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Ecological Effects
3 of
PESTICIDES
Non-larget Species
l Protect 1 on
Dearborn Ll .
o, IL 60604
EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT
OFFICE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
JUNE 1971
David Pimentel, Department of Entomology and Limnology,
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C., 20402 - Price $2.00
Stock Number 4106-0029
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EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT
OFFICE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20506
June 1, 1971
This volume was prepared at the request of the Office of
Science and Technology in the Executive Office of the Presi-
dent, by Dr. David Pimentel, Department of Entomology and
Limnology, New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell
University.
We commissioned the study because it was evident that there
was no single source of data on the environmental effects of
pesticides. Furthermore, some data that existed and were
quoted by various individuals to support a particular view had
never been formally published, in some cases because the
experimental methods were subject to question and results
had not been confirmed by more discriminating later experi-
ments. We intended this volume to be a comprehensive
compilation of data, screened with some care to eliminate
most unsubstantiated reports, so that discussions of environ-
mental effects could concentrate on legitimate differences in
value judgments rather than arguments about the validity of
the scientific facts.
Ecological Effects of Pesticides on Non-target Species is a
comprehensive compilation of published data. The judgments
on what to include and what not to include are those of the
author, though many individuals in the Federal government
offered suggestions and critical review during its preparation.
It is published by the Office of Science and Technology as
received from the author in the belief that it will be a very
useful contribution to the public discussion of pesticides. Pub-
lication by the Office of Science and Technology does not imply
responsibility for completeness or accuracy of the information
included.
Edward E. David, Jr.
Director
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Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
PAKT I Introduction
PART II Insecticides
PART III Herbicides
PART IV Fungicides
PART V Pesticide Residues in the Environment
PART VI An Evaluation and Summary
APPENDIX A Abbreviations Used
APPENDIX B Common and Scientific Names of Animals and Plants
APPENDIX C Index of Pesticides: Common and Chemical Names .
APPENDIX D Subject Index
Page
iv
1
3
85
137
163
177
183
185
189
207
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Acknowledgements
This Study of the "Ecological Effects of Pesticides on Non-Target Species"
was encouraged by Dr. John L. Buckley while I served as an ecologist
consultant on environmental quality in the Office of Science and Technology,
Executive Office of the President, during late 1969 and early 1970. I should
like to express my sincere appreciation to Dr. Buckley for his many suggestions
during the preparation of the manuscript.
In addition, I am deeply grateful to Dr. T. C. Byerly of the U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Drs. Gerald D. Brooks and William M. Upholt of the
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Dr. Donald J. Lisk of
Cornell University, and Drs. Lawrence J. Blus, Oliver B. Cope, E. H. Dustman,
Charles D. Gish, Richard D. Porter, Lucille F. Stickel, and Stanley N.
Wiemeyer of the U.S. Department of Interior for reviewing the manuscript.
Their criticisms significantly improved the manuscript.
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PART I
Introduction
Clearly, it is vital to the well-being of man
that he continue to sustain high production in
agriculture while at the same time making cer-
tain to maintain a viable life system. Pesticide
chemicals have played a significant part in increas-
ing agricultural production and productivity. Un-
fortunately, this increased production has been
paralleled by an increase in pollution resulting
in part from agricultural practices, including pest
control.
In 1970 nearly a billion pounds of some 900 reg-
istered pesticides were applied (more than 50 per-
cent for farm use) throughout the United States
for pest control. This large quantity of pesticide
was aimed primarily at about 2,000 pest species
of plants and animals. As expected, many of the
other 200,000 species of plants and animals present
in the environment were either directly or in-
directly affected by these widespread pesticide
applications.
Pest control is necessary for the adequate pro-
duction of food and fiber. But also important to
us are the many wild plants and animals that com-
prise and maintain the life system in which we
exist. Evidence suggests that the great majority of
the 200,000 non-target species are a necessity for
our survival, for we cannot survive with only our
crop plants and livestock.
This report summarizes the available evidence
concerning the impact of pesticides (insecticides,
herbicides, and fungicides) on individuals, popu-
lations, and communities of species and the mag-
nitude of the reported damage to the diverse
processes of living systems. For each named
pesticide, such as 2,4-D, pertinent information has
been presented about its influence on non-target
mammals, birds, fishes, amphibians, molluscs,
arthropods, annellids, plants, and microorganisms,
as well as its biological concentration in food
chains and persistence (when the information is
available). No comment will be made concerning a
reviewed paper, but an assessment of the total
evidence relative to the dangers to the ecology of
populations, communities, and ecosystems will be
presented in Part VI.
This review is selective, aiming to include only
scientifically valid investigations. In determining
whether a report was to be included in the review
several questions were asked: What was the dos-
age or application rate of the pesticide adminis-
tered to the non-target species or their habitat?
Were there adequate controls ? Was sampling ade-
quate? There were discrepancies in results between
some reports reviewed, but these were included
when sound experimental methods were employed
in the investigation. The reason for the differences
were not always evident from the papers them-
selves, but obviously there was either some varia-
tion in procedures or the presence of some chance
event not evident to the investigators. These re-
ports, however, are of considerable value because
they do provide an idea of the range of response
to a pesticide by non-target species. Studies re-
ported in progress reports at research laboratories
were cited only when the results could 'be verified
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and approved by investigators and/or their close
associates.
The LD50's derived from single oral doses
of chemicals should be regarded only as guides
or benchmarks because many other factors may
alter toxicity in the environment, and evidence
suggests that compounds which are more poorly
absorbed or cumulative in action are better
tested by long-term feeding or by repeated
doses. Consequently, these LD50's are included
with the warning that direct comparisons
between persistent and more readily degradable
pesticides may be misleading.
In this review laboratory toxicity data cannot
be directly related to possible field exposures. Al-
though information was available on concentra-
tions applied in the field, often no data were
presented on the quantities picked up by the
organism. Directly related to the amount of pes-
ticide entering and affecting organisms like fish,
are factors of temperature, hardness, and move-
ment of water. In the invesigations involving per-
sistence, seldom was there a stated criterion for
"disappearance," e.g., 50 or 99 percent loss of the
pesticide.
Overall, I am less than pleased with the infor-
mation available, and the review clearly points
out the desperate need for intensive investigation
concerning the ecological effects of pesticides on
non-target species.
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PART II
Insecticides
ABATE
Mammals
The LD50 for male rats was 151 mg/kg (Tucker
and Oabtree, 1970) and for rats (no sex given),
2,000 mg/kg (FCH, 1970) to abate when the ani-
mals were fed the stated dosages orally. No ex-
planation is available for the large discrepancy.
Birds
The LD50 for mallard ducks was 80 to 100 mg/
kg; for young pheasants, '31j5 mg/kg; for young
chukar partridges, 270 mg/kg; for young coturnix,
84.1 mg/kg; for pigeons (Columba lima), 50.1
mg/kg; and for house sparrows, 34.4 mg/kg to
abate when the birds were given the stated dosages
orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
The LCso for mallards was 1,400 to 1,600 ppm;
for pheasants, 150 to 170 ppm; for bobwhite, 90
to 110 ppm; and for coturnix, 230 to 270 ppm of
abate in diets of 2-week-old birds when fed the
treated feed for 5 days followed by clean feed for
3 days (Heathet al., 1970a).
When chickens were fed abate at a dosage of
125 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Guines, 1969). Mode of action was unknown.
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for brook trout exposed to
abate was 1,500 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Amphibians
The LD6o for bullfrogs was >2,000 mg/kg to
abate when the animals were given the stated dos-
age orally in a capsule (Tucker 'and Crabtree,
1970).
Arthropods
The 48-hour IvCSo for stoneflies (Pteronaavys
oalif arnica), and amphipods (Gamrmatrus laam-
tris) exposed to abate was 100 ppb and 1,500 ppb,
respectively (FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for the amphipod (G. lacus-
tris) exposed to abate was 960 ppb (Sanders,
1969).
ALDRIN
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 54 to 56 mg/kg and for
rabbits, <150 mg/kg to aldrin when the mammals
were fed the stated dosages orally (Spector, 1955).
The frequency of estrus in rats decreased signifi-
cantly when they were fed 10 or 20 ppm of aldrin
from one month of age (Ball, Kay and Sinclair,
1953).
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Birds
Tucker and Crabtree (1970) reported the LD50
for young mallards was 520 nig/kg; for young
pheasants, 16.8 mg/kg; for young bobwhite quail,
6.6 mg/kg; and for fulvous tree duck, 29.2 mg/kg
to aldrin when the birds were given the stated
dosages orally in a capsule. The LC50 for mallards
was 150 to 170 ppm; for pheasants was 50 to 60
ppm; and for coturnix, 30 to 40 ppm of aldrin in
diets of 2-week-old birds fed treated feed for
5 days followed by clean feed for 3 days (Heath
et al., 1970a). The LC50 for bobwhite quail chicks
was 39 ppm and for mallard ducklings, 164 ppm
to aldrin when the birds were fed the stated dos-
ages for 5 days and then clean food for 3 days
(Heath and Stickel, 1965).
Aldrin in acetone injected into hen eggs at
100 ppm, 200 ppm, 300 ppm, and 400 ppm
killed 50, 25, 43, and 79 percent of the embryos
(Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969). Starvation ex-
periments with chicks from eggs which had re-
ceived 5 ppm showed complete mortality by the
5th day, whereas in the control mortality was
about 50 percent.
Aldrin at 6.25 ppm in the diet of turkeys resulted
in a highly significant growth depression in both
sexes .(Anderson, Blakely and MacGregor, 1951).
Wood pigeons in England were fed aldrin (40,
46, 53, 61, 70, and 80 mg/kg) under controlled lab-
oratory conditions, and the toxicities and residues
in flesh and various organs were measured (Turtle
et al., 1963). After this investigation birds in the
field were examined. The results of the laboratory
and field analyses support the conclusion that al-
drin was one of the main causes for wood-pigeon
deaths in nature and prompted the Ministry of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food to discontinue
the recommended use of aldrin as a seed dressing.
Fishes
See table 1 for the LC50 for various fish to aldrin.
The 24-hr LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
aldrin at temperatures of 1.6'C, 7.2°C, and 12.7°C
was 24 ppb, 8.1 ppb, and 6.1 ppb, respectively
(Macek, Hutchinson and Cope, 1969); and the
24-hour LC5o for bluegills exposed at temperatures
of 12.7°C, 18.3°C, and 23.8°C was 36 ppb, 16 ppb,
and 10 ppb, respectively. As both temperature and
exposure time increased, the LC50 to small (about
1 g) bluegills decreased (table 2).
About 5 percent of the mosquito fish that sur-
vived an exposure to aldrin above the threshold
toxicity of the insecticide aborted their young
(Boyd,1964).
TABLE 1. The LC50 for various fish to aldrin.
Fish Species Exposure LCso
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Rainbow trout-
Rainbow trout _.
Bluegill-
Rainbow trout. .
Bluegill
Goldfish
24
24
24
48
96
96
0.036
0. 05
0. 096
0.003
0. 013
0.028
Cope, 1965
Mayhew, 1955
Cope, 1965
FWPCA, 1968
Henderson, Pickering
and Tarzwell, 1959
tt
TABLE 2. Effects of increasing temperature and exposure
time on the toxicity of aldrin to bluegills (Cope, 1965).
45 _
55
65
75
24hrs
0. 130
0. 0368
0. 0164
0. 0093
LCso (ppm)
48hrs
0. 0264
0. 0125
0. 0083
0. 0067
96hrs
0. 0097
0. 0077
0. 0062
0. 0056
The results of a study by Moye and Luckmann
(1964) indicated that a single application of aldrin
at 2 Ib/A for insect control in Milford, Illinois,
in 1960 killed a large number of fish in a small
exposed stream (see Arthropods and Annelids}.
A collection of fish 7 months later, however,
showed the usual diversity of species and size of
fish. Hence there appeared to be a rapid recovery
of the fish population.
Three species of fish were collected in the field
at Twin Bayou, Mississippi, where the population
had been exposed to heavy concentrations of sev-
eral insecticides used in the adjoining cotton acre-
ages (Ferguson et al., 1965b). The toxicity to al-
drin in these field-collected fish compared with a
control population, as measured by 36-hour LC50,
were: golden shiner, control 80 ppb versus Twin
Bayou 4,750 ppb; bluegills, control 38 ppb versus
Twin Bayou 3,000 ppb; and green sunfish, control
62 ppb versus Twin Bayou 3,250 ppb. In another
investigation resistant mosquito fish and black
bullheads were collected from streams in Missis-
-------
sippi (Ferguson et al., 1965a). The toxicity to
aldrin in these fish compared with an unselected
control population, as measured by 36-hour LC50,
were: mosquito fish, control 50 ppb versus resist-
ant (Sidon, Miss.) 2,100 ppb; and black bullhead,
control 12.5 ppb versus resistant (Wayside, Miss.)
185 ppb.
Mosquito fish resistant to aldrin were also found
in Mississippi Delta region (Ferguson, 1969).
Cross-resistance was suggested as an explanation,
as aldrin had not been used in the area during the
preceding 8 years.
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for Fowler's toad tadpoles
exposed to aldrin was 2.0 ppm (Sanders, 1970).
Molluscs
Only 1 ppb of aldrin in the water limited the
development of clam eggs by 70 percent, and 1 ppm
aldrin reduced the growth of.mature oysters by
95 percent after a 7-day exposure (USDI, 1960).
Arthropods and Annelids
See table 3 for the LC50 for various arthropods
to aldrin.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus and
Daphnia pulex, to aldrin was 23 ppb and 28 ppb,
respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
Populations of the mite Tetranychus Mmacula-
tus on beans and potatoes increased up to 5-fold
after the application of aldrin at dosages from
3 to 60 Ib/A (Klostermeyer and Hasmussen, 1953).
The effects of aldrin on a small stream were
studied in 1960, when approximately 23,000 acres
of farmland near Milford, Illinois, were treated
with aldrin at a dosage of 2 lb/A (Moye and
Luckmann, 1964). A 6-mile-long segment of Sugar
Creek flowing through the area was subjected to
contamination during aerial application of the
aldrin granules. The stream was sampled for some
species of Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, Elmidae
(Coleoptera), and Chironomidae (Diptera) up to
19 months after treatment. Of the 4 aquatic taxa
studied, only Elmidae appeared unaffected by the
treatment. Species of Ephemeroptera decreased
severely. Trichoptera and Chironomidae increased
TABLE 3. The LCso for various arthropods to aldrin.
Arthropod Species
Expo-
sure LCw
Time (ppm)
(hr)
Source
Sand shrimp
Hermit crab
Grass shrimp
Amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris)
Stonefly (Pteronarcys
californica)
Waterflea (Daphnia
pulex)
Amphipod (G. lacustris).
24 0. 03 Eisler, 1969
24 0. 3
24 >2 "
24 45 Sanders,
1969
48 0. 008 FWPCA,
1968
48 0. 028 "
48 12
during the summer after treatment, but by the
second spring after treatment populations of these
taxa were at similar densities in the treated and
untreated portions of Sugar Creek. The results
of the study indicated that although a single
application of -aldrin severely reduced the number
of Ephemeroptera, recovery was rapid, and no
permanent damage resulted.
Polivka (1953 in Davey, 1963) reported that in
Ohio aldrin applied at 5 lb/A significantly reduced
the number of earthworms on a golf course.
Aldrin applied at 300 lb/A of 1.25 percent dust
to year-old fallow plots did not affect the Lum-
bricidae, Enchytraeidae, or Nematoda (Edwards,
Dennis and Empson, 1967), but significantly re-
duced the entomobryid or isotomid Oollembola
and Pauropoda. Both Coleoptera and Diptera
biomass decreased. In general, the aldrin killed
more pest species than predaceous or beneficial
species.
Plants
The exposure of natural phytoplankton to 1
ppm of aldrin for 4 hours reduced its productivity
by 84.6 percent (Butler, 1963a).
Aldrin applied to soils at 1, 2, or 3 lb/A (5-in.
layer) was found to be translocated into alfalfa
growing in the treated soil, and the same was ob-
served for cucumbers growing in soil receiving 5
or 25 lb/A (Lichtenstein et al., 1965).
Seeds with a high oil content, such as soybeans
and peanuts, had nearly 10 times as much aldrin
residue as corn, which has less oil in its seeds
(Bruce, Decker and Wilson, 1966). '
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Biological Concentration
Birds
When 4 species of algae (Microcystis aerugimosa,
Anabaena cylindrica, Scenedesmus guadricauda,
and Oedogonium sp.) were exposed to 1 ppm of
aldrin for 7 days, they concentrated the toxicant
into their protoplasm about 150-fold (Vance and
Drummond,1969).
Missouri cornfields treated with aldrin at 1.0
Ib/A for at least 15 of the last 17 years indicated
soil residues (primarily dieldrin, the degradation
product of aldrin) of 0.31 ppm (Korschgen, 1970).
Residues in various plants and animals were as
follows: earthworms, 1.49 ppm; crickets, 0.23 ppm;
Harpahis ground beetles, 1.10 ppm; Poecilus
ground beetles, 9.67 ppm; white-footed mice, 0.98
ppm; toads, 3.53 ppm; garter snakes, 12.35 ppm;
and corn, foxtail, and sunflower seeds, less than
0.02 ppm each. Exceptionally high residues (37.48
ppm) were recorded in Poecilus beetles during
June 1967, and the author attributed this to "ab-
normally high soil moisture and predaceous
feeding habits of these insects."
Microorganisms
Jones (1956) reported that aldrin from 0.01 to
1 percent in soil was considerably more toxic to
bacteria converting ammonia to nitrates in the
soil than to bacteria changing organic matter to
ammonia.
Persistence
When applied at a rate of 100 ppm to sandy
loam soil, the remaining aldrin after 14 years was
40 percent (Nash and Woolson, 1967), and aldrin
applied at 25 ppm to soil persisted (50-percent
loss) for >4 years.
ALLETHRIN
Mammals
The LD50 for young mallards was »2,000
mg/kg to allethrin when the birds were given the
stated dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
allethrin was 20 ppb (Cope, 1965); and the 48-
hour LC50 for rainbow trout was reported as 19
ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC50 for stoneflies (Pteronarcys
californica), waterfleas (Daphnia pulex), and
amphipods (Gam/marus lacustris} exposed to al-
lethrin was 28 ppb, 21 ppb, and 20 ppb,
respectively (FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for amphipod (G. lacustris}
exposed to allethrin was 38 ppb (Sanders, 1969).
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60° F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus
and D. pulex, to allethrin was 56 ppb and 21 ppb,
respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
AMINOCARB
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 920 mg/kg to allethrin
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask, 1969).
The LD50 for rats was 50 mg/kg (FCH, 1970)
and for mule deer, 7.5 to 15 mg/kg (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970) to aminocarb when the mammals
were given the stated dosages orally in a capsule.
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 22.5 mg/kg
and for young pheasants, 42.4 mg/kg to amino-
carb when the birds were given the stated dosage
orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Arthropods
The 24-hour LC50 for amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris) exposed to aminocarb was 39 ppb (Sand-
ers, 1969).
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ARAMITE
Birds
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 3,900 mg/kg to aramite
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask, 1969).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to ara-
mite was 35 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods and Annelids
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (Daphnia
magnet) and amphipods (Gammarus lacustris)
exposed to aramite was 345 ppb and 100 ppb, re-
spectively (FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for amphipod (G. lacustris)
exposed to aramite was 350 ppb (Sanders, 1969).
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus and
D. pulex, to aramite was 180 ppb and 160 ppb,
respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
Aramite applied as a wettable powder at 0.036
percent in 100 gallons of water had little or no
effect on the earthworm (CaloglypJius an&mahis)
(Hyche, 1956).
AROCHLORS
Mammals
The LD 50 for rats was estimated at 250 mg/kg
to Arochlor when the mammals were fed the stated
dosage orally (Bennett, Drinker and Warren,
1938); guinea pigs were estimated to require 170
mg/kg (Miller, 1944).
Guinea pigs, rats, and rabbits were given Aro-
chlor at doses ranging from 17 to 1,380 mg as either
single or multiple doses by subcutaneous injections
(Miller, 1944). The 2 most common findings were
liver damage and skin changes ( similar to chlor-
acne in man). Liver damage in rats from Arochlor
was also reported by Bennett, Drinker and
Warren (1938) through exposures by feeding and
inhalation.
Phenochlor DP6 fed to coturnix at a dosage of
2,000 ppm in their diet killed all (n=20) the birds
within 55 days (Koeman, Ten Noever de Brauw
and de Vos, 1969).
Arochlor 1242, 1254, 1260, and 1268 fed to mal-
lard ducks at a dosage of 2,000 mg/kg were not
fatal (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Eegular egg-laying turned to scattered produc-
tion and finally stopped for a week when coturnix
were fed a single oral dose of 500 mg/kg (Aro-
chlor 1254) (Tucker, unpublished, in Peakall and
Lincer, 1970). The scattered eggs were found to be
9 percent thinner than normal, but returned to
control level when the Arochlor effect wore off.
Mallards fed 1,000 mg/kg of Arochlor produced
1 or no eggs before ceasing all production for 1
to 2 weeks. The eggs produced had shells 18 per-
cent thinner, but again were normal when full
production was resumed.
Ten-day-old mallard ducklings fed Arochlor at
concentrations of 25, 50, and 100 ppm in their diet
suffered no apparent effects (Friend and Trainer,
1970). However, when these ducklings were chal-
lenged with duck hepatitus virus 5 days later, they
suffered significantly higher mortality (increased
from 14 percent to a range of 35 to 65 percent)
than the ducklings which did not receive Arochlor
in their diet.
The LC50 to Arochlor (1232, 1242, 1248, 1254,
1260, and 1262) expressed as ppm in dry feed for 2-
week-old penned mallards, pheasants, bobwhites,
and coturnix fed the treated diets for 5 days is
shown in table 4. Low levels of Arochlor 1254 (25
and 50 ppm) produced no measurable effects in
mallards and bobwhite (Heath et al., 1970b).
TABLE 4. Toxicity (LCso) of Arochlor in diets of 2-week-
old birds (Heath et al., 1970b).
Formulation Mallard
Pheasant
Bobwhite
Coturnix
1232
1242
1248
1254
1260
1262
3180
2795
2700
1975
3010
3150
2080
1310
1090
1260
1235
3000
2100
1175
605
745
870
>5000
>5000
4845
2900
2185
2290
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AZINPHOS-METHYL
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 18 mg/kg to azinphos-
methyl when the mammal was fed the stated dos-
age orally (Metcalf, Flint and Metcalf, 1962).
Birds
Tucker and Crabtree (1970) computed the LD50
for young mallards as 136 mg/kg; for young
pheasants, 74.9 mg/kg; and for young chukar
partridges, 84.2 mg/kg to azinphos-methyl when
the birds were fed the stated dosages orally in
capsules. The LC50 for mallards was 1,900 to 2,000
ppm; for pheasants, 1,800 to 2,000 ppm; for bob-
whites, 400 to 500 ppm; and for coturnix, 600 to 700
ppm of azinphos-methyl in diets of 2-week-old
birds when fed treated feed for 5 days followed by
clean feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970a).
When chickens were fed azinphos-methyl at a
dosage of 40 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg
weakness (Gaines, 1969). Mode of action was
unknown.
The relative toxicity of azinphos-methyl to 2
species of fishes, as measured by the 48-hour ECso,
was as follows: rainbow trout at 23 ppb, 13°C,
and bluegill at 2 ppb, 24°C (Cope, 1966).
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
azinphos-methyl at temperatures of 1.6°C, 7.2°C,
and 12.7°C was 25 ppb, 15 ppb, and 13 ppb, re-
spectively (Macek, Hutchinson and Cope, 1969) ;
and the 24-hour LC50 for bluegills exposed at tem-
peratures of 12.7°C, 18.3°C, and 23.8°C was 16
ppb, 16 ppb, and 16 ppb, respectively.
In tests the 96-hour LC10o of azinphos-methyl
was 0.2 ppm for carp, 0.04 for tilapia, and 0.008
ppm for mullet (Lahav and Sarig, 1969); the
highest nonlethal dosage was 0.1 ppm for carp,
0.008 ppm for tilapia, and 0.004 ppm for mullet.
An investigation of the persistence of azinphos-
methyl in fish revealed that 50 percent of the
chemical was lost in <1 week (Meyer, 1965).
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for Fowler's toad tadpoles
exposed to azinphos-methyl was 0.68 ppm (San-
ders, 1970).
Fishes
The LC50 for various fish to azinphos-methyl is
found in table 5.
TABLE 5. The LC j0 for various fish to azinphos-methyl.
Fish Species Exposure
Time (hr)
Rainbow trout
Harlequin fish.
Brown trout
Largemouth bass_.
Yellow perch -
Rainbow trout
Bluegill
Redear sunfish
Coho salmon
Fathead minnow. _
Carp
Channel catfish —
Black bullhead
Goldfish
24
24
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
LCso Source
(ppm)
0. 049 Cop<
0. 13 Alab
0. 004 Mac
M
19
0.005
0.013
0.014
0.022
0.052
0. 174
0.235
0.695
3.290
3. 500
4.270
;, 1965
aster, 1969
ek and
cAllister,
70
Arthropods and Annelids
The LC50 for various arthropods to azinphos-
methyl is found in table 6.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at 60°
TABLE 6. The LC50 for various arthropods to
azinphos-methyl.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris)
Stonefly (Pteronarcys
californica)
Waterflea (Daphnia
magna)
Amphipod (G. locus-
Iris')
Waterflea CD. pulex).--
Stonefly (P. californi-
ca)
(P. calif arnica) ..
24
24
48
48
48
48
48
0. 00056
0.025
0. 0002
0. 0003
0. 0032
0.008
0.008
Sanders, 1969
Sanders and
Cope, 1968
FWPCA,
1968
tt
Sanders and
Cope, 1966
«
FWPCA,
1968
-------
F) for waterfleas, /Simocephalus serrulatus and
Daphnia pulex, to azinphos-methyl (ethyl gu-
thion) was 4.2 ppb and 3.2 ppb, respectively (San-
ders and Cope, 1966).
The toxicity of azinphos-methyl to 3 species of
invertebrates, as measured by the 48-hour EC50,
was as follows: stonefly nymph (Pteronarcys coll
fornicus [sw?]) at 8 ppb, waterflea (S. serrulatus)
at 4 ppb, and waterflea (D. pulex) at 3 ppb (Cope,
1966).
Hopkins and Kirk (1957) reported the 96-hour
LD50 for azinphos-methyl tested against earth-
worms (Eiseniasp.) as 12.2 Ib/A.
In greenhouse tests alfalfa treated with azin-
phos-methyl at 0.6 Ib/A after 9 days' exposure
caused about a 90-percent mortality in pollinating
leaf cutting bees (Waller, 1969).
BROMOPHOS
BINAPACRYL
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 120 to 165 mg/kg to
binapacryl when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
Binapacryl in acetone injected into hen eggs at
1 ppm, 5 ppm, 10 ppm, 25 ppm, 50 ppm, and 100
ppm killed 53, 78, 89, 100, 95, and 100 percent of
the embryos (Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969).
Arthropods
Van de Vrie (1962) reported that binapacryl at
concentrations of 0.10 and 0.05 percent in 2 days
would kill 94 and 86 percent of predatory mites
(Typhlodromus tiliae and T. tiliarwn). In later
studies Van de Vrie (1967) reported that binapac-
ryl at 0.10-percent concentration applied to apple
trees was harmless to the predatory bug Antho-
coris nemorwm-, but caused some mortality to
another predatory bug, Orius sp.; this concentra-
tion did cause a heavy mortality to the wooly-
aphid parasite population (Aphelimus mall).
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 3,750 to 6,100 mg/kg
to bromophos when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to bromo-
phos was 1.2 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
CARBARYL
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 540 mg/kg (Metcalf,
Flint and Metcalf, 1962) and for mule deer, 200
to 400 mg/kg (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970) to
carbaryl when the mammals were given the stated
dosages orally in a capsule.
Cotton rat reproduction was delayed by carbaryl
application (2 Ib/A) to a grassland, and this re-
sulted in a reduced population (Barrett, 1968).
In laboratory tests carbaryl was fed to cotton rats
orally at 1.1 mg/day per individual for 10 days.
In these rats weighing from 140 to 150 g both the
number of litters born and number of females
giving birth were reduced by more than 50 percent.
There appeared to be, however, no effect on either
the mouse (house) or the old-field mouse popula-
tions by the carbaryl (2 Ib/A) application.
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was > 2,179 mg/
kg; for young pheasants, >2,000 mg/kg; for
young coturnix, 2,290 mg/kg; for pigeons (Co-
lumba livia), 1,000 to 3,000 mg/kg; for sharp-
tailed grouse, 780 to 1,700 mg/kg; and for Canada
geese, 1,790 mg/kg to carbaryl when the birds were
fed the stated dosaes orally in capsules (Tucker
and Crabtree, 1970). The LC50 for mallards was
>5,000 ppm; for pheasants, >5,000; for bob-
whites, >5,000 ppm; and for coturnix, >5,000
-------
ppm of carbaryl in diets of 2-week-old birds when
fed treated feed for 5 days followed by untreated
feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970a).
Carbaryl in acetone injected into hen eggs at
100 ppm and 200 ppm killed 61 and 100 percent of
the embryos (Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969). This
toxicant also caused teratogenic effects at 50 ppm
and above.
When chickens were fed carbaryl at a dosage of
1,600 rag/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969). Mode of action unknown.
Fishes
The LC50 for various fish to carbaryl is found in
table 7.
The toxicity of carbaryl to 3 species of fish, as
measured by the 48-hour EC505 was as follows:
channel catfish at 19,000 ppb, 24°C; bluegill at
2,500 ppb, 24°C; and rainbow trout at 2,000 ppb,
13°C (Cope, 1966).
TABLE 7. The LC50 for various fish to carbaryl.
Fish Species ]
Longnose killifish.-
Harlequin fish
Shiner perch
English sole
White mullet- - _
Three-spine
stickleback
Brown trout
Yellow perch
Coho salmon- -
Brown trout
Rainbow trout
Carp.
Largemouth bass. _
Bluegill
Redear sunfish
Fathead minnow. _
Goldfish
Fathead minnow. _
Channel catfish
Black bullhead
Ex-
osure
rime
(hr)
24
24
24
24
24
24
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
LCso
(ppm)
1.75
3. 4
3. 9
4. 1
4. 25
6.7
1. 5
0 745
0. 764
1. 95
4.38
5. 28
6. 4
6. 76
11.2
13.0
13. 2
14. 6
15.8
20.0
Source
Stewart, Milleran
and Breese, 1967
Alabaster, 1969
Stewart, Milleran
and Breese, 1967
It
11
It
FWPCA, 1968
Macek and
McAllister, 1970
Stewart, Milleran
and Breese, 1967
Macek and
McAllister, 1970
{(
( (
11
In laboratory experiments conducted by Mr.
Jack Lowe, fish were exposed to carbaryl and 2,4-D
(no dosage given) for 1 to 5 months (Butler,
1969a). The exposed fish grew as well as the con-
trols and had little mortality; however, careful
examinations revealed massive invasions of the
nervous system of the test fish by what appeared
to be a microsporidian parasite. The author sug-
gested that the pesticides lowered the natural
resistance of the fish to parasite attack.
Molluscs
As little as 1 ppb of carbaryl was found to in-
hibit the development of clam eggs (LPSDI, 1960).
The EC50 for carbaryl tested against various
species of fish for different exposure times was as
follows: bay mussel, 2.3 ppm, 48 hours; Pacific
oyster, 2.2 ppm, hours; and cockel clam, 7.3 ppm,
24 hours (Stewart, Milleran and Breese, 1967).
Arthropods and Annelids
The LC50 for various arthropods to carbaryl is
found in table 8.
Brown shrimp tolerated carbaryl at 27 ppb,
whereas the tolerance for white shrimp was only
13 ppb (USDI, 1960).
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for water fleas, Simocephalus semtlatus and
Dapfvnia pule®, to carbaryl was 7.6 ppb and 6.4
ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
A suspension of 0.1 percent of carbaryl was
found to be "extremely toxic" to earthworms
(An der Lan and Aspock, 1962).
An experiment testing the toxicity of carbaryl
to honeybees showed the insecticide to be highly
toxic (Morse, 1961). Mortalities were above nor-
mal for up to 3 weeks after insecticide application,
and within 47 days after treatment the treated
colonies had lost more than 6 times as many bees
as the untreated colonies.
In greenhouse tests alfalfa treated with carbaryl
at 1 Ib/A after 10 days' exposure caused only about
a 20-percent mortality in the pollinating leafcut-
tingbee (Waller, 1969).
10
-------
TABLE 8. The LC50 for various arthropods to carbaryl.
Arthropod Species
Stonefly (Pteronarcella badia)
" (Claassenia sabulosa) _
" (Pteronarcys californica)
Amphipod (Gammarus lacustris)
Mud shrimp .. _ _ _ _
Shore crab - -
Dungeness crab
Stonefly (.P. californica)
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex)
" (D. pulex)
" (Simocephalus serrulatus)
Stonefly (P. californica)
Amphipod ((?. lacustris)
Ghost shrimp
Red crawfish -
Exposure
Time (hr)
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
LCso (ppm)
0. 005
0. 012
0. 030
0. 040
0. 04-0. 13
0. 13
0. 27-0. 71
0. 60-0. 63
0. 0013
0. 006
0. 0064
0. 008
0. 015
0. 022
0. 03-0. 08
3.0
Source
Sanders and Cope, 1968
,,
Sanders, 1969
Stewart, Milleran and Breese, 1967
«
.,
FWPCA, 1968
Cope, 1966
FWPCA, 1968
Cope, 1966
FWPCA, 1968
Stewart, Milleran and Breese, 1967
Muncy and Oliver, 1963
Carbaryl at a concentration of 1 ppm did not
prevent egg hatching of the Dungeness crab, but
prevented moulting of all prezoeae to zoeae
(Buchanan, Millemann and Stewart, 1970). Moult-
ing was delayed at 0.0001 ppm. The 96-hour LC50
for first stage zoeae was 0.01 ppm of carbaryl. Sur-
vival of zoeae after a 25-day exposure to concentra-
tions of 0.0001, 0.00032,0.001, 0.0032, and 0.01 ppm
were 83, 60, 69, 21, and 0 percent, respectively.
Adult crabs were paralyzed (22 percent) within 6
hours after they had fed on cockle clams which
had been exposed for 24 hours to 1 ppm of carbaryl.
Both biomass and numbers of arthropods were
reduced by more than 95 percent in a carbaryl-
treated (2 lb/A) area (Barrett, 1968). The arthro-
pod number remained well below the numbers in
the untreated area for 5 weeks, but after 7 weeks
total biomass at least had returned to normal.
Phytophagous insects (both Homoptera and He-
miptera) were more severely affected than preda-
ceous insects and spiders. The spiders were back
to normal density within 3 weeks after treatment.
Plants
No effect of carbaryl (2 lb/A) was detected on
plants (primarily millet) (Barrett, 1968); how-
ever, carbaryl was toxic to algae at concentrations
above 0.1 ppm and reduced their growth (Christie,
1969).
Microorganisms
Percentage litter decomposition in a grassland
treated with carbaryl (2 lb/A) was only 21 per-
cent, compared with 25 percent in the untreated
control 3 weeks after spraying (Barrett, 1968).
Persistence
Carbaryl applied at a rate of 2 lb/A resulted
in residues of 35 ppm on the plants, but these resi-
dues decreased rapidly and by the 16th day after
application the residue was only 0.37 ppm
(Barrett, 1968).
CARBOFURAN
Mammals
The LD60 for the rat was 11 mg/kg to carbofuran
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask, 1969).
Birds
The LD60 for young mallards was 0.40 mg/kg;
for young pheasants, 4.2 mg/kg; for young bob-
white quail, 5.0 mg/kg; and for young fulvous
11
-------
ducks, 0.24 mg/kg to carbofuran when the birds
were fed the stated dosages orally in capsules
(Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
CARBOPHENOTHION
CHLORBENSIDE
Mammals
The LD50 for male rats was 32.2 mg/kg to carbo-
phenothion when the mammals were fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
When chickens were fed carbophenothion
(methyl) and carbophenothion at dosages of 320
and 640 mg/kg respectively, the chickens devel-
oped leg weakness (Gaines, 1969). Mode of action
was unknown.
Fishes
The 48-hour LC60 for bluegill exposed to carbo-
phenothion was 225 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC60 for harlequin fish to carbo-
phenothion was 3.4 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for chorus frog tadpoles ex-
posed to carbophenothion was 0.10 ppm (Sanders,
1970).
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (Simocephalus
serrulatus) and amphipods (Gammarus lacustris)
exposed to carbophenothion was 0.009 ppb and 28
ppb, respectively (FWPCA, 1968).
Persistence
Carbophenothion applied to soil persisted for
>6 months (Mulla, Georghious and Cramer,
1961).
Birds
Chlorbenside in acetone injected into hen eggs at
up to 500 ppm caused little or no mortality to the
embryos (Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969).
CHLORDANE
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 200 to 590 mg/kg; for
mice, 430 mg/kg; and for rabbits, 100 to 300 mg/
kg to chlordane when the mammals were fed the
stated dosages orally (Spector, 1955).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 1,200 mg/kg
to chlordane when the birds were given the stated
dosages orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970). The LC50 for mallards was 800 to 850 ppm;
for pheasants, 400 to 500 ppm; and for coturnix,
300 to 350 ppm of chlordane in diets of 2-week-
old birds when fed treated feed for 5 days fol-
lowed by untreated feed for 3 days (Heath et al.,
1970a). The LC50 for bobwhite quail chicks to
chlordane was 320 ppm when the birds were fed
the stated dosage for 5 days and then fed clean
food for 3 days (Heath and Stickel, 1965).
Chlordane in acetone injected into hen eggs at
up to 500 ppm caused no mortality to the embryos
(Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969).
When a marsh in North Dakota was treated with
chlordane at a rate of 1 Ib/A, neither the blue-
winged teal nor the shoveller produced any young,
and the number produced by the coot and red-wing
blackbird was reduced by about 60 percent (Han-
son, 1952). Much of the effect was believed due
to the nearly complete destruction of insect life on
which these birds feed.
Fishes
The LC50 for various fish to chlordane is found
in table 9.
12
-------
TABLE 9. The LC50 for various fish to chlordane.
TABLE 10. The LC6o for various arthropods to chlordane.
Fish Species Exposure LCso
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Arthropod Specie?
Expo-
sure
Time
(hr)
LCso
(PPm)
Source
Rainbow trout.
Rainbow trout.
Bluegill
Rainbow trout _
Bluegill
Goldfish.
24 0. 022 Cope, 1965
24 0. 05 Henderson, Pickering
and Tarzwell, 1959
0. 058 Cope, 1965
0. 010 FWPCA, 1968
0. 022 Henderson, Pickering
and Tarzwell, 1959
0. 082
24
48
96
96
The 24-hour LC50 for bluegills exposed to chlor-
dane at temperatures of 12.7°C, 18.3°C, and
23.8°C was 220 ppb, 170 ppb, and 95 ppb, respec-
tively (Macek, Hutchinson and Cope, 1969).
A natural population of mosquito fish in ditches
adjacent to cotton fields was found to be 20 times
more resistant to chlordane than normal (Boyd
and Ferguson, 1964b).
Arthropods and Annelids
The LC50 for various arthropods to chlordane
is found in table 10.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus and
Daphnia pulex, to chlordane was 20 ppb and 29
ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
Mite populations (TetranycJius bimaculatus)
on beans and potatoes increased up to 2 times after
applications of chlordane made at 8 to 75 Ib/A
(Klostermeyer and Rasmussen, 1953).
Chlordane applied at rates of 5,10, and 20 Ib/A
to a golf course in Ohio caused a significant re-
duction in earthworm populations, measured one
year after treatment (Polivka, 1953 in Davey,
1963).
Chlordane at 10 Ib/A in another test eliminated
earthworms in the treated plots (Doane, 1962). In
studies in Germany exposure of Lumbricus rubel-
lus to chlordane as a 0.25-percent emulsion or 1-
to 5-percent dust in the laboratory caused signifi-
cant mortalities in the earthworms (Van der
Drift, 1963). Also in England, chlordane applied
at recommended dosages for the control of soil
insect pests destroyed the earthworms present
(Raw, 1963).
Amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris)
Stonefly (Pteronarcys
californica)
Waterflea (Simocephalus
seirulatus)
Stonefly (P. californica) - _
Amphipod (6. lacustris)..
24 0. 160 Sanders, 1969
24 0. 170 Sanders and
Cope, 1968
48 0. 020 FWPCA, 1968
48 0. 055
48 0. 080
Plants
Chlordane at 1 ppm for a 4-hour exposure
period caused a 94-percent reduction in the pro-
ductivity of natural phytoplankton communities
in the laboratory (Butler, 1963a).
Chlordane at 1, 10, and 100 ppm in soil caused
significant changes in the macro and micro ele-
ment (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, Cu, B, Al, Sr, •
and Zn) constituents of above-ground portions of
corn and bean plants (Cole et al., 1968). For ex-
ample, iron content in beans was higher (401
ppm) in the chlordane (10 ppm) treated than in
the control (232 ppm) at the end of 4 weeks of
growth; however, the aluminum content was lower
(82 ppm) in the chlordane (10 ppm) treated than
the control (217 ppm) at the end of 8 weeks of
growth.
Microorganisms
Chlordane at 0.01 to 1 percent in soil has been
shown to be considerably more toxic to bacteria
converting ammonia to nitrates in soil than those
changing organic matter to ammonia (Jones,
1956).
Biological Concentration
Eastern oysters, exposed in flowing seawater to
chlordane at 0.01 ppm in the laboratory, con-
centrated the toxicant within 10 days to a level of
7,300 times the ambient concentration (Wilson,
1965).
423-802 O—71-
13
-------
Persistence
Fishes
Chlordane applied at 25 Ib/A persisted in soil
for >12 years (Liechtenstein and Polivka, 1959).
Nash and Woolson (1967) found that chlordane
applied at 50 ppm to soil persisted (50 percent
loss) for 8 years, and when applied at 100 ppm to
sandy loam soil persisted (60 percent loss) for
14 years.
CHLORDECONE
Birds
Hens fed chlordecone at levels of 75 ppm and
150 ppm in their diet for 12 weeks produced
significantly (P<0.05) fewer eggs (Naber and
Ware, 1965). Hens at the higher rate lost weight,
and chicks from these hens exhibited a nervous
syndrome. Chick survival was also reduced.
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
chlordecone was 37.5 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
The 48-hour LC60 for rainbow trout exposed to
chlorobenzilate was 710 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (Simocephalus
semdatus) exposed to chlorobenzilate was 550
ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, S. serrulatus and DapJvn&a
pulex, to chlorobenzilate was 550 ppb and 870 ppb,
respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
CHLOROPROPYLATE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 5,000 mg/kg to chlo-
ropropylate when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
CHLORFENVINPHOS
Mammals
The LDBO for the rat was 10 to 39 mg/kg to
chlorfenvinphos when the mammal was fed the
stated dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to chlor-
fenvinphos was 0.33 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
CHLOROBENZILATE
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 960 mg/kg to chloro-
benzilate when the mammals were fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to chloro-
propylate was 22 ppm. (Alabaster, 1969).
CHLOROTHION
Mammals
The LD50 for male rats was 880 mg/kg to chloro-
thion when the mammals were fed the stated dos-
age orally (FCH, 1970).
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (Daphnia
magna) exposed to chlorothion was 4.5 ppb
(FWPCA, 1968).
14
-------
CIODRIN
Arthropods
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 125 mg/kg to Ciodrin
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
When chickens were fed Ciodrin at a dosage of
100 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969). The mode of action was unknown.
Arthropods
The 24-hour LC50 for the amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris} exposed to Ciodrin was 49 ppb (Sand-
ers, 1969).
COUMAPHOS
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 56 to 230 mg/kg to
coumaphos when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 29.8 mg/kg
to coumaphos when the birds were given the stated
dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970). The LC50 for pheasants was 300 to 400 ppm
and for coturnix, 200 to 250 ppm to coumaphos in
diets of 2-week-old birds when fed treated feed for
5 days followed by untreated feed for 3 days
(Health etal.,1970a).
When chickens were fed coumaphos at a dosage
of 100 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weak-
ness (Gaines, 1969). Mode of action was unknown.
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to cou-
maphos was 0.082 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (Daphnia.
magnet) and amphipods (Gammarus lacustris)
exposed to coumaphos was 1 ppb and 0.14 ppb,
respectively (FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for the amphipod (G. la-
custris} exposed to coumaphos was 0.32 ppb
(Sanders, 1969).
CRUFOMATE
Mammals
The LD50 for female rats was 770 mgAg to
crufomate when the mammals were fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
When chickens were fed crufomate at a dosage
of 400 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969). Mode of action was unknown.
CRYOLITE
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was > 10,000 mg/kg to cryo-
lite when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
cryolite was 47,000 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (DapTvnm
pule®) exposed to cryolite was 5 ppm (FWPCA,
1968).
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus and
D. put-ex, to cryolite was 10 ppm and 5 ppm., re-
spectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
-------
DDT
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 420 to 800 mg/kg; for
the mouse, 200 mg/kg; for the rabbit, 250 to 400
mg/kg; for the dog, 60 to 75 mg/kg; and for the
guinea pig, 400 mg/kg to DDT when the mammals
were fed the stated dosages orally (Specter, 1955).
Northern white-footed mouse populations were
not noticeably affected by DDT applied at a rate
of 2 Ib/A to a forest in Maryland (Stickel, 1946
and 1951).
Populations of the white-footed mouse in New
Jersey woods adjacent to treated crop fields were
exposed to DDT at 0.12 to 0.21 Ib/A and parathion
at 0.01 to 0.06 Ib/A (Jackson, 1952). Presumably
because the level of contamination of the adjacent
woods was low and the ingestion of insecticides
was quite small, the white-footed mouse population
was not measurably affected.
Fir and pine forest treatments with DDT at 1, 5,
and 7!/2 Ib/A for insect control caused no sig-
nificant decrease in populations of coeur d'Alene
chipmunks, buff-bellied chipmunks, sagebrush
white-footed mice, redbacked mice, jumping mice,
pine squirrels, Columbian ground squirrels, pocket
gophers, black bears, and white-tailed deer (Adams
et al., 1949). Only a few chipmunks appeared to be
affected by the 7y2-lb dosage of DDT.
Fish from the Miramichi River in New Bruns-
wick which were naturally contaminated with
DDT were incorporated in a feed mixture and fed
to mink (Gilbert, 1969). These animals developed
high levels of DDT in their livers and adipose
tissue. Spleen and adrenal weights, erythrocyte
and leukocyte counts, hemoglobin, and hematocrit
were all influenced by the DDT in the ration.
Females on the diet with DDT produced fewer
young (4.8 kits) than did the control (5.2 kits).
Embryonic loss (counting losses to 24 hours post
birth) was significantly greater (P<0.01) in the
DDT-exposed females.
A colony of mice was fed DDT and selected for
resistance (Ozburn and Morrison, 1964). The LD50
for the selected colony after 10 generations was 900
mg/kg, whereas the LD50 for the control colony
was 550 mg/kg. This experiment documented that
mice, as well as insects, can evolve resistance to
DDT.
Adult mice (house) fed diets containing 200
and 300 ppm of DDT were observed to have a
higher death rate of females during the gestation
period, in males, and in young produced (Cannon
and Holcomb, 1968).
In an experiment by Hayne (1970), DDT was
applied to forest at rates of %, i/2, and 2 Ib/A. He
found that only about 12 percent of the spray
reached the forest floor immediately. A year later
the residues in both soil and litter had increased
to about 22 percent of the amount applied, in part
due to wash-off and leaf fall. No mortality was
observed in the white-footed mouse population.
DDT accumulated rapidly (7 to 10 days) in the
fat of the animals. This was especially true of
2 Ib/A dosage where the animals accumulated
about 22 ppm of total DDE, DDT, and TDE in 7
days. The animals tended to lose their burden of
DDT and 376 days after spraying had lost all
additional DDT from the spraying operation.
Birds
Laboratory experiments. Tucker and Crabtree
(1970) reported the LD50 for young mallards as
>2,240 mg/kg; for young pheasants, 1,296 mg/
kg; for young coturnix, 841 mg/kg; for pigeons
(Columba livid), >4,000 mg/kg; and for lesser
sandhill cranes, > 1,200 mg/kg to DDT when the
birds were given the stated dosages orally in a
capsule.
The LC50 for mallards was 850 to 1,200 ppm;
for pheasants, 300 to 700 ppm; for bobwhites, 600
to 1,000 ppm; and for coturnix, 400 to 600 ppm
of DDT in diets of 2-week-old birds when fed
treated feed for 5 days followed by untreated feed
for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970a). The LC50 for mal-
lards was 3,300 to 3,600 ppm; for pheasants, 750
to 950 ppm; for bobwhites, 750 to 950 ppm; and
for coturnix, 1,200 to 1,400 ppm of DDE (a meta-
bolite of DDT) in diets of 2-week-old birds when
fed treated feed for 5 days followed by untreated
feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970a).
The LD50 for 7-day-old pheasants to p,p'-DDT,
p,p'-TDE, p,p'-DDE, and technical DDT in their
diets was 550 ppm, 522 ppm, 1,086 ppm, and 935
ppm, respectively (Gill, Verts and Christensen,
1970). The LD50 to o,p'-DDT was not established,
but was estimated to be in excess of 5,000 ppm.
Pheasants were maintained on diets containing
different dosages of DDT for an experimental
period of 90 days (Genelly and Rudd, 1956). In
16
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the test 3 out of the 10 females on 600 ppm of DDT
died; all the 4 males on 400 ppm of DDT died,
whereas the 20 females on this dosage all survived;
and 1 out of the 10 females on 200 ppm of DDT
died.
DDT in acetone injected into hen eggs at up to
500 ppm caused little or no mortality to the em-
bryos (Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969). However,
when chicks, hatched from eggs which had received
100 ppm of DDT, were starved for 4 days, all died.
Untreated controls handled in a similar manner
resulted in only about a 50-percent mortality.
DDT fed daily to pheasant hens at 10, 100, and
500 ppm DDT in their food produced a normal
number of eggs which were fertile and hatched
satisfactorily (Azevedo, Hunt and Woods, 1965);
however, chick mortalities were reported to be
highest among young from parents receiving 500
ppm of DDT.
DDT has been reported not only to be toxic to
birds but also to cause significant changes in the
physiology of some species of birds. In Bengalese
finches, for example, DDT stimulated these birds
to produce eggs with significantly heavier egg-
shells (Jefferies, 1969). Ovulation in these
finches was also delayed (nearly twice normal)
by the daily administration per individual of a
dosage of 270 Mg of DDT (Jefferies, 1967).
DDT residues experimentally produced in cow-
birds caused death (35 to 99 ppm in brain) in these
birds at about the same dosage of DDT as found
in dead robins, sparrows, and eagles (17 to 188
ppm in brain) collected in nature (Stickel, Stickel
and Christensen, 1966).
Only 44 percent of the eggs laid by herring gulls
on the Lake Michigan side of the Door County
peninsula were observed to hatch, as compared
with a 90-percent level of hatching found in the
same species in Denmark. This reduction was re-
portedly due to the higher level of DDT and its
metabolites found in the Michigan gull eggs
(Keith, 1965).
Bald eagles fed controlled dosages of DDT in
the laboratory (Stickel et al., 1966) proved to be
only moderately susceptible to DDT: about 80 ppm
(dry weight) of DDT in the diet of the eagles was
estimated to be the LD50 for this bird. The authors
pointed out that this level produced chronic poi-
soning, and suppression of reproduction or egg-
shell thinning may take place at much lower
dosages. Lethal residues in the brain ran between
58 and 86 ppm (wet weight), a level similar to that
for other species. These results agree favorably
with previous studies by Stickel, Stickel and
Christensen (1966) when they found that residues
of DDT in the brain between 43 and 100 ppm fre-
quently induced death in both birds and mammals.
In a long-term study of DDT kinetics in cow-
birds, about 50 birds were fed DDT 40 ppm in oil
in their diets for 8 weeks with loss of only 2 birds
(Stickel, 1965). All birds were fed clean feed
thereafter, yet 7 more birds died. All but one of
these deaths occurred after the birds' exposure to
unusual disturbances; typical DDT tremors were
observed in several. One of these disturbances was
2 persons entering the cage to capture a few birds
for residue analyses.
When white king pigeons were fed DDT (10
ppm) in their feed for 1 week steroid metabolism
(testosterone increased from 28.7 to 75.4 m^ moles
and progesterone increased from 30.1 to 78.3 m/*
moles) was significantly increased (Peakall, 1967).
House sparrows and coturnix fed earthworms
containing DDT of 298 ppm (wet weight) died
within 1 to 10 days (Boykins, 1967). Sparrows fed
earthworms containing 86 to 90 ppm (wet weight)
of DDT survived 2 to 6 days. These levels of DDT
in earthworms were relatively high; the highest
level detected in earthworms on the Michigan
State campus was 138 ppm of DDT.
In New Jersey from 1880 to 1938 the mean egg-
shell weight of 117 osprey eggshells was 7.08 ±
0.069 g, whereas in 1957 the mean weight of 6
eggshells was 5.30±0.446 g, indicating a decline
of 25 percent. Associated with the decline in egg-
shell weight has been a decline in the osprey popu-
lation in this region (Hickey and Anderson, 1968).
A total of 614 peregrine falcon eggshells were
both weighed and measured for thickness (Hickey
and Anderson, 1968). Eggs collected in California
from 1947 to 1952 had a significant decrease (95
percent confidence) in both thickness and weight
of eggshells, compared with those collected in the
same area from 1895 to 1939. In the same study a
regression analysis was run between shell thickness
and total DDE residues in herring-gull eggs col-
lected in Rhode Island, Maine, Michigan, Minne-
sota, and Wisconsin. A high correlation (P=
0.001) was found between the level of DDE resi-
due and the thickness of the eggshell: the more
DDE, the thinner the eggshell.
The weights of raptor (bald eagle, osprey,
peregrine falcon, and herring gull) eggshells in
museum and private collections were measured to
17
-------
determine if there had been a change in the weights
of these eggshells from the pre-DDT (1886 to
1939) to the post-DDT period (Hickey and An-
derson, 1968). In Brevard County, Florida, bald
eagle eggshells from the pre-DDT era weighed
12.15±0.127 g, 56 eggs measured; eggshells from
1947 to 1962 (post-DDT era) weighed 9.96±0.280
g, 12 eggs measured. Hence there was an 18-percent
decrease in the weight of the eggshells.
Eeports were also received that the population
of the bald eagle was declining in this area. Similar
results were reported from Osceola County,
Florida; from 1901 to 1944, the mean weight for
bald eagle eggshells was 12.32±0.240, whereas
from 1959 to 1962 the mean weight was 9.88
±0.140. In addition to a decline of 20 percent in
the weight of bald eagle eggshells, the populations
of the bald eagle were reported declining in this
county.
Fyfe et al. (1969) in Canada reported a signifi-
cant drop (11 percent) in the thickness of the
prairie falcon eggs, compared with eggs sampled
from the pre-organochlorine-insecticide era. Al-
though other chemicals were present in addition
to DDT, a high correlation was found between
eggshell thickness and DDE residue in the eggs.
Associated with the decline in eggshell thickness
was a 34-percent decline in the occupancy of
territories known to have falcons during the
previous 10 years.
A high correlation was found also between the
amount of DDE in eggs and eggshell thickness of
pelican and double-crested cormorant eggs
(Anderson et al., 1969).
DDE, a common breakdown product of DDT,
fed to mallard ducks at 40 ppm (dry weight)
induced a 14-percent (significant P<0.01) de-
crease in eggshell thickness (Heath, Spann and
Kreitzer, 1969). Significant (P<0.01) eggshell
thinning occurred even at 10 ppm of DDE. An
important aspect of eggshell thinning was the
eggshell cracking which resulted. DDE also caused
a significant (P<0.01) reduction in percentage of
"14-day ducklings of embryonated eggs," and
number of "14-day ducklings per hen." Embryo
mortality during the 4th week of incubation vary-
ing from 30 to 50 percent was attributed to DDE.
Duckling production per hen was reduced as much
as 75 percent when ducks were fed these levels
of DDE.
DDT fed to ducks induced eggshell thinning
at 25 ppm (P = 0.05), but the effects were not as
severe as those caused by DDE (Heath, Spann
and Kreitzer, 1969). DDT fed at levels of 25 ppm
reduced duckling survival approximately 35
percent (P<0.01).
Stickel and Ehodes (1969) reported that cotur-
nix fed p,p'-DDT in their feed ait dosages of 2.5
ppm, 10 ppm, and 25 ppm for 26 weeks produced
overall 18 to 21 percent fewer eggs than did the
control. Downward production trends continued
for both the 10 ppm and 25 ppm dosages with time.
Eggs produced by the DDT-treated birds had, re-
spectively, 6.0, 6.4, and 7.3 percent thinner egg-
shells for 3 treatments than those of the untreated
control birds. Although there was a tendency to-
ward decreased hatchability of eggs from hens on
the 25 ppm dosage, the decline was not statistically
significant. However, "hatching success declined
significantly (P<0.025) with time in all groups
except those fed 2.5 ppm."
When mature coturnix were fed 0,100, 200, and
400 ppm of DDT in their feed for 60 days, no
effect on mortality, egg hatehability, or fertility
was recorded for the 100 and 200 ppm dosages
(Smith, Weber and Keid, 1969). The 400 ppm
dosage within 30 days killed 50 percent of the
quail and caused a marked decline in fertility and
some decrease in hatchability. Young chicks hatch-
ing from eggs from the 400 ppm parents exhibited
ataxia and spasms.
DDT and dieldrin fed in combination to Ameri-
can sparrow hawks under controlled conditions
resulted in thinner eggshells (significance P < 0.01)
and increased egg disappearance (significance
P<0.05) (Porter and Wiemeyer, 1969).
Ringdoves fed 10 ppm DDT showed a decrease
of estradiol in the blood early in the breeding
cycle, and egg-laying was delayed from a normal
16.5±1.6 days to 21.2±5.5 days (Peakall, 1970).
The DDT caused about a 10-percent decrease in
eggshell weight.
Bitman et al. (1969) reported that coturnix, fed
high dosages of o,//, and p,p'-D~DT, produced
eggs with significantly less (P<0.001) calcium.
Bitman, Cecil and Fries (1970) also reported that
the shell-forming glands of coturnix fed DDT or
DDE had carbonic anhydrase activity 16 to 19
percent lower than shell-glands of quail without
pesticides. Both DDT and DDE fed to the quail
18
-------
caused about a 10-percent decrease in eggshell
weight.
American sparrow hawks were fed for 2 years
a diet containing 10 ppm p,p'-DDE on dry weight
basis, a dosage equivalent to residue levels com-
monly found in the foods of raptors in the field
(Wiemeyer and Porter, 1970). No difference in
eggshell thickness was recorded between dosed and
non-dosed birds during the first year, but "average
shell thickness of eggs laid by DDE-dosed hawks
in 196,9 was 10 percent less than in 1968
(P<0.001)."
Field Studies, In Idaho bird populations in fir-
pine forests treated with DDT at 1 Ib/A appeared
to 'be unaffected by the treatment (Adams et al.,
1949). However, in Wyoming in similar type
forests treated at 5 Ib/A and 7y2 Ib/A the bird
populations appeared to be suppressed, the greater
suppression in the heavier dosage. Only a few dead
birds were observed. Large numbers of inverte-
brate food organisms were killed in all the treated
areas. Although there was no apparent immediate
effect from this reduction, the long-term effects
were not measured.
After the application of DDT at 2 Ib/A every
year for 4 years, populations of American red-
starts, parula warblers, and red-eyed vireos in
forested areas declined 44, 40, and 28 percent, re-
spectively, over the 4-year experimental period,
compared with the check area (Robbing, Springer
and Webster, 1951). In the other 23 species of birds
present in the areas little or no change in numbers
was recorded.
The effect of 1 Ib/A spraying of DDT for spruce
budworm control on populations of 3 species of
grouse (Dendragapus obscurus, Bonasa umbeUus,
Canachites canadensis) was investigated in Mon-
tana (Hoffman, Janson and Hartkorn, 1958).
Data on numbers of grouse, numbers of broods,
and sizes of broods seen were available for the
period from 1952 to 1956. No great change was
noted in 1955, the year of spraying, or in the fol-
lowing year, in either sprayed or unsprayed areas.
In another area sprayed with DDT in 1956, the
proportion of young to adult grouse in hunter
bags was as great as in unsprayed areas, suggesting
no additional juvenile mortality resulting from
this rate of DDT application.
Barker (1958) assayed soil and earthworms
from beneath elm trees in a 430-acre area sprayed
with 6-percent DDT for Dutch elm disease control
and found that the soil contained up to 18 ppm
DDT and/or DDE, and the earthworm species
contained from 53 to 204 ppm (wet weight). Of
the 21 dying robins collected in the treated area,
the median residue in their bodies was 3 mg of
DDT. Barker calculated that it would take fewer
than 100 earthworms for a robin to accumulate the
lethal dosage of 3 mg of DDT.
DDT applied to elms for control of Dutch elm
disease resulted in a heavy mortality of robins and
of many other species as well on the Michigan
State University campus (Bernard, 1963; Bernard
and Wallace, 1967; and Wallace, Etter and Os-
borne, 1964).
Three habitats in Wisconsin received DDT for
control of Dutch elm disease, and 3 areas were un-
sprayed (Hunt, 1960). In the 3 DDT-treated habi-
tats songbird numbers averaged 31, 68, and 90
percent below those of the unsprayed areas. Robin
populations in the sprayed areas were 69, 70, and
98 percent below those of the unsprayed areas.
Treatment of 2 areas in Wisconsin with DDT to
control Dutch elm disease (about 2 pounds of DDT
per tree) resulted in a robin mortality ranging
from 86 to 88 percent (Hickey and Hunt, 1960).
The number of nesting robins on the Madison, Wis-
consin, campus increased from 3 pairs to 29 pairs
after a change from DDT to methoxychlor (Hunt,
1965).
Elms were treated with DDT at 1.9 Ib/A in
Hanover, New Hampshire, resulting in 151 birds
found dead, compared with untreated Norwich,
Vermont, where only 10 birds were found dead
(Wurster, Wurster and Strickland, 1965). The
robin immigrant population in Hanover by June 1,
1963, had declined to 70 percent below the origi-
nal May 1st population level. At Norwich there
was no net change. Other birds affected included
the myrtle warbler and the tree swallow.
The breeding success of New Brunswick wood-
cocks was closely related to the amount of DDT
used (primarily for spruce-budworm control) in
the summer range (Wright, 1965) ; an inverse
relationship exists between breeding success and
the amount of DDT used. From 1961 to 1963 the
level of residues of DDT in spring woodcock ar-
rivals in New Brunswick increased significantly
from an average of 2.0 to 5.4 ppm DDT (Wright,
1965).
A DDT treatment of 1,768 acres of larch forest
at a rate of 8.2 Ib/A had no noticeable effect on
the bird life (Schneider, 1966).
19
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On the edge of Lake Michigan some mortality
among herring gull adults was attributed to DDT
present in the area (Keith, 1966a). Eeproduction
in these herring gulls appeared to be reduced by
the presence of DDT. A sample of 9 eggs which
appeared to be alive contained dosages of 202 ±34
wet weight ppm of DDE. The 10 dead eggs sam-
pled had a higher concentration of 919 ±117 of
DDE. From 30 to 35 percent of the eggs in 115
nests were dead, and this was felt to be an excep-
tional egg mortality.
In a rice-growing region in California where
DDT-treated seed was used for pest control,
pheasants were found to have concentrations of
DDT averaging 740 ppm in their fat. The survival
rate of young pheasants was lower than normal,
prompting a restriction against planting DDT-
treated seed (Hunt, 1966).
In an investigation of the effect of temperature
and DDT spraying on the ruffed grouse popula-
tion, Neave and Wright (1969) reported an ap-
parent interaction between these 2 factors. May
and June temperatures were related to the time of
nest initiation, to egg loss, and to other mortalities.
A synergistic effect between DDT (0.25 and 0.5
Ib/A) and temperature was apparent in the loss
of partially developed eggs. The DDT treatment
was also correlated with a loss of immatures and
changes in fall age ratios.
On Anacapa Island off the coast of California
egg breakage resulted in the complete reproductive
failure of the brown pelican on the island during
1969 (Keith, Woods and Hunt, 1970). Shells of a
few intact eggs measured shortly after egg-laying
averaged only 0.38 mm or were 34 percent thinner
than normal (about 0.57 mm). Residues of DDT
and its metabolites were about 1,200 ppm (85 per-
cent DDE). Residues in the fat of adult birds
ranged between 738 and 2,603 ppm. The authors
concluded that "these findings, along with exist-
ing experimental evidence, clearly implicate DDE
as a cause of eggshell thinning, reproductive fail-
ure, and population decline in brown pelicans."
On the east coast when eggshell weight and
thickness of brown pelicans collected pre-1947 and
in 1969 were compared, the eggshells had signifi-
cantly (P<0.01) declined in both measurements
(Blus, 1970). The author reported that the 16.2-
percent decrease in eggshell weight of South Caro-
lina pelican eggs approaches the level found in
declining populations of several species of raptors.
Anderson and Hickey (1970) found that a small
number (15) of pelican eggs taken in Texas and
Florida after 1949 were 20 percent below normal
weight. Also, 9 eggs from California collected in
1962 were 26 percent below normal weight. Shell
thickness was found to have decreased between 15
and 27 percent.
Peakall (1970) reported that the "thin eggshell
phenomenon" appears to be due to changes in "the
storage and mobilization of calcium after inges-
tion, rather than action at the initial step of this
process."
Fishes
Laboratory Experiments. The LC50 of DDT
tested against various species of fish is found in
table 11.
With increasing time and declining temperature
the LCSO to DDT for rainbow trout decreased
from 0.012 ppm to 0.0041 (table 12).
The relative toxicity of DDT to 3 species of fish,
as measured by the 48-hour EC50, was as follows :
rainbow trout, 5 ppb (at 13°C); bluegill, 5 ppb (at
24°C) ; and channel catfish, 12 ppb (at 24°C)
(Cope, 1966).
The 14-day LC50 for 10-week-old brown trout
fry was 0.00056 ppm (King, 1962).
TABLE 11. The LC50 for various fish to DDT.
Fish Species
Exposure
Time (hr)
LCso
(ppm)
Source
Brook trout
Landlocked
salmon
Mosquito fish- . -
Largemouth bass_.
Brown trout- -_ .
Coho salmon.
Redear sunfish
Black bullhead
Rainbow trout
Bluegill . _ _
Yellow perch _
Carp _ -
Channel catfish
Fathead minnow. _
Goldfish
Goldfish ._ ..
36
36
36
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
0. 0323 Hate
0. 08 '
0. 32
0. 002 Mace
Me
0. 002
0. 004
0.005
0.005
0.007
0. 008
0. 009
0.010
0.016
0.019
0.021
0. 027 Hend
Pic
Ta
ti, 1957
i
t
k and
Allister, 1970
erson,
kering and
rzwell, 1959
20
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TABLE 12. Effects of time and temperature on the toxicity
of DDT to rainbow trout averaging approximately
1 g (Cope, 1965).
Temperature, °F
LCso (ppm)
24 hrs 48 hrs 96 hrs
45
55
65.
7. 5
8. 2
12. 0
4.7
5. 2
7. 3
4. 1
5. 0
6. 0
Guppies which had been exposed to sublethal
doses of DDT for 14 days and then placed in a
toxic concentration of DDT (0.032 ppm) demon-
strated that they had increased their tolerance to
the toxicant by this procedure (King, 1962).
Cutthroat trout were exposed in the laboratory
for 30 minutes once a month for iy2 years to the
following quantities of DDT in water baths: 0.01
ppm, 0.03 ppm, 0.1 ppm, 0.3 ppm, and 1.0 ppm
(Allison et al., 1963). By the end of the experi-
mental period from about 50 to 75 percent of the
636 fish in each group were dead at the 3 highest
quantities of DDT. The number and volume of
eggs produced by the trout were not reduced by
these levels of DDT, but mortality among sac fry
was higher at the 0.3 and 1.0 ppm DDT levels.
Mosquito fish collected from waters near cotton
fields heavily treated with chlorinated insecticides
exhibited significant levels of resistance to DDT,
compared with fish from unexposed areas (Vinson,
Boyd and Ferguson, 1963). A concentration of
0.05 ppm of DDT caused only about a 20-percent
mortality in the resistant fish, whereas this same
concentration caused about a 90-percent mortality
in the susceptible fish.
In another study about 5 percent of mosquito
fish surviving after exposure to DDT at concen-
trations above the threshold toxicity aborted their
young (Boyd, 1964).
Ferguson et al. (1965a) collected resistant mos-
quito fish and black bullheads from streams in
Mississippi and compared the toxicity in these fish
to DDT with that in an unselected control popula-
tion as measured by 36-hour LC50. The results
were: mosquito fish, control 30 ppb versus resistant
(Sidon, Miss.) >200 ppb; and black bullhead,
control 9 ppb versus resistant (Wayside, Miss.)
275 ppb.
Underyearling brook trout fed DDT at a rate of
2.0 mg/kg per week for 31 weeks gained more
weight (43.2 g ±0.8 g) during the period than did
the untreated controls (36.6 g ±1.1 g) (Macek,
1968a). When the underyearling trout were fed
DDT at various rates for 26 weeks and then
starved or fed at a rate equivalent to 10 percent of
the usual feeding rate, the cumulative mortality
during the experimental periods was 96.2 percent
among fish fed DDT at 3.0 mg/kg per week, 88.6
percent for fish fed 2.0 mg/kg, and 1.2 percent for
untreated fish. The author suggested that the mor-
tality of DDT-exposed fish was due to the inter-
action of DDT with the starvation stress.
Brook trout behavior is also affected by sublethal
doses (20 ppb) of DDT (Anderson and Peterson,
1969). Previously trained trout lost most of their
learned avoidance response after their exposure to
DDT. In addition, sublethal DDT doses (20 to 60
ppb) altered the thermal acclimation mechanism
in brook trout.
Some species of fish are extremely sensitive to
DDT. For example, the extrapolated LD50 dosage
for young chinook and coho salmon was 0.0275
and 0.064 mg/kg/day, respectively. The chinook
salmon appeared to be 2 to 3 times more sensitive
to DDT than were coho salmon (Buhler, Kasmus-
son and Shanks, 1969).
Atlantic croakers were fed 2.57 ^g of DDT per
gram weight of fish for 67 days (Butler, 1969b).
The accumulation of DDT resulted in mortality
starting on the 14th day and continuing until all
fish were dead by the 67th day.
Priester (1965) calculated the LC50 for the fat-
head minnow for 96-hour exposure to be 58 ppb
of DDT. In young brook trout fed for 156 days
with low concentrations of DDT, the major por-
tion of the mortality (8 percent) occurred during
the 15th week of development of the sac fry
(Macek, 1968b).
DDT is not only toxic to fish but may also alter
the normal behavior of fish. Ogilvie and Ander-
son (1965) found that New Brunswick salmon
from a DDT-sprayed region were unusually sensi-
tive to low temperatures and selected water of
higher temperature than usual. If this response
occurred in nature, salmon might place their eggs
in regions where the young fry could not survive.
Gambusia exposed to low levels of DDT (0.1 to 20
ppb) for 24 hours tended to prefer waters with a
higher level of salinity than unexposed fish
(Hansen, 1969).
The amount of DDT taken up by pinfish reached
a maximum level about 2 weeks after exposure to
dosages of 0.1 ppb and 1.0 ppb (Hansen, 1966).
-------
At this time the pinfish had residues of about 3.8
ppm and 11.5 ppm.
DDT residues in coho salmon eggs from Lake
Michigan measured during 1968 ranged from 1.1
to 2.8 ppm (Johnson and Pecor, 1969). Mortalities
in the fry after hatching ranged from 15 to 73 per-
cent. The higher residues of DDT in the eggs of
these salmon were generally correlated with higher
mortalities in the fry.
Field Studies. In Idaho and Wyoming treat-
ment of forests with DDT at 1, 2Vfc, 5, and 7^
Ib/A influenced some fish populations (Adams et
al., 1949). At the 1-lb/A dosage in Idaho, some
cottids (Gottus beldingii), mountain suckers, and
black bullheads were killed by the DDT, but
speckled dace, redside shiners (Richardsonius
balteatus hydrophloos), rainbow trout, eastern
brook trout, and cutthroat trout apparently were
not affected. A few cutthroat trout were killed by
the Zy2 lb/A application of DDT. The most strik-
ing influence of DDT was on the diet of fish. Before
treatment there were no crayfish in the diet, but
immediately after the treatment the percentage in-
creased to 99 percent, as in the case of the brook
trout sampled. No measure of the long term effects
of the change in food organisms was made in the
investigation.
A spray calculated to give a DDT content of
0.09 ppm in water was used to treat a stream (Bur-
den, 1956). Eight miles downstream from the
treated area hundreds of fish were reported dying,
and the concentration of DDT at a point 10 miles
downstream was 0.017 ppm. "Two specimens of
fish examined were found to have definitely died
of poisoning * * *. These results lend support to
previous work showing that fish are highly sensi-
tive to DDT and that non-fatty animals are more
sensitive than fatty ones" (Burden, 1956).
In 1955 when the fish hatchery on Lake George
lost all of nearly 350,000 eggs removed from lake
trout, DDT was suspected as the cause. For sev-
eral years about 10,000 pounds of DDT had been
distributed yearly for control of gypsy moth and
biting flies in the watershed associated with Lake
George (Burdick et al., 1964).
Careful studies revealed that DDT stopped re-
production of lake trout in Lake George and sev-
eral other heavily contaminated lakes in the ad-
jacent Adirondack region. Although the trout
eggs contained from 3 to 355 ppm of DDT, little
or no mortality occurred in the egg stage. The fry,
however, were highly sensitive to these dosages
and were killed at the time of final absorption of
the yolk sac, just when they were ready to feed.
For example, at levels of DDT in eggs that would
produce 3 ppm in fry, few fry survived, and at 5
ppm DDT none survived (Burdick et al., 1964).
The spraying of New Brunswick forests with
DDT between 1953 and 1958 was reported by El-
son and Kerswill (1964) to be responsible for the
severe reduction in salmon fishing success in the
province, especially between 1959 and 1962.
DDT was applied at 1 lb/A to about 72,000
acres in the Yellowstone River drainage in 1957
for spruce budworm control, and the effects on
various non-target organisms were recorded
(Cope, 1961). DDT was found up to 0.03 ppm
in the water, and in one case a trace was found 55
miles downstream from the treated area. Samples
of mountain whitefish, rainbowT trout, and brown
trout contained DDT up to 14.00 ppm or DDE
up to 6.53 ppm or both. The author further re-
ported that "DDT was found in trout 85 miles
below the spray area, and fish taken more than
2 years after spraying contained DDT."
DDT was applied at 0.2 lb/A to a tidal marsh
in Florida (Croker and Wilson, 1965). Total kills
of caged striped mullet, sheepshead, longnose killi-
fish, rainwater killifish, and tidewater silverside
occurred in 1 to 24 days. Fish accumulated up to
90 ppm of DDT within 5 weeks after treatment.
Applications of DDT to control nuisance in-
sects appeared to be associated with the decline
of the salmon fishery at Sebago Lake, Maine
(Anderson and Everhart, 1966). Average DDT
residues in salmon collected in 1962,1963, and 1964
(10 each year) were 1.1, 3.2, and 1.8 ppm by total
weight. Salmon in the 3-year age group had 1.2
ppm, 4-year age group had 8.0 ppm, and 5-year
age group had 8.8 ppm of DDT.
Cuerrier, Keith and Stone (1967) reported that
when levels of DDT and its metabolites were above
400 ppb in the eggs of hatchery trout, the "mortal-
ity in the resulting fry ranged from 30 percent to
90 percent in the 60-day period following the
swim-up stage."
The mortality of young Atlantic salmon and
eastern brook trout was observed in cages and free-
living in streams in forested areas of New Bruns-
wick sprayed with DDT for spruce budworm con-
trol (Kerswill and Edwards, 1967). There were
no short-term effects on salmon parr with DDT
at 14 lb/A, but many yearlings were killed. Two
applications of 1/4 lb/A 10 days apart were as
22
-------
harmful as a single application of yz lb/A. DDT
at i/2 lb/A caused a heavy loss (50 to 98 percent)
of underyearling and parr salmon (Elson, 1967).
The application of DDT at i/2 lb/A to a forest
watershed of the Northwest Miramichi River,
New Brunswick, changed the kinds of food found
in stomachs of young Atlantic salmon (Keenley-
side, 1967). Salmon under one year typically con-
sume immature aquatic Diptera and small Ephem-
eroptera insects, whereas salmon over one year
consume Diptera, Trichoptera, and all sizes of
Ephemeroptera. After the DDT application the
surviving young salmon fed on the resurgence of
Chironomidae and other Diptera; the salmon more
than one year fed on Diptera, worms, snails, and
fish which previously had been unimportant in
their diet. Salmon feeding on aquatic organisms
approached p re-spray normal species complexity
5 years after the last application.
Observations in the field confirm laboratory
findings that DDT is highly toxic to some fish
and especially to fry. DDT residues in coho sal-
mon eggs from Lake Michigan measured during
1968 ranged from 1.1 to 2.8 ppm. Mortalities in
the fry after hatching ranged from 15 to 73 per-
cent. The higher residues of DDT in the eggs of
these salmon were generally correlated with higher
mortalities in the fry (Johnson and Pecor, 1969);
however, it should be pointed out that diel-
drin residues were also detected in the fish.
Amphibians and Reptiles
The LD50 for bullfrogs was > 2,000 mg/kg to
DDT when the frogs were given the stated dosage
orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
In 1951 one pound of DDT per acre was applied
for control of tent caterpillars in Hubbard
County, Minnesota (Fashingbauer, 1957). Before
spraying 111 small Rana sylvatica were counted
around 2 pools. The frogs seemed well a day after
spraying, but the water had oil film and was
covered with poisoned caterpillars. Two and a half
days later 35 dead frogs were found, and after a
few more days no living ones remained. All but 2
of 34 frog stomachs contained tent caterpillars,
among other insects. Whether frogs were killed
directly or indirectly by eating poisoned insects,
the local population was drastically reduced.
Boyd, Vinson and Ferguson (1963) demon-
strated the presence of resistance to DDT in nat-
ural populations of cricket frogs (Acris crepitans
and A. gryttus) from heavily treated cotton-field
areas. The mortality data for the 2 species from
untreated areas were generally higher than in
frog populations having a history of exposure to
DDT.
The 24-hour LC60 for Fowler's toad tadpoles
and chorus frog tadpoles exposed to DDT was 2.4
ppm and 1.4 ppm, respectively (Sanders, 1970).
Box turtle populations were not noticeably af-
fected by DDT applied at a rate of 2 lb/A to a
forest in Maryland (Stickel, 1951).
Molluscs
DDT content in seawater at 0.1 ppm halted the
growth of eastern oysters, and dosages as low as
0.0001 ppm significantly reduced oyster growth
(Butler, 1966b).
Eastern oysters containing about 151 ppm of
DDT required approximately 3 months in clean
water to lose 95 percent of their load of DDT.
Their growth returned to normal after only 10
days of flushing in clean water (Butler, 1966a).
Several other mollusc species lost about 75 percent
of accumulated DDT after 15 days of flushing in
clean water (table 13).
Arthropods and Annelids
The toxicity of DDT to insects and crustaceans,
as measured by a 48-hour EC50, was as follows:
stonefly nymph (Pteronarcys californicus [sic])
at 16 ppb, mayfly nymph (Baetis sp.) at 12 ppb,
waterflea (Simocephalus semdatus) at 0.4 ppb,
and waterflea (Daphnia pulex) at 2 ppb (Cope,
1966).
The LC50 of DDT tested against various species
of arthropods is found in table 14.
Insect predators and parasites (syrphids, coc-
cinellids, and braconids) were more susceptible
to DDT than the cabbage aphid (Way, 1949). The
parasitic braconids were especially sensitive.
Hueck et al. (1952) observed an increase in
egg production in fruit-tree-red spiders (Meta-
tetranychus ulmi) after exposure to low concen-
trations of DDT, but later research by Pielou
(I960) did not substantiate this finding.
-------
TABLE 13. Accumulation and retention of DDT by
molluscs exposed for 7 days to 1.0 fig/I in flowing
seawater and then placed in clean water (Butler, 1966a).
Mollusc
Residue (ppro)
After 7 Days After 15 Days After 30 Days
Exposure Exposure Exposure
Hooked mussel. _ .
Eastern oyster
Pacific oyster
European oyster
Crested oyster
Northern quahog
24
26
20
15
23
6
2. 5
16. 0
8. 0
5. 0
0. 5
1. 0
4. 0
Populations of the mite (Tetranychus bimacu-
lajtus) on beans and potatoes increased up to 20
times the density of the untreated control after
applications of DDT at dosages from 10 to 119
Ib/A (Klostermeyer and Rasmussen, 1953).
Outbreaks of two-spotted mites (Tetranychus
telarius) were observed in peach orchards after
the use of DDT. DDT was suggested to have
killed predators of the mites (Pickett, Putman
and Leroux, 1958).
In orchards DDT applied for the control of
apple pests eliminated populations of certain
highly susceptible, predaceous ladybird beetles
(Helle, 1965). As these beetles were the principal
controlling agent for a red-mite pest, the mite
population subsequently reached outbreak levels,
causing severe damage to the apple trees. This
particular mite is not susceptible to DDT and
was therefore hardly influenced by the chemical
which killed the beetle.
DDT suppressed the ovarian development in
the housefly (Beard, 1965). Weevils (SitophiZus
granarius) exposed to 0.10 and 0.125 mg of DDT
per 100 g wheat produced 20 percent more off-
spring than unexposed weevils (Kuenen, 1958).
Outbreaks of the red-banded leaf roller oc-
curred in apple orchards after the use of DDT be-
cause the leaf roller's parasites and predators were
more susceptible than the leaf roller (Paradis,
1956).
DDT treatment of cole crops resulted in aphid
outbreaks, probably due to predator and parasite
destruction (Pimentel, 1961). Although the num-
ber of predators and parasites was larger in the
DDT-treated area than in the untreated control
(presumably because they were attracted by the
aphid outbreak), the ratio of predators and par-
asites to aphids was nevertheless significantly
lower in the DDT-treated area.
The evidence suggests that DDT is highly toxic
to some invertebrates, whereas others are relatively
resistant. Priester (1965) recorded the 48-hour
LC50 for Daphnia, as 1.48 ppb of DDT, indicating
that they are quite sensitive. DDT at concentra-
tions of 1 to 6 ppb also killed or immobilized 50
percent of the brown and pink shrimp exposed for
48 hours in laboratory tests (Butler and Springer,
1963). The L050 to DDT for red crawfish at 48
hours was 0.6 ppm (Muncy and Oliver, 1963).
DDT caused a reduction in numbers of natural
predators, followed by an increase in numbers of
European red mites and clover mites. The con-
centration of DDT used and the time applied
determined the frequency and magnitude of pop-
ulation outbreaks attained by the mites, the re-
establishment of predator populations, and time
required for reattainment of equilibrium of low
populations of predators and mites (Lord, 1956).
TABLE 14. The LC50 for various arthropods to DDT.
Formulation
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso (ppm)
Time (hr)
Source
p,p'
p>p'
p,p'
Sand shrimp _
Amphipod (Gammarus lacustris)
Hermit crab . - - -
Grass shrimp.-
Stonefly (Pteronarcella badia) -
" (Claassenia sabulosa) _- -
" (Pteronarcys californica)
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex) -
" (D. pulex)
Amphipod (G. lacustris)
Stonefly (P. californica)
" (P. californica)
24
24
24
24
24
24
.. 24
48
48
48
48
48
0.003
0. 0047
0.007
0.012
0.012
0.016
0.041
0. 00036
0. 0036
0. 0021
0.019
0. 019
Eisler, 1969
Sanders, 1969
Eisler, 1969
H
Sanders and Cope, 1968
K
tt
Sanders and Cope, 1966
FWPCA, 1968
it
Sanders and Cope, 1966
FWPCA, 1968
24
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After DDT treatments for codling moth control,
the European red mite was abundant, whereas its
predator (Stethrus punctwm) was absent (Steiner,
Arnold and Summerland, 1944). An increase of
the Pacific spider mite on trees treated with DDT
was attributed to the destruction of natural en-
emies (Newcomer and Dean, 1946).
In apple orchards, also, DDT applications
sharply reduced the parasitism of the apply mealy
bug, as DDT is highly toxic to its parasite (Pseu-
daphydus) (Hough, Clancy and Pollard, 1945).
The oriental fruit moth showed a marked de-
crease of parasitism by the braconid (Macrocen-
trus ancylivora) with the use of DDT in peach
orchards in New York (Wheeler and LaPlante,
1946). In untreated orchards the parasitism rate
of the moth was 51.8 percent, compared with only
32.8 percent in treated orchards.
When DDT was widely used on citrus and
grapes and for mosquito control, it caused an
outbreak in the cottony-cushion scale because the
vedalia coccinellid predator was destroyed (De-
Bach, 1947).
In California applications of DDT favored the
increase of yellow scale by killing its encyrtid
parasite, Comperiella bifasciata. On the other
hand, applications of DDT dust did not observably
affect Metaphycus luteolus, a parasite of the citri-
cola scale (Woglum et al., 1947).
Ide (1957) investigated the number of aquatic
insects present in the forest-covered tributaries
of the Miramichi River of northern New Bruns-
wick after aerial treatment with 0.5 Ib/A of DDT.
In the streams affected by DDT fewer insect
species emerged, and those species most severely
reduced were the larger ones, such as caddice flies.
The treated streams generally had larger numbers
of individuals, but the weight of insect life was in
some cases reduced by half. Furthermore, the in-
sect fauna of the treated streams were deficient
in the species of insects on which salmon mainly
feed. From 2 to 3 years were necessary for the
fauna to recover qualitatively for most groups;
however, for some recovery required 4 years (Ide,
1967).
One spraying of forests at the rate of 5 Ib/A
of DDT destroyed many natural enemies, result-
ing in outbreaks of both aphids and mites (Hoff-
man and Merkel, 1948). These outbreaks, however,
were of relatively short duration.
Yothers and Carlson (1948) observed pre-
daceous coccinellid insects to be repelled by DDT.
Some coccinellids which did enter DDT-treated
plots were destroyed, and those surviving had
reduced oviposition rates.
Coccinellid beetles were also found capable of
resisting DDT, in part because of their ability to
metabolize DDT to DDE and to excrete these 2
compounds in their feces and eggs (Atallah and
Nettles, 1966).
After the application of DDT at 0.25 Ib/A to
a small stream in Pennsylvania, about 90 percent
of the total stream insect population was appar-
ently exterminated, and about one-third of the
species eliminated (Hoffmann et al., 1946). Some
species did not repopulate the stream for 2 years
or more.
DDT was applied at 1.0 Ib/A for control of the
spruce budworm to the Swan Creek drainage area
in Montana (Bridges and Andrews, 1961). Al-
though the spraying aircraft did not treat within
y& of a mile of the stream, 0.01 ppm of DDT was
measured in the water y2 hour after spraying.
Three hours after treatment samples of insects con-
tained up to 11 ppm. Extreme mortalities occurred
in mayfly nymphs, caddice fly larvae, and stonefly
larvae by one hour after treatment. Rainbow
trout in the creek suffered no acute effects.
In Georgia, DDT was applied at 0.5 Ib/A for
control of the elm spanworm (Frey, 1961). In the
one drainage area where precautions were not
taken to avoid the stream, a serious kill of mayfly
and stonefly nymphs occurred (about a 90-percent
reduction). Recovery of the bottom invertebrates
was rapid, and within 4 months after treatment in-
vertebrate numbers were back to pre-treatment
levels.
After the treatment of 72,000 acres of the Yel-
lowstone River system with DDT at 1 Ib/A (as
mentioned), stream-bottom invertebrates were sig-
nificantly reduced in number (Cope, 1961). Total
numbers of invertebrates had recovered within a
year, but the species composition was still altered.
Both the Plecoptera and Ephemeroptera were re-
duced, but both Trichoptera and Diptera occurred
at higher numbers at the end of one year.
When DDT was employed for malaria control
in Sardinia, Anopheles Jabranchiae was effectively
controlled, but then 2 rare species (A. claviger and
A. algeriensis) increased to replace the eradicated
A. labranchiae (Aitken and Trapido, 1961). Such
replacement may or may not be detrimental.
Because of environmental exposure to DDT and
the resulting selective pressures, honeybees at
-------
Riverside, California, were found to be 6 times
more resistant to DDT than honeybees from un-
exposed areas (Atkins and Anderson, 1962). These
results provide an idea of the amount of DDT
in the environment and intensity of selective
pressure.
After the application of DDT for the control of
caterpillars, in particular Pieris rapae, on cole
crops, Dempster (1968b) reported that the sur-
vival of the pest was better than expected because
the insecticide killed many of the caterpillars'
natural enemies. Dempster (1968c) indicated that
it was impossible to predict the changes in species
populations with the application of any one in-
secticide to a biotic community. However, one com-
mon trend was the reduction or elimination of
natural enemies, frequently leading to outbreaks in
the numbers of herbivores or pest species on the
cole crop under study.
DDT applied at 25 Ib/A reduced earthworm
activity, as measured by castings, by 80 percent
(Doane, 1962). DDT at 37.2 Ib/A reportedly
caused significant reductions (43 percent) in the
number of earthworms in golf courses in Ohio
(Polivka, 1951).
Earthworm populations were found to reflect
the dosage of DDT in soil (Stringer and Pickard,
1964). In soils containing 26.6 ppm, 4.1 ppm, and
3.6 ppm the earthworms (Lumbricus terristris and
other species) in these soils averaged about 14
ppm, 7 ppm, and 3 ppm, respectively.
Dempster (1968a) found that low concentra-
tions of DDT significantly reduced the rate of
adult feeding in a predaceous ground beetle.
Menhinick (1962) compared invertebrate popu-
lations in orchard litter and soil contaminated with
DDT and other pesticides to those in areas free
of pesticides and found the diversity of species and
total biomass of living organisms lower in the
contaminated area, but the numbers of individuals
much higher. For example, tremendous numbers
of Collembola, sarcoptiform mites, and aphids
were present in contaminated areas; however, the
larger invertebrate predators like beetles and flies
were significantly reduced in numbers in the con-
taminated area.
DDT applied at 200 Ib/A of 5-percent dust to
year-old fallow plots (Edwards, Dennis and Emp-
son, 1967) did not affect the Lumbricidae, Enchy-
traeidae, or Nematoda, but did significantly re-
duce the mesostigmatid mites, apparently causing
an increase in most Collembola species popula-
tions. Both Coleoptera and Diptera biomass were
reduced. In general, the DDT killed more pest
species than predaceous or beneficial species.
DDT larviciding at 0.1 ppm for control of black
flies in Bobby's Brook, Labrador, resulted in sev-
eral faunal changes (Hatfield, 1969). Caddice fly
larval populations were reduced to zero or near
zero at all stations receiving the treatment, and
the same was true for stonefly and mayfly larvae.
The DDT also caused mortalities in eastern brook
trout by contamination of the fish foods above
maximum tolerance levels. The treatment, how-
ever, caused no significant short-term fish mor-
tality by direct contact.
In greenhouse tests alfalfa treated with DDT at
1 l'b/A after 11 days' exposure caused about a 70-
percent mortality in pollinating leafcutting bees
(Waller, 1969).
Brown (1969) reported that 225 species of in-
sects and mites have evolved resistance to DDT,
Cyclodiene, and organophosphorus insecticides.
The 225 species were broken down as follows: 121
crop pests, 97 man and animal pests, 6 stored-
product pests, and 1 forest pest.
Fiddler crabs fed natural organic plant detritus
for 11 days in estuaries containing DDT (10 ppm)
exhibited grossly modified behavior (Odum,
Wood well and Wurster, 1969). Within 5 days on
the DDT containing detritus the crabs became
uncoordinated. When threatened, they did not
scurry way, but moved a short distance, lost co-
ordination and equilibrium and rolled over.
Plants
Dosages of DDT applied at 24 Ib/A and above
significantly depressed the growth of rye and
proved highly toxic to beans (Boswell et al., 1955).
The effect of DDT added to the soil of orchards
annually at 209 Ib/A from 1949 to 1953 was
measured by growing various crop plants in the
contaminated soil for several years following the
treatments (MacPhee, Chisholm and MacEachern,
1960). With a residue in the soil of about 110 ppm
of DDT at time of growth, yields of the crop
plants were as follows: beans, reduced by 66 per-
cent; turnips, no effect; carrots, reduced by 40
percent; tomatoes, reduced by 93 percent; and
peas, reduced by 33 percent.
Only rates of 24 Ib/A and higher of DDT re-
duced the growth of stringless black valentine
26
-------
beans during the same year as application (Clore
etal., 1961).
DDT at a 0.2-percent aqueous solution killed
most rye plants, but a small percentage (2.58)
were found to be resistant (Jones and Hayes,
1967). These surviving plants had a significant
level of resistance to DDT.
Corn grown in DDT-treated soil at 10 and 100
ppm weighed significantly more (9 g at 100 ppm)
than untreated corn (6.5 g) at the end of 4 weeks;
however, after 8 weeks of growth this difference
was no longer detectable (Cole et al., 1968). Beans,
on the other hand, weighed significantly less
when exposed to DDT concentrations of 1 ppm
(8.3 g) and 10 ppm (6.7 g) for 8 weeks than the
untreated (9.7g).
DDT at 1, 10, and 100 ppm in the soil caused
significant changes in the macro and micro ele-
ment (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, B, Al, Sr, and Zn)
constituents of above-ground portions of corn
and bean plants (Cole et al., 1968). For example,
the manganese content in beans was significantly
higher in the DDT (100 ppm)-treated, 512 ppm
dry weight, than the control, 330 ppm, at the end
of 8 weeks' growth; however, the boron content
was lower in the DDT (100 ppm)-treated, 17
ppm, than the control, 28 ppm, at the end of 8
weeks' growth.
Exposing phytoplankton communities in the
laboratory for 4 hours to 1 ppm of DDT in water
reduced their productivity 77.2 percent (Butler,
1963a). DDT at about 0.01 ppm reduced photo-
synthesis in laboratory cultures of 4 species of
coastal and oceanic phytoplankton (Slceletonema
costatum, Coccolithus huxleyi, Pyramimonas sp.,
Peridium trochoideum) and a natural phytoplank-
ton culture from Woods Hole, Massachusetts
(Wurster, 1968). These exposure levels are far
higher than those likely to be achieved in the
sea. Christie (1969), however, reported that fresh-
water algae was not affected at a high dosage
of DDT (100 ppm).
Sodergen (1968) reported that the uptake of
DDT by phytoplankton (CJdorella sp.) was ex-
tremely rapid; the process was completed in less
than 15 seconds. Significant morphological and
physiological changes were noted in the phyto-
plankton after growing in presence of DDT at
less than 0.3 ppb for 3 days.
Biological Concentration
Eastern oysters placed in flowing seawater con-
taining 0.1 ppb of DDT for 40 days concentrated
DDT some 70,000 times the level in the water
(Butler, 1964). Oysters exposed for 10 days to
a mixture of 8 pesticides in the water, ranging
from 0.001 to 0.05 ppm, increased the pesticide con-
centrations in their bodies; DDT, for example, was
concentrated 15,000 times (Wilson, 1965).
A saltwater fish (croakers) concentrated DDT
20,000 times the level in water (0.001 ppm) (Han-
sen, 1966). After 2 weeks of exposure to 0.001 ppm
of DDT in water, 10 fish concentrated the level
of DDT in their bodies 12,000 times the level of the
water. When 10 fish were exposed to a lower con-
centration of DDT (0.0001 ppm), they were found
to be able to concentrate the level in their own
bodies 40,000 times that of the water.
DDT residues were found to reach a level of
more than 13 Ib/A in Long Island saltmarsh
(Woodwell, Wurster and Isaacson, 1967). In a
sampling of the marsh and organisms present in
the saltmarsh DDT in the water was estimated
at 0.05 ppb and in plankton the level was 40 ppb
of DDT. The highest concentrations were detected
in the scavenging and carnivorous fish and birds:
the birds were reported to have 10 to 100 times
more than the fish species.
Samples removed from a tidal marsh habitat in
Florida treated with 0.2 Ib/A of DDT contained
the following levels of DDT: surface water and
ditch, 0.3 to 4.04 ppm; sediment samples, as high
as 3.5 ppm (dry weight) ; vegetation, as high as
75 ppm (dry weight); and in 5 species of fish
DDT ranged from 4 to 58 ppm (wet weight)
(Croker and Wilson, 1965).
In Lake Michigan sediments on a wet weight
basis averaged 0.014 ppm of DDT, DDE, and
TDE. From the same habitat the amphipod Ponto-
poreia affinis averaged 0.41 ppm for DDT and its
related metabolites, or about 30 times the level
found in the mud; various fish removed from the
lake had residues of 3.35 ppm (alewives), 4.52
ppm (chub), and 5.60 ppm (whitefish), or about
10 times that of the amphipod; and in the gulls,
breast muscle averaged 27 times the level of DDT
found in the alewives (Hickey, Keith and Coon,
27
-------
1966). Body fat of the gulls averaged 2,441 ppin
DDT.
In ponds containing 0.02 ppm of DDT in water,
rainbow trout, black bullhead, and crayfish were
found to concentrate DDT to the levels of 4.15
ppm, 3.11 ppm, and 1.47 ppm, respectively (Cope,
1966).
The chemical attributes of DDT make it sus-
ceptible to biological concentration in algal living
systems. For example, 4 species of algae concen-
trated DDT about 220-fold when exposed to a
concentration of DDT at 1 ppm in water for 7
days (Vance and Drummond, 1969). Daphnia, a
zooplanktonic organism, concentrated DDT
100,000-fold during a 14-day exposure to water
containing 0.5 ppb of DDT (Priester, 1965). A
fathead minnow concentrated DDT further in its
tissues on being fed Daphnia containing DDT
(Priester, 1965).
In some DDT-sprayed elm environments pesti-
cide residues accumulated from 9.9 ppm in the
soil to 141 ppm in earthworms to 444 in the brain
of adult robins (Hunt, 1965). In another area
where elm trees had been sprayed with DDT for
control of Dutch elm disease, the soils had a resi-
due to 19 ppm of DDT and earthworms from the
same soil contained 157 ppm (Hunt, 1965).
Diamond et al. (1970) demonstrated that forest
soil with a mean DDT residue of about 1 ppm
resulted in the earthworms having residues be-
tween 0.10 and 0.32 ppm (wet weight). Robins
in this forest had DDT residues ranging from 2.26
to 13.53 ppm (wet weight).
Slugs and earthworms in a cotton field concen-
trated DDT 18 and 11 times the level in the soil,
respectively; the slugs contained 53 ppm of DDT
and its metabolites, and the earthworms contained
32 ppm (USDI, 1965).
Kinetics
The kinetics of DDT loss from organisms has
been reported for a few species. For example,
when oysters which had accumulated a body bur-
den of 150 ppm of DDT were placed in clean
water, they lost two-thirds of this concentration
in 50 days, but required 40 more days before the
residue levels decreased to 6 ppm (Butler, 19(>6b).
An investigation of DDT residues in fish in
the Farmington and Connecticut River Water-
sheds indicated that the DDT residues in the fish
declined significantly from the fall of 1963, when
DDT applications were halted, to the spring of
1964 (Tompkins, 1964).
Of interest was the report that migratory birds
lose 50 percent of their body burden of DDT dur-
ing their movement from Mexico to Canada (Har-
vey, 1967).
One means by which DDT may get into the
air from water is codistillation of DDT with the
water (Acree, Beroza and Bowman, 1963). They
also suggested that DDT appears to concentrate
at the water surface, thus providing a better op-
portunity for DDT to escape the water medium
and enter the air. The full significance of this find-
ing has not been investigated.
Fish reach some equilibrium between the
amount of insecticide in the environment and the
amount in the organism (Hansen, 1966 in Dust-
man and Stickel, 1969). Pinfish, for example, when
exposed to 0.001 ppm of DDT in the water en-
vironment reached an equilibrium within 2 weeks,
at which time body residues were 12 ppm, or 12,000
times that of the environment. In another experi-
ment at a lower dosage in the water, 0.0001 ppm,
the equilibrium was achieved in the same time
but the dosage in the fish was 4 ppm, or 40,000
times that of the environment.
Persistence
DDT applied at 10 to 20 Ib/A persisted in soil
for >4 years (Allen et al., 19'54) to >10 years
(Cloreetal., 1961).
The percentage of DDT applied at a rate of
100 ppm to sandy loam soil remaining after 17
years was 39 percent (Nash and Woolson, 1967).
Soil residues in a Maine forest treated with DDT
at 1 Ib/A showed little decrease during the 9 years
after application (Diamond et al., 1970). The
investigators suggested that the residues may
persist for 30 years.
DELMETON
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to delme-
ton was 81 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
-------
Arthropods
DEMETON METHYL
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (Daphnia
pulex) exposed to delmeton was 14 ppb (FWPCA,
1968).
DEMETON
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 1.7 (demeton S) and
7.5 (demeton O) (USDJ, 1970a) and for domestic
goats, 8 to 18 mg/kg (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970)
to demeton when the mammals were given the
stated dosages orally in a capsule.
Birds
(The LD50 for young mallards was 7.2 mg/kg;
for young pheasants, 8.2 mg/kg; for young chu-
kar partridges, 15.1 mg/kg; for young coturnix,
8.5 mg/kg; for pigeons (Coluniba Zivia), 8.5 mg/
kg; for sharp-tailed grouse, 4.8 mg/kg; for house
sparrows, 9.5 mg/kg; and for house finches, 2.4
mg/kg to demeton when the birds were fed the
stated dosages orally in capsules (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970). The LC50 for mallards was 600
to 700 ppm; for pheasants, 650 to 700 ppm; for
bobwhites, 550 to 650 ppm; and for coturnix, 260
to 300 ppm of demeton in diets of 2-week-old
birds when fed treated feed for 5 days followed
by untreated feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970a).
Amphibians
The LD50 for bullfrogs was 562 mg/kg to
demeton when the frogs were fed the stated dosage
orally in capsules (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Persistence
Demeton in soil persisted for 23 days (Laygo
and Schultz, 1963).
Birds
Demeton methyl in acetone injected into hen
eggs at 10 ppm, 50 ppm, and 100 ppm killed 5,16,
and 70 percent of the embryos (Dunachie and
Fletcher, 1969). This toxicant also caused terato-
genic effects at 100 ppm.
Fishes
The 24-hour LCso for harlequin fish to demeton
methyl was 9 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
DIAZINON
Mammals
The LD60 for the rat was 76 to 108 mg/kg to
diazinon when the mammals were fed the stated
dosages orally (Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask,
1969).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 3.5 mg/kg and
for young pheasants, 4.3 mg/kg to diazinon when
the birds were given the stated dosages orally in a
capsule (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Diazinon applied at the rate of 5 Ib/A killed
nearly 50 percent of the pheasant population in the
test field area (USDI, 1965). No deaths were
recorded at the 1-lb/A level.
Fishes and Mussels
The LC50 for bluegills and rainbow trout to
diazinon for a 24-hour exposure was 0.052 ppm
(75°F) and0.380ppm (55°F),respectively (Cope,
1965).
The 48-hour LC5o for bluegill exposed to dia-
zinon was 30 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
The relative toxicity of diazinon to 2 species of
fish as measured by a 48-hour BC50 was as follows:
423^802 O—71 3
-------
rainbow trout at 170 ppb, 13°C; and bluegills at
86 ppb, 24°C (Cope, 1966).
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to diazinon
was 1.45 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Diazinon applied at a rate of 0.32 ppm to a
cranberry bog disappeared completely from the
water within 144 hours. The water immediately
after treatment was toxic to fish (FundvlMS Jiete-
roclitus), which concentrated the diazinon to a
level about 10 times that of the surrounding water.
Freshwater mussel (Elliptio complanatiis) sur-
vived the exposure to diazinon, yet concentrated
the material by about twice the levels in the sur-
rounding water (Miller, Zuckerman and Charig,
1966).
An investigation of the persistence of diazinon
in fish revealed that 50 percent of the chemical was
lost in less than 1 week (Miller, Zuckerman and
Charig, 1966).
Amphibians
The LD50 for bullfrogs was > 2,000 mg/kg to
diazinon when the frogs were fed the stated
dosage orally (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Arthropods
The LC50 for various arthropods to diazinon is
found in table 15.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus semdatus and
Daphnia puleon, to diazinon was 1.8 ppb and 0.90
ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
Detectable levels of diazinon were found in the
soil up to 54 days after treatment with 14 Ib/A.
The insect populations decreased after the initial
treatment, but then there was a rapid resurgence
of many of the species. Interestingly enough, there
were also significant changes in the vegetation in-
vading the abandoned field; both species diversity
and density increased in the treated area (Malone,
Winnett and Helrich, 1967).
Biological Concentration
Fish (F. heteroclitus) concentrated diazinon to
a level about 10 times that in the surrounding
water (0.32 ppm) (Miller, Zuckerman and Charig,
1966).
Persistence
Diazinon applied to soil persisted at detectable
levels for 9 days (Laygo and Schultz, 1963) and
for about 12 weeks (Kearney, Nash and Isensee,
1969).
DIBROMOCHLOROPROPANE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 173 mg/kg and for the
mouse, 257 mg/kg to dibromochloropropane when
the mammals were fed the stated dosages orally
(FCH, 1970).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 66.8 mg/kg
to dibromochloropropane when the birds were
given the stated dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker
and Crabtree, 1970).
TABLE 15. The LCso for various arthropods to diazinon.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso (ppm)
Time (hr)
Source
Amphipod (Gammarus lacustris)
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex)
" (D. pulex)
Stonefly (Pteronarcys californica)
" (P. californicus [sic])
Amphipod (G. lacustris) ..
24
48
48
48
- ... 48
48
0. 800 Sanders, 1969
0. 0009 Cope, 1966
0. 0009 FWPCA, 1968
0. 060 "
0. 074 Cope, 1966
0. 500 FWPCA, 1968
30
-------
Molluscs
DICHLORVOS
Davis (1961) reported that dibromochloro-
propane at concentrations of 1 ppm and above
caused a 90-percent mortality in clam larvae after
24 hours of exposure.
Annelids
No earthworms survived 1 day in pots contain-
ing soil treated with 20 gal/A of dibromochloro-
propane in the laboratory (DeVries, 1962). After
32 days 87 percent of the Lwrribricus and 28 per-
cent of the Helodrttus were killed with a dosage of
5lb/A.
DICAPTHON
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 400 mg/kg to dicapthon
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
When chickens were fed dicapthon at a dosage
of 200 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969). Mode of action was unknown.
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 56 to 80 mg/kg (Neu-
meyer, Gibbons and Trask, 1969) and for mice, 4
mg/kg (Negherbon, 1959).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 7.8 mg/kg
and for young pheasants, 11.3 mg/kg to dichlorvos
when the birds were given the stated dosages
orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
The LCso for mallards was > 5,000 ppm to di-
chlorvos in diets of 2-week-old birds when fed
treated feed for 5 days followed by clean feed for
3 days (Heath et al., 1970a).
Dichlorvos in acetone injected into hen eggs at
50 ppm, 100 ppm, and 200 ppm killed 22, 45, and
40 percent of the embryos (Dunachie and Fletcher,
1969).
Fishes
The LC50 for bluegills to dichlorvos for 24-hour
exposure was 1 ppm (Cope, 1965).
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to di-
chlorvos was 700 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to dichlor-
vos was 10 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Mammals
DICHLOFENTHION
The LD50 for the rat was 250 mg/kg to dichlo-
fenthion when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Arthropods
The LC50 for various arthropods to dichlorvos
is found in table 16.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60° F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus semdatus and
Daphnia pulex, to dichlorvos was 0.26 ppb and
0.066 ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to dichlo-
rophenthion (summer sheep dip) was 2.2 ppm
(Alabaster, 1969).
Persistence
The persistence of dichlorvos at detectable levels
in water at 20°C was 62 days (Muhlmann and
Schrader,1957).
31
-------
TABLE 16. The LCjo for various arthropods to dichlorvos.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso (ppm)
Time (hr)
Source
Sand shrimp
Stonefly (Pteronarcys sp ) -
" ^p californica) - - - - -
Waterflea (Daphnid pulcx) •
Amphipod {G Ictcuslris) - - •
Stonefly (P calif ornica,) - -
24
24
24
24
24
_ _ . 24
48
48
48
0. 002
0. 018
0. 023
0. 025
0. 150
0. 390
0. 00007
0. 001
0. 010
Sanders, 1969
Eisler, 1969
Cope, 1965
Sanders and Cope, 1968
Eisler, 1969
n
FWPCA, 1968
u
DICOFOL
DICROTOPHOS
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 700 mg/kg to dicofol
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (Metcalf, Flint and Metcalf, 1962).
Birds
The LC50 for mallards was 1,700 to 1,900 ppm;
for pheasants, 2,100 to 2,300 ppm; for bobwhites,
2,800 to 3,000 ppm; and for coturnix, 1,400 to
1,500 ppm of dicof ol in diets of 2-week-old birds
when fed treated feed for 5 days followed by clean
feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970a).
Dicofol in acetone injected into hen eggs at 500
ppm killed only 30 percent of the embryos
(Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
dicofol was 100 ppm (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC50 for stoneflies (Pteronarcys
ealifornica) and waterfleas (Daphnia magna) ex-
posed to dicofol was 3,000 ppm and 390 ppm, re-
spectively (FWPCA, 1968).
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was approximately 22 mg/kg
and for mice, 15 mg/kg to dicrotophos when the
mammals were fed the stated dosages orally
(FCH,1970).
Birds
The LD5<> for young mallards was 4.2 mg/kg;
for young pheasants, 3.2 mg/kg; for chukar par-
tridges, 9.6 mg/kg; for young coturnix, 4.3 mg/
kg; for pigeons {Coluinba livia), 2.0 mg/kg; for
prairie sharp-tailed grouse, 2.3 mg/kg; for house
sparrows, 3.0 mg/kg; for house finches, 2.8 mg/kg;
and for Canada geese, 2.3 mg/kg to dicrotophos
when the birds were given the stated dosages orally
in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
dicrotophos was 8,000 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Amphibians
The LD50 for bullfrogs was 2,000 mg/kg to
dicrotophos when the frogs were given the stated
dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970).
32
-------
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC60 for stoneflies (Pteronarcys
californica), waterfleas (Daphnia pulex), and
amphipods (Gammarus lacustris} exposed to di-
crotophos was 1,900 ppb, 600 ppb, and 8,000 ppb,
respectively (FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for the amphipod (6r.
lacustris) exposed to dicrotophos was 2,200 ppb
(Sanders, 1969).
DIELDRIN
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 50 to 55 mg/kg; for rab-
bits, >150 mg/kg; for dogs, 65 to 95 mg/kg; for
young domestic goats, 100 to 200 mg/kg; and for
mule deer, 75 to 150 mg/kg to dieldrin when the
mammals were given the stated dosages orally
(Spector,1955).
White-tailed deer were fed 5 ppm and 25 ppm
of dieldrin daily for up to 3 years (Korschgen and
Murphy, 1969). Survival of fawns from treated
does was lower in the higher dieldrin dosages than
in those from untreated does, with significantly
more post-partum mortality. Growth rate of the
young females receiving the dieldrin treatment was
much slower than that of the untreated females.
Some fawns nursing on treated does died, and these
fawns had high residues of dieldrin in their brain
tissues.
Good and Ware (1969) reported that 5 ppm of
dieldrin in the diet of the mouse significantly
(0.05) reduced the size of litters from a mean of
9.2 to 8.7.
Sublethal (15 mg/kg/day) dosages of dieldrin
were fed to sheep, and this affected the behavior
of the sheep (Van Gelder et al., 1969). Dieldrin
was found to increase the number of trials required
for the animals to relearn a visual discrimination
task.
Birds
The LC50 for bobwhite quail chicks was 39 ppm
and for mallard ducklings, 200 ppm to dieldrin
when the birds were fed the stated dosages in their
daily diet for 5 days and then fed clean food for
3 days (Heath and Stickel, 1965).
Tucker and Crabtree (1970) computed the LD50
for young mallards as 381 mg/kg; for pheasants,
79.0 mg/kg; for young chukar partridges, 23.4
mg/kg; for young coturnix, 69.7 mg/kg; for
pigeons (Columba livia), 26.8 mg/kg; for house
sparrows, 47.6 mg/kg; for Canada geese, 50 to
150 mg/kg; for fulvous tree ducks, 100 to 200
mg/kg; and for young gray partridges, 8.8 mg/kg
to dieldrin when the birds were given the stated
dosages orally in a capsule.
The LC50 for pheasants was 50 to 55 ppm, and
for coturnix, 45 to 60 ppm of dieldrin in diets of
2-week-old birds when fed treated feed for 5 days
followed by clean feed for 3 days (Heath et al.,
1970a).
When white king pigeons were fed dieldrin (2
ppm) in their feed for 1 week, steroid metabolism
(testosterone increased from 28.7 to 111.4 m/t moles
and progesterone increased from 30.1 to 90.3 mju
moles) was significantly increased (Peakall, 1967).
Dieldrin in acetone injected into hen eggs at up
to 500 ppm killed only 41 percent of the embyros
(Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969) ; however, chicks
which hatched from a 25-ppm dose and were
starved were all dead by the 4th day, whereas in
untreated controls the mortality was only about
50 percent.
Pheasants were maintained on diets containing
various quantities of dieldrin for a 94-day experi-
mental period. In the test, 6 out of 10 females fed
200 ppm per day died within 28 days, and 5 out of
10 females fed 100 ppm died within 38 days. At the
close of the experiment, 8 out of 20 females and
all 4 males at 50 ppm died; the only male tested
at 25 ppm died, whereas the 21 females on this
dosage survived (Genelly and Rudd, 1956).
Egg fertility of pheasants fed 50 ppm dieldrin
daily was significantly lower than the control
(Genelly and Rudd, 1956).
Dieldrin has been reported to cause significant
bird kills in areas where it has been applied. For
example, after the treatment of fields with dieldrin
for the control of a Japanese beetle, large numbers
of birds and mammals died, and the bird popu-
lations remained at a low level throughout the
following spring and summer (Scott, Willis and
Ellis, 1959). All resident quail disappeared from a
test area treated with 2 pounds of dieldrin per acre
(Clawson and Baker, 1959).
Wood pigeons in England were fed under con-
trolled laboratory conditions with dieldrin at dos-
-------
ages of 20,40, and 80 mg/kg and the toxicities and
residues in flesh and various organs of the birds
were measured (Turtle et al., 1963). After this
investigation wood pigeons in the field were ex-
amined for residues. The results of the laboratory
and field analyses, indicating dieldrin to be one
of the insecticides mainly responsible for wood-
pigeon deaths, prompted the Ministry of Agricul-
ture, Fisheries and Food to discontinue the use of
dieldrin as a seed dressing.
Dieldrin caused a significant (P=from 0.05 to
0.001) decrease in the eggshell thickness of mallard
ducks when fed in the diet at 1.6, 4.0, and 10 ppm
(Lehner and Egbert, 1969).
In the Netherlands, also, Fuchs (1967) reported
numerous deaths in adult wood pigeons during the
second half of March, about a week after the peak
of the sowing-season. In May he made a search
for juvenile pigeons and reported finding only
about 11 per hectare. More alarming to Fuchs,
however, was the large number of birds of prey,
buzzards, sparrow hawks (European), and long-
eared owls (European) which were found dead.
Probably the main source of poisoning for the buz-
zard was corpses of wood pigeons, and for the
sparrow hawk, finches, because they comprise
about 18 percent of its diet. The results did not
single out any one chlorinated insecticide used as
a seed dressing as more dangerous to wood pigeons
than another.
Lockie and Ratcliffe (1964) and Lockie, Rat-
cliffe and Balharry (1969) attributed the decline
in breeding success of the golden eagle in west
Scotland "mainly to the residues of chlorinated
hydrocarbons, particularly dieldrin, in the adult
birds and their eggs" (tables 17 A and B).
TABLE 17A. Proportion of eyries of golden eagles having
broken eggs during 1937-1963 in west Scotland (Lockie
and Ratcliffe, 1964).
Total Eyries
Examined Number of Percentage of
Years (Excluding Ones Eyries With Eyries With
Robbed or Where Broken Eggs Broken Eggs
Birds Not Breeding)
1937-50.-- -- -
1951-60 .-- -
1961. ..
1962
1963
9
26
6
7
9
1
4
1
2
5
11
15
17
29
56
TABLE 17B. Breeding success of golden eagles in west
Scotland in relation to dieldrin levels in eggs (Lockie,
Ratcliffe and Balharry, 1969).
Percentage of Nests With Mean Dieldrin Leyel
Eggs From Which in Eggs (ppm)
Years Young Flew (and (and Number of
Number of Nests With Eggs Analyzed)
Eggs)
1963-65
1966-68
31 (39)
69 (45)
0. 86 (48)
0. 34 (23)
Coturnix were fed dieldrin at 2, 10, 50, and 250
ppm in their diets under controlled conditions
(Stickel, Stickel and Spann, 1969). When half of
the birds at each dosage had died, the other half
were killed for comparison of dieldrin residues.
Although the range of residues in the dead and
survivors overlapped somewhat, brain residues
correlated well with the death of the birds and
coincided with data from the field. The authors
concluded there are species differences, but that
brain residues of 4 or 5 ppm (wet weight) or
higher were hazardous and would implicate
dieldrin as a prime suspect of the cause of death.
Dieldrin was fed to hen pheasants through 2
generations (Baxter, Linder and Dahlgren, 1969).
First-generation hens were given 4 and 6 mg of
dieldrin per week for 13 weeks with no mortality;
the offspring of these hens received 6 mg per week
for a total of 14 weeks. Some mortality (25 to 50
percent) occurred in 'both of the second-generation
groups. Fertility and hatchability of eggs were
significantly lower in the second-generation hens.
Chick survival and growth appeared normal.
However, behavior of chicks from hens receiving
8 mg dieldrin for 14 weeks was affected; these
chicks tended to choose the deep side of a visual
cliff.
Mallard ducks were given dieldrin in their feed
for 16 months, and eggs were collected during
months 2, 3, 4, 14, 15, and 16 (periods coinciding
with waterfowl nesting in the wild). These eggs
had shells averaging 0.0095 mm thinner (at 1.6
ppm dosage, P = 0.001), 0.0096 mm thinner (at 4
ppm dosage, 0.02
-------
dieldrin residue in the egg yolks (unpublished re-
sults of P.N.L. in Lehner and Egbert, 1969).
However, dieldrin fed to hen pheasants in capsules
at dosages of 4, 6, or 10 mg did not cause any
significant thinning of the eggshell (Dahlgren and
Linder, 1970).
Fishes
The LC50 of dieldrin tested against various
species of fish is found in table 18.
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
dieldrin at temperatures of 1.6°C, 7.2°C, and
12.7°C was 13 ppb, 3.1 ppb, and 3.1 ppb, respec-
tively (Macek, Hutchinson and Cope, 1969); and
the 24-hour LC50 for bluegills exposed at tempera-
tures of 12.7°C, 18.3°C, and 23.8°C was 39 ppb,
24 ppb, and 15 ppb, respectively.
The relative toxicity of dieldrin to 3 species of
fishes as measured by the 48-hour EC50 was as
follows: rainbow trout at 5 ppb, 13°C; bluegill
at 6 ppb, 24°C; and channel catfish at 25 ppb, 24°C
(Cope, 1966).
As both temperature and time increase, the LC50
to small (about 1 gram) bluegills decreases
(table 19).
Dieldrin pellets disseminated over 2,000 acres
at a rate of 1 lb/A for sandfly (Culicmdes) larval
TABLE 18. The LC5o for various fish to dieldrin.
Fish Species
Exposure
Time (hr)
LCso
(ppm)
Source
Bluegill
Rainbow trout- _
Rainbow trout. _
Harlequin fish.__
Bluegill
Bluegill
Goldfish
24 0.0055 Cope, 1965
24 0. 05 Mayhew, 1955
24 0. 019 Cope, 1965
24 0. 24 Alabaster, 1969
48 0. 0034 FWPCA, 1968
96 0. 008 Henderson, Pickering
and Tarzwell, 1959
96 0. 037
TABLE 19. Effects of increasing temperature and exposure
time on the toxicity of dieldrin to bluegills (Cope, 1965).
45. ---
55. --.
65
75- --_
85
24hrs
0. 054
0. 040
0. 024
0. 014
0. 010
LCso (ppm)
48hrs
0. 034
0. 026
0. 018
0. Oil
0. 0084
96hrs
0. 016
0. 018
0. 0145
0. 0093
0. 0071
control severely affected the biological community
in the Florida East Coast tidal marsh (Harring-
ton and Bidlingmayer, 1958). The treatment killed
an estimated 20 to 30 tons of fish of 30 species,
including many sport fish, such as young tarpon,
which utilize the salt marshes as nursing grounds
(Stroud, 1958).
The toxicity to dieldrin in three species of fish
collected in the field at Twin Bayou, Mississippi,
where the populations had been exposed to heavy
concentrations of several insecticides used in the
adjoining cotton acreages, compared with a con-
trol population, as measured by 36-hour LC50,
were: golden shiner, control 25 ppb versus Twin
Bayou 900 ppb; bluegills, control 25 ppb versus
Twin Bayou 900 ppb; and green sunfish, control
33 ppb versus Twin Bayou 1,250 ppb (Ferguson
et al., 1965b). In another investigation the toxicity
to dieldrin in resistant mosquito fish and black
bullheads collected from streams in Mississippi
compared with that in an unexposed control pop-
ulation, as measured by 36-hour LC50, were: mos-
quito fish, control 16 ppb versus resistant (Sidon,
Miss.) 500 ppb; and black bullhead, control 2.5
ppb versus resistant (Wayside, Miss.) 55 ppb
(Ferguson et al., 1965a).
Growth rates of rainbow trout were reduced by
dieldrin concentrations above only 0.12 ppb (Chad-
wick and Shumway, 1969). Eggs (embryos), how-
ever, exposed to dieldrin concentrations as high as
52 ppm survived well.
An investigation of the persistence of dieldrin
in fish revealed that 50 percent of the chemical was
lost in about 1 month (Macek, 1969).
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for Fowler's toad tadpoles and
chorus frogs exposed to dieldrin was 1.1 ppm and
0.23 ppm, respectively (Sanders, 1970).
Molluscs
Molluscs were apparently unharmed after an
application of dieldrin at 1.0 lb/A to a coastal
tidal marsh in Florida (Harrington and Bidling-
mayer, 1958).
Arthropods and Annelids
The LC60 for various arthropods to dieldrin is
found in table 20.
35
-------
TABLE 20. The LC5o for various arthropods to dieldrin.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso (ppm)
Time (hr)
Source
Stonefly (Pteronarcella badia) _ . .
" (Claassenia sabulosa)
" (Pteronarcys californica) _
Sand shrimp. . — - - —
Hermit crab _ _ - - - _-_._
Grass shrimp _ ...- -
Amphipod (Gammarus lacustris) .
Stonefly (P. californica)- -
" (P. californica)- _ _ _
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex)
(D. pulex)
Amphipod (G. lacustris)
24
24
24
24
... 24
24
24
48
48
___ 48
48
. 48
0.003
0. 0045
0.006
0. 068
0.070
>0. 107
1.4
0. 0013
0. 006
0. 240
0.250
1. 000
Sanders and Cope, 1968
((
It
Eisler, 1969
(t
-------
habitat in August ground beetles were found to
contain 16 to 21 ppm of dieldrin, or about 40 times
the soil level. Both earthworms and ground beetles
serve as food for birds and other animals.
After the treatment of plots with dieldrin at i/£,
2, and 8 Ib/A, periodic analyses were made of the
earthworms in the plots (USDI, 1967). Three days
after treatment the residues in the earthworms
were 4.6,9.7, and 14.6 ppm; by day 240 the residues
had declined to 1.0, 2.4, and 4.7 ppm. The report
concluded: "It is clear that extremely dangerous
levels prevailed in the worms for many months."
Eastern oysters exposed in flowing seawater for
10 days to dieldrin at 0.001 ppm concentrated the
toxicant 1,000 times (1 ppm) (Wilson, 1965).
Analysis at harvest time showed that peanuts
concentrated dieldrin from soil at a level of 0.14
ppm to 0.75 ppm in peanut meat (Beck et al.,
1962).
Four species of algae concentrated dieldrin about
150-fold when they were exposed to 1 ppm in water
for 7 days (Vance and Drummond, 1969).
Persistence
Dieldrin applied at 100 ppm persisted in soil
for >6 years (Westlake and San Antonio, 1960).
Dieldrin in soil persisted for >9 years (Wilkin-
son, Finlayson and Morley, 1964).
Dieldrin applied at 25 ppm to soil persisted (50
percent loss) for about 8 years, and dieldrin re-
maining 15 years after application at a rate of 100
ppm to sandy loam soil was 31 percent (Nash and
Woolson, 1967).
DILAN
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 475 to 600 mg/kg to Dilan
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to Dilan
was 16 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
The 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris) exposed to Dilan was 800 ppb (Sanders,
1969).
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (Daphniamag-
na) andamphipods (G. lacustris) exposed to Dilan
was 21 ppb and 600 ppb, respectively (FWPCA,
1968).
Persistence
Dilan applied at 50 ppm to soil persisted (50
percent loss) for 4 years, and Dilan remaining 14
years after application at a rate of 100 ppm to
sandy loam soil was 23 percent (Nash and Wool-
son, 1967).
DIMANIN
Fishes
The 24-hour LCSO for harlequin fish to dimanin
was 1.3 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
DIMETHOATE
Mammals
The LD60 for the rat was 185 to 245 mg/kg (Neu-
meyer, Gibbons and Trask, 1969) and for the
mule deer, =^200 mg/kg (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970) to dimethoate when the animals were given
the stated dosages orally in a capsule.
Red clover fields in Indiana were treated with
dimethoate at % and Vfc lb/A (Barrett and Dar-
nell, 1967). After the treatments the mouse (house)
population decreased by 50 percent at % lb/A and
decreased by 80 percent at y2 lb/A; the prairie
deer mouse population remained unchanged, and
the prairie vole population increased by 5 times at
14 lb/A and increased by 4 times at y2 lb/A. Be-
cause of the movement of all species of mice,
changes in the mouse populations were also ob-
served in the control plots. The authors postulated
that the abrupt loss of insect prey due to the in-
secticide caused the mouse populations to change.
37
-------
Birds
The LD5<) for young mallards was 41.7 mg/kg
to dimethoate when the birds were given the stated
dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970). The LC50 for mallards was 900 to 1,100
ppm; for pheasants, 300 to 400 ppm; and for co-
turnix, 300 to 400 ppm of dimethoate in the diets
of 2-week-old birds when fed treated feed for 5
days followed by clean feed for 3 days (Heath et
al., 1970a).
Fishes
The LC50 for bluegills to dimethoate was re-
ported by Cope (1965) to be 28 ppm for a 24-
hour exposure, and the 24-hour LC50 for rainbow
trout to dimethoate was 19 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to dimetho-
ate was 9,600 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
The LC50 for various arthropods to dimethoate is
found in table 21.
The treatment of fields of red clover in Indiana
with dimethoate at 14 and l/2 lb/A resulted in
significant reductions in populations of Orthop-
tera, Hemiptera, and Homoptera and only slight
reductions in populations of Lepidoptera, Cole-
optera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera (Barrett and
Darnell, 1967).
Persistence
Dimethoate in soil persisted for <2 months
(Mulla, Georghious and Cramer, 1961).
TABLE 21. The LCSO for various arthropods to dimethoate.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCw
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Arthropod Species Exposure
Time (hr)
Stonefly (Pteronarcys
californica)
Amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris)
Stonefly (P. cali-
fornica)
Amphipod (G.
lacustris)
Red crawfish. .
24
24
48
48
48
LC M Source
(ppm)
0. 510 Sanders and
Cope, 1969
0. 900 Sanders, 1969
0. 140 FWPCA, 1968
0. 400
> 1 Muncy and
Oliver, 1963
Waterflea (Daphnia 48
magna)
Stonefly (Pteronarcys 48
sp.)
2. 5 FWPCA, 1968
0. 140 Cope, 1965
DIMETHRIN
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed
to dimethrin was 700 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
DIOTHYL
Fishes
The 24-hour LCBO for harlequin fish to diothyl
was 5.2 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
DIOXATHION
Mammals
The LD50 for male rats was 110 mg/kg to dioxa-
thion when the mammals were fed the stated dos-
age orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
The LC50 for mallards was 3,500 to 4,700 mg/
kg; for pheasants, 4,000 to 4,400 mg/kg; and for
coturnix, >5,000 mg/kg to dioxathion when the
birds were fed the toxicant in feed for 5 days plus
3 days of clean feed (Heath et al., 1970a).
When chickens were fed dioxathion at a dosage
of 320 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969). Mode of action was unknown.
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to dioxa-
thion was 14 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
38
-------
Arthropods and Annelids
The 48-hour LC50 for amphipods (Gammat^us
lacustris) exposed to dioxathion was 690 ppb
(FWPCA, 1968).
The LC,,0 for sand shrimp, grass shrimp, and
hermit crab to dioxathion for a 24-hour exposure
was 307 ppb, 500 ppb, and 300 ppb, respectively
(Eisler, 1969).
The 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (G. lacus-
tris) exposed to dioxathion was 830 ppb (Sanders,
1969).
disulfoton was 18 ppm and 70 ppm, respectively
(FWPCA, 1968).
The- 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (G. lacus-
tris) exposed to disulfoton was 110 ppb (Sanders,
1969).
Persistence
Disulfoton applied to soil persisted for about 4
weeks (Kearney, Nash and Isensee, 1969).
DISULFOTON
DN-111
Mammals
The LD60 for rats was 12.5 mg/kg (FCH, 1970),
and for domestic goats, <15.0 mg/kg (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970) to disulfoton when the mammals
were fed the stated dosages orally.
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 6.5 mg/kg
to disulfoton when the birds were fed the stated
dosage orally (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970). The
LC50 for mallards was 400 to 600 ppm; for pheas-
ants, 600 to 700 ppm; for bobwhites, 700 to 800
ppm; and for coturnix, 300 to 400 ppm of disul-
foton in diets of 2-week-old birds when fed
treated for 5 days followed by clean feed for 3 days
(Heath etal.,1970a).
When chickens were fed disulfoton at a dosage
of 32 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969). Mode of action was unknown.
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to disul-
foton was40 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
The estimated 24-hour LC50 for stonefly nymphs
(P. calif ornica) to disulfoton was 40 ppb (Sanders
and Cope, 1968).
The 48-hour LC50 for stoneflies (P. calif ornica)
and amphipods (Gammarus lacustris) exposed to
Fishes
In field applications of DN-111 at 1 to 10 ppm
most fish were killed in the ponds (Kuntz and
Wells, 1951 in Springer, 1957).
Molluscs and Arthropods
Field applications of DN-111 at 1 to 10 ppm
drastically reduced snails, but the arthropods were
not significantly reduced (Kuntz and Wells, 1951
in Springer, 1957).
DN-111 applied, as it is in orchards, at a rate
of 0.20 lb/100 gal of water caused some mortality
in some beneficial predatory coccinellid beetles
(especially Stethorus picipes), but caused little or
no mortality to beneficial parasitic wasps (Bart-
lett, 1963).
DNOC
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 26 to 30 mg/kg to
DNOC when the mammal was fed the stated dos-
age orally (Spector, 1955).
Applications of DNOC for weed control in crops
at rates of 1 to 6 Ib/A were reported to have killed
some rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in England,
mainly through the ingestion of contaminated
food (Edson, 1954 in Springer, 1957).
39
-------
The LD50 for the rat was 10 to 50 mg/kg to
DNOC when the mammal was fed the stated dos-
age orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
The lethal doses of DNOC to pheasants were:
DNOC (ammonium salt) at 80 mg/kg and DNOC
(sodium salt) at 25 mg/kg (Paludan, 1953 in
Springer, 1957).
The LD50 for young mallards was 22.7 mg/kg
to DNOC when the birds were given the stated
dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970).
DNOC in acetone injected into hen eggs at 5
ppm, 10 ppm, and 25 ppm killed 23, 75, and 100
percent of the embryos (Dunachie and Fletcher,
1969).
Dambach and Leedy (1949) reported that the
dinitrophenols were repellent to birds. Some
pheasants and song birds were poisoned when in-
gesting food from crop areas treated with 1 to 6
Ib/A of DNOC (Edson, 1954 in Springer, 1957).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
DNOC was 210 ppb (FWPCA, 1968). Szumlewicz
and Kemp (1951 in Springer, 1957) reported also
that in the laboratory DNOC (sodium salt), killed
all the fish at 1 ppm.
Molluscs
DNOC (sodium salt) at 1 ppm killed 100 per-
cent of the snails in a laboratory experiment
(Szumlewicz and Kemp, 1951 in Springer, 1957).
Arthropods and Annelids
The estimated 24-hour LC50 for stonefly nymphs
(Ptervnarcys californica) to DNOC was 0.82 ppm
(Sanders and Cope, 1968).
The 48-hour LC50 for stoneflies (P. californicd)
exposed to DNOC was 560 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
DNOC applied at 3.6 Ib/A had no effect on
Allolobophora caliginosa, but caused 32-percent
mortality in Lumbricux castaneus (earthworms)
(Van der Drift, 1963).
Persistence
DNOC applied at 50 ppm persisted in soil for 7
days (Bruinsma, 1960).
DURSBAN
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 135 mg/kg (Neumeyer,
(ribbons and Trask, 1969), and for domestic goats,
500 to 1,000 mg/kg (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970)
to dursban when the mammals were given the
stated dosages orally in a capsule.
Birds
The LD50 for mallards was 70 to 80 mg/kg; for
young pheasants, 8.4 to 17.7 mg/kg; for young
chukar partridges, about 61 mg/kg; for young
coturnix, 16 to 18 mg/kg; for pigeons (Colwmba
livia), 26.9 mg/kg; for house sparrows, 21.0 mg/
kg; for Canada geese, —80 mg/kg; and for lesser
sandhill cranes, 25 to 50 mg/kg to dursban when
the birds were fed the stated dosages orally in cap-
sules (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970). The LC50 for
coturnix was 275 to 300 ppm of dursban in diets of
2-week-old birds when fed treated feed for 5 days
followed by clean feed for 3 days (Heath et al.,
1970a).
Dursban applied at 0.10 Ib/A had no observable
effect on mallards and pheasants (Burgoyne,
1968).
When chickens were fed dursban at a dosage of
200 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969). Mode of action was unknown.
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
dursban at temperatures of 1.6°C, 7.2°C, and
12.7°C was 550 ppb, 110 ppb, and 53 ppb, respec-
tively (Macek, Hutchinson and Cope, 1969).
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
dursban was 20 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Three species of fish were collected in the field in
the Mississippi Delta area where the populations
had been exposed to heavy concentrations of
chlorinated insecticides plus parathion from the
40
-------
treated cotton acreages (Ferguson, Gardner and
Lindley, 1966). Although these fish had never been
exposed to dursban, the toxicity in these popula-
tions to dursban compared with that of a control
population as measured by 36-hour LC50 were:
golden shiners, control 45 ppb versus resistant 125
ppb; mosquito fish, control 230 ppb versus resistant
595 ppb; and green sunfish, control 37.5 ppb versus
resistant 125 ppb.
Dursban applied at 0.10 Ib/A had no effect on
brown bullheads in ponds on a refuge in California
(Burgoyne, 1968).
An investigation of the persistence of dursban
in fish revealed that about 50 percent of the chemi-
cal was lost in <1 week (Smith, Watson and
Fischer, 1966).
Arthropods
The LC50 for various arthropods to dursban is
found in table 22.
Rice fields in California treated with dursban
at 0.0125 and 0.025 Ib/A caused little or no mortal-
ity to non-target insect species, Corixidae, Belo-
stoma sp., Tropisternus lat. humeralis, Laccophttus
sp., and Hydrophilidae (Washino, Whitesell and
Womeldorf, 1968).
TABLE 22. The LC5o for various arthropods to dursban.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso (ppm)
Time (hr)
Source
Amphipod (Gamtnarus lacustris) _ - _ _ _ -
Stonefly (Pteronarcella badia) - _ _ -
" (Claassenia sabulosa)
u (Ptertnurcys californica)
Amphipod (G. lacustris)
Stonefly (P. badia) - .
... .. ... 24
. _ _. _ - 24
.- 24
24
48
_.- 48
0. 00076
0. 0042
0. 0082
0. 050
0. 0004
0. 0018
Sanders, 1969
Sanders and Cope, 1968
u
u
FWPCA, 1968
f <
ENDOSULFAN
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 100 mg/kg to endosul-
fan when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (USDI, 1970).
Birds
Tucker and Crabtree (1970) reported the LD50
for young mallards as 33.0 mg/kg to endosulfan
when the birds were fed the stated dosage orally in
capsules. The LC50 for mallards was 900 to 1,100
ppm; for pheasants, 1,200 to 1,350 ppm; for bob-
whites, 800 to 900 ppm; and for coturnix, 2,100 to
2,250 ppm of endosulfan in the diets of 2-week-old
birds when fed treated feed for 5 days followed by
untreated feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970a).
Endosulfan in acetone injected into hen eggs at
50 ppm, 100 ppm, 200 ppm, 300 ppm, 400 ppm, and
500 ppm killed 19, 46, 40, 47, 31, and 47 percent of
the embryos (Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969). The
authors could not explain the inconsistency.
Fishes
The 24-hour LC5t> for rainbow trout exposed to
endosulfan at temperatures of 1.6°C, 7.2°C, and
12.7°C was 13 ppb, 6.1 ppb, and 3.2 ppb, respec-
tively (Macek, Hutchinson and Cope, 1969).
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
endosulfan was 1.2 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC5o for harlequin fish to endosul-
fan was 0.02 ppb (Alabaster, 1969).
Arthropods
The LC50 for various arthropods to endosulfan
is found in table 23.
41
-------
TABLE 23. The LCSO for various arthropods to endosulfan.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso (ppm)
Time (hr)
Source
Stonefly (Ptcronarcys califoTnicri)
" (P. californica) - - -
Amphipod (G. lacustTis) _ - -
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex) ~ - - - -
24
24
48
48
.. 48
0. 0092
0. 024
0. 0056
0. 064
0. 240
Sanders 1969
Sanders and Cope 1968
FWPCA, 1968
f <
«
ENDRIN
Mammals
The LD 5o for rats was < 5 to 43 mg/kg; for rab-
bits, 5 to 10 mg/kg; for guinea pigs, 10 to 36 mg/kg
(Negherbon, 1959); and for domestic goats, 25
to 50 mg/kg (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970) to en-
drin when the mammals were given the stated
dosages in a capsule.
Good and Ware (1969) reported that 5 ppm of
endrin in the diet of the mouse significantly (0.05)
reduced the size of litters from a mean of 9.2 to 8.7.
Endrin at 1.2 to 1.4 Ib/A was found to eliminate
most wild mice in orchards (Wolfe, 1957).
Wild pine mice exposed to endrin in their nat-
ural habitat were found to have a 12 times greater
tolerance to the insecticide than normal unexposed
mice (Webb and Horsfall, 1967). Although most
of the resistance was believed to be genetic, a cer-
tain amount of tolerance could be conferred by
feeding the mice sublethal dosages of endrin.
Birds
Tucker and Crabtree (1970) computed the LD 50
for mallards as 5.6 mg/kg; for young pheasants,
1.8 mg/kg; and for pigeons (Gohumba livia), 2.0
to 5.0 mg/kg to endrin when the birds were fed
the stated dosages orally in capsules.
Endrin in acetone injected into hen eggs at 25
ppm, 50 ppm, and 100 ppm killed 77, 61, and 70
percent of the embryos (Dunachie and Fletcher,
1969). The authors noted the inconsistent results.
Chicks which hatched from a 5-ppm dose and
starved were all dead by the 5th day, whereas in
untreated controls the mortality was only about
50 percent.
The LC 50 for coturnix was 15 to 18 ppm of
endrin in diets of 2-week-old birds when fed
treated feed for 5 days followed by clean feed for
3 days. The LC50 for bobwhite quail chicks was
15 ppm; for pheasant chicks, 11 ppm; and for mal-
lard ducklings, 21 ppm to endrin when the birds
were fed the stated dosages daily in the food for
5 days and then fed clean food for 3 days (Heath
and Stickel, 1965).
Only an occasional quail or pheasant was killed
when orchard ground cover was treated with 1.2
to 1.4 Ib/A of endrin (Wolfe, 1957).
Fishes
The LC 50 for endrin tested against various spe-
cies of fish is found in table 24.
The 24-hour LC 50 for rainbow trout exposed to
endrin at temperatures of 1.6°C, 7.2°C, and
12.7°C was 15 ppb, 5.3 ppb, and 2.8 ppb, respec-
tively (Macek, Hutchinson and Cope, 1969); and
the 24-hour LC 50 for bluegills exposed at tempera-
tures of 12.7°C, 18.3°C, and 23.8°C was 2.8 ppb,
1.5 ppb, and 0.8 ppb, respectively.
TABLE 24. The LC50 for various fish to endrin.
Fish Species
Exposure LCjo (ppm) Source
Time (hr)
Bluegill
Rainbow trout
Carp
BluegilL.
Bluntnose minnow_
Bluegill
Fathead minnow. _
Northern puffer
24
24
48
48
96
96
96
96
0. 00035
0. 0018
0. 14
0. 2
0. 0002
0. 0006
0. 0018
0. 0031
Cope, 1965
ti
latomi et al., 1958
FWPCA, 1968
Katz and Chad-
nick, 1961
Henderson, Pick-
ering and Tarz-
well, 1959
u
Eisler and Ed-
munds, 1966
42
-------
The toxicity of endrin to 3 fishes as measured
by 48-hour EC 50 was as follows: bluegill at 0.3
ppb, 24°C; rainbow trout at 0.5 ppb, 13°C; and
channel catfish at 1 ppb, 24°C (Cope, 1966).
Low concentrations of endrin (0.5 ppb) pre-
vented reproduction in guppies; endrin was also
observed to cause increased activity in guppies at
the low dosages, possibly interrupting normal
swarming and displacement behavior (Mount,
1962).
Adult northern puffers (a marine fish) were
found to survive endrin at a concentration of 1 ppb
for 24 and 96 hours, but succumbed at 10 ppb at
24 hours (Eisler and Edmunds, 1966).
As both time of exposure and temperature in-
creased, the LC50 for both rainbow trout and blue-
gills decreased (table 25).
Three species of fish were collected in the field at
Twin Bayou, Mississippi, where the populations
had been exposed to heavy concentrations of sev-
eral insecticides used in the adjoining cotton acre-
ages (Ferguson et al., 1965b). The toxicity of
endrin in these fish compared with that in a con-
trol population, as measured by 36-hour LC50,
were: golden shiner, control 3.0 ppb versus Twin
Bayou 310 ppb; bluegills, control 1.5 ppb versus
Twin Bayou 300 ppb; and green sunfish, control
3.4 ppb versus Twin Bayou 160 ppb. In another
investigation resistant mosquito fish and black
bullheads were collected from streams in Missis-
sippi (Ferguson et al., 1965a). The toxicity to en-
drin in these fish compared with that in an unex-
posed control population, as measured by 36-hour
L/C50, were: mosquito fish, control 1 ppb versus
resistant (Sidon, Miss.) 120 ppb; and black bull-
head, control 0.37 ppb versus resistant (Wayside,
Miss.) 2.5 ppb.
TABLE 25. The effects of increasing the exposure time and
temperature on the toxicity of endrin to small (approx-
imately 1 g) rainbow trout and bluegills (Cope, 1965).
Tem-
perature, Fish
LCso (ppb)
24 hrs 48 hrs 9« hrs
35 Rainbow trout 14.5 6.8 2.4
45 Bluegill 6.2 1.6 0.7
" Rainbow trout 5.2 2.4 1.4
55 Bluegill 3.2 1.4 0.7
" Rainbow trout 2.8 1.9 1.1
65 Bluegill 1.4 0.7 0.4
" Rainbow trout 1.5 1.2 0.75
75 Bluegill 0.8 0.6 0.4
85 Bluegill 0.3 0.2 0.2
The margin of safety and lethality for fish ex-
posed to endrin was found to be extremely narrow
(Lowe, 1966). Juvenile spot exposed to 0.05 ppb of
endrin for 3 weeks were not affected as measured
by mortality, growth rate, histology, and stress;
however, increasing the dosage to only 0.1 ppb
killed the fish in 5 days.
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for Fowler's toad tadpoles and
chorus frog tadpoles exposed to endrin was 0.57
ppm and 0.29 ppm, respectively (Sanders, 1970).
Arthropods and Annelids
The LC50 for various arthropods to endrin is
found in table 26.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus and
Daphnia pulex, to endrin was 26 ppb and 20 ppb,
respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
The toxicity of endrin to 4 invertebrates, as
measured by the 48-hour EC60, was as follows:
waterflea (S. serrulatus) at 26 ppb, waterflea (D.
pulex) at 20 ppb, mayfly nymph (Baetis sp.) at 5
ppb, and stonefly nymph (P. californicus [sic]) at
Ippb (Cope, 1966).
The LC50 of endrin for a 48-hour exposure
against red crawfish was 0.3 ppm (Muncy and
Oliver, 1963).
Hopkins and Kirk (1957) reported no mortality
from endrin at 5 Ib/A when tested against the
manure worm, Eisenia sp., in laboratory
experiments.
Azuki-bean weevil adults which survived en-
drin treatments produced 22 percent fewer eggs
than unexposed weevils (Kiyoko and Tamaki,
1959).
Plants
Productivity in phytoplankton exposed for
4 hours to 1 ppm of endrin was reduced 46 percent
(Butler, 1963a).
Endrin at dosages of 10 and 100 ppm in soil
significantly reduced bean growth (12.4 g at 100
ppm) compared with the control (18.8 g) at the
end of 8 weeks of exposure (Cole et al., 1968). At
dosages of 1, 10, and 100 ppm in soil endrin also
caused significant changes in the macro and micro
43
-------
TABLE 26. The LCso for various arthropods to endrin.
Arthropod Species
Exposure
Time (hr)
LCso (ppm)
Source
Stonefly (Pteronarcella badia) . .
Sand shrimp
Stonefly (Claassenia sabulosa)
" (Pteronarcys calif arnica) - . - --
Amphipod (Gammarus lacustris) - - - - _ -
Grass shrimp _____ _
Hermit crab_ _ _____ ___
Stonefly (P. californica)
" (P. californica)- _____
Amphipod (G. lacustris) __ _ __ _
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex)
" (D. pulex)
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
48
48
48
48
48
0. 0028
0. 0028
0. 0032
0. 004
0. 0064
0. 0103
0. 027
0. 0008
0. 00096
0. 0047
0.020
0.020
Sanders and Cope, 1968
Eisler, 1969
Sanders and Cope, 1968
n
Sanders, 1969
Eisler, 1969
(i
FWPCA, 1968
Sanders and Cope, 1966
FWPCA, 1968
Sanders and Cope, 1966
FWPCA, 1968
element (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, Cu, B, Al, Sr,
and Zn) constituents of above-ground portions
of both corn and bean plants. For example, iron
increased in the endrin (10 ppm)-treated plants
(305 ppm dry weight) compared with the control
(233 ppm) ; however, at this same dosage copper
decreased (8.2 ppm) compared with the control
(10.5 ppm).
Biological Concentration
Fathead minnows exposed to water containing
0.015 ppb of endrin concentrated the endrin in
their own bodies by 10,000 times (Mount and
Putnicki,1966).
Eastern oysters were observed to concentrate
endrin from water (Butler, 1964). Wilson (1965)
reported that oysters exposed to endrin at 0.001
ppm concentrated the endrin about 1,000 times
during a 10-day exposure period.
Following the 7-day exposure of 4 algae species
at 1 ppm of endrin, the algae concentrated endrin
by about 170-fold under the test conditions (Vance
and Drummond, 1969).
EPH
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to EPH
was 17 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (Daphnia
magna) and amphipods (Gammarus lacustris)
exposed to EPH was 0.1 ppb and 36 ppb, respec-
tively (FWPCA, 1968).
EPN
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 14 to 42 mg/kg to
EPN when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Persistence
Endrin in soil persisted for >9 months (Mulla,
1960).
Endrin applied at 25 ppm to soil persisted (50-
percent loss) for 12 years, and endrin remaining
14 years after application at a rate of 100 ppm to
sandy loam soil was 41 percent (Nash and
Woolson, 1967).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 3.1 mg/kg;
for young pheasants, 53.4 mg/kg; for young
chukar partridges, 14.3 mg/kg; for young cotur-
nix, 5.2 mg/kg; and for pigeons (Columba livia),
5.9 mg/kg to EPN" when the birds were fed the
staited dosages orally in capsules (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970). The LC50 for pheasants was 950
44
-------
to 1,150 ppm; for bobwhites, 300 to 350 ppm; and
for co'turnix, 250 to 300 ppm of EPN in diets of
2-week-old birds when fed treated feed for 5 days
followed by clean feed for 3 days (Heath et al.,
1970a).
When chickens were fed EPN at a dosage of
40 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969). Mode of action was unknown.
Arthropods
The 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris) exposed to EPN was 100 ppb (Sanders,
1969).
Persistence
EPN applied in soil persisted for <3 years
(Terriere and Ingalsbe, 1953).
ETHION
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 96 mg/kg to ethion when
the mammals were fed the stated dosage orally
(FCH, 1970).
Birds
Ethion in acetone injected into hen eggs at 200
ppm and 300 ppm killed 24 and 36 percent of the
embryos (Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969). This tox-
icant also caused teratogenic effects, especially
when combined with malathion in a 1 to 3 combi-
nation.
When chickens were fed ethion at a dosage of
400 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969). Mode of action was unknown.
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to ethion
was 230 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to ethion
was 0.7 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Arthropods
The LC50 for various arthropods to ethion is
found in table 27.
TABLE 27. The LC50 for various arthropods to ethion.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris)
Stonefly (Pteronarcys
californica)
Waterflea (Daphnia
magna)
Amphipod (
-------
that the results did "not imply a 1 year persistence
of the insecticides, but rather a persistent disturb-
ance of the ecosystem."
FENSULFOTHION
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 2 to 10 mg/kg to
fensulfothion when the mammal was fed the
stated dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 0.75 mg/kg
to fensulfothion when the birds were given the
stated dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970). The LC50 for mallards was 40
to 50 ppm; for pheasants, 140 to 160 ppm; and
for bobwhites, 30 to 40 ppm of fensulfothion in
diets of 2-week-old birds when fed treated feed
for 5 days followed by untreated feed for 3 days
(Heath etal.,1970a).
FENTHION
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was about 200 to 300 mg/kg
to fenthion when the animals were fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 5.9 mg/kg;
for pheasants, 17.8 mg/kg; for young chukar par-
tridges, 25.9 mg/kg; for young coturnix, 10.6 mg/
kg; for pigeons (Colum'ba Uvia), 4.6 mg/kg; for
mourning doves, 2.7 mg/kg; for house sparrows,
22.7 mg/kg; for house finches, <—10 mg/kg; and
for Canada geese, 12.0 mg/kg to fenthion when
the birds were given the stated dosages orally in
a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970). The LC50
for mallards was 200 to 250 ppm; for pheasants,
180 to 220 ppm; for bobwhites, 25 to 35 ppm; and
for coturnix, 80 to 90 ppm of fenthion in diets of
2-week-old birds when fed treated feed for 5 days
followed by untreated feed for 3 days (Heath et
al., 1970a).
When chickens were fed fenthion at a dosage
of 25 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969). Mode of action was unknown.
Fenthion applied at 0.01 Ib/A had no observable
effect on mallards and pheasants in a wildlife
refuge in California (Burgoyne, 1968).
Fishes
Application of fenthion at 0.01 Ib/A to the
California refuge had no effect on brown bull-
heads (Burgoyne, 1968).
The LC50 for various fish to fenthion is found
in table 28.
Arthropods
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serruHatus and
Daphnia pulex, to fenthion was 0.92 pp'b and
0.80 ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
The LC50 for various arthropods to fenthion is
found in table 29.
TABLE 28. The LC50 for various fish to fenthion.
Fish Species
Exposure LCso
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Brown trout
Rainbow trout
Carp
Coho salmon
Brown trout-.
Bluegill
Largemouth bass__
Black bullhead
Yellow perch
Channel catfish
Redear sunfish
Fathead minnow. _
Goldfish.
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
0. 080 FWP
0. 930 Mace
list
1. 160
1.320
1.330
1. 380
1. 540
1. 620
1. 650
1. 680
1. 880
2. 404
3. 404
CA, 1968
k and McAl-
er, 1970
46
-------
TABLE 29. The LCso for various arthropods to fenthion.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso (ppm)
Time (hr)
Source
Amphipod {Gammarus lacustris)
" (Simocephalus scTTulatus)
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex) ___ - _ - ___-
StonGfly (P cdlifoTnico.)
Amphipod (G lacustTis)
StonGfly {P calif OTnico,} -
24
24
48
48
48
48
48
0. 015
0. 130
0. 0031
0. 004
0. 039
0. 070
0. 130
Sanders, 1969
Sanders and Cope 1968
FWPCA 1968
<(
,,
it
n
FORMOTHION
HEPTACHLOR
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 375 to 535 mg/kg to
formothion when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to formo-
thion was 0.5 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 90 mg/kg to hepta-
chlor when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (Spector, 1955).
Rats fed heptachlor at a rate of 6 mg/kg of
body weight for 18 months produced smaller lit-
ters and had a higher death rate among their
young (Mestitzova, 1966). Prolonged feeding also
increased the occurrence of eye cataracts in both
parents and offspring.
GARDONA
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 4,000 to 5,000 mg/kg to
gardona when the mammals were fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
The LD50 for mallards was »2,000 mg/kg;
for young pheasants, ~2,000 mg/kg; and for
chukar partridges, »2,000 mg/kg to gardona
when the birds were fed the stated dosages orally
in capsules (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Birds
Tucker and Crabtree (1970) reported the LD50
for young mallards as ^2,000 mg/kg to heptachlor
when the birds were given the stated, dosage orally
in a capsule. The LC50 for mallards was 450 to 700
ppm; for pheasants, 250 to 275 ppm; for bob-
whites, 90 to 100 ppm; and for coturnix, 80 to
95 ppm of heptachlor in diets of 2-week-old birds
when fed treated feed for 5 days followed by clean
feed for 3 days (HeaJth et al., 1970a).
Heptachlor in acetone injected into hen eggs at
400 ppm and 500 ppm killed only 20 and 47 per-
cent of the embryos (Dunachie and Fletcher,
1969).
From 1961 to 1963 a significant increase in the
level of residues of heptachlor took place in spring
woodcock arrivals in New Brunswick (Wright,
47
-------
1965). The increase was from an average of 0.3 to
7.2 ppm heptachlor.
In a study of a 2,400 acre cattle farm in Ala-
bama, heptachlor applied at a rate of 2 Ib/A for
2 years caused a significant reduction in the song-
bird population (DeWitt, Stickel and Springer,
1963).
In England wood pigeons were fed under con-
trolled laboratory conditions with heptachlor at
dosages of 40, 54, 73, 99,133, 180, and 243 mg/kg,
and the toxicities and residues in flesh and various
organs of the birds were measured (Turtle et al.,
1963). After this investigation pigeons in the field
were examined for the residues they contained. The
results of the laboratory and field analyses sup-
ported the conclusion that heptachlor was one of
the main causes of wood-pigeon deaths. These re-
sults prompted the government to discontinue the
use of heptachlor as a seed dressing.
The effects of heptachlor-contaminated earth-
worms on woodcocks were investigated in a series
of controlled feeding experiments (Stickel, Hayne
and Stickel, 1965). Six of the 12 woodcocks re-
ceiving heptachlor-treated (2.86 ppm) earthworms
died within 35 days; 4 more died by the 53rd day.
The last 2 birds were killed for analyses. Earth-
worms from areas in Louisiana which had been
taken from a field treated with heptachlor at 2
Ib/A contained more than 3 ppm of heptachlor.
Woodcocks were found to eat about 121 g of
earthworms per day, or about 77 percent of their
body weight.
In bobwhite quail confined to field plots treated
with heptachlor, 1*4 and 2 Ib/A caused heavy mor-
tality, 14 Ib/A caused some mortality, and % Ib/A
caused no mortality. Quail were introduced in
pairs and when one died, the other was killed and
a new pair introduced. At 2 Ib/A one or both mem-
bers of all pairs introduced within a week of treat-
ment died in less than 15 days. Counting the
sacrificed birds as survivors, this represented a 61-
percent mortality at 2 Ib/A, 50-percent at 1^/4 Ib/A,
and 17-percent at 14 Ib/A (Kreitzer and Spann,
1968).
Quail populations in Georgia declined signifi-
cantly soon after the land was treated with hepta-
chlor at a rate of 2 lb/A, and the populations had
not yet recovered after a period of 3 years of no
further treatment (Rosene, 1965). A decline of
cocks and coveys of quail also followed the ^-Ib
heptachlor applications (significant for cocks, ap-
proaching statistical significance for coveys). A
small 4-acre plot within the treated area was
searched for dead and dying animals and observa-
tions were made on living animals. Forty-seven
days after treatment, no live animals were seen or
heard on the plot, and a total of 38 dead animals
had been found.
A 2-year study carried out to determine the ef-
fects heptachlor treatments were having on bird
populations in Mississippi disclosed that all treat-
ment rates of heptachlor at 0.25,0.50, and 2.00 Ib/A
"decimated arthropod populations, caused bird
mortality, and altered bird behavior patterns.''
None of the dosages, however, eradicated the im-
ported fire ants as planned. There were more bird
deaths after the 0.25 application than after the
0.50 and 2.00 treatments. The nesting birds and
ground-dwelling insectivorous birds were the most
severely affected. Kecovery of both insect and bird
populations was fairly complete after one year of
no insecticide spraying (Ferguson, 1964).
In 1957 the U.S. Department of Agriculture in
a cooperative program with the States treated ap-
proximately 27 million acres in the Southeast with
heptachlor at a rate of 2 Ib/A for control of the
imported fire ant (Smith and Glasgow, 1963). In-
vestigations of the effects of heptachlor on wildlife
were initiated after the second year of treatment
in south-central Louisiana. On 4 farms the follow-
ing animals died within 3 weeks after treatment:
53 mammals, including 12 species; 222 birds, in-
cluding 28 species; 22 reptiles, including at least
8 species; many species of frogs; many kinds of
crayfish; and many fish, including 8 species.
Ninety-five percent of the dead animals were ana-
lyzed, and all contained some heptachlor. In a
study area treated in May 1958 bird-nesting success
was only 11.4 percent in 1958 and increased to 45.4
percent in 1959. In a control area the nesting at-
tempts for 1959 were 65 percent.
The responses of different species to a particular
pesticide are quite specific, even if they are closely
related species. For example, Grolleau and Giban
(1966 in Moore, 1967) showed that whereas the
closely-related gray partridge, red-legged par-
tridge, pheasant, and bantam all react in a similar
manner to BHC, they respond quite differently to
heptachlor.
Fishes
The LC-,o of heptachlor tested against various
species of fish is found in table 30.
48
-------
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
heptachlor at temperatures of 1.6°C, T.2°C, and
12.7°C was 17 ppb, 12 ppb, and 13 ppb, respectively
(Macek, Hutchinson and Cope, 1969).
Bluegill growth was reduced in heptachlor-
treated (0.05 ppm) ponds, averaging only 7.85 g
after 84 days, compared with the controls which
grew to 13.5 g in the same time (Cope, 1966).
The toxicity of heptachlor to 2 species of fish, as
measured by the 48-hour EC50, was as follows:
bluegill at 26 ppm, 24°C, and rainbow trout at 9
ppm, 13°C (Cope, 1966).
Mosquito fish collected in the Mississippi Delta
region were resistant to heptachlor, with a 36-hour
LC50 of 1,300 ppb, whereas the control's was 70
ppb (Boyd and Ferguson, 1964b).
An investigation of the persistence of hep-
tachlor in fish revealed that 50 percent of the
chemical was lost in about 1 month (Andrews, Van
Valin and Stebbings, 1966).
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for Fowler's toad tadpoles ex-
posed to heptachlor was 0.85 ppm (Sanders, 1970).
Arthropods and Annelids
The LC,-,o for various arthropods to heptachlor is
found in table 31.
The toxicity of heptachlor to 4 species of
arthropods, as measured by the 48-hour EC50, was
as follows: waterflea (Simocephalus semdatus) at
47 ppm., waterflea (Daphnia pulex) at 42 ppm,
mayfly nymph (Baetis sp.) at 32 ppm, and stonefly
nymph (Pteronarcys calif ornicus [sic]} at 6 ppm
(Cope, 1966).
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for Avaterfleas, S. serruJatus and D. jndex,
to heptachlor was 47 ppb and 42 ppb, respectively
(Sanders and Cope, 1966).
Heptachlor applied to field plots at 5, 10, and
20 Ib/A on an Ohio golf course significantly re-
duced the number of earthworms one year later
(Polivka, 1953 in Davey, 1963).
Plants
Heptachlor at 1 ppm in soil significantly sup-
pressed the growth (8.9 g) of corn during 8 weeks'
exposure, whereas with heptachlor at 10 and 100
ppm the corn plants weighed significantly more
(17.2 g and 17.4 g) than the untreated controls
(10.7 g) (Cole et al., 1968). A similar response pat-
tern occurred with beans at the same dosages, the
only difference being that at 1 ppm the decrease in
growth was less, but not significantly so. At
dosages of 1, 10, and 100 ppm in soil heptachlor
TABLE 30. The LCSO for various fish to heptachlor.
Fish Species
Exposure
Time (hr)
LC5o
(ppm)
Source
Rainbow trout
Harlequin fish
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Bluegill __ _ _
Goldfish
24
24
24
48
96
96
0. 015
0.09
0.25
0. 009
0. 019
0. 23
Cope, 1965
Alabaster, 1969
Mayhew, 1955
FWPCA, 1968
Henderson,
Pickering and
Tarzwell, 1959
( t
TABLE 31. The LC50 for various arthropods to heptachlor.
Arthropod Species
Exposure
Time (hr)
LCso (ppm)
Source
Stonefly (Pteronarcella badia)
" (Pteronarcys californica) _
(Claassenia sabulosa).
Sand shrimp . _ _ . _ -
Amphipod (Gammarus lacustris) _ _ .
Hermit crab_
Grass shrimp . - .
Stonefly (P. badia)
" (P. californica)
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex) - _ . . _ _
(D. pulex) . - _ _ .
Amphipod (G. lacustris)- - _
24
24
_ _ 24
24
. . . 24
24
24
48
48
48
48
48
0. 006
0. 008
0. 009
0. 110
0. 150
0. 460
>6. 5
0. 004
0. 006
0. 042
0. 042
0. 100
Sanders and Cope, 1968
11
11
Eisler, 1969
Sanders, 1969
Eisler, 1969
it
FWPCA, 1968
Sanders and Cope, 1966
FWPCA, 1968
Sanders and Cope, 1966
FWPCA, 1968
49
-------
caused significant changes in the macro and micro
element (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, Cu, B, Al, Sr,
and Zn) constituents measured in the above-ground
portions of corn and bean plants (Cole et al., 1968).
For example, zinc was significantly higher (89
ppm dry weight) in bean plants treated with 100
ppm of heptachlor compared with the untreated
controls (55 ppm) ; however, nitrogen levels were
significantly lower (4.99 percent) in the treated
bean plants, compared with the untreated controls
(7.25 percent).
Heptachlor applied to soils at 1,2, or 3 Ib/A to a
depth of 5 inches was found to be translocated into
alfalfa growing on the soil, and the same was
observed for cucumbers growing in soil which re-
ceived 5 to 25 Ib/A to a depth of 5 inches (Lich-
tenstein et al., 1965).
Biological Concentration
Oysters exposed in flowing seawater for 10 days
to heptachlor in the water at a dosage of 0.01
ppm concentrated the pesticide in their bodies
17,600 times (176 ppm) (Wilson, 1965).
In pond water containing 0.05 ppm of hepta-
chlor bluegill fish concentrated heptachlor to a
level of 15.70 ppm (Cope, 1966).
Peanuts concentrated heptachlor and hepta-
chlor epoxide from soil at a level of 0.16 ppm to
0.67 ppm in peanut meat (Beck et al., 1962).
Seeds with a high oil content, such as soybeans
and peanuts, contained nearly 10 times the level
of heptachlor and its epoxides than corn seeds with
less oil (Bruce, Decker and Wilson, 1966).
Persistence
Heptachlor applied at 20 Ib/A persisted in soil
for >9 years (Lichtenstein and Polivka, 1959).
The heptachlor remaining 14 years after applica-
tion at a rate of 100 ppm to sandy loam soil was
16 percent (Nash and Woolson, 1967).
ISODRIN
Mammals
Persistence
Isodrin applied at 25 ppm to soil persisted (50-
percent loss) for >6 years, and isodrin remaining
14 years after application at a rate of 100 ppm to
sandy loam soil was 15 percent (Nash and Wool-
son, 1967).
LEAD ARSENATE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 12 to 17 mg/kg to iso-
drin when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (PCOC, 1966).
The LD50 for sheep was 192 mg/kg to lead arsen-
ate when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (St. John et al., 1940).
The LD50 for lead arsenate administered by oral
means to rats and rabbits was 825 and 125 mg/kg,
respectively (Metcalf, Flint and Metcalf, 1962).
Coulson, Remington and Lynch (1934) reported
that rats fed shrimp which naturally were found
to contain 17.70 ppm of arsenic stored only 0.13 mg
of arsenic in the 3 months they were fed these
shrimp. In a related experiment rats fed lead
arsenate at a similar daily dosage stored 3.73 mg.
No signs of poisoning were detected in either
group.
Birds
Chickens were reported to be able to consume as
much as 840 mg of lead arsenate per day for 60
days without suffering noticeable ill effects
(Thomas and Shealy, 1932).
The LD50 for chickens was 450 mg/kg to lead
arsenate when the birds received the stated dosage
orally (Metcalf, Flint and Metcalf, 1962).
Plants
The poor condition of alfalfa and barley in a
number of unproductive fields in the Yakima Val-
ley where orchards had once stood was attributed
to arsenic in the soil (Van de Caveye, Horner and
Keaton, 1936). The field contained 4.5 to 12.5 ppm
of soluble arsenic. Barley sampled at blossom stage
in fields growing in the contaminated soils had
from 10.01 to 17.50 ppm As2O3 in the tops and 788
to 1,640 ppm in the roots.
50
-------
Lead arsenate applied at 250, 500, and 1,000
Ib/A resulted in residues being detected in vege-
tables grown in the soil (McLean, Weber and Joffe,
1944). Arsenic trioxide (As2O3) detected in the
vegetables varied according to vegetable type, with
radishes accumulating the largest dosage (0.035 to
0.80 ppm) and snap beans the smallest (none to a
trace). On orchard soils onions were found to have
high residues of up to 2.25 ppm. The investigators
reported that when the arsenic content of the soil
is extremely high, plants do not survive.
The effect of lead arsenate added to the soil of
orchards annually at 419 Ib/A from 1949 to 1953
was measured by growing various crop plants in
the contaminated soil for several years after the
treatments (MacPhee, Chisholm and MacEachern,
1960). With a mean residue in the soil of about 140
ppm of lead arsenate at time of growth, yields of
the crop plants were as follows: beans reduced by
60 percent; turnips increased by 1.8 times; carrots
reduced by 30 percent; tomatoes reduced by 26
percent; and peas reduced by 50 percent.
Persistence
Lead arsenate applied at 1,300 Ib/A persisted at
detectable levels in soil for 15 years (Neiswander,
1951).
LINDANE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 125 to 200 mg/kg; for
the mouse, 86 mg/kg; for the rabbit, 60 to 200 mg/
kg; and for the guinea pig, 100 to 127 mg/kg to
lindane (gamma isomer of BHC) when the mam-
mals were fed the stated dosages orally (Spector,
1955).
Birds
Tucker and Crabtree (1970) reported the LD50
for young mallards as > 2,000 mg/kg to lindane
when the birds were given the stated dosage orally
in a capsule. The LC50 for mallards was > 5,000
ppm; for pheasants, 500 to 600 ppm; for bob-
whites, 900 to 1,100 ppm; and for cotnrnix, 400 to
500 ppm of lindane in diets of 2-week-old birds
when fed treated feed for 5 days followed by clean
feed for 3 days (Heath et al.. 1970a).
Lindane in acetone injected into hen eggs at 400
ppm and 500 ppm killed 28 and 62 percent of the
embryos, respectively (Dunachie and Fletcher,
1969). However, when chicks which had hatched
from eggs receiving 100 ppm of lindane were
starved for 4 days, all died, whereas in untreated
controls only about 50 percent died.
Fishes
The LCSO for BHC tested against goldfish was
0.23 ppm, 96 hours exposure (Henderson, Picker-
ing and Tarzwell, 1959), and against rainbow
trout, 0.030 ppm, 24 hours exposure (Cope, 1965).
The toxicity of lindane to 2 species of fish, as
measured by the 48-hour EC50, was as follows:
bluegill at 53 ppb, 24°C, and rainbow trout at
22ppb,13°C (Cope, 1966).
As both exposure time and temperature in-
creased, the LC5o for bluegills decreased (table
32).
The LCso for various fish to lindane is found in
table 33.
About 15 percent of the mosquito fish surviving
an exposure to lindane at concentrations produc-
ing low mortalities (10 to 40 percent) aborted their
young (Boyd, 1964).
In another test the 24-hour LC50 for bluegills ex-
posed to lindane at temperatures of 12.7°C, 18.3°C,
and 23.8°C was 100 ppb, 100 ppb, and 95 ppb, re-
spectively (Macek, Hutchinson and Cope, 1969).
An investigation of the persistence of lindane
in fish revealed that 50 percent of the chemical was
lost in <2 days (Gakstatter and Weiss, 1967).
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for Fowler's toad tadpoles and
chorus frog tadpoles exposed to lindane was 14
ppm and 4.0 ppm, respectively, and the 24-hour
LCr.o for Fowler's toad tadpoles exposed to BHC
was 13 ppm (Sanders, 1970).
Arthropods and Annelids
The LC-.o for various arthropods to lindane is
found in table 34.
-------
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephdlus serrulatus and
Daphnia pulex, to lindane was 520 ppb and 460
ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
TABLE 32. The effect of temperature on the LC50 for
lindane to small bluegills (about 1 g) (Cope, 1965).
Temperature, °F
LCso (ppb)
24 hrs 48 hrs 96 hrs
45
55
65. -_
75-
85
160
100
100
100
34
88
75
76
53
27
65
53
56
38
25
TABLE 33. The LC5o for various fish to lindane.
Fish Species Exposure
Time (hr)
Harlequin fish
Rainbow trout
Brown trout
Rainbow trout
Largemouth bass__
Coho salmon
Channel catfish
Black bullhead
Yellow perch
Bluegill _ --
Redear sunfish
Fathead minnow- _
Carp
Goldfish
24
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
LCso Source
(ppm)
0. 075 Alaba
0. 018 FWP
0. 002 Mace
All
0. 027 '
0. 032
0. 041
0. 044 '
0. 064 '
0. 068
0. 068
0. 083
0. 087 '
0. 090 '
0. 131
ster, 1969
CA, 1968
k and Mc-
ster, 1970
TABLE 34. The LC50 for various arthropods to lindane.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Stonefly (Pteronarcys
californica)
Sand shrimp
Hermit crab
Grass shrimp
Amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris)
Stonefly (P. cali-
fornica)
Amphipod (G.
lacustris)
Waterflea (Daphnia
pulex)
24 0. 012 Sanders and
Cope, 1968
24 0. 014 Eisler, 1969
24 0. 038 "
24 0. 062 "
24 0. 120 Sanders, 1969
48 0. 008 FWPCA, 1968
48 0. 088 "
48 0. 460
The toxicity of lindane to 3 species of arthro-
pods, as measured by the 48-hour EC50, was as
follows: waterflea (S. semilatus) at 520 ppb,
waterflea (D. pulex) at 420 ppb, and Stonefly
nymph (P. californicus [sic~\) at 2 ppb (Cope,
1966).
Populations of the mite Tetranychm Mmacula-
tus increased on beans and potatoes up to 2 times
after lindane applications from 0.5 to 15 Ib/A
(Klostermeyer and Rasmussen, 1953). BHC ap-
plied at 3 to 15 Ib/A under the same conditions
increased mite populations up to 13 times.
The number of dipterans (Pcgomyia hyos-
cyami) nearly doubled after a treatment of BHC
at a dosage of 28.8 g/m2, and this was thought to
be due to a reduction in number of predators asso-
ciated with the dipterans (Lipa, 1958). The num-
ber of wireworms, however, apparently decreased
from 1.1 per m2 to none under this treatment.
Hoy (1955) in New Zealand tested the effects
of lindane at 2 and 10 Ib/A in soil against earth-
worms (Lumbricus rubeMus and AllolobopJiora
caliginosa) and observed no significant mortality
for 8 weeks.
Treating soil with BHC at a dose of 20.16 g/m2
increased the number of earthworms by 2% times
over that of the control (Lipa, 1958).
Lindane, at concentrations of from 0.3 to 0.4
ppb, killed or immobilized 50 percent of the brown
and pink shrimp exposed for 48 hours (Butler
and Springer, 1963).
Plants
BHC applied as 15 Ib/A of gamma isomer in
the form of low gamma technical material severely
harmed beets, lettuce, and spinach yields (Bos-
well et al., 1955).
The effect of BHC added to the soil annually at
52 Ib/A from 1949 to 1953 was measured by grow-
ing various crop plants in the contaminated soil
for several years following the treatments (Mac-
Phee, Chisholm and MacEachern, 1960). With a
mean residue in the soil of 10.8 ppm of BHC at
time of growth, yields of turnips increased by 1.7
times.
After 5 years of cropping only the high dosage
of 15 Ib/A of BHC significantly reduced the yield
of Abruzzi rye grass (Clore et al., 1961).
Phytoplankton exposed for 4 hours to 1 ppm of
-------
lindane showed a 28- to 46-percent reduction in
productivity (Butler, 1963b).
Biological Concentration
Oysters exposed for 10 days in flowing seawater
to lindane at 0.05 ppm in water concentrated the
lindane 60 times (3 ppm) (Wilson, 1965).
Persistence
BHC applied at 10 Ib/A persisted in soil for
>11 years (Lichtenstein and Polivka, 1959).
BHC applied at 25 ppm to soil persisted for 2
years, and BHC remaining 14 years after applica-
tion at a rate of 100 ppm to sandy loam soil was
10 percent (Nash and Woolson, 1967).
MALATHION
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 480 to 1,500 mg/kg;
for the mouse, 885 to 1,120 mg/kg; and for the
guinea pig, 570 mg/kg to malathion when the
mammals were fed the stated dosages orally (Spec-
tor, 1955).
A watershed in Ohio was aerially sprayed with
2 Ib/A of malathion, and the effects on many forms
of life from microbiota to raccoons were compared
with those of an untreated watershed (Peterle and
Giles, 1964). Mice and chipmunk populations were
reduced in the treated area, but shrews and larger
mammals appeared to be unaffected.
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 1,485 mg/kg
to malathion when the birds were fed the stated
dosage orally in capsules (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970). The LC50 for mallards Avas >5,000 ppm;
for pheasants, 2,500 to 4,500 ppm; for bob-whites,
3,300 to 3,700 ppm; and for coturnix, 2,000 to 2,300
ppm of malathion in diets of 2-week-old birds
when fed treated feed for 5 days followed by clean
feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970a).
Malathion in acetone injected into hen eggs at
25 ppm, 100 ppm, 200 ppm, 300 ppm, 400 ppm, and
500 ppm killed 15, 13, 38, 29, 58, and 94 percent of
the embryos. This toxicant also caused teratogenic
effects, especially when combined with ethion in
a 3 to 1 ratio (Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969).
When chickens were fed malathion at a dosage
of 100 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969). Mode of action was unknown.
Birds in the malathion (2 Ib/A)-treated water-
shed area were noticeably quiet for 2 days after
the spraying, but otherwise there was no measur-
able effect (Peterle and Giles, 1964).
Fishes
The toxicity of malathion to 3 species of fishes,
as measured by the 48-hour EC,-)0, was as follows :
channel catfish at 8,900 ppb, 24°C; bluegill at 86
ppb, 24°C; and rainbow trout at 79 ppb, 13°C
(Cope, 1966).
The LC50 of malathion tested against various
species of fish is found in table 35.
The 24-hour LC50 for bluegills exposed to mala-
thion at temperatures of 12.7°C, 18.3°C, and
23.8°C was 220 ppb, 140 ppb, and 110 ppb, re-
spectively (Macek, Hutchinson and Cope, 1969).
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to mala-
thion was 130 ppm at 65 °F and the 96-hour LC50
was 68 ppm at 55°F (table 36).
TABLE 35. The LCso for various fish to malathion.
Fish Species Exposure LCso Source
Time (hr) (ppm)
Harlequin fish
Brook trout
Coho salmon
Bluegill
Redear sunfish
Rainbow trout
Brown trout
Yellow perch
Largemouth bass__
Carp _
Fathead minnow- _
Channel catfish
Goldfish
Fathead minnow- _
24
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
10 Alabs
0. 0195 FWP
0. 101 Mace
Me
0. 103
0. 17
0. 170
0. 200
0. 263
0. 285
6.59
8.65
8. 97
10.7
12. 5 Hend
ister, 1969
CA, 1968
k and
Allister, 1970
erson, Pick-
Black bullhead
96 12. 9
ering and
Tarzwell, 1959
Macek and
McAllister, 1970
53
-------
Little is known about the breakdown products
of pesticides and their influence on non-target spe-
cies. In one of the few investigations Wilson
(1966) measured the toxicity of malathion and its
metabolites to the fathead minnow. The results
shown in table 37 clearly demonstrate that many of
the metabolites are quite toxic to the animal.
TABLE 36. The effect of time and temperature on the
LC50 of malathion to small (about 1 g) rainbow trout
(Cope, 1965).
45 _ -_- _-_
55 - - _-
65
I
24hrs
100
85
130
-C5o (ppb)
-Stars
79
70
120
96hrs
77
68
110
TABLE 37. Toxicity of malathion and its metabolites to
the fathead minnow (Wilson, 1966).
Compound
96-hr LCso
(ppm)
Malathion
Diethyl succinate
Malic acid
Mercapto succinic acid_
Diethyl fumarate
Diethyl maleate
Dimethyl phosphite
Dimethyl phosphate
14
18
25
30
38
41
225
250
Mount and Stephan (1967) reported that during
7 weeks of exposure to malathion in water at 0.58
ppm fathead minnows had a 20-percent mortality.
The authors concluded that the 0.58-ppm concen-
tration is about the maximum at which prolonged
survival is possible.
Fish in the streams in the malathion-treated (2
Ib/A) watershed area were unaffected by the treat-
ment (Peterle and Giles, 1964).
An investigation of the persistence of mala-
thion in fish revealed that about 50 percent of the
chemical was lost in <1 day (Bender, 1968 in
Macek, 1969).
Reptiles and Amphibians
Both reptiles and amphibians in the malathion-
treated (2 Ib/A) watershed area were unaffected
by the treatment (Peterle and Giles, 1964).
The 24-hour LC50 for Fowler's toad tadpoles
and chorus frog tadpoles exposed to malathion
was 1.9 ppm and 0.56 ppm, respectively (Sanders,
1970).
Arthropods and Annelids
The LC50 for various arthropods to mala-
thion is found in table 38.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at 60°
F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus and
Daphnia puleos, to malathion was 3.5 ppb and 1.8
ppb, respectively ( Sanders and Cope, 1966).
TABLE 38. The LC50 for various arthropods to malathion.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso (ppm)
Time (hr)
Source
Amphipod (Gammarus lacustris) .......
Stonefly (Pteronarcella badia) -_ _
" (Claassenia sabulosa) _ _ __
" (Pteronarcys californica) .
Hermit crab .. . — , --
Grass shrimp _ . . . _ _ — . . .. __
Sand shrimp . . _ _, ._
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex).. _ __ _ _
Amphipod (Q. lacustris) - _ _ . _
Waterflea (D. pulex) - ......
Stonefly (Simocephalus serrulatus) _ _____
" (P. badia)
Mayfly (Baetis sp.) . . __ .__..
Stonefly (P. californicus [sic]) _ .
Red crawfish . __ _ . _ ._ _ __
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
0. 0038
0.010
0.013
0.035
0. 118
0. 131
0.246
0. 0018
0. 0018
0. 002
0. 003
0. 006
0. 006
0. 020
>20. 0
Sanders, 1969
Sanders and Cope,
a
tt
Eisler, 1969
11
11
FWPCA, 1968
It
Cope, 1966
U
FWPCA, 1968
Cope, 1966
u
Muncy and Oliver,
1968
1963
54
-------
Martin and Wiggins (1959) found that the
manure worm immersed for 2 hours in malatliion
tolerated 0.1 ppm, but was killed with the 1 ppm
dosage.
Malathion as a drift contaminant caused an out-
break in the cottony-cushion insect scale through
the destruction of its vedalia beetle predator
(Bartlett and Lagace, 1960). The authors re-
marked that malatliion was then recommended at
a higher dosage for control of the very problem it
had caused.
Crayfish in streams in the malathion-treated (2
Ib/A) watershed were unaffected by the treatment
(Peterle and Giles, 1964). Other arthropod num-
bers, however, decreased greatly, but recovered
soon after the treatment.
Large numbers of honeybees were killed after
the application of malathion (8 fluid oz/A) for
grasshopper control in alfalfa (Levin et al., 1968).
Malathion "residues were detected in alfalfa (12-
29 ppm), in pollen (0.43-11.1 ppm), and in dead
bees (<0.01-0.37 ppm) for as long as 8 days after
the application."
Plants
Malathion at 0.1 ppm appeared to be converted
to malaoxon and other metabolites by the algae and
also altered the composition of the mixed algal
community to which it was added. There was no
persistent inhibitory effect on algal growth (Chris-
tie, 1969).
Persistence
Malathion applied to soil persisted for 2 days
(Laygo and Schulz, 1963).
Malathion applied at 5 Ib/A (about 3.2 ppm)
persisted for 8 days (about 0.1 ppm remaining)
in a silt-loam soil (Lichtenstein and Schulz, 1964).
MECARBAM
Mammals
The LD-,0 for rats was 36 mg/kg to mecarbam
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
Mecarbam in acetone injected into hen eggs at
50 ppm, 100 ppm, and 200 ppm killed 26, 52, and
87 percent of the embryos, respectively (Dunachie
and Fletcher, 1969). This toxicant also caused
teratogenic effects at 200 ppm.
MENAZON
Mammals
The LD50 for female rats was 1,950 mg/kg to
menazon when the mammals were fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
Menazon in acetone injected into hen eggs at
10 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm, and 200 ppm killed 5,
32, 60, and 79 percent of the embryos, respectively
(Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969). This toxicant also
caused teratogenic effects at 500 ppm and above.
When chickens were fed menazon at a dosage of
400 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969). Mode of action was unknown.
Fishes
The 24-hour LC.-)0 for harlequin fish to menazon
was about 210 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
METACIDE
Mammals
Metacide was reported to be somewhat less toxic
to warm-blooded animals than parathion (FCH,
1970).
Annelids
Metacide at 1 and 2.5 percent reduced earth-
worms (CaJoglyphiw anomaJun] in 7 days by 97
and 100 percent, respectively (Hyche, 1956). At
0.06 percent all earthworms survived.
55
-------
METHOMYL
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 17 to 24 mg/kg (FCH,
1970) and for mule deer, 11.0 to 22.0 mg/kg (Tuck-
er and Crabtree, 1970) to methomyl when the
mammals were fed the stated dosages orally.
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 15.9 mg/kg to
methomyl when the birds were given the stated
dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970).
METHOXYCHLOR
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 5,000 to 6,000 mg/kg
and for the mouse, 800 mg/kg to methoxychlor
when the mammals were fed the stated dosages
orally (Specter, 1955).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was > 2,000 mg/kg
to methoxychlor when the birds were fed the
stated dosage orally in capsules (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970). The LC50 for mallards was
> 5,000 ppm; for pheasants, > 5,000 ppm; for bob-
whites, >5,000 ppm; and for coturnix, >5,000
ppm of methoxychlor in diets of 2-week-old birds
when fed treated feed for 5 days followed by
clean feed for 3 days (Heath et al, 1970a).
Methoxychlor in acetone injected into hen eggs
at up to 500 ppm caused little or no mortality to
the embryos (Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969).
Methoxychlor was found to be much less toxic
to robins than DDT in both laboratory and field
tests (Hunt and Sacho, 1969). The authors re-
ported that "it was impossible to produce methoxy-
chlor poisoning consistently with dosages as high
as 3,750 mg/kg.'' Elms treated with DDT at
dosages of greater than 10 Ib/A caused spring
mortalities in the robin population of over 85
percent. When methoxychlor was substituted at
similar rates for DDT, the mortality was reduced
to 24 percent.
Fishes
The LC50 for various fish to methoxychlor is
found in table 39.
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
methoxychlor at temperatures of 1.6°C, 7.2°C, and
12.7°C was 55 ppb, 45 ppb, and 74 ppb, respec-
tively (Macek, Hutchinson and Cope, 1969); and
the 24-hour LC50 for bluegills exposed at tem-
peratures of 12.7°C, 18.3°C, and 23.8°C was 58
ppb, 67 ppb, and 83 ppb, respectively.
About 15 percent of the mosquito fish surviving
an exposure to methoxychlor with low mortalities
(10 to 40 percent) were observed to abort their
young (Boyd,1964).
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for Fowler's toad tadpoles
and chorus frog tadpoles exposed to methoxychlor
was 0.76 ppm and 0.44 ppm, respectively (Sanders,
1970).
Arthropods
The LC50 for various arthropods to methoxy-
chlor is found in table 40.
The 48-hour EC30 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephahtf; serrulatus and
Daplntia jnilcx. to methoxychlor was 5 ppb and
0.78 ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
When methoxychlor was used as a blackfly
(SinutUum renvstum) larvicide, it produced resi-
dues in the treated water bodies lower than those
that occur with DDT (Burdick et al., 1968). The
effect of methoxychlor on stream arthropods
appeared to be about the same as that of DDT.
TABLE 39. The LCso for various fish to methoxychlor.
Fish Species
Exposure LCso
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Goldfish
Guppies,
24 0. 052 Mayhew, 1955
48 0. 0072 FWPCA, 1968
96 0. 056 Henderson,
Pickering and
Tarzwell, 1959
96 0. 120
56
-------
TABLE 40. The LC50 for various arthropods to methoxychlor.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso (ppm)
Time (hr)
Source
Amphipod (Gammarus lacustris) __ _ _
Sand shrimp
Hermit crab
Grass shrimp
Stonefly (Pteronarcys californica) ..
" (Pteronarcys sp.)
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex) - -
(D. pulex)
Amphipod (G. lacustris) _ __ - - . _
Stonefly (P. californica). - . _
" (P. californica). -
24
24
24
24
24
24
48
48
48
48
48
0. 0047
0. 009
0. 009
0. 016
0.030
0.030
0. 00078
0. 0008
0. 0013
0. 0047
0.008
Sanders, 1969
Eisler, 1969
a
a
Sanders and Cope, 1968
Cope, 1965
Sanders and Cope, 1966
FWPCA, 1968
ll
Sanders, 1969
FWPCA, 1968
Plants
The exposure of phytoplankton communities for
4 hours to 1 ppm of methoxychlor reduced their
productivity 80.6 percent (Butler, 1963a).
Biological Concentration
When oysters were exposed in flowing seawater
for 10 days to methoxychlor at 0.05 ppm in water,
they concentrated the toxicant 5,780 times (289
ppm) (Wilson, 1965).
The exposure of brook trout to methoxychlor at
0.005 ppm in water resulted in their accumulating
an average of 1.759 ppm during 7 days (Burdick
et al., 1968). This was much less than occurred with
DDT at the same dosage and time (DDT in fish
averaged 2.948 ppm). When placed in fresh water,
the fish lost 41.3 percent of the accumulated meth-
oxychlor within one week.
MEVINPHOS
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 608 mg/kg to mevinphos
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (USDI, 1970).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 4.6 mg/kg;
for young pheasants, 1.4 mg/kg; and for sharp-
tailed grouse, 0.75 to 1.50 mg/kg to mevinphos
when the birds were given the stated dosages orally
in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Fishes
The LC50 for rainbow trout and bluegills to
mevinphos for a 24-hour exposure was 34 ppb and
41 ppb, respectively (Cope, 1965).
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
mevinphos was 17 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to mevin-
phos was 13 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Arthropods
The LC50 for various arthropods to mevinphos
is found in table 41.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Bimocephalus tierruldtus and
Duphnia pulex, to mevinphos was 0.43 ppb and
0.16 ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
57
-------
TABLE 41. The LC50 for various arthropods to mevinphos.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso (ppm)
Time (hr)
Source
Stonefly (PteTonctTcys sp.)
" (P calif ornicci)
24
24
24
24
24
24
48
. 48
.. 48
0. 013
0. 040
0.055
0. 056
0. 131
0. 650
0. 00016
0. 009
0. 310
Eisler, 1969
it
Cope, 1965
Sanders and Cope, 1968
Eisler, 1969
Sanders, 1969
FWPCA, 1968
It
11
MILBEX
Mammals
The LD60 for the mouse was 300 mg/kg to mil-
hex when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to milbex
was 4.1 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Ml REX
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 300 to 600 mg/kg to
mirex when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask, 1969).
Mirex fed to mice at 5 ppm in their diet resulted
in reduced litter size and number of offspring pro-
duced per day (Ware and Good, 1967).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was > 2,400
mg/kg to mirex when the birds were given the
stated dosage orally in capsules (Tucker and Crab-
tree, 1970). The LC50 for pheasants was 1,400 to
1,600 ppm, but for coturnix, > 10,000 ppm of mirex
in diets of 2-week-old birds when fed treated
feed for 5 days followed by clean feed for 3 days
(Heath et al., 1970a).
Hens fed mirex at 300 and 600 ppm in their diets
lost weight, and the survival of their chicks was
reduced (Naber and Ware, 1965).
Fishes
Juvenile striped mullet exposed to a variety of
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides at concentra-
tions ranging from 0.4 to 7 ppb for 48 hours had
a 50-percent mortality with most insecticides
(Butler and Springer, 1963). The exceptions were
mirex, BHC, chlordecone, lindane, and methoxy-
chlor; concentrations of these materials had to be
10 to 100 times greater to kill the same 50 percent
of this fish species.
Bluegill growth was reduced significantly when
exposed for up to 168 days to mirex at 5 ppm
(Van Valin, Andrews and Eller, 1968). No effect
was observed at dosages of 1 and 3 ppm of mirex.
Arthropods
The LC50 for mirex for 48 hours exposure
against red crawfish was greater than 0.1 ppm
(Muncy and Oliver, 1963).
Plants
The exposure of phytoplankton for 4 hours to
1 ppm of mirex reduced their productivity 28 to
46 percent (Butler, 1963b).
Biological Concentration
In pond water containing 1 ppm of mirex. blue-
gill fish concentrated the mirex to a level of 6.82
ppm (Cope, 1966).
58
-------
MOBAM
NALED
Birds
When chickens were fed mobam at a dosage of
400 nig/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969). Mode of action was unknown.
MONOCROTOPHOS
Mammals
The LD50 for fats was about 21 mg/kg (FCII,
1970) ; for domestic goats, 20 to 50 mg/kg; and
for mule deer, 25 to 50 mg/kg (Tucker and Crab-
tree, 1970) to monocrotophos when the animals
were fed the stated dosages orally in capsules.
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 4.8 mg/kg;
for young pheasants, 2.8 mg/kg; for young chu-
kar partridges, 6.5 mg/kg; for young coturnix,
3.7 mg/kg; for bobwhite, 0.9 mg/kg; for pigeons
(Coliimba livid), 2.8 mg/kg; for house sparrows,
1.6 mg/kg; for house finches, 8 to 24 mg/kg; for
Canada geese, 1.6 mg/kg; and for golden eagle,
<0.75 mg/kg to monocrotophos when the birds
were given the stated dosage orally in a capsule
(Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC60 for rainbow trout exposed to
monocrotophos was 7 ppm (FWPCA, 1968).
MORPHOTHION
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 430 mg/kg (FCH,
1970), and for mule deer, ,-200 mg/kg (Tucker
and Crabtree, 1970) to naled when the mammals
were given the stated dosages orally in a capsule.
Birds
The LD50 for mallards was 52.2 mg/kg; for
sharp-tailed grouse, 64.9 mg/kg; and for Canada
geese, 36.9 mg/kg to naled when the birds were
fed the stated dosages orally in capsules (Tucker
and Crabtree, 1970). The LC50 for mallards was
>5,000 ppm; for pheasants, 2,400 to 2,700 ppm;
for bobwhites, 2,000 to 2,100 ppm; and for cotur-
nix, 1,200 to 1,400 ppm of naled in diets of
2-week-old birds when fed treated feed for 5 days
followed by clean feed for 3 days (Heath et al.,
1970a).
Fishes
The LCSO for bluegills to naled for 24-hour ex-
posure was0.220 ppm (Cope, 1965).
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
naled at temperatures of 1.6°C, 7.2°C, and 12.7°C
was 1,300 ppb, 620 ppb, and 240 ppb, respectively
(Macek, Hutchinson and Cope, 1969).
The 48-hour LC50 for brook trout exposed to
naled was 78 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for chorus frog tadpoles ex-
posed to naled was 2.2 ppm (Sanders, 1970).
Birds
Morphothion in acetone injected into hen eggs
at 10 ppm, 50 ppm, and 100 ppm killed 16, 21,
and 57 percent of the embryos, respectively (Dnn-
achie and Fletcher, 1969). This toxicant also
caused some teratogenic effects at 50 ppm and
above.
Arthropods
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60° F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus semdatus
and Dnphnia pulex, to naled was 1.1 ppb and 0.35
ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
The LC50 for various arthropods to naled is
found in table 42.
59
-------
TABLE 42. The LC60 for various arthropods to naled.
OVEX
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCao
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Stonefly (Pteronarcys
californica)
Amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris)
Waterflea (Daphnia
pulex)
Stonefly (P. cali-
fornica)
Amphipod (Or.
lacustris)
Red crawfish
24 0. 027 Sanders and
Cope, 1968
24 0. 240 Sanders, 1969
48 0. 0035 FWPCA, 1968
48 0. 016
48 0. 160
48 4. 0 Muncy and
Oliver, 1963
NICOTINE
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 50 to 60 mg/kg to nicotine
when the mammals were fed the stated dosages
orally (FCH, 1970). Hayne (1949) reported that
nicotine sulfate (40 percent) at one-half teaspoon
in a quart of water applied as a spray to beans and
cabbage effectively repelled cottontail rabbits.
Birds
The LD5o for young mallards was 587 mg/kg;
for young pheasants, 1,200 to 2,000 mg/kg; for
young coturnix, 530 mg/kg; and for pigeons (Co-
lumba livia), > 2,000 mg/kg1 to nicotine sulfate
when the birds were given the stated dosages
orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Nicotine in acetone injected into hen eggs at
10 ppm, 15 ppm, 25 ppm, 50 ppm, and 100 ppm
killed 6, 29, 100, 100, and 100 percent of the em-
bryos, respectively (Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969).
This toxicant also caused teratogenic effects at
25 ppm.
N-METHYL CARBAMATE
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to N-
methyl carbamate was 0.61 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 2,000 mg/kg to ovex
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to ovex
was700 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC30 for stoneflies (Pteronarcys
californica) exposed to ovex was 1,500 ppb
(FWPCA, 1968).
OXYDEMETON-METHYL
Mammals
The LI)50 for rats was 70 mg/kg to oxydemeton-
methyl when the mammals were fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
The LD,-)0 for young mallards was 53.9 mg/kg;
for young pheasants, 42.4 mg/kg; for young
chukar partridges, 113 mg/kg; for young cotur-
nix, 84.1 mg/kg; for pigeons (Columba livia),
14.9 mg/kg; and for house sparrows, 70.8 mg/kg
to oxydemeton-methyl when the birds were given
the stated dosages orally in a capsule (Tucker
and Crabtree, 1970).
Arthropods
The estimated 24-hour LC50 for stonefly nymphs
(Pteronarcys californica) to oxydemeton-methyl
was 960 ppb (Sanders and Cope, 1968).
The 24-hour LC30 for an amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris) exposed to oxydemeton-methyl was 750
ppb (Sanders, 1969).
60
-------
OXYTHIOQUINOX
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was about 3,000 mg/kg to
oxythioquinox when the mammals were fed the
stated dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to oxy-
thioquinox was 96 ppm (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC50 for stoneflies (Pteronarcys
calif arnica) exposed to oxythioquinox was 40
ppm (FWPCA, 1968).
Frequent applications of oxythioquinox to
orchards at recommended dosages were found to
destroy predaceous mite populations; however,
the insecticide was generally harmless to the bene-
ficial parasites Mormoniella and Aphelinus
(Besemer, 1964).
PARAOXON
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 3.5 mg/kg to paraoxon
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(PCOC, 1966).
Persistence
Persistence of paraoxon in water at 20°C was
320 days (Muhlmann and Schrader, 1957).
PARATHION
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 4 to 30 mg/kg; for the
mouse, 25 mg/kg; for the guinea pig, 32 mg/kg
(Spector, 1955); for domestic goats, 28 to 56 mg/
kg; and for mule deer, 22 to 44 mg/kg (Tucker
andCrabtree, 1970) toparathion (ethyl) when the
mammals were fed the stated dosages orally.
Populations of the white-footed mouse in New
Jersey woods adjacent to treated crop fields were
exposed to parathion at 0.01 to 0.06 Ib/A and DDT
at 0.12 to 0.21 Ib/A (Jackson, 1952). Because the
level of contamination of the adjacent woods was
IOWT and the ingestion of insecticides was quite
small, the mouse population was not measurably
affected.
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 1.9 to 2.1 mg/
kg; for young pheasants, 12.4 mg/kg; for young
chukar partridges, 24.0 mg/kg; for young co-
turnix, 6.0 mg/kg; for pigeons (Golumba livia),
2.5 mg/kg; for sharp-tailed grouse, 4.0 to 10.0
mg/kg; for house sparrows, 3.4 mg/kg; for young-
gray partridges, 16.0 mg/kg; and for fulvous tree
ducks, 0.12 to 0.25 mg/kg to parathion when the
birds were given the stated dosages orally in a
capsule (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970). The LC50
for mallards for 250 to 275 ppm; for pheasants,
350 to 380 ppm; for bobwhites, 180 to 200 ppm;
and for coturnix, 40 to 50 ppm of parathion in
diets of 2-week-old birds when fed treated feed
for 5 days followed by clean feed for 3 days
(Heath etal.,1970a).
Tucker and Crabtree (1970) also reported that
the LD60 for young mallards wTas 10.0 mg/kg and
for young pheasants, 8.2 mg/kg to methyl para-
thion when the birds were given the stated dosages
orally in a capsule. The LC50 for mallards wTas 600
to 750 ppm; for pheasants, 100 to 120 ppm; for
bobwyhites, 90 to 100 ppm; and for coturnix, 45 to
55 ppm of methyl parathion in diets of 2-wTeek-old
birds when fed treated feed for 5 days followed
by clean feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970a).
Parathion in acetone injected into hen eggs at
10 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm, 200 ppm, 300 ppm,
400 ppm, and 500 ppm killed 6, 11, 35, 43, 50, 41,
and 81 percent of the embryos, respectively
(Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969). This toxicant also
caused some teratogenic effects at 500 ppm.
When chickens were fed methyl parathion at a
dosage of 64 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg
weakness (Gaines, 1969). Mode of action was
unknown.
In the Union of South Africa a large-scale spray
program was carried out 011 a citrus estate using
parathion applied at 7.5 Ib/A for control of citrus
scale insects, especially Anoidiella nurantii (But-
423-802 O—71-
61
-------
tiker, 1961). In the treated orchard nearly 800
birds were found dead, including the following
(plus 20 miscellaneous species) : Kurrichaine
thrush, yellow-eye, Jardine's babbler, blue wax-
bill, Melba finch, green white-eye, and speckled
coly.
Mallard ducks appeared to be unaffected when
duck ponds were treated with parathion at a dos-
ageof 0.85 Ib/A (Mulla, 1966).
In another study ethyl and methyl parathion
were applied at rates of y2 and 3 lb/A (USDI,
1966). There was no effect 011 pheasants from the
ethyl parathion at y2 Ib, but the 3-lb rate killed
about 10 percent. Methyl parathion, however,
killed about 2 percent at the y2-lb rate and about
25 percent at the 3-lb rate.
Fishes
The 96-hour LCSO for parathion tested against
fathead minnow was 1.4 to 2.7 ppm (Henderson,
Pickering and Tarzwell, 1959). The 96-hour LC50
for minnows to parathion was 1,786 ppb (Priester,
1965). No parathion was detected in minnows
which had been fed parathion-treated Daphnia.
Other LC50 values for various fish to parathion
are found in table 43.
In tests, the 96-hour LCi00 of parathion was 1
ppm for carp, 0.6 ppm for tilapia, and 0.125 ppm
for mullet (Lahav and Sarig, 1969) ; the highest
nonlethal dosage was 0.5 ppm for carp, 0.25 ppm
for tilapia, and 0.1 ppm for mullet.
An investigation of the persistence of parathion
in fish revealed that 50 percent of the chemical
was lost in <1 week (Miller, Zuckerman and
Charig, 1966).
When a cranberry bog was treated with para-
thion at a concentration of 0.12 ppm, 80 percent
of the fish (Fundulus heteroclitus) were killed
(Miller, Zuckerman and Charig, 1966). The para-
thion in the ponds decreased to an insignificant
level within about 144 hours after treatment.
All mosquito fish were killed \vhen exposed to
water in duck ponds treated with parathion at
a dosage of 0.85 lb/A (Mulla, 1966).
Molluscs
Freshwater mussels survived a concentration
of 0.12 ppm parathion in a cranberry bog (Miller,
Zuckerman and Charig, 1966).
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for chorus frog tadpoles ex-
posed to parathion was 1.6 ppm (Sanders, 1970).
Frogs survived well in duck ponds treated with
parathion at a dosage of 0.85 lb/A (Mulla, 1966).
Arthropods and Annelids
The LC50 of parathion tested against various
species of arthropods is found in table 44.
TABLE 43. The LCso for various fish to parathion.
Formulation
Ethyl
Ethyl
Methyl
Methyl
Methyl
Methyl _ _ _
Methyl ___
Methyl . .
Methvl
Methyl
Methyl
Methyl __
Methyl
Methyl . . _ __
Methvl . . __
Fish Species
Bluegill
Rainbow trout
Bluegill
Rainbow trout
Yellow perch
Brown trout _ _
_ _ Redear sunfish
Largemouth bass
Coho salmon
Channel catfish
Bluegill
Black bullhead _ _ _
Carp
Fathead minnow
___ Goldfish
Exposure
Time (hr)
48
48
48
96
96
. 96
. 96
96
96
96
96
96
96
__ 96
96
LCso Source
(ppm)
0. 047 FWP
2 Sand
8 FWP
2. 75 Mace
3.06
4. 74
5. 17
5. 22
5.3
5.71
5. 72
6. 64
7. 13
8.9
9.0
CA, 1968
ers, 1969
CA, 1968
k and McAllister, 1970
62
-------
TABLE 44. The LCso for various arthropods to parathion.
Formulation
Arthropod Species
Exposure
Time (hr)
LCso
(ppm)
Ethyl
Ethyl..- _ -
Methyl-
Ethyl
Methyl - ._-
Methyl
Ethyl
Ethyl
Ethyl
Methyl
Ethyl
Ethyl
Ethyl
Methyl-
Stonefly (Pteronarcella badia) -
" (Claassenia sabulosa)
Sand shrimp _ -
_- -_ Amphipod (Gammarus lacustris)
Grass shrimp _ - __
Hermit crab - ,__
Stonefly (Pteronarcys calif arnica)
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex) _
" (Daphnia sp.)
" (D. magna). _
__ _ Amphipod (G. lacustris)-, - _
Stonefly (Pteronarcys sp.)--
" (P. californica) _ . _ .
_ _ Red crawfish _.
24
24
24
24
._ _ 24
24
24
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
0.008
0. 0088
0.011
0.012
0. 015
0. 023
0. 028
0. 0004
0. 00076
0. 0048
0.006
0. Oil
0. Oil
0.04
Sanders and Cope, 1968
u
Eisler, 1969
Sanders, 1969
Eisler, 1969
it
Sanders and Cope, 1968
FWPCA, 1968
Priester, 1965
FWPCA, 1968
(I
Cope, 1965
FWPCA, 1968
Muncy and Oliver, 1963
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus
and Daphnia pulex, to parathion was 0.37 ppb
and 0.60 ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope,
1966).
No parathion could be detected in Daphnia
after 7 days of exposure to 0.5 ppb (Priester,
1965).
When cole plants were treated with parathion
(0.20 Ib/A) and endrin (0.18 Ib/A), only 5 per-
cent of the total number of predaceous and para-
sitic insect species survived, compared with the
number in the untreated control. However, 92 per-
cent of the plant-feeding species survived the in-
secticide treatment (Pimentel, 1961). The
predaceous and parasitic species were probably
lost in the treated plots because of the severe reduc-
tion in the numbers of individual prey, resulting
in many plant-feeding species with few preda-
ceous and parasitic species.
Hyche (1956) reported that parathion applied
to soil as a 1-percent, 0.06-percent, and 0.036-
percent emulsion killed 100, 17, and 0 percent, re-
spectively, of the earthworm CaloglyphiiM
anomalus population.
The dispersion and biological effects of para-
thion moving from a treated peach orchard into
a 2.7-acre pond were investigated in South Caro-
lina (Nicholson et al., 1962). During the active
spray season parathion in the water rose to a
maximum of 1.22 ppb, whereas during the winter
the concentration was as low as 0.01 ppb. Prior
to the spray season (March) parathion was found
in the mud at a level of 1.90 ppm. Investigators
felt this was a carry-over from the spray opera-
tion of the previous season. Fish, zooplankton,
adult aquatic insects, and Oligochaeta popula-
tions appeared to be unaffected by the residues of
parathion in the water and mud. There was, how-
ever, a significant reduction in immature aquatic
insect numbers associated with parathion usage.
Biological Concentration
Fish (Fundulus heteroclitus) concentrated
parathion 80 times that of the ambient water level
when exposed to 0.12 ppm of parathion; and mus-
sels concentrated parathion 50 times the level in
the water (Miller, Zuckerman and Charig, 1966).
Labelled /S"32 was employed to track the movement
of the parathion from the water into the
organisms.
Persistence
The persistence of parathion in water at 20 °C
was 690 days, and of methyl parathion, 175 days
(Muhlmann and Schrader, 1957).
Parathion applied to soil persisted for 5 years
(MacPhee, Chisholm and MacEachern, 1960) ;
and parathion and methyl parathion applied at
5 Ib/A (about 3.2 ppm) persisted for 90 days and
30 days, respectively (about 0.1 ppm remaining),
in a silt-loam soil (Lichtenstein and Schultz,
1965).
63
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PARIS GREEN
Arthropods
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 22 mg/kg to Paris
green when the mammal was fed the Stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
The LC50 for mallards was >5,000 ppm; for
pheasants, 1,000 to 1,100 ppm; for bobwhites, 500
to 600 ppm; and for coturnix, 1,200 to 1,400 ppm
of Paris green in diets of 2-week-old birds when
fed treated feed for 5 days followed by untreated
feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970a).
Amphibians
The median lethal dose of Paris green to frogs
by subcutaneous injection was 10 mg/kg (Spector,
1955).
PERTHANE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 8,170 mg/kg to
perthane when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask,
1969).
Birds
The LCSO for mallards was >5,000 ppm; for
pheasants, > 5,000 ppm; and for coturnix, > 5,000
ppm of perthane in diets of 2-week-old birds when
fed treated feed for 5 days followed by untreated
feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970a).
Fishes
The LC5o f°r rainbow trout to perthane for a
24-hour exposure was 9 ppb (Cope, 1965).
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
perthane was 7 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (Daphnia
magna) exposed to perthane was 9.4 ppb
(FWPCA, 1968).
PHORATE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 3.7 mg/kg to phorate
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(TJSDI,1970).
Birds
Tucker and Crabtree (1970) reported the LD50
for young mallards as 0.62 mg/kg; for young
pheasants, 7.1 mg/kg; and for young chukar par-
tridges, 12.8 mg/kg to phorate when the birds were
fed the stated dosages orally in capsules. The LC50
for mallards was 225 to 275 ppm; for pheasants,
400 to 480 ppm; and for bobwhites, 370 to 400 ppm
of phorate in diets of 2-week-old birds when fed
treated feed for 5 days followed by untreated feed
for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970a).
When chickens were fed phorate at a dosage of
32 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969). Mode of action was unknown.
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to phorate
was 5.5 ppb (FWPCA, 1968). The 24-hour LC30
for harlequin fish to phorate was <1 ppm (Ala-
baster, 1969).
Amphibians
The LD50 for bullfrogs was 85.2 mg/kg to pho-
rate when the frogs were fed the stated dosage
orally (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC5f
laaustris) exposed
(FWPCA, 1968).
for amphipods (Gammarus
to phorate was 70 ppb
64
-------
The 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (G. lacustris}
exposed to phorate was 24 ppb (Sanders, 1969).
Persistence
Phorate applied to soil persisted for >23 days
(Laygo and Schulz, 1963).
PHOSALONE
Fishes
The 24-hour LC5o for harlequin fish to phosalone
was 3.4 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
PHOSPHAMIDON
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 27 mg/kg to phos-
phamidon when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask,
1969).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 3.0 mg/kg;
for young chukar partridges, 9.7 mg/kg; for
pigeons (Columba, livia), 2 to 3 mg/kg; for
mourning doves, 2 to 4 mg/kg; for white-winged
doves, 2.3 mg/kg to phosphamidon when the birds
were given the stated dosage orally in a capsule
(Tucker and Crabtree, 1970). The LC30 for mal-
lards was 700 to 800 ppm; for pheasants, 70 to 80
ppm; for bobwhites, 20 to 30 ppm; and for cotur-
nix, 100 to 110 ppm of phosphamidon in diets of 2-
wTeek-old birds when fed treated feed for 5 days
followed by untreated feed for 3 days (Heath et
al., 1970a).
Phosphamidon in acetone injected into hen eggs
at 15 ppm, 25 ppm, 50 ppm, and 100 ppm killed 71,
42, 83, and 100 percent of the embryos, respectively
(Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969). This toxicant also
caused teratogenic effects at 15 ppm.
In a field trial with phosphamidon applied at a
rate of 1 Ib/A to 5,000 acres in Montana against
spruce budworm, blue grouse were killed, and other
bird activity dropped by about one-quarter of the
pre-spray level (Finley, 1965). Bird activity in
the untreated area, however, increased during the
same period.
Phosphamidon, suggested as a substitute for con-
trol of gyspy moth, was found to be extremely
toxic to quail (USDI, 1967). Quail were found
unable to survive on diets containing 1 ppm of
phosphamidon.
In Switzerland many bird deaths were reported
after the treatment of 2,622 acres of larch forest
with phosphamidon at a rate of 6.8 Ib/A (Schnei-
der, 1966).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
phosphamidon was 8,000 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Phosphamidon applied at a rate of 1 Ib/A for
control of the spruce budworm in forested areas
had no apparent harmful effects on young Atlantic
salmon and brook trout (Kerswill and Edwards,
1967).
Arthropods
The LC50 for various arthropods to phos-
phamidon is found in table 45.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas. Sim-ocephalus semdatus and
Daphma pulex, to phosphamidon was 12.0 ppb arid
8.8 ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
TABLE 45. The LC5o for various arthropods to
phosphamidon.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris)
Stonefly (Pteronarcys
californica)
Amphipod (G.
lacustris)
Waterflea (Daphnia
magna)
Stonefly (P.
californica)
Red crawfish
24
24
48
48
48
48
0. 0084
1. 4
0. 0038
0. 004
0. 460
6. 0
Sanders, 1969
Sanders and
Cope, 1968
FWPCA, 1968
it
it
Muncy and
Oliver, 1963
65
-------
One year after the treatment of northwestern
Ontario forests with phosphamidon at 4 oz/A and
fenitrothion at 6 oz/A the long-term effects were
evaluated on predaceous carabid beetles and
lycosid spiders (Freitag and Poulter, 1970). The
populations of these predators were clearly sup-
pressed in the treated area. The investigators
stated that the results did "not imply a 1 year
persistence of the insecticides, but rather a per-
sistent disturbance of the ecosystem."
PIPERONYL BUTOXIDE
birds were given the stated dosages orally in a cap-
sule (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for fathead minnow exposed
to propoxur was 25 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Amphibians
The LD50 for bullfrogs was 595 mg/kg to pro-
poxur when the animals were fed the stated dosage
orally (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 11,500 mg/kg to piper-
onyl butoxide when the mammals were fed the
stated dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for chorus frog tadpoles ex-
posed to piperonyl butoxide was 1.8 ppm (Sanders,
1970).
PROPOXUR
Mammals
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC50 for stoneflies (Pteronarcys
calif ornica) andamphipods (Gammaruslacustris)
exposed to propoxur was 110 ppb and 25 ppb,
respectively (FWPCA, 1968). The 24-hour LC50
for an amphipod (G. lacustris) exposed to pro-
poxur was 66 ppb (Sanders, 1969).
PYRETHRINS
Mammals
The LD5() for rats was 100 mg/kg (Neumeyer,
Gibbons and Trask, 1969); for domestic goats,
>800 mg/kg; and for the mule deer, 100 to 350
mg/kg to propoxur when the animals were fed
the stated dosages orally in capsules (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 11.9 mg/kg;
for young pheasants, 20 mg/kg; for young chukar
partridges, 23.8 mg/kg; for coturnix, 28.3 mg/kg;
for California quail, 30 mg/kg; for pigeons (Col-
umba livia), 60.4 mg/kg; for mourning doves, 4.2
mg/kg; for house sparrows, 12.8 mg/kg; for house Arthropods
finches, 3.6 mg/kg; for Oregon j uncos, 4.8 mg/kg;
for Canada geese, 6.0 mg/kg; and for lesser sand-
hill cranes, 40 to 60 mg/kg to propoxur when the
The LD50 for the rat was 820 to 1,870 mg/kg and
for the guinea pig, 150 mg/kg to pyrethrins when
the mammals were fed the stated dosages orally
(Spector, 1955).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was > 10,000
mg/kg to pyrethrins when the birds were fed the
stated dosage orally in capsules (Tucker and Crab-
tree, 1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
pyrethrins was 54 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
The LC5() for various arthropods to pyrethrins is
found in table 46.
66
-------
TABLE 46. The LC50 for various arthropods to pyrethrins.
Arthropod Species
Exposure
Time (hr)
LCso
(ppm)
Source
" (G lacustris) -
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex}
Stonefly (P calif ornica) - ~ - -
.. 24
. .. __. 24
48
48
. 48
0. 010 Sanders and Cope, 1968
0. 028 Sanders, 1969
0. 018 FWPCA, 1968
0. 025 "
0. 064 "
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60° F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus and
Daphnia pulex, to pyrethrins was 42 ppb and 25
ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
The toxicity of pyrethrins to 3 species of in-
vertebrates as measured by the 48-hour EC50 was
as follows: waterflea (S. serrulatus) at 42 ppb,
waterflea (D. pulex) at 25 ppb, and stonefly nymph
(P. californicus \_sic\) at 6 ppb (Cope, 1966).
RONNEL
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 1,740 mg/kg to ronnel
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
When chickens were fed ronnel at a dosage of
1,600 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969). Mode of action was unknown.
ROTENONE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 132 mg/kg to rotenone
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(Spector, 1955).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was >2,000
mg/kg and for young pheasants, > 1,414 mg/kg
to rotenone when the birds were fed the stated
dosages orally in capsules (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970).
Rotenone in acetone injected into hen eggs at
1 ppm, 5 ppm, and 10 ppm killed 36, 86, and 100
percent of the embryos, respectively (Dunachie
and Fletcher, 1969).
Fishes
The LC50 f°r coho salmon embryos to rotenone
for a 24-hour exposure was 0.15 ppm (Garrison,
1968) ; embryos could survive a concentration of
0.075 ppm of rotenone for 24 hours; however, 100-
day-old fry could survive only at a dosage of
0.00375 ppm.
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to rote-
none was 22 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods, Annelids, and Other Invertebrates
The LC50 for various arthropods to rotenone is
found in table 47.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus and
Daphnia pulex, to rotenone was 190 ppb and 100
ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
In New Zealand earthworms were destroyed
when 4-percent rotenone was applied at a rate of
about 6 Ib/A, and the soil remained toxic for at
least 6 days (Harris, 1949).
The minimum lethal dosages (ppm) of rotenone
producing a kill exceeding 25 percent are listed for
the following fish-food organisms: Daphnia, 0.1;
Eucypris, 0.1; Hyallella, 0.2; Palaemonetea, 4.0;
Amphiagrion, 2.5; Pachydiplax and Tramea, 3.5;
Culex, Aedes, and Anopheles, 2.0; Ohironomus,
0.1; Physa, 4.5; and Helisoma, 3.5 (Zischkale,
1952).
67
-------
TABLE 47. The LC60 for various arthropods to rotenone.
Arthropod Species
" (P cahfornica}
Amphipod ((?. lacustfis) ~ -
Stonefly (P californica)
Exposure
Time (hr)
24
24
24
48
-.. _- _ 48
48
LCso
(ppm)
2 9
2 9
6
0 010
0. 350
0 900
Source
Cope 1965
Sanders and Cope 1968
Sanders 1969
FWPCA 1968
„
When rotenone was applied to cole crops, cab-
bage aphid and peach aphid outbreaks followed
(Pimentel, 1961). Although the parasites were
also abundant in the rotenone-treated area com-
pared with the untreated control, the ratio of
parasites to aphids was significantly lower in the
rotenone area.
Eotenone applied at 1.0 ppm to lakes appeared
to have an inhibitory effect on 3 groups of plank-
ton (Entomostraca, Rotatoria, and Protozoa)
which are important fish foods (Hoffman and
Olive, 1961).
IDE
SCHRADAN
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 8 to 25 mg/kg to schradan
when the mammals were fed the stated dosages
orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 36.3 mg/kg to
schradan when the birds were given the stated
dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970).
Schradan in acetone injected into hen eggs at 10
ppm, 15 ppm, 50 ppm, and 100 ppm killed 15,
69, 100, and 95 percent of the embryos, respec-
tively (Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969). This toxi-
cant also caused teratogenic effects at 25 ppm and
above.
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 3,360 to 3,400 mg/kg
and for the mouse, 2,280 mg/kg to TDE when the
mammals were fed the stated dosages orally (Spec-
tor, 1955).
Birds
The LC50 for mallards was 4,800 to 5,200 ppm;
for pheasants, 560 to 600 ppm; for bobwhites, 2,200
to 2,400 ppm; and for coturnix, 3,300 to 3,500 ppm
of TDE in diets of 2-week-old birds when fed
treated feed for 5 days followed by untreated feed
for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970a).
TDE in acetone injected into hen eggs at up to
500 ppm killed only 16 percent of the embryos
(Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969). However, when
chicks which had hatched from eggs receiving 100
ppm of TDE were starved for 4 days, all died,
whereas untreated controls handled in a similar
manner resulted in only about a 50-percent
mortality.
TDE in concentrations of 10 and 40 ppm in the
feed did not cause demonstrable changes in egg-
shell thickness of mallards, but did impair re-
productive success of mallard ducks by nearly 50
percent (significant P<0.05) (Heath, Spann and
Kreitzer, 1969).
68
-------
TDE'and DDE were fed separately to cowbirds
(Stickel, Stickel and Coon, 1970). The residues
of these chemicals in the brains of birds killed
by the toxicants were distinctly higher than in
brains of cowbirds sacrificed after similar ex-
posure. TDE residues in the brain at death were
estimated to be 65 ppm (wet weight) or higher
in 95 percent of the cases, whereas DDE residues
in the brain at death were estimated to be 314
ppm or higher in 95 percent of the cases.
Fishes
The LC50 for bluegills to TDE for a 24-hour
exposure was 56 ppb (Cope, 1965).
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
TDE was 9 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
In another study about 5 percent of the mosquito
fish surviving after exposure to TDE at concen-
trations above the threshold toxicity aborted their
young (Boyd, 1964).
TDE was applied to Clear Lake in California
for gnat control at a rate which would produce a
concentration of 0.014 ppm for the first applica-
tion and 0.02 ppm for the last 2 applications. TDE
residues in the flesh of the 1958 year class of large-
mouth bass decreased from 23.5 ppm in 1958 to 7
ppm in 1963 (Linn and Stanley, 1969). After 13
months residue levels of TDE in various orga-
nisms in the lake were as follows: 10 ppm in
plankton, 903 ppm in fat of plankton-eating fish,
2,690 ppm in fat of carnivorous fish, and 2,134
ppm in fat of fish-eating birds (Hunt and
Bischoff, 1960). The residues in the carnivorous
fish and birds represent a 100,000-fold increase
over the levels of TDE found in the lake water
immediately after treatment.
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for Fowler's toad tadpoles
and chorus frog tadpoles exposed to TDE was
0.70 ppm and 0.61 ppm, respectively (Sanders,
1970).
Arthropods
The LC50 for various arthropods to TDE is
found in table 48.
The 48-hour EC60 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus and
Daphnia pulex, to TDE was 4.5 ppb and 3.2 ppb,
respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
TABLE 48. The LC50 for various arthropods to TDE.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris)
Stonefly (Pteronarcys
californica)
Amphipod (G.
lacustris)
Waterflea (Daphnia
pulex)
Stonefly (P.
califormca)
24 0. 0056 Sanders, 1969
24 3 Sanders and
Cope, 1968
48 0. 0018 FWPCA,
1968
48 0. 0032
48 1. 1
TEPP
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 1.2 to 2.0 mg/kg to
TEPP when the mammal was fed the stated dos-
age orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 3.6- mg/kg;
for young pheasants, 4.2 mg/kg; and for young
chukar partridges, 10.1 mg/kg to TEPP when the
birds were given the stated dosages orally in a
capsule (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC5o for fathead minnows exposed
to TEPP was 390 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Amphibians
The LD50 for bullfrogs was 89.1 mg/kg to
TEPP when the frogs were fed the stated dosage
orally in capsules (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC50 for amphipods (Oainmarus
lacustris) exposed to TEPP was 52 ppb (FWPCA,
1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (G. lacus-
tris) exposed to TEPP was 74 ppb (Sanders,
1969).
69
-------
TERRENE POLYCHLORINATES
Birds
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 220 mg/kg to terpene
polychlorinates when the mammal was fed the
stated dosage orally (Neumeyer, Gibbons and
Trask,1969).
Birds
The LC50 for mallards was 470 to 500 ppm; for
pheasants, 800 to 900 ppm; for bobwhites, 800 to
900 ppm; and for coturnix, 500 to 600 ppm of ter-
pene polychlorinates in diets of 2-week-old birds
when fed treated feed for 5 days followed by un-
treated feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 19970a).
Fishes
The LC50 for bluegill s to terpene polychlorinates
for a 24-hour exposure was 15 ppb (Cope, 1965).
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
terpene polychlorinates was 2.5 ppb (FWPCA,
1968).
A natural population of mosquito fish in ditches
adjacent to cotton fields was resistant to terpene
polychlorinates (300 times) (Boyd and Ferguson,
1964a). Interestingly enough, the fish had not been
exposed to terpene polychlorinates. They had,
however, been exposed to toxaphene, a related
insecticide.
The LC50 for mallards was >5,000 ppm; for
pheasants, >5,000 ppm; and for coturnix, >5,000
ppm of tetradifon in diets of 2-week-old birds
when fed treated feed for 5 days followed by un-
treated feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970a).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC5o for bluegill exposed to tetradi-
fon was 1,100 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC50 for amphipods (Gammarus
lacmtris) exposed to tetradifon was 140 ppb
(FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (G. lacus-
tris) exposed to tetradifon was 370 ppb (Sanders,
1969).
THANITE
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (Daphnia
magnet) exposed to Thanite was 450 ppb
(FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
The LCso for nymphs of the stonefly (Ptero-
narcys sp.) to terpene polychlorinates for a 24-
hour exposure was 40 ppb (Cope, 1965).
The 48-hour LC50 for stoneflies (P. cal'ifornica]
exposed to terpene polychlorinates was 7 ppb
(FWPCA, 1968).
The estimated 24-hour LC50 for stonefly nymphs
(P. californica) to terpene polychlorinates was 40
ppb (Sanders and Cope, 1968).
TETRADIFON
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 14,700 mg/kg to tet-
radifon when the mammal was fed the stated dos-
age orally (FCH, 1970).
70
TOXAPHENE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 69 mg/kg; for the
mouse, 112 mg/kg; for the dog, 15 mg/kg; for the
guinea pig, 69 mg/kg (Spector, 1955); for
domestic goats, >160 mg/kg; and for mule deer,
139 to 240 mg/kg (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970) to
toxaphene when the mammals were given the
stated dosages orally in a capsule.
Birds
Tucker and Crabtree (1970) reported the LD50
for young mallards as 70.7 mg/kg; for young
pheasants, 40.0 mg/kg; for young bob white quail,
-------
85.4 mg/kg; for sharp-tailed grouse, 10 to 20 mg/
kg; for fulvous tree ducks, 99.0 mg/kg; and for
lesser sandhill cranes, 100 to 316 mg/kg to toxa-
phene when the birds were fed the stated dosages
orally in capsules. The LC50 for pheasants was
500 to 550 ppm, and for coturnix, 600 to 650 ppm
of toxaphene in diets of 2-week-old birds when fed
treated feed for 5 days followed by clean feed for
3 days (Heath et al., 19TOa).
The LC50 for bobwhite quail chicks was 834 ppm
and for mallard ducklings, 563 ppm to toxaphene
when the birds were fed the stated dosages in their
food for 5 days and then fed clean food for 3 days
(Heath and Stickel, 1965).
Toxaphene in acetone injected into hen eggs at
up to 500 ppm caused no mortality to the embryos
(Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969).
When a marsh in North Dakota was treated with
toxaphene at 2 Ib/A (105 ppm in water), sora,
coot, and black tern produced no young; only the
red-wing blackbird produced any young (Han-
son, 1952).
Pheasants were maintained on a diet containing
various levels of toxaphene for periods of time
ranging up to 90 days. Of the 33 birds, all sur-
vived the exposure period, even at the highest dos-
age of 300 ppm; however, pheasants at this dosage
did lose weight (Genelly and Rudd, 1956).
Toxaphene reportedly limited the reproduction
of bobwhite quail and pheasant by at least 25 per-
cent when they were fed a diet containing 50 ppm
(bobwhite) and 25 ppm (pheasant) of toxaphene
(USDI, 1960).
For 3 months groups of 5 young white pelicans
were fed sardines injected with either 10 ppm of
toxaphene, 50 ppm of toxaphene, 50 ppm of DDT,
or a combination of 10 ppm of toxaphene and 150
ppm of DDT. These dosages were somewhat com-
parable to those present in fish eaten by wild birds.
Death occurred in the pelicans fed toxaphene at
the 50-ppm level 4 to 6 weeks after the experiment
had started. The pelicans were much more sus-
ceptible to toxaphene than DDT (Flickinger and
Keith, 1964). Incidentally, both endo- and ecto-
parasites were nearly completely eliminated from
these birds after exposure to the toxaphene-DDT
combination (Keith, 1966b).
Unusually high mortalities were observed in
fish-eating birds at the Tule Lake and Lower Kla-
math Refuges in 1960, 1961, and 1962 (Keith,
1966b). The mortalities were reportedly due to ap-
plications of large quantities of toxaphene in the
agricultural lands immediately surrounding the
refuge for several years starting in 1956. Water
from the surrounding farmlands drains into the
marshes. Toxaphene was found in fish from the
marshes at levels of about 8 ppm (Keith, Mohn
and Ise, 1965). In another part of California
toxaphene was reported causing high mortalities
in fish-eating white pelicans (Keith, 1964).
Fishes
The LC50 of toxaphene tested against various
species of fishes is found in table 49.
The toxicity of toxaphene to 2 species of fish, as
measured by the 48-hour EC50, was as follows:
rainbow trout at 4 ppb, 13°C, and bluegill at 4
ppb,24°C (Cope, 1966).
The 24-hour LCSO for bluegills exposed to toxa-
phene at temperatures of 12.7°C, 18.3°C, and
23.8°C was 9.7 ppb, 6.8 ppb, and 6.6 ppb, respec-
tively (Macek, Hutchinson and Cope, 1969).
Toxaphene has been reported to have a high
toxicity to fish. The minimum toxic dosage of tox-
TABL.E 49. The LC50 for various fish to toxaphene.
Fish Species
Exposure
Time (hr)
LCso
(ppm)
Source
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Largemouth bass_
Brown trout _
Bluegill
24
48
96
96
96
0. 05
0. 0028
0. 002
0. 003
0. 0035
Carp_
Black bullhead
Goldfish
Coho salmon.
96 0. 004
96 0. 005
96 0. 0056
96 0. 008
Mayhew, 1955
FWPCA, 1968
Macek and
McAllister, 1970
it
Henderson,
Pickering and
Tarzwell, 1959
Macek and
McAllister, 1970
a
Henderson,
Pickering and
Tarzwell, 1959
Macek and
McAllister, 1970
Rainbow trout
Yellow perch
Channel catfish____
Redear sunfish
Goldfish
Fathead minnow, _
Bluegill
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
0. Oil
0. 012
0. 013
0. 013
0. 014
0. 014
0. 018
71
-------
aphene for small fish was 0.003 ppm and for larger
fish, about 0.007 ppm. When waiter turbidity was
high, concentrations as high as 0.02 ppm were
needed to clear the lake of fish (Stringer and
McMynn, 1960).
As both temperature and exposure time in-
creased, the LC50 for rainbow trout to toxaphene
declined (table 50).
Mosquito fish surviving an. exposure to toxa-
phene above the threshold toxicity of the com-
pound aborted (about 5 percent) their young
(Boyd, 1964). For the bluntnose minnow, the 24-
hour median tolerance limit to toxaphene increased
from 0.020 ppm in hard water to 0.036 ppm in
soft water at 50°F (Hooper and Grzenda, 1957).
A natural population of mosquito fish in ditches
adjacent to cotton fields was found to be
resistant to toxaphene (40 times) (Boyd and
Ferguson, 1964a).
TABLE 50. The effects of time and temperature on the LC50
of toxaphene to small (about 1 g) rainbow trout (Cope
1965).
Temperature, °F
LCso (ppb)
24 hrs 48 hrs % hrs
45
55
65
16. 0
7 6
5. 0
8. 4
4. 4
2. 8
5. 4
2. 7
1. 8
Three species of fish were collected in the field
at Twin Bayou, Mississippi, where the populations
had been exposed to heavy concentrations of
several insecticides used in the adjoining cotton
acreages (Ferguson et al., 1965b). The toxicity of
toxaphene in these fish compared with that in a
control population, as measured by 36-hour LC50,
were: golden shiner, control 30 ppb versus Twin
Bayou 1,200 ppb; bluegills, control 23 ppb versus
Twin Bayou 1,600 ppb; and green sunfish, control
38 ppb versus Twin Bayou 1,500 ppb. In another
investigation the toxicity of toxaphene in resistant
mosquito fish and black bullheads collected from
streams in Mississippi compared with that in an
unexposed control population, as measured by 36-
hour LC5o, was: mosquito fish, control 20 ppb
versus resistant (Sidon, Miss.) 480 ppb; and black
bullhead, control 3.75 ppb versus resistant (Way-
side, Miss.) 50 ppb (Ferguson et al., 1965a).
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for Fowler's toad tadpoles and
chorus frog tadpoles exposed to toxaphene was
0.60 ppm and 1.7 ppm, respectively (Sanders,
1970).
Molluscs
After 4 weeks of exposure to 0.1 ppm of toxa-
phene, 50 percent of the oyster population died
(USDI, 1960). Only 1 ppb inhibited the develop-
ment of clam eggs by 50 percent and also reduced
the growth of mature oysters after 7 days of ex-
posure by 64 percent (USDI, 1960). Molluscs in
lakes, however, were apparently unaffected by a
dosage of 0.1 ppm toxaphene (Hooper and
Grzenda, 1957).
The snail population in a marsh treated with
toxaphene at 2 Ib/A (105 ppm in water) declined
slowly to zero in about 10 days (Hanson, 1952).
The snails did not start to reinvade the treated
area until a month had passed.
Arthropods, Annelids, and Other Invertebrates
The LC5o of toxaphene tested against various
species of arthropods is found in table 51.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60° F) for waterfleas, Simocephcdus serrulatus and
Daphnia ^ntlex, to toxaphene was 19 ppb and 15
ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
Certain aquatic Oligochaetes in lakes were ap-
parently unaffected by a toxapliene treatment of
0.1 ppm (Hooper and Grzenda, 1957).
Brown shrimp tolerated toxaphene at a dosage
of 40 to 50 ppb, whereas white shrimp had a tol-
eration limit of 75 to 90 ppb (USDI, 1960).
Toxaphene at 0.1 ppm appears to have an in-
hibitory effect on 3 groups of plankton (Entomos-
traca, Kotatoria, and Protozoa) which are im-
portant fish foods (Hoffman and Olive, 1961).
Toxaphene (10 to 60 /xg/beetle) was found to
prevent oviposition in coccinellid beetles (Cole-
omegUla maculnta') (Atallah and Newsom, 1966).
The bottom fauna in a lake with a 10 ppb level
of toxaphene declined in number of individuals,
but returned to normal density within 14 days
(Hooper, 1960).
72
-------
TABLE 51. The LC50 for various arthropods to toxaphene.
Arthropod Species
Stonefly (Claassenia sabulosa)
" (Pteronarcella badia)
tl (Pteronarcys calif ornica) . .
Amphipod (Gammarus lacustris) . . . .
Stonefly (P. californicus [sic]) ~ -
" (P. californica)
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex) . . .
" (D. pulex)
11 (Simocephalus serrulatus)
Mayfly (Baetis sp.) _ _ - -
Amphipod (G. lacustris) . . -
Exposure
Time (hr)
24
24
24
24
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
LCs,(ppm>
0 006
0 0092
0. 018
0. 180
0. 007
0. 007
0 015
0 015
0 019
0. 047
0. 070
Source
Sanders and Cope, 1968
it
„
Sanders, 1969
Cope, 1966
FWPCA, 1968
Cope, 1966
FWPCA, 1968
Cope, 1966
it
FWPCA, 1968
Plants
Exposing phytoplankton communities for 4
hours to 1 ppm of toxaphene reduced the produc-
tivity of these communities 91 percent (Butler,
1963a).
In laboratory studies planktonic animals and
algae, periphyton, and insect nymphs were exposed
to toxaphene in both single doses of 0.03 ppm and
chronic doses of 0.01 and 0.02 ppm (Schoettger
and Olive, 1961). Single sublethal doses of toxa-
phene were insufficient to produce toxic accumula-
tions in these organisms.
Biological Concentration
Toxaphene at chronic doses of 0.01 to 0.02 ppm
became concentrated in Daphnia and periphyton
(Schoettger and Olive, 1961). The chronic doses
accumulated by Daphnia and periphyton were at
levels toxic to fish.
Two mountain lakes were treated with toxa-
phene to eradicate the fish and subsequently in-
vestigated to follow the movement and fate of
toxaphene in the lakes (Terriere et al., 1966). The
concentration in the shallow eutrophic lake, ini-
tially treated with about 88 ppb of toxaphene in
1961, decreased to 0.63 ppb in 1962, to 0.41 ppb
in 1963, and to 0.02 ppb in 1964. The concentration
in the deep oligotrophic lake, initially treated with
about 40 ppb in 1961, declined to 2.10 ppb in 1962,
to 1.20 ppb in 1963, and to 0.64 ppb in 1964. Both
plants and animals absorbed toxaphene and ap-
parently played an important role in eliminating
it from the lakes. Plants in the deep lake with
water containing about 2-ppb levels of toxaphene
concentrated it to levels as high as 17 ppm, while
invertebrates concentrated toxaphene to maximum
levels of 5 ppm (Terriere et al., 1966). In the shal-
low lake the concentration factor was about 500
times for aquatic plants, 1,500 times for aquatic
invertebrates, and 15,000 times for rainbow trout.
In the deeper lake, trout could not be restocked in
the lake for 6 years, although the concentration 3
years after treatment had decreased to 0.84 ppb.
In a similar investigation by Kallman, Cope and
Navarre (1962), a shallow lake received a treat-
ment of 0.05 ppm of toxaphene. Within 1 month
the concentration of toxaphene declined to 0.001
ppm and held at about this level for an additional
250 days. Mortalities of 100 percent were common
after 24 hours of exposure to 0.01 ppm. Substan-
tiating findings in the previous study (Terriere
et al., 1966), aquatic vegetation concentrated
toxaphene to high levels (400 times that found in
the water).
Toxaphene was applied to Big Bear Lake, in
California, at a calculated rate of 0.2 ppm (Hunt
and Keith, 1963). After the treatment, the results
of an analysis for toxaphene in sample organisms
removed from the lake were as follows: a high
of 73 ppm in plankton, 200 ppm in goldfish (the
target fish of this control program), and 1,700
ppm in the fat of a pelican.
Oysters exposed to toxaphene at 0.05 ppm for
10 days concentrated the toxicant 2,920 times (146
ppm) (Wilson, 1965).
Persistence
Toxaphene applied at 140 ppm to soil persisted
for >6 years (Westlake and San Antonio, 1960).
-------
Toxaphene applied at 50 ppm to soil persisted
(50 percent loss) for about 11 years, and toxaphene
remaining 14 years after application at a rate of
100 ppm to sandy loam soil was 45 percent (Nash
and Woolson, 1967).
TRICHLORFON
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 450 mg/kg to trichlor-
fon when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (Metcalf, Flint and Metcalf, 1962).
Birds
The LC50 for bob white was 700 to 800 ppm, and
for cotnrnix, 1,800 to 2,000 ppm of trichlorfon in
diets of 2-week-old birds when fed treated feed
for 5 days followed by clean feed for 3 days
(Heath et al., 1970a).
Trichlorfon in acetone injected into hen eggs at
100 ppm killed 77 percent of the embryos
(Dunachie and Fletcher, 1969).
Fishes
The LC5f> for various fish to trichlorfon is found
in table 52.
In a study 1-inch rainbow trout larvae were
exposed for 16 hours to 10, 30, 50 and 100 ppm
of trichlorfon and for 40 hours to 5 ppm trichlor-
fon (Matton and Lettam, 1969). These treatments
produced marked inhibition of acetylcholines-
terase. The treatments also caused the trout to be-
come hyperactive, no longer to avoid light, and
to have a weaker touch stimulus.
Arthropods
The LC50 of trichlorfon tested against various
species of arthropods is found in table 53.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus and
Daphnia pulex, to trichlorfon was 0.70 ppb and
0.18 ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
TABLE 52. The LCso for various fish to trichlorfon.
Fish Species Exposure LCso Source
Time (hr) (ppm)
Striped bass
Rainbow trout
Fathead minnow. _
24 10. 4 Wellborn, 1969
48 3. 2 Sanders and Cope,
1966
96 180. 0 Henderson, Picker-
ing and Tarzwell,
1959
Persistence
The persistence at detectable levels of trichlor-
fon in water at 20 °C was 526 days (Muhlmann and
Schrader,1957).
VAMIDOTHION
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to vami-
dothion was 560 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
TABLE 53. The LC50 for various arthropods to trichlorfon.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LC5o (ppm)
Time (hr)
Source
Stonefly (Pteronarcella badici)
Amphipod (Gammarus lacustris)
Stonefly (Claassenia sabulosa)^
" (Pteronarcys californica)
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex)
11 (JD. magnet)
Stonefly (P. badia)
Amphipod (G. lacustris)
Stoneflv (P. californica}. __- ._ _ . _ .
24
24
24
24
48
48
48
48
.. 48
0. 050
0 092
0. 110
0. 320
0. 00018
0. 0081
0. 022
0. 060
0. 180
Sanders and Cope, 1968
Sanders, 1969
Sanders and Cope, 1968
1 1
Sanders and Cope, 1966
FWPCA, 1968
t (
(I
Sanders and Cope. 1966
74
-------
ZECTRAN
Arthropods
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 19 mg/kg; for dogs, 15 to
30 mg/kg (PCH, 1970); for domestic goats,
15 to 30 mgAg; and for mule deer, 20 to 30
mg/kg (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970) to zectran
when the mammals were given the stated dosages
orally in a capsule.
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 3.0 mgAg;
for pheasants, 4.5 mg/kg; for young chukar par-
tridges, 5.2 mg/kg; for young coturnix, 3.2 mg/kg;
for sharp-tailed grouse, 10.0 mg/kg; for pigeons
(Golumba lima), 6.5 mg/kg; for young mourning
doves, 2.8 mg/kg; for house sparrows, 50.4 mgAg;
for house finches, 4.8 mg/kg; for Canada geese, 2.6
mgAg; and for lesser sandhill cranes, 1.0 to 4.5
mgAg to zectran when the birds were fed the
stated dosages orally in capsules (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970). The LC50 for mallards was 320 to
350 ppm and for pheasants, 830 to 900 ppm of
zectran in diets of 2-week-old birds when fed
treated feed for 5 days followed by clean feed for
3 days (Heath et al., 1970a). Note the disparity
between these results and those of Tucker and
Crabtree.
Zectran and its metabolites were also found to
cause a syndrome in mallard ducks much like dia-
betes mellitus (USDI, 1966).
Fishes
The LC5o for various fish to zectran is found in
table 54.
The LD50 for various arthropods to zectran is
found in table 55.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus and
Daphnia pulex, to zectran was 13 ppb and 10 ppb,
respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
TABLE 54. The LCso for various fish to zectran.
Fish Species Exposure
Time (hr)
Rainbow trout_ _
Coho salmon
Yellow perch. _
Brown trout
Rainbow trout
Bluegill
Channel catfish
Carp
Largemouth bass
Black bullhead. _
Redear sunfish _
Fathead minnow
Goldfish
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
LCjo Source
(ppm)
8 FWJ
1. 73 Maw
M(
19'
2.48
8. 1
10. 2
11. 2
11.4
13.4
14. 7
16. 7
16. 7
17.0
19. 14
CA, 1968
,k and
jAllister,
ro
TABLE 55. The LCso for various arthropods to zectran.
Arthropod Species
Stonefly (Pteronarcys
californica)
Amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris)
Waterflea {Daphnia
pulex)
Stonefly (P.
californica)
Amphipod (G.
lacustris)
Exposure LCto
Time (hr) (ppm)
24 0. 032
24 0. 086
48 0. 010
48 0. 016
48 0. 076
Source
Sanders and
Cope, 1968
Sanders, 1969
PWPCA, 1968
(i
«
Amphibians
The LD50 for bullfrogs was 283 to 800 mgAg to
zectran when the frogs were given the stated dos-
ages orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970).
Fishes
ZINC CHLORIDE
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to zinc chlo-
ride was 0.17 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
75
-------
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84
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PART
Herbicides
ACROLEIN
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 46 mg/kg to acrolein
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask, 1969).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to acrolein
was 0.14 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
AMETRYNE
Mammals
The L/D50 for rats was 1,110 mg/kg and for mice,
965 mg/kg to ametryne when the mammals were
fed the stated dosages orally (WSA, 1967).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
ametryne was 3,400 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Spot exposed to 1.0 ppm of ametryne for 48
hours showed no noticeable effects (Butler, 1963).
Molluscs
Eastern oysters exposed to 1.0 ppm of ametryne
for 96 hours exhibited no restriction of shell
growth (Butler, 1963).
Arthropods
When brown shrimp were exposed to 1.0 ppm
of ametryne for 48 hours, a 10-percent mortality
or paralysis resulted (Butler, 1963).
AMIBEN
Mammals
The LD60 for the rat was 5,620 mg/kg to amiben
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(PCOC, 1966).
Persistence
Amiben applied at 2 to 5 Ib/A persisted in soil
for >6 weeks (Ascheman, 1963), and when ap-
plied to soil (concentration not stated) persisted
for about 3 months (Kearney, Nash and Isensee,
1969).
a-AMINO-2,6-DICHLORO-BENZALDOXINE
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to «-amino-
2,6-dichloro-benzaldoxine and its hydrochloride
formulation was 330 ppm and 240 ppm, respec-
tively (Alabaster, 1969).
85
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AMITROLE
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 5,000 mg/kg to amitrole
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (USDA, 1967 in House et al., 1967).
degradation was not hindered by the presence of
dalapon (Kaufman, 1966). The phytotoxic resi-
dues of both dalapon and amitrole persisted in the
soil longer applied in combination than applied
separately. Dalapon, especially, disappeared more
slowly when amitrole also had been applied to the
soil.
Birds
The LD50 for mallard ducks was > 2,000 mg/kg
to amitrole when the ducks were given the stated
dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970). The LC50 for mallards was > 5,000 ppm;
for pheasants, >5,000 ppm; and for coturnix,
> 5,000 ppm of amitrole in diets of 2-week-old
birds when fed treated feed for 5 days followed
by clean feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970).
Several species of birds survived when fed diets
containing as much as 5,000 ppm of various her-
bicides; however, amitrole was found to depress
reproduction in mallard ducks fed dosages at least
25 percent below those which would produce mor-
tality (USDI, 1962).
Persistence
Amitrole applied at 20 ppm persisted at detect-
able levels in soil for 7 weeks (Burschel and Freed,
1959).
Amitrole applied at a rate of 2 to 10 Ib/A to
moist loam was found to persist for 3 to 5 weeks
with little or no leaching, under summertime con-
ditions in a temperate climate (Klingman, 1961).
Amitrole applied at a rate of 1.0 ppm persisted
in the water for more than 201 days with signifi-
cant quantities of the herbicide being detected in
the hydrosoil (Grzenda, Nicholson and Cox,
1966).
Fishes
Hiltibran (1967) reported that bluegill, green
sunfish, lake chub-sucker, and smallmouth bass fry
survived a concentration of 50 ppm of amitrole
for 8 days or the termination of the experiment.
The estimated 48-hour LC50 to salmon was
3,250 ppm for amitrole (Bohmont, 1967).
Arthropods and Nematodes
The median immobilization concentration for
amitrole to Daphnia magna was 23 ppm (Crosby
and Tucker, 1966).
Courtney, Peabody and Austenson (1962) re-
ported that amitrole applied at a rate of 5 Ib/A
in bentgrass reduced the number of nematodes in
the bentgrass by 49 percent.
Microorganisms
The microbial degradation of dalapon was
inhibited in the presence of amitrole, but amitrole
AMMONIUM THIOCYANATE
Mammals
Ammonium thiocyanate used as both a fun-
gicide and herbicide was observed to be effective
in repelling porcupines (Welch, 1954 in Springer,
1957). Livestock reportedly avoided eating treated
vegetation (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
A concentration of 200 ppm ammonium thio-
cyanate proved lethal to fish in Russian studies
(Demyanenko, 1941 in Springer, 1957).
Persistence
Ammonium thiocyanate applied at 520 ppm
persisted at detectable levels in soil for 6 to 8
weeks (Newton and Paul, 1935).
86
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AMS
Birds
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 3,900 mg/kg to AMS
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to AMS was
1,250 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Persistence
AMS in soil persisted for 1 to 3 months (Hurd-
Karrer, 1946).
ASULAM
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 5,000 mg/kg to asulam
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to asulam
(potassium salt) was 5,200 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
The LD50 for mallards was > 2,000 mg/kg to
atrazine when the birds were given the stated dos-
age orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970). The LC50 for mallards was >5,000 ppm;
for pheasants, >5,000 ppm; and for bobwhites,
700 to 800 ppm of atrazine in diets of 2-week-old
birds when fed treated feed for 5 days followed by
untreated feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
atrazine was 12,600 ppb (FWPCA, 1968). The 24-
hour LC50 for harlequin fish to atrazine was 0.55
ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Spot exposed to 1.0 ppm of atrazine for 48 hours
exhibited no deleterious effects (Butler, 1963).
Hiltibran (1967) reported that bluegill and
green sunfish fry survived a concentration of 10
ppm of atrazine (wettable powder) for 8 days or
the termination of the experiment.
Molluscs
After the application of atrazine at dosages of
0.5 to 2.0 ppm to pond enclosures, clams were re-
duced to about y8 their original number, whereas
the snail population increased nearly 4 times
(Walker, 1962).
The exposure of eastern oysters to 1.0 ppm of
atrazine for 96 hours had no noticeable effect on
shell growth (Butler, 1963).
ATRAZINE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 3,080 mg/kg and for
the mouse, 1,750 mg/kg to atrazine when the mam-
mals were fed the stated dosages orally (WSA,
1967).
Arthropods, Annelids, and Other Invertebrates
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (Daphnia
magna) exposed to atrazine was 3,600 ppb
(FWPCA, 1968).
The following species of bottom organisms were
reduced by at least 50 percent after the applica-
tion of atrazine in dosages ranging from 0.5 to 2
ppm: waterbugs, mayfly nymphs, horsefly larvae,
common midges (Tendipedidae), mosquitoes,
87
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phantom midges, biting midges, caddice fly
larvae, aquatic worms (Oligochaeta), and leeches
(Walker, 1962). In contrast, damselfly nymphs
and water beetles actually doubled their numbers
after the application.
Brown shrimp, exposed to 1.0 ppm of atrazine
for 48 hours, experienced 30-percent mortality or
paralysis (Butler, 1963).
In plots treated with normal dosages (2 to 4
Ib/A in WSA, 1967) of atrazine, wireworms, earth-
worms, and springtails declined in numbers,
whereas the numbers of mites and millipedes re-
mained about the same (Fox, 1964). The author
pointed out that it was possible that the changes
in soil fauna were due to changes in the composi-
tion of the vegetation and not due to the direct
effects of atrazine.
Edwards (1964) reported that atrazine at nor-
mally recommended dosages did not cause a sig-
nificant reduction in the numbers of soil animals.
Microorganisms
Some acceleration of nitrification was observed
in soil treated with atrazine, but the total produc-
tion of nitrates did not increase (Balicka and
Sobieszczanski, 1969a in Balicka, 1969).
During 4 years of applying atrazine at a rate of
5.4 Ib/A, no change in the number of microorga-
nisms in the soil was found, regardless of the
medium used for microorganism determination
(Balicka and Sobieszczanski, 1969b in Balicka,
1969).
Atrazine at normal dosages (2 to 4 Ib/A in
WSA, 1967) in soil caused an increase in the num-
ber of Azotobacter (Balicka, 1969).
Persistence
Atrazine applied at 2 Ib/A persisted in soil for
17 months (Talbert and Fletchall, 1964).
Plants
AZIDE
Synergism between atrazine at !/4 Ib/A and each
of the following herbicides was detected: daxtron
at % oz/A, lasso at 4 oz/A, diphenamid at 2 oz/A,
nitralin at 1 oz/A, 2,4-D at 1 oz/A, trifluralin at
2 oz/A, nitralin and daxtron at 1 + V2 oz/A, and
diphenamid and trifluralin at 2+2 oz/A (Lynch,
Sweet and Dickerson, 1970). These combinations
were found to be from 2 to 19 times more effective
against the bean test-plant than atrazine and oil
alone.
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to azide
(potassium) and azide (sodium) was 1,400 and
980 ppb, respectively (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
The LC50 for various arthropods to azide is
found in table 56.
TABLE 56. The LC50 for various arthropods to azide.
Formulation
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCto
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Sodium
Potassium,
Sodium
Potassium.
Stonefly (Pteronarcys calijornica).
" (P. californica)
Amphipod (Gammarus lacustris)
" (G- lacustris)
24 16 Sanders and Cope, 1968
24 22 "
48 9 FWPCA, 1968
48 10
88
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BARBAN
BORAX
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 1,350 mg/kg to barban
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask, 1969).
Mammals
The LDSO for the rat was 5,330 mg/kg to borax
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask, 1969).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to barban
was 1.5 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to borax was
2,800 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Persistence
Barban applied to soil persisted at detectable
levels for about 2 months (Kearney, Nash and
Isensee, 1969).
BENAZOLIN
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 3,000 mg/kg to benazo-
lin when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC3o for harlequin fish to benazolin
was 108 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
BROMOXYNIL
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 190 mg/kg to bro-
moxynil when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask,
1969).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to bro-
moxynil (potassium salt) was 64 ppm (Alabaster,
1969).
CACODYLIC ACID
BENEFIN
Mammals
The LD50 for new-born rats was 800 mg/kg to
benefin when the mammals were fed the stated
dosage orally (USDA, 1967).
Birds
The LD50 for young female mallards was > 2,000
mg/kg to benefin when the birds were given the
stated dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970).
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 1,280 to 1,400 mg/kg
to cacodylic acid when the mammal was fed the
stated dosages orally (House et al., 1967).
Fishes
TJSDI (1966b) reported that cacodylic acid at
40 ppm had no effect on the longnose killifish dur-
ing a 48-hour exposure.
The LD50 for mosquito fish and tail light shiners
approached 1,000 ppm for cacodylic acid (Oliver,
Parsons and Huffstetler, 1966). Largemouth bass,
fed for 2 weeks on mosquito fish exposed to 1,000
89
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ppm cacodylic acid for 24 hours, appeared to be
unaffected by the treatment.
Mosquito fish, largemouth bass, and taillight
shiners exposed to concentrations of 100 ppm of
cacodylic acid for 72 hours survived well. Some
mortality was observed when concentrations
reached 631 ppm with an exposure time of 72
hours (Oliver, 1966).
Amphibians
The 48-hour LC50 for Bufo tadpoles was between
100 and 1,000 ppm cacodylic acid (Oliver, Parsons
and Huffstetler, 1966).
(Oliver, Parsons and Huffstetler, 1966). Applica-
tions of 30 Ib/A to hammock communities killed
or defoliated all the exposed plants. Grassland
plots treated with 30 Ib/A, however, did show
some regrowth and recovery after 4 weeks. Algal
productivity was reduced in the aquatic habitats
at concentrations of cacodylic acid above 2 Ib/A.
Persistence
Cacodylic acid appears to break down rapidly
within the soil (House et al., 1967 and WSA,
1967). No time was given and the breakdown
products were not listed.
Molluscs
The exposure of the eastern oyster to 40 ppm
of cacodylic acid for 48 hours had no noticeable
effect (TJSDI, 1966b).
Arthropods
Cacodylic acid at 40 ppm had no effect on pink
shrimp during a 48-hour exposure (TJSDI, 1966b).
Two species of dragonfly nymphs (Pantala sp.
and Gynacantha nervosa), exposed for up to 72
hours to 1,000 ppm of cacodylic acid, showed no
noticeable effects (Oliver, Parsons and Huffstetler,
1966).
Chansler and Pierce (1966) reported that caco-
dylic acid injected at a rate of 1 to 2 ml per injec-
tion at 2-inch intervals around the trunk killed
bark beetles (Dendroctonus adjunctus, T). obesus,
D. ponderosae. and D. pseudotsugar}. The trees
were injected with the herbicide soon after the
beetles had attacked the tree and before most of the
eggs had hatched. The beetles died before con-
structing their egg galleries. Some of the eggs
failed to hatch, and a high brood mortality oc-
curred. The exact mode of action is not known, but
they suspect that the cambium may be killed, caus-
ing the death of the beetles, or the herbicide may
have direct insecticidal properties.
Plants
The sandhill biotic community underwent sig-
nificant modification of its flora when cacodylic
acid application rates were 6 Ib/A or greater
CDAA
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 750 mgAg to CDAA
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(WSA, 1967).
Microorganisms
At normal application rates (4 to 5 Ib/A for
most uses in WSA, 1967) CDAA reduced soil nitri-
fication based on laboratory tests (Otten, Dawson
and Schreiber, 1957). However, CDAA did not
affect the microorganisms (/Streptomyces) when
applied at rates from 6 to 300 Ib/A (Bounds and
Colmer, 1964).
Persistence
CDAA applied at 8 Ib/A persisted at detectable
levels in soil for 6 weeks (Gantz and Slife, 1960).
At rates of 4 to 5 Ib/A CDAA persisted at de-
tectable levels in soil for 3 to 6 weeks, with the
longer persistence in the heavier soils (WSA,
1967).
CDEC
Mammals
The LDr,0 for the rat was 850 mg/kg to CDEC
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(TJSDI, 1970b).
90
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Microorganisms
Fishes
CDEC at normal application rates (2 to 6 Ib/A
in WSA, 1967) did not affect soil nitrification
based on laboratory tests (Otten, Dawson and
Schreiber, 1957).
Persistence
CDEC applied at 8 Ib/A persisted at detectable
levels in soil for 6 weeks (Gantz and Slife, 1960).
At 4 Ib/A CDEC persisted at detectable levels
for about 3 to 6 weeks in soil, depending upon soil
type and rainfall (WSA, 1967).
CHLOREA
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to Chlorea
was 1,150 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
The LC50 for killifish to chloroxuron was >50
ppm (WSA, 1967). No exposure time was given.
Chloroxuron at 0.4 ppm did not cause mortality in
fathead minnows and had no effect on their re-
production at 8 weeks after treatment (WSA,
1967).
CHLORPROPHAM
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 1,500 mg/kg to chlor-
propham when the mammal was fed the stated dos-
age orally (USDI, 1970b).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was > 2,000 mg/kg
to chlorpropham when the birds were given the
stated dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970).
CHLORFLURAZOLE
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to chlor-
flurazole was 0.13 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
CHLOROXURON
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 3,700 mg/kg and for
the dog, > 10,000 mg/kg to chloroxuron when the
mammals were fed the stated dosages orally
(WSA, 1967).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was > 2,000 mg/
kg to chloroxuron when the birds were given the
stated dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970).
Fishes
Davis and Hardcastle (1959) found that bluegill
exposed in Ouachita River water had a 24-hour
LC50 of 10 ppm to chlorpropham. In a later study,
Hughes and Davis (1962) reported a 24-hour LC50
for bluegill to chlorpropham at 20.0 ppm (liquid
formulation) and 10.0 ppm (granular formula-
tion) .
Annelids
Chlorpropham applied at 1.8 Ib/A had no effect
on AHolobophora catiginosa, but destroyed 32 per-
cent of Lumbriciis castaneus (earthworms) (Van
der Drift, 1963).
Plants
Sublethal dosages (1 Ib/A) of chlorpropham
applied to the weed species Eup-atoriwm macula-
tum and Impatiens biflora caused an increase in
the nitrate content of these plants by 62 percent
(8.9 mg/g dry weight to 14.9 mg/g) and 30 per-
cent, respectively (Frank and Grigsby, 1957).
These high nitrate concentrations were sufficient to
91
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cause nitrate poisoning in livestock if consumed
in large enough quantities. In contrast, the chlor-
propham treatment caused a 1- to 63-percent re-
duction in nitrate content of 4 other species of
weeds.
Microorganisms
Based on laboratory tests, at normal application
rates (2 to 8 Ib/A in WSA, 1967) chlorpropham
reduced soil nitrification (Otten, Dawson and
Schreiber, 1957), and chlorpropham at 80 ppm
completely stopped the growth of nitrifying micro-
organisms (Hale, Hulcher and Chappell, 1957).
The herbicide chlorpropham, applied at rates
exceeding 9.0 to 14.4 Ib/A, reduced the activity of
ammonifying and nitrifying bacteria and the
number of Azotobacter and Clostridiwm, pasteuri-
amm in the soil (Geller and Khariton, 1961).
However, in another study chlorpropham applied
at 6 to 300 Ib/A did not affect the soil microor-
ganisms (Streptomyces) (Bounds and Colmer,
1964).
Chlorpropham at normal application rates did
not change nitrification in soil (Balicka and
Sobieszczanski, 1969a in Balicka, 1969) ; however,
the number of Azotobacter did increase in the
treated soil (Balicka, 1969).
It was interesting to note that cellulose decom-
position in soil was impaired by chlorpropham
(Sobieszczanski, 1969 in Balicka, 1969).
Persistence
Chlorpropham applied at 4 ppm persisted at
detectable levels in soil for 7 weeks (Burschel and
Freed, 1959).
Chlorpropham applied at a rate of 4 to 8 Ib/A
to moist-loam soil persisted for 3 to 5 weeks with
little or no leaching, under summertime conditions
in a temperate climate (Klingman, 1961).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to chlor-
thiamid (91 percent) was 41 ppm (Alabaster,
1969).
4-CPA
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to 4-CPA
was 90 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Persistence
4-CPA applied at 25 ppm persisted at detect-
able levels in soil for 27 days (Burger, MacEae
and Alexander, 1962).
CYTROL AMITROLE-T
Fishes
Cope (1963) reported that the 96-hour LC50 for
bluegills to Cytrol Amitrole-T was 10,000 ppm;
and Swabey and Schenk (1963) reported that the
24-hour LC5o for Lake Emerald shiner in medium-
hard water was 455 ppm to Cytrol Amitrole-T.
Plants
Vance and Smith (1969) reported that Cytrol
Amitrole-T at dosages of 150 to 200 ppm inhibited
the growth of 3 species of algae from 30 to 70
percent. Chlamydomonas eugametos appeared to
be less sensitive to Cytrol Amitrole-T than Scene-
de-imus quadricauda and Chlorella pyrenoidosa.
CHLORTHIAMID
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 757 mg/kg to chlor-
thiamid when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Persistence
Cytrol Amitrole-T applied at 2 Ib/A was found
in streamwater at 400 ppb immediately after
spraying (Norris, 1967). Within 10 hours the con-
centration had dropped to less than 4 ppb; no
Cytrol Amitrole-T was detectable 3 days after
treatment.
92
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2,4-D
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 666 mg/kg; for the
mouse, 375 mg/kg; for the rabbit, 800 mg/kg;
for the dog, 100 mg/kg; and for the guinea pig,
1,000 mg/kg to 2,4-D when the mammals were fed
the stated dosages orally (Spector, 1955). The
LD50 of 2,4-D for mule deer was given at 400 to
800 mg/kg when fed orally in capsules (Tucker
and Crabtree, 1970).
Corn plants grown in soil treated with 2,4-D
as a pre-emergent treatment (1 to 3 Ib/A) were
more attractive (about 33 percent more were de-
stroyed) to mice than plants grown in untreated
soils (Raleigh and Patterson, 1948). Most of the
plants at the time of injury were in the three-leaf
stage and about 3 inches tall, but only the kernel
of the dug plants was eaten.
Vegetation treated with 2,4-D (alkanolamine
salt) in a 5-percent solution repelled cattle
(Grigsby and Farwell, 1950).
2,4-D has been reported to repel some mammals
(Eichter, 1952 in Springer, 1957). For example,
cottontail rabbits given a choice of feeding on
2,4-D-treated vegetation or untreated vegetation
ate almost none of the treated vegetation.
Treating vegetation with herbicides may alter
the plant species composition, and thus the suit-
ability of the habitat for certain mammals. For
"example, spraying mountain rangeland in Colo-
rado with 2,4-D resulted in seA^eral changes in the
normal vegetational types and, in turn, in the
mammals after one year: (1) the production of
perennial forbs was reduced 83 percent, and grass
production increased 37 percent after treatment;
(2) the diet of pocket gophers changed from 82-
percent forbs to 50-percent forbs, and changed
from 18-percent grass to 50-percent grass; and
(3) the pocket gopher population was reduced 87
percent (Keith, Hansen and Ward, 1959). The
suggested reasons for the decline in number of
gophers were a depletion in the amount of essen-
tial food plants and nitrate poisoning.
In an investigation of the effect of sagebrush
control by 2,4-D on use of vegetation by cattle
and wildlife in Colorado, Anderson (1960) re-
ported few changes in animal use during the short
period of one year. He reported a small decrease
in deer use in some of the treated areas. Anderson
recommended that to be able to evaluate fully the
effect of sagebrush eradication on deer, sage grouse,
rabbits, and other animals, the investigation be
carried on for several years.
2,4-D and 2,4,5-T at 4, 8, 12, and 16 Ib/A im-
proved deer browse by killing off tops of the taller
trees and stimulating regrowth at the bases
(Krefting and Hansen, 1963). Both herbicides
proved most effective at the 12-lb dosage, and 2,4-D
was significantly better than 2,4,5-T. The deer
showed no preference for either untreated or herbi-
cide-stimulated branch growth.
Lundholm (1970) reported that about 40 per-
cent of a reindeer herd of 600 died in April and
May, 1970, when they fed on coniferous vegetation
which had been treated on July 12, 1969, with a
mixture of 2,4-D (2 parts) and 2,4,5-T (1 part)
at a rate of about 2.5 Ib/A. Also, 40 of the reindeer
aborted their young. Analyses revealed that the
coniferous leaves from the area during April and
May contained 25 ppm of 2,4-D and 10 ppm of
2,4,5-T.
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was »1,000
(acid) mg/kg; for young mallards, »2,025
(sodium salt) mg/kg; for young pheasants, 472
(acid) mg/kg; for young coturnix, 668 (acid)
mg/kg; and for pigeons (Columba tivia), 668
(acid) mg/kg to 2,4-D when the birds were given
the stated dosages orally in a capsule (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970). The LC50 for mallards was
>5,000 ppm; for pheasants, >5,000 ppm; for bob-
whites, >5,000 ppm; and for coturnix, >5,000
ppm of 2,4-D (BEE and dimethylamine salt) in
diets of 2-week-old birds when fed treated feed for
5 days followed by untreated feed for 3 days
(Heath et al., 1970).
2,4-D influenced egg production in chickens ex-
posed for 14 days to grass sprayed daily with
2,4-D (32-percent acid) at 14 oz/gal of water and
2i/2 oz/gal (Dobson, 1954). The lower 2,4-D
treatment led to a 22-percent reduction in egg
yield and the higher dosage, to only an 8-percent
reduction, but there was no change in the fertility
or hatchability of the eggs, nor did the chickens
lose any weight. 2,4-D was also found in one test to
depress total reproduction of mallard ducks when
fed daily at rates of 1,250 and 2,500 ppm, and in
another test at the same dosages reproduction was
about 80-percent suppressed (USDI, 1970a).
423-8O2 O—7'1-
-------
Wild turkeys used the treated right-of-way
areas (2,4-D and 2,4,5-T) (Bramble and Byrnes,
1958). The young turkeys were attracted to the
openings to feed on various insects more abundant
on the grassy right-of-way than within the
wooded areas.
Fishes
See table 57 for the LC50 for various fish to
2,4-D.
Spot were able to survive a 48-hour exposure to
50 ppm of 2,4-D without any deleterious effect
(Butler, 1963).
In laboratory experiments 2,4-D was not toxic
to bluegill or largemouth bass at 1 ppm, and only
slightly toxic at 100 ppm (King and Penfound,
1946). Then Hiltibran (1967) reported that blue-
gill, green sunfish, and smallmouth bass fry sur-
vived a concentration of 10 ppm of 2,4-D (ethyl-
hexy ester) for 8, 4, and 5 days, respectively, in an
experiment lasting 8 days.
In India 2,4-D applied at a rate of 2.5 percent
in 100 gallons/A killed 5 percent of the tadpoles,
1.6 percent of the Rahu fish fry, and 3.2 percent
of the katla fish fry (Sen, 1957). However, no mor-
tality was observed in native fish in an east-coast
estuary when 2,4-D was applied at a rate of 30
Ib/A (Beaven, Rawls and Beckett, 1962). Rawls in
later investigations (1965) found that 2,4-D aceta-
mide applied to an estuary at 20 Ib/A killed all
the caged fish (mostly pumpkinseed) within 30
days. 2,4-D butyl ester (BE) or isooctyl ester
(IOE) formulations caused little or no mortality
to the fish, and these formulations were judged as
safe for use against milfoil in marshes.
Mortality among bluegills ranged from 19 to 100
percent in ponds treated with 10 ppm of 2,4-D
(Wallen, 1963). Spawning was delayed for 2 weeks
in the ponds with 10 ppm; however, fry produc-
tion appeared to be essentially the same at 10, 5,1,
0.5, and 0.1 ppm of 2,4-D.
Bluegills were found to convert the herbicide
2,4-DB to 2,4-D (Gutenmann and Lisk, 1965).
Young silver salmon when exposed to a com-
bination of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T (about 10 percent of
each chemical in the combined formulation) at
concentrations of 50 ppm or more were observed
to be "immediately distressed and would snap their
jaws, dart about the aquarium, and leap out of the
water before loss of equilibrium and death" (Hol-
land et al., 1960).
The LC50 for bluegill to 2,4-D formulations is
presented in table 58 (Hughes and Davis, 1963).
The ester formulations appeared to be most toxic
to the fish, probably due to more effective penetra-
tion. Hughes and Davis did not attempt to explain
the wide variation in results obtained from the
different batch lots of the same formulation.
A group of experimental ponds were treated
with 2,4-D at concentrations of 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, and
10 ppm (Cope, Wood and Wallen, 1970). About 19
percent of the bluegills died within 8 days with
TABLE 57. The LC50 for various fish to 2,4-D.
Formulation
Fish Species
Exposure
Time (hr)
o (ppm)
Source
Butyl Ester
Oleic-l,-propylene diamine .
Butyl Ester
Butyl Ester
Amine _ _ _ _
Ethylhexy Ester
Ethylhexy Ester
Sodium Salt
Isopropyl
Propylene Glycol Butyl Ether Ester
Butyl Ester
Mixed Butyl and Isopropyl Esters
Butoxyethanol Ester .
Harlequin fish
BluegilL. ...
Bluegill _.
Bluegill_.
Rainbow trout.-
Rainbow trout. . .. .
Lake Emerald shiner..
Lake Emerald shiner ..
Harlequin fish_ _ __
Bluegill.-
Rainbow trout. _ . ..
Rainbow trout
Bluegill ...
Bluegill ...
Bluegill ...
BluegilL- ... ...
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
1. 0
4.0
4.9
10
250
250
280
620
1, 160
0. 8
0. 96
1. 1
1. 3
1. 5
2. 1
3.7
Alabaster, 1969
Davis and Hughes,
ii
u
Alabaster, 1956
Alabaster, 1969
Swabey and Schenl
«
Alabaster, 1969
FWPCA, 1968
Bohmout, 1967
FWPCA, 1968
t(
tt
Bohmont, 1967
1963
t, 1963
-------
the highest concentration. At 5 ppm and below
mortality was negligible. Growth in weight was
nearly 3 times that of the control fish in the pond
treated with 10 ppm of 2,4-D. Growth at the other
2,4-D concentrations was also greater than in the
control, but not as great as in the 10-ppm concen-
tration. The most severe pathologic lesions were
observed in fish at the highest concentrations, and
this lasted for nearly 84 days. The pathologic
effects involved the liver, vascular system, and
brain.
TABLE 58. The LC5o for bluegill to 2,4-D formulations,
including different batches of same formulation (Hughes
and Davis, 1963).
Formulation
LCjo (Acid Equiv. ppm)
24 hr 48 hr
2,4-D
Alkanolamine, ethanol and isopropanol
series
Alkanolamine, ethanol and isopropanol
series
Alkanolamine, ethanol and isopropanol
series
Dimethylamine
Dimethylamine
Dimethylamine
Dimethylamine
Dimethylamine
Dimethylamine
Di-N,-V-dimethylcocoamine
2,4-D acid, with emulsifiers
Isooctyl ester
Isooctyl ester
Isooctyl ester
Propylene glycol butyl ether ester
Butoxyethanol ester
Butyl ester
Mixed butyl and isopropyl esters
Mixed butyl and isopropyl esters.
Isopropyl ester
Ethyl ester
900
588
450
542
500
390
273
220
166
1.5
8.0
66.3
36.0
8.8
2. 1
2. 1
1. 3
1.7
1.6
0.9
1.4
840
530
435
458
416
353
273
220
166
1.5
8. 0
59. 7
36.0
8. 8
2. 1
2. 1
1. 3
1.7
1. 5
0.8
1. 4
In laboratory experiments conducted by Mr.
Jack Lowe, fish were exposed to 2,4-D and carbaryl
(no dosage given) for 1 to 5 months (Butler,
1969). The exposed fish grew as well as the con-
trols and had little mortality; however, careful
examination revealed massive invasions of the cen-
tral nervous system of the test fish by what ap-
peared to be a microsporidian parasite. The
author suggested that the pesticides lowered the
natural resistance of the fish to parasite attack.
An investigation of the persistence of 2,4-D in
fish revealed that 50 percent of the chemical was
lost in <1 week (Macek, 1969).
Amphibians
At 0.5-percent solution 2,4-D was found to in-
hibit the development of frog (Rana temporaries)
eggs (Lhoste and Eoth, 1946).
The 24-hour LC50 for chorus frog tadpoles ex-
posed to 2,4-D was 100 ppm (Sanders, 1970).
Molluscs
The exposure of eastern oysters to 2.0 ppm of
2,4-D acid for 96 hours had no effect on shell
growth (Butler, 1963).
Two weeks after an estuary in Virginia was
treated with 2,4-D at a rate of 10 Ib/A for milfoil
(Haven, 1963), there was a significant reduction
in the numbers of a small mollusc (Macoma
Tjaltica), and the population remained low for some
3 months. Haven felt that the reduction of the
mollusc population was due to the decay of the
milfoil and associated anaerobic conditions, and
not directly to the herbicide.
Field application of 2,4-D with dosages as high
as 120 Ib/A did not affect caged eastern oysters
and clams in the treated areas (USDI, 1962).
Beaven, Rawls and Beckett (1962) also found
2,4-D safe for eastern oysters and soft-shell clams
when applied at a rate of 30 Ib/A. However, Rawls
(1965) found that 2,4-D acetamide applied to an
estuary at 20 Ib/A killed all the caged eastern
oysters and soft-shell clams within 30 days. But
Rawls did find that 2,4-D BE and IOE formula-
tions were safe for these molluscs.
Arthropods, Annelids, and Other Invertebrates
The LC50 for 2,4-D tested against the fiddler crab
(Uca pugnax) at different times and dosages was
as follows: 5,000 ppm for 96 hours, 2,500 ppm for
10 days, and 1,000 ppm for 17 days (Sudak and
Claff,1960).
The LCSO for various arthropods to 2,4-D is
found in table 59.
The minimum lethal concentrations (ppm) of
2,4-D which produced a kill of fish-food organisms
exceeding 25 percent are the following: Daphnia,
0.2; Eucypris, 0.6; Hyattella, 0.6; Palaemonetes,
95
-------
TABLE 59. The LC50 for various arthropods to 2,4-D.
Formulation
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso (ppm)
Time (hr)
Source
Butoxyethanol ester Amphipod (Gammarus lacustvis)
Propylene glycol butyl ester " (G. lacustris)
Ilsooctyl ester " (G. lacustris)
Butyl ester Stonefly
Dimethylamine Amphipod
Butoxyethanol ester_ Stonefly
(Pieronarcys californica)
(P. californica)
(G. lacustris
(P. californica)
Propylene glycol butyl ether ester__ Amphipod (G. lacustris)
Propylene g'100
1, 800
1,800
3,200
Sanders, 1969
Sanders and Cope, 1968
it
Sanders, 1969
FWPCA, 1968
0.8; Amphiagrion, 3.0; Pachydiplax and Tramea,
4.5; C'ulex, Aedes, and Anopheles, 3.5; Chirono-
mus, 1.0; Physa, 5.5; and Helisoma, 7.5 (Zischkale,
1952).
Brown shrimp exposed to 2.0 ppm of 2,4-D for
48 hours showed a 10-percent mortality or paraly-
sis (Butler, 1963). The median immobilization
concentration of 2,4—D to Daphnia magna was
found to be 100 ppm (Crosby and Tucker, 1966).
This concentration for D. magna is about 500 times
greater than that given for Daphnia above. There
is no explanation given.
Two weeks after an estuary in Virginia was
treated for milfoil control with 2,4-D at 10 Ib/A,
there was a significant reduction in the numbers
of an amphipod (Leptocheriu$ plumulosus)
(Haven, 1963), and the population remained low
for some 3 months (see comment under Molluscs).
No mortality was observed in native crabs ex-
posed to 2,4-D applied at a rate of 30 Ib/A
(Beaven, Eawls and Beckett, 1962). Furthermore,
field applications of 2,4-D as high as 120 Ib/A did
not kill caged blue crabs (USDI, 1962). Eawls
(1965), however, found that 2,4-D acetamide ap-
plied to an estuary at 20 Ib/A killed all the caged
blue crabs within 30 days. But the 2,4-D BE or
IOE formulations caused little or no mortality to
the test animals, and these formulations were
judged safe for use against milfoil in the marshes.
2,4-D applied at rates of 20 and 40 Ib/A did not
significantly influence the numbers or weight of
bottom invertebrates (Hooper, 1958). However,
Walker (1962) reported the following bottom
organisms were reduced 50 percent or more one
week after treatment with 2,4-D (1 to 4 ppm) :
mayfly nymphs, horsefly nymphs, common midges,
phantom midges, biting midges, caddice fly larvae,
water beetles, aquatic worms, and leeches (plus
clams and snails). In another investigation no sig-
nificant changes in numbers of burrowing mayflies
(Hemagenia) were measured after the treatment
of the reservoirs with 100 Ib (1 ppb in water) per
acre of 2,4-D (Smith and Isom, 1967). The conclu-
sion from these investigations was that low con-
centrations of 2,4-D (20 to 100 Ib/A, resulting in
about 1 ppb of 2,4-D) have little effect upon bot-
tom organisms.
Of mosquito larvae treated with 2,4-D at a rate
of 100 ppm in water, about three-fifths fewer
larvae as in the control reached the pupal state
(Smith and Isom, 1967). This study added further
evidence that 2,4-D is relatively non-toxic to some
invertebrate species.
Water treated with 40 to 100 pounds per acre of
2,4-D for control of water milfoil did not appear
to affect the aquatic fauna or water quality (Smith
and Isom, 1967).
Jones and Connell (1954) calculated the LD50
of 2,4-D fed orally to honeybees at 104.5 /xg/bee;
however, Beran and Neururer (1955) reported an
LD50 about %Q this level, or 11.525 /ug/bee.
Treating fields in New Zealand for ragwort con-
trol with 2,4-D at 3 Ib/A caused a 22-percent mor-
tality in honeybees working the treated field
(Palmer-Jones, 1964). Dusting bees with 2,4-D,
however, did not cause any mortality. Palmer-
Jones raised the question whether the toxicity ob-
served in the field was due to the 2,4-D dissolved
in the nectar or to the production of a toxic
metabolite secreted by the plant into the nectar.
2,4-D may also benefit bees, as reported by Beil-
mann (1950). The herbicide was used to restore bee
pasture along the side of the road by destroying
brush and other weeds, thus encouraging sweet
clover to regain its dominance.
96
-------
Fox (1964) reported that 2,4-D at 1 aijd 2 Ib/A
increased the wireworm (Otenicera aeripermis
destructor) damage to wheat. At 1 Ib/A 31 per-
cent of the wheat plants were killed, whereas in the
untreated check only 5 percent were killed. The
exact reason for the increased kill of wheat plants
is not known, but one proposed reason was that
2,4-D delayed the growth of plants, thus making
them more susceptible to wireworms.
Putnam (1949) reported that the number of
grasshoppers (Melanoplus mexicanus) per square
yard was about double in the 2,4-D (1 lb/A)-
treated plots: 59 per sq. yd. in the 2,4-D-treated,
compared with 30 per sq. yd. in the check. The
indications were that 2,4-D hastened the develop-
ment or increased the survival of the grasshoppers.
Dipping bean plants into 2,4-D at levels of 4.1
ppm increased aphid progeny production during
a 10-day period from 139 to 764 per aphid (Max-
well and Harwood, 1960). In other experiments
with a high dosage of 41.0 ppm of 2,4-D aphid pro-
duction was less stimulated than at the lower dos-
age of 4.1 ppm. Some amino acids were at higher
levels in the treated plants than in the untreated
plants, and this probably improved the food re-
source for the aphids.
The longevity of aphid adults and the growth
rate of grasshopper numphs appeared to be unaf-
fected by the 2,4-D treatments (Maxwell and Har-
wood, 1960).
Adams (1960) reported that 2,4-D sprayed at a
rate of i/2 Ib/A on coccinellid beetle larva© (Ooc-
cinella transversoguttata, C. perplexa, and Hip-
podamia tredecimpunctata), especially those in the
late larval stages, killed between 70 and 75 percent
of the animals. Also, the mean developmental time
of the treated larvae increased significantly, in
some cases from 16 to 27 days.
Aphids (primarily Rhopalosiphum padi) were
more abundant on oats in fields treated with 2,4-D
at 1/2 Ib/A (Adams and Drew, 1965). Aphid out-
breaks occurred, they suggested, because there were
fewer coccinellid predaceous-beetles present in the
treated areas, and the activity of the coccinellids
present was depressed.
Rice stem-borer larvae grew almost 45 percent
larger (35.1 mg on 2,4-D versus 24.4 mg for the
control larvae) during the 30-day experimental
period when rice plants on which the larvae fed
were treated with 2,4-D (Ishii and Hirano, 1963).
But when 2,4-D was added to sterilized rice stems
fed to the rice stem-borer, larval growth was not
improved. The explanation given by the authors
was that 2,4-D increased the introgenous level in
the growing rice plants, improving the plants as
food for the larvae.
No mortality occurred in earthworms when they
were immersed for 2 hours in concentrations of 0.1,
1.0,10.0, and 100 ppm of 2,4-D, but at 1,000.0 ppm
100-percent mortality occurred (Martin and Wig-
gans, 1959).
2,4-D at normal dosages did not affect the num-
bers of wireworms, springbails, mites, and other
micro-arthropods in soil (Van der Drift, 1963 and
Rapoport and Cangioli, 1963).
Red clover plants resistant to the nematode Di-
tylenchus dipsaci lost this resistance when the
plants were treated with 2,4-D (Webster and
Lowe, 1966). Susceptible clover plants were made
more attractive to nematodes after their treatment
with 2,4-D. Red clover is not a normal host to the
nematode AphelencTioides ritzemabosi. but the
uematode fed on the tissues treated with 2,4-D,
significantly increasing the nematode's rate of re-
production. Webster and Lowe also found that 2,4-
D greatly increased the reproduction of the
nematode A. ritsemabosi in lucerne callus. They
reported that soaking nematodes in 2,4-D solutions
up to 5 ppm did not harm them, but that concen-
trations of 50 ppm did suppress their reproduction.
Spraying 2,4-D at a rate of 140 mg/sq. yd. onto
nematode-susceptible and -resistant oats infested
with D. dipsaci increased the number of nematodes
per plant in both the resistant and susceptible cul-
tivars (Webster, 1967). The number of nematodes
was at least double in some treatments. Nematodes
did not reproduce on the unsprayed resistant oat
plants, whereas the nematodes associated with the
2,4-D treated plants produced a large number of
eggs. The evidence suggested that in treated plants
nematodes infesting the oats from the soil repro-
duced more than those inoculated directly into
the oats.
Plants
Concord grapes were most sensitive to 2,4-D, and
quantities as small as 0.0001 /*g placed on a young
leaf caused a malformation of from 4 to 6 leaves
(Clore and Bruns, 1953). However, the exposure
of phytoplanktoii to 1.0 ppm of 2,4-D for 4 hours
did not cause a decrease in growth (Butler, 1963).
A significant increase in protein content of the
grain was noted in wheat grown in 2,4-D treated
97
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plots (Helgeson, 1947). Treatments with 2,4-D also
increased the amount of protein in wheat in direct
relationship to the amount of 2,4-D used (Erick-
son, Seely and Klagas, 1948). At a dosage of 4.6
Ib/A the protein level in wheat was 15.5 percent,
whereas in the untreated control the protein level
was only 10.9 percent.
Beans grown as a second crop on the previously
2,4-D-treated soil were Observed to have a lower
level of protein than the control (Anderson and
Baker, 1950).
Nitrogen was higher in wheat grain treated with
2,4-D than in untreated grain (Pande, 1954). The
increase in nitrogen was associated with increasing
concentrations of 2,4-D (3.25 to 6.5 Ib/A). It is
interesting to note that the nitrogen level in wheat
also increased when weeds were hand-pulled from
the plots. Fults and Payne (1956) reported that
treating bean plants with 2,4-D spray (1,000 ppm)
caused a significant decrease in total free amino
acids, in contrast to an increase in total amino acid
in sugar beet and potato.
Willard (1950) reported that 2,4-D altered the
palatability of some plant species to animals, such
as livestock eating Canada thistle, velvet-leaf, jim-
son weeds, wild parsnip, sunflowers, round-leafed
mallow, and other unpalatable weeds. The ragwort
weed, highly toxic to cattle, had a marked increase
in sugar content after treatment with 2,4-D. The
high sugar content made the plants attractive to
cattle, but they were still highly toxic. Normally,
livestock and wildlife will not feed on ragwort
unless forced to do so.
A sugar-beet field was treated with a "sub-
lethal" dosage of 2,4-D by mistake (the farmer
treated with 2,4-D-contaminated toxaphene), re-
sulting in disfigured plants with a high level of
nitrate (Stabler and Whitehead, 1950). The 2,4-D
treatment increased the level of potassium nitrate
in the beets from 0.22 percent by dry weight to
4.50 percent. A 1.5-percent level is toxic to cattle.
Sublethal concentrations of 2,4-D caused the
level of potassium nitrate in Canada thistle and
Kussian pigweed to double (Berg and McElroy,
1953); in Canada thistle, 1.36 to 2.64 percent by
dry weight, and in Eussian pigweed, 2.45 to 4.38
percent. Sublethal spray applications of 2,4-D on
both mustard and sugar beet plants resulted in in-
creased levels of nitrates in the plants, but the in-
crease was not much above 10 percent in most
cases (Whitehead, Kersten and Jacobsen, 1956).
Pigweed, lambsquarter (Chenopodium), and
smartweed (Polygonum) were found to have ex-
tremely high levels of nitrate after treatment with
2,4-D (Olson and Whitehead, 1940 in Willard,
1950).
After the treatment of 9 species of weeds with
sublethal concentrations (0.25 Ib/A) of 2,4-D,
potassium nitrate content declined from 6 to 44
percent in 5 species and increased from 12 to 47
percent in the other 4 species (Frank and Grigsby,
1957). In Eupatorium maculatum the increase was
47 percent. The nitrate levels in these species and
several other species of plants were sufficiently
high to cause nitrate poisoning in livestock if con-
sumed in large enough quantities.
After buckwheat was sprayed with 50,100, 500,
and 1,000 ppm of 2,4-D the sugar values in the
stems and leaves increased and then fell to a very
low level by the eighth day after treatment (Wort,
1951). Total nitrogen and protein nitrogen in the
stems and roots increased with both time and con-
centration after the herbicide application.
Black cherry brush was treated until wet with
a concentration of 2,4-D at 2,000 ppm (Grigsby
and Ball, 1952). By the 15th day after treatment,
the hydrocyanic acid (HCN) present in the cherry
leaves had been reduced by about 88 percent (con-
trol 91.9 mg/100 g fresh wt.; 2,4-D treated= 11.3
mg/lOOg).
Swanson and Shaw (1954) demonstrated that
2,4-D caused an initial decrease in the quantity of
hydrocyanic acid in Sudan grass, but 4 days after
treatment there was an increase in HCN over the
controls. Results of their tests showed that the
hydrocyanic acid content of Sudan grass was in-
creased by 36 percent (control, HCN 36 mg/100
g fresh wt. versus 2,4-D 49 mg/100 g) in plots
treated with 1 Ib/A of 2,4-D. Note that the LD50
for sheep of HCN as a free glucoside is about 4.5
mg/kg body weight (Coop and Blakley, 1950).
Fertig (1953) reported that nitrate content of
lambsquarter and pigweed may increase as much
as 5.5 percent (dry weight). This would mean that
20 to 25 pounds of fresh green material would be
toxic to a 500-pound animal.
Plants receiving high levels of nitrogen were
more susceptible to 2,4-D than bean plants on
low-N (Freiburg and Clark, 1951). 2,4-D also
changed the absorbing capacity of bean-plant
roots, as indicated by the failure of the treated
plants to increase their content of total nitrogen,
including nitrates, after exposure of 2,4-D. The
treated bean plants showed a decrease in the per-
98
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centage of protein and nitrogen in the leaves, but
an increase in the stems and roots.
2,4-D applied to irrigation water at rates of 11
ppm caused tomato and cotton plants to grow
more vigorously, but injured tokay and Concord
grapes (Oborn, 1954).
Spraying 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T herbicides (2 quarts
2,4-D and 1 quart 2,4,5-T per 100 gallons of water)
at a height of 4 to 6 feet along a roadway caused
extensive damage to white, scarlet, and black oaks,
plus other trees and shrubs (Niering, 1959).
Blaisdell and Mueggler (1956) reported that
when 2,4-D was used at 1.5 to 2 Ib/A on 15 shrubs
and trees in the treated area, only serviceberry,
threetip sagebrush, and silver sagebrush suffered
moderate to heavy mortality. Aerial portions of
snowbrush, downy rabbitbrush, aspen, choke-
cherry, willows (Salix sp.), and snowberry were
affected, but most of these species sprouted pro-
fusely later. Bitterbrush, a valuable forage species,
was unharmed or only slightly damaged. These
authors point out that because of the differences in
response of various associated forbs, shrubs, and
trees, vegetational composition should always be
considered when planning brush control.
Microorganisms
Worth and McCabe (1948) reported that when
2,4-D solutions of 1 and 2 percent were used in the
medium, the herbicide inhibited the growth of the
aerobic organisms, but had little effect on the
facultative anaerobes. In some instances, the
growth of the anaerobes was actually stimulated.
The herbicide 2,4-D did not inhibit ammonifying
bacteria at concentrations of 0.25 percent and below
(Jones, 1956). This was well below the rate ordi-
narily added to soil.
2,4-D at concentrations below 1,000 mg/1 was
observed to have little effect on bacterial growth of
Bacterium lactis aerogenes (Dean and Law, 1964).
Anderson and Baker (1950) reported some in-
hibition of microorganisms, especially the gram-
positive organisms, in the soil with 2,4-D at normal
application rates; however, this inhibition of
growth was quite transitory. Beans grown as a
second crop on the treated soil had a lower level of
protein than the control.
At normal field applications of 2,4-D (1 to 4
Ib/A) the herbicide had little effect on soil micro-
organisms (Kratochvil, 1950; Hoover and Colmer,
1953; Fletcher, 1960; and Bounds and Colmer,
1964).
At a dosage of 50 ppm of 2,4-D nitrification in
the soil was completely inhibited (Slepecky and
Beck, 1950). After the treatment of the soil with
2,4-D an actinomycete was reported as dominating
the soil flora (Warren, Graham and Gale, 1951).
The actinomycete had rather strong anti-fungal
properties, and thus had an inhibiting effect upon
soil fungi.
2,4-D applied in 0.1-, 0.5-, and 1-percent solu-
tions favored the increase of soil microorganisms
(Il'in, 1962). The 1-percent 2,4-D caused protozoa
to cease their activity in 1 to 2 seconds and form
cysts. The increase in the number of soil microor-
ganisms may be due to the inhibition of protozoa
in the soil. Rapoport and Cangioli (1963) sup-
ported this idea, reporting that using sodium salt
of 2,4-D inhibited soil protozoa and resulted in an
increase in the number of bacteria. 2,4-D stimu-
lated the growth of saprophytic microorganisms
in water (Petruk, 1964).
At 10 and 50 ppm of 2,4-D, Aspergillus niger
proliferation was significantly limited (Arnold,
Santelmann and Lynd, 1966). A. niger degraded
2,4-D faster than it did picloram, which had little
effect upon the fungus.
Biological Concentration
The eastern oyster concentrated 0.1 ppm of
butoxy-ethanol ester of 2,4-D in water to a level
of 18.0 in itself during 7 days, as measured by
2,4-D acid (Butler, 1965). When a sample of these
oysters was placed in clean water for 7 days, the
2,4-D disappeared from the bodies of the oysters.
Esters of 2,4-D accumulated in sunfish after
exposure to sublethal concentrations in both
laboratory and field tests (Cope, 1965b), and the
fish sampled from a reservoir with 1 ppb showed
an uptake of 2,4-D to a maximum of 150 ppb
(Smith and Isom, 1967).
Within an hour after being treated with 2,4-D
at a rate of 100 Ib/A, the concentration of 2,4-D in
reservoir water was about 1 ppb (Smith and Isom,
1967). Mussels (primarily Elliptic crassidens) ex-
posed to the water for 96 hours concentrated the
2,4-D: 2 samples of mussels had an average of 380
ppb and 700 ppb of 2,4-D in their tissues. Asiatic
clams concentrated 2,4-D to < 140 ppb.
99
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Resistance
DALAPON
Abel (1954) has noted that increasing doses of
2,4-D were required to control creeping thistle,
which suggests the development of resistance in
this weed.
There was evidence that strains of broad-leaved
plants with a relatively high inherited tolerance
for 2,4-D have been selected chemically in the
spraying process in sugar-cane fields since 1945
(Hanson, 1956).
Persistence
The evidence suggests that under normal use
2,4-D persists in soil for about a month. In moist-
loam soil 2,4-D applied at a rate of 1/2 to 3 Ib/A
persisted for 1 to 4 weeks with little or no leaching,
under summertime conditions in a temperate cli-
mate (Klingman, 1961). Sheets and Harris (1965)
reported also that 2,4-D at normal recommended
dosages persisted for about 1 month in the soil.
2,4-D and 2,4,5-T was applied as a 1:1 mixture
as low volatile esters in diesel oil at rates of 2 Ib/A
(Norris, 1967). From a maximum of 70 ppb, the
residue dropped rapidly to less than 0.5 ppb a few
days after spraying. Four gallons of diesel oil per
acre had little or no effect on the decomposition of
2,4-D in forest litter; in other tests, DDT applied
at 1 Ib/A appeared to stimulate the breakdown of
2,4-D (Norris and Greiner, 1967).
2,4-D appears to degrade rather rapidly in
water. For example, the concentration dropped
from 1,000 ppm of application rate to 10 ppb with-
in 30 days (House et al., 1967). However, signifi-
cant concentrations of 2,4-D (58.8 ppm) were
recorded and isolated from sediment samples re-
moved from a reservoir some 10 months after treat-
ment (Smith and Isom, 1967).
From 1 to 2 percent of the 2,4-D applied at a
rate of 689 ppb to 967 ppb to water, remained for
31 days after treatment (Averitt, 1967). The most
rapid decline, occurring about 4 days after ap-
plication in the 2 lagoons treated, was not due to
heavy rainfall. The author could give no explana-
tion for this rapid loss.
2,4-D applied at 4 Ib/A persisted in soil for 4 to
18 weeks (Hernandez and Warren, 1950).
At 10 ppm 2,4-D was found to persist in ponds
in Oklahoma for 6 weeks, although in bluegill fish
none was detected after 4 days (Cope, Wood and
Wallen, 1970).
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 7,570 to 9,330 rag/kg;
for the female mouse, > 4,600 mg/kg; for the fe-
male rabbit, 3,860 mg/kg; and for the female
guinea pig, 3,860 mg/kg to dalapon when the mam-
mals were fed the stated dosages orally (WSA,
1967).
Birds
Several species of birds survived when their diet
contained as much as 5,000 ppm of various herbi-
cides. Dalapon was found to depress reproduction
in mallard ducks when fed at levels of less than
25 percent of those which produced mortality
(USDI,1962).
The LC50 for mallards was >5,000 ppm; for
pheasants, >5,000 ppm; and for coturnix, >5,000
ppm of dalapon in diets of 2-week-old birds when
fed treated feed for 5 days followed by untreated
feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970).
Fishes
When Lake Emerald shiners were exposed for 3
days to 3,000 ppm of dalapon, no adverse effects
were observed (Springer, 1957). See table 60 for
LC60 for various fish to dalapon. There appears to
be some discrepancy in the toxicity of dalapon to
bluegills.
Longnose killifish exposed to 1.0 ppm of dala-
pon (sodium salt) for 48 hours exhibited no no-
ticeable effects (Butler, 1963).
Hiltibran (1967) reported that bluegill, green
sunfish, lake chub-sucker and smallmouth bass fry
survived a concentration of 50 ppm of dalapon
for 8 days or the termination of the experiment.
Molluscs
The exposure of the eastern oyster to 1.0 ppm of
dalapon (sodium salt) for 96 hours had no notice-
able effect on shell growth (Butler, 1963).
100
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TABLE 60. The LC 50 for various fish to dalapon.
Formulation
Fish Species
1 In soft water.
' In tapwater.
Exposure LC jo
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Sodium
Bluegills
Harlequin fish
Rainbow trout
Fathead minnow
Bluegills
Rainbow trout
Harlequin fish
Bluegills
Salmon.
24
1 24
2 24
i 24
i 24
24
24
48
48
115
300
340
440
480
>500
>500
115
340
Cope, 1965a
Alabaster, 1969
tt
Surber and Pickering, 1962
if
Alabaster, 19b9
tt
Bohmont, 1967
K
Arthropods, Nematodes, and Annelids
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (Daphnia
magna) exposed to dalapon was 6,000 ppb
(FWPCA, 1968).
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus and
D. pulex, to dalapon was 16 ppm and 11 ppm re-
spectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
Stonefly nymphs (Pteronarcys californica) ex-
posed to dalapon for 96 hours at 100 ppm were
not affected (Sanders and Cope, 1968).
Courtney, Peabody and Austenson (1962) found
that dalapon applied at 5 Ib/A to colonial bent-
grass reduced the number of nematodes by 94
percent.
The exposure of brown shrimp to 1.0 ppm of
dalapon for 48 hours cause a 48-percent mortality
or paralysis (Butler, 1963).
Dalapon at normal application dosages (0.75 to
20 Ib/A in WSA, 1967) was observed to increase
the numbers of millipedes, springtails, and mites
in soil, but did not cause any significant change in
the numbers of earthwTorms (Fox, 1964).
The 24-hour LC50 for stonefly nymphs (Pter-
onarcys) to dalapon (sodium salt) was 1.0 ppm
(Cope, 1965a).
Microorganisms
The presence of amitrole inhibited the microbial
degradation of dalapon (Kaufman, 1966). The
phytotoxic residues of both dalapon and amitrole
persisted in the soil longer when the 2 chemicals
were applied in combination than when applied
separately. Dalapon, especially, disappeared more
slowly when amitrole also had been applied to the
soil.
Persistence
Dalapon applied at a rate of 5 to 40 Ib/A to
moist-loam soil persisted for 10 to 60 days with
little or no leaching, under summertime conditions
in a temperate climate (Klingman, 1961).
Dalapon applied at 50 ppm persisted in soil for
< 2 to > 8 weeks (Day, Jordan and Russel, 196&).
DCPA
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 3,000 mg/kg to DCPA
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Plants
Vance and Smith (1969) report that DCPA
inhibited the germination of seeds of certain high-
er plants, but at concentrations up to 200 ppm
DCPA showed no toxic effects on any of the algae
Scenedesmus quadrioaula, Chlamydomonas euga-
metos, and Chlorella pyrencndosa.
101
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DEF
Fishes
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 350 mg/kg to DEF when
the mammals were fed the stated dosage orally
(FCH, 1970).
Birds
When chickens were fed DEF at a dosage of
200 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to DEF
was 36 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for Fowler's toad tadpoles ex-
posed to DEF was 1.2 ppm (Sanders, 1970).
Arthropods
The LC50 for various arthropods to DEF is
found in table 61.
TABLE 61. The LC w for various arthropods to DEF.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LC M
Time (hi) (ppm)
Source
Amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris)
Stonefly (Pteronarcys
califarnica)
Amphipod (G. lacus-
tris)
Stonefly (P. califor-
nica)
24
24
48
48
0.360
3.8
0.230
2.3
Sanders, 1969
Sanders and
Cope, 1968
FWPCA,
1968
(I
DIALLATE
Mammals
The LD60 for the rat was 395 mg/kg to diallate
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask, 1969).
The 24-hour LC5o for harlequin fish to diallate
was 12 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
DICAMBA
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 2,900 mg/kg to di-
camba when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (TJSDI, 1970b).
Birds
The LD50 for dicamba when tested against
pheasants was 673 mg/kg (female) and 800 mg/
kg (male) (Edson and'Sanderson, 1965).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC60 for dicamba tested against
juvenile coho salmon was 151 ppm (Bond, For-
tune and Young, 1965). The estimated 48-hour
LC50 for dicamba was 35 ppm for rainbow trout
and 130 ppm for bluegills (Bohmont, 1967).
Arthropods
The 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris) exposed to dicamba was 10,000 ppb
(Sanders, 1969).
The 48-hour LC50 for amphipods (G. lacmtris)
exposed to dicamba was 5,800 ppb (FWPCA,
1968).
Honeybees appear to be extremely sensitive to
dicamba; the LDBO of dicamba fed to bees was
measured at 3.6 ju,g/bee (Edson and Sanderson,
1965).
Persistence
Dicamba applied to soil persisted for about 2
months (Kearney, Nash and Isensee, 1969).
102
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DICHLOBENIL
Mammals
The LD60 for the rat was 3,160 mg/kg to dichlo-
benil when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (USDI, 1970b).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was > 2,000
mg/kg and for pheasants, 1,189 mg/kg to dichlo-
benil when the birds were given the stated dosages
orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
The LC50 for pheasants was 1,000 to 2,500 ppm
and for coturnix, > 5,000 ppm of dichlobenil in
diets of 2-week-old birds when fed treated feed
for 5 days followed by clean feed for 3 days
(Heath etal., 1970).
Fishes
The LC50 for various fish to dichlobenil is found
in table 62.
Hiltibran (1967) reported that green sunfi^h,
lake chub-sucker, and smallmouth bass fry sur-
vived a concentration of 25 ppm of dichlobenil for
8 days or the termination of the experiment; at 10
ppm bluegill fry also survived the 8-day exposure
period.
TABLE 62. The LC50 for various fish to dichlobenil.
Formulation
Wettable powder
Granulai
Fish Species
Bluegill
Bluegill
Rainbow trout
Bluegill . -
Harlequin fish
Redear
Rainbow trout
Bluegill
Exposure
Time
(hr)
24
24
24
24
24
48
48
48
LCjo
(ppm)
17
22
23
37
120
>20
20. 0
20. 0
Source
Hughes and Davis,
Cope, 1965a
Hughes and Davis,
Alabaster, 1969
Cope, 1963
Bohmont, 1967
1962
1962
Dichlobenil applied at 10, 20, and 40 ppm to
small ponds affected the survival and growth of
the fish fauna (mostly bluegills with limited num-
bers of green sunfish, largemouth bass, and yellow
perch) (Cope, McCraren and Eller, 1969). After
109 days survival in the control ponds was 60 per-
cent, at 10 ppm survival was 22 percent, at 20
ppm survival was 6 percent, and at 40 ppm sur-
vival was 3 percent. Growth, on the other hand,
was greater in the treated ponds. Percent increases
were as follows: control, 67 percent; 10 ppm, 169
percent; 20 ppm, 169 percent; and 40 ppm, 482
percent.
Arthropods
The LC50 for various arthropods to dichloro-
benil is found in table 63.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus and
Daphnia pulex, to dichlobenil was 5,800 ppb and
3,700 ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
The median immobilization concentration of di-
chlobenil to Daphnia magna was found to be 9.8
ppm (Crosby and Tucker, 1966).
Biological Concentration
Esters of dichlobenil accumulated in sunfish
after exposure to sublethal concentrations in both
laboratory and field tests (Cope, 1965b).
TABI/B 63. The LC50 for various arthropods to dichlobenil.
Arthropod Species
Amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris)
Stonefly (Pteronarcys sp.)._
" (P. californica)
Amphipod (G. lacustris)
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex).
Stonefly (P. californica)
Expo-
sure
Time
(hr)
24
24
24
48
48
48
LCjo
(ppm)
16
42
42
1.5
3.7
4. 4
Source
Sanders, 1969
Cope, 1965a
Sanders and
Cope, 1968
FWPCA, 1968
li
(I
103
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Persistence
DIQUAT
Dichlobenil applied at 4 Ib/A persisted in soil
for 10 months (Niagara Chemical Div., 1961).
Dichlobenil applied at a rate of 4 Ib/A two
years earlier was still found at levels of 0.12 ppm
in the soil of cranberry bogs (Miller, Demoran-
ville and Charig, 1966). The chemical did not
leach downward in the soil. Application of a gran-
ular formulation of dichlobenil at 0.6 ppm to a
farm pond produced the highest residues in water
and fish about 2 weeks after the treatment, whereas
samples of vegetation and soil had the highest
levels within 1 to 2 days (Van Valin, 1966). Kesi-
dues were still measurable some 188 days later.
An investigation of the persistence of dichlobenil
in fish revealed that 50 percent of the chemical was
lost in <2 weeks (Cope, McCraren and Eller,
1969).
Dichlobenil applied as a 50-percent wettable
powder at rates of 10, 20, and 40 ppm to small
ponds disappeared rapidly (Cope, McCraren and
Eller, 1969). Only about 3 percent remained after
11 days, and none was detected after 85 days. How-
ever, when dichlobenil was applied as a 4-percent
granular formulation at a rate of 58 ppb, even at
189 days 1 ppb of dichlobenil was found in the
water.
Dichlobenil applied to soil persisted for about
4 months (Kearney, Nash and Isensee, 1969).
DICHLORPROP
Mammals
The LD50 for mice was 400 mg/kg to dichlorprop
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask, 1969).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to di-
chlorprop was 1,100 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Persistence
Dichlorprop applied at 25 ppm. persisted in soil
for >103 days (Burger, MacRae and Alexander,
1962).
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 400 to 440 mg/kg to
diquat when the mammal was fed the stated dos-
age orally (WSA, 1967).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 564 mg/kg
to diquat when the ducks were given the stated
dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970). The LC50 for mallards was >5,000 ppm;
for pheasants, 3,600 to 3,900 ppm; and for cotur-
nix, 1,400 to 1,600 ppm of diquat in diets of 2-
week-old birds when fed treated feed for 5 days
followed by untreated feed for 3 days (Heath et
al., 1970).
Fishes
The LC50 for various fish to diquat is found in
table 64.
Longnose killifish exposed to 1.0 ppm of diquat
for 48 hours showed no noticeable effects (Butler,
1963).
Hiltibran (1967) reported that bluegills, lake
chub-suckers, and smallmouth bass fry survived
a concentration of 2.5 ppm of diquat (cation) for
3, 2, and 1 days, respectively.
An investigation of the persistence of diquat in
fish revealed that 50 percent of the chemical was
lost in <3 weeks (Macek, 1969).
Molluscs
The exposure of eastern oysters to 1.0 ppm of
diquat of 96 hours had no noticeable effect on shell
growth (Butler, 1963).
Arthropods and Annelids
After the destruction of aquatic vegetation with
0.5 ppm of diquat, the decaying vegetation ap-
peared to benefit certain benthic organisms, such
as the Oligochaeta, as indicated by their increase
in number (Tatum and Blackburn, 1962). There
were indications, however, that this concentration
of diquat acted as either direct or chronic poison
to chironomids.
104
-------
TABLE 64. The LC50 for various fish to diquat.
Formulation
Dichloride
Salt
Dibromide
Salt
u
Dibromide
Salt
u
><
1 Medium hard water.
1 Soft water.
' Tap water.
Fish Species
Lake Emerald shiner
Largemouth bass _
Harlequin fish
Rainbow trout
Bluegill . -.. - - -.
Fathead minnow
Lake Emerald shiner - _
Striped bass__
Rainbow trout
Chinook salmon _ _^
Chinook salmon
Exposure
Time
(hr)
1 24
24
2 24
s 24
24
24
i 24
24
48
48
48
LC»
(ppm)
15. 5
24
76
90
91
140
180
315
12. 3
28. 5
28. 5
Source
Swabey and Schenk, 1963
Surber and Pickering, 1962
Alabaster, 1969
Surber and Pickering, 1962
Swabey and Schenk, 1963
Wellborn, 1969
FWPCA, 1968
Bond, Lewis and Fryer, 1959
Bohmont, 1967
White shrimp exposed to 1.0 ppm of diquat for
48 hours showed no noticeable effects (Butler,
1963). The median immobilization concentration
of diquat to Daphnia magna was 7.1 ppm (Crosby
and Tucker, 1966).
Plants
Phytoplankton exposed to 1.0 ppm of diquat for
4 hours showed a 45-percent decrease in produc-
tivity (Butler, 1963).
Application of diquat at 0.5 ppm resulted in
excellent control of an aquatic weed (Largaro-
siphon major), but a massive growth of Nitella re-
placed L. major (Fish, 1966). The numbers of
chironomid larvae also increased significantly.
Treatment of bean plants with 1,560 ppm of
diquat reduced the ability of the fungus Tricho-
derma mride to compete with Fusarium colmorum
(a pathogen that causes wilt disease in beans and
other plants) (Wilkinson, 1969). The diquat, in
reducing T. viride, allowed F. colmorum numbers
to increase and infest the bean leaves, which re-
sulted in plant damage.
Tatum and Blackburn (1962) reported that 0.5
ppm treatment with diquat in ponds adversely af-
fected plankton, but the plankton recovered
rapidly.
Biological Concentration
Esters of diquat accumulated in sunfish after
exposure to sublethal concentrations fed in both
laboratory and field tests (Cope, 1965b). When
rainbow trout, however, were exposed to water
containing 1 ppm of diquat (salt) for 30 days,
only 0.09 ppm of diquat was found in the tissue,
indicating that rainbow trout do not concentrate
this diquat (salt) formulation (Cope, 1966).
Persistence
Diquat applied to ponds at a rate of 2.5 ppm per-
sisted in the water for 7 to 27 days without a build-
up in the hydrosoil (Grzenda, Nicholson and Cox,
1966).
DIURON
Mammals
The LD 50 for the rat was 3,400 mg/kg to diuron
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage oral-
ly (WSA, 1967).
Birds
The LD5() for young mallards was > 2,000
mg/kg to diuron when the birds were given the
stated dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970). The LC50 for mallards was
> 5,000 ppm; for pheasants, > 5,000 ppm; for bob-
whites, 2,000 to 2,200 ppm; and for coturnix,
> 5,000 ppm of diuron in diets of 2-week-old birds
105
-------
when fed treated feed for 5 days followed by un-
treated feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC60 for largemouth bass and coho
salmon to diuron was 42 ppm and 16 ppm, respec-
tively (Bond, Lewis and Fryer, 1959). Bluegills
were reported to be resistant, whereas white
crappies were killed at concentrations as low as
6 ppm of diuron. Rainbow trout survived 60 ppm
of diuron for 96 hours.
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
diuron was 4,300 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for bluegills exposed to diuron
at temperatures of 12.7°C, 18.3°C, and 23.8°C
was 27,000 ppb, 17,000 ppb, and 9,700 ppb, re-
spectively (Macek, Hutchinson and Cope, 1969).
The 96-hour LC50 for striped bass to diuron
was 3.1 ppm (Wellborn, 1969).
Diuron was tested against various species of
fish in different formulations, and the EC50 was
as follows: bluegill, 5.7 ppm with emulsifiable
diuron-TCA; brown bullhead, 11 ppm with diuron
80-percent wettable powder; and bluegill, 25 ppm
with diuron 80-percent wettable powder (Walker,
1965). Clearly, the emulsifiable diuron-TCA for-
mulation had far greater toxicity to bluegills.
The 24-hour LC50 of bluegills to diuron was 12
ppm (Cope, 1965a); however, Bohmont (1967) re-
ported the 48-hour LC50 for diuron to bluegills as
74.0 ppm. Bohmont also reported the 48-hour LiC50
for salmon as 16 ppm. Butler (1963) reported that
in white mullet exposed to 6.3 ppm of diuron
for 48 hours a 50-percent mortality resulced.
Small ponds were stocked with fingerling blue-
gills and treated with diuron (wettable powder) at
0.5, 1.5, and 3.0 ppm (McCraren, Cope and Eller,
1969). Oxygen level in the water decreased sharply
in some of the ponds 2 days after treatment and
remained low for 3 to 4 days more. In about 20 per-
cent of the fish in the 3.0-ppm treatment, gill lamel-
lae were ruptured and hemorrhagic. The only
deaths among the fish were in cages in the 3.0-ppm
treatment. The fish in all treatments grew more
slowly than those in the control.
Molluscs
The exposure of eastern oysters to 1.8 ppm of
diuron for 96 hours resulted in a 50-percent de-
crease in shell growth (Butler, 1963).
Arthropods
The LC50 for various arthropods to diuron is
found in table 65.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus semdatus and
Daphnia pulex, to diuron was 2,000 ppb and 1,400
ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
Brown shrimp exposed to 1.0 ppm of diuron for
48 hours showed no noticeable effect (Butler, 1963).
The median immobilization concentration of di-
uron to Daphnia magna was 47 ppm (Crosby and
Tucker, 1966).
About 96 hours after the treatment of the ponds
with diuron at both 1.5 and 3.0 ppm, numerous
distressed and dead midges, emerging mayflies, and
dragonfly naiads were present on the water surface
(McCraren, Cope and Eller, 1969). No inverte-
brates were observed on the surface of the un-
treated ponds.
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton exposed to 1.0 ppm of diuron for
4 hours showed an 87-percent decrease in produc-
tivity (Butler, 1963).
Persistence
In moist-loam soil diuron applied at a rate of 1
to 3 Ib/A persisted for 3 to 6 months with little
or no leaching, under summertime conditions in
a temperate climate (Klingman, 1961).
Diuron applied at 2 Ib/A persisted in soil for
>15 months (Weldon and Timmons, 1961).
Diuron resides persisted in the vegetation for
some 95 days after treatment of ponds with dosages
ranging from 0.5 to 3.0 ppm, and the residues in
the mud persisted for 122 days (McCraren, Cope,
and Eller, 1969).
106
-------
TABLE 65. The LCso for various arthropods to diuron.
Arthropod Species
Stonefly (Pteronarcys calif ornicd) - - - - -
" (G. lacustris) - - _
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex) - - _
Stonefly (P californicri)
Exposure
Time
(hr)
24
24
48
48
48
LC10
(ppm)
3.6
0. 700
0.380
1.4
2. 8
Source
Sanders and Cope, 1968
Sanders, 1969
PWPCA, 1968
il
U
Mammals
DMPA
The LD5<> for female rats was 270 mg/kg; for
guinea pigs, 210 mg/kg; and for dogs and cats,
> 1,000 mg/kg to DMPA when the animals were
fed the stated dosages orally (WSA, 1967).
Birds
The lethal dose of DNBP to pheasants was 15
mg/kg (Paludan, 1953 in Springer, 1957).
Some pheasants and songbirds were poisoned
when ingesting food from crop areas treated with
1 to 6 Ib/A of DNBP (Edson, 1954 in Springer,
1957).
Birds
The LD50 for chickens was 1,000 mg/kg to
DMPA when the birds were fed the stated dosage
orally (WSA, 1967).
Arthropods
DMPA applied for control of crabgrass (8 to
16 oz/1000 sq. ft.) eliminated about 99 percent
of the ant hills and indicated its insecticidal prop-
erties (Watson and Leasure, 1959).
DNBP
Mammals
Applications of DNBP for weed control in crops
at rates of 1 to 6 Ib/A were reported to have killed
some rabbits in England, mainly through the in-
gestion of contaminated food (Edson, 1954 in
Springer, 1957).
DNBP applied in a 0.25-percent solution to
pastures strongly repelled the cattle from the
treated vegetation (Grigsby and Farwell, 1950).
Also, when DNBP (ammonium salt) was applied
in a 0.12-percent solution to pastures, some repel-
lent effect was measured against grazing cattle.
Fishes
Cope (1946 in Springer, 1957) reported that in
laboratory tests small trout were killed with con-
centrations of 100 ppm of DNBP and 12 ppm of
its ammonium salt.
Goldfish exposed for 24 hours to 0.1 ppm of
DNBP showed no effect, but at 0.4 ppm there was
100-percent mortality (WSA, 1967).
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to DNBP
was 9 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Arthropods
Cope (1946 in Springer, 1957) reported that
some stoneflies and caddice flies survived when ex-
posed to concentrations of 100 ppm of DNBP and
12 ppm of its ammonium salt.
Plants
The treatment of 9 weed species with a sublethal
dosage of DNBP (0.05 Ib/A) caused a decrease of
0- to 47-percent potassium nitrate content in 7
species (Frank and Grigsby, 1957). The nitrate
content increased in 2 species—in Eupatorium
maculatum from 8.9 mg to 23.7 mg (dry weight),
a 163-percent increase.
107
-------
Persistence
DNBP applied at 16 Ib/A persisted in soil for 4
to >8 weeks (Warren, 1956).
ENDOTHALL
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 38 to 51 nag/kg to en-
dothall acid when the mammal was fed the stated
dosages orally (WSA, 1967).
Fishes
The LC50 for various fish to endothall is found
in table 66.
Bluegills have tolerated endothall at 100 ppm
for at least 21 days, when the test was discontinued
(Lindaberry, 1961). In other tests by the inves-
tigator no mortality was observed in redfin, red-
sided shiner, and bluntnose minnow with endothall
at 40 ppm; likewise, salmon, rainbow trout, and
bass showed no mortality at 10 ppm. Based on
these tests, the investigator concluded that normal
use at 1 to 2 ppm should provide a wide margin of
safety to fish.
Hiltibran (1967) reported that bluegills, green
sunfish, lake chub-sucker and smallmouth bass fry
survived a concentration of 25 ppm of endothall
for 8 days at the termination of the experiment.
Endothall applications (4 treatments at 1 ppm)
appeared to have no effect upon the resident popu-
lations of bluegills and largemouth bass, but were
effective in eliminating the submergent aquatic
vegetation (Johnson, 1965).
An investigation of the persistence of endothall
salt in fish revealed that 50 percent of the chemical
was lost in <3 weeks (Walker, 1963).
Arthropods
The 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (Ganwnarus
lacustris) exposed to endothall (dipotassium salt)
and endothall was >100 ppm and 2 ppm, respec-
tively (Sanders, 1969).
Concentrations of greater than 1 ppm of endo-
thall killed all bottom organisms in the ponds
(Walker, 1962).
Nebeker and Graufin (1964) reported that the
LC50 for the amphipod crustacean G. lacustris to
endothall was above 320 ppm.
The median immobilization concentration of
endothall to Daphnia magna was found to be 46
ppm (Crosby and Tucker, 1966).
TABLE 66. The LCjo for various fish to endothall.
Formulation
Fish Species
Exposure LCio (ppm)
Time (hr)
Source
Cocoamine salt
Acid
Copper
Dimethylamine
Acid
Lake Emerald shiner..
Bluegill
Bluegill
Fathead minnow
Largemouth bass
Harlequin fish
Bluegill - _
Rainbow trout . - -
Rainbow trout -
Salmon - -
Redfin shiner _ -
Redsided shiner
Bluntnose minnow.-
Largemouth bass
Bluegill
Redear sunfish
Carp
Goldfish hybrid-
Yellow bullhead
Black bullhead
. i 24
24
3 24
J 24
i 24
24
48
48
48
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
. - . 96
96
96
0. 12
428
450
>560
>560
565
0.257
0.290
1. 150
136
95
105
120
120
125
125
175
175
175
180
Swab
Davis
Surbe
Alabs
FWP
(
(
Bohn
Walk
ey and Schenk, 1963
! and Hughes, 1963
r and Pickering, 1962
ister, 1969
CA, 1968
I
(
lont, 1967
er, 1963
1 Medium hard water.
'Soft water.
108
-------
Biological Concentration
Walker (1962) reported that at concentrations
of 0.1 to 0.6 ppm, bottom organisms concentrated
endothall approximately 200-fold in 3 weeks, but
reported (1963) that he could not detect any ab-
sorption of the endothall cocoamine in the fish
after exposure to sublethal dosages in aquaria.
EPIC
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 1,630 mg/kg and for
mice, 3,160 mg/kg to EPTC when the mammals
were fed the stated dosages orally (USDI, 1970b).
Fishes
The exposure of white mullet to 20 ppm of
EPTC for 48 hours caused a 10-percent mortality
(Butler, 1963).
Molluscs
Eastern oysters exposed to 5.0 ppm of EPTC for
96 hours showed a 43-percent decrease in shell
growth (Butler, 1963).
Balicka, 1969), but cellulose decomposition in the
soil was impaired after its application (Sobiesz-
czanski, 1969 in Balicka, 1969).
Persistence
In moist-loam soil EPTC applied at a rate of
2 to 6 Ib/A persisted for 3 to 8 weeks with little
or no leaching, under summertime conditions in a
temperate climate (Klingman, 1961).
EPTC applied at 4 ppm in soil persisted for 3
months (Sheets, 1959).
FENAC
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 1,780 mg/kg when the
mammal was fed the stated dosage orally (USDI,
1970b).
Birds
The LC50 for mallards was >5,000 ppm; for
pheasants, >5,000 ppm; and for coturnix, >5,000
ppm of f enac in diets of 2-week-old birds when fed
treated feed for 5 days followed by clean feed
for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970).
Arthropods
The exposure of white shrimp to 0.63 ppm of
EPTC for 48 hours resulted in a 50-percent mor-
tality or paralysis (Butler, 1963).
Phytoplankton
The exposure of phytoplankton to 1.0 ppm of
EPTC for 4 hours caused no decrease in produc-
tivity (Butler, 1963).
Microorganisms
EPTC at normal dosages (2 to 6 Ib/A in WSA,
1967) did not cause a reduction in the nitrification
in soil, (Balicka and Sobieszczanski, 1969a in
Fishes
The LC50 for various fish to fenac is found in
table 67.
Hiltibran (1967) reported that bluegill and lake
chub-sucker fry survived a concentration of 20
ppm for 8 days, or until the experiment was
terminated.
Arthropods
The LC50 for various arthropods to fenac is
found in table 68.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simooephalus serrulatus and
Daphnia puJex, to fenac (sodium salt) was 6,600
ppb and 4,500 ppb, respectively (Sanders and
Cope, 1966).
423-802 O—71-
109
-------
TABLE 67. The LCso for various fish to fenac.
Formulation
Sodium salt
tt
Acid
Sodium
Acid .
Fish Species
Rainbow trout
-- _ Redear sunfish-.
Bluegill .-
Bluegill.
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Blueorill
Exposure
Time (hr)
24
. .. . 24
24
24
48
. . 48
. .. - 48
48
LC«
(PPm)
10
12
26
61
7. 5
7. 5
16. 5
19. 0
Source
Cope, 1963
Cope, 1965a
Bohmont, 1967
FWPCA, 1968
tt
Bohmont, 1967
TABLE 68. The LC8o for various arthropods to fenac.
Formulation
Arthropod Species
Exposure
Time (hr)
LC»o
(ppm)
Source
Sodium salt
tt
tt
it
n
Acid
Sodium salt
Amphipod (Gammarus lacustris)
Stonefly (Pteronarcys californica)
(P. californica}
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex)
Amphipod ((?. lacustris')
Stonefly (P. californica)
" {P. californica)
24
24
24
48
48
48
48
22
170
220
4. 5
18
70
80
Sanders, 1969
Sanders and Cope, 1968
tt
FWPCA, 1968
((
<•
11
The median immobilization concentration of
fenac (sodium salt) to Daphnia magna was >100
ppm (Crosby and Tucker, 1966). The 24-hour
LC50 for stonefly nymphs (Pteronarcys) to fenac
(acid) and fenac (sodium salt) was 160 ppm and
270 ppm, respectively (Cope, 1965a).
Microorganisms
Fenac applied at the rate of 2 to 60 Ib/A did not
affect Streptomyces (Bounds and Colmer, 1964).
Persistence
Fenac applied to soil persisted for > 18 months
(Dowler, Sand and Eobinson, 1963).
Fenac applied to a pond at 4 ppm persisted in
the water for more than 202 days, with some of
the herbicide also found in the hydrosoil (Grzenda,
Nicholson and Cox, 1966).
FENURON
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 7,500 mg/kg to fenuron
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(USDI,1970b).
Birds
Bobwhite quail fed fenuron at a maximum dos-
age of 2,309 mg/kg increased in weight faster
than the birds in the control group (Bergstrand
and Klimstra, 1962).
The LC50 for mallards was >5,000 ppm; for
pheasants, >5,000 ppm; and for coturnix, >5,000
ppm of fenuron in diets of 2-week-old birds when
fed treated feed for 5 days followed by untreated
feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970).
110
-------
Fishes
IOXYNIL
Spot were not affected by a 48-hour exposure to
1.0 ppmof fenuron (Butler, 1963).
Fenuron as a wettable powder had an EC50 for
bluegills of about 53 ppm, whereas the emulsifiable
fenuron-TCA was found to have an EC50 of about
6.5 ppm (Walker, 1965).
Hiltibran (1967) reported that bluegill, green
sunfish, lake chub-sucker, and smallmouth bass
fry survived a concentration of 10 ppm of fenuron-
TCA for 8 days, or until the termination of the
experiment.
Persistence
Fenuron applied to soil persisted at detectable
levels for about 8 months (Kearney, Nash and
Isensee, 1969).
FLUOMETURON
Mammals
The LD50 for female rats was 7,900 mg/kg; for
female mice, 2,400 mg/kg; and for dogs, 10,000
mg/kg to fluometuron when the mammals were
fed the stated dosages orally (WSA, 1967).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was > 2,000 mg/kg
to fluometuron when the birds were given the
stated dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970).
Fishes
The LC50 for killifish to fluometuron was >25
ppm, and a 100-percent mortality occurred with
rainbow trout at >60 ppm (WSA, 1967). No ex-
posure time was given.
Arthropods
All shrimp (Gammarus pulex] were killed at a
dosage of 60 ppm (WSA, 1967). No exposure time
was given.
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 110 mg/kg to ioxynil
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask, 1969).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to ioxynil
and ioxynil (sodium salt) was 0.28 ppm and 74
ppm, respectively (Alabaster, 1969).
LENACIL
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 11,000 mg/kg to lenacil
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask, 1969).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to lenacil
was about 50 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
LFN
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
LFN was 79 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
LINURON
Mammals
The LD60 for the rat was 4,000 mg/kg to linuron
when fthe mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(U'SDI, 1970b).
Ill
-------
Arthropods
An investigation by Edwards (1964) demon-
strated that linuron at recommended application
rates (0.5 to 3 Ib/A in WSA, 1967) did not affect
the numbers of soil animals.
Microorganisms
Linuron at normal concentrations in the bac-
terial medium had only temporary effects on the
growth of three strains of Bacillus sp., but did not
affect the growth of Pseudomonas phaseoli
(Balicka and Krezel, 1969).
During 4 years of applying linuron at 5.4 Mb/A,
no change in the number of microorganisms in the
soil was observed, employing various techniques
for microorganism determination (Balicka and
Sdbieszczanski, 1969b in Balicka, 1969); linuron,
however, caused apparent changes in the composi-
tion of microorganisms associated with roots or the
treated plants (Balicka, 1969).
Linuron did not cause any change in nitrifica-
tion of the soil (Balicka and'Sobieszczanski, 1969a
in Balicka, 1969), but cellulose decomposition in
soil was impaired (Sobieszczanski, 1969 in Balicka,
1969). Treating soil with linuron caused an in-
crease in the number of Azotdbacter (Balicka,
1969).
Persistence
Linuron applied to soil persisted for about 4
months (Kearney, Nash and Isensee, 1969).
MALEIC HYDRAZIDE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 4,000 mg/kg to maleic
hydrazide when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (Spector, 1955).
Fishes
No mortality was observed with bluegills and
fathead minnows when exposed to maleic hydra-
zide at 10 ppm (WSA, 1967).
Amphibians
Maledc hydrazide as a 1-percent solution killed
35 percent of the larvae of Amblystoma punctatum
during a 10-day exposure (Greulach, McKenzie
and Stacy, 1951).
Arthropods and Nematodes
With treatment of maleic hydrazide (0.25-per-
cent solution) all Daphnia and Cyclops were
killed (Greulach, McKenzie and Stacy, 1951).
Courtney, Pealbody and Austenson (1962) re-
ported that maleic hydrazide applied at a rate of
8 Ib/A to colonial bentgrass reduced the number
of bentgrass nematodes by 62 percent.
Plants
Fults and Payne (1956) found that treating
bean, sugar-beet, and potato plants with maleic
hydrazide (2,000 ppm) as a spray significantly in-
creased the total free ammo-acids in sugarbeet
and potato, but not in the bean.
Sublethal dosages (1.0 Ib/A) of maleic hydra-
zide applied to 9 species of weeds caused a decrease
of 11 to 46 percent in the level of potassium nitrate
in 6 species of the plants (the decline of 46 per-
cent occurred in Solanum dulcamara) (Frank and
Grigsby, 1957). There was a 43-percent increase
in nitrate for Impatiens biflora and a 100-percent
increase for Eupatorium maculatum (8.9 to 18.1
mg/g dry weight).
Persistence
In moist-loam soil maleic hydrazide applied at
a rate of 3 to 6 Ib/A persisted for 1 to 5 weeks
with little or no leaching, under summertime con-
ditions in a temperate climate (Klingman, 1961).
Maleic hydrazide applied at 5.0 ppm to soil per-
sisted for >8 weeks (Hoffman, Parups and
Carson, 1962).
MCPA
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 700 mg/kg to MCPA
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask, 1969).
112
-------
Birds
Plants
Chickens, exposed daily for 14 days to grass
sprayed with 'MiCPA (23-percent active agent) at
a rate of 14 oz/gal of water and 2^ oz/gal, expe-
rienced a 20- to 27-percent reduction in egg produc-
tion, respectively (Dobson, 1954). The fertility or
hatchability of the eggs was unchanged and the
chickens maintained their weight.
Fishes
Cope (1963) reported that the 96-hour LC50
of bluegills to MCPA was 10 ppm; but Davis and
Hughes (1963) reported a 24-hour LC50 for MCPA
(alkyl amine) as 163.5 ppm.
The exposure of longnose killifish to 76 ppm of
MCPA amine for 48 hours resulted in a 50-percent
mortality (Butler, 1963).
Molluscs
The exposure of oysters to 1.0 ppm of MCPA
amine for 96 hours had no noticeable effect on shell
growth (Butler, 1963).
Arthropods
Guilhon (1951) reported that honeybees suc-
cumbed rapidly to MCPA at levels of 5 to 8 /tg/bee.
The author also suspected that some mortality to
bees may take place through the transport of
MCPA-contaminated pollen to the hive. Jones
and Connell (1954) calculated that the LD50 of
honeybees to MCPA was 104.7 /*g/bee. This figure
is much higher than the 5- to 8-^g susceptibility
given by Guilhon.
MCPA did not appear to have any appreciable
effect on the total numbers of micro-arthropods in
garden turf, even when the turf was treated at
levels 10 times the normal dosage (Rapoport and
Cangioli, 1963). Edwards (1964) also reported no
noticeable effect from MCPA on soil animals.
MCPA (sodium salt) at 2 Ib/A applied for 8 years
caused no changes in the number of Acari, Collem-
bola, Insecta, and other Arthropoda (Davis,
1965).
The median immobilization concentration of
MCPA to Daphnia magna was>100 ppm (Crosby
and Tucker, 1966).
Swanson and Shaw (1954) demonstrated that
the hydrocyanic acid content of Sudan grass in-
creased by 33 percent (control, HCN 36 nig/100 g
fresh wt. versus MCPA, 50 mg/100 g) in plots
treated with 1 Ib/A of MCPA.
When 9 species of weeds were treated with a
sublethal dose (0.25 Ib/A), the potassium nitrate
level in 7 species decreased 6 to 39 percent (Frank
and Grigsby, 1957). In 2 species, and especially
Impatient ~biflora. there was a 131-percent in-
crease in potassium nitrate (9.7 to 23.0 mg/g dry
weight) after this treatment.
The exposure of phytoplankton to 1.0 ppm of
MCPA amine for 4 hours caused no noticeable
decrease in productivity (Butler, 1963).
Microorganisms
Applications of MCPA at levels below about
3 Ib/A did not inhibit the nodulation of legumes
significantly (Elfadl and Fahmy, 1958). They also
observed no significant injury to other soil micro-
organisms at dosages below 3 Ib/A.
Persistence
In moist-loam soil MCPA applied at a rate of
y2 to 3 Ib/A persisted for 1 to 4 weeks with little
or no leaching, under summertime conditions in a
temperate climate (Klingman, 1961).
MCPA applied at 25 ppm in soil persisted for
>103 days (Burger, MacRae and Alexander,
1962).
MCPB
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 680 mg/kg to MCPB
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Arthropods
The use of MCPB at what was implied to be
normal dosages reduced the number of arthropods
by 50 percent and biomass by 66 percent in gray
partridge habitats (Southwood, 1969). Arthro-
113
-------
pods play an important role in diets of partridge
chicks.
Persistence
MCPB applied at 25 ppm to soil persisted for
54 days (Burger, MacRae and Alexander, 1962).
MERPHOS
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 1,272 mg/kg to Merphos
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
When chickens were fed Merphos at a dosage of
600 mg/kg, the chickens developed leg weakness
(Gaines, 1969).
MOLINATE
Mammals
The LD50 for male rats was 501 to 7'20 mg/kg,
and for rabbits, > 2,000 mg/kg to molinate when
the mammals were fed the stated dosages orally
(FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
molinate was 290 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for Fowler's toad tadpoles
exposed to molinate was 33 ppm (Sanders, 1970).
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC50 for stoneflies (Pteronarcys
ccdifornica) exposed to molinate was 3,500 ppb
(FWPCA, 1968).
The estimated 24-hour LC50 for stonefly nymphs
(P. califorrdca) to molinate was 2.3 ppm (Sanders
and Cope, 1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (Gammarus
laoustris) exposed to molinate was 9,800 ppb
(Sanders, 1969).
MONOXONE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 300 to 400 mg/kg to
Monoxone when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to Mon-
oxone was 2,000 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
MONURON
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 3,500 to 3,700 mg/kg
to monuron when the mammal was fed the stated
dosages orally (USDI, 1970b).
Birds
The LC50 for mallards was >5,000 ppm; for
pheasants, 4,000 to 5,000 ppm; and for coturnix,
>5,000 ppm of monuron in diets of 2-week-old
birds when fed treated feed for 5 days followed
by untreated feed for 3 days (Health et al., 1970).
Fishes
Some mortality was observed in small golden
shiners at a dosage of 20 ppm of monuron in ponds
(Springer, 1957). The 24-hour LC50 for channel
catfish was 75.9 ppm (Clemens and Sneed, 1959),
and the 48-hour L/C50 for mullet was 16.3 ppm
(Butler, 1963). Monuron as an 80-percent wet-
table powder had an EC50 of 33 ppm, whereas an
emulsifiable monuron was more toxic to bluegill
(with an EC50 about 1.8 ppm) (Walker, 1965).
The 48-hour LC5o for salmon to monuron was
110.3 ppm (Bohmont, 1967).
Hiltibran (1967) reported that bluegill, green
sunfish, lake chub-sucker, and smallmouth bass fry
114
-------
survived a concentration of 10 ppm of monuron
for 8, 5, 8, and 4 days, respectively. This experi-
ment was terminated at 8 days.
reported as dangerous to many kinds of trees and
shrubs whose roots were in contact with the
treated water (Martin and Wiggans, 1959).
Molluscs
The exposure of oysters to 2.0 ppm of monuron
for 96 hours caused a 12-percent decrease in shell
growth (Butler, 1963).
Arthropods and Annelids
At a dosage of 20 ppm of monuron applied to
water, no mortality was observed in amphipods
and isopods (Springer, 1957).
White shrimp exposed to 1.0 ppm of monuron
for 4$ hours exhibited no noticeable effects (But-
ler, 1963). The immobilization concentration of
monuron to Daphnia magna was 106 ppm (Crosby
and Tucker, 1966).
Earthworms were immersed in solutions of mon-
uron for 2 hours, and at 1 ppm 10 percent were
killed, whereas at 100 ppm 100 percent were killed
(Martin and Wiggans, 1959).
Monuron applied at 10 Ib/A significantly re-
duced the number of wireworms, millipedes, earth-
worms, springtails, and mites in soil 14 months
after application (Fox, 1964). There was little or
no effect 3 months after application.
Monuron at a dosage of 1 to 2 ppm reduced the
average number of bottom-dwelling fish-food or-
ganisms 3 months after treatment (Walker, 1965).
The weed-clinging species, such as dragonfly and
damselfly, and the caddice fly and mayfly nymphs
were significantly reduced.
Plants
Monuron applied to a lagoon at a rate of 60
Ib/A killed many trees growing along the edge
of the lagoon and the stream which drained the
lagoon (Baumgartner, 1955). The trees, in order
of susceptibility, were as follows: cotton wood, syc-
amore, box-elder, elm (Ulrrnes sp.), and ash
(Fraxinus sp.).
The exposure of phytoplankton to 1.0 ppm of
monuron for 4 hours caused a 94-percent mortality
(Butler, 1963).
Although monuron was effective against algae
at 1.5 ppm and higher plants at 5 ppm, as well
as relatively non-toxic to fish, the chemical was
Microorganisms
The uride known as monuron was reported to
be a powerful inhibitor of soil nitrification
(Quastel and Scholefield, 1953). Otten, Dawson
and Schreiber (1957) also reported that monuron
at normal application rates (1 to 5 Ib/A in WSA,
1967) inhibited soil nitrification. However, Hale,
Hulcher and Chappell (1957) reported that
monuron at 50 ppm had no noticeable effect upon
nitrifying microorganisms.
Persistence
In moist-loam soil monuron applied at a rate of
1 to 3 Ib/A persisted for 3 to 6 months with little
or no leaching, under summertime conditions in
a temperature climate (Klingman, 1961).
Monuron applied at 0.5 and 20 Ib/A persisted
in soil for 28 weeks (Holly and Roberts, 1963)
and 3 years (Birk, 1955), respectively.
NAPHTHA
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to naphtha
was 9,400 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
The LC5o for various arthropods to naphtha is
found in table 69.
TABLE 69. The LC50 for various arthropods to naphtha.
Arthropod Species
Exposure LC»
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Amphipod (Gammarus 24 7 Sanders, 1969
lacustris)
Stonefly (Pteronarcys
californica)
Waterflea (Daphnia
pulex)
Stonefly (P. californica).- 48 5
Amphipod (G. lacustris) _ _ 48 5. 6
24 11 Sanders and
Cope, 1968
48 3. 7 FWPCA, 1968
115
-------
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulat-us
and Daphnia pule®, to naphtha was 7,600 ppb and
3,700 ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
Phytoplankton
The exposure of phytoplankton to 1.0 ppm
of neburon for 4 hours resulted in a 90-percent
mortality (Butler, 1963).
NEBURON
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was > 11,000 mg/kg to
neburon when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (USDI, 1970b).
Persistence
Neburon applied at 27 Ib/A persisted in soil for
6 weeks (Quaglia, 1960).
In moist-loam soil neburon applied at a rate of
2 to 8 lb/A persisted for 3 to 6 months with little
or no leaching, under summertime conditions in a
temperature climate (Klingman, 1961).
Fishes
Neburon appears to be the most toxic of the
substituted-urea herbicides. For spot the 48-hour
LC50 was 0.32 ppm (Butler, 1963). Walker (1965)
reported the toxicities to various fish as follows:
bluntnose minnow, 0.6 ppm; redear, 0.8 ppm; and
the redfin shiner, 0.9 ppm.
PARAQUAT
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 150 mg/kg to paraquat
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(WSA, 1967).
Molluscs
The exposure of oysters to 0.41 ppm of neburon
for 96 hours caused a 50-percent decrease in shell
growth (Butler, 1963). Clam and snail popula-
tions doubled in number after treatment of ponds
with neburon at 1 to 10 ppm (Walker, 1962).
Arthropods and Annelids
White shrimp exposed to 0.55 ppm of neburon
for 48 hours showed a 50-percent mortality or
paralysis (Butler, 1963).
A treatment of neburon ranging from 1 to 10
ppm reduced population of mayfly nymphs
(Walker, 1962). In contrast, the following bottom
organisms actually doubled in numbers after ex-
posure to neburon: dragonfly nymphs, damselfly
nymphs, and aquatic worms.
The number of bottom-dwelling fish-food orga-
nisms one year after treatment with neburon at
1 to 10 ppm was y10 that in untreated ponds
(Walker, 1965). The most susceptible species were
mayfly nymphs, common midges, and aquatic
worms.
Fishes
The exposure of longnose killifish to 1.0 ppm
of paraquat for 48 hours had no noticeable effect
(Butler, 1963).
When a pond was treated with 1 ppm of para-
quat, no acute toxic effect was observed in rain-
bow trout, green sunfish, bluegills, or channel
catfish (House et al., 1967).
The 24-hour LC50 for bluegills to paraquat was
400 ppm (Davis and Hughes, 1963).
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to para-
quat and paraquat di(methyl) chloride was 840
ppm and 45 ppm, respectively (Alabaster, 1969).
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for Fowler's toad tadpoles
and chorus frog tadpoles exposed to paraquat was
54 ppm and 43 ppm, respectively (Sanders, 1970).
Molluscs
The exposure of oysters to 1.0 ppm of para-
quat for 96 hours had no noticeable effect on shell
growth (Butler, 1963).
116
-------
Arthropods and Annelids
PCP
House et al. (1967) reported that stoneflies were
not affected by exposure to 1,000 ppm of para-
quat for 96 hours.
The 48-hour I/C50 for waterfleas Daphnia pulesa
and amphipods Gammarus lacustris exposed to
paraquat was 3.7 ppm and 18 ppm, respectively
(FWPCA, 1968).
Stonefly nymphs (P. califomica) exposed to
paraquat for 96 hours at 100 ppm were not af-
fected (Sanders and Cope, 1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (G. lacus-
tris) exposed to paraquat was 38 ppm (Sanders,
1969).
The exposure of brown shrimp to 1.0 ppm of
paraquat for 48 hours had no noticeable effect
(Butler, 1963).
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at 60°F
for waterfleas, Simocephalus sermlatus and D.
pulex, to paraquat was 4 ppm and 3.7 ppm, respec-
tively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
The median immobilization concentration of
paraquat to Daphnia magna was 11.0 ppm (Crosby
and Tucker, 1966).
Mellanby (1967) reported that paraquat may
be used to destroy all vegetation in a field ready
for reseeding without plowing. He suggested that
this process was less harmful to soil fauna than
the usual cultivation. Earthworms, for example,
which were frequently destroyed by cultivation
survived the paraquat treatment.
Plants
The exposure of phytoplankton to 1.0 ppm of
paraquat for 4 hours resulted in a 53-percent
decrease in productivity (Butler, 1963).
Biological Concentration
In both laboratory and field tests paraquat ac-
cumulated in bluegills after their exposure to sub-
lethal concentrations (Cope, 1965b).
Persistence
Paraquat applied to ponds at rates between 2.1
and 2.5 ppm persisted in the water for between
6 and 23 days; there was no buildup of the her-
bicide in the hydrosoil (Grzenda. Nicholson and
Cox,1966).
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 27 to 80 mg/kg to
PCP when the mammal was fed the stated dosages
orally (USDI, 1970b).
Vegetation treated with a 1-percent solution of
PCP strongly repelled cattle (Grigsby and Far-
well, 1950).
PCP, an herbicide, fungicide, and insecticide,
was reported also to repel porcupines (Welch,
1954 in Springer, 1957).
Birds
The LD50 for pheasant was 4,000 to 5,000 mg/kg
and for coturnix, 5,000 to 6,000 mg/kg to PCP
when the birds were fed the toxicant in feed for
5 days plus 3 days of clean feed (Heath et al.,
1970).
Fishes
Guchi fish seemed to discriminate PCP at levels
of 0.2 and 0.3 ppm and avoided the treated areas
(Tomiyama and Kawabe, 1962).
Molluscs
Molluscs, able to survive for 20 days in a con-
centration of 0.8 ppm (Tomiyama, Kobayashi and
Kawabe, 1962), were more resistant to PCP than
fish. A Japanese shellfish of commercial import-
ance, Venerupis philippinarum, was sensitive to
PCP at a dosage of 0.1 ppm.
Microorganisms
PCP in excess of 4 Ib/A suppressed the activity
of soil microorganisms (Kratochvil, 1950).
Persistence
PCP applied to soil (no dosage given) persisted
for >5 years (Hetrick, 1952).
In moist-loam soil PCP applied at a rate of 5
to 20 Ib/A persisted for 1 to 5 weeks with little or
no leaching, under summertime conditions in a
temperate climate (Klingman, 1961).
117
-------
PICLORAM
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 8,200 mg/kg; for the
mouse, 2,000 to 4,000 mg/kg; for the rabbit, about
2,000 mg/kg; and for the guinea pig, about 3,000
mg/kg to picloram when the mammals were fed
the stated dosages orally (WSA, 1967).
Birds
The LD50 for chicks was 6,000 mg/kg (WSA,
1967) ; for young mallards, > 2,000 mgAg; and
for young pheasants, >2,000 mg/kg (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970) to picloram when the birds were
given the stated dosages orally in a capsule. The
LC50 for mallards was >5,000 ppm and for
pheasants, > 5,000 ppm of picloram in diets of
2-week-old birds when fed treated feed for 5 days
followed by 3 days of clean feed (Heath et al.,
1970).
Fishes
The LC50 for various fish to picloram is found
in table 70.
Picloram at 1 ppm with an exposure of 48
hours had no effect on guppies (Hardy, 1966).
Different species of fish have different tolerance
levels to picloram, and this tolerance generally in-
creases with increasing temperature (table 71).
Rainbow trout were most tolerant to the triiso-
propanolamine salt (LC60=279 ppm) and least
tolerant to the isooctyl ester (LC5o=9.6 ppm).
Molluscs
Snails were found to survive picloram at a
dosage of 380 ppm, but there was a 100-percent
mortality at a dosage of 530 ppm (Lynn, 1965).
Picloram at 1 ppm with an exposure of 48 hours
did not affect the shell growth of eastern oysters
(Butler, 1965).
Arthropods
The estimated 24-hour LC50 for stonefly
nymphs (Pteronarcys californica) to picloram
was 120 ppm (Sanders and Cope, 1968).
The 48-hour LC50 for amphipods (Omrvmarus
lacustris) exposed to picloram was 48,000 ppb
(FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (G. lacus-
tris') exposed to picloram was 50,000 ppb (Sand-
ers, 1969).
Dapfmia survived a 24-hour exposure to pic-
loram at 380 ppm, but 95 percent were killed at
a concentration of 530 ppm (Lynn, 1965).
Picloram at 1 ppm was reported to have no effect
on brown shrimp when exposed for 48 hours
(USDI,1966a).
Hardy (1966) reported that picloram at 1 ppm
did not affect the growth and reproduction of
Daphnia, and there was no increase of concentra-
tion of this chemical in the tissue.
TABLE 70. The LCj0 for various fish to picloram.
Formulation
Fish Species
Exposure
Time (hr)
(ppm)
Source
Acid Fathead minnow
Potas
Acid.
sium salt Harlequin fish
Fathead minnow. _-
Rainbow trout
Green sunflsh
Brown trout
Rainbow trout
Brown trout _ - . _
Brook trout
_ _ Brook trout
Green sunfish
... Black bullhead
._. Rainbow trout
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
48
64
66
135
150
150
230
230
240
240
420
420
420
2. 5
Weimer et al., 1967
Alabaster, 1969
Lynn, 1965
Weimer et al., 1967
!(
«
Lynn, 1965
-------
TABLE 71. The 24-hour LC50 for various fish to picloram
formulations (Kenaga, 1969).
Formulation
Acid _
tt
it
it
tt
Triisopropanolamine
salt
Triethylamine salt
(i
tt
Potassium salt
tt
Isooctyl ester
i<
(i
ft
tt
Fish Species
Bass -
Bluegill
Goldfish
Coho salmon
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Channel catfish
Goldfish
Channel catfish
Bluegill
Channel catfish
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Channel catfish
Goldfish --
LCw (ppm)
19.7
26. 5
27-36
29. 0
34
279.0
43.4
70. 5
90. 6
41
69
2. 2
3. 6
9. 6
16. 4
27. 0
Tem-
pera-
ture
(°F)
75
63
75
63?
55
60
it
80
tt
tt
tt
65
55
60
80
tt
Plants
Picloram and prometone at 27 Ib/A were ef-
fective in preventing refoliation in tropical
forests for more than 24 months (Dowler, For-
estier and Tschirley, 1968).
Algae were unaffected at 1 ppm concentration
of picloram in water (Hardy, 1966).
Microorganisms
Dosages up to 50 ppm of picloram did not
reduce the growth of the fungus Aspergillus niger
(Arnold, Santelmann and Lynd, 1966). A. niger
was found to degrade picloram, 'but at a slower
rate than it did 2,4-D.
The herbicide picloram at levels of 100 ppm
had no measureable effect on populations of bac-
teria and fungi found in the soil and did not
reduce nitrification (Goring et al., 1967).
Food Chain
In a food chain study algae, Dapfmia, goldfish,
and guppies were all reared together and exposed
to a sublethal concentration of picloram (1 ppm).
Over a 10-week period, there was no alteration
in the normal growth of algae, Daphnia, or gold-
fish, and for a 6-month exposure there was no
change in growth in the guppies (Lynn, 1965).
Persistence
Picloram applied at 5 Ib/A persisted in soil for
>568 days (Hamaker et al., 1963).
Picloram applied at a rate of 32 oz/A affected
barley, alfalfa, and soybeans for a 9-month period
after application (Herr, Stroube and Ray, 1966).
Picloram persisted up to a year in soil (20 percent
remaining) (Hamaker, Youngston and Goring,
1967).
PROMETONE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 2,980 mg/kg to pro-
metone when the mammal was fed the stated dos-
age orally (USDI, 1970b).
Fishes
The exposure of spot to 1.0 ppm of prometone
for 48 hours had no noticeable effect (Butler,
1963).
Molluscs
The exposure of oysters to 1.0 ppm of prometone
for 96 hours had no noticeable effect on shell
growth (Butler, 1963).
Arthropods
The exposure of pink shrimp to 1.0 ppm of pro-
metone for 48 hours had no noticeable effect (But-
ler, 1963).
Persistence
Prometone applied at 2 Ib/A persisted in soil
for >24 weeks (Holly and Roberts, 1963).
119
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PROMETRYNE
Fishes
Mammals
The LD5o for the rat was 3,750 rag/kg to pro-
raetryne when the mammal was fed the stated dos-
age orally (USDI, 1970b).
Fishes
The spot exposed to 1.0 ppm of prometryne
for 48 hours exhibited no noticeable effects (Butler,
1963).
Molluscs
The exposure of oysters to 1.0 ppm of prome-
tryne for 96 hours caused a 19-percent decrease in
shell growth (Butler, 1963).
Arthropods
Pink shrimp exposed to 1.0 ppm of prometryne
for 48 hours were unaffected by the chemical (But-
ler, 1963).
Microorganisms
Some acceleration of nitrification was observed
in soil treated with prometryne, but the total pro-
duction of nitrates did not increase (Balicka and
Sobieszczanski, 1969a, in Balicka, 1969). During
4 years of applying prometryne at 5.4 Ib/A, no
change in the number of microorganisms in the
soil was found, no matter what medium was used
for microorganism determination (Balicka and
Sobieszczanski, 1969b in Balicka, 1969).
Persistence
Prometryne applied to soil persisted for about
3 months (Kearney, Nash and Isensee, 1969).
PROPAZINE
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 5,000 mg/kg to propazine
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
propazine was 7,800 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Persistence
Propazine applied at 0.5 Ib/A persisted in soil
for 11 to 24 weeks (Holly and Roberts, 1963).
PROPHAM
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 5,000 mg/kg to pro-
pham when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (WSA, 1967).
Fishes
Propham caused no immediate danger or mor-
tality to fish at a concentration of 10 ppm (Surber,
1948).
The 24-hour LC50 for bluegills to propham was
32 ppm (Cope, 1965a).
Arthropods and Annelids
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus and
Daphnia pulex, to propham was 10 ppm and 10
ppm, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
The 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris) exposed to propham was 20 ppm
(Sanders, 1969).
Propham applied at about 3.35 Ib/A caused a
mortality of 13 percent in Allolobophora caliginosa
and 42 percent in Lumbricus castaneus (earth-
worms) (Van der Drift, 1963).
Persistence
Propham applied at 4 ppm in soil persisted for
4 weeks (Burschel and Feed, 1959).
In moist-loam soil propham applied at a rate of
4 to 8 Ib/A persisted for 2 to 4 weeks with little or
no leaching, under summertime conditions in a
temperate climate (Klingman, 1961).
120
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PYRAZON
SILVEX
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 3,600 mg/kg to pyra-
zon when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (Neumeyer, Gibbons and Trask, 1969).
Fishes
The 24-hour LCs>0 for harlequin fish to pyrazon
was 40 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
REGULOX
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to regulox
was 85 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
SESONE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 730 mg/kg to Sesone
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(PCOC, 1966).
Persistence
Sesone applied at 2.1 Ib/A persisted in soil for
6 weeks (Quaglia, 1960).
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 1,070 mg/kg; for the
mouse, 2,140 mg/kg; for the rabbit, 850 mg/kg;
and for the guinea pig, 850 mg/kg to silvex when
the mammals were fed the stated dosages orally
(Mullison, 1966 in House et al., 1967).
Birds
When mallard ducks were fed silvex at daily
dosages of 2,500 and 5,000 ppm, reproduction was
suppressed nearly 100 percent (USDI, 1970a). The
LC50 for pheasants was 3,000 to 5,000 ppm, and
for coturnix, >5,000 ppm of silvex (acid) in diets
of 2-week-old birds when fed treated feed for 5
days followed by untreated feed for 3 days; and
an LC50 for coturnix was > 5,000 ppm of silvex
(butoxyethanol ester) (Heath et al., 1970).
Fishes
The LC50 for various fish to silvex is found in
table 72.
The variability in the toxicities reported with
silvex and bluegills may be due to the formulation
employed, as shown by the data in table 73. The
ester formulation were generally more toxic, be-
cause they more effectively penetrate the body of
the fish.
Butler (1963) reported further evidence that the
ester formulations of silvex were more toxic to
fish; he found the 48-hour LC60 for spot to silvex
'to be 0.36 ppm.
TABLE 72. The LCeo for various fish to silvex.
Formulation Fish Species
Acid RliiRffi'ls
PGB
BEE
Acid.
Isooc
Bluegills
Fathead minnow
Bluegills
. - Rainbow trout
Harlequin fish
Bluegills
EE ! Rainbow trout
J. . Bluegills
Salmon
tyl Bluegills
Exposure
Time (hr)
18
1 24
1 24
24
24
24
48
48
48
48
48
LCio
(ppm)
70
2.9
8.9
19
23
48
0.60
0. 650
1.2
1.23
1. 4
Source
Cope, 1963
Surber and Pickering, 1962
t(
Cope, 1965a
u
Alabaster, 1969
Bohmont, 1967
FWPCA, 1968
it
Bohmont, 1967
FWCPA, 1968
' Soft water.
* Propylene glycol butyl ether ester.
1 Butoiyethanol ester.
121
-------
TABLE 73. The LCso of bluegills to silvex formulations
(Hughes and Davis, 1963).
Silvex Chemical
24 hr 48 hr
Potassium salt 83 83
Isooctyl ether ' 15.5 14.1
Isooctyl ester ' 3.7 3.7
Isooctyl ester * 1.4 1.4
Propylene glycol butyl ether ester 19. 9 16. 6
Butoxyethanol ester 1.2 1.2
i Different batches of the same formulation.
Swabey and Schenk (1963) reported that the
24-hour LC50 for Lake Emerald shiner in medium-
hard water to granular silvex (potassium salt)
was 540 ppm; to liquid silvex (potassium salt),
420 ppm; and to liquid silvex (butyl ester), 4.0
ppm. The ester formulation was again quite toxic
to fish.
Hiltibran (1967) reported that bluegill, lake
chub-sucker, and smallmouth bass fry survived a
concentration of 20 ppm of liquid silvex (potas-
sium salt) for 8 days or the duration of the ex-
periment; green sunfish fry survived 10 ppm of
granular silvex (potassium salt) also for 8 days.
Mullison (1966) provides a good summary of the
influence of silvex on fish populations: in general,
the safe dosage of silvex appears to be somewhat
below 3 ppm. At dosages of 3 ppm of silvex and
above, he reported liver degeneration, testicular
degenerative lesions, and abnormal spermatozoa.
The effects of silvex on resident game-fish popu-
lations in ponds were measured when treatments
were made for the eradication of submergent
aquatic vegetation. Silvex at 2 ppm with 3 applica-
tions had no effect on largemouth bass in one pond,
or on brook trout in 2 ponds; and silvex with one
application at 3 ppm in one pond had no effect on
rainbow or brook trout (Johnson, 1965).
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for Fowler's toad tadpoles and
chorus frog tadpoles exposed to silvex was 22 ppm
and 20 ppm, respectively (Sanders, 1970).
Molluscs
The exposure of oysters to 1.0 ppm of silvex
(ester) for 96 hours caused a 23-percent decrease
in shell growth (Butler, 1963).
Arthropods and Annelids
The exposure of brown shrimp to 0.24 ppm of
silvex (ester) for 48 hours resulted in a 50-percent
mortality or paralysis (Butler, 1963).
The 24-hour LC50 for stonefly nymphs (Ptero-
narcys) to silvex was 5.6 ppm (Cope, 1965a).
The median immobilization concentration of sil-
vex (sodium salt) to Daphnia magna was 100 ppm
(Crosby and Tucker, 1966).
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus sermlatus and
Daphnia, pulex, to silvex was 2,400 ppb and 2,000
ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (D. pulex) ex-
posed to silvex (propylene glycol butyl ether
ester) was 2,000 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
The estimated 24-hour LC50 for stonefly nymphs
(P. californioa) to silvex was 5.2 ppm (Sanders
and Cope, 1968).
Stonefly nymphs tolerated only 0.32 ppm of sil-
vex for 96 hours. Daphnia appeared to be more
resistant than the stoneflies to this chemical and
tolerated the normal treatment dosage of 2 ppm
(House et al., 1967).
The bottom fauna in portions of plastic-enclosed
farm ponds were investigated before and after
treatment with silvex at dosages ranging from 2.8
ppm to 4.6 ppm (Harp and Campbell, 1964). The
standing crop of some bottom fauna doubled
numerically in the treated areas, compared with
the untreated. The increase in numbers of chiron-
omids and oligochaetes in the treated areas was
attributed to the increase in organic matter result-
ting from the decay of poisoned aquatic plants.
The dipteran (Choborus) increased greatly in the
treated areas, and populations of dragonfly
nymphs (Libelluitus) increased one year after the
treatment. Snails, leeches, and damselflies were
apparently unaffected by the treatment of silvex.
The dipteran (Chrysops) decreased rapidly in the
treated pond and reappeared only during the last
2 months of the study and only in the enclosures
receiving the lower concentration of silvex. The
authors considered the impact of the sudden treat-
ment with herbicide and the resulting decaying
plant material in a pond community quite similar
to that of the effect of organic sewage pollution on
an aquatic community.
122
-------
Plants
Fishes
The exposure of phytoplankton to 1,0 ppm of
silvex (ester) for 4 hours caused a 78-percent de-
crease in productivity (Butler, 1963).
Silvex at 2 ppm had no adverse effect on either
phytoplankton or zooplankton, which were at the
base of the food chain in small test ponds (Cowell,
1965).
Microorganisms
Silvex did not affect Streptomyces at 1 to 50
Ib/A (Bounds and Colmer, 1964).
Biological Concentration
Esters of silvex accumulated in bluegills after
exposure to sublethal concentrations in both labo-
ratory and field tests (Cope, 1965b). No dosages
were given.
Persistence
In moist-loam soil silvex applied at a rate of
y% to 3 lb/A persisted for 2 to 5 weeks with little
or no leaching, under summertime conditions in a
temperate climate (Klingman, 1961).
Silvex applied at 25 ppm to soil persisted for
>103 days (Burger, MacRae and Alexander,
1962).
SIMAZINE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was >5,000 mg/kg to
simazine when the mammal was fed the stated dos-
age orally (House et al., 1967).
Birds
The LC50 for mallards was >5,000 ppm; for
pheasants, >5,000 ppm; and for coturnix, >5,000
ppm of simazine in diets of 2-week-old birds when
fed treated feed for 5 days followed by untreated
feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970).
The LC50 for various fish to simazine is found
in table 74.
An investigation of the persistence of simazine
in fish revealed that 50 percent of the chemical
was lost in <3 days (Macek, 1969).
Molluscs, Arthropods, and Annelids
The 48-hour L/C50 for stoneflies (Pteronarcys
calif ornica) andamphipods (Gammaruslacustris)
exposed to simazine was 50 ppm and 21 ppm,
respectively (FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (G. lacus-
tris) exposed to simazine was 30 ppm (Sanders,
1969).
TABLE 74. The LC50 for various fish to simazine.
Fish Species
Exposure LCso
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Striped bass_
Rainbow trout
Bluegills
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout -
Bluegills
24
24
24
48
48
48
0. 60
68
130
5
56
118
Wellborn, 1969
Cope, 1965a
tt
FWPCA, 1968
Bohmont, 1967
11
Arthropods appear to be susceptible to
simazine. The following species of bottom-dwell-
ing organisms were reduced by 50 percent or more
after an application of simazine ranging from
0.5 to 10 ppm: mayflies, mosquitoes, biting midges,
damselfly nymphs, water beetles, aquatic worms,
leeches, and snails (Walker, 1962). According to
Walker (1964), a dosage of about 28 ppm killed
about 50 percent of the common midges and aquatic
worms.
DeVries (1962) found that only 1 of 8 Lumbri-
cus and none of 32 Helodrilus were killed at both
3 -and 12 lb/A of simazine after 32 days' exposure
in potted soil.
Edwards (1964) investigated the influence of
simazine at normal dosages (2 to 4 lb/A in WSA,
1967) on soil animals and reported a reduction
in the numbers of animals in the treated soil by
one-third to one-half. Predatory mites, hemei-
daphic Collembola, and particularly the Isotomi-
dae, were most affected by simazine. Earthworms,
enchytraeid worms, dipterous and coleopterous
123
-------
larvae, and 'populations of other mites and spring-
tails also increased, and significant differences be-
tween the numbers of those in treated and un-
treated soil were still obvious 3 to 4 months after
the chemical had been applied.
Microorganisms
The normal application rates (2 to 4 Ib/A in
WSA, 1967) of simazine for weed control did not
significantly affect the relative numbers of fungi
and bacteria in soil or the growth of some fungi
(Eno, 1962). Farmer, Benoit and Ohappell
(1905) noted inhibition of nitrification with
simazine at concentrations of 6 ppm or greater.
Other investigators observed some acceleration
of nitrification in soil treated with normal applica-
tion rates of simazine, but reported no increase in
the total production of nitrates (Balicka and
Sobieszczanski, 1969a in Balicka, 19691). The accel-
eration of nitrification might be due to larger
dosages used. Simazine-treated soil also resulted
in an increase in the number of Azotaibacter
(Balicka, 1969).
Persistence
In moist-loam soil simazine applied at a rate
of 1 to 4 Ib/A persisted for 3 to 6 months with
little or no leaching under summertime conditions
in a temperate climate (Klingman, 1961).
Simazine applied at 2 Ib/A [persisted in soil for
17 months (Talbert and Fletchall, 1964).
SODIUM ARSENITE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 10 to 50 mg/kg
(USDA, 1967 in House et al., 1967) and for the
mouse, 51 mg/kg (Meliere, 1959) to sodium
arsenite when the mammals were fed the stated
dosages orally.
Birds
Mallard ducks tolerated 8 mg/day of sodium
arsenite for a period in which the total dose
reached 973 mg/kg in the ducks (USDI, 1963).
Fishes
The LC50 for various fish to sodium arsenite
is found in table 75.
Bond (1960) reported sodium arsenite to be
safe at dosages of 2 to 4 ppm arsenic trioxide in
soft waters and 5 or 6 ppm in hard waters.
Rainbow trout (LD50=60 mg/kg) andbluegills
(LD50=44 mg/kg) were relatively tolerant of
sodium arsenite, compared with other herbicides
(Crosby and Tucker, 1966).
Cope (1966) reported that a dosage of 4 ppm
of sodium arsenite caused kidney and liver damage
in bluegills.
Sodium arsenite applied at 5 ppm for the eradi-
cation of submergent aquatic vegetation in ponds
had no effect on rainbow or brook trout popula-
tions (Johnson, 1965).
TABLE 75. The LC50 for various fish to sodium arsenite.
Fish Species
Exposure LCso
Time (ppm)
(hr)
Source
Lake Emerald shiner. '24 13. 5 Swabey and
Schenk, 1963
Spottail minnow 24 45 Boschetti and
McLoughlin,
1957
Bluegills 24 58 Cope, 1965a
Rainbow trout 24 100 "
Rainbow trout 48 36.5 FWPCA, 1968
1 Medium hard water.
An investigation of the persistence of sodium
arsenite in fish revealed that 50 percent of the
chemical was lost in >16 weeks (Macek, 1969).
Molluscs and Arthropods
The minimum lethal dosages (ppm) of sodium
arsenite producing a kill of fish-food organisms
exceeding 25 percent are the following: Dapknia,
3.0.; Eucypris, 6.0; Hyallella, 2.5; Culex, Aedes,
and Anopheles, 6.0; and Chironomus, 10.0 (Zisch-
kale, 1952). A concentration of 6.5 ppm of sodium
arsenite immobilized 50 percent of Daphnia
magna.
The estimated 24-hour LC50 for stonefly nymphs
(Pteronarcys calif arnica) to sodium arsenite was
140 ppm (Sanders and Cope, 1968).
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus and
124
-------
Daphnia pulex, to sodium arsenite was 1,400 ppb
and 1,800 ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope,
1966).
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (S. serrulatus)
exposed to sodium arsenite was 1,400 ppb
(FWPCA, 1968).
Bond (1960) reported that fish and fish-food
organisms may be harmed indirectly through the
use of herbicides. When large amounts of vegeta-
tion are killed, the rapid decomposition may de-
plete oxygen, resulting in heavy kills of both fish
and fish-food organisms.
Johnson (1965) reported that 3 to 8 ppm of
sodium arsenite killed filamentous algae and sub-
merged aquatic plants in ponds, but had no effect
on the numbers of pond invertebrates such as
chironomid larvae, beetle larvae and adults
(Haliplidae), true bugs (Nodonectidae and
Dytiscidae), mayfly nymphs, damselfly nymphs,
dragonfly nymphs, and amphipods. Walker (1962)
however, reported that treating ponds with sodium
arsenite at dosages from 2.5 to 20 ppm caused a
50-percent reduction in phantom midges, water
bugs, and snails.
The 24-hour LC50 for stonefly nymphs (Pteron-
arcys) to sodium arsenite was 160 ppm (Cope,
1965a).
Birds
Sublethal dosages of sodium chlorate may have
significant effects upon chickens, as indicated by
a study of Dobson (1954) in which he exposed
chickens daily for 14 days to grass sprayed daily
with sodium chlorate at y2 lb/gal and 2 Ib/gal
of water. The low sodium chlorate treatment led
to a 60-percent reduction in egg yield and the
higher dosage, to a 90-percent reduction plus a
decrease in fertility and hatchability. The exposed
chickens also lost weight.
Fishes
The 24-hour LC60 for channel catfish to sodium
chlorate was 3,157 ppm (Clemens and Sneed,
1959).
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to sodium
chlorate was 8,600 ppm (Alabaster, 1969). The
24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to Chlorax
(sodium chlorate and sodium metaborate) and to
sodium chlorate was 2,000 ppm and 4,200 ppm,
respectively.
Persistence
Phytoplankton and Zooplankton
Sodium arsenite at 4 ppm did not affect the
number of phytoplankton, but did cause drastic
reductions in the number of zooplankton (Cowell,
1965).
Sodium chlorate applied at 300 Ib/A persisted
in soil for >1 year (Nelson, 1944).
SODIUM PENTACHLOROPHENATE
Biological Concentration
Cope (1966) reported that bluegill concentrated
sodium arsenite in a few days from a level of
0.69 ppm in the water to 11.6 ppm in adult
bluegills.
SODIUM CHLORATE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was about 5,000 mg/kg
to sodium chlorate when the mammal was fed the
stated dosage orally (WSA, 1967).
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 210 mg/kg to sodium
pentachlorophenate when the mammal was fed
the stated dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to sodium
pentachlorophenate was 0.26 ppm (Alabaster,
1969).
The 24-hour LC50 to sodium pentachlorophenate
for various fish was as follows: guchi fish at 0.09
ppm, warasubo at 3.4 ppm, and eel at 0.20 ppm
(Tomiyama and Kawabe, 1962).
426^-802 O—71-
126
-------
Sodium pentachlorophenate applied to a creek
at the rate of 9.5 ppm was reported to kill all cat-
fish (Ictalurus), guppies, and eels (Springer,
1957).
Arthropods
Crayfish exposed to 9.5 ppm of sodium pen-
tachlorophenate in creek water were unharmed
(Springer, 1957).
2,4,5-T
Mammals
tance of the right-of-way as a creator of edge
effects. Wild turkeys also made effective use of the
right-of-way treated areas. The young turkeys
were attracted to the cleared area for feeding on
various insects, which were more abundant on the
grassy right-of-way than within the wooded areas.
Sublethal concentrations of 2,4,5-T may have
significant effects upon biological activities in
birds. Chickens were exposed for 14 days to grass
sprayed daily with 2,4,5-T (15-percent active
agent) at i/2 oz/gal of water and 2% oz/gal (Dob-
son, 1954). The lower dosage led to a 9-percent
reduction in egg yield, and the higher dosage to
an 18-percent reduction, but there was no change
in the fertility or hatchability of the eggs. The
exposed chickens also lost some weight.
The LD50 for the rat was 300 mg/kg and for
the dog, 100 mg/kg to 2,4,5-T when the mammals
were fed the stated dosages orally (Spector, 1955).
Howe and Hymas (1954) presented data in-
dicating that the acute oral LD50 of 2,4,5-T to
various species of mammals was about 500 mg/kg.
Birds
The LC50 for mallards was >5,000 ppm; for
pheasants, 1,250 to 2,500 ppm; and for coturnix,
> 5,000 ppm of 2,4,5-T in diets of 2-week-old birds
when fed treated feed for 5 days followed by
untreated feed for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970).
The use of 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D for brush control
under power lines improved the environment for
ruffed grouse, as measured by an increase in
grouse numbers (Bramble and Byrnes, 1958). The
grouse were found on the edges within 150 to
200 feet of the right-of-way, rather than on the
right-of-way itself. This emphasized the impor-
Fishes
See table 76 for the LC50 for various fish to
2,4,5-T.
When young silver salmon were exposed to a
combination of 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D (about 10 per-
cent of each chemical in the formulation) at con-
centrations of 50 ppm or more they were "immedi-
ately distressed and would snap their jaws, dart
about the aquarium, and leap out of the water
before loss of equilibrium and death" (Holland
etal., 1960).
Mullet exposed to 50 ppm of 2,4,5-T for 48
hours exhibited no noticeable effects (Butler,
1963).
The 24-hour LC50 of bluegills to various 2,4,5-T
formulations are presented in table 77 (Hughes
and Davis, 1963). The ester formulations ap-
peared to be most toxic to the fish probably due
to more effective penetration. No attempt was
made by Hughes and Davis to explain the wide
TABLE 76. The LC50 for various fish to 2,4,5-T.
Formulation
Fish Species
Exposure LCso
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Butyl ester Harlequin fish..
Isopropyl ester Bluegill
Oleic-l,3-propylene diamine Bluegill
Acid Rainbow trout.
Triethylamine Bluegill
Acid Bluegill
Propylene glycol butyl ether ester Bluegill
Acid Rainbow trout.
Isopropyl ester Bluegill
Isooctyl ester Bluegill
24
24
24
24
24
48
48
48
48
48
1.0
1.8
2.9
12
53. 7
0.50
0. 56
1. 3
1. 7
16.7
Alabaster, 1969
Davis and Hughes, 1963
i<
Alabaster, 1956
Davis and Hughes, 1963
Bohmont, 1967
FWPCA, 1968
Bohmont, 1967
FWPCA, 1968
126
-------
variation in results obtained from the different
batch lots of the same formulation.
Hiltibran (1967) reported that bluegill and
green sunfish fry survived a concentration of 10
ppm for 8 days or the termination of the
experiment.
TABLE 77. The 24-hour LC60 of bluegills to 2,4,5-T formu-
lations (Hughes and Davis, 1963).
2,4,5-T LCso (ppm)
Dimethylamire 144
Isooctyl ester ' 31
Isooctyl ester * 28
Isooctyl ester ' 10. 4
Propylene glycol butyl ethyl ester 17
Butoxyethanol ester 1.4
i Different batches of same formulation.
Molluscs
The exposure of oysters to 2.0 ppm of 2,4,5-T
acid for 96 hours had no effect on shell growth
(Butler, 1963).
Arthropods
The minimum lethal dosages (ppm) which pro-
duced a kill exceeding 25 percent with 2,4,5-T are
listed for the following fish-food organisms:
Daphnia, 1.5; Eucypris, 0.5; Hyallella, 0.7; Pa-
laemonetea, 1.2; Amphiagrion, 7.5; Pachydiplax
and Tramea, 8.0; and Chironomus. 6.0 (Zischkale,
1952).
The exposure of brown shrimp to 1.0 ppm of
2,4,5-T for 48 hours had no deleterious effects
(Butler, 1963).
Plants
Fifteen days after black-cherry brush had been
treated until wet with a 2,4,5-T concentration of
2,000 ppm, Grigsby and Ball (1952) reported that
the hydrocyanic acid (HCN) content was reduced
85 percent (control = 91.9 mg/100 g fresh wt;
2,4,5-T= 10.8 mg/100 g).
Swanson and Shaw (1954) demonstrated that
the hydrocyanic acid content of Sudan grass was
increased by 69 percent (control, HCN 36 mg/100
g fresh wt. versus 2,4,5-T, 61 mg/100 g) in plots
treated with 1 Ib/A of 2,4,5-T.
When 9 species of weeds were treated with sub-
lethal dosages (0.25 Ib/A) of 2,4,5-T, the nitrate
content of the plants decreased from 5 to 32 percent
in 4 species and increased from 3 to 36 percent in 5
other species (Frank and Grigsby, 1957). The 36-
percent increase (control, 9.8 nig/g dry wt. versus
2,4,5-T, 13.6 mg/g) in potassium nitrate occurred
in Impatiens Mflora.
The exposure of phytoplankton to 1.0 ppm of
2,4,5-T for 4 hours caused no decrease in produc-
tivity (Butler, 1963).
Microorganisms
Magee and Colmer (1955) reported that 2,4,5-T
at 1,500 to 2,000 ppm produced an inhibition of
respiration to Azotobacter sp. Bounds and Colmer
(1964), however, found that 2,4,5-T did not affect
Streptomyces at 2 and 50 Ib/A.
Persistence
2,4,5-T applied at 5 ppm to soil persisted for 166
to >190 days (DeKose and Newman, 1947).
In moist-loam soil 2,4,5-T applied at a rate of
y2 to 3 lb/A persisted for 2 to 5 weeks with little
or no leaching, under summertime conditions in a
temperate climate (Klingman, 1961). Sheets and
Harris (1965), however, reported that 2,4,5-T gen-
erally persisted for about 3 months under moist
soil conditions.
TAR DISTILLATE
Birds
Tar distillate had a significant effect when chick-
ens were exposed daily for 14 days to grass sprayed
daily with tar distillate winter wash (30 percent
cresol and phenol as the active agents) at y2 pt
and 2 pt made up to 1 gal of water (Dobson, 1954).
The low tar-distillate treatment led to a 17-percent
reduction in egg yield, and the higher dosage led
to a 46-percent reduction, but there was no reduc-
tion in egg fertility or hatchability. The chickens
did not lose weight after the exposure.
127
-------
2,3,6-TBA
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 750 mg/kg to 2,3,6-
TBA when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (PCOC, 1966).
Persistence
2,3,6-TBA applied at 1 to 8 Ib/A persisted in
soil for >18 months (Dowler, Sand and Robinson,
1963).
TCA
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 5,000 mg/kg; for the
mouse, 3,640 mg/kg; and for the rabbit, 4,000
mg/kg to TCA when the mammals were fed the
stated dosages orally (WSA, 1967).
Birds
The LD50 for chicks was 4,280 mg/kg to
TCA when the chicks were fed the stated dosage
orally (WSA, 1967).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 of channel catfish to TCA (90
percent) was 2,000 ppm (Clemens and Sneed,
1959). Bond, Lewis and Fryer (1959) also found
that chinook salmon would survive a 48-hour ex-
posure to 870 ppm of TCA. The results indicate
that catfish and salmon were relatively tolerant
of TCA.
TCA has been employed in aquatic habitats in
combination with monuron, fenuron, and diuron.
Combinations always resulted in increased toxicity
to fish (Walker, 1965).
Arthropods and Annelids
TCA at a dosage of 80 Ib/A was found to in-
crease the number of millipedes, springtails, and
mites in the soil, while decreasing the number of
earthworms 14 months after treatment (Fox,
1964).
Microorganisms
TCA at normal application rates markedly sup-
pressed the activity of microorganisms (Kratoch-
vil, 1950). Otten, Dawson and Schreiber (1957)
also reported that TCA at normal application
rates reduced soil nitrification based on laboratory
tests.
Persistence
TCA applied at 15 Ib/A persisted in soil for 42
to 64 days (Rai and Hammer, 1953).
In moist-loam soil TCA applied at a rate of
40 to 100 Ib/A was found to persist for 50 to 90
days with little or no leaching, under summer-
time conditions in a temperate climate (Klingman,
1961).
TRIFLURAL1N
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was > 10,000 mg/kg; for
the mouse, 5,000 mg/kg; for the rabbit, >2,000
mg/kg; and for the dog, > 2,000 mg/kg to triflura-
lin when the mammals were fed the stated dosages
orally (WSA, 1967).
The LD50 for rats was > 10,000 mg/kg to tri-
fluralin when the mammals were fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
The LD50 for chickens was >2,000 mg/kg
(WSA, 1967) ; for young mallards, >2,000
mg/kg; and for young pheasants, >2,000 mg/kg
(Tucker and Crabtree, 1970) to trifluralin when
the birds were given the stated dosages orally in
a capsule.
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for bluegills and rainbow
trout to trifluralin was 0.10 ppm and 0.21 ppm,
respectively (Cope, 1965a).
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
trifluralin at temperatures of 1.6°C, 7.2°C, and
128
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12.7°C was 3.8 ppb, 239 ppb, and 98 ppb, respec-
tively (Macek, Hutchinson and Cope, 1969); and
the 24-hour LC50 for bluegills exposed at tem-
peratures of 12.7°C, 18.3°C, and 23.8°C was 540
ppb, 360 ppb, and 130 ppb, respectively. As both
temperature and time of exposure increased, the
LC50 decreased for bluegills exposed to trifluralin
(table 78).
TABLE 78. The effects of time and temperature on the
toxicity of trifluralin to bluegills averaging 38 mm in
length and 0.89 g in weight (Cope, 1965a).
85
75.
65
55
45
24hrs
10
120
360
530
1, 300
LC» (ppb)
48hrs
8 4
66
200
380
590
96hrs
8. 4
47
135
210
280
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
trifluralin was 11 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to triflura-
lin was 0.3 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Amphibians
The 24-hour LC50 for Fowler's toad tadpoles
exposed to trifluralin was 0.18 ppm (Sanders,
1970).
Arthropods
The LC50 for various arthropods to trifluralin
is found in table 79.
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, /Sinwcephalits serrulatus and
Daphnia pulex, to trifluralin was 450 ppb and 240
ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
Persistence
Trifluralin applied to soil persisted for about
6 months (Kearney, Nash and Isensee, 1969).
TABLE 79. The LC50 for various arthropods to trifluralin.
Amphipod (Gammarus. lacust
Stonefly (Pteronarcys califon
(Pteronarcys sp.)
Waterflea (Daphnia pulex)--
Stonefly (P. californica)
Amphipod (G. lacustris)
Arthropod Species
ris)
tied)
Exposure
Time (hr)
24
24
24
48
48
48
LCfio
(ppm)
8.8
13
13.0
0.240
4.2
5.6
Source
Sanders, 1969
Sanders and Cope, 1968
Cope, 1965a
FWPCA, 1968
tf
ft
TRIOXONE
VERNOLATE
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to trioxone
was 12 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 1,800 mg/kg to verno-
late when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (WSA, 1967).
UREABOR
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to ureabor
was 975 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 to vernolate for bluegills was
9.7 ppm (Cope, 1965a) and for rainbow trout, 6.2
ppm (WSA, 1967). The 96-hour LC50 for three-
spined stickleback to vernolate was 1 to 10 ppm
(WSA, 1967).
129
-------
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to Arthropods
vernolate was 5.900 ppb (FWPCA, 1968). „, .0 , _~ ,, , .,.,. , ,,.
> rr \ ' ' The 48-hour EC50 (loss of equilibrium or death)
for brown shrimp to vernolate was greater than 1
ppm (maximum level tested) (WSA, 1967).
Molluscs The 48-hour LC50 for amphipods (Gam/marus
Lacustris) exposed to vernolate was 25,000 ppb
(FWPC A, 1968).
The 96-hour EC50 (shell growth inhibition) for The 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (G. lacus-
oysters to vernolate was greater than 1 ppm (maxi- tris) exposed to vernolate was 8,400 ppb (Sanders,
mum level tested) (WSA, 1967). 1969).
130
-------
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136
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PART IV
Fungicides
AMMONIUM CHLORIDE
Arthropods
Ammonium chloride at 91 ppm in Lake Erie
water was found to immobilize Daphnia magna
within 64 hours (Anderson, 1948).
Amphibians
BENZOIC ACID
The lethal dose of benzoic acid to frogs by
subcutaneous injection was 100 to 200 mg/kg
(Specter, 1955).
AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE
Amphibians
Ammonium hydroxide at 12 ppm was reported
to be toxic to Rana pipiens and bullfrogs when
exposed for 48 hours (Alabama, 1955).
BENZENETHIOL
Fishes
The exposure of brown trout, bluegill, and gold-
fish to 5 ppm of benzenethiol for 24 hours resulted
in no mortality in any of the species (Spector,
1955).
BIUREA
Fishes
The exposure of brown trout, bluegill, and gold-
fish to 6 ppm of biurea, a medical fungicide, for
24 hours resulted in no mortality in any of the
species (Spector, 1955).
BUSAN
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to busan 90
and 881 was 1.8 ppm and 1.1 ppm, respectively
(Alabaster, 1969).
137
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CADMIUM SUCCINATE
TABLE 80. The LC4o for various arthropods to captafol.
Birds
The LC50 for pheasants was 1,250 to 1,400 ppm;
for bobwhites, 1,700 to 1,900 ppm; and for co-
turnix, 2,600 to 2,800 ppm of cadmium succinate
in diets of 2-week-old birds when fed treated feed
for 5 days followed by untreated feed for 3 days
(Heath et al., 1970).
Arthropod Species
Exposure LCso
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
CAFFEINE
Amphibians
The lethal dose of caffeine, a proteotant mate-
rial, to frogs by subcutaneous injection was 120
to 150 mg/kg in 4 to 5 days (Spector, 1955).
CAPTAFOL
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 6,700 mg/kg to captafol
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
Captafol caused a 6.7-percent incidence of tera-
togenesis in chick embryos when the chemical was
injected into eggs at dosages ranging from 3 to
20 ppm (Verrett et al., 1969). The incidence of
abnormalities in control chick embryos was <2.0
percent. Most of the malformations occurred in
the wings and legs.
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for channel catfish exposed
to captafol was 31 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC5o for harlequin fish to captafol
was 0.032 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Arthropods
See table 80 for the LC50 for various arthropods
to captafol.
Stonefly (Pteronarcys
call/arnica)
Amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris)
Stonefly (P. cali-
fornica)
Amphipod (G.
lacustris)
24 0.48 Sanders and
Cope, 1968
24 2.2 Sanders, 1969
48 0.150 FWPCA, 1968
48 6.5
CAPTAN
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 9,000 mg/kg to cap-
tan when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
The LC50 for mallards was >5,000 ppm; for
pheasants, >5,000 ppm; for bobwhites, 2,000 to
4,000 ppm; and for coturnix, >5,000 ppm of cap-
tan in diets of 2-week-old birds when fed treated
feed for 5 days followed by untreated feed for 3
days (Heath et al., 1970).
Captan caused a 7.8-percent incidence of tera-
togenesis in chick embryos when the chemical
was injected into eggs at dosages ranging from 3
to 20 ppm (Verrett et al., 1969). The incidence of
abnormalities in control chick embryos was <2.0
percent. Most of the malformations occurred in
the legs and wings.
Arthropods and Annelids
Beran and Neururer (1955) reported that the
LD50 of captan to honeybees was 2.44 /tg per bee
when fed orally.
Treatment of orchards at recommended rates (1
to 10 Ib/A in Thomson, 1967) with captan caused
little or no reduction in the numbers of beneficial
predaceous and parasitic arthropods (MacPhee
and Sanford, 1961). Schneider (1958) reported
that captan at normal rates of application in
orchards had no effect upon the parasitic wasp
138
-------
Aphelinus mali. In the laboratory employing a
normal spray concentration of 0.125 percent cap-
tan against the parasitic wasp Mormoniella vitri-
pennis caused no mortality (Ankersmit et al.,
1962).
Captan applied to potted apple trees at a dosage
of 0.20 percent exhibited little or no toxicity to
beneficial predatory mites (Van de Vrie, 1962).
However, captain sprayed in orchards at a rate
of 1 lb/100 gal of water caused some mortality of
beneficial parasitic wasps (especially Metaphy-
cw helvolus), but caused little or no mortality to
beneficial predatory coccinellid beetles (Bartlett,
1963).
Captan applied to orchards at normal spray
dosages did not harm beneficial predatory mites
(Typhlodromus sp.) or such beneficial wasp para-
sites as Mormoniella sp. and Aphelinus mali (Be-
semer, 1964).
Captan applied to apple trees at a concentration
of 0.15 percent was reported by Van de Vrie
(1967) to be harmless to the predatory bug An-
thocoris nemorum, but to cause some mortality
to the predatory bug Orius sp. and to the parasite
Aphelinus mali. These results with A. mali do not
agree with the findings of Schneider (1958), who
reported no effect with captan.
Ulrich (1968) reported that captan remaining
on a surface after treatment with a concentration
of 1,000 ppm in water had little or no effect upon
Trichogramma female adults (wasp parasite, pri-
marily of Lepidoptera eggs) when exposed for 10
hours.
Earthworms, Eisenia foetida, were immersed
for 2 hours in solutions containing captan (Mar-
tin and Wiggans, 1959). There was little mortality
at exposure of 10 ppm, but at 100 ppm there was
100-percent mortality.
Soil treated with 15, 60, and 500 Ib/A of captan
failed to prove toxic to Lumbricw after 32 days'
exposure (DeVries, 1962). Helodrieus mortality
was 47 percent after 32 days' exposure to the 500
Ib/A dose.
Persistence
Captan in soil persisted for >65 days (Mun-
necke, 1958).
When captan was well distributed in the soil,
the fungicide had a half life of 1 to 2 days (Griffith
and Matthews, 1969). However, when the material
was applied in heavy concentrations on the surface
of beads (simulating seeds), captan persisted;
there was little change in concentration even after
21 days.
CARBOLIC ACID
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for channel catfish to carbolic
acid was 16.7 ppm (Clemens and Sneed, 1959).
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to carbolic
acid was 8.2 ppm (Alabaster, 1969),
The exposure of brown trout, bluegill, and gold-
fish to 5 ppm of carbolic acid (o-phenyl phenol)
for 22 hours resulted in no mortality in any of the
species (Spector, 1955).
Carbolic acid at 500 to 600 ppm was found to be
deadly to fish in tests run in Russia (Demyanenko,
1931).
Amphibians
The lethal dose of carbolic acid (o-chloro
phenol) to frogs by subcutaneous injection was 400
mg/kg (Spector, 1955).
CHLORANIL
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 4,000 mg/kg to chlo-
ranil when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
Neff and Meanley (1955 in Springer, 1957) re-
ported that blackbirds were not repelled by chlo-
ranil (tetrachloro-p-benzoquinone). Pheasants
were observed to eat seed-corn with chloranil with
little or no harm (Leedy and Cole, 1950).
Persistence
Chloranil applied to soil persisted for >20 days
(Domsch, 1958).
139
-------
CHLORINE
Birds
Amphibians
Chlorine at 0.25 ppm was toxic to Hyla cinema
and small Rana pipiens tadpoles within 12 hours
at 76°F, and 2.0 ppm was required to kill large
bullfrog tadpoles (Alabama, 1955).
CHLORONITROPROPANE
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 197 mg/kg to chloronitro-
propane when the mammals were fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC60 for rainbow trout exposed to
chloronitropropane was 100 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC50 for stoneflies (Pteronarcys
californica) exposed to chloronitropropane was
5,500 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
The 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (Gammarus
lacustiris) exposed to chloronitropropane was 2,800
ppb (Sanders, 1969).
Microorganisms
Chloronitropropane at 10 ppm was found to
stop soil activity of nitrifying microorganisms
(Caseley and Broadbent, 1968).
COPPER CARBONATE
Mammals
Copper carbonate applied as a spray or painted
on bark proved to be an effective repellent on
plants for various species of rabbits, especially the
white-tailed jackrabbit (Garlough, Welch and
Spencer, 1942).
Copper carbonate applied to seed corn did not
prevent pheasants from consuming the seed (Dam-
bach and Leedy, 1949 in Springer, 1957). No re-
port was made whether the fungicide was toxic to
the pheasants.
COPPER OXYCHLORIDE
Fishes
The 48-hour LC5o for bluegill exposed to copper
oxychloride was 1,100 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
Schneider (1968) reported copper oxychloride
applied to orchards at normal rates of application
(2 to 5 Ib/A in Thomson, 1967) to have no effect on
populations of the beneficial parasitic wasp
Aphelinus mali.
Van de Vrie (1962) reported that copper oxy-
chloride applied to apple leaves at a concentration
of 0.25 percent killed 84 percent of the predatory
mites (Typhlodromus tiliae and T. tiliarum) after
7 days of exposure in the laboratory.
COPPER-8-QUINOLINOLATE
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to copper-8-
quinolinolate was 0.30 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
COPPER SULFATE
Mammals
Hayne (1949) reported that 1 oz copper sulf ate
and 1.5 oz hydrated lime (Bordeaux mixture) in 1
gal of water applied to beans and cabbages repelled
cottontail rabbits. The effectiveness was lost in a
few days.
Bordeaux mixture at normal application rates
(10 lib copper+10 Ib lime in 100 gal of water in
140
-------
Thomson, 1967) to garden plants was reportedly
effective in repelling rabbits and other rodents in
gardens (Hildreth and Brown, 1955).
Copper sulfate and similar fungicides at normal
application rates to crops have been found to poi-
son sheep and chickens on farms (Antoine, 1966).
The poisoning comes about through an accumula-
tion of copper in the animals. For example, the
daily intake of 25 mg during several months by
sheep resulted in serious j aundice in these animals.
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was > 2,000 mg/
kg and for pheasants, > 2,000 nig/kg to Bordeaux
mixture when the birds were given the stated
dosages orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for striped bass to copper sul-
fate was 1.5 ppm (Wellborn, 1969).
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to cop-
per sulf ate was 150 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
The toxicity of copper sulf ate to fish varies with
the species and with the physical and chemical
characteristics of the water. The chemical was espe-
cially .toxic to trout in soft water (Bond, 1960).
The highest concentrations of copper sulfate tol-
erated by various fish are shown in table 81. Trout
were obviously the most sensitive, agreeing with
Bond's results.
The margin of safety for fish in using copper
sulfate for aquatic weed control was small (De-
Vaney, 1968). Dosages for weed control range from
0.05 ppm to 10.0 ppm for the control of various
weeds (USDA,1954).
Copper sulfate was found to be less toxic to fish
in hard water than soft water (table 82).
Copper sulfate applied to 4 lakes in Minnesota
at a rate of 0.12 to 0.50 ppm did not affect fish
yields for the preceding 24 years, compared with 5
untreated lakes (Moyle, 1949).
Arthropods and Other Invertebrates
Stultz (1955) observed that all principal para-
sites were at relatively high densities after the
use of copper fungicides in orchards at normal
application rates. Bordeaux mixture (3 Ib copper
TABLE 81. The highest concentrations of copper sulfate
tolerated by various fish (McKee and Wolf, 1963).
Fish
Dosage
(ppm)
Fish
Dosage
(ppm)
Trout 0. 14 Perch 0. 67
Carp 0.33 Largemouth bass
Suckers 0. 33 and bluegill 0. 80
Catfish 0. 40 Sunfish 1.35
Pickerel 0.40 Smallmouth bass 2.00
Goldfish 0.50
TABLE 82. Toxicity of copper sulfate (48-hr LC50) to
bluegills in water from 4 sources (McKee and Wolf,
1963).
LCoo (ppm)
0.6
8.0
10. 0
45.0
Total Hardness (ppm)
15. 0
68.0
100.0
132.0
Total Alkalinity
(ppm)
18. 7
166.0
245.0
1544. 0
sulf ate+ 10 Ib lime) at 2 lb/100 gal of water
applied to orchards did not cause any harmful
effects to beneficial arthropod predators and para-
sites (MacPhee and Sanford, 1961). Bartlett
(1963) reported also that Bordeaux mixture at a
high dosage of 40 lb/100 gal of water applied to
orchards caused little or no 'mortality to beneficial
parasitic wasps and predatory coccinellid beetles.
Copper sulfate applied at a rate of 0.05 to 0.08
ppm in ponds for control of algae resulted in an
increase in copepods, cladocerans, rotifers, cha-
oborid larvae, and ostracods and other zooplank-
ton (Crance, 1963).
Copper-containing fungicides which have been
used extensively in orchards eliminated most ani-
mal life in the soil, including the large earth-
worm (Lumbriaus terrestris) (Mellanby, 1967).
Eaw (1962) earlier reported that copper fungi-
cides can almost eradicate earthworms from soil
to which they are applied.
Plants
In some Minnesota lakes which had been treated
for 26 years with copper sulfate, the blue-green
algae Aphanisomenon appeared to have evolved
increased resistance to copper sulfate (Moyle,
1949).
423-8021 O—71-
-10
141
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CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE
CYCLOHEXAMIDE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 1 to 5 mg/kg to cor-
rosive sublimate when the mammal was fed the
stated dosages orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
Sticklebacks were able to survive for 10 days
when exposed to corrosive sublimate at 8 ppb
(Jones, 1939).
Arthropods
The toxicity limitation of corrosive sublimate
with the crustacean Daphnia was less than 0.006
ppm (Anderson, 1948).
CRESOL
Fishes
The 96-hour LC50 for channel catfish to o-cresol
was 66.8 ppm (Clemens and Sneed, 1959).
Cresol at 500 to 600 ppm was found to be deadly
to fish in test runs in Russia (Demyanenko, 1931).
Amphibians
Both m-cresol and p-cresol were found to be
lethal to frogs by subcutaneous injection with
dosages of 250 mg/kg and 150 mg/kg, respectively
(Spector, 1955). This fungicide is employed as a
protectant chemical for materials such as -wood.
CYANO(METHYLMERCURI)GUANIDINE
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was 595 mg/kg;
for young pheasants, 566 mg/kg; and for house
sparrows, 300 to 900 mg/kg to cyano (methylmer-
curi)guanidine when the birds were given the
stated dosages orally in a capsule (at 6.3 percent
active ingredient) (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 2.5 mg/kg to cyclo-
hexamide when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Cyclohexamide has been shown to be highly
repellent to laboratory rats (Traub et al., 19*50).
Ait 1 ppm in water rats would die, rather than
accept the treated water. The antibiotic was re-
ported, however, to have limited repellency to four
species of mice (Welch, 1954).
Birds
The LD50 for mallard ducks was 50 to 100 mg/
kg to cyclohexamide when the birds were given
the stated dosages orally in a capsule (Tucker and
Crabtree, 1970).
Plants
Lemin and Thomas (1961) reported that cyclo-
hexamide was taken up from a stem application
and distributed to the upper stem and needles in
eastern white pine seedlings, but was not trans-
located to the roots.
CYCLOPENTADIENE
Fishes
The exposure of brown trout and bluegill to 5
ppm of cyclopentadiene for 24 hours resulted in no
mortality in either of the 2 species (Spector, 1955).
DELRAD
Fishes
The 25-hour LD50 for channel catfish to Delrad
was 0.74 ppm (Clemens and Sneed, 1959).
142
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Molluscs
DICHLOFLUANID
Delrad at 0.5 ppm caused about 60-percent mor-
tality of clam larvae, and 1 ppm caused 100 per-
cent (Davis, 1961).
Arthropods
Delrad was found to be toxic to small crusta-
ceans (copepods) at 1 ppm (Alabama, 1955, and
Springer, 1957).
DEXON
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was about 60 mg/kg to
Dexon when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to Dexon
was 23,000 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Mammals
The LD50 for the male rat was 1,000 mg/kg to
dichlofluanid when the mammal was fed the
stated dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Arthropods
At least 66 percent of a population of Tricho-
gramma adult females, a beneficial wasp parasite
of Lepidoptera eggs, when exposed to the mildew
fungicide, dichlofluanid, remaining on a surface
after treatment at a concentration of 750 ppm in
water were killed within 10 hours (Ulrich, 1968).
DICHLONE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 1,300 mg/kg to di-
chlone when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC50 for stoneflies (Pteronarcys
californica) and amphipods (Gammarws lacus-
tris) exposed to Dexon was 4,200 ppb and 6,000
ppb, respectively (FWPCA, 1968).
Microorganisms
Dexon at 100 and 200 mg/kg soil treatments
decreased the number of detectable Pythium pro-
pagules and also decreased the root-rot index when
peas were planted in the treated soils (Alconero
and Hagedorn, 1968). The number of Fusarium
spp., Actinomucor elegans, and Trichoderma spp.
appeared not to be affected by the chemical
treatments.
Persistence
Soil treated with Dexon at a rate of 250 mg/kg
still had residues of Dexon at 71 ppm one year later
(Alconero and Hagedorn, 1968).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was > 2,000 mg/kg
to dichlone when the birds were given the stated
dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970).
Dichlone-treated rice seed was found not to have
any repellent action and to be readily eaten by
blackbirds (Neff and Meanley, 1955 in Springer,
1957).
Fishes
See table 83 for the LCBO for various fish to
dichlone.
Dichlone was toxic to bluegills at 0.15 ppm and
to fathead minnows at 0.23 ppm (no exposure time
given) (Alabama, 1955).
Dichlone at a concentration of 0.1 ppm was re-
ported to be toxic to fingerling largemouth bass in
22 hours and at 1 ppm, toxic to goldfish and blue-
gills in 3 hours (Alabama, 1954). However, Fitz-
gerald and Skoog (1954) reported that concentra-
tions of 30 and 55 ppb of dichlone had no observed
143
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effect on fish and zooplankton when applied to a
lake for control of blue-green algae.
Dichlone has been used for algae control at about
0.5 ppm; however, at concentrations of 0.08 ppm
largemouth bass have been killed in aquarium
tests in soft water (Bond, 1960).
TABLE 83. The LC50 for various fish to dichlone.
DICHLOROPHEN
Fish Species
Exposure LCso
Time (hr) (ppm)
Source
Rainbow trout
Channel catfish
Salmon
Rainbow trout
24
29
48
48
0.34
0. 14
0. 043
0.048
Alabaster, 1956
Clemens and
Sneed, 1959
Bohmont, 1967
FWPCA, 1968
The 24-hour LC50 for an amphipod (Gammarus
lacustris) exposed to dichlone was 3,200 ppb
(Sanders, 1969).
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (Daphnia
magna) and amphipods (G. lacustris) exposed to
dichlone was 26 ppb and 11,500 ppb, respectively
(FWPCA, 1968).
Dichlone applied to orchards in Nova Scotia at
recommended application rates significantly re-
duced the populations of 30 to 40 percent of the
beneficial parasitic and predaceous species in the
treated crop area (MacPhee and Sanford, 1954
and 1956).
Stultz (1955) reported dichlone at normal ap-
plication rates in orchards to reduce seriously the
numbers of predaceous insects attacking the bud
moth, especially the predator Haplothrips faurei.
In contradiction to Stultz's results, MacPhee and
Sanford (1961) reported that treatments of di-
chlone at recommended dosages (0.5 lb/100 gal of
water) in orchards caused little or no reduction in
the numbers of most beneficial predaceous and
parasitic arthropods; however, dichlone did cause
some reduction in the numbers of a mite predator
(Typhlodromus pyri).
The median immobilization concentration of
dichlone to Daphnia magna was 0.014 ppm
(Crosby and Tucker, 1966).
Mammals
The LD50 for the guinea pig was 1,250 mg/kg to
dichlorophen when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout and harle-
quin fish to dichlorophen (sodium salt) was 0.32
ppm and 0.24 ppm, respectively (Alabaster, 1969).
DICLORAN
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was > 10,000 mg/kg to
dicloran when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
The LD50 for mallards was > 2,000 mg/kg to
dicloran when the birds were given the stated
dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970).
Plants
Lemin (1965) showed dicloran to be translo-
cated by plants (tomato seedlings).
Microorganisms
Dicloran was found to inhibit progressively soil
nitrification by microorganisms starting at 10
ppm, with complete inhibition occurring at 1,000
ppm (Caseley and Broadbent, 1968).
144
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DINOCAP
DITHIANON
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 980 mg/kg to dinocap
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(FCH, 1970).
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 1,015 mg/kg to di-
thianon when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC5o for harlequin fish to dinocap
was 0.14 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Arthropods
Dinocap at a concentration of 0.25 percent
(normal spray concentration: 0.025 percent)
caused only a 9-percent mortality to the wasp
parasite Mormoniella vitripennis (Ankersmit
et al., 1962). Besemer (1964) supported these
findings, reporting that dinocap applied at recom-
mended dosages in orchards proved to be rela-
tively harmless to Mormoniella, but slightly toxic
to another wasp parasite, Aphelinus mali.
The wasp parasite Trichogramma was also
found to be susceptible to dinocap (Ulrich, 1968).
At least 66 percent of adult females of this wasp
were killed after a 4-hour exposure to dinocap
remaining on a surface after treatment at a con-
centration of 250 ppm in water. In the field
Besemer (1964) reported that a single application
of dinocap destroyed a portion of the Tricho-
grama population, important in the control of
leaf rollers in orchards.
Dinocap at a concentration of 0.06 percent was
reported to kill 100 percent of the predatory mite
populations (TyphlodromMS tUiae and T. tilia-
rum) in laboratory tests (Van de Vrie, 1962). The
field use of dinocap at recommended dosages in
orchards was reported by Besemer (1964) to cause
high mortalities to predaceous mites.
Van de Vrie (1967) reported that dinocap ap-
plied to apple trees at a concentration of 0.06 per-
cent caused no harm to the predatory bug
Anthocoris Tiemorum, some reduction in the pred-
atory bug Orius sp., and a high mortality to the
parasite Aphelinus mali.
Arthropods
Ulrich (1968) reported that dithianon remain-
ing on a surface after treatment with a concen-
tration of 600 ppm in water had little or no
effect upon the wasp egg-parasite Trichogramnui
(female adults) exposed for 10 hours.
DMTT
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 500 mg/kg to DMTT
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(FCH, 1970).
Persistence
DMTT applied to soil persisted for 4
(Domsch, 1958).
days
DODINE
Mammals
The LD50 for the male rat was about 1,000
mg/kg to dodine when the mammal was fed the
stated dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Arthropods
Dodine applied to orchards at 0.75 lb/100 gal
of water caused a reduction in the numbers of two
mirid predators (Daraeocoris nebulosity and
Hyaliodes harti) (MacPhee and Sanford, 1961).
145
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Dodine remaining on a surface after treatment
with a concentration of 500 ppm in water had little
or no effect upon the egg parasite Trichogramma
(adult females) when exposed for 10 hours
(Ulrich, 1968).
FENTIN ACETATE
DYRENE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was about 2,710 mg/kg to
Dyrene when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was > 2,000 mg/kg
to Dyrene when the birds were given the stated
dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to Dyrene
was 15 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
Arthropods
The 48-hour LC50 for waterfleas (Daphnia
magna) exposed to Dyrene was 490 ppb (FWPCA,
1968).
Phytoplankton
A 91.3-percent decrease in productivity of
natural phytoplankton communities occurred
when they were exposed for 4 hours to a concen-
tration of 1.0 ppm of Dyrene (Butler, 1963).
EC-90
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to EC-90
was 2.2 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 125 mg/kg to fentin
acetate when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to fentin
acetate was 0.08 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
FENTIN HYDROXIDE
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 108 mg/kg to fentin
hydroxide when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for bluegill exposed to fentin
hydroxide was 33 ppb (FWPCA, 1968).
FERBAM
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was > 17,000 mg/kg to
ferbam when the mammal was fed the stated dos-
age orally (FCH, 1970).
In tests conducted by Hildreth and Brown
(1955) ferbam was found not to be repellent to
rabbits.
Fishes
The 27-hour LC50 for channel catfish to ferbam
was 12.6 ppm (Clemens and Sneed, 1959), and
Butler (1963) reported that the 24-hour LC50 for
juvenile longnose killifish to ferbam was 1.0 ppm.
Ferbam applied to ponds at 0.5 ppm was re-
ported by Eipper (1959) to cause blindness in one
146
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northern pike, a largemouth bass, and 2 common
bluegills about 23 days after treatment. In addi-
tion, in aquarium tests ferbam was observed to
cause severe fin erosion in all lots of 3-inch brook
trout. Eipper and Forney (1954, in Springer,
1957) reported that ferbam killed fingerling brook
trout at concentrations of 1 to 2 ppm, but did not
appear to be lethal to pike, bass, or bluegill in
ponds treated with 0.5 to 4 ppm.
Molluscs
A concentration of 0.075 ppm of ferbam in sea-
water caused a 50-percent decrease in eastern
oyster shell growth during a 96-hour exposure
(Butler, 1963).
Arthropods
Ferbam applied to Nova Scotia orchards at rec-
ommended dosages was found to reduce signifi-
cantly about 22 percent of the numbers of species
of beneficial predators and parasites in this crop
ecosystem (MacPhee and Sanford, 1954). Further
documentation of these results came from the in-
vestigations of Stultz (1955) in Nova Scotia. He
reported that the wasp parasites Meteorus
trachynotus and Ascogaster quadridentata were
only rarely seen after several years' use of ferbam
at normal application rates in orchards; however,
he reported little or no change in the effectiveness
of the parasite Agathis latwinctus. MacPhee and
Sanford (1956), in later investigations of the in-
fluence of spray programs on the fauna of apple
orchards, reported that ferbam at normal applica-
tion rates caused significant reduction in the num-
bers of about 16 percent of the beneficial parasitic
and predaceous species.
The parasitization of pest insect eggs by
Trichogramma was significantly reduced (by
about 75 percent) when ferbam was applied to
orchards at recommended dosages in Germany
(Stein, 1961).
In contrast with the above findings, Bartlett
(1963) reported that ferbam at 1.75 lb/100 gal of
water applied to orchards in California caused
little or no mortality to beneficial parasitic wasps
and predatory coccinellid beetles.
Plants
The effect of ferbam added to the soil annually
at 209 Ib/A from 1949 to 1953 was measured by
growing various crop plants in the contaminated
soil for several years following the treatments
(MacPhee, Chisholm and MacEachern, 1960).
With high residues of ferbam in the soil at time
of growth, yields of the crop plants were as fol-
lows : beans, no effect; turnips, increased 1.7 times ;
carrots, no effect; tomatoes, little effect; and peas,
no effect.
Ferbam applied at 0.5 ppm to 2 ponds killed 90
percent of the filamentous algae, but only 60 to 80
percent of Cladophora \vere killed in 2 ponds
treated with 1.5 and 3 ppm, respectively (Eipper,
1959).
A 97.0-percent decrease in productivity of
natural phytoplankton communities occurred
when they were exposed for 4 hours to a concen-
tration of 1.0 ppm of ferbam (Butler, 1963).
Persistence
Ferbam applied to soil persisted for 28 days
(Jacques, Robinson and Chase, 1959).
FOLPET
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was > 10,000 mg/kg to
folpet when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was >2,000 mg/
kg to folpet when the birds were given the stated
dosage orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970).
Folpet caused an 8.2-percent incidence of
teratogenesis in chick embryos when the chemical
was injected into eggs at dosages ranging from 3
to 20 ppm (Verrett et al., 1969). The incidence
of abnormalities in control chick embryos was
<2.0 percent. Most of the malformations occurred
in the wings and legs.
147
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Fishes
Arthropods
Butler (1963) reported that the 24-hour LC50
for juvenile white mullet and longnose killifish
to folpet was 1.56 ppm and 2.5 ppm, respectively.
Phytoplankton
A 31.9-percent decrease in productivity of
natural phytoplankton communities occurred
when they were exposed for 4 hours to a concentra-
tion of 1.0 ppm of folpet (Butler, 1963).
Stultz (1955) reported that glyodin applied to
orchards in Nova Scotia at recommended rates
did little or no harm to any of the principal para-
sites present in the habitat. Further support of
this finding comes from the investigation by Mac-
Phee and Sanf ord (1961) in the same region; they
found that treatments with glyodin at recom-
mended application rates caused little or no reduc-
tions in the numbers of beneficial predaceous and
parasitic arthropods.
FORMALIN
GRISEOFULVIN
Fishes
At concentrations in excess of 25 ppm, formalin
was toxic to goldfish (Alabama, 1955). The 25-
hour LC50 for channel catfish to formalin was
87.0 ppm by volume (Clemens and Sneed, 1959).
The 24-hour LC50 for striped bass to formalin
was 86 ppm (Wellborn, 1969).
Persistence
Formalin applied to soil persisted for <4 days
(Domsch, 1958).
a-FURALDEHYDE
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to a-fural-
dehyde was 31 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Microorganisms
Brian (1949) reported griseofulvin to be ef-
fective in reducing the growth of Zygomycetes,
Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, and Fungi Imper-
fecti at dosages of about 10 ju,g/ml, whereas it took
about 20 //g/ml of griseofulvin to reduce the
growth of the Omycetes.
HEXACHLOROPHENE
Mammals
The LD50 for mammals (species not specified)
was about 320 mg/kg to hexachlorophene when
the mammals were fed the stated dosage orally
(FCH, 1970).
Welch (1954) reported that hexachlorophene
acted as an effective repellent for small rodents.
GLYODIN
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 3,170 mg/kg to glyo-
din when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
HIPPURIC ACID
Fishes
The exposure of brown trout, bluegill, and gold-
fish to 5 ppm of hippuric acid, a fungicide protec-
tant, for 24 hours resulted in no mortality in any
of the species (Spector, 1955).
148
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HYDROXYMERCURICHLOROPHENOLS
MALACHITE GREEN
Birds
Meadowlarks would not eat seed treated with
hydroxymercurichlorophenol (Neff and Meanley,
1956 in Springer, 1957).
Mammals
The LD50 for the rabbit was 75 nig/kg to
malachite green when the mammal was fed the
stated dosage orally (PCOC, 1966).
Persistence
Hydroxymercurichlorophenol applied to soil
persisted for 29 days (Spanis, Munnecke and Sol-
berg, 1962).
Birds
Dambach and Leedy (1949) reported that
malachite green exhibited some promise as a re-
pellent to pheasants.
LIME SULFUR
Mammals
Lime sulfur applied as a spray or painted on
bark proved to be an effective repellent on plants
for various species of rabbits, especially the white-
tailed jackrabbit (Garlough, Welch and Spencer,
1942).
Birds
No harmful effects on songbirds and their nest-
lings were observed in orchards treated with lime
.sulfur (Kelsall, 1950 in Springer, 1957).
Arthropods
The 48-hour EC50 (immobilization value at
60°F) for waterfleas, Simocephalus serrulatus and
Daphnia pulex, to lime sulfur was 11 ppm and
10 ppm, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
Lime sulfur at normal application rates in
orchards in Nova Scotia was found to cause signifi-
cant mortalities to all beneficial species of preda-
tors and parasites which occur commonly and play
important roles in pest control in orchards (Mac-
Phee and Sanford, 1954). Bartlett (1963) reported
similar findings in California. He stated that lime
sulfur applied in orchards at a rate of 5.0 gal/100
gal of water was found to be relatively toxic to
beneficial parasitic wasps and slightly toxic to
beneficial predaceous coccinellids.
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to malachite
green oxalate was 0.46 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
MALEAMIC ACID
Fishes
The exposure of brown trout, bluegill, and gold-
fish to 5 ppm of maleamic acid for 24 hours re-
sulted in no mortality in any of the species
(Spector, 1955).
MERCURY AND MERCURY COMPOUNDS
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 100 mg/kg to ethyl
mercury p-toluene sulfonanilide (Ceresan M)
when the mammals were fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Methoxyethyl mercury is degraded in the bodies
of animals to inorganic mercury. Phenyl mercury
breaks down in a manner similar to methoxyethyl
mercury and is degraded in the bodies of animals
to inorganic mercury (Berlin et al., 1969).
Borg et al. (1969) stated that grazing mammals
in Sweden, such as roe deer, reindeer, and hares,
had negligible mercury (primarily methyl mer-
cury) residues in their bodies; however, mercury
levels were relatively high in mammalian preda-
149
-------
tors such as foxes, martens, and polecats. Mercury
poisonings were reported frequently for the
predators.
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was > 2,262
mg/kg; for pheasants, 360 mg/kg; for young
coturnix, 668 mg/kg; for pigeons (Columba livia),
755 mg/kg; and for prairie chickens, 360 mg/kg to
Ceresan M when the birds were given the stated
dosages orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970). The LC50 for mallards was 30 to 60 ppm;
for pheasants, 140 to 160 ppm; and for coturnix,
90 to 110 ppm of Ceresan M in diets of 2-week-old
birds when fed treated feed for 5 days followed by
untreated feed for 3 days, except for the mallards,
which were fed for 8 days on clean feed after dos-
age (Heath et al., 1970).
The LD50 for young mallards was > 2,000 mg/
kg; for young pheasants, 1,190 mg/kg; for young
bobwhite quail, 1,060 mg/kg; and for young ful-
vous tree ducks, 1,680 mg/kg to a formulation
containing methylmercury 2,3-dihydroxypropyl
mercaptide and methylmercury acetate (Ceresan
L) when the birds were given the stated dosages
orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
Investigations conducted by Nestler and Coburn
(1948 in Springer, 1957) demonstrated that grain
treated with ethyl mercury phosphate poisoned
bobwhite quail in 13 to 20 days. The quail were also
found to prefer untreated grain to treated grain.
Leedy and Cole (1950) reported that several
mercury fungicides used for seed treatment were
quite toxic to pheasants. They quoted the work of
Ordal, who listed an LD50 of 10 mg/kg for mer-
cury (type not given) fed orally to pheasants.
However, grain dressings containing both organo-
mercurials and lindane proved to be non-toxic to
both wood pigeons and pheasants in England
(Carnaghan and Blaxland, 1957).
Three of 5 pheasants died when fed 10 to 20
grains of corn treated with mercuric phenyl cy-
anamide (3.6 percent metallic mercury) (Leedy
and Cole, 1950).
Meadowlarks ate seeds treated with ethyl mer-
cury phosphate (Neff and Meanley, 1956 in
Springer, 1957).
Mercury levels in wood pigeons were determined
before 1964 and after (in 1966) when restrictions
on the use of mercury for seed dressings were en-
acted (Wanntorp et al., 1967). Of pigeons shot in
150
1964, 46.1 percent had residues in their livers ex-
ceeding 2 mg/kg, and 30.5 percent had residues ex-
ceeding 5 mg/kg. The corresponding levels for
birds shot in 1966 were 6.4 percent and 0 percent.
Analyses of the total mercury content in 5 Jap-
anese storks which died at the Obama and Togooka
regions in Japan were found to contain maximum
levels in their livers at 61.5 ppm (98.6 ppm in
kidney) whereas maximum level in the control
little egret liver was 2.1 ppm (Muto and Suzuki,
1967). The direct cause of death of the Japanese
storks was not known, but the authors stated that
"it was highly possible that they died of chronic
poisoning by mercury in diets taken for a long
period."
Since the middle 1950's Swedish scientists have
documented the widespread mercury (primarily
methyl mercury) poisonings in terrestrial animals
(Borg et al., 1969). Of 253 seed-eating birds
(pheasants, partridges, pigeons, finches, corvine
birds) which were found dead and examined, 48
percent had mercury levels above 2 ppm in liver,
30 percent above 5 ppm, 20 percent above 10 ppm,
and 13 percent above SO ppm. Of an equal number
of seed-eating birds shot for investigation, the
mercury levels were only slightly lower than those
found dead. A total of 412 predatory birds (hawks,
falcons, buzzards, eagles, owls) were found dead,
shot, or trapped for examination. Of these, 62 per-
cent had mercury levels in the liver exceeding 2
ppm, 36 percent exceeding 5 ppm, 19 percent ex-
ceeding 10 ppm, and 11 percent exceeding 20 ppm.
When pheasants were fed methyl-mercury-
treated wheat (20 ppm) for 9 days, their eggs had
reduced hatehability, and residues ranged from
1.3 to 2.0 ppm (Borg et al., 1969).
In the seed-eating birds mercury residues in-
creased significantly in late spring and autumn,
indicating a correlation with spring and autumn
sowing of treated seed (Borg et al., 1969). These
authors also stated that on several occasions game
mortality or impaired reproduction could be cor-
related with mercury poisoning—this was par-
ticularly true for the seed-eating birds in dry and/
or cold springs.
In the eggs of pheasants and partridges mercury
residues averaged about 3.0 ppm in Sweden (Borg
et al., 1969).
In laboratory experiments pheasants were fed
wheat treated with methyl mercury dicyandiamide
about 20 ppm (normal treatment in agriculture)
(Borg et al., 1969). The birds died in 29 to 61 days
-------
with liver residues ranging from 30 to 130 ppm.
Jackdaws fed the same concentration died after 26
to 38 days. Demonstration that the alkyl mercury-
treated seed was the main source of animal poison-
ings came as a result of the discontinuance of
mercury seed treatments in 1966.
When chickens were fed methoxy ethyl mercury
hydroxide at a dosage of 400 ^g per chicken each
day, after 7 to 9 days the total mercury in the eggs
produced was 0.19 mg/kg (Kiwimae et al., 1969).
Continuing at this same dosage, by days 137 to
139 the level in the eggs had risen to 0.46 mg/kg.
Mercury feeding was stopped at this time. Some 29
days later the amount of mercury detected in the
eggs was 0.086 mg/kg.
Fishes
The 24-hour LD50 for channel catfish to Ceresan
M was 1.8 ppm (Clemens and Sneed, 1959).
Plants
When apple trees were sprayed with phenyl
mercury acetate (%0 pt/100 gal), the mercury
moved in plants by translocation (Ross and
Stewart, 1962). Both the new foliage and growing
fruit contained mercury. None of the mercury in
the soil was taken up through the roots of the
apple tree.
Mercury was reported by Lindstrom (1959) to
diffuse from the seed coat treated with methyl
mercuric hydroxide to the fruit inside. The diffu-
sion was greatly influenced by moisture content of
the seed, as indicated by a 500-fold increase in
diffusion when the moisture content of the wheat
seed was raised from 12 to 18 percent.
Microorganisms
Microorganisms were found to have the capacity
to convert inorganic mercury into methyl mercury
at a rapid rate (Jensen and Jernelov, 1969). The
methyl mercury was readily taken up by fish. This
process of methylation probably explains the up-
take and distribution of mercury in the biological
system in lakes.
Biological Concentration
Samples of 20 pike caught in a Swedish lake
(control) contained 195 to 360 ppb, whereas 20
pike caught in a lake below a pulp mill contained
6,600 to 11,500 ppb of mercury (Hasselrot, 1968).
In fish mercury compounds were taken up di-
rectly from the water and from their food (Han-
nerz, 1968). The rate of concentration was rapid,
while the elimination rate was slow, leading to
high accumulations in fish (table 84).
TABLE 84. The estimated concentration factors with
methoxyethyl mercury, methyl mercury, and mercuric
chloride in pike in freshwater (Hannerz, 1968).
Pike Organ
Methoxyethyl Methyl Mercuric
Mercury Mercury Chloride
Liver _
Kidneys
Gills. .
Muscles _ .
2, 000
2, 000
2, 100
50
7, 200
6, 500
6, 500
900
1, 100
1, 500
2, 700
100
Chinook salmon (2 years old) were fed finger-
lings contaminated with 3 ppm of mercury and
were found to accumulate mercury in their livers
to 30.5 ppm (0.31 ppm. control) and kidneys, 17.5
ppm (1.19 ppm, control) (Rucker and Amend,
1969).
Analysis of mercury content in pike muscle sug-
gested that the biological concentration factor
from water to pike is of the order of 3,000 or more
(Johnels et al., 1967). A direct relationship be-
tween age of pike and mercury content was
evident.
No direct association was recorded between the
phenylmercuric acetate and methylmercuric hy-
droxide concentration in animals in the water and
the trophic level of the animal in the food chain
(table 85).
TABLE 85. The concentration factor of 2 forms of mer-
cury in different organisms and sediment in ponds
(Hannerz, 1968).
Organism
Phenylmercuric Methylmercuric
Acetate (35 days Hydroxide (32 days
later) later)
Vegetation
Aquatic worms
Snails
Insects
Crustaceans
Sediment
Range
9-4, 200
2, 030
1, 280-1, 800
900-12, 700
3, 570
6, 800
Range
4-5, 900
450-1, 780
3, 480-3, 570
2, 160-8, 470
6, 100
151
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Persistence
NABAM
A large portion of the organic mercury (ethyl
mercury acetate or phenyl mercury acetate) ap-
plied to the soil was found to be in the organo-
mercury form after a period of 30 to 50 days. In-
creasing moisture in the soil caused a decrease in
the amount of escaping organic mercury vapor
(Kimura and Miller, 1964).
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 395 mg/kg
(FCH, 1970) and for the domestic goat, >800
mg/kg (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970) to nabam
when the mammals were given the stated dosages
orally in a capsule.
METHIONINE
Fishes
The exposure of brown trout, bluegill, and gold-
fish to 5 ppm of methionine (medicinal) for 24
hours resulted in no mortality in any of the species
(Spector, 1955).
METIRAM
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to metiram
was 22 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Arthropods
Ulrich (1968) reported that metiram remain-
ing on a surface after treatment with a concen-
tration of 1,200 ppm in water killed at least 66
percent of adult female Trichogram/ma with a 10-
hour exposure.
MYSTOX
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to mystox
LSL/L, LSL/P, LSE/L, and LSE/P was 330, 80,
68, and 47 ppm, respectively (Alabaster, 1969).
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was > 2,560 mg/
kg; for young pheasants, 707 mg/kg; for young
coturnix, 2,120 mg/kg; and for pigeons (Columba
Hvia), > 2,000 mg/kg to nabam when the birds
were given the stated dosages orally in a capsule
(Tucker and Crabtree, 1970). The LC50 for mal-
lards was >2,000 ppm; for pheasants, >5,000
ppm; and for coturnix, > 5,000 ppm of nabam in
diets of 2-week-old birds when fed treated feed for
5 days followed by clean feed for 3 days (Heath
etal., 1970a).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for channel catfish to nabam
was 21.1 ppm (Clemens and Sneed, 1959).
Molluscs
Nabam at concentrations from 0.5 ppm to 10
ppm prevented clam eggs from developing (Davis,
1961).
Arthropods
Stein (1961) reported that nabam at recom-
mended dosages (1 to 10 Ib/A in Thomson, 1967)
caused significant (about 50-percent) reductions
in parasitization of pest insect eggs by Tricho-
gramma, a parasitic wasp.
Adult female Trichogramma exposed to nabam
at a dosage of 1,600 ppm as a residue were killed
(at least 66percent) within4hours (Ulrich, 1968).
152
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Microorganisms
PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE
From nabam a volatile toxicant, carbonyl sulfide,
was produced, and this material was found to be
lethal to soil fungi (Moje, Munnecke and Richard-
son, 1964).
Persistence
Nabam applied at 100 ppm to soil persisted for
>20 days (Domsch, 1958).
NALCO
Mammals
The LD50 for rats was 1,000 to 4,000 mg/kg to
para-dichlorobenzene when the mammals were fed
the stated dosages orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 48-hour LC50 for rainbow trout exposed to
para-dichlorobenzene was 880 ppb (FWPOA,
1968).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to nalco 240,
201, and 243 was 9 ppm, 0.8 ppm, and 0.33 ppm,
respectively (Alabaster, 1969).
NAPHTHALENSULFONIC ACID
PCNB
Mammals
The LD60 for the rat was > 12,000 mg/kg to
PCNB when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The exposure of brown trout, bluegill, and gold-
fish to 5 ppm of naphthalensulfonic acid (protect-
ant material) for 24 hours resulted in no mortality
in any of the specices (Spector, 1955).
Microorganisms
Caseley and Broadbent (1968) reported that
there was little or no influence on soil nitrification
with PCNB with dosages ranging from 10 to 1,000
ppm.
ORTHOZID
Arthropods
Stein (1961) reported that oithozid caused
significant reductions (about 80 percent) in para-
sitization of pest insect eggs by Trichogramma.
Persistence
After 10 months 80 percent of 5 mg of PCNB
applied to 50 g of soil was lost (Caseley, 1968). In-
creasing the moisture level of the soil significantly
increased the rate of PCNB loss from soil.
PHENETIDINE
OXYTETRACYCLINE
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for striped bass to oxytetra-
cycline was >250 ppm (Wellborn, 1969).
Fishes
The exposure of brown trout, bluegill, and gold-
fish to 5 ppm of iphenetidine (protectant material)
for 24 hours resulted in no mortality in any of the
species (Spector, 1955).
153
-------
PHENOXYTOL
Arthropods
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to phenoxy-
tol was 165 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
PMA
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 100 mg/kg to PMA
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(FCH, 1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to PMA was
0.005 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE
Fishes
The 96-hour LC50 for striped bass to potassium
permanganate was 2.5 ppm (Wellborn, 1969).
Commercial fungicide formulations of propineb
at 0.15 percent proved harmless to a common wasp
parasite, Aphtis holoxwithm (Rosen, 1967).
QUININE
Fishes
The 25-hour L/C50 for channel catfish to quinine
sulfate was 42.0 ppm (Clemens and Sneed, 1959).
Amphibians
The lethal dose of quinine to frogs by sub-
cutaneous injection was 200 to 400 mg/kg (Spec-
tor, 1955).
SAFROLE
Fishes
The exposure of brown trout, bluegill, and gold-
fish to 5 ppm of safrole (medicinal) for 22 hours
resulted in no mortality for the bluegill and gold-
fish, but 100-percent mortality for the brown trout
(Dittmer, 1959).
PRB
Arthropods
PEB at a concentration of 0.15 percent was re-
ported by Van de Vrie (1962) to cause 80-percent
mortalities in 7 days to predatory mites (Typhlo-
droirvus tiliae and T. tiliarum).
SALICYLIC ACID
Amphibians
The median lethal doses of salicylic acid to frogs
by subcutaneous injection was 500 to 900 mg/kg
(Spector, 1955).
PROPINEB
SMDC
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 8,500 mg/kg to pro-
pineb when the mammal was fed the stated dosage
orally (FCH, 1970).
Mammals
The LD5o for the male rat was 820 mg/kg to
SMDC when the mammal was fed the stated dos-
age orally (FCH, 1970).
154
-------
Birds
The LC60 for pheasants was > 5,000 ppm of
SMDC in diets of 2-week-old birds when fed
treated feed for 5 days followed by untreated feed
for 3 days (Heath et al., 1970).
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to SMDC
was 0.19 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Annelids
No earthworms of either Lumbricus or Helo-
drihts survived in pots containing soil treated with
50,100, and 400 gal/A of SMDC (DeVries, 1962).
Persistence
SMDC applied to soil persisted for 1 hour
(Gray, 1962).
SODIUM NITRITE
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to sodium
nitrite was 380 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
SULFUR
Mammals
Hayne (1949) reported that wettable sulfur at
10 tablespoons in 1 qt of water applied as a heavy
coating to beans and cabbages repelled cottontail
rabbits.
Arthropods
Wettable sulfur applied to orchards in Nova
Scotia at normal application rates was found to
cause significant reduction (about 75 percent) in
the numbers of beneficial parasitic and predaceous
species (MacPhee and Sanford, 1954).
Sulfur at normal application rates in orchards
in Nova Scotia were reported by Stultz (1955) to
reduce seriously the numbers of predators (Haplo-
thrips faurei, Leptothrips mali, Anystis agilis, and
Anthocoris musculus) attacking the bud moth.
Wasp parasites Meteorus trachynotus and Asco-
gaster quadridentata were only rarely seen after
several years' use of flotation sulfur at normal
application rates (Stultz, 1955); however, the
parasite Agathis laticinctu-s functioned effectively
in the treated orchards.
Wettable sulfur was found to cause only slight
mortality to the adults of the parasite Aphelinus
mali (Schneider, 1958).
Further support of the above came from the in-
vestigation of MacPhee and Sanford (1961), who
reported that the use of wettable sulfur at rec-
ommended dosages in orchards in Nova Scotia
reduced the numbers of beneficial parasites and
predators of some of the serious apple pests. Bart-
lett (1963) also reported that sulfur applied to or-
chards in California at a rate of 3.0 lb/100 gal of
water was highly toxic to some beneficial wasps,
but less toxic to beneficial predaceous coccinellid
beetles.
Wettable sulfur at a concentration of 0.25 per-
cent in 7 days killed 90 percent of the exposed pred-
atory mite populations (Typhlodromus tiliae and
T. tiliarum) (Van de Vrie, 1962). A similar find-
ing (high mortalities of predaceous mites) was re-
ported by Besemer (1964) when wettable sulfur
was applied at recommended dosages to orchards.
In later investigations by Van de Vrie (1967),
wettable sulfur applied to orchards at a concen-
tration of 0.25 percent caused little or no harm to
the predatory bug Anthocoris nemorum, but was
toxic to the parasite Aphelinus mali and highly
toxic to the predatory bug Onus sp.
Plants
The effect of sulfur added to the soil annually at
1,256 Ib/A for 1949 and 1950 was measured by
growing various crops plants in the contaminated
soil during 1954 and 1955 (MacPhee, Chisholm
and MacEachern, 1960). With high residues in
the soil of sulfur at the time of growth, yields of
the crop plants were as follows: beans, reduced
by 33 percent; turnips, little effect; carrots, re-
duced by 100 percent; tomatoes, little effect; and
peas, little effect.
155
-------
TETRACYCLINE HYDROCHLORIDE
Fishes
The 96-hour LC50 for striped bass to tetracycline
hydrochloride was > 1,818 ppm (Wellborn, 1969).
THIOUREA
Amphibians
The median lethal dosage of thiourea to frogs by
subcutaneous injection was 10,000 mg/kg (Spector,
1955).
Persistence
Thiourea applied at 200 ppm to soil persisted for
10 to 26 weeks (Jensen and Bendixen, 1958).
THIRAM
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 780 mg/kg to thiram
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(FCH, 1970).
Thiram applied at a rate of 2y2 oz per bushel of
seed-corn reduced the acceptance by white-footed
mice of the treated corn by 40 percent, compared
with untreated corn (Welch and Graham, 1952).
Thiram also has been reported to repel field and
harvest mice and rabbits (Welch, 1954; Mann,
Derr and Meanley, 1956 in Springer, 1957). A
7.27-percent thiram concentration was reported by
Hildreth and Brown (1955) to repel rabbits.
Birds
The LD50 for young mallards was > 2,800
mg/kg and for young pheasants, 673 mg/kg to
thiram when the birds were given the stated dos-
ages orally in a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree,
1970).
Thiram has been found to repel birds (Welch
and Graham, 1952; Welch, 1954; Mann, Derr and
Meanley, 1956 in Springer, 1957), but treated seed-
156
corn had little or no effect when fed to pheasants
(Leedy and Cole, 1950).
When thiram was included at 10 to 200 ppm in
the diets of chickens, it caused the chickens to pro-
duce soft-shelled and abnormally-shaped eggs
(Waibel, Pomeroy and Johnson, 1955). The ma-
jority of the eggs were soft-shelled when the
chickens received feed with 100 ppm of thiram.
These findings were confirmed by Antoine (1966),
who also found that thiram caused chickens to pro-
duce abnormal eggs. In addition, he reported that
chicks fed 40 ppm of thiram in their diet had a
noticeable weakness in their legs.
Fishes
The 72-hour LC50 for channel catfish to thiram
was 0.79 ppm (Clemens and Sneed, 1959).
Arthropods
Thiram applied to orchards at recommended
rates was reported by Schneider (1958) to have no
effect on the parasite Aphelinus mali. At a concen-
tration of 0.15 percent, thiram was reported to kill
70 percent of a predatory mite population (Typh-
lodromus tiliae and T. tiliarum) after 7 days of
exposure in the laboratory (Van de Vrie, 1962).
Besemer (1964) working in the field, however, re-
ported that normal application rates of thiram did
not harm predatory mites in orchards.
Thiram at 1.6 percent concentration (normal
spray concentration is 0.16 percent) resulted in a
5-percent mortality to the parasite Mormoniella
(Ankersmit et al., 1962). There was no significant
difference between the control population and
treated wasp populations.
Van de Vrie (1967) reported that thiram applied
to apple orchards at a 0.15-percent concentration
caused little or no mortality to two predatory bugs
(Anthocoris nemorum and Onus sp.), but did
cause some mortality to the parasite Aphelinus
mali.
Thiram remaining on a surface after treatment
with a concentration of 1,000 ppm in water had
little or no effect upon Trichogramma female
adults exposed for 10 hours (Ulrich, 1968).
Microorganisms
Thiram soil treatment at 50 ppm changed the
microbiological balance in soil; the number of
-------
bacteria increased, while the number of fungi de-
clined (Kichardson, 1954). Thiram was selective
in its action against fungi, with Penicillium, and
Trichoderma being resistant and increasing in
number with time.
Persistence
Thiram applied at a rate of 50 ppm in sandy
soil was found to persist for over 2 months
(Richardson, 1954).
When thiram was well distributed in soil it
showed extremely low persistence (Griffith and
Matthews, 1969). Under these conditions the
fungicide had a half-life of 1 to 2 days. However,
when this material was applied in heavy concen-
trations on the surface of beads (simulating seeds),
thiram persisted extremely well; there was little
change in concentration even after 21 days.
THYMOL
When apple orchards were treated with triami-
phos at a concentration of 0.10 percent, little or
no mortality was recorded in the predatory bug
Anthocoria nemorum population, but high mor-
talities occurred in the predatory bug Oritus sp.
and parasite Aphelinus mali populations (Van de
Vrie, 1967).
About 50-percent of a population of adult
female Trichogramma were killed within 10 hours
after being exposed to triamiphos remaining on a
surface after treatment at a concentration of 250
ppm in water (Ulrich, 1968).
TRIBUTYL TIN OXIDE
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for rainbow trout to tributyl
tin oxide was 0.027 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Amphibians
The lethal dose of thymol to frogs by subcu-
taneous injection was 150 mg/kg (Spector, 1955).
TRIAMIPHOS
ZINC HYDROXYQUINONE
Fishes
The 24-hour LC50 for harlequin fish to zinc
hydroxyquinone was 0.17 ppm (Alabaster, 1969).
Mammals
The LD50 for the male rat was 20 mg/kg tria-
miphos when the mammal was fed the stated
dosage orally (FCH, 1970).
Arthropods
Van de Vrie (1962) reported that triamiphos
at a concentration of 0.05 and 0.10 percent caused
little or no mortality to predatory mite popula-
tions (Typhlodromus tttiae and T. tiliarum). Be-
semer (1964) also reported that triamiphos as a
single application in orchards caused no mortality
to T. tiliae and T. tiliarum populations.
ZINEB
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 5,200 mg/kg to zineb
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(FCH, 1970).
Birds
The LD50 for mallards was >2,000 mg/kg and
for young pheasants, > 2,000 mg/kg to zineb when
the birds were given the stated dosages orally in
a capsule (Tucker and Crabtree, 1970).
423-802, O—7
-11
157
-------
Arthropods
ZIRAM
The use of zineb at recommended dosages in
orchards in Nova Scotia caused little or no reduc-
tion in the numbers of beneficial predatory and
parasitic arthropods (MacPhee and Sanford,
1961). Also, zineb and dithiocarbamate mixtures
with manam at recommended dosages in orchards
were generally harmless to an egg parasite (Tri-
chogramma sp.) under field conditions (Besemer,
1964). Zineb was reported to have no effect on the
parasite Aphellnus mail at normal rates of appli-
cation in orchards (Schneider, 1958).
Mites appear to be sensitive to zineb (Van de
Vrie, 1962); he reported that a 0.10-percent con-
centration would kill about 70 percent of preda-
tory mite populations (TypModromu-s tiliae and
T. tiliarum) after 7 days of exposure. In field ap-
plications of zineb at a concentration of 0.20 per-
cent, little or no mortality was observed in the
predatory bug populations (Anthocoris nemorum
and Orkis sp.), but some mortality was recorded
in the parasite Aphelirms mail population (Van
de Vrie, 1967).
Persistence
Zineb applied to soil persisted for >75 days
(Domsch, 1958).
Mammals
The LD50 for the rat was 1,400 mg/kg to ziram
when the mammal was fed the stated dosage orally
(FCH, 1970).
Ziram was found to repel rabbits and wood-
chucks, but caused no mortality to these and other
animals when used at recommended dosages
(Welch, 1951 in Springer, 1957). Ziram also was
reported as being effective in repelling small
rodents (Welch, 1954).
Birds
Ziram was reported to be harmless to birds when
used at recommended dosages (Welch, 1951 in
Springer, 1957). Ziram also has been reported not
to deter blackbirds from eating rice (Neff and
Meanley, 1955 in Springer, 1957).
Fishes
The 25-hour LC5o for channel catfish to ziram
was 1.0ppm (Clemensand Sneed, 1959).
Persistence
Ziram applied to soil persisted for >35 days
(Domsch, 1958).
158
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161
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PARTV
Pesticide Residues in the Environment
Literature on pesticide residues and their move-
ment in the ecosystem has been carefully selected
to provide a general view of the environmental
problem.
Mammals
During 1961 Durham et al. examined beaver,
caribou, moose, polar bear, seal, walrus, and whale
for DDT and DDE, but found no trace in these
animals in Alaska.
Holden and Marsden (1967) on the Atlantic
coast in Canada found harp seals to contain diel-
drin at 0.07 ppm, DDE at 5.9 ppm, TDE at 0.78
ppm, and DDT at 5.5 ppm. Also, off the coast of
Scotland the grey seal, common seal, and porpoise
contained significant levels of both DDT and
dieldrin. The mean residues recorded in one group
of 18 seals were: dieldrin at 0.79 ppm, DDE at
5.5 ppm, TDE at 1.2 ppm, and DDT at 7.8 ppm.
The mean for 3 porpoises was dieldrin at 9.9 ppm,
DDE at 12.8 ppm, TDE at 8.9 ppm, and DDT at
21.0 ppm.
In the Antarctic Sladen, Menzie and Eeichel
(1966) reported traces of DDT in the crab-eater
seal. Fat from Weddell seals, also collected in the
Antarctic, contained residues of DDT and DDE
ranging from 0.025 to 0.105 ppm in the seals
(Brewerton, 1969). During the 2-year period of
sampling there was no indication of an increase
in residue concentrations.
Harp seal milk from a seal in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence was analyzed as having the following
residues: DDE, 0.47 ppm; DDT, 0.58 ppm; and
TDE, 0.11 ppm (Cook and Baker, 1969).
Fur seals were collected on Pribilof Islands,
Alaska, in 1968 and off the Washington coast in
1969. Of the 30 seals examined, all contained DDE;
21, TDE; 24, DDT; and 3, dieldrin (Anas and
Wilson, 1970). Also, in the livers of sick and dying
immature California sealions, DDE residues were
found at concentrations of 4.0 and 89.0 ppm (Had-
erlie, 1970).
Adipose tissue sampled from 359 big game ani-
mals in 1962 revealed residues of DDT, DDE, and
TDE (table 86).
Pronghorn antelope were examined for aldrin,
dieldrin, endrin, lindane, heptachlor, and DDT,
TDE, plus DDE combined (Moore, Greichus and
Hugghins, 1968). The 45 animals examined con-
tained the following residues: lindane, 0.04 to 0.05
ppm; heptachlor epoxide, 0.04 to 0.12 ppm; and
combined DDT, TDE, plus DDE, 0.06 to 0.17
ppm.
Eesidues from 0.5 to 2.6 ppm of DDT and its
metabolites were found to persist in mink up to
9 years after 2 single applications of DDT at
1 Ib/A to Maine forests (Sherburne and Dimond,
1969). Wild hares were shown to have low residue
levels (0.02 ppm) for up to 10 yea^s after spray-
ing. In the control or untreated plot hares had
average residue levels of 0.01 ppm of DDT.
163
-------
Caribou fat averaged 0.1 ppm of organochlorine
compound, whereas polar bear fat averaged about
25 times higher (Keith, 1969).
TABLE 86. Average residues in adipose tissue of big game
animals (Walker, George and Maitlen, 1965).
Average Residues (ppm)
Animal Samples
(Number) TDE DDE DDT
Isomers '
State of Idaho
Antelope
Bear.
Deer
Elk
Goat
Moose
4
5
97
43
1
3
<0. 01
<0. 01
<0. 01
<0. 01
<0. 01
<0. 01
<0. 01
<0. 01
0. 01
0. 03
<0. 01
0. 01
0. 098
0. 032
0. 109
0. 071
0. 050
0. 087
State of Washington
Bear-
Deer--
Elk
Goat-.
13
102
82
9
<0. 01
<0. 01
<0. 01
<0. 01
<0. 01
0. 01
0. 04
<0. 01
0. 045
0. 122
0. 056
0. 023
' Combined ortho, para'- and para, para'-DDT.
Birds
In Alaska during 1961 Durham et al. found no
trace of either DDT or DDE in the eider duck,
but found 1.1 ppm of DDE in 2 white owls.
Moore and Walker (1964) in England reported
that the birds having the highest concentration
of organochlorine insecticide residues were fish-
feeding birds, followed in order by raptorial,
omnivorous, and herbivorous terrestrial birds
(figure 1). Further support of these findings
comes from Ratcliffe's (1965) studies, in which he
reported that raptor eggs contained 5.2 ppm of
organochlorine residues, whereas corvids contained
only 0.9 ppm (table 87).
Moore and Tatton (1965) detected residues of
DDE and dieldrin in the eggs of 17 species of sea
birds in England. The total residues were of ap-
proximately the same order and ranged from 0.4
to 3.5 ppm, but there was some indication that the
birds feeding on larger fish had higher residues.
Osprey eggs taken from the Connecticut River
habitat contained 6.5 ppm of DDT, and 7 species
of fish analyzed from this river contained DDT
in amounts ranging from 0.5 to 3.1 ppm (wet
weight basis) (USDI, 1965).
In Ireland several species of birds and birds'
eggs were found to contain residues of mercury
and chlorinated insecticides (table 88).
TABLE 87. The organochlorine residues (ppm) in eggs of
raptor and corvid birds. Figures in parentheses are the
number of nests from which eggs were analyzed (Rat-
eliffe, 1965).
Raptors
Corvids
Peregrine falcon (13)-.. 13. 8
Merlin (2) 6.2
Golden eagle (7) 2.6
Buzzard (4) 2.5
Kestrel (4) 1. 0
Raven (8) 2. 1
Carrion crow (14) 0.8
Hooded crow (1) 0. 6
Rook (10) 0.4
Magpie (3) 0. 4
TABLE 88. Range of organic mercury and chlorinated residues in birds and bird eggs (Eades, 1966).
[All results expressed In ppm on a wet weight basis]
Number of Specimens Analyzed
Species
Adults:
Pheasant.
Kestrel
Thrush
Pigeon
Bullfinch, .
Eggs:
Mallard
Guillemot
Fulmar
Razorbill- -
Kittiwake. _ _
Number Number
Total With With
Mercury Insecticide
11
1
2
3
1
1 6
1 6
1 4
1 6
-. " 5
2
0
0
3
0
0
1
0
0
1
9
0
0
3
1
5
5
3
5
4
Mercury
2. 53-5. 15
"NO
ND
0. 015-5. 33
ND
ND
0.57
ND
ND
0. 61
Lindane
0. 025-0. 58
ND
ND
0. 025-0. 67
0. 22-0. 28
0. 01-0. 015
0. 005-0. 04
0. 03-0. 04
0. 01-0. 045
0. 02-0. 04
Aldrin
0. 01-0. 20
ND
ND
0. 02-0. 04
0. 18-0. 26
0. 002-0. 01
0. 003-0. 06
0. 01
0. 01-0. 09
0. 01-0. 02
Dieldrin
0. 03-13. 89
ND
ND
0. 065-6. 16
0. 70-1. 89
0. 06-0. 125
0. 25-0. 44
0. 33-0. 44
0. 30-0. 43
0. 29-0. 38
pp'-DDT
0. 03-0. 58
ND
ND
0. 06-0. 19
0. 34-0. 54
0. 01-0. 04
0. 07-0. 46
0. 41-0. 54
0. 46-0. 72
0. 32-0. 55
' Includes one egg analyzed only tor organic mercury residues.
! ND, none detected.
164
-------
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FIGURE 1. Average concentration of organochlorine insecticide residue in the breast muscle of different types of birds.
The following were investigated (number of specimens analyzed given in brackets) : sparrow hawk [5], barn owl
[9], little owl [7], tawny owl [5], thrush [4], wood pigeon [6], heron [7], great crested grebe [4], and moorhen
[6] (Moore and Walker, 1964).
From 1830 to 1940 the mercury levels in Sweden
in .the white-tailed eagle were significantly higher
(about 6,600 ng/g in feathers) than in the pere-
grine falcon (about 2,500 ng/g in feathers) (Berg
et al., 1966). This difference was due to differences
in food habits. After 1940 mercury levels in birds
increased 10 to 20 times or more because of in-
creased use of mercury in Sweden. Analysis of
"normal" game and "fallen" game for mercury
in Norway showed residues below 1 mg/kg for 73
percent of "normal" and 71 percent of "fallen"
game (Holt, 1969). Predaceous birds had higher
levels of mercury than did the prey. Of the wood
pigeons, about 76 percent had a mercury content
below 1 mg/kg) and only 7 percent above 2 mg/kg.
The corresponding percentages for birds of prey
were 55 and 28.
Residues of DDT were found in the Antarctic
in 4 of 16 Adelie penguins and 15 of 16 skuas
(Stercorarius) (George and Frear, 1966). The one
emperor penguin did not contain DDT. The maxi-
mum insecticide residues (wet weight) were 0.18
ppm of DDT in Adelie penguins and 2.8 ppm in
skuas.
Traces of DDT, BHC, heptachlor, and dieldrin
were found in chinstrap penguins in Antarctica
(Tatton and Ruzicka, 1967). Samples of fat col-
lected from 6 Adelie penguins and analyzed for
DDT and its metabolites contained 24 to 152 ppb
of DDT. The control consisted of a flipper from
an emperor penguin that had been frozen for 52
years in Antarctica (previous to the use of DDT)
(Sladen, Menzie and Eeichel, 1966).
White tpelicans which had died in widely scat-
tered locations in western United States were
analyzed for insecticide contamination (TJSDI,
1966). Composite residue samples were as follows:
DDT, 194 ppm; toxaphene, 82 ppm; and dieldrin,
10 ppm.
DDT residues in herring gulls, old-squaw ducks,
and ring-billed ducks in the same habitat of Lake
Michigan varied greatly and were 99 ppm, 28 ppm,
and 6 ppm, respectively (Hickey, Keith and Coon,
1966). Food habits were proposed as the cause of
these differences (Dustman and Stickel, 1969).
165
-------
In northwestern Lake Michigan a sample of 9
apparently, alive herring gull eggs contained dos-
ages of 202±34 ppm (wet weight) of DDE. The
10 dead eggs sampled had higher concentrations
of 919±117 ppm of DDE. Of 115 nests examined
in this study, an exceptionally high number of the
eggs, 30 to 35 percent, were dead (Keith, 1966). In
another study herring gull eggs on Lake Michigan
were found to contain 227 ppm of DDT and its
metabolites, and adult birds contained 99 ppm in
breast muscle and 2,441 ppm in fat (Keith, 1966,
and Hickey, Keith and Coon, 1966). Four hen
pheasants from an intense agricultural area in
California were found to have the following resi-
dues in their fat: DDT, 1,236 to 2,930 ppm; DDE,
306 to 717 ppm; and dieldrin, 0.1 to 25 ppm (Hunt
and Keith, 1963). Egg yolks from this area con-
tained 106 to 1,020 ppm DDT, 23 to 161 ppm DDE,
and 0 to 1.3 ppm dieldrin.
In a small sample of only 4 bald eagle eggs col-
lected in Maine, New Jersey, and Florida from
1964 to 1965, the eggs contained 6 to 16 ppm of
DDT and its metabolites, and 0.5 to 1.0 ppm of
dieldrin (Stickel et al., 1966). These amounts were
similar to those found in British peregrine falcon
eggs which averaged 12.4 ppm of DDE, 0.6 ppm
of dieldrin, and 1.4 ppm of other chlorinated insec-
ticides (Moore and Walker, 1964). The eggs from
Scottish golden eagles had 0.5 to 7.0 ppm of
dieldrin (Eatcliffe, 1964).
Double-crested cormorant eggs from habitats
associated -with the lakes of Wisconsin, Minnesota,
North Dakota, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan were
found to contain 11 ppm of chlorinated insecticide
residues, primarily DDT and its metabolites
(USDI, 1966). White pelican eggs from the habit-
tat contained only 2.4 ppm residues.
The average levels of insecticide residues in
pheasants in California were higher than those in
any other species of wildlife: DDT, 57.82 (0.00 to
2,768) ppm; DDE, 65.29 (0.15 to 2,680) ppm;
TDE, 0.01 ppm; and dieldrin, 0.84 ppm (Keith
and Hunt, 1966). Birds of prey contained up to
about 60 ppm of DDT and its metabolites plus low
levels of dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor epoxide, and
toxaphene. Song birds, such as mountain chicka-
dees, from a forested area which had received
DDT had levels of DDT as high as 21 ppm. Keith
and Hunt reported that shore birds had relatively
high (10 to 70 ppm) levels of DDT. Fish-eating
birds like the white pelican contained high levels
of DDE (39 ppm in fat) plus lower levels of other
insecticides.
DDT (DDT, DDE, and TDE) residues in sea
birds resident in California ranged from 0.7 ppm
in the brain of Cassin's auklet to 211 ppm in the
fat of the Western gull (Kisebrough et al., 1967).
Non-resident sea birds were found to contain about
the same average amount of DDT and its
metabolites.
The overall mean residues of chlorinated insecti-
cides found from 1963 to 1966 in peregrine falcon
eggs in Scotland were as follows: DDE, 15.7 ppm;
DDT, 0.1 ppm; TDE, 0.1 ppm; dieldrin, 0.7 ppm;
heptachlor epoxide, 0.9 ppm; and BHC, 0.3 ppm
(Ratcliffe,1967).
In the Peace, Slave, and MacKenzie Eivers in
Canada the fat of 9 adult female peregrine falcons
had average DDT, DDE, TDE, dieldrin, and
heptachlor epoxide residues of 37.3, 284, 39.5, 3.3,
and 4.4 ppm (wet weight), respectively (Enderson
and Berger, 1968). Immature peregrine falcons,
however, caught in Wisconsin have averaged only
0.9, 14.0, 0.6, 0.2, and 0.0 ppm (wet weight) of
the same materials. Residues of chlorinated in-
secticides (DDT, DDE, TDE, dieldrin, and
heptachlor epoxide) in peregrine falcon prey av-
eraged about 1.0 ppm (wet weight whole body).
In adult peregrine falcon fat Arochlor (PCB),
dieldrin, and DDT plus its metabolites were found
to be 1,980 ppm, 50 ppm, and 2,600 ppm, respec-
tively (Risebrough et al., 1968b).
Peregrine falcons were found to have residues
of DDT and its metabolites plus dieldrin, 617.0
ppm in fat to 5.39 ppm in brain (wet weight),
higher than those of the small birds, 0.20 ppm to
2.03 ppm in whole body (wet weight), on which
the falcons fed (Cade, White and Haugh, 1968).
Wurster and Wingate (1968) reported DDT
residues averaging 6.44 ppm in eggs and chicks
of the carnivorous Bermuda petrel.
Stickel and Stickel (1969) reported that residues
of DDT were lower in the bodies of dead birds
than in survivors that had received the same dosage
of DDT for the same period of time. DDT in dead
males was found to average 74 ppm, whereas in the
survivors DDT content averaged 171 ppm (signifi-
cant, P<0.05). DDT in dead females averaged 58
ppm and in surviving females averaged 128 ppm
(too few birds for significance).
Chlorinated insecticide residues in starlings
were examined at 128 sites throughout the United
States (Martin, 1969). DDT and its metabolites
166
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were found in all samples taken, and the residues
ranged from <0.1 to 0.3 ppm. Other insecticide
residues in order of level of contamination were
heptachlor epoxide, lindane, and BHC. Highest
residue levels were found in the following regions:
Southeastern U.S., southern New Mexico, Arizona
and California, eastern Utah, and the Willamette
River drainage in Oregon.
A total of 45 bald and 21 golden eagles found
sick or dead in 18 states and Canada during 1964
and 1965 were analyzed for pesticide residues
(Reichel et al., 1969). The median residues in the
bald eagle for 1964 and 1965, respectively, were
as follows: p,p'-~DD~E, 7.80 ppm and 8.90 ppm;
p.p'-TDE, 1.60 ppm and 0.44 ppm; p.p'-DDT, 0.42
ppm and 0.20 ppm; dieldrin, 0.65 ppm and 0.33
ppm; heptachlor epoxide, 0.09 ppm. The golden
eagles, however, had only a trace of these chemi-
cals, except for DDE (0.49 ppm).
In the nationwide program to monitor pesti-
cides in the wings of 24,000 mallard and black
ducks during 1965 and 1966, DDE was shown to
be the predominant residue, followed in order by
DDT, TDE, dieldrin, and heptachlor epoxide.
Eesidues were highest in the Atlantic and Pacific
Flyways and lowest in the Central Flyway. DDE
was the highest in the ducks from New Jersey,
Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New
York, Pennsylvania, Alabama, California, and
Utah. Dieldrin residues were also prevalent in
wings from Arkansas, Texas, Utah, California,
and several states along the Atlantic Flyway
(Heath, 1969).
In a survey of eggs from aquatic prairie habi-
tats, waterfowl eggs averaged about 2 ppm of
organochlorine residues, while eggs from gulls
and other fish-eating birds ranged between 2 and
26 ppm (Keith, 1969). Atlantic gannets feeding
on mackerel and herring in Canadian populations
also were contaminated with organochlorine insec-
ticides, and their eggs contained between 8 and
100 ppm.
Western grebes collected on the Tule Lake Na-
tional Wildlife Refuge had DDT residues ranging
from 0.07 to 995 ppm (fat) in one part of the
marsh and 58 to 1,282 ppm (fat) in another part
of the marsh (Keith, 1969). The investigator sug-
gested that these differences reflected variation
in exposures and ability to retain these residues.
White pelican eggs and double-crested cormo-
rant eggs collected in central North America dur-
ing summer of 1965 averaged 1.7 ppm and 10.4
ppm (wet weight) of DDE (Anderson et al.,
1969). Arochlor averaged 0.6 ppm and 8 ppm in
the 2 bird species, respectively. Significant cor-
relations were found between shell thickness (and
weight) and both DDE and Arochlor in cormo-
rant eggs.
Average residues of dieldrin in dead birds col-
lected in Britain during 1964 were as follows:
sparrow hawk, 1.62 ppm; kestrel, 0.56 ppm; barn
owl, 0.89 ppm; tawny owl, 0.11 ppm; insectivorous
bird species, 0.5 ppm; wroodland bird species, 0.1
ppm; heron (Ardea cinera), 6.7 ppm; and fresh-
water non-fish-eating bird species, 1.0 ppm (Robin-
son, 1969). Note the high residues in aquatic birds
and especially in the fish-eating heron species.
Fat from Adelie penquins collected in the
Antarctic contained residues of DDT and DDE
ranging from 0.045 to 0.77 ppm (Brewerton, 1969).
During the 2-year sampling there was no indica-
tion of a buildup of residues.
Lockie, Ratcliffe and Balharry (1969) reported
that the proportion of golden eagle eyries in west
Scotland which successfully reared young in-
creased from 31 percent in the period 1963-65 to
69 percent in the period 1966-68. At the same time
the level of dieldrin in eagles' eggs fell from 0.86
ppm (1963-65) to 0.34 ppm (1966-68). During
these periods the number of sheep carcasses per
10-mile transect remained the same; however,
there was a decrease in dieldrin used in sheep dips,
and this resulted in a decrease in dieldrin residues
in mutton fat on which the eagles fed. During
1964 the mean residue in mutton fat was 0.8 ppm
(0.0 to 12.4 ppm) ; during 1965 the mean residue
was 1.1 ppm (0.0 to 8.2 ppm) ; and during 1966
the mean residue was 0.4 ppm (0.0 to 5.3 ppm).
Aldrin, dieldrin, DDT, DDE, TDE, heptachlor
epoxide, lindane, and endrin residues were found
in pheasant adults, juveniles, and eggs collected in
South Dakota (Linder and Dahlgren, 1970). Only
2 adults were found with more than 1 ppm of any
one insecticide. All the juveniles contained resi-
dues of at least one insecticide. Dieldrin and hep-
tachlor epoxide occurred more often than the other
insecticides in the eggs. Only one egg was found
with 1.58 ppm dieldrin.
Along a stretch of beach on Monterey Bay 440
birds were found dead (Haderlie, 1970). Of these,
37 percent had died of oiling, 14 percent had been
shot, and 49 percent had died of unknown causes.
The latter group was found to contain in their
livers the following DDE residues: Brandt's cor-
167
-------
morants, 107 to 155 ppm; Western grebes, 192 to
292 ppm; fork-tailed petrel, 373 ppm; Ashey
petrel, 373 ppm; and ring-billed gull, 805 ppm.
Arochlor residues were found in the fat of
brown pelicans collected on Anacapa Island (Cali-
fornia) ranging from 77 to 366 ppm (Keith,
Woods and Hunt, 1970).
Mercury concentrations in one great blue heron
collected at Lake St. Glair were 175 ppm in liver
and 23 ppm in carcass (Dustman, Stickel and
Elder, 1970). Maxiimim levels in a common tern
were 39 ppm in liver and 7.5 ppm in carcass. Mer-
cury levels in fish removed from the stomachs of
2 great blue herons contained 3.6,1.8, and 3.6 ppm,
and a fish from the common tern contained 3.8
ppm. Mercury levels in the breast muscle of water-
fowl exceeded 0.5 ppm in 4 of 8 mallards, in one
of 4 blue-winged teal, and in all 4 lesser scaup.
Fishes
A total of 16 species of fish collected from New
York waters contained from 0.2 to 7.0 ppm of
DDT (wet weight) (Mack et al., 1964). Some tis-
sues, such as visceral fat, gills, eggs, and reproduc-
tive organs, had residues as high as 40 ppm. No
residues were found of aldrin, dieldrin, lindane,
chlordane, heptachlor, or endrin.
Fifteen months after a farm pond was treated
with 0.02 ppm of DDT the residues in trout were
essentially the same as immediately after treat-
ment; also, residues in bullheads did not decline
significantly during the same period (Bridges,
Kallman and Andrews, 1963).
In the eggs of chinook salmon off the shore of
California residues of DDT and its metabolites
were found up to 668 ppb (Modin, 1969). DDTand
metabolites were found in halibut up to 591 ppb.
Residues of DDT averaging 0.44 ppm were
found in the Antarctic in 8 samples of 3 fish species
(George and Frear, 1966).
Most species of fish sampled in California by
Keith and Hunt (1966) contained residues of
DDT, DDE, TDE, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor
epoxide, aldrin, and toxaphene. A few species had
quite high levels; for example, the fat of the white
catfish contained 145.80 ppm of DDT, 275.22 ppm
of DDE, 196.57 ppm of TDE and 3.03 ppm of
dieldrin.
DDT or its metabolites were detected in 100 per-
cent of all fish taken in Wisconsin or the boundary
waters (Kleinart, DeGurse and Wirth, 1968). The
concentration of DDT and its analogs of TDE and
DDE averaged 27.15 ppm and ranged from 0.222
to 534.6 ppm in fat. Nearly 70 percent of fish col-
lected had dieldrin residues. These residues av-
eraged 6.15 ppm and ranged from 0.026 to 670.2
ppm in fat.
Of the 590 composite whole fish samples col-
lected in the Great Lakes, 584 contained DDT
and other metabolites, with levels ranging up to
45 ppm (mg/kg wet weight, whole fish) (Hender-
son, Johnson and Inglis, 1968). Dieldrin was found
in 75 percent of the samples, with levels ranging
up to nearly 2 ppm. Other organochlorine insecti-
cide residues were found in a few of the samples;
some of these had high residue levels.
The insecticide levels in edible fish of the Pacific
Northwest monitored by Stout (1968) were as
follows: anchovy, DDE at about 74 ppb, and TDE
at about 85 ppb; English sole, DDT at about 15
ppb, DDE at about 13 ppb, and TDE at about 13
ppb; hake, DDT at about 100 ppb, DDE at about
60 ppb, and TDE at about 60 ppb; ocean perch,
DDT at 13 ppb, DDE at 12 ppb, and a trace of
TDE; starry flounder, DDT at 13 ppb, DDE at 18
ppb, and TDE at 26 ppb; true cod, DDT at 4 ppb,
DDE at 5.5 ppb, and TDE at 6.5 ppb; and yellow-
tail rockfish, DDT at about 59 ppb, DDE at about
130 ppb and TDE at about 30 ppb.
Fish from Lake Michigan were found to con-
tain residues of DDT and dieldrin 2 to 7 times
those in fish from the other Great Lakes (Reinert,
1970). Average concentrations of DDT and diel-
drin in only a few of the fish species sampled are
shown in table 89. Reinert also showed a high cor-
relation between percentage fat and size fish, and
these 2 characters were in turn highly correlated
with DDT content in the fish.
Fish species collected from British waters con-
tained the following quantities of arsenic (As4Oa) :
whiting, 0.01 ppm; plaice, 0.08 ppm; sole, 0.02
ppm; hake, 0.02 ppm; herring, 0.01 ppm; cod, 0.01
ppm; haddock, 0.01 ppm; brill, 0.01 ppm; mack-
erel, 0.02 ppm; halibut, 0.00 ppm; and turbot, 0.02
ppm (Cox, 1925).
Largemouth bass collected in the Rock River
in Iowa contained arsenic (As2O3) which ranged
from 0.100 ppm to 1.60 ppm (Wiebe, Grass
and Slaughter, 1931). These levels were consider-
ably lower than those reported by the Swedish Ar-
senic Commission, which recorded the content of
cod to range from 0.5 ppm to 4.1 ppm (average
1.3 ppm).
168
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TABLE 89. Average concentrations of DDT (DDT, DDE,
and TDE) and dieldrin in a few selected fish species
from the Great Lakes (Reinert, 1970).
Lake
Fish Species
DDT
ppm
Diel-
drin
ppm
Michigan Lake trout 6.96 0.20
" Yellow perch 3.22 0.08
Ontario American smelt 1.58 0.10
" Yellowperch 2.10 0.005
Huron American smelt 0.75 0.04
" Yellowperch 1.59 0.03
Erie Walleye 1.12 0.13
" Yellowperch 0.87 0.05
Superior Coho salmon 1.02 0.01
" Lake trout 7.44 0.05
Amphibians
DDT residue persistence was investigated in
Maine forests which had been treated with 1 Ib/A
for spruce budworm control (Dimond et al.,
1968). Eesidues (0.1 to 0.3 ppm) were found to
persist in the red-backed salamander population
for 6 to 8 years after the DDT treatment.
Molluscs, Arthropods, and Annelids
Analyses of pesticides in oysters, mussels, and
clams in California estuaries indicated DDT,
TDE, DDE, dieldrin, and endrin in concentrations
ranging from 10 to 3,600 ppb (Modin, 1969).
DDT residues in the flesh of shellfish off the
coast of California were generally low (Keith and
Hunt, 1966). The common Washington clam,
common little neck clam, and Pacific oyster con-
tained 0.05 ppm, 0.23 ppm, and 0.17 ppm of DDT,
respectively.
Tricoptera and Plecoptera collected in a stream
in southern Sweden below a paper mill were found
to contain maximum levels of mercury of 17,000
ng/g and 2,400 ng/g, respectively (Johnels et al.,
1967). Above the mill Tricoptera and Plecoptera
contained maximum mercury levels of 54 ng/g and
72 ng/g, respectively.
In offshore samples DDT, TDE, and DDE were
found in king crab up to 2,739 ppb (Modin, 1969).
The insecticide levels in edible Dungeness crab
of the Pacific Northwest were DDT, trace to 0.013
ppm; DDE, 0.027 to 0.040 ppm; and TDE, 0.017
to 0.021 ppm (Stout, 1968).
In a Missouri refuge earthworms contained from
0.29 to 1.191 ppm of dieldrin, even though the
fields had not been treated since 1963 (USDI,
1965). In a private cotton field in Alabama the
earthworms contained "dangerously high levels of
endrin, 5.40 and 5.60 ppm."
Worms, slugs, and snails were collected for resi-
dues from heavily-treated cotton and corn fields on
National Wildlife refuges in Mississippi and
Missouri (USDI, 1966). From the Mississippi
refuge the sample contained 43 ppm of DDT+
TDE, 1.14 ppm of endrin, and 0.43 ppm of dieldrin
in slugs. These levels would be toxic to several ani-
mal species if eaten as the prime source of food.
Earthworms in this region appeared to pick up
little dieldrin and endrin, but contained as much as
28 ppm of DDT+TDE.
From 67 fields of 14 crop types in 8 states, sam-
ples of soils and earthworms were obtained and
analyzed for residue (dry weight) (USDI, 1966).
On an average there was about 9 times as much or-
ganochlorine residue load in the earthworms as in
soil. About 17 percent of the fields had earthworms
with residues of 20 ppm or greater. The highest
levels were from earthworms containing total or-
ganochlorine residues of 159, 115, 112, and 109
ppm. In the sample DDT + TDE were recorded as
153, 99, 33, and 90 ppm; dieldrin ranged from 0.03
to 22.5 ppm; and endrin, a maximum of 2.7 ppm.
Based on previous investigations, these levels were
reported hazardous to birdlif e.
Davis and Harrison (1966) examined soil in-
vertebrates in arable soil habitats and apple or-
chards for chlorinated insecticides. They reported
that samples of beetles contained both dieldrin and
p,p'-DDJZ in amounts up to 0.2 and 2.2 ppm, re-
spectively. There was no obvious difference between
beetle samples from the 2 sites. Dieldrin ranged
from 2 to 10 times higher in earthworms from
the orchard site than in those from some of
the arable soil sites and ran generally higher in the
earthworms than in the beetle samples. Earth-
worms from the orchard site contained 11.7 to 30.4
ppm DDT, and slugs contained from 5.3 to 23.8
ppm.
Boykins (1966) on the Michigan State campus
collected soil and earthworms from an American
elm habitat treated with DDT (elms sprayed with
a 12-percent DDT solution) and found the follow-
ing residues in soil and earthworms: in spring 1963
the soil had 90.1 ppm and earthworms had 67.7
ppm; and in spring 1964 the soil had 31.0 ppm,
169
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Lumbricus terrestris had 62.9 ppm, and Helodrilus
caliginosus had 64.8 ppm.
Risebrough et al. (1967) analyzed several species
of marine invertebrates for DDT (DDT, DDE,
and TDE) and found that they contained from 5
ppb in the purple urchin to 163 ppb in short-spired
purple snail.
Whitstable oysters collected off the coast of Swe-
den were found to contain as much as 3.7 ppm of
arsenic (As4Oc) (Cox, 1925).
Several species of earthworms were analyzed for
chlorinated insecticides in an English soil (table
90). Residues of the insecticides were consistently
higher in the smaller, more shallow-living species,
Attolo~bophora caliginosa, A. chlorotica, and A.
rosea, than the deep-living species, Lumbricus ter-
restris, A. longa, and Octolasion cyaneum.
Residues of chlorinated insecticides in beetles
and earthworms from English soil on which had
been grown winter wheat and peas are shown in
table 91. In most cases both the beetles and earth-
worms had higher concentrations of the insecti-
cides in their bodies than did the soil.
Soil invertebrates from 67 agricultural fields in
8 different states were examined for chlorinated
insecticides (DDE, TDE, DDT, aldrin, dieldrin,
endrin,heptachlor epoxide, and gamma-chlordane)
(Gish, 1970). Overall insecticide residues aver-
aged 1.5 ppm (dry weight) in soil and 13.8 ppm
(dry weight) in earthworms; in general, residue
levels in earthworms averaged 9 times those in
soil. The residues in soils ranged from a trace to
19.1 ppm and in earthworms, from a trace to 159.4
ppm. The author also reported that residues in
beetle larvae from 2 fields averaged 0.6 ppm, snails
from 2 fields averaged 3.5 ppm, and slugs from 2
fields averaged 89.0 ppm.
Plants
In Alaska Durham et al. (1961) examined cran-
berries, salmonberries, and wild rhubarb for DDT
and DDE, but found no trace of insecticide in
these Eskimo foods.
Kale plants in pots were placed on plots which
had been treated with either aldrin or dieldrin at
9.5 ppm each in soil and were found to contain
either aldrin (0.18 ppm in leaf) or dieldrin (0.04
ppm in leaf) (Walker, 1966). The author con-
cluded that the evidence strongly documented the
aerial transfer of aldrin and dieldrin to kale leaves.
Plants from 3 wildlife habitat types were ex-
amined for DDT and DDE residues (Keith and
TABLE 90. Concentrations (ppm) of chlorinated insecticide residues in 6 species of earthworms in relation to the residue
content of the soil (Wheatley and Hardman, 1968).
Aldrin Dieldrin p,p'-DDT
Soil
Earthworm species:
Lumbricus terrestris-
Allolobophora longa ,
Alloldbophora caliginosa
Allolobophora chlorotica
Allolobophora rosea
Octolasion cyaneum _
0 72
0.053
0.28
0. 52
0. 98
0. 64
0.84
0.64
1. 6
2. 2
3.8
4.6
3.9
2. 4
0.63
0. 54
0. 77
1. 5
2. 9
1.6
0.67
o,p'-DDT p,p'-DDE
0. 14
0. 068
0. 19
0. 35
0. 72
0. 30
0. 19
0. 17
0. 49
0. 38
0. 65
1. 0
0. 70
0. 38
Lindane
0.004
0. 0064
0. 0060
0. Oil
0. 013
0. 017
0. 0076
TABLE 91. Residues (ppm) at one site in soil, beetles, and earthworms (Davis, 1968).
Lindane Aldrin Dieldrin p,p'-DDT o,p'-DDT p,p'-TDE p,p'-DDE
Soil ,_. _
Beetles:
Harpalus sp.
Agronum. sp.
Earthworms
NS
NS
0. 05
0. 03
NS
NS
0. 02
0. 1
0. 09
0. 06
0. 5
0. 3
NS
NS
2. 1
0. 04
NS
NS
0 2
0. 03
NS
NS
0. 2
0. 1
2. 2
0. 06
0. 9
NS=not sampled.
170
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Hunt, 1966). In untreated marshes the pondweed
contained 5.73 ppm of DDT and 0.33 of DDE. The
upland habitat which had received 1 Ib/A of DDT
annually had in the grasses 28.8 ppm of DDT and
0.14 ppm of DDE and in the shrubs 50.0 ppm of
DDT and 0.15 ppm of DDE. The forest habitat
which had received one treatment with % Ib/A
of DDT had residues of 7.10 ppm in grasses, 2.46
ppm in forbs, 4.13 ppm in sagebrush, and 2.06 ppm
in fir foliage.
The leaves of field-grown com were reported
to have higher levels (0.70 to 0.96 ppm) of diel-
drin than greenhouse-grown corn (0.04 to 0.15
ppm) (Barrows et al., 1969). The large increase
in amount of dieldrin found in the field-grown
corn wTas attributed to aerial contamination of the
foliage.
Phytoplankton collected in Monterey Bay, Cali-
fornia, from 1955 to 1969 contained p,p'-DDT,
p,^'-TDE, and p,p'-DDE in increasing concentra-
tions (Cox, 1970). The level of DDT and its meta-
bolites in 1955 was about 0.20 ppm and increased
yearly to about 0.55 ppm in 1969.
Soil
Of each half-pound of DDT released by plane,
about 0.2 pound of DDT reaches the forest soil
• (Woodwell, 1961). He predicted that the persist-
ence of the residues in the forest soil at the low ap-
plication rate is fewer than 10 years. Soils from
DDT-sprayed forests revealed an increase in resi-
dues between 1958 and 1961, although no further
treatments were made. The suggestion is that the
DDT residues present in the tree canopies were
slowly carried into the soil (Woodwell and Mar-
tin, 1964).
Approximately 40 percent of the DDT applied
to the test orchards since 1946 was still present in
the soil, mostly in the top 12 inches (Terriere et
al., 1966).
In a preliminary study of the residues present
in soil in the Mississippi River Delta area, low
levels of DDT, endrin, calcium arsenate, aldrin,
BHC-lindane, strobane-toxaphene, and heptachlor
were detected. Interestingly enough, most of these
chlorinated insecticides were also found in well
water, although residue levels were lower than that
of the soil (USDA, 1966).
The application of aldrin and heptachlor in 5
yearly dosages of 5 Ib/A resulted in 1.7 to 2 times
higher soil insecticide residues than those soils re-
ceiving one 25 Ib/A treatment (Lichtenstein,
1966). The 5-application treatment resulted in resi-
due levels of 4.6 Ib/A (18 percent of total applied
dosage) at the end of the 5-year period. The one
massive dose application resulted in residue levels
of only 10 percent of the applied dosage 5 years
later.
Repeated applications (3 to 5 applications) re-
sulted in residue levels which were about 20 per-
cent of the total applied dosages (1, 2, or 3 Ib/A).
Of the crops grown, beet, radish, cucumber, lettuce,
turnip, celery, carrot, potato, parsnip, broccoli, and
in some cases cabbage did not absorb measurable
amounts of the insecticides from the soil (Lichten-
stein and Schulz, 1965).
From 2 terrestrial wildlife habitats the soil in
the upland habitat which had been treated an-
nually with 1 Ib/A of DDT contained 2.00 ppm of
DDT and 0.03 ppm of DDE, and soil in the for-
est habitat which had been treated once with %
Ib/A of DDT contained 0.40 ppm of DDT and
0.18 ppm of DDE (Keith and Hunt, 1966). The
litter in the forest habitat had 7.00 ppm of DDT
and 0.28 ppm of DDE.
Water
Toxaphene recovered from water in a drainage
basin in Alabama from the summer of 1959
through the fall of 1960 had concentrations rang-
ing from 0.029 to 0.14 ppb. In the same drainage
basin mean seasonal recoveries of BHC ranged
from 0.022 to 0.16 ppb (Grzenda, L/auer and
Nicholson, 1964).
Insecticide contamination was measured in a
stream draining from a 400-square mile watershed
area in northern Alabama, where about 15,000
acres of cotton are grown annually (Nicholson et
al., 1964). Toxaphene, BHC, and DDT, compris-
ing over 90 percent of the insecticides used, were
estimated at 58,000 pounds in 1960 and 139,000
pounds in 1962. Tests in the stream water showed
that toxaphene ranged from 0.007 to 0.41 ppb, and
BHC ranged from 0.007 to 1 ppb; DDT was never
detected.
During 1961 and 1962 water in the Columbia
Basin Project in southeastern Washington was
sampled for pesticides (Hindin, May and Dunstan,
1964). Aldrin (0.04 to 2.0 ng/1), DDT (0.02 to 16
ng/1), TDE (0.4 ng/1), endrin (0.4 to 57 ng/1),
and 2,4-D (isooctyl ester and butyl ester, trace to
18 ng/1) were found in the sampled water.
171
-------
Low levels of insecticides were detected in 80
percent of 82 water samples from marshes, irri-
gation canals, streams, rivers, and lakes in Cali-
fornia (Keith and Hunt, 1966). The insecticide
and residue levels measured were as follows: DDT
and its metabolites, 0.62 ppm; BHC, 0.01 ppm;
toxaphene, 0.02 ppm; dieldrin, trace; methoxy-
chlor, 0.00; and heptachlor epoxide, trace.
P'arathion-treated duck ponds, one receiving 1.0
and the other 0.1 pound per acre, contained 0.40
to 0.51 ppm of parathion in the water immedi-
ately after treatment. The level decreased to 0.01
ppm 8 days after treatment and to 0.003 ppm 14
days after. Parathion residues never exceeded
0.06 ppm in the mud, measured 4 hours to 22 days
after the treatment (Mulla, Keith and Gunther,
1966).
Carbaryl, applied at the rate of 25 ml per liter,
persisted for IT days in seawater at 20°C; Karinen
et >al. (1967) proposed that in mud carbaryl was
likely to persist for 2 to 6 weeks.
In a 7-year illustrative summary of the occur-
rence of dieldrin, endrin, and the DDT group in
major river basins in the United States, dieldrin
dominated the pesticide picture during the period
from 1958 to 1964 (Breidenbach et al., 1967).
From Cypress Creek, Tennessee, sediment sam-
ples revealed extremely high residues of the fol-
lowing insecticides: isodrin, 12,000 ppm; aldrin,
3,000 ppm; endrin, 10,200 ppm; dieldrin, 9,000
ppm; and chlordane, 30,000 ppm (Barthel et al.,
1970).
Typical estuaries with positive analysis residue
levels were in the range of 10 to 200 /xg/kg for
DDT, DDE, or TDE (Butler, 1969). Dieldrin and
endrin residues were also common in a few estu-
aries. Because some residues were in the range of
10 to 20 /xg/g in fish and oysters, Butler undertook
experiments to determine effects on fish and crus-
taceans of a DDT-contaminated diet. Dietary
levels of 2.5 /*g/g of p.p'-DT)T were found to cause
35- to 100-percent mortality within 2 to 10 weeks
in laboratory populations of shrimp, crabs, and
fish.
In an estuary flowing through a truck-farming
agricultural area, there were 2 distinct peaks in
the level of DDT found in the estuary, one about
April and the other in December. These 2 were
correlated with the 2 harvest times that took place
annually in the region (Butler, 1969).
The residues of pesticides in estuaries isolated
from agricultural areas seldom were above 100
ppb, whereas in agricultural regions residues were
found as high as 11,000 ppb in shell fish (Modin,
1969).
Levels of pesticides and/or residues were mea-
sured from 1966 to 1968 in selected western streams
(Manigold and Schulze, 1969). Aldrin, TDE,
DDE, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hepta-
chlor epoxide, and lindane were detected at one
time or another. DDT Avas the most common in-
secticide, with a maximum concentration of 0.12
Seba and Corcoran (1969) reported concentra-
tion factors in sea slicks of chlorinated insecticides
up to 100,000-fold above the level in the sea-
water.
Residues of TDE were followed downstream of
the St. Lawrence River when it was treated dur-
ing 1966 and 1967 with a total of 36,831 Ib of
technical TDE for control of nuisance insects
(Fredcen and Duffy, 1970). Residues detected in
water (up to 0.0139 ppm) ranged from 1 to 17
percent of the amount applied to the river 10
miles upstream. TDE residues in snails (Campe-
lorna, sp.) and bivalves (Pisidiwn sp.) 17 miles
upstream from the application point and 10 and
45 miles downstream averaged 0.002, 0.101, and
0.0, respectively. Five species of fish at the same
location had TDE residues of 0.156 ppm (17 miles
upstream) and 0.369 ppm (combined down-
stream) .
Air
Concentrations of DDT associated with sus-
pended particulate matter in Pittsburgh air during
1964 ranged from 0.00 to 1.22 /xg/1000 mm3 (An-
tommaria, Corn and De Maio, 1965).
Air over both rural and urban communities in
the United States was shown to contain pesticides
(Tabor, 1965 in Cohen and Pinkerton, 1966). Con-
centrations of DDT were found to range from
below detectable levels to 23 ng/m3 for rural air
samples and from below detectable levels to as
much as 8,000 ng/m3 for urban communities which
had pest control programs. The author pointed out
that these concentrations were minimal because
only an unknown portion of the particulate matter
and none of the pesticide in vapor form was cap-
tured by the techniques employed.
The amount of pesticide released into the atmos-
phere above the crop, but which does not reach the
treated crop, is well illustrated with aircraft spray-
172
-------
ng. For example, in treating corn by aircraft Hin-
lin, May and Dunstan (1966) reported that only
ibout 26 percent of the DDT sprayed from air-
iraft during 2 seasons reached the corn when
neasured at tassel height.
Weibel et al. (1966) reported that of 90 rain-
water samples analyzed, none was free of organico-
ihlorine, which ranged from 0.02 to 1.18 ppb. The
insecticides detected and the town in Ohio where
;he rainwater samples were collected are as fol-
ows: DDT at Kipley (0.15 ppb), Coshocton (0.07
opb), and Cincinnati (0.34 ppb); DDE at Ripley
(0.03 ppb), Coshocton (0.005 ppb), and Cincin-
nati (0.02 ppb) ; and BHC at Ripley (0.05 ppb),
Coshocton (0.006 ppb), and Cincinnati (0.02
?pb).
The data of Wheatley and Hardman (1965)
from Central England showed rainwater collected
during November to February contained p,pe-
DDT 0.003 ppb, dieldrin 0.020 ppb, and lindane
0.100 ppb, whereas samples collected during Janu-
ary to March contained 0.003, 0.009, and 0.029 ppb,
respectively. Also, analyses of the atmosphere in
Britain revealed that BHC, dieldrin, DDE, TDE,
and DDT were all present in the atmosphere. The
levels ranged from 0.010 ppb for BHC to 0.400 ppb
for DDT. These materials occurred as vapor or by
occlusion on dust particles and were "scrubbed-
out" by rain and snow from the atmosphere (Ab-
bott et al., 1965).
Abbott et al. (1966) also reported finding via
silicone gas-liquid chromatography the following
pesticides in the air of London: lindane, 0.005 ppb;
dieldrin, 0.018 ppb; p,p'-T>DT, 0.003 ppb; p,p'-
DDE, 0.004 ppb; and p,pf-TD'E, 0.003 ppb.
Dust collected in the atmosphere over Cincinnati
was found to contain the following concentrations
of pesticides: DDT, 0.6 ppm; chlordane, 0.5 ppm;
DDE, 0.2 ppm; ronnel, 0.2 ppm; heptachlor epox-
ide, 0.004 ppm; 2,4,5-T, 0.04 ppm; and dieldrin,
0.003 ppm (Cohen and Pinkerton, 1966).
Residues of pesticides were detected in substan-
tial quantities in the air over various communities
in southeastern United States (table 92).
In a later investigation by Tarrant and Tatton
(1968) at 7 collecting stations on the British Isles,
the mean concentrations or organochlorine pesti-
cides for the year at all stations were: lindane at
0.065 ppb; dieldrin, 0.008 ppb; p.p'-DDE, 0.022
ppb; py-TDE, 0.014 ppb; and p,/-DDT, 0.51
ppb.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons in the air were found
TABLE 92. Quantities of pasticides in the air of various
communities (Tabor, 1966).
Insecticide
DDT
Malathion
DDT
Cblordane
DDT
Chlordane
Toxaphene
Thiophosphates
Type Community
Urban
Urban
Nonurban_
Nonurban.
Agricultural
Agricultural
Agricultural
Agricultural
Residues ng/m 3
Minimum
(i)
0. 3
1
0. 4
0.3
1. 2
Maximum
430
140
8,500
31
22
2. 2
7.5
i Trace.
423-802 O—71-
-12
moving on dust particles with the Trade Winds
from the European-African land areas to the Bar-
bados range (Risebrough et al., 1968a). The total
concentration of DDT, DDE, TDE, and dieldrin
ranged from 1 to 164 ppb.
In an investigation of the pesticides in rainfall
conducted by the Geological Survey (1969) fol-
lowing concentrations were recorded in the Flor-
ida Everglades region: TDE, 0.00 to 29.7 ppb;
DDE, 0.00 to 21.5 ppb; DDT, 0.00 to 28.5 ppb;
dieldrin, 0.00 to 0.01 ppb; lindane, 0.00 to 0.07 ppb;
and aldrin, endrin, and heptachlor below detect-
able levels.
Ambient air was sampled in 1967 at 9 locations
throughout the United States (Barney, 1970).
2,4-D was detected at Salt Lake City, Utah, at 4.0
ng/m3. 2,4,5-T was also detected in 1970 in air
samples (Yobs, 1970).
Barney (1970) sampled ambient air in 1967 for
pesticides at Baltimore, Md.; Buffalo, N.Y.;
Dothan, Ga.; Fresno, Calif.; Iowa City, Iowa;
Orlando, Fla.; Riverside, Calif.; Salt Lake City,
Utah; and Stoneville (no state mentioned) and
found DDT (4.8 to 2,060 ng/m3), DDE (0 to 141
ng/mn), BHC (0 to 22 ng/m3), lindane (0 to 7
ng/m3), heptachlor (0 to 19 ng/m3), aldrin (0 to
8 ng/m3), toxaphene (0 to 2,520 ng/m3), dieldrin
(0 to 30 ng/m3), endrin (0 to 58 ng/m3), parathion
(0 to 465 ng/m3), methyl parathion (0 to 129
ng/m3), and malaithion (0 to 2 ng/m3). The
"highest levels were found in cotton soybeans
agri-area of the Mississippi Delta." The study
has been continuing and Barney reports that
generally the levels detected in 1970 have been
higher than those in the previous study. In addi-
tion to those detected earlier, diazinon and endo-
sulfan were also found (Yobs, 1970).
173
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Dep. Agr., Agr. Research Serv., ARS 33-105. 21 p.
WEIBEL, S. R., R. B. WEIDNER, J. M. COHEN, and A. G.
CHRISTIANSON. 1966. Pesticides and other contami-
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WHEATLEY, G. A., and J. A. HARDMAN. 1968. Organo-
chlorine insecticide residues in earthworms from
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WOODWEIX, G. M. 1961. The persistence of DDT in a forest
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PART VI
An Evaluation and Summary
Of the nearly 1 billion pounds of pesticides ap-
plied in the United States during 1970, about 51
percent was for farm use, and the remaining 49
percent for public and governmental use. This
amounts to about 5 Ibs of pesticide applied per
person for pest control. The bulk of the pesticides
was aimed at about 2,000 pest species; these spe-
cies make up only about 1 percent of the total 200,-
000 species of plants and animals in the United
States. As expected, many of the non-target species
were directly or indirectly affected by the pesti-
cides used.
In the encyclopedic review of the ecological ef-
fects of pesticides on non-target species, there is
wide variation in the amount of information avail-
able concerning the effects of a particular pesti-
cide. DDT, for example, when compared with
other pesticides, has been well investigated, as have
some others in the chlorinated insecticide group.
Even so, the available data on the impact of these
pesticides involve fewer than 1,000 species of the
estimated total of 200,000 species. The abundance
or scarcity of information on a particular pesti-
cide should not be interpreted as an indication of
either a hazard or the absence of one. In general, a
quick scan of the data reveals that the greatest
amount of information is available on insecticides
and the least amount 011 fungicides and their ef-
fects on non-target species. Information concern-
ing effects of herbicides is intermediate, yet nearly
as much herbicide material is applied as
insecticides.
Modes of Action of Pesticides
Little is known concerning the mode of action of
most pesticides for either pest or non-target spe-
cies. The available evidence documents the fact
that the mode of action of each pesticide varies
significantly with individual species. For example,
DDE (a metabolite of DDT) is practically non-
toxic to insects, but predaceous bird species like the
American sparrow hawk are highly sensitive to it.
This chemical affects the predaceous birds' repro-
ductive physiology and causes the birds to produce
eggs with eggshells from 10 to 30 percent thinner
than normal. Interestingly enough, seed-eating
birds like quail and pheasants are relatively re-
sistant to the effects of DDE.
Reducing Species Numbers
The direct application of pesticides to crop
lands, forests, and other habitats may reduce and
sometimes temporarily exterminate not only the
pest, but also non-target species in the treated area.
This, of course, is not surprising because a pesti-
cide is an active poison applied specifically to de-
stroy animals and plants designated as pests.
While the direct effects of pesticides are rela-
tively easily observed, the indirect effects are far
more complicated to detect. For example, it is dif-
ficult to discern whether the numbers of a species
are declining and if they are, whether the decline
is because of a pesticide or because of the numerous
other environmental factors which impinge upon
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natural populations. In investigating the indirect
effects of pesticides it may be difficult to determine
how the pesticide was transported in the environ-
ment, how the non-target species were exposed, and
what dosage of pesticide they received.
An example of the problems involved in de-
termining the impact of pesticides on non-target
species was the investigation of why some preda-
ceous bird species declined in habitats where chlo-
rinated insecticide residues were abundant. Some
wildlife biologists suspected DDT residues were
having an adverse effect, but the influence of ur-
banization was recognized as an additional fac-
tor contributing to bird mortality. When studying
natural populations, it is nearly impossible to
single out each factor and gauge just how it con-
tributes to the total mortality.
Proof that DDT was responsible for the ob-
served decline of some predaceous birds required
the exposure of some of these birds to known
amounts of pesticides under controlled conditions.
To do this the investigators first had to rear birds
of prey (in this case the American sparrow hawk)
in the laboratory and then feed them measured
amounts of DDT and dieldrin at dosages similar
to those occurring naturally. Feeding a combina-
tion of DDT and dieldrin in the diet of the spar-
row hawk caused the birds to produce eggs with
significantly thinner eggshells, and the loss of eggs
was significantly increased above untreated
controls.
Another example of measuring the impact of
a pesticide indirectly on a non-target species in-
volved the decline of lake trout in Lake George
and other nearby lakes. For several years previous
to the observed decline in the lake trout popula-
tion, about 10,000 pounds of DDT had been ap-
plied yearly for pest control in the watershed
surrounding Lake George. Some DDT found its
way into the lake, but the amount was believed
to be small. Although DDT residues were found
in both adult lake trout (8 to 835 ppm of DDT
in fat) and their eggs (3 to 355 ppm of DDT),
the mature lake trout appeared unaffected, and
their eggs hatched normally. The reason for the
decline remained a mystery until it was discovered
that the young fry were highly sensitive to certain
levels of the DDT in the eggs. Thus fry were killed
at the time of final absorption of the yolk and j ust
when the young were ready to feed. With 3 ppm
of DDT in the eggs a few fry survived, but at
5 ppm or higher mortality was 100 percent. The
reason the lake trout population was declining in
the lakes was then obvious.
Predaceous and parasitic insect populations
have been reduced and even eliminated in some
regions after insecticide usage, and this sometimes
resulted in outbreaks of particular insect and mite
species which had been previously kept under
control by these species. For example, when pre-
daceous coccinellid beetle populations were inad-
vertently eliminated in areas treated with DDT,
chlordane, and other chemicals, outbreaks of mites,
aphids, and scale insects occurred. At times the
densities of these plant pests increased 20-fold
above their "natural control" level.
Habitat Alteration and Species Reductions
Man using plow and bulldozer has significantly
altered many natural habitats and caused signifi-
cant reductions in some species of plants and
animals, but pesticides have been equally effective
in altering habitats. Dimethoate applied to a red
clover field, for example, reduced the number of
insects on which mice were feeding, and this re-
duced the numbers of mice present. DDT and
other insecticides which find their way into
streams significantly reduce invertebrate popula-
tions. Subsequently, salmon and other fish popu-
lations which depend upon these invertebrates may
also be reduced.
Herbicide destruction of plants on which ani-
mals depend for food may also cause significant
reductions in their numbers. For example, 2,4-D
applied to a gopher habitat reduced the forbs by
83 percent, and eventually this resulted in an
87-percent reduction in the dependent gopher
population.
Changes in vegetation are usually detrimental
to dependent species, but the change may also be
favorable for other species. For instance, when
the tops of mature forest trees were killed with
herbicides, the trees sprouted from their bases,
thus improving the browse for white-tailed deer.
Behavioral Changes
Pesticides have been found to alter the normal
behavior of several animal species. For example,
sublethal dosages of dieldrin fed to sheep increased
the number of trials required by the animals to
relearn a visual discrimination test. Also, sublethal
1<78
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doses of DDT caused trout to lose most of their
learned avoidance response.
Salmon, when exposed to sublethal doses of
DDT, were found to prefer water of higher tem-
peratures than usual. If this type of exposure
occurred in nature, the salmon might place their
eggs in regions where their fry could not survive.
Mosquito fish exposed to low concentrations of
DDT (0.1 to 20 ppb) tended to prefer waters
with a higher level of salinity than normal for
the species.
The herbicide 2,4-D caused predaceous coccinel-
lid beetles to be sluggish, and this change would
alter their predatory activities and effectiveness
as a biological control agent.
Growth of Animals and Plants
The biological activity of pesticides suppressed
growth in some species and stimulated growth in
others. Female white-tailed deer, for example,
when fed 5 ppm and 25 ppm of dieldrin daily in
their diet for 3 years grew much more slowly than
untreated females.
2,4-D was reported to increase the time for
growth and development of predaceous coccinellid
beetle larvae by nearly 60 percent. This could sig-
nificantly reduce the effectiveness of these animals
in biological control of aphids and other pest in-
sects. On the other hand, 2,4-D stimulated the
growth of the rice stemborer pest. Caterpillars of
the borer grew 45 percent larger on the treated
plants than on the untreated rice plants.
Plant growth may also be affected, as when corn
and beans were grown in soil treated with DDT
at 10 ppm and 100 ppm. At the end of 4 weeks the
corn weighed nearly 40 percent more than corn in
the untreated soil. Beans, however, weighed signif-
icantly less (30 percent) after 8 weeks when ex-
posed to DDT concentration of 10 ppm than beans
grown in untreated soil.
Reproduction
Pesticides caused measurable changes in the re-
production of various non-target animals. White-
tailed deer females fed 25 ppm of dieldrin in their
food, for example, had lower fawn survival than
untreated does.
Pesticides appear to have a deleterious effect
on the reproduction of some predaceous birds such
as the American sparrow hawk, already men-
tioned. In some natural habitats the brown pelican
has been exposed to DDT and DDE, and it is
reported that egg breakage has resulted recently
in a complete reproductive failure. Generally,
aquatic fish-eating birds have been more severely
affected than terrestrial-bird predators because
they obtain more DDT, DDE, and other pesticide
residues in their food.
Unfortunately, the effects of pesticides on re-
production in birds are more varied than just
eggshell thinning. For example, ovulation time in
finches reportedly doubled when the birds were
fed DDT in their diet, thus increasing the time
required for a generation. Also, embryo mortality
during egg incubation ranged from 30 to 50 per-
cent when mallard ducks had been fed 40 ppm
of DDE in their diet. Total duckling production
was reduced by as much as 75 percent when the
ducks received this level of DDE.
DDT, DDE, and dieldrin were not the only
chemicals to affect reproduction in birds. Both
2,4-D and 2,4,5-T at relatively high dosages de-
pressed reproduction in chickens, as did 2,4-D
and silvex in mallard ducks and toxaphene in bob-
white quail and pheasants, and thiram-exposed
chickens produced abnormally-shaped and soft-
shelled eggs.
Female mosquito fish reproduction was affected
because they aborted their young after surviving
exposure to sublethal dosages of DDT, TDE,
methoxychlor, aldrin, endrin, toxaphene, hepta-
chlor, and lindane.
Pesticides may also increase the rate of re-
production. For example, the exposure of bean
plants to 2,4-D increased aphid progeny produc-
tion during a 10-day period from 139 to 764 per
aphid mother.
Food Quality Changes
The chemical makeup of plants may be altered
by pesticides, and this in turn affects the depend-
ent animals. The changes which do occur appear-
to be quite specific for both plants and pesticides.
Several chlorinated insecticides both increased
some elements and decreased others in corn and
beans. For example, heptachlor in soil at dosages
of 1, 10, and 100 ppm caused significant changes
in the macro and micro elements (N, P, K. Ca,
Mg, Mn, Fe, Cu, B, Al, Sr, and Zn) measured
in the aboveground portions of corn and bean
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plants. Zinc was significantly higher (89 ppm, dry
weight) in bean plants treated with 100 ppm of
heptachlor than in untreated controls (55 ppm) ;
however, nitrogen levels were significantly lower
(4.99 percent) in the treated plants than in the
untreated controls (7.25 percent). Investigators
reported an increased protein content in wheat
exposed to 2,4-D in contrast with beans grown on
2,4-D-treated soil, which reduced protein content
in the beans.
The potassium nitrate content of sugar beet
plants exposed to a sublethal dosage of 2,4-D in-
creased from a normal of 0.22 percent to 4.5 per-
cent (dry weight), a nitrate level highly toxic
to cattle. 2,4-D and other herbicides have also
been reported as increasing the nitrate content of
various other plants.
Another change in the chemical content of
plants after exposure to pesticides is an increase
in sugars. Ragwort, a weed naturally toxic to
many animals including cattle, when exposed to
sublethal doses of 2,4-D, has a high level of sugar.
The increased sugar content in the weed makes it
attractive to cattle and sheep, with disastrous re-
sults because the toxic level of the plant remains
high as the sugar content increases. In Sudan grass
2,4,5-T increased the hydrocyanic acid content by
69 percent, a level in some cases toxic to animals.
Pesticide Resistance in Animals and Plants
The evolutionary impact of pesticides on
animals and plants is evidenced by the number
of species which have evolved high levels of toler-
ance to various pesticides. For example, a house
mouse population selected for resistance to DDT
increased its tolerance to DDT 2-fold in just 10
generations. A pine-mouse population studied in
the field was reported to have a 12-fold level of
tolerance to endrin above usual levels.
Mosquito fish populations inhabiting streams
in the cotton belt evolved significant levels of re-
sistance to DDT, strobane, toxaphene, chlordane,
aldrin, heptachlor, dieldrin, endrin, and dursban.
Extremely high increases in level of tolerance
were reported for strobane (300-fold), endrin
(120-fold), toxaphene (40-fold), dieldrin (20-
fold), and chlordane (20-fold).
Two frog populations from a cotton-growing
region possessed a significant level of resistance to
DDT.
As might be expected, insect and mite popula-
tions with high levels of resistance to pesticides
have been found in many parts of the world. Of
nearly 2,000 pest insect and mite species, a total
of 225 species has been reported resistant to pes-
ticides. Of these species, 121 species were crop
pests, 97 man and animal pests, 6 stored-product
pests, and 1 forest pest. In at least one instance
the level of resistance had increased 25,000-fold.
Although the evidence is not conclusive, there
is strong suggestion of the presence of resistance
to 2,4-D in some plants.
Disease Susceptibility
Pesticides caused animals to be more susceptible
to certain diseases. For instance, the exposure of
mallard ducklings to Arochlor (PCB) increased
the susceptibility of the ducklings to duck hepa-
titus virus. Also, evidence suggests that the ex-
posure of fish to carbaryl and 2,4-D reduced their
natural resistance to a microsporidian parasite.
Biological Concentration
The ability of animals and plants to concentrate
many types of pesticides in their body tissues ap-
pears to be a common physiological phenomenon.
The chlorinated insecticides have the greatest
affinity for this type of process. The tremendous
capacity for concentrating pesticides is best illus-
trated with oysters and waterfleas. Oysters were
able to take DDT at 1 ppb in seawater and con-
centrate it 70,000 times in their bodies. Waterfleas
were even more efficient; they were able to take
DDT at 0.5 ppb in water and concentrate it 100,-
000 times in their bodies.
Normally, the capacity for biological concentra-
tion is not as great as this, but when the event is
repeated through several links in the food chain,
extremely high concentrations of pesticide resi-
dues can occur in the species at the top of the
food chain.
This happened with the food chain involving
soil, earthworms, and robins. Starting with a
DDT level in the soil of 9.9 ppm, it reached 141
ppm in the earthworms and 444 ppm in robins.
This high concentration in the robins was toxic to
some birds.
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Persistence
Persistent pesticides have the advantage of re-
maining in the environment for long periods and
thereby being effective in pest control over long
periods of time with fewer applications needed.
The obvious disadvantage is that the longer the
chemical poisons persist, the greater are the
chances that they will move out of the treated area
via either soil, water, air, or organisms and cause
harm to non-target organisms.
Of the insecticides, arsenic at reported use dos-
ages remained in the environment for an estimated
40 years. The chlorinated insecticides also persist
for long periods ranging from 6 months to 30
years, depending on the chemical, its dosage, and
characteristics of the environment. DDT, for ex-
ample, at only 1 Ib/A persisted in a forest environ-
ment for 9 years with little decline in the residue
level. Based on the rate of disappearance, the esti-
mation was that DDT even at this low dosage
would endure for 30 years. Yet for other economic
poisons like malathion, residues may persist for
only a few days.
It should be pointed out that even with per-
sistent chlorinated insecticides certain limited
amounts can be released into the environment
without important ecological effects. This level
of release, if known, would help develop rational
use programs for pesticides.
Pesticide Movement and Residues
in the Environment
The presence of pesticides is generally wide-
spread in the environment, and movement
throughout the environment is related in large
measure to their persistence. Obviously, the longer
a chemical remains in the environment, the greater
is the opportunity that it will spread or be trans-
ported to another location in the environment.
Antarctic seals and penguins far distant
from the application of any pesticides are con-
taminated with DDT. Also, in the Arctic region
seals, caribou, and polar bears contain DDT. A
great variety of non-target mammals, birds, fishes,
and insects are known to contain residues of nu-
merous kinds of pesticides including the highly
toxic mercury compounds. Accumulations of pesti-
cide residues in some resistant non-target species
have become sufficiently high to be lethal to some
individuals of the species itself and to some pred-
ators which feed on them.
Residues of pesticides in soil have been inves-
tigated extensively, and persistence in soil was
discussed above.
Various pesticide residues are found at low
levels in water throughout the United States; how-
ever, in the southeast and far west, pesticide resi-
dues were present at fairly high levels.
A surprising finding was that pesticides also
were detected at fairly high levels in the atmos-
phere. Insecticide levels in areas far distant from
any treated area ranged from below detectable
levels to 23 ng/m3 of DDT, for example. Evi-
dently, movement through the atmosphere pro-
vides an excellent means for transport of some
pesticides to widely dispersed habitats.
The amount of pesticide released into the at-
mosphere above the crop, but which does not reach
the treated crop, is well illustrated with aircraft
spraying. For example, in treating corn by air-
craft only about 26 percent of the DDT sprayed
from aircraft reached the corn when measured at
tassel height.
Pesticides accumulated in living organisms may
also travel long distances; the impact of this
means of pesticides moving out through the en-
vdronment probably has been underestimated.
Herbicides are generally less persistent than in-
secticides, but there are materials like picloram
and monuron which will persist for 2 to 3 years
in the soil. Fungicides also break down rather
rapidly, but some like mercury compounds may
leave various stable forms free to move in the
biosphere for many years.
Wildlife Management
Although, as documented, pesticides can harm
wildlife, with careful use they may also benefit
wildlife and therefore be employed in some phases
of wildlife management.
Insecticides, for example, are sometimes applied
to prevent a serious insect pest from denuding a
forest of its leaves and making it an unsuitable
habitat for some wildlife species. Herbicides have
been employed to alter directly the vegetational
types growing in a habitat to improve the habitat
for food and shelter for deer, grouse, turkey, and
quail.
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Herbicides have also been used to control water
hyacinth and other aquatic weeds, thereby im-
proving the freshwater habitat for sport fish. The
quantity of herbicide used for this purpose alone
totals several tons per year.
Conclusions
Available evidence suggests that current meth-
ods of pesticide use are a serious hazard to some
species which make up our environmental life
system. Pesticides, especially the chlorinated in-
secticides (DDT, dieldrin, toxaphene, chlordane,
TDE, aldrin, and heptachlor) already have caused
measurable damage to non-target bird, fish, and
beneficial insect populations. The prime reason for
these chemicals being particularly hazardous is
their persistence, movement through the ecosys-
tem, and characteristics for biological concentra-
tion in the food chain.
Data on the detrimental effects of other pesti-
cides is spotty, but there is sufficient evidence for
concern. More information on the impact these
economic poisons are having on non-target species
is needed before additional plant and animal
species are affected.
Based on available information, some generali-
zations can be made about the effects of insecti-
cides, herbicides, and fungicides on populations
and communities of natural species:
1. Pesticides tend to reduce significantly the
numbers of individuals of some species in
biotic communities, which has the similar
ecological effect of reducing the number of
species.
2. An important reduction in the number of
species in a community may lead to instability
within that community and subsequently to
population outbreaks because of alteration in
the normal check-balance structure of the
community.
3. After pesticide applications the species pop-
ulations most likely to increase in numbers
are those in the lower part of the food chain,
that is, the plant feeders. This is, in part,
because the parasitic and predaceous enemies
which naturally help control numbers of
plant feeders often are more susceptible to
pesticide pollution effects.
4. In addition, any effective loss of species or
intense fluctuations in number of species low
in the food chain may adversely affect the
dependent predator and parasitic species at
the top of the food chain. This in turn fur-
ther disrupts the structure and ultimately the
stability of the natural community.
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APPENDICES
Appendix A—Abbreviations Used
ppm, parts per million (parts in 10" parts) is the number
of parts of toxicant per million parts of the substance
in question (not necessarily in solution) ; these may
include residues in soil, water, or whole animals.
ppb, parts per billion (parts in 10" parts), is the number
of parts of toxicant per billion parts of the substance
in question.
mg/kg, milligrams per kilogram, is used to designate the
amount of toxicant required per kilogram of body weight
of test organism to produce a designated effect, usually
the amount necessary to kill 50 percent of the test
animals.
fig, microgram, 1/1,000,000 of gram.
ng, nanogram, 1/1,000,000,000 of a gram.
LDso, median lethal dose, is the milligrams of toxicant
per kilogram of body weight lethal to 50 percent of the
test animals to which it is administered under the
conditions of the experiment.
LCso, median lethal concentration, is the concentration
(ppm or ppb) of toxicant in the environment (usually
water) which kills 50 percent of the test organisms
exposed.
ECso, median effective concentration, is the concentration
(ppm or ppb) of toxicant in the environment (usually
water) which produces a designated effect to 50 percent
of the test organisms exposed.
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Appendix B—Common and Scientific Names
of Animals and Plants
ANIMALS
Mammals
beaver—Castor oanadensis
beluga—Delphinapterus leucas
black bear—Euarctos americus
buff-bellied chipmunk—Eutamias amoeus luteiventris
caribou—Rangifer tarandus
coeur d'Alene chipmunk—Eutamias ruflcaudus simulans
Columbian ground squirrel—Citellus columbianus
common seal—Phoca vitulina
cotton rat-—Sigmodon hispidus
cottontail rabbit—Sylvilagus fioridanus
crab-eater seal—Lobodon carcinopnages
domestic goat—Capra aegagrus
elk—Cervus canadensis
fur seal—Callorhnus ursinus
gray whale—Rhachianectes glaucus
grey seal—Jfalichocrus grypus
guinea pig—Cavia porcellus
harp seal—Pagophilus groenlandicus
jumping mouse—Zapus princeps
mink—Mustela vison
moose—Rangifer caribou
mouse (house)—Mus musculus
mule deer—Odocoileus liemionus
Northern white-footed mouse—Peromyscus leucopus
noveboracensis
old-field mouse—Peromyscus polionotus
oogruk seal—Erignathus barbatus
pine mouse—Pityrnys pinetorum
pine squirrel—Tamiasciurus hudsonicus
pocket gopher—Thomomys talpoides
polar bear—Thala*ssarctos maritimus
polecat—Mustela. putorius
porpoise—Phocaena phocaena
prairie deer mouse—Peromyscus maniculatus liairdii
prairie vole—Microtus oehrogaster
pronghorn antelope—Antilocapra americana
rabbit—Oryctalagus cunniculus
rat—Rattus norvegicus
red backed mouse—Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus
roe deer—Capreolus capreolus
sagebrush white-footed mouse—Peromysous maniculatus
artemesiae
sage grouse—Centrocercus urophasianus
Weddell seal—Leptonycliotes iveddelli
white-footed mouse—Pcromyscus leucopus leucopus
white-tailed deer—Odoooileus virginiamis
white-tailed jackrabbit—Lepus townsman
wild hare—Lepus amcricanus
Birds
Adelie penguin—Pygoscelis adeliae
American merlin—Falco columJtarius
American redstart—SetopJiaga ruticilla
American sparrow hawk—Falco sparverius
Ashey petrel—Oceanodroma homochroa
Atlantic gannet—Sula bassana
bald eagle—Haliaeetus leucocephalus Icucocepiialus
barn owl—Tyto aZ&a
Bengalese finch—Lonchura striata
Bermuda petrel—Pterodroma oahoiv
black duck—Melanitta nigra
black tern—Chlidonias nigra
blue grouse—Dcndragapus obscurus obscurus
blue waxbill—Uracginthus angolcmis angolensis
blue-winged teal—Anas discors
bobwhite quail—Colinus virginmnus
Brandt's cormorant—Phalacrocorax penicillatus
brown pelican—Pelecanus occidentals
bullfinch—Pyrrhula pyrrhula
buzzard—Bwteo tuteo
California quail—Lophortix californicus
Canada goose—TSranta canadensis
carrion crow—Corvus coronc corone
Cassin's auklet—Ptyehoramphus aleuticus
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chinstrap penguin—PygosceKs antarctioa
chukar partridge—Aleotoris graeca
common tern—Sterno hirunda
coot-—Fulica americana
coturnix—Coturnix coturnim japonica
cowbird—Molothrys ater
double-crested cormorant—Phalacrocorax auritus auritus
eider duck—Somateria mollisima
emperor penguin—Apteno-dytes forsteri
fork-tailed petrel—Oceandroma furcata
fulmar—Fulmarus glacialis
fulvous tree duck—Dendrocyana bicolor
golden eagle—Aquila chrysartos
gray partridge—Perdix perdix
great blue heron—Arda herodias
great crested grebe—Podiceps cristatus
green white-eye—Zosterops virens
guillemot—Uria aalge
herring gull—Argentatus argentatus smithsonianus
hooded crow—Corvus oorone comix
house finch—Carpodacus mcseicanus
house sparrow—Passer domesticus
Japanese stork—Ciconia ciconia boyciana
Jardine's babbler—Turdoides jardinei jardinei
kestrel—Falco tinnunculus
kittiwake—Rissa tridactyla
Kurrichaine thrush—Pcliociclila libonyamts libonyanus
lesser sandhill crane—Grits canadcnsis canadensis
lesser scaup—Aytha afflnis
little egret—Egretta garzetta garzetta,
long-eared owl (European)—Asia otus
magpie—Pica pica
mallard duck—Anas platyrhi/nchos
Melba finch—Zonogastris melba melba
merlin—Falco columbarius
moorhen—Gallinula ohloropus
mountain chickadee—Pants gambeli
mourning dove—Zenaidura macroura
myrtle warbler—Dendroica coronata
old-squaw duck—Harclda hyemalis
Oregon junco—Junco liycmalis oreganus
osprey—Pandion haliaetus carolincnsis
parula warbler—Com-psotlilypis americana
peregrine falcon—Falco percgrinus
prairie chicken—Tympanuchiis cupido
prairie falcon—Falco mexicanits
prairie sharp-tailed grouse—Pcdioccetcs pJiasiancllus cam-
pestris
raven—Corvus corax
razor-bill—Alca torda
red-eyed vireo—Vireo olivaceus
red-legged partridge—Alcctoris rufa,
red-wing blackbird—Agclaius pnoeniccutt
ring-billed duck—Marila collaris
ring-billed gull—Larus delawarcnsis
ringdove—Streptopelia risoria
ring-necked pheasant—PJi asianvs colchicMs
robin—Turdus migratoriiis
rook—Corvtts frugilegvs
ruffed grouse—Bonasa wmbellus
sage grouse—Centrocercus urophasianus
shoveller—Spatula clypeata
sora—Porzana Carolina
sparrow hawk (European)—Accipiter nisus
speckled coly—R7iabdocolius striatus striatvs
tawny owl—Strix aluco
tree swallow—Iridoprocnc Mcolor
Western grebe—Acchmophorus occidentalis
Western gull—Larus occidentalis
white owl—Aluco pratincola
white pelican—Pclccantis crytlirorhynclias
white-tailed eagle—Haliactus albicilla
white-winged dove—Zcnaida asiatica
wild turkey—Melcagrls gallopavo
wood pigeon (English)—Columba palumT)us
yellow-eye—Serinus mogambicus mosambicus
Fishes
alewife—Pomolobus pscudoharengns
American smelt—Osmervs mordax
anchovy—Engraulis mordax
Atlantic croaker—Micropogon undulatus
Atlantic salmon—Salmo salar
black bullhead—Ictalurus melas
bluegill—Lcpomis macrochinig
bluntnose minnow—Pimephalcs notatns
brill—Scophthalmus rhombus
brook trout—Salvelinus fontinalis
brown bullhead—Ictalurus nebulosus
brown trout—Salmo trutta
carp—Cyprinus carpio
channel catfish—Ictalurus punctatus
Chinook salmon—OncorhyncJius chouicha
chub—Squalius cephalus
cod—Gadus callarias
coho salmon—OncorTiynclius kisutch
cutthroat trout—Salmo clarkii leioisi
English sole—Parophrys vetulus
fathead minnow—PimephaJcs promclas
golden shiner—Notcmigonus crysoleiicas
goldfish—Carassius a-uratus
green sunfish—Lepomis cyanellus
guchi fish—Naibea albiflora
guppy—Lebistcs rcticulatus
haddock—Gadus aeglefinus
hake—Mcrluccius productus
halibut—Hippolosgus Mpplosus
harlequin fish—Rasbora Jtcteromorpha
herring—Clupea. harengus
lake chub-sucker—Erimyzon sueetta
Lake Emerald shiner—Notropis atlicrinoides
lake trout—Salvelinus namaycusli
landlocked salmon—Salmo salar sebago
largemouth bass^—Microptcrus salmoides
longnose killifish—Ftmdulus similis
mackerel—Scomber scombrus
mosquito fish—Gambusia addints
mountain suckers—Pantostus jordani
mountain whitefish—Prosopium icilliamsoni
mullet—Mugil cephalus
northern puffer—Sphacroides maculatits
186
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ocean perch—Se~bastodes alutiis
pike—Esox Indus
pinflsh—Lagodon rliomboidcs
plaice—Plcuronectes platcssa
pumpkin seed—Lepomis gibbosus
rainbow trout—Salmo gairdnerii
rainwater killflsh—Lucania parva
redear—Lepomis microlophus
redfln shiner—Notropis umbraiilis
sheepshead—Cyprinodon varicgatus
shiner perch—Cymatogaster aggrcgata
silver salmon—Oncorhynchus kisutch
smallmouth bass—Microptcrus dolomicu
speckled dace—Rhinichthys oscula carringtoni
spot—Leiostomus (eanthurus
spottail minnow—Notropis midsonius
starry flounder—Platichthys stellatus
stickleback—Gasicrostcus aculcatus
striped bass—Roccus saxatilis
striped mullet—Mugil ccphahis
taillight shiner—Kotropis maculatus
three-spined stickleback—Gasicrostcus aoiilcatus
tidewater silverside—Menidia bcryllina
tilapia—Tilapia aurca
true cod—Gadus macrocephalus
turbot—Scophthalmus maximus
walleye—Stizostcdion vitrtim vitratin
warasubo—Odonotamblyopus ntbincundus
white catfish—Ictalurus catus
white crappies—Pomoxis annularis
whitefish—Corcgonus clupciformis
white mullet—Jilugil curcma
whiting—Gadus mcrlangus
yellow bullhead—Ictalurus natalis
yellow perch—Pcrca flavcscens
yellowtail rockflsh—Scbastodcs flavidus
Amphibians
bullfrog—Rana cateslieiana
chorus frog—Pseuflacris triseriata
Fowler's toad—Kttfo woodhoitsii foicleri
red-backed salamander—Plcthodon cincrcus
Northern quahog—Mercenaria meroenaria
Pacific oyster—Crassostrea gigas
soft-shell clam—Mya arenaria
Arthropods and Annelids
apple mealy bug—Phenacoccus aceris
azuki-bean weevil—Callosobruchus chinensis
blue crab—Callinectes sapidus
brown shrimp—Pcnaeus agtecus
cabbage aphid—Brcvicorync brassicae
codling moth—Carpocapsa pomonella
cottony-cushion scale—Icerya purchasi
Dungeness crab—Cancer magivter
European corn borer—Pyrausta nuMlalis
European red mite—Panonychus ulmi
ghost shrimji—Callianassa afflnis
grass shrimp—Palaemonctcs vulgaris
gypsy moth—Porthctria dispar
hermit crab—Pagurus longicarptts
honeybee—Apis mellifcra
housefly—Musca domestica
Japanese beetle—Popillia japonica
King crab—XipJiositnis sowerbgi
leaf cutting bee—Hegachile rotttndata
oriental fruit moth—Grapliolitha molesta
Pacific spider mite—Tetranychus pacificus
peach aphid—Mysus pcrsioac
pink shrimp—Pcnaeus duorarum
purple urchin—Strongyloccntrotus purpura-tus
range caterpillar—Hcmilciica oliviac
red-banded leaf roller—Argyrotaenia velutinana
red crawfish—Procambarus clarJci
rice stem-borer—CJiilo plejadellus
sand shrimp—Crangon scptemspinosa
shore crab—Caroini&es macnas
short-spired purple snail—Thais emarginata
spruce budworm—Chonstoncura fumifcrana
two-spotted mite—Tetranychus telarius
vedalia—Rhodolia cardinalis
white shrimp—Pcnaeus setiferus
wireworm—Cteniccra aeripcnnis destructor
yellow scale—Acniciella citrina
Reptiles
box turtle—Terapene c. Carolina
garter snake—Thamnophic sirtalis
Molluscs
Asiastic clam—Corbicitla manillensis
common little neck clam—Prototliora stcminea
common Washington clam—Suxidomus tnittalH
crested oyster—Ostrca cqucstris
eastern oyster—Crassostrea virohiica
European oyster—Ostrca cdutis
fresh-water mussel—Elliptic complanatus
hooked mussel—Brachidontcs recurvus
PLANTS
American elm—Ulmus amerioana
arrow-grass—Triglochin maritima
aspen—Populus tremuloides
bitterbrush—Purshia tridentata
black cherry—Prunus serotina
black oak—Qucrcus velutina
box elder—Acer negundo
Canada thistle—Cardusus arvense
ehokecherry—Prunus virginiana,
Concord grape—Vitis labruscana
cottonwood—Populns deltoides
creeping thistle—Cirsiiim arvense
downy rabbitbrush—Chri/sothamnus puberulus
187
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jimson weed—Datura stramonium
kale—Brassica oleracea acephala
milfoil—Myriophyllum spioatum
round-leafed mallow—Malva neglecta
Russian pigweed—Amaranthus retroflexus
rye—Seoale cereale
scarlet oak—Quercus coccinea
serviceberry—Amelanchier alnifolia
silver sagebrush—Artemisia cana
snowberry—Symphoricarpos oreophilus
snowbrush—Ceanothus velMtinus
spikerush—Eleocharis palustria
Sudan grass—Sorghum sulgarc spp. Sudanese
sycamore—Plantanus oocidentalis
three square—Scirpus american-us
threetip sagebrusli—Artemisia tripartita
tokay grape—Vitis vinifera
velvet-leaf—Abutilon theophrasti
white oak—Quercus alba,
wild pars-nip—Pastinaca sativa
188
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Appendix C—Index of Pesticides
COMMON AND CHEMICAL NAMES
Page
AAT. See PARATHION.
AAtrex. See ATRAZINE.
ABATE 3
Chemical name: 0,0,O',0'-tetramethyl 0,0'-
thiodi-p-phenylene phosphorothioate
Other name: Biothion
Action: Insecticide.
Acaraben. See CHLOROBENZILATE.
Acaralate. See CHLOROPROPYLATE.
Accelerate. See ENDOTHALL.
Accothion. See FENITROTHION.
Acricid. See BINAPACRYL.
ACROLEIN 85
Chemical name: 2-propenal
Other names: Acrylaldehyde, Aqualin, Aqualin
Biocide, Aqualin Slimicide
Action: Herbicide.
Acrylaldehyde. See ACROLEIN.
Actidione. See CYCLOHEXIMIDE.
Actril. See IOXYNIL.
Afalon. SeeLINURON.
Aflix. See FORMOTHION.
Afos. See MECARBAM.
Agridip. See COUMAPHOls.
Agroxone. See MCPA.
Akar. See CHLOROBENZILATE.
ALDRIN 3
Chemical name: l,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-l,4)4a,-
5,8,8a-hexahydro-l,4-endo-exo-5,8-dimeth-
anonaphthalene
Other names: Aldrosol, Drinox, HHDN, Octalene,
Seedrin
Action: Insecticide.
Aldrosol. See ALDRIN.
Alkron. See PARATHION.
Aileron. See PARATHION.
ALLETHRIN 6
Chemical name: d/-2-allyl-4-hydroxy-3-methyl-2-
cyclopenten-1-one ester of dl-cis irans-chrysan-
themummonocarboxylic acid
Other names: Pallethrine, Pynanim
Action: Insecticide.
Allidochlor. See CDAA.
Page
Allisan. See OICLORAN.
Alltox. See TOXAPHENE.
Ambox. See BINAPACRYL.
Amcide. See AMS.
AMETRYNE 85
Chemical name: 2-(ethylamino)-4-(isopropyla-
mino) -6- (methylthio) -s-triazine
Other name: Gesapax
Action: Herbicide.
AMIBEN 85
Chemical name: 3-amino-2,5-dichlorobenzoic
acid
Other name: Chloramben
Action: Herbicide.
AMINOCARB 6
Chemical name: 4-(dimethylamino)-m-tolyl
methylcarbamate
Other name: Matacil
Action: Insecticide.
a-AMINO-2,6-DICHLORO-BENZALDOXINE.._ 85
Action: Herbicide.
Aminotriazole. See AMITROLE.
Amitril T.L. See CYTROL AMITROLE-T.
AMITROLE 86
Chemical name: 3-amino-l,2,4-triazole
Other names: Aminotriazole, ATA, Weedazol
Action: Herbicide.
Ammate. See AMS.
AMMONIUM CHLORIDE 137
Action: Fungicide.
AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE 137
Action: Fungicide.
AMMONIUM THIOCYANATE 86
Other name: Amthio
Action: Herbicide.
AMS 87
Chemical name: ammonium sulfamate
Other names: Amcide, Ammate
Action: Herbicide.
Amthio. See AMMONIUM THIOCYANATE.
Anofex. See DDT.
Anthio. See FORMOTHION.
Anthon. See TRICHLORFON.
423^802 O—71-
-13
189
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Page
Antiphen. See DICHLORPHEN.
Antracol. See PROPINEB.
Aphamite. See PARATHION.
Aquacide. See DIQUAT.
Aqualin. See ACROLEIN.
Aqualin Biocide. See ACROLEIN.
Aqualin Slimicide. See ACROLEIN.
Aquathol. See ENDOTHALL.
Aracide. See ARAMITE.
ARAMITE 7
Chemical name: 2(p-feri-butylphenoxy)-l-methyl-
ethyl-2'-chloroethyl sulfite.
Other names: Aracide, Niagaramite.
Action. Insecticide.
Ai * in. See THIRAM.
Arathane. See DINOCAP.
AROCHLORS 7
Chemical name: mixture of chlorinated terphenyls
Other names: Chlorinated biphenyls, PCB's, poly-
chlorinated biphenyls
Action: Insecticide.
Arprocarb. See PROPOXUR.
Aspor. See ZINEB.
ASULAM 87
Chemical name: methyl 4-aminobenzenesulfonyl
carbamate
Action: Herbicide.
Asuntol. See COUMAPHOS.
ATA. See AMITROLE.
Atlacide. See SODIUM CHLORATE.
Atlas "A". See SODIUM ARSENITE.
Atratol. See SODIUM CHLORATE.
ATRAZINE 87
Chemical name: 2-chloro-4-ethylamino-6-isopro-
pylamino-s-triazine
Other names: AAtrex, Fenamine, Fenatrol, Gesa-
prim, Primatol A
Action: Herbicide.
Avadex. See DIALLATE.
Avicol. See PCNB.
AZIDE 88
Action: Herbicide.
Azidithion. See MENAZON.
AZINPHOS-METHYL 8
Chemical name: 0,O-dimethyl iS-[4-oxo-l,2,3-ben-
zotriazin-3(4H)-ylmethyl]phosphorodithioate
Other names: Carfene, DBD, Gusathion, Gusa-
thion M, Gustathion, Guthion, Methyl
Guthion
Action: Insecticide.
Azodrin. See MONOCROTOPHOS.
Balan. See BENEFIN.
Balfln. See BENEFIN.
Banex. See DICAMBA.
Bantrol. See IOXYNIL.
Banvel D. See DICAMBA.
Barbamate. See BARBAN-
BARBAN 89
Chemical name: 4-chloro-2-butynyl m-chloro-
carbanilate
Other names: Barbamate, Carbyne.
Action: Herbicide.
Page
Basic copper chloride. See COPPER OXYCHLORIDE.
Basudin. See DIAZINON.
Baygon. See PROPOXUR.
Baytex. See FENTHION.
BENAZOLIN 89
Chemical name: 4-chloro-2-oxobenzothiazolin-3-
ylacetic acid
Other names: Cornox CWK, Legumez Extra,
LeyCornox
Action: Herbicide.
BENEFIN 89
Chemical name: Ar-butyl-Ar-ethyl-a,a,«-trifluoro-
2,6-dinitro-p-toluidine
Other names: Balan, Balfin, Binnell, Quilan
Action: Herbicide.
Benzac. See 2,3,6-TBA.
BENZENETHIOL 137
Action: Fungicide.
BENZOIC ACID 137
Action: Fungicide.
BHC. See LINDANE.
Bichloride of mercury. See CORROSIVE SUB-
LIMATE.
Bidrin. See DICROTOPHOS.
BINAPACRYL 9
Chemical name: 2 sec.butyl-4,6-dinitrophenyl-o-
methyl-2-butenoate
Other names: Acricid, Ambox, Dinoseb meth-
acrylate, Endosan, Morocide
Action: Insecticide.
Binnell. See BENEFIN.
Bioquin. See COPPER-8-QUINOLINOLATE.
Biostat PA. See OXYTETUACYCLINE.
Biothion. See ABATE.
Birlane. See CHLORFENVINPHOS.
BIUREA . 137
Action: Fungicide.
Bladan. See TEPP.
Blattanex. See PROPOXUR.
BMM. See UREABOR.
Borascu. See BORAX.
BORAX 89
Chemical name: sodium tetraborate decahydrate
Other names: Borascu, Gerstley Borate, Neobor,
Tronabor
Action: Herbicide.
Botran. See DICLORAN.
Botrilex. See PCNB.
Brassicol. See PCNB.
Brestan. See FENTIN ACETATE.
Brimstone. See SULFUR.
Brofene. See BROMOPHOS.
Brominal. See BROMOXYNIL.
BROMOPHOS. 9
Chemical name: O-(4-bromo-2,5-dichlorophen-
yl) 0,0-dimethylphosphorothioate
Other names: Brofene, Nexion
Action: Insecticide.
BROMOXYNIL 89
Chemical name: 3,5-dibromo-4-hydroxybenzo-
nitrile
Other name: Brominal
Action: Herbicide.
190
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BUS AN..-
Action: Fungicide.
Butacide. See PIPERONYL BUTOXIDE.
Butter of Zinc. See ZINC CHLORIDE.
CACODYLIC ACID
Chemical name: dimethylarsinic acid
Other name: Silvisar 510
Action: Herbicide.
Cadminate. See CADMIUM SUCCINATE.
CADMIUM SUCCINATE
Chemical name: 60% cadmium succinate (29%
metallic basis)
Other name: Cadminate
Action: Fungicide.
CAFFEINE
Action: Fungicide.
Caparol. See PROMETRYNE.
CAPTAFOL
Chemical name: ci's-./V[(l,l,2,2-tetrachloroethyl)
thio]-4-eyclohexene-l,2-dicarboximide
Other names: Difolatan, Folcid
Action: Fungicide.
CAPTAN
Chemical name: Af-[(trichloromethyl)thio]-4-cy-
clohexene-1,2-dicarboximide
Other name: Orthocide 406
Action: Fungicide.
CARBARYL
Chemical name: 1-naphthyl methylcarbamate
Other name: Sevin
Action: Insecticide.
Carbicron. See DICROTOPHOS.
Carbofos. See MALATHION.
CARBOFURAN
Chemical name: 2,3-dihydro-2,2-dimethyl-7-
benzofuranyl methylcarbamate
Other name: Furadan
Action: Insecticide.
CARBOLIC ACID
Chemical name: phenol
Other name: Phenol
Action: Fungicide.
CARBOPHENOTHION
Chemical name: S-[(p-chlorophenyl)thiomethyl]
0,0-diethyl phosphorodithioate
Other names: Dagadip, Garrathion, Trithion
Action: Insecticide.
Carbophos. See MALATHION.
Carbyne. See BARB AN.
Carfene. See AZINPHOS-METHYL.
Carpene. See DODINE.
Casoron. See DICHLOBENIL.
CDAA
Chemical name: 2-chloro-AT,Ar-diallyl acetamide
Other names: Allidochlor, Randox
Action: Herbicide.
CDEC
Chemical name: 2-chloroallyl-AA,./V-diethyldithio-
carbamate
Other names: Sulfallate, Vegadex
Action: Herbicide.
Page
137
Page
138
138
138
138
11
139
12
90
90
Certrol. See IOXYNIL.
Chem Bam. See NABAM.
Chem-Hoe. See PROPHAM.
Chemox General. See DNBP.
Chemox P.E. See DNBP.
Chem Pels C. See SODIUM ARSENITE.
Chem Zineb. See ZINEB.
Cbinomethionate. See OXYTHIOQUINOX.
Chiptox. See MCPA.
Chlorambin. See AMIBEN.
CHLORANIL
Chemical name: 2,3,5,6-tetrachloro-l,4-benzo-
quinone; also tetrachloro-p-benzoquinone
Other name: Spergon
Action: Fungicide.
Chlorax. See SODIUM CHLORATE.
CHLORBENSIDE
Chemical name: p-chlorobenzyl p-chlorophenyl
sulflde
Other names: Chlorocide, Chlorparacide, Chlor-
sulphacide, Midox, Mitox.
Action: Insecticide.
Chlordan. See CHLORDANE.
CHLORDANE
Chemical name: l,2,4,5,6,7,8,8-octachloro-2,3,3a,
4,7,7a-hexahydro-4,7-methanoindene
Other names: Chlordan, Chlor Kil, Corodane,
Kypchlor, Octachlor, Octa-Klor, Ortho-Klor,
Synklor, Topiclor 20, Velsicol 1068
Action: Insecticide.
CHLORDECONE
Chemical name: decachloro-octahydro-1,3,4-
metheno-2//-cyclobuta(cd)pentalen-2-one
Other name: Kepone
Action: Insecticide.
CHLOREA
Chemical name: formulation with sodium chlor-
ate, sodium metaborate, and monuron
Action: Herbicide.
Chlorfenidim. See MONURON.
Chlorfenson. See OVEX.
CHLORFENVINPHOS
Chemical name: 2-chloro-l-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-
vinyl diethyl phosphate
Other names: Birlane, Sapecron, Supona
Action: Insecticide.
CHLORFLURAZONE
Chemical name: 4,5-dichloro-2-trifluoromethyl-
benzimidazole
Action: Herbicide.
Chlorinated biphenyls. See AROCHLORS.
Chlorinated camphene. See TOXAPHENE.
CHLORINE
Action: Fungicide.
Chlor Kil. See CHLORDANE.
CHLOROBENZILATE
Chemical name: ethyl 4,4'-dichlorobenzilate
Other names: Acaraben, Akar, Folbex, Kop-Mite
Action: Insecticide.
Chlorocide. See CHLORBENSIDE.
Chlorofeniuon. See OVEX.
139
12
12
14
91
14
91
140
14
191
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Page
Chlorofos. See TRICHLORFON.
Chloro IPC. See CHLORPROPHAM.
CHLORONITROPROPANE 140
Chemical name: l-chloro-2-nitropropane
Other names: Lanstan, Korax
Action: Fungicide.
Chlorophenothane. See DDT.
Chloropropham. See CHLORPROPHAM.
CHLOROPROPYLATE 14
Chemical name: isopropyl 4,4'-dichlorobenzilate
Other names: Acaralate, Rospin
Action: Insecticide.
CHLOROTHION 14
Chemical name: 0,0-dimethyl O-(3-chloro-4-
nitrophenyl) phosphorothioate
Other name: Chlorthion
Action: Insecticide.
Chloroxone. See 2,4-D.
CHLOROXURON 91
Chemical name: 3-[p-(p-chlorophenoxy) phenyl]-
1,1-dimethylurea
Other name: Tenoran
Action: Herbicide.
Chlorparacide. See CHLORBENSIDE.
CHLORPROPHAM 91
Chemical name: isopropyl m-chlorocarbanilate
Other names: Chloro IPC, Chloropropham,
CICP, CIPC, Furloe, Sprout Nip, Y-3
Action: Herbicide.
Chlorsulphacide. See CHLORBENSIDE.
Chlorthal-methyl. See DCPA.
CHLORTHIAMID 92
Chemical name: 2,6-dichlorothiobenzamide
Other name: Prefix
Action: Herbicide.
Chlorthiepin. See ENDOSULFAN.
Chlorthion. See CHLOROTHION.
Cinerins. See PYRETHRINS.
CIODRIN 15
Chemical name: a-methylbenzyl-3-hydroxy-cis-
crotonate dimethylphosphate
Action: Insecticide.
CIPC. See CHLORPROPHAM.
Colloidox. See COPPER OXYCHLORIDE.
COPPER CARBONATE 140
Other name: Malachite
Action: Fungicide.
Copper oxinate. See COPPER 8-QUINOLINOLATE.
COPPER OXYCHLORIDE 140
Other names: Basic copper chloride, Colloidox,
Coprantol, Coxysan, Cupramar, Cupravit,
Cuprox, Viricuivre
Action: Fungicide.
COPPER 8-QUINOLINOLATE 140
Other names: Bioquin, Copper oxinate, Cunilate
2472, Oxine-copper
Action: Fungicide.
COPPER SULFATE 140
Action: Fungicide.
Coprantol. See COPPER OXYCHLORIDE.
Co-Ral. See COUMAPHOS.
Page
Cornox CWK. See BENAZOLIN.
Cornox RK. See DICHLORPROP.
Corodane. See CHLORDANE.
Corothion. See PARATHION.
CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE 142
Chemical name: mercuric chloride
Other names: Bichloride of mercury, Fungchex
Action: Fungicide, Insecticide.
Cotoran. See FLUOMETURON.
COUMAPHOS 15
Chemical name: O,0-diethyl 0-[3-chloro-4-
methyl-2-oxo-(2.ff)-benzopyran-7-yl] phosphor-
othioate
Other names: Agridip, Asuntol, Co-Ral, Musca-
tox, Resistox
Action: Insecticide.
Coxysan. See COPPER OXYCHLORIDE.
4-CPA 92
Chemical name: parachlorophenoxyacetic acid
Other name: Tomatotone
Action: Herbicide.
CPCBS. See OVEX.
CRESOL 142
Chemical name: methyl phenol
Action: Fungicide, Insecticide.
Crop Rider. See 2,4-D.
CRUFOMATE 15
Chemical name: 0-4-ierf-butyl-0-2-chlorophenyl
0-methyl methylphosphoramidate
Other name: Ruelene
Action: Insecticide.
CRYOLITE 15
Chemical name: sodium fluoaluminate or sodium
aluminofluoride
Other name: Kryocide
Action: Insecticide.
Cuman. See ZIRAM.
Cunilate 2472. See COPPER 8-QUINOLINO-
LATE.
Cupramar. See COPPER OXYCHLORIDE.
Cupravit. See COPPER OXYCHLORIDE.
Cuprox. See COPPER OXYCHLORIDE.
Curitan. See DODINE.
CYANO(METHYLMERCURI)GUANIDINE__ 142
Chemical name: JV-cyano-AT'-(methylmercury)
guanidine; also methyl-mercury dicyanodi-
amide
Other names: Methylmercuric cyanoguanidine,
Morsodren, Panodrin A-13, Panogen
Action: Fungicide.
Cyclodan. See ENDOSULFAN.
CYCLOHEXIMIDE 142
Chemical name: 3-[2-(3,5-dimethyl-2-oxycyclo-
hexyl) -2-hy droxy ethyl]glutarimide
Other names: Actidione, Naramycin A
Action: Fungicide.
CYCLOPENTADIENE 142
Action: Fungicide.
Cygon. See DIMETHOATE.
Cyprex. See DODINE.
Cythion. See MALATHION.
192
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Page
CYTROL AMITROLE-T 92
Chemical name: mixture of aminotriazole and
ammonium thiocyanate
Other name: Amitril T.L.
Action: Herbicide.
2,4-D 93
Chemical name: 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
or its sodium salt or amine
Other names: Chloroxone, Crop Rider, Bed-Weed,
Weed-Ag-Bar, Weedar 64, Weed-B-Gon,
Weedone
Action: Herbicide
Dacthal. See DCPA.
Dagadip. See CARBOPHENOTHION.
DALAPON 100
Chemical name: 2,2-dichloropropionic acid
Other names: Ded-Weed, Dowpon, Gramevin,
Radapon, Unipon
Action: Herbicide.
Daphene. See DIMETHOATE.
Dasanit. See FENSULFOTHION.
Dasinit. See FENSULFOTHION.
DATC. See DIALLATE.
Dazomet. See DMTT.
Dazzel. See DIAZINON.
DBCP. See DIBROMOCHLOROPROPANE.
DBD. See AZINPHOS-METHYL.
2,6-DBN. See DICHLOBENIL.
DCMU. See DIURON.
DCNA. See DICLORAN.
DCPA 101
Chemical name: dimethyl tetrachloroterephthal-
ate
Other names: Chlorthal-methyl, Dacthal
Action: Herbicide.
DDD. See TDE-
DDT 16
Chemical name: dichloro diphenyl trichloro-
ethane
Other names: Anofex, Chlorophenothane, Dedelo,
Genitox, Gesapon, Gesarex, Gesarol, Gyron,
Ixodex, Kopsol, Neocid, Pentachlorin,
Rukseam, Zerdane
Action: Insecticide.
DDVF. See DICHLORVOS.
DDVP. See DICHLORVOS.
Dechlorane. See MIREX.
Dedelo. See DDT.
Dedevap. See DICHLORVOS.
Ded-Weed. See 2,4-D, DALAPON.
Ded-Weed Brush Killer. See 2,4,5-T.
DBF 102
Chemical name: S,S,/S-tributyl phosphorotri-
thioate
Other names: De-Green, E-Z-Off D, Fos Fall
"A," Ortho phosphate defoliant
Action: Herbicide.
De-Fend. See DIMETHOATE.
De-Fol-Ate. See SODIUM CHLORATE.
De-Green. See DEF.
Delan. See DITHIANON.
Page
Deleaf Defoliant. See MERPHOS.
DELMETON 28
Action: Insecticide.
Delnav. See DIOXATHION.
DELRAD...- 142
Chemical name: dehydro abietylamine acetate,
tetrahydro abietylamine acetate, dihydro abi-
etylamine acetate
Action: Fungicide.
DEMETON 29
Chemical name: 0,0-diethyl 0(and S)-2-(ethyl-
thio) ethyl phosphorothioates
Other names: Demeton 0, Mercaptophos, Systox
Action: Insecticide.
DEMETON METHYL 29
Chemical name: 0,0-dimethyl O(and
-------
Page
DICHLOBENIL 103
Chemical name: 2,6-dichlorobenzonitrile
Other names: Casoron, Du-Sprex, 2,6-DBN
Action: Herbicide.
DICHLOFENTHION___ 31
Chemical name: 0-2,4-diehlorophenyl 0,O-di-
ethyl phosphorothioate
Other names: Hex-Nema, Tri-VC 13, VC-13
Nemacide
Action: Insecticide.
DICHLOFLUANID 143
Chemical name: A^-dichlorofluoromethylthio-
A^Af-dimethyl-Af'-phenylsulfamide
Other names: Elvaren, Euparen, Euparene
Action: Fungicide.
DICHLONE . 143
Chemical name: 2,3-dichloro-l,4-naphthoquinone
Other name: Phygon
Action: Fungicide.
Dichloran. See DICLORA.N.
DICHLOROPHEN 144
Chemical name: di-(5-chloro-2-hydroxyphenyl)
methane
Other names: Antiphen, Preventol
Action: Fungicide.
Dichlorphos. See DICHLORVOS.
DICHLORPROP 104
Chemical name: 2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)pro-
pionic acid
Other names: Cornox RK, 2,4-DP, Hedonal
DP, Kildip
Action: Herbicide.
DICHLORVOS 31
Chemical name: 2,2-dichlorovinyl 0,0-dimethyl
phosphate
Other names: DDVF, DDVP, Dedevap, Dichlor-
phos, Herkol, Mafu, Marvex, Nogos, No-Pest,
Nuvan, Oko, Phosvit, Vapona
Action: Insecticide.
DICLORAN 144
Chemical name: 2,6-dichloro-4-nitroaniline
Other names: Allisan, Botran, DCNA, Dichloran,
Ditranil
Action: Fungicide.
DICOFOL 32
Chemical name: 4,4'-dichloro-a-(trichloromethyl)
benzhydrol
Other name: Kelthane
Action: Insecticide.
DICROTOPHOS 32
Chemical name: 3-hydroxy-./V,Ar-dimethyl-cis-
crotonamide dimethyl phosphate
Other names: Bidrin, Carbicron, Ektafos
Action: Insecticide.
DIELDRIN 33
Chemical name: l,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-exo-6,7-
epoxy-l,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-l,4-endo-ezo-
5,8-dimethanonaphthalene, and related com-
pounds
Other names: HEOD, Octalox, Panoram D-31
Action: Insecticide.
Diethyl ethylthioethyl dithiophosphate. See DI-
SULFOTON.
Page
Difenson. See OVEX.
Difolatan. See CAPTAFOL.
DILAN 37
Chemical name: mixture of one part l,l-bis(p-
chlorophenyl)-2-nitropropane and two parts 1,
1-bis (p-chlorophenyl) -2-nitrobutane
Other name: Prolan-Bulan Mixture
Action: Insecticide.
DIMANIN 37
Action: Insecticide.
Dimecron. See PHOSPHAMIDON.
DIMETHOATE 37
Chemical name: 0,0-dimethyl S-(W-methylcar-
bamoylmethyl) phosphorodithioate
Other names: Cygon, Daphene, De-Fend, Fostion
MM, Le-Kuo, Perfekthion, Rogor, Roxion.
Trimetion
Action: Insecticide.
Dimethoxy-DT. See METHOXYCHLOR.
DIMETHRIN 38
Chemical name: 2,4-dimethylbenzyl-2,2-dimeth-
yl -3 -(2-methylpropenyl) cyclopropanecarboxy-
late
Action: Insecticide.
Dimicron. See PHOSPHAMIDON.
Dinex. See DN-111.
DINOCAP 145
Chemical name: 2-(l-methyl-n-heptyl)-4,6-di-
nitrophenyl crotonate, with its isomer 4-(l-
methyl-n-heptyl)-2,6-dinitrophenyl crotonate
Other names: Arathane, Iscothane, Karathane,
Mildex
Action: Fungicide.
Dinoseb. See DNBP.
Dinoseb methacrylate. See BINAPACRYL.
DIOTHYL 38
Chemical name: O,O-diethyl-O-[2-dimethyl-
amino-4-(methyl-pyrimidin-6-yl)]phosphorothi-
onate
Other name: Pyrimithate
Action: Insecticide.
DIOXATHION 38
Chemical name: 2,3-p-dioxanedithiol >S,S-bis-
(O,0-diethyl phosphorodithioate)
Other names: Delnav, Navadel, Ruphos
Action: Insecticide.
Dipterex. See TRICHLORFON.
DIQUAT 104
Chemical name: l,l'-ethylene-2,2'-dipyridylium
dibromide
Other names: Aquacide, Dextrone, FB/2, Reglone
Action: Herbicide.
DISULFOTON 39
Chemical name: 0,0-diethyl S-2-(ethylthio)ethyl
phosphorodithioate
Other names: Diethylethylthioethyl dithiophos-
phate, Di-syston, Dithiodemeton, Dithiosys-
tox, Frumin Al, Frumin G, Solvirex, Thio-
demeton
Action: Insecticide.
Disul-Na. See SESONE.
-------
Di-syston. See DISULFOTON.
Dithane A-40. See NABAM.
Dithane D-14. See NABAM.
Dithane Z-78. See ZINEB.
DITHIANON 145
Chemical name: 5,10-dihydroxy-5,10-dioxo
naphtho- (2,3b) -p-dithiin-2,3-dicarbonitrile
Other name: Delan
Action: Fungicide.
Dithiodemeton. See DISULFOTON.
Dithiosystox. See DISljLFOTON.
Ditranil. See DICLORAN.
DIURON 105
Chemical name: 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-l,l-di-
methylurea
Other names: DCMU, DMU, Karmex, Marnier
Action: Herbicide.
DMDT. See METHOXYCHLOR.
DMPA 107
Chemical name: 0-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)0'-methyl
iV-isopropylphosphoroamidothioate
Other name: Zytron
Action: Herbicide.
DMTP. See FENTHION.
DMTT 145
Chemical name: tetrahydro-3,5-dimethyl-2H-thi-
adiazine-2-thione
Other names: Dazomet, Micofume, Mylone,
Prezervit
Action: Fungicide.
DMU. See DIURON.
DN-111 39
Chemical name: 2-cyclohexyl-4,6-dinitro phenol,
dicyclohexylamine salt
Other names: Dinex, DNOCHP
Action: Insecticide.
DN-289. See DNBP.
DNBP 107
Chemical name: 2,4-dinitro-G-sec-butylphenol
Other names: Chemox General, Chemox P.E.,
Dinoseb, DN-289, DNOSBP, Dow General,
Elgetol 318, Kiloseb, Nitropone C, Premerge,
Sinox General
Action: Herbicide, Insecticide.
DNC. See DNOC.
DNOC 39
Chemical name: 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol
Other names: DNC, Elgetol 30, Nitrador, Sinox,
Triacide
Action: Insecticide, Herbicide, Fungicide.
DNOCHP. See DN-111.
DNOSBP. See DNBP.
DNTP. See PARATHION.
DODINE 145
Chemical name: ra-dodecylguanidine acetate
Other names: Carpene, Curitan, Cyprex, Dogua-
dine, Melprex, Tridodine
Action: Fungicide.
Doguadine. See DODINE.
Dowacide G. See SODIUM PENTACHLORO-
PHENATE.
Dow General. See DNBP.
Page
Dowpon. See DALAPON.
2,4-DP. See DICHLORPROP.
Drinox. See ALDRIN.
Drinox H-34. See HEPTACHLOR.
Drop Leaf. See SODIUM CHLORATE.
DSE. See NABAM.
Duphar. See TETRADIFON.
DURSBAN 40
Chemical name: 0,0-diethyl O-3,5,6-trichloro-2-
pyridyl phosphorothioate
Action: Insecticide.
Du-Sprex. See DICHLOBENIL.
Du-Ter. See FENTIN HYDROXIDE.
Dybar. See FENURON.
Dylox. See TRICHLORFON.
DYRENE^ 146
Chemical name: 2,4-dichloro-6-(o-chloroanilino)-s-
triazine
Other names: Kemate, Triasyn
Action: Fungicide.
Easy-Off D. See MERPHOS.
EC-90 146
Action: Fungicide.
Ekatin M. See MORPHOTHION.
Ektafos. See DICROTOPHOS.
Elancolan. See TRIFLURALIN.
Elgetol 30. See DNOC.
Elgetol 318. See DNBP.
Elvaren. See DICHLOFLUANID.
Emerald green. See PARIS GREEN.
Emmatos. See MALATHION.
Endosan. See BINAPACRYL.
ENDOSULFAN 41
Chemical name: 6,7,8,9,10,10-hexachloro-1,5,5a,-6,
9,9a-hexahydro-6,9-methano-2,4,3-benzodioxa-
thiepin 3-oxide
Other names: Chlorthiepin, Cyclodan, Insecto-
phene, Kop-Thiodan, Malic, Malix, Thifor,
Thimul, Thiodan
Action: Insecticide.
Endothal. See ENDOTHALL.
ENDOTHALL 108
Chemical name: 7-oxabicyclo (2,2,l)heptane-2,3-
dicarboxylic acid
Other names: Accelerate, Aquathol, Des-i-cate,
Endothal, Hydrothol, Niagrathal, Tri-Endothal
Action: Herbicide
ENDRIN 42
Chemical name: l,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-6,7-
epoxy-1, 4, 4a, 5, 6, 7, 8,8a-octahydro-l,4-enrfo-
endo-5,8-dimethanonaphthalene
Other names: Hexadrin, Mendrin
Action: Insecticide.
Entex. See FENTHION.
EPH 44
Action: Insecticide.
Ephirsulphonate. See OVEX.
EPN 44
Chemical name: O^ethyl O-p-nitrophenyl phenyl-
phosphonothioate, or ethyl p-nitrophenyl thio-
nobenzenephosponatc
Action: Insecticide.
195
-------
Eptam. See EPTC.
EPTC
Page
109
Chemical name: /S-ethyl-Ar,A'-dipropylthiocar-
bamate
Other name: Eptam
Action: Herbicide.
Esteron. See SILVEX.
Esteron 245 Concentrate. See 2,4,5-T.
Estonmite. See OVEX.
ETHION
Chemical name: bis(S-diethoxyphosphinothioyl) 45
mercaptomethane
Other name: Nialate
Action: Insecticide.
Ethisul. See METIRAM.
Ethyl parathion. See PARATHION.
Etilon. See PARATHION.
Etrolene. See RONNEL.
Euparen. See DICHLOFLUANID.
Euparene. See DICHLOFLUANID.
E-Z-Off D. See DEF.
Fall. See SODIUM CHLORATE.
FB/2. See DIQUAT.
FENAC 109
Chemical name: Sodium 2,3,6-trichlorophenyl-
acetate
Other names: Tri-Fen, Tri-Fene
Action: Herbicide.
Fen-All. See 2,3,6-TBA.
Fenamine. See ATRAZINE.
Fenatrol. See ATRAZINE.
Fence Rider. See 2,4,5-T.
Fenchlorfos. See RONNEL.
Fenidim. See FENURON.
FENITROTHION 45
Chemical name: 0,0-dimethyl 0-(4-nitro-m-tolyl)
phosphorothioate
Other names: Accothion, Folithion, MEP,
Nuvanol, Sumithion, Sumitomo
Action: Insecticide.
Fenoprop. See SILVEX.
FENSULFOTHION 46
Chemical name: 0,0-diethyl O-p-(methylsulfinyl)
phenyl phosphorothioate
Other names: Dasanit, Dasinit, Terracur
Action: Insecticide.
FENTHION 46
Chemical name: 0,O-dimethyl O[4-(methyl thio)-
m-tolyl] phosphorothioate
Other names: Baytex, DMPT, Entex, Lebaycid,
Mercaptophos, Quelatox, Queletox, Tiguvon
Action: Insecticide.
FENTIN ACETATE 146
Chemical name: triphenyltin acetate
Other name: Brestan
Action: Fungicide.
FENTIN HYDROXIDE 146
Chemical name: triphenyltin hydroxide
Other name: Du-Ter
Action: Fungicide.
Page
Fenulon. See FENURON.
FENURON 110
Chemical name: 3-phenyl-l,l-dimethylurea
Other names: Dybar, Fenidim, Fenulon, PDU
Action: Herbicide.
FERBAM 146
Chemical name: ferric dimethyl dithiocarbamate
Other names: Ferberk, Fermate, Hexaferb, Tri-
carbamix, Trifungol
Action: Fungicide.
Ferberk. See FERBAM.
Fermate. See FERBAM.
Fernide 850. See THIRAM.
FLUOMETURON 111
Chemical name: 3-(m-trifluoromethylphenyl)-l,l-
dimethylurea
Other name: Cotoran
Action: Herbicide.
Folbex. See CHLOROBENZILATE.
Folcid. See CAPTAFOL.
Folex. See MERPHOS.
Folidol. See PARATHION.
Folosan. See PCNB.
Folithion. See FENITROTHION.
FOLPET 147
Chemical name: N-(trichloromethylthio)phthal-
imide
Other names: Phaltan, Thiophal, Trichloro-
methylthiophthalimide
Action: Fungicide.
Formaldehyde. See FORMALIN.
FORMALIN 148
Chemical name: methanal
Other name: Formaldehyde
Action: Fungicide.
FORMOTHION 47
Chemical name: 0,0-dimethyl S-(A'-formyl-JV-
methyl-carbomoylmethyl)phosphorodithioate
Other names: Aflix, Anthio
Action: Insecticide.
Forstan. See OXYTHIOQUINOX.
Fos-Fall "A." See DEF.
Fostion MM. See DIMETHOATE.
French green. See PARIS GREEN.
Frumin Al. See DISULFOTON.
Frumin G. See DISULFOTON.
Fuklasin. See ZIRAM.
Fumazone. See DIBROMOCHLOROPROPANE.
Fungchex. See CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE.
Furadan. See CARBOFURAN.
a-FURALDEHYDE 148
Action: Fungicide.
Furloe. See CHLORPROPHAM.
Gallotox. See PMA.
Gamaphex. See LINDANE.
Gamma BHC. See LINDANE.
Gammaline. See LINDANE.
Gammex. See LINDANE.
Gammexane. See LINDANE.
Gardentox. See DIAZINON.
196
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Page
GARDONA 47
Chemical name: 2,chloro-l-(2,4,5-trichlorophen-
yl) vinyl dime thy Iphosphate
Other name: Rabon
Action: Insecticide.
Garlon. See SILVEX.
Garrathion. See CARBOPHENOTHION.
Genitox. See DDT.
Gerstley Borate. See BORAX.
Gesafram. See PROMETONE.
Gesagard. See PROMETRYNE.
Gesamil. See PROPAZINE.
Gesapax. See AMETRYNE.
Gesapon. See DDT.
Gesaprim. See ATRAZINE.
Gesarex. See DDT.
Gesarol. See DDT.
Gesatop. See SIMAZINE.
GLYODIN 148
Chemical name: 2-heptadecylimidazoline acetate
Action: Fungicide.
Gramevin. See DALAPON.
Gramoxone. See PARAQUAT.
Granosan. See MERCURY.
GRISEOFULVIN 148
Chemical name: 7-chloro-4,6-dimethoxycouma-
ran-3-one-2-spiro-l'-(2'-methoxy-6'-methyl-
cyclohex-2'-en-4'-one)
Action: Fungicide.
Gusathion. See AZINPHOS-METHYL.
Gusathion M. See AZINPHOS-METHYL.
Gustathion. See AZINPHOS-METHYL.
Guthion. See AZINPHOS-METHYL.
Gypsine. See LEAD ARSENATE.
Gyron. See DDT.
Hedonal DP. See DICHLORPROP.
HEOD. See DIELDRIN.
HEPTACHLOR 47
Chemical name: l,4,5,6,7,8,8-heptachloro-3a,4,7,-
7a-tetrahydro-4,7-methanoindane
Other names: Drinox H-34, Heptamul
Action: Insecticide.
Heptamul. See HEPTACHLOR.
Herkol. See DICHLORVOS.
HETP. See TEPP.
HEXACHLOROPHENE 148
Chemical name: 2,2'-methylene bis(3,4,6-tri-
chlorophenol)
Other name: Nabac
Action: Fungicide.
Hexadrin. See ENDRIN.
Hexaferb. See FERBAM.
Hexathane. See ZINEB.
Hexathir. See THIRAM.
Hexazir. See ZIRAM.
Hex-nema. See DICHLOFENTHION.
HHDN. See ALDRIN.
HIPPURIC ACID 148
Action: Fungicide.
Hong Nien. See PMA.
Hormotuho. See MCPA.
Page
Hydram. See MOLINATE.
Hydrothol. See ENDOTHALL.
HYDROXYMERCURICHLOROPHENOLS 149
Other names: Semesan, Tersan
Action: Fungicide.
IFC. See PROPHAM.
Insectophene. See ENDOSULFAN.
Inverton 245. See 2,4,5-T.
IOXYNIL 111
Chemical name' 4-hydroxy-3,5-diiodobenzonitrile
Other names: Actril, Bantrol, Certrol
Action: Herbicide.
IPC. See PROPHAM.
Iscothane. See DINOCAP.
ISODRIN 50
Chemical name: 1,2,3,4,10-hexachloro-l,4,4a,5,8,
8a-hexahydro-1,4,5,8-endo-endo-dimethano-
naphthalene
Action: Insecticide.
Isotox. See LINDANE.
Ixodex. See DDT.
Jasmolins. See PYRETHRINS.
Karathane. See DINOCAP.
Karbofos. See MALATHION.
Karmex. See DIURON.
Kelthane. See DICOFOL.
Kemate. See DYRENE.
Kepone. See CHLORDECONE.
Kildip. See DICHLORPROP.
Kilmite 40. See TEPP.
Kiloseb. See DNBP.
Kilsem. See MCPA.
Kilval. See VAMIDOTHION.
Kloben. See NEBURON.
KMH. See MALEIC HYDRAZIDE.
Kop-Mite. See CHLOROBENZILATE.
Kopsol. See DDT.
Kop-Thiodan. See ENDOSULFAN.
Kop-Thion. See MALATHION.
Korax. See CHLORONITROPROPANE.
Korlan. See RONNEL.
Kryocide. See CRYOLITE.
Kuron. See SILVEX.
Kurosal. See SILVEX.
Kypchlor. See CHLORDANE.
Kypfos. See MALATHION.
Kypzin. See ZINEB.
Lannate. See METHOMYL.
Lanstan. See CHLORONITROPROPANE.
LEAD ARSENATE 50
Other names: Gypsine, Soprabel
Action: Insecticide.
Lebaycid. See FENTHION.
Legumez Extra. See BENAZOLIN.
Le-Kuo. See DIMETHOATE.
LENACIL 111
Chemical name: 3-cyclohexyl-5,6-trimethylene-
uracil
Other name: Venzar
Action: Herbicide.
LeyCornox. See BENAZOLIN.
197
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Page
LFN 111
Action: Herbicide.
LIME SULFUR 149
Chemical name: aqueous solution of calcium
polysulfides
Action: Fungicide, Insecticide.
Lindafor. See LINDANE.
Lindagam. See LINDANE.
LINDANE 51
Chemical name: gamma isomer of 1,2,3,4,5,6-
hexachloro-cyclohexane; also known as gamma
benzene hexachloride
Other names: Gamaphex, Gamma BHC, Gamma-
line, Gammex, Gammexane, Isotox, Lindafor,
Lindagam, Lintox, Novigam, Silvanol
Action: Insecticide.
Line Rider. See 2,4,5-T.
Lintox. See LINDANE.
LINURON 111
Chemical name: 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-l-meth-
oxy- 1-methylurea
Other names: Afalon, Lorox, Sarclex
Action: Herbicide.
Liquiphene. See PMA.
Lonacol. See ZINEB.
Lorox. See LINURON.
Mafu. S
-------
METHOXYCHLOR
Chemical name: l,l,l-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-methox-
yphenyl) ethane
Other names: Dianisyltrichloroethane, Dime-
thoxy-DT, DMDT, Marlate, Methoxy DDT
Action: Insecticide.
Methoxy DDT. See METHOXYCHLOR.
Methyl demeton. See DEMETON METHYL.
Methyl guthion. See AZINPHOS-METHYL.
Methylmercuric cyanoguanidine. See CYANO
(METHYLMERCURI)GUANIDINE.
Methyl systox. See DEMETON METHYL.
METIRAM
Chemical name: common name for a group of
fungicides based on polyethylene thiuram
sulfide
Other names: Ethisul, Polyram-Combi, Thioneb,
Trioneb
Action: Fungicide.
MEVINPHOS
Chemical name: 2-methoxycarbonyl-l-methyl-
vinyl dimethyl-phosphate
Other names: Phosdrin, Phosfene
Action: Insecticide.
Mezineb. See PROPINEB.
Micofume. See DMTT.
Midox. See CHLORBENSIDE.
Milbam. See ZIRAM.
MILBEX
Chemical name: mixture of 4-chlorophenyl-
2,4,5-trichlorophenyl-azosulfide and l,l-bis(4-
chlorophenyl) ethanol
Action: Insecticide.
Mildex. See DINOCAP.
Milogard. See PROPAZINE.
Mintacol. See PARAOXON.
MIREX
Chemical name: dodecachlorooctahydro-1,3,3-
metheno-2.H-cyclobuta(cd)pentalene
Other name: Dechlorane
Action: Insecticide.
Mitis green. See PARIS GREEN.
Mitox. See CHLORBENSIDE.
2M-4Kh-M. See MCPB.
MOBAM
Chemical name: 4-benzothienyl JV-methyl-carba-
mate
Other name: MCA-600.
Action: Insecticide.
MOLINATE
Chemical name: jS-ethyl-A?-hexahydro-l#-aze-
pinethio-carbamate
Other names: Hydram, Ordram
Action: Herbicide.
Monobor-chlorate. See SODIUM CHLORATE.
MONOCROTOPHOS
Chemical name: 3-hydroxy-AT-methyl-ci's-croton-
amide dimethyl phosphate
Other names: Azodrin, Nuvacron
Action: Insecticide.
Page
56
152
57
58
58
59
114
59
MONOXONE
Chemical name: Monoehloroacetic acid
Action: Herbicide.
MONURON
Chemical name: 3-(p-chlorophenyl)-l,l-dimeth.yl-
urea
Other names: Chlorfenidim, Telvar
Action: Herbicide.
Morestan. See OXYTHIOQUINOX.
Morocide. See BINAPACRYL.
MORPHOTHION
Chemical name: 0,0-dimethyl S-(morpholino-
carbonylmethyl)phosphorodithioate
Other names: Ekatin M, Morphotox
Action: Insecticide.
Morphotox. See MORPHOTHION.
Morsodren. See CYANO(METHYLMERCURI)-
GUANIDINE.
Murfotox. See MECARBAM.
Murotox. See MECARBAM.
Muscatox. See COUMAPHOS.
Mylone. See DMTT.
MYSTOX
Action: Fungicide.
Nabac. See HEXACHLOROPHENE.
NABAM
Chemical name: disodium ethylene-l,2-bisdi-
thiocarbamate
Other names: Chem Bam, Dithane A-40, Di-
thane D-14, DSE, Parzate, Spring-Bak
Action: Fungicide.
NALCO
Action: Fungicide.
NALED
Chemical name: l,2-dibromo-2,2-dichloroethyl
dimethylphosphate
Other name: Dibrom
Action: Insecticide.
Nankor. See RONNEL.
NAPHTHA
Chemical name: light oil fraction from petroleum
distillation
Action: Herbicide.
NAPHTHALENSULFONIC ACID
Action: Fungicide.
Naramycin A. See CYCLOHEXIMIDE.
Navadel. See DIOXATHION.
Neburea. See NEBURON.
NEBURON
Chemical name: l-ra-butyl-3-(3,4-diehlorophenyl)-
1-methylurea
Other names: Kloben, Neburea
Action: Herbicide.
Neguvon. See TRICHLORFON.
Nemafume. See DIBROMOCHLOROPROPANE.
Nemagon. See DIBROMOCHLOROPROPANE.
Neobor. See BORAX.
Neocid. See DDT.
Nexion. See BROMOPHOS.
Niagaramite. See ARAMITE.
Niagaratran. See OVEX.
Page
114
114
59
152
152
153
59
115
153
116
199
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Page
Niagrathal. See ENDOTHALL.
Nialate. See BTHION.
NICOTINE 60
Chemical name: l,3-(l-methyl-2-pyrrolidyl)pyr-
idine
Action: Insecticide.
Nicouline. See ROTENONE.
Niiran. See PARATHION.
Njtrador. See DNOC.
Njtropone C. See DNBP.
N trostigmine. See PARATHION.
N-METHYL CARBAMATE 60
Action: Insecticide.
Nogos. See DICHLORVOS.
Nomersam. See THIRAM.
No-Pest. See DICHLORVOS.
Novigam. See LINDANE.
Nuvacron. See MONOCROTOPHOS.
Nuvan. See DICHLORVOS.
Nuvanol. See FENITROTHION.
Octachlor. See CHLORDANE.
Oetachlorocamphene. See TOXAPHENE.
Octa-Klor. See CHLORDANE.
Octalene. See ALDRIN.
Octalox. See DIELDRIN.
Octamethylpyrophosphoramide. See SCHRADAN.
Oko. See DICHLORVOS.
OMPA. See SCHRADAN.
Ordram. See MOLINATE.
Orthocide 406. See CAPTAN.
Ortho-Klor. See CHLORDANE.
Orthophos. See PARATHION.
Ortho phosphate defoliant. See DEF.
ORTHOZID 153
Action: Fungicide.
Ovatran. See OVEX.
OVEX 60
Chemical name: p-chlorophenyl p-chloroben-
zenesulfonate
Other names: Chlorfenson, Chlorofenizon, CPCBS,
Difenson, Ephirsulphonate, Estonmite, Niagar-
atran, Ovatran, Ovochlor, Ovatran, Sappiran,
Trichlorfenson
Action: Insecticide.
Ovochlor. See OVEX.
Ovotran. See OVEX.
Oxine-copper. See COPPER 8-QUINOLINO-
LATE.
OXYDEMETON-METHYL 60
Chemical name: 0,0-dimethyl S-[2-(ethylsulfinyl)
ethyljphosphorothioate
Other names: Metasystemox, Meta-Systox-R
Action: Insecticide.
OXYTETRACYCLINE 153
Chemical name: 4-dimethylamino-l,4,4a,5,6,l,
12a-octahydro-3,5,6,10,12,12a-hexahydroxy-6-
methyl-l,ll-dioxo-2-naphtha-cenecarboxa-
mide
Other names: Biostat PA, Terramycin
Action: Fungicide.
Page
OXYTHIOQUINOX 61
Chemical name: 6-methyl-2,3,-quinoxalinedithiol
cyclic iS,S-dithiocarbonate
Other names: Chinomethionate, Forstan, More-
stan, Quinomethionate
Action: Insecticide, Fungicide.
Pallethrine. See ALLETHRIN.
Pamosol 2 Forte. See ZINEB.
Panodrin A-13. See CYANO(METHYLMER-
CURI)GUANIDINE.
Panogen. See CYANO(METHYLMERCURI)
GUANIDINE.
Panoram D-31. See DIELDRIN.
Panthion. See PARATHION.
Paracide. See PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE.
PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE 153
Chemical name: 1,4-dichlorobenzene
Other names: Paracide, Paradow, PDB, Santo-
chlor
Action: Fungicide.
Paradow. See PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE.
Paramar. See PARATHION.
PARAOXON 61
Chemical name: 0,0-diethyl 0-p-nitrophenyl
phosphate
Other name: Mintacol
Action: Insecticide.
Paraphos. See PARATHION.
PARAQUAT 116
Chemical name: l,l'-dimethyl-4,4'-bipyridynium
ion
Other names: Gramoxone, Weedol
Action: Herbicide.
Parathene. See PARATHION.
PARATHION 61
Chemical name: 0,0-diethyl 0-p-nitrophenyl
phosphorothioate
Other names: AAT, Alkron, Aileron, Aphamite,
Corothion, DNTP, Ethyl Parathion, Etilon,
Folidol, Niran, Nitrostigmine, Orthophos,
Panthion, Paramar, Paraphos, Paratheije,
Parawet, Phoskil, Rhodiatox, SNP, Soprathion,
Stathion, Thiophos
Action: Insecticide.
Parawet. See PARATHION.
PARIS GREEN 64
Chemical name: copper acetoarsenite
Other names: Emerald green, French green,
Mitis green, Schweinfurt green
Action: Insecticide.
Parzate. See NABAM.
Parzate C. See ZINEB.
Parzate Zineb. See ZINEB.
PCA. See PYRAZON.
PCB. See AROCHLORS.
PCNB 153
Chemical name: pentachloronitrobenzene
Other names: Avicol, Botrilex, Brassicol, Folosan,
PKhNB, Quintozene, Terrachlor, Terraclor,
Tilcarex, Tri-PCNB, Tritisan
Action: Fungicide.
200
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Page
PGP 117
Chemical name: pentachlorophenol
Other names: Penchlorol, Penta, Santobrite,
Santophen 20, Sinituho, Weedone
Action: Herbicide, Fungicide, Insecticide.
PDB. See PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE.
PDTJ. See FENURON.
Penchlorol. See PGP.
Penite. See SODIUM ARSENITE.
Penta. See PGP.
Pentachlorin. See DDT.
Perfekthion. See DIMETHOATE.
PERTHANE 64
Chemical name: l,l-dichloro-2,2bis(4-ethylphen-
yl) ethane
Action: Insecticide.
Pestan. See MECARBAM.
Pestox III. See SCHRADAN.
Phaltan. See FOLPET.
Phenacide. See TOXAPHENE.
Phenatox. See TOXAPHENE.
PHENETIDINE 153
Chemical name: ortho, meta, or para-amino-
phenate
Action: Fungicide.
Phenmad. See PMA.
Phenol. See CARBOLIC ACID.
PHENOXYTOL 154
Action: Fungicide.
Phix. See PMA.
PHORATE 64
Chemical name: 0,0-diethyl S-(ethylthio)-meth-
yl phosphorodithioate
Other names: Thimet, Timet
Action: Insecticide.
PHOSALONE 65
Chemical name: 6,O-diethyl iS-(6-chlorobenzox-
azolone-3-yl-methyl) phosphorodithioate
Other name: Zolone
Action: Insecticide.
Phosdrin. See MEVINPHOS.
Phosfene. See MEVINPHOS.
Phoskil. See PARATHION.
PHOSPHAMIDON 65
Chemical name: 2-chloro-Ar,A/-diethyl-3-hydroxy-
crotonamide dimethylphosphate
Other names: Dimecron, Dimicron
Action: Insecticide.
Phosvit. See DICHLORVOS.
Phygon. See DICHLONE.
PICLORAM 118
Chemical name: 4-amino-3,5,6-trichloropicolinic
acid
Other names: Borolin, Tordon
Action: Herbicide.
PIPERONYL BUTOXIDE 66
Chemical name: a[2-(2-butoxyethoxy)ethoxy]-
4,5-(methylenedioxy)-2-propyltoluene; also
butyl carbitol 6-propylpiperonyl ether
Other name: Butacide
Action: Insecticide.
Page
PKhNB. See PCNB.
PMA 154
Chemical name: phenylmercury acetate
Other names: Gallotox, Hong Nien, Liquiphene,
Mersolite, Phenmad, Phix, PMAS, Shimmerex
Action: Fungicide, Herbicide.
PMAS. See PMA.
Polybor chlorate. See SODIUM CHLORATE.
Polychlorinated biphenyls. See AROCHLORS.
Polychlorocamphene. See TOXAPHENE.
Polyram-Combi. See METIRAM.
Polyram-Ultra. See THIRAM.
Polyram Z. See ZINEB.
Pomarsol Z Forte. See ZIRAM.
Pomasol Forte. See THIRAM.
POTASSIUM PERMAN GAN ATE 154
Action: Fungicide.
Pramitol. See PROMETONE.
PRB 154
Action: Fungicide.
Prefix. See CHLORTHIAMID.
Premerge. See DNBP.
Preventol. See DICHLOROPHEN.
Prezervit. See DMTT.
Primatol A. See ATRAZINE.
Primatol P. See PROPAZINE.
Princep. See SIMAZINE.
Prolan-Bulan Mixture. See DILAN.
Prometon. See PROMETONE.
PROMETONE 119
Chemical name: 2-methoxy-4,6-bis(isopropylami-
no)-s-triazine
Other names: Gesafram, Pramitol, Prometon
Action: Herbicide.
PROMETRYNE 120
Chemical name: 2,4-bis(isopropylamino)-6-meth-
ylmercapto-s-triazine
Other names: Caparol, Gesagard
Action: Herbicide.
PROPAZINE 120
Chemical name: 2-chloro-4,6-bis(isopropylamino)-
s-triazine
Other names: Gesamil, Milogard, Primatol P
Action: Herbicide.
PROPHAM 120
Chemical name: isopropyl carbanilate
Other names: Chem-Hoe, IFC, IPC, Triherbide,
Tuberite
Action: Herbicide.
PROPINEB 154
Chemical name: zinc propylenebisdithiocarba-
mate
Other names: Antracol, Mezineb
Action: Fungicide.
PROPOXUR 66
Chemical name: o-isopropoxyphenyl methylcar-
bamate
Other names: Arprocarb, Baygon, Blattanex,
Suncide, Unden
Action: Insecticide.
Pynanim. See ALLETHRIN.
201
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Paee
Pyramin. See PYRAZON.
PYRAZON 121
Chemical name: 5-amino-4-chloro-2-phenyl-3-
pyridazinone
Other names: PCA, Pyramin
Action: Herbicide.
PYRETHRINS 66
Chemical name: insecticidal compounds in
pyrethrum flowers, Chrysanthemum cineraiae-
folium
Other names: Cinerins, Jasmolins
Action: Insecticide.
Pyrimithate. See DIOTHYL.
Quelatox. See FENTHION.
Queletox. See FENTHION.
Quilan. See BENEFIN.
QUININE 154
Action: Fungicide.
Quinomethionate. See OXYTHIOQUINOX.
Quintozene. See PCNB.
Rabon. See GARDONA.
Radapon. See DALAPON.
Randox. See CDAA.
Rasikal. See SODIUM CHLORATE.
Reddon. See 2,4,5-T.
Reglone. See DIQUAT.
REGULOX 121
Action: Herbicide.
Resistox. See COUMAPHOS.
Retard. See MALEIC HYDRAZIDE.
Rhodiatox. See PARATHION.
Rhomene. See MCPA.
Rhonox. See MCPA.
Rhothane. See TDE.
Rogor. See DIMETHOATE.
RONNEL 67
Chemical name: 0,0-dimethyl 0-2,4,5-trichloro-
phenylphosphorothioate
Other names: Etrolene, Fenchlorfos, Korlan,
Nankor, Trolene, Viozene
Action: Insecticide.
Rospin. See CHLOROPROPYLATE.
ROTENONE 67
Chemical name: extracts from Derris or Loncho-
carpus plants.
Other names: Derrin, Nicouline, Tubatoxin
Action: Insecticide.
Roxion. See DIMETHOATE.
Royal MH-30. See MALEIC HYDRAZIDE.
Ruelene. See CRUFOMATE.
Rukseam. See DDT.
Ruphos. See DIOXATHION.
SAFROLE 154
Chemical name: 4-allyl-l,2-methylene dioxyben-
zene
Action: Fungicide.
SALICYLIC ACID 154
Action: Fungicide.
Santobrite. See PGP.
Santochlor. See PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE.
Santophen 20. See PCP.
Page
Sapecron. See CHLORFENVINPHOS.
Saphi-Col. See MENAZON.
Saphizon. See MENAZON.
Saphos. See MENAZON.
Sappiran. See OVEX.
Sarclex. See LINURON.
Sayfos. See MENAZON.
Sayphos. See MENAZON.
SCHRADAN 68
Chemical name: bis-A?,Ar,A'',A'''-tetramethyl-
phosphorodiamidic anhydride
Other names: Octamethylpyrophosphoramide,
OMPA, Pestox III, Sytam
Action: Insecticide.
Schweinfurt green. See PARIS GREEN.
Seedrin. See ALDRIN.
Semesan. See HYDROXYMERCURICHLORO-
PHENOLS.
SES. See SESONE.
SESONE 121
Chemical name: sodium 2,4-dichlorophenoxy-
ethyl sulfate
Other names: 2,4-DES-Na, Disul-Na, SES
Action: Herbicide.
Sevin. See CARBARYL.
Shed-A-Leaf. See SODIUM CHLORATE.
Shimmerex. See PMA.
Silvanol. See LINDANE.
SILVEX 121
Chemical name: 2-(2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy)pro-
pionic acid
Other names: Esteron, Fenoprop, Garlon, Ku-
ron, Kurosal, 2,4,5-TP
Action: Herbicide.
Silvisar 510. See CACODYLIC ACID.
SIMAZINE 123
Chemical name: 2-chloro-4,6-bis (ethylamino)-s-
triazine
Other names: Gesatop, Princep
Action: Herbicide.
Sinituho. See PCP.
Sinox. See DNOC.
Sinox General. See DNBP.
Slo-Gro. See MALEIC HYDRAZIDE.
SMDC 154
Chemical name: sodium JV-methyldithiocarba-
mate
Other names: Trimaton, Vapam, VPM
Action: Fungicide, Herbicide.
SNP. See PARATHION.
SODIUM ARSENITE 124
Chemical name: sodium meta-arsenite
Other names: Atlas 'A', Chem Pels C, Penite,
Sodium meta-arsenite
Action: Herbicide, Insecticide.
SODIUM CHLORATE 125
Other names: Atlacide, Atratol, Chlorax, De-
Fol-Ate, Drop-Leaf, Fall, MBC, Monobor-
chlorate, Polybor Chlorate, Rasikal, Shed-A-
Leaf, Tumbleaf
Action: Herbicide.
202
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Page
Sodium meta-arsenite. See SODIUM ARSENITE.
SODIUM NITRITE 155
Action: Fungicide.
SODIUM PENTACHLOROPHENATE 125
Other names: Dowioide G, Weedbeads
Action: Herbicide.
Sodium TCA. See TCA.
Solvirex. See DISULFOTON.
Soprabel. See LEAD ARSENATE.
Soprathion. See PARATHION.
Spectracide. See DIAZINON.
Spergon. See CHLORANIL.
Spotrete. See THIRAM.
Spring-Bak. See NABAM.
Sprout Nip. See CHLORPROPHAM.
Sprout-Stop. See MALEIC HYDRAZIDE.
Stathion. See PARATHION.
Strobane. See TERPENE POLYCHLORINATES.
Strobane-T. See TOXAPHENE.
Sucker Stuff. See MALEIC HYDRAZIDE.
Sulfallate. See CDEC.
SULFUR 155
Other name: Brimstone
Action: Fungicide, Insecticide.
Sumithion. See FENITROTHION.
Sumitomo. See FENITROTHION.
Suncide. See PROPOXUR.
Supona. See CHLORFENVINPHOS.
Synklor. See CHLORDANE.
Systox. See DEMETON.
Sytam. See SCHRADAN.
2,4,5-T 126
Chemical name: 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid
Other names: Ded-Weed Brush Killer, Esteron
245 Concentrate, Fence Rider, Inverton 245,
Line Rider, Reddon
Action: Herbicide.
TAR DISTILLATE 127
Chemical name: product of fractional distillation
of tars
Action: Herbicide.
2,3,6-TBA 128
Chemical name: 2,3,6-trichlorobenzoic acid
Other names: Benzac, Fen-All, Tribac, Trichloro-
benzoic acid, Trysben 200, Zobar
Action: Herbicide.
TBTO. See TRIBUTYL TIN OXIDE.
TCA 128
Chemical name: trichloroacetic acid
Other name: Sodium TCA
Action: Herbicide.
TDE 68
Chemical name: 2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-l,l-di-
chloroethane
Other names: DDD, Rhothane
Action: Insecticide.
Tedion. See TETRADIFON.
Telvar. See MONURON.
Tenoran. See CHLOROXURON.
TEP. See TEPP.
Page
TEPP 69
Chemical name: tetraethyl pyrophosphate and
other ethyl phosphates
Other names: Bladan, HETP, Kilmite 40, TEP,
Tetron, Vapotone
Action: Insecticide.
TERPENE POLYCHLORINATES 70
Chemical name: poly chlorinates of camphene,
pinene, and related terpenes
Other name: Strobane
Action: Insecticide.
Terrachlor. See PCNB.
Terraclor. See PCNB.
Terracur. See FENSULFOTHION.
Terramycin. See OXYTETRACYCLINE.
Tersan. See HYDROXYMERCURICHLORO-
PHENOLS, THIRAM.
TETRACYCLINE HYDROCHLORIDE 156
Action: Fungicide.
TETRADIFON 70
Chemical name: 5-p-chlorophenyl 2,4,5-trichloro-
phenyl sulfone
Other names: Duphar, Tedion
Action: Insecticide.
Tetron. See TEPP.
THANITE 70
Chemical name: isobornyl thiocyanatoacetate
Action: Insecticide.
Thifor. See ENDOSULFAN.
Thimer. See THIRAM.
Thimet. See PHORATE.
Thimul. See ENDOSULFAN.
Thiodan. See ENDOSULFAN.
Thiodemeton. See DISULFOTON.
Thioneb. See METIRAM.
Thiophal. See FOLPET.
Thiophos. See PARATHION.
Thiosan. See THIRAM.
Thiotex. See THIRAM.
THIOUREA 156
Other names: Thiocarbamide, Sulfourea
Action: Fungicide.
THIRAM 156
Chemical name: bis(dimethylthiocarbamoyl)di-
sulfide or tetramethylthiuram disulfide
Other names: Arasan, Fernide 850, Hexathir,
Mercuram, Nomersam, Polyram-Ultra, Po-
masol Forte, Spotrete, Tersan, Thimer, Thio-
san, Thiotex, Thiramad, Thirasan, Thylate,
Tirampa, TMTD, TMTDS, Trametan, Tripo-
mol, Tuads
Action: Fungicide.
Thiramad. See THIRAM.
Thirasan. See THIRAM.
Thistrol. See MCPB.
Thylate. See THIRAM.
THYMOL 157
Chemical name: 5-methyl-2-isopropylphenol
Action. Fungicide.
Tiezene. See ZINEB.
Tiguvon. See FENTHION.
203
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Page
Tilcarex. See PCNB.
Timet. See PHORATE.
Tirampa. See THIRAM.
TMTD. See THIRAM.
TMTDS. See THIRAM.
Tomatotone. See 4-CPA.
Topiclor 20. See CHLORDANE.
Tordon. See PICLORAM.
Toxakil. See TOXAPHENE.
TOXAPHENE ... 70
Chemical name: mixture of various chlorinated
camphenes
Other names: Alltox, Chlorinated camphene,
Octachlorocamphene, Phenacide, Phenatox,
Polychlorocamphene, Strobane-T, Toxakil.
Action: Insecticide.
2,4,5-TP. See SILVEX..
Trametan. See THIRAM.
Treflan. See TRIFLLRALIN.
Triacide. See DNOC.
TRIAMIPHOS 157
Chemical name: p-(5-amino-3-phenyl-lH-l,2,
4-triazol-1 -yl) - N,N,N',N'- tetramethyl phos-
phonic diamide
Other name: Wepsyn
Action: Fungicide, Insecticide.
Triasyn. See DYRENE.
Tribac. See 2,3,6-TBA.
TRIBUTYL TIN OXIDE 157
Chemical name: bis(tri-n-butyltin) oxide
Other names: Butinox, TBTO
Action: Fungicide.
Tricarbamix. See FERBAM, ZINEB.
Tricarbamix Z. See ZIRAM.
Trichlorfenson. See OVEX.
TRICHLORFON 74
Chemical name: dimethyl (2,2,2-triehloro-l-hy-
droxyethyl) phosphonate
Other names: Anthon, Chlorofos, Dipterex, Dy-
lox, Neguvon, Trichlorphon, Tugon
Action: Insecticide.
Trichlorobenzoic acid. See 2,3,6-TBA.
Trichloromethylthiophthalimide. See FOLPET.
Trichlorophon. See TRICHLORFON.
Tridodine. See DODINE.
Tri-Endothal. See ENDOTHALL.
Tri-Fen. See FENAC.
Tri-Fene. See FENAC.
TRIFLURALIN 128
Chemical name: a,a,a-trifluoro-2,6-dinitro-Ar,JV-
dipropyl-p-toluidine
Other names: Elancolan, Treflan
Action: Herbicide.
Trifungol. See FERBAM.
Triherbide. See PROPHAM.
Trimaton. See SMDC.
Trimetion. See DIMETHOATE.
Triofterol. See ZINEB.
Trfoneb. See METIRAM.
TRIOXONE 129
Action: Herbicide.
Page
Tri-PCNB. See PCNB.
Tripomol. See THIRAM.
Triscabol. See ZIRAM.
Trithion. See CARBOPHENOTHION.
Tritisan. See PCNB.
Tri-VC 13. See DICHLOFENTHION.
Trolene. See RONNEL.
Tronabor. See BORAX.
Tropotox. See MCPB.
Trysben 200. See 2,3,6-TBA.
Tuads. See THIRAM.
Tubatoxin. See ROTENONE.
Tuberite. See PROPHAM.
Tugon. See TRICHLORFON.
Tumbleaf. See SODIUM CHLORATE.
TJnden. See PROPOXUR.
Unipon. See DALAPON.
UREABOR
Chemical name: complex of sodium metaborate/
chlorate and bromacil
Other name: BMM
Action: Herbicide.
Vamidoate. See VAMIDOTHION.
VAMIDOTHION
Chemical name: 0,0-dimethyl-S-(2[(l-methyl-
carbamoyl-ethyl)thio]ethyl)phosphorodithioate
Other names: Kilval, Vamidoate.
Action: Insecticide.
Vandalhyde. See MALEIC HYDRAZIDE.
Vapam. See SMDC.
Vapona. See DICHLORVOS.
Vapotone. See TEPP.
VC-13 Nemacide. See DICHLOFENTHION.
Vegadex. See CDEC.
Velsicol 1068. See CHLORDANE.
Venzar. See LENACIL.
Vernam. See VERNOLATE.
VERNOLATE
Chemical name: /S-propyl-A^W-dipropylthiocar-
bamate
Other name: Vernam
Action: Herbicide.
Viozene. See RONNEL.
Viricuivre. See COPPER OXYCHLORIDF.
VPM. See SMDC.
Weed-Ag-Bar. See 2,4-D.
Weedar 64. See 2,4-D.
Weedazol. See AMITROLE.
Weedbeads. See SODIUM PENTACHLORO-
PHENATE.
Weed-B-Gon. See 2,4-D.
Weedol. See PARAQUAT.
Weedone. See PCP, 2,4-D.
Y-3. See CHLORPROPHAM.
Zebtox. See ZINEB.
ZECTRAN
Chemical name: 4-dimethylammo-3,5-xylyl N-
methylearbamate
Action: Insecticide.
Zerdane. See DDT.
Zerlate. See ZIRAM.
129
74
129
75
204
-------
ZINC CHLORIDE
Other name: Butter of zinc
Action: Insecticide, Fungicide.
ZINC HYDROXYQUINONE
Action: Fungicide.
ZINEB
Chemical name: zinc ethylene-l,2-bisdithiocarba-
mate
Other names: Aspor, Chem Zineb, Dithane Z-78,
Hexathane, Kypzin, Lonacol, Pamosol 2
Forte, Parzate C, Parzate zineb, Polyram Z,
Tiezene, Tricarbamix, Triofterol, Zebtox,
Zinosan
Action: Fungicide.
Page
75
157
157
Zinosan. See ZINEB.
ZIRAM
Chemical name: zinc dimethyldithiocarbamate
Other names: Cuman, Fuklasin, Hexazir, Mil-
bam, Pomarsol Z Forte, Tricarbamix Z, Trisca-
bol, Zerlate, Zirberk, Ziride, Zitox
Action: Fungicide.
Zirberk. See ZIRAM.
Ziride. See ZIRAM.
Zithiol. See MALATHION.
Zitox. See ZIRAM.
Zobar. See 2,3,6-TBA.
Zolone. See PHOSALONE.
Zytron. See DMPA.
Page
158
4(23-802 O—71-
-14
205
-------
-------
Subject Index
Abortion: in reindeer, 93
in mosquito fish, 179; caused by aldrin, 4; DDT,
21; lindane, 51; methoxychlor, 56; TDE, 69; toxaphene,
72
Absorbing capacity of plants, 98-90
Acari. See Mite
Acetylcholinesterase, 74
Actinomycete, 99
Adelie penguin, residues in, 165,167
Adrenal weight, 16
Aerobic organism, growth of, 99
Age affecting mercury content, 151
Air, residues in, 172-173
Aircraft spraying, 181
Alewife, biological concentration in, 27
Alfalfa: affected, 50, 119; residues in, 55; translocation
into, 5, 50
Algae: biological concentration in, 6, 28, 37, 44, 73; com-
position of community altered, 55 ; converting malathion,
55; growth, 11, 92, 119; mortality, 11, 115, 125; popula-
tions decreased, 147; productivity, 90; unaffected, 27,
101,119. See also Blue-green algae; Diatom; Periphyton
Alkalinity of water, effect on LCso, 141
American redstart population reduced, 19
American smelt, residues in, 169
American sparrow hawk : eggshell thinning in, 18, 19, 178;
sensitivity to DDT, 177
Ainino acids in plants, 97, 98,112
Ammonification, 6, 92, 99
Amphipod: biological concentration in, 27; no mortality
in, 115; population numbers, 96, 125; residues in, 27
• LGso to : abate, 3 ; aldrin, 5 ; allethrin, 6; aminocarb,
6; aramite, 7; azide, 88; azinphos-methyl, 8; captafol,
138; carbaryl, 11; carbophenothion, 12; chlordane, 13;
chloronitropropane, 140 ; Ciodrin, 15 ; coumaphos, 15 ;
2, 4-D, 96; DDT, 24; DEF, 102; Dexon, 143; diazinon,
30; dicamba, 102; dichlobenil, 103 ; dichlone, 144; dich-
lorvos, 32; dierotophos, 33; dieldrin, 36; Dilan, 37;
-------
Bean plant: absorbing capacity of, 98-99; aluminum con-
tent of, 13; amino acid content of, 97, 98, 112; copper
content of, 44; effect on yield of, 26, 51,147, 155; growth
affected, 26-27, 43, 49, 179; iron content of, 13, 44;
nitrogen content of, 50, 98-99, 180; protein content of,
98-99,180; toxicity to, 26; wilt disease in, 105; zinc con-
tent of, 50, 180
Bear, residues in, 163,164. See also Black bear
Beaver, residues in, 163
Beet yield reduced, 52
Beetle : biomass, 5, 26; populations, 5, 26, 38, 123-124, 125 ;
residues in, 169, 170. See also Azuki-bean weevil; Bark
beetle; Coccinellid, Ground beetle, Hydrophilid; Water
beetle; Weevil; Wireworm
Behavioral changes, 178-179; in bird, 48; fiddler crab, 26;
guchi fish, 117; guppy, 43; pheasant, 34; salmon, 21, 94,
126; sheep, 33, 178; trout, 21, 74, 178-179
Bengalese finch: eggshell, 17; ovulation time, 17,179
Bentgrass, nematodes in, 101,112
Bermuda petrel, residues in, 166
Biological concentration, 180; in cranberry bog, 30; food
chain, 151, 180; forest, 28; pond and lake, 27-28, 69,109;
annelids, 28, 36-37, 151; arthropods, 27, 28, 36-37, 73,
151; birds, 27-28, 69, 73; plankton, 28, 69, 73
in fish, 30, 63, 69; alewife, 27; black bullhead, 28;
bluegill, 50, 58,117, 123, 125; Chinook salmon, 151; chub,
27; croaker, 27 ; fathead minnow, 28, 44 ; goldfish, 73;
pike, 151; sunfish, 99, 103, 105; trout, 28, 36, 57, 73,105;
whitefish, 27
• in molluscs, 28, 30, 63, 99, 151; oyster, 44, 50, 53,
57; eastern oyster, 13, 27, 37, 44, 99
in plants, 37, 50, 73, 151; algae, 5, 28, 37, 44, 73
Biomass, 5, 25, 26
Biotic community, 90
Bird: behavioral change, 48, 65; biological concentration
in, 69: mortality, 65; repellence of, 156; residue loss in,
28; specificity of response, 48
Births reduced, 9,16, 33, 42, 47, 58
Biting midge populations reduced, 88, 96, 123
Bitterbrush unharmed, 99
Bivalves, residues in. 172
Black bear populations unaffected, 16
Blackbird, repellence of, 139, 143, 158. See also Cowbird
Black bullhead : biological concentration in, 28; mortality,
22 ; resistance in, 4-5, 21, 35, 43, 72
LC5n to: aldrin, 5; azinphos-methyl, 8; carbaryl,
10; DDT, 20. 21; dieldrin, 35; endothall, 108; endrin,
43 ; fenthion, 46; lindane, 52 ; malathion, 53; parathion,
62; picloram, 118; toxaphene, 71, 72; zectran, 75
Black cherry tree, hydrocyanic acid content of, 98, 127
Black duck, residues in, 167
Black duck, residues in, 167
Black oak damaged, 99
Black tern reproduction stopped, 71
Blindness in fish, 146-147
Blue crab mortality, 96
Bluegill: biological concentration in, 50, 58, 117, 123, 125;
blindness, 146-147; converting 2,4-DB to 2,4-D, 94; gill
damaged. 106; growth, 49, 58, 95; kidney damaged, 124 ;
LD50, 124; liver damaged, 124; mortality, 94, 95, 141,
143, 147; pathologic lesions in, 95; spawning delayed,
94; resistance in, 4, 35, 43, 72,106
ECw to: azimphos-methyl, 8; carbaryl, 10; DDT,
20; diazinon, 29-30; dieldrin, 35; diuron, 106; endrin,
43; fenuron-TCA, 111; heptachlor, 49; lindane, 51;
malathion, 53; monuron, 114; toxaphene, 71
• LO50 to: alrin, 4; aramite, 7; azide, 88; azinphos-
methyl, 8; carbaryl, 10; carbophenothion, 12; chlordane,
13; chlorpropham, 91; copper oxychloride, 140; copper
sulfate, 141; Cytrol Amitrole-T, 92; 2,4-D, 94, 95;
dalapon, 100, 101; DDT, 20; DEF, 102; delmeton, 28;
Dexon, 143; diazinon, 29; dicamba, 102; dichlobenil,
103; dichlorprop, 104; dichlorvos, 31; dieldrin, 35;
Dilan, 37 ; dimethoate, 38; dioxathion, 38; diquat, 105;
disulfoton, 39; diuron, 106; Dyrene, 146; endothall, 108;
endrin, 42, 43; EPH, 44; ethion, 45; fenac, 110; fen-
thion, 46; fentin hydroxide, 146; heptachlor, 49; lin-
dane, 52; malathion, 53; MOP A, 113; mevinphos, 57;
naled, 59; ovex, 60; paraquat, 116; parathion, 62;
phora/te, 64; picloram, 119; propham, 120; rotenone, 67;
silvex, 121, 122; simazine, 123; sodium arsenite, 124;
2,4,5-T, 126-127; TDE, 69; terpene polychlorinates, 70;
tetradifon, 70; toxaphene, 71, 72; trifluralin, 128; ver-
nolate, 129; zectran, 75; affected by alkalinity of water,
141; affected by hardness of water, 141; affected by
temperature. See Temperature affecting LSso for blue-
gill
- survival in concentration of: amitrole, 86; atrazine,
87; benezenethiol, 137; biurea, 137; carbolic acid, 139;
cyclopentadiene, 142; 2,4-D, 94; dalapon, 100; dichlo-
benil, 103; diquat, 104; endothall, 108; fenac, 109;
fenuron-TCA, 111; hippuric acid, 148; maleamic acid,
149; maleic hydrazide, 112; methionine, 152; monuron,
114-115; naphthalensulfonic acid, 153; paraquat, 116;
phenetidine, 153; safrole, 154; silvex, 122; 2,4,5-T, 127
Blue-green algae, resistance in, 141
Blue grouse mortality, 65
Blue waxbill mortality, 62
Blue-winged teal: reproduction stopped, 12; residues in,
168
Bluntnose minnow: LC5n, 42, 108; mortality, 116; sur-
vival, 108; tolerance affected by hardness of water, 72
Bobvvhite quail: growth, 110; LD5f), 4, 11-12, 45, 59, 70-71,
150; mortality, 48; poisoned, 150; repellence of, 150;
reproduction depressed, 179
LC50 to : abate, 3; aldrin, 4 ; Arochlor, 7; atrazine,
87; azinphos-methyl, 8; cadmium succinate, 138; cap-
tan, 138; carbaryl, 9-10; chlordane, 12; 2,4-D, 93; DDE,
16; DDT. 16; demeton, 29; dicofol, 32; dieldrin, 33;
disulfoton, 39; diuron, 105-106; endosulfan, 41; endrin,
42; EPN, 44-45; fensulfothion, 46; fenthion, 46; hep-
tachlor, 47; lindane, 51; malathion, 53; metb.oxycb.lor,
56: naled, 59; parathion, 61; Paris green, 64; phorate,
64; phosphamidon, 65; TDE, 68; terpene polychlori-
natea, 70; toxaphene, 71; trichlorfon, 74
Boron content of bean plant, 27
Box elder susceptibility, 115
Box turtle unaffected, 23
Brain: pathologic effects on, 95; residues in, 17, 34, 69,
166
Brandt's cormorant, residues in, 167-168
Brill, residues in, 168
Broad-leaved plants, resistance in, 100
208
-------
Brook trout: behavioral change in, 21; biological concen-
tration in, 57; fin erosion, 147; growth, 21; LCso, 3,
20, 53, 59, 118; mortality, 21, 22, 26, 147; unaffected, 22,
65,122, 124
Brown bullhead: EC50, 106; unaffected, 41, 46
Brown pelican : eggshell thinning, 20; reproduction, 20,
179; residues in, 20, 168
Brown shrimp: EC50, 130; survival, 10, 72; unaffected,
106,117,118,127
mortality or paralysis caused by: ametryne, 85;
atrazine, 88; 2,4-D, 96; dalapon, 101; DDT, 24; lindane,
52; silvex, 122
Brown trout, residues in, 22
LC50 to: azinphos-methyl, 8; carbaryl, 10; DDT,
20; fenthion, 46, lindane, 52; malathion, 53 ; parathion,
' 62; picloram, 118; toxapene, 71; zectran, 75
• survival in concentration of: benzenethiol, 137 ;
biurea, 137; carbolic acid, 139; cyclopentadiene, 142;
hippuric acid, 148; maleamic acid, 149; methionine, 152 ;
naphthalensulfonic acid, 153 ; phenetidine, 153 ; safrole,
154
Browse improved, 03
Buckwheat: nitrogen content of, 98; protein nitrogen con-
tent of, 98; sugar content of, 98
Buff-bellied chipmunk, populations unaffected, 16
Bug, populations unaffected, 125,139,156, 158
populations reduced by concentration of: binap-
acry], 9; captan, 139; carbaryl, 11; dimethoate, 38;
dinocap, 145; sulfur, 155 ; triamiphos, 157
Bullfinch, residues in, 164
Bullfrog, mortality, 137, 140
LDso to : abate, 3 ; DDT, 23; demeton, 29; diazinon,
30; dicrotophos, 32; phorate, 54 ; propoxur, 66; TBPP,
69; zectran, 75
Bullhead: LC50, 108; residues in, 168. See also Black bull-
head ; Brown bullhead
Buzzard: mortality, 34; residues in, 150
Cabbage aphid population outbreak, 68
Oaddice fly: biomas, 25; populations decreased, 25, 26, 88,
96, 115; populations increased, 5, 25; residues in, 169,
survival, 107
Calcium in eggs, 18
California quail, LD50, 66
Canada goose, LDso to: carbaryl, 9; dicrotophos, 32;
dielbrin, 33; dursban, 40; fenthion, 46; monocrotophos,
59; naled, 59; propoxur, 66; zectran, 75
Canada thistle : nitrate content of, 98; palatability, 98
Carabid. See Ground beetle
Carbonic anhydrase activity, 18
Caribou, residues in, 163,164
Carp: mortality, 8, 62,141; survival, 62
LCso to: azinphos-methyl, 8; carabaryl, 10; DDT,
20; endothall, 108; endrin, 42; fenthion, 46; lindane,
52; malathion, 53; parathion, 62; toxaphene, 71; zec-
tran, 75
Carrot yield, 26, 51,147,155
Cassin's auklet, residues in, 166
Cat, LDso, 107
Caterpillar, natural enemies killed, 26
Catfish: population eliminated, 126; residues in, 168; sur-
vival, 141. See also Channel catfish
Cellulose decomposition, 92,109,112
Ceratopogonid. See Biting midge
Chaborid. See Phantom midge
Channel catfish: ECM, 10, 20, 35, 43, 53; unaffected, 116
LCso to : azinphos-methyl, 8; captafol, 138; carbaryl,
10; carbolic acid, 139 ; cresol, 142 ; DDT, 20; Delrad, 142 ;
dichlone, 144 ; fenthion, 46; ferbam, 146; formalin, 148;
lindane, 52 ; malathion, 53; mercury compound, 151;
monuron, 114; nabam, 152; parathion, 62; picloram, 119 ;
quinine, 154; TCA, 128; thiram, 156; toxaphene, 71;
sodium chlorate, 125; zectran, 75; ziram, 158
Chemical constituents in bean and corn plants, 13, 27, 43-
44, 49-50, 179-180. See also Bean plant; Corn plant
Cherry tree. See Black cherry tree; Chokecherry tree
Chickadee, residues in, 166
Chicken: chick mortality, 14, 17, 51, 58, 68; egg, abnormal
156, 179; egg yield reduced, 14, 93, 113, 125, 126, 127;
fertility depressed, 125,179 ; fertility unchanged, 93,113,
126, 127; hatcuability, 93, 113, 125, 126, 127; LDSO, 50,
107, 118, 128; nervous syndrome in, 14; poisoned, 141;
residues in 151; unaffected, 50; weight loss, 14, 58, 125,
126; weight unchanged, 93,113,127
embryo mortality caused by: aldrin, 4; binapacryl,
9; carbaryl, 10; chlorbenside, 12; chlordane, 12 ; deme-
ton methyl, 29; dichlorvos, 31; dicofol, 32; dieldrin,
33; DXOC, 40; endosulfan, 41; endrin, 42; ethion, 45;
heptachlor, 47; lindane, 51; malathion, 53; mecarbam,
55; menazon, 55; methoxychlor, 56 ; monocrotophos, 59 ;
nicotine, 60; parathion, 61; phospuamidon, 65; rotenone,
67; schradan, 68; TDE, 68; toxaphene, 71; trichlorfon,
74
teratogenesis in, caused by : captafol, 138; captan,
138; carbaryl, 10; demeton methyl, 29 ; ethion, 45 ; folpet,
147; malathion, 53; mecarbam, 55; menazon, 55 ; mono-
crotophos, 59 ; nicotine, 60; parathion, 61; phosphami-
don, 65; schradan, 68
- weakness in legs of, caused by: abate, 3; azinphos-
metliyl, 8; carbaryl, 10; carbophenothion, 12; Ciodrin,
15; coumaphos, 15; crufomate, 15 ; DEP, 102; dicapthon,
31; dioxathion, 38; disulfoton, 39; dursban, 40; EPN,
45; ethion, 45; fenthin, 46; malathion, 53; menazon, 55;
merphos, 114 ; mobam, 59 ; parathion, 61; phorate, 64;
ronnel, 67 ; thiram, 156
Chinook salmon: biological concentration in, 151; LC«,,
105 ; LDso, 21; residues in, 168 ; survival, 128
Cninstrap penguin, residues in, 165
Chipmunk: populations reduced, 53; populations unaf-
fected, 16
Chironomid : poisoned, 104; populations decreased, 87, 96,
106, 116, 123 ; populations increased, 5, 105, 122 ; popula-
tions unaffected, 125
Chokecherry tree, aerial portions unaffected, 99
Chorus from, LCso to: carbophenothion, 12; 2,4-D, 95;
DDT, 23; dielbrin, 35; endrin, 43 ; lindane, 51; mala-
thion, 54 ; methoxychlor, 56; naled, 59; paraquat, 116;
parathiou, 62; piperonyl butoxide, 66; silvex, 122; TDE,
69; toxaphene, 72
Chub, biological concentration in, 27
Chukar partridge, LDso to: abate, 3; azinphos-methyl, 8;
demeton, 29; dicrotophos, 32 ; dieldrin, 33; dursban, 40;
EPX, 44 ; fenthion, 46; gardona, 47; monocrotophos, 59 ;
oxydemeton-methyl, 60; parathion, 61; phorate, 64;
phosphaniidon, 65; propoxur, 66; TEPP, 69 : zectran, 75
209
-------
Cladoceran. See Waterflea
Clam : egg development inhibited, 5,10, 72, 152; mortality,
31, 143; populations, 87, 96, 116; residues in, 169; un-
affected, 95. See also Asiastic clam; Cockle clam
Clover mite population increased, 24
Coccinellid : activity depressed, 97,179 ; growth depressed,
97, 179; mortality, 39, 149,155; oviposition, 25, 72; popu-
lations reduced, 24, 25, 55, 97; repellence of, 25; re-
sistance in, 25; unaffected, 139,141
Cockle clam, EC*,, 10
Cod, residues in, 168
Codistillation of DDT, 28
Coeur d'Alene chipmunk populations unaffected, 16
Coho salmon : fry mortality, 22, 23; LDOT, 21; residues in,
22, 23,169
LCso to: azinphos-methyl, 8; carbaryl, 10; DDT, 20;
dicamba, 102; diuron, 106; fenthion, 46; lindane, 52;
malathion, 53; parathion, 62; picloram, 119; rotenone,
67; toxaphene, 71; zectran, 75
Coleoptera. See Beetle
Collembola. See Springtail
Columbian ground squirrel populations unaffected, 16
Concord grape damaged, 97, 99
Coot reproduction reduced, 12, 71
Copepod : mortality, 143; populations increased, 141
Copper content ol plants, 44
Corixid, no mortality, 41
Cormorant, residues affecting eggshells of, 18. See also
Brandt's cormorant; Double-crested cormorant
Corn plant: attractive to mouse, 93; copper content of, 44 ;
growth, 27, 49, 179; iron content of, 44; residues in, 5,
6,171
Corvid, residues in, 164
Cottid mortality, 22
Cotton plant growth, 99
Cotton rat reproduction, 9
Cottontail rabbit, repellence of, 60, 93,140-141,155
Cottonwood mortality, 115
Cottony-cushion scale population outbreak, 25, 55
Coturnix: ataxia in chicks, 18; carbonic anhydrase activ-
ity, 18; egg production, 7, 18; eggshells, 7, 18-19;
fertility, 18; hatchability, 18; mortality, 7, 17; residues
in, 34 ; weight, 18-19
LCso to: abate, 3; aldrin, 4; amitrole, 86; Arochlor,
7; azinphos-methyl, 8; cadmium succinate, 138; captan,
138; carbaryl, 9-10; chlordane, 12 ; coumaphos, 15; 2,
4-D, 93 ; dalapon, 100; DDE, 16; DDT, 16; demeton, 29;
dichlobenil, 103; dicofol, 32; dieldrin, 33; dimethoate,
38; diquat, 104 ; disulf oton, 39 ; diuron, 105-106; durs-
ban, 40; endosulfan, 41; endrin, 42; EPN, 44-45; fenac,
109; fenthion, 46; fenuron, 110; heptachlor, 47; lindane,
51; malathion, 53; mercury compound, 150; methoxy-
chlor, 56; mirex, 58; monuron, 114; nabam, 152; naled,
59; parathion, 61; Paris green, 64; perthane, 64; phos-
phamidon, 65 ; silvex, 121; simazine, 123 ; 2,4,5-T, 126 ;
TDE, 68; terpene polychlorinates, 70; tetradifon, 70;
toxaphene, 71; trichlorfon, 74
- LD50 to : abate, 3; carbaryl, 9; 2,4-D, 93; DDT, 16;
demeton, 29; dicTotophos, 32; dieldrin, 33; dioxathion,
38; dursban, 40; EPN, 44; fenthion, 46; mercury com-
pound, 150; monocrotophos, 59 ; nabam, 152; nicotine
sulfate, 60; oxydemoton-methyl, 60; parathion, 61 ;
PCP, 117; propoxur, 66, zectran, 75
Cow: attracted to ragwort, 98; nitrate level toxic to, 180 ;
ragwort toxic to, 180; repellence of, 93,107,117
Cowbird : residues in, 17, 69 ; DDT kinetics in, 17
Crab: LCso, 11; paralyzed, 11; populations, 36, 96. See
also Blue crab ; Dungeness crab ; Fiddler crab ; Hermit
crab; King crab
Crab-eater seal, residues in, 163
Cranberry, no residues in, 170
Cranberry bog, persistence in, 104
Crane. See Lesser sandhill crane
Crawfish. See Red crawfish
Crayfish: biological concentration in, 28; in diet of fish,
22; unaffected, 55,126
Creeping thistle, resistance in, 100
Crested oyster, residues in, 24
Cricket, residues in, 6
Cricket frog, resistance in, 23
Croaker. See Atlantic croaker
Cross-resistance in mosquito fish, 5, 70
Crustacean, biological concentration in, 151; populations
eliminated, 36
Cucumber, translocation into, 5, 36, 50
Cutthroat trout: mortality, 21, 22 ; unaffected, 22
Dace unaffected, 22
Damselfly populations, 88,115,116,122,123,125
Daphnia. See Waterflea
Decomposition of: cellulose, 92; litter, 11
Deer: browse improved, 93; residues in, 149, 1614. See also
Mule deer
Degradation of pesticides, 5, 86,100,101,119,149
Development inhibited, 95, 96, 97. See also Egg develop-
ment ; Growth; Weight
Diabetes syndrome, 75
Diatom production, 36
Diet change, 22, 23, 93
Diffusion from seed coat to fruit, 151
Diptera : biomass reduced, 5, 26; populations decreased, 26,
38, 122; populations increased, 25, 52, 122, 123-124;
populations unaffected, 5. See also Biting midge ; Chiron-
omid; Horsefly ; Housefly ; Jlosquito ; Phantom midge
Disease: diabetes syndrome, 75; duck hepatitus virus, 7,
180; susceptibility to, 180
Diversity reduced, 26
Dog, LDM to: chloroxuron, 91; 2,4-D, 93; DDT, 16;
dieldrin, 33; DMPA, 107; fluometuron, 111; 2,4,4-T, 126;
toxaphene, 70; trifluralin. 128; zectran, 75
Double-crested cormorant: eggshell affected by residues,
18; residues in, 166, 167
Dove, LD50, 46, 65, 66, 75. See also Ringdove
Downy rabbitbrush, aerial portions affected, 99
Dragonfly : populations decreased, 106, 115; populations
increased. 116, 122; populations unaffected, 90, 125
Duck, residues in, 164,165, 167,168. See also Mallard duck
Dungeness crab: hatchability, 11; LC50, 11; residues in,
169
Eagle, residues in, 150. Sec also Bald eagle; Golden eagle
Earthworm: biological concentration in, 28, 36-37, 180;
LD50, 9; residues in, 6, 19, 169-170; survival, 43
210
-------
mortality from: captan, 139; carbaryl, 10; 2,4-D,
97 ; dlbromoehloropropane, 31; malathion, 55; simazine,
123; SMDC, 155
-populations: increased. 52, 123-124; unaffected, 7,
26, 52, 101, 117; decreased by: aldrin, 5; atrazine, 88;
chlordane, 13; chlorpropham, 91; DDT, 26; dieldrin, 36;
DNOC, 40; heptachlor, 49; metacide, 55; monuron, 115 ;
parathion, 63; propham. 120; rotenone, 67 ; TCA, 128
Eastern oyster: biological concentration in, 13, 27, 37, 44,
99; mortality, 95; residues in, 24; unaffected, 90, 95
shell growth depressed by: DDT, 23; diuron, 106;
EPTC, 109; ferbam, 147; monuron, 115; neburon, 110;
prometryne, 120; silvex, 122
shell growth unaffected by : ametryne, 85; atrazine,
87; 2,4-D, 95; dalapon, 100; diquat, 104; MOP A, 113;
paraquat, 116; picloram, 118; prometone, 119; 2,4,5-T,
127
Sel: LCno, 125; population eliminated, 126
Sgg: development Inhibited, 5, 10, 72, 152; fertility, 33;
laying delayed, 18; mortality, 20; production, 7, 18, 23,
43. See also Chicken, egg yield; residues in, 22, 23, 150,
151, 165-168, 178. See also Eggshell; Hatchability
Sggshell: abnormally-shaped, 156, 179; calcium in, 18;
residues affecting thickness of, 17-15, 167; soft, 156,
179; thinning, 7,17-70, 34-35, 68,177,178; weight, 17-19
Eider duck, residues in, 164
Elk, residues in, 164
Elm susceptibility, 115
Jmbryo mortality in mink, 16, 18, 179. See also Chicken
embryo mortality
Smperor penguin, residues in, 165
Enchytraeid, populations, 5, 26, 123-124
English sole: LCso, 10; residues in, 168
Sphemeroptera. See Mayfly
Srythrocyte count, 16
Sstradiol in blood, 18
Sstrus, 3
Suropean corn borer, population outbreak, 36
Duropean oyster, residues in, 24
Suropean red mite populations, 24-25
Eye cataracts, 47
Falcon, residues in, 150. See also Peregrine falcon ; Prairie
falcon
Fathead minnow: biological concentration in, 28, 44; mor-
tality, 143; unaffected, 91,112
LGio to: azinphos-methyl, 8; carbaryl, 10; DDT, 20,
21; diquat, 105; endothall, 108; endrin, 42; fenthion, 46;
lindane, 52; malathion, 53, 54 ; parathion, 62; picloram,
118; propoxur, 66; silvex, 121; TEPP, 69; toxaphene,
71; trichlorfon, 74; zectran, 75
Feathers, residues in, 165
Feeding rate, 26
Fertility. See Reproduction
Fiddler crab: behavioral change, 26; L,Cm, 95
Field mouse, repellence of, 156
Finch: mortality, 150; residues in, 150, 164. Sec also
Bengalese finch ; House finch
Fin erosion, 147
Fire ant unaffected, 48
Fir foliage, residues in, 171
Fish: biological concentration in, 30, 63, 69; diet, 22, 67;
populations reduced, 39, 62; residues in, 28; susceptibil-
ity to microsporidian parasite, 10, 95, 180
—• persistence in, of: azinphos-methyl, 8; 2, 4-D, 95 ;
diazinon, 30; dieldrin, 35; diquat, 104; dursban, 41;
endothall, 108; heptachlor, 49; lindane, 51; malathion,
54; parathion, 62; siinazine, 123; sodium arsenite, 124
Flounder, residues in, 168
Fly. See Diptera
Food chain: biological concentration in, 19,151,180; effect
on, 119
Forbs, production of, 93; residues in, 171
Forest environment, effects on, 16, 28, 45-46, 65, 66
Fork-tailed petrel, residues in, 167-168
Fowler's toad, LC™ to: aldrin, 5; azinphos-methyl, 8;
DDT, 23; DBF, 102; dieldrin, 35; endrin, 43 ; heptach-
lor, 49; lindane, 51; malathion, 54 ; methoxychlor, 56;
molinate, 114; paraquat, 116; silvex, 122; TDK, 69;
toxaphene, 72; trifluralin, 129
Fox, residues in, 149-150
Foxtail, residues in, 6
Freshwater mussel: biological concentration in, 30; un-
affected, 62
Frog: development, 95; LDa, 64, 154, 156; dose lethal to,
137, 138, 139, 154, 157; mortality, 140, M2; populations,
23, 62, 112; resistance in, 180. See also Bullfrog; Chorus
frog; Cricket frog
Fruit-tree-red spider, egg production, 23
Fulmar, residues in. 164
Fulvous tree duck, LDs,, 4, 11-12, 33, 61, 71, 150
Fungi Imperfecti growth, 148
Fungus: degradation of picloram, 119; growth reduced,
148; increased, 157; mortality, 153; unaffected, 119, 124
Fur seal, residues in, 163
Gannet. See Atlantic gannet
Garden Turf, micro-arthropods In, 113
Garter snake, residues in, 6
Gestation period, mortality during, 16
Ghost shrimp, LCso, 11
Gills: concentration in, 151; damaged, 106; residues in,
168
Goat: residues in, 164
LDso to: demeton. 29 ; dieldrin. 33 ; disulfoton, 39;
t-ursban, 40; endrin. 42 ; monocrotophos, 59 ; nabam, 152;
'parathion, 61; propoxur, 66; toxaphene, 70; zectran, 75
Golden eagle: LDM, 59; reproduction, 34; residues in, 34.
166, 167
Golden shiner: LC^, 4, 35, 40-41, 72; mortality, 114;
resistance in, 4, 35,40-41, 43, 72
Goldfish: biological concentration in, 73; growth, 119;
mortality, 107,141,143,148
•LC50 to: aldrin, 4; azinphos-methyl, 8; BHC, 51;
carbaryl, 10; chlordane, 13; DDT, 20; dieldrin, 35 ; en-
dothall, 108; fenthion, 46; heptachlor, 49; lindane, 52;
znalatliion, 53; methoxychlor, 56; parathion, 62; pic-
loram, 119; toxaphene, 71; zectran, 75
no mortality from : biurea, 137; carbolic acid, 139;
hippuric acid, 148; maleamic acid, 149 ; methionine, 152 ;
naphthalensulfonic acid, 153; phenetidine, 153; safrole,
154
Goose. See Canada goose
211
-------
Gopher. Sec Pocket gopher
Grape injured, 97, 99
Grass: production, 90, 93; residues in, 171
Grasshopper: growth, 97; populations, 97
Grass shrimp LC50 to: aldrin, 5 ; DDT. 24 ; dichlorvos, 32 ;
dieldrin, 36; dioxathion, 39; endrin, 44 ; heptachlor, 49;
lindane, 52; malathion, 54 ; methoxychlor, 57; mevin-
phos, 08; parathion, 63
Gray partridge: arthropods in habitat of, 113-114; LDM.
33, 61
Great blue heron, residues in, 168
Great crested grebe, residues in, 165
Grebe, residues in, 165, 167-168
Green sunfish : LC50, 4, 35, 40-41, 43, 72, 118 ; resistance in,
4, 35, 40-41, 43, 72
• survival in concentration of amitrole, 86; atrazine,
87 ; 2,4-D, 94 ; dalapon, 100; dichlobenil, 103 ; endothall,
108; fenuron-TCA, ill; monuron, 114-115; paraquat,
116; silvex, 122; 2,4,5-T, 127
Green white-eye mortality, 62
Grey seal, residues in, 163
Ground beetle: biological concentration in, 36-37; feed-
ing rate, 26; populations reduced, 36, 66; residues in, 6
Grouse, unaffected, 19. See also Blue grouse ; Prairie sharp-
tailed grouse ; Ruffed grouse ; Sharp-tailed grouse
Growth: stimulated, 21, 27, 49, 97, 99, 103, 179. See also
Development; Weight
depressed in : aerobic organisms, 99 ; alagae, 11, 92 ;
bluegill, 49, 58,106; coccinellid, 179; eastern oyster. See
Eastern oyster, shell growth; fungus, 148; oyster, 72;
plants, 26-27, 43, 49, 97, 179; rainbow trout, 35; turkey,
4; white-tailed deer, 33,179
- unchanged in: algae, 119; bacteria, 99,112; eastern
oyster. See Eastern oyster, shell growth; fungus, 119,
124; goldfish, 119; grasshopper, 97; phytoplankton, 97;
waterflea, 118,119
Guchi fish: behavioral change in, 117; LCa>, 125
Guillemot, residues in, 64
Guinea pig, LD«, to : Arochlor, 7; 2,4-D, 93 ; dalapon, 100;
DDT, 16; dichlorophen, 144; DMPA, 107; endrin, 42;
lindane, 51; malathion, 53; parathion, 61; picloram, 118;
pyrethrins, 66 ; silvex, 121; toxaphene, 70
Gull: biological concentration in, 27-28; residues in, 166,
167
Guppy: behavioral change in, 43; LCw, 56; population
eliminated, 126; reproduction, 43; tolerance in, 21; un-
affected, 118
Habitat altered, 178
Haddock, residues in, 168
Hake, residues in, 168
Halibut, residues in, 168
Hardness of water affecting LCw, 141
Hare, residues in, 149,163
Harlequin fish, LCso to: o-amino-2,6-dichloro-benzaldoxine,
85; AMS, 87 ; asulam, 87; atrazine, 87; azinphos-methyl,
8; barban, 89; benazolin, 89; bromophos, 9 ; bromoxynil,
89; busan, 137; captafol, 138; carbaryl, 10; carbolic acid,
139; carbophenothion, 12; chlorfenvinphos, 14; chloro-
propylate, 14; chlorthiamid, 92; coumaphos, 15; 4-CPA,
92; 2,4-D, 94; demeton methyl, 29; diallate, 102; diaz-
inon, 30; dichlobenil, 103; dichlorphen, 144; dichloro-
phenthion, 31 ; dichlorvos, 31 ; dieldrin, 35 ; dimanin, 37
dinocap, 145; diothyl, 38; diquat, 105; DNBP, 107; EC
90, 146 ; endosulfan, 41 ; endothall, 108 ; ethion, 45 ; rent!]
acetate, 146 ; formothion, 47 ; o-furaldehyde, 148 ; hepta
chlor, 49; ioxynil, 111; lenacil, 111; lindane, 52; mala
chite green, 149 ; malathion, 53 ; menazon, 55 ; mevin
phos, 57; milbex, 58; nalco, 153; N-methyl carbamate
60 ; paraquat, 116 ; phenoxytol, 154 ; phorate, 64 ; phosa
lone, 65 ; picloram, 118 ; pyrazon, 121 ; silvex, 121
SMDC, 155 ; sodium chlorate, 125 ; sodium nitrite, 155
2,4,5-T, 126; trifluralin, 129; vamidothion, 74; zim
chloride, 75
Harp seal, residues in, 163
Harvest mouse, repellence of, 156
Hatchability : reduced, 17, 18, 34, 90, 125, 150 ; unchangec
11, 93, 113, 126, 127
Hawk, residues in, 150
Hemiptera. See Bug ; Corixid ; Mirid ; Waterbug
Hemoglobin 16
Hepatitus virus in mallard ducks, 7, 180
Hermit crab, LCw to : aldrin, 5 ; DDT, 24 ; dichlorvos, 32
dieldrin, 36 ; dioxathion, 39 ; endrin, 44 ; heptachlor, 49
lindane, 52 ; malathion, 54 ; methoxychlor, 57 ; mevin
phos, 58 ; parathion, 63
Heron, residues in, 150, 165, 167, 168
Herring, residues in, 168
Herring gull : mortality, 20 ; reproduction, 17-18, 20, 34-35
residues in, 165, 166
Homoptera populations reduced, 11, 38. See also Aphid
Cottony-cushion scale.
Honeybee : habitat improved, 96 ; LDso, 96, 102, 138 ; mor
tality, 10, 55, 96, 113 ; residues in, 55 ; resistance in, 25-2'
Hooked mussel, residues in, 24
Horsefly, populations reduced, 87, 96
House finch, LD50, 29, 32, 46, 59, 66, 75
Housefly, ovarian development of, 24
House sparrow, mortality, 17
: abate, 3 ; cyana(methylmercuri)guanidine
142 ; demeton, 29 ; dicrotophos, 32 ; dieldrin, 33 ; dursban
40 ; fenthion, 46 ; monocrotophos, 59 ; oxydemeton
methyl, 60 ; parathion, 61 ; propoxur, 66 ; zectran, 75
Hydrocyanic acid : content of plants, 98, 113, 127, 180
toxieity to sheep, 98
Hydrophilid unaffected, 41
Hymenoptera, populations reduced, 38. See also Fire ant
Honeybee ; Leaf cutting bee ; Wasp
Insect : biological concentration in, 151 ; populations, 63
113
Iron : content of plants, 44
Isopod unaffected, 115
Jackdaw mortality, 151
Japanese shellfish sensitivity, 117
Japanese stork, residues in, 150
Jardine's babbler mortality, 62
Jimson weed platability, 98
Jumping mouse populations unaffected, 16
Junco, LDM, 66
Kale, residues in, 170
Katla fish, unaffected, 94
212
-------
Kestrel, residues in, 164,167
Kidney : concentration in, 151; damaged, 124
Killfish: LCso, 91, 111; mortality, 22. See also Longnose
killifish
Kinetics of DDT loss, 28
King crab, residues in, 169
Kittiwake, residues in, 164
Kurrichaine thrust mortality, 62
Ladybird bettle. See Coccinellid
Lake habitat: biological concentration in, 27-28, 69, 73;
bottom fauna reduced, 72
Lake chub-sucker survival in concentration of: amitrole,
86 ; dalapon, 100 ; dichlobenil, 103 ; diquat, 104 ; endo-
thall, 108; fenac, 109 ; fenuron-TCA, 111; monuron, 114-
115; silvex, 122;
Lake Emerald shiner: LCM, 92, 94, 105, 108, 122, 124;
unaffected, 100
Lake trout: fry mortality, 22, 178; reproduction stopped,
22 ; residues in, 160,178
Lambsquarter, nitrate content of, 98
Landlocked salmon, LCM, 20
Largemouth bass; blindness in, 146-147; mortality, 94,
141, 143, 144; residues in, 69, 168; unaffected, 90, 108,
122
LCw to: azinphos-methyl, 8; carbaryl, 10 ; DDT, 20;
diquat, 105; diuron, 106; endothall, 108; fenthion, 46;
lindane, 52; malathion, 53; parathion, 62; toxaphene,
71; zectran, 75
Leafcutting bee mortality, 9,10, 26
Leech: populations reduced, 88, 96,123; unaffected, 122
Lepidoptera populations reduced, 38. See also Caterpillar;
European corn borer; Rice stemborer
Legume nodulation, 113
Lesser sandhill crane, LDM, 16, 40, 66, 71, 75
Lesser scaup, residues in, 168
Lettuce yield reduced, 52
Leukocyte count, 16
Litter decomposition, 11
Little egret, residues in, 150
Little neck clam, residues in, 169
Little owl, residues in, 165
Liver: concentration in, 151; damaged, 7, 95, 122, 124;
residues in, 16, 150-151, 163, 167-168
Livestock, repellence of, 86
Long-eared owl mortality, 34
Longevity of aphids,
Longnose killflsh: LCSO, 10, 113, 146, 148; mortality, 22;
unaffected, 89,100,104,116
Mackerel, residues in, 168
Malaria control, 25
Malformation of plant, 97, 98
Mallard duck: disease in, 7, 75, 180; egg production, 7;
eggshell thinning, 7, 18, 34, 68; embryo mortality, 18,
179; reproduction depressed, 68, 86, 93, 100, 121, 179;
residues in, 164, 167,198; unaffected, 7, 40, 46, 62, 124
LC» to: abate, 3; aldrin, 4; amitrole, 86; Arochlor,
7; atrazine, 87; azinphos-methyl, 8; captan, 138;
carbaryl, 9-10; chlordane, 12; 2,4-D, 93; dalapon, 100;
DDE, 16; DDT, 16; demeton, 29; dichlorvos, 31; dicofol,
32; dieldrin, 33 ; dimethoate, 38; diquat, 104; disulfoton,
39; diuron, 105-106; endosulfan, 4] ; endrin, 42; fenac,
109; fensulfothion, 46; fenthion, 46; fenuron, 110 ; hep-
tachlor, 47; lindane, 51; malathion. 53; mercury com-
pound, 150; methoxychlor, 56; monuron, 114; nabam,
152; naled, 59; parathion, 61; Paris green, 64; perthane,
64; phorate, GU; phosphamidon, 65; picloram, 118;
simazine, 123; 2,4,5-T, 126; TDE, 68; terpene poly-
chlorinates, 70; tetradif on, 70 ; toxaphene, 71; zectran,
75
• LD5o to : abate, 3 ; aldrin, 4; allethrin, 6; aminocarb,
6; amitrole, 86; atrazine, 87; azinphos-methyl, 8 ; bene-
fln, 89; carbaryl, 9; carbofuran, 11-12; chlordane, 12;
chloroxuron, 91; chlorpropham, 91; copper sulfate, 141;
coumaphos, 15; cyclohexamide, 142; cyano(methyl-
mercuri) guanidine, 142; 2,4-D, 93; DDT, 16; demeton,
29 ; diazinon, 29 ; dibromochloropropane, 30; dichlobenil,
103 ; dichlone, 143 ; dichlorvos, 31; dicloran, 144 ; dicro-
tophos, 32 ; dieldrin, 33; dimethoate, 38; dioxathion, 38;
diquat, 104; disulfoton, 39; diuron, 105; DNOC, 40;
dursban, 40; Dyrene, 146; endosulf an, 41; endrin, 42;
EPN, 44 ; fensulfothion, 46; fenthion, 46; fluometuron,
111; folpet, 147; gardona, 47; heptachlor, 47; lindane,
51; malathion, 53; mercury compound, 150; methomyl,
56; methoxychlor, 56; merinphos, 57 ; mirex, 58; mono-
crotophos, 59; nabam, 152; naled, 59; nicotine sulfate,
60; oxydemeton-methyl, 60; parathion, 01; phorate, 64 ;
phosphamidon, 65; piclocam, 118; propoxur, 66; pyre-
thrins, 66; rotenone, 67; schradan, 68; TEPP, 69;
thiram, 156; toxaphene, 70-71; trifluralin, 128; zectran,
75; zineb, 157
Hallow palatability, 98
Manganese content of bean plant, 27
Manure worm. See Earthworm
Maple. See Box elder
Magarodid. See Cottony-cushion scale
Marsh habitat, 35, 71
Marten, residues in, 149-150
Mayfly; ECM, 23, 36, 43, 49; LCM, 54, 73; unaffected, 96,
125
• populations reduced by: aldrin, 5; atrazine, 87; 2,4-
D, 96; DDT, 25, 26 ; diuron, 106 ; monuron, 115; neburon,
116; simazine, 123
Meadowlark, repellence of, 149,150
Melba finch mortality, 62
Mesostigmatid mite populations reduced, 26
Methylation by microorganisms, 151
Microbial degradation. Sec Degradation
Microorganisms: activity suppressed, 99, 117, 128; com-
position changed, 112; numbers increased, 99; un-
affected, 88, 90, 99,112,120
Microsporidian parasite, 10,95,180
Midge. See Chironomid
Milk, residues in, 163
Millet unaffected, 11
Millipede populations, 88,101,115,128
Mink: adrenal weight, 16; births reduced, 16; embryo
mortality, 16; erythrocyte count, 16; hemoglobin, 16;
leukocyte count, 16; residues in, 16, 163; spleen weight,
16
Minnow. See Bluntnose minnow
Mirid populations reduced, 145
213
-------
Mite: resistance in, 180; unaffected, 88, 97, 113, 139, 157
populations decreased by: binapacryl, 9; copper
oxychloride, 140 ; DDT, 26; dichlone, 144; dinocap, 145;
monuron, 115; oxythioquinox, 61; PRB, 154; simazine,
123; sulfur, 155; thiram, 156; zineb, 158
- populations increased by: aldrin, 5; BHC, 52;
chlordane, 13; dalapon, 101; DDT, 24, 25, 26; llndane,
52; TCA, 128
Modes of action, 177
Mollusc: populations reduced, 95; unaffected, 35, 72, 117
Moorhen, residues in, 165
Moose, no residues in, 163
Mosquito: development stopped, 96; populations reduced,
87, 123
Mosquito fish : abortion in. Sec Abortion in mosquito fish;
mortality, 62; preferred higher salinity, 21, 179; sur-
vival, 90
LO50 to: aldrin, 5 ; cacodylic acid, 89; DDT, 20, 21;
dieldrin, 35; dursban, 40-41; endrin, 43; heptachlor, 49 ;
toxaphene, 72
resistance in, 180; to aldrin, 4-5; chlordane, 13;
DDT, 21; dieldrin, 35 ; dursban, 40-41; endrin, 43; hep-
tachlor, 49; terpene polyehlorinates, 70; toxaphene, 72
Moth, 25
Moulting of prezoeae to zoeae, prevented, 11
Mountain chickadee, residues in, 166
Mountain sucker mortality, 22
Mountain whiteflsh, residues in, 22
Mourning dove, LD60,46, 65, 66, 75
Mouse: attracted, 93; births reduced, 33, 42, 58; mortality,
16; populations decreased, 37, 42, 53; repellence of, 142,
156; resistance in, 16, 42, 180; unaffected, 9, 16. See also
White-footed mouse
LD50 to: ametryne, 85; atrazine, 87; chlordane,
12; 2,4-D, 93; dalapon, 100; DDT, 16; dibromochloro-
propane, 30; dichlorprop, 104; dichlorvos, 31; dicroto-
phos, 32; EPTC, 109; fluometuron, 111; lindane, 51;
malathion, 53; methoxychlor, 56; milbex, 58; parathion,
61; picloram, 118; silvex, 121; sodium arsenite, 124;
TOA, 128; TDE, 68; trifluralin, 128
Movement in the environment, 181
Mud, residues in, 27, 63,106,172
Mud shrimp, LC50, 11
Mule deer, LD50 to: aminoearb, 6; carbaryl, 9; 2,4-D, 93;
dieldrin, 33; dimethoate, 37; fenitrothion, 45; methomyl,
56; monocrotophos, 59; naled, 59; parathion, 61; pro-
poxur, 66; toxaphene, 70; zectran, 75
Mullet: LO50,10, 58,106,114, 148; LO100, 8, 62; mortality,
22,109; nonlethal dosage, 62,126
Mussel: biological concentration in, 63, 99; EC50, 10; resi-
dues in, 24, 169
Myrtle warbler population reduced, 19
Nematodes: attracted, 97 ; populations, 5, 26, 86, 101, 112;
reproduction increased, 97
Nervous syndrome in chickens, 14
Nervous system, 10, 95
Nesting success reduced, 48
Nitrate: content of plants decreased, 92,107,112,113,127;
content of plants increased, 91, 98, 107, 112, 127, 186;
poisoning, 91-92; production unchanged, 120, 124
Nitrification: accelerated, 88, 120, 124; reduced, 90, 92, 99,
115, 124, 128, 140, 144; unchanged, 91, 92, 109, 112, 115,
119, 153
Nitrogen content of plants, 50, 98-99,186
Northern pike, blindness in, 146-147
Northern puffer : LCm 42; mortality, 43
Northern quahog, residues in, 24
Oak damaged, 99
Oat: aphids on, &7 ; nematodes on, 97
Ocean perch, residues in, 168
Odonata. Sec Damselfly; Dragonfly
Oil content in seeds, 5, 50
Old-field mouse unaffected, 9
Old-squaw duck, residues in, 165
Oligochaete: biological concentration in, 151; populations
decreased, 88, 96, 116, 123; populations increased, 104,
116, 122; populations unaffected, 63, 72. See also Earth-
worm
Omnivorous bird, residues in, 164
Omycete growth reduced, 148
Onion, residues in, 51
Orchard: bird mortality in, 61, 62
beneficial arthropods in, affected by: captan, 138-
139; copper sulfate, 141; dichlone, 144; ferbam, 147 ;
glyodin, 148; lime sulfur, 149; sulfur, 155; thiram, 156;
zineb, 158
Oregon junco, LD50, 66
Oriental fruit moth, 25
Orthoptera populations reduced, 38. See also Cricket ;
Grasshopper
Osprey: eggshell weight decreased, 17-18; residues in,
165
Ostracod populations increased, 141
Outbreaks caused by insecticide use, 26
Ovarian development, 24
Oviposiiton: prevented, 72; rate reduced, 25
Ovulation time, 17, 179
Owl: mortality, 32; residues in, 150,164,165, 167
Oxygen level in water, 106
Oyster: biological concentration in, 44, 50, 53, 57, 180;
EO50, 10, 130; growth reduced, 5, 72; population re-
duced, 72; residues in, 24, 28, 169, 170. See also Crested
oyster; Eastern oyster
Pacific oyster: BC50,10; residules in, 24,169
Pacific spider mite, population increased, 25
Palatability, 98
Paralysis: in brown shrimp, 85, 88, 96, 101, 122; in crab,
11; in white shrimp, 109
Parasitization reduced, 25,147,152,153
Parsnip palatability, 98
Partridge, residues in, 150. See also Chukar partridge;
Gray partridge
Parula warbler population reduced, 19
Pathological lesion, 95
Pauropoda population reduced, 5
Pea: root-rot index, 143; yield reduced, 26, 51; yield un-
affected, 147, 155
Peach aphid population outbreak, 68
Peanut: biological concentration in, 37, 50; residues in,
5
214
-------
Pelican: biological concentration in, 73; correlation be-
tween residues and eggshell thinning in, 18. See also
Brown pelican
Penguin. See Adelie penguin, Chinstrap penguin
Perch: mortality, 141; residues in, 168. Sec also Yellow
perch
Peregrine falcon: eggshell weight decreased, 17-18; resi-
dues in, 165, 166
Periphyton, biological concentration in, 73
Persistence: in environment, 181; in forest habitat, 45, 46,
171; in plants, 11, 106; in ponds, 100, 104; in sediment,
100; of phytotoxic residues, 86,101
• in fish, of: azinphos-metliyl, 8; 2, 4-D, 95; diazinon,
30; dieldrin, 35; diquat, 104; dursban, 41; endothall,
108; heptachlor, 49; lindane, 51; malathion, 54; para-
thion, 62; simazine, 123; sodium arsenite, 124
- in soil, of: aldrin, 6; amiben, 85; amitrole,
don, 65; picloram, 118; silvex, 121; simazine, 123;
SMDC, 155; 2,4,5-T, 126; TDE, 68; terpene polychlori-
nates, 70; tetradifon, 70; toxaphene, 71; zectran, 75
LDso to: abate, 3 ; aldrin, 4; aminocarb, 6; azin-
aminonium thioeyanate, 86; AMS, 87; atrazine, 88;
barban, 89; BHC, 53; cacodylic acid, 90; oaptan, 139;
carbophenothion, 12; CDAA, 90; ODBC, 91; chloranil,
139; chlordane, 14; chlorpropham, 92; 4-CPA, 92; 2,
4-D, 100; dalapon, 101; DDT, 28, 171; demeton, 29;
Dexon, 143; diazinon, 30; dicamba, 102; dichlobenil,
104; dichlorprop, 104; dieldrin, 37; Dilan, 37; dimeth-
oate, 38; disulfoton, 39; diuron, 106; DMTT, 145;
DNBP, 108; DNOC, 40; endrin, 44; EPN, 45; EPTC,
109; fenac 110; fenuron, 111; ferbam. 147 ; formalin,
148; heptachlor, 50; hydroxymercuriehlorophenol, 149;
isodrin, 50; lead arsenate, 51; linuron, 112; malathion,
55; maleic hydrazide, 112; MCPA, 113; MCTB, 114;
mercury compound, 152; monuron, 115; nabam, 153;
neburon, 116; parathion, 63; PCNB, 153; POP, 117;
phorate, 65; picloram, 119; prometone, 119; prometryne,
120; propazine, 120; propham, 120 ; Sesone, 121; silvex,
123; simazine, 124 ; SMDC, 155; sodium chlorate, 125 ;
2, 4, 5-T, 127; 2, 3, 6-TBA, 128; TCA, 128; thiourea, 156;
thiram, 157; toxaphene, 73, 74; trifluralin, 129; zineb,
158; ziram, 158
in water, 171-172; of amitrole, 86; Cytrol Ami-
trole-T, 92; dichlobenil, 104; diehlorros, 31; diquat, 105 ;
paraoxon, 61; parathion, 63 ; trichlorfon, 74
Petrel residues in, 166,167-168
Phantom midge: populations decreased, 88, 96, 125; pop-
ulations increased, 141
Pheasant: behavioral changes, 34; lethal dose, 40, 107;
mortality, 16-17, 33, 42, 100; poisoned, 107; population
reduced, 29; repellence of, 140, 149; reproduction, 33,
34, 71, 150, 179; resistance in, 177; unaffected, 40, 46,
62,139,150; weight loss, 71
— LCta to: abate, 3; aldrin, 4; amitrole, 86; Arochlor,
7; atrazine, 87; azinphos-methyl, 8; cadmium succinate,
138; captan, 138; carbaryl, 9-10; chlordane, 12; couma-
phos, 15; 2,4-D, 93; dalapon, 100; DDE, 16; DDT, 16;
demeton, 29; dichlobenil, 103; dicofol, 32; dieldrin, 33;
dimethoate, 38; diquat, 104 ; disulfoton, 39; diuron, 105-
106; endosulfan, 41; endrin, 42; EPN, 44-45; fenac,
109; fenitrothion, 45; fensulfothion, 46; fenthion, 46;
fenuron, 110; heptachlor, 47; lindane, 51; malathion, 53 ;
mercury compound, 150; methoxychlor, 56; mirex, 58;
monuron, 114; nabam, 152; naled, 59; parathion, 61;
Paris green, 64; perthane, 64; phorate, 64; phosphami-
phos-methyl, 8; carbaryl, 9; carbofuran, 11-12; copper
sulfate, 141; cyano(methylmercuri)guanidine, 142;
2,4-D, 93; DDE, 16; DDT, 16; demeton, 29; diazinon, 29 ;
dicainba, 102; dichlobenil, 103 ; dichlorvos, 31; dicroto-
phos, 32 ; dieldrin, 33; dioxathion, 38; dursban, 40; en-
drin, 42; EPN, 44 ; fenthion, 46; gardona, 47; mercury
compound, 150; mevinphos, 57; monocrotophos, 59;
nabam, 152; nicotine sulfate, 60; oxydemeton-methyl,
60; parathion, 61; PCP, 117; phorate, 64; picloram, 118;
propoxur, 66 ; rotenone, 67; TDE, 16 ; TEPP, 69; thirani,
156; toxapliene, 70, 71; triflnralin, 128; zectran, 75;
zineb, 157
residues in, 164, 166, 167; in eggs, 150, 166; in fat,
20,166; in liver, 150-151
Photosynthesis, 27
Phytoplankton: affected, 105; growth, 27, 97; mortality,
115, 116; residues in, 27, 171; unaffected, 123, 125; up-
take of DDT rapid, 27
• productivity: unchanged, 109, 113; reduced by
aldrin, 5 ; chlordane, 13; DDT, 27 ; dieldrin, 36 ; diquat,
105; diuron, 106; Dyrene, 146; endrin, 43; ferbam, 147;
folpet, 148; lindane, 52-53; methoxychlor, 57 ; mirex, 58;
paraquat, 117; silvex, 123; toxaphene, 73
Phytotoxic residues, 86,101
Pickerel, toxicity to, 141
Pigeon (Coltimba livid) : residues in, 150, 164; steroid
metabolism, 17, 33
LDM to: abate, 3; carbaryl, 9; 2,4-D, 93; DDT, 16 ;
demeton, 29; dicrotophos, 32 dieldrin, 33; drusban, 40;
endrin, 42; EPN, 44; fenthion, 46; mercury compound,
150; monocrotophos, 59 ; nabam, 152; nicotone sulfate,
60 ; oxydemeton-methyl, 60; parathion, 61; phosphami-
don, 05 ; propoxur, 66 ; zectran, 75
Pigweed, nitrate content of, 98
Pike : age affecting mercury content of, 151; concentration
in, 151; mortality, 147. See also Northern pike; Pickerel
Pine. Sec White pine
Pine mouse, resistance in, 180
Pine squirrel populations unaffected, 16
Pinflsh, residues in, 21-22, 28
Pink shrimp: immobilized, 24, 52; mortality, 52; unaf-
fected, 90, 119,120
Plaice, residues in, 168
Plankton : biological concentration in, 69, 73 ; residues in,
69. See also Phytoplankton; Zooplankton
Plants. See Vegetation
Plecoptera. See Stonefly
Pocket gopher: diet changed, 93; populations, 16, 93
Polar bear, residues in, 163,164
Polecat, residues in, 149-150
Pollen: residues in, 55; toxic to honeybees, 113
Pond: biological concentration in, 28; bottom organisms
in, 122; dispersion into, 63; fish in, 103; invertebrates
in, 106; oxygen level in, 106 ; persistence in, 100, 104;
vegetation in, 106
Pondweed, residues in, 171
Poplar mortality, 115
Population
215
-------
decrease, 177-178: of algae, 147; American red-
start, 19; ant, 107; amphipod, 96; arthropod, 48; beetle,
26, 38; bird, 65; biting midge, 88, 96, 123; blue waxbill,
62; bottom fauna, 72; bug, 145, 157; caddice fly, 25, 26,
88, 96,115; carabid beetle, 36, 66; catfish, 126 chipmunk,
53; clam, 96 coccinellid, 24, 25, 39, 55; common midge,
87,96,123; crab, 36; crustacean, 36; damselfly, 115,123;
Diptera, 38,122; dragonfly, 115; earthworm. See Earth-
worm populations decreased; eel, 126; fish, 39, 62; fly,
26; green white-eye, 62 ; guppy, 126 ; Hemiptera, 11, 38;
Homoptera, 11, 38; honeybee, 55; horsefly, 87, 96; Hy-
menoptera, 38; insect, 63; invertebrates, 106; Jardine's
babbler, 62; Kurrichaine thrush, 62; leech, 88, 96, 123;
Lepidoptera, 38; mayfly. See Mayfly populations re-
duced ; melba finch, 62; mesostigmatid mite, 26; micro-
organisms, 99; millipede, 115; mirid, 145; mite. See
Mite populations decreased; mollusc, 95; mosquito, 87;
mosquito fish, 62; mouse, 37, 42, 53; myrtle warbler, 19;
nematode, 86,101,112; Oligochaete, 88, 96, 123; Orthop-
tera, 38; oyster, 71; parasite, 71; parula warbler, 19;
pauropoda, 5; phantom midge, 88,96,125; pheasant, 29;
pocket gopher, 93; pumpkinseed, 94; quail, 33, 48; red-
eyed vireo, 19; reindeer, 93; robin, 19, 56 ; snail, 39, 72,
96, 123, 125; songbird, 19, 48; speckled coly, 62; spider,
11, 66; springtail, 5, 88, 115, 123; stonefly, 25, 26; tree
swallow, 19; wasp. See Wasp, parasitic, populations de-
creased ; water beetle, 96, 123; water bug, 125; wire-
worm, 52, 88,115; yellow-eye, 62; zooplankton, 125
increase of: aphid, 25, 26, 97 ; beetle, 123-124; cab-
bage aphid, 68; caddice fly, 5, 25; chironomid, 5,105,122;
clam, 116; clover mite, 24; eopepod, 141; cottony-cushion
scale, 25, 55; damselfly, 88, 116; Diptera, 25, 52, 122,
123-124; dragonfly, 116, 122; earthworm, 52, 123; en-
chytraeid, 123-124; European corn borer, 36; European
red mite, 24-25; grasshopper, 96; invertebrate, 26; milli-
pede, 101, 128; mite. See mite populations increased;
nematode, 97; Oligochaete, 104, 116,122; ostracod, 141;
Pacific spider mite, 25 ; peach aphid, 68; phantom midge,
141; prairie vole, 37; red-banded leaf roller, 24; red
mite, 24; rotifer, 141; sarcoptiform mite, 26; snail, 87,
116; springtail, 26, 101,128; two-spotted mite, 24; water
beetle, 88; waterbug, 87; waterflea, 141; yellow scale,
25; zooplankton, 141
unaffected: amphipod, 125; Atlantic salmon, 65;
bacteria, 119, 124; beetle, 5, 125; black bear, 16; brook
trout, 65, 124; buff-bellied chipmunk, 16; bug, 125;
chironomid, 125; coeur d'Alene chipmunk, 16; Colum-
bian ground squirrel, 16; crayfish, 55; damselfly, 122,
125; Diptera, 5; dragonfly, 125; earthworm, 7, 26, 52,
101, 117; enchytraeid, 5, 26; frog, 62; fungus, 119, 124;
insect, 113; invertebrate, 112; jumping mouse, 16; leech,
122; mallard duck, 62 ; mayfly, 96, 125; microorganism,
88, 90, 99, 112; millipede, 88; mite, 88, 97, 113; mollusc,
72; mussel, 62; nematode, 5, 26; Oligochaete, 63, 72;
pheasant, 62 ; phytoplankton, 123,125 ; pine squirrel, 16 ;
pocket gopher, 16; prairie deer mouse, 37; rainbow
trout, 124; redbacked mouse, 16; sagebrush white-footed
mouse, 10; shrew, 53; snail, 122; springtail, 97, 113;
wasp, 61, 138-139, 140; white-footed mouse, 16, 61;
white-tailed deer, 16 ; wireworm, 97; zooplankton, 63,123
Porcupine, repellence of, 86,117
Porgy. See Pinfish.
Porpoise, residues in, 163
Potato : amino acid content of, 98,112; mites on, 13
Prairie chicken, LDw, 150
Prairie deer mouse population, 37
Prairie falcon eggshell thinning, 18
Prairie sharp-tailed grouse, LD5o, 32
Prairie vole population. 37
Productivity. See Algae productivity; Phytoplanktor
productivity
Progesterone. See Steroid metabolism
Pronghorn antelope, residues in, 163
Protein content of plants, 97-99,180
Protozoa activity, 99
Puffer. Sec Northern puffer
Pumpkinseed population, 94
Purple urchin, residues in, 170
Quahog. See Northern quahog
Quail: mortality, 42, 65; populations reduced, 33, 48
resistance in, 177. See also Bobwhite quail; California
quail; Coturnix
Rabbit: mortality, 39, 107; no mortality, 158; repellenc*
of, 140,146,149,156,158
LD3o to : aldrin, 3; chlordane, 12; 2,4-D, 93; dala
pon, 100; DDT, 16; dieldrin, 33 ; endrin, 42 ; lead arse
nate, 50; lindane, 51; malachite green, 149; molinate
114; picloram, 118; silvex, 121; TCA, 128; trifluralin
128. Sec also Cottontail rabbit
Radish, residues in, 51
Ragwort: attractiveness, 98; palatability, 180; sugar con
tent of, 180; toxicity, 180
Rahu fish mortality, 94
Rainbow trout: acetylcholinesterase in, 74; behaviora
changes in, 74; biological concentration in, 28, 73, 105
LD60, 124; growth, 35; morta'ity, 111; residues in, 22
unaffected, 22,106,108,116,124
ECso to: azinphos-methyl, 8 ; carbaryl, 10; DDT
20; diazinon, 29-30; dieldrin, 35; endrin, 43; heptachlor
49 ; lindane, 51; malathion, 53 ; toxaphene, 71
LCw> to: acrolein, 85; aldrin, 4; alletnrin, 6; ame
tryne 85; atrazine, 87; azinphos-methyl, 8; BHC, 51
borax, 89; carbaryl, 10; chlordane, 13; chlordecone, 14
Chlorea, 91; chlorflurazole, 91; chlorobenzilate, 14
chloronitropropane, 140; copper-8-quinolinolate, 140
cryolite, 15; 2,4-D, 94; DDT, 20, 21; diazinon, 29; di
camba, 102; dichlobenil, 103; dichlone, 144; dichloro
phen, 144; dicofol, 32; dicrotophos, 32; dieldrin, 35
dimethoate, 38; dimethrin, 38; diquat, 105; diuron, 106
DNOC, 40; dursban, 40; endothall, 108; endrin, 42
fenac, 110; fenthion, 46; heptachlor, 49; L.FN, 111
lindane, 52; malathion, 53; methoxychlor, 56; metiram
152; mevinphos, 57; molinate, 114; monocrotophos
59; Monoxone, 114; mystox, 152 ; naphtha, 115; para
dichlorobenzene, 153; parathion, 62; perthane, 64
phosphamidon, 65; picloram, 118, 119; PMA, 154;
propazine, 120; pyrethrins, 66; regulox, 121; silvex, 121
simazine, 123; sodium arsenite, 124; sodium chlorate
125 ; sodium pentachlorophenate, 125; 2.4,5-T, 126; TDK
69; terpene polychlorinates, 70 ; toxaphene, 71; tributy
tin oxide, 157; trichlorfon, 74; triflura'in, 128, 129
trioxone, 129 ; ureabor, 129; vernolate, 129, 130; zectran
75. See also Temperature affecting LCBo for rainbow
trout.
216
-------
Rainwater, residues in, 173
Rainwater killfish mortality, 22
Rangeland, changes in species composition, 93
Rat: births, 47; estrus in, 3; eye cataracts in, 47; repel-
lence of, 142
LDM to : abate, 3; acrolein, 85; aldrin, 3; allethrin,
6; ametryne, 85; amiben, 85; aminocarb, 6; amitrole,
86; AMS, 87; aramite, 7; Arochlor, 7; asulam, 87;
atrazine, 87 ; azinphos-methyl, 8; barban, 89 ; benazolin,
89; benefin, 89; binapacryl, 9; borax, 89; bromophos,
9; bromoxynil, 89; cacodylic acid, 89; captafol, 138;
captan, 138; carbaryl, 9; carbofuran, 11; carbopheno-
thion, 12; CDAA, 90; CDEC, 90; chloranil, 139; chlor-
dane, 12 ; chlorfenvinphos, 14; chlorobenzilate, 14; chlo-
ronitropropane, 140; chloropropylate, 14; chlorothion,
14; chloroxuron, 91; chloropropham, 91; chlorthiamid,
92; Ciodrin, 15; corrosive sublimate, 142; coumpahos,
15; crufomate, 15 ; cryolite, 15; cyclohexamide, 142;
2,4-D, 93; dalapon, 100; DOPA, 101; DDT, 16; DBF,
102; demeton, 29 ; Dexon, 143; diallate, 102; diazlnon,
29; dibromochloropropane, 30; dicamba, 102 ; dicapthon,
31; dichlobenil, 103; dichlofenthion, 37; dichlofluanid,
143; dichlone, 143; dichlorvos, 31; dicloran, 144; dicofol,
32 ; dicrotophos, 32; dieldrin, 33; Dilan, 37; dimethoate,
37; dinocap, 145; dioxathion, 38 ; diquat, 104 ; disulfoton,
39; dithianon, 145; diuron, 105; DMPA, 107; DMTT,
145 ; DNOC, 39, 40 ; dodine, 145; dursban, 40; Dyrene,
146; endosulfan, 41; endothall, 108; endrin, 42; EPN,
44; BPTC, 109; ethion, 45; fenac, 109; fenitrothion, 45 ;
fensulfothion, 46 ; fenthion, 46; fentin acetate, 146; fen-
tin hydroxide, 146; fenuron, 110; ferbam, 146; fluome-
turon, 111; folpet, 147; formothion, 47; gardona, 47;
glyodin, 148; lieptachlor, 47; ioxynil, 111; isodrin, 50;
lead arsenate, 50 ; lenacil, 111; lindane, 51; linuron, 111;
malathion, 53; maleic hydrazide, 112; MCPA, 112;
MCPB, 113; mecarbam, 55 ; menazon, 55; mercury com-
pound, 149; merphos, 114; methomyl, 56; methoxychlor,
56; mevinphos, 57; mirex, 58; molinate, 114; mono-
crotophos, 59; Monoxone, 114; monuron, 114; nabam,
152; naled, 59; neburon, 116; nicotine, 60; ovex, 60;
oxydemeton-methyl, 60 ; paradichlorobenzene, 153; para-
oxon, 61; paraquat, 116; parathion, 61; Paris green, 64 ;
PONB, 153; POP, 117; perthane, 64 ; phorate, 64; phos-
phamidon, 65; picloram, 118; piperonyl butoxide, 66;
PMA, 154; prometone, 119; prometryne, 120; propazine,
120; propham, 120; propineb, 154 ; propoxur, 66 ; pyra-
zon, 121; pyrethrins, 66; ronnel, 67; rotenone, 67 ;
schradan, 68; Sesone, 121; silvex, 121; simazine, 123;
SMDC, 154; sodium arsenite, 124; sodium chlorate, 125 ;
sodium pentachlorophenate, 125; 2,4,5-T, 126; 2,3,6-TBA,
128; TCA, 128; TDE, 68; TEPP, 69; terpene poly-
chlorinates, 70; tetradifon, 70; thiram, 156; toxaphene,
70; triamiphos, 157; trichlorfon, 74 ; trifluralin, 128;
vernolate, 129; zectran, 75; zineb, 157; ziram, 158
Razorbill, residues in, 164
Redbacked mouse populations unaffected, 16
Red-backed salamander, residues in, 169
Red-banded leaf roller population outbreak, 24
Red clover, resistance in, 97
Red crawfish, LCw to: carbaryl, 11; DDT, 24; dimethoate,
38; endrin, 43; malathion, 54; mirex, 58; naled, 60;
parathion, 63; phosphamidon, 65
Redear sunfisli, toxicity to, 116
LC50 to : azinphos-methyl, 8; carbaryl, 10; DDT, 20;
dichlobenil, 103; endothall, 108; fenac, 110; fenthion,
46; lindane, 52; malathion, 53; parathion, 62; toxa-
phene, 71; zectran, 75
Red-eyed vireo population, 19
Redfin shiner: LCM, 108; no mortality, 108; toxicity to, 116
Red mite population outbreaks, 24
Redside shiner: LCso, 108; unaffected, 22, 108
Red-wing blackbird reproduction reduced, 12, 71
Refoliation of tropical forest, 119
Reindeer: abortion in, 93; herd killed, 93 ; residues in, 149
Repellence of: birds, 40, 156; blackbird, 139, 143, 158;
bobwhite quail, 150; coccinellid, 25; cottontail rabbit, 60,
93, 140-141, 155; cow, 93, 107, 117; livestock, 86; mead-
owlark, 149, 150; mouse, 142, 156; pheasant, 140, 149;
porcupine, 86, 117; rabbit, 140, 146, 149, 156, 158; rat,
142; rodent, 141,148,158; woodchuck, 158
Reproduction: increased, 97, 179; affected by mercury
poisoning, 1,50; unaffected, 91, 93, 113, 118, 126, 127. See
also Birth ; Egg; Eggshell; Hatchability
impaired in: bald eagle, 17; black tern, 71; blue-
winged teal, 12; bobwhite quail, 71, 179; brown peli-
can, 20, 179; chicken, 125, 179 ; coot, 12, 71; cotton rat,
9; coturiiix, 18; golden eagle, 34; guppy, 43; herring
gull, 20; lake trout, 22; mallard duck, 68, 86, 93, 100,
121, 179; pheasant, 33, 34, 71, 179; red-wing blackbird,
12, 71; shoveller, 12 ; sora, 71
Reproductive organs, residues in, 168
Reservoir, biological concentration in, 99
Residues, 163-173; correlated with eggshell thickness, 17,
18
Resistance in: black bullhead, 4-5, 21, 35, 43, 72; blue-
gill, 4, 35, 43, 72, 106; blue-green algae, 141; coccinellid,
25; creeping thistle, 100; frog, 180; golden shiner, 4, 35,
40-41, 43, 72; green sunflsh, 4, 35, 40-41, 43, 72; honey-
bee, 25-26; insects, 26; mites, 26, 180; mosquito fish. See
Mosquito fish, resistance in; mouse, 16, 42, 180; pheas-
ant, 177; plants, 180; quail, 177; rye, 27
Respiration in bacteria, 127
Rhubarb, no residues in, 170
Rice stemborer growth stimulated, 97,179
Ring-billed duck, residues in, 165
Ring-billed gull, residues in, 167-168
Ringdove: egg-laying delayed, 18; eggshell weight, 18;
estradiol in blood of, 18
Robin: biological concentration in, 28, 180; populations
reduced, 19, 56; residues in, 19
Rockfish, residues in, 168
Rodent, repellence of, 141,148,158
Roe deer, residues in, 149
Root rot decreased, 143
Rotifer populations increased, 141
Round-leafed mallow palatability, 98
Ruffed grouse habitat improved, 126
Russian pigweed, nitrate content of, 98
Rye: growth depressed, 26; mortality, 27; resistance in,
27 ; yield decreased, 52
Sagebrush: mortality, 99; residues in, 171
Sagebrush white-footed mouse populations unaffected, 16
Salamander, residues in, 169
217
-------
Salinity, higher level preferred, 21,179
Salmon: (preferred warmer water, 21, 179; LCK, 86, 106,
108, 114, 121, 144; residues in, 22; unaffected, 108. Sec
also Atlantic salmon; Chinook salmon; Coho salmon;
Landlocked salmon ; Silver salmon
Salmonberry, no residues in, 170
Sand shrimp, LCso to : aldrin, 5; DDT, 24; dichlorvos, 32;
dieldrin, 36; dioxathion, 39; endrin, 44; heptachlor, 49;
lindane, 52; malathion, 54; methoxychlor, 57; mevin-
phos, 58; parathion, 63
Saprophytic microorganisms, growth stimulated, 99
Sarcoptiform mite populations increased, 26
Scale. See Cottony -cushion scale; Yellow scale
Scarlet oak damaged, 99
Sea bird, residues in, 164
Seal, residues in, 163
Sealion, residues in, 163
Sea slick, residues in, 172
Sea urchin, residues in, 170
Sediment, resdiues in, 27,100,151,172
Seed: diffusion from coat to fruit, 151; germination in-
hibited, 101
Sensitivity in: fatty animals, 22; fish, 22; insect predators
and parasites, 23
Serviceberry mortality, 99
Sharp-tailed grouse, LDw to: earbaryl, 9; demeton, 29;
mevinphos, 57; naled, 59; parathion, 61; toxaphene, 71;
zectran, 75
Sheep: behavioral changes In, 33, 178; LD«o, 50, 98;
poisoned, 141; residues in, 167
Sheepshead mortality, 22
Shellfish ; residues in, 169; sensitivity, 117
Shiner. See Redfin shiner; Bedside shiner; Taillight
shiner
Shiner perch, LCM, 10
Shore bird, residues in, 166
Shore crab, LCso, 11
Short-spired purple snail, residues in, 170
Shoveller reproduction stopped, 12
Shrew populations unaffected, 53
Shrimp : LCso 11; mortality, 111. See also Brown shrimp;
Grass shrimp; Pink shrimp; Sand shrimp; White
shrimp
Shrub, residues in, 171
Silver sagebrush mortality, 99
Silver salmon, behavioral changes in, 94,126
Silverside mortality, 22
Skin change, 7
Skua, residues in, 165
Slub: biological concentration in, 28; residues in, 169, 170
Smallmouth bass survived a concentration of: amitrole,
86; copper sulfate, 141; 2,4-D, 94; dalapon, 100; dichlo-
benil, 103; diquat, 104; endothall, 108; fenuron-TCA,
111; monuron, 114-115; silvex, 122
Smartweed, nitrate content of, 98
Smelt. See American smelt
Snail: biological concentration in, 151; mortality, 40, 118;
populations decreased, 39, 72, 96, 123, 125; populations
increased, 87, 116; residues in, 170, 172; unaffected, 122
Snap bean, residues in, 51
Snovvberry, aerial portions affected, 99
Snowbrush, aerail, portion affected, 99
Soft-shell clam: mortality, 95; unaffected, 95
Soil: fauna, 88, 117; flora, 99; in food chain, 180; micro-
biological balance in, 156-157; persistence in. See Per-
sistence in soil; residues in, 19, 28, 169, 170, 171
Sole: LCso, 10; residues in, 168
Songbird: poisoned, 107; populations reduced, 19, 48;
unaffected, 149
Sora reproduction stopped, 71
Soybean: affected, 119; biological concentration in, 50:
residues in, 5
Sparrow: mortality, 17
Sparrow hawk: mortality, 34; residues in, 165, 167. Set
also American sparrow hawk
Spawning delayed, 94
Specificity to birds, 48
Speckled coly mortality, 62
Speckled dace unaffected, 22
Spermatozoa in fish, abnormal, 122
Spider: egg production, 23 ; population reduced, 11, 66
Spinach yield reduced, 52
Spleen weight, 16
Spot: LCso, 116, 121; mortality, 43; unaffected, 85, 87, 111,
119,120
Spottail minnow, LCw, 124
Springtail: populations decreased, 5, 88, 115, 123; popula-
tions increased, 26, 101, 128; populations unaffected, 97,
113
Squirrel populations unaffected, 16
Starling, residues In, 166-167
Starry flounder, residues in, 168
Steroid metabolism, 17, 33
Stickleback : LCso, 10,129; survival, 142
Stonefly: mortality, 122; populations reduced, 25, 26; resi-
dues in, 169; survival, 107; unaffected, 101,117
ECso to : azinphos-methyl, 9; DDT, 23; dieldrin, 36;
endrin, 43; heptachlor, 49; lindane, 52; pyrethrins, 67
• LCso to: abate, 3; aldrin, 5; allethrin, 6; azide, 88;
azinphos-methyl, 8; captafol, 138; earbaryl, 11; chlor-
dane, 13 ; chloronitropropane, 140; 2,4-D, 96; DDT, 24;
DEF, 102; Dexon, 143; diazinon, 30; dichlobenil, 103;
dichlorvos, 32 ; dicofol, 32 ; dicrotophos, 33 ; dieldrin, 36;
dimethoate, 38; disulfoton, 39; diuron, 107; DNOC, 40;
dursban, 41; endosulfan, 42; endrin, 44; ethion, 45;
fenac, 110; fenthion, 47; heptachlor, 49 ; lindane, 52;
malathion, 54; methoxychlor, 57; mevinphos, 58; moli-
nate, 114 ; naled, 60; naphtha, 115 ; ovex, 60; oxydeme-
ton-methyl, 60; parathion, 63 ; phosphamidon, 65; piclo-
ram, 118; propoxur, 66; pyrethrins, 67; rotenone, 68;
silvex, 122; simazine, 123; sodium arsenite, 124; TDE,
69; terpene polychlorinates, 70; toxaphene, 73; trichlor-
fon, 74; trifluralin, 129 ; zectran, 75
Stork, residues in, 150
Striped bass, LCso to: copper sulfate, 141; diquat, 105;
diuron, 106; formalin, 148; oxytetracycline, 153; potas-
sium permanganate, 154; simazine, 123; tetracycline
hydrochloride, 156; trichlorfon, 74
Striped mullet: LCso, 58; mortality, 22
Sucker mortality, 22, 141
Sudan grass, hydrocyanic acid content of, 98, 113, 127, 180
Sugar content of plants, ©8, 180
Sugar beet: amino acid content of, 98, 112 ; malformation.
98 ; nitrate content of, 98,180
218
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mfish, biological concentration in, 99, 103, 105. See also
Bluegill; Pumpkinseed; Redear sunfish
mflower: palatability, 98; residues in, 6
vallow populations reduced, 19
rcamore susceptibility, 115
lillight shiner: LC«>, 89; survival, 90
iwny owl, residues in, 165,167
?al. Sec Blue-winger teal
>mperature : higher, preferred by salmon, 21,179
affecting LCw for bluegill to: aldrin, 4; azinphos-
metliyl. 8; chlordane, 13; dieldrin, 35; diuron, 106;
endrin, 42, 43; lindane, 51, 52; malathion, 53; methoxy-
chlor, 56; toxaphene, 71, 72; trifluralin, 129
affecting LCM for rainbow trout to: aldrin, 4; azin-
phos-methyl, 8; DDT, 20, 21; dieldrin, 35; dursban, 40;
endosulf an, 41; endrin, 42, 43; heptachlor, 49; mala-
thion, 53, 54; methoxychlor, 56; naled, 59; toxaphene,
72; trifluralin, 128-129
mdipedid. See Chironomid
>ratogenesis. See Chicken, teratogenesis in
irn : reproduction, 71; residues in, 168
•sticular degenerative lesions, 122
>stosterone. See Steroid metabolism
ilstle. See Canada thistle; Creeping thistle
iree-spine stickleback, LCM, 10,129
ireetip sagebrush mortality, 99
irush : mortality, 62; residues in, 104,165
dewater silverside mortality, 22
lapia : LCwo, 8, 62; nonlethal dosage, 62
)ad: LCso, 90; residues in, 6. See also Fowler's toad
)kay grape injured, 99
)lerauce increased, 21, 42
tmato plant: growth, 99; translocation in, 144 ; yield, 26,
51,147,155
-allocation: 5, 36, 50,142,144,151
•oe swallow population reduced, 19
•echoptera. Sec Caddice fly
•opical forest refoliation, 119
•out: behavioral change in, 178-179; biological concen-
tration in, 36; mortality, 22, 107, 141; residues in, 22,
168. See also Brook trout; Brown trout; cutthroat trout;
Lake trout
•ue cod, residues in, 168
irbidity in water affecting toxicity to fish, 72
irbot, residues in, 168
irkey: environment improved, 94,126; growth, 4
irnip crop yield, 26, 51, 52,147, 155
irtle unaffected, 23
vo-spotted mite population outbreak, 24
rbanization as factor in bird mortality, 178
iscular system, pathologic effects on, 95
sdalia. See Coccinellid
igetables, residues in, 51
jgetation: biological concentration in, 73,151; changes in
species diversity and density, 30; eliminated, 108; per-
sistence in, 11, 106; residues in, 27; resistance in, 180
slvet-leaf palatabiilty, 98
reo population, 19
rus, duck hepatitus, 7
ale population, 37
Walleye, residues in, 169
Walrus, no residues in, 163
Warasubo, LCso, 125
Warbler. See Myrtle warbler; Parula warbler
Washington clam, residues in, 169
Wasp, parasitic : parasitization reduced, 152,153
-populations decreased by: binapacryl, 9; DDT, 25;
dichlofluanid, 143; dieldrin, 36; dinocap, 145; ferbam,
147; lime sulfur, 149 ; metiram, 152; nabam, 152; rote-
none, 68; sulfur, 155; thiram, 156 ; triamiphos, 157
populations unaffected by ; captan, 138-139 ; copper
oxychloride, 140; copper sulfate, 141; dithianon, 145;
DX-111, 39; dodine, 146; oxythioquinox, 61; propineb,
154; zineb, 158
Water: concentration at surface, 28; hardness affecting
toxicity, 72; oxygen level in, 106; residues in, 63, 171-172
-persistence in, 171-172: of amitrole, 86; Cytrol
Amitrole-T, 92; dichlobenil, 104; dichlorvos, 31; diquat,
105 ; paraoxon, 61; parathion, 63; trichlorfon, 74
Water beetle populations, 88, 96,123
Water boatman. Sec Corixid
Waterbug populations reduced, 87, 125
Waterfi?a: biological concentration in, 73, 180; growth
unaffected, 118, 119; immobilized, 137; mortality, 118,
122, 142; populations increased, 141; reproduction un-
affected, 118
EC5o to : aldrin, 5; allethrin, 6; amitrole, 86; ara-
mite, 7; azinphos-methyl, 8-9 ; carbaryl, 10; chlordane,
13; chlorobenzilate, 14; cryolite, 15; 2,4-D, 96; dalapon,
101; DDT, 23; diazinon, 30; dichlobenil, 103; dichlone,
144, dichlorvos, 31; dieldrin, 36; diquat, 105; diuron.
106; endothall, 108; endrin, 43; fenac, 109,110; fenthion,
46; heptachlor, 49; lime sulfur, 149; lindane, 52 ; mala-
thion, 54; MCPA, 113; methoxychlor, 56; mevinplios,
57; monuron, 115; naled, 59; nuphtha, 116; paraquat,
117 ; parathion, 63; phosphamidon, 65; propham, 120 ;
pyrethrins, 67; rotenone, 67; silvex, 122; sodium
arsenite, 124-125; TDE, 69 ; toxaphene, 72 ; trichlorfon,
74; trifluralin, 129 ; zectran, 75
• LCso to: aldrin, 5; allethrin, 6; aramite, 7; atrazine,
87 ; azinphos-methyl, 8 ; carbaryl, 11; carbophenothion,
12; chlordane, 13 ; ehlorobenzilate, 14 ; chlorothion, 14 ;
coumaphos, 15; cryolite, 15; 2,4-D, 96; dalapon, 101;
DDT, 24; delmeton, 29; diazinon, 30; dichlobenil, 103;
dichlone, 144; dichlorvos, 32; dicofol, 32; dicrotophos,
33 ; dieldrin, 36; Dilan, 37 ; dimethoate, 38; diuron, 107;
Dyrene, 146; endosulfan, 42; endrin, 44; iJPH, 44;
ethion, 45; fenac, 110; fenthion, 47; heptachlor, 49;
lindane, 52; malathion, 54; methoxychlor, 57; mevin-
phos, 58; naled, 60 ; naphtha, 115; paraquat, 117; para-
thion, 68 ; perthane, 64; phosphamidon, 65 ; pyrethrins,
67; rotenone, 68; silvex, 122; sodium arsenite, 125; TDE,
69; thanite, 70; toxaphene, 73; trichlorfon, 74; tri-
fluralin, 129; zectran, 75
Waterfowl: habitat improved, 100; residues in, 167
Water scavenger beetle. Sec Hydrophilid
Watershed habitat, 53
Waxbill mortality, 62
Weakness. Sec Chicken, weakness in legs of, 45
Weddell seal, residues in, 163
Weevil births increased, 24. See also Azuki-bean weevil
219
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Weight: gain, 95, 110; loss, 14, 58, 71, 125, 126; unchanged,
93,113,127. See also Growth
Western grebe, residues in, 167-168
Western gull, residues in, 166
Whale, no residues in, 163
Wheat: damaged, 97; growth, 97 ; nitrogen content of, 98;
protein content of, 97-98, 180
White catfish, residues in, 168
White crappy mortality, 106
Whitefish : biological concentration in, 27 ; residues in, 22
White-footed mouse : accumulation in, 16; populations un-
affected, 16, 61; repellence of, 156; residues in, 6
White king pigeon, steroid metabolism of, 17, 33
White mullet: LCM in, 10,106,148; mortality, 109
White oak damaged, 99
White owl, residues in, 164
White pelican : endo- and ecto-parasites of, eliminated, 71;
mortality, 71; residues in, 165,166,167
White pine, translocation to upper stem and needles of,
142
White shrimp: mortality or paralysis, 109, 116 ; toleration
limit, 10, 72 ; unaffected, 105
White-tailed deer: fawn mortality, 33, 179; growth sup-
pressed, 33, 179 ; populations unaffected, 16
White-tailed eagle, residues in, 165
White-tailed jackrabbit, repellence of, 140,149
White-winged dove, LDM, 65
Whiting, residues in, 168
Whitstable oyster, residues in, 170
Wild hare, residues in, 163
Wildlife management, 181-182
Wild parsnip palatability, 98
Wild pine mouse, resistance in, 42
Willow, aerial portions affected, 99
Wilt disease in bean plant, 105
Wireworm : damage to wheat, 97; populations, 52, 88, 1".
unaffected, 97
Woodchuck : repellence of, 158; unaffected, 158
Woodcock: mortality, 48; reproduction, 19 ; residues
47-48
Wood pigeon: mortality, 4, 34, 48 ; residues in, 33-34,
150,165 ; unaffected, 150
Worm, aquatic. See Oligochaete
Yellow bullhead, LCso, 108
Yellow-eye mortality, 62
Yellow perch, residues in, 169
LC5o to : azinphos-methyl, 8; carbaryl, 10 ; DDT, '<
fenthion, 46 ; lindane, 52 ; malathion, 53; parathion, (
toxaphene, 71; zectran, 75
Yellow scale population increased, 25
Yellow-tail rockflsh, residues in, 168
Yield, crop: decreased, 26, 51, 52, 155; increased, 52,
147 ; unaffected, 147,155
Zinc level in bean plant, 50,180
Zoeae moulting prevented, 11
Zooplankton : biological concentration in, 28; populatio
125,141; inhibited, 68, 72; unaffected, 63,123,144
Zygomycete: growth reduced, 148
220
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