processes performed at a particular
      mill  may vary  from merely  scouring or bleaching  to all  of those
      previously listed.   Consequently, it is  important to  further sub-
      divide  this  subcategory.

     (a)   Simple  Processing.  This  Woven  Fabric Finishing  subdivision
           covers  facilities that  perform  fiber  preparation,  desizing,
           scouring, functional  finishing, and/or one of the  following
           processes applied to  more than  five percent  of total produc-
           tion:  bleaching, dyeing, or printing.   This subdivision
           includes  all Woven Fabric Finishing mills that do  not  Qualify
           under either the Complex  Processing or Desizing  subdivisions.
           (described below)

     (b)   Complex Processing.   This Woven Fabric Finishing subdivision
           covers  facilities that  perform  fiber  preparation,  desizing
           of less than 50 percent of their total  production, scouring,
           mercerizing, functional  finishing,  and more  than one of the
           following,  each applied to more than  five percent  of total
           production:  bleaching, dyeing, and printing.

     (c)   Complex Processing Plus Desizing.   This  Woven Fabric Finishing
           subdivision covers facilities that  perform  fiber preparation,
           desizing  of greater than  50 percent of their total  production,
           scouring, mercerizing,  functional  finishing, and more  than one
           of the  following, each  applied  to more  than  five percent of
           total production:  bleaching, dyeing, and printing.

(5)    Knit  Fabric  Finishing.  This subcategory covers  facilities  that
      primarily  finish fabric made of cotton  and/or  man-made   fibers, a
      majority of which is knit, by  employing  any  of the following pro-
      cessing operations  on at least five  percent  of their  production:
      scouring,  bleaching, dyeing, printing, and application  of lubri-
      cants,  antistatic agents,  and  functional finish chemicals.   Inte-
      grated  mills that finish a majority  of knit fabric along  with greige
      manufacturing  or other finishing operations  such  as yarn  dyeing are
      included in  this subcategory.
                                III-9

-------
      Basic  knit  fabric  finishing operations are similar  to those  in  the
      Woven  Fabric  Finishing subcategory and may include  scouring, bleach-
      ing, dyeing,  printing, application of lubricants, antistatic agents,
      and  functional  finish chemicals.  Knitting is performed  in conjunc-
      tion with finishing  at most of  these facilities.  Desizing is not
      required in knit fabric  finishing and mercerizing is uncommon in
      practice.   The  generally  lower  waste loads of the subcategory can
      be attributed to the absence of these processes.

      As with woven fabric finishing,  the number of processes  performed
      at a mill may vary considerably.  In addition, hosiery manufacture
      is distinct in  terms of  manufacturing and raw wastewater character-
      istics.  Consequently, internal  subdivision is required  for  this
      subcategory.

     (a)   Simple Processing.   This Knit Fabric Finishing subdivision
          covers facilities that perform fiber preparation, scouring,
          functional finishing, and/or one of the following processes
          applied  to more than five  percent of total production:  bleach-
          ingj dyeing,  or printing.   This subdivision includes all Knit
          Fabric Finishing mills that do not qualify under either the
          Complex  Processing  or Hosiery  subdivisions.

     (b)   Complex  Processing.  This  Knit Fabric Finishing subdivision
          covers facilities that perform fiber preparation, scouring,
          functional finishing, and/or more than one of  the following
          processes  each  applied to  more than five percent of total
          production:   bleaching, dyeing, or printing.

     (c)   Hosiery.   This Knit Fabric Finishing subdivision
          covers facilities that are engaged primarily in dyeing  or
          finishing  hosiery of any type.  Compared to other Knit  Fabric
          Finishing  facilities, Hosiery  mills  are  generally
          much smaller  (in terms of  wet production), more frequently
          employ batch  processing, and more often consist of  only one
          major  wet  processing operation.  All of these  factors con-
          tribute  to their lower water use and much smaller average
          wastewater discharge.


(6)   Carpet  Finishing.   This subcategory covers facilities that primarily
     finish  textile-based  floor covering products, carpets and rugs,  by
     employing any  of the  following processing operations on at least
     five  percent of  their production:  scouring, bleaching, dyeing,
     printing, and  application  of functional finish chemicals.
                                  111-10

-------
    Integrated mills  that  finish  a  majority  of  carpet  along with  tufting
    or backing operations  or other  finishing operations  such  as yarn
    dyeing  are included  in this subcategory.  Mills  that only perform
    carpet  tufting  and/or  backing are  covered under  Subcategory 3 - Low
    Water Use Processing.   Carpet finishing  is  a  distinct segment of the
    textile industry  because of the lower  degree  of  processing required
    and the typically weaker wastes that result.

(7)  Stock and Yarn  Finishing.  This subcategory covers facilities that
    primarily finish  stock,  yarn, or thread  of  cotton  and/or  man-made
    fibers  by employing  any of the  following processing  operations on
    at least five percent  of their  production:  scouring, bleaching,
    mercerizing,  dyeing, or application of functional  finish  chemicals.
    Thread  processing includes bonding, heat setting,  lubrication, and
    dressing, however these processes  are  basically  dry  and do not generate
    much wastewater.   Facilities  finishing stock, or yarn, principally
    of wool also  are  covered if they do not  perform  carbonizing as
    needed  for coverage  under Subcategory  2  - Wool Finishing.  Denim
    finishing is  included  under Subcategory  4 - Woven  Fabric  Finishing.

    Typical stock and yarn finishing may include  scouring, bleaching,
    mercerizing,  dyeing, or functional  finishing. Stock dyeing is
    basically tub dyeing,  but yarn  or  thread dyeing  may  include any
    of the  following  methods:  skein, package, space, or  beam.  As a
    result  of process differences,  the concentrations  of the  pollutants
    in the  raw wastewater  in this subcategory are lower  than  those found
    in most other subcategories.

(8)  Nonwoven Manufacturing.   This subcategory covers facilities that
    primarily manufacture  nonwoven  textile products  of wool,  cotton,
    or man-made fibers,  singly or as blends, by mechanical, thermal,
    and/or  adhesive bonding procedures.  Nonwoven products produced by
    fulling and felting  processes are  covered in  Subcategory  9 -  Felted
    Fabric  Finishing.

    The Nonwoven  Manufacturing subcategory includes  a  variety of  products
    and processing  methods.   The  processing  is  dry (mechanical and thermal
    bonding) or low water  use (adhesive bonding)  with  the major influence
    on process-related waste characteristics resulting from the cleanup
    of bonding mix  tanks and application equipment.  Typical  processing
    operations include carding, web formation,  wetting,  bonding (padding
    or dipping with latex  acrylic or polyvinyl  acetate resins) and
    application of  functional  finish chemicals.   Pigments for coloring
    the goods are usually  added to  the bonding  materials.

(9)  Felted  Fabric Finishing.   This  subcategory  covers  facilities  that
    primarily manufacture  nonwoven  products  by  employing fulling  and felt-
    ing operations  as a  means of  achieving fiber  bonding.

                                    III-ll

-------
         Wool,  rayon,  and  blends  of wool,  rayon,  and polyester are typically
         used to  process  felts.   Felting  is  accomplished  by subjecting the
         web or mat to moisture,  chemicals  (detergents),  and mechanical
         action.   Wastewater is  generated  during  rinsing  steps that are
         required to prevent rancidity  and  spoilage  of the  fibers.


The major relationships between the functional categories and the SIC
system are shown  in Table III-3.   The table indicates those SIC industries
in which each of  the functions are being performed.   Conversely it points
out for each of the functional categories the SIC industries under which
plants or mills may be classified.

For example, the  Wool finishing subcategory includes mills  classified
under two SIC industries:   SIC 2231 (woven wool  fabric),  and SIC 2283
(wool yarn).

Woven Fabric Finishing includes mills classified  under five SIC industries;
SIC 2211 (woven cotton),  SIC 2221 (woven man-made),  SIC 2241 (narrow fabrics),
SIC 2261 (cotton  fabric finishing), and SIC 2262  (man-made  fabric finishing).

Except in the case of SIC 2261, 2262, and 2269,  the  SIC industries will
fall either in the "low water processing category" or one of the finishing
subcategories.   Mills classified under SIC 2269 will fall for the most
part, in the Stock and Yarn Finishing subcategory.  All of  the mills class-
ified under SIC 2261 or 2262, should fall  within  the single subcategory-
Woven Fabric Finishing.

For purposes of the impact analysis,  the textile industry  will  be seg-
mented  according to the functional classification system described in this
section.  This segmentation will serve as the basis for  the development of
representative economic model plants discussed in Chanter VI.

It  should be noted  for the  remainder of the discussions  of  this report, an
attempt will be made to portray  information according  to the functional
categorization scheme.  Unfortunately, however,  much of  the published data
are not organized  in  this scheme but rather are based  on the SIC system.
As  such, some  report  sections are necessarily depicted on a SIC basis.


                       B.   Plant Characteristics


Characterization of establishments  in the textile industry is somewhat
difficult due  to the  diverse  nature of textile mills.  While many  textile
mills are still  small, family owned operations utilizing older traditional
manufacturing  processes,  there also exist numerous  larger,  multi-plant cor-
poration owned operations who have  the latest in  textile manufacturing equip-
ment.   In this section the  major characteristics  of these diverse  mills will
be  discussed.


                                   111-12

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_1.  Ownership Characteristics

In the early 1900's, the textile  industry was  characterized by  a  large
number of small, family-owned, highly specialized plants.  About  1925, moder-
nization began to bring about significant changes in the ownership character-
istics with a trend towards concentration into larger, publicly owned corporations,
By 197*, the 100 largest corporations in the industry accounted for over 60
percent of the industry's assets while the 20  largest accounted for about 45
percent, according to data contained in the Source Book of Statistics of
Income (IRS).  The concentration has resulted  in the reduction of the
number of small, privately-held firms; many of which have been acquired
by larger firms.  In 1969, over 30 percent of  all of the textile  companies
were non-corporate enterprises, including 2,300 proprietorships and 800
partnerships.  A year later, one-third of these had disappeared either as
a result of acquisitions, closures, or incorporations.  According to the
Census less than 700 noncorporate firms were in operation in 1972.  About
60 percent of these were single proprietorships and 40 percent were part-
nerships.

The types of operation and legal  forms of organization for selected segments
of the textile industry are shown in Table III-4 for 1972 (the latest year
for which these data have been published).  Of the 7,203 establishments in
the industry, close to 6,500, or 90 percent, were organized as corporations,
either as single plant or parts of multi-unit  companies.  The remaining 700
establishments were organized as noncorporate entities, predominantly as
single unit companies.  The greatest corporate concentration occurred within
the yarn and thread segment with 96 percent of the establishments incorporated.
The least concentration occurred within the carpet and rug industry with 82
percent organized as corporations.

According  to  the  Census  data  the  noncorporate  establishments were generally
 smaller  mills within  the industry with close  to  85  percent of the noncorporate
 firms  operating with  less  than  20 employees  per  plant.   Approximately  30
 percent  of the  corporate firms were  in this  employee-size category.  The
 small  size of noncorporate companies  is  also apparent in a  comparison  of
 shipments; while  the  noncorporate firms  accounted  for about  ten percent of
 the total  mills  in  the country,  they produced less  than one  percent of the
 industry's output.

The largest publicly held  corporation presently  is Burlington Industries
with over  one hundred plants  in the U.S. and about 70,000 employees.  The
second largest is J. P.  Stevens with close to  45,000 employees  and  an estimated
70 plants.  The twenty largest publicly held corporations(as reported  in
The Value  Line) are estimated to own close to  500 mills  and plants.  The
largest  privately held corporation is Deering  Mi liken with an estimated 50
plants,  based on  data  contained in Davison's  Blue Book.
                                   III-H

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Many of the largest publicly held companies are closely held, according to
information contained in The Value Line.  Close to 90 percent of the stock
in the Barwick Corporation is owned by its directors and officers.  Over
70 percent of Spring Mill's stock is owned by insiders.  Between 40 and 50
percent of the stock is controlled by insiders in companies such as Belding
Heminway, Cone Mills, Lowenstein and Sons, Martin Processing, and Reeves
Bros.  Over 40 percent of Fieldcrest Mills' stock is owned by the Amoskeag
Company, a Dutch based organization.

Although most of the mills in the industry are owned by corporations pri-
marily engaged in textile manufacturing, many are owned by other types
of enterprises which have logical footholds in the  textile  industry.
All of the largest tire manufactures have mills specializing in the fabri-
cation of tire cord and fabrics (SIC 2296).  Many of the chemical companies
producing man-made fibers for the industry have extended their operations to
include the manufacture of yarns and fabrics.  About 30 percent of the sales
of Owens-Corning Fiberglas are in textile products.   Dupont not only produces
man-made fiber but also is involved in the manufacture of fabrics and finishes.
GAP, with revenues in chemicals and building material exceeding one billion
dollars, manufactures felts.  Armstrong-Cork which is one of the largest
manufacturers of resilient flooring owns a mill manufacturing tufted carpets.
Standard Oil (Indiana) has a textile subsidiary manufacturing synthetic
fabrics as an extension of its chemical operation.

Recreation industries involved in the manufacture of sporting goods have often
entered the textile and apparel area.  Brunswick owns a subsidiary engaged
in carpeting activities.  Industries involved in the production of household
and personal care items have also moved into textile activities.  Colgate-
Palmolive produces nonwoven fabrics including bandages, towels, and disposable
diapers.  Parke-Davis manufactures surgical materials in its textile operations.

Ownership characteristics are diverse and changing.   Understanding of each
segment's ownership characteristics is important as  it may be a consideration
in the determination of each segment's ability to generate capital necessary
to meet the proposed effluent discharge limitations.  This determination of
ability to finance capital expenditures is discussed in detail in Chapter IV.

2.  Single vs.  Multiplant Operations

According to the Census Data, 34 percent of all of the plants (or mills) in
the industry operate in multiplant companies (99 percent of these are incor-
porated).  These plants account for about 77 percent of the industry ship-
ments and employ over 80 percent of all textile workers.   The parent companies
vary in size from the large Burlington Industries (over 100 plants) to the
relatively small 2 and 3 plant operations.  The operating and financial
characteristics of these "multiplant operations" (as used in this discussion,
the term means a single plant which is part of a multiunit company) differ
not only from the single plant operations but also among the other multi-
plant operations.  The differences which are relevant to this study involve
differences in sizes, type operations, and financial profiles.

                                  111-16

-------
The single plant operations are predominantly smaller than the multiplant.
The Census of Manufactures estimates the number of small plants having less
than 20 employees for each of the 4 digit SIC industries.  From these esti-
mates, approximately 2900 plants or 37 percent of the plants in the industry
are identified as small.   Over 90 percent of these small establishments are
single plant operations.   Table III-5 shows the percentage of small plants
in the total industry and in selected SIC industries.  In addition it com-
pares the percentage of small plants in each of the two categories:  single
and multiplant operations.  SIC industries with a relatively large number
of small plants are wool  finishing, circular knit, carpet tufting and cotton
textile finishing, each with about 40 percent of the total plants classified
as small.  The percentages of small plants among the multiplant operations
in these industries range from 8 percent in wool finishing and carpet tufting
to 20 percent in textile  finishing (cotton).  In the single plant operations
in each of these industries, the percentages of small plants exceeds 50 per-
cent.  The two SIC industries with the lowest percentages of small plants
are the man-made weaving  mills and the yarn mills each with less than 20
percent.  The percentage  of small plants in the multiplant operations of
these industries are 3 and 4 percent, respectively.   The percentages of
small plants in the single plant operations are 43 percent for the weaving
mills and 36 percent for  the yarn mills.  For the total textile industry, 8
percent of all multiplant operations are small  as opposed to 52 percent of
the single plant operations.

Table III-6 illustrates the relatively small size of the single plant opera-
tions from a different perspective.  In the table, the average size in terms
of value of shipments of  the large plants in each of the two categories are
compared.  In this case the large plants are those with an employment level
of 20 or more employees.   The largest average sizes are found in weaving
(SIC 2211 and 2221) and textile finishing (man-made fibers-SIC 2262) with
shipments exceeding $13 million.  In these SIC industries, the average size
of the multiplant operations is approximately 3 times as great as that of
the single plant operations.  In the multiplant category, the smallest plants
are found in wool weaving and finishing (SIC 2231), wool yarn mills (SIC 2283)
and felt processing (SIC  2292) with shipments averaging between $5 and $6
million.

The smallest sizes in single plant operations are found in hosiery (SIC 2251),
knit fabric (SIC 2257 and 2258) and wool yarn (SIC 2283).  Shipments in these
industries average less than $2 million.  The average of all plants in the
multiplant category is $10 million which is 4 times as great as the  $2.3
million average for the single plant operations.  The least differences
between averages of the two categories occur in wool weaving and finishing,
carpet tufting, yarn mills and felt processing.

In addition to being characterized by size, single plant operations can be
characterized by type of  plant within segments  (types of plant include
commission, finishers of  own fabric, and integrated mills).  Table III-7
shows the percentage of single plant operations in the various segments by
types of plant; these percentages are based on  the survey of the industry


                                    111-17

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111-18

-------
        Table III-6.  Plant shipments of selected SIC industries
        (Average shipments of plants with 20 or more employees)
SIC


2211
2221
2231
2251
2257
2258
2261
2262
2269
2272
2281
2283
2291
SIC 22
Total
SIC Industry


Weaving mills cotton
Weaving mills man-made fibers
Weaving and finishing mills wool
Women's hosiery
Circular knit fabric mills
Warp knit fabric mills
Finishing plants cotton
Finishing plants man-made fibers
Finishing plants (n.e.c.)
Tufted carpets and rugs
Yarn mills, except wool
Wool yarn mills
Felt

Textile Mill Products
Multiplants
( *fc 1
V-P
13.5
13.9
5.5
7.9
11.0
10.3
8.9
13.4
7.2
11.8
7.1
5.6
5.2

10.0
Single plants
i nnn nnrn 	

4.2
3.0
2.2
1.3
1.9
1.4
2.2
4.3
2.1
5.2
3.6
1.7
3.7

2.3
Source:   Census of Manufactures,  1972.
                                 111-19

-------
      Table III-7.  Single plant operations in segments by type plant
                   (Plants responding to industry survey)
Type plant
    Segment
Percent of plants
   in segment
commission
finishers, own
  textiles
integrated mills
wool scouring
wool finishing
woven fabric finishing
knit fabric finishing
stock & yarn finishing

woven fabric finishing
hosiery finishing
stock & yarn finishing

wool finishing
woven fabric finishing
knit fabric finishing
hosiery finishing
carpet finishing
stock & yarn finishing
        75
       100
        70
       100
       100

        20
        60
        50

        70
        40
        40
        60
        35
        50
Source:  Development Planning and Research Associates, Inc.
                                   111-20

-------
 done as a pant of this economic analysis.  The  largest  portion of  all com-
 mission mills are single  plant ooeration^.   Based on  the  survey  results,  all
 of  the commission mills found in  three  subcategories  (wool  finishing, knit
 fabric, and yarn finishing) were  single plant operations.   In wool  scouring
 and woven fabric finishing  about  70  percent  of  the  commission mills were
 single plant operations.  Among finishers  of their  own  textiles, the  percen-
 tage of single plant  operations varied  widely between the three  subcategories
 involved.   In woven fabric  finishing, only 20 oercent of  the plants were
 found to be single plant  operations.  In hosiery and  yarn finishing,  the
 percentages of single plant operations  varied from  a  low  of 35 percent  in
 carpet finishing to a high  of 70  percent in  wool finishing.


As can be expected from the difference  in sizes  and type plants,  there are
significant differences in the financial profiles of  single and multiplant
operations  as reflected in Table  III-8.   The table compares value of ship-
ments and cost of materials (both expressed  as percentages of value ship-
ments) and  the inventory turnover ratios between the  single and multiplant
operations  in selected SIC industries.   With one exception, the value added
(percent)  of single plant operations of all  industries is greater than that
of multiplant operation while the cost of materials is less.  This  relation-
ship indicates primarily the economies of scale  which can be attributed to
differences  in sizes.   The greatest differences  in  value added occur in  the
knit fabric  mills (SIC 2257 and 2258) and the, man-made textiles finishing
plants (SIC  2262).   Relatively minor differences occur in several of the
SIC industries.   In man-made weaving (SIC 2221)  and textile finishing (SIC
2269) the difference  in the value added amounts  to  only a percentage point
between the  two categories.   The inventory  turnover (the ratio of value  of
shipments  to inventories)  for single plant  operations is generally  higher
than that of multiplants.  This can be attributed to a combination of factors.
Significant  considerations are the specialized markets and products with
which the single  plant operations can be expected to be involved.

While the  most significant differences  in financial  profiles stem from the
size and type plant characteristics of each category, differences also result
from the financial  accounting systems inherent in the two categories.   The
economic viability  of a single plant operation  can  be directly measured  by
its income  statement  and balance sheet.   There  is relatively no flexibility
in accounting for increased costs associated with pollution control.   Reduc-
tion in profits  because of the imposition of controls will directly reflect
a change in  viability  of the plant.   However, the viability of the  multi-
plant operations  is tied in  with the profitability  of the parent  company.
The financial  accounting is  more flexible and the impacts of controls  can
not be as  easily  discerned.   However, the degree of flexibility still
depends  to  a great  extent  on the type organization  of the parent  company.
Exhibit III-l  shows  the basic  corporate  organizational structures found  in
the industry:   (1)  parent-subsidiary and (2)  corporate headquarters -  division.
                                   111-21

-------
Table III-8.   Financial  characteristics of single and multiplant
               operations — selected SIC industries
SIC SIC Industry

2211 Weaving mills cotton
2221 Weaving mills man-made fibers
2231 Weaving and finishing mills wool
2251 Women's hosiery
2257 Circular knit fabric mills
2258 Warp knit fabric mills
2261 Finishing plants cotton
2262 Finishing plants man-made fibers
2269 Finishing plants, (n.e.c.)
2272 Tufted carpets and rugs
2281 Yarn mills, except wool
2283 Wool yarn mills
2291 Felt
Total SIC 22 Textile Mills Products
Plant
Operations
	 (as a %
Multi-
Single
Multi-
Single
Multi-
Single
Multi-
Single
Multi-
Single
Multi-
Single
Multi-
Single
Multi-
Single
Multi-
Single
Multi-
Single
Multi-
Single
Multi-
Single
Multi-
Single
Multi-
Single
Value
Added
Cost of
Material
of shipments) 	
40
49
47
53
51
58
43
50
35
46
29
52
51
54
33
60
42
43
31
42
38
43
41
45
56
51
40
49
60
52
53
47
51
43
55
50
67
54
73
49
50
46
67
40
58
57
70
62
62
58
63
56
44
49
60
52
Inventory,
Turnover!'
(ratio)
6.8
11.6
6.8
7.5
4.5
6.1
5.2
7.9
7.8
11.3
5.6
9.3
9.6
13.2
9.2
21.9
12.9
15.1
5.4
6.5
9.4
8.7
5.6
7.4
5.3
8.9
6.8
11.6
— Shipments divided by inventory
Source: Census of Manufactures, 1972.
                            111-22

-------
PARENT-SUBSIDIARY

   (Single plant subsidiary)
                                         Exhibit III- 1.  Multiplant coroorations.
   Corooration
(Single or  lulti-
      Plant)
                                                                               Plant  (Inc.;
  (Multiolant subsidiary)
     Corporation
                                                                          •     Corooration
                                                                               Headquarters
                                                                          Plant
                                       Plant
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS & DIVISIONS

  (Divisions  horizontally integrated)


Plant
Finishing
Corporation
Headauarters






Plant
Finishing
  (Divisions  vertically  integrated)
                                         Greige  j
                                          Mill
   Corporation
   Headquarters
    Source:  Development Planning and Research Associates, Inc.


                                                 111-23

-------
In the parent-subsidiary organizations, the accounting system for separately
incorporated plants is very similar to single plant operations with very
little flexibility.  The income statement may be consolidated with the
parent corporation; however, separate systems are usually maintained.  The
impacts of pollution control costs on these plants would be about the same
as on single plant operation.   Corporate headquarters - division organiza-
tions have considerably more flexibility in the accounting systems and con-
sequently, a much greater viability may be portrayed when compared to single
plant operations.  Accounting systems used in these organizations may incor-
porate cost or profit centers.  With the use of these centers, the viability
of individual plants can not be easily discerned.  Consequently, the impacts
of pollution control costs will be felt only at the corporate level.   With
horizontally integrated companies (one or more wet processors)the impact
is going to be relatively great since all plants can be expected to be sub-
jected to increased costs.  Although the impacts are great they are not as
severe as those of single plant operations since the indirect costs can be
reduced by allocation to two or more centers.  In the case of vertical
organizations, this allocation of costs is much more flexible and the
viability of a given plant is much less apparent.

In the cost center system, profits are not normally identified with the
plants.  Consequently, the impacts of pollution control can be ascertained
only at the corporate level.  A corporation with greige mills and finishing
operations can absorb costs more readily than either single plant operations
or horizontally organized multiplant operations.  Under profit center systems,
the profits between plants are normally allocated on a cost basis.  Conse-
quently, the costs will in effect be absorbed both by the greige mill and
the finisher.  This amounts to a partial price pass through.

3.  Number of Plants and Firms
The number of plants and firms in the textile industry is discussed in this
section.  The section is divided into two parts.  The first part describes
the industry in aggregate form according to Census data.  The second part
of this section concentrates on the number of textile mills which are
believed to be wet processors, that is, those facilities which are capable
of generating wastewaters.

a.  The Aggregate Industry

The aggregate number of establishments (mills and plants) and comoanies
comprising each of the SIC industry groups  (3 digit level)  within the
textile industry are shown in Table III-9 for the period 1963-1977.   During
this period, the total number of establishments  remained fairly stable,
fluctuating between 7,100 and 7,200.   However, the total  number of companies
declined from over 6,300 in 1963 to approximately 6,100 in  1972,  revealing
a 1963 to 1972 tread towards greater concentration within the industry.
However, the number of companies increased  to over 6,200 in 1977.  While
the total  number of textile mills has remained stable the numbers within


                                   111-24

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-------
the various industry groups have been somewhat more volatile.   It should be
noted that, to a great extent, this volatility represents reclassifications
under the SIC system based on changes in the product mixes produced by the
mills.  It does not necessarily reflect the actual  plant closings and
openings.  The greatest change among the industry groups occurred in the
weaving mills with the number of establishments declining from over 1,500
in 1963 to about 1,200 in 1977.  The knitting mills (SIC 225)  showed a
slight decrease with the number of mills going from over 2,800 in 1963 to
about 2,600 in 1977.  The greatest increase occurred in the floor covering
mills (SIC 227) with the number of mills growing by 70 percent; an increase
from 349 mills in 1963 to about 600 in 1977.  The remaining industry groups
saw moderate increases in their number, varying between 5 and  15 percent.

Table 111-10 depicts the number of establishments for each of  the SIC
industries during the period 1963-1977.  In Industry Group 221 (weaving
Mills), the most significant change involved the wool weaving  and finishing
mills which experienced a 60 percent decline during the period with the
total number of mills dropping from 361 in 1963 to 165 in 1977.  The total
number of broad woven mills (SIC 221 and 222) remained constant, with a net
increase of one mill between 1963 and 1977.  However, among the two type
industries there were wide fluctuations.  The number of cotton mills (SIC
221) decreased by about 30 percent while the man-made fiber mills (SIC 222
increased by 26.5 percent.  As point out previously, this reflects more a
change in the classification of mills than it does in mill openings and
closings.

In Industry Group 225 (knitting mills), the total number of hosiery,
underwear, and outerwear mills decreased by about 25 percent during the
period 1963-1977.  The number of mills producing gloves and other products
(SIC 2259) fluctuated between 60 and 80 during the period 1963-72 and then
increased dramatically between 1972 to 1977, rising from 73 to 192.  The
bulk of the increase can be attributed to a 250 percent increase in the
number of small plants (those that employ less than 20 workers) which
climbed from 40 to 145.  The number of knit fabric mills increased from 518
in 1963 to over 900 in 1972.  In 1972, the knit fabric mills were
reclassified into two separate SIC industries: circular (SiC 2257) and warp
(SIC 2258).

Between 1972 and 1977, the number of circular knit fabric mills decreased
about 200 mills with the total number dropping from 716 to 530.  The number
of warp knit fabric mills increased from 203 mills in 1972 to  235 in 1977.

The total number of plants in Industry Group 226 increased by  about 7
percent with the number climbing from 621 in 1963 to 678 in 1977.  The
number of plants finishing woven fabric (SIC 2261 and 62) increased by
about 10 percent from 443 to 495.  Within these two SIC industries, the
changes between the cotton and the man-made fiber plants paralleled those
within the weaving industries.  That is, in 1963, the cotton plants
outnumbered the man-made fiber plants; however, in 1977 the man-made fiber
plants outnumbered the cotton plants.
                                   111-26

-------
     Table 111-10.
The textile industry, number of firms and establishments
          (SIC Industries-4 digit level)

SIC
221
2211
2221
2231
2241

225
2251
2252
2253
2254
2256
2257
2258
2259

226
2261
2262
2269

227
2271
2272
2279

228
2281
2282
2283
2284
TOTAL
229
2291
2292
2293
2294
2295
2296
2297
2298
2299

TOTAL

Industries
WEAVING MILLS
Weaving Mills Cotton
Weaving Mills Man-Made Fibers
Weaving & Finishing Mills-Wool
Narrow Fabric Mills
TOTAL 1
KNITTING MILLS
Womens Hosiery
Hosiery (n.e.c.)
Knit Outerwear Mills 1
Knit Underwear Mills
Knit Fabric
Circular Knit Fabric Mills
Warp Knit Fabric Mills
Knitting Mills (n.e.c. )
TOTAL 2


1963

229
227
304
350
,160 1

363
504
,175 1
104
487
--
--
86
,719 2

FT
1967

218
272
262
345
,097

302
423
,156
99
489
--
--
61
,530

rms
1972

190
256
178
323
947

256
375
882
74
--
629
174
72
2,462


1977

211
268
154
292
925

176
382
902
80
--
462
215
191
2,408


1963

407
355
361
384
1,507

411
528
1,185
118
518
--
--
88
2,848

hstabli
1967

393
396
310
384
1,483

355
448
1,179
113
541
--
--
62
2,698


shments
1972

307
412
198
376
1,293

312
415
917
87
--
716
203
73
2,723
197

31
44
U
3;
i,2e

2C
41
9<
c
--
5;
2:
1?
2,6'
TEXTILE FINISHING EXCEPT WOOL AND KNIT
Finishing Plants, Cotton
Finishing Plants, Man-Made Fiber
Finishing Plants (n.e.c.)
TOTAL
FLOOR COVERING MILLS
Woven Carpets and Rugs
Tufted Caroets and Rugs
Carpet and Rugs (n.e.c. )
TOTAL
YARN AND THREAD MILLS
Yarn Mills Except Wool
Throwing and Winding Mills
Wool Yarn Mills
Thread Mills

MISC. TEXTILE GOODS
Felt Except Woven Felts & Hats
Lace Goods
Padding & Upholstery Filling
Processed Textile Wastes
Coated Fabrics Not Rubberized
Tire Cords and Fabrics
Nonwoven Fabrics
Cordage and Twine
Textile Goods (n.e.c.)
TOTAL
6
220
193
174
587

56
167
103
326

234
165
136
59
594

28
145
168
137
149
12
64
148
127
978
,364 5
202
212
187
601

55
210
78
342

256
159
127
63
605

33
134
133
134
157
12
65
147
189
984
,773
181
200
189
570

64
334
78
476

264
177
92
61
594

38
99
119
102
184
9
66
134
338
1,089
6,138
195
246
178
619

71
397
73
541

273
172
71
59
575

37
68
113
95
175
8
81
151
432
1,160
6,228
238
205
178
621

64
181
104
349

317
180
144
71
712

36
152
183
141
162
20
69
167
137
1,067
7,104
216
233
192
641

61
244
80
385

377
181
135
75
765

40
142
151
141
178
20
68
169
196
1,105
7,080
196
259
201
656

65
381
83
529

426
212
99
73
810

47
105
132
106
202
18
82
156
345
1,193
7,204
2'
2i
1?
e;


4'

5(

4!
1!


7<

<

l;
)
I1
;
H
1
4
1,2
7,2i
Source:  U.  S.  Department  of  Commerce,  Bureau of Census, 1977

                                              111-27

-------
The total number of mills in Industry Group 227 (caroets) increased signi-
ficantly going from 349 in 1963 to 592 in 1977.  The increase reflects the
dramatic jump in the number of tufted carpet mills which climbed from 181
in 1963 to 449 in 1977.  The number of woven carpet mills remained fairly
constant varying between 60 and 70 mills.  Other carpet mills (Industry
2279) experienced a substantial decline with a decrease in the total  number
from 104 to 72 during the period.

The total number of mills in Industry Group 228 (yarn)  increased from 712
in 1963 to 810 in 1972; it then dropped to 798 in 1977.  In this group the
yarn mills (SIC 2281) have shown a continued increase going from 317  to 456
during the period.   The wool yarn  mills (SIC 2283) have shown a significant
and continued decrease dropoing from 144 in 1963 to 76  in 1977.  The  other
industries in the grouo have experienced a relatively stable level in their
total numbers during the period.

In Industry Group 229 (miscellaneous), the total number of plants has re-
mained relatively stable, fluctuating between 1000 and  1200.  Several of
the SIC industries have shown significant decreases including lace goods
(SIC 2292), padding (SIC 2293) and processed textiles (SIC 2294).  Indus-
tries showing appreciable increases in their total number include non-
woven fabrics (SIC 2297) and textile goods (n.e.c.) (SIC 2299).

In the knitting mills group, the number of mills producing knit apparel
underwent a substantial decrease;  these mills include those fabricating
hosiery, outerwear, underwear, and gloves.  In contract, the mills produc-
ing knit fabric experienced a dramatic increase reflecting the large
production of double knit goods during the early 1970's.  In 1963, the
total number of mills producing knit fabric was just a  little over 500.
By 1972, the number had almost doubled to over 900 mills.  It should  be
noted that between 1963 and 1972,  the knit fabric segment (SIC 2256)
was split into two separate industries under the SIC system:  circular knit
(SIC 2257) and warp knit (SIC 2258) fabric mills.  As a consequence,  the
dramatic increase may have resulted to a degree from a  reclassification of
small mills and, as pointed out oreviously, it does not necessarily repre-
sent the actual opening of 500 new mills.  In 1977 the  knit fabric mills
numbered 765, a decrease from 1972.

During the period 1963-1972, the number of textile finishing plants in-
creased by close to 5 percent.  The changes in the number of plants finish-
ing cotton fabric and those finishing man-made fabric primarily reflects
the change in the production of the two types of fabrics as discussed for
the weaving mills.  The actual number of finishing plants in operation
changed only slightly increasing by about 40 plants.

The dramatic change in the number of floor covering mills occurred because
of a doubling of the number of tufting mills (SIC 2272) from about 180 in
1963 to nearly 450 in 1972.  There was very little change in the number of
mills producing woven carpets  (SIC 2271).  The other tyne of mills,
SIC 2273, experienced a significant decline in its number.

                                     111-28

-------
b.  "Wet" Processors

Because the textile industry is comprised of a diverse group of establish-
ments, many which are essentially dry and thus would not be affected by
wastewater regulations, the Technical Contractor conducted a major survey
of the facilities in SIC 22.  The survey resulted in the development of a
master list of those textile mills believed to have wet production opera-
tions.  This master list was developed based on information from several
sources including the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC), the Census
of Manufactures, data collected during previous textile industry studies,
information from trade associations, and information contained in a com-
mercial directory, Davison's Textile Blue Book.

As a result of this effort the Technical  Contractor developed a master
list consisting of 1,777'wet production facilities.  Table III-ll depicts
these facilities according to their respective functional  subcategories.
It should be noted there were 1,165 mills classified in the nine functional
subcategories which were considered to be wet processors.   Additionally
there were 612 mills classified as low water use processing operations.
These low water use operations are predominately greige mills with weaving
and slashing operations.

4.  Size of Plants and Firms

Information used to indicate mill  size can be obtained from the Census of
Manufactures.  Using the number of emoloyees as a basis for mill size, the
textile industry was grouped into four size levels.  Included as divisions
were:  small, medium, large, and extra-large mills.  The mills which form
the small category employed 1 to 19 workers, those in medium-sized mills
engaged 20 to 99 employees, 100 to 999 were classified as  large, while
extra-large mills were defined as employing over 1,000.  Table 111-12
depicts the four size levels for each SIC industry group and provides
totals for each level in the textile industry as of 1977.   In the aggregated
industry, 2,698 (37 percent) of the 7,203 mills were classified as small
mills, 32 percent were defined as medium, 29 percent fit into the large cate-
gory with the remainder (2 percent) employing greater than 1,000 workers.
It can be determined from this data that  the majority of the mills are rela-
tively small.  Specifically, 70 percent of all textile mills employed less
than 100 employees in 1977.

When the groups were analyzed on an individual basis, it was determined
each varies independently of the others.   The weaving mills, for example,
reported that of 1,427 mills, 535 (37 percent) employed one to 19 workers.
The large level also accounted for 37 percent of the mills.  Twenty-two
percent at the medium level, and 4 percent operated at the extra-large
employment level, the largest percentage  at this employment size among the
textile subcategories.
                                    111-29

-------
   Table 111-11.   Wet  processors,  in  the  textile  industry

          Functional category        Total  mills  listed

          Wool  scouring                     17
          Wool  finishing                    37
          Low water use processing         612
          Woven fabric finishing            336
          Knit  fabric  finishing            282
          Hosiery products                  160
          Carpet  finishing                   58
          Stock and yarn finishing         217
          Nonwoven manufacturing             38
          Others  (felted fabric processing)  20
          TOTAL                           1,777
Source:  Sverdruo and Parcel  and Associates, Inc.
                           111-30

-------









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111-31

-------
The remaining industry groups are discussed below based on data depicted
in Table 111-12.

a.  Knitting Mills (Industry Group, 225)

Knitting mills were evenly distributed among small  and medium firms.   The
small mills accounted for 42 percent of the total,  2,617 mills, whereas the
medium-sized mills amounted to 35 percent.   Collectively, the small and
medium levels comprised 77 percent of all  knitting  mills.  In addition,
22 percent of the mills maintained an employment level of 100 to 999
workers, while the remaining one percent of the knitting mills were
classified as extra-large.

b.  Floor Covering Mills (Industry Group 227)

Mills in this group were relatively small  in comparison to the mills  in
the other groups of the textile industry.   Floor covering mills accounted
for 592 mills of which 307 mills, or 52 percent, employed less than 20
workers.  Twenty-six percent of the mills  were of medium size.  Grouping
the small and medium employment levels together resulted in 78 percent of
the floor covering mills maintaining employment levels of less than 100
workers.  The large and extra-large mills  accounted for the remaining 21
percent and 1 percent respectively.

c.  Yarn and Thread Mills (Industry Group  228)

This group consisted of a total of 798 mills.   Among the yarn and thread
mills, large mills predominated, the employment level  of 100 to 999 employ-
ees with 51 percent, or 408 mills.  The small  and medium levels each  com-
prised an additional 24 percent.  Similar  to the other groups in this
industry, the number of mills employing over 1,000  workers was small  as only
1 percent of the mills in the yarn and thread  category reported this  level
of employment.

d.  Dyeing and Finishing Plants - Excluding Wool (Industry Group 226)

This group differed from the other groups  in its distribution of employees.
In the dyeing and finishing plants, the small, medium, and large employment.
levels were about the same size.  Specifically, the small level accounted
for 42 percent of the mills, 33 percent were at the medium level, and 25
percent were classified as large.  This was the only group in the industry
with such an even distribution of employment levels.  Only one percent
of the mills in this category employed over 1,000 workers.

e.  Miscellaneous Textile Goods (industry  Group 229)

The great diversity between mills in this  group accounted for the majority
(58 percent) of the total 1,254 mills reporting employment figures in the
small size level.  An additional 28 percent classified as medium-sized
mills resulted in 86 percent of the miscellaneous textile goods mills main-
taining employment levels of less than 100 workers.  Only 14 percent  of the
mills were large while one oercent were in the extra-large size division.


                                      111-32

-------
f.  Size of Plants by Functional Subcategories

While the above text and data presented in Table 111-12 presents the plant
sizes according to Census employment groupings, size information was also
obtained for a majority of the facilities believed to be "wet" processors
which appeared on the master list developed by the Technical  Contractor.
Table 111-13 presents the total number of facilities for each "wet" func-
tional category, the number of facilities which either did or did not furnish
production information, and for those who did provide information, their
respective responses by production size ranges.  As shown in  Table 111-13,
the majority of the respondents produced less than 13 kkg/day.  This was
also true for most of the functional categories with the notable exceptions
being the wool scouring, low water processing, and carpet finishing cate-
gories.

It should be noted data in Table 111-13 were based in terms of wet oroduc-
tion which is dependent on the weight of the material found in the final
product.  Thus mills producing light weight products such as  hosiery and
other sheer knit goods occupy the smaller production ranges while mills
manufacturing heavy weight woven goods (upholstery and drapery fabric)
and carpet occupy the larger production ranges..

5.  Location of Plants (Mills)

Textile mills were amona the first types of industrial plants established
in this  country.  As a result, the early centers of the industry were in
the New England and Southern states.  While textile mills are geographically
distributed throughout 37 states according to the 1972 Census, the heaviest
concentrations remain in the Northeast and South.  Table 111-14 shows that
five states, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina and Georgia,
comprised 59% of the 7,202 mills ooerating in the United States in 1977.   The
textile industry is divided into four geographic regions;  Northeast, South,
North Central, and West.  These regions are subdivided into two or three
divisions consisting of several states each.  The South region is the
largest area of concentration accounting for 3,037 of the total 7,202 mills.
Within this region, the South Atlantic division contains 86%  of the area
total.  The majority (1,365) of the plants are located in North Carolina.
The South region is closely followed by the Northeast region  in terms of
total mills.  This region consists of 42% of the total in comparison to
40% in the Northeast.  The heaviest concentration is found in the South
Atlantic area, specifically North Carolina.  The North Central and West
region provide relatively few mills, amounting to 8% of the total figure.
These extremities in geographical distribution of textile mills provide for
one of the most fragmented industries in the United States (Exhibit III-2).

Table 111-14 also depicts the geographic location of the mills by the
Standard Industrial Classification system (SIC codes) and into plants
which employ twenty or more workers.  Of plants with twenty or more
employees, the South accounts for an even greater share of the total,
with 52% of the plants while the Northeast comprised 36%.

                                      111-33

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111-34

-------
                                        Table  111-14.   State and  regional  location  of textile mills,  1977
Geographic location


Northeast 3eqion
New England Division
Maine
Mew Hampshire
Rhode Island
Massachusetts
Connecticut
Vermont
Middle Atlantic Division
New rork
'lew Jersey
Pennsylvania
South Region
South Atlantic Division
Delaware
• Maryland
Yi rgini a
V. /irqinia
N Carolina
5 Ca ro 1 1 na
Georgia
Florida
f. Sjuth Central Division
Tennessee
Kentucky
Alabama
Mississippi
W South Central Division
Texas
Arkansas
Oklahoma
louisiani
Nori-'n Central Division
i. Korth Centril Division
Ohio
1 1 1 inois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Indiana
Minnesotl
S. Dakota
Iowa
West Region
Pacific Division
Cal i forma
Oregon
Washington
Mountain Division
'da ho
Mew Mexico
'lills riot specified according
-.0 locafon-
ijmtsd States TOTAL.
Weaving
Mills
(src 22'!

total
464
206
25
22
77
6)
21

258
114
58
86
534
494

4
35

171
185
93
6
60
14

44
2
30
29
1


11
11
3
3






54
64
57
6
1




140
1.263
20 or
Knitting
Mills

more emp. total
258
145
21
18
51
42
13

113
29
26
58
492
425

4
30

144
173
71
3
53
10

41
2
14
13
1


5
5
4
1






19
19
14
4
1




:s
809
1,321
38
2
8
14
41
20
3
1,233
791
209
233
1,024
866


29
1
700
54
42
40
143
77
7
49
10
15
10
2

3
43
36
12
8
1
15
7
6

1
114
112
101
4
7
2
1
1

'15
2.617
20 or
more emp
691
67
1
6
10
33
15
2
624
377
88
159
682
567


24
i
447
42
31
22
105
56
7
33
9
11
7
2

2
35
28
3
6
1
13

6

1
58
56
48
4
4
2
1
1

46
1.511
Moor
Covering
Mills
'SIC 227)

. total
37
5


5



32
8
1
23
412
381


2

40
21
318

19
11
1
6
1
12

4
8

7
5

3

1
1
7
C
2


71
71
71






55
592
20 or
Yarn and
Thread Mills
'SIC 228>

more emp. total
20
3


3



17
4
1
12
213
190


2

9
13
166

13
6
1
5
1
10

4
6

4
3

1

1
1
1
I
1


37
37
37






11
285
187
74
12
4
16
30
12

113
33
26
54
520
454


12

268
66
108

63
19
1
42
1
3

1
2

5
5

1

4




19
19
19






67
798
20 or
more emp
118
57
10
3
9
24
11

61
8
9
44
453
395


11

235
59
90

55
14
1
39
1
3

1
2

5
5

1

4




11
11
11






21
60S
Ijyeing an^
Finishing Tex-
tiles, e
-------
As has been discussed previously, the SIC system categorized the textile
industry into six industry grouos.   Included as industry groups are:
Weaving Mills (SIC 221-224), Knitting Mills (SIC 225), Floor Covering
Mills (SIC 227), Yarn and Thread Mills (SIC 228), Dyeing and Finishing
Textiles - excluding Wool (SIC 226), and Miscellaneous Textile Goods
(SIC 229).  The locational characteristics of each of these major groups
are discussed below.

a.  Weaving Mills

The mills in the weaving mills groups are almost equally divided into the
Northeast and South regions.  The South makes up 584 of the 1,263 total
plants in this segment while the Northeast accounts for 464 mills.   The
combination of these regions supplies the textile industry with 83% of
the total weaving mills.  Specifically, North Carolina, South Carolina,
New York, and Pennsylvania contain  the majority of plants in these  regions,
maintaining 171  and 185 mills respectively in the southern two states, and
135 and 125 respectively in the two northern states.  Five percent  of the
weaving mills are found in the North Central and Western regions.

For the weaving mills groups, 809 establishments of the segment's 1,263
total mills employed 20 or more employees.  The location of these weaving
mills reporting twenty or more employees is similar to the total weaving
mills geographic distribution.  For example, 492 of the total 809 mills are
located in the Southern region.  Within this Southern region, South Carolina
is the major contributor of woven goods, with 173 mills having 20 or more
employees.  The Northeast region represents 32% (258 establishments) of
the larger mills, while the North Central and West regions supply the
remaining portion.

b.  Knitting Mills

The Northeast region represents 51% of the total knitting mills. The second
largest locational area of knitting mills is the South which accounts for 39%
of the 2,617 mills in this category.  The remaining knitting mills  are found
in the West and North Central regions which contain 4% and 2%, respectively,
of the mills.

Within the total knitting mill group, 58% of the knitting mills, (1,511
establishments) employ twenty or more workers.  This indicates that the
majority of the mills are relatively large.  The greatest concentration
of these larger mills are located in the Northeast region.  This area
accounts for 691 mills, or 46% of the total 1,725 mills.  The South region
represents 682 mills, while the North Central and West regions collectively
account for 93 mills.
                                       111-36
-------
                                                          u
                                                          
-------
c.  Floor Covering Mills

The floor covering mills group consists of 592 mills.   The location of
70% of the floor covering mills is in the South region.   Georgia alone
accounts for 54 % of the total floor covering mills,  with the remainder
distributed throughout the region.  The northeast plays  a minor role in
this group, accounting for only 6% of the mills.   The west region is
comparable to the Northeast amounting to 12% of the category.

Although the number of mills within this group is relatively small, 48%
of the mills maintain a payroll of twenty or more employees.  Here again
the South is accountable for the majority of the plants.   Specifically,
75% of the larger mills (213 mills) are located in this  area. The West
region plays a slightly more significant part than the Northeast in this
group.  The larger mills in the West region represent 13% of the total in
comparison to 7% accounted for by the Northeast.   The remainder of plants
are found in the North Central region.

d.  Yarn and Thread Mills

The South region is credited with having the most yarn and thread mills in
the United States.  This area represents 65% (520 mills)  of the total  798
mills now manufacturing yarn and thread.  North Carolina  alone accounts
for 268 mills, with South Carolina and  Georgia totaling  174 plants.  In
the Northeast, yarn and thread mills are soarse,  amounting to 23% of the
mills in this segment.  The North Central and West regions contribute
five and 19 mills, respectively.

The yarn and thread group represents a  significant number of mills with
20 or more employees, having 608 mills  in that classification.  The mills
are geographically distributed similarily to the total yarn and thread
mill segment distribution.  The majority of the mills are found in the
South region, followed by the Northeast, West, and North  Central.
e.
Dyeing and Finishing Plants -  Excluding Wool
The dyeing and finishing group consists of the fewest establishments found
within any group of the textile industry.   In this group, 336 of the 678
plants are distributed within the Northeast region.   Within this region
New York and New Jersey have olants totaling 192, which is over one-fourth
of the total number of plants in the group.  The South region accounts for
212 plants, or 31%, with the North Central and Western regions each providing
1%.

The majority (58%) of dyeing and finishing plants employ at least 20 workers.
This represents a total of 395 plants with 196 in the Northeast, 212 in the
South, 9 in the North Central, and 41 in the West regions.
                                       111-38
-------
 f.  Miscellaneous Textile Goods

 This group is the most diversified of those within the textile industry
 and it  is the third largest, accounting for 1,254 mills.  Forty-one
 percent (512 mills) are in the Northeast region.  New York accounts for
 169 of  the 512 mills within this region;  New Jersey is next with 108 mills.
 The South contains 285 mills followed by 92 in the West region, and 60
 mills in the North Central.

 The majority of the mills represented in the miscellaneous textile
 goods group employ fewer than 20 employees.  Only 42% of the mills
 reported more than 20 workers, the greatest portion of which were
 located in the Northeast region.  The South accounts for 23% of the
 larger mills while the North Central and West regions collectively
 account for 12%.

 g.  "Wet Processors"

 The geographical distribution of the  "wet processors" is shown in
 Table  111-15.  As shown, the distribution is very similar to that based
 on the  Census data.  Over  half of the wet production facilities are
 located in the southeast (EPA Region  IV), particularly the Carolinas
 and Georgia.  Another  25 percent are  in the Northeast (New England,
 New Jersey, and New York).  Less than 5 percent of the "wet processors"
 are located in the west  (EPA Regions VI through X).

 6.  Level of Technology

 During  the past twenty years significant changes in technology have
 affected  the  textile  industry.  While each  industry has exnerienced
 unique  changes, the generally accepted cause for many of the changes for
 all categories was developments in man-made fibers.  In a recent  study by
 the Department of Treasury I/, the major textile technological changes
 were  identified and assessed.  While  the objective of the Treasury study
 was an  evaluation of capitalization rates in the industry, it did provide
 an overview of the technological changes experienced by each of the groups.
 These  are summarized  below.  The accompanying tables are those contained in
 the study and have not been updated since the data are not available in pub-
 lications.

a.  Weaving

Significant  changes  in weaving  technology  began  during the  early  1950's
with  the introduction  of  shuttleless  looms  and developments  to  increase
operating efficiency  of the older  conventional shuttle looms.   As  shown
in Table 111-16,  the  number of  conventional  looms  has declined  consistently
since 1950 from 650,000 looms  to  280,000  in  1974.  While much  of  this  decline
is a  result  of the exit of  weaving  mills  from  the  industry,  portions of
the decline  are attributable to  increased  operating  efficiency  of  existing
looms and the  introduction  of  shuttleless  looms.   Shuttleless  looms were
originally introduced  during the mid-1950's  but  the  number  was  relatively
 insignificant  due  to  the  limited  capabilities  of the  early  machines.
-  U.S. Department of the Treasury, The Textile Industry,  1976.

                                 111-39
-------
                              Table 111-15.
             Geographical distribution - mills on master list
Manufacturing
  Subcategory
                   EPA Region!/
All
I   II   III   IV   V   VI   VII   VIII   IX   X  Regions
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use
Processing
Woven Fabric
Finishing
Knit Fabric
Finishing
Hosiery
Products
Carpet
Finishing
Stock & Yarn
Finishing
Nonwoven
Manufacturing
Felted Fabric
Finishing
All Subcategories
6
20

60

69

27

2

0

33

10

_7
234
1
2

75

54

58

2

1

19

3

_2
217
3
4

72

34

45

9

4

31

4

_3
209
3
3

390

155

134

139

39

120

11

_3
997
0
1

6

11

9

5

1

6

7

_2
48
3
1

7

3

1

2

4

3

2

_0
26
0
1

0

1

2

0

0

1

0

J)
5
0
1

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

_q
3
0
0

2

7

6

0

9

4

1

_3
32
1
4

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

_0
6
17
37

612

336

282

160

58

217

38

20
1777
 -  EPA Regions represent  the  following states:
      I    Conn.,  N.H.,  Maine, Mass., R.I., Vermont
      II   Del., N.J., N.Y., Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands
      III  MD, PA, VA, W.  VA
      IV   Ala., Fla,  GA,  Miss., N.C., S.C., Tenn.
      V    111., Ind., Mich.,  Minn., Ohio, Wise.
      VI   Ark., La.,  N.M., Okla., Texas
      VII  Iowa, KS, MO, Neb.
      VIII Colo.,  Mont., N.D., S.D., Utah, Wyoming
      IX   Ariz.,  Calif.,  Guam, Hawaii, Nev.
      X    Alaska, Idaho,  Oregon, Washington

 Source:  Sverdrup & Parcel and Associates, Inc.

                                 111-40
-------
            Table III-16/  Broad woven looms in place,  United  States


v *» A r
I c » •*•
1950
1957
1959
1961
1963
1965
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1974

Conventional
650,000
613,000
499,000
459,000
464,000
495,000
415,000
386,000
377,000
349,000
329,000
310,000
280,000

Shuttleless
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
9,000
11, 000
13, 000
20,000
30,000

Total
650,000
613,000
499,000
459,000
464, 000
495,000
415,000
386,000
386,000
360,000
342,000
330,000
310,000
Output
(Million linear yds)
NA
12,114
12,412
11,863
12,104
13,430
12,785
12,923
12,591
11,454
li,147
11,292
10,721
Source:   Department  of Treasury, The Textile Industry, 1976.
                                        111-41
-------
By 1969, improvements in the design of shuttle!ess looms made them more
attractive to the industry.   Accordingly, shuttleless looms began to replace
conventional looms either in existing mills or were used in lieu of con-
ventional looms in new mills.  Although the initial cost for shuttleless
looms was considerably higher (up to four times) than conventional looms,
their speed and efficiency made their purchase attractive.   One additional
factor contributing to the attractiveness of the shuttleless looms is their
ability to operate at reduced noise levels.  This is presently a significant
factor as the industry is being required to reduce noise levels in weaving
mi 11s.

b.  Knitting

In knitting, the major advances in technology have been associated
with women's hosiery and double knit fabrics.  Technological advances in
this  group  have included developments in man-made fibers  and the evolution
of new machinery which was necessary to handle the man-made fibers.

Following World War  II, nylon almost totally replaced silk and rayon in
the production of women's hosiery because of its  strength and capability
of being drawn in fine deniers.  With the dominate use of nylon,  narrow
guage knitting machines became  practical and thus nylon hosiery  began
to replace full fashion hosiery (silk).  These trends are illustrated
in Table 111-17 which depicts the declining number of full  fashion machines
and the  increasing number of circular knit machines.  Table 111-17 also
depicts  the technological advancements in developments of the circular
machines which is illustrated by the increasing number of multi-feed
machines.  These multi-feed machines have all but replaced the less ef-
ficient  single feed machines.  These advances in machinery coupled with
developments in stretch yarns, have resulted in the introduction of tubular
hosiery  and panty hose which have completely dominated the hosiery market.

The development of textured polyester fibers during the late 1950's enabled
the creation of the double-knit market in the early 1960's.  As shown in
Table 111-18, the number of double-knit machines rapidly increased from
1963 to  1973.  Also, as the double-knit markets grew, the industry replaced
older, smaller machines with larger, more efficient machines (larger number
of feeds).  In 1974, the total number of machines declined because of a
peak in  the demand for double-knit fabrics and the trend for the larger
multi-feed machines.

c.  Dyeing and Finishing

With the developments in man-made fibers and changes in the fashion industry,
significant changes  in technology have occurred in dyeing and finishing.
With  the increased  requirements for versatility in dyeing  and finishing
operations,  older  relatively  simole equipment has  been replaced with modern
sophisticated  equipment.  Table  111-19  illustrates this trend as  the older
style  roller printing machines have been replaced  by the newer, more
                                    111-42
-------
         Table 111-17.   Hosiery knitting machines,  1950-1972

Number of full
Year fashioned machine
1950
1953
1956
1960
1963
1966
1969
1972
2,575
2,830
2,190
1,310
520
140
20
5

s 1 feed
-
-
-
35,394
43,037
37,932
30,642
11,588
Circular machine
2 feed 4 feed
-
-
-
5,092
28,618 5,270
42,516 49,915
53,488 54,300
55,444 63,855

6, 8 feed
-
-
-
-
-
6,690
76,940
84,140
Source:  Dept.  of Treasury, The Textile Industry . 1975
                                  111-43
-------
        Table  111-13.  Double knit machines in place, 1963-1964

Year
1963
1966
1970
1972
1973
1974
Number of
Machines
1,800
3,400
10,000
22,000
24,000
23,000
24
65
58
50
25
20
18
No. of feeds (
36
34
38
35
45
45
43
% of Total )
48 and over
1
4
18
30
35
37
Source:  Dept.  of Treasury,  The  Textile  Industry ,  1976
                                 111-44
-------
versatile, more efficient machines.  With respect to changes in the level
of technology associated with dyeing operations, Table 111-20 illustrates
the decrease in the more traditional methods and the increase of the newer,
higher temperature dyeing methods.

d.  Yarn

Two significant advances in yarn preparation technology are the development
of texturized yarn and the automation of open-end spinning systems.  The
developments of texturized yarns were necessitated by the increased utili-
zation of man-made fiber yarns.  Since the early 1960's, throwsters have
crimped and stretched man-made fibers to produce yarn similar to qualities
of natural fiber yarns.  With the increased utilization of man-made yarns,
there was a need for the development of faster, more efficient machinery
capable of creating this1 false twist texturing characteristic.  This need
was met by the development of extremely fast spindles.   Table 111-21
illustrates the development and implementation of these faster spindles.
As shown, in 1956 there were 20,000 spindles in place ooerating at speeds
of 40,000 RPM.  By 1973, these had all been replaced with machines operating
at considerably higher speeds (over half a million spindles operating at
400,000 RPM alone).

The second technological advance in the yarn preparation was the automation
of open-end spinning.  This type of spinning, which handles only selected
yarn counts, is capable of producing two to five times  more yarn per machine
than conventional ring spinning.

e.  Carpet

The major technological advances in carpet manufacturing have involved
tufting.   Tufting, which produces carpets at a speed of about six times
faster then weaving, was first introduced into the industry in the early
1950's.  However, tufting did not gain a dominant share of the market until
1958, when bulked continuous filament nylon was developed for commercial use.
Table 111-22 shows both how tufting has virtually taken over the carpet
market and how the use of face yarns has shifted to nylon and other man-made
fibers.

f.  Miscellaneous Textile Products (Nonwoven fabrics)

In the 1960's, production of nonwoven fabrics was primarily limited to
inter!inings and disposable products such as towels and diapers.  Since
then, these type fabrics have made significant inroads  into other markets.
Technological  advances are numerous and, as the demand  for such products
continues to increase, additional  advances are expected.
                                     111-45
-------
          Table  111-19.  Printing machines in place, U. S.*
                         for selected years


Roller Printing Machines
Screen Printing Machines
Flat Bed, Screen
Flat Bed, Rotary Screen
Transfer Printing Machines
Stripe Printing Machines
1963 1965
460 450

310 300
20
-
-
1973
394

211
136
77
16
*Does not include carpet equipment.

Source: Dept.  of Treasury,  The Textile Industry } 1975
                                 111-46
-------
Table 111-20.  Piece goods dyeing machines in place,  U.S.*
                         (units)


Jet
Dyeing
Year Machs.
1960
1963 6
1964 7
1965 12
1966 33
1967 67
1968 117
1969 201
1970 374
1971 599
1972 758
1973 858

Pressure
Dyeing
Machs.

34
56
65
98
160
230
400
650
750
810
810
Atmo-
spheric
Dyeing
Machs.

5,000
4,980
4,902
4,880
4,790
4,750
4,602
4,510
4,350
4,150
4,048
*Non-carpet machines.
**(Thermosol-pad steam ranges).
Source: Dept. of Treasury, The Textil

Jig
Dyeing
Machs.

3,800
3,680
3,510
3,480
3,460
4,208
2,804
2,440
2,208
2,110
1,957
e Industry
Con-
Padder tinuous
Dyeing Dyeing
Machs. Ranges

650
648
646 200(30)**
644
642
640
638
636
634
632
630 295(132)**
, 1976
                            111-47
-------
       Table 111-21.   Number of equivalent false  twist  spindles
                        in  place by RPM,  U.S.

Mid
Year
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
40,000
RPM
20,000
25,000
28,000
11,000
11,000
11,000
11,000
11,000
11,000
11,000
9,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
-0-
-0-
-0-
-0-
120,000
RPM


2,000
25,000
27,000
31,000
36,000
40,000
42,000
52,000
53,000
53,000
53,000
53,000
50,000
46,000
40,000
38,000
240,000 345,000 400,000 (Single
RPM RPM & Double Heater)








10,600
32,000
52,000
60,000 13,000
66,000 32,000
66,000 102,000
66,000 114,000 70,000
66,000 124,000 149,000
66,000 130,000 309,000
66,000 140,000 556,000
Source: Department of Treasury,  The Textile  Industry  , 1976
                                111-48
-------
     Table II1-22.   The relationship  between  the  growth of tufted carpet
            manufacturing  and  the  use  of man-made  fibers
                         between  1954 and 1974

Percentage of face yarns used in the
manufacture of tufted carpets by
type
Year
1954
1958
1967
1974
Tufted carpets as a
percent of total
broad loom shipments
32.6%
58.1
88.8
97.5
Cotton
74.3%
13.0
3.6
0.2
Wool
0%
22.5
5.5
0.8
Man-made
Rayon
&
acetate
24.755
45.2
15.6
0.4
f i bers
Nylon &
other
MMF
0%
19.3
74.4
98.6
Source:  Department of Treasury, The Textile Industy, 1976,
                                 111-49
-------
                      C.  Employment Characteristics


The textile industry employs approximately five percent of all  manufactur-
ing industry workers.  The characteristics of textile employees, with empha-
sis on the number of workers and the wages for each SIC industry group, are
discussed in this section.

1.  Industry Employment

Between 1966 and 1974,  the employment level  of the industry varied between
950,000 and a million except in 1969 and 1974 when it exceeded  the one million
mark (Table 111-23).  In 1975 the level  dropped under 900,000.   It has remained
about 900,000 since that period.  Employment in the industry has amounted to
just over 40 percent of the combined employment in both textiles and apparel
with the percentage increasing from 41  percent in the 1960's to 42 percent in
the early 1970's.  In 1968 and 1979 it was 40 percent.

As shown in Table 111-24 (the totals in this table do not correspond with
those in Table 23; the data were obtained from different sources), over
300,000 workers or a third of all textile workers were employed in the
weaving mills (Industry Group 221-224) in 1977.  Seventy thousand or 8
percent of all textile workers were employed in dyeing and finishing
(Industry Group 226).  The combined employment in the two groups amounted
to 42 percent of the total industry employment.  The knitting mills group,
which had twice as many establishments as the weaving mills groups, accounted
for only 27 percent of the textile employment with about 235 thousand
workers.  There were 140 thousand workers employed in the yarn  and thread
mills group which amounted to about 16 percent of the industry  employment.
Over 55 thousand workers were employed in the floor covering mills group
which was about 6 percent of the textile employment.

When viewing the trends of the individual  groups, it is apparent that the
number of employees in the weaving and knitting mills experienced a decline
from 1967 to 1973 while the number in the other segments generally showed an
increase as shown in Table 111-25.  After 1973 all groups have  shown a decline
in their total levels although the trends have stabilized in the last two
years.  The employment level in the weaving  grouo has decreased from 380,000
in 1967 to about 300,000 in 1977.  Employment in this group reached a low in
1975 dropping below the 300,000 level.   Employment in the knitting mills
group increased from 240,000 in 1967 (not shown in the table) to over 275,000
in 1972; later data is not available for the entire group.  The knit fabric
industries (SIC Industry 2257 and 2258)  showed a significant drop of about
15,000 employees from 1972 to 1977.  Since then the levels have stabilized
at around 75,000 employees.  Employment in the dyeing and finishing plants
(Industry Group 226) has remained at relatively consistent levels around
72,000 employees.  The maximum level was reached in 1973 with over 80,000
workers while a low occurred in 1975 with the level dropping below 70,000.
The employment level in the floor covering group increased from 44,000 in
1967 to over 60,000 in 1973.  Since 1973 it dropped to 49,000 in 1975 and
1976.  In 1977 it climbed back to a level in excess of 50,000.   The trend
in employment in the yarn and thread mills group was similar to that of
floor covering.  The level climbed from under 120,000 in 1967 to close to
160,000 in 1973 and then declined to 140,000 in 1977.

                                     111-50
-------












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111-53
-------
While employment trends among the groups generally followed similar patterns
(i.e., increasing to 1973 and then decreasing),  trends within the groups
among the SIC industries often varied appreciably (Note:   data within groups
are not shown in the tables).  In the weaving mills group, the cotton mills
(SIC 2211) had an 80,000 employee reduction while the man-made fiber mills
(SIC 2221) experienced a 40,000 increase during  the period 1967-1972.  In
actuality, this represented a shifting of employment figures between the
industries to accommodate the reclassification of plants  to reflect the
increasing trend towards man-made fiber products.  The overall reduction
in the employment level among the broad woven fabric mills (both SIC 2211
and SIC 2221) was about 40,000.  The employment  in the woolen fabric mills
was cut in half during the period dropping from  over 40,000 in 1967 to
under 20,000 in 1972.  Since 1977, employment level in the cotton mills
has remained just short of 120,000 while that of the man-made fiber mills
has fluctuated between 150,000 and 160,000.

As previously discussed, the overall upward trend in the  knitting mills
group reflected a significant increase in employment.  However, this
50,000 worker increase was experienced in the knit fabric mills (warp
and circular) industries only, with a jump from  36,000 in 1967 to 90,000
in 1972.   All of the other knit groups (knit apparel-hosiery, outerwear,
and underwear) declined, losing 20,000 employees.  Since  1972 employment
in the fabric mills has declined from 90,000 to  just over 70,000.

In the dyeing and finishing group, plants that finished cotton
fabrics lost 10,000 employees while plants finishing man-made fabric
experienced a 10,000 increase July 1967-1972.  As pointed out in the case
of the weaving mills, the difference, in actuality, represents a shifting
of employee figures associated with reclassification of mills because of
the dramatic increase in the production of man-made fabrics.  Since 1972,
both type plants have seen reductions of around  2,000 employees in each
of the two SIC industries.

In the yarn and thread mills group, all industries experienced increases with
the exception of wool yarn mills.  Employment within this industry dropped from
over 11,000 in 1967 to 8,500 in 1972.  Employment in those mills spinning
cotton and man-made yarns increased close to 40  percent,  rising from 93,000
in 1967 to 127,000 in 1972.  Since 1972, this employment  has dropped off.

In the floor covering mills group, employment in the tufting mills has
shown a dramatic rise increasing from just over  30,000 in 1967 to over
50,000 in 1972.  The employment level in woven carpet mills experienced
a gradual decline of about 2,000 workers during  the same  period and had
dropped another 2,000 by 1977.  In 1977, the level in the tufted mills was
50,000 about the same as 1972.

In the miscellaneous textile goods group, slight decreases occurred in
most of the industries during 1967-1972.  However, in the nonwoven
fabrics industry, the employment level doubled during the period increas-
ing from  about 5,000 in  1967 to over 10,000 in 1972.  Since 1972, it has
remained  at about the same level.


                                   111-54
-------
As measured by the proportion of production workers to total employment
within the industry, the textile industry is the most labor intensive
group among the non-durable goods, as shown in the 1977 data below.  The
percentage of production workers in the textile industry exceeded 87 per-
cent as opposed to about 72 percent for the composite of non-durable
goods.  Apparel was the next most intensive industry with close to 86
percent production workers.


   Industry             Percentage of Production Workers (1977)

Total Non-durable                      72.4
Food Processing                        67.6
Tobacco                                80.6
Textile                                87.2
Apparel                                85.7
Paper                                  75.1
Printing                               57.6
Chemical                               57.4
Petroleum                              65.5
Rubber                                 78.4
Leather Tanning                        85.5
Source:  BLS Handbook of Labor Statistics.
Within the aggregate textile industry, the most labor intensive groups are
the  weaving mills and  varn and  thread mills  with  oercentages  of
production workers at 90 and 91  percent, respectively, as was shown in Table
111-24.  The least intensive are the floor covering mills and the miscellan-
eous textile goods industries, with 79 and 81  percent, respectively.

2.  Industry Wage Levels

The average weekly hours of production workers in the textile industry are
similar to the hours for all manufacturing industries, as shown in Table
111-26.  However, the average hourly earnings have been significantly lower.
In 1977, textile employees averaged $3.97 per hour, which was $1.10 less
than the average earnings in all nondurable industries.   Between 1962 and
1977, the average earnings of textile industry workers was about 20 percent
below the average wages for all  nondurable industry employees.  The least
wage difference between textile workers and other manufacturing industry
employees occurred in 1968.  The relationship of the two rates are about
the same now as it was in the early 1960's (78 percent).

Industry wage surveys have recently been conducted by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics in the textile industry covering selected SIC industries.  The
following discussions are based on these surveys with each survey's results
covered separately.


                                    111-55
-------
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                                           III-56
-------
 Survey Category                       SIC       Date     BLS Publication

  Textiles  (Yarn and Weaving)     221,  222, 223,  1975     Bulletin 1948
                                      228
  Textile  Dyeing and Finishing        226        1976     Bulletin 1967
  Hoisery                          2251, 2252     1976     Bulletin 1987

 a.  Textiles  (May  1975)  Survey

 Straight-time average earnings were $3.08 per  hour for yarn  and weaving
 mills  as reported  in the May  1975 Survey.   (Note:  These earnings excluded
 overtime and  consequently are not comparable with the earnings listed  in
 Table  111-26).   As  shown in Table 111-27,  the  highest wages  were  paid  in
 the Middle Atlantic states with  an average hourly rate of  $3.33.  In the
 Southeast, where over 90 percent of the  workers are  located, wages averaged
 $3.07.

 Wages  were highest  in the weaving mills,  averaging $3.25,  and lowest in
 the yarn mills,  at  $2.90 an hour.  The difference was due  in part to the
 higher skilled  jobs  in the weaving mills.   Wages in  mills  employing 500
 or more averaged $3.11 per hour  which was  about 3 percent  higher  than
 mills  employing  between  100 and  499; the  survey excluded mills employing
 less than 100.

 About  one-sixth  or  the employees were  in  mills operating under labor-
 management contracts.  The greatest union  strength was in  New England
 with about one-half of the employees covered by contract.  The least
 concentration was  in the South with about  one-eighth of the work  force
 under  contract.

 b.  Textile Dyeing  and Finishing (June 1976) Survey

 The average wage of production workers in  textile dyeing and finishing
 was $3.82 an  hour according to this survey.  The lowest rate was  in the
 Southeast where  two-thirds of the workers  were employed; there the earnings
 were $3.66 an hour.  The rate in New England was $3.97 and in the Middle
Atlantic $4.45.   One reason for the low average in the Southeast was
the relatively high employment of women.   Women make up over 30 percent
of the textile workers  in  the Southeast  with  their wages  amounting
to about ten percent less than men.   Another contributing factor was  the
effect of unionization.   Workers covered by union contracts had wages  close
to 15 percent higher, nationwide, than those that were not covered by  union
contracts.   In the Southeast less than 20 percent of the textile workers
were covered by  contracts.    However,  in the other regions as many as
90 percent of the work force was unionized.

 c.  Hosiery (July 1976) Survey

 Production workers in all hosiery mills averaged hourly earnings of $3.02
 in July 1976.  The rate was lowest in  the  Southeast where 90 percent  of
 the workers are  employed; there the rate was $3.01 an hour.  The rate  was
 slightly higher, $3.13, in  the Middle  Atlantic.

                                  111-57
-------




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111-58
-------
Because the surveys discussed above were conducted at different times,
comparison between the wages in the various groups is not feasible.  How-
ever, the 1977 Census provides sufficient data to illustrate the wage
differentials between the various type mills.  The average hourly earnings
of production workers for 1977 are listed in Table 111-28.

The highest rates were generally earned in the less labor intensive indus-
tries in the miscellaneous group.  Among the other groups, the highest rates
were found in the finishing plants with an average rate of $4.47 and $4.61
in the cotton and man-made fiber finishing plants respectively.  Other high
rates were found in the man-made fiber weaving mills ($4.24), and the woven
carpet and rugs ($4.27) industries.  The lowest rates occurred in the
labor intensive hosiery industry with $3.40 an hour and the knitting mills
N.E.C. industry with $3.17 an hour.
                                  111-59
-------
    Table 111-28.  Average hourly earnings of production workers  --
                  Textile industry--!977
SIC
Industry
Average Hourly
Earnings


2211
2221
2231
2241

2251
2252
2253
2254
2257
2258
2259

2261
2262
2269

2271
2272
2279

2281
2282
2283
2284

2291
2292
2293
2294
2295
2296
2297
2298
2299
Weavina Mills
Weaving mills, cotton
Weaving mills, man-made fiber
Weaving and finishing mills, wool
Narrow fabric mills
Knitting Mills
Womens, hosiery
Hosiery; n.e.c.
Knit outerwear mills
Knit underwear mills
Circular knit fabric mills
Warp knit fabric mills
Knitting mills, n.e.c.
Dyeing^ and finishing
Finishing plants, cotton
Finishing plants, man-made fiber
Finishing plants, n.e.c.
Floor Covering mills
Woven carpets and rugs
Tufted carpets and rugs
Carpets and rugs, n.e.c
Yarn and thread mills
Yarn mills, except wool
Throwing and winding mills
Wool yarn mills
Thread mills
Miscellaneous Textile Goods
Felt goods
Lace goods
Paddings and upholstery filling
Processed textile waste
Coated fabrics
Tire cord and fabric
Nonwoven fabrics
Cordage and twine
Textile goods, n.e.c.

4. .20
4. .24
4. .08
3,67

3.55
3. ,40
3.70
3.55
4.20
4.05
3.17

4.53
4.60
4.08

4.27
4.14
4.12

3.85
3.85
3.71
3.84

4.92
3.90
4.34
3.66
5.59
4.81
4.74
3.78
(NA)
Source:   Census of Manufactures,  1977.


                                       111-60
-------
                         IV.  INDUSTRY PROFILE


The general production, marketing and financial characteristics of the textile
industry have remained fairly stable, although individual establishments have
experienced changes due to economic fluctuations, product popularity,
technological improvements, and increased textile imports.  Increasing
incorporation and efficiency through integration have typically widened
the sales and profit gap between small and large firms.


                        A.   Production Profile


Total  U.S.  mill fiber consumption, an indicator of production, has increased
during the last fifteen years, although the predominant types of fibers have
changed from wool and cotton to man-made.  While production of broad woven
fabrics has declined, its loss has been offset by significant increases in
the production of knit goods and carpets and rugs.   Capacity has increased
at about the same rate as production, a result of increased efficiency in
looms and a significant increase in the number of double knit machines put
into operation.

Production, capacity, and utilization closely parallel  the general economy.
In order to profit from rises and protect against recessions, the textile
industry has increasingly consolidated, integrated and diversified within
plants and among operations within multi-unit firms.

1.  Production

Domestic production of the  textile industry, represented by total fiber con-
sumption, has increased at  an average annual rate of about 3.3 percent during
the last fifteen years (Table IV-1).  However, in the past two years, it has
stabilized at an average rate of about 2 percent.  While total production
has been relatively stable, there has been a 'dramatic change in the type of
fiber consumed.  Less than  one-third of the wool  is now being consumed than
in the early 1960's, declining from over 450 million pounds in 1965, to about
130 million in 1979.  Cotton consumption has declined also, although not as
dramatically as wool, from  over 4 billion pounds in 1965 to 3.0 billion in 1979.
Consumption of man-made fiber has nearly tripled during the same period, in-
creasing from about 3.6 billion pounds to about 9.5 billion.

As measured by the Federal  Reserve Board industrial production index (Table
IV-2), production in the textile industry has increased at an annual rate
of about 3.3 percent as compared to a 3.7 percent increase for total indus-
trial  production.  The most significant increase occurred between 1971 and
1972 for the textile industry when a 14 percent increase occurred.  The high
levels of production occurred during 1976 and 1979 with indexes of over 140.0
(1967=100).  Between 1973 and 1975, the production index declined by nearly

                                    IV-1
-------
            Table  IV-1.  Fiber consumption—textile industry
                     (million pounds and percent)

Year


1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
Man-made
fiber & silk
( mi 11 i on
pounds)
3,620.4
3,994.7
4,248.1
5,309.5
5,555.4
5,502.7
6,530.9
7,567.8
8,667.0
7,700.6
7,417.5
8,055.3
8,889.1
9,229.7
9,466.4
(%)

42.5
44.2
47.0
54.2
56.2
57.6
60.9
64.9
69.3
69.2
69.9
69.5
72.9
74.4
74.7
Cotton
(million
pounds)
4,452.6
4,621.0
4,414.2
4,104.1
3,972.6
3,773.6
3,965.1
3,849.8
3,643.3
3,306.1
3,068.7
3,389.0
3,169.8
3,040.4
3,066.4
Wool-
(%) (million (%)

52.2
51.1
48.9
41.9
40.2
39.5
37.0
33.0
29.2
29.7
28.9
29.2
26.0
24.5
24.2
pounds)
457.0
427.9
366.6
378.4
354.9
273.3
219.3
246.9
182.1
116.5
132.0
145.9
133.9
141.6
134.5

5.3
4.7
4.1
3.9
3.6
2.9
2.1
2.1
1.5
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.1
1.1
1.1
Total
(mill ion
pounds)
8,53C.O
9,043.6
9, 028 ,.9
9,792,.0
9, 882. .9
9,549,,6
10,715.3
11,664,5
12,492,4
11,123,2
10,618,2
11,590,2
12,192.8
12,411.7
12,667,3

(%)

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Source:   Textile  Organon, March 1979, 1980
                                   IV-2
-------
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-------
14 percent with the index dropping to 122.3 in 1975 to reflect the recession
of that year.   In 1979, the index increased to a high of 143.8.

As also shown in Table IV-2, the greatest increases in production have occurred
in the manufacture of carpets where output has more than doubled since 1967.
High increases have also occurred in the production of man-made  fabrics and
knit goods with 1979 indexes reaching 186.7 and 190.1 percent, respectively.
The greatest decreases have occurred in cotton and wool fabrics  with 1979
indexes of 74.9 and 55.4 percent, respectively.

Total production of broad woven goods measured in linear yards of material
has been decreasing at an annual rate of 1.4 percent since 1967,  Production
declined from 13 billion yards in 1967 to 9 billion in 1975; it  has remained
at just  under n billion since that time.  The production of cotton goods
has decreased from over 8 billion yards in 1967 to under 4 billion in 1979.
Since 1967 the production of woolen goods has been cut in half dropping
from 0.2 billion to 0.1 billion yards.  Man-made fabrics have increased from
4.3 billion yards in 1967 to over 6.5 billion yards in 1979 (Table IV-3).

Because of a change in the reporting and classification systems  by the
Department of Commerce, it is not possible to construct a meaningful pro-
file of knit fabric production between the 1960's and mid-70's.   Prior to
the fourth quarter 1973, data was collected on shipments which involved
knit cloth physically snipped, including interplant transfers.  Current data
include not only shipments but also "captive" production which represents
the knit fabric produced in a plant that will be used for the manufacture
of knit goods and apparel in the same plant.  For the period since 1973,
the knitting mills segment's production data are depicted in Table IV-4.
The impact of the change is apparent in the comparison of 1973 shipment data
with 1973 production data which shows that the production is approximately
twice as great as the shipments.  Between 1969 and 1973, total shipments in-
creased from 800 million pounds to about 1.2 billion pounds.  Since 1973,
as reflected in production data, the output has declined slightly, decreasing
from over 2 billion pounds in 1973 to 1.7 billion in 1978.

The production of carpets and rugs has more than doubled since 1967, increas-
ing from about 500 million square yards to over 1.2 billion in 1979 (Table  IV-5)
The manufacture of tufted carpets has doubled, increasing from about 400
million square yards in 1967 to over 1 billion in 1979.  Woven carpets, which
represent a minor portion of the total carpet production, incurred a sig-
nificant decline with a 40 percent reduction between 1967 and 1979.  Produc-
tion of other carpets which include mats and other specialty items reflected
only a slight increase during the same period.  These latter types of carpets
and rugs constituted only a very minor portion of the carpet indlustry--
approximately 2.3 percent of the 1979 total carpet and rug production.
                                    IV-4
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IV-7
-------
2.  Capacity and Utilization

Since 1967, total capacity in the textile industry has increased at an average
annual rate of 2.7 percent (Table IV-6).  Capacity is broadly defined as the
greatest level of output an industrial plant can achieve within a normal work
pattern.   It reflects both the number of machines in place and the modernization
of the industry.  The increase has primarily involved specific growth products
such as denim and certain knit fabrics.   Capacity peaked at an index of
158.1 (58 percent above 1967 production) in 1974.  This reflected an in-
creasing efficiency in looms weaving man-made fabrics and a dramatic increase
in double knit machines put into operation between 1967-1973.  The abrupt
drop in the capacity level  between 1974 and 1975 was due to the closing of
over 200 knitting mills as  a result of the 1974-1975 recession.   In the
future, modernization in the industry, with the use of more high-speed
equipment, is expected to maintain capacity at adequate levels to meet
demand; however, no significant increases are anticipated in the near future
similar to those which occurred prior to 1974.

During 1967-1979 period, the average rate of capacity utilization (shown in
Table IV-6) for the textile industry was 86.1 percent, slightly less than
that recorded for the total nondurable manufacturing sector.  Peak utiliza-
tion rates for the industry occurred during the years of 1968 and 1973 and
reflect the business cycles of those years.   Troughs occurred during 1970
and 1975 with the business  recessions.  The low rate of 73.8 percent for 1975
was the lowest rate for the entire ten year period.   Quarterly data (not
shown in the table) published by the Federal Reserve Board show a difference
in the peak and trough utilization rate of all  nondurable manufacturing to
be 23.8 percentage points for the period 1967-1976 with rates varying from
93.9 percent to 69.9 percent.   The variance in the textile industry was some-
what higher with the extreme rates being at 93.9 percent and 60.1 percent
for a total variance of over 33 percentage points.

Utilization rates also vary considerably between the differently sized com-
panies.  Based on data in the Federal  Reserve Bulletin covering the period
1965-1973, large companies  in nondurable goods manufacturing (with assets
$100 million and over) averaged utilization rates of about 9 percentage points
higher than the small companies with assets under $10 million.  Although no
specific data are available for the textile industry, it is expected that
the differences in utilization rates would be about the same.

The fourth quarter utilization rates for the individual  SIC industry groups
are shown in Table IV-7 for the period 1974-1977.  The highest rates for all
groups except the woolen mills occurred during the fourth quarter of 1977.
Both the cotton and man-made weaving mills reported exceptionally high rates,
98 and 90 percent respectively.  These rates reflect the high rates attained
in the greige mill which in many cases operated in excess of their capacities.
The lowest rates occurred during the fourth quarter of 1974.  During that
quarter, the weaving and knitting mills had rates of only about 80 percent.
The narrow fabric and floor covering mills had the lowest rates at just
slightly more than 60 percent.  Throughout the period the floor covering mills
had the lowest rates which  varied between 62 and 74 percent.

                                    IV-8
-------
Table IV-6.    Output, capacity, and  utilization  — textile industry

Capacity
(Production) (percent of
Year Output (1967=100) 1967 output)

1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

100.0
107.9
112.6
111.8
116.5
132.7
142.9
132.8
104.3
114.5
113.3
117.3
121.3

109.9
116.9
123.5
130.0
134.7
147.6
153.3
158.1
141.3
139.4
142.2
144.4
137.5
Utilization
rate (percent)

91.0
92.3
91.2
86.0
86.5
89.9
93.2
84.0
73.8
82.1
79.7
81.2
88.2
Excess
capacity
(percent)
9.0
7.7
8.8
14.0
13.5
10.1
6.8
16.0
26.2
17.9
20.3
18.8
11.8
 Source:  Federal Reserve Bulletin, March 1980.
                                    IV-9
-------
Table IV-7.  Utilization rates:   fourth quarter, 1974-1975
SIC Industry Group
Weaving mills, cotton
Weaving mills, man-made
Weaving and finishing mills, wool
Narrow fabric mills
Knitting mills
Textile finishing, except wool
Floor covering mills
Yarn and thread mills
Miscellaneous textile goods
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce,
Supplement, MQ-Cl(75)-2, and
1974
82
78
74
61
80
74
62
69
68
Survey of
Survey^ of
1975 1976
89
89
78
67
83
84
71
84
72
Plant
Plant
82
87
79
82
77
73
73
82
71
Capacity, 1975
Capacity, 1977.
1977
98
90
70
83
81
78
74
84
69

                              IV-10
-------
Loom activity is frequently considered a good measure of productivity in
the industry and generally reflects changes in utilization rates.  Table
IV-8 lists the average hours looms operated for the cotton weaving mills.
The greatest activity is shown for the years 1972, 1973 and 1979, corres-
ponding with the high utilization rates recorded for those years.  The
least activity occurred during the 1975 recession.  The operation of
spindles is also a good measure of productivity.  As shown in Table IV-9
peaks in activity occurred during 1968 and 1973, again corresponding closely
to peaks in the utilization rates.

3.  Importance of Integrated Facilities

Increasing concentration and greater industrial efficiency in the textile
industry has been accompanied by a trend of increasing integration, both
within plants and among operations within multi-unit firms.  Many large
plants combine all of the stages of processing from raw fiber to finished
fabric (and apparel) and often include a variety of textile products.   The
degree of integration is illustrated in the findings of a survey conducted
by the Treasury Department (as shown in Table IV-10).

Table IV-10 shows a number of plausible configurations of industry activ-
ities within plants representing both horizontal and vertical  integration.
For each of the major activities'  categories, possibilities in vertical
integration include:

        Yarn preparation — greige milling + dyeing and finishing

        Weaving — yarn preparation + greige milling + dyeing and
        finishing + cut and sew

     .  Knitting -- yarn preparation + greige milling + dyeing and
        finishing + cut and sew

        Carpet milling -- yarn preparation + greige milling + dyeing
        and finishing

In horizontal  integration, feasible configurations include milling
operations in weaving, knitting and carpet milling.

The highest level of integration is apparent in carpet and rug manufac-
turing.   In those plants fabricating carpets, over 50 percent were involved
in dyeing and finishing and about 20 percent were producing yarn.  The
next highest level of integration occurred in weaving.  Over 50 percent of
these mills were producing yarn and between 15 and 20 percent were dyeing
and finishing.   In the knitting mills, about a third of the plants were
dyeing and finishing and over 10 percent were spinning yarn.  About twice
as many of the knitting mills were involved in cut and sew operations as
were weaving mills.
                                   IV-11
-------
  Table IV-8.     Loom hours  operated - cotton  broad woven goods
                (average hours  per loom per week)
                 Period                       Monthly average
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
125.7
124.4
126.5
125.4
126.6
128.5
128.0
120.9
111.3
125.0
123.3
125.2
129.6
Source:   American Textile Manufacturers  Institute,  Textile Hi-lights
                                  IV-12
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Since Table  IV-10 focuses on types of activities- as opposed to types of mills.
the extent of  integration involving the dyeing and finishing plants and the
yarn mills is  not clearly delineated.  However an examination of production
data contained  in the  1972 Census provides some insight into the integration
within these groups.   Of the total production of yarn  (cotton and man-made)
spun in SIC  Industry 2281 (yarn mills), about 50 percent was finished  in
the mills spinning  the yarn while the remainder was shipped to plants  in
the SIC Industry Group 226 for finishing.  Although this does not reveal
the number of  plants i'volved, it does point out that  about half of the
yarn spun (by  spinning mills) is produced in mills in  which greige milling
and finishing  is being accomplished as integrated processes.

According to the 1977  Census, 8.5 billion linear yards of broadwoven fabric
(excluding sheets and  towels) were finished in the weaving mills (SIC  221
and 222) and in the finishing plants  (SIC 226).  About 60 percent of this
was finished in commission mills, 24  percent in finishing plants other than
commission mills, a,id  16 percent in weaving mills (integrated).  The greatest
portion of the  fabric  finished in the weaving mills was produced by between
60-74 of the largest mills in the industry or about 10 percent of the  total
number of weaving mills.  This corresponds roughly with the 16.4 percent
contained in Table  IV-10 to indicate  the approximate number of weaving
mills which  perform finishing as a part of their integrated operations.


Since knit fabric finishing can be accomplished without mercerization  or
desizing, integration of greige milling and finishing  is much greater  in
this segment.  However, the Census data do not facilitate an accurate  com-
parison of how much fabric is finished in integrated facilities as opoosed
to separate facilities.  According to the data, over 70 percent of the
knitting mills were classified as producing finished fabric.  However, the
statistics do not reveal  how many of these mills were engaged in finishing
only.   The Department of Commerce's Current Industrial  Report (MQ-22K) in-
dicates a total of 1.8 billion pounds of knit fabric was produced in 1976.
Of this amount, 1.1 billion pounds,  or 61 percent were shipped to other
plants for finishing,  leaving 39 percent to be finished in the knitting
mills.   This, again, corresponds roughly with the 31 percent integration
shown in Table IV-10.

As shown previously in Table IV-10,  over half of the weaving mills were
involved in  yarn preparation.   However,  on  a  production basis,  the  greatest
portion of yarn consumed  in  the weaving  process was  produced within  the
weaving mills.   The 1977 Census data  show that  over  4.6 billion pounds of
fiber (raw cotton  and  staple and  tow)  were  purchased directly by the weaving
mills, and only about 856 million pounds of yarn were purchased.
                                    IV-15
-------
4.  Level of Diversification

The textile industry is not generally diversified at the mill  level.  Most
plants specialize in one process; while types of fabric and fiber may differ,
the general processes are similar.  If the firm manufactures a variety of
products, they are often handled in separate plants.  Many large textile
companies are multi-plant firms and do not depend on one type  of fabric to
carry the company.  The V_aUie_ Line mentioned one large but specialized
company which manufactures mainly bottomweight fabrics, such as denim and
canvas.  Its narrow product line makes this company especially vulnerable
to changes in style.  Most of the larger textile companies guard against
this risk by handling a diverse number of products.  For example, two major
companies manufacture furniture while others also produce foods and plastics.
Following is a sampling of some large textile firms and their  products:
     Belding-Heminway
                         home sewing products, thread, zippers,
                         buttons and engineering plastics
     Burlington Industries   hosiery, sheets, pillowcases, drapes,
                             and furniture
     Chelsea Industries


     Coll ins & Aikman

     Ludlow Corporation



     Mohasco Corporation


     Spring Mills
                         narrow fabrics, dairy protein derivatives,
                         shoe products and plastics'

                         woven, knitted and tufted fabric, and wallpaper

                         floor mats, carpet cushions, furniture,
                         packaging materials,  and printing papers
                         for graphic arts industry

                         carpets and rugs, one of five largest furniture
                         companies in the U.S., and  furniture rental

                         woven fabrics for apparel,  home  furnishings
                         and packaged frozen foods
     Source:   The Value Line

Some of the diversification is a  result of company mergers,  while other
firms add new products.  Occasionally these additions  are  an extension  of
an established specialty,  such as a primarily textile  home furnishing indus-
try manufacturing furniture or wallpaper.   Other companies may manufacture
seemingly unrelated items  such as fabrics, foods, and  shoe products.   A 1977
report in Textile World stated that diversified  textile  firms recovered more
quickly and strongly from  the recession than did non-diversified  companies I/,
I/
"Survey Shows Diversified Firms
World, June 1977,  24 and  27.
Lead 1976 Industry Comeback," Textile
                                     IV-16
-------
                           B.  Market Profile


Domestic spending for textile products is estimated to be from 10 to 13
percent of disposable income.  With a projected disposable income of $1,780
billion in 1980, the spending can be expected to approach $180 billion.  Tex-
tile shipments were about $47 billion in 1979, which amounted to a fourth of
the final  textile market.

1.  Market Analysis

The U.S. Department of Commerce utilizes a large-scale econometric model of
the U.S. economy to provide information on the probable magnitude of the
long term growth in real GNP and its major components.  The model relies on
input-output analysis to generate industry projections which in turn provide
a basis for market, analyses of most of the SIC industries.  However, in the
case of the textile industry, these projections have not been published pri-
marily because of the volatility of exogenous factors such as exports and
imports.  Probably some of the best sources for market projections are the
fiber producing firms, such as Celanese and Eastman, which supply the basic
input to the textile industry.  Other sources include consulting firms which
have had a long time involvement with the industry.  The projections accom-
plished by these sources are proprietary but often become available through
trade publications such as the Daily News Record and Textile Industries.
From these publications, a fairly consistent picture of the market outlook
has emerged with most of the sources projecting a long term growth of the
total industry (in terms of fiber consumed) of between 1.5 and 2.5 percent
compounded annually.  Celanese projects an annual increase of 2.5 percent
through 1990 while Eastman indicates a growth of slightly over 2 percent
through 1983.  International Research Associates provided a more pessimistic
outlook by estimating an annual increase of only 1.3 percent through 1988.

The  largest textile market is apparel which accounts for about 40 percent of
all fiber consumed in the industry.  Although this market is the largest,
its relative share of the total market has been decreasing over the past
few years and its growth is expected to be the lowest when compared with
the other major markets.  This market can be expected to fluctuate widely;
however a small gain can be anticipated because of the increasing number of
consumers falling into the 25-39 year old group which generally have the
largest purchases in apparel.  New types of fabric with attractive surface
designs should stimulate the demand in this group.  Celanese projects an
annual  increase in this market of 2 percent through 1990.  However, because
of the anticipated encroachments by apparel imports, domestic shipments of
fabric to the apparel industry is expected to increase at a low annual rate
of 1.5 percent.

The second largest textile market comprises home furnishings which includes
carpeting, draperies, upholstery, sheets and towels.  In this market, carpet-
ing is the only area in which any significant growth has occurred during the
past decade.  According to the Carpet and Rug Institute, tufting is projected


                                   IV-17
-------
to increase at an annual  rate of 3.2 percent through 1983.   Estimates from
Eastman agree with this with their projection falling between 3 and 4 percent.
In the other home furnishings, the overall  upgrading of product quality has
caused a decline in the volume of sales because of higher prices and increases
in product life.  For these products (excluding carpeting),  Celanese projects
an increase compounded annually of 2.0 percent for the next  10 years.

The industrial market ranks third in the amount of fiber consumed with 23
percent of the market.  This market includes fabrics used in the manufactur-
ing processes (conveyor belts) and those in which fabric appears as a component
(auto upholstery).  Increases in the industrial markets can  be expected to
follow GNP growth which is projected at about 3 percent over the next five
years by the Department of Commerce.  Celanese projects an  annual increase
of 2.7 percent over the next decade in this market.   This increase will re-
flect a greater concentration in electronics, the computer  field, communica-
tion systems, and filtration fabrics to be  used in air pollution control.

Currently, exports in textile products amount to about 4 percent of the total
textile market.   Growth in this area will be covered in a subsequent section.

In addition to projections of market growth, projections have also been made
of the growth of fiber consumption by type.  Over the long  term, increases
in the supply of man-made fiber can be expected while decreases in cotton
should occur even with the growing costs of feedstock for man-mades caused
by rising oil prices.

Greatest increases can be expected in the polyester field.   Celanese projects
an annual growth of 5 percent for the staple and 4.5 percent for filament.
International Research Associates' projections are slightly  lower with the
polyester staple increasing by 31 percent and filament by 3.4 percent.  That
firm projects the growth of nylon at a relatively low rate  of 1.9 percent.
Because of the decline in nylon fiber, the  growth of all synthetic fibers was
projected to increase at an annual rate of  2.8 percent.  Consumption of
cotton was projected to decrease at a rate  of 3.5 percent annually.

Although considerable projections have been made available  in connection with
fiber consumption by type, not very many have been made of consumption by
type fabrication system.   Growth in consumption of the major system was
projected by Eastman as shown in Exhibit IV-1.  This exhibit indicates that
the greatest growth can be expected in knitting with annual  rate estimated
at between 4 and 8 percent.  The lowest growth is expected  in weaving with
an increase of under 1 percent expected.  The projected increase of from 3
to 4 percent shown for tufting corresponds  with the four year projection
made by the Carpet and Rug Institute.

2.  Domestic Market Description

In spite of a considerable trend towards integration of manufacturing activ-
ities, the textile industry continues to be characterized by a segreation
of successive operations generally performed by separate firms.  This is
reflected by a series of intermediate markets and a separation of wholesale

                                    IV-18
-------
                          Exhibit IV-1.
     — Billion Ib
                                    Weaving
                             Knitting
Tufting
                                       ,,.«' ..........
                         Nonwovens
                         ^^-^xvxvx
                                               I     I     I
        71   '72  73  74   75   76   77  78   79   '80   '81   '82  '83
Figure 1. Fiber consumed in U.S. mills by fabrication system (source: Eastman)
                                 IV-19
-------
and retail distribution.   The structure persists even though integrated
firms may transfer goods directly from one operation to another without
recourse to the markets.   The market channels lead through eight levels
as listed below.

        (a)  Raw fiber markets
        (b)  Processed fiber markets
        (c)  Yarn markets
        (d)  Greige goods markets
        (e)  Finished goods markets
        (f)  Fabricated product markets
        (g)  Wholesale markets
        (h)  Retail markets

These market levels (except wholesale and retail) are identified with products
which are closely related and produced with the same equipment or in the same
type of mill.   Although the markets are clearly identifiable, considerable
overlap exists among them.  The flow of goods through the various channels
and the interrelationships between markets are shown in Exhibit IV-2.

In the raw fiber market, the trading of cotton is characterized by large
fluctuations in yield, a large number of sellers, and a certain amount of
government control over the marketing process.  Only a small amount of raw
material is purchased directly by the mills from the growers.  Most of
the cotton enters the grower's market in which the raw cotton is assembled
for ultimate distribution through central markets.  In these markets, the
cotton is traded between the commission merchants, shippers, factors, and
other representatives of the growers (such as co-operatives) on the one
hand and the purchasers representing the mills, exporters, and other interests
on the other hand.  These central markets exist throughout the cotton belt;
however, New Orleans is the leader in spot pricing.

The market for man-made fiber is considerably different from that for natural
fibers since it is manufactured rather than an agricultural product.  The
basic difference in markets is that there are no intermediaries between the
producers and mills, as in the case of cotton; therefore, the producers
normally sell  directly to the mills.

Processed fibers are those that have undergone processing beyond the raw
fiber state but have not yet been spun into yarn.  One of the chief products
traded on this market is wool tops which are utilized in worsted mills.

Yarn production is generally integrated wherever possible with weaving,
knitting and other manufacturing.  However, a substantial amount is dis-
tributed through the yarn markets principally to the knitting mills, carpet
mills, and small weaving mills.  The relatively small size of the spinning
mills has brought about a market organization in which selling is done through
relatively few agents.  The principal yarn markets are in the consuming areas.
Yarn used in the knit apparel mills is usually sold through jobbers while
the weaving yarns and yarns for the large knitting mills are sold directly
by the spinner or his agent to the using mills.

                                    IV-20
-------
                             Exhibit  IV-2.   Textile marketing,  flow of goods
                          AGRICULTURE
                        r
                       Raw Cotton
                         !, Wool
                      —<  Filiar Market  j^
                        TCXT1LE INDJSTRY
                       J  Scouring I   	J  Processed
                       "1    Combing         "i Fiber Market
                        r
                     "I
                          Yarn
                       Preparation
                  Yarn Hjrko
                           '''^inrj, -   i_	ti ^^ ."oods
                           Knitting, »   p—^    J
                            Tuft inn
                         IE
                               ____:ZJ



Dyeina 5
Finishing
^


Cutting 5
(Finished .KnitJ_
\


,
\
Finished foods
Itarkft
J


Fabricated
Product



  EXPORT INDUSTRY
r
•lorld Market
                     	WHOLESALE r.TIUSTKY	
Wholesale
'larket
                             T
                         RETAIL  Kw
                            Mar
                            Retail
                            Market

                                                                                         CHEMICAL  INDUSTRY

                                                                 Man-nade
                                                                   Fiber
                                                                                      I
                                                                                OTHER INDUSTRIES
                                                                -^f 	             .^ 	
                                                                  	1      I	^	1
                                                              APPftp.FL           Industrial
                                                              MARKET          I    Uses
                                                                                                     I
                                                                                               HOME FUR'i. I':USTR"
                                                                                                    Home Furni -•, im
                                                                                                       riarket
            Source:   Development  Planning and Research  Associates,  Manhattan,  Kansas.

                                                           IV-21
-------
There are two distinct markets for selling thread:   domestic and industrial.
Industrial thread is sold similarly to yarn, by the pound, on cones ranging
from 3,600 to 30,000 yards each.   On the other hand, thread entering the
domestic market is sold on small  thread spools.

The greige fabric market is concentrated in the hands of a few selling
agents and brokers with main offices in New York City.   In this market,
quotations are made on a bid and  ask basis; there are no list prices.
Selling may be on either a spot or future delivery basis with widely
used standard constructions sold  for spot delivery and cloths of special
construction sold for future delivery.

The finished goods market differs from the greige fabric market principally
by type of customer served.  While the greige manufacturers deal with pro-
cessors within the textile industry, the finished goods producers sell  their
products outside of the industry to "cut and sew" operators in the apparel
industry.  The apparel customers  are greatly influenced by the retail  markets
and are usually under-financed.  The combination of these two factors con-
tributes to the instability in the finished goods market.

Some of the instability is offset by the method of merchandizing used in
the market.  In the market, "lines" of goods are prepared comprising an
assortment of fabrics, colors, and designs which contain some materials
intended to appeal to all of the manufacturers customers.  Part of the  line
is a carry over from previous seasons and part are goods introduced to  the
markets for a single season.  In  this system, the manufacturers are reluctant
to change prices during a "season" and consequently prices tend to remain
stable during the period.

Finished goods are purchased both for spot and future deliveries.  However,
the volatility in the retail markets tends  to make  selling on  a future  basis
unsatisfactory since the purchasers are unable to anticipate which garment
patterns will be selling.  Textile manufacturers are usually unwilling  to
enforce the "blanket" orders associated with the future deliveries because
of the risk of losing the goodwill of their major customers.

Finished goods are normally sold  from list prices as opposed to selling by
"market" quotations as is the case in the greige markets.  As pointed out
above, these prices usually remain stable during the season, dropping off
at the end of the period on closeout goods that cannot be carried over  into
the next season.

Types of fabricated products included in the textile industry are:

      (a)  sheets, towels and blankets
      (b)  knitted underwear, outerwear, and hosiery
      (c)  carpets
                                    IV-22
-------
 Sheets,  towels  and  blankets  are produced  by weaving mills  and  require only
 a  minimum of fabrication.   Fabrication usually consists  of a  simple cutting
 operation and hemming or binding of the edges.  The markets for these
 products are similar to those of finished goods.

 Knit apparel  (hosiery, underwear, and outerwear)  are end products and enter
 directly from the mills into the wholesale and retail  distribution systems.

 Carpets  and rugs enter the broad home furnishings markets  through the whole-
 sale and retail  marketing  system.

Within the textile industry, competition is keen at most of the market
levels, not only between type of fibers used but also between  fabrics.  The
dramatic trends in the last decade towards the use of man-made fibers
points out clearly the inter-fiber competition in the textile  markets.
However,  it is important to note that fibers compete with others for only
a part of their uses.  For example, cotton has very little competition in
the manufacture of sheets and pillow cases.  In contrast, competition between
fibers is considerably greater in dress goods.  Competition also exists be-
tween fabrics.  This competition is reflected in the substitution of double
knit,fabrics for woven fabrics in the manufacture of suits.

3.   International Trade

International trade has had a significant influence on the U.S. textile
markets.   The considerable growth in the level of imported textiles and
apparel has not been offset by increases of exports of U.S. produced textile
and apparel products.  Also efforts by the U.S. industry to limit the
future growth rates of imports have not been successful.   While this section
of this report will  not attempt to analyze the pro's and con's of the trade
situation, it will attempt to depict the trends in the levels  of imports
and exports as well  as describe the basic trade agreements the U.S. currently
has in effect.

a.   Import market channels

The market channels for textile and related goods being imported to the U.S.
are very similar to those associated with the domestically produced goods.
Depending upon the level of manufacture of the imported good,  the typical
sequence of its entrance into the U.S. markets would begin with an import
broker and, from this step, the good would funnel into the normal market
channels described in the previous section.  As long as the imported good
was of comparable quality, once it entered the domestic market channels,
very few distinguishable attributes would be associated with it unless,
of course, it was priced differently.

b.   Level of imports

After more than doubling in the 1960's, U.S. textile imports reached a value
of $8.1 billion in 1979 (Table IV-11).  The value of these imports amounted
to over 4 percent of all merchandise imported to the U.S.


                                    IV-23
-------
                Table  IV- 11.   U.S. textile trade
                         (millions of dollars)
Period
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
Imports
1,461
1,818
2,125
2,402
2,913
3,411
3,722
3,952
3,780
5,269
5,926
7,857
8,093
Exports
660
694
753
776
837
993
1,497
2,168
2,027
2,480
2,567
2,903
4,120
Deficit
801
1,124
1,372
1,626
2,076
2,418
2,225
1,784
1,753
2,789
3,359
4,954
3,973
Source:   American Textile Manufacturers Institute, Hi-Lights.
                                    IV-24
-------
 As  measured  by  the  raw fiber equivalent  of semi-manufactured  and
 manufactured textiles, imports  doubled with total  pounds  climbing  from 800
 million  to close  to 1,600  million  (Table IV-12).   Imports dropped  to 1,350
 million  pounds  in 1979.   Products  of man-made  fiber more  than doubled
 during the period,  jumping from about 200 million  pounds  to close  to 530
 million  pounds.   Imports  of cotton products increased from 473 million
 pounds to 750 million, an  increase of 60 percent.   Imports of wool  products
 dropped  from 104  million  pounds in 1968  to under 50 million in 1975 during
 the recession,  then subsequently climbed back  to about 80 million  in 1979.
 Over a third of the total  imports  in 1979 consisted of semimanufactured
 products (yarn  and  fabric) with the remainder  made up of  apparel,
 industrial and  home furnishings.   This  is a significant change from the
 composition  ten years  ago  when  semimanufactured products  amounted  to over
 50  percent of the- total  textile imports.

 The  trend towards trading  in apparel  products  is revealed  in  the growth
 rate of  the  various products  (Table  IV-13).  Broad woven  fabric imports,
 amounting to  5 percent of  domestic  production  in 1967,  rose to 8 percent  by
 1976.  Knit  fabric  has remained under the  one  percent mark.   In contrast,
 imports  of sweaters rose from about  33 percent of U.S.  production to  over
 100  percent  during  the same period.   Imports of knit  slacks showed  even a
 greater  growth by rising from 4 percent  of'production  in  1967  to over 35
 percent  in 1976.  Over half of  the  imports  in  1976  (textile and apparel
 products) was  shipped from the Far  East:   Hong Kong,  Korea,  Japan, and
 Taiwan.    In  the past  several years,  the  share of imports  among these
 countries has changed  significantly.  Korea's  share has been  increasing
 while that of Japan's  has  been decreasing.

 While total   textile imports amount to about 10 percent  of  the domestic
 textile  products market, wool textile imports  represent a  substantially
 higher share of the wool products market.   For the past ten years,  wool
 imports  have  fluctuated between 20 and 25  percent of  the market.  The  high
 occurred in  1968 with wool imports representing 25 percent of the market.
 The low occurred in 1975 with imports having less than  20  percent of  the
 share.  The  level  in 1976 was just over 23  percent.

 In contrast  to the growing textile imports discussed above, overall imports
 in rugs,  carpets,  and carpeting have not gained a significant share of the
domestic markets,  except in the case of wool carpets.   The total imports
 in carpets (man-made, cotton, and wool)  have shown  a slight decline over
 the past ten  years.decreasing from about 3 percent of domestic production
 in 1967 to about one percent in 1976.  However, wool carpet imports which
 have been accounting for about half of the total  carpet imports in recent
years have shown significant increases in the  1970's.   In   1976, these imports
were at a level  of about 6 percent  of the domestic  production.  With  sub-
 stantial  yearly  increases, imports  reached 5.6 million square  yards in
 1976; this was close to two-thirds  of total domestic production.
                                   IV-25
-------
  Table IV-12.   Raw fiber equivalent of imports  of manufactures
                        (million pounds)

Year
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
Man-made
193.3
257.5
329.3
451.1
480.5
465.3
371.3
400.4
479.5
530.7
642.6
525.0
Cotton
473.8
488.0
463.1
392.5
610.7
563.5
502.7
501.2
708.6
669.4
845.4
746.1
Wool
104.3
96.2
85.9
66.2
63.0
61.3
53.3
48.6
66.7
85.9
92.2
80.5
Total
771.4
841.7
878.3
909.8
1,154.2
1,090.1
927.3
950.2
1,254.8
1,286.0
1,580.2
1,351.6
Source:  Textile Qrganon
                               IV-26
-------
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-------
c.  Level of U.S. exports

While imports in dollar volume have doubled during the early 1970's, textile
exports have tripled, climbing close to $2.5 billion in 1976.  However,
since exports have been expanding from a much smaller base, a continuing
deficit in textile trade exists.  In 1976, the deficit reached $2.8 billion
which represents 30 percent of the nation's $9.2 billion merchandise trade
deficit.  In exports of cotton and man-made textiles, shipments increased
from just over 300 million pounds in 1968 to a record 1,088.9 million in
1979 (Table IV-14).  For the past several years, exports in cotton and man-
made textile and apparel products have remained at about 7 percent of domestic
production.  In wool products, exports rose to a high of 30.8 million pounds
in 1973 -- about 13 percent of the domestic production level.  These imports
dropped to just over 11 million pounds in 1977 and 1978 and then climbed
back up to 14.3 million pounds in 1979.

While apparel products accounted for the greatest portion of the imports,
piece goods accounted for the largest share of the exports.  In cotton,
exports climbed from around 200 million pounds in the late 1960's to
close to 500 million in 1979.  During the same period, exports in man-made
fiber goods increased from around 130 million pounds to nearly 600 million
pounds.

d.  Trade restrictions

In order to prevent disruption of developed countries' textile industries
by low-wage competition from exporting nations, textile imports in most
countries are regulated by a series of international trade agreements.
Of major importance to these textile trade regulations is the Tokyo Round
Trade Agreement of  the Multilateral Trade Negotiations (MTN).  This trade
agreement was negotiated under the auspices of the General Agreement on
Tariffs  and Trade,  or GATT.  As in all GATT talks, the Tokyo Rounds were
conducted on the principle that any favorable concession granted to one
country  will be  extended to all GATT members.  This  treatment, referred
to as the Most-Favored-Nation principle  (MFN), is usually granted to include
non-GATT countries  also.  The U.S. is  the one exception to this principle
for  it  will  frequently  not apply  the MFN  to countries or areas dominated
by Communism.  The  U.S. acceptance of  the Tokyo Round was signed into  law
in July 1979, by President Carter after almost six years of strenuous
negotiations.   It  is  intended to  harmonize existing  U.S. laws with  new inter-
national codes primarily dealing  with  tariff  levels  and five non-tariff
barriers to  trade.  These are discussed  below.

One  of  the most  controversial issues of  the Tokyo Rounds involved the
reduction  of tariffs  which a  country levies against  the price of foreign
goods  being  imported.   As a  result of  the Tokyo Rounds negotiations,
tariffs on  textile products  are  to be  reduced by an  average  of 21 percent.
The  textile  products  tariff  reductions will be numerous and  vary by

                                   IV-28
-------
 Table IV-14.
Raw fiber equivalent of export of manufacturers
         (million pounds)

Year
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
Man-made
129.0
146.2
147.4
146.7
177.6
288.2
390.7
322.4
352.2
367.6
441.7
596.6
Cotton
188.2
232.1
199.2
226.3
290.4
325.2
292.5
353.7
413.2
369.5
355.7
478.0
Wool
5.7
5.2
4.9
9.4
30.6
30.8
23.0
19.2
13.9
11.5
11.6
14.3
Total
322.9
383.5
351.5
382.4
498.6
644.2
706.2
695.3
779.3
748.1
809.0
1,088.9
Source:  Textile Organon
                               IV-29
-------
 product  classification with  approximately  3,500 different  textile  and  apparel
 classifications  considered in  the  negotiations.   The  current  tariff  rate,
 the  proposed  new rate, and the resulting reduction  for  selected  textile
 products are  depicted  in  Table IV-15.  As  shown in  the  table,  proposed
 reductions  range from  relatively small decreases  (5.9 percent  for  woven
 wool)  to reductions of over  one-half  (60 percent  for  cotton furnishings).
 The  projected economic ramifications  of the  industry's  tariff  reductions
 vary.  According to William  R.  Cline, main investigator for the  Brookings
 Institution's study on the effect  of  trade negotiations in the Tokyo Round,
 the  major impact of the revised tariff levels will  be on employment.  Even
 so,  Cline predicts only a 1.65 percent employment reduction in the industry,
 a level  considered minimal.   He also  contends that  some of the lost  jobs
 Will  be  regained by additional  U.S. exports.  Furthermore, initial tariff
 cuts will not  take effect until 1982, with additional liberalization over
 a period  of eight to ten years.  The American Textiles  Manufacturers
 Institute  (ATMI) have an  opposing view of the impact  of tariff reductions,
 however.  They assert that total U.S. job losses due  to the economic
 effect of the  reductions  would decrease employment by  40 percent or
 800,000  workers.  The ATMI predicts that the  smaller, family-owned manu-
facturers will be most severely affected,  while  the larger, multi-corporations
can more readily absorb the changes.

 In addition to tariff reductions to promote international  trade, the
 Toyko Round also legislated  a  series of codes to help eliminate  the  five
 major non-tariff barriers to trade.  One of the codes involves regulation
 of government  subsidies for  exports of manufactured goods.   The new  code
 attempts  to expedite the  time  required to make official  investigations and
 determinations in countervailing  and dumping (flooding a  market with
 specific  imports) cases.  The  length of the investigations by  the Treasury
 Department would be cut from six or nine months to  120  days.    It would also
 reduce to  120  days the period  of time the International  Trade  Commission
 (ITC) has to  rule on whether or not the imported products  were harming
 domestic  industries'.   In  addition, the Tokyo Round  allows  for  the Treasury
 Department and ITC investigations to overlap, further reducing the time
 constraints.   It also restricts the President to  30 days to act on ITC's
 suggestions instead of the 90  days allotted historically.  Under previous
 trade agreements, the Treasury  Department had a year  to reach  its final
 decision  in countervailing duty cases; however,  now the  Department will
 have a total  of  195 days  to  make its final decision.  A major  concession
 in the agreement provides that  the U.S. cannot apply  countervailing  duties
 on subsidized  products unless  it can prove the domestic industry suffered
 injury as a result of the imports.  The somewhat nebulous  guidelines of
 determining injury requires  the U.S. to prove "harm"  which is  not  in-
 consequential, immaterial or unimportant" has taken place.   The agreement
 also expands  dumping duties  to  include the 3 months of  imports before  the
 preliminary dumping findings.   Furthermore, a deposit of the estimated
 dumping  duties will  be required from the exporting  country if  injury is
 proved.
                                     IV-30
-------
     Table IV-15.   Proposed  tariff  reductions  on  major textile  products

Product

Wool yarns
Man-made fiber— /wool blends
Man-made^- fabrics
Woven wool (over $9/lb)
Woven wool (less than $9/lb)
Cotton shirting
Cotton towels
Cotton corduroy
Cotton velveteen
Cotton terry
Cotton velveteen furnishings
Corduroy furnishings
Cotton terry furnishing

Current
tariff

13-23.4
18.2
24.5
44.4
44.4
16.7
14.0
38.0
22.5-30.0
15.4
30.0
38.0
15.0

Proposed
tariff

9-15.0
15.0
17.0
33.0
41.8
12.2
10.5
23.0
16-20.0
11.1
12.0
15.2
7.2

Reduction

30.77-35.90
17.6
30.6
25.7
5.9
26.9
25.0
39.5
28.9
27.9
60.0
60.0
52.0
I/  Comprised of acetate, nylon, and/or polyester.
2]  Tariffs expressed as a percent of transaction value (first cost).
Source:   Daily News Record, July 13, 1979
                                    IV-31
-------
Another significant code aimed at reducing non-tariff barriers to trade
bars the use of arbitrary oroduct standards to discourage imports.  In
the past, countries when faced with a surplus of domestic goods, would
raise the products1 minimal requirements (e.g. health or technical) for
imported goods while maintaining the original standards for domestic goods.
The new code does not dictate what the standards must be, per se, but
rather it calls for open procedures in adopting standards and sets up a
review procedure for settling disputes.

A third code established in the trade agreement eliminates the numerous
arbitrary methods that governments use to inflate the value of imports to
calculate custom duties.  As a result of the false value placed on the
products, the goods are over-priced and  not competitive with the domestic
markets.  Under the new code, countries  that do not accept a manufacturer's
invoice price must use an elaborate, carefully devised formula to establish
a revised value.

The final two codes anticipated to  have major impacts on breaking down
trade barriers  include  regulating official  purchasing practices  and
import licensing.  The  revised purchasing practices allow  countries to
bid on foreign  government  contracts.  This  results  in not  only a broader
market for exporters, but it also  makes  the  bidding  more competitive  and
efficient.   In  the past, import licenses have been difficult, if not im-
possible, to obtain for certain domestic products.  This provided the
manufacturers some protection against lower-priced, imported goods.  The
establishment of this code  ensures  that licenses  are  available at a reason-
able time after they are requested.

It is clear  that while  the  Tokyo  Round trade agreements will promote trade
by reducing  tariff levels and eliminating some of the major non-tariff
barriers to  trade, it will  also have an adverse impact  on the U.S. textile
industry.  Although the severity  of the impact is argued by several special
interest groups, the U.S. plans to  strengthen existing  legislation in order
to assist the beleaguered industry.  It is anticipated  that the  "Arrangement
Regarding International Trade in  Textiles," also  referred to as the Multi-
fiber Arrangement, will be  one area of change.  The Multifiber Arrangement
(MFA) is an  extension of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.  The
MFA was originally negotiated by  50 major textile trading countries in
December, 1973, with  its four-year  term expiring  December  31,  1977.  At
that time,  it was  extended  to December 31,  1981.  The MFA  regulates the
importation  of  textile  products manufactured  from cotton, wool,  man-made
fibers,  and  all  blends  among  the  50 countries.

The basic objectives of the MFA seek an expansion of  trade, reduction of
trade barriers, and progressive liberalization of world trade involving
textile products.  In addition, it  ensures the orderly  and equitable
development  of  trade aimed  at preventing a  disruption of individual markets.
Other goals  of  the MFA  include  enhancing the social development of
developing countries, securing substantial increases  in their export
earnings from textile products, and providing the opportunity of a greater
share in world  trade.

                                    IV-32
-------
Under the provisions of the MFA, the U.S. may restrain textile imports from
particular countries by negotiating bilateral agreements with exporting
countries or through unilateral actions.  Currently, the U.S. has 18 bi-
lateral s in force including agreements with all  of the major exporting
countries.  These countries and the textile categories involved are pre-
sented in Table IV-16.

A significant feature of the MFA is that it calls for an annual six percent
growth in the levels established by the bilaterals.  Although the MFA pro-
vides the general framework for trade, specific restrictions are covered
in the bilateral agreements.  Under most of these bilaterals, aggregate
limits are established for total imports (which may or may not conform with
the six percent growth rate) and then quotas are set for each group of
production to include textiles, apparel, and wool.  Within these groups,
specific  import quotas are  set  for specific  items.  Quotas generally reflect
the market sensitivity of the  specific  product.   U.S. bilaterals have pro-
vided for an annual one percent growth  in the import of wool products
because of the  small  size of the wool industry and because of market
problems  in this industry.  Restrictive quotas also have been negotiated
on more sensitive apparel products such as gloves, sweaters, and knit
shirts.

There are also  features of  the  bilaterals which permit import levels to
increase over the 6 percent annual level established in the MFA.  One such
feature allows  unused quotas to carry over from one period to the next.
For example, if one country had an import level of 36 thousand tons of
wool per year,  but in a given year only 30 thousand tons were actually
imported, the next period's import level would still be a 6 percent increase
over the  36 thousand  tons originally allowed (38.2 thousand tons of wool)
plus the unused 6 thousand  tons would be allowed  to accumulate for the next
period resulting in a total import level of 44 thousand tons in the second
year.  The following  period's level of  importation would then be 6 percent
of 44 thousand  tons rather  than 6 percent of 38 thousand tons.  Several
periods of compounding growth in this manner can  have a severe impact on
importing countries.

The U.S. textile industry has strongly  urged-that drastic changes be made
in the Multifiber Arrangement.   In the view of many, the MFA will
lead to major disruptions of the textile and apparel industries and a
resultant widespread  reduction  in employment.  The view is also held that
imports could grow to 50 percent of the textile markets by the late 1980's.
To counter this, industry and labor are pressing  for more restrictive
regulations, those which would  include a reduction of the six percent quota
growth factor to come in  line  with the  approximately  three  percent  growth
in  the domestic market.
                                   IV-33
-------
    Table IV-16.  The Textile Industry—countries with which the U.S.
     has bilateral agreements as allowed under the auspices of the
                         Multifiber Arrangement
      Country
     Textile category involved
Arao Republic of Egypt
Brazil
Colombia
Haiti
Hong Kong
Cotton
Cotton
Cotton;
Cotton,
wool and man-made fibers
man-made fibers
Cotton, wool and man-made fibers
India
Japan
Korea
Macao
Malaysia
Mexico
Pakistan
Philippines
Poland
Romania
Singapore
Taiwan
Thailand
Cotton
Cotton,
Cotton,
Cotton,
Cotton,
Cotton,
Cotton
Cotton,
Cotton
Cotton,
Cotton,
Cotton,
Cotton,

wool
wool
wool
wool
wool

wool

wool
wool
wool
wool

and
and
and
and
and

and

and
and
and
and

man-made
man-made
man-made
man-made
man-made

man-made

man-made
man-made
man-made
man-made

fibers
fibers
fibers
fibers
fibers

fibers

fibers V
fibers
fibers
fibers
_!/  This is the 2nd of 2 agreements negotiated by Romania.

Source:  U.S. Dept. of Commerce
                                   IV-34
-------
                         C.   Financial ^Profile

Textile industry sales have increased at a rate of about seven percent
annually over the last ten years.  Domestic mills are facing a growing
threat from foreign markets which now dominate about one-fourth of U.S.
sales.  Operating costs for the textile industry have remained steady over
the last ten years, always slightly higher as a percent of sales than the
average for all manufacturing industries.  Depreciation levels are inadequate
to permit the industry to keep abreast of its capital requirements since new
machinery is two to four times as expensive as that being replaced.  Long-
term credit is scarce in the industry and firms must rely on internally
generated funds.  Deficits grew from 29 percent of the firms in the entire
industry in 1972 to 43 percent in 1975; by 1977 they returned to 29 percent.
Returns on sales, equity and assets continue to rank among the lowest compared
to those of all other manufacturing industries.

1.  General Trends  in the  Industry

While  the quantities of textile products produced have grown at an average
annual rate of  3.5  percent during the past ten years, the values of ship-
ments  of textile products  have grown at an annual average rate twice the
production growth rate, increasing from approximately $20 billion  in 1967,
to over $47 billion in 1979.  The value of shipments for the textile indus-
try during this period was approximately three percent of the total value
of shipments from all manufacturing industries.  However, the textile
industry proportion declined during the ten year period from 3.3 percent
in 1967 to 2.8  percent in  1976.  Comparison of the textile industry with
all manufacturing industries with respect to the share of sales and profits
reveals that while  the textile industry accounted for three percent of the
sales  of all manufacturing industries, it accounted  for only 1.9 percent
of the aggregate industries' profits in 1971, with the share decreasing to
only one percent in 1975.

2.  Sales

According to data published in the FTC Quarterly Financial Reports, corporate
sales  within the textile industry have been increasing at an average rate
of about 7 percent  annually, rising from $18.7 billion in 1967 to  nearly 42
billion in 1979 (Table IV-17).  This annual increase is somewhat less than
that of the Census1 value of shipments which indicates a trend towards
greater integration within the industry.  In 1970, noncorporate sales
represented about two percent of the total industry  volume, including those
of proprietorships  and partnerships.  However, in recent years, the sales
of these noncorporate enterprises share represent less than one percent and
reflect the continuing trend towards closures and incorporations of the
smaller operations.

The cyclical movements of the sales in the textile industry have generally
paralleled the  total sales in all manufacturing industries with peaks and
troughs occassionally preceding trends in the overall economy.  Although

                                    IV-35
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IV-36
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not apparent from Table IV-17, significant fluctuations in quarterly sales
have occurred since 1970.  In 1973, a peak occurred as a result of the
accelerated buying associated with the threatening shortage during the
Mideast oil embargo.  This was quickly followed by a dramatic drop in sales
reflecting the economic recession in 1975.  Since that time, sales have
increased at an annual rate of about 10 percent.

Sales of textile products occur predominately in three markets:  apparel,
home furnishings, and industrial.  The apparel market accounts for the
greatest portion of the total sales, receiving an estimated 40 percent of
the industry shipments.  The second largest share of the industry sales
occurs in home furnishings which represents about 34 percent.  An estimated
23 percent of the industries' sales occur in the industrial market.  Overseas
sales amount to about 4 percent of total sales.

The long-term outlook for sales can be expected to reflect very closely the
projected trends in personal income as well as expenditures for apparels and
home furnishings.  The real growth rate is not anticipated to exceed the
2.5 percent of the past ten years.  However, cyclical movements in sales can
be expected to occur and should parallel changes in general economic activity.
Industry sales will be significantly influenced by imports of textile products
into the United States.  These imports, which have been restricted to an
annual increase of 6 percent under the MFA, have been posing increasing
problems to the domestic mills.  This is apparent in considering that about
one-fourth of the garments now sold in the U.S. come from abroad, principally
from the Far East (Taiwan, Hong Kong, Japan, and Korea).

In addition to the FTC Financial Reports discussed above, financial statis-
tics are also published by the Internal Revenue Service in its Source Book
of Income Statistics.  These statistics cover a different survey sample and
are collected on a fiscal year basis beginning in July; consequently the data
differ somewhat  from that published by the FTC.  The Source Book contains data
not only for the total industry (major industry) but also for the three prin-
cipal segments (minor industries):  (1) weaving mills and textile finishing,
(2) knitting mills, and (3) other textile mill products.  This third industry
includes the carpet and rug industry as well as the yarn and thread mills.
Table IV-18 depicts data for fiscal years 1967 to 1977 (1977 is the latest
year for which statistics have been published.)  As shown in the exhibit,
sales for the major industry increased from $18.5 billion in 1967 to over
$33 billion in 1976.  These statistics illustrate a drop in sales in 1971
(reflecting that year's recession) which is not readily apparent in the FTC
data.  Sales in the weaving industry represent about 45 percent of total
industry sales while those in the knitting mills account for about 20 percent.
The other textile mills account for the remaining 35 percent of the sales.
Although the weaving mills make up the largest portion of the industry sales
volume, its sales have been increasing only at an average of 4 percent annually
as opposed to a 6 percent increase for the remaining portion of the industry.
The minor industry sales data reveal that the impact of the 1971 recession
occurred at different times among the three industries with a low in sales
occurring in 1970 (fiscal year) for the other textile product mills and a
low for the weaving and knitting mills occurring in 1971.


                                    IV-37
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-------
3.  Operating Costs

Financial data contained in the Standard and Poors Industry Surveys facili-
tate a comparison of operating costs between the textile industry and total
industrials.   These operating costs are listed below and include costs for
labor, material, selling, and general  and administrative expenses.   Costs
as a percentage of sales have remained fairly stable over the last ten years
for the textile industry as well as all industrials.  Total industrials have
experienced a slight rise in costs from a low of 84.2 percent in 1967 to a
high of 85.7 percent in 1976.  The costs in the textile industry have ranged
from a low in 1968 of 87.9 percent to  a high of 91.4 percent in both 1971
and 1975.  The operating costs of the  textile industry have remained about
3 to 5 percentage points higher than those for all industrials throughout
the time period.

                             Operating Cost
                        (as a percent  of sales)

     Year               Textile Industry              Total Industrials

     1979                     90.3                          N.A.
     1978                     90.0                          N.A.
     1977                     90.5                          N.A.
     1976                     88.9                          85.6
     1975                     91.4                          85.6
     1974                     88.4                          84.6
     1973                     89.0                          84.2
     1972                     90.4                          84.9
     1971                     91.4                          85.4
     1970                     89.9                          85.5
     1969                     88.7                          84.7
     1968                     87.9                          84.2
     1967                     89.4                          84.5
Source:  Standard and Poors Industry Surveys.

These operating costs are discussed in detail, below.  Material and.labor
costs were obtained from the Census of Manufactures while the remaining
costs were derived from the Source Book of Statistics of Income, (IRS).

a.  Costs of materials and labor

Costs of material and labor expressed as a percent of shipments (sales and
interplant transfers) are shown in Table IV-19 for various SIC industry groups
(3-digit) level) and industries (4-digit level), paralleling to some extent,
the IRS Source Book minor industry break-out.   Costs of.material for the
entire industry amount to about 60 percent of shipments while labor costs
average about 20 percent.  The weaving mills show the highest cost of labor
with a rate of 23 percent, one due primarily to the labor intensive narrow
fabric and wool processing mills.  The labor costs in the textile finishing
mills were 19 percent.  The combination of weaving and finishing mills, which

                                    IV-39
-------
Table IV-19.    Material and labor costs (1977)
            (as a percent of shipments)
SIC
SIC Industry
Grouo
Labor Costs
Material Costs

221-224
226
221-224,
226
225
227
228
Weaving mil Is
Textile finishing (weaving)
Combined weaving mills and
textile finishing
Knitting mills
Carpet and rug mills
Yarn and thread mills
Total Textile Mill Products
Source:
Census of Manufactures.

23
19
22
21
12
20
20


56
65
60
59
69
63
60

                          IV-40
-------
 constitutes the same coverage of mills  as the Source Book in  its  minor indus-
 try break-out,  indicates labor costs  of 22 percent.   The knitting mills had
 labor costs of  21 percent,  slightly less than the combination of  weaving
 and finishing mills.   Within the knitting mills,  labor costs  vary widely
 among the subsegments.   Mills manufacturing knit  gloves had  labor costs of
 32 percent (not shown in the Table) the highest in the entire textile industry.
 On the other hand, mills producing knit fabrics had  one of the lowest costs.
 Carpet and rug  mills had the lowest labor costs of the entire industry with
 costs at 12 percent.   This  is due principally to  their relatively labor
 efficient mills.

 As may be expected, material costs, when expressed as percentages of ship-
 ments, are essentially the  opposite of  labor costs.   Those segments  with
 high labor costs  had relatively low material  costs;  conversely, those with
 low labor costs had high material cost  (as a percent of shipments).   The
 weaving mills had.the lowest material costs at 56 percent.   Carpet mills had
 the highest material  costs  at 69 percent.

 b.  Depreciation

The study conducted by the Treasury Department on the textile industry (dis-
cussed in the previous chapter) concludes that depreciation levels are entirely
inadequate to permit the industry to keep abreast of its capital  requirements
since new machinery costs from two to four times that being replaced.  Deprecia-
tion, as shown below, remained between 2.8 and 2.9 percent of sales through
1975 and then dropped to 2,5 percent in  1976 where it has remained for the
past four years.
                          The Texti1e Industry
                   (depreciation as a  percent of sales)
 Source:   FTC Quarterly Financial^ Report

Depreciation among the minor industries varied significantly as illustrated
below.  The weaving mills and textile finishing reported the highest depre-
ciation at levels of about 3.5 percent of sales between 1972 and 1977.  The
knitting mills reported depreciation of between 2.3 and 2.8 percent during
the period.  During the same period, the remaining mills (other textile
products) experienced a slight decline in levels going from 2.5 percent in
1972 to 2.1 percent in 1974 and 1977.  It should be pointed out that the minor
industry levels, to a great degree, reflect the depreciation taken by the
largest firms.  For example, the depreciation for all of the weaving and
finishing mills was shown as 3.5 percent.  However, in that segment, firms
with assets of less than $5 million (80 percent of this minor industry) had
depreciation levels of less than 2.5 percent.
                                     IV-41
-------
                    Depreciation as a Percent of Sales

                                      1972   1973   1974  1975  1976  1977

Weaving mills and textile finishing    3.6    3.6    3.5   3.4   3.6   3.3
Knitting mills                         2.4    2.4    2.8   2.5   2.5   2.3
Other textile products                 2.5    2.3    2.1   2.3   2.4   2.1
Source:  Troy's Almanac.

4.  Interest Expenses

Because of low levels of profit, the textile industry has had to rely
traditionally on internally generated funds for capital  investment.  The
scarcity of long-term credit is evident in the relatively low interest
expenses being paid by textile firms as illustrated below.   During the
period 1970-1976, interest paid by the industry averaged 1.5 percent of
sales.  This compares with a rate of 1.8 percent for all manufacturing
industries for the same period.  The interest expenses of the minor
industries have fluctuated slightly over the past few years, but in general
they have varied between 1.4 and 1.5 percent of sales.  The relatively
large increase in the percentage for knitting mills in 1974 may be
explained by the fact that in 1974, the knitting boom peaked; thus, it is
probable many firms were forced to borrow funds to continue in operation.
The high rates in 1975 reflected the recession of that year.

                                Interest Expenses (as a percent of sales)
     The Textile Industry      1972    1973    1974   1975    1976   1977

Major industry                  1.4     1.4     1.5    2.0     1.7    2.0

Minor industry
  Weaving mills & finishings    1.5     1.3     1.5    1.8     1.6    1.3
  Knitting                      1.4     1.4     1.8    2.4     1.8    1.6
  Other                         1.3     1.4     1.4    2.0     1.7    1.4
Source:  IRS Source Book of Income Statistics

5.  Profitability

The relatively weak financial posture of the textile industry is reflected
in the number of firms reporting deficits.  In 1971, according to the
Source Book, 1,776 firms out of a total of 6,221 _!/ reported losses which
amounted to 29 percent of the firms in the entire industry.  In 1976, the
total number of firms had increased to 6,274; the number reporting losses
increased to 2,735 and represented a total of 44 percent.  The generally
low levels of profits are apparent in comparing the profitability ratios in
the textile industry with those of all manufacturing as was depicted in
Table IV-17.  As shown, the textile industry's profits have historically
been 40 to 50 percent less than the profits of all manufacturing
industries.
_!/   The number of firms reflect those categorized as textile operations by
     the Internal Revenue Service.  The IRS number of firms does not
     compare equally to the number of firms reported by the Bureau of the
     Census due to classification differences.
                                   IV-42
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a^.  Returns of sales (industry)

Rates of return on sales, equity and assets have been traditionally low in
the industry.  During the last ten year period, the return on sales (after
tax) for the industry has fluctuated between 1.5 percent in 1975 and 3.2
percent in 1978.  During the same period, the returns for all manufacturing
industries varied from 4.0 percent to 5.5 percent.  Annual rates of return
for the textile industry have typically been about 40 to 50 percent less than
the composite rates of all manufacturing industries.

The return on sales for 1977 was 2.4 percent -- the same as that of 1976
and essentially the same as the average since 1970 (2.3 percent) and for the
past 11 years (2.5 percent).

While a review of the return on sales of the total industry indicates its
condition relative to that of overall manufacturing, an examination of the
rates of firms by asset size reveals the position of the small mills.  As
shown below, the 1977 return on sales before tax for firms having assets under
one million dollars was 1.0 percent.  Approximately 72 percent of the firms
in the industry fell into this category.  Firms with assets of between one
and ten million dollars had a composite rate of return of 1.5 percent; these
firms made up about 23 percent of the industry.  The remaining large firms
(amounting to about 5 percent of the industry) had a rate of return of
1.7 percent.
       Return on Sales by Size of Firms -- Textile Industry (1977)
         Assets

Under $1,000,000
$1,000,000 to $10,000,000
Over $10,000,000
Number of Firms as a Per-
cent of the Total Industry

            72
            23
             5
Return on
  Sales

   0.9
   1.5
   1.7
Source:  IRS, Source Book of Income Statistics
As also shown in Table IV-18, the return on sales of the weaving mills and
textile finishers have generally been the highest in the industry when com-
pared to these of the other minor industries.  Between 1967 and 1977, these
mills averaged 4.3 percent as opposed to about 3.2 percent for the knitting
mills.  However, when viewing the return of sales of firms with assets under
one million dollars, a different picture emerges.  The smaller sized firms
in both the weaving and knitting segments had less than a one percent rate of
return.  The same size firms in the other textile mill products segment had a
composite rate of almost 3 percent.

b.  Returns on sales (wet processors)

The returns on sales for the wet processors within the industry have remained
significantly lower than for the total industry.  Based on the industry survey
data,  the return of sales  (before tax) has averaged 3.1, percent for the wet
processors  as opposed to  4.3 percent for the entire industry.   The rate of
return for  wet processors  during the 1975 recession for wet processors fell
to 1.4 percent (Table IV-20) while the total industry rate dropped to 2.8
                                    IV-43
-------
        Table IV-20.   The textile industry,  wet processors--
                     return on sales (before tax)JY
                                (medians)

Subcategory
Wool scouring
Wool finishing
Woven fabric finishing
Knit fabric finishing
Hosiery finishing
Carpet finishing
Yarn finishing
Nonwoven
2 /
Wet processors (composite)—
Total industry*
1973
7.8
4.0
5.8
3.3
2.5
4.4
9.2
3.2
2.9
5.4
1974
-0.3
1.7
2.8
3.3
1.6
4.7
6.6
4.6
4.4
4.6
1975
-4.1
-3.4
2.2
2.3
1.7
1.6
0.8
0.0
1.4
2.8
1976
7.7
2.7
4.0
1.6
2.6
3.0
3.6
0.7
4.1
4.4
1977
-0.1
0.5
1.4
2.5
1.3
3.5
1.9
4.3
2.9
4.4
If  Returns on sales of each of the subcategories consist of medians.
2/  Returns on sales for wet processors (composite)  consist of the
    average of all  surveys.

Sources:   Development Planning and Research Associates, Inc. Industry
          Survey results.
          * Internal Revenue Service,  Source Book of Income Statistics.
                                    IV-44
-------
percent.  In 1977, the rate for the wet processors was slightly less than
3 percent compared to 4.4 percent for the industry.  An examination of the
median rates from the survey data reveals wide fluctuations within and among
subcategories.   The lowest rates and the widest fluctuations occurred within
wool scouring with returns varying between 7.8 and -4.1 percent during the
1973-77 period.  The lowest overall rates occurred in wool finishing.  The
most stable returns have occurred in carpet finishing with the median remaining
above 3.0 percent during the period except for 1975 when it dropped to 1.6
percent.

c.  Return on assets

As was shown in Table IV-17, the difference between the return on assets
of the textile industry and of all manufacturing industries is somewhat
less than the difference between the corresponding return on sales.  This
primarily reflects the'labor intensity of the industry and the relative
obsolesence of plant and equipment.

In light of the low profitability levels discussed above, the industry
requires substantial increases in productivity in order to maintain its
viability.  To gain this productivity, the industry has shown evidence of
significant modernization.  Capital expenditures  reached  $1.4 billion
in  1979 with over 80 percent of this funneled into modernization.
Less than 20 percent of the outlay will involve expansion in capacities.
Although the expenditures will increase dramatically, the expenditures as
a percent of sales are expected to remain between 2.5 percent and 3.0
percent.  Even though the projected outlay is about the same as the current
level of depreciation for the entire industry, modernization is required
most extensively in the smaller mills where the capital requirements will
exceed the depreciation.

d.  Return on equity

Return on equity within the textile industry has been significantly low
in relation to that of all manufacturing as shown in Table IV-17.  Over
the past ten years, the rate of return on all manufacturing industries has
fluctuated from 9.3 to  16.5 percent while that of the textile industry has
ranged from a low of 4.4 percent in 1975 to 11.9 percent in 1979.   According
to The Value Line Investment Survey, the return on equity has been con-
si stiTvtTy~TaTeTTbw^TrTom^alTs^nwith 49 of the major manufacturing
industries as indicated below.

             Return on Net Worth - Textile Industry Ranking
                          (Among 49 industries)

           1976        1977        1978        1979        1980

            42          46          42          45          45
           Source:  The Value Line

                                     IV-45
-------
1972
5.4
10.4
9.5
1973
4.6
7.8
3.8
1974
13.7
19.7
20.2
1975
5.6
___
0.5
1976
2.0
3.3
0.5
1977
4.6
4.7
5.4
Among the 500  largest industrials surveyed  by  Fortune, the median rates
of return on stockholder's equity within the textile industry were among
the lowest major  industrial rates of return in 1975 (23rd out of 24),
in 1976, 23 out of 25, 24 out of 25 in 1977, 20 out of 25 in 1978.

The returns on equity of mills within the minor industries has fluctuated
over the past years with the knitting mills generally having the higher
rates (except  in  1975) as indicated below.

                            	Return  on Equity
   Minor Industry

Weaving and finishing
Knitting
Other

Source:  Troy's Almanac

6.  Financial Structure

a.  Liquidity

The liquidity of  the textile industry is somewhat  more favorable than  that
of total manufacturing as reflected in the  current ratios listed below.
For the past ten  years, the current assets  to  current liabilities ratio
of the textile industry has ranged between  2.2 and 2.4, somewhat higher
than that of all  manufacturing.  Although this is  favorable to the textile
industry from  the point of view of liquidity,  it actually is brought about
by the requirement for the textile mills to finance a greater portion  of
their investments from internally generated funds  than from external
investors.
               1967   1968
                       Current Ratio - Liquidity
              (ratios of current assets to current liabilities)

          1969  1970   1971   1972  1973   1974  1975  1976 "  1977
                                                                          1978   1979
 All manufacturing

 Textile industry
2.2

2.4
2.2

2.4
2.1

2.4
           • — (percent)	

2.n   2.0   2.1   2.0   2.0   2.0   2.0    2.0   1.9   1.3

2.4   2.3   2.3   2.2   2.2   2.3   2.2    2.2   2.3   2.3
 Source:  F'lC, Quarterly Financial Reports
Within the  textile industry, liquidity  has  been  slightly more favorable
in the weaving  mills and textile finishing  than  in the other segments, with
ratios ranging  from 2.0 to 2.1 between  1972 and  1977 according to Troy's
Almanac.  The  knitting mills have shown  somewhat less liquidity with  ratios
ranging  between 1.6 to 2.1 during the same  period.
                                     IV-46
-------
b.  Debt to equity

The financial  structures of the firms in the manufacturing industries have
shown significant changes over the past years with  a  trend towards a greater
debt load.  The  debt to debt plus equity ratios  of  the textile industry
have generally moved in consonance with the composite ratios of all manu-
facturing.  In 1967, the ratio of all manufactures  was slightly over 41
percent and increased +3 49.3 percent in 1979.   The ratios within the textile
industry have  moved  from 40.9 percnet in 1967 to nearly 49 percent in 1973.
The decline since 1973 has not been as abrupt for the textile industry as
for all manufacturing which tends to illustrate  the difficulty of firms  in
the industry to  obtain equity funding as well as debt funding.
                1967  1963   1969   1970
                        Debt to Debt Plus Equity
                    1971   1972  1973   1974   1975
                                1976  1977   1978  1979
                	    	(percent)	

 All manufacturing  41.4  43.8  45.4   45.3  46.6  46.8   48.0  46.5

 Textile industry   40.9  42.3  44.1   44.0  43.9  47.1   48.7  48.7
                                         46.4

                                         47.3
                                46.2

                                47.9
                            46.6

                            48.4
                        47.8

                        48.6
                    49.3

                    48. 1
 Source:  FTC, Quarterly Financial Reports
Within the  textile industry, the financial  structure of the mills varies
significantly  among minor industries as  shown  below.  The debt load  in  the
knitting mills  has been close to 60 percent.   This indicates that the recent
expansion in knitting equipment was facilitated  by debt financing as opposed
to equity financing.   This again reflects  the  problems within the industry
in obtaining support from the equity markets.
                         Debt to Debt Plus  Equity

                               1972
                       1973      1974
                       	(percent)-
                           1975
                           1976
                          1977
     Weaving  and
     Knitting
     Others
finishing
41
57
47
41
55
55
41
58
50
44
66
54
45
61
54
53
44
46
Source:   IRS,  Source Book of Income^ Statistics

c.  Debt  structure

The current  debt as a percentage of total  liabilities within the textile
industry  has been slightly higher than  for all  manufacturing.  As shown
below,  this  percentage for the textile  industry decreased from about 60
percent in  1967 to a low of almost  52 percent  in 1971.  Since 1971, it had
                                     IV-47
-------
increased to 57.4  percent  by  1976.  The  increase indicated that  current
needs  were being financed  increasingly with short-term money during the
period.   This is contrary  to  what seems  to  be occurring in all manufacturing.
The  overall trend  for most  industries is  typically  toward increased financing
through  long-term  debt.
                                            Debt Structure
                                       (Current debt to total debt)

               1967   1968   1969  1970   1971   1972   1973   1974   1975   1976
               	(percent)	
     1977   1978   1979
All manufacturing 55.6   54.7   55.0  53.3   52.1  52.6   55.1   53.8  50.4   50.8   51.0  52.3   54.2

Textile  industry  59.6   59.9   56.4  53.6   51.9  53.3   53.3   55.8  54.1   57.4   56.9  55.8   56.5
Scurce:  FTC, Quarterly Financial Reports
d.   Capital structure

During  the period  1967-1979,  the textile  industry's  long-term debt as a
percent of long-term debt plus  equity increased from 22 percent  to 29
percent as shown below.  This again reflects the increasing difficulty
of obtaining external financing through the equity markets within  the
industry.
                                            Capital Structure
                               (Long-term debt to long-term .ipbt plus equity)

                1967   1968  1969   1970   1971   1972   1973  1974   1975   1976
                                               "(percent)-

 All manufacturing  24.1  26.1   27.2   28.7  29.5   29.4   29.3   29.5   29.2

 Textile industry   21.8  22.7   25.6   27.0  27.4   29.3   30.8   20.7   30.0
      1977  1978   1979
28.1

29.7
28.8

28.8
31.3

29.5
31.0

28.9
 Source:  FTC, Quarterly Financial Report?
Among  the minor  industries,  the capital  structure varied significantly
during the period.   The weaving mills carried the lowest debt with  a 21
percent load between 1969 and  1976.   The  knitting mills  carried  the highest
load with its long-term debt increasing  from 25 percent  in 1969  to  just
under  45 percent  in  1976.  This reflects  the volatility  experienced within
the knitting mills  during the  early 1970's  associated  with the rapid growth
in the acquisition  of new machines.
                                       IV-48
-------
                           Capital Structure
             (Long-term debt to long-term debt plus equity)
                              1969  1970  1971  1972  1973  1974  1975  1976  1977
                              	-(percent)	

Textile industry (composite)   22    24    24    25    28    28    26    29    30

Weaving and finishing          19    20    20    22    21    23    21    22    20
Knitting                       25    27    34    34    34    41    38    45    36
Others                         25    29    25    26    35    30    28    33    33


Source:  IRS, Source Book of Income Statistics

7.   Cost of Capital - After Tax

The current cost of capital was determined for purposes of this analysis by
estimating various performance measures of the industry.   The weights for the
two respective types of capital for the textile industry were estimated
utilizing the FTC data previously discussed, with the equity weight being
65 percent and the debt weight being 35 percent.  The actual cost of debt
was more difficult to estimate as the industry is comprised of a large
number of diversified public firms and relatively specialized privately
held firms.  Accordingly, various equity cost-related measures were viewed,
including the averages of numberous published sources estimations of P/E
and D/P ratios for the textile industry.  From these sources, the cost of
equity capital was determined to be approximately 12.0 percent.

To determine the weighted average current cost of capital, the before tax
costs are adjusted to after-tax costs (debt capital o'nly in this case.)
This is accomplished by multiplying the capital costs by one minus the tax
rate (assumed to be 48 percent).   These computations are shown below and
result in the estimated current after-tax cost of capital being 10.0 percent.
     Item
Debt
Equity
Cost of capital
Weight

 .35
 .65
 Before
tax cost
  12.0
Tax
rate
0.48
 After
tax cost

  6.2
 12.0
Weighted
  cost
  2.2
  7.8
 10.0
It should be noted that this cost of capital estimate is not reflective of
the industry's present capital costs, but rather, it is reflective of a long
term capital cost including both highs and lows experienced by the industry.

8.  Assessment of Ability to Finance New Investment

a.  Financing new investment

The ability of a firm to finance new investment for pollution abatement is
a function of several critical financial and economic factors.  In general
terms, new capital must come from one or more of the following sources:
                                    IV-49
-------
(1) funds borrowed from outside sources; (2) equity capital through the
sale of common or preferred stock; (3) internally generated funds—retained
earnings and the stream of funds attributed to the depreciation of fixed
assets.

For each of the three major sources of new investment, the most critical
set of factors is the financial condition of the individual firm.,  For
debt financing, the firm's credit rating, earnings record over a period
of years, stability of earnings, existing debt-equity ratio, and the
lenders'  confidence in management will be major considerations.  New equity
funds through the sale of securities will depend upon the firm's future
earnings as anticipated by investors, which in turn, will reflect past
earnings records.  The firm's record, compared to others in its own industry
and to firms in other similar industries, will be a major determinant of
the ease with which new equity capital can be acquired.   In the comparisons,
the investor will probably look at the trend of earnings for the past five
or so years.

Internally generated funds depend upon the margin of profitability and the
cash flow from operations.  Also, in publicly-held corporations, stockholders
must be willing to forego dividends in order to make earnings available for
reinvestment.

The firm's industry and general economic conditions are also major considera-
tions in attracting new capital.  The industry will be compared to other
similar industries in terms of net profits on sales and on net worth, supply-
demand relationships, trends in production and consumption, the state of
technology, impact of government regulations, foreign trade, and other sig-
nificant variables.  Declining or depressed industries are not good prospects
for attracting new capital.  At the same time, the overall condition of the
domestic and international economy can influence capital markets.,  A firm
is more likely to attract new capital during a boom period than during a
recession.  On the other hand, the cost of new capital will usually be higher
during an expansionary period.  Furthermore, the money markets play a deter-
mining role in new financing.

These general guidelines can be applied to the textile industry by looking
at general economic data and industry performance over the recent past.

b.  General industry situation

The textile industry experienced declining profitability during the 1973
to 1975 time period with profits as a percentage of sales declining from
2.9 percent in 1973 to 1.5 percent in 1975 (Table IV-21).  However, in
1976, profits rose (coinciding with general improvements in the overall
domestic economy)and in 1976 and 1977 the industry earned a 2.4 percent
return on sales.  This increased to 3.1 percent in 1978  and 3.2 percent
in  1979.  As was  shown  in  Table  IV-16, the textile  industry's  profits have
consistently been  less  than  those experienced by the  aggregated  group of
all  industrial  firms.

                                   IV-50
-------
       Table IV-21.  The textile industry, general financial summary
                             1972  1973  1974  1975  1976  1977  1978  1979
After tax
return on sales (%)           2.6   2.9   2.5   1.5   2.4   2.4   3.1   3.2
After tax
return on assets (%)          4.0   4.7   3.8   2.2   4.2   4.5   5.9   6.2
Debt to equity ratio          0.9   0.9   0.9   0.9   0.9   0.9   0.9   1.1
Current assets to
current liabilities ratio     2.3   2.2   2.2   2.3   2.2   2.2   2.3   2.3
Source:  Federal Trade Commission, Quarterly Financial  Reports
                                      IV-51
-------
Returns on assets for the textile industry are also shown on Table IV-21.
The annual industry returns generally follow the same pattern as the in-
dustry's returns on sales.  The industry's return on assets was 4.5 percent
in 1977 and increased by 6.2 percent by 1979.

Another factor relative to the industry's capability to finance new invest-
ments is the proportion of debt to equity the industry maintains.  As shown
in Table IV-21, the debt to equity ratio has remained relatively constant
since 1972 at 0.9 with debt representing 45 percent of the total of debt and
equity.

Often, depending on the size of the investment, firms will choose short-
term financing in lieu of long-term debt financing.  Relevant to such a
situation is the industry's current ratio, that is, the ratio of the indus-
try's current assets to its current liabilities.   As depicted in Table IV-21,
this ratio has been relatively constant since 1972 with current assets
representing 2.2 to 2.3 times the current liabilities.   The historical
ratios indicate the industry has not experienced any industry-wide liquidity
problems.


The immediate financial  future for the textile industry does not look good.  As
noted previously the textile industry tends to suffer during recessionary
periods such as during the recession of 1974 and 1975.   As a result, earning1s
prospects for 1981  and 1982 appear to be very poor.  High interest rates and
oversupply of some types of material have added to industry problems.  For
example demand for corduroy and denim expanded rapidly in the late seventies
with commensurate increases in capacity.  When demand decreased the industry
was again caught in an oversupply situation.


c.  Expenditures for_ plants .and equipment

Capital expenditures, as reported by the U.S. Department of Commerce, were
relatively stable in the early 1960's, increasing slowly from approximately
$326 million in 1960 to $382 million in 1963 (Table IV-22).   Beginning in
1964 and continuing through 1966, capital expenditures increased and more
than doubled in 1966 to $887 million.  In 1967 and 1968, expenditures for
capital improvements declined, and beginning in 1969, and continuing through
1974, capital expenditures increased every year over the previous years except
in 1973.  In 1974, the textile industry spent approximately $1.2 billion on
capital improvements.  In 1975, these expenditures declined to $997 million;
in 1976, they increased to approximately $1.1 billion.   In 1979, these
expenditures amounted to about $1.5 billion.

Capital expenditures for the period 1970-1979 (expressed as a percent of
sales) are compared below with depreciation.  During the period, reinvest-
ment has averaged about 92 percent of depreciation.  This contrasts to the
1960's when reinvestment averaged about 120 percent of depreciation.
                                    IV-52
-------
            Table IV-22.  The textile industry, total capital
                           expenditures, 1960-79
                                                   Capital
                Year                             Expenditures

                                                  (Million $)
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
326
322
376
382
504
618
887
733
691
849
811
873
1,127
1,121
1,169
997
1,087
1,235
1,396
1,463
Source:  U.S. Department of Commerce, Industrial  Outlook.
                                     IV-53
-------
                   Comparison of Capital  Expenditures
                            and Depreciation

                      1970  1971  1972  1973  1974  1975  1976  1977 1978  1979

Capital  expenditures,  3.6   3.6   4.0   3.6   3.6   3.2   3.0   3.0   3.2   3.1
percent of shipments

Depreciation, percent  2.9   2.9   2.8   2.9   2.8   2.9   2.5   2.5   2.5   2.5
of sales
Source:  FTC Quarterly Financial  Report and U.S.  Department of Commerce,
         Industrial Outlook.

As shown in Table IV-23, for 1975 - 1977, most of the industry's capital ex-
penditures have been for new machinery and equipment.  In 1976, for the total
industry, new machinery and equipment expenditures represented 85 percent of
the total industry expenditures with the remaining 15 percent representing
expenditures predominantly for new structures and additions to existing
facilities.  The total capital expenditures and the various components for
each of the major industry segments are also depicted in Table IV-23 for the
years 1975 and 1977.

d.  Capital availability

Recently, the textile industry has experience a period of moderate growth
coupled with relatively low profit levels.  These factors have a consider-
able influence on the industry's ability to generate new capital for capital
improvements and are expected to influence the industry's ability to finance
investments for pollution controls and for other regulatory requirements.

The industry has a large number of family-owned (or controlled) facilities,
especially in the small and medium size categories.  Most of the larger
mills are a part of larger multi-plant corporations.  The family-owned
mills are largely financed with internal capital  and maintain relatively
low levels of long-term debt.  While new capital  expenditures have increased
during the past 15 years, expenditures during the past 5 years have somewhat
stabilized.

The extent to which investment requirements will  impose capital problems on
the mills will depend on the individual mill's financial situation as
well as the size of the investment requirements.   Some problems are antic-
ipated for some plants in the industry in their attempts to obtain capital.
Others, particularly the more profitable and, perhaps, the larger mills,
are not expected to encounter much difficulty.  Potential sources of
financing available to the industry include internal financing, banks and
fiduciaries, stock or bond issues, or small business loans obtainable
through the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
                                   IV-54
-------





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                   V.  PRICES AND PRICE DETERMINATION
Textile product prices have increased during the past decade, however
the rates of price increases have lagged behind those of most other
manufactured products.  The major reasons for the restraint in textile
price increases are generally a result of stiff competition between
fiber types and competition from less expensive textile imports.  Im-
provements in the industry's production efficiency, especially in the
man-made fiber mills, also lias helped to minimize required price in-
creases.  Prices in the textile industry are determined through the
interaction of numerous factors which effect both its supply and demand
characteristics.  Demand has been strong in recent years due to increases
in the general population as well as increases in the per capita textile
purchases. This has caused the industry to operate at its highest histor-
ical production level.  Prices are also influenced by occurences such
as strikes, oil shortages, and government  price  supports  and
regulations.

In this chapter the major pricing processes are discussed including reviews
of supply and demand relationships, the price determination processes, and
trends in prices of raw materials and finished textile goods.


                   A.  Supply and Demand Relationships


the supply and demand for textile fibers and goods are based on a number
of price and non-price factors which have changed over time.  For example,
the uncertain supply and price fluctuations associated with cotton were
withstood for many years until man-made fibers offered mills a relatively
steady source of raw materials.  As man-made fiber prices declined and
their quality improved, their use was even more attractive and their
demand by textile mills and consumers increased.   Today, if cotton prices
were to decline to levels below those of man-made fibers, textile mills
would in all probability continue to predominately utilize man-made fibers
because of their long run price and supply stability as well as consumer
acceptance of man-made fibers.

While man-made fibers have moved rapidly into many major markets, most are
utilized in the manufacture of apparel  and home furnishings.  Likewise,
the major use of natural fibers such as cotton and wool is for the manu-
facture of apparel.  Cotton was the major textile input in 1965, supplying
51 percent of the fiber used, but its use fell to 27 percent by 1979.  In
that same time period, the use of man-made fibers grew from 23 to 73 percent
of all fibers used for textile goods.
                                  V-l
-------
1.  Supply

The raw materials for textile fibers are predominately derived from four
resources:  animal hair, cotton, plant cellulose, and petroleum chemicals.
Wool and cotton originate at farms and their production is dominated by
natural factors.  Man-made fibers are less vulnerable; the only major
condition to production being the availability of plant cellulose and
oil.  The supply of finished goods depends upon the price and availability
of fibers, the technology available, and the financial condition of the
mills.

Imports of raw materials have little effect on domestic supplies with
wool being the only fiber imported in significant quantities.  However,
imports of foreign semi-manufactured and manufactured products are com-
manding an increasing share of the U.S. market, which reduces the demand
for U.S. fiber in turn.

a.  Raw materials
Raw material supplies have changed in character over the past decade as
the gap left by wool, cotton, and rayon and acetate has been filled by
non-cellulosic fibers.  Fewer Sheep were raised and consequently, the wool
supply has declined  to about  half  its level from 1965.  The amount of cotton
planted, harvested,  and produced has remained steady.  Among the man-
made materials, the  rayon and acetate group has declined, while non-
cellulosic fibers have increased dramatically.

Wool.   The supply of wool has declined steadily since 1965 (Table V-l).
Among the reasons for the drop are a decreasing demand for wool fabrics
and the rising value of sheep meat.   Some ranchers are raising sheep
for meat rather than wool while others are completely switching from
raising sheep to cattle.  In 1965, ranchers raised 25,127,000 sheep and
lambs and of these 23,756,000 were shorn.   By 1979 the number of sheep
and larnbs on farms had fallen to 12,244,000 sheep and lambs raised with
12,800,000 shorn.  Reported wool produced dropped from 224,763,000 pounds
to about 103,000,000 pounds between  1965 and 1979 ]_/

Domestically raised sheep have a tendency to produce less wool than sheep
in most other wool producing countries, i.e. the fine wool breeds of
Austrailia and New Zealand.  This has been due, in part, to an increased
emphasis on meat carcass quality at the expense of wool quality and yields.27
To offset this, the U.S. government has encouraged increased wool production
by enacting and updating its price support programs.  The original goal of
the first program, the National Wool Act of 1954, was to guarantee wool growers
a minimum pri™ at which their wool  could be sold, which in turn, encourages
an increase in annual production.  This price support program  has been ex-
tended several times with the most recent extension to continue through 1981.
In this program the difference between the actual average selling price and
the guaranteed price level paid to the growers is derived from customs duties
collected on imported wool and wool  products.
]_/  It should be noted that the number of sheep and lambs on farms is reported
    as of January 1 of each year.  Lambs born after January 1 may be shorn,
    placed in a feedlot and marketed as fat lambs before the following January 1
    date.  As a result the number of sheep and lamb shorn in any given year may
    exceed the number on farms on the January 1 reporting date.
2/  Ward, Lionel E., "Interfiber Competition With Emphasis on Cotton", Ann Arbor
    University Microfilms International, 1969.
                                    V-2
-------
     Table V-l.   Number of sheep and lambs, sheep and lambs shorn,  and
                production in the United States,  1965-1978
Year
 All  sheep
and lambs I/
  Sheep and
lambs shorn 2/
Reported wool
 production
Grease Basis
              (1,000 head)
                      (1,000 head)
                        (1,000 pounds)
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
I/
y
25,127
24,734
23,898
22,140
21,238
20,423
19,686
18,710
17,724
16,394
14,512
13,311
12,766
12,348
12,244
As of January 1.
Includes sheep shorn at commercial
23,756
22,923
22,056
20,759
19,584
19,163
19,036
18,816
17,598
16,142
14,403
13,669
13,214
12,609
12,826

feed lots.
224,763
219,153
211,384
197,896
182,849
176,787
172,157
168,618
153,239
138,663
124,835
114,817
108,627
102,424
103,063

The number of sheep and
     lambs shorn may exceed the number of all  sheep and lambs  on  farm as  of
     the January 1 reporting date.   This  is  because lambs  born after
     January 1 may be shorn, placed in a  feedlot  and marketed  as  fat lambs
     before the following January 1 reporting  date.
Source:   U.S.  Department of Agriculture,  Cotton and Wool Situation,  May
         1979  and U.S.  Department of Agriculture,  Agricultural  Statistics,
         1980.
                                    V-3
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Wool produced in the U.S. is typically apoarel quality wool, therefore,
in order to protect domestic production, imported apparel wools are sub-
ject to a duty of 25.5 cents per pound.  Carpet class wools are not pro-
duced in this country so fibers imported for carpet use are not dutiable.
In 1965, 33 percent of the total U. S. wool supply was imported for apparel
(Table V-2).  Imports declined annually until 1974, when a low of 11,800,000
pounds, or 7 percent of the total supply was reached.  Since 1974, wool
imports, which are mainly from Australia and New Zealand, rose and in 1978
imported wool for apparel represented over 21 percent of the total U.S. wool
supply.  This is due, as previously mentioned, to the curtailment of wool
production by domestic producers.  The quantity of carpet wool  imported to
the United States for rugs and carpeting however, has declined with the
expansion of man-made fibers into these markets.  Also shown in Table V-2,
between 1965 and 1978, carpet wool supplies fell from 108,943,000 pounds
to 23,404,000 pounds.  The total U.S. wool supply has declined from
496,343,000 pounds in 1965 to 145,330,000 pounds in 1979, a reduction of
71 percent.

Cotton.  As depicted in Table V-3, the supply of cotton has vacillated
within the past decade.  In 1965, 14,152,000 acres of'cotton were planted,
compared with 13,948,000 acres in 1979.  During that time, plantings have
fluctuated decreasing to about 9 million acres in"1967 and 1975 then in-
creasing to around 14 million acres in 1972 and 1979.   Until  the late 1960's
the market situation was usually one of oversupply with prices  varying
only a few cents from year to year.  United States'  price controls, supports,
and subsidies, created in the 1930's, left the government with  large sur-
pluses of raw cotton which it would dispose of randomly, depressing the
domestic and world cotton markets.  In the late 1960's, the government -
altered its policy and held smaller surplus stocks,  making cotton produc-
tion and pricing more sensitive to real changes "in supply and demand.
Increased demand and higher prices encouraged oversupply, followed by
declines in price, plantings, and supply shortages.

Acres of cotton planted is at the discretion  of tire  crop producers,  with
weather and insects affecting the level of production.  Cotton  production
is also influenced by various government programs designed to control
supply and support prices. Several  control  methods  have been  employed  since
government programs began in 1933.  Among the programs initiated were
acreage allotments, payments for acreage diversion or soil conservation,
direct payments, and Commodity Credit Corporation non-recourse loans.
One program in particular, the Food and Agriculture Act of 1977, has pro-
visions covering cotton for the next four ye*rs^-  Average loan  rates and
a target price of 52 cents per pound for upland cotton have been estab-
lished.  Total deficiency payments to producers was limited to $40,000
in 1978.  All program benefits will be based on planted acres rather than
an allotment system.

The total supply of cotton in the United States decreased by nearly one-
third from 1965 to 1967.  Since 1967, however, the supply has remained
relatively stable, varying between 15 and 17 million bales available
annually.  Table V-4 depicts the annual supply of cotton in the United
States as well as showing the relative importance of beginning  stocks


                                   V-4
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 (predominately government-owned surplus cotton) and imports.  As shown,
 in 1965, surplus cotton reoresented nearly 50 percent of the total cotton
 available that year.  Although year-to-year fluctuations have occurred,
 by 1979 surplus cotton represented only 21.3 percent of the total supply.

 Imports of raw cotton to the United States have historically remained of
 relatively little significance, accounting for less than 1.0 percent of
 the total annual supply.

 Man-made fibers.  Unlike the natural fibers, the supply of man-made fibers
 has increased dramatically, from 2.4 million pounds in 1965 to 10.4
 million pounds in 1979.  These gains have not been shared by all types
 of man-made fibers, with the supply of textile glass and non-eellulosic
 fibers rising, while the supoly of rayon and acetate has fallen (Table
 V-5).  Production of man-made fibers is cheaper, less risky, arid more
 adaptable to new technologies than the natural fibers.  The quality of
 these fibers is constantly improving, often imitating or combining with
 natural fibers thereby discovering new uses and creating greater demand.

 If companies over-anticipate projected demands in one period, future pro-
 duction must be reduced in the next period to prevent huge inventories
 and potential losses.  In 1973, 6,309 million pounds of non-cellulosic
 fiber were produced while there was a capacity for 7,040 million pounds
 (Table V-5).  In 1979, manufacturers had the capacity to produce 9,804
million pounds but actually only produced 8,437 million pounds of non-
 cellulosic fiber.   Consequently these plants are capable of increasing
 the supply of fibers if the demand necessitates it.  The major limiting
 factor in the supply of man-made raw fibers is the shortage or extreme
 price increase of petroleum chemicals.

Only a small portion of the U.S. man-made fiber supply is imported.   In
 1965, 145 million pounds of these fibers were imported, increasing to
only 202 million pounds by 1978 and dropping to 99 million pounds in 1979
 (Table V-5).  Before 1971, the amount of textile glass fiber imported was
 insignificant, but it is  becoming  increasingly more  important.   Rayon
and acetate fiber quantities have wavered over the years whole non-
cellulosic fiber imports grew until 1972 and then began declining.  In 1965,
 imports supplied 5.4 percent of the man-made fiber available in the  U.S.
 In 1979, that amount dropped to 1.0 percent.   From this data it can  be seen
the main import competition for man-made fibers has been in the form of
finished apparel and goods, not as fibers.

 b.  Finished goods

The available supply of finished textile goods has increased from 9,050
million pounds of goods in 1965 to 14,023 million pounds in 1979.  As
 shown in Table V-6, while the overall supply of textile goods has in-
 creased since 1965, the composition of the goods have changed signifi-
 cantly, including the increasing importance of imported textile goods.
The following depicts the major fiber types of finished goods.
                                    V-8
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Wool goods.  The current supply of wool goods has decreased to about
one-half the amount available in 1965.  The decline in availability of
wool has occurred both for wool imported into the United States and
domestically produced wool products.  Also the proportion of the total
available textile goods supply represented by wool has declined; from
6.0 percent in 1965 to 1.6 percent in 1979.  In 1965, the total domes-
tic supply consisted of 543 million pounds of wool (Table V-6).  Of
this 1965 supply, 387 million pounds or 71 percent of the total, were
provided by domestic mills with the remainder being accounted for by
imported woolen products.  In 1979, the total wool supply available
declined to 221 million pounds with domestic mills accounting for 50
percent, or half, of the total, and imports accounting for the other
half.

Table V-7 indicates that of the total 109.5 million pounds of raw wool
equivalent imported into the United States in 1979, 76.4 percent (83.7
million pounds) was in the form of manufactured woolen products with the
remainder being in raw wool or semi-manufactured form.  As illustrated
in the table, the percentage of manufactured wool imports has increased,
from 65 to 70 percent in the late 1960's to around 80 percent in 1975-1979.

Table V-8 depicts U.S. mill consumption of raw wool on a scoured basis
from 1965 to 1979.  As shown, in 1979, 91  percent of all wool consumed
was for apparel fabrics with the remainder being consumed by wool carpet
mills.  Historically, carpet mills utilized considerably more wool; now,
however, their consumption of wool has declined from 112 million pounds
in 1965 to approximately 10 million pounds in 1979.

Wool is predominately manufactured into broad woven fabrics and carpets
and rugs.  The majority of woolen and worsted fabrics are used in the
manufacture of women's and children's apparel, followed by apparel  for
men and boys.  As shown in Table V-9, production of woolen and worsted
fabrics have declined from 267.3 million linear yards in 1965 to a low
of 78.9 million yards in 1975.  Since 1975 the production of these
woolen fabrics has increased such that in  1979, 115.6 million linear
yards were produced.  This recent increase has been attributed to the
economic recovery of the nation's general  economic state coupled with
the increased consumer demand for natural  fibers.

Cotton goods.  The total supply of cotton  available in the U.S. has
declined in recent years from 4,814 million pounds in 1965 to 3,812
million pounds in 1979 (Table V-6).  While most cotton goods are domes-
tically manufactured, the proportion of the U.S. total cotton products'
supply accounted for by imported cotton goods has increased, rising from
7.5 percent of the total cotton goods supply available in 1965 to 19.6
percent in 1979.   This rise in the proportion of cotton imports repre-
sents the doubling of the quantity of cotton imported between 1965 and
1979, and the decline of domestic cotton supplied by over 30 percent.
In 1965, domestic cotton accounted for 4,453 million pounds and imports,
361 million pounds.  By 1979, domestic cotton had declined to 3,066 million
pounds while cotton imports increased to 746 million pounds.
                                   V-ll
-------
      Table V-7.   Raw wool  equivalent of wool  imports,  1965-1979

Semi -manufactured
Year

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1,000
pounds

45,047
48,167
39,798
50,168
42,295
36,441
22,137
15,502
17,729
15,166
12,819
17,988
25,297
31,943
25,856
Percent

28.9
33.7
32.2
34.4
32.6
31.3
24.7
16.3
19.7
20.4
18.7
18.2
21.7
25.1
23.6
Manufactured
1,000
pounds

111,069
94,691
83,636
95,799
87,375
80,119
67,568
79,875
72,233
59,059
55,603
80,591
91,256
97,476
83,687
Percent

71.7
66.3
67.8
65.6
67.4
68.7
75.3
83.7
80.3
79.6
81.3
81.8
78.3
74.9
76.4
Total wool imoorts
1,000
pounds

156,116
142,858
123,434
145,967
129,670
116,560
89,705
95,377
89,962
74,225
68,422
98,579
116,553
129, 419
109,543
Percent

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Source:   U.S.  Department of Agriculture,  Cotton  and  Wool  Situation
    Table  V-3.    United  States' mill consumption of raw wool,  scoured
                             basis,  1965-1979

Year
Apparel
Million
pounds
wool
Percent
Carpet wool
Mi 11 i on
pounds
Percent
Total consumption
Million
pounds
Percent

1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
Source:
275
266
229
238
219
164
116
142
110
75
94
107
95
102
101
71.1
71.9
73.2
72.1
70.0
68.0
60.7
65.1
72.8
80.6
85.5
87.7
88.0
88.7
91.0
U.S. Department of
112
104
84
92
94
77
75
76
41
18
16
15
13
13
10
Agriculture,
28.9
28.1
26.8
27.9
30.0
32.0
39.3
34.9
27.2
19.4
14.5

12.0
12.3
9.0
Cotton and
387
370
313
330
313
241
191
218
151
93
110
122
108
115
111
Wool Situat
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
ion.
                                     V-12
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Of the 722 million pounds of cotton goods imported into the United States
in 1979, Table V-10 depicts that 503.5 million pounds (69.7 percent)  were
in the form of manufactured cotton products (primarily apparel)  with  the
remainder being predominately woven cotton cloth (28.6 percent).  Since
1965, the proportion of imported cotton in manufactured form has increased
(from about 40 percent in 1965); the proportion represented by woven
cotton cloth has decreased (from about 50 percent in 1965); and  the pro-
portion of cotton yarn has decreased (from about 6.8 percent in  1965  and
20.0 percent in 1966).  Imported cotton thread, which has  consistently
represented approximately 0.1 percent of the total  cotton  imported, has
varied, in quantity, from year to year but usually ranged  between 300,000
and 450,000 pounds annually.

As shown in Table V-ll, the majority of domestically fabricated  cotton
is manufactured into cotton broad woven fabrics.  In 1979, domestic
mills consumed an estimated 6.6 million bales of cotton.   Of this amount,
almost 4.0 million bales (58.0 percent) were for cotton broad woven
fabrics with 1.3 million'bales (20.6 percent) being utilized for polyester/
cotton blended fabrics while  1.4 million bales (21.8 percent) were utilized
for other cotton textile products.  When compared to data  for 1979, the
total estimated mill consumption was 26 percent higher than in 1967 when
8.9 million bales were consumed with over 82 percent (7.3  million bales)
of that amount being utilized in cotton broad woven fabrics, 4.8 percent
(0.4 million bales.) in blends, and 13.1 percent (1.2 million bales) being
utilized in other cotton textile products.  These changes  in respective
proportions reflect the decline in the number of bales of  cotton utilized
for broad woven fabrics since 1967 and the increase in the use of cotton
in polyester/cotton blended fabrics.

The decline in the quantities of cotton broad woven fabrics was  also  illus-
trated in Table V-9.  As shown in the table, in 1965, cotton fabrics  accounted
for 9.2 billion linear yards  or 69 percent of the total 13.4 billion  yards
of broad woven fabrics produced.  However, by 1979, cotton fabrics accounted
for only 3.9 billion yards or 37 percent of the total 10.6 billion yards of
broad woven fabrics produced.  This decline in the use of  cotton was  fairly
steady from 1965 to 1975 when cotton broad woven fabrics  reached its  all
time production low since 1965.  Since 1975 however, the  quantity of  cotton
used increased slightly and appears to have somewhat leveled off in 1979.

Man-made goods.  The total supply of man-made fiber goods  has experienced
tremendous growth in recent years with the quantity of man-made  goods
available increasing by nearly three times, from 3.7 billion pounds in
1965 to 10.0 billion pounds of goods in 1979 (Table V-6).   In terms of the
market share, man-made goods  represented 40.8 percent of  the total textile
goods supply in 1965 which increased 71.2 percent by 1979.

As also shown in Table V-6, of the total man-made goods available in  1965,
rayon and acetate goods represented 43.1 percent, non-eellulosic goods
represented 54.7 percent, and imports represented 2.2 percent.  By 1979,
the prooortion of rayon and acetate goods had declined to  only 8.3 oercent
and non-cellulosic goods increased their share to 86.4 percent.   During the
same period imports also increased their respective share, from  2.2 percent
in 1965 to 6.5 percent in 1978, and 5.3 percent in 1979.

                                    V-14
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As stated previously, in 1979 imoorted man-made yarn goods represented
5.3 percent of the total man-made goods available which represent total
man-made imoorts of 525 million pounds.  Of these imports, 81.0 percent
were in the form of primary manufactured products (predominately apparel),
12.4 percent were woven cloth and fabric, 5.4 percent were man-made fiber
yarns, and 1.2 percent were sliver, tops, and rovings (Table V-12).  Since
1965, the annual quantities of man-made imoorts have increased signifi-
cantly, from 79 million pounds in 1965 to 640 million pounds imported in
1978 and 522 million pounds in 1979.  In 1965, primary manufactured products
were still the main imported form accounting for 64.7 percent of all man-
made imports in that year.  Imports of woven cloth and fabric accounted
for 33.7 percent of all man-made imports in 1965, and man-made yarns
accounted for 1.5 percent.  Viewing the respective quantities of man-made
imports over time, all have increased significantly.  However, man-made
goods in manufactured form have experienced the greatest growth, increasing
by about 725 percent from 51 million pounds in 1965 to 422 million pounds
in 1979.

Man-made fibers are predominately manufactured into broad woven fabrics.
However, tire cords and fabrics, carpets, and hosiery are also predom-
inately manufactured from man-made fibers.   Broad woven fabrics manufac-
tured from man-made fibers have increased in recent years from 3.9 billion
linear yards in 1965 to almost 6.6 billion  yards in 1979 (Table V-9).
Compared to other broad woven fabrics, man-made fabrics represented 29
percent of the total broad woven fabric production in 1965 and increased
their share to 62 percent in 1979.  Within  man-made broad woven fabrics
the trend has been toward less rayon and acetate fibers and more non-     , ,
cellulosic fibers.  According to information available in Textile Organon-'
during the past eight years, the supoly of  broad woven rayon and acetate,
100% filament fibers decreased significantly, as.did 100% spun rayon and
acetate with blends of other fibers.  Non-cellulosic broad woven goods pro-
duction increased between 1971 and 1979.   Of the 100% filament non-cellulosic
fibers, the polyester supply increased at the highest rate, from 233 to 521
million linear yards.   Polyester and cotton blends also increased during the
eight year period, from 1,998.6 to 2,455.9  million linear yards.

Another major use of man-made fibers is for the manufacture of tire cords
and fabrics.   As was also shown in Table V-9, production of these items
has varied from year to year with an overall increasing trend over time.
In 1965, 495.8 million pounds of tire cords and fabrics were produced.
By 1979, production of such items amounted  to 556.8 million pounds.

The production of carpet experienced a period of growth from 1965 to 1973;
however since 1973 production has somewhat  stabilized.   In 1965,  total
shipments of broadloom carpets amounted to  301.9 million square  yards  and
by 1973, shipments reached 842.2 million square yards (Table V-13).   Since
1973, the annual shipments have stabilized  varying between 700 and 900
million square yards annually.
]_/  Textile Economic Bureau, Inc., Textile Organon.
                                    V-17
-------




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V-13
-------
         Table V-13.   Shipments of broad!oom carpets, 1965-1978.

Year
Woven
Tufted
Total


(million

sq yds) (percent)
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
41.3
42.6
40.0
39.9
39.3
34.1
31.3
34.1
32.8
32.6
26.7
27.7
25.0
25.3

13.7
12.9
10.9
9.2
7.9
6.4
5.3
4.4
3.9
4.1
3.8
3.5
2.9
2.8

(million

sq yds) (percent)
260.6
288.7
328.6
394.7
455.3
502.3
558.5
734.3
809.4
756.4
676.7
762.2
834.8
892.7

86.3
87.1
89.1
90.8
92.1
93.6
94.7
95.6
96.1
95.9
96.2
96.5
97.7
97.2

(million

sq yds) (percent)
301.9
331.3
368.6
434.6
494.6
536.4
589.8
768.4
842.2
789.0
703.4
789.9
859.8
918.0

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

Source:   Garnet and Ruq Institute,  Annual  Report.
                                 V-19
-------
As shown in Table V-14, the majority of carpets manufactured in recent
years have been composed of man-made fibers.  The only natural fiber
which has been significantly used in carpets in the past was wool, but
recently its use has declined.  In 1972, wool fibers represented approxi-
mately 5.0 percent of the fibers used in carpets.  By 1978, this percen-
tage had dropped to less than 1.0 percent.

The supply of hosiery has increased slightly between 1967 and 1979 with
230.3 million dozen pairs produced in 1967  and 294.5 million dozen pairs
produced in 1979 (Table V-15).  While the number of pairs of men's,
children's, and infant's hosiery produced annually have increased since
1967, the number of women's pairs has decreased slightly.

There has also been a shift in women's hosiery away from stockings, toward
pantyhose, sheer knee-hi's and anklets.  The majority of hosiery is com-
posed of man-made fibers.  In a period covering January through April
1977, for example,  56 percent of total hosiery was nylon, 29 percent was
acrylic, 12 percent was cotton, one percent was polyester, and two percent
was other fibers.jV

2.  Demand

Demand, for purposes of this analysis, reflects demand by the mills for
raw materials as well as demand by consumers for finished textile products.
Raw material demand is associated with the  availability of fibers and the
market forecasts for consumer desires.  The major end-uses of textiles,
which depict consumer demand, are apparel,  home furnishings, and industrial
uses.  These are typically sold to households, businesses and industries,
and the government.  A small quantity of textile products are exported.

a.  Raw Materials
In response to changing technologies and consumer demands, the types of
fibers processed in textile mills have shifted away from wool, cotton,
and silk to man-made.  As shown in Table V-16, in 1965, 57.6 percent of
the fibers consumed by U.S. mills was  cotton, wool, or silk with.the
remaining 42.4 percent of the total  fibers being man-made.  By 1979,
man-made fibers had increased their respective share of all fibers
consumed to 74.7 percent with significant declines experienced for all
the natural fibers.  A discussion of the demand for each of the major
fiber types is presented below.

Natural Fibers.  The annual quantities of wool, cotton, and silk fibers
consumed by U.S. mills are depicted in Table V-16.  As shown, the quantity
of wool consumed has declined from 457 million pounds in 1965 to 135
million pounds in 1979.   As was shown in Tables V-l and 2, this decrease
in mill demand for wool fiber has closely corresponded to declines in
reported raw wool production and the associated total supply of wool  fibers,
!/  Textile Economics  Bureau,  Inc.,  Textile  Oroanon.   July 1977, 117.

                                  V-20
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The demand by textile mills for cotton fiber has also declined.  As shown
in Table V-16, in 1965 mills consumed 4.5 billion pounds of cotton while
in 1979, only 3.1 billion pounds were consumed, a reduction of 31 percent.
However, it should be noted the decline in cotton consumption by the mills
actually tended  to level-off in 1974 and has remained consistently between
3.0 and 3.4 billion pounds since.  Some manufacturers are now indicating a
belief  that  the  worst of the cotton decline is over and that cotton  consumption
may start moderately increasing.  This belief may be, in part, due to the
fact that consumers are returning to "natural goods" and that cotton and
man-made fibers  are becoming more competitively priced.

Silk, a predominately imported fiber, also has declined in use by U.S.
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depicts the exports of U.S. raw fibers from 1965 to 1979.  As shown, exports
of wool have fluctuated from year to year with quantities ranging from lows
of about 7.8 million pounds in 1969 and 1977 to a high of 55.3 million pounds
in 1972.  The main importers of U.S. wool fibers have been the United Kingdom
and Japan.  Total U.S. wool exports typically represent one percent or less
of the total U.S. raw fiber exports.

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position of the world's  largest exporter.   In 1965, 3,035,000 bales (1,456
million pounds) were exported with 6,335,000 bales (3,280 million pounds)
exported in 1979 (Table  V-17).   A combination of a large supply of cotton
and competitive prices caused by the dollar's decline in the world markets
has benefited the export market.   Also, the major competitor in cotton
exports, the USSR, has held off from offering quantities of cotton at the
prevailing market price.  The major recipients of U.S.  cotton are Korea,
Japan and the People's Republic of China.   Much of this fiber returns to
the U.S. in the form of  imported goods.

Man-made fibers.  The consumption of man-made fibers has increased with the
production of textile glass and non-cellulosic fibers out-weighing the decline
in use of rayon  and acetate fibers.  While the consumption of rayon and ace-
tate declined by  48 percent between 1965 and 1979, the demand for textile
glass and non-cellulosic fibers increased from 2,027 million pounds to 8,634
million pounds (Table V-16).  These man-made fibers have adapted to a variety
of end uses and  have gradually developed into different markets.
                                   V-24
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An increasing quantity of man-made fibers is exported each year.- In 1965,
a total of 173.6 million pounds of fibers was exported.  By 1979, the total
had grown to 1,234 million pounds (Table V-17).  Rayon and acetate fiber
exports rose steadily from 1965 to 1972 and then declined to below 1965
levels.  In 1977, exports of rayon and acetate fibers climbed again to above
1965 levels, and have continued to increase to a 1979 export level of 106
million pounds.  Non-cellulosic fiber exports have risen between 1965 and
1977, from 122.7 million pounds to 1,127.2 million pounds, respectively.
Foreign countries typically are not as dependent on U.S. man-made fiber as
they are for cotton fiber.  Farm-oroduced cotton demands conditions of
land and proper climate which are often lacking in foreign countries.  How-
ever, factory produced synthetic fibers can be manufactured almost anywhere.

b.  Finished Goods - By Fibers

Demand for finished textile goods can be approached from two perspectives.
First, textile goods'  demand can be viewed from the trends in the consumers'
buying habits with respect to the finished goods fiber contents and second,
the demand can be viewed from the consumers' buying habits with respect to
product categories.  In this section the demand for finished goods with
emphasis on fiber content is discussed.  In the subsequent section finished
good demand trends with emphasis on end-use markets are discussed.

The competitive position of fibers is determined predominately by price,
consumer demands and fabric characteristics.  Prices are determined by
raw material production costs and by the additional costs required to
process the product.  Availability of raw materials and supplies also
influence cost.  Technological advances have reduced production costs,
although these price decreases may be outweighed by other cost increases.
Fabric characteristics also give fibers advantages.  Wool has heat re-
taining qualities which make it more popular in the north than in the
south.  Cotton was once considered the ideal material to be used in
linens, however, cotton and man-made fiber blending has developed to the
point where the advantages of cotton are retained while the favorable
characteristics of man-made fibers are added.

Table V-18 depicts the quantities and respective proportions of the major
fibers utilized in textile goods from 1965 to 1978.  As shown, and as dis-
cussed in previous sections, the use of wool, cotton, and rayon and acetate
in textile goods has declined in recent years with their combined proportion
of all textile goods declining from 76.4 percent in 1965 to 34.5 percent in
1978.  The fiber replacing these "traditional fibers" has been non-eellulosic
man-made fiber which has increased its position from 23.6 percent of all
textile goods in 1965 to 65.5 percent in 1978.

Demand trends and characteristics of each major fiber type are discussed
below.

Wool fibers.  Wool has assumed little of the textile market since 1965,
when it retained six percent of the total textiles consumed.  This fiber now
represents 1.5 percent of the fabric used (Table V-18).  Apparel dominates
                                   V-26
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the end product usage of wool, averaging about 67 percent of the wool
used annually.  Home furnishings are second in wool  consumption in recent
years, (about 18 to 21  percent), and industrial and  other consumer goods
and exports share the remaining end-use markets (Table V-19).

Cotton Fibers.  Cotton  dominated the textile market  in 1965, supplying 51
percent of the textile  fibers consumed.  By 1978, however, cotton consump-
tion declined to 26 percent (Table V-18).   Apparel  has always  demanded the
largest share of cotton usage, averaging about 50 percent of all cotton
consumed (Table V-20).   Home furnishings utilized the second largest amount
of cotton (25 to 30 percent), while industrial and  other consumer goods were
third in demand (15 to  20 percent).  Although cotton exports have risen in
their market share over the last few years from three percent  in 1965  to
6.7 percent in 1978, exportation demands the smallest quantities of cotton.

Man-made Fibers.  Utilization of all man-made fibers has increased since
1965 with the increase  attributable to non-cellulosic fibers,  since utili-
zation of rayon and acetate fibers decreased.  As was shown in Table V-18,
consumption of non-cellulosic fibers increased from  23.6 percent of total
textile goods in 1965 to 65.5 percent in 1978.  During the same time period
utilization of rayon and acetate fibers decreased from 18.6 to 7.0 percent.
The end-use of rayon and acetate fibers has remained fairly consistent
since 1965 with a slight increase in the proportion  being utilized by
apparel and slight decreases in the proportions being utilized by home
furnishings and industrial  and other testile goods manufacturers.   As
shown in Table V-21, in 1978 apparel accounted for  35.0 percent of all
rayon and acetate utilized; home furnishings, 26.7  percent; industrial
and other goods; 32.7 percent; and exports 5.6 percent.

End-use utilization of  non-cellulosic fibers also has remained relatively
consistent since 1965.   As  shown in Table  V-22, apparel, home  furnishings,
and exports have increased  slightly their  proportions of textile goods
utilizing non-cellulosic fibers, with the  industrial and other goods share
decreasing.  In 1978, apparel accounted for 36.4 percent of the end-use of
non-cellulosic fibers;  home furnishings, 34.9 percent; industrial  and  other
goods, 25.8; and exports, 2.9 percent.

c.  Finished Goods - by end-use markets

The textile fibers discussed in the preceding section are distributed  into
four major end-use markets:  apparel, home furnishings, industrial and other
consumer products, and  exports.  As shown  in Table V-23, in 1978,  40.4 per-
cent of all textiles were shipped as apparel; 32.2 percent were shipped as
home furnishings; 23.3  percent were shipped as industrial and  other consumer
goods; and 4.1 percent  were shipped as exports.  In  an effort  to determine
the major factors affecting consumption, DPRA has generated four functions
relating income, age, employment, and housing starts to the final  demand
for textile end-use products.  Equations 1 and 4 as  shown in Table V-24,
relate 1965-1977 per capita personal consumption expenditures  for clothing
and shoes to, first, disposal per capita income, and second, the proportion
of 18-44 year-olds in the U.S. population.  Each equation accounts for about
99 percent of the variation in clothing and shoe expenditures  over this


                                    V-28
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                        Table V-24.   Functional  relationships  in  the  end-use  demand  for textile  goods
Equation 1.   Per capita expenditures  for clothing  and  shoes  (in  current  dollars)  as  a  function  of disposable income oer capita
             (in current dollars)

  dependent variable                    :  clothing/shoes.  Observed  mean:259.92307
  independent variable                  :  income.   Observed  mean:       3,361.00000

  Equation 1.                              clothing/shoes                    income
  R2=.996                                 259.92307 =  36.09652 + .05797  (3,361.00000)

  t far Ho:  parameter « 0               :                      57.11
  probability of a greater t by chance   :                         .0001

  F for ind.  var.  SS                    :                                3,261.21
  probaoility of a greater F by chance   :                                      .0001

Equation 2.   Title: Per capita  consumption of carpets  (in  pounds)  as  a  function of  total  employment  (in  1,000 persons)  and of
             private housing starts  (in  1,000 units)
  aependent variable
  independent variable
  independent variable
caroets.   Observed mean:           5.84615
employment.   Observed mean:   80,511.92307
housing.   Observed mean:       1,601.00000
  Eouation 2.                              carpets                        employment                housing
  fK=.957                                 6.84615  -  -16.13253 +  .00025  (80,511.92307)  +  .00166  (1,601.00000)

  t for Ho: parameter = 0               :                      11.61                    5.01
  probaoility of a greater t by chancs  :                        .0001                    .0005

  F for ind. var.  53                    :                                   197.61                   25.10
  probability of a greater F by chance  :                                      .0001                   .0005

Equation 3.  Title: Per capita consumetion of home furnishings (in  pounds)  as  a  function  of  total  employment  (in  1,000  persons)
             and of private housing starts (in 1,000 units)

  Dependent variable                    :  furnishings.   Observed mean:       15.51538
  independent vanaole                  :  employment.   Observed  mean:    80,511.92307
  independent variable                  :  housing.   Observed  mean:        1,501.00000

  Eouaticn 3.                              furnishings                     employment                housing
  R2».9d7                                 15.51538 » -5.24387 +  .00020  (30,511.92307)  +  .00267  (1.601.00000)

  t for Ho: parameter * 0               :                      3.34                   7.12
  probability of a greater t by chance  :                        .0001                    .0001

  F for ind. var.  S3                    :                                   127.86                   50.65
  prooability of a greater F by chance  :                                      .0001                   .0001

Equation 4.  Title: Per capita expenditures for clothing and  shoes  (in  current dollars)  as a function  of the  proportion of
             13-44 year-old persons in the U.S.  population

  deoendent variable                    :  clothing/shoes.  Observed mean:   259.92307
  independent vanaole                  :  age structure. Observed  mean:       .36392

  Equation •!.                             clothing/shoes                        age structure
  Rzi.989                                 259.92307 '  -1,316.64939  +  4,332.15856 (.36392)

  t for Ho: parameter =0               :                                32.60
  probability of a greater t by chanca  :                                  .0001

  F for ind. var.  SS                    :                                     1,062.51
  probaoility of a greater F by chance  :                                          .0001


 Source:  Development Planning and Research Associates,  Inc.
                                                           V-34
-------
period.  Expenditure elasticities \J associated with these independent
variables are 0.86 for income and 6.07 for age structure.  Equation 2
relates the per capita consumption of carpets to total employment and to
private housing starts.  The two independent variables, acting jointly,
account for about 96 percent of the annual variation in carpet consumption
over the 1965-1977 period.  Consumption elasticities are approximately
2.94 for total employment and 0.39 for private housing starts.  Equation 3
relates the per capita consumption of all home furnishings to employment
and housing starts.  The two independent variables, acting jointly,
account for about 95 percent of the annual variation in the consumption
of home furnishings over the 1965-1977 period.  Consumption elasticities
are approximately 1.04 for total employment and 0.28 for private housing
starts.  Standard errors associated with regression parameters ranged
between 2 and 20 percent of these parameters where only one standard error
was greater than 14 percent of its parameter.  The statistical results
require interpretative care, but they support the findings of earlier
researchers.

In addition to a quantitative analysis relating consumption to specific
consumer characteristics, trends within end-use markets also depict demand
for individual textile subsegments.  These trends are discussed below.

Apparel.  The quantity of textile fabric utilized for apparel increased
from3,408 million pounds in 1965 to 5,047million pounds in 1978.   The
composition of apparel fabric has changed considerably since 1965, when
cotton accounted for 55.5 percent of all apparel fabrics; wool, 10.9 per-
cent; and man-made fabrics, 33.6 percent (Table V-25).  The trend has been
away from wool, cotton, and rayon and acetate use to non-cellulosic fabrics.
In 1978,  non-cellulosic fabrics represented 59.0 percent of total apparel
fabrics compared to 20.3 percent in 1965.  Other fibers'  proportions in
1978 included cotton with 32.0 percent, wool with 2.9 percent, and rayon
and acetate with 6.1  percent.

Home furnishings.  As was shown in Table V-23, the home furnishing market
for textiles has grown from 2.5 billion pounds of textile fibers in 1965
to over 4.0 billion pounds in 1978.   With regards to the composition of the
textile fabrics in this end-use market, the home furnishings market has
experienced trends very similar to those of apparel fabrics.  As shown in
Table V-26, in 1965 over 51 percent of all home furnishings fabrics were

JV  These and subsequent elasticities have been estimated using a procedure
    suggested by Pindyck and Rubinfeld (p. 72).  The results must be inter-
    preted with some care.  First, the elasticities as derived are point
    elasticities, valid at the mean points of the independent variables.
    For linear regression equations of the type derived,  mean point elas-
    ticities do not accurately depict the situation away from the means
    and toward the extremities of the observed data.   Second, where numerous
    independent variables are acting jointly and interdependently on the
    dependent variable, as is the case in textile goods,  the effect of one
    variable should not be considered without also considering the jointly-
    acting effects of other variables.

                                   V-35
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cotton; however, by 1978, cotton's share had declined to less than 23
percent.  Usage of wool and rayon and acetate also declined in the home
furnishings market as was also the case for the apparel  market.  In 1965,
wool fabrics represented 5.0 percent of all fabrics used in home furnish-
ings; by 1978 this percentage had declined to 0.9 percent.   Usage of rayon
and acetate declined from 20.2 percent of all home furnishings fabrics in
1965 to 5.8 percent in 1978.  Similar to the trends in apparel fabric
composition, man-made non-cellulosic fabrics have become the major fabric
utilized in the home furnishings market, accounting for 70.8 percent of
all home furnishings fabrics in 1978, up from 23.3 percent  in 1965.

Industrial and other consumer goods.  The quantity of demand for industrial
and other consumer textile products, such as linings, shoes and slippers,
luggage and handbags, toys, and medical surgical  and sanitary supplies, has
changed very little between 1965 and 1978, with total fabric utilized
varying between 2.5 and 3.0 billion pounds annually (Table  V-23).  As in
the case of both the apparel market and the home  furnishings market, the
composition of fabrics utilized in the industrial and other consumer goods
markets has shifted from a heavy use of cotton (45.0 percent in 1965) to a
high proportion of non-cellulosic fabric (72.6 percent in 1978).  The
historical data for cotton, wool and man-made fabrics utilized in industrial
and other consumer textile goods are presented in Table V-27.

Exports.  Exports of textiles have increased steadily since 1965, with
total textile exports increasing from 207 million pounds in 1965 to 513
million pounds in 1978.  As shown in Table V-28,  the majority of the 1978
textile exports were non-cellulosic (46.7 percent of total  textile exports),
followed by cotton material (42.9 percent), rayon and acetate materials
(9.6 percent), and wool (0.8 percent).  Since 1965, cotton  has consistently
accounted for 50 percent or more of the total textile exports (except in
1974 when cotton goods accounted for 49.1 percent of the total), until 1977
and 1978, when cotton exports dipped to 49 and 43 percent,  below non-
cellulosic exports for the first time in 1978.  Wool exports have fluctuated
from year to year but usually have reoresented 2  to 3 percent of the total
annual textile exports.  Past exports of man-made materials have varied
over time depending on the fiber type.  Basically, exports  of rayon and
acetate decreased while exports of non-cellulosic materials increased.

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materials are depicted in Table V-29, illustrating the major form of each
respective fibers' exports.  As shown in the table, for wool, most wool
exported in recent years has been in the form of tops and yarns and manu-
factured products.  Combined, these forms of wool exports accounted for
82 percent of all wool exports in 1979.

For exports of cotton, most are either in the form of cotton cloth (55.9
percent of 1978 exports) or manufactured cotton products (37.0 percent).
                                   V-38
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The various forms of man-made fiber textile materials' exports are also
shown in Table V-29.  As shown, most man-made textile exports are either
cloth and fabric or man-made fiber manufactured products.  In 1979, these
two forms represented 52.9 and 37.7 percent, respectively, of all man-made
textile material exports.
                         B.  Price Determination
Segments within the textile industry are highly competitive with prices of
its output determined through the direct and indirect interaction of many
variables.  Although textile demand has been strong during recent years,
certain segments have operated with excess supply capacity resulting in
lower capacity utilization rates generally ranging from 60 to 80 percent.
Furthermore, increasing .levels of imports have added to the available
supplies of certain textile goods.  These factors plus consumer attitudes
and spending habits influence prices received for textile goods.

In this section, the textile price determination process is described.
Included in the discussion are descriptions of the major price influencing
factors and historical  trends in textile prices.

1.  The Price Determination Process and Influencing Factors

The textile industry's pricing process, at one time, could be depicted  as
the closest model  of pure competition existing in the major manufacturing
industries in the U.S.   However, during the past two to three decades,  the
competitive environment has changed and accordingly the applicability of
pure competitive situations have been reduced _!/.

While the available supply and market demand for specific textile goods are
major determinants of the price of the goods, numerous other factors have
considerable influence in the actual price received by the textile manu-
facturers.  These are described below.

     (1)  Characteristics of the product:   its seasonal,  cyclical,  and
          secular  demand; breadth of market; i.e.,  degree to which  it is
          multipurpose;  nature of styling and operation where styled.
     (2)  Elasticity of supply:  extent to which machinery can be trans-
          ferred into and out of the market; policy of shift operation;
          industry practice concerning goods in process and finished
          inventories:   are goods made to stock, on order only,  or ere
          goods made and sold at the market almost  regardless of price?
     (3)  Extent of producer specialization by produce and by market
          level.   Degree of inertia among producers and respect  to
          changes  in product construction.
\J  Georgia Institute of Technology, Economic Analysis of Pretreatment
    Standards for the Textile Industry, for the U.S.  Environmental  Pro-
    tection Agency, July, 1977.

                                  V-41
-------
Table V-29.   Raw wool equivalent of U.S. exports of wool  products, 1965-1979
i*loven Manufactured
Tops and Yarns

Year
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1,000
pounds
618
730
858
828
1,132
1,101
5,414
26,111
23,468
14,226
11,823
5,728
3,176
2,565
4,164

percent
4.0
5.8
9.9
8.9
12.7
16.1
44.9
78.3
70.3
54.0
55.3
37.8
24.4
20.4
27.3
Fabrics Products
1,000
1,000

pounds percent pounds percent
804
586
550
496
395
403
469
599
1,069
922
1,293
955
878
1,094
1,162
Raw cotton
5.1 4,740
4.6 4,388
6.4 3,431
5.3 3,562
4.4 2,676
5.9 1.982
3.9 2,342
1.8 2 ,804
3.2 4,241
3.5 5,702
6.0 4,203
6.3 4,929
6.7 5,407
8.7 7,246
7.6 8,286
equivalent of
30.3
34.6
39.7
38.1
30.1
28.9
19.4
8.4
12.7
21.7
19.7
32.6
41.5
57.7
54.4
Moils &
1,000
pounds
8,876
6,399
3,293
3,635
3,686
2,484
2,616
2,753
2,601
2,978
2,186
1,277
1,591
929
1,323
U.S. cotton exports
Wastes

percent
56.7
50.4
38.1
33.9
41.4
36.3
21.7
8.3
7.8
11.3
10.2
8.4
12.2
7.4
8.7
Carpets & Rugs Total
1,000

1,000
pounds percent pounds
614 3
588 4
509 5
818 8
1 ,004 1 1
881 12
1,205 10
1,065 3
1 ,984 5
2,504 9
1 ,880 8
2,261 14
1,986 15
733 5
297 2
.9
.6
.9
.8
.3
.9
.0
.2
.9
.5
.8
.9
.2
.8
.0
15,652
12,591
8,641
9,339
8,893
6,851
12,046
33,332
33,363
26,332
21 ,385
15,150
13,038
12,567
15,232

percent
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
, 1965-1979
Manufactured
Yarn

Year
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979




Year
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
Source:
1,000
pounds
7,104
6,518
5,737
4,442
37,432
15,180
16,245
17,875
15,372
17,926
11,958
12,160
10,150
20,340
28,262

Sliver
and
1,000
pounds
4,809
6,384
4,500
5,042
6,002
5,644
4,541
5,142
10,553
13,381
6,777
12,254
12,124
10,147
13,252

percent
4.1
3.4
3.0
2.4
16.1
7.6
7.2
6.2
4.8
4.6
3.4
2.9
2.8
5.7
5.9
Man-made
, tops,
rovinq

percent
3.7
4.6
3.4
3.9
4.1
3.8
3.1
2.9
3.7
3.4
2.1
3.5
3.3
2.3
2.2
U.S. Department
Thread and Twine
1,000
pounds
3,069
3,352
3,148
3,218
3,014
2,562
2,964
4,043
5,293
6,087
5,038
6,318
6,733
11,627
5,383

percent
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.6
1.4
1.5
1.8
3.3
1.2
fiber equivalent of U.S
Cloth
1,000
pounds
110,301
122,843
119,797
115,202
118,171
113,932
130,841
174,482
199,825
228,024
217,388
248,391
203,981
187,779
267,134
. exports

percent
63.5
64.8
63.6
61.2
50.9
57.2
57.8
60.0
61.4
58.5
61.5
60.2
55.2
61.8
55.9
Cotton
1,000
pounds
53,258
56,313
59,717
65,338
73,446
67,512
76,261
94,044
104,707
137,381
119,270
146,285
148,598
135.980
176,687
of man-made textile
Products

percent
30.6
30.0
31.7
34.7
31.6
33.9
33.7
32.4
32.2
35.3
33.7
35.4
40.2
38.2
37.0
products ,


















Total
1,000
pounds
173,732
189,526
188,399
188,200
232,063
199,186
226,311
290,444
325,197
389,418
353,654
413,154
369,462
355,745
477,966


percent
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
1965-1979
Man-Made Fiber Man-
Yarn
1,000
pounds
2,815
2.009
2,606
3,412
5,969
6,171
5,849
7,479
23,459
34,222
20,934
24,666
27,396
27,559
42,549
of Aaricul
* Thread

percent
2.2
1.4
2.0
2.6
4.0
4.2
4.0
4.2
8.2
8.8
6.5
7.0
7.5
6.2
7.1
ture, Cotton
Cloth &
1,000
pounds
87,721
93,121
84,218
75,166
79,345
76,404
70,186
83,681
128,628
176,505
160,627
154,007
166,819
229,569
315,542
Fabric

percent
68.0
66.5
63.3
58.3
54.3
52.0
47.9
47.1
44.6
45.2
49.8
46.8
45.4
52.0
52.9
and Wool Situation,
ufactured Products
1 ,000
pounds
33,711
38,462
41,654
45,374
54,914
58,833
66,101
81,282
125,587
166,626
134,050
150,249
160,737
174.423
225,140
Februray

percent
26.1
27.5
31.3
35.2
37.6
40.0
45.0
45.8
43.5
42.6
41.6
42.7
43.8
39.5
37.7
1979.


















Total
1,000
pounds
129,056
139,976
132,978
128,994
146,230
147,052
146,677
177,584
288,227
390,734
322,388
352,176
367,076
441.700
596,583



percent
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

                                        V-42
-------
     (4)  Degree of uniformity in the offerings of different producers.
          (This is not so much a question of knowing what mills produce
          the best or poorest qualities as the extent of variation vs.
          homogeneity of products).
     (5)  Number and relative size of sellers in the market; extent and
          character of price leadership.
     (6)  Procedures by which sellers claim to arrive at selling prices;
          attention given to market information, probable action of
          competitors, statistical appraisal of market prospects, own
          costs, etc.
     (7)  Number and relative size of buyers in the market; extent and
          character of their domination of the market; procedures by
          which they claim to arrive at prices they will  pay.

For most textile facilities, the initial basis for determining prices of
their products is the same as for most products; the manufacturer attempts
to recover his raw material  and production costs plus a margin of profit.
With this information plus consideration of the market environment and
other influencing factors, the manufacturers usually either chooses a
simple formula in setting prices such as costs + overhead + fair profit  =
price, or charges what the market will bear.  In setting prices, manu-
facturers sometimes attempt to penetrate a market through low  prices,
possibly sacrificing profits and selling at or below costs to  attract a
following, or they may want to set prices extremely high in order to
establish it as a high quality, expensive item.  For example,  DuPont
charged the maximum amount possible for Qiana,   a silk-like fabric, when
the product was initially introduced, in the hope that consumers would
associate the fabric with high fashion.  To accomplish this, DuPont charged
high prices--$5.95 to $8.95 per pound compared with a market price of $8
to $10 per pound for silk.  The appetite of lower-priced fashion markets
has now been whetted and the company plans to broaden its coverage by
dropping to the next lowest price category as promotion and production
costs continue to drop _!/.  When analyzing the consumer, manufacturers must
determine whether the customer is willing to pay more to maintain or in-
crease quality or if he will sacrifice quality for quantity.

As will be presented  in  the next  section, prices of textile goods have varied
during  recent years with most, if not all,  increasing when expressed in  cur-
rent dollars  (not adjusted  for inflation).  These price changes are a result
of various factors, the  most common being changes in the prices or costs of
the various components comprising the finished product.  As was shown in
Exhibit IV-1  (page  IV-19),  textile manufacturing represents just one of
many manufacturing  steps  involved in converting chemical or agricultural
If  "Pricing Strategy in an Inflation Economy",  Business Week.   Reprinted
    by Vernon, Ivan R.  and Charles W. Lamb, Jr., ed.   The Pricing Function,
    Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1976, 43.

                                  V-43
-------
products (fibers) into consumer textile goods available at retail  stores.
To gain a perspective of the respective shares of the retail  dollar of
textile goods, Edward H. Glade, Jr., estimated the distribution of the
consumers'  retail dollar spent for cotton denim dungarees.  In this estimate,
the costs of producing, ginning, marketing and processing raw cotton and
manufacturing and distributing cotton products were included  in the dollar
spent, as were retail displaying and merchandising.  This distribution is
presented in Table V-30.  As shown, of the $8 retail  value of a pair of
cotton denim dungarees in 1974, 6.4 percent of this price was associated
with the farm production of cotton, 2.0 percent was associated with ginning
and marketing to the textile mills, 19.6 percent was  associated with the
textile mill processing and finishing, 30.0 percent was associated with
apparel manufacturing, and 42.0 percent was associated with wholesaling
and retailing.

2.  Prices and Marketing Patterns

As a means of illustrating price trends and relationships, textile products
were grouped according to marketing patterns, as listed below.  Fibers are
comprised of both plant fiber and animal hair produced on the farm, and
synthetic fibers produced primarily in the chemical industry.

                          (a)  Fibers
                          (b)  Yarn
                          (c)  Fabrics
                          (d)  Carpets
                          (e)  Apparel
                          (f)  Home furnishings

Yarn, fabrics and carpets are manufactured almost entirely within  the
textile industry.  Yarn is produced exclusively in the industry and con-
stitutes an intermediate product, while fabrics and carpets may be either
intermediate or final products.  Apparel and home furnishings are  final
products which may be produced within the industry or within  other indus-
tries.  In Table V-31, additional groupings are shown for each of  the major
classifications.  These major groupings include specific products  to be
discussed below for which commodity prices can be identified.

In Chapter IV, the broad relationships between the major markets involved
were illustrated in Exhibit IV-1.  More specific relationships are shown
in Exhibit V-l in this chapter in order to indicate at what point  in the
production flow products may appear in each of the markets.  These markets
show the relationships between mills falling within the classification
system of the industry as covered subsequently in the study.

As pointed out above, the fiber markets provide the raw material input to
the textile industry.  This input includes not only cotton, wool and
synthetic staple and tow but also unprocessed filament yarns.  In  the pro-
duction flow, fiber may appear as processed yarn produced in  the yarn mills

                                  V-44
-------
       Table  V-30.   Cotton  denim dungarees:  estimated distribution  of  the  retail
                             dollar  by  operation  or service,  1974  ]/
Operation or Service
Firm production 	
Ginning 	
Marketing to textile milli
Wa'Chousmg services..
Compression 	
Transportation 	
All other * 	
(Accumulated value at mill door)
Textile mill processing and
finishing 	
(Accumulated value after
ttitlle mill) 	

(Accumulated value after
manufacturing 	
Wholesaling. retailing 	
Total value at retail 	

Cost per pound
of cotton1
Dalian
366
061
052
( 0101
( 008)
r old)
( 020)
(.479)

1.115
(1 59*1

(3 309)
2 390
5 699

Cost per pair
produced1
Uollart
.516
.086
.073
(0 14)
(Oil)
f 020)
(.028)
(.675)

(2 247)
J A. \ 8
(4 665)
3 370
8 035

Pr opor t Ion of
retail dollar
Dollar,
6 4
1 1
O 9
(0 2)
(0 1)
(0 31
(0.3)
(8.4)

(28.0)

(58 0)
42 0
100 0

    Estimates  were  developed  f'om  both  published  jnd
unpublished sources. Farm proOuCt'On. gin rttnq. and marUet ing
costs are U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture data; textile  mill
processing and apparel manufacturing estimates  were adapted
from  data   fioVn  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  and
Wholesaling -retail ing  margins  estimated  from  private  trade
sources. Complete  methodology  and data sources are a vai'aDle
on request.   These data represent  the estimated  cost or  value
added to 1-pound of cotton at each stage f' om production
through  retailing for cotton  used m  the manufacture of men*!
cotton denim dungar ecs.  Costs per  pair  proouced reflects t he
estimated cost  or value  added  to  a typical  pair of  Ocnim
dungarees containing  1.41 pounds of  cotton (?,2i6 SQ. yds. K
.625  pounds per so. yd.)  at each staye from production througr*
retailing.  ''includes   buying  and   selling  expenses, cotton
Insurance, financing, and  overhead expenses of marketing firmi.
 Source:  Glade,  Edward H.,  Jr.  "Who  Gets the  Cotton  Denim Dollar?"
            Wool  Situation,  USDA,  March  1976,  30-32.
                                    Cotton  and
                                                     V-45
-------
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                                                          V-47
-------
or it may be consumed in weaving, knitting or carpet mills and appear as
an intermediate or final product at any stage along the product flow.
For example, fiber is consumed in some cases by large integrated carpet
mills, however, carpets produced from the fiber will not appear in any
market prior to the floor covering market.

Within the fabric system, yarn from the processed yarn markets may be con-
sumed either by greige mills or integrated mills.  If consumed by greige
mills, it may appear along the product flow in the greige fabric markets
where it will be an intermediate product to be consumed by the finishing
mills.  However, it may also next appear on the finished fabric markets if
the fabric is processed through a commission mill.  Another flow for the
yarn is through integrated mills in which it is milled into greige fabric
and then finished prior to entering the finished fabric market.  A third
flow for the yarn is through a full integrated mill which not only mills
and finishes fabric but also fabricates final  products, e.g.  mills which
produce sheets.  In this case, products from the yarn would not enter a
market prior to the textile home furnishing market.  Fabric appearing on
the finished fabric market is a final  product to the textile industry
exiting to the apparel  or home furnishing industry.

The flow of yarn through the knit apparel and hosiery mills can be as
diverse as the flow involving woven fabric.  The significant difference
is that the finished product appears as a final product on the apparel
market.

3.  Raw Material Prices

Sources for price information vary considerably by type of product pro-
duced.  USDA publishes detailed data on fiber prices including cotton, wool,
and man-made.  BLS publishes monthly spot prices on textile mill  products,
apparel, home furnishings and carpets  in its Producer Price and Price Indexes.
However, these prices are obtained as  a means of developing the price indexes
and are not intended to be used in developing specific price series.   Hence,
from this data, only a few significant price series can be developed.  The
Daily News Records reports spot prices on yarn, cotton, cotton group goods,
and man-made group goods.  A discussion of the prices provided from these
sources is contained below.

Wool  (from USDA source).  Prices for fine U.S. graded wool  paralleled
Australian wool closely through 1972 with 3/8 blood fleece wool at a slight
quality differential.  A 50 cent price gap opened between U.S. and Australian
fine wools in 1973 and has been maintained since that time.  Wool  prices
hit a low in 1971 resulting from heavy supplies but then cycled to all time
highs in 1973 resulting from shortages induced in 1971.  Since that erratic
swing in the 1972-1973 cycle, however, prices have tended to  be more stable
over the past few years, as shown in Table V-32.
                                  V-48
-------




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(O

•t
en
PX.
en
! 	 1

r-
r^.
en
i— i

LO
1 —
cn






V-49
-------
Cotton (from USDA sources).  Cotton prices paid to farmers and cotton
prices on the market have fluctuated dramatically over the past decade.
Cotton suffered its greatest loss in its share of the market in 1968 when a
short supply in 1967 caused high prices, spurring many mills to shift over
to man-made fibers.  This fluctuation was minor,  though, when compared to
the period between 1972 and 1978 (Table V-32).  Market prices jumped from
35.6 cents in 1972 to 67.1 cents per pound in 1973 and then fell  to 41.2
cents in 1974.   Prices began climbing again and reached 73.4 cents in 1976
and then fell to 50.8 cents in 1977, increasing to 61.6 percent in 1979.
The differences in market prices and prices paid to farmers were  also
erratic during the 1972 to 1978 period.  Prior to 1970, the difference
between the two prices varied by only a couple of cents; in 1972  they
widened to almost 5 cents.  The gap continued widening until 1973, when the
market price was almost 23 cents higher per pound than farmers received.
The market price fell in 1974, however, declining below the price received
by farmers.  The market price fell  below that received by farmers, again,
in 1978.

Man-made fibers (from USDA sources).  Consumption of man-made fibers has
risen dramatically over the past decade.  This growth corresponds with  the
long-run trend of downward prices of man-made fibers.  The man-made fiber
prices have fallen primarily due to greater efficiency within the industry.
Although prices for all synthetic fibers have declined since the Korean War,
the non-cellulosic fibers have fallen the most and cellulosic fibers the
least.  Another characteristic of man-made fibers is the consistency of
prices throughout time and among producing companies, for all types of
material.  The price is typically steady for long periods of time, usually,
when one company raises or lowers a price, the others follow.  A third
characteristic of man-made fiber pricing is discounting.  Although list
prices are known, market sales are often contracted at lower levels and
man-made fiber buyers receive trade discounts of five to 15 percent If.
The main types of discounts offered include offering a percentage off for
volume purchases and arranging promotion sharing and other inducements.

Polyester fibers have declined dramatically in price, dropping from 86  cents
per pound in 1965 to 35 cents in 1972.  Since that time, prices have in-
creased to 50 cents per pound in 1979  (Table V-33).

Rayon staple, which was priced lower  than polyester in  1965, maintained
a  constant price through  1971 while polyester declined  dramatically.
Both  have increased  in orice with rayon increasing at a faster rate.
In  1979  rayon was priced at 65 cents  a pound, 5  cents higher than polyester.
I/  Ward, Lionel E.  Interfiber Competition with Emphasis on Cotton, un-
    published Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis.  Avail-
    able through University Microfilm International 1962, p. 37 and Economic
    Research Service, U.S. Textile Fiber Demand, USDA Bulletin No. 1500,
    Washington D.C., September 1974, p.  22.
                                   V-50
-------
 Table V-33.  Landed group B mill points:  man-made staple fiber
      prices at f.o.b. producing plants current dollars,  1965-1979

Year
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
Rayon-'
27
26
24
25
26
25
27
31
33
51
51
54
58
58
65
2/
Polyester-
85
80
62
56
45
41
37
35
37
46
48
53
56
54
60















I/  1.5 and 3.0 denier, regular rayon staple.

21  Reported average market price for 1.5 denier polyester staple
    for cotton blending.

Source: U.S. Deoartment of Agriculture, Cotton Situation.
                                 V-51
-------
Fiber price comparison.  While individual fiber price movements are important,
these price changes become even more significant when one fiber is compared
with a substitute fiber.  These price relationships are a key factor in
determining the type of fiber and type of blends that will be used in the
manufacturing process.  Two basic price ratios are shown in Table V-34:
wool/polyester and cotton/polyester.

The wool/polyester price ratio has changed dramatically over the past with
wool becoming increasingly disadvantageous with respect to polyester.  In
1965 the ratio was 1.4 to 1 but it increased steadily to 1971 with sharp
increases in 1972 to 3.4 to 1 and reached a peak of 6.8 to 1 in 1973.  Since
that time the ratio has become somewhat more favorable to wool  with a ratio
of  3.5 to 1 in 1978.

The cotton to polyester price ratio followed a similar pattern but not as
dramatic.  Cotton had a distinct advantage in 1965 with a price ratio of 0.4
to  1.  By 1971 the ratio changed to a 0.9 to 1 relationship as cotton prices
increased.  In 1973, the rate hit a peak of 1.8 to 1 and has fluctuated be-
tween 1.2 and 0.9 to 1 since then.

The determinants of the demand for fibers, factors affecting fiber substitu-
tion, and interfiber competition have been studied by a variety of authors
(Blakeley, 1962; Ward, 1969; Barlowe and Donald, 1971; Evans, April and
September, 1977).  In general, fiber demand is determined by price effects,
trend effects, and the relative stability of fiber supply.  Both own-price
and cross-price I/ effects are important.  Most writers have found signif-
icantly larger cross-price effects than own-price effects, especially for
cotton (Evans, September, 1977; Ward, 1969).  Long term trends in relative
prices have been very significant, but fiber markets have not quickly
responded to short term changes in relative prices (Ward, 1969).  While
quantitative analysis has usually demonstrated these price effects, virtually
all writers have maintained that trend variables are at least as important
as prices in the determination of fiber market shares (Ward, 1979; Barlowe
and Donald, 1971; Evans, April 1977; Ga. Tech, 1977).  The term "trend"
groups effects from technological change, market inertia,tastes arid
preferences, market promotion, and research.  Technological  developments,
most of which have favored non-cellulosic synthetics, include the discovery
of new uses, new products, and new materials; developments in blending,
weaving, and dyeing; technical and quality fabric characteristics; and
machinery capacities and speeds.  Market inertia includes factors related to
the momentum of buying habits, the level of fiber consumption in previous
periods, types and capacities of installed machinery, the reluctance to
change fibers in current use, and the finality of a change in fiber mix once
that change is effected.  Fashion, style, comfort, fabric performance char-
acteristics, advertising and market promotion, and research on new materials
and uses are also important.  Finally, supply stability is a positive factor
_!/  Cross-price effects refer to the effects on a product induced by changes
    in the prices of that product's substitutes (competitors).


                                   V-52
-------
      Table V-34.
Price ratios of wool  to polyester and cotton  to
       polyester,  1965- 1978

Year
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
Wool
1.20
1.30
1.20
1.20
1.20
1.10
.70
1.20
2.50
1.80
1.50
1.80
1.80
1.90
Polyester
.85
.80
.62
.56
.45
.41
.37
.35
.37
.46
.48
.53
.56
.54
Ratio
1.4:1
1.6:1
1.9:1
2.1 :1
2.7:1
2.7:1
1.9:1
3.4:1
6.8:1
4.0:1
3.1:1
3.4:1
3.2:1
3.5:1
Cotton
.30
.23
.29
.24
.23
.24
.33
.36
.67
.41
.58
.73
.51
.64
Polyester
.85
.80
.62
.56
.45
.41
.37
.35
.37
.46
.48
.53
.56
.54
Ratio
.4:1
.3:1
.5:1
.4:1
.5:1
.6:1
.9:1
.1:1
1.8:1
.9:1
1.2:1
1.4:1
.9:1
1.2:1
Source: U.S.  Department of Agriculture,  Cotton  and Wool  Situation.
                                   V-53
-------
for synthetics and against cotton (Ward, 1969; Ga. Tech, 1977).  On several
occasions in recent years, the quantity of available cotton has fluctuated
sharply (for example, during 1966-67 and 1973-74), while man-made fibers
have remained available.  This has produced price instability in cotton,
thereby curtailing some cotton fiber shipments.  The instability of cotton
supplies has added impetus to the switch to man-made fibers _!/.

In support of these contentions, Blakeley (1962) was able to show signif-
icant effects on the domestic consumption of cotton from both the domestic
production of man-made fibers and the lagged domestic mill consumption of
cotton 2_/.  These variables outweighed cotton fiber price in their respec-
tive effects on mill cotton consumption. Blakeley estimated the own-price
elasticity of cotton fiber demand at -0.86, an estimate which he notes as
higher than that obtained by other researchers.  Evans (September 1977)
found that the domestic mill consumption of cotton was significantly
associated with total domestic fiber consumption, cotton fiber prices,
and polyester staple fiber prices.  The prices' terms carried the heaviest
weights in Evans1 equations, and polyester fiber prices had slightly
greater explanatory power than cotton fiber prices.  Own (cotton fiber)
price elasticity was estimated at -0.25 to -0.35, and cross (cotton-
polyester fiber) price elasticity was estimated at 0.35 to 0.40.  Using
price ratios, Evans was also able to show that a change in relative
prices favorable to polyester had a highly significant impact on the
domestic mill consumption of cotton fiber.

Ward (1969) generated numerous equations relating the consumption of
individual fibers to own and competing fiber prices, and to total domestic
fiber consumption.  In general, Ward found that own and cross price effects
were highly significant in fiber market share determination through time.
In cotton, own-price was of less importance than competing man-made fiber
prices, especially non-cellulosics.   In non-cellulosics, own-price effects
were relatively more important than cross price effects.

Ward generated numerous estimates of own and cross price elasticities of
fiber consumption.  These are  summarized in the table below (Ward, 1969,
p. 142).
_!/  For a discussion of these considerations, see Barlowe and Donald
    (1971); and Barlowe, Russell  G., Analysis of Cotton and Man-made Fiber
    Substitution in End-use Item Consumption in the United States, Un-
    published Masters Thesis, 1967, University of Maryland.

2_/  The influence of previous period consumption on present period consump-
    tion is actually a measure of the structural momentum in the system.
                                    V-54
-------
            Approximate Direct and Cross-Elasticities Between
                  Raw Fiber Consumption and Fiber Prices
Fiber
Consumption.
Cotton
Wool
Cellulosic
Non-eel lulosic
Raw Riber Prices
Cotton
0 to -0.1
0 to 0.2
0.2 to 0.4
0
Wool
0
-0.3 to -0.5
0
0
Cellulosic
0.4 to 0.6
0.4 to 0.7
-0.1 to -0.3
0
Non-cellulosic
0.2 to 0.4
0.6 to 1.0
0.3 to 0.6
-1.0 to -1.5
For cotton, all elasticities were relatively low, but cross-price effects
were more important than own-price effects I/.  For man-made non-cellulosics,
elasticities were moderate to greater-than-unity, with own-price effects
more important than cross-price effects.

Ward notes the great influence of the supply reliability, technology, and
inertia factors in the determination of fiber market shares, and partially
attributes the explanatory power of his total fiber consumption variables
to such considerations.  Ward and the other authors also note that short
term responses to changes in relative prices are apparently small, but that
such changes have major significance in the longer term.

This analysis generated four functions relating to the competition for market
share between cotton and non-cellulosic fibers.  Findings, shown on Table
V-35, generally support the discussion of findings by earlier writers.
Equations 5 and 6 relate the 1965-1977 total  textile market shares of cotton
fiber and non-cellulosic fibers to the prices of the two fibers during those
years.  The two equations account for 94 to 96 percent of the variation in
market shares during the years observed.  Fiber share elasticities 2/ for
cotton (Equation 5) are estimated as follows:  own-price, -0.29 and cross-
price (cotton share non-cellulosic price) 0.37.  For non-cellulosics
(Equation 6) the elasticities are estimated as:  own-price, -0.46 and cross-
price (non-cellulosic share-cotton price) 0.46.

Equations 7 and 8 relate the 1965-1977 market shares of cotton and non-
cellulosic fibers in home furnishing end-uses to the prices of the two
fibers during those years.   The two equations account for about 94 percent
of the variation in home furnishing end-use fiber market shares during the
years observed.  Market share elasticities for the two fibers in their home
\l  Many post-war researchers have estimated  the own-price elasticity of
    cotton fiber in a range between -0.1 and  -0.4.

2/  See footnote, p. V-35.
                                    V-55
-------
                                Table  V-35.    Functional relationships in interfiber competition
Equation 5.  Title:  Cotton  fiber  snare  of  U.S. textile products as a function of cotton fiber price and lagged  non-cellulosi
             finer price
  dependent variable
  independent variable
  independent variable
cotton fiber share.   Observed  mean:          376.538*16
cotton price.   Observed  mean:                 47.15384
lagged non  cellulosic price.   Observed mean:  57.92307
                                                                                                lagged
  Equation 5.                              cotton fiber share             cotton price         non-eel 1 ulosic  price
  R2=.959                                 376.53846 = 347.33157 - 2.30466 (47.15384) + 2.38041  (57.92307)

  t for Ho: parameter =  0               :                         6.55                -6.41
  probability  of a greater t  by  chance   :                          .0001                .0001

  F for ind.  var.  SS                    :                                 118.73                41.08
  probability  of a greater F  by  chance   :                                    .0001                 .0001

Eauation 6.  Title:  Non-cell ulosic  fiber share of U.S. textile products as a function of cotton  fiber price  and  lagged  non-
             cellulosic  fiber price
  dependent variable
  independent variable
  independent variable
non-cellulosic  share.    Observed mean:       458.84615
cotton price.   Observed  mean:                 47.15384
lagged non-cellulosic  price.   Observed mean:  57.92307
                                                                                              lagged
  Equation 6.                             non-cellulosic share            cotton price       non-cellulosic  price
  R2=.941                                 458.84615 = 462.27596 t- 4.43801  (47.15384) -3.6720S (57.92307)

  t for Ho: parameter =  0               :                         6.55               -6.41
  probability  of a greater t  by  chance   :                          .0001               .0001

  F for ind.  var.  SS                    :                                 118.73               41.08
  probability  of a greater F  by  chance   :                                    .0001                .0001

Equation 7.  Title:  Cotton fiber share of total  fiber use in nome furnishings as a  function of cotton fiber  price  and
             lagged non-cell ulosic  fiber price
  dependent variable
  independent variable
  independent variable
cotton fiber/home  furnishings.   Observed mean:  36.83846
cotton price.   Observed  mean:                   47.15384
lagged non-cellulosic  price.  Observed mean:    57.92307
                                          cotton fioer/                                     lagged
  Equation 7.                              home furnishings            cotton price       non-cellulosic price
  R2=.946                                 36.83846 = 38.4~7239 -.32647 (47.15384) + .23757 (57.92307)

  t for Ho: parameter = 0               :                    -7.32                6.29
  probability  of a greater t by  chance   :                      .0001               .0001

  F for ind.  var.  SS                    :                             136.92               39.60
  probability  of a greater F by  chance   :                                .0001               .0001

Equation 8.  Title:  Non-cell ulosic  fiber snare of total fiber use in nome furnishings as  a function of cotton  fiber price  an
             lagged non-cellulosic  fiber price

  dependent variable                    :  non-cellulosic/home furnismng.  Observed mean: 48.71538
  independent  variable                  :  cotton price.  Observed mean:                   47.15384
  independent  variable                  :  lagged non-cellulosic once.   Observed mean:    57.92307
                                     non-cellulosic/                                       lagged
  Equation 8.                         nome  furnishings                cotton price       non-cellulosic price
  R^=.937                                 48.71538= 48.26342 +  .52468 (47.15384) -.41933 (57.92.307)

  t for Ho: parameter =0               :                      6.44              -6.08
  probability  of a greater t by  chance   :                        .0001              .0001

  F for ind.  var.  SS                    :                              112.12              36.98
  probability  of a greater F by  chance   :                                 .0001              .0001



Source:   Development  Planning and  Research Associates,  Inc.



                                                         V-56
-------
furnishing end-uses are estimated as follows: for cotton (Equation 7), own-
price, -0.42 and cross-price (cotton share non-cellulosic price), 0.37.  For
non-cellulosics, the elasticity estimates are:  own-price, -0.50 and cross-
price (non-cellulosic share-cotton price) 0.51.  Standard errors associated
with the regression parameter in all four equations ranged between 12 and
16 percent of those parameters.  Again, the statistical results require
interpretative care and comparison with the results of other researchers.
The results generally support those of the other works cited.

4.  Price Indexes

BLS publishes two types of indexes, industry and producer price (formerly
wholesale price index), which are applicable to a study of prices within
the textile industry.  The industry indexes provide indexes on the output
of SIC industries a.t the 4 digit level  and product classes at the 5 digit
level.  While these indexes cover information which could be very valuable
in an analysis of the industry, the series are relatively new and provide
very little data prior to 1975.  Consequently, these indexes are excluded
from further consideration in this study.

The Producer Price Indexes (PPI) provide a measure of price movements at
several  levels.   First it provides an index of prices at the aggregate in-
dustry level - Textile Products and Apparel ;.then it provides indexes of
the major classifications and groupings discussed previously.  Finally, it
gives price indexes for a number of specific commodities.

Textile products underwent a significant reclassification in 1976 in order
to reflect the decline in importance of wool products to the textile indus-
try and the increase in importance of synthetic and knit products.  Prior
to the reclassification, textile products had been grouped according to type
of fiber.   For example, the synthetic wholesale price index components
included unprocessed and processed yarn, fibers, and fabrics.  With the
reclassification, textile products are now grouped largely according to
current marketing patterns.  This reclassification should facilitate analysis
of prices in terms of production flows.  A comparison of the groupings under
the two systems is shown below.

                    WPI, Textile Products and'Apparel

            Prior to 1976                       1976

           Cotton products           Synthetic fibers
           Wool  products             Processed yarns and thread
           Synthetic                 Grey fabrics
           Apparel                    Finished fabrics
                                     Apparel
                                    V-57
-------
The Textile Products and Apparel  PPI reflect changes in both textile products
and apparel.  Changes in the index are weighted such that about 46 percent
of the change is attributable to  changes in textile products while 54 per-
cent is attributable to apparel.   Within textile products weight of each
component are listed below:

                   Synthetic fiber                   14%
                   Processed yarn and thread         21
                   Grey fabric                       23
                   Finished  fabric                   44
                                                    100%

The price movements between  all  commodities, and textile products and
apparel are compared in Table V-36.   During the past 10 years (except for
1975), textiles have lagged  behind all  commodities.  Prior to 1972, the
lag was minor with textiles  increasing at an average rate of 2.6 percent
per year while all commodities increased 3.6 percent.   Since 1972, textiles
have increased appreciably less  with annual increases  averaging 6.4 percent
against 10.4 percent for all commodities.  Partial  explanation of this
difference lies in the changes in the weighting system applied to textiles.
Prior to 1975, a large part  of the increase in the  producer's index was
due to acceleration of prices in  cotton textiles.   However, with the re-
classification in 1976, a greater weight to movements  in prices of synthetics
and knit fabric tended to depress the overall  index.

Price indexes of the products of  the major textile  markets are also shown
in Table V-36.  Apparel products, which includes clothing and hosiery, in-
creased at a rate slightly higher than the composite textile and apparel
index through 1972.  Since then  it has lagged, in  1976 it was about 10
points less.  This difference points out that the  prices of fabrics have
actually increased faster than the prices of apparel.

Textile home furnishing prices have increased significantly higher than
both the composite index and the  apparel index over the past few years.
This is due primarily to a large  increase in 1974  when prices in home
furnishings increased over 25 percent contrasted to an increase of less
than 10 percent in the apparel prices.   The price  indexes of carpets has
substantially lagged the other products over the past  10 years.  Except for
1973, price increases for carpet  have been considerably less than 10 per-
cent.  Hosiery, which is a component of the apparel index, has actually
decreased over the past ten  years.  Hosiery is shown separately here because
it is delineated from the other  fabrics in a subsequent part of this study.

Inputs to the textile market system include wool,  cotton, and synthetic
fibers.  Synthetic fibers consist of unprocessed filament yarn as well as
staple and tow.  A comparison of  the fiber indexes  is  also shown in Table
V-36.  The index for natural fibers climbed to over 200 (twice that of 1967)
in 1976.  Among cotton and wool,  the indexes have  fluctuated considerably
throughout the period.  All  of the fibers reach indexes of about 200 in
1973 and dropped off drastically  in 1975 rising in  1976.  Domestic wool
                                    V-58
-------
Table V-36.   Producer  price  indexes - fabrics and fibers
        (cotton,  wool,  synthetics)

Grey Woven Fabrics
Broad woven
Cotton (Old)
(Mew)
Synthetic
Jute & burlap
Grev Knits
Knits
Synthetics
Finished Fabrics
Broad woven
Cotton (Old)
(New)
Synthetic (Old)
(Mew)
Knits
Cotton
Synthetics
Nylon tricot
Acetate tricot
Code
0337
031202
033701
033703
033704
0338
033802
0342
034201
034203
0343
034301
034303
03430341
03430351
1967
100.0
100.0

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
1953 1363
102.8 103.7
97.3 106.5

104.0 104.0
111.1 115.1
92.1 89.3
107.2 102.9
1970 1971 1972
104.4 110.5 124.1
107.6 124.8 142.0

107.6 110.6 120.5
104.3 101.5 116.9
81.2 88.0 90.7
96.4 100.6 87.7
1973
145.
133.

143.
1,145.
94.
90.

7
0

5
5
2
9
1974
*
173.5
*
*
181.3
*
*
*
178.1
*
151.7
*
*
*
*
128.3
126.7
1975
100.0
177.9
100.0
100.0
137.7
100.0
100.0
100.0
173.2
100.0
140.6
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
112.3
131.7
1976
106.2
MA
108.8
106.0
110.1
104.1
76.0
105.4
NA
109.0
NA
101.3
96.2
110.7
95.1
110.0
127.3
1977
104.63
MA
112.6
101.1
112.6
107.4
79.7
110.3
NA
120.3
NA
99.7
95.5
118.4
93.8
119.4
130.3
1973
118.8
NA
121.5
118.7
128.0
116.2
90.0
112.1
MA
119.6
NA
101.5
95.5
118.7
93.8
121.6
NA
Plant and Animal Fiber
Fiber
Raw Cotton
Domestic apparel
wool
Foreign wool
Synthetic Fibers
Unprocessed fil-
ament yarn
Cellulosic
Mon-cellulosic
Staple
Tow
Textile Markets
Textile product and
Apparel
015
0151
0152
0153
031
0315
031501
031502
0316
0317
apparel

Home furnishings
(sheets and pillows)
Carpets
Hosiery

100.0
* Asterisks indicate those
Source: Bureau of
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0


100.0
100.0


100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
series
104.6 93.1
107.2
102.9
105.5


101.3 102.8
100.0 100.0


103.7 106.0
103.6 107.4
104.2 100.8
100.7 99.0
98.7 NA
begun in 1975.
Labor Statistics, Producer Prices
90.2 92.8 117.5
97.6
59.2
84.8


102.5 105.2 107.7
100.0 100.0 100.0


107.1 109.0 113.6
110.8 113.6 114.3
103.5 104.9 109.2
96.5 96.1 101.0
NA 97.7 97.7

and Price Indexes.
197.
193.
194.
237.


109.
99.


123.
119.
113.
110.
98.


8
1
9
0


9
9


8
0
3
9
0


193.9
199.3
139.3
191.3
*
*
119.4
102.3
*
*
139.1
129.5
143.3
114.6
100.0


153.1
155.2
109.4
165.1
100.0
100.0.
130.6
103.2
100.0
100.0
137.9
133.4
151.9
117.9
91.2


223.9
234.1
139.9
202.6
102.4
103.1
139.7
105.9
101.5
98.8
148.2
139.9
159.3
MA
107.6


171.0
174.1
148.6
210.2
107.3
108.9
139.6
113.5
104.5
106.2
154.0
147.3
171.3
MA
MA


193.4
198.4
153.8
222.3
109.6
112.3
148.6
116.1
104.4
111.0
159.8
152.4
178.6
125.2
100.5


                        V-59
-------
reflects the lowest index at less than 140 in 1976.   While the natural
fibers nearly doubled since 1967, the synthetic fibers have remained
relatively stable.   A composite index of synthetics  was not developed until
the 1976 reelassification; consequently synthetic price movements cannot
be compared directly with the natural fibers.  However, the two unprocessed
filament yarn indexes (cellulosic and non-cellulosic) reveal the relative
stability of the synthetic prices. Cellulosic yarn rose to about 140 by
1976 while non-cellulosic remained relatively stable, rising to less tSan 120.

The indexes of fabric prices are shown in Table 36.   Again, the indexes for
the major groupings were not developed until  the reclassification in 1976.
Consequently movement of prices for grey and  finished fabrics cannot be
effectively analyzed.

Indexes are available for grey  and finished cotton broad woven fabrics
and finished wool.   The grey cotton broad woven fabric index increased to
about 180 by 1975 and leveled off for the next 2 years (actually decreasing
slightly in 1977).   Finished cotton fabric moved with the grey fabrics until
1976.  In 1976, the index increased to 120.3  (1975 base) contrasted to an
index of 105.6 for grey cotton fabrics.   Wool finished fabrics is the only
fabric with a complete series (other than burlap and jute).  Its index had
advanced to 140.7 by 1977, dropping slightly  during  the 1975 recession.
                                   V-60
-------
                    VI.  REPRESENTATIVE MODEL PLANTS


Over  1,100 individual textile mills are engaged in manufacturing processes
which, in one form or another, generate wastewaters and thus fall within
the scope of this analysis and would be subject to effluent control guide-
lines.  Approximately 80 percent of these existing mills are discharging
wastewater into publicly owned treatment works (POTW's) and are classified
as indirect dischargers; the remaining 20 percent are discharging directly
into  receiving waters (rivers and lakes) and are classified as direct dis-
chargers.  Model plants representing both types of dischargers were developed
from  a synthesis of data obtained from surveys of the industry as well as
published sources.

In the model plant development, it was assumed that the direct dischargers
(except as noted below) have treatment systems which meet BPT requirements
while the indirect dischargers have no systems in place.!_/  In addition to
model plants representing existing mills or sources, models were developed
to represent new sources (mills to be constructed in the future).  As in
the case of the existing mills, new source models were developed both for
direct and indirect dischargers.  In order to facilitate the analysis in
this  chapter, model plant data are organized (and identified) under four
classifications.

      (1)  existing direct dischargers,
      (2)  existing indirect dischargers,
      (3)  new source direct dischargers,
      (4)  new source indirect dischargers.


                       A.  Model Plant Development


Model plants were developed primarily from data accumulated from two surveys
of the industry.  The initial survey was technical in nature and was con-
ducted in conjunction with the preparation of 'the Development Document.
The survey was designed to develop a descriptive and representative data
base  covering:

      (1)  number and location of facilities,
      (2)  production levels,
      (3)  wastewater discharge quantities,
      (4)  methods of discharge,
      (5)  general  treatment status.

From  this data base, the industry was divided into subcategories (and sub-
divisions) discussed in Chapter III.  A range of mill  sizes in terms of
flow rates was identified; eight flow rates were then selected as a means
]_/  Plants in three subcategories have not met BPT.   These include hosiery
    products, nonwoven manufacturing and felted fabric processing.

                                   VI-1
-------
of establishing capacities for representative model  plants.   These flow
rates ranged from a low of 0.05 million gallons per  day (mgd) to a high of
5.0 mgd as shown in Table VI-1.  Capacity levels were estimated for at
least three flow levels in each of the subcategories.  These levels
provided the basis for the subsequent preparation of required control  costs
and development of model  plants.

As a part of this economic analysis, a second survey was conducted involving
a random sample of about a quarter of the wet processors in  the industry
and covered questions on production, finance and wastewater  discharge.  The
survey responses revealed that additional segmentation within the industry
was required in order to reflect the economic characteristics of different
type mills in terms of product ownership and degree  of integration.  Con-
sequently, in addition to categorization by type processing  (simple, com-
plex), mills were further categorized by type of mills to include (1)
integrated, (2) commission, and (3) own fabric (yarn, hosiery) finishers.

Responses to the survey provided the data base from  which the financial
profiles of the individual model plants were constructed.  One or more
models were developed for each of the applicable capacity levels shown in
Table VI-1 in order to represent the above type mills found  in the industry.
Models consisted of pro forma income statements and  portions of the balance
sheets (or investment characteristics).

The initial step in developing model plants was the  conversion of capacity
levels to annual production.   This was accomplished  by projecting the
utilization rates for each model plant from an analysis of the survey data
and certain published data (primarily the Federal Reserve Bulletin).  The
product of these utilization  rates and appropriate capacities provided the
model plant production levels.  With the production  levels established for
each of the subcategories, the financial profiles were then  constructed
by deriving and applying certain key parameters such as prices, profits,
expenses, and book and salvage values of plant and equipment.  The parameters
were derived principally from an analysis of the survey data in which  the
financial data were expressed as a percent of sales  in order that they
might be viewed within a common framework.  The parameters selected for
the model plants generally represent the medians of  the applicable data of
surveyed plants which fell within the size ranges appropriate to each
model plant.  The medians were used for several reasons.  The use of medians
eliminated or diminished the  influence which extremely high  or extremely
low values would have on averages.  Also, in analyzing impacts, the use of
medians tended to produce levels of profits for the  model plants which could
be assumed to be the median levels for actual plants within  given size
ranges.  From this assumption, estimates could be made of how many plants
were better off and how many  were worse off than the model plants with
the imposition of the various control  technologies.

After establishing production levels for the model plants, the next step
was to calculate the sales volume by multiplying the annual  production by
the appropriate price level.   Prices were expressed  in dollars per pound of

                                  VI-2
-------


















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VI-3
-------
output which represented a composite of a variety of product mixes.  For
example, the woven fabric subcategory reflects mills of which 48 percent
were producing woven fabric only, 13 percent producing narrow fabrics, and
the remainder processing a variety of mixes such as fabric and yarn, and
fabric and sheeting.  In the knit fabric subcategory, 28 percent of the
mills surveyed were producing circular fabric only, 17 percent were
producing warp and the remainder were producing mixes of fabric and apparel
(underwear).

With annual sales established, pro forma income statements were then con-
structed to include appropriate cost structures and profit levels.   The
financial data comprising the statements were based on the average economic
conditions of the period 1973-1977 and were obtained from the industry
surveys and published sources.  It was assumed that the 1973-1977 period
was typical of the industry; consequently,  the profiles could be expected
to be representative of future operations.

The model plant profiles were completed with the development of the asset
and financial  structures.  These structures, which were developed primarily
for use in the NPV analyses, were based, again, on the surveys and published
sources.  The structures define the investment characteristics of each of
the model plants and include total assets,  fixed assets, current assets,
current liabilities, net working capital (current assets less current
liabilities) and capital investments.  In addition, the characteristics
include the salvage values of model  plants  which equal the sum of net
working capital  and liquidation values of plant and equipment.  These
values were key parameters in the NPV analyses since an overestimation
would tend to overestimate the economic impacts of effluent controls which
an underestimation would result in the understatement.

In developing the profiles, the year 1979 was established as baseline.
Since financial  data in the surveys were based on 1977 dollars, the model
plant parameters were adjusted to 1979 fourth quarter dollars by applying
the appropriate GNP deflator.


                     B.  Model Plant Characteristics
The textile mills vary by operational  and financial  characteristics; thus,
the models will not accurately depict  the characteristics of any existing
mill.  However, since the subcategories discussed above group the mills
into segments having similar processes, discharge methods, and economic
characteristics, it was possible to develoo models which are descriptive
of the common operational and financial characteristics.

A total of 126 models were developed to represent existing plants in the
textile industry:  57 for direct dischargers and 69 for indirect dischargers.
In addition, 39 models were developed  to represent the new source plants:
18 for direct dischargers and 21 for indirect.   Where appropriate, more

                                  VI-4
-------
than one type of model was developed for the designated production levels
(sizes) within subcategories.  As indicated above, these represent the
three types of mills:  commission, own fabric and integrated.   The "com-
mission" models represents those dyeing and finishing plants which finish
the textiles on a contract or commission basis.  These plants do not take
title to the textiles being processed.  The "own fabric" models represent
those dyeing and finishing plants which purchase or otherwise  take title
to the textiles being processed.  In most cases, these are the dyeing and
finishing operations of vertically integrated firms, in which greige fabric
is produced in a mill at one facility and then sent to the dyeing and
finishing plant at another facility to be finished.  The "integrated" models
represent those mills in which the fabric.is both fabricated and finished
in the same facility.  While the economic characteristics of these three
type models are significantly different, the waste characteristics and
control technologies for a specific capacity and type process within each
subcategory are identical.  For example, the small commission model with
a daily capacity of 5.4 kkg in the woven fabric finishing subcategory (sim-
ple processing) has a 'financial profile different from the small integrated
model in the same subcategory (and subdivision); however, the waste char-
acteristics and control costs are identical.  The model plants as discussed
above are listed in the subsequent table in this chapter.  The tables con-
tain four sets of data:  operational  characteristics, investment characteris-
tics, depreciation and interest, and profitability and cash flow.  For each
set of data, there are four tables—one applicable to existing direct dis-
chargers, one to existing indirect dischargers, one to new source direct
dischargers and one to new source indirect dischargers.

To facilitate the correlation of model plants developed in this report with
the subcategorization discussed in the Development Document (Table VI-1),
the subcategory numbers (1-9) and subdivision letters (a-c) will be in-
dicated in parenthesis after each model plant discussed subsequently in
the text.

For the existing models, three capacity levels (sizes) were established for
each subcategory (and subdivision) for both direct and indirect dischargers,
except in stock and yarn finishing (7), in which there were four.  Model
plant capacities are expressed in terms of thousands of kilograms of out-
put per day.  In the majority of cases, the capacities of the  medium and
large models in the direct discharger category corresponds with those in
the indirect categories.  However, the capacities of the small  plants of
the two discharge categories differ;  the capacities of the small plants in
the indirect category are about half the size of those in the  direct
discharge category.

For the new source plants, only one model  size was developed for each sub-
category (and subdivision) to reflect the most likely size that can be
expected to be constructed.   The capacity sizes correspond with those of
                                  VI-5
-------
the existing models, usually the medium size.   Consequently, the same
size designation were used.   No new source models were developed for the
wool scouring subcategory since it was not considered likely that any of
these mills would be constructed in the foreseeable future.
                     C.   Operational  Characteristics
The operational  characteristics for the existing direct and indirect dis-
charger models are summarized in Tables VI-2 and VI-3.   These characteris-
tics were determined primarily from the surveys and include data on utiliza-
tion, annual production and numbers of employees.  Utilization rates were
based on a 250-day work year and varied between type dischargers, sub-
categories and sizes.  The lowest utilization rates are found in the wool
scouring (1) and carpet finishing (6) subcategories, both for direct and
indirect dischargers.  The small models in both of these subcategories
have rates below 70 percent.  The small wool scouring models (1) have rates
of 65 percent while the small carpet finishing models (6) have rates of
only 60 percent.  The large commission yarn model (7),  indirect discharger,
also has a rate of 60 percent.  The utilization rates of the remaining
models varied between 75 to 85 percent.  Slightly higher rates are found
among the direct dischargers.  In this category, about  45 percent of the
models have rates of 85 percent.  In the  indirect discharger category,
about 50 percent of the models had rates of 80 percent  with only a third
having higher rates.

The annual production levels of the model  plants were derived as a product
of the daily capacities (in pounds), utilization rates, and 250 (number of
days in the work year).  Annual production of the wool  scouring models (1)
is measured in terms of the input to the plant (grease  wool) since this
normally is the basis used in establishing commission fees.  The production
of all other models is measured as the plants output and represents a
composite of type of textiles produced in each of the subcategories.  As
indicated above, it does not represent any specific type (other than the
broad classification of materials within a subcategory), size or weight of
material.  Product mixes of models within a subcateqory can be expected
to vary from one size category to another; consequently, the prices varied
between sizes.

The number of production workers for each model was based on an examination
of the survey data.  The number of nonproduction workers was based on the
applicable rates of nonproduction workers to production workers as reflected
in the surveys and in Census data.  The largest model in terms of employ-
ment is the integrated model in woven fabric finishing  (complex processing)
(4c) in the direct discharger category.  This model carries an employment
of over 4,000 workers and represents one of the few largest plants in the
industry.  The smallest model is the small commission model in woven fabric
finishing (simple processing) (41), indirect discharger, with an employment
of less than 20 workers.  In general, within a subcategory, the commission

                                  VI-6
-------
Table VI-2.   The  textile industry, representative  existing model plants'  operational  characteristics -
                                        direct  dischargers
Subcategory

1.


2.


3.
4.






















5.















6.



7.








3.


9.


Wool scouring


Wool finishing


(Omitted)
Woven fabric
finishing
A. Simple






B. Complex





C. Oesizing







Knit fabric
finishing
A. Simple





8. Complex




C. Hosiery


Carpet fin-
ishing


Stock 4 yarn
finishing







Non-woven
manufacturing

Felted fabric
finishing
Size

Small
Medium
Large
Small
Medium
Large


Snail


Medium


Large

Small

Medium


Large
Small


tied i urn


Large



Small

Medium

Large

Small

i led i urn
Large

Siiia 1 1

i led i urn

Small
Medium
Large

Small


i tedium

Large

X-Large

Small
Medium

Small
Medium
Daily
capacity
(KKg)
16.2
35.6
31.0
7.4
18.6
37.3


5.4


29.6


73.9

23.3

116.3


193.8
21.4


53.6


178.5



8.0

32.2

160.8

7.7

18.5
30.9

2.5

5.5

20.2
48.6
121.5

9.8


23.5

39.1

58.6

10.4
23.6

0.9
2.0
Type
plant

Commission
Commission
Commission
Integrated
Integrated
Integrated


Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Own fabric
Integrated


Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Own hosiery
Integrated
Own hosiery

Integrated
Integrated
Integrated

Commission
Own yarn
Integrated
Own yarn
Integrated
Own yarn
Integrated
Integrated

H.A.
N.A.

N.A.
N.A.
Utilization
rate
(percant)
65
75
80
30
35
85


80
80
80
75
85
80
75
85
75
85
35
85
80
85
75
85
85
75
85
85
35
80


75
75
75
85
80
80
75
85
85
80
85
80
85
80

60
75
35

80
80
85
80
85
80
85
35

80
85

30
85
Annual
production
(000 IDS)
5,800
14,700
35,700
3,300
3,800
17,500


2,400
2,400
2,400
12,200
13,900
13,000
30,600
34,700
9,600
10,900
54,500
54,500
51,300
90,600
8,800
10,000
10,000
22,100
25,100
25,100
83,600
78,700


3,300
3,300
13,300
15,000
70,900
70,900
3,200
3,600
8,700
13,600
14,400
1,100
1,200
2,400

6,700
20,100
57,000

4,300
4,300
4,600
10,300
11,000
17,300
18,400
27,500

4,600
11,000

400
900
Number of employees
Production

77
155
248
374
3/1
1,099


35
42
203
211
390
1,132
527
614
166
949
943
1 ,657
1,962
4,005
109
281
1,920
381
709
1,180
2,542
2,533


83
225
305
810
1,623
2,525
80
245
324
312
778
107
299
141

292
196
605

41
115
121
231
371
263
599
895

77
168

98
218
Non-production

39
3
37
56
20
122


3
12
36
47
101
200
132
76
37
168
203
248
216
440
24
72
339
95
135
146
380
278


17
46
96
61
514
189
16
50
31
99
59
17
16
9

68
92
171

13
38
21
71
44
31
114
171

27
90

50
73
Total

116
163
285
430
391
1,221


38
54
239
258
491
1,332
659
590
203
1,117
1,151
1,905
2,178
1,445
133
353
2,259
476
844
1,326
2,922
2,311


100
271
401
871
2,142
2,714
96
295
405
411
837
124
315
150

360
288
776

54
153
142
302
415
344
713
1,066

104
253

148
291
                                                 VI-7
-------
acls VI-3
             "ne  textile  -ndustry, representative existing  inodel  olants' ooeraticnal cha'-actari sties -
                                       ;nairect  cMscnargers
Suocategory

1 . x'ool scouring

2. '.tool finishing


4. «oven fabric
finisning
A. Simple






3. Complex








C. Oesizing







5. Knit fabric
finishing
A. Simple



3. Complex





C. Hosiery





6. Carpet finishing


7. Stock & yarn
finishing









8. Nonwoven manu-
facturing

9. Fe1 ted fabric
finishing

Size

Smai 1
uarge
Small
'•ledi urn
Large
Smal 1


Medium


Large


Small


Medium


Large


Small


Medium


Large

Small

Medium

Large

Small

Medium

Large

Small

Medium

Large

Small
Medi urn
Large
Small


Medi urn


Large


X-large

Small
Medium
Large
Small
Medium
Large
Daily
canacity
;
-------
models are the "smallest while the integrated mills are the largest.   In
most cases, the own fabric models have fewer employees than the integrated
models.  However, in a number of cases, the own fabric models have a
greater employment since they represent finishing plants which include
labor intensive operations such as cutting and sewing in addition to the
finishing.  Normally, it can be expected that the medium plants within a
subcategory will have a smaller work force than the larger plants of the
same type.  However, in several cases, this relationship does not hold true
primarily because of type operation and type product associated with the
models.  For example, in the indirect discharger category, the large
felted fabric processing (9) model has only a sixth of the employees that
the mdediam model has.  In this case, the large model represents plants
producing carpet underlay, a very labor extensive operation in which the
output has a very low unit cost when compared to the product of other fitted
fabric processing plants (9).

Operational characteristics of the new source models are outlined in
Tables VI-4 and VI-5.  The production and utilization rates are identical
to those of the corresponding existing models.  However, the employment
levels are significantly less and reflect key assumptions in the develop-
ment of the new source models.  It was assumed that improvement in
efficiencies would result in a 15 percent reduction in all operating costs
(except of the textile inputs) when compared to those costs of the esixting
models.
                     D.  Investment Characteristics


The investment characteristics for the existing direct discharging,  existing
indirect, new source direct,  and new source  indirect models  are  depicted
in Tables VI-6, VI-7, VI-8, and VI-9, respectively.  Included in these tables
are estimates for the models' assets (both fixed and current),  current
liabilities, net working capital, total  invested capital,  and salvage
values for non-conforming uses.  These are discussed below.

1.  Fixed Assets

The fixed assets depicted in the tables  are  considered reflective of net
or book values of the buildings, equipment,  and land.  As  would  be expected
in an industry with a substantial number of  older plants and equipment,
the book values of the existing models'  assets reflect significant levels
of depreciation.  These assets were estimated from information  provided
in the industry surveys.

2.  Net working Capital

Net working capital  or operating capital is  defined as that  capital  neces-
sary to maintain the day to day operations of the mills.   The computation
for net working capital includes a firm's current assets minus  current

                                  VI-9
-------
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-------
liabilities.  The difference between current assets and current liabilities
comprises the firm's operating caoital  or, as it is sometimes called, net
working capital.  Net working capital represents the quantity of capital
that the firm is required to maintain for daily cash balances.  Current
assets represent those assets a firm maintains that could be converted to
cash with relative ease.   Current assets include such items as raw
materials inventory, finished product inventory and accounts receivable.

Current liabilities represent those liabilities a firm maintains on short
period demand and includes short term notes and accounts and wages payable.

As illustrated in the tables, the net working capital varied both with the
type of mill (finishing vs.  integrated) and the nature of the textile
material input.   The integrated mills,  which accomplish a full range of
textile operations, have a very high requirement for working capital.  On
the other hand,  the finishing plants have relatively low requirements.
Additionally, mills purchasing fabric for processing have a higher working
capital requirement than those mills purchasing yarn for finishing.

3.  Total Investment

Two measures of the models'  total investments are provided.  First, total
assets—the total of both fixed and current assets is provided.  Second,
the total invested capital--the book value of debt and equity which was
computed as the sum of net working capital and fixed assets is shown.  While
each represents a measure of the models' investment, total  assets is used
in the subsequent analysis to determine the returns on investment (or
total assets).

4.  Salvage Value

The salvage value for nonconforming uses represents the amount of money
that could be recovered should a mill cease operation.  This will vary
from mill to mill, depending on the location and the age of the facility,
its condition, and the usability of its equipment.

As described earlier in the report, only a limited market exists for
certain types of used machinery and equipment; thus, most of a closing
plant's equipment would be scrapped.

Salvage value is represented by the sum of the net working  capital  and
the scrap or salvage value of the fixed assets.  In developing model  plants,
the salvage values of fixed  assets were determined from estimates obtained
from industry surveys.   The values vary widely between model  plants.
                                  VI-18
-------
                    E.'   Sales and Cost Characteristics
Model plant  sales and costs' characteristics were developed from the  indus-
try  survey responses, conversations with  industry personnel, and from  in-
formation available  in published sources.  Financial  profiles depicting
sales and costs' characteristics were developed for each of the model
plants.  Due to the  number of tables required to depict each model's  pro-
file, the tables are presented in Appendix B of this  report.  The profiles
of the existing direct and indirect discharger models are very similar to
each other with the  principal differences due to differences in model  size
and  utilization rates.   Each major financial component is discussed below.

1.   Annual Sales

Annual sales of the  model plants were determined from the production  char-
acteristics  described in Tables VI-2, VI-3, VI-4 and  VI-5 as well as  from
estimates of final product prices.  Prices were estimated primarily from
the  industry surveys and as discussed previously, were based on differences
in product mixes as  produced by the various types and sizes of models  in
each of the  subcategories.  Prices generally varied within subcategories
between different size and type models.  This variation reflects differences
in products and markets  that can be expected in the industry.

2.   Textile and Fiber Materials Costs

The  costs of textile and fiber materials used as inputs to the models pro-
duction varied widely between both subcategories and types of mills within
subcategories.  The  commission models reflected no raw material  input costs
since they were assumed  to be processing textile materials owned by other
mills on a commission or fee basis.  The integrated models reflected rel-
atively low costs in all subcategories as their inputs were assumed to be
yarn and, in some cases, fiber.   The material  costs for the finishing mills
(own fabrics) were appreciably higher than the other models as  they repre-
sented the purchase of semi-processed fabrics  and  apparel.

3.   Labor Costs

Labor costs were developed from the industry surveys and  reflect  varying
wages for different types and sizes of mills.   The labor  costs  include
costs for both direct and indirect  labor.

In the existing mills categories,  the highest  labor costs  occurred  among
the commission models,  amounting  to between  35  and  40  percent of  sales.
Since these mills  incurred little material  input costs,  labor costs  repre-
sented their major  cost component.   The  labor'costs  of the  finishing  mills
(own  fabric)  ranged between  10 to  20 percent of  sales.  Those of  the
integrated  mills were generally  higher,  with most  being about 20  to  30
percent of  sales.


                                 VI-19
-------
For the new source models, the labor costs were aoproximately 15 percent lower
than those of the corresponding existing models.  These lower costs reflect
the increased operating efficiencies expected of these new mills.

4.  Other Costs

These costs include expenditures for dyes and finsihing materials and other
miscellaneous costs, including administrative and selling expenses.  They
varied considerably for different models and were generally the highest
(as a percent of sales) in the commission mills, ranging between 15 to 25
percent for those models.

5.  Depreciation and Interest Costs

The model plants' depreciation and interest costs were developed from the
industry surveys and published sources.   Depreciation and interest both
expressed as a percent of sales are shown in Tables VI-10 and VI-11 for
existing direct and indriect discharging model  plants, respectively.  With
a few exceptions, the costs were generally the same for both the direct and
indirect discharging models.  Depreciation as a percent of sales ranged
from a low of 0.4 percent for the medium integrated yarn mill (7) to a
high of 5.1 for the large wool scouring plant (direct dischargerj(l).   De-
preciation for the remaining models generally fell  in the range of 1 to 3
percent of the models'  sales.  Interest costs expressed as a percent of
sales varied considerably less than depreciation.  A number of model plants
incurred no interest costs.  The model  plants with the highest interest costs
were the large commission woven fabric  finishing models (4a,c) with an
interest cost of 2.7 percent of the models'  sales.   The rates of the majority
of models varied generally between 1.0  and 2.0 percent.

In the case of the new source mode'ls, the depreciation as a percent of
sales varied from 1.0 to 13.3 percent.  As expected, interest costs as  a
percent of sales for the new source models were significantly greater  than
those of the existing source models because  of the  greater debt load associ-
ated with a new facility.   The new source models' interest and depreciation
expenditures are summarized in Tables VI-12  and VI-13.


       F.  Model  Plant Income and Annual  Cash Flow Characteristics


For each model plant, the following were computed:   its after-tax income,
return on sales, return on total  assets,  and annual  cash flow (dollar  amount
as well  as percent of sales, and  as a percent of total assets).   These are
presented in Table VI-14 for the  existing direct discharging models,
Table VI-15 for the existing indirect discharging models,  and Tables VI-16
and VI-17 for the new source models.   It should be  noted that these incomes
and annual cash flows are based on 1979  dollars and represent "base cases".
The existing direct discharging models  reflect  BPT  controls (except as noted
in Chapter VII) while the indirect models reflect no controls (pretreatment).


                                  VI-20
-------
Table IV-10.  The textile industry,  representative existing model  plants' depreciation and interest  -
                                       direct dischargers
Subcategory

1 . Wool scouring


2. Wool finishing


3. (Omitted)
4. Woven fabric finishing
A. Simple






B. Complex





C. Desizing







5. Knit fabric finishing
A. Simple




B. Complex




C. Hosiery


6. Carpet finishing


7. Stock & yarn
finishing






8. Nonwoven manufac-
turing
9. Felted fabric
finishing
Size

Small
Medium
Large
Small
Medium
Large

Small


Medium


Large

Small

Medium


Large
Small


Medi urn


Large

Small

Medium

Large

Small

Medium
Large

Small

Medium
Small
Medium
Large
Small


Medium

Large

X-large
Small
Medium
Small
Medium
Daily
capacity
(kkg)
16.2
35.6
81.0
7.4
18.6
37.3

5.4


29.6


73.9

23.3

116.3


193.3
21.4


53.6


178.5

8.0

32.2

160.8

7.7

18.5
30.9

2.5

5.5
20.2
48.6
121.5
9.8


23.4

39.1

58.6
10.4
23.6
0.9
2.0
Type
plant

Commission
Commission
Commission
Integrated
Integrated
Integrated

Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Own hosiery
Integrated
Own hosiery
Integrated
Integrated
Integrated
Commission
Own yarn
Integrated
Own yarn
Integrated
Own yarn
Integrated
Integrated
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
Depreciation
($000)
41.6
107.3
415.1
231.2
235.8
1,396.6

21.7
49.8
129.4
307.4
406.3
1,221 .5
789.5
2,089.9
241.9
1.024.2
1,373.4
2.539.8
2,986.3
6,095.9
221.3
292.3
939.6
912.2
1.146.4
1,511.7
3,972.7
3,212.9
125.1
301.8
510.1
1,447.7
2,719.2
6,843.0
121.3
329.2
344.1
521.6
1,389.3
19.4
458.4
138.4
348.6
523.0
809.2
116.4
177.6
204.0
361.7
85.0
607.4
935.5
1,393.2
193.7
285.1
115.4
153.3
Depreciation
as a % of
sales
(%)
2.6
3.2
5.1
1.4
0.7
1.4

1.3
1.0
1.4
3.5
1.4
2.7
4.3
2.1
3.5
2.7
3.5
2.2
2.1
2.1
3.5
1 .4
2.7
4.3
2.2
2.1
2.2
2.1
4.0
2.0
4.7
2.1
4.7
2.1
4.0
2.0
2.1
1.7
2.1
0.5
4.6
0.9
1.6
1.1
1.3
4.7
1.1
2.3
2.2
0.4
2.2
1.9
1.9
2.5
1 .2
2.3
2.3
Interest
($000)
0.0
0.0
3.2
132.1
909.5
1,596.0

18.4
5.0
129.4
3.3
0.0
452.4
495.7
0.0
7.0
379.3
39.2
0.0
284.4
530.6
5.4
0.0
348.0
5/2.9
416.9
0.0
0.0
306.0
18.8
120.7
130.2
68.9
694.3
325.9
18.2
131.7
281.4
133.2
66.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
174.3
672.0
684.7
19.8
0.0
36.4
98.6
340.0
165.7
689.3
1,030.3
111 .3
iso.;
74.2
125.9
Interest as
a ?i of
sales
(S)
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.8
2.7
1 .6

1.1
0.1
1 .4
0.1
0.0
1.0
2.7
0.0
0.1
1 .0
0.1
0.0
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 .0
2.7
0.8
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.6
0.8
1.2
0.1
1.2
0.1
0.6
0.8
0.7
1 .2
0.1
O.C
0.0
0.0
0.8
1 .4
1 .1
0.8
0.0
0.5
0.6
1.6
0.6
1 .4
1 .4
1 .4
0.3
1.3
2.3
                                                 VI-21
-------
Table IV-11.  The textile industry,  representative existing model  plants' depreciation and interest  -
                                     indirect dischargers


1 .
2.
3.
4.








5.








6.
Subcategory

Uool scouring
Wool finishing
(Omitted)
Woven fabric finishing
A. Simple


B. Complex


C. Desizing


Knit fabric finishing
A. Simple


B. Complex


C. Hosiery


. Carpet finishing
Size

Small
Large
Small
Medium
Large

Small
Medium
Large
Small
Medi urn
Large
Small
Medium
Large
Small
Medium
Large
Small
Medium
Large
Small
Medium
Large
Small
Medium
Large
Daily
capacity
(kkg)
16.2
81.0
3.1
18.6
37.3

2.4
12.3
49.3
9.7
23.3
116.3
21.4
53.6
178.5
1.6
19.3
32.2
7.7
18.5
46.3
2.5
5.5
12.6
3.9
48.6
121.5
Type
plant

Commission
Commission
Integrated
Integrated
Integrated

Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Own hosiery
Integrated
Own hosiery
Integrated
Own hosiery
Integrated
Integrated
Integrated
Integrated
Depreciation
($000)
23.5
250.5
126.7
702.2
1,396.6

10.0
22.8
59.3
117.9
246.6
370.1
342.2
1.055.0
1,391.3
94.0
196.4
294.7
209.6
318.6
1,024.2
1,723.7
2,589.8
3,172.6
205.3
274.8
883.2
912.2
1,146.4
1,511.7
3,972.7
4,581.3
40.3
40.8
306.8
873.2
510.1
1 ,305.2
134.3
292.6
291.5
844.1
782.4
2,094.4
77.8
144.3
138.4
184.7
346.0
430.9
150.9
393.6
735.3
Depreciation
as a % of
sales
(X)
2.6
3.2
1.8
1.4
1.4

1.3
1 .0
1.4
3.5
2.2
1.6
4.3
2.2
2.1
3.5
2.2
1.6
3.5
1 .4
2.7
3.5
2.2
2.1
3.5
1.4
2.7
4.3
2.2
2.1
2.2
2.1
4.0
1.5
4.7
2.1
4.7
2.1
4.0
2.0
4.7
2.1
4.7
2.1
1.5
1 .5
0.9
1.5
0.9
1.5
1.6
1 .2
1 .3
Interest
($000)
0.9
0.0
84.5
802.6
1,596.0

8.4
2.3
59.3
6.7
123.3
393.3
528.7
383.6
0.0
5.4
98.2
313.2
6.0
0.0
379.3
337.2
0.0
302.2
5.9
0.0
327.1
572.9
416.9
0.0
0.0
436.3
11 .1
13.6
78.3
291 .1
130.2
62.2
21.3
117.0
74.4
281.4
199.8
99.7
25.9
0.0
0.0
36.9
0.0
86.2
75.4
459.2
622.6
Interest as
a % of
sales
(%)
0.1
0.0
1.2
1.6
1.6

1.1
0.1
1 .4
0.2
1.1
1 .7
2.7
0.8
0.0
0.2
1.1
1.7
0.1
0.0
1.0
1.7
0.0
0.2
0.1
0.0
1.0
2.7
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.2
1 .1
0.5
1.2
0.7
1.2
0.1
0.3
0.3
1.2
0.7
1.2
0.1
0.5
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.3
0.8
1 .4
1 .1
                                                   VI-22
-------
         Table  IV-11.  The textile industry, representative existing model plants' depreciation jnd interest -
                                          indirect discnargers (continuea)
    Subcategory
                           Size
 Daily
capacity
 Type
plant
Depreciation
Depreciation
  as a " of
    sales
                                                                                              Interest
Interest as
  a T, of
   sales
                                      (kkg)
 7.  Stock & yarn  finishing   Small      4.3
                            Medium     9.8
                            Large
                                     23.5
                            X-large    58.6


8. Nonwoven inanufacturing    Small      10.4
                            Medium     23.6
                            Large      56.7
9. Felted fabric finish-
   ing
Small       0.9
Medium     4.4
Large     10.7
           Commission
           Own yarn
           Integrated

           Commission
           Own yarn
           Integrated

           Commission
           Own yarn
           Integrated

           Own yarn
           Integrated

             N.A.
             N.A.
             N.A.

             N.A.
             N.A.
             N.A.
               (5000)

                13.6
                59.9
                88.7

                98.8
               109.3
               204.0

               180.8
               361.7
                69.7

              .506.4
               164.2
               256.7
               736.6
              .729.3

               115.4
               194.3
                24.5
                      1 .7
                      1.5
                      2.3

                      5.3
                      1.3
                      2.8

                      4.9
                      2.2
                      0.4

                      3.7
                      0.4

                      2.5
                     2.8
                     2.1
                     1.2
                  ($000)

                    5.6
                   27.9
                   15.3

                   52.2
                   58.9
                   36.4

                   73.8
                   98.5
                  278.3

                  ,302.9
                  656.4

                  143.3
                  233.9
                    0.0

                   74.2
                    0.0
                   10.2
    0.7
    0.7
    0.5

    2.8
    0.7
    0.5

    2.0
    0.6
    1 .6

    3.2
    1.6
    1 .4
    1.0
    0.0

    1 .8
    0.0
    0.5
                                                          VI-23
-------







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-------
The baseline income and cash flow characteristics are discussed below for
the three categories of model  plants.

1.  Existing Direct Discharging Models

As shown in Table VI-14, after-tax income ranged from a loss of $64,000
for the small wool scouring model (1) to a profit of over $7 million for
the large integrated woven fabric (complex) model (4b).  The returns on
sales for the small plants in  most subcategories were 2 percent or less,
with three of the small models having returns of less than 1 percent.  The
most profitable model was the  small  felted fabric model (9) with a return
on sales of close to 4.8 percent (after-tax).  The commission mills were
the least profitable, with most of the size models having returns on sales
of less than 2 percent.

The existing direct discharging models'  cash flow were positive in all
cases.  The smallest cash flow was the small wool scouring model (1) with
a negative cash flow of $22,000.  The largest cash flow generated was for
the large integrated woven complex (4b), with its annual  cash flow nearly
$14 million.

2.  Existing Indirect Discharging Models

The after-tax incomes for the  medium and large models in  this category
correspond fairly closely to those of the medium and large models in the
previous category.  As shown in Table VI-15, the incomes  ranged from a  low
of about $11,000 for the small commission woven fabric (simple) model (4a)
to a positive income of close  to $6  million for the large integrated woven
fabric model (desizing) (4c).   As a  percent of sales, the returns for the
small models were slightly lower than those of the existing direct
discharging models.

The annual cash flows for the existing indirect discharging models were
all positive with a low of $11,000 for the small commission woven simple
(4a) to a high of over $11 million for the large integrated woven fabric
(desizing) model  (4c).

3.  New Source Models

The after-tax income for the new source models are shown  in Tables VI-16
and VI-17 for direct and indirect dischargers, respectively.  The incomes
are substantially greater than those of the existing models for two
reasons.  First,  the cost structures used as the basis for developing new
source models were those of the more profitable and competitive plants in
each of the  subcategories, not the typical plants.  Secondly, the 15 per-
cent efficiency increases which were assumed to occur, for the most part,
offset the  high capital recovery costs associated with the new facilities.
While the incomes may appear high in comparison to those of the existing
models, they are  not unrealistic when measured as returns on investment.
 It  is highly unlikely that any firm would undertake the construction and

                                  VI-34
-------
operation of a new plant with a projected before-tax return on investment
(ROI) of less than 10 percent.   Most of the new source models fall  within
the 10 to 20 percent range.   The largest portion of the after-tax incomes
as measured by return on sales  fall  between 5 and 7 oercent in both the
direct and indirect categories.  The lowest return, 3.5 percent, is earned
by the felted fabric processing model  (9) (indirect discharger).  Four
models earn returns in excess of 10  percent, one model  in knit fabric
finishing (5) (direct discharger) and  three in woven fabric finishing (4)
(indirect dischargers).
                                  VI-35
-------
                      VII.  WASTEWATER CONTROL COSTS


This chapter outlines the discharge status of the textile industry,
selected alternative treatment technologies, costs associated with these
technologies, options considered for proposal, and options recommended for
proposal.  The supportive data and analyses for the information presented
in this chapter are presented in the Development Document. I/


               A.  Discharge and Wastewater Treatment Status


1.  Current Levels of Wastewater Treatment

As discussed in Chapter VI, about 20 percent of the mills generating
process-related wastewater are classified as direct dischargers with their
wastewater being discharged directly into receiving water; the remaining
80 percent are indirect dischargers with wastewater being discharged to
publicly owned treatment works (POTW's).  These estimates were based on a
survey conducted by the Technical Contractor which involved close to 2,000
production facilities.  The results of this survey are shown in Table
VII-1.  Hosiery products (5c) had the largest percentage of indirect
dischargers with a total of 153 which amounted to 96 percent of the total
mills surveyed in this subcategory.  The wool scouring subcategory (1) had
the least percentage of indirect dischargers with 63 percent of the total
number of those mills surveyed being indirect dischargers.  Within the
other subcategories, the percentage of indirect dischargers varied
generally between 70 and 90 percent.

The control measures and treatment technologies that are being utilized in
the textile industry include a broad range of in-plant controls and
end-of-pipe treatment.  The in-plant control measures range from minor
water conservation to complete change of process such as the replacement of
batch processing with continuous systems and aqueous dyeing with
nonaqueous.  The treatment technologies employed range from no treatment to
complete recycle systems.  The technologies, as listed below, include no
treatment; preliminary treatment (neutralization, screening, equalization,
heat exchange, disinfection, primary sedimentation, and flotation);
!/  Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines, New
    Source Performance Standards and Pretreatment Standards for the TextTTe
    Mills Point Source Category, U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency,
    Effluent Guidelines Division, EPA 440/l/79-022b.

                                  VII-1
-------
Table VII-1.  The textile industry-discharge status
            (before baseline closures)




1
2
3




4






5







6
7

8

9





Subcategory
. Wool scouring
. Wool finishing
. Low water use
processing
a. General
b. Water jet
weaving
. Woven fabric
finishing
a. Simple
processing
b. Complex
processing
c. Desizing
. Knit fabric
finishing
a. Simple
processing
b. Complex
processing
c. Hosiery
products
. Carpet finishing
. Stock & yarn
finishing
. Nonwoven
manufacturing
. Felted fabric
processing
TOTAL
Direct
Number
of
plants
6
8


66

3



35

14
36



24

15

7
11

36

5

1
267
Dischargers
Percent of
total in
subcategory
38
24


23

43



18

20
54



11

24

4
20

17

16

_6
19
Source: Effluent Guideline Division, U.S.

Development
Document.

Indirect Dischargers
Number
of
plants
10
26


223

4



156

56
31



185

47

153
45

178

26

	 15.
1,155
Environmental

Percent of
total in
subcategory
63
76


77

57



82

80
46



89

76

96
80

83

84

9£
81
Protection



Total
16
34


289

7



191

70
67



209

62

160
56

214

31

	 1£
1,422
Agency,

                       VII-2
-------
biological or BPT equivalent treatment (aerated and unaerated lagoons,
biological filtration, activated sludge, and chemical  coagulation/sedimen-
tation without preceding biological treatment); and advanced treatment
(filtration, chemical coagulation, and/or granular or powdered carbon).   As
shown below, approximate 7 percent of the direct dischargers are operating
with advanced treatment technologies while about 56 percent are operating
with BPT equivalent systems.  Thirty seven percent provide no treatment or
preliminary treatment only.  However, it is expected that many of these are
awaiting to connect to POTW's currently under construction or in the design
stage.


                        Wastewater Treatment Status

                                     Direct               Indirect
                                   Dischargers           Dischargers
                                   	(Percent)	
           No treatment                 18                  58
           Preliminary                  19                  35
           Biological (BPT)             56                   7
           Advanced                      7                  _1
                                       lOU"                 100


Approximately 60 percent of the indirect dischargers provide no treatment
while over 30 percent provide preliminary treatment.  Seven percent of the
indirect dischargers operate with biological or BPT equivalent treatment
systems.

2.  Plants Requiring Expenditures

Table VII-2 shows the total number of direct and indirect dischargers in
each subcategory and the number requiring BAT and PSES expenditures before
baseline closures.  In the direct discharge category, over 60 percent of
the plants will be required to make BAT expenditures.   The remaining are
currently meeting the required effluent limitations.  In most cases the
direct dischargers have met BPT requirements.  Only 12 percent of the
indirect dischargers are expected to require expenditures for PSES.
Although over half of the indirect dischargers are providing no treatment,
they can generally comply with PSES limitations with appropriate in-plant
controls.  Those mills required to make expenditures are those discharging
heavy metals in their waste streams.

The number of plants requiring expenditures is shown by subcategory and
size on page VIII-27 for direct dischargers and on page VIII-66 for
indirect dischargers.

                  B.  Alternative Treatment Technologies


As discussed in the Development Document, a broad range of alternative
treatment technologies were selected for the development of costs and for

                                   VII-3
-------
Table VII-2.  The textile industry-plants requiring pollution
             control expenditures (BAT and PSES)
                    (before baseline closures)
Direct Dischargers



Subcategory
1. Wool scouring
2. Wool finishing
3. Low water use
processing
a. General _!/
b. Water jet
weaving I/
4. Woven fabric
finishing
a. Simple
processing
b. Complex
processing
c. Desizing
5. Knit fabric
finishing
a. Simple
processing
b. Complex
processing
c. Hosiery
products
Total
number
of
plants
6
8


66

3



35

14
36



24

15

7
6. Carpet finishing 11
7. Stock & yarn
finishing
8. Nonwoven
manufacturing
9. Felted fabric
finishing
INDUSTRY TOTAL

36

5

1
267
I/ Low water use processing p
only.
Note: See Page VI
baseline cl
dischargers
Source: Effluent

11-27 for a
osures for
•
Guidelines

Plants
requiring
expenditure (BAT)
5
8


0

3



23

14
29



22

12

7
6

32

5

1
167
lants are required to

Indirect
Total
number
of
Dischargers

Plants
requiring
plants expenditure (PSES)
10
26


223

4



156

56
31



185

47

153
45

178

26

15
1,155
meet BCT effl

detailed listing by size category
direct dischargers and

Page VIII-66

7
18


0

0



0

19
16



0

0

51
0

30

0

0
141
uent limitations,

and after
for indirect

Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Development Document.
                       VII-4
-------
the analysis of these costs and resulting benefits in terms of pollutant
reductions.  The technologies selected for analysis are described in Table
VII-3 for existing sources and Table VII-4 for new sources.  Some treatment
alternatives were based on individual technologies and others on
combinations of two or more components.  The technologies include chemical
coagulation, filtration, flotation, activated carbon adsorption, and
ozonation.

The applicability of the various technologies for each of the subcategories
of existing source direct dischargers is illustrated in Table VII-5.  For
these models, it was assumed that the BPT level of treatment was in place
(except as noted previously for the base case) which includes screening,
extended-aeration, activated sludge, and secondary sedimentation with
solids recycled to the aeration basin.

The applicability of the various technologies for the existing indirect
sources are shown in Table VII-6.  The alternatives for each of the levels
of control included screening and equalization along with one or a
combination of the following technologies:  chemical coagulation,
multi-media filtration, dissolved air flotation, activated carbon
adsorption, and ozonation.  It was assumed that under baseline the models
were not providing any treatment.

Alternative treatment technologies for the new source direct dischargers
were described in Table VII-4 and their application to the model plants is
shown in Table VII-7.

Alternative treatment technologies for new source indirect dischargers are
also described in Table VII-7.  These alternatives modify those of the new
source direct dischargers by eliminating the activated sludge process and
providing segregation of toxic pollutants.


                      C.  Wastewater Treatment Costs

The costs of the alternative treatment technologies developed for the model
plants were based on the models' production levels, estimated wastewater
flows, and wastewater characteristics as discussed in the Development
Document.

1.  Investment Costs

Investment costs included installed costs of treatment components and
monitoring equipment plus allowances for contingencies and engineering.  A
contingency allowance of 15 percent of the installed cost was used to cover
unexpected costs due to local  mill conditions.  No allowance was made for
the possibility of temporary mill shutdowns during construction.
Engineering costs were estimated by using a percentage of installed costs
plus contingencies.
                                   VII-5
-------
         Table VII-3.   The textile industry,  alternative treatment
      technologies existing sources (direct and indirect dischargers)


  Technology                              Description

    A* Direct       BPT - Screening, extended aeration activated sludge,
                    sedimentation, and solids recycle to aeration basin

       Indirect     No treatment

    B               Chemical  coagulation and  sedimentation

    C               Multi-media filtration

    D               Chemical  coagulation, sedimentation, and multi-media
                    filtration

    E               Multi-media filtration and granular activated carbon

    F               Chemical  coagulation, sedimentation, multi-media
                    filtration and granular activated carbon

    G               Ozonation

    H               Chemical  coagulation, sedimentation, and ozonation

    I               Powdered activated carbon  treatment

    J               Multi-media  filtration  and  ozonation

    K               Chemical  coagulation,  sedimentation, multi-media
                    filtration,  and ozonation

    M**             Chemical  coagulation  and  dissolved air flotation

    N**             Chemical  coagulation,  dissolved  air flotation, multi-
                    media filtration,  and granular activated carbon

    P**             Chemical  coagulation,  dissolved  air flotation, and
                    ozonation


 * Alternative A is considered in  place.   All other  alternatives are added
   on to A and for indirect dischargers  include screening and equalization.
** Alternatives M, N,  and P apply  to wool  scouring only.

Source:  Effluent Guidelines  Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
         Develooment Document.
                                      VII-6
-------
              Table VII-4.  The textile industry, alternative treatment
                      technologies new sources (NSPS and PSNS)
   Type
discharge    Technology
                  Description
Direct
(NSPS)
Biological treatment (extended aeration activated
sludge).

Powdered activated carbon treatment.

Biological treatment plus chemical coagulation and
multimedia filtration.

Segregation of toxic pollutants waste streams from
other streams.  Provide multimedia filtration and
carbon adsorption for toxic pollutant waste streams and
biological treatment for other waste streams.

Segregation of toxic pollutants waste streams from
other waste streams.  Provide chemical  coagulation,
multimedia filtration, and carbon absorption for toxic
pollutant waste streams and biological  treatment for
other waste streams.

Segregation of toxic pollutants waste stream from other
waste streams.  Provide multimedia filtration for toxic
pollutant waste streams and biological  treatment for
other waste streams.
Indirect
(PSNS)
Preliminary treatment
neutralization).
[screening,  equalization,  and/or
                              Segregation of toxic pollutant waste streams from other
                              waste streams.  Preliminary treatment plus chemical
                              coagulation of toxic pollutant waste streams and
                              screening for other waste streams.

                              Segregation of toxic pollutant waste streams from other
                              waste streams.  Preliminary treatment plus chemical
                              coagulation and multimedia filtration for toxic
                              pollutant waste streams and screening for other waste
                              streams.

                              Segregation of toxic pollutant waste streams from other
                              waste streams.  Preliminary treatment plus multimedia
                              filtration and carbon adsorption for toxic pollutant
                              waste streams and screening for other waste streams.

                              Segregation of toxic pollutant waste streams from other
                              waste streams.  Preliminary treatment plus chemical
                              coagulation and multimedia filtration and carbon
                              adsorption for toxic pollutant waste streams and
                              screening for other waste streams.
Source:   Effluent Guidelines Division.
         Development Document.
          U.S.  Environmental  Protection Agency,
                                      VII-7
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The installed costs included costs for both equipment and construction.
The break-out of the percentages for each of these components for the major
processes is shown below.

                 Process               Equipment             Construction

          Chemical coagulation           20%                     80%
          Filtration                     20                      80
          Dissolved air flotation        35                      65
          Activated carbon               50                      50
          Ozonation                      50                      50
          Vacuum filtration              35                      65

The same bases were used in developing the costs for models in all
categories.  It should be noted that according to the Development Document
all technologies have small space requirements and accordingly, no land
costs were included.

The investment costs for the existing sources are contained in Tables VII-8
and VII-9 for direct and indirect dischargers, respectively.  Costs for new
source models are shown in Tables VII-10 and VII-11.  Investment costs of
the alternatives are also shown and expressed as percent of fixed assets in
Tables VII-12, VII-13, VII-14 and VII-15.  Since these controls are
considered'a part of the mills assets, this method of expressing the
requirements illustrates the relative magnitude of the treatment costs.

2.  Total Yearly Costs

Total yearly wastewater treatment costs consist of annual operating and
maintenance expenditures, cost of capital, and depreciation.  Operating and
maintenance expenditures are shown for the existing models in Tables VII-16
and VII-17 for the direct and indirect dischargers, respectively; those for
the new source models are included in Tables VII-18 and VII-19.  The
operating and maintenance expenditures include labor (rates of $15-$20 per
hour were used as the total cost for wages, benefits, and payroll
processing expense), sludge disposal (ranging from 2 to 25 dollars per
ton), energy and power, chemicals, and monitoring.

Capital cost was assumed to be 10-15 percent of the total investment.
Depreciation was calculated on a straight-line basis for the assumed life
of each alternative which was generally 15 years.

The total yearly costs are shown in Tables VII-20, VII-21, VII-22, and
VII-23 and represent the maximum costs, in 1979 dollars, that would occur
during the life of the pollution control facilities.  It was assumed in the
subsequent analysis, that the required outlays would be made over a period
of time, usually between 3 to 6 years.  Consequently, the yearly costs were
JY  Op. cit.


                                   VII-11
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Table VII-10.   The textile industry, new source -model plant wastewater
       controls' investment requirements-indirect dischargers

Subcategory
1. (Omitted)
2. Wool finishing
3. (Omitted)
4. Woven fabric finishing
a. Simple processing
b. Complex processing
c. Desizing
5. Knit fabric finishing
a. Simple processing
b. Complex processing
c. Hosiery products
6. Carpet finishing
7. Stock & Yarn finishing
8. Nonwoven manufacturing
9. Felted fabric processing
Size
(kkg)
Medium

Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Large
Medium
Medium
Large
Medium
I/ Costs for Treatment Alternative A
Source: Effluent Guidelines Division
Development Document.
Daily
capacity

18.6

12.3
23.3
53.6
19.3
18.5
12.6
48.6
9.8
56.7
4.4
Treatment Alternative (PSNS)V-new source
0


661.0

359,0
469.0
667.0
469.0
469.0
359.0
469.0
359.0
469.0
359.0
are omitted.
, U.S. Environmental
R-
- - - - - ( ^'
-(,;>
987.0

474.0
666.0
993.0
666.0
666.0
474.0
666.0
474.0
666.0
474.0
Protection
S
1 nnn \

2,041.0

1,288.0
1,539.0
2,041.0
1,539.0
1,539.0
1,288.0
1,539.0
1,288.0
1,539.0
1,288.0
Agency,
T


2,340.1

1,388.0
1,707.0
2,347.0
1,707.0
1,707.0
1,388.0
1,707.0
1,388.0
1,707.0
1,388.0

                                 VII-14
-------






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Table VII-14.   The  textile  industry, new source model plants pollution  control  investment
                   as  a  percent of fixed assets - indirect dischargers
Subcategory
1.
2.
3.
4.


5.


6.
7.
8.
9.
(omitted)
Wool finishing
(omitted)
Woven fabric finishing
a. Simple processing
b. Complex processing
c. Desizing
Knit fabric finishing
a. Simple processing
b. Complex processing
c. Hosiery products
Carpet finishing
Stock & yarn finishing
Nonwoven manufacturing
Fleted fabric processing
Size

Medium

Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Large
Medium
Medium
Large
Medium
11 Data for Treatment Alternative A are
Source: Effluent Guidelines Division, U.
Daily
capacity
(kkg)
18.6

12.3
23.3
53.6
19.3
18.5
12.6
48.6
9.8
56.7
4.4
omitted.
S. Environmental
Type
plant

Integrated

Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Own hosiery
Integrated
Integrated
Commission
Own yarn
N.A.
N.A.
Protection
Treatment alternatives (PSNS) I/ —
new sources
0

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2.8

13.2
4.9
1.9
11.4
3.0
1.5
4.2
1.8
1.1
7.6
2.7
7.2
2.3
4.3
3.8
3.4
8.9
7.2
0.8
2.4
4.1

18.8
7.1
2.8
17.1
4.5
2.2
6.3
2.8
1.6
11.3
4.0
10.8
3.3
6.2
5.5
5.1
12.8
10.3
1.2
3.4
Agency, Development
8.5

51.0
19.2
7.4
39.5
10.4
5.1
12.8
5.6
3.3
26.2
9.3
24.8
7.7
16.8
14.9
11.8
34.5
27.8
2.7
9.3
Document.
9.8

54.9
20.7
8.0
43.8
11.5
5.7
14.8
6.4
3.8
29.1
10.3
27.5
8.5
18.1
16.1
13.0
37.3
30.0
3.0
10.0

                                          VII-21
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                                                                    VII-24
-------
  Table VII-18.   The textile industry,  new source model plant wastewater
controls' annual operating and maintenance expenses - indirect dischargers
Daily Treatment
Subcategory
1. (Omitted)
2. Wool finishing
3. (Omitted)
4. Woven fabric finishing
a. Simple processing
b. Complex processing
c. Desizing
5. Knit fabric finishing
a. Simple processing
b. Complex processing
c. Hosiery products
6. Carpet finishing
7. Stock & Yarn finishing
8. Nonwoven manufacturing
9. Felted fabric processing
Size

Medium

Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Large
Medium
Medium
Large
Medium
!_/ Costs for Treatment Alternative A
Source: Effluent Guidelines Division
Development Document.
capacity 0
(kkg)
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23.3
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171.3
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130.5
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147.8
131.1
are omitted.
, U.S. Environmental
293.4

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196.3
292.0
192.5
195.9
141.0
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195.9
141.9
Protection
401.5

157.6
238.1
401.5
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238.1
157.6
238.1
157.6
238.1
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Agency,
475.4

171.2
273.1
474.0
269.3
272.7
172.7
272.7
170.9
272.7
173.6

                                     VII-25
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VII-29
-------
             Table VII-22.  The textile industry, new source model plant
               wastewater controls' annual cost - Indirect Dischargers
  Subcategory
 Size
  Daily

Capacity
  Treatment alternatives
  PSNS I/ — new sources
  0      R      S      T
1. (Omitted)

2. Wool finishing

3. (Omitted)

4. Woven fabric finishing
Medium
                                              (kkg)
   18.6
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6.
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8.
9.

a. Simple processing
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a. Simple processing
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Carpet finishing
Stock & yarn finishing
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processing
Medium
Medium
Medium

Medium
Medium
Large
Medium
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12
23
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Source: Effluent Guidelines Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
        Development Document.
                                        VII-30
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increased in increments to correspond with the expected outlays.  The data
in the above tables reflect the costs after all  the outlays have been made
and when the facilities are in full  operation.

To depict the magnitude of the treatment alternatives'  total  yearly costs
for each model, Tables VII-24, VII-25, VII-26 and VII-27 present the costs
expressed as a percent of the models' respective total  sales.

3.  Treatment Costs for Water Jet Heavers

As indicated in Table 2, water jet weavers will  be required to meet BCT
(Alternative A) only.  Treatment costs for Alternatives A through D are
listed below for comparative purposes.
                             Water Jet Weavers
                                             Treatment Alternatives
                                                   1        i
                                            	— ($1,000)
Small (4.8 kkg/day) Investment           308.0   206.0    133.0    303.0
                    Annual  costs         162.0   150.0     80.0    180.0

Medium (10.9 kkg/day) Investment         404.0   263.0    200.0    420.0
                      Annual costs       207.0   180.0    104.0    230.0

Investment requirements for Alternative A as a percent of fixed assets are
40.4 percent and 23.4 percent for the small  and medium models,
respectively.  Annual costs for the alternative are 3.7 percent and 2.1
percent of sales for the small and medium models, respectively.


                     D.  Treatment Options Considered


After a cost analysis of each of the alternative treatment technologies,
specific options were identified for consideration as the limitation
guidelines and standards of performance.   From the analysis (described in
the Development Document),  the more sophisticated technologies involving
activated carbon and ozone  were excluded from further consideration because
they were determined to be  too costly, energy intensive, and the pollutant
reductions associated with  the more sophisticated technologies were
obtainable with the other technologies.  These options which correspond, in
most cases, to the alternative treatment technologies are listed and
described in Table VII-28.   The aggregate investment and annualized costs
associated with those plants requiring additional expenditures are listed
below for each BAT and PSES option considered.  The costs of BAT Option 1
reflect the BPT expenditures required for those plants presently not
meeting BPT treatment levels in the hosiery products (5c), nonwoven
manufacturing (8), and felted fabric processing (9) subcategories.  Total
industry costs by option are summarized below.
                                  VII-32
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                                                      4-)
                                                  •—  o
                                                   o  s-
                                                   O  Q.
                                                   3
            ai cu

            5 S
            S2
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                                                   Q.UJ
                                                    c


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            •u -o
            re v

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-------
Table VII-26.   The  textile  industry, new source model  plants  pollution control annualized
                    cost as a percent of sales - indirect dischargers
Subcategory
1.
2.
3.
4.


5.


6.
7.
8.
9.
(omitted)
Wool finishing
(omitted)
Woven fabric finishing
a. Simple processing
b. Complex processing
c. Oesizing
Knit fabric finishing
a. Simple processing
b. Complex processing
c. Hosiery produces
Carpet finishing
Stock & yarn finishing
Nonwoven manufacturing
Felted fabric processing
Size

Medium

Medium
Medium
Med'i urn
Medium
Medium
Large
Medium
Medium
Large
Medium
I/ Data for Treatment Alternative A are
Source: Effluent Guidelines Division, U
Daily
capacity
(kkg)
18.6

12.3
23.3
53.6
19.3
18.5 •
12.6
48.6
9.8
56.7
4.4
omitted.
.S. Environmental
Type
plant

Integrated

Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Own hosiery
Integrated
Integrated
Commission
Own yarn
NA
NA
Protection
Treatment alternatives (PSNS) _!/--
new sources
0

R

S

T


0.7

5.5
1.6
0.8
4.2
1.1
0.7
1.7
0.7
0.5
3.8
0.6
4.0
0.6
0.5
0.6
0.8
9.9
2.2
0.5
2.0
Agency,
0.9

6.5
1.9
0.9
5.1
1.4
0.8
2.2
0.9
0.6
4.6
0.7
5.0
0.8
0.6
0.8
0.9
11.7
2.6
0.6
2.4
Development
1.5

11.0
3.3
1.6
8.3
2.2
1.3
3.5
1.4
1.0
7.6
1.2
8.0
1.2
1.0
1.3
1.5
20.0
4.4
1.0
4.0
Document.
1.7

11.9
3.6
1.7
9.3
2.4
1.5
4.1
1.7
1.2
8.5
1.3
9.0
1.4
1.1
1.4
1.7
21.6
4.8
1.2
4.4

                                          VII-38
-------












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VII-39
-------
                  Table  VII-28.  Treatment options considered
                            for  the  textile  industry
Performance
standards
(Existing
sources)
BAT
(and BCT)
Option

1
2
3
4
End-of-pipe treatment technology

Biological treatment (BPT)
BPT plus filtration
BPT plus chemical coagulation
BPT plus chemical coagulation
and filtration
Alternative
treatment

A
C
B
D
PSES
                 2
                 3
(New sources)

NSPS
1
2
PSNS
            Pretreatment standards  based on
              screening,  equalization,  and/or
              neutralization  *
            Pretreatment plus chemical  coagulation
            Pretreatment plus chemical  coagulation
              and filtration
BPT
BPT plus chemical  coagulation  and
  filtration
Segregate toxic pollutant waste streams
  from other process-related and non-
  process related waste streams.   Pro-
  vide chemical coagulation, filtrating
  and carbon adsorption for toxic pol-
  lutant waste streams and biological
  treatment for other waste stream.

Pretreatment standards based on screen-
  ing, equalization, and/or neutraliza-
  tion as necessary for compliance with
  prohibitive discharge provisions (same
  as PSES Option 1).

Pretreatment of all waste plus segrega-
  tion and chemical coagulation and
  filtration of toxic pollutant waste
  streams.

Option 2 plus the addition of activated
  carbon adsorption to the treatment
  train applied to the toxic stream.
                                            A
                                            B
A

R
Currently in place.

Source:  Effluent Guidelines Division, U.S.  Environmental  Protection  Agency,
         Development Document.
                                    VII-40
-------
                    Total Industry Cost (Before Baseline Closure by Option
                       Option            Investment          Annual izecT
                       	(million dollars)	

          BAT            1                    4                   2
                         2                   58                  28
                         3                   71                  50
                         4                  122                  68

          PSES           2                   58                  34
                         3                   80                  41

          BCT            1                    1                   1
  (water jet weavers only)
                     E.  Treatment Options Recommended


Based upon an analyses of the various treatment options, EPA recommended an
option for each of the subcategories as the basis for proposed effluent
limitations and performance standards (Table VII-29).  The total  industry
investment and annualized costs for implementation of these options are
1isted below.

         Estimated Aggregated Cost of Compliance (Before Baseline
                Closures) for Recommended Treatment Options

                    Option              Investment          Annualized Cost
                    		—({million)			

     BAT            Various                 65                    32
     PSES               2                   58                    34
     BCT                1                   J,                   _[_
      (water jet weaver)
                                            124                   67
             F.  Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
Estimated costs for solvent disposal  under RCRA Interim Status Standards
are listed in Tables VII-30 and VII-31 for direct and indirect discharger
models, respectively.   Compliance costs include the following  components.

     1.  Initial costs - occur only in the first year and are  not
         depreciated.
     2.  Annual costs  - occur every year.
     3.  Capital costs - occur only in the first year and are
         depreciated.
     4.  Closure costs - occur during the  first five years.
                                   VII-41
-------
Table VII-29.   Treatment options proposed

BAT


PSES
NSPS
PSNS
BCT
Source:
Options
selected
2
4
1
2
2
2
1
Effluent Gui
Development
Treatment
alternative
C
D
A
B
R
0
A
delines Division,
Document.
Applicable subcategory
All except wool finishing and felted
fabric processing
Wool finishing
Felted fabric processing
All
All
All
Water jet weavers, only
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
                  VII-42
-------
      Table VII-30.  The textile industry RCRA ISS costs for solvent
                       disposal-direct discharger

Subcategory
Size
Number
of plants
requiring
disposal
Initial
Annual
	 (51
1.
2.
3.

4.











5.











6.

7.




8.

9.

Wool scouring
Wool finishing
Low water use
processing
Woven fabric
finishing
a. Simple
processing


b. Complex
processing

c. Desizing


Knit fabric
finishing
a. Simple
processing


b. Complex
processing


c. Hosiery
products
Carpet finishing

Stock & yarn
finishing



Nonwoven
manufacturing
Felted fabric
processing
Medium
Small


1
1


6.2
6.2

Uf\ +• a n n 1 •
3.5
3.4

ionkla
Capital
,000 	
5.6
5.6


Closure
	
2.1
2.1






Small
Medium
Large

Small
Medium
Small
Medium
Large



Small
Medium
Large

Small
Medium
Large

Small
Small
Medium

Small
Medium
Large
X-Large

Small

Small



3
2
1

1
1
2
1
2



2
2
1

1
1
1

1
1
1

3
1
1
1

2

1



6.2
6.2
6.2

6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2



6.2
6.2
6.2

6.2
6.2
6.2

6.2
6.2
6.2

6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2

6.2

6.2



3.3
3.4
3.6

3.4
3.8
3.4
3.8
4.0



3.4
3.5
3.9

3.4
3.4
3.4

3.3
3.4
3.5

3.4
3.4
3.5
3.6

3.4

3.3



5.6
5.6
5.6

5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6



5.6
5.6
5.6

5.6
5.6
5.6

5.6
5.6
5.6

5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6

5.6

5.6



2.1
2.1
2.1

2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1



2.1
2.1
2.1

2.1
2.1
2.1

2.1
2.1
7.1

2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1

2.1

2.1
Source:   Effluent  Guidelines Division, U.S. Environmental  Protection  Agency,
         Development Document.
                                          VII-43
-------
            Table VII-31.  The tex*-'1e industry  RCRA  ISS costs for solvent
                           disposal-indirect  discharger

Subcategory
Size
.Number
of plants
requiring
disposal
Initial
Annual
Capital
Closure
	 (51,000 	 	
1.
2.

3.

4.












5.












6.


7
/ .




8.


9.


Wool scouring
Wool finishing

Low water use
processing
Woven fabric
finishing
a. Simple
processing


b. Complex
processing


c. Oesizing


Knit fabric
finishing
a. Simple
processing


b. Complex
processing


c. Hosiery
products

Carpet finishing


Stock & yarn
finishing



Nonwoven
manufacturing

Felted fabric
processing

Small
Small
Medium





Small
Medium
Large

Small
Medium
Large
Small
Medium
Large



Small
Medium
Large

Small
Medium
Large

Small
Medium
Small
Medium
Large

Small
Medium
Large
X-Large

Small
Medium

Small
Medium
1
3
1





8
11
4

3
3
2
3
2-
1



12
12
4

3
2
2

20
3
3
3
1

14
7
4
2

3
1

1
1
6.2
6.2
6.2






6.2
6.2
6.2

6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2



6.2
6.2
6.2

6.2
6.2
6.2

6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2

6.2
6.2
5.2
6.2

6.2
6.2

6.2
6.2
3.4
3.3
3.4

._ 	 Nnf




3.3
3.4
3.8

3.4
3.4
3.8
3.4
3.5
4.0



3.3
3.4
3.8

3.4
3.4
3.5

3.3
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.8

3.3
3.4
3.4
3.5

3.4
3.4

3.3
3.3
5.6
5.6
5.6

applicable-



5.6
5.6
5.6

5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6



5.6
5.6
5.6

5.6
5.6
5.6

5.5
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6

5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6

5.6
5.5

5.6
5.6
2.1
2.1
2.1






2.1
2.1
2.1

2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1



2.1
2.1
2.1

2.1
2.1
2.1

2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1

2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1

2.1
2.1

2.1
2.1
Source:
         Development Document.
                                       VII-44
-------
Total industry costs are estimated as follows.

                                          Total Costs
                            Initial     Annual     Capital     Closure
                            	—-($1,000)-——	-—

Direct Dishcargers           222.4       125.1      200.7        75.6
Indirect Dischargers         864.9       474.8      780.6       294.6
                                 VII-45
-------
                     VIII.  PROJECTED ECONOMIC IMPACTS
The imposition of wastewater control requirements on the textile industry
will result in economic impacts for the industry since it will  be required
to make expenditures which, for all practical purposes, will  not result in
improved operating efficiency.  Thus, the industry's profitability will be
reduced even if only by a very small amount.  However for certain plants
the impact will be quite severe.  As the capital and annual operating and
maintenance expenditures for wastewater conrrols increase, the resulting
economic impacts become more significant.  The purpose of this chapter is
to describe the various economic impacts associated with the treatment
alternatives described in Chapter VII and to project the economic
ramifications of mills incurring the associated expenditures.

For purposes of this analysis, economic impacts are assessed for each of
the model plants described in Chapter VI utilizing the various wastewater
control alternatives' costs presented in Chapter VII.  The economic impact
methodology, described in Chapter II, was primarily based on a net present
value (NPV) analysis to determine the models' required price increases
necessary to offset control expenditures and the financial impacts
attributable to the control expenditures.  Utilizing this information and
other industry economic characteristics described in this report, the
industry's ability to increase prices is assessed.  Other economic impacts
such as plant closures, production impacts, employment losses, community
effects, dislocation effects, and balance of trade effects are assessed for
each of the treatment options described in the preceding chapter.

The chapter is organized to examine impacts on the following regulations.

        Best Available Technology Economically Achievable (BAT)
        Best Conventional Pollutant Control Technology (BCT)
        Pretreatment Standards for Existing Sources (PSES)
        New Source Performance Standards (NSPS)
        Pretreatment Standards for New Sources (PSNS)

The discussion of each regulatory area includes four major impact
variables.

          1.  Required price increases
          2.  Financial effects
          3.  Production effects
          4.  Effects of combining RCRA costs with wastewater control  costs
                                   VIII-1
-------
Each of these is discussed briefly below (See Chapter II  for complete
discussion of the methodology).

Required Price Increase - An implicit indicator of the expected price
effects attributable to the imposition of wastewater controls used in this
analysis was the amount of sales price increase required  to maintain
profitability, after control expenditures, at a level equal to that prior
to control expenses.  The method of the computation of this required price
increase was described in detail in Chapter II (Methodology) of this
report.  The ability of mills to pass on such required price increases is
evaluated in Section D of this chapter.

The textile industry is expected to be limited in its ability to increase
prices to recover expenditure requirements for wastewater controls.
Accordingly, this analysis describes impacts based on the assumption of no
price increases.

Financial Effects - Based on the model profiles described in Chapter VI and
the estimated cost of wastewater control described in Chapter VII, the
following financial indicators were computed for the base case (without
wastewater controls considered) and the regulated  case (with wastewater
controls considered).
          .   After-tax Return on Sales
          .   After-tax Return on Total Assets
          .   Annual  Cash Flow
          .   Net Present Value

These indicators were computed for each model according to the net present
value (NPV)  and accounting procedures outlined in Chapter II, Methodology.
It should be noted that unlevel  discounted cash flow procedures were used
in determining the models' NPV's.  That is, for each of the twenty-one
years, independent cash flows were computed based on certain assumptions of
inflation, profitability, depreciation, and reinvestment.  Accordingly, the
after-tax returns on sales and total  assets varied slightly from year to
year.  To compensate for this, a 21-year average was computed for each
return.  Annual cash flows and NPV's  also varied from year to year;
however, for these indicators, the respective amounts in year 21 were used.
This procedure was used to view the cash flow and NPV effects of wastewater
control expenditures at the end of a  21-year period.  Because of these
procedures,  the base case financial indicators may differ slightly from
similar indicators presented in Chapter VI, Model Plants.

After-tax return on sales reflects the general level of profitability in an
industry.  The returns of the models  reflect the low level of profits
typically experienced by the textile  industry.  The imposition of
wastewater control requirements on the industry contributes to a further
reduction of its returns.
                                   VIII-2
-------
Due to the relative age of most of the mills, their respective assets have
been substantially depreciated.  Consequently, some of the models' average
returns on total assets were relatively high in the base case.  The
imposition of wastewater control expenditures on the models resulted in
impacts (e.g. reductions in the returns) similar to those impacts
associated with the models' returns on sales.

The models' annual cash flows were based on data reflective of the 21st
year and were computed by adding the model's after-tax profits to their
respective depreciations.  Cash flows are significant in that they
represent an inflow (or outflow) of dollars to the models' operations.
Thus, even if the mills' profits were negative, they could maintain
operations in the short-run if they could sustain positive cash flows.

The model plant net present values (NPV) discounts the plant's future cash
flows to present day values at the current nominal cost of capital
estimated at 10 percent (See Section IV.C.7 for discussion on the
industry's cost of capital).  The net present value concept indicates the
size of the return to the equity holders in excess of the firm's 10.0
percent cost of capital; thus, if the NPV was positive, it was assumed the
particular firm was earning a return during the 21 year period in excess of
the minimum return necessary to attract investors (the cost of capital).
If the NPV was negative, then the firm's return was less than the minimum
cost of capital.

Production Effects - Production effects may result from two sources: plant
closures resulting from the economic impact of regulations, and production
decreases in existing plants resulting from production curtailments or
reduction resulting from regulatory action.

Plant closures may result from the inability of less profitable plants to
adequately recover required pollution abatement costs through increased
product price.  The plant closure criteria used in this analysis is based
upon the net present value of future cash flow discounted at the industry
cost of capital.  Thus if a firm net present value (after controls) exceeds
their cost of capital  it is in the firm's best interest to continue
operation.  If their NPV's are negative then it is assumed the firm would
liquidate, realize salvage value in cash and reinvest in a more financially
viable investment (one which would earn at least their cost of capital).

Because of the large number of model  plants considered, the number of
control alternatives and the number of financial  parameters calculated for
each alternative, formalized closure criteria were developed to assist in
the identification of those segments where plant closures may be expected.
In the development of these criteria, certain assumptions were necessary to
simplify the interpretation of the impact results.
                                   VIII-3
-------
The closure criteria utilized are depicted below.  These criteria basically
represent the models'  abilities to continue operations after incurring
expenditures for wastewater controls.


 Model's                   Net Present                     Annual Cash
Viability             	Value	         	Flow	

Viable                Positive                        Positive
Marginal              SI ightly Negative _!/            Slightly Positive \j
Closure               Negative                        Negative

Based on the above criteria, closure decisions are made for each model at
each treatment level.   The number of existing facilities associated with
the representative models which will cease operations due to wastewater
control expenditure requirements are projected utilizing the following
methodology.

(1)  Based on the NPV closure criteria described previously, the
     subcategories and associated models projected to close are identified.

(2)  Once identified, the following factors are considered in the
     determination of the number of actual existing plant closures
     associated with each projected model plant closure.

     (a)  The number of existing facilities associated with the model.

     (b)  Historical trends for existing facilities within the subcategory
          as well as projections of the subcategory's future expectations
          (baseline closures).

     (c)  The severity by which the model's financial data are reduced.
          Are the financial data substantially reflective of closure or are
          the data reflective of a borderline situation?

     (d)  Review the overall economic viability of the segment.

(3)  Based on the above the number of existing facilities projected to
     close is made.  These projections are 'determined quantitatively, based
     on the analyst's knowledge of business and economic principles as well
     as the analyst's knowledge of the industry.

Baseline closures are first estimated and excluded from the estimated plant
closures resulting from control alternatives.
If   The criterion utilized here was that the positive cash flow must be
~    greater than the amount by which the NPV was negative or a positive
     NPV must be greater than the amount by which the cash flow was
     negative.  If not, then the plant was projected to close.
                               VIiI-4
-------













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Effects of combining RCRA costs with control costs.  The impacts of RCRA
costs were analyzed in two steps.First, the RCRA costs were applied to
the model plants without BAT controls using the same methodology as was
used for effluent control; second, RCRA costs were combined with the costs
of treatment alternatives.  Actually RCRA costs were very minor so the
resulting impacts were of little significance.


         A.  Best Available Technology Economically Achievable (BAT)


BAT effluent limitations are being considered for existing sources
discharging directly to receiving waters.  Excluding the low water use
processors (subcategory 3), an estimated 164 (of 198) plants will  be
required to install end-of-pipe treatment technology.  As indicated in
Chapter VII, 9 treatment alternatives (A through K) were costed and
analyzed for most of the subcategories.  Based on a cost analysis  of each
of the treatments, as discussed in the Development Document, specific
alternatives were identified as options for consideration (Options 1-4).


1.  Required Price Increases

The required price increases necessary to maintain baseline profitability
levels after the imposition of controls are shown in Table VIII-1.  The
price increase information is shown by subcategory, size of plant, plant
type and treatment alternative.  In general the price increases demonstrate
a great deal of variability in the levels of impact depending upon plant
size, type of plant and control options.  For example, the price increases
range from a low of 0.1 percent for large integrated woven fabric  mills
when considering treatment alternative B to a high of 6.2 percent  for small
stock and yarn finishing plants considering alternative F.

As an example of the information contained in the table and some of the
general  patterns that are evident, an example from the woven fabric
finishing subcategory is used.

In woven fabric finishing, the largest increases are required by the small
simple processing models.  Under Treatment Alternative F, the small
commission model requires an increase of 4,1 percent; the own fabric
requires an increase of 1.4 percent;  the integrated model, 1.1 percent.

Under Alternative C (Option 2), the increases are 1.0, 0.3, and 0.3 percent
for the commission, own fabric, and integrated models, respectively.  Under
Alternative D (Option 4), the increases are about twice as high as those
under Alternative C (Option 2).  For the other size categories in  the woven
subcategory, the differences in required price increases are not
                                  VIII-7
-------
significant among the three subdivisions (simple, complex,  and desizing)
when comparing the same type mills of similar production sizes.   This can
be illustrated by comparing the data for the medium simple, small  complex,
and small desizing models.

                         Daily          Type      Treatment Alternative
Subdivision             Capacity       Plant       C (Option 2)  ~~F
                         (kkg)
Simple                    29.6       Commission        0.6          2.4
                                     Own fabric        0.2          0.9
                                     Integrated        0.1          0.6
Complex                   23.3       Commission        0.7          2.1
                                     Own fabric        NA          NA
                                     Integrated        0.1          0.7
Desizing                  21.4       Commission        0.8          2.3
                                     Own fabric        0.2          1.2
                                     Integrated        0.1          0.7

For the commission models, the required increases varied from 2.1  percent
to 2.4 percent under Alternative F and from 0.6 percent to  0.8 percent
under Alternative C (Option 2).  Under Alternative F for the own fabric
models, the increase is 0.9 percent for the simple subdivision and 1.2
percent for the desizing.  Under Alternative C, the increases are  identical
among the subdivision for the own fabric models and the integrated models.
For the remaining woven models, the required increases are  generally small.
Under Alternative C (Option 2), the increases for the commission models are
0.4 percent or less for all sizes and subdivision.  Under the same
alternative the increases for the own fabric and integrated models are 0.2
percent or less.

2.  Financial Effects

The changes in the financial profiles of the model plants resulting from
the cost of BAT controls are based on the assumption of no  price increases.

a.  Return on Sales

The 21-year average after-tax return on sales under baseline conditions and
after BAT controls are presented in Table VIII-2 with the percentage
reductions in income shown on Table VIII-3.  The same pattern of impacts  as
demonstrated in Table VIII-1 is evident.  The smaller sized plants and
treatment alternatives E, F, G, and H generally demonstrate the  highest
level of impacts.  The after-tax return on sales criteria should be viewed
first under baseline conditions then under the control alternatives, as
significant differences occur in the baseline conditions.  For example, in
the wool scouring subcategory baseline profitability is very low and
control alternatives further enhance this condition.  Negative returns are
                                  VIII-8
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shown for all control alternatives when applied to the small and medium
sized plants.  Large plants have profits reduced to negative levels under
treatment alternative of G and H.  The impacts of treatment alternatives C,
D, and F result in profit reductions but not to negative levels.

The returns of the small commission models in all of the remaining
subcategories show significant reductions in profitability from the cost of
controls incurring negative returns under most of the alternatives.  The
returns of small models in woven fabric (simple) and show reductions in
excess of 100 percent for virtually all of the alternatives.  In addition
to the severe impacts on the commission models, negative returns are also
shown under all alternatives for own fabric models in two subcategories:
woven fabric (simple) and hosiery products.  The reduction in returns for
most of the large models in all subcategories are relatively minor, varying
between 5 and 20 percent.

b.  Return on Total Assets

The 21-year average after-tax returns on total assets before and after BAT
expenditures are shown in Table VIII-4.  The absolute values of the returns
under baseline are generally four and five times greater than the
corresponding returns on sales discussed above, because of the smaller
bases associated with the assets (total assets vary from about 20 to 50
percent of sales).  The negative values under the alternatives follow the
same pattern as those for returns on sales.  Negative returns are shown for
both the small and medium models in wool scouring and for the small
commission models in the other subcategories.  The largest negative returns
are indicated for the small commission models in wool scouring and woven
fabric (simple) and the small own hosiery models.

The reductions in the returns on assets of the large models are relatively
small.  For example, the return on assets of the large integrated woven
fabric (desizing) model is reduced from 13.6 percent under baseline to 10.7
percent under Alternative F, the most stringent alternative.  This amounts
to a reduction of about 20 percent.  The large integrated knit fabric
(simple) model has its return reduced from 11.9 percent under baseline to
10.7 percent under Alternative F for about a 10 percent reduction.

c.  Annual Cash Flows
Annual cash flows represent those occurring in the year 21 and were
calculated by adding after-tax profits and depreciation.  Cash flows
represent the inflow of dollars to operations; consequently, they indicate
the ability of the models to maintain operations.  If the flows are
positive, the model can continue to operate in the short-run even though
the net income may be negative (loss).  The annual cash flows for existing
models subject to BAT controls are contained in Table VIII-5.

The small wool scouring model  has a negative cash flow of $87,000 under
baseline which indicates its difficulty in maintaining operations even
without controls.  Under the cost of controls, the negative cash flows
became significantly larger.  Cash flows became negative under most of the
alternatives for two other small models:  the commission woven fabric
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(simple) and own hosiery models.  The cash flows for the small commission
yarn model exceed $100,000 for both Alternative B (Option 3) and C (Option
2); however under the three most stringent alternatives the flows turn
negative.  The cash flows for the small  carpet model exceed $2 million
under all alternatives.

The largest integrated models in woven and knit fabric have baseline cash
flows of about $50 million.  The reductions of these cash flows under
Alternative F are less than 10 percent.   The baseline cash flows of the
large commission models are about one-fifth the size of the large
integrated models in the corresponding subcategories.  Under the cost of
the controls, the flows of these commission models are reduced
significantly; however, they remain at levels greater than a million
dollars.

d.  Net Present Value

The NPV's for the direct discharger models are shown in Table VIII-6, both
under baseline and BAT controls.  Negative values are shown under baseline
for all of the wool scouring models and  for two other models:  the small
own fabric woven (simple), and the small  own yarn.  Under BAT controls,
NPV's are negative riot only for these models but also for the small
commission models in all of the subcategories.  In addition, negative
values are shown for the small wool finishing model.  Three models—the
small own fabric woven (desizing); the small integrated yarn; and the
medium felted fabric—have negative NPV's under Alternative F but positive
under all others.  The NPV's of the remaining models are relatively large,
generally indicating the viability of the models when subjected to costs of
control.

3.  Production Effects

As discussed in the previous chapter, it is estimated that there are 198
direct discharge wet processors (excluding water jet weaving mills)
currently existing in the industry.  Thirty-four of these are assumed to be
meeting BAT limitations and do not require any additional controls.   The
remaining 164 plants can be expected to  require the controls.  Estimated
closures, both under baseline and under  controls, are discussed below.

a.  Baseline Plant Closures
Baseline closures were estimated from an analysis of industry trends (as
described in the Census of Manufactures) and the economic survey (conducted
in conjunction with this study).Within the horizon of this study (10
years) it is estimated that about 10 percent of the existing direct
dischargers requiring controls will  close under baseline conditions.

These closures are listed in Table VIII-7 and include two in wool  scouring,
two in wool finishing, fifteen in woven fabric, four in knit fabric, one in
hosiery and three in stock and yarn.  Consequently, the number of plants to
be considered in this subsequent analysis as requiring controls and subject
to impact is reduced from 164 to 149.
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b.  Projected Plant Closures

The projected plant closures resulting from the impact of various BAT
treatment alternatives are shown in Table VIII-8.  A total of 11
alternative treatment scenarios were considered excluding three scenarios
applicable to wool scouring only (M,N, and P).  The impacts resulting from
the 11 scenarios are shown below:

                    Impact Summary - Direct Dischargers

                                                        No. of problem
     Alternatives                                          segments

          A      BPT                                           1
          B      Chemical coagulation and sedimentation       11
          C      Multi-media filtration                        8
          D      B plus multi-media filtration                15
          E      C plus granular activated carbon             10
          F      D plus granular activated carbon             19
          G      Ozonation                                    13
          H      B plus ozonation                             16
          I      Powdered activated carbon                    11
          J      C plus ozonation                             10
          K      D plus ozonation                             14

Treatment Alternative F is projected to have the most severe impact with
closures in 15 of the plant categories plus an additional  four model plant
categories shown as marginal.  Treatment Alternatives H, D, K, G, E, B, I
and D demonstrate economic problems (closure or marginal)  in 11 of 16
categories.

Estimated total  plant closures resulting from the 149 direct dischargers
requiring installation of some type of treatment alternative is shown in
Table VIII-9.   If a model plant was projected as a closure, all  of the
plants represented by that model were projected as closures.   In the case
of marginal categories approximately half of the plants represented by that
model  were projected as closures depending upon the distribution of plants
within that category and the economic conditions of those  plants.

The largest number of closures are projected under Treatment Alternative F
with a total  of 27 plants closing.   Closures include plants in wool, woven
fabric, knit fabric and yarn subcategories.   Under Alternative K,20 plants
are projected  to close with a decreasing number under the  other
alternatives.

In the preliminary review process leading to the recommended options and
after the preliminary impacts were known, EPA reduced the  number of
treatment alternative to four:   Alternatives A-D.   A more  detailed
examination of the estimated closure effects of these four alternatives is
shown  below:
                              VIII-23
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               Estimated Plant Closures - Direct Dischargers
                             (After baseline)
Subcategory

Size

Type
Plant
Options:
Treatment Al
A
1
B
3
ternatives
C
2
D
4
Wool scouring
Wool finishing
Woven fabric finishing
- Simple processing

- Complex processing

- Desizing
Knit fabric finishing
- Simple processing
- Complex processing
- Hosiery products
Stock and yarn
  finishing
Small,
Medium
and Large
Small  Integrated

Small  Commission
Medium Commission
Small  Commission
Medium Commission
Small  Commission

Small  Commission
Small  Commission
Small  Own hosiery
             NA
NA
Small
Small
Commission
Own yarn
 Total
                                              1
                       1
                       2
                       1
 1
 1
 1

 2
J^
13
         NA

          1
 1
 2
 1
 1
 2

 1
 1
 1

 2
 1
18
Under Option 1 (BPT), one 'own hosiery1  plant is projected to close.  Under
Option 2, seven plants are projected to close:   3 in wool  scouring, one in
woven fabric, one in hosiery products and two in stock and yarn finishing.
Thirteen plants are projected to close under Option 3.  These include
plants in the wool, woven, knit and yarn finishing subcategories.  The
largest projected closures occur under Option 4 with 18 plants projected to
close.

4.  Effects of Combining RCRA Costs with BAT

The impacts of RCRA costs were analyzed in two steps.  First,, the RCRA
costs were applied to the model plants without BAT controls; second, RCRA
costs were combined with the costs of BAT treatment alternatives.  The
effects of RCRA in each of the cases are very minor.  With the application
of RCRA cost only, the required price increases for the model plants are
generally under 0.1 percent.  The largest increase is required by the small
commission woven (simple) model with 0.4 percent required.  Three models
show a required increase of 0.2 percent.  All other models require
increases of 0.1 percent or less.

The reductions in model plant profit levels are also relatively minor.
Reductions are generally under one percent.  The most significant
reductions occur among the small commission and own fabric models.  Two
models have profits reduced over 10 percent: the small commission woven
                              VIII-28
-------
(simple) and the small own hosiery models.   The profits of two models are
reduced by about 5 percent; the small own fabric woven (simple) and small
commission yarn models.  The next largest reductions occur for the small
commission knit fabric models (simple and complex) with reductions of about
3 percent.  The reductions for the other small  models are generally about
one percent.  The reductions for the medium and large models are in most
cases, less than 0.1 percent.

The combination of RCRA with BAT costs result in only minor increases in
impacts over the BAT impacts.  Table VIII-10 compares the returns on sales
of the small plants under BAT only and under combined BAT and RCRA (the
comparison was limited to the small  plants  since the returns of the medium
and large plants were generally identical for both of the cost categories).

As shown in the table, returns on sales were generally decreased by about
one-tenth of a percentage point when RCRA costs were applied to baseline
conditions.  This amounts to about a 5 percent reduction or less in
after-tax profits.  The only model plant which shows differences in returns
greater than one-tenth of a percentage point is the small commission woven
(simple) model.  It has a 1.8 percent return on sales under baseline; with
the addition of RCRA costs this is reduced  to 1.7 percent.  Under the BAT
treatment alternatives, the returns all become negative.  With the addition
of RCRA to BAT costs, these negative returns are reduced in most cases by
about three-tenths of percentage point.

In terms of viability of the model plants,  the addition of RCRA costs to
BAT has no noticeable effect except for the medium commission woven
(simple) model.  Under Treatment Alternative H, the model is indicated as
marginal.  When RCRA is added to the cost of that treatment it is indicated
as a potential closure.  In actuality, this is caused by very minor
changes in the cash flow and net present value.


         B.  Best Conventional Pollutant Control Technology (BCT)


BCT is not an additional limitation, but replaces BAT for the control of
conventional pollutants.  BCT requires that limitations for conventional
pollutants be assessed in light of a "cost  reasonableness test", which
involves a comparison of the cost and level of reduction of conventional
pollutants from the discharge of POTW's to  the cost and level of reduction
of such pollutants from a class or category of industrial sources.  In
addition to the applicable wet processors in the other subcategories, three
water jet weaving mills (subcategory 3a) will be required to meet the BCT
effluent limitations.

1.  Water Jet  Weaving

The impacts on the two water jet weaving models are discussed below.
                              VIII-29
-------


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-------
a.  Price Effects

The required price increases for each of the two models are listed below.
For the small model, the largest increase (1.3 percent) is required under
Treatment Alternative D.  The smallest increase occurs under Alternative C
(Option 2).  An increase of 1.2 percent is required under Alternative A
(Option 1/BPT).  The increases required by the medium model under the
alternatives are about one-half that required of the small model.  An
increase of 0.7 percent is required under Alternative A (Option 1).

                    Required Price Increase - Water Jet Weaving
     Model                 Treatment Alternatives - BCT
     Size              ftI           £            F~
                    	(percent)	
     Small           1.2         1.0         0.6          1.3
     Medium          0.7         0.6         0.3          0.8

The water jet weaving mills are relatively more profitable (as are greige
mills in general) than the finishers discussed elsewhere in this analysis.
The small model has a 3.8 percent return on sales under baseline.  This is
reduced by 30 percent under the costs of Alternative A (Option 1) and
Alternative B (Option 3) to a return of 2.6 percent.  The least reduction
occurs under Alternative C (Option 2) with a 16 percent reduction to a
return of 3.-2 percent.  Under the baseline, the large model has a slightly
lower return on sales of 3.6 percent.  The'reductions in profits under BCT
are less than 20 percent for all alternatives.  Under Alternative A the
return on sales is reduced to 3.0 percent.

                         Return on Sales (after-tax) - Hater Jet Weaving
Model
Size       Baseline

Small         3.8
Medium        3.6

The baseline after-tax return on assets for both models is about 18
percent.  Under Alternative A (Option 1), the returns are reduced to about
12 percent for the small model and 15 percent for the medium.

                         Return on Assents (after-tax) - Water Jet Weaving
Model
Size

Small
Medium

The annual cash flow (year 21) for the small model under baseline is
$952,000.  This is reduced to around $770,000 under Alternative A and
$850,000 under Alternative C.  The flow of the medium model exceeds $2.1
million under baseline.  This is reduced to $1,900 under Alternatives A and
B.  Under Alternative C it is reduced to just over $2 million.
                                  VIII-32
Treatment Alternatives - BCT
y\
2.6
3.0
1 C.
2.6 3.2
3.0 3.3
rj
2.6
2.9
Baseline

18.8
18.2
A

12.3
14.5
B

12.4
14.8
C

15.4
16.3
D
11.5
14.1
-------
                         Annual Cash Flow - Water Jet Weaving
Model                         Treatment Alternatives-BCT
Size       Baseline         A"BCD
Small        2,249        1,590     1,554     1,902     1,473
Medium       4,886        4,052     4,074     4,467     3,935

While the reductions in profits and NPV are substantial for both models,
they remain viable under all treatment levels.  No closures are projected.

2.  BCT Impacts on Other Subcategories

Listed below are the size cutoffs established for each of the subcategories
under BCT and an indication of where each model plant falls relative to
these cutoffs:  small (below cutoff) or large (above cutoff).  The "small"
plants will be required to meet Alternative A (Option 1/BPT), only.  With
the exception of the wool finishing and felted models, all "large" models
will be required to meet BAT (or as specifically recommended Alternative C
(Option 2).  The wool finishing models will be required to meet Option 4
while the felted models will be required to meet Option 1/BPT only.  Based
on the size cutoffs only nine model plants are designated as large and
would be required to meet Option 2.  As indicated above, all of these model
plants are viable under Alternative C (Option 2).  In the "small" category,
all plants except the hosiery and felted model are assumed to have already
met BPT requirements (Option 1).  Both the felted and hosiery models are
required to add BPT controls.  Based on the BAT analysis above, the small
own hosiery model is projected as a closure under this alternative.
Consequently, under BCT, this model is the only model plant which would be
projected to close.

                             BCT Distribution
                          (by Model Plant Sizes)


1.
2.
3.
4.



5.



6.
7.
8.
9.



Wool scouring
Wool finishing
(Omitted)
Woven fabric finishing
a. Simple processing
b. Complex processing
c. Desizing
Knit fabric finishing
a. Simple processing
b. Complex processing
c. Hosiery products
Carpet finishing
Stock & yarn finishing
Nonwoven manufacturing
Felted fabric process-
ing
Size Cutoff
(kkg/yr)
1,600
11,800


9,900
11,600
15,200

11,300
13,100
7,600
12,200
12,700
37,900

NA
Small
(Option 1)

S


S

S

S
S
S
S
S
S

S
_-
, M, L


, M
S
, M

, M
, M, L
, M
, M
, M, L, XL
, M

, M
Larg
(Option
S, M,
--


L
M,
L

L
—
—
L
-



ie
"2) I/
L




L






-



   Except for wool  finishing (Option 4) and felted fabric processing
   (Option 1).
                              VIII-33
-------
          C.  Pretreatment Standards for Existing Sources (PSES)


1.  Required Price Increases

The required price increases due to PSES for the existing indirect
discharger model  plants are shown in Table VIII-11.   The largest increases
are required for the small commission models with price increases varying
between 3 and 5 percent under Alternative B for all  subcategories
(Alternative M for wool scouring).   These increases  are only slightly
higher under Alternative D.  However, under Alternative F the increases are
appreciably higher.   Under this Alternative, the increase required for the
small  commission woven (simple) model is about 8 percent while that for the
small  commission yarn model exceeds 10 percent.

For the large integrated models the increases required are less than one
percent for all subcategories except yarn finishing.   In that subcategory,
the large model shows a required increase of 1.6 percent under Alternative
F.  The large commission models, in most cases, show increases varying
between about one percent for Alternative B to around three percent for
Alternative F.  The large commission yarn model shows required increases
varying from about two percent for Alternative B to  close to six percent
for Alternative F.  The required increases for the felted fabric model
varies from about three percent for Alternative B to over 10 percent for
Alternative F.

2.  Financial Effects

As pointed out in the discussion of the BAT analysis, changes in the model
plant profiles of the indirect dischargers under PSES are based on the
assumption of no increase in prices.

a.  Return on Sales

The 21-year average after-tax returns on sales for the model plants both
under baseline and under PSES controls are shown in  Table VIII-12; the
reductions associated with the imposition of controls are contained in
Table VIII-13.  The impacts of PSES on the indirect  discharger model plants
are substantially higher than the impacts of BAT controls on the direct
discharger models.  The small commission models in all subcategories show
negative returns under most of the alternatives.  The returns generally
reflect substantial  reductions from baseline.  For example, the returns of
the small wool scouring model show reductions of over 300 percent under the
two least stringent alternatives.  The small commission woven (simple)
model  incurs reductions of about 600 percent under Alternative B and D and
over 1,000 percent under Alternative F.

In addition to the commission models, both the small  own woven (simple) and
the own yarn models have negative returns under most of the Alternatives.
Several small integrated models have low levels of profits, including wool
finishing, woven (simple) and yarn.
                              VIII-34
-------


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The effects of controls on the profitability of the large models are
considerably less, except in the case of the large felted fabric model.   It
incurs losses under all alternatives.  Under Alternatives B and D, the
reductions of the returns of the large integrated models are generally less
than 10 percent while those of the large commission models are generally
under 30 percent.

b.  Return on Total Assets

The 21-year average after-tax returns on total  assets before and after PSES
expenditures are shown in Table VIII-14.  As was the case with the direct
discharger models, the returns are considerably higher than the
corresponding returns on sales because of the lower dollar amounts of
assets compared to sales.  The negative values  of the returns on assets
follow the same pattern as those of the returns on sales.  The returns of
the smallest commission model in each of the subcategories are negative  for
all alternatives.  In addition to the small  model in yarn finishing, the
medium and large commission models in this subcategory have low returns  or
losses under PSES.  Also in this subcategory, the small  and medium own yarn
models have extremely low to negative returns.   Other small models with  low
or negative returns are the own fabric woven (simple) and the small
integrated knit (simple) models.

The returns of the large models show appreciably less impact than those  of
the small.  The returns of the large integrated models in most of the
subcategories show reductions of less than 20 percent under most of the
alternatives.  However, large reductions are incurred by the large and
X-large models in yarn finishing.  The large model exhibiting the greatest
reduction in returns on assets is the large  felted fabric model.  It incurs
negative returns exceeding 30 percent under  all alternatives.

c.  Annual Cash Flows

As discussed above, annual cash flow is calculated by adding after-tax
profits and depreciation.  Cash flows calculated for year 21 for the
existing models under baseline and PSES controls are shown in Table
VIII-15.  The impacts of PSES expenditures are  considerably higher on the
indirect dischargers than was the case of BAT on the direct discharger
models.  The flows of the smallest commission model in each of the
subcategories are negative under all alternatives.  Another model with
negative cash flows under all alternatives is the small  own fabric woven
(simple) model.  Under Alternative F, the cash  flows of the small knit
(simple) model and the small own and integrated yarn models are negative.

The reductions of cash flows of the large models are considerably less than
those of the small.  The reductions under Alternative F, are less than 10
percent for all large integrated models except  those in yarn finishing and
carpeting.  The reductions for these models  are about 35 and 20 percent,
respectively.  The reductions for the large  commission models vary between
15 and 20 percent in the woven fabric subcategory and 35 and 40 percent  in
knit fabric.


                               VIII-42
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d.  Net Present Values

The NPV's for the indirect discharger model plants are shown in Table
VIII-16.  A negative value indicates that the model should be considered as
a closure or as a marginal operation.  Two models have negative values
under baseline:  the large wool scouring and the small own fabric woven
(simple) model.  Model plants which had negative returns on sales under
PSES also have negative NPV's.  These include the small commission models
in all subcategories and subdivisions as well as the small integrated
models in wool, knit fabric and yarn finishing.  The small own fabric woven
models show negative or low NPV's in all of the subdivision.  The NPV's of
the small and medium own yarn models also are negative for all
alternatives.  In the felted fabric processing subcategory, both the medium
and large models show negative or low NPV's under all  PSES alternatives.

The NPV's of the large models generally remain substantial under all
alternatives.  An exception is the large commission yarn model which shows
negative values under Alternatives F, H and J.  The NPV's of the large
integrated models in most of the subcategories are reduced less than 30
percent under Alternative F, the most expensive of the alternatives.

3.  Production Effects

As discussed in the previous chapter, an estimated 928 wet processors
(exclusive of greige operations) currently exist in the industry.  Of this
number only 15 percent or 141 plants required PSES controls.  Projected
closures under baseline and under PSES are discussed below.

a.  Baseline Plant Closures
Of the estimated 141 indirect dischargers requiring PSES controls 16 plants
are projected to close under baseline conditions (see Table VIII-17).  As a
result, an estimated 125 plants will be required to install PSES controls.

b.  Expected Model Plant Closures

Projected plant closures resulting from various PSES alternatives are shown
in Table VIII-18 and the number of actual plants that are estimated to
close are shown by plant size and control alternatives in Table VIII-19.

Four alternatives (B,M,N and P) were considered for wool scouring and a
total of 7 plant closures were forecasted for each of these alternatives.
This represents all  of the wool scouring plants that will be required to
install controls under PSES.  Because of the baseline economic conditions
of the wool  scouring plants, and high estimated control costs for these
plants, this segment is very severely affected under all of the'
alternatives considered.
                              VIII-49
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Five control alternatives (B,D,F,H and J) were considered for the remainder
of the subcategories covering a total of 118 plants (125-7 = 118).   The
number of segments in the industry that are expected to have severe impacts
(from Table VIII-18) and the estimated number of plant closures (from Table
VIII-19) are summarized below.

      Impact Summary (Excluding Wool Scouring) - Indirect Dischargers
Alternative
                              No.  of problem
                                 segments
    D
    F
    H
    J
Chemical coagulation &
  sedimentation                     19
B plus multi media filtration       18
D plus granular activated carbon    25
B plus ozonation                    21
Multi media filtration and
  ozonation                         14
No.  of plant
  closures
      45
      46
      64
      59

      37
Under Alternative B, 14 models are projected as closures and 5 as marginal
operations.  The closures include 3 models in woven-simple,  1 in woven
(complex), 1 in woven (desizing), 2 in knit fabric (simple), 1 in hosiery
products, 3 in yarn finishing, and 1 in felted fabric.   Marginal operations
of models under Alternative B include 1 in wool finishing,  1 in woven
(complex), 1 in hosiery products, and 2 in yarn finishing.

A similar pattern exists for Alternative D, however,  one additional  model
is projected as a closure in woven fabric finishing.   Five  model plants  are
projected as marginal under Alternative D.

The largest number of model closures are projected under Alternative F for
a total of 18.  Under that alternative 7 models are projected as marginal.
The estimated number of plants that are expected to close under the  various
alternative is shown on Table VIII-19 and summarized  below  for Alternative
B and D.
                              VIII-59
-------
               Expected Plant Closures - Indirect Dischargers
Subcategory

Wool scouring


Wool finishing

Woven fabric
  finishing
-  Complex

-  Desizing

Knit fabric
  finishing
-  Hosiery
   products
Stock & yarn
  finishing
Size

Small
Large
  Type
  Plant

Commission
Commission
Treatment Alternatives - PSES
       B                D
  (Option 2)       (Option 3)
       5
       2
NA
NA
Small    Integrated
Small
Medium
Small
Commission
Commission
Commission
       3
       1
       3
 3
 2
 3
Small
Small
                   Medium
Own hosiery
Integrated
Commission
Own yarn
Integrated
Commission
Own yarn
  Total
       3
      15
       5
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       4
       1
      _1
      52
 3
15
 5
 3
 4
 1
_1_
46
4.  Effects of Combining RCRA Costs with PSES
In the analysis of the effects of pollution control on the indirect
dischargers, the imposition of RCRA was considered first, by itself and,
second, in combination with the PSES treatment alternatives.  As in the
case of the direct dischargers, the effects of RCRA on the indirect
dischargers is relatively minor.  When RCRA costs are incorporated into the
model plant profiles, the return on sales generally are reduced no more
than one tenth of a percentage point (two models, the small commission
woven-simple and small commission yarn show reductions of about four-tenths
of a percentage point).  The changes are similarly minor when RCRA costs
are combined with the PSES alternatives of the small plants.  Table VIII-20
illustrates the effects of RCRA costs on the model plants both under RCRA,
only, and under the combined costs of RCRA and PSES.  The imposition of
RCRA in the medium and large plants generally did not result in any changes
in return on sales.  In the NPV analysis, no changes in model plant
closures or marginal operations are identified.  Consequently, no
additional closures are projected solely with the implementation of RCRA.
                               VIII-60
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           D.  Impacts Under Recommended Options - BAT and PSES
After consideration of the various alternatives, EPA has tentatively
decided upon recommended options for each subcategory.  The recommended
options are:
     Subcategory
                     Recommended Options - BAT
                    Option  Technology
                         Description
1.

2.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.
Wool scouring          2

Wool finishing         4

Woven fabric finishing 2

Knit fabric finishing  2

Carpet finishing       2

Stock & yarn           2
finishing
Nonwoven manufacturing 2
Felted fabric
processing


 Subcategory

    All
1
C

D

C

C

C

C

C

A
Biological treatment plus
multimedia filtration
Chemical coagulation sedimen-
tation & multimedia filtration
Biological treatment plus
multimedia filtration
Biological treatment plus
multimedia filtration
Biological treatment plus
multimedia filtration
Biological treatment plus
multimedia filtration
Biological treatment plus
multimedia filtration
Biological treatment (extended
aeration & activated sludge)
                         Recommended Option - PSES
                        Option  Technology          Description
                                    B
                  Chemical  coagulation and
                  sedimentation
1.  Expected Price Increases

The textile industry consists of numerous subcategories which supply their
goods both to common and specialized markets.  Competition within most
subcategories is relatively strong with excess capacity in most segments.
The industry has encountered notable competition from imported textile
goods.  It has consistently earned relatively low profit margins, with
profits being approximately one-half those of a composite of all
manufacturing industries.  Prices of textile goods have increased during
the past decade, but these prices have increased at a rate considerably
less than the rates for most industrial goods.

In the assessment of the expected price increases which can be associated
with the imposition of wastewater control requirements, the above factors
exert considerable influence.  Furthermore, as was presented in the
applicable tables, the required price increases for the models were not
equal; thus some plants will require considerably higher price increases
than others.  As was discussed in Chapter V, Prices, the industry is very
                               VIII-63
-------
competitive with prices being determined typically by supply and demand
relationships.  If firms competing on common markets require different
price increases, then it would be unlikely the firms with the higher
required price increases could increase their respective prices by the
required amount and still be able to compete with those firms requiring
smaller price increases, particularly when the firms requiring the smaller
increases are the high volume firms.  Accordingly, it would be logical that
prices would not increase by amounts in excess of the lower required price
increases within a given segment.  However, competition from non-regulated
foreign textile goods producers may further limit the abilities of domestic
textile firms to increase prices.

Furthermore, as was discussed in Chapter VII, Discharge Status, many plants
in the industry will  not be required to make wastewater control
expenditures.  This further contributes to the lack of uniformity of
required price increases among the industry facilities.  In summary, it is
anticipated the textile industry will be limited in its ability to increase
prices to recoup expenditures for wastewater controls.  While within some
subcategories (particularly those with little foreign competition and
uniform control expenditure requirements)  small  price increases may occur,
the overall ability of the industry to increase  prices is expected to be
limited.

2.  Financial Effects of Recommended Options

The requ-ired price increases and financial effects for the recommended
options are summarized in Table VIII-21 and Table VIII-22 for BAT and PSES,
respectively.

a.  BAT.  Under BAT recommended options, price increases required by the
direct dischargers range from a low of less than a tenth of a percent for
the large integrated knit fabric model (simple processing) to 1.3 percent
for the small commission stock and yarn model.  Except for the complex
processing and desizing models in woven fabric finishing, the increases
required by the small commission models are one  percent or higher for all
subcategories.  The increases required by  the small complex processing and
desizing models are 0.7 and 0.4 percent respectively.  Price increases
required for the large integrated models are 0.1 percent in most of the
subcategories.  The highest increase required by a large integrated model
is 0.3 percent for the large wool finishing model.  The increases required
by the own fabric models generally fall between  those of the commission and
integrated models within the respective size categories.

Under the recommended options (BAT), returns on  sales vary from a low of
-6.0 percent for the small wool scouring model to over 4 percent for the
small felted fabric processing model.  In  addition to the small wool
scouring model, two other models have negative returns - the medium wool
scouring model and the small commission woven fabric (simple) model.
Except as indicated above for the wool scouring  model, most of the small
commission models have returns of about 1.5 percent.  In woven fabric
finishing, the smallest own fabric model has a return of 0.4 percent while
the small own yarn model has a slightly higher return of 0.8 percent.  The
                               VIII-64
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VIII-69
-------
returns of the small integrated models exceed 2 percent in all
subcategories except wool finishing and stock and yarn finishing.  The
small wool finishing model has a return of only 1.0 percent while the small
integrated yarn model has a slightly higher return of 1.5 percent.  The
large integrated models have returns in excess of 2.5 percent, in most of
the subcategories.  The own fabric (and yarn) models have relatively low
returns when compared to the same size commission and integrated models.
In most cases, the returns of these type models fall between 1.3 ana 2.0
percent.

Under the recommended options, the return on assets generally follow a
pattern similar to that of the return on sales.  Negative returns on assets
occur for both the small and medium wool scouring models (-21.0 and -1.8
percent, respectively), the small commission woven (simple) model (-1.6
percent) and the small  own hosiery model (-0.4 percent).  While the small
commission models have relatively low returns in all subcategories, the
large commission models generally have some of the highest returns,
reflecting both relatively high levels of profits and low levels of assets.
The return for the small integrated models generally fall between 8.5 and
11.5 percent.  The return on assets for the small own model plants range
from 1.0 percent for the small own fabric woven (simple) to 5,,8 percent for
the small own fabric woven (desizing) model.

Under the recommended options, only one model shows a negative cash flow -
the small wool scouring.  Two models have annual flows of less than
$100,000 - the small commission woven fabric (simple) and the small own
hosiery models.  All of the small commission models have annual cash flows
of less than one million dollars.  The flows of the small integrated models
exceed a million dollars in all cases except in yarn finishing.

The small integrated yarn finishing model has a flow of about $800,000.  In
woven fabric finishing, the cash flows of the own fabric models fall
between the flows of the commission and integrated models for each of the
size categories.  The small own fabric model in the woven (simple)
subdivision has a cash flow of slightly over $200,000.  The cash flows of
the other own fabric models in the woven fabric finishing subcategory
exceed a million dollars.
                                                                      the

                                                                    hosiery
Under the recommended options, 9 model plants show negative net present
values - all three of the wool scouring, two woven fabric (simple), one
wool finishing, one hosiery, and two yarn finishing models.  Based on t
NPV analysis, 6 of the model plants are projected as closures and 3 as
marginal.  Closures include  3 wool scouring, 2 woven fabric, and 1 hosie
model plants.  Marginal model plants include the small wool finishing and
two yarn finishing models.

b.  PSES.  Under the recommended PSES option (Option 2), price increases
required by the indirect dischargers range from a low of a tenth of a
percent to a high of over 5 percent.  The highest increase is required by
the small commission yarn model plant which requires an increase of 5.2
percent.  Other model plants with high required increases are the small
                               VIII-70
-------
wool scouring (3.9 percent), the small commission woven fabric (simple)
(4.8 percent), the small commission knit fabric (simple) (3.2 percent), and
the large felted fabric (3.1 percent).  The large integrated models in all
subcategories require increases of 0.3 percent or less.

Model plant return on sales vary from a high of over 5 percent for the
small felted fabric model to a low of -9.7 percent (loss) for the small
commission yarn model.  Other model plants showing significant losses are
the wool scouring with a return of -7.4 percent, the small  woven fabric
(simple) with -9.6 percent, the small commission knit fabric (simple) with
-4.6 percent, and the large felted fabric with -7.0 percent.  Five of the
seven small commission model plants have negative returns under the
recommended option.  The small own woven fabric (simple) model  has a return
of -2.6 percent.  The other small own fabric (yarn, hosiery) models have
returns of 1.0 percent or less.  Relatively large returns of around 3
percent are shown, for the large integrated models in the wool,  woven fabric
and knit fabric finishing subcategories.  The large integrated models in
both carpet finishing and yarn finishing have returns of about 1.8 percent
under Option 2.

Under the recommended option, return on assets vary from a  low of -47.2
percent for the small commission yarn model to a high of 19.7 percent for
the large integrated hosiery model plant.  Other large negative returns are
shown for the small wool scouring (-30.9 percent), the small commission
woven fabric (simple), (-24,9 percent), the small  commission knit fabric
(simple), (-14.6 percent), and the large felted fabric model (33.7
percent).  As was the case for return on sales, the return  on assets are
negative for most of the small commission models.   Except for the carpet
and yarn finishing, all  of the large integrated models have returns on
assets of 10 percent or higher.  The returns of the large models in those
two subcategories are about 7 percent.  The returns of most of the own
fabric models, other than the smallest, vary between 5 and  10 percent.

Under Option 2, six model plants have negative cash flows:   the small  wool
scouring, both the small commission and small  own fabric models of woven
fabric finishing (simple), the small commission knit fabric (simple), the
small commission yarn finishing, and the large felted fabric model.  Cash
flows of the other model plants ranged from .about $100,000  for a number of
the small models to close to $37 million for the large integrated woven
fabric (desizing) model.  The highest flows occur in woven  fabric finishing
with three models showing amounts in excess of $20 million.  High annual
flows are also shown in wool finishing with close to $10 million for the
medium model and over $19 million for the large.  The lowest cash flows
occur in stock and yarn finishing with over half of the models  having less
than $1 million.

Under the recommended PSES Option, 19 model plants or over  one  fourth of
the indirect discharge models show negative net present values.   Both of
the wool scouring model  plants have negative values while one of the models
in wool  finishing shows  a negative net present value.   In woven fabric


                               VIII-71
-------
finishing, all three of the small commission models show negative values.
Also, two of the medium commission models in this subcategory and one of
the own fabric models show negative values.  Of those showing negative net
present values, 14 model plants are projected as closures and five as
marginal.  The two wool scouring models become closures and the small wool
finishing model becomes marginal.  In woven fabric finishing all of the
small commission models are shown as closures as well as one of the medium
models.  The small own fabric model is projected as a closure and the
medium commission (complex) model is shown as marginal.  Both of the small
knit fabric (simple) models are projected as closures.  In the hosiery
products subdivision, the own hosiery model is shown as a closure
while the small integrated model is marginal.  In stock and yarn finishing,
three models are projected as closures and two as marginal.  The large
felted fabric model  becomes a closure.

3.  Plant Closures

As shown in Tables VIII-9 and VIII-19 the following plants are projected to
close under the recommended options.

                                            Projected Closures I/
                                         BAT        "PSES     Total

     Wool scouring                        3           7       10
     Wool finishing                       2           68
     Woven fabric finishing
       -  Simple processing
          Cnmnlpx nrnr.p<;<;ina              -           44
     iiinpie processing               1           -        1
  -  Complex processing              -           44
  -  Desizing                        -           33
Knit fabric finishing
  -  Hosiery products                1          18       19
Stock & yarn finishing               2_          14       16
        Total                        9          52       61
\j  Excludes plants projected to close under baseline.

4.  Production Loss

The production losses resulting from the imposition of wastewater control
requirements will depend upon the number of actual plant closings and the
capability of the remaining plants to absorb the lost production of those
plants which actually do close.  Based on the assumptions that all the
projected plant closures occur and that no plants remaining in operation
absorb the closing plants production, the total projected potential annual
production losses associated with each of the proposed treatment options
can be estimated.  Production capacity associated with the projected
closures is summarized as follows:
                               VIII-72
-------
    Subcategon'es
Wool scouring
Wool finishing
Woven fabric finishing
Hosiery products
Stock & yarn finishing

Total
       Potentially Cost Production
Direct Discharger?Indirect Dischargers
		(1,000 Ibs.)	-—•
      56,200
       6,600
       2,400
       1,100
       8,600

      74,900
         100,400
           8,400
          50,700
          21,300
          31,800

         212,600
                          Total
   156,600
    15,000
    53,100
    22,400
    40.400

   287,500
It should be noted these projected potential losses reflect the lost
production of those plants projected to close due to wastewater control
requirements.  If such closures and the resulting production losses occur,
it would be anticipated much of the lost production would be absorbed
either by existing plants with excess capacity or by increases in imports.
While estimates of the actual proportion of the production losses which
would be absorbed were not attempted, it would be expected the absorbed
proportion would be high with very little actual  production being lost.

5.  Employment Effects

The number of employees in the textile industry was reported by the
Department of Commerce to be 900,200 individuals  in 1977, with historical
employment rarely deviating below 900,000 or above 1 million individuals.
Based on the industry structure discussed previously in this report, the
estimated number of individuals employed by those operations which could
potentially be shutdown due to wastewater control requirements is
approximately 1.2 percent of the total number of employees in the industry.

The potential reductions in employment under recommended option of BAT and
PSES are listed below.  Total number of employees is based on the number of
employees per plant shown in Tables VI-1 and VI-2 and the projected
closures indicated above.
Wool scouring
Wool finishing
Woven fabric finishing
-  Simple processing
-  Complex processing
-  Desizing
Knit fabric finishing
-  Hosiery products
Stock and yarn finishing
Total
        BAT

        564
        860

         38
        124
        207
Employment Losses
      PSES

     1,102
     1,170
                          539
                          516
      1,793
 Total

 1,666
 2,030

    38
   539
   516

 5,653
 1,054
11,496
                                   VIII-73
-------
6.  Community.Effects

The closure of approximately 60 mills under the recommended direct and
indirect options can be expected to have impacts of varying degrees on the
communities involved.  The greatest impacts can be anticipated in the
northeast among the small communities built up around textile mil Is.

Of the mills projected to close, approximately 50 percent will be
commission mills which are predominantly located in the northeast.  For the
most part, these mills are small mills employing less than 200 individuals
and are concentrated primarily in Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, and
Massachusetts.   These mills are dispersed among both the large metropolitan
areas and smaller communities.  These smaller communities in the northeast
are believed to be relatively large (generally over 20,000) when compared
to other small  communities in the United States.   However, employees
losing their jobs in the textile mills in this region can be expected to
have great difficulty in finding new employment because of the relatively
high unemployment in the areas and the nontransferability of their textile
skills.

The impact of closure will be felt on a lesser number of communities in the
southeast but can be expected to be substantial, primarily due to the
greater size of Jihe mills and the smaller size of the communities involved.
Mills that are projected to close in the southeast are anticipated to be
the larger integrated mills and mills finishing their own textile goods
(woven fabric, yarn, and hosiery).  From data contained in Davison's Blue
Book concerning dyers and finishers and mills with dyeing and finishing
equipment, it was possible to estimate where these closures may occur.
According to Davison's Blue Book about 50 percent of the yarn arid hosiery
finishers are located in communities of less than 10,000 people (based on
1970 census data) with about 70 percent of the hosiery mills located in
these size communities.  Although a textile community of 5,000 people
typically hosts from 3 to 6 mills, usually it will  have only a single
finisher.  Consequently, several small communities can be expected to be
directly affected by mill closures.  With payroll losses varying from about
one half million to over 2 million dollars, severe impacts can be expected
to fall on these communities.  It is very unlikely that the employment
losses from a mill closure could easily be absorbed in these small
southeastern communities.  The remaining closures can be expected to occur
in the larger communities in which the ramifications of a mill closure
would be considerably less.

7.  Dislocational Effects

The availability of land for construction of additional wastewater
treatment facilities varies widely within the textile industry.  Among the
commission mills in the Northeast, very little additional land is believed
to be available particularly for those facilities within large urban areas.
However, in the Southeast, with a few exceptions, additional land
acquisition for the larger integrated type mills is not generally a
problem.  As the treatment technologies have small  space requirements which
                               VIII-74
-------
can be met, in most cases, within existing land resources, no significant
dislocational  effects are expected to result with the imposition of
controls.  It should be noted that mills with relatively limited available
space often can capitalize unutilized in-house space, reorganize
operations, and utilize less space-intensive technologies in order to
comply with wastewater control requirements.  Those very few mills without
the required space are not likely to relocate.  For the integrated mills,
curtailment of finishing operations may be a feasible alternative; in these
cases, greige textiles would be shipped elsewhere to be finished.  For the
commission mills, relocation would be very unlikely as these mills
generally exist to serve specific markets.  Relocation would reduce their
ability to compete in those markets.

8.  Balance of Trade Impacts

The imposition of the various treatment options on the textile industry is
expected to have a'negative effect on the United States balance of trade.
Price increases required to maintain existing levels of profitability by
the larger plants range from about 0.1 to 0.2 percent for the recommended
option.   However, this general pressure to raise prices will be offset by
the existing dischargers, both BAT and PSES, that will not be required to
install  treatment systems.  Approximately 60 percent of the existing direct
dischargers and 15 percent of the indirect dischargers will be required to
install  pollution control,equipment.  As a result the overall price
increases, are expected to be less than the price increases required.  The
textile industry has historically competed with foreign producers and has
gradually lost market share.

               E.  New Source Performance Standards (NSPS)
The effects of NSPS on model  plants representative of new source direct
dischargers are analyzed for five treatment alternatives.   As shown below.
        Option

          1
          NA
          f<*


          NA
   NSPS Treatment Alternatives

Technology                   Description

    A         (BPT) Biological treatment
    Q         Powdered activated carbon treatment
    R         Biological  treatment, chemical  coagula-
              tion and multimedia filtration
    S         Screening,  equalization, multimedia
              filtration; and granular activated
              carbon adsorption (for toxic pollutant
              waste streams)
    T         Screening,  equalization, chemical
              coagulation, sedimentation, and
              multimedia  filtration and granular
              activated carbon adsorption (for those
              pollutant waste streams)
    V         Segmentation of toxic pollutant waste
              streams from other waste streams.
              Provide multimedia filtration for toxic
              pollutant waste streams and biological
              treatment for other waste streams.
                              VIII-75
-------
The analysis follows the same general approach as that for the existing
sources and covers required price increases, financial effects, impacts on
viability, and RCRA effects.  The recommended option under NSPS is Option
2, Technology R, "biological treatment, chemical  coagulation and multimedia
filtration."  Consequently, this option will be highlighted.

1.  Required Price Increases

Required price increases under NSPS are contained in Table VI1I-23.  Within
each subcategory, the commission models require significantly higher
increases than the other type models.  In wool finishing, the price
increases required vary between 1.0 percent for Alternative S to 1.3
percent for Alternative R (Option 2).  Among the commission models the
highest increases are required in stock and yarn finishing with an increase
of 8.9 percent required.  The lowest increases for commission models are
required in woven fabric finishing.  For the own fabric (yarn, hosiery)
models, the increases vary under Alternative R (Option 2) from 0.6 percent
for the simple and complex woven models to 1.1 percent for the stock and
yarn finishing model.  The lowest increase for integrated models is 0.3
percent for the carpet finishing model.  Except for the wool finishing
model, all increases are less than one percent.

2.  Financial Effects

a.  Return on Sales

The returns on sales and reductions in returns on sales are shown in Tables
VIII-24 and VIII-25 for new sources under NSPS.  The baseline returns vary
from  4.9 percent for the nonwoven manufacturing model to 11.3 percent for
the commission knit fabric (simple) model.  Under the costs of NSPS these
returns are reduced from over a hundred percent reduction for the
commission yarn -plant under Option 2 to less than 5 percent for the
integrated simple and complex woven fabric models under the same option.
The returns under Alternative R (Option 2) vary from a negative 0.3 percent
for the commission yarn plant to 9.6 percent for the commission desizing
woven fabric plant.

b.  Returns on Total Assets

Under baseline the returns on assets vary from a high of 28.1 percent for
the own hosiery model to 9.6 percent for the commission yarn model (Table
VIII-26).  The reductions in the returns on assets correspond to the
reductions of returns on sales.  The returns on assets vary from a low of
negative 0.3 percent for the commission yarn model to a high of 25.1
percent for the own hosiery model.

c.  Annual Cash Flows

The effects on the annual cash flow in year 21 of NSPS are contained in
Table VIII-27.  Under baseline the cash flows vary from a low of about $1
million for the commission yarn model to over $57 million for the
                               VIII-76
-------
"aole  .111-23.  The textile incustr/, nev\ source moae1  plants  average  required price increase necessary  to
                     offset expenditures for wastewater  controls-direct dischargers

1
/
3.
4.


5 .


6.
7.
8.
g _
Gaily
Subcategory Size capacity
(kkg)
i Omitted)
(Woo1 finishing f'echum 18.6
(Omitted)
'•-.'even fabric finishing
a. Simple processing Medium 29.6
b. Complex processing Medium 116.3
c. Oesizing Medium 53.6
K.rT't fabric finishing
a. Simple processing Medium 32.2
b. Complex processing Medium 18.5
c. Hosiery products Medium 5.5
Carpet finishing Small 20.2
Stock 4 yarn ^irishing Medium 23.4
^onwcven manufacturing Medium 23.6
Felted fabric processing Medium 4.4
Type
olant
Treatment alternatives (',S?S)-new sources
r
^
rt
1
i
U
	 (percent] 	
Integrated

Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Own hosiery
Integrated
Commission
Own yarn
N.A.
N.A.
0.9

1.3
0.4
0.2
1.2
0.4
0.3
1.5
0.6
0.4
2.3
0.4
1.6
0.3
0.4
0.2
6.0
0.7
0.3
0.9
1.2

3.0
0.9
0.6
~
1.8
0.8
0.5
2.9
0.5
3.7
0.7
1.3
0.4
11.3
1.6
0.9
2.3
1.3

2.1
0.6
0.4
1.3
0.6
0.5
2.1
0,9
0.6
3.2
0.5
2.6
0.5
0.6
0.3
8.9
1.1
0.5
1.3
1.0

2.5
0.8
0.5
1.2
0.4
0.3
1.5
0.6
0.5
2.4
0.4
3.2
0.6
0.9
0.4
11.1
1.4
0.8
2.1
1.2

3.1
0.9
0.6
1.5
0.5
0,4
1.9
0.8
0.6
2.9
0.5
3.3
0.7
-
0.5
12.6
1.6
1.0
2.6
1.1

1.6
0.5
0.3
1.5
0.5
0.4
1.7
0.7
0.5
2.7
0.4
2.0
0.4
0.5
0.2
6.9
0.9
0.4
1.1
                                              VIII-77
-------
textile  ir.custry,  new source model plants, effects  of wastewater control expenditures
     on  average  after-tax returns on sales-direct dischargers


1 .
p
3.
4 .









5,





6.
7 .

3.
g _

Daily
S^caiegor, Size capacity
(kkg)
;0nittea;
'wool fimsninc Medium 18.6
^Omi ttec'
•«oven fabric finishing
a. Simple processing Medium 29.6


b. Complex processing Medium 116.3


c. Desizina Medium 53.6


Knit fabric finishing
a. Siniple processing Medium 32.2

b. Complex processing Medium 18.5

c. hosiery products Medium 5.5
Carpet finishing Small 20.2
Stock A yarn finishing Medium 23.4

'ionwoven manufacturing Medium 23.6
Feltea fabric Medium 4.4
processing
Type
plant


Integrated


Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated

Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Own hosiery
Integrated
Commission
Own yarn
N.A.
N.A.

Basel ine



7.8


8.3
5.4
7.5
8.4
5.5
7.0
11.1
5.7
7.3

11.3
6.8
11.0
6.9
7.1
6.6
9.8
6.3
4.9
6.0

Treatment alternatives (NSPS)
-- new sources
A



7.2


7.0
5.0
7.2
7.7
5.3
5.8
10.1
5.4
7.0

9.8
6.6
9.4
6.5
6.6
6.5
3.4
6.1
4.5
5.1

Q
	 / n(
	 vps

6.8


5.9
4.7
7.0
_
5.1
-
9.4
5.1
6.8

8.8
6.5
8.1
6.3
6.2
6.3
-4.4
5.5
4.2
4.4

R
jrcent)-

6.


6.
4.
7.
7.
5.
6.
9.
5.
6.

9.
6.
8.
6.
6.
6.
-0.
5.
4.
4.


9


5
8
1
2
2
7
6
2
8

1
5
7
5
5
4
3
8
4
8




7


6
4
7
7
5
6
9
5
6

9
6
8
6
6
6
0
5
4
a.

S



.1


_5
!g
.1
.5
.3
.7
.9
.3
.9

.6
.6
.8
.5
.1
.4
.1
.8
.3
.7

!



6.9


6.0
4.7
7.0
7.2
5.1
6.6
9.6
5.1
6.8

9.0
6.5
8.2
6.4
-
6.3
-3.6
5.5
4.2
4.2

U



7.1


6.S
4.9
7.2
7.5
5.2
6.7
9.9
5.3
6.9

9.5
6.6
9.1
6.5
6.6
6.4
1.9
5.9
4.5
5.0

                           VIII-78
-------
Table VIII-25.   The textile  industry,  new  source node! plants, percentage reductions in model's income
                       due  to  wastewater control expenditures-direct dischargers

1.
2.
3.
4.


5.


6.
7.
8.
9.

Subcaiegory Size
(Omitted)
Wool finishing Medium
(Omitted)
Woven fabric finishing
a. Simple processing Medium
b. Complex processing Medium
c. Desizing Medium
Knit fabric finishing
a. Simple processing Medium
b. Complex processing Medium
c. Hosiery products Medium
Carpet finishing Small
Stock i yarn finishing Medium
Nonwoven manufacturing Medium
Felted fabric Medium
processing
Daily Type
capacity plant
(kkg)
18.6 Integrated

29.6 Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
116.3 Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
53.6 Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
32.2 Commision
Integrated
18.5 Commission
Integrated
5.5 Own hosiery
20.2 Integrated
23.4 Commission
Own yarn
23.6 N.A.
4.4 N.A.

Treatment
A

alternatives (NSPS)-new sources
Q
R


i
T
U
	 (percent) 	
7.5

15.4
7.2
3.3
8.8
4.5
3.0
8.5
6.7
3.8
13.6
3.5
14.4
4.1
6.5
2.7
65.5
10.1
7.3
15.2

13

28
13
6

14
11
6
22
5
26
7
11
4
145
18
13
27

.1

.8
.4
.2
~
.7
.6
.6
.0
.7
.9
.6
_Q
.8
.0
.9
.1
.2

11

22
10
4
14
7
4
12
10
5
19
5
20
5
7
3
102
14
9
20

.5

.2
.3
.8
.1
.2
.8
.9
.1
.8
.5
.1
.7
.9
.9
.5
.7
.6
.6
.1

9

21
9
4
11
5
3
10
8
4
15
4
19
5
13
3
98
14
10
22

.4

.3
.9
.6
.2
.7
.8
.6
.3
.8
.7
.1
.8
.6
.7
.9
.6
.0
.8
.4

12.1

27.7
12.9
6.0
14.3
7.3
4.9
13.6
10.6
6.1
20.2
5.3
25.8
7.3
-
5.2
136.9
18.1
14.2
29.5

9.0

18.3
8.5
3.9
10.6
5.2
3.6
10.1
8.0
4.6
15.9
4.2
17.0
4.8
7.1
3.0
30.6
12.0
8.4
17.4

                                            VIH-79
-------
"able  VIII-26.  The textile industry, new source model plants, effects of wastewater control  expenditures
                    on average after-tax returns  on  total assets-direct dischargers

1.
2.
3.
4.


5.


6.
7.
a.
9.
Subcategory Size
(Omitted)
Wool finishing Medium
(Omitted)
Woven fabric finishing
a. Simple processing Medium
b. Complex processing Medium
c. Desizing Medium
Knit fabric finishing
a. Simple processing Medium
b. Complex processing Medium
c. Hosiery products Medium
Carpet finishing Small
Stock & yarn finishing Medium
Nonwoven manufacturing Medium
Felted fabric Medium
processing
Daily
capacity
(kkg)
18.6

29.6
116.3
53.6
32.2
18.5
5.5
20.2
23.4
23.6
4.4
Type
plant

Integrated

Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commi ssion
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Own hosiery
Integrated
Commission
Own yarn
N.A.
N.A.
Baseline


23

15
13
15
16
12
12
23
12
13
20
19
18
18
28
21
9
15
11
6


.2

.3
.4
.5
.9
.2
.1
.9
.2
.5
.4
.8
.1
.7
.1
.2
.6
.9
.8
.8
Treatment alternatives (NSPS)
-- new sources
A.


20.6

12.6
12.3
14.9
14.9
11.5
11.6
20.9
11.2
12.9
16.6
18.8
15.0
17.8
25.7
20.5
2.3
14.0
10.8
5.7
Q
	 / nc

19.3

10.1
11.3
14.3
~
19.4
10.6
12.5
14.9
18.3
12.2
16.9
22.9
19.8
-2.7
12.2
9.9
4.8
P
:rcent)-
19.4

11.3
11.3
14.6
13.3
11.1
11.3
19.5
10.7
12.5
15.1
18.4
13.5
17.4
25.1
20.3
0.3
13.1
10.5
5.3
S


20.2

11.3
11.7
14.6
14.5
11.4
11.5
20.4
11.0
12.7
16.2
18.7
13.4
17.3
28.3
20.0
0.7
13.1
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13.9
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11.4
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12.7
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13.6
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                                             VIII-80
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-------
integrated woven (complex) model.  From baseline, the cash flow of the
commission yarn model is reduced by over 50 percent to $634,000 under
Alternative R (Option 2).  The cash flow of the integrated woven (complex)
model is reduced less than 3 percent or just under $56 million.  The cash
flows of the commission models, in most cases, are less than $15 million.
The highest cash flows occur in the woven fabric finishing subcategories;
the lowest in stock and yarn finishing.

d.  Net Present Values

The net present values of the new source direct dischargers both under
baseline and NSPS controls are shown in Table VIII-28.  The NPV's vary
under baseline from a negative $984,000 for the commission yarn model to
over $35 million for the integrated simple processing knit fabric model.
The commission yarn model is the only model with a negative NPV under
baseline (indicating its infeasibility from a purely economic point of
view).  Under Alternative R (Option 2), two models show negative NPV's -
the commission yarn model and the own fabric woven desizing model.

3.  Viability of New Source Models Under NSPS

Table VIII-29 shows the viability of the model plants under NSPS.  All
models are projected as viable under baseline except for the commission
yarn model which-is considered as a marginal operation.  Under Alternative
R, this model is projected as a closure, or infeasible.  The own fabric
desizing model in woven fabric finishing is considered to be marginal under
Option 2, Technology R.

4.  Effects of RCRA on New Source Direct Dischargers

As discussed in connection with BAT, RCRA resulted in relatively
insignificant impacts.  The profits, cash flows, and viability of the new
source models are substantially greater than those of existing sources.
Consequently, it can be assumed RCRA would have little if any effects on
the new source direct dischargers.


             F.  Pretreatment Standards for New Sources (PSNS)


The effects of PSNS costs in new source indirect dischargers model  plants
were analyzed for five alternatives:  A, 0, R, S and T.  These are
described below.
                              VIII-82
-------

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VIII-83
-------
      Table VIII-2S.  The textile  industry, new source model  plants  projected closures-direct dischargers


1.
9
3.
4.









5.





6.
7.

8.
9.
Subcategory Size

(Omitted)
llool finishing Medium
(Omitteo)
Woven fabric finishing
a. Simple processing Medium


b. Complex processing Medium


c. Desizing Medium


Knit fabric finishing
a. Simple processing Medium

b. Complex processing Medium

c. Hosiery products Medium
Carpet finishing Small
Stock & yarn finishing Medium

Nonwoven manufacturing Medium
Felted fabric processing ftedium
Daily
capacity
(kkg)

18.6


29.6


116.3


53.6



32.2

18.5

5.5
20.2
23.4

23.6
4.4
Type
plant


Integrated


Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated

Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Own hosiery
Integrated
Commission
Own yarn
N.A.
N.A.
Baseline


V


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V
V
V
V
V
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V

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V
V
V
V
V
M
V
V
C
Treatment alternatives
(NSPS) - new sources
A


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V
V
V
V
V
M
V

V
V
V
V
V
V
c
V
V
c
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-
V
M
V

V
V
V
V
V
V
c
V
V
c
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V
V
V
V
V
V
M
V

V
V
V
V
V
V
c
V
V
c
s


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V
V
V
V
V
V
M
V

V
V
V
V
V
V
c
V
V
c
T


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V
V
V
V
V
V
M
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-
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c
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c
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M
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c
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V = Viable, M = Marginal, C = Closure.
                                                VIII-84
-------
                        PSNS Treatment Alternatives
     Option

       1

       2

      NA

      NA

       3
Technology

     A

     0

     R

     S

     T
          Description

Preliminary treatment (screening equalization
and/or neutralization)
Preliminary treatment - segregation of
pollutant waste streams
Screening, equalization
tion, sedimentation and
Screening, equalization,
 chemical coagula-
multimedia filtration
 multimedia filtra-
tion and granular activated carbon adsorption
Screening, equalization, chemical  coagula-
tion, sedimentation, multimedia filtration
and granular activated carbon adsorption
The effects of these alternatives are outlined below with the principal
focus on Technology 0 (Option 2), the recommended option.

1.  Required Price Increases

Required price increases for the representative models under PSNS are
contained in Table VIII-30.  The largest of the models require increase of
less than one percent.  Eight of the models require increases of only 0.2
percent.  The largest increase is required by the commission yarn model,
3.5 percent under Alternative 0 (Option 2).  The only other models
requiring increases greater than one percent are the commission models in
the woven and knit fabric finishing subcategories.

2.  Financial Effects

a.  Return on Sales

The returns on sales of the models both under baseline and under PSNS are
contained in Table VIII-31.  Table VIII-32 shows the reductions in these
returns under PSNS from baseline.  The returns under baseline vary from a
low of 6.0 percent for the felted fabric model to 11.4 percent for the
commission woven-complex model.  The returns for the own fabric (yarn)
models are about 6 percent while the integrated models are generally about
7 percent.  Under Alternative 0 (Option 2), the greatest reduction occurs
in the case of the commission yarn model - over 35 percent.  Under
Alternative 0, the returns for the models vary from a low of 5.3 percent
for the felted fabric model to close to 12 percent for the commission
woven (desizing) model.   The returns for all of the own fabric (and yarn)
models are less than 6 percent while the returns of most of the integrated
models exceed 7 percent.
                               VIII-85
-------









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b.  Returns on Total Assets

The changes of the returns on assets resulting from PSNS are shown in Table
VIII-33.  Under baseline, the commission models generally show the greatest
returns primarily because of their low inventory and associated costs.  As
expected, the lowest return is shown for the felted fabric model at 6.8
percent under baseline.  The greatest returns occur in the hosiery products
subcategory with 28.7 percent for the own hosiery model and 32.9 percent
for the integrated models (under baseline).  The return for the own fabric
and integrated models under baseline vary between 10 and 20 percent.  Other
than the integrated hosiery model, the wool finishing model has the
greatest return (21.0 percent) among the integrated models.  Under
Alternative 0, the reduction in the return on assets correspond with those
of the returns on sales.  The returns on assets of the commission models
are reduced the greatest while those of the integrated models are reduced
the least.  Under the alternatives, the felted fabric and the commission
yarn models have the lowest returns both about 6 percent.  The hosiery
models with the highest returns under baseline also have the highest under
PSNS with 27.8 percent for the own hosiery model and 31.6 percent for the
integrated model.

c.  Annual Cash Flows

Annual qash flows of the new source indirect dischargers are shown both
under baseline and under PSNS in Table VIII-34.  The largest flows occur in
the case of the integrated models with levels usually about 2 to 3 times as
great as those of corresponding commission models.  Under baseline, the
largest cash flows occur in woven fabric finishing with flows ranging from
close to $10 million for the integrated (simple) model to over $30 million
for the integrated (desizing) model.   In the same subcategory, the cash
flow of the smallest commission model  is less than $2 million while the
value for the largest model  is about $13 million which is less than half
the size of the corresponding integrated model.  Under Alternative 0
(Option 2), the reductions in cash flow vary from over 10 percent for the
commission models to less than 5 percent for most of the integrated models.
Under the recommended options, the cash flows vary from less than $2
million for the commission woven (simple) and commission yarn models to
just over $30 million for the integrated woven (desizing) model.

d.  Net Present Values

Table VIII-35 shows the NPV's of the model  plants under baseline and under
PSNS.  Both under baseline and Alternative 0 (Option 2), negative values
are shown for three models:  the commission yarn, nonwoven, and felted
fabric models.  Under the other treatment alternatives only one additional
model shows negative NPV's - the own fabric woven (complex.) model  under
Alternatives S and T.
                              VIII-89
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VIII-92
-------
3.  Viability of Model Plants Under PSNS

Model plant closures (or infeasible models) are shown in Table VIII-36 for
PSNS controls.  Under baseline, all model plants are viable except the
three models with negative NPV's indicated above.  The felted fabric model
is designated as a closure (or economically infeasible) while the
commission yarn and nonwoven manufacturing models are shown as marginal.
Under Alternative 0 (Option 2), the commission yarn model also becomes a
closure.  The nonwoven model remains marginal.

4.  Effects of RCRA

As discussed for the.new source direct discharger model plant RCRA impacts
are expected to be very minor on the new source direct discharger model
plants.


               G.  Summary of Impacts of Recommended Options
Price increase.  While the cost pressure of pollution controls may result
in price increases in certain limited textile markets, no general or
significant price increases are expected from BAT or PSES costs.

BAT.  Nine direct discharger plants are projected to close as a result of
BAT.  These include: three wool scouring, two wool finishing, one woven
fabric, one hosiery and two yarn finishers.

The annual production to be lost associated with the above closures is just
under 75 million pounds.

The employment associated with the above closures is expected to be
approximately 1,800 workers.

PSES.  Under the recommended PSES option, 52 plants are projected to close.
Thirty-two or 70 percent of these fall within two subcategories:  hosiery
products and yarn finishing.

The production loss associated with these closures is about 200 million
pounds.

The employment level of the total projected closures exceeds 9,700 workers.

NSPS.  From a limited economic point of view the commission yarn plants is
considered unviable and the own fabric desizing plant is marginal under
NSPS.  All other new source direct dischargers are expected to be viable
under controls.

PSNS.  The commission yarn plant and felted fabric mills are considered
unviable under PSNS controls.

RCRA.  The impacts of RCRA are considered very minor in the textile
industry.   No projected closures are attributed to these controls.
                              VIII-93
-------








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VIII-94
-------
                    IX.  THE REGULATORY FLEXIBILITY ACT
The Regulatory Flexibility Act passed by the 96th Congress requires that
Federal agencies consider the differences in the scale of resources of
regulated entities.  The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the
information contained elsewhere in the report relative to the Regulatory
Flexibility Act and present the impacts on "small" plants and firms in a
concise statement.
                  A.  .Definition of "Small" Textile Mills


The first step in completing the regulatory flexibility analysis is to
define small entities for each subcategory.  In 1979 the Small  Business
Administration proposed new size standards for small businesses by 4 digit
SIC to replace the existing size standards.  The existing standards shown
in Table IX-1 vary by the government programs for which they are to be used
such as: procurement, SBA loans and pollution control  guaranties.
Generally, the existing standards define "small" as firms with  less than
250 to 1,000 employees, depending on the SIC and programs involved.

Congress delegated to SBA responsibility of defining small business with
the general guidance that a small business concern is  one which is
independently owned and operated and not dominant in its field  of
operation.  In arriving at the proposed standards, SBA first analyzed the
level  of concentration in each industry.  An industry  with a 4  firm
concentration of greater than 50 percent was considered "concentrated."
Competitive industries had basically equal distribution of sales and
"mixed" industries were in between.  For concentrated  industries,  proposed
size standards were increased, for competitive industries size  standards
decreased and for mixed industries size standards were increased to
increase competition.

SBA's  proposed size standards are developed on the basis of the number of
employees per firm; whereas the analysis contained in  the previous chapters
of this report is plant oriented, and the "small" model plants  are based
upon the size distribution of plants within an industry or industry segment
independent of the size structure of the firms.  However, according to the
Census of Manufactures, an average of 66 percent of all the plants in the
industry are single plant firms.  This, of course, varies by SIC as well as
by functional category.  Thirty-four percent of all the plants  (or mills)
in the industry are members of multiplant companies.  This group of plants
account for about 77 percent of the total industry shipments and employ
over 80 percent of all textile workers.  Thus, in general, the  smallest 66
                                    IX-1
-------
Table IX-T.    SBA existing  and  proposed size standard for small business in the textile mills industry
SIC
2211:
2221:
2231:
2241:
2251:
2252:
2253:
2254:
2257:
2258:
2259:
2251:
2262:
2269:
2271:
2272:
2279:
2281:
2282:
2283:
2284:
2291:
2292:

Broad-woven fabric mills, cotton
Broad-woven fabric mills, man-made
fiber and silk
Broad-woven fabric mills, wool (in-
cluding dyeing and finishing)
Narrow fabrics and other smallwares
mills: cotton, wool, silk, and man-
made fiber
Women's full-length and knee-length
hosiery
Hosiery, except women's full-length
and knee-length hosiery
Knit outerwear mills
Knit underwear mills
Circular-knit fabric mills
Warp-knit fabric mills
Knitting mills, not elsewhere classi-
fied.
Finishers of broad-woven fabrics of
cotton
Finishers of broad-woven fabrics of
manmade fiber and silk
Finishers of textiles, not elsewhere
classified
Woven carpets and rugs
Tufted carpets and rugs
Carpets and rugs, not elsewhere
classified
Yarn spinning mills: Cotton, man-
made fibers, and silk
Yarn texturizing, throwing, twisting,
and winding mills: Cotton, manmade
fibers and silk
Yarn mills, wool, including carpet
and rug yarn
Thread mills
Felt goods, except woven felts and hats
Lace goods
Proposed
number
of
employees
2,500
2,500
500
250
2,500
200
250
2,500
2,500
1,000
1,000
2,500
2,500
750
2,500
250
1,000
2,500
2,500
2,500
2,500
2,500
250

Procurement

1,000
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
1,000
500
500
750
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
Existing
SBA
loans

1,000
500
250
250
250
250
250
250
250
250
250
500
500
250
750
500
500
500
250
250
500
250
250

Pollution I/
control
guaranties

1,000
500
250
250
250
250
250
250
250
250
250
500
500
250
750
500
500
500
250
250
500
250
250
                                                                      continued .  .  .
                                             IX-2
-------
                                       Table IX-1.    (continued)

SIC

2293:
2294:
2295:
2296:
2297:
2298:
2299:



Paddings and upholstery filling
Processed waste and recovered fibers
and flock
Coated fabrics, not rubberized
Tire cord and fabric
Nonwoven fabrics
Cordage and twine
Textile goods, not elsewhere calssified
Proposed
number
of
employees

250
1,000
2,500
2,500
2,500
500
250

Procurement

500
500
1,000
1,000
500
500
500
Existing
SBA
loans

250
250
250
1,000
250
250
250

Pollution 11
control
guaranties

250
250
250
1,000
250
250
250
Source:  Small  Business Administration  "Proposed  Size  Standards Compared with Existing Size Standards
         Applicable to SBA Problems.  Prepared  for  House  of  Representative Committees on Small Business.
         April, 1980.
                                                     IX-3
-------
percent of the firms in the industry would most likely be single plant
firms end account for 25-30 percent of the total production.

The proposed SBA criteria for small businesses were compared to the number
of employees by model plant category adjusting for the differences in the
SIC and the functional  code classification (which is the basis for the
model plant structure).  The results shown in Table IX-2 indicate that
approximately 90 to 100 percent of the plants represented by the model
plants would fall into the "small" category with the exception of SIC 2231
narrow fabric (67 percent).  As a result the SBA definition was deemed
impractical and an alternative definition of small business was developed
for this analysis.

Traditionally in the model plant studies approximately one third of the
total production of the industry has been approximated by plants in the
"small" model category.  Again, this varies by functional category.  The
goal of representing approximately 33 percent of the production consistent
with the overall model  plant structure was therefore the basis of the
"small" plant structure defined in Table IX-3.  The basis of the
delineation is the number of employees.

The general structure of the "small" classification as used in this
analysis defined more specifically as shown in Table IX-4.  The percent of
production represented by model plant size categories approximates the
criteria set forth above reasonably well with the exception of the hosiery
and carpet finishing segments.  In the hosiery segment "small" plants
represent 10 percent of the production and large plants represent the
remaining 90 percent.  Both the small and medium sized models were included
as small.  A similar situation exists for carpet manufacturers with "small"
plants accounting for only 7 percent of total production.  Further
refinement of the small plant structure to bring it within closer alignment
to the 33 percent criteria would require redefining the model plants
involved.
                   B.  Alternative Treatment Technology


A broad range of alternative treatment technologies for BAT and PSES
guidelines were considered for both large and small plants.  The
alternatives considered were taken from the Development Document and
were summarized on Table IX-5.  These alternatives are then applied to the
model plant structure shown on Tables IX-6 and IX-7.

Wool scouring - For the small wool scouring plants that are direct
dischargers five alternatives were considered including:
                                    IX-4
-------
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      Table IX-3.  The textile industry employment criteria  for small
                    businesses,  by functional  category
                                                   Employment
1.  Wool scouring                                 200  and  less

2.  Wool finishing                                400  and  less

3.  (Omitted)

4.  Woven fabric finishing                        500  and  less

5.  Knit fabric finishing
    Other                                         410  and  less
    Hosiery                                       300  and  less

6.  Carpet finishing                              400  ana  less
    Direct dischargers                            400  and  less
    Indirect dischargers                          200  and  less

7.  Yarn finishing                                200  and  less

8.  Nonwoven                                      100  and  less

9.  Felted fabric                                 150  and  less


Source:  DPRA
                                  IX-7
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-------
    Table IX-5.   The textile  industry,  alternative  treatment  technologies
             existing sources (direct and  indirect  dischargers)


 Technology                                   Description


  A*  Direct        BPT -  Screening, extended  aeration  activated  sludge,
                    sedimentation,  and  solids  recycle to aeration basin

      Indirect      No treatment

  B                 Chemical  coagulation and sedimentation

  C                 Multi-media filtration

  D                 Chemical  coagulation,  sedimentation and multi-media
                    filtration

  E                 Multi-media filtration  and granular activated carbon

  F                 Chemical  coagulation,  sedimentation, multi-media
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  G                 Ozonation

  H                 Chemical  coagulation,  sedimentation, and  ozonation

  I                 Powdered  activated  carbon

  J                 Multi-media filtration  and ozonation

  K                 Chemical  coagulation,  sedimentation, multi-media
                    filtration, and ozonation

  M**               Chemical  coagulation and dissolved  air flotation

  N**               Chemical  coagulation,  dissolved air flotation,
                    multi-media filtration, and granular activated  carbon

  P**               Chemical  coagulation,  dissolved air flotation,  and
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*  Alternative A is generally considered  in  place;  however  Alternative  A  was
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   are added on to A and for indirect dischargers  include screening  and
   equalization.

** Alternatives M, N, and P apply to wool  scouring  only.

Source:  Effluent Guidelines Division, U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency,
         Development Document.
                                  IX-10
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     C    Multi-media filtration
     D    Chemical coagulation, sedimentation end multi media filtration
     M    Chemical coagulation and dissolved air flotation
     N    Chemical coagulation and dissolved air flotation multi-media
          filtration and granular activated carbon
     P    Chemical coagulation, dissolved air flotation and ozonation

The alternatives for wool scouring indirect dischargers included three of
the same technologies as direct dischargers (M, N, and P) plus Alternative
B; chemical coagulation and sedimentation.

Wool finishing - Seven alternatives were considered for wool finishing
direct dischargers.  They are:

     B    Chemical coagulation and sedimentation
     D    Chemical coagulation, sedimentation and multi-media filtration
     F    Chemical -coagulation, sedimentation, multi-media filtration and
          granular activated carbon
     G    Ozonation
     H    Chemical coagulation, sedimentation and ozonation
     I    Powdered activated carbon
     K    Chemical coagulation, sedimentation, multi-media filtration and
          ozonation

Of the above alternatives B, D, F and H were^also considered for
pretreatment.  In addition Alternative J, multi-media filtration and
ozonation, was also considered for the wool finishing indirect dischargers.

Woven fabric finishing - In addition to the alternatives considered for
wool finishing, three additional alternatives were considered for woven
fabric finishing direct dischargers.  These include:

     C    Multi-media filtration
     E    Multi-media filtration and granular activated carbon
     J    Multi-media filtration and ozonation

The alternatives considered for indirect dischargers were identical to
those alternatives considered for wool finishing.

Knit fabric finishing - The alternatives considered for both direct and
indirect dischargers were the same as those considered for woven fabric
finishing.

Carpet finishing - The alternatives considered for both direct and indirect
dischargers were the same as those considered for woven fabric finishing.

Stock and yarn finishing - The alternatives considered for both direct and
indirect dischargers were the same as those considered for woven fabric
finishing.
                                    IX-13
-------
Nonwoven manufacturing - The alternatives considered for both direct and
indirect dischargers were the same as those considered for woven fabric
finishing.

Felted fabric - The alternatives considered for felted fabric direct
dischargers include:

     A    BPT
     B    Chemical  coagulation and sedimentation
     D    Chemical  coagulation sedimentation and multi-media filtration
     F    Chemical  coagulation, sedimentation, multi-media filtration and
          granular activated carbon
     G    Ozonation
     H    Chemical  coagulation, sedimentation and ozonation
     I    Powdered activated carbon
     K    Chemical  coagulation, sedimentation, multi-media filtration and
          ozonation

Alternatives B, D,  F and H were also considered for indirect dischargers.


 C.  Baseline Financial  Conditions and Impacts for Resulting BAT and PSES
Baseline financial  conditions for small  plants are presented on Table IX-8
in contrast to "other" or larger plants  in the segments.   In general,
larger plants are in a stronger financial  condition than  small  plants.
Although in many cases small  plants would earn the same percentage return
on sales or on assets, the associated cash flows and NPV  are considerably
smaller.  The following discussion compares baseline conditions and impacts
of the recommended BAT and PSES options  by industry segment for small and
large segments.

Wool scouring - The required price increase for BAT and PSES estimated
small wool  scouring plants ranges from 0.6 to 3.9 percent depending on the
actual size of the "small" plants.  The  price increase required for the
large models is only 0.4 percent.  Under the recommended  options the
returns on sales become negative for all of the small models except one.
For the two smallest models the returns  reflect significant losses (in
excess of 6 percent of sales).  Two of the four small wool scouring models
show negative cash flows in excess of $200,000 under the  controls.  The net
present values for all of the small models become negative.

Wool finishing - The required price increase under effluent controls for
the wool finishing segment varies from 0.5 to 1.0 percent for the two small
models as compared to a range of 0.2 to  0.7 percent for the large models.
The returns on sales of the small models are reduced to less than one
percent while those of the large models  vary between 0.9  and 3.4 percent.
Annual cash flows for the smaller wool finishing model exceed $800,000;
however, the cost of controls reduces it to about $600,000.  The net
present value of the smallest wool finishing model becomes negative under
controls.


                                   IX-14
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-------
Woven fabric finishing - The financial effects vary significantly between
types of plants (commission, own fabric and integrated).  Required price
increases average 1.2 percent for small commission mills and 0.3 for large
mills.  A similar pattern exists for own fabric and intregrated mills.
Return on assets average 10.4 percent for small plants under baseline
conditions but dropped to an average of 6.2 percent with the imposition of
controls (or a decrease of 40 percent).  This compares to a decline of 30
percent for large plants.  A similar pattern exists for the other
indicators.  Both the cash flows and the net present values of the small
integrated models remain positive after controls but in some cases do drop
to negative levels for commission and own fabric mills.

Knit fabric finishing - exclusive of hosiery products.  The price increase
required by the small commission mills in the segment range from 0.6
percent to a 3.2 percent with all but one model (simple processing)
requiring an increase of greater than 1.0 percent.  In contrast the price
increase required by the large commission mills are less than 1.0 percent.
The simple commission mills and simple integrated mills experience a
negative net present value resulting from pollution controls and it is
estimated the simple commission mill will also experience a negative cash
flow after controls.  The remaining small commission models have cash flows
varying from $400 thousand to over $2 million.

The small integrated knit fabric models have relatively low required
increases when compared to the commission models.  The small integrated
models require an increase of 1.4 percent compared to 3.2 percent for the
small commission model.  The remainder of the small integrated models
require increases of less than 0.6 (three requiring only a 0.2 percent
increase).  None of the large models require increases greater than 0.2
percent.  The cash flows of the small integrated models are all positive
under controls ranging from a low of about $100 thousand to a high of over
$5 million.  The smallest model has a negative net present value while the
other small models remain positive after controls.

Knit fabric finishing - hosiery - Required price increases in the hosiery
subdivision range from 0.2 percent to 0.8 percent for the small models (all
of which are own hosiery models).  The returns on sales for the two
smallest models approach zero; the returns for the other small hosiery
models are less than 2 percent.  Cash flows for the small models range from
a low of $60,000 to a high of over $1,400,000.  The two smallest models
have negative net present values.  Large models demonstrate required price
increases of .2 to .5 percent.  All cash flows and NPVs remain positive
after controls.

Carpet finishing - The single small model requires a price increase of only
0.6 percent under effluent controls.  Its return on sales is reduced from
2.4 percent under baseline to 1.8 percent under controls.  Its cash flow is
reduced from a baseline level of $1,335,000 to $1,125,000 under controls.
Its net present value remains positive under the costs of the recommended
technology.  Large models require a price increase of 0.1 to 0.3 percent:
All other indicators remain positive after controls.
                                    IX-18
-------
Stock and yarn finishing -All of the small commission models reflect
substantial impacts from costs of the recommended options.  Required price
increases range from 1.3 percent to over 5 percent.  Two of the commission
models have negative returns on sales after controls while the other two
have returns less than one percent.  The smallest commission model has a
negative cash flow while the other models have flows of less than $500,000.
All but one of the models has a negative net present value under controls.

The required price increases for the small own yarn models vary from 0.2
percent to 0.8 percent compared with 0.3 - 0.4 for large models.  The
returns on sales for these models are all less than two percent under
baseline.  Under controls they become less than one percent.  Cash flows
for these small models range from about $200,000 to nearly one million
dollars.  All three of the small own yarn models have negative net present
values after the imposition of effluent controls whereas the large models
remain positive.

The required price increases for the small integrated models vary from 0.2
percent for the largest to over one percent for the smallest.  The returns
on sales for two of the small models are greatly reduced.   The smallest
model has its return reduced from 2.1 percent to zero percent.  One of the
small models has its returns reduced from a baseline rate of 2.0 percent to
1.0 percent under controls.  The cash flow of the small integrated yarn
model is reduced from $400,000 under baseline to less than $200,000 under
controls.  Two of the three models have negative net present values with
the imposition of controls.  The large integrated models have required
price increases ranging from 0.1 to 0.5; again none of the other indicators
are reduced to a negative position.

Nonwoven fabric manufacturing - The impacts on the financial profiles of
the small nonwoven fabric models are relatively minor in comparison to
those on the other subcategories.  The two small models have required
price increases of 0.3 percent and 0.5 percent.  The returns on sales
remain at about 2 percent under controls while the cash flows are in excess
of one million dollars.  Impacts on large nonwoven plants  are less with
required price increases of 0.1 to 0.3 percent.  Return on sales remain
above 2 percent and cash flows remain at $3 million or above.

Felted fabric processing - The financial impacts are relatively minor on
the smaller of the two small felted fabric processing mills but severe on
the larger.  The larger model would require a price increase of 3.1 percent
under controls and would have a negative return on sales,  a negative cash
flow and a negative net present value under controls. _!/  Impacts on the
large model plant indicate a required price increase ranging from 0.7 to
1.1 percent; all other indicators remain positive.
I/   It should be pointed out that the plants represented by this model  are
     not expected to be required to install  BAT Controls because of the.
     characteristics of the effluent.
                                    IX-19
-------
                   D.   Production and Employment Impacts
The recommended options result in substantial  impacts on the small  plant
group as shown in Table IX-9 and summarized below.

Plant closures resulting from the imposition of effluent control  technology
fall  most heavily on small  plants.   For example, there are 149 direct
dischargers (after baseline closures)  required to install  controls.  Of
this  number 62 mills are classified as "small" and  87 as "large".   However,
6 small  plants are projected to close  or 10 percent of the small  direct
dischargers compared with 3 percent of the large plants.

                           Projected Plant Closures - BAT
                              (After baseline  closures)



Segment
Wool scouring
Wool finishing
Woven fabric
Knit fabric-
Other
Knit fabric-
Hosiery
Carpet
Stock & yarn
Non woven
Felted fabric

Total
plants
requiring
controls
3
6
61

31

6
6
30
5
1
149
Small
Plants
requiring
controls
2
1
19

19

2
-
16
3
-
62"
mills

Projected
closures
2
-
1

-

1
-
2
-
-
6
Large
Plants
requiring
controls
1
5
42

12

4
6
14
2
1
87
mi 1 1 s

Projected
closures
1
2
-

-

-
-
-
-
-
3
A similar pattern exists for indirect dischargers.   A total  of 125 mills
(after baseline closures) are required to install  pretreatment facilities;
64 of these are small plants.  However, 35 small  plants (or  55 percent) are
projected to close.  For large plants, 17 out of  61 (28 percent)  are
projected to close.
                                  IX-20
-------















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-------
                     Projected Plant Closures - PSES
                         (After baseline closures)
                                   Small mills	   	Large mills	
                Total plants    Plants                  Plants
                 requiring     requiring  Projected    requiring  Projected
  Segment        controls      controls   closures     controls   closures


Wool scouring       7               5522
Wool finishing     15              12        6           3
Woven fabric       35              21        7          14
Knit fabric-
  Other             -               -
Knit fabric-
  Hosiery          40               4        3          36            15
Carpet              -               -
Stock & yarn       28              22       14           6
Nonwoven            -               -
Felted fabric     	-              _JL       _L          _i             -
Total             125              64       35          61            17
                                   IX-23
-------
Production loss as indicated below is substantial.   Of the total capacity
lost due to the imposition of effluent control  guidelines, approximately 54
percent is due to the closures of snail  plants.   A total  level of 287.5
nil lion pounds of production is associated with  projected plant closures
(small and large).  Over 30 million pounds are  associated with the small
direct dischargers and 123 million pounds with  the small  indirect
dischargers for a total  of 156 million pounds.   The remaining 60 million
pounds of lost production capacity results from  the projected closures of
large plants.

                         Projected Production Loss
Small plants
Subcategory

Direct
plants
closing

discharger
capacity
loss
(1,000,000
Ibs)
Indirect
plants
closing

discharger
capacity
loss
/ -I

Total
capacity
loss
1,000,000
Total
capacity
loss
"I K ^
'
Wool scouring
Wool finishing
Woven fabric
 finishing
Knit fabric-
 other
Knit fabric-
 hosiery
Carpet
 finishing
Stock & yarn
 finishing
Nonwoven
 manufacturing
Felted fabric
 processing
Total
20.5       5
           6

  2.4      7



  1.1      3



  8.6     14
          15
29.0
 8.4

50.7
 3.3
31.8
49.5
 8.4

53.1
 4.4
40.4
156.6
 15.0

 53.1
 22.4
 40.4
T?3T2    T55T8
          287.5
The total employment loss due to effluent controls is projected to be
approximately 11,500 workers.  Thirty-seven percent of these can be
attributed to the closing of small plants.  The employment loss among the
small direct dischargers is 648 while that of the small  indirect
dischargers is 3,626 for a total loss among the small plants of 4,274
workers.  The loss due to the closing of large plants is projected to be
7,222 with most of this resulting
mills classified as large.
     from the closing of 15 integrated hosiery
                                  IX-24
-------
                                  Projected Employment Loss
Small plants
Subcatesory
Wool
Wool
scouring
finishing
Di
rect
Plants
closing

2
di
schargers
Employment
loss

279
Indirect
P
cl

lants
os ing
5
6
di
schargers
Employment
loss

140
1,170
Total
employment
loss
419
1,170
Total
employment
loss
1,666
2,030
Woven fabric
 finishing          1       38          7      1,055      1,093         1,093
Knit fabric-
 other              -       -           -
Knit fabric-
 hosiery            1      124          3        414        538         5,653
Carpet finishing    -       -           -
Stock & yarn
 finishing          2      207         14        847      1,054         1,054
Nonwoven
 manufacturing      -       -           -
Felted fabric
 processing         _-      	-         __-_        -          -             -
                    6      648         35      3,626      4,274        11,496
                                       IX-25
-------
                          X.  ANNUAL SOCIAL COST


                             A.  Introduction

Under Executive Order No. 12291, a regulatory impact analysis is required
to be conducted in order to assess total costs to be incurred by society
due to Federal regulatory actions.  These social costs are defined as:

     The value of goods and services lost by society resulting from the
     uses of resources to comply with a regulation, the use of resources to
     implement a regulation, and reductions in output in lieu of
     compliance.


                     B.  Components of the Social Cost

The use of a static, partial equilibrium analytical framework is
conceptually the most effective means for estimating total social  costs.
This method is based on an analysis of supply and demand relationships  in
the directly affected markets.  When an industry is regulated, compliance
requirements result in increased unit costs of production.  This,  in turn,
leads to an upward shift in the industry's supply curve, which normally
results in higher prices and lower production levels.

Other costs to society that result from a regulatory action would  include
the costs of implementing and enforcing a regulation - commonly identified
as federal, state and local government costs for developing, implementing
and enforcing a regulatory action.  Additional social costs would  include
the productivity effects, i.e. the shift in the use of resources from
investments in facilities, equipment and technology to improve productivity
to those used in achieving environmental goals.  Costs incurred by society
in reallocating resources that become unemployed in the regulatory actions
are also included in this category.


        C.  Calculations of the Social Costs of Effluent Guidelines
           for the Textile Mills Industry, Point Source Category

In the analysis of the impacts of the recommended effluent guidelines on
the textile industry it was concluded that there would be no major shift in
the long term supply curve resulting in any significant increases  in prices
or reduction in quantities produced.  It was concluded that actual
measurement of the supply curve shifts—considering the limited nature  of
the estimated compliance costs and number of subsector analysis that would
be required—would not be practical.  Consequently, an alternative method
                                    X-l
-------
has been considered.  This methodology considers the estimated compliance
costs directly as the real resource costs v/ith other costs theoretically
measurable under the supply curve shift:  production losses and net welfare
loss, as unconsequential.

These real resource costs  are normally calculated as the net present value
of the resources to be used directly in complying with the regulation using
a 10 percent real discount rate.  To obtain an annual social cost, the
above value is annualized.  This annual social cost can be approximated by
the expression:

               Annual Social  Cost = (.1) (Investment) +
                  Operating and Maintenance Expenses

From cost data contained in Chapter VII, total investment for the
recommended options was calculated as $124 million and total O&M expenses
as $41 million.  Substituting in the above expression, the annual social
cost was estimated to be $53 million.
                                    X-2
-------
                        XI.  LIMITS OF THE ANALYSIS
There is a considerable amount published information available covering the
structure and economic data of the textile industry at the major (or total)
and the minor (or weaving and finishing, knitting, other textile products)
industry levels and also by the SIC industries.  However, there was very
little published information available which addressed the industry under
the functional classification system used in this study.  This chapter
discusses the general accuracy of the report and some of the key
assumptions involved.


                           A.  General Accuracy


The data and other information used in this study were drawn from published
governmental reports, the industry data collection portfolio, and from
extensive contacts with individual mills.  Information on the status of
effluent discharge and on recommended wastewater control systems and costs
were furnished by EPA.  Every effort was made to verify the data and other
information used.

Detailed data on size distribution within each subcategory was provided by
EPA.  Size distributions by type mill  were based primarily on the industry
surveys.

Financial aspects of the impact analysis were based on synthesized costs
and returns for "representative" types of model plants.  These costs and
returns were developed from a variety of sources including published
research from universities and government agencies, information obtained
from the data collection portfolio, and published financial performance
data.

Throughout the study, an effort was made to evaluate the data and other
information used and to update these materials wherever possible.  Checks
were made with informed sources in industry and government to help assure
that the data and information were as reliable and as representative as
possible.  For example, construction costs, working capital requirements,
proportions of capital financed through debt and equity, and profitability
ratios were checked with the appropriate persons in industry firms who are
experienced and knowledgeable in these matters.  Efforts were made to use
the latest data available.
                                     XI-1
-------
Specifications of the contract required the Contractor to use effluent
control  costs providedxby EPA.  The Effluent Guidelines Division, EPA, and
the technical contractor provided recommended alternative effluent control
systems, investment costs and annual  operating costs adapted to the types.
and sizes of "representative" model plants used in this analysis.

Given the accuracy of the wastewater control costs, it is believed that
this study's analysis represents a useful  and accurate evaluation of the
economic impact of the guidelines.
                            B.   Range of Error


Different data series and different sections of the analysis will  have
different possible ranges of error.

Estimated data error ranges expressed as an average for the industry were
as follows.  These were based on review of the variability in survey data
and estimates of possible error in interpretation and application  of
published and unpublished information.

                                                                Error Range
                                                                 (Percent)

      1.  Information regarding the organization and
          structure of the industry, number, location
          and size of plants, and other information
          descriptive of industry segments                         ± 10

      2.  Price information for products and raw
          materials                                                ± 15

      3.  Cost information for plant investments and
          operating costs                                          ± 20

      4.  Financial information concerning the industry            ± 15


                         C.  Critical Assumptions


In an economic impact analysis of any industry, it is inevitable that
simplifying assumptions must be made to bring the problem into a framework
of analysis consistent with the constraints of time, budget, and data
availability.  The major critical assumptions used in this analysis were as
follows:

     1.   Types and sizes of the model  plants were representative  of plants
          actually existing in the industry and of plants expected to be
          built in the future.
                                     XI-2
-------
2.   The financial data were representative of costs and returns for
     existing plants and new plants to be constructed after
     promulgation of guidelines.  As stated earlier, the model plant
     financial data are based on 1979 dollars and were adjusted to
     reflect future economic activity (inflation).

3.   Levels of profitability reflected in model plant profiles (based
     generally on 1973-1977 economic conditions and adjusted to base
     year 1979) would remain essentially the same but would reflect
     the future economic activity (inflation).

4.   The economic impacts of wastewater controls on those products not
     included in the detailed analysis of "representative" plants
     could be evaluated in general  terms by associating them with
     "representative" model plants.  This association was based
     primarily on the fact that models were developed for single
     product plants that represented a majority of an industry
     segment's production.  In most cases, there were actual plants
     producing products in similar combinations as those described in
     the model plants.

5.   Wastewater control costs and control status estimates were
     supplied by the Effluent Guidelines Division, EPA.  It was
     assumed these data were realistic in terms of:

     (a)  applicability of effluent treatment systems recommended,

     (b)  investment and annual operating costs for systems, and

     (c)  percentage of total number of plants which have treatment in
          place for each industry segment and for the industry in
          general as reported in the Development Document.
                                XI-3
-------
    APPENDIX A



SELECTED REFERENCES
-------
                           SELECTED  REFERENCES
 1.   Cline,  W.R.,  N.  Kawanabe,  T.O.M.  Krcnsjo, and T.  Williams,  Trade
     Negotiations  in  the Tokyo  Round,  The Brook-ings Institutions, rtasn.D.C.
 2.   Daily  Mews  Record,  Fair-child  Publications, N.Y.
 3.   Davison's Textile Blue Book,  Davison Publishing  Co.,  Ridgewood,
     N.J.,  1979.
 4.   Fairchilds'  Textile and Apparel  Financial Directory,  Fairchild
     Publications, N.Y., 1978.
 5.   Federal Reserve  Bulletin.
 6.   Federal Trade Commission,  Quarterly Financial, Report for Manufacturing
     Corporations.
 7.   Hudak,  Stephen J. and Paul T.  Bohnslav,  The Textile Industry, Department
     of the Treasury, 1976.
 8.   Rand McNally, Road Atlas,  Chicago,  111., 1979.
 9.   Robert Morris Associates,  Annual  Statement Studies, 1973-1979.
10.   Standard and Poor's, "Textiles  Basic Analysis,"  Industry Surveys,
     1979.
11.   Textile Hi-Lights.
12.   Textile Qrganon, Textile Economics  Bureau, Inc., N.Y.
13.   Troy,  Leo,  Almanac of Business and  Industrial Financial Ratios,
     1979.
14.   U.S. Department  of Agriculture, Economics, Statistics, and Cooperative
     Service, Cotton  and Wool Situation.
15.	      ,  	   , Supplement for 1978 to
     Statistics  on Cotton and Related Data 19?Q-73, Statistical  Bulletin
     No. 535.
16.	, Economic Research Service,  U.S.
     Textile Fiber Demand, Technical  Bulletin 1500, 1974.
17.   U.S. Department  of Commerce,  Bureau of Economic Analysis, Survey of
     Current Business.
18.   	,  Bureau of the Census, Census of Manu-
     factures,  1958-1977.
-------
19.   	       ,               ,  Average Weight and V/id-h of
     Broaawoven  Faoncs  (Gray),  MC-22T (Supplement) 1977.

2Q   	    	,  	,  Current Industrial Report
     Series  MQ-C1(76)-2,  Survey  of Plant Capacity,  1975.

2i.   	,  	,  Current Industrial Report
     Series  M22A,  Woven  Fabrics-Production,  Inventories,  and Unbilled
     Orders.

22.	»  	 »  Current Industrial Report
     Series  1722D, Consumption on  the Woolen and Worsted  System.

23.                  	,               ,  Current Industrial Report
     Series  M22D,  Cotton, iManmade  Fiber Stable,  and Linters-Consumption,
     Stocks,  and Spindly Activity.

24	,  	    ,  Current Industrial Report
     Series  MQ22K, Knit  Fabric Production.

25.   	,  	,  Current Industrial Report
     Series  MA-22F.1,  Textured Yarn Production.

25   	,  	,  Current Industrial Report
     Series  MA-22F.2,  Spun Yarn  Production.

27.       	    	  ,               ,  Current Industrial Report
     Series  MA-22S, Broadwoven Fabric Finished.

28.   	  	  ,  	,  Current Industrial Report
     Series  MQ-22T, Broadwoven Gray Fabric.

29,   	,  	,. Current Industrial Report
     Series  MQ-23X, Sheets, Pillowcases, and Towels.

30.                         ,  	,  Current Industrial Report
     Series  MC-22Z, Textile Machinery in Place (All Types).

31.                         ,  	,  Current Industrial Report
     Series, MA-20Q(76)-1, Manufacturers'  Pollution Abatement Capital
     Expenditures and  Operating  Costs.

32.   	, U.S.  Imports:  Ratios of Textiles/Apparel, 1977.

33.   U.S. Environmental   Protection Agency.  Development Document for Eff-_
     luent Limitations Guidelines  and New Source Performance Standards for
     the Textile  Mills,   EPA-440/1-79-022-&,  October, 1979.

34.  	, Technical Study Report BATEA-NSPS-PSES-PSNS
     Textile Mills Point Source Category, prepared by Sverdrup and Parcel
     and Associates,  Inc.  1978.
-------
35.   	,  Economic Analysis of Prstreatnient Standards
     for the Textile Industry,  EPA 440/1-77-009,  1977.

36.  U.S.  International  Trade Commission,  The History and Current Status
     of the Multifiber Arrangement, USITC  Puolication 880,  1978.

37.                        ,  Operation of  the Trade Agreements Program,
     USITC Publication 791.

33.  U.S.  Department of Labor,  Bureau of Labor Statistics,   Wholesale Price
     Indexes.

39.  	, _____	i  Industry VJage Survey:  Textiles,
     May 1975, Bulletin 1945, 1977.

40.   	       ,                ,  Industry Waae Survey:  Textile
     Dyeing and Finishing, June 1976, Bulletin 1967, 1977.

41.  	    ,           	,  Productivity Indexes for Selected
     Industries, Bulletin 1983, 1977.

42.  	, 	,  Industry Wage Survey: Hosiery,
     July 1976, Bulletin 1987,  1977.

43.  U.S.  Treasury Department,  Internal Revenue Service,  Corporation
     Source Book of Statistics  of Income,  1967-1974.

44.  The Value Line Investment  Survev, Arnold Bernhard &  Co.,  N.Y.,
     T57T.:                  *"

45.  Ward, Lionel  Edward, Inter-fiber Competition  with Emphasis on Cotton,
     University of California,  Davis, Ph.D., Economics, Agriculture,
     University Microfilms,  Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan,  1969.
-------
          APPENDIX B



MODEL PLANT FINANCIAL PROFILES
-------
                             APPENDIX B INDEX
 Source
Existing
Discharge

Direct
Existing   Indirect
Model Plant Financial Profiles

          Subcategory
       (type processing)

 Wool scouring
 Wool finishing
 Woven fabric finishing
   (Simple)
                         (Complex)


                         (Desizing)


                       Knit fabric finishing
                         (Simple)

                         (Complex)

                         (Hosiery products)

                       Carpet finishing
                       Stock & yarn finishing
            Nonwoven manufacturing
            Felted fabric processing

            Wool  scouring
            Wool  finishing
            Woven fabric finishing
              (Simple)
                         (Complex)


                         (Desizing)


                       Knit fabric finishing
                         (Simple)

                         (Complex)

                         (Hosiery  products)
Type plant   Table No.
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Own hosiery
Integrated
Integrated
Commission
Own yarn
Integrated
N.A.
N.A.
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Own hosiery
Integrated
B-l
B-2
B-3
B-4
B-5
B-6
B-7
B-8
B-9
B-10
B-ll
B-12
B-13
B-14
B-15
B-16
B-17
B-18
B-19
B-20
B-21
B-22
B-23
B-24
B-25
B-26
B-27
B-28
B-29
B-30
B-31
B-32
B-33
B-34
B-35
B-36
B-37
B-38
B-39
B-40
-------
                       Appendix B Index (Continued)
 Source

Existing
New
New
                     Subcategory
Discharge         (type processing)

Indirect    Carpet finishing
            Stock & yarn finishing
            Nonwoven manufacturing
            Felted fabric processing

Direct      Wool  finishing
            Woven fabric finishing
              (Simple)
                         (Complex)


                         (Desizing)
            Knit fabric finishing
              (Simple)

              (Complex)

              (Hosiery  products)
            Carpet finishing
            Stock & yarn finishing

            Nonwoven manufacturing

Indirect    Wool finishing
            Woven fabric finishing
              (Simple)
                         (Complex)


                         (Desizing)


                       Knit fabric  finishing
                         (Simple)

                         (Complex)

                         (Hosiery  products)
Type plant   Table No.
Integrated
Commission
Own yarn
Integrated
N.A.
N.A.

Integrated
B-41
B-42
B-43
B-44
B-45
B-46

B-47
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Own fabric
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Commission
Integrated
Own hosiery
Integrated
Commission
Own yarn
N.A.
B-48
B-49
B-50
B-51
B-52
B-53
B-54
-B-55
B-56
B-57
B-58
B-59
8-60
B-61
B-62
B-63
B-64
B-65
Integrated      B-66

Commission      B-67
Own fabric      B-68
Integrated      B-69
Commission      B-70
Own fabric      B-71
Integrated      B-72
Commission      B-73
Own fabric      B-74
Integrated      B-75

Commission      B-76
Integrated      B-77
Commission      B-78
Integrated      B-79
Own hosiery     B-80
Integrated      B-81
-------
                         Appendix B Index (Continued)



                                Subcategory
Source
New




Discharge (type processing)
Indirect Carpet finishing
Stock & yarn finishing

Nonwoven manufacturing
Felted fabric processing I/
Type plant
Integrated
Commission
Own yarn
N.A.
N.A.
Table No.
B-82
B-83
B-84
B-85
B-86
I/  Applicable both to direct and indirect models.
-------









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-------
   Appendix Table B-7.  The textile industry,  representative new source
                   model plants'  cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY: Woven fabric TYPE OF PLANT:  Own
   finishing-complex processing
TYPE OF DISCHARGER:
                Direct


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medium
($000)
117,720.0

70,632.0
12,949.2
14,715.0
13,302.4
111,598.6
6,121.4

2,589.8
0.0
3,531.6
1,605.3
1,926.3
4,516.1
(116.3 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

60.0
11.0
12.5
11.3
94.8
5.2

2.2
0.0
3.0
1.4
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-------
   Appendix Table B-17. The textile industry, representative existing
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY: Knit fabric   TYPE OF PLANT: Integrated
  finishing-hosiery
TYPE OF DISCHARGER:
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-------
   Appendix Table B-19. The textile industry,  representative existing
                   model  plants' cost characteristics

SUBGATEGORY: Stock & yarn TYPE OF PLANT: Commission    TYPE OF DISCHARGER:
              finishing                                              Direct


SALES
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-------
   Appendix"Table B-47. The textile industry,  representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics

SUBCATEGCRY:  Wool finish-  TYPE OF PLANT:   Integrated   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
                ing                                                       (NSPS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials -
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi urn
($000)
33,686.4

12,362.9
2,998.1
3,233.9
9,196.4
27,791.3
5,895.1

1,078.0
471.6
4,345.5
1,979.7
2,365.8
3,443.8
(18.6 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

36.7
8.9
9.6
27.3
82.5
17.5

3.2
1.4
12.9
5.9
.7.0
10.2
-------
   Appendix Table B-48.The textile -industry, representative new source
                   model  plants' cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY: Woven fabric TYPE OF PLANT:  Commission  TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
 finishing-simple processing                                               (NSPS)
                                               Medium (29.6 kkg/day)
SALES
COSTS:
  Textile Materials
  Direct Labor
  Indirect Labor
  Other
    TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
  Depreciation
  Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
($000)
8,784.0
1,756.8
  702.7
4,558.9
7,018.4
1,765.6

  483.1
  175.7
1,106.8
  489.9
  616.9
1,100.0
(Percent)
  100.0
   20.0
    8.0
   51.9
   79.9
   20.1

    5.5
    2.0
   12.6
    5.6
    7.0
   12.5
-------
   Appendix Table B-49. The textile industry,  representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics

SUBCATEGORY: Woven fabric TYPE OF PLANT:   Own  fabric   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
finishing-simple processing                                               (NSPS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME' TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi um
($000)
29,023.2

17,413.9
2,713.7
3,083.6
1,874.9
25,086.1
3,937.1

1,160.9
428.5
2,347.7
1,060.7
1,287.0
2,447.9
(29.6 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

60.0
9.4
10.6
6.5
86.1
13.6

4.0
1 .5
8.1
3.7
4.4
8.4
-------
   Appendix Table B-50. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics

SUBCATEGORY: Woven fabric  TYPE OF PLANT:  Integrated   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
finishing-simple processing                                                (NSPS)


SALES
COSTS :
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medium
($000)
45,240.0

22,620.0
7,057.4
1,447.7
4,994.5
36,119.6
9,120.4

2,262.0
845.5
6,012.9
2,746.7
3,266.2
5,528.2
(29.6 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

50.0
15.6
3.2
11.0
79.8
20.2

5.0
1.9
13.3
6.1
7.2
12.2
-------
   Appendix Table 8-51. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model  plants' cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY: Woven fabric  TYPE OF PLANT: Commission   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
finishing-complex processing                                               (NSPS)
                                               Medium (116.3 kkg/day)
SALES
COSTS:
  Textile Materials
  Direct Labor
  Indirect Labor
  Other
    TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
  Depreciation
  Interest
PRE-TAX  INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH  FLOW
 ($000)
39,240.0
 7,838.2
 3,135.2
20,379.2
31,352.6
 7,887.4

 1,962.0
   745.8
. 5,179.6
 2,363.4
 2,816.2
 4,778.2
(Percent)
  100.0
   20.0
    8.0
   51.9
   79.9
   20.1

    5.0
    1.9
   13.2
    6.0
    7.2
   12.2
-------
   Appendix Table B-52. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model  plants' cost characteristics

SUBCATEGORY: Woven fabric TYPE OF PLANT:  Own  fabric   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
finishing-complex processing                                              (NSPS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi urn
($000)
117,720.0

70,632.0
11,006.9
12,507.7
6,804.2
100,950.8
16,769.2
5,101.2
2,002.4
9,665.6
4,426.9
5,238.7
10,339.9

(116.3 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

60.0
9.4
10.6
5.8
85.8
14.2
4.3
1.7
8.2
3.8
4.5
8.8

-------
   Appendix Table B-53. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY: Woven fabric  TYPE OF PLANT: Integrated   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
finishing-complex processing                                               (NSPS)
                                               Medium (116.3 kkg/day)
SALES
COSTS:
  Textile Materials
  Direct Labor
  Indirect Labor
  Other
    TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
  Depreciation
  Interest
PRE-TAX  INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH  FLOW
 ($000)
139,708.8

 62,869.0
 15,813.0
  6,370.8
 26,612.4
111,665.2
 28,043.6

  7,451.2
  2,757.8
 17,834.6
  8,184.7
  9,649.9
 17,101.1
(Percent)
  100.0

   45.0
   11.3
    4.6
   19.0
   79.9
   20.1

    5.3
    2.0
   12,8
    5,9
    6.9
   12.2
-------
   Appendix Table B-54.The textile industry, representative new source
                   model plants' cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY: Woven  fabric  TYPE OF PLANT: Commission   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
finishing-desizing                                                         (NSPS)
                                               Medium  (53.6 kkg/day)
SALES
COSTS:
  Textile Materials
  Direct Labor
  Indirect Labor
  Other
    TOTAL
CASH  EARNINGS
LESS:
  Depreciation
  Interest
PRE-TAX  INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH  FLOW
($000)
 21,216.0
  4,328.0
  2,723.0
  8,926.7
 15,977.8
  5,238.2

  1,060.8
    356.4
  3,821.0
  1,738.4
  2,082.6
  3,143.4
(Percent)
   100.0
    20.4
    12.8
    42.1
    75.3
    24.7

     5.0
     1.7
    18.0
     8.2
     9.8
    14.8
-------
   Appendix Table B-55. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics

SUBCATEGORY: Woven fabric  TYPE OF PLANT: Own fabric    TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
finishing-desizing                                                        (NSPS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi urn
($000)
52,107.6

31,264.6
4,872.0
5,536.4
2,659.5
44,330.5
7,777.1

2,431.7
995.8
4,349.6
'l,981.6
2,368.0
4,799.7
(53.6 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

60.0
9.3
10.6
5.1
85.1
14.9

4.7
1.9
8.3
3.8
4.5
9.2
-------
   Appendix Table B-56.The textile industry,  representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics

SUBCATEGORY: Woven fabric  TYPE OF PLANT: Integrated   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
 finishing-desizing                                                        (NSPS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi um
($000)
71,986.8

28,794.7
3,685.7
691.1
23,784.4
56,955.9
15,030.9

4,079.3
1,496.6
9,455.0
4,330.0
5,125.0
9,204.3
(53.6 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

40.0
5.1
1.0
33.0
79.1
20.9

5.7
2.1
13.1
6.0
7.1
12.8
-------
   Appendix Table B-57. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY: Knit fabric   TYPE OF PLANT: Commission   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
 finishing-simple processing                                               (NSPS)
                                               Medium (32.2 kkg/day)
                                            ($000)          (Percent)
SALES                                      10,852.8           100.0
COSTS:
  Textile Materials
  Direct Labor                              1,780.4            16.4
  Indirect Labor                            1,983.4            18.3
  Other                                     4,271.0            39.3
    TOTAL                                   8,034.8            74.0
CASH  EARNINGS                               2,818.0            26.0
LESS:
  Depreciation                                651.1             6.0
  Interest                                    218.4             2.0
PRE-TAX  INCOME                              1,948.5            18.0
INCOME TAX                                    877.1             8.1
AFTER-TAX INCOME                            1,071.4             9.9
CASH  FLOW                                   1,722.5            15.9
-------
   Appendix Table  B-58.The textile industry, representative new source
                   model plants' cost characteristics

SUBCATEGORY:  Knit fabric  TYPE OF PLANT:  Integrated   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
finishing-simple  processing                                                (NSPS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi urn
($000)
68,940.0

34,470.0
5,332.6
410.2
18,165.6
58,378.4
10,561.7

1,838.4
564.6
8,158.7
3,733.7
4,424.9
6,263.3
(32.2 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

50.0
7.7
0.7
26.3
84.7
15.3

2.7
0.8
11.8
5.4
6.4
9.1
-------
   Appendix Table B-59. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model plants' cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY: Knit fabric   TYPE OF PLANT: Commission   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
finishing-complex processing                                               (NSPS)
                                               Medium (18.5 kkg/day)
SALES
COSTS:
  Textile Materials
  Direct Labor
  Indirect Labor
  Other
    TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
  Depreciation
  Interest
PRE-TAX  INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX  INCOME
CASH  FLOW
($000)
7,099.2
  473.3
  171.7
1,392.5
  621.3
  771.2
1,244.5
(Percent)
   100.0
1,164.6
1,297.3
2,793.8
5,061.7
2,037.5
16.4
18.3
39.4
71 .3
28.7
     6.7
     2.4
    19.6
     8.8
    10.8
    17.5
-------
   Appendix Table B-60. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model plants' cost characteristics

SUBCATEGORY:  Knit fabric  TYPE OF PLANT:  Integrated   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
finishing-complex processing                                               (NSPS)


SALES
COSTS :
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi urn
($000)
40,194.0

20,097.0
2,579.9
2,118.2
9,156.1
33,831 .2
6,362.8

1,339.8
542.8
4,480.2
2,041.7
2,438.5
3,778.3
(18.5 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

50.0
6.3
5.2
22.8
84.2
15.8

3.3
1 .4
11 .2
5.1
6.1
9.4
-------
   Appendix Table B-61. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics

SUBCATEGCRY: Knit fabric  TYPE OF PLANT:  Own hosiery   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
finishing-hosiery products                                                (NSPS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medium (5.5
($000)
15,379.2

7,689.6
1,268.1
389.0
3,804.1
13,150.8
2,228.4

205.1
109.8
1,913.5
860.9
1,052.6
1,257.7
kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

50.0
8.3
2.5
24.7
85.5
14.5

1.3
0.7
12.4
5.6
6.8
8.2
-------
   Appendix Table B-62. The textile industry',  representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY:  Carpet
             finishing
TYPE OF PLANT:  Integrated   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
                                                (NSPS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Small
($000)
47,998.8

23,999.4
1,550.4
979.1
14>, 402.0
40,930.9
7,067.8

1,279.9
433.4
4,354.5
2,443.8
2,910.7
4,190.6
(20.2 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

50.0
3.2
2.1
30.0
85.3
14.7

2.7
0.9
11.2
5.1
6.1
8.7
-------
   Appendix Table B-63.The textile industry, representative new source
                   model plants' cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY:  Stock  & yarn TYPE OF PLANT: Commission   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
                finishing                                                  (NSPS)
                                               Medium  (23.4 kkg/day)
SALES
COSTS:
  Textile Materials
  Direct Labor
  Indirect Labor
  Other
     TOTAL
CASH  EARNINGS
LESS:
  Depreciation
  Interest
-PRE-TAX  INCOME
 INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX  INCOME
CASH FLOW
($000)
1,864.8
  248.6
   80.0
  190.5
   68.4
  122.1
  370.7
(Percent)
   100.0
367.7
229.9
748.1
1,345.7
519.1
19.7
12.3
40.1
72.2
27.8
    13.3
    4.3
    10.2
    3.7
    6.5
    19.9
-------
   Appendix Table B-64.The textile industry,  representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY:  Stock & yarn TYPE OF PLANT:  Own yarn
              finishing
TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Direct
                   (MSPS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi urn
($000)
16,438.8

8,219.4
1,299.5
195.6
4,122.0
13,836.5
2,602.3

602.8
214.1
1,785.4
802.0
983.4
1,586.2
(23.5 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

50.0
7.9
1.2
25.1
84.2
15.8

3.7
1.3
10.9
4.9
6.0
9.6
-------
   Appendix Table B-65.The textile  industry,  representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics

SUBCATEGORY: Nonwoven      TYPE OF PLANT: Not applic-   TYPE  OF DISCHARGER:  Direct
             manufacturing                    able                         (NSPS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medium
($000)
23,760.0

5,940.0
2,060.0
1,030.0
10,037.4
19,067.4
4,692.6

1,425.6
474.0
2,793.0
1,265.5
1,527.5
2,953.1
(23.6 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

25.0
8.7
4.3
42.2
80.3
19.8

6.0
2.0
11 .8
5.3
6.4
12.4
-------
   Appendix Table B-66. The textile industry,  representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics

SUBCATEGORYiWool  finishingTYPE OF PLANT:  Integrated    TYPE OF DISCHARGER:  Indirect
                                                                           (PSNS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi urn
($000)
50,160.0

19,060.8
4,476.8
4,817.9
11,597.0
39,952.5
10,207.5

1,605.1
958.6
7,643.8
3,496.9
4,146.9
5,752.0
(18.6 kkq/day)
(Percent)
100.0

38.0
8.9
9.6
23.1
79.7
20.3

3.2
1.9
15.2
7.0
8.3
11.5
-------
   Appendix Table B-67>The textile industry, representative new source
                   model  plants' cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY: Woven fabric TYPE OF PLANT: Commission
finishing-simple processing
          TYPE OF  DISCHARGER:Indirect
                               (PSNS)
                                               Medium (12.3 kkg/day)
SALES

CQ_SJS_:

  Textile Materia-ls

  Direct Labor

  Indirect Labor

  Other

    TOTAL

CASH EARNINGS

LESS:

  Depreciation

  Interest

PRE-TAX  INCOME

INCOME TAX

AFTER-TAX INCOME

CASH  FLOW
 ($000)

3,369.6
  168.5

   60.5

  597.2

  255.5

  341.7

  510.2
(Percent)

  100.0
776.3
166.1
1,601.0
2,543.4
826.2
23.0
4.9
47.5
75.5
24.5
    5.0

    1.8

   17.7

    7.6

   10.1

   15.1
-------
   Appendix Table B-68. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model plants' cost characteristics

SUBCATEGCRY: Woven  fabric  TYPE OF PLANT: Own fabric   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Indirect
finishing-simple  processing                                                 (PSNS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi urn
($000)
11,210.4

6,726.2
676.6
590.8
1,515.0
9,508.6
1,701.8

448.4
166.0
1,087.4
481.0
606.4
1,054.8
(12.3 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

60.0
6.0
5.3
13.5
84.8
15.2

4.0
1.5
9.7
4.3
5.4
9.4
-------
   Appendix Table B-69. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics
SUBCATEGCRY: Woven  fabric  TYPE OF PLANT: Integrated   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Indirect
finishing-simple  processing                                                 (PSNS)
                                               Medium (12.3 kkg/day)
SALES
COSTS:
  Textile Materials
  Direct Labor
  Indirect Labor
  Other
    TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
  Depreciation
  Interest
PRE-TAX  INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
 ($000)
23,133.6

11,566.8
 1,554.6
   703.2
 4,719.2
18,543.8
 4,589.8

 1,156.7
   532.4
 3,000.7
 1,361.1
 1,639.6
 2,796.3
                                                            (Percent)
50.0
 6.7
 3.0
20.4
80.2
19.8

 5.0
 1.9
13.0
 5.9
 7.1
12.1
-------
   Appendix TaoleB-70. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model  plants' cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY: Woven  fabric  TYPE OF PLANT:  Commission   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Indirect
finishing-complex processing                                                (PSNS)
                                               Medium (23.3 kkg/day)
SALES
COSTS:
  Textile Materials
  Direct Labor
  Indirect Labor
  Other
    TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
  Depreciation
  Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
 ($000)
5,990.4
  259.6
   98.2
1,106.0
  462.8
  643.2
  902.8
(Percent)
  100.0
1,196.5
478.7
2,851.4
4,526.6
1,463.8
20.0
8.0
47.6
75.6
24.4
    4.3
    1.6
   18.5
    7.7
   10.7
   15.1
-------
   Appendix Table B-71. The textile industry,  representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY:  Woven  fabric  TYPE OF PLANT: Own fabric
finishing-complex  processing
TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Indirect
                     (NSPS)


SALES
COSTS.:
Textile Materials.
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi urn
($000)
22,759.2

13,655.5
1,373.5
1,198.6
3,443.5
1,9,671 .1
3,088.1

986.3
359.9
1,741 .9
782.0
959.9
1,946.2
(23.3 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

60.0
6.0
5.3
15.1
86.4
13.6

4.3
1.6
7.7
3.4
4.2
8.6
-------
   Appendix Table B-72. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics

SUBCATEGORY: Woven fabric TYPE OF PLANT: Integrated    TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Indirect
finishing-complex processing                                               (PSNS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi urn
($000)
37,932.0

17,069.4
5,917.4
1,213.8
5,704.9
29,905.5
8,026.5

2,023.1
748.8
5,254.6
2,397.9
2,856.7
4,879.8
(23.3 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

45.0
15.6
3.2
15.0
78.8
21.2

5.3
2.0
13.9
6.3
7.5
12.9
-------
   Appendix Table B-73. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model  plants' cost characteristics
SUBCATEGCRY: Woven fabric  "YPE OF PLANT: Commission   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Indirect
finishing-desizing                                                         (PSNS)
                                               Medium (53.6 kkg/day)
SALES
COSTS:
  Textile Materials
  Direct Labor
  Indirect Labor
  Other
    TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
  Depreciation
  Interest
PRE-TAX  INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH  FLOW
 ($000)
21,216.0
 4,328.0
 2,723.0
 8,367.6
15,418.6
 5,797.4

 1 ,060.8
   356.4
 4,380.2
 1,995.6
 2,384.6
 3,445.4
(Percent)
  100.0
   20.4
   12.8
   39.4
   72.7
   27.3

    5.0
    1 .7
   20.6
    9.4
   11..2
   15.,2
-------
   Appendix Table B-74. The textile industry, representative  new  source
                   model plants' cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY:  Woven  fabric TYPE OF PLANT: Own fabric
finishing-desizing
TYPE OF DISCHARGER:Indirect
                     (PSNS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medium
($000)
52,107.6

31,264.6
4,872.0
5,352.8
2,841.1
44,330.5
7,777.1

2,431.7
878.6
4,466.8
2,035.5
2,431 .3
4,863.0
(53.6 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

60.0
9.3
10.3
5.5
85.1
14.9

4.7
1.7
8.6
3.9
4.7
9.3
-------
   Appendix Table B-75. The textile industry,  representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics

SUBCATEGORY: Woven fabric TYPE OF PLANT:  Integrated   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Indirect
 finishing-desizing                                                         (PSNS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi um
($000)
71,986.8

28,794.7
3,685.7
691.1
23,784.4
56,955.9
15,030.9

4,079.3
1,496.6
9,455.0
4,330.1
5,124.9
9,204.2
(53.6 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

40.0
5.1
1.0
33.0
79.1
20.9

5.7
2.1
13.1
6.0
7.1
12.8
-------
   Appendix Table B-76. The  textile industry,  representative  new  source
                   model plants' cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY:  Knit  fabric  TYPE OF PLANT: Commission    TYPE OF  DISCHARGER: Indirect
finishing-simple  processing                                                 (PSNS)
                                                Medium  (19.3 kkg/day)
 SALES
 COSTS:
   Textile Materials
   Direct Labor
   Indirect  Labor
   Other
     TOTAL
 CASH EARNINGS
 LESS:
   Depreciation
   Interest
 PRE-TAX  INCOME
 INCOME TAX
 AFTER-TAX  INCOME
 CASH FLOW
($000)
6,528.0
  391.7
  148.8
1,154.5
  511.8
  642.7
1,034.4
(Percent)
 100.0
1,070.9
1,193.0
2,569.1
4,833.0
1,695.0
16.4
18.3
39.4
74.0
26.0
   6.0
   2.3
  17.7
   7.8
   9.8
  15.8
-------
   Appendix Table B-77. The textile industry,  representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics

SUBCATEGORY: Knit fabric   TYPE OF PLANT:  Integrated   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Indirect
finishing-simple  processing                                                 (PSNS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medium
($000)
41,580.0

20,790.0
2,544.7
2,191.3
9,471.8
34,997.8
6,582.2

l,108.o
467.2
5,006.2
2,283.6
2,722.6
3,831.4
(19.3 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

50.0
6.1
5.3
22.8
84.2
15.8

2,,7
1.1
12.0
5.5
6.5
9.2
-------
   Appendix Table B-78. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY:  Knit fabric   TYPE OF PLANT: Commission
finishing-complex processing
           TYPE  OF DISCHARGER:  Indirect
                                (PSNS)
                                               Medium (is.5 kkg/day)
SALES
COSTS:
  Textile Materials
  Direct Labor
  Indirect Labor
  Other
    TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
  Depreciation
  Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
 ($000)
6,201.6
(Percent)
  100.0
1,017.4
1,133.3
2,440.7
4,591.4
1,610.2
16.4
18.3
39.4
74.0
26.0
413.4
138.0
1,058.8
467.8
591.0
1,004.4
6.7
2.2
17.1
7.5
9.5
16.2
-------
   Appendix Table B-79. The textile industry,  representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics

SUBCATEGORY: Knit fabric  TYPE OF PLANT:  Integrated    TYPE OF DISCHARGER: indirect
finishing-complex processing                                               (PSNS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medium (18.5
($000)
40,194.0

20,097.0
2,459.9
2,118.2
9,156.1
33,831.2
6,362.8

1,339.8
666,8
4,356.2
. 1,984.6
2,371.6
3,711.4
k kg/ day)
(Percent)
100 ,.0

50.0
6.1
5.3
22.8
84.2
15.8

3.3
1.7
10.8
4.9
5.9
9.2
-------
   Appendix Table B-80. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model  plants' cost characteristics

SUBCATEGORY: Knit fabric   TYPE OF PLANT: Own hosiery   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Indirect
finishing-hosiery products                                                 (PSNS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi urn
($000)
38,448.0

19,224.0
3,170.0
751.7
9,510.1
32,655.8
5,792.2

512.6
427.9
4,851.7
2,212.5
2,639.2
3,151.8
( 12.6 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

50.0
8.2
2.0
24.7
84.9
15.1

1.3
1 .1
12.6
5.8
6.9
8.2
-------
   Appendix Table B-81. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model  plants' cost characteristics
SU8CATEGORY: Knit fabric   TYPE OF PLANT: Integrated
finishing-hosiery products
FYPE OF DISCHARGER:  Indirect
                     (PSNS)


SALES
COSTS :
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi urn
($000)
28,728.0

14,364.0
5,836.1
1,367.4
2,612.9
24,180.4
4,547.6

574.6
217.2
3,755.8
1,708.4
2,047.4
2,622.0
(12.6 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

50.0
20.3
4.8
9.1
84.2
15.8

2.0
0.8
13.1
5. .9
7.1
9.1
-------
   Appendix Table B-82. The textile industry,  representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics
SU3CATEGCRY:  Carpet
           finishing
TYPE OF PLANT:  Integrated   TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Indirect
                                                 (PSNS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi urn
($000)
32,803.2

16,401.6
1,003.8
1,115.3
9,424.4
27,945.1
4,858.1

874.8
434.0
3,549.3
1,613.4
1,935.9
2,810.7
(48.6 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

50.0
3.1
3.4
28.7
85.2
14.8

2.7
1.3
10.8
4.9
5.9
8.6
-------
   Appendix Table B-83.The textile industry,  representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY: Stock & yarn TYPE OF PLANT:  Commission    TYPE OF DISCHARGER:  Indirect
             finishing                                                     (PSNS)
                                               Medium (9.4 kkg/day)
                                            ($000)           (Percent)
SALES                                       1,864.8            100.0
COSTS:
  Textile Materials
  Direct Labor                                367.7             19.7
  Indirect Labor                              229.9             12.3
  Other                                       748.1             40.1
    TOTAL                                   1,345.7             72.2
CASH EARNINGS                                 519J             27'8
LESS:
  Depreciation                                248.6             13.3
  Interest                                     80.0              4.3
PRE-TAX  INCOME                                190.5             10.2
INCOME TAX                                     68.4              3.7
AFTER-TAX INCOME                             .122.1              6.5
CASH FLOW                                     370.7             19.9
-------
   Appendix Table B-8£.The textile industry,  representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics
SUBCATEGORY:  Stock & yarn TYPE OF PLANT:   Own yarn
             finishing
TYPE OF DISCHARGER:  Indirect
                     (PSNS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medium
($000)
8,410.8

4,205.4
893.6
157.3
1,879.4
7,135.7
1,275.1

308.4
109.6
857.1
375.0
482.1
790.5
(9.4 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

50.0
10.6
1.9
22.3
84.8
15.2

3.7
1.3
10.2
4.5
5.7
9.4
-------
   Appendix Table B-85. The textile industry,  representative new source
                   model  plants'  cost characteristics

SUBCATEGORY: Nonwoven     TYPE OF PLANT: Not applic-   TYPE OF DISCHARGER:  Indirect
          manufacturing                 able                              (PSNS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
large
($000)
4,800.0

12,000.0
5,100.0
2,121.6
18,644.0
37,865.6
10,134.4

2,880.0
1,024.4
6,230.0
2,846.6
3,383.4
6,263.4
(56.7 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

25.0
10.6
4.4
38.8
78.9
21.1

6.0
2.1
13.0
5.9
7.0
13.0
-------
   Appendix Table B-86. The textile industry, representative new source
                   model  plants' cost characteristics

SUBCATEGORY: Felted  fabric TYPE OF PLANT: Not applic-  TYPE OF DISCHARGER: Indirect
             processing                     able                            (PSNS)


SALES
COSTS:
Textile Materials
Direct Labor
Indirect Labor
Other
TOTAL
CASH EARNINGS
LESS:
Depreciation
Interest
PRE-TAX INCOME
INCOME TAX
AFTER-TAX INCOME
CASH FLOW
Medi urn
($000)
9,273.6

2,318.4
1,168.2
881.6
3,077.3
7,445.5
1,828.1

927.4
340.8
559.9
238.3
321.6
1,249.0
(4.4 kkg/day)
(Percent)
100.0

25.0
12.6
9.5
33.2
80.3
19.7

10.0
3.7
6.0
2.6
3.5
13.5
-------
       APPENDIX C

DATA COLLECTION PORTFOLIO
(AND TRANSMITTAL LETTER)
-------
Dear Sir:

The U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency (EPA)  is developing regulations
for the textile industry as required by the Clean Water Act  of 1977.   To
develop regulations which are sound, EPA needs  a detailed understanding
of the technical  and economic condition of the  industry.   This requires
the most up-to-date and accurate data we can acquire.

As part of our data gathering process,  EPA sent a "308 Questionnaire" to
your firm in April.  This questionnaire requested certain financial  and
other data to be used by EPA and its contractor in the development  of
regulations.

To date, we have not received your completed questionnaire.   The data
you provide will  be used to help us understand  the potential  economic
impacts of regulations under consideration.  Without this data,  EPA  may
unknowingly set regulations which are economically infeasible, and  which
may substantially affect your company.  Therefore a second questionnaire,
identical to the one you received in April, is  enclosed.   It is  important
that you complete these questionnaires to the best of  your ability.
Since the questionnaire was sent to you, EPA has obtained approval  by
the Office of Management and Budget (OMB).  The OMB number appears  in
the cover sheet and on the first page of the questionnaire,

We recognize that some answers may require estimates,  since  your information
may not be kept in a format compatible with our request.   In those  cases,
reasonable estimates are acceptable, as long as the assumptions  and
bases for your estimates are provided.  We do not intend for you to
spend excessive time or money responding to the questionnaire, but  we do
want reasonable answers based on your knowledge and on information  easily
avai Table to you.

You may consider data requested in this que:'  nnnaire  as confidential
and sensitive to your business.  EPA will hai  le your  data in a  confidential
manner pursuant to 40 C.F.R.  Part 2, Subpart 3, if you mark the boxes
on the cover sheet to the questionnaire denoting those responses which
you wish handled confidentially.
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The questionnaire you submit to EDA,  and any other confidential  data,
will be kept in locked files and handled only by  authorized  EPA  employees.
The questionnaire will be coded.  The cover sheet identifying  the respondent
will be separated and stored by EDA  in a secured  facility, and the  coded
questionnaire will be sent to EPA's  contractor,   Development Planning  and
Research Associates, Inc. (DPRA).  DPRA, who is  under  contract to EPA  to
conduct the economic analysis,  will  compile and  analyze  the  data.  DPRA
is obligated to handle all data designated  as confidential in  a  confidential
manner.  When the analysis is complete, the questionnaires,  and  any
confidential information generated during the course  of  analysis, will  be
returned to EPA where they will be stored in a secured facility.

Although information which you  claim  to be  confidential  will be  treated
by EPA as confidential, a third person may  request access  to the data
under the authority of the Freedom of Information Act.   In this  case,  you
will be notified that a request has  been made, and you will  be able to
provide further justification for continued confidential handling of your
data.  EPA will consider your comments before making  a final determination
of the information's confidentiality.  If EPA determines that  the
information should be released, you  will be informed  in  advance  and may
petition the courts to prevent  release of the information.   Please  note
that any data not claimed as confidential may be  disclosed to  the public
without further notice to you.

In addition to the study being  done  by EPA, the  American Textile
Manufacturers Institute (ATMI), the  Carpet  and Rug Institute (CRT), and
the Northern Textile Association (V.TA) are  jointly working to  develop
an industry position regarding  the economic impact of  these  regulations.
In order to facilitate this work, these three trade associations are
requesting you to provide them  with  a copy  of your response  to EPA's
questionnaire.  This will allow EPA  and the industry  to  work from the
same data base.  As the enclosed letter explains, once the completed
letters are received by the trade associations,  all identifying  information
will be removed and the questionnaire will  be sent to  their  independent
contractor with an assigned code number.

All information sent to EPA and marked confidential will be  protected
in accordance with our regulations.   Since  it is  the  Agency's  position
that a company loses its right  to confidential treatment of  business
information once that information is  disclosed without protection to
a third party, any information  sent  to EPA  as confidential cannot be
protected unless the information is  treated as confidential  by the
trade associations and their contractor.  You will note  however, that
ATMI, CRI and NTA, by their letter,  agree tj keep confidential all
information for which you desire such treatment,  and  have  a  signed
agreement with their contractor which prohi.its  disclosure  of  the
information to any other source.  Please indicate, on  the  space  provided
on the cover page, if you are sending a duplicate copy of  the  completed
questionnaire to one of the three trade associations.
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Please return yoi;r completed questionnaire, in the pre-addressed envelope
provided, within 14__days_ fror.i receipt of the enclosed survey.  As you
were informed in April, EPA is making this request under authority of
Section 308 of the Clean Hater Act, which permits EPA to require the
establishment, maintance, and provision of information necessary to
develop a sound regulation.  If you do not respond with a completed
questionnaire to EPA w'thin this 14-day period, you may be subject to
enforcement actions authorized under Section 309 of the Clean Water Act.

Please be advised that Section 309(d) of the Federal  Hater Pollution
Control Act, 33 U.S.C. §1319(d), provides, inter ajia_, that any person
who violates Section 308 of the Act shall be subject  to a civil penalty
not to exceed $10,000 per day of such violation.  In  addition, Section
309(c)(l) of the Act, 33 U.S.C. §1319(c)(1), provides inter alia, that
any person who willfully or negligently violates Section 303 of the Act
shall  be punished by a fine of not less than $2,500 nor more than $25,000
per day of violation, or by imprisonment of not more  than one year, or by
both.   The liabilities under Section 309(c)(l) extend to responsible
corporate officers.

If you have any questions regarding this letter or the enclosures,
please contact the economics project officer,  '_. Jean Noroian, at
(202)  42^-2517,   Your cooperation is important to us, to your industry,
and most of all, r,o you.  With your help, ./e are confident that the
final  regulations will best balance the needs  of all  concerned.
Albert J. Erickson
Associate Deputy Assistant Administrator
Office of Water Planning and St~

Enclosures
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                                                                  400 s TRYON ST WACHOVIA CENT;
AMERICAN TEXTILE MANUFACTURERS INSTITUTE,  INC     *-2.a.a:a  CHARLOTTE N c 29235
                                                                 April 6,  1978
  TO TEXTILE PLANTS PARTICIPATING IN
  EPA ECONOMIC WASTE WATER SURVEY
  The American Textile Manufacturers  Institute, the Carpet and Rug Institute and
  the Northern Textile Association are participating with EPA in a long range re-
  search project to determine the textile industry's technical and economic  capa-
  bility for meeting the Best Available Technology  Economically Achievable (BATEA)
  •water pollution guidelines.  This effort is separate from tne overall  review of
  regulations  referred to in the ai companyirig EPA letter taut is intended to  comp-
  lement the  agency's program,

  One phase of the  project will be an evaluation  of  several  advanced wastewater
  treatment technologies whicn  might be used to meet tiie guidelines.   The second
  phase will be  an economic  analysis  of the probable  costs and related impact on
  the industry from the use  of these technologies.  Approximately 24 textile plants
  are  participating in the technical studies and the  three trade associations  are
  soliciting wide input from their members in the economic studies,

  Because the guidelines are to be based on the  ''Best Available Technology Economi-
  cally  Achievable",  it is especially important  that the  economic evaluations be on
  a wide data  base \vhi< h a>-curatelv represents  the industry    You can assist in this
  •work by sending us  a c opv  of' eav.h Completed questionnaire which you provide  to
  EPA.

  All plant identification  information -will be deleted upon receipt and coded  before
  being submitted to  our economics <_ont ra<_tor,  Dynamics  Associates,  We  will
  maintain strict confident La hty of plant identification and have a signed agreement
  •with  Dynamics prohibiting  their d/sclosure of th.'s information to any other source.

  If you consider it essential, you may delete the plant name and the address and
  insert your  own code before sending the questionnaires to us.  It -will be import-
  ant, however, that we have the company  name, the name of the state where the
  plant is located and the name  of a Corporate contact.
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                                                                Page Two
Please send the questionnaires to one of the three trade associations at one of
the following addresses:
American Textile Manufacture:rs Institute, Inc.
Attn: O'Jay Niles
2124 Wachovia Center, 400 South Tryon Street
Charlotte, North Carolina  28285

Carpet and Rug Institute
Attn: Barry Torrence
P. O.  Box 2048
Dalton,  Georgia  30720

Northern Textile Association
Attn: Karl Spilhaus
211 Congress  Street
Boston,  Massachusetts  02110
Telephone: (704)  334-4734
Telephone: (404) 278-3176
Telephone: (617)  542-8220
Your cooperation in providing us with this information •would be extremely help-
ful in conducting an industry-wide assessment of the economic impact of the
BATEA requirements..
                                    American Textile Manufacturers Institute,  Inc.

                                    Carpet and Rug Institute

                                    Northern Textile Association
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                                        DATA COLLECTION  PORTFOLIO
                                                    - TEXTILES -
  FACILITY IDENTIFICATION

 (1) Plant Name     	

     Address of Plant	
 (2) Name of Parent Company

     Address of Parent Company.
 (3) Name of individual we may contact concerning this Data Collection Portfolio
     Telephone Number
            Area Code
                                Telephone No
 (4) The attached survey is applicable to those plants which generate process wastewater  Process wastewater can be defined as
     liquid wastes resulting from processes utilized in your plant which are d  charged to your own treatment facility, to a municipal
     treatment facility, or to some other receiving source  If your plant does not generate wastewater, please check the following
     box  D, complete questions (1) through (5) on this page, and return this page to EPA m the enclosed envelope. If your plant
     does generate wastewater, please complete the attached questionnaire and return it to EPA


 (5) If you are also sending a copy of your questionnaire responses to one of the industry associations, please check the following
     box  D.
 '6)  To assert your ciaim of confidentiality, please check off the box corresponding to the questions, which, in the company's
     opinion, requires confidential treatment.
      1 D
      20
3D
4Q
5D
6D
7D
8D
 9Q
TOD
11  D
NOTE.  Upon receipt by EPA, this page will be separated from the remainder of the questionnaire so that data processing and
        use of the data is conducted on a coded basis
                Form Approved
                   O.M B
               No. 158-R0160
                                                                   For Use by EPA
                                                                                   Code Number.
"The Clean Water Act specifically states effluent data are not subject to confidential treatment
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           Form Approved
              O.M.B.
          No. 158-R0160
                                              For Use  by EPA
                                      Code  Number	
                                              Data  Collection  Portfolio
                                                     -  Textiles -
   To accurately assess the economic consequences of requiring the Textile Industry to meet certain water pollution limitations,
it is essential to obtain current economic and financial data.  As the discharge limitations will vary according to each plant's
production process employed and discharge method, it is necessary to obtain data on an individual plant basis. For purposes of
filling out this  Data Collection Portfolio, a plant shall relate to one technically coherent economic unit at one location for which
financial data are most readily available. A company is a  business unit producing goods and services with one  or more capital
facilities combined under some form of entrepreneurial control. All other data shall be provided on a best estimated basis. Data
should reflect 1976 or your most recently completed fiscal year for which data are available.
   1.  PRODUCTION INFORMATION: EJelow please indicate the amount of raw materials used in this mill in 1976 or the
most recent fiscal year as well as the amount of products  processed in this mill during that time.
PURCHASED RAW MATERIALS
(include interplant transfers)
Wool
   • Grease wool
   • Clean wool
   • Wool top
   • Yarn
   • Fabric (Greige)
   • Other	
Cotton
   • Raw cotton
   • Yarn
   • Fabric (Greige)
   • Other  	
Man Made Fibers
   • Fiber
   • Yarn (include filaments)
   • Fabric (Greige)
   • Other  	
Blends
   • Yarn
   • Fabric (Greige)
   • Other  	
Other (please specify)
                   PROCESSED PRODUCTS
(pounds)           (include interplant transfers)
                   Broadwoven Fabrics
	           •  Chiefly cotton
	             Greige
	             Finished
	           •  Chiefly Manmade
	             Greige
	             Finished
                      •  Chiefly Blends
	             Greige
	             Finished
	           •  Chiefly Woolen
	             Greige
                        Finished
	        Women's Hosiery, except Socks
	        Other Hosiery
	        Knit Outerwear
	        Knit Underwear
                   Circular Knit Fabric
	        Warp Knit Fabric
	        Woven Carpets & Rugs
	        Tufted Carpets & Rugs
                   Yarn
	Thread
	         Felt Goods
	        Lace Goods
                   Padding & Upholstery Filling
                   Coated Fabrics
                   Nonwoven Fabrics
                   Other (please specify)
(dollars)
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   2.  PROCESS DESCRIPTION: Please check the appropriate processes which apply to your operation.
      	   Wool Scouring                 	   Carbonizing
      	   Combing                     	   Dyeing
      	   Carding                      	   Bonding and Laminating
      	   Spinning                     	   Printing
      	Slashing                      	   Functional Finishes
      	Weaving                      	   Nonwoven Processes (Please Specify)
      	   Knitting                      	   	
      	   Carpet Backing                	   	
      	   Desizing                      	   Other Processes (Please Specify)
      	   Scouring	
      	   Bleaching                     	   	
      	   Mercerizing                   	   	
  3. PLANT DESCRIPTION:  Information provided should be for calendar year 1976 or latest fiscal year
(year ended 	).
     (1) How representative was this plant's production data during the year represented in this questionnaire as compared
         to the averages for 1971-1975?
                   About the same       D
                   Better than average    D
                   Worse than average    D
     (2) Approximate age of production equipment:
                  Age in Years        Percent of Total Production Equipment
                   (a) 0-5                       	
                   (b)6-10                      	
                   (c) 11-15                     	
                   (d) 16-20                     	
                   (e) 21-50                     	
                   (f) 50 or older                 	
     (3) Employment: Average number of
                   Production Employees         	
                   Non Production Employees    	
         with production emplovees defined as hourly paid employees directly associated with production and non
         production employees defined as all  other personnel at this plant (including supervisory and administrative).
     (4) Organization:
         (a) Is this company a
            D proprietorship, partnership, or closely-held corporation
            Q public corporation
         (b) Is this company a
            D single-plant operation
            D multi-plant operation
         (c) For multi-plant operations:
            Total sales of company from all textile produi  i       Total sales of company from all products (including textiles!
            D $100,000 or less                                 D $100,000 or less
            D $100,001 to $500,000                           D $100,001 to $500,000
            O $500,001 to $1,000,000                          D $500,001 to $1,000,000
            O $1,000,001 to $5,000,000                        D $1,000,001 to 55,000,000
            D $5,000,001 to $50,000,000                       D $5,000,001 to $50,000,000
            D Greater than $50,000,000                        D Greater than $50,000,000
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  (5) Plant capacity and utilization:
     (a) Please indicate the number of hours 	  and days 	in your "normal" work week.
     (b) Days of operation in 1976 	  days; in 1977	  days.
     (c) Maximum rated plant capacity under normal work week:
        	  pounds textile and fiber material input per day
        	square yards finished product per day
        	  other (i.e. pounds)  _:	   per day
     (d) Percent of plants  maximum rated capacity utilized in 1976 	 in 1977	.
     (e) Inventory turnover  	 times per year.
     (f) What percent of your latest fiscal year's production was represented by commission work? 	%
4.  PRODUCTION AND INCOME DATA FOR LATEST FISCAL YEAR FOR THIS PLANT:
      Data for latest fiscal year ending 	 /	 / 	
   (1) Poundage
      Textile and Fiber Materials Input  	Ibs.
      Production Output              	Ibs.
   (2) Proportion of the above products which are goods which are transferred from this facility to another company-owned
      operating-facility  	%
   (3) Sales (or market Value of Production)      $	
  (4) Costs (combine categories if necessary):
          Textile and Fiber Materials           S
          Other Production Materials           $
          Direct Labor                       $
          Indirect and General Labor           $
          Electricity                         $
          Other Energy (oil, gas, coal, etc.)     $
          Depreciation                       $
          Interest                            $
          Taxes (except federal income taxes)   $
          Other Costs                        $
   (5) Please indicate the annual cost of wastewater treatment.
           Labor                              $ 	
           Materials (chemicals, etc.)            $ 	
           Energy                             S 	
           Depreciation                        $ 	
           Interest                            S 	
           Other (please specify)                $
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5.  PLANT ASSETS:  End of latest fiscal year (     /     /     )
   (1) Cash and Receivables                                                  $  	
   (2) Inventories                                                           S  	
   (3) Fixed Assets (other than land):                                         $  	
                     Gross      Net        Liquidation  Value      Replacement
        Building      	 	    	         	
        Equipment   	 	    	         	
   (4) Land (Availability and Value)
      (a) Availability: How much land is available for construction of additional wastewater treatment facilities (Please Check)
                                                        Now Own        Could Acquire
          None                                           D                 Q
          Less than  Yi acre                                 D                 D
          Yi - 1 acre                                       D                 D
          1-3 acres                                        D                 O
          More than 3 acres                                D                 D
      (b) Value:
         What is the  book value of the land presently associated with this operation? S	
         What is the approximate current value per acre of land in the vicinity of your plant?   $	per acre
   (5) Capital Investment - total for last three (3) years-
           Replacement of Equipment                       $  	
           Major Plant Expansions                           $  	
           Pollution Control and Safety                      $  	
 6. PLANT LIABILITIES AND EQUITY:  End of latest fiscal year (     /    /
   (1) Current Liabilities and Short Term Debt
   (2) Long Term Debt
                 Rate          Date Due          Amount
           (a)    	 %     I    I           $  	
           (b)    	 %     I    I           $  	
           (c)    	 %     I    I           $  	
           (d)    	 %     I    /           $  	
           (e)    	 %     I    I           $  	
   (3) Owner's Equity (Book Value)
 7. PLANT HISTORICAL DATA:  Please give data for last five (5) fiscal years:
           Year End     Pretax Profits       Total Assets        Total Sales
                           ($000)           ($000)              ($000)
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 9. PLANT EFFLUENT CHARACTERISTICS AND DISCHARGE INFORMATION - 1976:
    (1) During 1976 or your most recently completed fiscal year, what was your approximate average daily
       wastewater discharge?  	gallons/day

    (2)  Please indicate the approximate percentage of the total flow from each source:
           	  %  Process-Related Wastewater
           	  %  Boiler Slowdown
           	  %  Non Contact Cool ing Water
           	  %  Sanitary Sewage
           	  %  Cafeteria
           	  %  Air Pollution Control  Equipment
           	  %  Other (Describe) 	
   (3) Please indicate method used to dispose of process-related wastewaters.
           	   Direct Discharge — Discharge of treated or untreated process-related wastewaters directly to a
                        receiving body of water.
           	   Indirect Discharge — Discharge of partially treated or untreated process-related wastewaters
                        directly to a Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTW) via municipal sewer system.
           	   Other Discharge such as septic tank, evaporation lagoon, irrigation system, etc. Please explain
                        briefly  below.
   (4) If your plant is a Direct Discharger, please indicate the following:
                        Average presence
                        (Ibs. per 1,000 gallons)
           BOD5        	
           COD         	
           TSS          	
   10. PLANT WASTEWATER TREATMENT COSTS: If your plant discharges wastewaters to a POTW. what were your.
wastewater treatment user charges?
                          Total Cost             Cost per 1,000 Gallons
             1975         	           	
             1976         	           	
             1977         	           	
                                                                                                                A
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   11.  COMMENTS:  Please supply any other data or comments vou feel may be helpful m evaluating the economic impact
of effluent limitation guidelines on the Textile Industry (e.g. describe characteristics which lesuli in an atyoieal expenditure
for effluent controls).
     Thank you for your cooperation.  Please enclose this fotrn in the accompanying envelope and mail directly to:
               Mr. Anthony M. Montrone
               U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
               Office of Analysis & Evaluation (VVM 586)
               401  M Street, S.W.
               Washington, D.C. 20460
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