EPA 550/9-77-253
PRODUCT NOISE
LABELING STANDARDS
DRAFT
BACKGROUND DOCUMENT
FOR
PRODUCT NOISE LABELING
GENERAL PROVISIONS
APRIL 1977
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Noise Abatement and Control
Washington, D.C. 20460
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EPA 550/9-77-253
DRAFT
BACKGROUND DOCUMENT
FOR
PRODUCT NOISE LABELING
GENERAL PROVISIONS
APRIL 1977
Prepared By
THE U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Noise Abatement and Control
This document has been approved for general availability.
It does not constitute a standard, specification or regulation.
Region Vj :..
330 South L'.-
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FOREWORD
This Background Document has been prepared by the
Environmental Protection Agency in support of the Proposed
Product Noise Labeling Standards - General Provisions. The
proposed regulation will be promulgated under the authority
of sections 8, 10, 11, and 13 of the Noise Control Act of 1972.
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CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction xi
Background xii
Section 1 - Review of Labeling Laws
1. Cigarettes 1-4
2. Products Covered by "Fair Packaging
and Labeling Act" 1-5
3. Food Covered by "Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act" 1-6
4. Products Covered by "Consumer Product Safety Act" 1-9
5. Products Covered by "Hazardous Substances Act" 1-11
6. Insectcides, Fungicides and Rodenticides 1-13
7. Light Duty Motor Vehicles 1-16
8. Passenger Car Tires 1-19
9. Non-Prescription Drugs 1-21
10. Food 1-23
11. Manufactured or Processed Dairy Foods 1-25
12. Butter 1-26
13. Agricultural Seeds 1-27
14. Shell Eggs 1-29
15. Products Covered by the Agricultural Marketing
Act of 1946 1-31
16. Livestock, Meats, Prepared Meats and Meat Products 1-32
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PAGE
17. Cottonseed for Crushing Purposes 1-33
13. Workplace Signs (General Requirements) 1-34
19. Workplace Signs and Markings (Specific Requirements) 1-35
20. Workplace Machinery 1-37
21. Gasoline 1-38
22. Full-Size Baby Cribs 1-39
23. Light Duty Motor Vehicles, Heavy Duty
Gasoline Engines 1-41
24. Refrigerators, Refrigerator-Freezers and Freezers 1-42
25. Textile Wearing Apparel and Yard Goods 1-44
Section 2 - Noise Labeling; General Approach
Types of Labeling 2-1
Informational Labeling 2-3
Noise Labeling under Section 8 of the Noise Control Act 2-12
Major Characteristics of Labels 2-19
Label Content 2-20
Physical Characteristics of Labels 2-23
Label Location 2-33
Rating Schemes 2-34
Section 3 - Noise Labeling - Graphics
Background 3-1
Design Criteria 3-4
Content 3-5
Design Characteristics 3-6
vi
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PAGE
Design Description 3-7
Noise Rating Guide 3-9
Label Uses 3-10
Placement 3-10
Education 3-10
Section 4 - Rating Schemes for Noise Producers
Characteristics of Equipment Likely to be Labeled 4-1
How Sound Behaves 4-4
Sound Power Level vs Sound
Pressure Level 4-4
Relation Between Sound Power and Sound Pressure in
Various Situations 4-6
Sound Outdoors 4-6
Sound Indoors 4-10
Typical User Distances and Label-Noise-Rating Categories 4-22
Conclusion 4-26
Appendix A - Octave Bands that Dominate the A-Weighted Sound Levels
In Equipment Likely To be Labeled A-l
Bibliography - Sections 2 & 3 B-l
References - Section 4 B-3
List of Figures
Figure PAGE
2-1 FTC Buyer Guide No.6 2-7
2-2 Government Brochures 2-8
2-3 Cheese Labels 2-9
vi i
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Figures (cont.)
Figure PACK
2-4 Example of Noise Rating 2-10
2-5 Advertisement for Air Conditioners 2-11
2-6 Advertisement Incorporating Noise Claim 2-16
2-7 Example of Labeling Confusion 2-22
2-8 USDA Seals 2-24
2-9 HEW Seal 2-26
2-10 Mr. Yuk 2-28
2-11 Auto Brochures 2-30
2-12 Complexity in Consumer Display 2-31
2-13 Rating Process 2-35
3-1 Noise Rating Label 3-2
3-2 Noise Control Rating Label 3-2
3-3 Noise Rating Guide 3-3
4-1 Behavior of Sound Outdoors 4-8
4-2 Behavior of Sound Indoors, Sound 4-12
Source Out in Space
4-3 Behavior of Sound Indoors, Constant- 4-16
Volume-Velocity Sound Source on
Reflecting Surface
4-4a Variations in Sound Power Outputs 4-17
as Source is Moved Away From
Reflecting Wall
4-4b Behavior of Souns Source Near a 4-17
Reflecting Surface
Vlll
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Figures (cont.)
Figure PAGE
4-5 Behavior of Sound Indoors, Sound 4-23
Source Out In Space
4-6 Preliminary Results of Measurements 4-27
of Sound Attenuation vs Distance in
Real Dwelling Rooms
List of Tables
Table PAGE
1-1 Federal Agencies Involved in Labeling 1-2
1-2 Examples of Specific Products and 1-3
General Categories Subject to Labeling
Laws
2-1 Types of Labels 2-2
2-2 Conformance Labeling and Information Labeling 2-3
2-3 Federal Agencies Involved in Labeling 2-5
2-4 Examples of Specific Products and General 2-6
Categories Subject to Labeling Lav/s
2-5 Section 8 of the Noise Control Act of 1972 2-12
2-6 Section 10 of the Noise Control Act of 1972 2-13
2-7 Statutory Authority 2-15
2-8 Additional Examination of Section 8 Authority 2-17
2-9 Definition of Terms 2-18
2-10 Various Meanings of Term "Labeling" 2-19
2-11 Common Factors of Labels 2-21
2-12 Content of Labels 2-23
IX
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List of Tables (cont.)
Table PAGE
2-13 Requirements for Additional Instructions 2-32
2-14 Physical Characterises of a Label 2-32
2-15 Location of Labels 2-34
2-16 Example of Explanatory Part of Noise Labels 2-37
4-1 Noise Characteristics of Indoor Household 4-3
Equipment
4-2 Separation Distances "Close" to a Reflecting 4-20
Surface and "Out in Space"
4-3 Typical User Distance Category and Appropriate 4-25
Label- Noise Rating Category
A-l Octave Bands of Equipement Likely to Be Labeled A-l
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INTRODUCTION
This report represents the findings of study efforts
instituted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for
the purpose of developing general background information
necessary for the implementation of Section 8 of the Noise
Control Act of 1972 dealing with product noise labeling.
These findings were utilized in the development of the
Agency's Proposed Product Noise Labeling Standards - General
Provisions.
The report is composed of four sections. Section 1
deals with a review of other Federal labeling efforts.
Section 2 contains a discussion of some of the major issues
involved in formulating a general approach to product noise
labeling under Section 8 of the Noise Control Act. Section 3
presents an approach to the design graphics associated with a
noise labeling program, demonstrating the various considerations
involved in the formulation of graphical requirements. The dis-
cussions of Section 2 and 3 draw upon the reviews of other label-
ing efforts presented in Section 1, the expertise of public
relations consultants, as well as the study of published reports
concerning labeling programs (primarily Federal), and of texts
and articles on visual communication through symbols and legends.
All source materials are noted in the bibliography covering
Sections 2 and 3. Section 4 deals with potential technical problems
associated with the development of specific noise rating schemes;
the exairple used here addresses cormon housenold appliances.
XI
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BACKGROUND
Section 8 of the Noise Control Act states that the
Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency shall
promulgate regulations designating and labeling products or
classes of products which emit noise capable of adversely
affecting the public health or welfare, or which are sold
wholly or in part on the basis of their effectiveness in
reducing noise.
Section 8 further stipulates that the labeling regu-
lations developed by the EPA specify as a minimum 1) the
manner and location in which notice is to be provided
2) the form of the notice, and 3) the methods and units of
measurement to be used.
It is clear from Section 8 that Congress' intention in
requiring the promulgation of noise labeling regulations was
to provide notice to prospective purchasers or users of
either a product's noise level or its effectiveness in
reducing noise.
Agency action toward implementing Section 8 of the Act
has already taken place through the issuance of an Advance
Notice of Proposed Rulemaking concerning the designation and
labeling of hearing protectors which appeared in the Federal
Register on December 5, 1974, 39 FR 42380. Further regula-
tory action specifying the detailed labeling requirements
for hearing protectors will be conducted through a separate
rulemaking action proposing such requirements as a separate
subpart to be added to the general provisions being proposed
by the Agency.
XI1
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Both the development and the implementation of a
Federal noise labeling program under Section 8 of the Noise
Control Act are to a large extent influenced by the overall
purposes and goals to which such a program is committed. In
formulating the objectives of its noise labeling program the
EPA has considered the statutory language of Section 8 as
well as the overall need for and the positive and negative
aspects attendant to Federal regulatory efforts in control-
ling environmental noise. As such, the Agency will be
patterning the further development and implementation of its
noise labeling program consistent with the following objec-
tives:
1. To provide accurate and understandable information
to product purchasers and users regarding the acoustic pro-
perties of designated products so that meaningful compari-
sons can be made concerning the acoustic properties of the
products as part of purchase or use decisions.
2. To accomplish the providing of accurate and under-
standable information to consumers with minimal Federal
involvement. Minimal Federal involvement is to be achieved
by ensuring that the Federally-imposed labeling requirements
are carefully analyzed and structured so as to reduce as
much as possible the administrative, economic and technical
impacts of the Federal program.
3. To promote public awareness and understanding of
environmental noise and the associated terms and concepts.
4. To promote effective voluntary noise reduction and
noise labeling efforts on the part of product manufacturers and suppliers.
The Agency's policy in the development and implemen-
tation of a noise labeling regulatory program is to initiate
such a program in as simplified a form as is possible. The
program and its effects will then be continually evaluated
Xlll
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as to the need for revisions to the various elements of the
regulatory approach being taken. For example, such revisions
may be in response to the need for the more detailed speci-
fication of labeling requirements such as those concerning
the information to be provided or the form in which the
information is presented.
It is intended that complete Agency labeling action with respect
to any product will consist of the requirements contained in the
proposed general provisions along with those contained in the product
specific subparts to be added on a product by product basis. The Agency
will provide notice that it is planning to develop labeling requirements
for particular products or product classes by the publication of an Advance
Notice of Proposed Rulemaking in the Federal Register. A public comment
period will be provided concerning the notification. The designation of
products under section 8(a) of the Act will be accomplished within the
Notice of Proposed Rulemaking for those products.
Where specific aspects of the general provisions are
found by the Agency to be inapplicable to a certain product
or product type, or where the need for additional or modi-
fied provisions is apparent, such exceptions, additions or
modifications will be incorporated within the product
specific provisions.
The general provisions being proposed can and hopefully
will, however, provide guidance to the general public as
well as all affected parties as to the general nature and
intent of the Agency's proposed labeling regulatory program.
In addition, it is hoped that the provisions will serve as
further guidance to product manufacturers and supplies in
their understanding of and in preparing for possible Federal
noise labeling requirements, and as to the possible initi-
ation of compatible voluntary industry noise labeling pro-
grams . xiv
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SECTION 1
REVIEW OF LABELING LAWS
As part of a general study on EPA noise labeling, an
extensive review of Federal, industry, and private labeling
efforts was undertaken. The review was conducted so that
EPA might gain insight into its noise labeling program from
existing labeling programs. Of particular interest were
government agency consumer information labeling programs.
Lists of the agencies and examples of general categories
and specific products reviewed are given in Tables 1 and 2.
This section contains summaries of 25 significant govern-
ment labeling efforts. The summaries are of two types:
summaries of labeling regulations affecting specific pro-
ducts and summaries of labeling requirements set forth in
the mandating Acts.
The reviews are not to be construed as complete,
authoritative descriptions of the government labeling pro-
grams, but rather as interpretative summaries that highlight
the labeling issues relevant to EPA.
1-1
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Table 1-1
Federal Agencies Involved in Labeling
Atomic Energy Commission
Consumer Product Safety Commission
Department of Agriculture
Department of Commerce
Department of Defense
Department of Justice
Environmental Protection Agency
Federal Energy Commission
Federal Trade Commission
Food and Drug Administration (HEW)
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (DOT)
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (DOL)
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Table 1-2
Examples of Specific Products and General Categories
Subject to Labeling Laws
Tires
Electrically operated toys
Charcoal briquettes
Air conditioners
Lawn darts
Toy caps
Bicycles
Car seats for children
Power amplifiers
Refrigerators, freezers
Textile wearing apparel and yard goods
Full-size cribs
Hazardous substances
Insecticides, fungicides and rodenticides
Gasoline
Cigarettes
Drugs
Food
Light bulbs
Motor vehicles
Electric appliances
Upholstered products
Agricultural seed
Occupational safety equipment
1-3
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CIGARETTES
A.
B,
C.
E,
PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
D. GRADE/RATING:
TECHNICAL BASIS/
ORGANIZATION:
H.
I,
LABEL CONTENT:
PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
LOCATION:
COMMENTS:
Cigarettes: Labeling required under
"Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act"
(P.L. 89-92)
Department of Justice
Information with respect to any rela-
tionship between smoking and health
Not graded or rated under the above
Public Laws
No technical basis per se since there
is no grading, but there is a tech-
nical basis behind the Congressional
decision to require a warning on all
cigarette packages.
"Warning: The Surgeon General has
Determined that Cigarette Smoking is
Dangerous to Your Health"
Specified as follows: Conspicuous
and legible type in contrast by typo-
graphy, layout or color with other
printed matter on the package.
Conspicuously located on every package
This is informational labeling speci-
fied by Congress and administered by
the Department of Justice
1-4
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PRODUCTS COVERED BY: "FAIR PACKAGING AND LABELING ACT'
B.
C.
D.
E,
PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
All products for which labeling is
required under the "Fair Packaging and
Labeling Act: (15 USC 1451 et. seq. )
Federal Trade Commission (16 CFR 500-503)
Truthful packaging and labeli..
products
or
GRADES/RATINGS )
TECHNICAL BASIS/) Not applicable
CATEGORIZATION: I
LABEL CONTENT:
H,
PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:
LOCATION:
1. Statement of identity: "name"
2. Name and place of business of the
manufacturer, packer or distributor
3. Net quantity of contents
4. If the label bears a representation
as to the number of servings, ases,
or application of such commodity,
the label shall bear in immediate
conjunction therewith, a statement
of the net quantity of each such
serving, use or application.
Specified as follows:
1. Type size must be easily read
2. Type must be parallel to the base
of the package
Specified as follows:
1. The Statement of identity and the
net quantity must appear on the
"Principal Display Panel".
2. The net quantity declaration shall
be placed in the bottom 30 percent
of the area of the label panel.
3. The name and place of business of
manufacturer .„. shall be conspic-
uously located on the package.
1-5
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FOOD COVERED BY "FEDERAL FOOD, DRUG AND COMESTIC ACT"
A. PRODUCT: Food: Labeling required under the
"Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act"
(21 USC 301 et. seq.)
B. AGENCY: Department of Health, Education and
Welfare; Food and Drug Administration
C. PURPOSE: Standards of identity and definition,
quality, and fill of container for the
purpose of promoting honesty and fair
dealing in the interest of consumers.
D. GRADES/RATINGS: ) Not graded per se. The Act prohibits
E. TECHNICAL BASIS//- the introduction of adulterated or
CATEGORIZATION: ) misbranded food into interstate com-
merce. The Act defines misbranded and
adulterated food. In general terms,
adulterated food is deemed to be any
food which "contains any poisonous or
deleterious substance which may render
it injurious" to health or if it "is
otherwise unfit for food."
LABEL CONTENT:
Food: The following information must
appear on the label:
1. The name and place of business of
the manufacturer, packer or dis-
tributor
2. An accurate statement of quantity
of contents in terms of weight,
measure or numerical count.
3. If the product is an imitation of
another food, the word imitation
(in type of uniform size and pro-
minence) immediately preceding the
name of the food imitated.
4. if the product purports to be or
is represented for special dietary
uses, information concerning its
vitamin, mineral and other dietary
properties.
5. if the product bears or contains any
artifical flavoring, artifical
coloring or chemical preservative,
a statement of that fact.
1-6
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6. If the product purports to be or
is represented as food for which a
definition and standard of identity
has been prescribed by regulations,
the name of the food as specified
in the definition and standards,
and insofar as may be required by
such regulations, the common names
of optional ingredients.
7. If the food purports to bs or is
represented as a food for which a
standard of quality has been pre-
scribed by regulations and its
quality falls below such standard,
a statement that it falls below
such standard (in a manner and form
as such regulations specify) .
8. If the food purports to be or is
represented as a food for which a
standard or standards of fill of
container have been prescribed by
regulations and it falls belov; the
standard of fill of container appli-
cable thereto, a statement that it
falls below such standard (in a
manner and form as such regulations
specify).
9. If the product is not subject to
the requirements of item 6, the
common or usual name of the food,
if any there be, and in case it is
fabricated from two or more ingre-
dients, the common or usual name
of each such ingredient.
10. If it is a raw agricultural commod-
ity which is the product of the
soil, bearing or containing a pest-
iside chemical applied after har-
vest, the shipping container of
such commodity must declare the
presence of such chemical in or on
such commodity and the common or
usual name and the function of such
chemical.
1-7
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PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS;
H.
LOCATION:
11. Labeling must be in conformance
with an applicable regulation
issued pursuant to Section 3 or 4
of the Poison Prevention Packaging
Act of 1970.
Specified as follows:
1. All required information must be
placed with such conspicuousness
(as compared with other words,
statements, designs in the label-
ing) and in such terms as to render
it likely to be read and understood
by the ordinary individual under
customary conditions of purchase
and use.
Specified:
1. All required information must be
prominently located where it is
likely to be read under customary
conditions of purchase and use.
1-8
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PRODUCTS COVERED BY CONSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY ACT
B.
C.
PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
D.
E.
GRADES/RATINGS:
TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
LABEL CONTENT:
All products for which labeling is
required under the "Consumer Product
Safety Act" (15 USC 2051 et. seq. )
Consumer Product Safety Commission
To protect the public against unreason-
able risks of injury associated with
consumer products; to assist consumers
in evaluating the comparative safety of
consumer products; to develop uniform
safety standards for consumer products.
The Commission determines if a consumer
product presents an unreasonable risk
of injury to the public. If the product
does present an unreasonable risk, the
Commission then determines whether or
not a safety standard will eliminate
the unreasonable risk. If no feasible
product safety standard would adequa-
tely protect the public from the unrea-
sonable risk of injury associated with
the product, the Commission may propose
and promulgate a rule declaring such
product a banned hazardous product.
Requirements of CPS standards (other
than requirements relating to labeling,
warnings or instructions) shall when-
ever feasible, be expressed in terms of
performance requirements.
For any product which is subject to a
consumer product safety standard:
1. Date and place of manufacture
2. A suitable identification of the
manufacturer or the private
labeler and the code mark of the
manufacturer in the case of a
private labeler.
3. A certification that the product
meets all applicable consumer pro-
duct safety standards and a speci-
fication of the standards which
are applicable.
1-9
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G. PHYSICAL Specified as follows:
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Such labels, where practicable,
may be required by the Commission
to be permanently marked on or
affixed to any such consumer
product.
H. LOCATION: Specified as follows:
1. The certificate of conformity
shall accompany the product or
shall otherwise be furnished to
any distributor or retailer to
whom the product is delivered.
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PRODUCTS COVERED BY FEDERAL "HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES ACT"
B.
C.
D.
E.
PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
All products for which labeling is
required under the "Federal Hazardous
Substances Act" (15 USC 1261 et. seq.}
Consumer Product Safety Commission
, Consumer protection
GRADES/RATING: ) Not graded. A hazardous substance
TECHNICAL BASIS// "is any substance or mixture of sub-
CATEGORIZATION: ) stances (as determined by the Com-
mission) which is toxic, corrosive, an
irritant, a strong sensitizer, flam-
mable or combustible, or generates
pressure through decomposition, heat
or other means, if such substance or
mixture of substances may cause sub-
stantial personal injury or substan-
tial illness during or as a proximate
result of any customary or reasonable
foreseeable handling or use, including
reasonably foreseeable ingestion by
children. The tests to determine if
a product is a hazardous substance are
set forth in the regulations".
LABEL CONTENT:
1. Name and place of business of the
manufacturer, packer, distributor
or seller;
2. Common or usual name or the chem-
ical name (if there be no common
or usual name) of the hazardous
substance (s) ;
3. Signal word "DANGER" on substances
which are extremely flammable,
corrosive, or highly toxic; the
signal word "WARNING" or "CAUTION"
on all other hazardous substances;
4. An affirmative statement of the
principal hazard or hazards;
5. Precautionary measures describing
the action to be followed or avoided;
6. Instructions, when necessary or
appropriate, for first aid treat-
ment;
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PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:
H.
LOCATION:
7. The word "POISON" for any hazard-
ous substance which is defined as
"highly toxic";
8. Instructions for handling and
storage of packages which require
special care in handling or storage;
9. The statement "Keep out of the
reach of children", or its practical
equivalent, or, if the article is
intended for use by children and
is not a banned hazardous substance,
adequate directions for the protec-
tion of children from the hazard.
10. Specific product labeling statements
as deemed necessary by the Commission
as specified in Section 4 of the
Poison Prevention Packaging Act;
11. On the container of household sub-
stances which do not meet the stan-
dards set under Section 3 of the
Poison Prevention Packaging Act/
the following statement:
"This package for households without
young children".
Specified as follows:
1. Written in the English language
2. Conspicuous and legible type in
contrast by typography, layout, or
color with other printed matter on
the label.
Location of label not specified.
1-12
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INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES AND RODENTICIDES
A.
PRODUCT:
B.
C.
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
D. GRADE/RATING:
TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
LABEL CONTENT:
Labeling of pesticides required under
the "Insecticides, Fungicides and
Rodenticides Act" and related acts,
and EPA regulations at 40 CFR 162
Environmental Protection Agency
Protection of public health through
identification of hazards
Use classification; other information
required
The Act states:
"unreasonable adverse effects on the
environment" i.e., unreasonable risk
to man or the environment, taking into
account the economic, social and envi-
ronmental costs and benefits of the
use of any pesticide (as determined by
the Administrator of the EPA)
1. Registration number of manufactur-
ing plant;
2. Directions for use necessary for
effecting the purpose for which
the product is intended and ade-
quate to protect health and the
environment;
3. The statement "Keep Out of reach
of Children";
4. A signal word such as "Danger",
"Warning" or "Caution";
5. Other warning or cautionary state-
ments as necessary to protect the
public;
6. Ingredient statement; name, per-
centage designation;
7. Use classification: general,
restricted;
8. Name and address of the manufacturer,
packer, formulator, registrant, or
person for whom the product is pro-
duced;
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PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:
H.
LOCATION:
9. Name, brand or trademark;
10. Net weight or measure of the content;
11. For pesticides containing any sub-
stance (s) in quantities highly toxic
to man:
a. skull and crossbones
b. the word "poison" as well as
the word "danger"
c. a statement of practical treat-
ment in case of poisoning by
pesticides.
Specified as follows:
1. Any word, statement or other infor-
mation required must be placed on
the label conspicuously (as com-
pared to other words, statements,
designs, or graphic matter in the
labeling).
2. Likely to be readable and under-
stood by the ordinary individual
with normal vision, under customary
conditions of purchase and use.
3. If the word "Poison" is required,
it must be prominent in red on a
background of distinctly contrast-
ing color.
4. Specified are a minimum type size
for warning statements and signal
words.
1. All information required by the
Act must be prominently located
on the outside container or
wrapper of the retail package so
as to be clearly readable when
presented or displayed under cus-
tomary conditions of purchase.
2. Specified are:
a. the location of signal words
and the statement "Keep out
of Reach of Children";
b. location of ingredient state-
ment;
c. location of skull and cross-
bones and statement of practi-
cal treatment for poisons
highly toxic to man.
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I. COMMENTS: The above summary applies to the label-
ing requirements as they have been de-
veloped as of summer of 1975; later
rulemaking was expected but has not
been included.
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7. LIGHT-DUTY MOTOR VEHICLES
A. PRODUCT:
B. AGENCY:
C. PURPOSE:
D. GRADE/RATING:
Light-duty Motor Vehicles "Voluntary
Fuel Economy Labeling"
Environmental Protection Agency
(39 FR 36890) ,
Federal Energy Administration
Provide new car fuel economy informa-
tion at point-of-sale. The notice
states that the primary goal of the
program is to reduce energy usage in
the transportation sector. Inter-
mediate goals are:
1. To increase public awareness of
factors which influence fuel
economy;
2. To influence consumers to purchase
vehicles with good fuel economy;
3. To influence manufacturers to pro-
duce vehicles with improved fuel
economy.
Fuel economy is not graded per se.
Fuel economy values are given in miles-
per-gallon, and city and highway values
are listed separately.
The manufacturer presents, in one of
two forms, fuel economy information
for the consumer to use in his evalu-
ation of the vehicles; this is some-
what analogous to "energy labeling".
If the "general fuel economy label"
is used, it presents the sales-weighted
average of fuel economy values (by car
line separately for passenger cars and
wagons) of all vehicles with the same
engine. The manufacturer may also in-
clude the range of data used to derive
the sales-weighted average.
If the "specific fuel economy label"
is used, it presents the EPA-approved
fuel economy values for the specific
vehicle configuration.
1-16
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TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
LABEL CONTENT:
PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:
H.
LOCATION:
COMMENTS:
1. City fuel economy is derived from
the Federal Emission Test Procedure
(40 CFR 85); a separate highway test
is prescribed;
2. Fuel economy values are reported to
the nearest whole mile-per-gallon.
Consistent with that indicated in the
illustrative examples published in the
Federal Register (39 FR 36891) speci-
fied are:
1. EPA logo
2. FEA logo
3. Statement of authenticity of test
results
4. Results of tests, as described in
Section D (above) for either the
"general" or "specific" labels
5. Reminder that actual fuel economy
varies
6. Where to write to receive a copy
of "EPA/FEA 1975 Gas Mileage Guide
for New Car Buyers".
1. The label must be of a reasonable
size and consistent in format with
the illustrative examples published
in the Federal Register.
2. Manufacturers may choose to differ-
entiate "specific" from "general"
labels by shape, color, size or
some other readily apparent feature,
Label must be prominently displayed
either on the same window as the price
sticker or on the passenger side win-
dow or other location approved by
EPA/FEA.
A manufacturer may use either "General
Labels" or "Specific Labels", on any
vehicle configuration in their model
line. If a manufacturer elects to
participate in the program he obligates
himself to place a label on every car
in his product line.
1-17
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The labeling program will also include
a public education and information
program.
At the present time a study is being
conducted to evaluate the effective-
ness of the fuel economy labels. The
important information from this study
is on the effect on consumers of this
type of "awareness" labeling.
1-18
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PASSENGER CAR TIRES
A. PRODUCT:
B. AGENCY:
C. PURPOSE:
D. GRADE/RATING:
TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
Passenger Car Tires
National Highway Traffic Safety Admin-
istration (DOT) (49 CFR 575)
Consumer information about tire quality
2 or 3 digit number
**
LABEL CONTENT:
Treadwear:
Traction: 0,
Temperature resistance: A, B, C
Treadwear; Projected mileage, based
on specified test and calculation pro-
cedure, stated as percent of 30,000
miles, rounded off to nearest lower
10% value; e.g., for projected tread-
wear of 47,000 miles, rating is 150.
Traction; Based on traction coefficient
on two wet skid pads, grade depends on
meeting schedule of values established
for both skid pad surfaces.
Temperature resistance: Tested on a
schedule of increasing speeds under
load; grade depends on highest speed
without failure.
1. On sidewall of tire:
a. treadwear grade description
and treadwear grade;
b. all temperature resistance
and traction grades, with
appropriate grades circled;
2. On tread surface (except original
equipment tires on a new vehicle)
and for information furnished pro-
spective purchasers of motor
vehicles and tires under paragraph
575.6 (c) , an explanation of per-
formance area, and a history of all
possible grades for traction and
temperature resistance, along with
a heading "DOT Quality Grade".
1-19
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G. PHYSICAL 1. Sidewall label: permanently
CHARACTERISTICS: molded with character type, depth
and size specified
2. Tread label: not easily removable,
indelibly stamped.
H. LOCATION: 1. On tire sidewall between tire's
maximum suction width and shoulder;
2. On tread surface (except original
equipment on a new tire).
1-20
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NON-PRESCRIPTION DRUGS
A.
B.
C.
D.
E,
PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
Non-prescription drugs
Food and Drug Administration (HEW)
Content and quality information
GRADE/RATING: ) Standards (minimum requirements)
TECHNICAL BASIS/? set by the FDA
CATEGORIZATION: )
are
LABEL CONTENT:
PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:
Labeling on the "Principal Display
Panel":
1. Statement of the identity of the
commodity (established name of the
drug) and statement of the general
pharmacological category(ies) of
the principal intended action (s).
2. Net quantity of the contents.
Labeling elsewhere on packaging:
1. Name and place of business of the
manufacturer, packer or distributor
a. Where a drug is not manufac-
tured by the person whose name
appears on the label, the name
shall be qualified by a phrase
that reveals the connection
such person has with such drug:
such as "Manufactured for "
Distributed by ", or any
other wording.
2. Statement of Ingredients (as re-
quired by Section 502 (e) of the
Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act)
shall appear together.
Regulation specified:
1. Boldface type in distinct contrast
to other matter on the package;
2. Size of type (relative to other
type on package);
3. Location of net weight statement on
principal panel.
1-21
-------
H. LOCATION: 1. Statement of identity and net
quantity must appear on the
"Principal Display Panel"
2. All other required information
must appear conspicuously on the
product's container.
I. COMMENTS: The most important point to notice is:
the requirement that all specified
(important) information be prominently
and conspicuously located and that same
be placed on the "Principal Display
Panel".
1-22
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10. FOOD
A. PRODUCT:
B. AGENCY:
C. PURPOSE:
D. GRADE/RATING:
E. TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
LABEL CONTENT:
Food
Food and Drug Administration, HEW
Truthful information on content and
quantity of contents
Grades and standards are determined in
accordance with U.S. Department of
Agriculture regulations. These label-
ing requirements are in addition to
the USDA grades.
Labeling required on the "Principal
Display Panel":
1. Identity of the commodity
a. name of the commodity
b. common or usual name of the
food
c. an appropriately descriptive
term.
2. For food marketed in various
optional forms, the form must be
identified.
3. Net quantity of contents in the
measure specified for the partic-
ular product or type of product
(volume, weight, count, etc.).
Labeling required on the "Information
Panel":
1. Name and place of business of
manufacturer, packer or
distributor.
2. If the number of servings appears,
a statement of the net quantity
of each serving.
3. Ingredients
a. where the proportion of expen-
sive ingredient(s) present has
a bearing on price or consumer
acceptance, the label of such
food shall bear a quantitative
statement of such ingredient(s)
1-23
-------
PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
H.
LOCATION:
COMMENTS:
b. imitation or artificial ingre-
dients — listed as such.
Labeling permitted on the "Information
Panel":
1. Nutrition information
2. A statement of cholesterol, fat and
fatty acid content if it conforms
with specific requirements.
Specified as follows:
1. Type of letters,
2. Size (relative size) of type
(minimum sizes established),
3. Type must be in distinct contrast
to other matter on the package.
1. Statement of identity and net
weight must appear on the "
"Principal Display Panel".
2. All other required labeling must
appear on the "Information Panel".
The most important point in this label-
ing requirement is the stipulation that
important information is to be located
on the "Principal Display Panel" and
that all other required labeling is to
be located on the prominently located
"Information Panel".
1-24
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11. MANUFACTURED OR PROCESSED DAIRY PRODUCTS
A. PRODUCT:
B. AGENCY:
C. PURPOSE:
D. GRADES/RATING:
E. TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
F. LABEL CONTENT:
G. PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
H. LOCATION:
I. COMMENTS:
Manufactured or Processed Dairy Products
Department of Agriculture
Quality Information
U.S. Grade B, A, or AA or an equivalent
standard of quality for U.S. name grades,
if numerical score grades of a product
have not been established.
Grades are composite ratings of various
factors depending on the product, such
as flavor, appearance and body. The
standards are set forth in the code.
1. USDA
2. Grade
3. U.S. Department of Agriculture
inspection statement.
1. Minimum size for the shield
specified
2. Samples of approved shields are
given in the code.
On package, otherwise not specified.
It can be required that the package
label, carton or wrapper carrying
official identification be stamped or
perforated with date packed and the
certificate number or a code number to
indicate lot and date packed.
1-25
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12. BUTTER
A. PRODUCT:
B. AGENCY:
C. PURPOSE:
D. GRADES/RATINGS:
E. TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
F. LABEL CONTENT:
G. PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
H. LOCATION:
I. COMMENTS:
Butter
Department of Agriculture (7 CFR 58
Subpart P)
Quality Information
U.S. Grade AA or U.S. Score 93
U.S. Grade A or U.S. Score 92
U.S. Grade B or U.S. Score 90
U.S. Grade C or U.S. Score 89
General
Flavor is the basic quality factor in
grading butter and is determined organ-
oleptically by taste and smell. The
flavor characteristic is identified,
and together with its relative inten-
sity, is rated according to the appli-
cable classification. Body, color and
salt characteristics are then noted
and any defects are disrated in accord-
ance with the established classification.
The final U.S. grade is then established,
The standards are set forth in the code.
Same as for "Manufactured or Processed
Dairy Products".
Same as for "Manufactured or Processed
Dairy Products".
Same as for "Manufactured or Processed
Dairy Products".
Butter is graded on one technical
basis (flavor) and then is disrated
for other bases (body, color and salt)
in accordance with an established
scheme, to come up with a final U.S.
grade.
1-26
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13. AGRICULTURAL SEEDS
A.
B.
C.
D.
E,
PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
GRADE/RATING:
Agricultural Seeds
Department of Agriculture
(7 CFR Part 201)
Classification and quality information
Class of seed
TECHNICAL BASIS/ Set forth in code
CATEGORIZATION:
LABEL CONTENT:
G. PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:
H. LOCATION:
1. Name of each kind of seed present
2. Percent of each kind of seed
3. Variety of seed
4. Type of seed
5. Word "hybrid" if hybrid present
6. Lot number or other identifi-
cation "I.D."
7. Origin of seed
8. Percentage of weed seeds
9. Percentage of agricultural seeds
10, Percentage of weight of inert
matter
11. Percentage of germination for
each kind of type/hybrid
12. Percentage of hard seed
13. Month and year germination test
was completed
14. "Manufacturer" - Full name and
address of either shipper or
consignee
15. Inoculated seed must show expira-
tion date for inoculation
16. Grade - Class of seed.
Not specified
Tag attached securely to the container,
or printed in a conspicuous manner on
a side or the top of the container.
1-27
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I. SPECIAL: The label may contain information in
addition to that required by the Act,
provided such information is not mis-
leading .
J. COMMENTS: The most important point to note is
that all the required information is
located on a tag securely attached to
the container or printed in a con-
spicuous manner on the top or side of
the container.
It is also interesting that inoculated
seed has something analogous to a use-
ful life stamped on the product.
1-28
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14. SHELL EGGS
A.
B.
C.
D.
PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
GRADE/RATING:
E,
TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
LABEL CONTENT:
G. PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:
Shell eggs
Department of Agriculture (7 CFR 56)
Size and quality information
Eggs are rated
By Quality (Grademark):
Grade AA (Fresh Fancy)
Grade A
Grade B
Grade C
Dirty
Check
By size:
Jumbo
Extra Large
Large
Medium
Small
Pee Wee
The "quality" grade is a composite
rating of the shell, air cell, white
and yolk.
The standard for individual egg
quality and U.S. consumer grades are
set forth in the code.
within a shield
1. USDA )
2. U.S. Grade j
3. Size or weight class may appear
(if not must appear prominently
on main panel of carton)
4. Plant number may appear (if not
must be shown elsewhere on the
packaging material).
Specified as follows:
1. Samples of approved grademarks
are shown in the code
2. Size
1-29
-------
H. LOCATION: The grademark must be printed on the
carton or on the tape used to seal the
carton.
I. COMMENTS: The grading system uses and does not
combine two grades, one for quality,
one for size. The quality grading
requires that certain requirements all
be met to receive a certain grade.
The size grade sets a minimum weight
per dozen, per 30 dozen, and a minimum
weight for individual eggc at rate per
dozen. Letter codes arc usod.
1-30
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15. PRODUCTS COVERED BY THE "AGRICULTURAL MARKETING ACT OF 1946"
PRODUCT:
B.
C.
D,
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
GRADE/RATING:
E,
TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
F. LABEL CONTENT:
G. PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
H. LOCATION:
I. COMMENTS:
Processed fruits and vegetables, pro-
cessed products thereof, and certain
other processed food products (require-
ments under Agricultural Marketing Act
of 1946)
Department of Agriculture (7 CFR 52)
Quality and size information
U.S. Grade A
U.S. Grade B
U.S. Grade C
This is voluntary grading and labeling.
The grade is a composite rating of
various factors such as appearance,
ripeness, texture, taste, etc.
Standards are set forth in the code.
1. Grade (2 forms of label): "Packed
under Continuous Inspection of the
U.S. Department of Agriculture --
for plants operating under contin-
uous U.S.D.A. inspection.
2. Grade -- contract in plant
inspection
3. Officially sampled date - U.S.
Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D.C. -- contract in
plant inspection.
Specified as follows:
The grade and inspection marks approved
for use are shown in figures in the
code.
Not specified
Processed food has a composite grade,
having a technical basis of both sub-
jective and physical parameters.
Intervals are not defined in numerical
terms. Letter codes are used. The
grading and labeling is voluntary.
1-31
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16. LIVESTOCK, MEATS, PREPARED MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS
B.
C.
D.
E,
H.
PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
GRADES/RATINGS:
Livestock, meats, prepared meats and
meat products (labeling as to quality,
no yield)
Department of Agriculture (7 CFR 53)
Quality information
The grade is a single word code,
"prime", "choice", "good", "standard",
"commercial", "utility", "cutter",
"canner", or "cull"; accompanied when
necessary by a class designation.
TECHNICAL BASIS/ The quality grade is based on separate
CATEGORIZATION: evaluations of two general consider-
ations :
1. The quality or the palatability
- indicating characteristics of
lean, and
2. The conformation of the carcass or
primal cut.
The standards for these evaluations
are set forth in the code.
LABEL CONTENT:
within the shield
"Official identification"
1. USDA }
2. Grade)
3. Grader's code identification
letters (outside the shield)
PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:
COMMENTS:
Specified as follows:
1. Shield with USDA and grade
enclosed (as shown in Figure
in the code):
2. The code identification letters
of the grader shall appear inter-
mittently outside the shield.
The composite grading system combines
a number or technical bases, including
maturity, marbling and quality.
Quasi-descriptive single-word codes
are assigned to the ratings.
1-32
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17. COTTONSEED FOR CRUSHING PURPOSES
A. PRODUCT:
B. AGENCY:
C. PURPOSE:
D. GRADE/RATING:
E. TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
F. LABEL CONTENT:
G. PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:
H. LOCATION:
I. SUMMARY:
Cottonseed for crushing purposes
Department of Agriculture
(7 CFR Part 61)
Quality control (purity, soundness)
Basis grade 100
1. High grades are defined as those
above 100;
2. Low grades are defined as those
below 100;
3. Grades for American Pima cotton
shall be suffixed by the desig-
nation "American Pima" or by the
symbol "AP";
4. Below grade 40.0 shall be desig-
nated as "below grade cottonseed"
and a numerical grade shall not
be indicated.
Based on numerical "quantity index"
(yield) and numerical "quality index"
These are multiplied and divided by
100.
Numerical grade on certificate.
Not specified
Not specified
The most interesting point here is the
grading system.
A basis grade of 100 is set and "high"
and "low grades relate to this. This
type of scale might be useful with a
grade of 100 signifying the greatest
amount of noise energy a person can
receive without being fully "impacted":
a low grade cut-off point is identified.
1-33
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18. WORKPLACE SIGNS (General Requirements)
A.
B.
PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
Workplace signs (general requirements)
Department of Labor, Occupational
Safety and Health Administration
(29 CFR Part 1910)
To identify hazards
D.
E.
GRADE/RATING: j
TECHNICAL BASIS// Not applicable
CATEGORIZATION: )
LABEL CONTENT:
PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:
H,
LOCATION:
Symbols used should follow recognized
practices (examples given). Wording
used is qualitatively specified
(examples given).
1. Colors
2, Proportions
3 Format
4, Sign shape
5. General construction of sign. All
spelled out and referenced to ANSI
or ASAE standards.
Qualitatively specified, except in
cases of in-plant traffic signs and
slow moving vehicle emblems, which are
referenced to national standards.
1-34
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19. WORKPLACE SIGNS AND MARKINGS (Specific Requirements)
PRODUCT:
B. AGENCY:
C. PURPOSE:
D. GRADE/RATING:
E. TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
F. LABEL CONTENT:
PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:
Workplace signs and markings (specific
requirements)
Department of Labor, Occupational
Safety and Health Administration
(29 CFR Part 1910)
Safety
Not applicable
See subheading information below:
Means of Egress (1910.37) Wording and
symbol (arrow) spelled out;
Overhead Conveyors (1910.261) - Spe-
cific wording "or their equivalent"
must be used;
Asbestos Air Contaminants - wording
specified;
Manlift Instruction and Warning Signs •
(1910.68)- approximate wording given
for instructional signs; legend spe-
cified for visitor warning sign;
Bulk Oxygen Equipment Locations
(1910.104) - Specific words or
"equivalent";
Transportation Vehicle Carrying
Explosives (1910.109) - Marked with
class of explosive or oxidizer carried.
Additional warning "Dangerous" for
vehicle carrying more than a specified
weight is necessary;
See subheadings below:
Means of Egress - Size, color and
design should be readily visible and
distinctive from other signs;
Overhead Conveyors - must be erected
in accord with ANSI Z35.1-1968;
Electromagnetic_Radiation Warning
Symbol(1910.97)- Color, format, pro-
portions, location of space (or ancil-
lary information specified);
1-35
-------
H. LOCATION:
I. COMMENTS:
Asbestos Air Contaminant Caution Signs
and Labels - Sign size, letter size,
style and spacing specified for caution
signs, size and contrast of letters
qualitatively described for label;
Manlift Signs (1910.68) - Letter size
and color specified for instructional
signs; letter size, shape and illumi-
nation required is specified for top
floor warning sign; letter size, shape
and contrast specified for visitor
warning signs;
Bulk Oxygen Equipment Locations -
"permanently placarded";
Transportation Vehicle Carrying Explo-
sives - height, stroke, color and for-
mat of signs is specified;
Portable Fire Extinguisher Locations
(1910.157) - means shall be provided
to conspicuously indicate the location
and intended use of extinguishers.
See subheadings below:
Asbestos Air Contaminant Caution Signs
and Labels - location qualitatively
specified;
Transportation Vehicle Carrying Explo-
sives - Specified locations on vehicle.
More important information is specified
more fully.
1-36
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20. WORKPLACE MACHINERY
A. PRODUCT:
B. AGENCY:
C. PURPOSE:
D. GRADE/RATING:
E. TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
F. LABEL CONTENT:
G. PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:
H. LOCATION:
Workplace machinery - tags for hazard-
ous conditions, defective equipment
Department of Labor, Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (29 CFR Part
1910.145)
Temporary warning of hazardous conditions
or defective equipment
Not applicable
Symbols are specified for radiation and
biohazards.
Color and format specified for some tags
("do not start", "radiation" and "bio-
hazards" ) .
Location specified for "do not start",
"danger", and "caution" tags.
1-37
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21. GASOLINE
A. PRODUCT:
B. AGENCY:
C. PURPOSE:
D. GRADES/RATINGS:
E. TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
F. LABEL CONTENT:
G. PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
11. LOCATION:
I. COMMENTS:
Gasoline
Federal Trade Commission (16 CFR 422)
Octane information at the pump
A single number octane grade derived
by method set forth in the code and
termed "octane number".
The "octane number" is calculated from
the research octane number and the motor
octane number, which are in turn deter-
mined from tests described in ASTM
D439-70 and ASTM D2699 and D2700.
Minimum "octane number" of the motor
gasoline being dispensed must appear
on the pump.
Specified as follows:
1. Permanently attached
2. Conspicuous
Conspicuously located on the gasoline
pump.
The FTC octane number is a combination
of industry standards and a standard
set forth in the code.
PROBLEM: The octane number in car own-
ers ' manuals at the time of the rule-
making was the research octane number.
In 1974, the auto industry came up with
a symbol which indicates the range of
octane appropriate for the vehicle. The
symbol is meaningless to the consumer
since it has no obvious relation to the
number that is posted on the gasoline
pump. In 1975, the auto industry decided
to print in car owners' manuals the re-
search octane number, the FTC octane num-
ber and the octane symbol, making no men-
tion of which octane rating is found on
the gasoline pump.
1-38
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22. FULL-SIZE BABY CRIBS
A.
B.
PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
Full-size baby cribs
Consumer Products Safety Commission
(16 CFR 1508)
Safety, Warnings and Instructions
D.
E,
GRADE/RATING: I Not graded. Safety standards are set
TECHNICAL BASIS/} forth in the code.
CATEGORIZATION: )
LABEL CONTENT:
1. Name and place of business of the
manufacturer, importer, distribu-
tor, and/or seller;
2. Model number, stock number, catalog
number, item number or other symbol
expressed numerically, in code or
otherwise, such that only articles
of identical construction, compo-
sition and dimensions shall be
identical in markings;
3. The following warning: "Caution"
any mattress used in this crib
must be at least 27-1/4 inches by
51-5/8 inches, with a thickness not
exceeding six inches or the equiv-
alent statement with dimensions
given in centimeters;
4. Statement of conformance to appli-
cable regulations promulgated by
the CPSC;
5. Assembly instructions for cribs
shipped other than completely
assembled.
The instructions shall also include:
a) cautionary statements concerning
secure tightening and maintaining
of bolts and other fasteners;
b) cautionary statement on maximum
height for child using crib;
c) mattress size warning statement.
1-39
-------
PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS;
H.
LOCATION:
COMMENTS:
1. Size of type of warning (minimum).
2. Style of type of warning.
3. Warning must contrast sharply with
the background of the label.
4. Markings on crib shall be of a per-
manent nature.
5. Markings shall not be readily re-
movable or subject to obliteration
during normal use or when the art-
icle is subjected to reasonably
foreseeable damage or abuse.
The label contents (items 1-4) must
be clearly and conspicuously visible
on the crib under normal conditions of
retail display. The label contents
(items 1-4) must also be clearly
marked on the retail carton.
The label herein is primarily for
proper assembly and use of the crib.
It is important to note that the code
requires that label content (items 1-4)
be clearly visible under normal retail
conditions.
1-40
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23. LIGHT-DUTY MOTOR VEHICLES, HEAVY-DUTY GASOLINE ENGINES
B.
D.
E.
PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
Light-duty motor vehicles, heavy-duty
gasoline engines
Environmental Protection Agency
(40 CFR Part 85)
Provide emission control maintenance
information
GRADE/RATING: )
TECHNICAL BASIS/? Not applicable
CATEGORIZATION: )
LABEL CONTENT:
PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:
H.
LOCATION:
COMMENTS:
1. Heading - "Vehicle Emission Control
Information"
2. Full corporate name and trademark
of manufacturer
3. Engine displacement and family
4. Tune-up specs and adjustment
(specified) along with indication
of what the transmission position
should be and what accessories
should be operative during tune-up
5. A conformance standard (specified)
1. Constructed of plastic or metal
that is permanently attached so
that it cannot be removed without
being destroyed.
2. Letter shape, language and color
contrast specified.
Vehicle-engine compartment; engines-on
engine
This kind of information label provides
not only instruction but also serves to
establish a legal basis for compliance;
hence the contents and stipulations are
pre-established and impressed more vig-
orously than for purely information
labels.
1-41
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24. REFRIGERATORS, REFRIGERATOR-FREEZERS AND FREEZERS
B.
C.
PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
D. GRADE/RATING:
TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
LABEL CONTENT:
Refrigerators, refrigerator-freezers,
and freezers
Department of Commerce
Consumer information on energy con-
sumption and cost of operation to pro-
mote and effect energy conservation.1
Not graded per se, but systems are
grouped by volume. The energy consump-
tion and cost of operation per month of
a particular system is reported, and
the range of values for its volume class
are given.
1. Total Refrigerated Volume: ANSI
B38.1 - 1970 Section 3.2
2. Energy Consumption: Home Appliance
Manufacturers Standard HRF-2-ECFT-
1974.
1. Heading: "Energy Guide"
2. Symbol: U.S. Department of Commerce
Energy Conservation Mark
3. System type, Model No. and Size
4. Energy consumption per month
5. Notice of where energy saving infor-
mation may be obtained
6. Comparison Information: ranges of
energy consumption and cost of oper-
ation for volume group.
1 McGuire, B.J. and E.A. Vadelind, "Voluntary Labeling Program for
Household Appliances and Equipment to Effect Energy Conservation,"
Annual Report for Calendar Year 1974. NBSIR 75-660, February, 1975,
Draft Analysis of Comments to Notice Published in Federal Register
December 31, 1974, 39 FR 45334.
1-42
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PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:
H,
LOCATION:
COMMENTS:
The label appearance is completely spec-
ified and camera-ready art suitable for
printing (except lacking the required
data) shall be provided by the Secretary
(in tag form). Appearance in catalog or
advertising brochure, where the informa-
tion must also appear, is not specified.
Physical characteristics specified are:
1. Size, style and color of Lype
2. Symbol
3. Color of stock
4. Size of label
5. Layout of label
6. Method of attachment.
Specified as follows:
1. Vertical systems: label to be hung
from the top shelf or four feet up
on the inside of the door.
2. Chests: label is to be hung from
the inside of the lid.
If a new model of an appliance is intro-
duced, which is cheaper to operate than
is indicated by the lower range of oper-
ating costs, the manufacturer is encour-
aged to advertise that fact.
The selection of room air conditioners,
also labeled in the overall DOC program,
was found to be so complex that the de-
cision was made to incorporate the per-
tinent information into a brochure,
rather than have the information appear
on the label per se. The EPA has statu-
tory authority to consider such alter-
natives in its noise labeling program.
The inclusion of comparative information
on the label, as an incentive to both
the consumer and the manufacturer to
consider better performing products, is
unique and merits EPA consideration.
1-43
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25. TEXTILE WEARING APPAREL AND YARD GOODS
A.
B.
C.
D.
PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
GRADE/RATING:
TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
LABEL CONTENT:
PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS:
H,
LOCATION:
COMMENTS;
Textile wearing apparel and yard goods
Federal Trade Commission (16 CFR 423)
Disclosures for care and maintenance
Not graded. Maintenance and care
instructions must be given.
The maintenance and care instructions
required are those necessary for ordi-
nary use and enjoyment of the article.
1. Instructions for care and
maintenance
2. Warnings when normal care procedure
associated with that article will,
in fact, if applied, substantially
diminish the ordinary use and en-
joyment of the article.
1. Permanently affixed to a finished
article of wearing apparel
2. Remain legible for useful life of
article
3. For yard goods, can be permanently
affixed to finished article using
normal household methods.
Finished article of wearing apparel:
Label must be permanently attached to
article.
Yard goods:
Label must accompany goods.
The care and maintenance labeling pro-
gram has had some problems at the con-
sumer end. At times finished articles
of clothing if washed and dried accord-
ing to instructions will shrink or run
or become misshaped. Also, when pur-
chasing yard goods, it is common not to
receive a care label with the goods.
1-44
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SECTION 2
NOISE LABELING - GENERAL APPROACH
The labeling of consumer products is an area of govern-
mental regulation that is growing. Certain consumer products
like motorcycles now have several labels, and others are pro-
posed or under development. Unless care is taken, these
separate labeling efforts will appear totally uncoordinated,
and the consumer nay be confused and antagonized by the
clutter of different messages, symbols, and warnings.
TYPES OF LABELS
Table 2-1 lists the various kinds of labels that are
attached to products for regulatory purposes, putting aside
entirely voluntary manufacturer labeling. By "regulatory"
it is meant that the label is put there in accordance with
some established rule or standard. The regulator need not be
the government, nor must use of the standard be governmentally
required. Some examples in the listed categories are:
• Governmental requirements: mandatory labeling
rules established by EPA, NHTSA, FDA, USDA, FTC, etc.
• Governmental permission: EPA/FEA fuel economy - in
this case, a vehicle manufacturer may choose not to
label. If he does label, it must conform to spe-
cific requirements.
• Trade association rules: such organizations as BIA
(Bicycles), OPEI (power lawn mowers), ARI Ccentral
2-1
-------
air-conditioners) allow use of seals and labels to
indicate specific performance measures.
Others: such magazines as Good Eouse~keeping and Parents
have approval programs, usually without a publicly
disclosed test basis, and the Snell Foundation has
a voluntary crash helmet standards program.
Table 2-1
Types of Labels
LABELS ARE ATTACHED TO PRODUCTS FOR "REGULATORY" PURPOSES
UNDER:
• GOVERNMENT REQUIREMENT
• GOVERNMENTAL PERMISSION
• TRADE ASSOCIATION RULES
• OTHER - INCLUDING SEALS OF APPROVAL OF
MAGAZINE PUBLISHERS
INFORMATION LABELING
The various kinds of labeling shown in Table 2-1 can be
further categorized, as shown in Table 2-2, as being either
conformance labeling or informational labeling. Labeling to
claim compliance has been investigated in connection with
EPA product noise emission standards, but will not be dis-
cussed in this report which is concerned only with informa-
tional labeling.
2-2
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Table 2-2
Conformance Labeling and Information Labeling
CONFORMANCE LABELING - TO CLAIM COMPLIANCE WITH GOVERN-
MENTAL OR PRIVATE STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE REGS
• LABELING OF THIS TYPE, WHICH EPA MAY DO UNDER
SECTION 6 OF THE ACT, IS NOT OF INTEREST HERE
INFORMATIONAL LABELING - PROVIDES ESSENTIAL INFORMATION
TO PURCHASER/USER
• QUALITY GRADES • PERFORMANCE
• USE INSTRUCTIONS • HAZARDS
• LEGAL REQUIREMENTS RELATED TO THE
INFORMATION LABEL
• THIS TYPE OF LABELING IS TO BE DONE UNDER
SECTION 8 OF THE ACT
The goal of informational labeling is to say to the
prospective purchaser or user: "Look here for noise infor-
mation about this noise producer or noise reducer." This
information must appear to be -- and indeed must be -- more
than self-serving, unregulated advertising. The label should
convey the message that the contents are "Government approved"
or "Government checked" and thus trustworthy and unprejudiced.
Table 2.3 shows those agencies whose labeling regula-
tions have been examined.
Many of these agencies are responsible for labeling more
than one product category.
Table 2-4 indicates the wide variety of items labeled by
the Federal Government.
Label requirements have been accompanied by public-
information campaigns -- sometimes undertaken by the regu-
latory agency alone, as in the example shown in Fig. 2-1.
2-3
-------
The public information process is greatly aided if in-
dustry itself joins in the effort. Fig. 2-2 shows covers to
brochures — the right-hand one published at Government
expense by the FDA, the left-hand one, which makes very
effective use of color printing, by a large retail food
chain.
The clarity of the explanations given to consumers
varies. Fig. 2-3 shows the label information one should
expect to find on cheese and explains the terms used by the
industry.
Fig. 2-4 shows a catalog entry that includes a noise
rating (2.9 sones). However, the explanation headed
Ventilator Note is obscure and confusing to the lay public, and
indeed, to a sample of acoustical engineers.
These same people also had difficulty understanding the
advertisements shown in Fig. 2-5. Everyone, expert and lay-
person alike, was dismayed that the ventilation quietness
rating and the air conditioner sound rating were not on the
same basis and that no meaningful comparison could be
quickly made. Worse yet, these values could not readily
be related to the sound levels in decibels, with which the
public is becoming increasingly familiar.
2-4
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Table 2-3
Federal Agencies Involved in Labeling
Atomic Energy Commission
Consumer Product Safety Commission
Department of Agriculture
Department of Commerce
Department of Defense
Department of Justice
Environmental Protection Agency
Federal Energy Commission
Federal Trade Commission
Food and Drug Administration (HEW)
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (DOT)
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (DOL)
2-5
-------
Table 2-4
Examples of Specific Products and General Categories
Subject to Labeling Laws
Tires
Electrically operated toys
Charcoal briquettes
Air conditioners
Lawn darts
Toy caps
Bicycles
Car seats for children
Power amplifiers
Refrigerators, freezers
Textile wearing apparel and yard goods
Full-size cribs
Hazardous substances
Insecticides, fungicides and rodenticides
Gasoline
Cigarettes
Drugs
Food
Light bulbs
Motor vehicles
Electric appliances
Upholstered products
Agricultural seed
Occupational safety equipment
2-6
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FTC Buyer's Guide No. 6
LOOK FOR
THAT LABEL
Figure 2-1
2-7
-------
abeling
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Figure 2-2 Government Brochures
2-8
-------
BUYING CHEESE
CHECK THE LABEL
The labels of natural cheese, pasteurized
process cheese, and related products carry im-
portant descriptive information. The name of a
natural cheese will appear as the variety such
as "Cheddar cheese", "Swiss cheese", or "Blue
cheese."
Pasteurized process cheese labels will always
include the words "pasteurized process1', together
with the name of the variety or varieties cf cheese
used, for instance, "pasteurized process American
cheese" or "pasteurized process Swiss and
American cheese".
Cheese food also contains ingredients ether
than cheese and therefore- ,s labeled as "pasteur-
ized process cheese food" Cheese spreads ha;e
a different composition from cheese foods and
are labeled as "pasteurized process cheese
spread". All the ingredients used in the prepara-
tion of these products are listed on the respect've
label along with the kinds or varieties of cheese
used in the mixture Also the milkfat and moisture
content may be shown.
Coldpack cheese and coldpack cheese focd
are labeled in the same manner as other cheese
and cheese foods except that "club cheese" cr
"comminuted cheese" may be substituted for the
name "coldpack cheese".
WEIGHT
DISTRIBUTOR
CURING CATEGORY
NAME
QUALITY
Figure 2-3 Cheese Labels
2-9
CHECK THE CURE
A very important bit of information on the label
of certain varieties of natural cheese pertains to
the age or degree of curing. For instance, Cheddar
cheese may be labeled as "mild", "medium" or
"mellow", or "aged" or "sharp". In some cases
pasteurized process cheese may be labeled to
indicate a sharp flavor when a much higher pro-
portion of sharp or aged cheese was used in its
preparation.
CHECK THE NAME
Look for the name of the article. Do not con-
fuse the brand name with the name of the cheese.
For some purposes you may want natural cheese.
-------
Bathroom Ventilators help clear out.
moisture and stale air.
3 rocher switches
allow use ol ItqM
and blower separately
Of healer witti light
arxj/of blower
Lighted ceiling
Ventilator
with infrared
heater
Cuf'7
>6295
K A comfortable bathroom on cold mornings
without overheating the whole house. Heat
from two 400-watt quartz tube heaters. Light
uses four 40-watt bulbs (not incl.). Blower
moves 90 CFM*. ventilates bathrooms up to 85
square feet. Grille measures 16J4x11>£ in. Re-
quires 14%x10%-m. opening. Built-in plastic
damper for quiet operation . rated at 2.9 sones.
White Lexan® plastic grille with gold-color
accent. UL listed; 110-120-v.. 60-c. AC. 1020 w.
Order vent kit from Big Book. H
42 R 6366—Shipping wt. 13 Ibs. 4 02. Now $62.95
Ventilator
with light
alone
Cut*5
A As at left but without heat. Control light,
blower together with one light-type
switch or separately with 2 switches
(switches not incl.). UL listed; 110-120-v.,
60-c. AC. 220 w. Sone rating 2.9.
Order vent kit from Big Book.
42R6364—Shpg wt 12lbs 8oz Now $42.95
VENTILATOR NOTE: Ventilators are quietness
rated in sones (units ot sound) by Yneasurements
by Sears Laboratory tests. (4 sones twice as loud
as 2.) Noisy bathroom ventilator would be above
6 5 sones.
•CrM = Cubic leel per minule.
Figure 2-4 Example of a Noise Rating
2-10,
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Figure 2-5 Advertisements for Air Conditioners
2-11
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NOISE LABELING UNDER SECTION 8 OF THE NOISE CONTROL ACT
It is now appropriate to examine the labeling task that
Congress has set forth for the EPA. The Noise Control Act
of 1972 devotes all of Section 8 and part of Section 10 to
labeling. Section 8 is shown in Table 2-5.
Table 2-6 is an exerpt from Section 10.
Table 2-5
Section 8 of the Noise Control Act of 1972
(Public Law 92-574) (Labeling)
(a) The Administrator shall by regulation designate
any product (or class thereof) -
(1) which emits noise capable of adversely
affecting the public health or welfare; or
(2) which is sold wholly or in part on the
basis of its effectiveness in reducing noise.
(b) For each product (or class thereof) designated
under sub-section (a) the Administrator shall by regulation
require that notice be given to the prospective user of
the level of the noise the product emits, or of its effec-
tiveness in reducing noise, as the case may be. Such regu-
lations shall specify (1) whether such notice shall be
affixed to the product or to the outside of its container,
or to both, at the time of its sale to the ultimate pur-
chaser or whether such notice shall be given to the prospec-
tive user in some other manner, (2) the form of the notice,
and (3) the methods and units of measurement to be used.
Sections 6(c) (2) shall apply to the prescribing of any
regulation under this system.
(c) This section does not prevent any State or
political subdivision thereof from regulation producr
labeling or information respecting products in any way not
in conflict with regulations prescribed by the Administrator
under this section.
2-12
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Table 2-6
Section 10 of the Noise Control Act of 1972
(Public Law 92-574) (Labeling)
(a) Except as otherwise provided in subsection (b),
the following acts or the causing thereof are prohibited:
(3) In the case of a manufacturer, to distribute in
commerce any new product manufactured after the effective
date of a regulation prescribed under Section 8 (b)
(requiring information respecting noise) which is appli-
cable to such product, except in conformity with such
regulation.
(4) The removal by any person of any notice affixed
to a product or container pursuant to regulations prescribed
under Section 8(b), prior to sale of the product to the
ultimate purchaser.
In Table 2-7, the language of Section 8 is examined
in more detail.
As indicated in Note 2, if the EPA identified a noise
hazard from a product that was no longer made, it could
identify it for labeling purposes, although notifying the
user could present practical difficulties. Interaction
with other State and local governments could be useful here.
As indicated in Note 3, the specification as a group
of all products capable of adverse effect could shorten the
regulatory timetable.
The information necessary to make the determination
concerning adverse effects is already available, in part,
as contained in the following EPA Publications: "Public
2-13
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Health and Welfare Criteria for Noise", July 27, 1973 [l]
and "Information on Levels of Noise Requisite to Protect
Public Health and Welfare with an Adequate Margin of Safety",
March, 1974 [2].
For example, as indicated in Note 5., the METRO transit
system will expose riders and spectators to noise. Home air
conditioner noise can affect both the owner and his neighbors.
Figure 2-6 is an example of advertisements for grass
seed which incorporates a noise claim!
Table 2-8 contains an examination of Section 8(B) of the
Statutory Authority.
As indicated in Note 9., the legislative history shows
that various and sometimes more specific requirements were
part of the several noise control bills introduced in the
Congress in 1971.
How can the term label be defined? Table 2-9 shows
one definition, drawn from a pesticide regulation. It is too
specific for the purposes under discussion.
As shown by Table 2-10, labeling means different things
to different people. Most of the differences come from the
different perception of labeling as seen in government, in
industry, in the engineering department, or in the graphics
or advertising department. Labeling is really all of those
things.
2-14
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Table 2-7
Statutory Authority
SECTION 8(A) REQUIRES1 THE ADMINISTRATOR TO ...
DESIGNATE ANY PRODUCT2 (OR CLASS THEREOF)3
(1) WHICH EMITS NOISE CAPABLE4 OF ADVERSELY AFFECTING
THE PUBLIC HEALTH AND WELFARE1'5. . ."
". . . SHALL DESIGNATE ANY PRODUCT (OR CLASS THEREOF)
4 5
(1) WHICH EMITS NOISE CAPABLE OF ADVERSELY AFFECTING
(2) WHICH IS SOLD WHOLLY OR IN PART6 ON THE BASIS OF
ITS EFFECTIVENESS IN REDUCING NOISE"
"Shall . . . designate any" Note no discretionary
authority, as in Section 6(a)(3) is provided.
2
The product need not be a "new product" as defined in
Section 3(5).
The designated product could be specific . . . (e.g., Whisper
jet 727) ... or generic . . . (e.g., chain saws with
gasoline engines) ... or all products capable of adverse
effect on public health and welfare as determined by
• information on the levels of noise requisite to protect
the public health and welfare (w/o margin of safety)
• the noise exposure in normal use or in expected use.
4
Products not capable of such adverse effect are not sub-
ject to labeling under Section 8(a)(1). A manufacturer's
claim to "no adverse effect" can be reviewed under Section
10(a)(3), however, and is subject to FTC review on the
issues of unfairness and deception (Section 5, FTCA).
No distinction is made between "prospective users" and
"spectators, bystanders".
Again, the product may be designated as an individual, a
class, or all products sold on such a basis (e.g., Fylking
grass seed, all hearing protectors, all products that
either:
Absorb Sound OR Block (attenuate) Sound.
2-15
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WORLD'S FAIR
OFFICIAL GRASS
Architects for Expo '74 World's Fair picked
0217® brand Fylking Kentucky bluegrass for all
lawn areas because of its outstanding qualities. The
World's Fair theme, "Celebrating tomorrow's fresh
new environment" makes Fy^king the natural
choice. Its dense root system knits itself together
to resist weeds, requiring less chemical weed
control. Fylking's greater disease resistance means
less disease and little, if any, chemical treatment
for turfgrass diseases. It has greater drought
resistance, can be cut low as 3/4 inch (even 1/2
inch) and thrive with less watering. Fylking ab-
sorbs carbon dioxide pollutants, gives off oxygen.
It reduces glare and radiation, cools air by releas-
ing water vapor. It fights noise pollution with
superior sound absorption qualities Fylklng grass
blades trap dust particles whicrT~are eventually
absorbed into the soil. A vital green environmental
shield, ask for the official World's Fair grass seed
or sod, 0217® Fylking Kentucky bluegrass, at
seed and garden supply centers and sod landscape
distributors.
JYLKING KENTUCKY BLXGRASS
U b Pidn: Paient 2887
A"Oiher fme product ot JacMin Seed Compdny
IwSJidisftiir"11"11""
Figure 2-6 Advertisement Incorporating Noise Claim
2-16
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Table 2-8
Additional Examination of Section 8 Authority
SECTION 8(B) REQUIRES NOTICE7 TO THE PROSPECTIVE USERE
9 10
OF LEVEL OF NOISE ... OR ITS EFFECTIVENESS IN
REDUCING NOISE.
THE REGULATIONS MUST SPECIFY
(1) WHERE (LOCATION) - ON PRODUCT, ON CONTAINER
AT TIME OF SALE TO ULTIMATE PURCHASER —
OR IF NOTICE IS TO BE GIVEN TO THE USER IN
ANOTHER WAY
(2) THE FORM
(3) THE METHOD OF MEASUREMENT AND THE UNITS
OF MEASUREMENT
Not necessarily a label
o
This is not the "ultimate purchaser" defined in Section 3 (4)
9
Not necessarily decibels - some "legislative history"
No legislative history
2-17
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Table 2-9
Definition of Terms
LABEL - THE TERM 'LABEL' MEANS THE WRITTEN,
PRINTED, OR GRAPHIC MATTER ON, OR ATTACHED TO,
THE PESTICIDE OR DEVICE OF ANY OF ITS CON-
TAINERS OR WRAPPERS.
LABELING - THE TERM 'LABELING' MEANS ALL LABELS
AND ALL OTHER WRITTEN, PRINTED, OR GRAPHIC
MATTER:
a. Accompanying the pesticide or device at
any time; or
b. To which reference is made on the label or
in literature accompanying the pesticide
or device, except to current official pub-
lications of the Environmental Protection
Agency, the United States Departments of
Agriculture and Interior, the Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare, State
experiment stations, State agricultural
colleges, and other similar Federal or
State institutions or agencies authorized
by law to conduct research in the field
of pesticides.
2-18
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Table 2-10
Various Meanings of Term "Labeling"
LABELING CAN MEAN:
• THE WORDS/SYMBOL THAT PROVIDE THE IDENTITY
FOR NOISE LABELING
• THE RATING ITSELF
• THE LABEL ON THE PRINCIPAL DISPLAY PANEL --
AND WHAT IS ON THE INFORMATION (SECONDARY)
PANEL
• THE TOTALITY OF THE INFORMATION REQUIRED
UNDER A LABELING STATUTE
Unfortunately, however, the informative labeling such
as is being discussed sometimes is lost in the midst of
other labeling as demonstrated in Figure 2-7.
It can be concluded, as shown in Table 2-11, that, on
the basis of investigations of both technical (acoustical)
factors and graphics considerations, some basic development
can be common to labels for noise reducers and noise
producers. These common factors will be described in more
detail below.
However, noise reducers do not appear to lend them-
selves to a common label grade, and the separation into a
sound insulator and a sound absorber category seems necessary.
MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF LABELS
Section 8 identifies three major characteristics which labels
2-19
-------
need to specify. They are:
1. Content
2. Physical Characteristics
3. Location
Each of these will be examined in turn.
LABEL CONTENT
The content of the label is of primary importance.
However, the content of the label is restricted by two
considerations: the limits on the statutory authority and
the physical space limitations for messages of readable
size and layout. Table 2-12 lists various informational
elements of importance. First, the noise label must
identify itself. This must be so standardized that it is
a highly recognizable symbol. It can be a word or two -
STOP has become an international traffic sign symbol, and
is recognized in the U.N. Convention on road .signing for
use in non-English-speaking countries. To gain this near-
instant recognizability, it must always appear in the same
type-face and the same relationship - both relative size
and position - on the label. The words NOISE RATING can
become a symbol.
The rating comes next. The discussion to follow will
indicate the way any valid but highly technical acoustic
measure can be transformed into a simple rating for the
layperson.
Since space is at a premium, the next item tells where
information essential to getting and keeping the proper
noise performance can be found, and information for the
technically sophisticated buyer as well.
The manufacturer's name and the product's identification
will be required on the noise label only if this does not
appear elsewhere - it usually will be elsewhere.
2-20
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A prohibition against removing the label, and an Agency
seal would be at the bottom. This authority symbol must be
carefully chosen, for it plays an important role in the
reader's mind. Consumer research has shown that the public
responds well to "seals of approval" and other official
symbols. As mentioned earlier, it is vital that the public
see this label's information as trustworthy and impartially
determined.
Table 2-11
Common Factors for Labels
1. CAN THERE BE A SINGLE "LABEL" FOR BOTH
NOISE PRODUCERS AND NOISE REDUCERS?
Not Completely - But Many Common Elements
Are Possible.
2. CAN THERE BE A SINGLE "LABEL" FOR ALL
NOISE PRODUCERS?
Appears Possible
3. CAN THERE BE A SINGLE "LABEL" FOR ALL
NOISE REDUCERS?
No - Two Major Categories Appear Possible.
2-21
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2-22
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Table 2-12
Content of Labels
1. HEADING - NOISE INFO SYMBOL
2. NOTICE OF PERFORMANCE
• PRODUCER RATING • REDUCER RATING
3. REFERENCE TO PRODUCT INSTRUCTIONS, SPECIFICATIONS
t USE • REPAIR, MAINTENANCE
• DETAILED TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
4. PROHIBITED ACTS
5. MANUFACTURER'S NAME (NOT TRADEMARK), ADDRESS
6. PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION: MODEL, BATCH
7. GOVERNMENTAL AGENCY OR U.S. GOVERNMENT SYBMOL
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
As demonstrated in Figure 2-8, some seals have become
well known to the public through frequent exposure. Even
though all these seals represent the same governmental
agency and are all based on a shield shape, there are
significant appearance variations that can create doubt as
to which is the official one. The EPA seal does not use a
shield, and contains several symbolic elements - none of
which has strong connotations of governmental authority,
In the highly competitive visual world of corporate
identity and product trademark advertising, many govern-
mental agency seals fare poorly. In the following exerpt
from a U.S. Government publication, the authors note that
official seals are often filled with obsure phrases and
symbols.
2-23
-------
LAN DO LAKES
BUTTER
FOUR QUARTERS
Distributed by LandO'Lakes. Inc. Minneapolis,MN 55413
USD/I Grades
Help Ybu Choose
BEEFSTEAKS
lUSDA
PRIME
(USD A
CHOICE
USDA
GOOD
© U.S. Prime-Highest quality, most
tender, juicy, flavorful
©U.S. Choice-Most popular quality,
very tender, juicy, flavorful
CU.S. Good-Lean, fairly tender, not
as juicy and flavorful
LOOK FOR
O Most tender-nb steaks, tenderloin,
porterhouse, T-bone, strip loin, club,
sirloin steaks.
->M( ierately tender-blade chuck,
round steaks
©Least tender-arm chuck, flank
steaks
GPQ 1*66 O— IM-M7
For idle by the Superintendent of Documents,
U S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC
20402 - Price 10 cenli
CO^UME'R AND MARKETING SERVICE
HOME AND GARDEN BULLETIN NO. 145
Ffttruory 1968
Figure 2-8 USDA Seals
2-24
-------
It is interesting to read what the U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare has to say about seals.*
(The new seal appears in Figure 2-9.)
"Government papers quite commonly have seals
of various descriptions because one associates seals
with important institutions. But a seal is very
rarely read by anyone.
"Here we have taken the HEW seal which appears
on all letterheads, and we have blown it up to large
size. The first thing we note is that the words on
the seal are exactly the same as those on the letter-
head. Then we find a phrase in Latin, which few of
us can read. Then there is the familiar eagle, the
caduceus (a serpent on a rod), which has been the
medical symbol for a long time. It is not clear
exactly what the chain means, but it must have some-
thing to do with welfare or education. The symbolism
is not clear, but it doesn't matter, because the only
real function of the seal is to suggest Government
power and status."
Appearance variations in supposedly identical seals,
and obscure graphic elements are bad enough when only one
governmental agency is involved. Having various symbols for
different agencies may be even more confusing. In some ways,
therefore, it would be advantagous for there to be one Federal
symbol that can achieve and keep quick recognizability, even
when restricted to a small size. This would not prevent the
name of the agency from appearing as well. However, no such
inter-agency symbol exists at present.
Ideally, a symbol should have only one meaning, not two.
For example, it was found that the Skull and Cross-Bones
"Poison" label actually attracted children, who associated
the symbol with pirate games and TV cartoons, rather than sickness
"How to See," U.S. Department of HEW (Social Security
Administration) Publication (SSA) 73-10063.
2-25
-------
Figure 2-9 HEW Seal
2-26
-------
That's why the "Mr. Yuk" symbol shown in Figure 2-10
was developed; children (and adults) understand it as con-
veying the idea of bad taste or repulsion. It is noteworthy
that this symbol (and its sickly green color) have been
copyrighted. This was done precisely so that it could not
be legally used for other than its intended purpose, for
example, in a game or toy for children.
The information conveyed by the label itself is not
the whole story.
As specified in Table 2-13, additional instructions
may need to be provided to the consumer, perhaps in separate
booklets, instruction sheets, etc.
Education of the consumer about the meanings of the
various ratings is particularly important if he or she is to under-
stand the full message of the label.
Labeling regulations may have to specify that that
these kinds of information be furnished as well. This
could be done on a secondary panel on the container, on a
separate leaflet packed inside, or in the instruction book.
2-27
-------
Figure 2-10 Mr. Yuk
2-28
-------
The matter of consumer education about the ratings is
vital. In theory, it may be accomplished by point-of-sale
displays, advertising, or booklets. One problem is how
readily this additional information reaches the consumer,
and how likely it is to be understood.
Some people habitually ignore newspaper ads - or go to
the refrigerator during TV commercials. Sales organizations
may have little stake in facilitating consumer access to
information that is not directly helpful in boosting their
products.
By regulation, auto manufacturers must furnish braking,
passing distance, and tire load capacity information to buyers
and prospective purchasers. This information must be avail-
able to take from dealer's showrooms. Without exception,
manufacturers do not combine this with their full-color
brochures, but present it in a separate, plain brochure filled
with data for different models and different optional equip-
ment. An example is shown on the left of Figure 2-11.
Neither industry nor government is happy with this outcome,
and there appear to be few buyers who have found this bro-
chure, and fewer still who found it understandable and
useful.
In contrast, the brochure on the right of Figure 2-11
has received wide readership with good reader comprehension.
Cars of many makes are compared and the meaning of the test
results is explained in simple terms. Dealers whose cars
do well often have these brochures prominently displayed in
their showrooms.
Unfortunately, as demonstrated in Figure 2-12, some
consumer education literature and displays, although color-
ful and potentially informative, are so complex that most
consumers are not likely to take the trouble to understand
them.
2-29
-------
Ford Division
1975
CONSU
INFO
FORD
TORINO
ELITE
MUSTANG II
GRANADA
MAVERICK
PINTO
THUNDERBIRD
FC754
R«. 3/75
Figure 2-11 Auto Brochures
September 1974
fuel economy test results for automobiles
aas
*y •
C^as*
oi
^r
i*»?
2-30
-------
•iSJP '*?, m 'gate ;M'Mi
CRANBERRY
SAUCE WITH
ROAST
TURKEY
CITRUS
FRUIT
I AMBROSIA
MIXED
FRUIT
RHUBARB SALAD
ICE CREAM
SAUCE
APPLE- GRADE A
APRICOT
PIE
GRADE B
CITRUS
GRADE B
PINEAPPLE
GLAZE
FOR HAM
GRADE CX GELATIN
APPLESAUCE;
CAKE
GRADE C
CHUNKY
APPLE- PINEAPPLE M|XED
SAUCE / UPSIDE- / FRUIT
SIDE / DOWN / GELATIN
DISH CAKE MOLD
APPLE
RINGS AS
GARNISH
MIXED
PIECES
AND
SAUCES
SLICES \ PEACH
AND \ COBBLER
SEGMENTS
HALVES
AND / PEACH
REGULAR / PAS.TRY
SHAPES
WHOLE
FRUIT AND!
BERRIES!
DISH
OF
SPLIT
FIGS
DISH
OF
ROYAL
ANNE
CHERRIES
GRAPES
"JUBILEE" \ CHERRY
TURNOVER
BERRY
PANCAKES
BLUEBERRY
MUFFINS
GRADE B
APR/COT
MOLD
BOYSENBERRY
PIE
GRADE A /
PEAR HALF
WITH
COTTAGE
CHEESE
STRAWBERRY
SHORTCAKE
••?• t.
Figure 2-12 Complexity in Consumer Display
2-31
-------
Table 2-13
Requirements for Additional Instructions
ALSO SPECIFIED BY REGULATION:
REQUIREMENTS FOR ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS. THESE
CAN COVER USE, REPAIR, CONSUMER EDUCATION ABOUT
RATING.
• USE OF PRODUCT
• REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE OF PRODUCT
• CONSUMER EDUCATION ABOUT THE RATING
• FURTHER TECHNICAL INFORMATION
THIS WOULD NOT BE PART OF THE PRIMARY DISPLAY
Table 2-14
Physical Characteristics of a Label
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A LABEL:
• LABEL MATERIAL
• METHOD OF ATTACHMENT
• SHAPE AND BORDER
• LETTERING AND SIZE
• COLOR AND FINISH
2-32
-------
The educational purpose here is largely lost. This
explanation of USDA grading of fruit is almost incomprehen-
sible at first. Even after the small footnote at lower left
is found, the diagram is still unclear.
Considerable effort and testing will be necessary to
ensure that an explanation of noise ratings can communicate
to a non-technical audience.
The physical characteristics of a label are listed in
Table 2-14. As mentioned previously, the physical character-
istics of the label greatly affect its overall utility.
The discussion to follow will present more about label
design, and making proper use of these characteristics.
Regulation development must consider the need to specify
physical characteristics, in order to ensure both read-
ability and permanance when exposed to the use environment.
LABEL LOCATION
In addition to the physical characteristics of a label,
one needs to consider where it should be placed. There exists
a number of alterntives (Table 2-15), all with a number of
advantages and disadvantages, depending in part on the type
and size of product, and how it is advertised, bought and sold.
The location for the primary label and for the additional
information required by regulation will have to be considered
for each product or product category. In most cases, more
than one of the locations listed will have to be used.
2-33
-------
Table 2-15
Location of Labels
LOCATION OF LABELS
1. FRONT OF PACKAGE
2. HANG TAG ON UNPACKAGED PRODUCT
3. DISPLAY AT RETAIL
4. PRODUCT
5. PACKAGE STUFFER
6. HANDOUTS
7. ADVERTISING
8. OTHER
RATING SCHEMES
Mentioned earlier was the necessity of reducing the
results of whatever valid technical test is chosen - on
the basis of its relationship to the informational needs
and the accuracy and repeatability of the procedure - to
an easy to understand rating. This process, presented in
Figure 2-13, is part of many ratings for familiar products,
for example, butter grades or tire mileage. Although this
is usually thought of as a single, and perhaps simple,
process called grading, it is not.
We start with a measure derived from a particular test;
this test might yield a purely physical measure with results
in physical quantities like miles, decibels, or % butterfat.
The technical basis might be a physiological or psychological
2-34
-------
Ratings are a Result of a 3-Step Process
Technical Basis
Numerical; Acoustic
Parameters
Descriptive, Psycho-
Acoustic Effect
Categorization Interval
Reference for
Absolute Measure
Alphabetical (A, B,C ..
Numerical (1,11...)
(100,90,80...)
Symbol (* **,...)
(N,N,N . . .)
(Q,Q,Q ...»
Categorization
Codings
Figure 2-13. Rating Process
2-35
-------
effect, with results like the dose for a 50% lethal effect,
articulation index of X%, or the fraction of the population
that would get a given amount of hearing damage. In each
case the result is a number on a continuous scale. Not all
different values that can be measured are significant, so
the next step is to divide this continuous scale into inter-
vals that imply significant and noticable differences. For
tire mileage, this might be 1,000 to 3,000 miles; for ratings
of noise producers, this might be 3 or 5 decibels.
Up to this point the rating has retained whatever
measurement usits are inherent in the technical basis (miles,
decibels of equivalent sound level, etc.). This absolute
measure can be avoided by use of an established reference
point, such as 30,000 miles for tire life. Thus a 15,000
mile tire would become 50 (%) and a 45,000 mile tire would
be graded 150 (%). The reader would see that 150 meant
three times the life of the 50 grade, and the manufacturer
would not be making a statement that implied a specific tread
life under all conditions of use. Finally, one may assign
codes to the various categories, although this process is
fraught with considerable difficulties. Is a 90 better than
a 60, if this is a quietness rating? If an A is assigned to the
best product today, what is done when a better one is invented
five years from now?
Table 2-16 presents a summary of a possible scheme for
rating noise producers in a variety of environments.
Simple numerical coding is used, to make comparisons
easy.
Qualitative explanations of these numerical values are
shown, to make these values meaningful to the lay consumer.
2-36
-------
Table 2-16
Example of Explanatory Part of Noise Label
NOISE RATING
EFFECT
115 AND ABOVE
110-115
85-100
70-85
60-70
50-60
50 AND BELOW
USE OF STANDARD HEARING
PROTECTION INADEQUATE TO PROTECT
HEARING OF OPERATOR
DAMAGING TO HEARING OF PERSONS
EXPOSED TO NOISE WHO ARE IN THE
SAME (TYPICAL) ROOM OR WITHIN
450 FEET OF THE DEVICE OUTDOORS
SAME EXCEPT 100 FEET
SAME EXCEPT 25 FEET
INTERFERES WITH NORMAL
CONVERSATION OUTDOORS WHEN
DEVICE IS WITHIN 4 FEET AND
INDOORS WHEN DEVICE IS IN
ADJACENT ROOM
INTERFERES WITH NORMAL
CONVERSATION INDOORS WHEN DEVICE
IS WITHIN SAME (TYPICAL) ROOM
(See note below)
Note: Determination necessary as to the capability of products
to adversely effect public health or welfare.
2-37
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SECTION 3
NOISE LABELING - GRAPHICS
The following discussion contains a set of solutions,
illustrated in Figures 3-1, 3-2, and 3-3, to the problem of
designing a label system which will alert and inform purchasers
about the characteristics of noise generators and noise
attenuators. It is an attempt to present the types of considera-
tions necessary in the development of the graphical require-
ments associated with product noise labeling.
The primary objective in such development is to take the
concepts of noise rating discussed above, and to develop the
graphics for a labeling system which would be easily seen,
identified, and comprehended.
BACKGROUND
We are entering an era of environmental and safety
labeling. Some labels warn us of hazards, from the familiar
radiation symbol and skull and crossbones to the less
ostentatious and generally ignored Surgeon General's
statement on a package of cigarettes.
Other relatively familiar labels inform us — the
various shields of the department of Agriculture, for
example, are intended to guide the consumer when purchasing
meats, cheeses, vegetables and other foods.
Some labels are new and complex, providing the public
with much needed information about things like emission
controls, gasoline consumption, tire safety and energy
consumption.
All of these labels, as well as other useful information
which may appear on products or packages, must compete with
3-1
-------
Noise
Rating
Refer to operating instruc-
tions before use. To main-
tain this rating product must
be kept in repair.
60-75
May interfere with TV listen-
ing in a room adjacent to the
device.
Manufactured by:
Cambridge Corporation,
Boston, Mass.
Federal law prohibits
removal of this label.
/«'•-,
(SB;
^w.-'
Environmental Protection
Agency.
Figure 3-1. Noise Rating Label
Noise
Control
Rating
Refer to operating instruc-
tions before use To main-
tain this rating product must
bff kept m repair
Manufactured by.
Federal law prohibits /^
removal of this label '^SZ2.
35
60-75
May interfere with TV listen-
ing in a room ndjacent to the
dfvicc.
Cambridge Corporation.
Boston. Mass
Environmental Protection
Agency
\
X
Figure 3-2. Noise Control Rating Label
3-2
-------
•4 O Q Jet at takeoff at 200 ft.
Oxygen torch
"110 Jet "vover at 1'OCO "•
Rock band
Inside a subway train with
open windows
Gas lawn mower
Newspaper printing press
75 and Potentially damaging to
above hearing
Central business district
(daytime)
Garbage disposal, food blender
70
Freeway at 50 ft. from
pavement edge
TV-audio, vacuum cleaner st 3
60-75 May interfere with TV listen- f^f) Heavy traffic at 300 ft.
ing in a room adjacent to the Electric typewriter at 10 ft
device
45-60 May interfere with TV listen-
mg in the same room as the
device
Urban environment
(nighttime)
Air conditioning unit ai 15 <
45 and May interfere with quiet
below activities, as sleep
Suburban environment
(nighttime)
Bird calls
^~\ Environmental Protection
Figure 3-3. Noise Rating Guide
3-3
-------
expensive, extensively researched, and well-designed
graphics, and with the whole mass of visual information
which bombards us all every day.
DESIGN CRITERIA
The first problem then, was to design a label system
which would stand out, overcoming visual competition. This
problem was particularly difficult in the face of the
amount of information and graphics now on packages, and in
consideration of the difficulties that would be faced in
causing packagers to significantly alter their designs.
The system, therefore, should be realistic and practical.
The next problem to be considered was the amount of
information which would have to be displayed on the labels.
To begin with, the noise labels would actually serve
two separate but related functions. For noise generating
devices, they would have to announce a "noise rating".
For noise attenuators, a "noise control rate" must be
presented. It was felt that both these functions should
be accommodated in a single graphic system.
As a side issue, but nevertheless an important one,
was the question of whether members of the general public
needed more information than sophisticated commercial
buyers. The conclusion was that although many purchasing
agents or plant safety managers might have a better
understanding of noise problems than the average shopper,
one could not make general assumptions. It was concluded
that the labeling system should assume almost total
ignorance on the part of every purchaser.
3-4
-------
CONTENT
With that in mind, work began to determine the specific
content with which the label system would have to deal.
The first piece of information would have to announce
whether the label was dealing with noise generation or
attenuation.
Next would have to be displayed the specific rating
for the item in question.
The question of what kind of rating system to use was,
of course, very important. Let us assume that one can use
numerical ratings, ranging from 40 to 120, for noise
generators, and 0 to 40 for noise attenuators. The numbers
could be clearly displayed, and with the proper explanation,
would provide an effective system.
The explanation would have to include the numbers used
in the system, and a reference to the meaning of each which
could be understood by the layman. Thus for example, there
might be test which explains that "90 is the level of
sound of a gas lawnmower" or "100 is the level of sound
inside a subway train". It may be true that many people
have never been inside a subway train; however, they are
able to recognize that such a sound is loud.
Including the rating explanation may not be a problem
on large packages, or with large devices, but it is a very
real problem with medium size and smaller devices au;1
packages. (For example, there are attenuators which are
basically ear plugs, packaged in containers befitting their
size.) Accepting the fact that 6 point type -- which is
1/12 of inch high -- is about the smallest readable type,
it would be impossible to get all the information we have
described on very small packages.
3-5
-------
As a result it was decided to include only a statement
of the effect of the rating appearing on the label and make
reference to a complete "Noise Rating Guide", that would
be included elsewhere in the system.
There were several other items which would be required
on the basic label surface.
There would have to be a reference to the instruction
sheet or manual that came with the item, explaining that
the rating assigned to the item was based on it being in
proper operating condition, as expressed in the instruction
material.
Since the rating would be certified by the manufacturer,
the name and the location of the manufacturing plant should
also be listed.
In addition, of course, there would have to be an EPA
Identification, and a statement prohibiting removal of the
label before sale.
DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS
The first design characteristic to consider was
shape -- The information would have to be presented on some
kind of visual field. The shield, for example, is commonly
used to project an image of "official" communication. The
problem is, however, that because the shield is so over-
used, it has lost much of its effectiveness as a distinc-
tive form. Stars or other odd shapes come to mind as the
kinds of visual formats which might attract attention.
Such shapes are very inefficient for containing informa-
tion with the useable area being only a portion of the
total area occupied by the shape.
In line with this, the label would have to be visually
separated from the product or package. It would have to
3-6
-------
have a high degree of contrast so that it would be easily
seen, and not be confused with the advertising messages
and other information on packages.
The size of the label, therefore, had to be relevant
to both the information to be presented, and to the product
or package on which it would appear.
Placement was another consideration. The design would
not only have to deal with the labels themselves, but would
also have to specify the location of labeling on the package
or product to insure that it would be seen immediately.
Next, there was the matter of color. Color can be an
effective communications tool if used properly. It can
help to establish contrast and visibility, and in certain
applications, to communicate in itself. A red traffic
light, for example, communicates mainly through color, and
is very effective.
Typography is an important factor in any design, but
it was particularly important in this situation. Whatever
was done had to make use of space most effectively while
communicating as clearly as possible. Type selection
therefore had to be very precise.
All of these criteria, as well as the problems out-
lined previously, played roles in the development of the
design. The designs presented are not given as ultimate
solutions, but rather as design directions based on tne rating
and other information considered.
DESIGN DESCRIPTION
We will begin with shape.
In many ways, we live in a rectangular world. The
rectangle is the most efficient shape there is in terms
3-7
-------
of information handling. It can accommodate the maximum
amount of type in the minimum amount of space.
To add a slight note of distinctiveness, to save
frayed corners, and to make handling easier, corners were
rounded off.
To emphasize the shape and make the entire label a
more self-contained image, a narrow border around the label
was added.
The next step was to start placing the information on
the field that had been created.
In designing the heading for the label, the question
which had to be answered was "how do you most effectively
call attention to the purpose of the label?" Instead of
using gimmicks of any kind, the answer is to announce the
label's purpose as clearly and simply as possible.
Thus, it was decided to settle on the terms "Noise
rating" and, for the attenuators, "Noise Control Rating."
The terms were in an extremely clear typeface called
Helvetica.
It is a very contemporary sans-serif typestyle which
has come to be accepted as a standard of clarity around the
world.
The next major piece of information -- perhaps the most
important on the entire label -- is the rating itself.
This would be displayed in very large type -- again using
the same clear and easy to read typeface.
Continuing with the design of the label, rules were
used to separate the different informational elements.
These rules add to the boldness of the overall image and,
at the same time, alert the reader to the fact that there
are separate messages to be read.
3-8
-------
After the rating number, there appears a brief state-
ment explaining the meaning of the rating appearing on the
label. The reference to the operating instructions would
be the next piece of information.
The same standard typeface would be used to identify
the manufacturer and his location and could include a
product number. It is felt that there should be no trade-
marks here, since they would only add visual clutter to
the label and create design problems. The label should not
be looked on as an advertising medium in any way.
The present EPA symbol would be used along with the
agency's identification. It should be noted that the use
of the symbol is not included as a major component of the
label because it is felt that it might be misleading:
Although it may be very pertinent to the natural environ-
ment, it does not necessarily telegraph anything relating to
noise, or noise control and could therefore distract the reader
from the principal message.
Again using the standard typeface, the prohibition
not to remove the label prior to purchase would be placed near
the EPA Identification to add to the authority of the prohibition,
NOISE RATING GUIDE
The explanation of the rating system would appear in
a separate "Noise Rating Guide" which could be required as
a separate sheet packed with the product, or as an inclusion
in the instruction manual. It would have a standard format.
The various numbers would be prominently displayed, and
their meanings and effects would be closely related to them,
so that there would be no confusion as to what explanations
related to what numbers. Copies of the noise rating guide
could be required at all points of sale.
3-9
-------
LABEL USES
The label could be used in two ways: on the package
and on the product. It can be a hangtag where necessary.
It could always appear in either white with black or
black with white type, depending on which format provided
the highest measure of contrast with the basic package.
For noise generators which produce uncomfortably or
dangerously high levels of noise, the label could be
required in red and white instead of black and white.
PLACEMENT
On packages, the noise rating label would have to
appear on the main display panel or panels.
To help make sure that the label is not lost on the
panel, it could be required that it be lined up with at
least one edge of the panel and that there be a distance
of no less than l/8th of the label's height between the
label and the edge of the panel.
Specifications on the size of the label with regard
to the overall panel size, should also be provided.
EDUCATION
The system's ultimate success, as would be true of
any design, would depend in great measare on the educational
materials and publicity which surround its introduction and
use.
Through posters, folders, advertisements, TV commer-
cials and other public awareness programs, the public could
be alerted to the need for noise ratings and to the benefits
that can accrue from such a program.
3-10
-------
A good deal of effort may be required in explaining
what the noise rating means, and to how the public should
translate these ratings for their own use.
Noise regulation and ratings are new concepts to most
people, and the noise rating system will be new to almost
everyone. It is thus critical that the public education
program be properly conceived and executed.
3-11
-------
SECTION 4
RATING SCHEMES FOR NOISE PRODUCERS
Certain restraints limit the range of choice for a
rating scheme to be used in connection with the EPA noise
labeling program. Some of these restraints are determined
by the acoustical nature of the kinds of equipment likely
to be labeled; others may depend on the noise ratings
already selected by other groups, such as the national or
international standards organizations or equipment manu-
facturers' associations.
There may be good reasons for EPA to depart from the
practices adopted or drafted by these other groups; but, if
so, the departure should be a matter of informed delibera-
tion and the reasons should be explicit and fully understood.
Subsection 2 of this section considers the nature of the
noise sources likely to come under the labeling regulations;
Subsection 3 discusses how sound behaves in different kinds of
space according to accepted textbook acoustical theory. Subsection
4 discusses typical user distances and label-noise-rating
categories. Subsection 5, which concludes this report, considers
some possibilities for a rating scheme but warns that no irre-
vocable action should be undertaken without further investiga-
tion of how the acoustics of real room in dwellings conform to
the textbook theory on which the conclusions of this report
are based.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EQUIPMENT LIKELY TO BE LABELED
We begin by looking at the typical noise spectra of the
kinds of equipment that are likely to be labeled. In
4-1
-------
particular, we are interested in which octave bands of
frequency for each type of equipment dominate the A-weighted
sound level. We next consider the acoustical characteris-
tics of the kind of space in which the equipment is typically
used, whether outdoors or indoors, and if indoors, whether
it is an acoustically "live" room or "dead" room.
It turns out that these matters have a strong bearing
both on the selection of a noise rating scheme for labeling
equipment and on the procedure for measuring equipment
noise.
In a recent report to EPA evaluating various alternative
strategies for noise abatement [1] , a number of appliances
and items of household equipment were assessed in terms of
the noise exposure for people who use the equipment (primary
exposure) and for others in nearby areas (secondary exposure) .
According to the effective L /?A^ ^or *-^e aPpliance as it
eq \ z 4i j
affects the average exposed person, certain items were iden-
tified as major noise sources, as candidates for labeling,
or as requiring no action at all.
Candidates for labeling [from Table 5 of Ref. 1] are
listed in Table 4-1 together with the octave band of fre-
quency that dominates the A-weighted sound level, the kind
of space in which the appliance is generally used, and the
type of acoustical radiation that dominates the noise of
the device.
It can be seen that, partly because there is strong
discrimination against low frequencies in the A-weighting
but also because the noise of many of these appliances is
intrinsically strong in the high frequencies, the A-weighted
sound levels for these appliances are determined largely by
frequencies of 500 Hz or higher. The appliances are about
equally divided according to the kind of space in which they
4-2
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Table 4-1,
NOISE CHARACTERISTICS OF
INDOOR HOUSEHOLD EQUIPMENT
Equipment
Dominant Octave Band Type
in A-weighted Where of j
Sound Level Used* Source
Humidifier
Floor Fan
Dehumidifier
Window Fan
Air Conditioner
Toilet
Dishwasher
Vacuum Cleaner
Food Blender
Electric Shaver
Food Disposal
Home Shop Tools
500 Hz
500 Hz
1000 Hz
500 Hz
250-2000 Hz
1000 Hz
500 Hz
2000 Hz
2000-4000 Hz
4000 Hz
2000-4000 Hz
2000 Hz
D
D
L
D
D
L
L
D
L
L
L
L
D
Q
D
Q
D
M
M
D
M
M
M
M,D
*L = Live room (A = 30 to 70 sabines): bath, kitchen or
workshop; D = Dead room (A = 100 to 400 sabines); living
room or bedrooms.
M = monopole (or simple) source; D = dipole, Q = quadrupole,
Note: The octave-band noise spectra for average examples of
these appliances [2] are given in Appendix A, along with the
same spectra to which the A-weighting has been applied, in
order to show which octave band dominates the A-level.
4-3
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are typically used, and no one kind of acoustical radiation
is in the majority; all must be considered. (Monopole
sources tend to behave one way; dipoles and quadrupoles,
another.)
HOW SOUND BEHAVES
SOUND POWER LEVEL VS SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL
Two basic properties of the noise from a source have
been proposed for use in rating schemes: sound power level
and sound pressure level. Since the use of each has advan-
tages and disadvantages, the acoustic community is sharply
divided as to which is most appropriate for product labeling.
The advantage of sound power level as a noise rating
for a source, according to the "sound power" proponents, is
that it is fixed and unchangeable. It is said that, if the
sound power level for an appliance is known, the sound
pressure level at any location can be calculated without
much difficulty. We shall see that this "fixed and unchange-
able" claim is valid only under certain limited conditions.
The disadvantage of sound power level as a noise rating
is that the human ear does not respond to sound power, but
to sound pressure. It is possible, for example, to make up
a table of the effects of noise on people in terms of
sound pressure (or sound pressure level), but not in terms
of sound power. The reason is that, although the sound
power of a source may be constant, the effect of the noise
on people depends on how close they are to the source.* Near
*Similarly, although the wattage of a light bulb may be
fixed, the brightness (which our eyes respond to) is
greater close to the bulb than far away.
4-4
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the source, the sound pressure is high and the effect of the
noise may be severe; far from the source the sound pressure
is lower and the effects are much less; in fact, at great
distances the sound will not be audible at all.
The great advantage of sound pressure for rating
purposes is the direct relation this quantity bears to the
human effects of the noise. The disadvantage is that it is
not a fixed quantity; it depends on circumstances. One
manufacturer may rate his product in terms of the sound
pressure level at a distance of 3 ft, for example, and
another manufacturer might label his equally noisy product
with the sound pressure level at 4 ft and claim a better
noise rating.
A possible solution would be to report the sound pres-
sure level at a standard reference distance from the source,
preferably a typical user distance. The selection of a
typical user distance for different kinds of equipment, how-
ever, is currently a matter of considerable dispute among
noise standards groups. The various arguments that figure
in this dispute are the background against which the choice
of a rating scheme for labeling must be made.
Unfortunately, without a certain amount of technical
understanding about the behavior of sound sources, seriously
wrong choices might be made. The following discussion tries
to present the essential points as clearly and simply as
possible; as far as we know, such a discussion has not
appeared elsewhere, so it is no wonder that standards
writing bodies have lacked guidance.
4-5
-------
RELATION BETWEEN SOUND POWER AND SOUND PRESSURE IN VARIOUS
SITUATIONS
Sound Outdoors
Sound power refers to the rate of generating acoustic
energy - i.e., the total amount of acoustical energy radi-
ated by the source per second. It is measured in watts.
Sound power level (L ) is the same quantity expressed in
Wr
decibels* (dB) with respect to the standard reference power
of 10-12 watts.
W W
L = 10 Iog10 — =10 logic = 10 Iog10 W + 120 (4-1)
W W0 10-12
where W is the sound power of a source in watts, and L is
w
the corresponding sound power level in dB re 10"12 watts.
Doubling the sound power increases both the sound power
level and the sound pressure level by 3 dB (see below).
The sound power accounts for all the sound energy
leaving the source in all directions. If we imagine the
source as suspended in free space, the same amount of sound
power would pass through a 1-ft (imaginary) sphere surround-
ing the source as through a 10-ft sphere. The power per
unit area, however, would be less for the larger sphere
because the same amount of sound energy is "spread thinner"
over the greater surface area of the larger sphere. The
larger the sphere (i.e., the farther away from the source),
the thinner the total energy must be spread. This process
*The decibel scale is a logarithmic scale that compresses
the enormous range of sound power and sound pressure values
that occur in the environment into a more conveniently
manageable range. The reference quantity should always be
stated to avoid misunderstanding.
4-6
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accounts for the decrease of sound pressure (which is what
the ear responds to) with increasing distance from the sound
source. Sound pressure is measured as a force per unit area,
usually in newtons per square meter (N/sq m). Sound pres-
sure level is the same quantity expressed in dB but referenced
to the standard quantity of 20 yN/sq m:
P 2 P 2
L = 10 log 10 — =10 log 10 — =20 logioP - 26, (4-2)
P po 20
where p is the sound pressure at a certain location in yN/sq m
and L is the corresponding sound pressure level in dB re
20 yN/sq m. Doubling the sound pressure increases both the
sound power level and the sound pressure level by 6 dB.
Sound Source Out in Space
In free space (for practical purposes this means out-
doors, away from reflecting surfaces), sound pressure level
and sound power level are related [3] as shown by Curve A
of Figure 4-1. This line corresponds to the equation
Q
P2,^ = (Wz) , (4-3)
(r) 47rr2
where W is the sound power of the source in watts, z is a
quantity called the characteristic acoustic impedance of the
air (400), Q represents the directivity of the source (1 for
a point source, 3 for a dipole in the axial direction), and
r is the distance in feet from the center of the sound source
(assumed to be small, essentially a point). The decibel
equivalent of Eq. 4-3 is
Q
L = L + 10 log 10 + 10, (4-4)
^ 4irr2
4-7
-------
\ 4?rr
with
and Lw in dB re 10"12 watts
With W = 0.01 w and Q = 1, the
sound pressun: level equals the
sound power !svel at a distance
from the center of the source of
0.39 feet {---- 10.7 in.) (Curve A),
outdoors.
0.2 0.3 0.5
1 235 10
Distance, r From Point Source (ft)
100
Figure 4-1. Behavior of Sound Outdoors
with L the sound pressure level in dB re 20 yN/m and L
p xv
the sound power level in dB re 10
- 1 2
watts. The sound source
is assumed to produce a sound power of 0.01 watts, corres-
ponding (see Eq. 4-1) to a sound power level of 100 dB re
10"12 watts. Note that the sound pressure level decreases
at the rate of 6 dB for each doubling of distance from the
center of the source.
Sound Source Against a Reflecting Surface
Suppose the source were resting on the hard ground (or
against any reflecting surface), instead of up in the air,
and were still radiating an amount of sound energy W - 0,01
4-8
-------
watts. The radiated energy would be spread over only a
hemisphere, instead of an entire sphere. This change in
directivity of the source increases the value of Q to 2
and doubles the value of p2 (Eq. 4-3), corresponding to a
3-dB increase in sound pressure level (Eq. 4-4). This
behavior is shown by Curve B in Figure 4-1. The sound
pressure level again drops off at 6 dB per doubling of
distance.
In fact, however, the sound energy radiated by real
sound sources is actually changed by the presence of a nearby
reflecting surface, such as the ground [4_,5]. Many real-
life sources behave like "constant volume-velocity sources"
(meaning that the motion of the vibrating surface of the
equipment is unaffected by the surroundings); for such
sources, the sound power is doubled when the source is moved
directly against a large, rigid reflecting surface. In this
case, the source and its reflected image exactly coincide
and the energy of the source is added to the energy of its
reflected image, exactly in phase, so the sound power is 0.02
watts. Therefore, in addition to the 3-dB increase in sound
pressure level due to the changed directivity of the source
when placed against the ground, there is another 3-dB in-
crease, because the presence of the ground doubles the power
output. This behavior is shown by Curve C in Figure 4-1;
L in this case is 6 dB higher at all distances than with
the source "out in space".*
*An even greater change, both in source directivity (+6 dB)
and power output (+6 dB), occurs when the source is moved
into the right-angle corner between the ground and a large
wall, and still a greater change (+9 dB in both cases), if
it is moved into a trihedral corner (right-angle intersection
of three planes). Here, we confine our discussion to a
single plane reflecting surface.
4-9
-------
If the source were moved away from the reflecting sur-
face, the source and its image would not coincide and their
two energy components would combine less effectively, with
a time lag. When the source is more than about a wavelength
away, the reflecting surface has little effect on the radi-
ated power.
Other types of sound sources (some kinds of fans, for
example), react to the presence of a nearby reflecting sur-
face with a decrease of output [#]; this change could
effectively cancel the increase due to changed directivity.
In general, then, it is clear that the sound power level
is not "fixed and unchangeable".
Sound Indoors
Sound Source Out in Space
Sound from a source out in the center of a room behaves,
in the region very close to the source, just as it behaves
outdoors. The room boundaries are so far away that they do
not influence the local sound behavior. As the observation
points moves away from the source, the sound pressure level
decreases, just as it does outdoors, at 6 dB per doubling of
distance.
Indoors, however, the sound energy from the source is
confined by the boundaries of the room; if there were no
sound absorptive material at all in the room, the sound
energy would continue to accumulate indefinitely, leading
to higher and higher sound pressure levels. In fact, how-
ever, some sound absorption is always present, and the sound
pressure builds up only to the point where as much energy is
being lost to the sound absorptive room boundaries as is
4-10
-------
being supplied by the source. The more sound absorption in
the room, the lower the built-up sound pressure level.
The behavior of sound indoors, thus, is different _
each of two regions. Near the source (the so-called "direct
field"), the behavior is like outdoors; the sound pressure
level is determined by the sound power of the source, the
directionality of the source, and the distance of the obser-
ver from the source. The sound pressure level decreases
with increasing distance from the source (at 6 dB per distance
doubled), until it equals the level of the built-up sound
confined in the room. Beyond that "equal-point", the sound
pressure level is no longer determined by the direct field,
which continues to decrease with increasing distance.
Instead, in the region beyond the equal-point (the
so-called "reverberant field"), the sound pressure level
is more or less the same everywhere; it is due to the accumu-
lated confined energy and is determined only by the sound
power of the source and the amount of sound absorptive
material in the room, not by the distance from the source
or the directivity of the source.
This two-region behavior is illustrated in Figure 4-2
for three rooms containing different amounts of sound
absorption.* The upper curve corresponds to a very "live"
room, containing only 30 sabines (typical of a bathroom
where the sound absorption might be 25 to 45 sabines).
The second curve is for a room with 70 sabines (typical of
*Sound absorption is measured in sabines: the symbol is A.
One sabin is roughly equivalent to 1 sq ft of open window
through which incident sound is assumed to pass and be
lost to the room. A 4-sq ft patch of material that absorbs
just half the incident sound energy is said to have a sound
absorption coefficient of 0.5 and to contribute 2 sabines
of sound absorption to the room.
4-11
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0.01w, Luu= 100dB, Q= 1 A = 30
/ Q 4 \
Lp=Lw + 10log I 7+ — +10)
MTrr A /
with LpindBre20/uN/m2
and Lw in dB re 10~12 watts
1 235 10
Distance, r From Point Source (ft)
Figure 4-2. Behavior of Sound Indoors,
Sound Source Out in Space
a kitchen where sound absorption ranges from about 50 to 75
sabines). The third curve is for a living room with 300
sabines. (Living rooms and bedrooms, which are usually
more heavily furnished with absorptive furniture and
materials than other rooms, are rather "dead", acoustically;
typical absorptions range from 180 to 500 sabines.) The
lowest curve represents the level of direct-field outdoor
sound, which is masked by the reverberant sound at distances
greater than about 5 ft.
4-12
-------
The curves of Fig. 4-2 correspond to the equation
Q
P2. x = Wz ( + - 1. (4-5)
The first term is the direct sound, already encountered in
Eq. 3 in the discussion of sound behavior outdoors; the
second term accounts for the reverberant sound in the room.
If the absorption in the room is very great, the second
term tends to zero, and the sound behaves as if it is out-
doors; if the distance from the source is very great, the
first term tends to zero and the reverberant sound domi-
nates. The decibel equivalent of Eq. 4-4 is
L = L +10 log
p w r
(4-6)
Note also that the boundary between the regions of the
direct and the reverberant sound fields, where the curve
levels off, lies somewhat nearer the source for a live room
than for a dead room; when there is lots of sound absorption
in a room, the "outdoor behavior" persists to greater
distances.*
*Acoustics textbooks sometimes point out the fact that in
real rooms the sound level is not always so uniform as is
indicated by the horizontal portions of the curves at the
right of Fig. 2 (and 3). Indeed, it is true that for
narrowband sources there will be fluctuations of sound
level (up to +5 dB) for pure tones) around those curves as
averages in the reverberant sound field. However, for
broadband noise spectra, for which the use of A-weighted
sound levels is appropriate, such fluctuations are negli-
gible. If pure tones, which would tend to increase the
spatial fluctuation of the sound level, are present, they
would also disqualify the use of the A-weighted sound
level for rating the noise.
4-13
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Sound Source Mounted in Hole in Wall
Suppose now that the sound source (for example, a
window fan) is mounted in a hole in the wall, so that it
radiates half its energy outdoors and half indoors; in this
case, there is no reflected image of the source.
Viewed from outdoors, the effective sound power is
half the original total sound power: W = 0.005 watts,
L = 97 dB. Because this energy is radiated into only half
ri
a hemisphere/ the directivity is doubled (Q = 2), as when
the source was resting on the ground in the example above;
but halving the sound energy corresponds to a decrease of
3 dB. The net result is that the sound outside the build-
ing behaves just as in free space, according to Curve A of
Fig. 4-1; the presence of the building makes no difference.
Inside the room, the sound power is also 0.005 watts,
and Q = 2, so the direct field sound pressure level will be
the same as outdoors (Curve A of Fig. 1) and also the same
as the lowest curve of Fig. 4-2. However, halving the
energy radiated into the room decreases the reverberant
sound pressure levels by 3 dB; doubling the directivity
does not compensate for this decrease, because the direc-
tivity of the source has no effect on the reverberant sound
pressure level off at values 3 dB below the values shown in
Fig. 4-2.
Constant-Volume-Velocity Sound Source on the Wall or Floor
If, instead of being mounted in a hole in the wall, the
source is entirely within the room and against a hard room
boundary, the radiation is once more into a hemisphere, so
Q = 2; but now the source again coincides with its reflected
image, and the sound power is doubled: W = 0.02 watts and
LW = 103 dB.
4-14
-------
The direct sound field (indoors or outdoors) behaves
according to Curve C of Pig. 4-1; it lies 6 dB above the
curve for "source out in space" at all distances.
The curves in Fig. 4-2 of the reverberant field sound
pressure level for the three rooms now lie 3 dB higher,
because twice as much energy is being radiated into the
room. This behavior for "constant-volume-velocity source
against a reflector" is shown in Fig. 4-3; this figure, for
the "source against a reflector", should be compared with
Figure 4-2 for the "source out in space."
Again, for the two live rooms, the sound pressure level
equals the sound power level within 2 1/2 dB, provided that
the sound power was actually measured with the source
against a reflector, so that the energy doubling is properly
taken into account.
How Close is "Close"?
The discussion so far has assumed small "point" sources
and the possibility that when a source is "on" a reflecting
surface, it virtually lies in the surface and coincides with
its reflected image. This assumption is the theoretical
requirement for hemispherical directivity and energy-doubling
when a source lies against a reflecting surface. Actual
noise makers have finite size, however, and the effective
source of the sound cannot be placed directly on a reflecting
surface. The question thus arises as to how close such real
sources must be to a reflector in order to realize the
increased directionality and energy doubling discussed above.
Figure 4-4a shows the variation in sound power output for
a single frequency, as sound sources of various types are
moved away from a large reflecting surface. Figure 4-4b shows
that the behavior is not much different for broadband noise
4-15
-------
2
O
CNJ
CQ
"O
W = 0.02CJ, Lw = 103 dB, Q = 2 A = 30
/ Q 4 \
Lp= Lw + 10 log -+ — 1+10
MTT r A '
with Lp in dB re
and Lw in dB re 10' watts
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5
20 30 50 100
Figure 4-3. Behavior of Sound Indoors, Constant-Volume-
Velocity Sound Source on Reflecting Surface
4-16
-------
2.0
1.5
W/W,, 1.0
0.5
I 1 I i 1 1 I T
\\ /
\ V \ Dipole
\/\ \ Axis Parallel to Wall
-1;2dB
- 1 dB
' V V
/ \ — .
/ Monopole Dipole
/ Axis Normal to Wall
/
i i i i I I i i I
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Distance of Source from Wall
(Wavelengths, x/ X)
Figure 4-4a. Variation in Sound Power Outputs as Source is
Moved Away From Reflecting Wall
W/W,,
2.0
1.6
1.2
0.8
5 Octave
Bandwidth
Single
Frequency
7
_ Assymptote ,—**
For x/ X » 1 Octave Band
i I I i i I i
0 0.2
0.4
x/X
0.6 O.E
Figure 4-4b. Behavior of Sound Source Near a Reflecting
Surface (Not Much Changed By Averaging Over Frequency.)
4-17
-------
spectra. These theoretical results have been experimentally
verified by measurements of the reverberant sound levels in
a reverberation room. Note that the power output drops off
rapidly as the source moves away from the reflector: For
monopole sources, when the separation is 1/4 of a wavelength,
the power is down to the "out in space" value; at about
1/3-wavelength separation, the power has fallen considerably
below its normal value. When the separation exceeds a wave-
length, the sound power has essentially its "out in space"
value - i.e., W/W0 = 1.
The levels in decibels on Fig. 4-4a refer to the sound
power level relative to the value with the source directly
on the reflecting surface; the reverberant sound field in
the room would follow these levels, as the source is moved
away from the surface. For the reverberant sound pressure
level to be within 1 dB of the "source on surface" value,
the source must be at a distance less than 1/5-wavelength
from the surface. The direct sound field, however, is
affected by both the energy output of the source and its
directivity; the changes in direct-field sound pressure
level would therefore be twice as great. For the direct-
field sound pressure level to be within 1 dB of the "source
on surface" value, the source must actually be within 1/10
of a wavelength of the surface.
Note that these observations have implications for the
steady-state test method that measures the absorption in a
room by comparing the nearfield sound pressure of a small
source with the farfield (reverberant) sound pressure, with
the distance from the source for the near measurement care-
fully fixed. The assumption underlying the steady-state
method is that the difference between nearfield and farfield
pressures depends only upon the amount of absorption in the
4-18
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TABLE 4-2. SEPARATION DISTANCES "CLOSE" TO A REFLECTING
SURFACE AND "OUT IN SPACE".
Equipment "Close to Surface" "Out in Space"
Humidifier 1.7 27
Floor Fan 2.7 27
Dehumidifier 1.35 13.5
Window Fan 2.7 27
Air Conditioner 0.6 to 5.4 6 to 54
Toilet 1.35 13.5
Dishwasher 2.7 27
Vacuum Cleaner 0.6 6
Food Blender 0.3 to 0.6 3 to 6
Electric Shaver 0.3 3
Food Disposal 0.3 to 0.6 3 to 6
Home Shop Tools 0.6 6
Note that for low frequencies it may be impossible for
indoor sources to get far enough away from the room bound-
aries for the energy-boosting effect to disappear entirely.
It is often found that the low-frequency sound power output
of a piece of equipment is substantially different when
measured outdoors (or in an anechoic room) than when measured
in a reverberant room. This difference represents a true
difference in sound power output, due to the reaction of the
room upon the source. The difference may be positive or
negative, depending on whether the source is of the "constant-
volume-velocity" type (more power indoors) or "constant force"
force" type (less power indoors).
At high frequencies, however, where the wavelength is
small compared to the room dimensions, so long as we confine
ourselves to broadband noise sources (no prominent single
tones), there is no significant room reaction on the source
4-20
-------
at distances more than a wavelength or so from the
boundaries. (In other words, the acoustic impedance pre-
sented to a broadband source, in a room whose dimensions
are large compared to the wavelength, is the same as out-
doors, namely, pc.)
Inherent Directivity of the Source
The discussion so far has assumed a monopole ("simple"
or "point") source that radiates sound equally in all
directions, so long as it is "out in space"; for such a
source, the intrinsic value of Q is 1, and this value
changes only when the source is near a reflector. Sound
sources of higher order (dipoles or quadrupoles, for exam-
ple) have an intrinsic directivity: For a given sound power,
the sound pressure at the user's ear depends on the direction
in which the source is pointing. (The reverberant-field
sound pressure, of course, is the same as for a monopole
source of the same power.*)
For such a sound source, the horizontal portions of
the curves at the right of Fig. 4-2 would always be the
same, as shown, but the direct-field portion of the curve
would move up or down, depending on whether the beam of the
source is pointed toward or away from the observation point.
In practice, therefore, this difference is of concern
only for equipment for which the typical user's location is
in the direct field - i.e., equipment that is hand-held or
operator-attended. Such equipment is typically moved about
*Gosele has studied a variety of hand-held equipment and
has determined that the large majority represent source
types between simple monopoles and dipoles [7].
4-21
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in use, so that the sound pressure at the user's ear is
sometimes greater and sometimes less than the average.
Thus, for noise-rating purposes, we can assume that the
effective sound pressure, as it affects the user, is approxi-
mately the same as for a monopole source having the same
power, and we can continue to use monopole curves such as
those of Fig. 4-2.
General Curves Relating Sound Power Level and Sound Pressure
Level
In fact, however, Fig. 4-2 itself is not a very conven-
ient form for general use, because (in order to simplify the
earlier discussion) it was plotted for a specific value of
sound power level, L = 100 dB re 10~ watts. (The same
rf
is true of Figs. 4-1 and 4-3.) Therefore, we have replotted
Fig. 4-2 in general form in Fig. 4-5, which shows on the
vertical scale the difference between the sound pressure
level and the sound power level. So long as the sound power
level is measured with the equipment in a location with
respect to reflecting surfaces that are typical of actual
use. Fig. 4-5 will give the correct sound pressure level.
No assumption is needed about the effect of nearby reflect-
ing surfaces on the relation between sound power and sound
pressure, because those effects concern only the direct
field of the sound source; the sources for which the user's
ear will be in the direct field are not likely to be used
"close" to a reflecting surface, as defined earlier.
TYPICAL USER DISTANCES AND LABEL-NOISE-RATING CATEGORIES
We return now to consider typical user distances for
the various kinds of equipment likely to be labeled. Such
equipment falls into three categories:
4-22
-------
CD
•o
I
a
with Lp in dB re 20;uN/m2
01 02 03 0.5 1 235 10
Distance, r From Point Source (ft)
20 30
50
Figure 4-5. Behavior of Sound Indoors, Sound Source Out
in Space: (Difference Between Sound Pressure Level
and Sound Power Level.)
A. Equipment used on or about the head, such as the
various electrical grooming devices;
B. User-operated tools that are hand-held or con-
trolled within arm's length;
C. Fixed equipment that is not operator-attended.
For equipment in Category A, the user is always in the
direct sound field; for Category C, the indoor user is
practically always in the reverberant field, while the out-
door user is usually far enough away that the question of
labeling is of little significance. For Category B, the
100
4-23
-------
indoor user is in the transition region between direct and
reverberant fields; but, as can be seen from Fig. 4-5, at
distances from 1 ft and an arm's length, the sound pressure
level at the user's ear is nearly the same as in the
reverberant field.
Further inspection of Fig. 4-5 reveals that, so far as
the sound pressure at the user's ear is concerned, practi-
cally all equipment falls into only two label-noise-rating
categories:
1. Equipment for which the sound pressure level is
about equal (+2 dB)* to the sound power level; this includes
Category A and all of Categories B and C that are used in
"live" rooms, such as baths and kitchens and workshops.
2. Equipment for which the sound pressure level is
about 8 dB (+2 dB) lower than the sound power level/ this
includes all outdoor equipment in Category B and all indoor
equipment in Categories B and C that are used in "dead" roo
rooms, such as livingrooms and bedrooms. (Outdoor equipment
in Category C, as mentioned above, is not of interest for
labeling purposes; if it were very noisy, it would be regu-
lated rather than labeled.)
Table 4-3 indicates the typical user distance category
for the kinds of equipment considered earlier and shows the
label-noise-rating category that would be appropriate.
For all equipment in Label-Noise-Rating Category 1, the
number that appers on the label would be the sound power
level; for equipment in Category 2, the number on the label
would be the sound power level minus 8 dB. The sound power
level in question is the value measured with the equipment
in its typical location with respect to reflecting surfaces.
*According to most noise-rating schemes, people do not
discriminate noise levels in steps finer than about 5 dB.
4-24
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TABLE 4-3. TYPICAL USER DISTANCE CATEGORY AND APPROPRIATE
LABEL-NOISE-RATING CATEGORY
User Distance Label-Noise-Rating
Equipment Category* Category
Humidifier C 2
Floor Fan C 2
Dehumidifier C 2
Window Fan C 1 (?)
Air Conditioner C 2
Toilet C 1
Dishwasher (Note 1) C 1
Vacuum Cleaner B 2
Food Blender (Note 2) B ly
Electric Shaver (Note 3) A 1
Food Disposal B 1
Home Shop Tools B 1
*A - equipment used on or about the head; B - operator-
attended equipment, used at convenient working distance,
less than an arm's length; C - equipment that is fixed and
not operator-attended.
Note 1: Includes clothes washers and driers.
Note 2: Includes all other portable food preparation
equipment, such as electrical mixers, slicers, grinders,
etc.
Note 3: Includes all other personal grooming equipment,
such as barber's clippers, hair driers and stylers, electric
toothbrushes, oral lavage, etc. Possibly, electric shavers
should occupy a special class, since they can be used very
close to the ear, and thus, according tothe curve of Fig. 5,
could impose sound pressure levels that exceed the sound
power level by 5 or 6 dB.
4-25
-------
In all cases, the number of the label represents the
actual sound pressure level at the typical user's ear; thus,
it may be used to estimate the human effect of the noise, in
terms of speech interference, annoyance, etc.
CONCLUSION
At first sight, the variety of equipment types and the
complexities of sound behavior in different kinds of situa-
tions suggest formidable problems in formulating a meaningful
noise rating for labeling purposes. It turns out, however,
that a consideration of the manner and the locations in which
the equipment will actually be used in practice can lead to
great simplification. It is, in fact, possible for a (single)
number on a label to relate directly both to the sound power
output of the device and to the human effect of the noise in
terms of the sound pressure level at the user's ear.
level at the user's ear.
The consumer needs only to be educated to know that
the number on the label relates to the typical sound pres-
sure level at his ear, as he uses the equipment. Technical
people, who are likely to find the sound power level useful,
will know from the text of the labeling regulation how to
relate the number on the label to the corresponding sound
power level in each case.
The conclusions stated above are valid only to the
extent that sound in real rooms in dwellings behaves accord-
ing to the acoustical theory presented in textbooks/ i.e.,
there exists a "direct" sound field near a point source,
where the level diminishes at the rate of 6 dB per doubling
of distance, and a "reverberant" field filling most of the
rest of the room, where the level is almost uniform. In
fact, however, most kinds of equipment that will be
4-26
-------
considered for labeling are large enough that within the
direct field they are not "point" sources; the attenuation
with distance is more like 3 dB than 6 dB per distance
doubled. Moreover, at distances far from the source, real
rooms do not behave like the classical reverberant rooms of
theoretical acoustics, but more like lined ducts; again,
there is an attenuation of 3 dB per distance doubled, rather
than a uniform sound level without significant spatial
dependence.
The behavior of sound in real rooms can be illustrated
by the preliminary measurements shown in Fig. 4-6. These
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oo
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n
i-
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i
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90
80
70
60
50
40
0.1
0.2 0.3
0.5
235 10
Distance, r From Point Source (ft)
20 30
50
100
Figure 4-6. Preliminary Results of Measurements of Sound
Attenuation vs Distance in Real Dwelling Rooms
(Using Household Devices as Sources of Sound)
4-27
-------
data come from typically furnished living rooms, bedrooms,
bathrooms, kitchens, and laundry rooms, only one or two in
each case. The same data are plotted in two ways: once
with the sound pressure levels for all the devices normalized
to be equal at 1 ft from the source and then with the levels
normalized to be equal at 2 ft. Note that only for the
electric shaver in the bathroom does the sound behave like
that of a point source (6 dB per distance doubled) and only
in one of the bedrooms and the laundry room does the sound
level tend to a constant value at large distances. Instead,
on average, there is, for most of the cases, a steady atten-
uation of 3 dB per distance doubled at all distances. Since
the power level of the sources was not known, it is not yet
possible to state a relation between sound power level and
sound pressure level similar to that of Eq. 4-3 or Eq. 4-4.
4-28
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APPENDIX A:
OCTAVE BANDS THAT DOMINATE THE A-WEIGHTED SOUND
LEVELS IN EQUIPMENT LIKELY TO BE LABELED
(DOMINATING LEVELS ARE UNDERLINED).
Table C-l. Octave Bands of Equipment Likely to be Labeled
Equipment
Humidifer
A-weighted
Floor Fan
A-weighted
Dehumidifier
A-weighted
Window Fan
A-weighted
Air Conditioner
A-weighted
Toilet
A-weighted
Dishwasher
A-weighted
Vacuum Cleaner
A-weighted
Food Blender
A-weighted
Electric Shaver
A-weighted
Food Disposal
A-weighted
Home Shop Tools
A-weighted
63 125
Frequency
250 500 1000
2000
4000
44
18*
50
24
40
14
57
31
52
26
(50)
(24)
63
37
48
22
45
19
42
16
60
34
53
27
60
44
55
39
58
42
65
49
70
54
60
44
68
52
53
37
50
34
38
22
72
56
58
42
60
52
52
44
45
37
61
53
63
5_5
70
62
66
58
54
46
55
47
36
28
58
50
63
55
59
5_6_
48
45
44
41
58
55
58
5_5
68
65
63
6_0
55
52
55
52
46
43
53
50
68
65
52
52
44
44
43
11
53
53
55
5_5
68
68
57
57
58
58
59
59
51
51
55
55
72
72
49
50
40
41
40
41
50
51
54
55
66
67
51
52
59
60
65
66
59
60
55
5_6
76
77
41
42
33
34
30
31
44
45
48
49
60
61
45
46
52
53
65
66
60
61
55
56_
72
73
*A-weighting
-26 -16
-8
-3
A-l
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BIBLIOGRAPHY - Section 1 and 2
1. Salcedo, Rodalpho N., et al. "Improving the Communi-
cation Adequacy of PestTcide Labels - Summary Report,"
under contract to Pesticides Regulation Division, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, by University of Illinois,
College of Agriculture, Champaign-Urbana, Illinois,
November 1970.
2. Poprik, Maryclare and Staff. "Consumer Perception of
Safety - A Survey," ACPE Report 1, Food and Drug
Administration.
3. Poprik, Maryclare and Staff. "Consumers and Food
Labeling," OPE Study, Food and Drug Administration,
April 1975.
4. "Proceedings of the First National Symposium on
Pesticide Labeling," sponsored by the Office of
Pesticide Programs, Environmental Protection Agency,
June 1974.
5. "Preliminary Staff Study (Precis): Self-Regulation -
Product Standardization Certification and Seals of
Approval," Federal Trade Commission, Task Force on
Industry Self-Regulation, 1972.
6. "Report to Congress; Pursuant to the Public Health
Cigarette Smoking Act," Federal Trade Commission,
December 1972.
7. "Report to Congress; Pursuant to the Public Health
Cigarette Smoking Act," Federal Trade Commission,
December 1973.
8. "Report to Congress; Pursuant to the Public Health
Cigarette Smoking Act," Federal Trade Commission,
December 1974.
9. Nicholls, Charles A., and Morrison, Margaret. "Con-
sumers Talk About Labeling," FDA Consumer; 4-7,
February 1974.
B-l
-------
10. Jcnr,sc,n, Wallace F.. "Warning: Hazardous to Children,"
FDA Consumer: 16-23, March 1973.
11. Parkinson. Thomas L. "The Role of Seals and Certifi-
cations of Approval in Consumer Decision-Making," The;
Journal of Consumer Affairs: 1-14, Summer 1975.
12. Phone conversation with and miscellaneous written
material from Mr. Richard Garber, National Poison
Center Network, Pittsburgh, Pa. (topic: "Mr. Yuk").
13. Chapanis, Alphone. "Words, Words, Words," Human
Factors 7; 1-17, February 1965.
14. Stessin, Lawrence. "The Hazards of Label Phrasing,"
New York Times, Sunday, August 17, 1975.
15. "Delays in Establishing a Uniform Quality Grading
System for Motor Vehicle Tires," Comptroller General
of the United States, RED-75-344.
16. Spooner, Herbert, The Visible Word, Hastings House,
New York, 1969.
17. Markowitz, J., and Dietrich, C.W. "An Investigation
of the Design and Performance of Traffic Control
Devices," BBN Report No. 1726.
18. Kinkade and Van Cott. Human Engineering Guide to
Equipment Design, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1972.
19. McGuire, B.J., and Vadelund, E.A. "Voluntary Labeling
for Household Appliances and Equipment to Effect
Energy Conservation: Annual Report for Calendar Year
1974," National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 75-660,
February 1975.
B-2
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REFERENCES - Section 4
K. M. Eldred and T. J. Schultz, "Comparison of
Alternative Strategies for Identification and Regula-
tion of Major Sources of Noise," February 1975.
"Noise From Construction Equipment and Operations,
Building Equipment and Home Appliances," EPA NTID 300.1,
December 31, 1971.
Leo L. Beranek, Noise Reduction, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York 1960, p. 241, Fig. 11.9.
Richard V. Waterhouse, "Output of a Sound Source in a
Reverberation Chamber and Other Reflecting Environments,"
J. Aooust. Soa. Am. 30 (1): 4-13 (1958).
Harry F. Olson, Acoustical Engineering, D. Van Nostrand
Company, Inc., Princeton, 1975, pp. 30-31.
T. J. Schultz, "Sound Power Measurements in a Reverberant
Room," J. Sound Vib. 16 (1):119-129, Figs. 8 and 9.
K. Gosele, "Berechnung der Luftschallabstrahlung von
Maschinen aus ihrem Korperschall," VDl-Beriohte, Bd.
135:131-134 (1969); see also Theodore J. Schultz,
"Outlook for in situ measurement of noise from machines,"
J. Aooust. Soc. Am. 54(4): 982-984 (1973).
B-3
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