EPA 550/9-77-253
    PRODUCT NOISE
 LABELING STANDARDS
         DRAFT

BACKGROUND DOCUMENT
           FOR
PRODUCT NOISE LABELING
    GENERAL PROVISIONS
         APRIL 1977
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Noise Abatement and Control
     Washington, D.C. 20460

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                                             EPA 550/9-77-253
                    DRAFT

           BACKGROUND DOCUMENT
                     FOR
           PRODUCT NOISE LABELING
              GENERAL PROVISIONS
                   APRIL 1977
                  Prepared By
THE U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
       Office of Noise Abatement and Control
  This document has been approved for general availability.
  It does not constitute a standard, specification or regulation.
          Region Vj  :..
          330 South  L'.-

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                      FOREWORD
    This Background Document has been prepared by the
Environmental Protection Agency in support of the Proposed
Product Noise Labeling Standards - General Provisions.   The
proposed regulation will be promulgated under the authority
of sections 8, 10, 11, and 13 of the Noise Control Act  of 1972.

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                           CONTENTS
CONTENTS                                                      PAGE

Introduction                                                   xi

Background                                                    xii
                     Section 1 - Review of Labeling Laws

1.  Cigarettes                                                1-4

2.  Products Covered by "Fair Packaging
    and Labeling Act"                                         1-5

3.  Food Covered by "Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act"             1-6

4.  Products Covered by "Consumer Product Safety Act"          1-9

5.  Products Covered by "Hazardous Substances Act"            1-11

6.  Insectcides, Fungicides and Rodenticides                  1-13

7.  Light Duty Motor Vehicles                                 1-16

8.  Passenger Car Tires                                       1-19

9.  Non-Prescription Drugs                                    1-21

10. Food                                                      1-23

11. Manufactured or Processed Dairy Foods                     1-25

12. Butter                                                    1-26

13. Agricultural Seeds                                        1-27

14. Shell Eggs                                                1-29

15. Products Covered by the Agricultural Marketing
    Act of 1946                                               1-31

16. Livestock, Meats, Prepared Meats and Meat Products        1-32

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                                                                   PAGE


17.  Cottonseed for Crushing Purposes                              1-33

13.  Workplace Signs (General Requirements)                         1-34

19.  Workplace Signs and Markings (Specific  Requirements)           1-35

20.  Workplace Machinery                                           1-37

21.  Gasoline                                                      1-38

22.  Full-Size Baby Cribs                                          1-39

23.  Light Duty Motor Vehicles,  Heavy Duty
     Gasoline Engines                                              1-41

24.  Refrigerators, Refrigerator-Freezers and Freezers              1-42

25.  Textile Wearing Apparel and Yard Goods                         1-44


              Section 2 - Noise  Labeling;  General Approach

Types of Labeling                                                  2-1

Informational Labeling                                             2-3

Noise Labeling under Section 8 of the Noise  Control Act             2-12

Major Characteristics of Labels                                     2-19

   Label Content                                                   2-20

   Physical Characteristics of Labels                              2-23

   Label Location                                                  2-33

Rating Schemes                                                     2-34


              Section 3 - Noise  Labeling - Graphics

Background                                                         3-1

Design Criteria                                                    3-4

Content                                                            3-5

Design Characteristics                                             3-6


                                     vi

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                                                                    PAGE

Design Description                                                  3-7

Noise Rating Guide                                                  3-9

Label Uses                                                          3-10

Placement                                                           3-10

Education                                                           3-10


              Section 4 - Rating Schemes for Noise Producers

Characteristics of Equipment Likely to be Labeled                   4-1

How Sound Behaves                                                   4-4

   Sound Power Level vs Sound
   Pressure Level                                                   4-4

Relation Between Sound Power and Sound Pressure in
Various Situations                                                  4-6

   Sound Outdoors                                                   4-6

   Sound Indoors                                                    4-10

Typical User Distances and Label-Noise-Rating Categories            4-22

Conclusion                                                          4-26

Appendix A - Octave Bands that Dominate the A-Weighted Sound Levels
In Equipment Likely To be Labeled                                   A-l

Bibliography - Sections 2 & 3                                       B-l

References - Section 4                                              B-3

                       List of Figures

Figure                                                              PAGE

2-1               FTC Buyer Guide No.6                              2-7

2-2               Government Brochures                              2-8

2-3               Cheese Labels                                     2-9
                                  vi i

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                              Figures (cont.)

Figure                                                               PACK

2-4                     Example of Noise Rating                      2-10

2-5                     Advertisement for Air  Conditioners            2-11

2-6                     Advertisement Incorporating Noise Claim      2-16

2-7                     Example of Labeling Confusion                2-22

2-8                     USDA Seals                                   2-24

2-9                     HEW Seal                                     2-26

2-10                    Mr. Yuk                                      2-28

2-11                    Auto Brochures                               2-30

2-12                    Complexity in Consumer Display               2-31

2-13                    Rating Process                               2-35

3-1                     Noise Rating Label                           3-2

3-2                     Noise Control Rating Label                   3-2

3-3                     Noise Rating Guide                           3-3

4-1                     Behavior of Sound Outdoors                   4-8

4-2                     Behavior of Sound Indoors, Sound              4-12
                        Source Out in Space

4-3                     Behavior of Sound Indoors, Constant-          4-16
                        Volume-Velocity Sound  Source  on
                        Reflecting Surface

4-4a                    Variations in Sound Power Outputs             4-17
                        as Source is Moved Away From
                        Reflecting Wall

4-4b                    Behavior of Souns Source Near a              4-17
                        Reflecting Surface
                                    Vlll

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                             Figures (cont.)

Figure                                                                PAGE

4-5                   Behavior of Sound Indoors, Sound                4-23
                      Source Out In Space

4-6                   Preliminary Results of Measurements             4-27
                      of Sound Attenuation vs Distance in
                      Real Dwelling Rooms


                              List of Tables

Table                                                                 PAGE

1-1                   Federal Agencies Involved in Labeling           1-2

1-2                   Examples of Specific Products and               1-3
                      General Categories Subject to Labeling
                      Laws

2-1                   Types of Labels                                 2-2

2-2                   Conformance Labeling and Information Labeling   2-3

2-3                   Federal Agencies Involved in Labeling           2-5

2-4                   Examples of Specific Products and General       2-6
                      Categories Subject to Labeling Lav/s

2-5                   Section 8 of the Noise Control Act of 1972       2-12

2-6                   Section 10 of the Noise Control Act of 1972     2-13

2-7                   Statutory Authority                             2-15

2-8                   Additional Examination of Section 8 Authority   2-17

2-9                   Definition of Terms                             2-18

2-10                  Various Meanings of Term "Labeling"             2-19

2-11                  Common Factors of Labels                        2-21

2-12                  Content of Labels                               2-23
                                 IX

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                         List of Tables (cont.)

Table                                                             PAGE

2-13             Requirements for Additional  Instructions          2-32

2-14             Physical Characterises of a Label                2-32

2-15             Location of Labels                               2-34

2-16             Example of Explanatory Part of  Noise Labels       2-37

4-1              Noise Characteristics of Indoor Household        4-3
                 Equipment

4-2              Separation Distances "Close" to a Reflecting      4-20
                 Surface and "Out in Space"

4-3              Typical User Distance Category  and  Appropriate   4-25
                 Label- Noise Rating Category

A-l              Octave Bands of Equipement Likely to Be Labeled   A-l

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                       INTRODUCTION
     This report represents the findings of  study  efforts
instituted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency  for
the purpose of developing general background information
necessary for the implementation of Section  8  of the  Noise
Control Act of 1972 dealing with product noise labeling.
These findings were utilized in the development of the
Agency's Proposed Product Noise Labeling Standards -  General
Provisions.
     The report is composed of four sections.  Section  1
deals with a review of other Federal labeling  efforts.
Section 2 contains a discussion of some of the major  issues
involved in formulating a general approach to  product noise
labeling under Section 8 of the Noise Control  Act. Section  3
presents an approach to the design graphics  associated  with  a
noise labeling program, demonstrating the various    considerations
involved in the formulation of graphical requirements.  The  dis-
cussions of Section 2 and 3 draw upon the reviews  of  other label-
ing efforts presented in Section 1, the expertise  of  public
relations consultants, as well as the study  of published  reports
concerning labeling programs  (primarily Federal),  and of  texts
and articles on visual communication through symbols  and  legends.
All source materials are noted in the bibliography covering
Sections 2 and 3.  Section 4 deals with potential  technical problems
associated with the development of specific  noise  rating  schemes;
the exairple used here addresses cormon housenold appliances.
                            XI

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                        BACKGROUND
     Section 8 of the Noise Control Act states that the
Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency shall
promulgate regulations designating and labeling products or
classes of products which emit noise capable of adversely
affecting the public health or welfare, or which are sold
wholly or in part on the basis of their effectiveness in
reducing noise.
     Section 8 further stipulates that the labeling regu-
lations developed by the EPA specify as a minimum 1) the
manner and location in which notice is to be provided
2) the form of the notice, and 3) the methods and units of
measurement to be used.
     It is clear from Section 8 that Congress' intention in
requiring the promulgation of noise labeling regulations was
to provide notice to prospective purchasers or users of
either a product's noise level or its effectiveness in
reducing noise.
     Agency action toward implementing Section 8 of the Act
has already taken place through the issuance of an Advance
Notice of Proposed Rulemaking concerning the designation and
labeling of hearing protectors which appeared in the Federal
Register on December 5, 1974, 39 FR 42380.  Further regula-
tory action specifying the detailed labeling requirements
for hearing protectors will be conducted through a separate
rulemaking action proposing such requirements as a separate
subpart to be added to the general provisions being proposed
by the Agency.
                            XI1

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     Both the development and the implementation of a
Federal noise labeling program under Section 8 of the Noise
Control Act are to a large extent influenced by the overall
purposes and goals to which such a program is committed.   In
formulating the objectives of its noise labeling program  the
EPA has considered the statutory language of Section 8  as
well as the overall need for and the positive and negative
aspects attendant to Federal regulatory efforts in control-
ling environmental noise.  As such, the Agency will be
patterning the further development and implementation of  its
noise labeling program consistent with the following objec-
tives:
     1.  To provide accurate and understandable information
to product purchasers and users regarding the acoustic  pro-
perties of designated products so that meaningful compari-
sons can be made concerning the acoustic properties of  the
products as part of purchase or use decisions.
     2.  To accomplish the providing of accurate and under-
standable information to consumers with minimal Federal
involvement.  Minimal Federal involvement is to be achieved
by ensuring that the Federally-imposed labeling requirements
are carefully analyzed and structured so as to reduce as
much as possible the administrative, economic and technical
impacts of the Federal program.
     3.  To promote public awareness and understanding  of
environmental noise and the associated terms and concepts.
     4.  To promote effective voluntary noise reduction and
noise  labeling efforts on the part of product manufacturers and suppliers.
     The Agency's policy in the development and implemen-
tation of a noise labeling regulatory program is to initiate
such a program in as simplified a form as is possible.  The
program and its effects will then be continually evaluated
                            Xlll

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as to  the need for revisions to the various  elements of the
regulatory approach being  taken.  For example,  such revisions
may be in response to the  need for the more  detailed speci-
fication  of labeling requirements such as  those concerning
the information to be provided or the form in which the
information is presented.
    It is intended that complete Agency labeling action with respect
to any  product will consist of  the requirements contained in the
proposed general provisions along with those contained in the product
specific subparts to be added on a product by product basis.  The Agency
will provide notice that it is  planning to develop labeling  requirements
for particular products or product classes by the publication of an Advance
Notice  of Proposed Rulemaking in the Federal Register. A public comment
period  will be provided concerning the notification. The designation of
products under section 8(a)  of  the Act will be accomplished within the
Notice  of Proposed Rulemaking for those products.
     Where specific aspects  of the general provisions are
found  by  the Agency to be  inapplicable to  a  certain product
or product type, or where  the need for additional or modi-
fied provisions is apparent,  such exceptions, additions or
modifications will be incorporated within  the product
specific  provisions.
     The  general provisions  being proposed can and hopefully
will,  however,  provide guidance to the general public as
well as  all affected parties as to the general nature and
intent of the Agency's proposed labeling regulatory program.
In addition,  it is hoped that the provisions will serve as
further  guidance to product  manufacturers  and supplies in
their  understanding of and in preparing for  possible Federal
noise  labeling requirements,  and as to the possible initi-
ation  of  compatible voluntary industry noise labeling pro-
grams .                        xiv

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                         SECTION 1

                  REVIEW OF LABELING LAWS

     As part of a general study on EPA noise labeling, an
extensive review of Federal, industry, and private labeling
efforts was undertaken.  The review was conducted so that
EPA might gain insight into its noise labeling program from
existing labeling programs.  Of particular interest were
government agency consumer information labeling programs.
Lists of the agencies and examples of general categories
and specific products reviewed are given in Tables 1 and 2.
This section contains summaries of 25 significant govern-
ment labeling efforts.  The summaries are of two types:
summaries of labeling regulations affecting specific pro-
ducts and summaries of labeling requirements set forth in
the mandating Acts.
     The reviews are not to be construed as complete,
authoritative descriptions of the government labeling pro-
grams,  but rather as interpretative summaries that highlight
the labeling issues relevant to EPA.
                            1-1

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                         Table 1-1
           Federal Agencies Involved in Labeling
Atomic Energy Commission
Consumer Product Safety Commission
Department of Agriculture
Department of Commerce
Department of Defense
Department of Justice
Environmental Protection Agency
Federal Energy Commission
Federal Trade Commission
Food and Drug Administration (HEW)
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (DOT)
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (DOL)
                            1-2

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                          Table 1-2
    Examples of Specific Products and General Categories
                 Subject to Labeling Laws
Tires
Electrically operated toys
Charcoal briquettes
Air conditioners
Lawn darts
Toy caps
Bicycles
Car seats for children
Power amplifiers
Refrigerators, freezers
Textile wearing apparel and yard goods
Full-size cribs
Hazardous substances
Insecticides, fungicides and rodenticides
Gasoline
Cigarettes
Drugs
Food
Light bulbs
Motor vehicles
Electric appliances
Upholstered products
Agricultural seed
Occupational safety equipment
                            1-3

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    CIGARETTES
A.




B,

C.
E,
PRODUCT:




AGENCY:

PURPOSE:
D.  GRADE/RATING:
TECHNICAL BASIS/
ORGANIZATION:
H.

I,
    LABEL CONTENT:
    PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS
LOCATION:

COMMENTS:
Cigarettes:  Labeling required under
"Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act"
(P.L. 89-92)

Department of Justice

Information with respect to any rela-
tionship between smoking and health

Not graded or rated under the above
Public Laws

No technical basis per se since there
is no grading, but there is a tech-
nical basis behind the Congressional
decision to require a warning on all
cigarette packages.

"Warning:  The Surgeon General has
Determined that Cigarette Smoking is
Dangerous to Your Health"

Specified as follows:  Conspicuous
and legible type in contrast by typo-
graphy, layout or color with other
printed matter on the package.

Conspicuously located on every package

This is informational labeling speci-
fied by Congress and administered by
the Department of Justice
                            1-4

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    PRODUCTS COVERED BY:  "FAIR PACKAGING AND LABELING ACT'
B.

C.
D.
E,
    PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
All products for which labeling is
required under the "Fair Packaging and
Labeling Act:  (15 USC 1451 et. seq. )

Federal Trade Commission  (16 CFR 500-503)
Truthful packaging and labeli..
products
                                                      or
GRADES/RATINGS  )
TECHNICAL BASIS/) Not applicable
CATEGORIZATION: I
    LABEL CONTENT:
H,
    PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS:
LOCATION:
1.  Statement of identity:  "name"
2.  Name and place of business of the
    manufacturer, packer or distributor
3.  Net quantity of contents
4.  If the label bears a representation
    as to the number of servings, ases,
    or application of such commodity,
    the label shall bear in immediate
    conjunction therewith, a statement
    of the net quantity of each such
    serving, use or application.

Specified as follows:
1.  Type size must be easily read
2.  Type must be parallel to the base
    of the package

Specified as follows:
1.  The Statement of identity and the
    net quantity must appear on the
    "Principal Display Panel".
2.  The net quantity declaration shall
    be placed in the bottom 30 percent
    of the area of the label panel.
3.  The name and place of business of
    manufacturer .„. shall be conspic-
    uously located on the package.
                            1-5

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    FOOD COVERED BY "FEDERAL FOOD, DRUG AND COMESTIC ACT"
A.  PRODUCT:          Food:  Labeling required under the
                      "Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act"
                      (21 USC 301 et. seq.)

B.  AGENCY:           Department of Health, Education and
                      Welfare; Food and Drug Administration

C.  PURPOSE:          Standards of identity and definition,
                      quality, and fill of container for the
                      purpose of promoting honesty and fair
                      dealing in the interest of consumers.

D.  GRADES/RATINGS: ) Not graded per se.   The Act prohibits
E.  TECHNICAL BASIS//- the introduction of adulterated or
    CATEGORIZATION: ) misbranded food into interstate com-
                      merce.  The Act defines misbranded and
                      adulterated food.  In general terms,
                      adulterated food is deemed to be any
                      food which "contains any poisonous or
                      deleterious substance which may render
                      it injurious" to health or if it "is
                      otherwise unfit for food."
    LABEL CONTENT:
Food:  The following information must
appear on the label:
1.  The name and place of business of
    the manufacturer, packer or dis-
    tributor
2.  An accurate statement of quantity
    of contents in terms of weight,
    measure or numerical count.
3.  If the product is an imitation of
    another food, the word imitation
     (in type of uniform size and pro-
    minence) immediately preceding the
    name of the food imitated.
4.  if the product purports to be or
    is represented for special dietary
    uses, information concerning its
    vitamin, mineral and other dietary
    properties.
5.  if the product bears or contains any
    artifical flavoring, artifical
    coloring or chemical preservative,
    a statement of that fact.
                            1-6

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 6.  If the product purports to be or
     is represented as food for which a
     definition and standard of identity
     has been prescribed by regulations,
     the name of the food as specified
     in the definition and standards,
     and insofar as may be required by
     such regulations, the common names
     of optional ingredients.
 7.  If the food purports to bs or is
     represented as a food for which a
     standard of quality has been pre-
     scribed by regulations and its
     quality falls below such standard,
     a statement that it falls below
     such standard (in a manner and form
     as such regulations specify) .
 8.  If the food purports to be or is
     represented as a food for which a
     standard or standards of fill of
     container have been prescribed by
     regulations and it falls belov; the
     standard of fill of container appli-
     cable thereto, a statement that it
     falls below such standard (in a
     manner and form as such regulations
     specify).
 9.   If the product is not subject to
     the requirements of item 6,  the
     common or usual name of the  food,
     if any there be, and in case  it is
     fabricated from two or more  ingre-
     dients,  the common or usual  name
     of each such ingredient.
10.   If it is a raw agricultural  commod-
     ity which is the product of  the
     soil,  bearing or containing  a pest-
     iside chemical applied after  har-
     vest,  the shipping container  of
     such commodity must declare  the
     presence of such chemical in  or on
     such commodity and the common or
     usual name and the function  of such
     chemical.
        1-7

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    PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS;
H.
LOCATION:
11.   Labeling must be in conformance
     with an applicable regulation
     issued pursuant to Section 3 or 4
     of the Poison Prevention Packaging
     Act of 1970.

 Specified as follows:
 1.   All required information must be
     placed with such conspicuousness
     (as compared with other words,
     statements, designs in the label-
     ing)  and in such terms as to render
     it likely to be read and understood
     by the ordinary individual under
     customary conditions of purchase
     and use.

 Specified:
 1.   All required information must be
     prominently located where it is
     likely to be read under customary
     conditions of purchase and use.
                            1-8

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    PRODUCTS COVERED BY CONSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY ACT
B.

C.
    PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
D.
E.
GRADES/RATINGS:
TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
    LABEL CONTENT:
All products for which labeling is
required under the "Consumer Product
Safety Act"  (15 USC 2051 et. seq. )

Consumer Product Safety Commission

To protect the public against unreason-
able risks of injury associated with
consumer products; to assist consumers
in evaluating the comparative safety of
consumer products; to develop uniform
safety standards for consumer products.

The Commission determines if a consumer
product presents an unreasonable risk
of injury to the public.  If the product
does present an unreasonable risk, the
Commission then determines whether or
not a safety standard will eliminate
the unreasonable risk.  If no feasible
product safety standard would adequa-
tely protect the public from the unrea-
sonable risk of injury associated with
the product, the Commission may propose
and promulgate a rule declaring such
product a banned hazardous product.

Requirements of CPS standards (other
than requirements relating to labeling,
warnings or instructions)  shall when-
ever feasible, be expressed in terms of
performance requirements.

For any product which is subject to a
consumer product safety standard:
1.  Date and place of manufacture
2.  A suitable identification of the
    manufacturer or the private
    labeler and the code mark of the
    manufacturer in the case of a
    private labeler.
3.  A certification that the product
    meets all applicable consumer pro-
    duct safety standards  and a  speci-
    fication of the standards which
    are applicable.
                            1-9

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G.  PHYSICAL          Specified as follows:
    CHARACTERISTICS:  1.   Such labels, where practicable,
                          may be required by the Commission
                          to be permanently marked on or
                          affixed to any such consumer
                          product.

H.  LOCATION:          Specified as follows:
                      1.   The certificate of conformity
                          shall accompany the product or
                          shall otherwise be furnished to
                          any distributor or retailer to
                          whom the product is delivered.
                            1-10

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    PRODUCTS COVERED BY FEDERAL "HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES ACT"
B.

C.

D.
E.
    PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
  All products for which labeling is
  required under the "Federal Hazardous
  Substances Act"  (15 USC 1261 et.  seq.}

  Consumer Product Safety Commission

,  Consumer protection
GRADES/RATING:  )  Not graded.  A hazardous substance
TECHNICAL BASIS//  "is any substance or mixture of sub-
CATEGORIZATION: )  stances (as determined by the Com-
                  mission) which is toxic, corrosive, an
                  irritant,  a strong sensitizer, flam-
                  mable or combustible, or generates
                  pressure through decomposition, heat
                  or other means, if such substance or
                  mixture of substances may cause sub-
                  stantial personal injury or substan-
                  tial illness during or as a proximate
                  result of any customary or reasonable
                  foreseeable handling or use, including
                  reasonably foreseeable ingestion by
                  children.   The tests to determine if
                  a product is a hazardous substance are
                  set forth in the regulations".
    LABEL CONTENT:
                  1.  Name and place of business of the
                      manufacturer, packer, distributor
                      or seller;
                  2.  Common or usual name or the chem-
                      ical name (if there be no common
                      or usual name) of the hazardous
                      substance (s) ;
                  3.  Signal word "DANGER" on substances
                      which are extremely flammable,
                      corrosive, or highly toxic; the
                      signal word "WARNING" or "CAUTION"
                      on all other hazardous substances;
                  4.  An affirmative statement of the
                      principal hazard or hazards;
                  5.  Precautionary measures describing
                      the action to be followed or avoided;
                  6.  Instructions, when necessary or
                      appropriate,  for first aid treat-
                      ment;
                            1-11

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    PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS:
H.
LOCATION:
 7.   The word "POISON" for any hazard-
     ous substance which is defined as
     "highly toxic";
 8.   Instructions for handling and
     storage of packages which require
     special care in handling or storage;
 9.   The statement "Keep out of the
     reach of children", or its practical
     equivalent, or,  if the article is
     intended for use by children and
     is not a banned hazardous substance,
     adequate directions for the protec-
     tion of children from the hazard.
10.   Specific product labeling statements
     as deemed necessary by the Commission
     as specified in Section 4 of the
     Poison Prevention Packaging Act;
11.   On the container of household sub-
     stances which do not meet the stan-
     dards set under Section 3 of the
     Poison Prevention Packaging Act/
     the following statement:
     "This package for households without
     young children".

 Specified as follows:
 1.   Written in the English language
 2.   Conspicuous and legible type in
     contrast by typography, layout, or
     color with other printed matter on
     the label.

 Location of label not specified.
                            1-12

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    INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES AND RODENTICIDES
A.
PRODUCT:
B.

C.
AGENCY:

PURPOSE:
D.  GRADE/RATING:
    TECHNICAL BASIS/
    CATEGORIZATION:
    LABEL CONTENT:
Labeling of pesticides required under
the "Insecticides, Fungicides and
Rodenticides Act" and related acts,
and EPA regulations at 40 CFR 162

Environmental Protection Agency

Protection of public health through
identification of hazards

Use classification; other information
required

The Act states:
"unreasonable adverse effects on the
environment" i.e., unreasonable risk
to man or the environment, taking into
account the economic, social and envi-
ronmental costs and benefits of the
use of any pesticide (as determined by
the Administrator of the EPA)

1.  Registration number of manufactur-
    ing plant;
2.  Directions  for use necessary for
    effecting the purpose for which
    the product is intended and ade-
    quate to protect health and the
    environment;
3.  The statement "Keep Out of reach
    of Children";
4.  A signal word such as "Danger",
    "Warning" or "Caution";
5.  Other warning or cautionary state-
    ments as necessary to protect the
    public;
6.  Ingredient  statement; name, per-
    centage designation;
7.  Use classification:   general,
    restricted;
8.  Name and address of the manufacturer,
    packer,  formulator,  registrant, or
    person for  whom the product is pro-
    duced;
                            1-13

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    PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS:
H.
LOCATION:
 9.   Name,  brand or trademark;
10.   Net weight or measure of the content;
11.   For pesticides containing any sub-
     stance (s)  in quantities highly toxic
     to man:
     a.  skull  and crossbones
     b.  the  word "poison" as well as
         the  word "danger"
     c.  a  statement of practical treat-
         ment in case of poisoning by
         pesticides.

 Specified  as follows:
 1.   Any word,  statement or other infor-
     mation required must be placed on
     the label  conspicuously (as com-
     pared  to other words, statements,
     designs, or graphic matter in the
     labeling).
 2.   Likely to  be readable and under-
     stood  by the ordinary individual
     with normal vision, under customary
     conditions of purchase and use.
 3.   If the word "Poison" is required,
     it must  be prominent in red on a
     background of distinctly contrast-
     ing color.
 4.   Specified  are a minimum type size
     for warning statements and signal
     words.

 1.   All information required by the
     Act must be prominently located
     on the outside container or
     wrapper  of the retail package so
     as to  be clearly readable when
     presented  or displayed under cus-
     tomary conditions of purchase.
 2.   Specified  are:
     a.  the  location of signal words
         and  the statement "Keep out
         of Reach of Children";
     b.  location of ingredient state-
         ment;
     c.  location of skull and cross-
         bones  and statement of practi-
         cal  treatment for poisons
         highly toxic to man.
                            1-14

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I.   COMMENTS:          The above summary applies to the label-
                      ing requirements as they have been de-
                      veloped as of summer of 1975; later
                      rulemaking was expected but has not
                      been included.
                            1-15

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7.  LIGHT-DUTY MOTOR VEHICLES
A.  PRODUCT:
B.   AGENCY:
C.  PURPOSE:
D.  GRADE/RATING:
Light-duty Motor Vehicles "Voluntary
Fuel Economy Labeling"

Environmental Protection Agency
(39 FR 36890) ,
Federal Energy Administration

Provide new car fuel economy informa-
tion at point-of-sale.  The notice
states that the primary goal of the
program is to reduce energy usage in
the transportation sector.  Inter-
mediate goals are:
1.  To increase public awareness of
    factors which influence fuel
    economy;
2.  To influence consumers to purchase
    vehicles with good fuel economy;
3.  To influence manufacturers to pro-
    duce vehicles with improved fuel
    economy.

Fuel economy is not graded per se.
Fuel economy values are given in miles-
per-gallon, and city and highway values
are listed separately.

The manufacturer presents, in one of
two forms, fuel economy information
for the consumer to use in his evalu-
ation of the vehicles; this is some-
what analogous to "energy labeling".

If the "general fuel economy label"
is used, it presents the sales-weighted
average of fuel economy values (by car
line separately for passenger cars and
wagons) of all vehicles with the same
engine.  The manufacturer may also in-
clude the range of data used to derive
the sales-weighted average.

If the "specific fuel economy label"
is used, it presents the EPA-approved
fuel economy values for the specific
vehicle configuration.
                           1-16

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    TECHNICAL BASIS/
    CATEGORIZATION:
    LABEL CONTENT:
    PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS:
H.
LOCATION:
    COMMENTS:
                  1.  City fuel economy is derived from
                      the Federal Emission Test Procedure
                      (40 CFR 85);  a separate highway test
                      is prescribed;
                  2.  Fuel economy values are reported to
                      the nearest whole mile-per-gallon.

                  Consistent with that indicated in the
                  illustrative examples published in the
                  Federal Register  (39 FR 36891) speci-
                  fied are:
                  1.  EPA logo
                  2.  FEA logo
                  3.  Statement of authenticity of test
                      results
                  4.  Results of tests, as described in
                      Section D  (above) for either the
                      "general" or "specific" labels
                  5.  Reminder that actual fuel economy
                      varies
                  6.  Where to write to receive a copy
                      of "EPA/FEA 1975 Gas Mileage Guide
                      for New Car Buyers".
1.  The label must be of a reasonable
    size and consistent in format with
    the illustrative examples published
    in the Federal Register.
2.  Manufacturers may choose to differ-
    entiate "specific" from "general"
    labels by shape, color, size or
    some other readily apparent feature,

Label must be prominently displayed
either on the same window as the price
sticker or on the passenger side win-
dow or other location approved by
EPA/FEA.

A manufacturer may use either "General
Labels" or "Specific Labels", on any
vehicle configuration in their model
line.  If a manufacturer elects to
participate in the program he obligates
himself to place a label on every car
in his product line.
                            1-17

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The labeling program will also include
a public education and information
program.

At the present time a study is being
conducted to evaluate the effective-
ness of the fuel economy labels.   The
important information from this study
is on the effect on consumers of  this
type of "awareness" labeling.
       1-18

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    PASSENGER CAR TIRES
A.  PRODUCT:

B.  AGENCY:


C.  PURPOSE:

D.  GRADE/RATING:
    TECHNICAL BASIS/
    CATEGORIZATION:
Passenger Car Tires

National Highway Traffic Safety Admin-
istration (DOT) (49 CFR 575)

Consumer information about tire quality
            2 or 3 digit number
                                       **
    LABEL CONTENT:
Treadwear:
Traction:  0,
Temperature resistance:  A, B, C

Treadwear;   Projected mileage, based
on specified test and calculation pro-
cedure, stated as percent of 30,000
miles, rounded off to nearest lower
10% value;  e.g., for projected tread-
wear of 47,000 miles, rating is 150.

Traction;  Based on traction coefficient
on two wet skid pads, grade depends on
meeting schedule of values established
for both skid pad surfaces.

Temperature resistance:  Tested on a
schedule of increasing speeds under
load; grade depends on highest speed
without failure.

1.  On sidewall of tire:
    a.  treadwear grade description
        and treadwear grade;
    b.  all temperature resistance
        and traction grades, with
        appropriate grades circled;
2.  On tread surface (except original
    equipment tires on a new vehicle)
    and for information furnished pro-
    spective purchasers of motor
    vehicles and tires under paragraph
    575.6 (c) , an explanation of per-
    formance area, and a history of all
    possible grades for traction and
    temperature resistance, along with
    a heading "DOT Quality Grade".
                            1-19

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G.  PHYSICAL          1.  Sidewall label:  permanently
    CHARACTERISTICS:      molded with character type, depth
                          and size specified
                      2.  Tread label:  not easily removable,
                          indelibly stamped.

H.  LOCATION:         1.  On tire sidewall between tire's
                          maximum suction width and shoulder;
                      2.  On tread surface  (except original
                          equipment on a new tire).
                            1-20

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    NON-PRESCRIPTION DRUGS
A.

B.

C.

D.
E,
PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
PURPOSE:
Non-prescription drugs

Food and Drug Administration  (HEW)

Content and quality information
GRADE/RATING:   ) Standards (minimum requirements)
TECHNICAL BASIS/? set by the FDA
CATEGORIZATION: )
                                 are
    LABEL CONTENT:
    PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS:
                  Labeling on the "Principal Display
                  Panel":
                  1.  Statement of the identity of the
                      commodity (established name of the
                      drug) and statement of the general
                      pharmacological category(ies) of
                      the principal intended action (s).
                  2.  Net quantity of the contents.

                  Labeling elsewhere on packaging:
                  1.  Name and place of business of the
                      manufacturer, packer or distributor
                      a.   Where a drug is not manufac-
                          tured by the person whose name
                          appears on the label, the name
                          shall be qualified by a phrase
                          that reveals the connection
                          such person has with such drug:
                          such as "Manufactured for 	"
                          Distributed by 	",  or any
                          other wording.
                  2.  Statement of Ingredients (as re-
                      quired by Section 502 (e)  of the
                      Federal Food,  Drug and Cosmetic Act)
                      shall appear together.

                  Regulation specified:
                  1.  Boldface type in distinct contrast
                      to other matter on the package;
                  2.  Size of type (relative to other
                      type on package);
                  3.  Location of net weight statement on
                      principal panel.
                            1-21

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H.  LOCATION:         1.   Statement of identity and net
                          quantity must appear on the
                          "Principal Display Panel"
                      2.   All other required information
                          must appear conspicuously on the
                          product's container.

I.  COMMENTS:         The most important point to notice is:
                      the requirement that all specified
                      (important)  information be prominently
                      and conspicuously located and that same
                      be placed on the "Principal Display
                      Panel".
                            1-22

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10.  FOOD


A.  PRODUCT:

B.  AGENCY:

C.  PURPOSE:
D.  GRADE/RATING:
E.  TECHNICAL BASIS/
    CATEGORIZATION:
    LABEL CONTENT:
Food

Food and Drug Administration, HEW

Truthful information on content and
quantity of contents

Grades and standards are determined in
accordance with U.S. Department of
Agriculture regulations.  These label-
ing requirements are in addition to
the USDA grades.

Labeling required on the "Principal
Display Panel":
1.  Identity of the commodity
    a.  name of the commodity
    b.  common or usual name of the
        food
    c.  an appropriately descriptive
        term.
2.  For food marketed in various
    optional forms, the form must be
    identified.
3.  Net quantity of contents in the
    measure specified for the partic-
    ular product or type of product
    (volume, weight, count, etc.).

Labeling required on the "Information
Panel":
1.  Name and place of business of
    manufacturer, packer or
    distributor.
2.  If the number of servings appears,
    a statement of the net quantity
    of each serving.
3.  Ingredients
    a.  where the proportion of expen-
        sive ingredient(s)  present has
        a bearing on price or consumer
        acceptance, the label of such
        food shall bear a quantitative
        statement of such ingredient(s)
                            1-23

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    PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS
H.
LOCATION:
    COMMENTS:
    b.  imitation or artificial ingre-
         dients — listed as such.

Labeling permitted on the "Information
Panel":
1.  Nutrition information
2.  A statement of cholesterol, fat and
    fatty acid content if it conforms
    with specific requirements.

Specified as follows:
1.  Type of letters,
2.  Size (relative size)  of type
    (minimum sizes established),
3.  Type must be in distinct contrast
    to other matter on the package.

1.  Statement of identity and net
    weight must appear on the "
    "Principal Display Panel".
2.  All other required labeling must
    appear on the "Information Panel".

The most important point in this label-
ing requirement is the stipulation that
important information is to be located
on the "Principal Display Panel" and
that all other required labeling is to
be located on the prominently located
"Information Panel".
                            1-24

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11.  MANUFACTURED OR PROCESSED DAIRY PRODUCTS
A.  PRODUCT:

B.  AGENCY:

C.  PURPOSE:

D.  GRADES/RATING:
E.  TECHNICAL BASIS/
    CATEGORIZATION:
F.  LABEL CONTENT:
G.  PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS
H.  LOCATION:

I.  COMMENTS:
Manufactured or Processed Dairy Products

Department of Agriculture

Quality Information

U.S. Grade B, A, or AA or an equivalent
standard of quality for U.S. name grades,
if numerical score grades of a product
have not been established.

Grades are composite ratings of various
factors depending on the product, such
as flavor, appearance and body.  The
standards are set forth in the code.

1.  USDA
2.  Grade
3.  U.S. Department of Agriculture
    inspection statement.

1.  Minimum size for the shield
    specified
2.  Samples of approved shields are
    given in the code.

On package, otherwise not specified.

It can be required that the package
label, carton or wrapper carrying
official identification be stamped or
perforated with date packed and the
certificate number or a code number to
indicate lot and date packed.
                           1-25

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12.  BUTTER
A.  PRODUCT:

B.  AGENCY:


C.  PURPOSE:

D.  GRADES/RATINGS:
E.  TECHNICAL BASIS/
    CATEGORIZATION:
F.  LABEL CONTENT:
G.  PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS

H.  LOCATION:
I.   COMMENTS:
Butter

Department of Agriculture (7 CFR 58
Subpart P)

Quality Information

U.S. Grade AA or U.S. Score 93
U.S. Grade A or U.S. Score 92
U.S. Grade B or U.S. Score 90
U.S. Grade C or U.S. Score 89
General

Flavor is the basic quality factor in
grading butter and is determined organ-
oleptically by taste and smell.  The
flavor characteristic is identified,
and together with its relative inten-
sity, is rated according to the appli-
cable classification.  Body, color and
salt characteristics are then noted
and any defects are disrated in accord-
ance with the established classification.
The final U.S. grade is then established,
The standards are set forth in the code.

Same as for "Manufactured or Processed
Dairy Products".

Same as for "Manufactured or Processed
Dairy Products".

Same as for "Manufactured or Processed
Dairy Products".

Butter is graded on one technical
basis (flavor) and then is disrated
for other bases (body, color and salt)
in accordance with an established
scheme, to come up with a final U.S.
grade.
                            1-26

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13.  AGRICULTURAL SEEDS
A.

B.


C.

D.

E,
PRODUCT:

AGENCY:


PURPOSE:

GRADE/RATING:
Agricultural Seeds

Department of Agriculture
(7 CFR Part 201)

Classification and quality information

Class of seed
TECHNICAL BASIS/  Set forth in code
CATEGORIZATION:
    LABEL CONTENT:
G.  PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS:

H.  LOCATION:
                   1.  Name of each kind of seed present
                   2.  Percent of each kind of seed
                   3.  Variety of seed
                   4.  Type of seed
                   5.  Word "hybrid" if hybrid present
                   6.  Lot number or other identifi-
                       cation "I.D."
                   7.  Origin of seed
                   8.  Percentage of weed seeds
                   9.  Percentage of agricultural seeds
                  10,  Percentage of weight of inert
                       matter
                  11.  Percentage of germination for
                       each kind of type/hybrid
                  12.  Percentage of hard seed
                  13.  Month and year germination test
                       was completed
                  14.  "Manufacturer" - Full name and
                       address of either shipper or
                       consignee
                  15.  Inoculated seed must show expira-
                       tion date for inoculation
                  16.  Grade - Class of seed.

                  Not specified
                  Tag attached securely to the container,
                  or printed in a conspicuous manner on
                  a side or the top of the container.
                            1-27

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I.  SPECIAL:           The label may contain information in
                      addition to that required by the Act,
                      provided such information is not mis-
                      leading .

J.  COMMENTS:          The most important point to note is
                      that all the required information is
                      located on a tag securely attached to
                      the container or printed in a con-
                      spicuous manner on the top or side of
                      the container.

                      It is also interesting that inoculated
                      seed has something analogous to a use-
                      ful life stamped on the product.
                            1-28

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14.  SHELL EGGS
A.

B.

C.

D.
PRODUCT:

AGENCY:

PURPOSE:

GRADE/RATING:
E,
TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
    LABEL CONTENT:
G.  PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS:
Shell eggs

Department of Agriculture  (7 CFR 56)

Size and quality information

Eggs are rated
  By Quality  (Grademark):
    Grade AA  (Fresh Fancy)
    Grade A
    Grade B
    Grade C
    Dirty
    Check

  By size:
    Jumbo
    Extra Large
    Large
    Medium
    Small
    Pee Wee

The "quality" grade is a composite
rating of the shell, air cell, white
and yolk.

The standard for individual egg
quality and U.S. consumer grades are
set forth in the code.
                                        within a shield
                  1.   USDA       )
                  2.   U.S. Grade j
                  3.   Size or weight class may appear
                      (if not must appear prominently
                      on main panel of carton)
                  4.   Plant number may appear (if not
                      must be shown elsewhere on the
                      packaging material).

                  Specified as follows:
                  1.   Samples of approved grademarks
                      are shown in the code
                  2.   Size
                            1-29

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H.  LOCATION:          The grademark must be printed on the
                      carton or on the tape used to seal the
                      carton.

I.  COMMENTS:          The grading system uses and does not
                      combine two grades, one for quality,
                      one for size.  The quality grading
                      requires that certain requirements all
                      be met to receive a certain grade.
                      The size grade sets a minimum weight
                      per dozen, per 30 dozen, and a minimum
                      weight for individual eggc at rate per
                      dozen.  Letter codes arc usod.
                            1-30

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15.  PRODUCTS COVERED BY THE "AGRICULTURAL MARKETING ACT OF 1946"
    PRODUCT:
B.

C.

D,
AGENCY:

PURPOSE:

GRADE/RATING:
E,
TECHNICAL BASIS/
CATEGORIZATION:
F.  LABEL CONTENT:
G.  PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS
H.  LOCATION:

I.  COMMENTS:
Processed fruits and vegetables, pro-
cessed products thereof, and certain
other processed food products  (require-
ments under Agricultural Marketing Act
of 1946)

Department of Agriculture  (7 CFR 52)

Quality and size information

U.S. Grade A
U.S. Grade B
U.S. Grade C
This is voluntary grading and  labeling.

The grade is a composite rating of
various factors such as appearance,
ripeness, texture, taste, etc.
Standards are set forth in the code.

1.  Grade (2 forms of label):  "Packed
    under Continuous Inspection of the
    U.S. Department of Agriculture --
    for plants operating under contin-
    uous U.S.D.A. inspection.
2.  Grade -- contract in plant
    inspection
3.  Officially sampled date - U.S.
    Department of Agriculture,
    Washington, D.C. -- contract in
    plant inspection.

Specified as follows:
The grade and inspection marks approved
for use are shown in figures in the
code.

Not specified

Processed food has a composite grade,
having a technical basis of both sub-
jective and physical parameters.
Intervals are not defined in numerical
terms.  Letter codes are used.  The
grading and labeling is voluntary.
                            1-31

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16.  LIVESTOCK, MEATS, PREPARED MEATS AND MEAT PRODUCTS
B.

C.

D.
E,
H.
PRODUCT:



AGENCY:

PURPOSE:

GRADES/RATINGS:
                  Livestock, meats, prepared meats and
                  meat products (labeling as to quality,
                  no yield)

                  Department of Agriculture (7 CFR 53)

                  Quality information

                  The grade is a single word code,
                  "prime", "choice", "good", "standard",
                  "commercial", "utility", "cutter",
                  "canner",  or "cull"; accompanied when
                  necessary by a class designation.

TECHNICAL BASIS/  The quality grade is based on separate
CATEGORIZATION:   evaluations of two general consider-
                  ations :
                  1.  The quality or the palatability
                      - indicating characteristics of
                      lean,  and
                  2.  The conformation of the carcass or
                      primal cut.

                  The standards for these evaluations
                  are set forth in the code.
    LABEL CONTENT:
                                    within the shield
                  "Official identification"
                  1.  USDA }
                  2.  Grade)
                  3.  Grader's code identification
                      letters (outside the shield)
    PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS:
COMMENTS:
                  Specified as follows:
                  1.  Shield with USDA and grade
                      enclosed (as shown in Figure 	
                      in the code):
                  2.  The code identification letters
                      of the grader shall appear inter-
                      mittently outside the shield.

                  The composite grading system combines
                  a number or technical bases, including
                  maturity, marbling and quality.
                  Quasi-descriptive single-word codes
                  are assigned to the ratings.
                           1-32

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17.  COTTONSEED FOR CRUSHING PURPOSES
A.  PRODUCT:

B.  AGENCY:


C.  PURPOSE:

D.  GRADE/RATING:
E.  TECHNICAL BASIS/
    CATEGORIZATION:
F.  LABEL CONTENT:

G.  PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS:

H.  LOCATION:

I.  SUMMARY:
Cottonseed for crushing purposes

Department of Agriculture
 (7 CFR Part 61)

Quality control  (purity, soundness)

Basis grade 100
1.  High grades are defined as those
    above 100;
2.  Low grades are defined as those
    below 100;
3.  Grades for American Pima cotton
    shall be suffixed by the desig-
    nation "American Pima" or by the
    symbol "AP";
4.  Below grade 40.0 shall be desig-
    nated as "below grade cottonseed"
    and a numerical grade shall not
    be indicated.

Based on numerical "quantity index"
 (yield) and numerical "quality index"
These are multiplied and divided by
100.

Numerical grade on certificate.

Not specified
Not specified

The most interesting point here is the
grading system.

A basis grade of 100 is set and "high"
and "low grades relate to this.  This
type of scale might be useful with a
grade of 100 signifying the greatest
amount of noise energy a person can
receive without being fully "impacted":
a low grade cut-off point is identified.
                            1-33

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18.  WORKPLACE SIGNS (General Requirements)
A.

B.
PRODUCT:

AGENCY:



PURPOSE:
Workplace signs (general requirements)

Department of Labor, Occupational
Safety and Health Administration
(29 CFR Part 1910)

To identify hazards
D.
E.
GRADE/RATING:   j
TECHNICAL BASIS//  Not applicable
CATEGORIZATION: )
    LABEL CONTENT:
    PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS:
H,
LOCATION:
Symbols used should follow recognized
practices (examples given).  Wording
used is qualitatively specified
(examples given).

1.  Colors
2,  Proportions
3   Format
4,  Sign shape
5.  General construction of sign.  All
    spelled out and referenced to ANSI
    or ASAE standards.

Qualitatively specified, except in
cases of in-plant traffic signs and
slow moving vehicle emblems, which are
referenced to national standards.
                            1-34

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19. WORKPLACE SIGNS AND MARKINGS (Specific Requirements)
    PRODUCT:
B.   AGENCY:
C.  PURPOSE:

D.  GRADE/RATING:
E.  TECHNICAL BASIS/
    CATEGORIZATION:

F.  LABEL CONTENT:
    PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS:
Workplace signs and markings  (specific
requirements)

Department of Labor, Occupational
Safety and Health Administration
(29 CFR Part 1910)

Safety
Not applicable
See subheading information below:
Means of Egress  (1910.37) Wording and
symbol  (arrow) spelled out;
Overhead Conveyors  (1910.261) - Spe-
cific wording "or their equivalent"
must be used;
Asbestos Air Contaminants - wording
specified;
Manlift Instruction and Warning Signs •
(1910.68)- approximate wording given
for instructional signs; legend spe-
cified for visitor warning sign;
Bulk Oxygen Equipment Locations
(1910.104) - Specific words or
"equivalent";
Transportation Vehicle Carrying
Explosives (1910.109)  - Marked with
class of explosive or oxidizer carried.
Additional warning "Dangerous" for
vehicle carrying more than a specified
weight is necessary;

See subheadings below:
Means of Egress - Size, color and
design should be readily visible and
distinctive from other signs;
Overhead Conveyors - must be erected
in accord with ANSI Z35.1-1968;
Electromagnetic_Radiation Warning
Symbol(1910.97)- Color, format, pro-
portions, location of space  (or ancil-
lary information specified);
                            1-35

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H.  LOCATION:
I.   COMMENTS:
Asbestos Air Contaminant Caution Signs
and Labels - Sign size, letter size,
style and spacing specified for caution
signs, size and contrast of letters
qualitatively described for label;
Manlift Signs (1910.68) - Letter size
and color specified for instructional
signs; letter size, shape and illumi-
nation required is specified for top
floor warning sign; letter size, shape
and contrast specified for visitor
warning signs;
Bulk Oxygen Equipment Locations -
"permanently placarded";
Transportation Vehicle Carrying Explo-
sives - height, stroke, color and for-
mat of signs is specified;
Portable Fire Extinguisher Locations
(1910.157) - means shall be provided
to conspicuously indicate the location
and intended use of extinguishers.

See subheadings below:

Asbestos Air Contaminant Caution Signs
and Labels - location qualitatively
specified;
Transportation Vehicle Carrying Explo-
sives - Specified locations on vehicle.

More important information is specified
more fully.
                            1-36

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20.  WORKPLACE MACHINERY
A.  PRODUCT:
B.   AGENCY:
C.  PURPOSE:
D.  GRADE/RATING:
E.  TECHNICAL BASIS/
    CATEGORIZATION:

F.  LABEL CONTENT:
G.  PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS:
H.  LOCATION:
Workplace machinery - tags for hazard-
ous conditions, defective equipment

Department of Labor, Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (29 CFR Part
1910.145)

Temporary warning of hazardous conditions
or defective equipment
Not applicable
Symbols are specified for radiation and
biohazards.

Color and format specified for some tags
("do not start", "radiation" and "bio-
hazards" ) .

Location specified for "do not start",
"danger",  and "caution" tags.
                            1-37

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21.  GASOLINE
A.  PRODUCT:

B.  AGENCY:

C.  PURPOSE:

D.  GRADES/RATINGS:
E.  TECHNICAL BASIS/
    CATEGORIZATION:
F.  LABEL CONTENT:
G.  PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS
11.   LOCATION:
I.   COMMENTS:
Gasoline

Federal Trade Commission (16 CFR 422)

Octane information at the pump

A single number octane grade derived
by method set forth in the code and
termed "octane number".

The "octane number" is calculated from
the research octane number and the motor
octane number, which are in turn deter-
mined from tests described in ASTM
D439-70 and ASTM D2699 and D2700.

Minimum "octane number" of the motor
gasoline being dispensed must appear
on the pump.

Specified as follows:
1.  Permanently attached
2.  Conspicuous

Conspicuously located on the gasoline
pump.

The FTC octane number is a combination
of industry standards and a standard
set forth in the code.

PROBLEM:  The octane number in car own-
ers '  manuals at the time of the rule-
making was the research octane number.
In 1974, the auto industry came up with
a symbol which indicates the range of
octane appropriate for the vehicle.  The
symbol is meaningless to the consumer
since it has no obvious relation to the
number that is posted on the gasoline
pump.  In 1975, the auto industry decided
to print in car owners' manuals the re-
search octane number, the FTC octane num-
ber and the octane symbol, making no men-
tion of which octane rating is found on
the gasoline pump.
                            1-38

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22.  FULL-SIZE BABY CRIBS
A.

B.
PRODUCT:

AGENCY:


PURPOSE:
Full-size baby cribs

Consumer Products Safety Commission
(16 CFR 1508)

Safety, Warnings and Instructions
D.
E,
GRADE/RATING:   I Not graded.  Safety standards are set
TECHNICAL BASIS/} forth in the code.
CATEGORIZATION: )
    LABEL CONTENT:
                  1.  Name and place of business of the
                      manufacturer, importer, distribu-
                      tor, and/or seller;
                  2.  Model number, stock number, catalog
                      number, item number or other symbol
                      expressed numerically, in code or
                      otherwise, such that only articles
                      of identical construction, compo-
                      sition and dimensions shall be
                      identical in markings;
                  3.  The following warning:  "Caution"
                      any mattress used in this crib
                      must be at least 27-1/4 inches by
                      51-5/8 inches, with a thickness not
                      exceeding six inches or the equiv-
                      alent statement with dimensions
                      given in centimeters;
                  4.  Statement of conformance to appli-
                      cable regulations promulgated by
                      the CPSC;
                  5.  Assembly instructions for cribs
                      shipped other than completely
                      assembled.

                  The instructions shall also include:
                  a)  cautionary statements concerning
                      secure tightening and maintaining
                      of bolts and other fasteners;
                  b)  cautionary statement on maximum
                      height for child using crib;
                  c)  mattress size warning statement.
                            1-39

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    PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS;
H.
LOCATION:
    COMMENTS:
1.  Size of type of warning  (minimum).
2.  Style of type of warning.
3.  Warning must contrast sharply with
    the background of the label.
4.  Markings on crib shall be of a per-
    manent nature.
5.  Markings shall not be readily re-
    movable or subject to obliteration
    during normal use or when the art-
    icle is subjected to reasonably
    foreseeable damage or abuse.

The label contents (items 1-4) must
be clearly and conspicuously visible
on the crib under normal conditions of
retail display.  The label contents
(items 1-4)  must also be clearly
marked on the retail carton.

The label herein is primarily for
proper assembly and use of the crib.

It is important to note that the code
requires that label content  (items 1-4)
be clearly visible under normal retail
conditions.
                            1-40

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23.  LIGHT-DUTY MOTOR VEHICLES, HEAVY-DUTY GASOLINE ENGINES
B.
D.
E.
    PRODUCT:
AGENCY:
    PURPOSE:
Light-duty motor vehicles, heavy-duty
gasoline engines

Environmental Protection Agency
(40 CFR Part 85)

Provide emission control maintenance
information
GRADE/RATING:   )
TECHNICAL BASIS/? Not applicable
CATEGORIZATION: )
    LABEL CONTENT:
    PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS:
H.
LOCATION:
    COMMENTS:
1.  Heading - "Vehicle Emission Control
    Information"
2.  Full corporate name and trademark
    of manufacturer
3.  Engine displacement and family
4.  Tune-up specs and adjustment
    (specified)  along with indication
    of what the transmission position
    should be and what accessories
    should be operative during tune-up
5.  A conformance standard (specified)

1.  Constructed of plastic or metal
    that is permanently attached so
    that it cannot be removed without
    being destroyed.
2.  Letter shape, language and color
    contrast specified.

Vehicle-engine compartment; engines-on
engine

This kind of information label provides
not only instruction but also serves to
establish a legal basis for compliance;
hence the contents and stipulations are
pre-established and impressed more vig-
orously than for purely information
labels.
                            1-41

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24. REFRIGERATORS,  REFRIGERATOR-FREEZERS AND FREEZERS
B.

C.
PRODUCT:


AGENCY:

PURPOSE:
D.  GRADE/RATING:
    TECHNICAL  BASIS/
    CATEGORIZATION:
    LABEL CONTENT:
Refrigerators,  refrigerator-freezers,
and freezers

Department of Commerce

Consumer information on energy con-
sumption and cost of operation to pro-
mote and effect energy conservation.1

Not graded per  se,  but systems are
grouped by volume.   The energy consump-
tion and cost of operation per month of
a particular system is reported, and
the range of values for its volume class
are given.

1.  Total Refrigerated Volume:  ANSI
    B38.1 - 1970 Section 3.2
2.  Energy Consumption:  Home Appliance
    Manufacturers Standard HRF-2-ECFT-
    1974.

1.  Heading:   "Energy Guide"
2.  Symbol:  U.S. Department of Commerce
    Energy Conservation Mark
3.  System type, Model No. and Size
4.  Energy consumption per month
5.  Notice of where energy saving infor-
    mation may  be obtained
6.  Comparison  Information:  ranges  of
    energy consumption and cost of oper-
    ation for volume group.
 1 McGuire, B.J.  and E.A. Vadelind, "Voluntary Labeling Program for
  Household Appliances and Equipment to Effect Energy Conservation,"
  Annual Report  for Calendar Year 1974.  NBSIR 75-660, February, 1975,
  Draft Analysis of Comments to Notice Published in Federal Register
  December 31, 1974, 39 FR 45334.
                              1-42

-------
    PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS:
H,
LOCATION:
    COMMENTS:
The label appearance is completely spec-
ified and camera-ready art suitable for
printing  (except lacking the required
data) shall be provided by the Secretary
(in tag form).  Appearance in catalog or
advertising brochure, where the informa-
tion must also appear, is not specified.

Physical characteristics specified are:
1.  Size, style and color of Lype
2.  Symbol
3.  Color of stock
4.  Size of label
5.  Layout of label
6.  Method of attachment.

Specified as follows:
1.  Vertical systems:  label to be hung
    from the top shelf or four feet up
    on the inside of the door.
2.  Chests:  label is to be hung from
    the inside of the lid.

If a new model of an appliance is intro-
duced, which is cheaper to operate than
is indicated by the lower range of oper-
ating costs, the manufacturer is encour-
aged to advertise that fact.

The selection of room air conditioners,
also labeled in the overall DOC program,
was found to be so complex that the de-
cision was made to incorporate the per-
tinent information into a brochure,
rather than have the information appear
on the label per se.  The EPA has statu-
tory authority to consider such alter-
natives in its noise labeling program.

The inclusion of comparative information
on the label, as an incentive to both
the consumer and the manufacturer to
consider better performing products, is
unique and merits EPA consideration.
                            1-43

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25.  TEXTILE WEARING APPAREL AND YARD GOODS
A.

B.

C.

D.
PRODUCT:

AGENCY:

PURPOSE:

GRADE/RATING:
    TECHNICAL BASIS/
    CATEGORIZATION:
    LABEL CONTENT:
    PHYSICAL
    CHARACTERISTICS:
H,
LOCATION:
    COMMENTS;
Textile wearing apparel and yard goods

Federal Trade Commission (16 CFR 423)

Disclosures for care and maintenance

Not graded.  Maintenance and care
instructions must be given.

The maintenance and care instructions
required are those necessary for ordi-
nary use and enjoyment of the article.

1.  Instructions for care and
    maintenance
2.  Warnings when normal care procedure
    associated with that article will,
    in fact, if applied, substantially
    diminish the ordinary use and en-
    joyment of the article.

1.  Permanently affixed to a finished
    article of wearing apparel
2.  Remain legible for useful life of
    article
3.  For yard goods, can be permanently
    affixed to finished article using
    normal household methods.

Finished article of wearing apparel:
Label must be permanently attached to
article.

Yard goods:
Label must accompany goods.

The care and maintenance labeling pro-
gram has had some problems at the con-
sumer end.  At times finished articles
of clothing if washed and dried accord-
ing to instructions will shrink or run
or become misshaped.  Also, when pur-
chasing yard goods, it is common not to
receive a care label with the goods.
                            1-44

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                        SECTION 2

              NOISE LABELING - GENERAL APPROACH

    The labeling of consumer products is an area of govern-
mental regulation that is growing.  Certain consumer products
like motorcycles now have several labels, and others are pro-
posed or under development.  Unless care is taken, these
separate labeling efforts will appear totally uncoordinated,
and the consumer  nay be confused and antagonized by the
clutter of different messages, symbols, and warnings.
TYPES OF LABELS
    Table 2-1 lists the various kinds of labels that are
attached to products for regulatory purposes, putting aside
entirely voluntary manufacturer labeling.  By "regulatory"
it is meant that the label is put there in accordance with
some established rule or standard.  The regulator need not be
the government, nor must use of the standard be governmentally
required.  Some examples in the listed categories are:
    •    Governmental requirements:  mandatory labeling
         rules established by EPA, NHTSA, FDA, USDA, FTC, etc.
    •    Governmental permission:  EPA/FEA fuel economy - in
         this case, a vehicle manufacturer may choose not to
         label.  If he does label, it must conform to spe-
         cific requirements.
    •    Trade association rules:  such organizations as BIA
         (Bicycles),  OPEI (power lawn mowers), ARI  Ccentral
                            2-1

-------
          air-conditioners) allow use of  seals  and  labels  to
          indicate specific performance measures.
          Others:  such magazines as  Good Eouse~keeping and Parents
          have approval programs, usually without a publicly
          disclosed test basis, and the Snell Foundation has
          a voluntary crash helmet standards program.
                         Table 2-1

                       Types of Labels

     LABELS ARE ATTACHED TO PRODUCTS FOR  "REGULATORY"  PURPOSES
     UNDER:

          •    GOVERNMENT REQUIREMENT
          •    GOVERNMENTAL PERMISSION
          •    TRADE ASSOCIATION RULES
          •    OTHER - INCLUDING SEALS OF APPROVAL  OF
                       MAGAZINE PUBLISHERS

INFORMATION LABELING
     The various kinds of labeling shown in Table 2-1  can be
further categorized, as shown in Table 2-2, as being either
conformance labeling or informational labeling.  Labeling to
claim compliance has been investigated in connection with
EPA product noise emission standards, but will not  be  dis-
cussed in this report which is concerned only with  informa-
tional labeling.
                             2-2

-------
                         Table 2-2

         Conformance Labeling and Information Labeling

     CONFORMANCE LABELING - TO CLAIM COMPLIANCE WITH  GOVERN-
     MENTAL OR PRIVATE STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE REGS
     •    LABELING OF THIS TYPE, WHICH EPA MAY DO  UNDER
          SECTION 6 OF THE ACT, IS NOT OF INTEREST HERE
     INFORMATIONAL LABELING - PROVIDES ESSENTIAL INFORMATION
     TO PURCHASER/USER
          •  QUALITY GRADES        •  PERFORMANCE
          •  USE INSTRUCTIONS      •  HAZARDS
          •  LEGAL REQUIREMENTS RELATED TO THE
             INFORMATION LABEL
     •    THIS TYPE OF LABELING IS TO BE DONE UNDER
          SECTION 8 OF THE ACT

     The goal of informational labeling is to say  to  the
prospective purchaser or user:  "Look here for noise  infor-
mation about this noise producer or noise reducer."   This
information must appear to be -- and indeed must be --  more
than self-serving, unregulated advertising.  The label  should
convey the message that the contents are "Government  approved"
or "Government checked" and thus trustworthy and unprejudiced.
     Table 2.3 shows those agencies whose labeling regula-
tions have been examined.
     Many of these agencies are responsible for labeling more
than one product category.
    Table 2-4 indicates the wide variety of items  labeled by
the Federal Government.
     Label requirements have been accompanied by public-
information campaigns -- sometimes undertaken by the  regu-
latory agency alone,  as in the example shown in Fig.  2-1.
                             2-3

-------
     The public information process is greatly aided if in-
dustry itself joins in the effort.  Fig. 2-2 shows covers to
brochures — the right-hand one published at Government
expense by the FDA, the left-hand one, which makes very
effective use of color printing, by a large retail food
chain.
     The clarity of the explanations given to consumers
varies.  Fig. 2-3 shows the label information one should
expect to find on cheese and explains the terms used by the
industry.
     Fig. 2-4 shows a catalog entry that includes a noise
rating (2.9 sones).  However, the explanation headed
Ventilator Note is obscure and confusing to the lay public, and
indeed, to a sample of acoustical engineers.
     These same people also had difficulty understanding the
advertisements shown in Fig. 2-5.  Everyone, expert and lay-
person alike, was dismayed that the ventilation quietness
rating and the air conditioner sound rating were not on the
same basis and that no meaningful comparison could be
quickly made.  Worse yet, these values could not readily
be related to the sound levels in decibels, with which the
public is becoming increasingly familiar.
                             2-4

-------
                          Table 2-3
            Federal Agencies Involved in Labeling

Atomic Energy Commission
Consumer Product Safety Commission
Department of Agriculture
Department of Commerce
Department of Defense
Department of Justice
Environmental Protection Agency
Federal Energy Commission
Federal Trade Commission
Food and Drug Administration (HEW)
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (DOT)
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (DOL)
                             2-5

-------
                          Table 2-4
   Examples of Specific Products and General Categories
                  Subject to Labeling Laws

Tires
Electrically operated toys
Charcoal briquettes
Air conditioners
Lawn darts
Toy caps
Bicycles
Car seats for children
Power amplifiers
Refrigerators, freezers
Textile wearing apparel and yard goods
Full-size cribs
Hazardous substances
Insecticides, fungicides and rodenticides
Gasoline
Cigarettes
Drugs
Food
Light bulbs
Motor vehicles
Electric appliances
Upholstered products
Agricultural seed
Occupational safety equipment
                            2-6

-------
FTC Buyer's Guide No. 6
            LOOK FOR
           THAT LABEL
      Figure 2-1
         2-7

-------
    abeling
j:liisi
  aPffibSB
  Jljg WINS); ^iag
  i/iT.r." A ..
   IUU
      -Wat
      *V«-*"IE
      * !'
Figure 2-2 Government Brochures
               2-8

-------
                                                           BUYING CHEESE

                                                           CHECK THE  LABEL

                                                             The  labels  of natural  cheese,  pasteurized
                                                           process cheese,  and  related products  carry im-
                                                           portant descriptive information. The name of a
                                                           natural cheese will appear as the variety  such
                                                           as "Cheddar cheese", "Swiss cheese", or "Blue
                                                           cheese."
                                                             Pasteurized process cheese  labels will always
                                                           include the words "pasteurized process1', together
                                                           with the name of  the variety or varieties cf cheese
                                                           used, for instance, "pasteurized process American
                                                           cheese" or "pasteurized  process  Swiss and
                                                           American cheese".
                                                             Cheese food  also  contains  ingredients ether
                                                           than cheese and  therefore- ,s labeled as "pasteur-
                                                           ized process cheese food"  Cheese spreads ha;e
                                                           a  different  composition from  cheese  foods and
                                                           are  labeled as  "pasteurized  process  cheese
                                                           spread". All the  ingredients used in the prepara-
                                                           tion of these products  are listed on the respect've
                                                           label  along with the kinds or varieties of cheese
                                                           used in the mixture Also the milkfat and moisture
                                                           content may be shown.
                                                             Coldpack  cheese and coldpack cheese  focd
                                                           are labeled in the same manner as other cheese
                                                           and cheese foods except that  "club cheese"  cr
                                                           "comminuted cheese" may be substituted for the
                                                           name "coldpack cheese".
                                                                                             WEIGHT
                                                                                        DISTRIBUTOR

                                                                                   CURING CATEGORY
                                                                                               NAME

                                                                                             QUALITY
Figure  2-3    Cheese  Labels
                                            2-9
                                                          CHECK THE CURE

                                                            A very important bit of information on the label
                                                          of certain varieties of natural cheese pertains to
                                                          the age or degree of curing. For instance, Cheddar
                                                          cheese may  be  labeled as "mild", "medium" or
                                                          "mellow", or "aged"  or "sharp". In  some cases
                                                          pasteurized  process cheese may be labeled to
                                                          indicate a sharp flavor when a much higher pro-
                                                          portion of sharp or aged cheese  was used in its
                                                          preparation.
                                                          CHECK THE  NAME

                                                            Look for the name of  the article.  Do not con-
                                                          fuse the brand name with the name of the cheese.
                                                          For some purposes you may want natural cheese.

-------
                              Bathroom  Ventilators help clear out.
                                      moisture and stale air.
            3 rocher switches
            allow use ol ItqM
          and blower separately
           Of healer witti light
            arxj/of blower
                                   Lighted ceiling
                                     Ventilator
                                    with infrared
                                       heater
Cuf'7
     >6295
           K  A comfortable bathroom on cold mornings
              without overheating the whole house. Heat
           from two 400-watt quartz tube heaters.  Light
           uses four 40-watt bulbs (not incl.). Blower
           moves 90 CFM*. ventilates bathrooms up to 85
           square feet. Grille measures 16J4x11>£ in. Re-
           quires 14%x10%-m.  opening. Built-in plastic
           damper for quiet operation .  rated at 2.9 sones.
           White Lexan® plastic grille with gold-color
           accent. UL listed; 110-120-v.. 60-c. AC. 1020 w.
           Order vent kit from Big Book.       H
           42 R 6366—Shipping wt. 13 Ibs. 4 02.     Now $62.95
 Ventilator
  with light
   alone
    Cut*5
A As at left but without heat. Control light,
  blower together  with one light-type
switch or separately with 2 switches
(switches not incl.). UL listed; 110-120-v.,
60-c. AC. 220 w. Sone rating 2.9.
  Order vent kit from Big Book.
42R6364—Shpg wt 12lbs 8oz   Now $42.95
VENTILATOR NOTE: Ventilators are quietness
rated in sones (units ot sound) by Yneasurements
by Sears Laboratory tests. (4 sones twice as loud
as 2.) Noisy bathroom ventilator would be above
6 5 sones.
•CrM = Cubic leel per minule.
Figure  2-4    Example  of  a  Noise Rating
                                           2-10,

-------
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Figure 2-5  Advertisements for Air Conditioners
                       2-11

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NOISE LABELING UNDER SECTION 8 OF THE NOISE CONTROL ACT

     It is now appropriate to examine the labeling task that

Congress has set forth for the EPA.  The Noise Control Act

of 1972 devotes all of Section 8 and part of Section 10 to

labeling.  Section 8 is shown in Table 2-5.

     Table 2-6 is an exerpt from Section 10.


                         Table 2-5


        Section 8 of the Noise Control Act of 1972

               (Public Law 92-574)  (Labeling)
     (a)  The Administrator shall by regulation designate
any product (or class thereof) -
          (1)   which emits noise capable of adversely
               affecting the public health or welfare; or
          (2)   which is sold wholly or in part on the
               basis of its effectiveness in reducing noise.

     (b)  For each product (or class thereof) designated
under sub-section  (a) the Administrator shall by regulation
require that notice be given to the prospective user of
the level of the noise the product emits, or of its effec-
tiveness in reducing noise, as the case may be.  Such regu-
lations shall specify (1) whether such notice shall be
affixed to the product or to the outside of its container,
or to both, at the time of its sale to the ultimate pur-
chaser or whether such notice shall be given to the prospec-
tive user in some other manner, (2) the form of the notice,
and (3) the methods and units of measurement to be used.
Sections 6(c)  (2) shall apply to the prescribing of any
regulation under this system.

     (c)  This section does not prevent any State or
political subdivision thereof from regulation producr
labeling or information respecting products in any way not
in conflict with regulations prescribed by the Administrator
under this section.
                            2-12

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                         Table 2-6

        Section 10 of the Noise Control Act of 1972

               (Public Law 92-574)  (Labeling)
      (a)  Except as otherwise provided in subsection  (b),
the following acts or the causing thereof are prohibited:
      (3)  In the case of a manufacturer, to distribute in
commerce any new product manufactured after the effective
date of a regulation prescribed under Section 8 (b)
(requiring information respecting noise) which is appli-
cable to such product, except in conformity with such
regulation.

      (4)  The removal by any person of any notice affixed
to a product or container pursuant to regulations prescribed
under Section 8(b), prior to sale of the product to the
ultimate purchaser.
     In Table 2-7, the language of Section 8 is examined

in more detail.

     As indicated in Note 2, if the EPA identified a noise

hazard from a product that was no longer made, it could

identify it for labeling purposes, although notifying the

user could present practical difficulties.  Interaction

with other State and local governments could be useful here.

     As indicated in Note 3, the specification as a group

of all products capable of adverse effect could shorten the

regulatory timetable.

     The information necessary to make the determination

concerning adverse effects is already available, in part,

as contained in the following EPA Publications:  "Public
                            2-13

-------
Health and Welfare Criteria for Noise", July 27, 1973 [l]
and "Information on Levels of Noise Requisite to Protect
Public Health and Welfare with an Adequate Margin of Safety",
March, 1974 [2].
     For example, as indicated in Note 5., the METRO transit
system will expose riders and spectators to noise.  Home air
conditioner noise can affect both the owner and his neighbors.
     Figure 2-6 is an example of advertisements for grass
seed which incorporates a noise claim!
     Table 2-8 contains an examination of Section 8(B) of the
Statutory Authority.
     As indicated in Note 9., the legislative history shows
that various and sometimes more specific requirements were
part of the several noise control bills introduced in the
Congress in 1971.
     How can the term label be defined?  Table 2-9 shows
one definition, drawn from a pesticide regulation.  It is too
specific for the purposes under discussion.
     As shown by Table 2-10, labeling means different things
to different people.  Most of the differences come from the
different perception of labeling as seen in government,  in
industry, in the engineering department, or in the graphics
or advertising department.  Labeling is really all of those
things.
                            2-14

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                         Table 2-7

                    Statutory Authority


     SECTION 8(A)  REQUIRES1 THE ADMINISTRATOR TO ...

     DESIGNATE ANY PRODUCT2 (OR CLASS THEREOF)3

     (1)   WHICH EMITS NOISE CAPABLE4 OF ADVERSELY AFFECTING

     THE PUBLIC HEALTH AND WELFARE1'5. .  ."
     ". .  .  SHALL DESIGNATE ANY PRODUCT  (OR CLASS THEREOF)

                                   4                       5
     (1)   WHICH EMITS NOISE CAPABLE  OF ADVERSELY AFFECTING
     (2)   WHICH IS SOLD WHOLLY OR IN PART6 ON THE BASIS OF

     ITS EFFECTIVENESS IN REDUCING NOISE"
 "Shall .  .  .  designate any"  Note no discretionary
 authority,  as in Section 6(a)(3)  is provided.
2
 The product need not be a "new product" as defined in
 Section 3(5).

 The designated product could be specific .  .  .  (e.g., Whisper
 jet 727)  ... or generic . .  . (e.g., chain saws with
 gasoline  engines) ... or all products capable of adverse
 effect on public health and welfare as determined by
 •  information on the levels of noise requisite to protect
    the public health and welfare (w/o margin of safety)
 •  the noise  exposure in normal use or in expected use.
4
 Products not capable of such adverse effect  are not  sub-
 ject to labeling under Section 8(a)(1).  A manufacturer's
 claim to "no adverse effect" can be reviewed under Section
 10(a)(3), however, and is  subject to FTC review on the
 issues of unfairness and deception  (Section  5, FTCA).
 No distinction is made between "prospective  users" and
 "spectators,  bystanders".

 Again, the product may be designated as an individual, a
 class, or all products sold on such a basis  (e.g., Fylking
 grass seed, all hearing protectors, all products that
 either:

     Absorb Sound           OR      Block (attenuate) Sound.
                            2-15

-------
                           WORLD'S  FAIR


                         OFFICIAL  GRASS

                         Architects for  Expo '74  World's Fair  picked
                         0217® brand Fylking Kentucky bluegrass for all
                         lawn areas because of its outstanding qualities. The
                         World's Fair theme, "Celebrating tomorrow's fresh
                         new  environment" makes  Fy^king the  natural
                         choice. Its dense root system knits itself together
                         to resist weeds,  requiring less chemical weed
                         control. Fylking's greater disease resistance means
                         less disease and little, if any, chemical treatment
                         for turfgrass diseases. It  has greater  drought
                         resistance, can be cut low as 3/4  inch (even 1/2
                         inch) and thrive with less  watering. Fylking ab-
                         sorbs carbon dioxide pollutants, gives off oxygen.
                         It reduces glare and radiation, cools air by releas-
                         ing water vapor.  It fights  noise  pollution with
                         superior sound absorption qualities Fylklng grass
                         blades trap dust  particles  whicrT~are eventually
                         absorbed into the soil. A vital green environmental
                         shield, ask for the official World's Fair grass seed
                         or sod, 0217® Fylking Kentucky bluegrass, at
                         seed and garden supply centers and sod landscape
                         distributors.

                               JYLKING KENTUCKY BLXGRASS
                                                   U b Pidn: Paient 2887
                                       A"Oiher fme product ot JacMin Seed Compdny


                                       IwSJidisftiir"11"11""
Figure  2-6   Advertisement  Incorporating  Noise Claim
                                         2-16

-------
                         Table 2-8

      Additional Examination of Section  8 Authority

     SECTION 8(B) REQUIRES NOTICE7 TO THE PROSPECTIVE USERE
                      9                            10
     OF LEVEL OF NOISE  ... OR ITS EFFECTIVENESS  IN
     REDUCING NOISE.
     THE REGULATIONS MUST SPECIFY
          (1)  WHERE  (LOCATION) - ON PRODUCT, ON  CONTAINER
               AT TIME OF SALE TO ULTIMATE PURCHASER —
               OR IF NOTICE IS TO BE GIVEN TO THE USER IN
               ANOTHER WAY
          (2)  THE FORM
          (3)  THE METHOD OF MEASUREMENT AND THE  UNITS
               OF MEASUREMENT
  Not necessarily a label
o
  This is not the "ultimate purchaser" defined  in  Section  3  (4)
9
  Not necessarily decibels - some "legislative  history"
  No legislative history
                             2-17

-------
               Table 2-9
          Definition of Terms

LABEL - THE TERM 'LABEL' MEANS THE WRITTEN,
PRINTED, OR GRAPHIC MATTER ON, OR ATTACHED TO,
THE PESTICIDE OR DEVICE OF ANY OF ITS CON-
TAINERS OR WRAPPERS.
LABELING - THE TERM 'LABELING' MEANS ALL LABELS
AND ALL OTHER WRITTEN, PRINTED, OR GRAPHIC
MATTER:
a.   Accompanying the pesticide or device at
     any time; or

b.   To which reference is made on the label or
     in literature accompanying the pesticide
     or device, except to current official pub-
     lications of the Environmental Protection
     Agency, the United States Departments of
     Agriculture and Interior, the Department
     of Health, Education, and Welfare, State
     experiment stations, State agricultural
     colleges, and other similar Federal or
     State institutions or agencies authorized
     by law to conduct research in the field
     of pesticides.
                    2-18

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                        Table 2-10
            Various Meanings of Term  "Labeling"

     LABELING CAN MEAN:
          •    THE WORDS/SYMBOL THAT  PROVIDE THE  IDENTITY
               FOR NOISE LABELING
          •    THE RATING ITSELF
          •    THE LABEL ON THE PRINCIPAL DISPLAY PANEL  --
               AND WHAT IS ON THE INFORMATION  (SECONDARY)
               PANEL
          •    THE TOTALITY OF THE INFORMATION REQUIRED
               UNDER A LABELING STATUTE
     Unfortunately, however, the informative labeling such
as is being discussed sometimes is lost in the midst of
other labeling as demonstrated in Figure 2-7.
     It can be concluded, as shown in Table 2-11, that, on
the basis of investigations of both technical  (acoustical)
factors and graphics considerations, some basic development
can be common to labels for noise reducers and noise
producers.  These common factors will be described in more
detail below.
     However, noise reducers do not appear to lend them-
selves to a common label grade, and the separation into a
sound insulator and a sound absorber category seems necessary.

MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF LABELS
     Section 8 identifies three major characteristics which labels
                            2-19

-------
need to specify.  They are:
          1.   Content
          2.   Physical Characteristics
          3.   Location
     Each of these will be examined in turn.

LABEL CONTENT
     The content of the label is of primary importance.
However, the content of the label is restricted by two
considerations:  the limits on the statutory authority and
the physical space limitations for messages of readable
size and layout.  Table 2-12 lists various informational
elements of importance.  First, the noise label must
identify itself.  This must be so standardized that it is
a highly recognizable symbol.  It can be a word or two -
STOP has become an international traffic sign symbol, and
is recognized in the U.N. Convention on road .signing for
use in non-English-speaking countries.  To gain this near-
instant recognizability, it must always appear in the same
type-face and the same relationship - both relative size
and position - on the label.  The words NOISE RATING can
become a symbol.
     The rating comes next.  The discussion to follow will
indicate the way any valid but highly technical acoustic
measure can be transformed into a simple rating for the
layperson.
     Since space is at a premium, the next item tells where
information essential to getting and keeping the proper
noise performance can be found, and information for the
technically sophisticated buyer as well.
     The manufacturer's name and the product's identification
will be required on the noise label only if this does not
appear elsewhere - it usually will be elsewhere.
                            2-20

-------
     A prohibition against removing the label, and an Agency
seal would be at the bottom.  This authority symbol must be
carefully chosen, for it plays an important role in the
reader's mind.  Consumer research has shown that the public
responds well to "seals of approval" and other official
symbols.  As mentioned earlier, it is vital that the public
see this label's information as trustworthy and impartially
determined.

                        Table 2-11

                 Common Factors for Labels

     1.   CAN THERE BE A SINGLE "LABEL" FOR BOTH
          NOISE PRODUCERS AND NOISE REDUCERS?
          Not Completely - But Many Common Elements
          Are Possible.
     2.   CAN THERE BE A SINGLE "LABEL" FOR ALL
          NOISE PRODUCERS?
          Appears Possible
     3.   CAN THERE BE A SINGLE "LABEL" FOR ALL
          NOISE REDUCERS?
          No - Two Major Categories Appear Possible.
                            2-21

-------
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                              2-22

-------
                        Table 2-12

                     Content of Labels

     1.   HEADING - NOISE INFO SYMBOL
     2.   NOTICE OF PERFORMANCE
            • PRODUCER RATING     • REDUCER RATING
     3.   REFERENCE TO PRODUCT INSTRUCTIONS, SPECIFICATIONS
            t USE        • REPAIR, MAINTENANCE
            • DETAILED TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
     4.   PROHIBITED ACTS

     5.   MANUFACTURER'S NAME (NOT TRADEMARK), ADDRESS
     6.   PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION:  MODEL, BATCH
     7.   GOVERNMENTAL AGENCY OR U.S. GOVERNMENT SYBMOL
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
     As demonstrated in Figure 2-8, some seals have become
well known to the public through frequent exposure.  Even
though all these seals represent the same governmental
agency and are all based on a shield shape, there are
significant appearance variations that can create doubt as
to which is the official one.  The EPA seal does not use a
shield, and contains several symbolic elements - none of
which has strong connotations of governmental authority,
     In the highly competitive visual world of corporate
identity and product trademark advertising, many govern-
mental agency seals fare poorly.  In the following exerpt
from a U.S. Government publication, the authors note that
official seals are often filled with obsure phrases and
symbols.
                            2-23

-------
    LAN DO LAKES
BUTTER
   FOUR QUARTERS
    Distributed by LandO'Lakes. Inc. Minneapolis,MN 55413
                                     USD/I  Grades
                                     Help Ybu Choose
                                     BEEFSTEAKS
                                 lUSDA
                                  PRIME
                                 (USD A
                                  CHOICE
                                  USDA
                                  GOOD
                                   © U.S. Prime-Highest quality,  most
                                    tender, juicy, flavorful

                                   ©U.S. Choice-Most  popular quality,
                                    very tender, juicy, flavorful

                                   CU.S. Good-Lean, fairly tender, not
                                    as juicy and flavorful
                                          LOOK FOR
                                   O Most tender-nb steaks, tenderloin,
                                     porterhouse, T-bone, strip loin, club,
                                     sirloin steaks.

                                   ->M( ierately  tender-blade  chuck,
                                     round steaks

                                   ©Least tender-arm  chuck,  flank
                                     steaks
                                                   GPQ 1*66 O— IM-M7
                                              For idle by the Superintendent of Documents,
                                             U S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC
                                                   20402 - Price 10 cenli
                                          CO^UME'R AND MARKETING SERVICE
                                          HOME AND GARDEN BULLETIN NO. 145
                                          Ffttruory 1968
Figure 2-8  USDA Seals
                                 2-24

-------
     It is interesting to read what the U.S. Department of

Health, Education, and Welfare has to say about seals.*

(The new seal appears in Figure 2-9.)

          "Government papers quite commonly have seals
     of various descriptions because one associates seals
     with important institutions.  But a seal is very
     rarely read by anyone.

          "Here we have taken the HEW seal which appears
     on all letterheads, and we have blown it up to large
     size.  The first thing we note is that the words on
     the seal are exactly the same as those on the letter-
     head.  Then we find a phrase in Latin, which few of
     us can read.  Then there is the familiar eagle, the
     caduceus (a serpent on a rod), which has been the
     medical symbol for a long time.  It is not clear
     exactly what the chain means, but it must have some-
     thing to do with welfare or education.  The symbolism
     is not clear, but it doesn't matter, because the only
     real function of the seal is to suggest Government
     power and status."

     Appearance variations in supposedly identical seals,

and obscure graphic elements are bad enough when only one

governmental agency is involved.  Having various symbols for

different agencies may be even more confusing.  In some ways,

therefore, it would be advantagous for there to be one Federal

symbol that can achieve and keep quick recognizability, even

when restricted to a small size.  This would not prevent the

name of the agency from appearing as well.  However, no such

inter-agency symbol exists at present.
     Ideally, a symbol should have only one meaning, not two.
For example, it was found that the Skull and Cross-Bones

"Poison" label actually attracted children, who associated

the symbol with pirate games and TV cartoons,  rather than sickness
 "How to See," U.S. Department of HEW (Social Security
 Administration)  Publication (SSA)  73-10063.
                            2-25

-------
Figure 2-9  HEW Seal
                            2-26

-------
     That's why the "Mr. Yuk" symbol shown in Figure 2-10
was developed; children (and adults) understand it as con-
veying the idea of bad taste or repulsion.  It is noteworthy
that this symbol (and its sickly green color)  have been
copyrighted.  This was done precisely so that it could not
be legally used for other than its intended purpose, for
example, in a game or toy for children.
     The information conveyed by the label itself is not
the whole story.
     As specified in Table 2-13, additional instructions
may need to be provided to the consumer, perhaps in separate
booklets, instruction sheets, etc.
     Education of the consumer about the meanings of the
various ratings is particularly important if he or she is to under-
stand the full message of the label.
     Labeling regulations may have to specify that that
these kinds of information be furnished as well.  This
could be done on a secondary panel on the container, on a
separate leaflet packed inside,  or in the instruction book.
                             2-27

-------
Figure 2-10  Mr.  Yuk
                             2-28

-------
     The matter of consumer education about the ratings is
vital.  In theory, it may be accomplished by point-of-sale
displays, advertising, or booklets.  One problem is how
readily this additional information reaches the consumer,
and how likely it is to be understood.
     Some people habitually ignore newspaper ads - or go to
the refrigerator during TV commercials.  Sales organizations
may have little stake in facilitating consumer access to
information that is not directly helpful in boosting their
products.
     By regulation, auto manufacturers must furnish braking,
passing distance, and tire load capacity information to buyers
and prospective purchasers.  This information must be avail-
able to take from dealer's showrooms.  Without exception,
manufacturers do not combine this with their full-color
brochures, but present it in a separate, plain brochure filled
with data for different models and different optional equip-
ment.  An example is shown on the left of Figure 2-11.
Neither industry nor government is happy with this outcome,
and there appear to be few buyers who have found this bro-
chure, and fewer still who found it understandable and
useful.
     In contrast, the brochure on the right of Figure 2-11
has received wide readership with good reader comprehension.
Cars of many makes are compared and the meaning of the test
results is explained in simple terms.  Dealers whose cars
do well often have these brochures prominently displayed in
their showrooms.
     Unfortunately, as demonstrated in Figure 2-12, some
consumer education literature and displays, although color-
ful and potentially informative,  are so complex that most
consumers are not likely to take the trouble to understand
them.
                            2-29

-------
        Ford Division
       1975
  CONSU
INFO
        FORD
      TORINO
        ELITE
    MUSTANG II
     GRANADA
     MAVERICK
       PINTO
    THUNDERBIRD
FC754
R«. 3/75
Figure 2-11 Auto Brochures
              September 1974
                        fuel economy test results for automobiles
       aas
       *y •
               C^as*
               oi
^r
i*»?
                     2-30

-------
                          •iSJP '*?, m   'gate ;M'Mi

                               CRANBERRY
                               SAUCE WITH
                               ROAST
                               TURKEY
                                      CITRUS
                                      FRUIT
                                     I AMBROSIA
                             MIXED
                             FRUIT
                    RHUBARB  SALAD
                    ICE CREAM
                    SAUCE

                                                      APPLE-    GRADE  A
                                                      APRICOT
                                                      PIE
                                                 GRADE  B

                                                       CITRUS
                     GRADE  B
                                      PINEAPPLE
                                      GLAZE
                                      FOR HAM
                                           GRADE CX  GELATIN
                                APPLESAUCE;
                                CAKE
                    GRADE C
CHUNKY
APPLE-   PINEAPPLE  M|XED
SAUCE / UPSIDE-  / FRUIT
SIDE   / DOWN    /  GELATIN
DISH     CAKE      MOLD
                                        APPLE
                                        RINGS AS
                                        GARNISH
                                     MIXED
                                    PIECES
                                      AND
                                   SAUCES
            SLICES  \  PEACH
            AND     \ COBBLER
            SEGMENTS
                                      HALVES
                                      AND     / PEACH
                                      REGULAR /  PAS.TRY
                                      SHAPES
   WHOLE
FRUIT AND!
  BERRIES!
                                                                  DISH
                                                                  OF
                                                                  SPLIT
                                                                  FIGS
DISH
OF
ROYAL
ANNE
CHERRIES
GRAPES
"JUBILEE" \ CHERRY
          TURNOVER
            BERRY
            PANCAKES
                                BLUEBERRY
                                MUFFINS
                                                        GRADE  B
                                             APR/COT
                                             MOLD
                              BOYSENBERRY
                              PIE
                             GRADE  A  /
                                      PEAR HALF
                                      WITH
                                      COTTAGE
                                      CHEESE
                               STRAWBERRY
                               SHORTCAKE
                                                                               ••?•   t.
Figure  2-12   Complexity  in Consumer Display

                                         2-31

-------
                   Table 2-13

     Requirements for Additional  Instructions

ALSO SPECIFIED BY REGULATION:
REQUIREMENTS FOR ADDITIONAL  INSTRUCTIONS.   THESE
CAN COVER USE, REPAIR, CONSUMER EDUCATION  ABOUT
RATING.
•    USE OF PRODUCT
•    REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE  OF PRODUCT
•    CONSUMER EDUCATION ABOUT THE RATING
•    FURTHER TECHNICAL INFORMATION
THIS WOULD NOT BE PART OF THE PRIMARY DISPLAY
                  Table  2-14

       Physical Characteristics  of  a  Label

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A LABEL:
•    LABEL MATERIAL
•    METHOD OF ATTACHMENT
•    SHAPE AND BORDER
•    LETTERING AND SIZE
•    COLOR AND FINISH
                        2-32

-------
     The educational purpose here is largely lost.  This
explanation of USDA grading of fruit is almost incomprehen-
sible at first.  Even after the small footnote at lower left
is found, the diagram is still unclear.
     Considerable effort and testing will be necessary to
ensure that an explanation of noise ratings can communicate
to a non-technical audience.
     The physical characteristics of a label are listed in
Table 2-14.  As mentioned previously, the physical character-
istics of the label greatly affect its overall utility.
     The discussion to follow will present more about label
design, and making proper use of these characteristics.
     Regulation development must consider the need to specify
physical characteristics, in order to ensure both read-
ability and permanance when exposed to the use environment.

LABEL LOCATION
     In addition to the physical characteristics of a label,
one needs to consider where it should be placed.  There exists
a number of alterntives  (Table 2-15), all with a number of
advantages and disadvantages, depending in part on the type
and size of product, and how it is advertised, bought and sold.
     The location for the primary label and for the additional
information required by regulation will have to be considered
for each product or product category.  In most cases, more
than one of the locations listed will have to be used.
                            2-33

-------
                         Table 2-15

                    Location of Labels

     LOCATION OF LABELS

     1.   FRONT OF PACKAGE

     2.   HANG TAG ON UNPACKAGED PRODUCT
     3.   DISPLAY AT RETAIL
     4.   PRODUCT

     5.   PACKAGE STUFFER
     6.   HANDOUTS
     7.   ADVERTISING
     8.   OTHER
RATING SCHEMES
     Mentioned earlier was the necessity of reducing the
results of whatever valid technical test is chosen - on
the basis of its relationship to the informational needs
and the accuracy and repeatability of the procedure - to
an easy to understand rating.  This process, presented in
Figure 2-13, is part of many ratings for familiar products,
for example, butter grades or tire mileage.  Although this
is usually thought of as a single, and perhaps simple,
process called grading, it is not.
     We start with a measure derived from a particular test;
this test might yield a purely physical measure with results
in physical quantities like miles, decibels, or % butterfat.
The technical basis might be a physiological or psychological
                            2-34

-------
   Ratings are a Result of a 3-Step Process

                            Technical Basis
      Numerical; Acoustic
      Parameters
     Descriptive, Psycho-
     Acoustic Effect
     Categorization Interval
     Reference for
     Absolute Measure
    Alphabetical (A, B,C ..
    Numerical (1,11...)
    (100,90,80...)
    Symbol (* **,...)
          (N,N,N . . .)
          (Q,Q,Q ...»
                             Categorization
                               Codings
Figure 2-13.    Rating  Process
                   2-35

-------
effect, with results like the dose for a 50% lethal effect,
articulation index of X%, or the fraction of the population
that would get a given amount of hearing damage.  In each
case the result is a number on a continuous scale.  Not all
different values that can be measured are significant, so
the next step is to divide this continuous scale into inter-
vals that imply significant and noticable differences.  For
tire mileage, this might be 1,000 to 3,000 miles; for ratings
of noise producers, this might be 3 or 5 decibels.
     Up to this point the rating has retained whatever
measurement usits are inherent in the technical basis (miles,
decibels of equivalent sound level, etc.).  This absolute
measure can be avoided by use of an established reference
point, such as 30,000 miles for tire life.  Thus a 15,000
mile tire would become 50 (%) and a 45,000 mile tire would
be graded 150 (%).  The reader would see that 150 meant
three times the life of the 50 grade, and the manufacturer
would not be making a statement that implied a specific tread
life under all conditions of use.  Finally, one may assign
codes to the various categories, although this process is
fraught with considerable difficulties.  Is a 90 better than
a 60, if this is a quietness rating?  If an A is assigned to the
best product today, what is done when a better one is invented
five years from now?
     Table 2-16 presents a summary of a possible scheme for
rating noise producers in a variety of environments.
     Simple numerical coding is used, to make comparisons
easy.
     Qualitative explanations of these numerical values are
shown, to make these values meaningful to the lay consumer.
                            2-36

-------
                        Table 2-16
        Example of Explanatory Part  of  Noise  Label
NOISE RATING
EFFECT
115 AND ABOVE
110-115
85-100
70-85
60-70
50-60
50 AND BELOW
USE OF STANDARD HEARING
PROTECTION INADEQUATE TO PROTECT
HEARING OF OPERATOR

DAMAGING TO HEARING OF PERSONS
EXPOSED TO NOISE WHO ARE IN THE
SAME  (TYPICAL) ROOM OR WITHIN
450 FEET OF THE DEVICE OUTDOORS
SAME EXCEPT 100 FEET
SAME EXCEPT 25 FEET
INTERFERES WITH NORMAL
CONVERSATION OUTDOORS WHEN
DEVICE IS WITHIN 4 FEET AND
INDOORS WHEN DEVICE IS IN
ADJACENT ROOM
INTERFERES WITH NORMAL
CONVERSATION INDOORS WHEN DEVICE
IS WITHIN SAME (TYPICAL) ROOM
(See note below)
Note:  Determination necessary as to the capability of  products
       to adversely effect public health or welfare.
                            2-37

-------
                          SECTION  3
                  NOISE LABELING - GRAPHICS

     The following discussion contains a set of solutions,
 illustrated in Figures 3-1, 3-2, and 3-3, to the problem of
 designing a label system which will alert and inform purchasers
 about the characteristics of noise generators and noise
 attenuators.  It is an attempt to present the types of considera-
 tions necessary in the development of the graphical require-
 ments associated with product noise labeling.
     The primary objective in such development is to take the
 concepts of noise rating discussed above, and to develop the
 graphics for a labeling system which would be easily seen,
 identified, and comprehended.

BACKGROUND
     We are entering an era of environmental and safety
labeling.  Some labels warn us of hazards,  from the familiar
radiation symbol and skull and crossbones to the less
ostentatious and generally ignored Surgeon General's
statement on a package of cigarettes.
     Other relatively familiar labels inform us — the
various shields of the department of Agriculture,  for
example, are intended to guide the consumer when purchasing
meats,  cheeses,  vegetables and other foods.
     Some labels are new and complex,  providing the public
with much needed information about things like emission
controls, gasoline consumption,  tire safety and energy
consumption.
     All of these labels,  as well as other useful information
which may appear on products or packages, must compete with
                             3-1

-------
  Noise
  Rating
  Refer to operating instruc-
  tions before use. To main-
  tain this rating product must
  be kept in repair.
       60-75
       May interfere with TV listen-
       ing in a room adjacent to the
       device.
  Manufactured by:
       Cambridge Corporation,
       Boston, Mass.
  Federal law prohibits
  removal of this label.
/«'•-,
(SB;
^w.-'
Environmental Protection
Agency.
     Figure 3-1.   Noise  Rating Label
Noise
Control
Rating
Refer to operating instruc-
tions before use To main-
tain this rating product must
bff kept m repair
Manufactured by.
Federal law prohibits /^
removal of this label '^SZ2.
35
60-75
May interfere with TV listen-
ing in a room ndjacent to the
dfvicc.
Cambridge Corporation.
Boston. Mass
Environmental Protection
Agency
\


X
Figure  3-2.   Noise Control Rating Label
                       3-2

-------
                               •4 O Q  Jet at takeoff at 200 ft.
                                        Oxygen torch
                                "110  Jet "vover at 1'OCO "•
                                        Rock band
                                        Inside a subway train with
                                        open windows
                                        Gas lawn mower
                                        Newspaper printing press
75 and  Potentially damaging to
above  hearing
                                       Central business district
                                       (daytime)
                                       Garbage disposal, food blender
                                 70
                                        Freeway at 50 ft. from
                                        pavement  edge
                                        TV-audio, vacuum cleaner st 3
60-75   May interfere with TV listen-   f^f)  Heavy traffic at 300 ft.
       ing in a room adjacent to the         Electric typewriter at 10 ft
       device
45-60   May interfere with TV listen-
       mg in the same room as the
       device
                                        Urban environment
                                        (nighttime)
                                        Air conditioning unit ai 15 <
45 and May interfere with quiet
below  activities, as sleep
                                       Suburban environment
                                       (nighttime)
                                       Bird calls
                                  ^~\   Environmental  Protection
         Figure  3-3.   Noise  Rating  Guide
                                3-3

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expensive, extensively researched, and well-designed
graphics, and with the whole mass of visual information
which bombards us all every day.

DESIGN CRITERIA
     The first problem then, was to design a label system
which would stand out, overcoming visual competition.  This
problem was particularly difficult in the face of the
amount of information and graphics now on packages, and in
consideration of the difficulties that would be faced in
causing packagers to significantly alter their designs.
The system, therefore, should be realistic and practical.
     The next problem to be considered was the amount of
information which would have to be displayed on the labels.
     To begin with, the noise labels would actually serve
two separate but related functions.  For noise generating
devices, they would have to announce a "noise rating".
For noise attenuators, a "noise control rate" must be
presented.  It was felt that both these functions should
be accommodated in a single graphic system.
     As a side issue, but nevertheless an important one,
was the question of whether members of the general public
needed more information than sophisticated commercial
buyers.  The conclusion was that although many purchasing
agents or plant safety managers might have a better
understanding of noise problems than the average shopper,
one could not make general assumptions.  It was concluded
that the labeling system should assume almost total
ignorance on the part of every purchaser.
                             3-4

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CONTENT
     With that in mind, work began to determine the specific
content with which the label system would have to deal.
     The first piece of information would have to announce
whether the label was dealing with noise generation or
attenuation.
     Next would have to be displayed the specific rating
for the item in question.
     The question of what kind of rating system to use was,
of course, very important.  Let us assume that one can use
numerical ratings, ranging from 40 to 120, for noise
generators, and 0 to 40 for noise attenuators.  The numbers
could be clearly displayed, and with the proper explanation,
would provide an effective system.
     The explanation would have to include the numbers used
in the system, and a reference to the meaning of each which
could be understood by the layman.  Thus for example, there
might be test which explains that "90 is the level of
sound of a gas lawnmower" or "100 is the level of sound
inside a subway train".  It may be true that many people
have never been inside a subway train; however, they are
able to recognize that such a sound is loud.
     Including the rating explanation may not be a problem
on large packages, or with large devices, but it is a very
real problem with medium size and smaller devices au;1
packages.   (For example, there are attenuators which are
basically ear plugs, packaged in containers befitting their
size.)   Accepting the fact that 6 point type -- which is
1/12 of inch high -- is about the smallest readable type,
it would be impossible to get all the information we have
described on very small packages.
                             3-5

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     As a result it was decided to include only a statement
of the effect of the rating appearing on the label and make
reference to a complete "Noise Rating Guide", that would
be included elsewhere in the system.
     There were several other items which would be required
on the basic label surface.
     There would have to be a reference to the instruction
sheet or manual that came with the item, explaining that
the rating assigned to the item was based on it being in
proper operating condition, as expressed in the instruction
material.
     Since the rating would be certified by the manufacturer,
the name and the location of the manufacturing plant should
also be listed.
     In addition, of course, there would have to be an EPA
Identification, and a statement prohibiting removal of the
label before sale.

DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS
     The first design characteristic to consider was
shape -- The information would have to be presented on some
kind of visual field.  The shield, for example, is commonly
used to project an image of "official" communication.  The
problem is, however, that because the shield is so over-
used, it has lost much of its effectiveness as a distinc-
tive form.  Stars or other odd shapes come to mind as the
kinds of visual formats which might attract attention.
Such shapes are very inefficient for containing informa-
tion with the useable area being only a portion of the
total area occupied by the shape.
     In line with this, the label would have to be visually
separated from the product or package.  It would have to
                             3-6

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have a high degree of contrast so that it would be easily
seen,  and not be confused with the advertising messages
and other information on packages.
     The size of the label,  therefore, had to be relevant
to both the information to be presented,  and to the product
or package on which it would appear.
     Placement was another consideration.  The design would
not only have to deal with the labels themselves,  but would
also have to specify the location of labeling on the package
or product to insure that it would be seen immediately.
     Next, there was the matter of color.  Color can be an
effective communications tool if used properly.  It can
help to establish contrast and visibility, and in certain
applications, to communicate in itself.  A red traffic
light, for example, communicates mainly through color, and
is very effective.
     Typography is an important factor in any design, but
it was particularly important in this situation.  Whatever
was done had to make use of space most effectively while
communicating as clearly as possible.  Type selection
therefore had to be very precise.
     All of these criteria,  as well as the problems out-
lined previously, played roles in the development of the
design.  The designs presented are not given as ultimate
solutions, but rather as design directions based on tne rating
and other information considered.

DESIGN DESCRIPTION
     We will begin with shape.
     In many ways, we live in a rectangular world.  The
rectangle is the most efficient shape there is in terms
                            3-7

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of information handling.   It can accommodate the maximum
amount of type in the minimum amount of space.
     To add a slight note of distinctiveness,  to save
frayed corners, and to make handling easier, corners were
rounded off.
     To emphasize the shape and make the entire label a
more self-contained image, a narrow border around the label
was added.
     The next step was to start placing the information on
the field that had been created.
     In designing the heading for the label, the question
which had to be answered was "how do you most effectively
call attention to the purpose of the label?"  Instead of
using gimmicks of any kind, the answer is to announce the
label's purpose as clearly and simply as possible.
     Thus, it was decided to settle on the terms "Noise
rating" and, for the attenuators, "Noise Control Rating."
The terms were in an extremely clear typeface called
Helvetica.
     It is a very contemporary sans-serif typestyle which
has come to be accepted as a standard of clarity around the
world.
     The next major piece of information -- perhaps the most
important on the entire label -- is the rating itself.
This would be displayed in very large type -- again using
the same clear and easy to read typeface.
     Continuing with the design of the label,  rules were
used to separate the different informational elements.
These rules add to the boldness of the overall image and,
at the same time, alert the reader to the fact that there
are separate messages to be read.
                            3-8

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     After the rating number, there appears a brief state-
ment explaining the meaning of the rating appearing on the
label.  The reference to the operating instructions would
be the next piece of information.
     The same standard typeface would be used to identify
the manufacturer and his location and could include a
product number.  It is felt that there should be no trade-
marks here, since they would only add visual clutter to
the label and create design problems.  The label should not
be looked on as an advertising medium in any way.
     The present EPA symbol would be used along with the
agency's identification.  It should be noted that the use
of the symbol is not included as a major component of the
label because it is felt that it might be misleading:
Although it may be very pertinent to the natural environ-
ment, it does not necessarily telegraph anything relating to
noise, or noise control and could therefore distract the reader
from the principal message.
     Again using the standard typeface, the prohibition
not to remove the label prior to purchase would be placed near
the EPA Identification to add to the authority of the prohibition,

NOISE RATING GUIDE
     The explanation of the rating system would appear in
a separate "Noise Rating Guide" which could be required as
a separate sheet packed with the product, or as an inclusion
in the instruction manual.  It would have a standard format.
The various numbers would be prominently displayed, and
their meanings and effects would be closely related to them,
so that there would be no confusion as to what explanations
related to what numbers.  Copies of the noise rating guide
could be required at all points of sale.
                             3-9

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LABEL USES
     The label could be used in two ways:   on the package
and on the product.  It can be a hangtag where necessary.
     It could always appear in either white with black or
black with white type,  depending on which format provided
the highest measure of contrast with the basic package.
     For noise generators which produce uncomfortably or
dangerously high levels of noise, the label could be
required in red and white instead of black and white.

PLACEMENT
     On packages, the noise rating label would have to
appear on the main display panel or panels.
     To help make sure that the label is not lost on the
panel, it could be required that it be lined up with at
least one edge of the panel and that there be a distance
of no less than l/8th of the label's height between the
label and the edge of the panel.
     Specifications on the size of the label with regard
to the overall panel size, should also be provided.

EDUCATION
     The system's ultimate success, as would be true of
any design, would depend in great measare on the educational
materials and publicity which surround its introduction and
use.
     Through posters, folders, advertisements, TV commer-
cials and other public awareness programs, the public could
be alerted to the need for noise ratings and to the benefits
that can accrue from such a program.
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     A good deal of effort may be required in explaining
what the noise rating means, and to how the public should
translate these ratings for their own use.
     Noise regulation and ratings are new concepts to most
people, and the noise rating system will be new to almost
everyone.  It is thus critical that the public education
program be properly conceived and executed.
                           3-11

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                         SECTION 4
             RATING SCHEMES FOR NOISE PRODUCERS

     Certain restraints limit the range of choice for a
rating scheme to be used in connection with the EPA noise
labeling program.  Some of these restraints are determined
by the acoustical nature of the kinds of equipment likely
to be labeled; others may depend on the noise ratings
already selected by other groups, such as the national or
international standards organizations or equipment manu-
facturers' associations.
     There may be good reasons for EPA to depart from the
practices adopted or drafted by these other groups; but, if
so, the departure should be a matter of informed delibera-
tion and the reasons should be explicit and fully understood.
     Subsection 2 of this section considers the nature of the
noise sources likely to come under the labeling regulations;
Subsection 3 discusses how sound behaves in different kinds of
space according to accepted textbook acoustical theory.  Subsection
4 discusses typical user distances and label-noise-rating
categories.  Subsection 5, which concludes this report, considers
some possibilities for a rating scheme but warns that no irre-
vocable action should be undertaken without further investiga-
tion of how the acoustics of real room in dwellings conform to
the textbook theory on which the conclusions of this report
are based.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EQUIPMENT LIKELY TO BE LABELED
     We begin by looking at the typical noise spectra of the
kinds of equipment that are likely to be labeled.  In
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particular, we are interested in which octave bands of
frequency for each type of equipment dominate the A-weighted
sound level.  We next consider the acoustical characteris-
tics of the kind of space in which the equipment is typically
used, whether outdoors or indoors, and if indoors, whether
it is an acoustically "live" room or "dead" room.
     It turns out that these matters have a strong bearing
both on the selection of a noise rating scheme for labeling
equipment and on the procedure for measuring equipment
noise.
     In a recent report to EPA evaluating various alternative
strategies for noise abatement [1] , a number of appliances
and items of household equipment were assessed in terms of
the noise exposure for people who use the equipment (primary
exposure) and for others in nearby areas (secondary exposure) .
According to the effective L  /?A^ ^or *-^e aPpliance as it
                            eq \ z 4i j
affects the average exposed person, certain items were iden-
tified as major noise sources, as candidates for labeling,
or as requiring no action at all.
     Candidates for labeling  [from Table 5 of Ref. 1] are
listed in Table 4-1 together with the octave band of fre-
quency that dominates the A-weighted sound level, the kind
of space in which the appliance is generally used, and the
type of acoustical radiation that dominates the noise of
the device.
     It can be seen that, partly because there is strong
discrimination against low frequencies in the A-weighting
but also because the noise of many of these appliances is
intrinsically strong in the high frequencies, the A-weighted
sound levels for these appliances are determined largely by
frequencies of 500 Hz or higher.  The appliances are about
equally divided according to the kind of space in which they
                            4-2

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           Table 4-1,
     NOISE CHARACTERISTICS OF
     INDOOR HOUSEHOLD EQUIPMENT
   Equipment
Dominant Octave Band              Type
    in  A-weighted        Where      of  j
     Sound Level         Used*    Source
Humidifier
Floor Fan
Dehumidifier
Window Fan
Air Conditioner
Toilet
Dishwasher
Vacuum Cleaner
Food Blender
Electric Shaver
Food Disposal
Home Shop Tools
       500 Hz
       500 Hz
      1000 Hz
       500 Hz
     250-2000 Hz
      1000 Hz
       500 Hz
      2000 Hz
    2000-4000 Hz
      4000 Hz
    2000-4000 Hz
      2000 Hz
D
D
L
D
D
L
L
D
L
L
L
L
D
Q
D
Q
D
M
M
D
M
M
M
M,D
*L = Live room (A = 30 to 70 sabines):  bath, kitchen or
 workshop; D = Dead room (A = 100 to 400 sabines); living
 room or bedrooms.
 M = monopole (or simple) source; D = dipole, Q = quadrupole,
Note:  The octave-band noise spectra for average examples of
these appliances [2] are given in Appendix A, along with the
same spectra to which the A-weighting has been applied, in
order to show which octave band dominates the A-level.
                             4-3

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are typically used, and no one kind of acoustical radiation
is in the majority; all must be considered.   (Monopole
sources tend to behave one way; dipoles and quadrupoles,
another.)

HOW SOUND BEHAVES

SOUND POWER LEVEL VS SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL
     Two basic properties of the noise from a source have
been proposed for use in rating schemes:  sound power level
and sound pressure level.  Since the use of each has advan-
tages and disadvantages, the acoustic community is sharply
divided as to which is most appropriate for product labeling.
     The advantage of sound power level as a noise rating
for a source, according to the "sound power" proponents, is
that it is fixed and unchangeable.  It is said that, if the
sound power level for an appliance is known, the sound
pressure level at any location can be calculated without
much difficulty.  We shall see that this "fixed and unchange-
able" claim is valid only under certain limited conditions.
     The disadvantage of sound power level as a noise rating
is that the human ear does not respond to sound power, but
to sound pressure.  It is possible, for example, to make up
a table of the effects of noise on people in terms of
sound pressure  (or sound pressure level), but not in terms
of sound power.  The reason is that, although the sound
power of a source may be constant, the effect of the noise
on people depends on how close they are to the source.*  Near
*Similarly, although the wattage of a light bulb may be
 fixed, the brightness  (which our eyes respond to) is
 greater close to the bulb than far away.
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the source, the sound pressure is high and the effect of the
noise may be severe; far from the source the sound pressure
is lower and the effects are much less; in fact, at great
distances the sound will not be audible at all.
     The great advantage of sound pressure for rating
purposes is the direct relation this quantity bears to the
human effects of the noise.  The disadvantage is that it is
not a fixed quantity; it depends on circumstances.  One
manufacturer may rate his product in terms of the sound
pressure level at a distance of 3 ft, for example, and
another manufacturer might label his equally noisy product
with the sound pressure level at 4 ft and claim a better
noise rating.
     A possible solution would be to report the sound pres-
sure level at a standard reference distance from the source,
preferably a typical user distance.  The selection of a
typical user distance for different kinds of equipment, how-
ever, is currently a matter of considerable dispute among
noise standards groups.  The various arguments that figure
in this dispute are the background against which the choice
of a rating scheme for labeling must be made.
     Unfortunately, without a certain amount of technical
understanding about the behavior of sound sources, seriously
wrong choices might be made.  The following discussion tries
to present the essential points as clearly and simply as
possible; as far as we know, such a discussion has not
appeared elsewhere, so it is no wonder that standards
writing bodies have lacked guidance.
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RELATION BETWEEN SOUND POWER AND SOUND PRESSURE IN VARIOUS
SITUATIONS

Sound Outdoors
     Sound power refers to the rate of generating acoustic
energy - i.e., the total amount of acoustical energy radi-
ated by the source per second.  It is measured in watts.
Sound power level (L )  is the same quantity expressed in
                    Wr
decibels* (dB) with respect to the standard reference power
of 10-12 watts.
                    W               W
     L  = 10 Iog10 — =10  logic  	 = 10 Iog10 W + 120  (4-1)
      W            W0             10-12
where W is the sound power of a source in watts, and L  is
                                                      w
the corresponding sound power level in dB re 10"12 watts.
Doubling the sound power increases both the sound power
level and the sound pressure level by 3 dB  (see below).
     The sound power accounts for all the sound energy
leaving the source in all directions.  If we imagine the
source as suspended in free space, the same amount of sound
power would pass through a 1-ft (imaginary) sphere surround-
ing the source as through a 10-ft sphere.  The power per
unit area, however,  would be less for the larger sphere
because the same amount of sound energy is "spread thinner"
over the greater surface area of the larger sphere.  The
larger the sphere (i.e., the farther away from the source),
the thinner the total energy must be spread.  This process
*The decibel scale is a logarithmic scale that compresses
 the enormous range of sound power and sound pressure values
 that occur in the environment into a more conveniently
 manageable range.  The reference quantity should always be
 stated to avoid misunderstanding.
                             4-6

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accounts for the decrease of sound pressure  (which is what
the ear responds to) with increasing distance from the sound
source.  Sound pressure is measured as a force per unit area,
usually in newtons per square meter (N/sq m).  Sound pres-
sure level is the same quantity expressed in dB but referenced
to the standard quantity of 20 yN/sq m:
                    P 2             P   2
     L  = 10 log 10 —   =10 log 10 —   =20 logioP - 26,    (4-2)
      P            po              20
where p is the sound pressure at a certain location in yN/sq m
and L  is the corresponding sound pressure level in dB re
20 yN/sq m.  Doubling the sound pressure increases both the
sound power level and the sound pressure level by 6 dB.

Sound Source Out in Space
     In free space  (for practical purposes this means out-
doors, away from reflecting surfaces), sound pressure level
and sound power level are related [3] as shown by Curve A
of Figure 4-1.  This line corresponds to the equation
                                  Q
                   P2,^ = (Wz)  	   ,                      (4-3)
                     (r)         47rr2
where W is the sound power of the source in watts, z is a
quantity called the characteristic acoustic impedance of the
air (400), Q represents the directivity of the source (1 for
a point source, 3 for a dipole in the axial direction), and
r is the distance in feet from the center of the sound source
(assumed to be small, essentially a point).  The decibel
equivalent of Eq. 4-3 is
                                    Q
              L  = L  + 10 log 10  	   + 10,               (4-4)
               ^                  4irr2
                            4-7

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                                                         \ 4?rr
                                             with
                                             and Lw in dB re 10"12 watts
                                             With W = 0.01 w and Q = 1, the
                                             sound pressun: level equals the
                                             sound power !svel at a distance
                                             from the center of the source of
                                             0.39 feet {---- 10.7 in.) (Curve A),
                                             outdoors.
      0.2  0.3   0.5
1       235      10

  Distance, r From Point Source (ft)
                                                                   100
           Figure 4-1.   Behavior of  Sound Outdoors
with L   the sound pressure level  in dB re 20  yN/m  and L
      p                                                     xv
the  sound power level  in dB re  10
                                    - 1 2
                 watts.   The  sound source
is assumed to produce a sound power of 0.01 watts, corres-
ponding (see Eq. 4-1)  to a sound  power level  of 100 dB re

10"12 watts.  Note  that the sound pressure level decreases
at the  rate of 6 dB for each doubling of distance from the

center  of the source.
Sound  Source Against a Reflecting Surface
     Suppose the  source were  resting on the  hard ground  (or

against any reflecting surface),  instead of  up in the  air,
and  were still radiating an amount of sound  energy W - 0,01
                               4-8

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watts.  The radiated energy would be spread over only a
hemisphere, instead of an entire sphere.  This change in
directivity of the source increases the value of Q to 2
and doubles the value of p2 (Eq. 4-3),  corresponding to a
3-dB increase in sound pressure level (Eq. 4-4).  This
behavior is shown by Curve B in Figure 4-1.  The sound
pressure level again drops off at 6 dB per doubling of
distance.
     In fact, however, the sound energy radiated by real
sound sources is actually changed by the presence of a nearby
reflecting surface, such as the ground [4_,5].  Many real-
life sources behave like "constant volume-velocity sources"
(meaning that the motion of the vibrating surface of the
equipment is unaffected by the surroundings); for such
sources, the sound power is doubled when the source is moved
directly against a large, rigid reflecting surface.  In this
case, the source and its reflected image exactly coincide
and the energy of the source is added to the energy of its
reflected image, exactly in phase, so the sound power is 0.02
watts.  Therefore, in addition to the 3-dB increase in sound
pressure level due to the changed directivity of the source
when placed against the ground, there is another 3-dB in-
crease, because the presence of the ground doubles the power
output.  This behavior is shown by Curve C in Figure 4-1;
L  in this case is 6 dB higher at all distances than with
the source "out in space".*
*An even greater change, both in source directivity (+6 dB)
 and power output (+6 dB),  occurs when the source is moved
 into the right-angle corner between the ground and a large
 wall, and still a greater change (+9 dB in both cases),  if
 it is moved into a trihedral corner (right-angle intersection
 of three planes).  Here,  we confine our discussion to a
 single plane reflecting surface.
                            4-9

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     If the source were moved away from the reflecting sur-
face, the source and its image would not coincide and their
two energy components would combine less effectively, with
a time lag.  When the source is more than about a wavelength
away, the reflecting surface has little effect on the radi-
ated power.
     Other types of sound sources (some kinds of fans, for
example), react to the presence of a nearby reflecting sur-
face with a decrease of output [#];  this change could
effectively cancel the increase due to changed directivity.
     In general, then, it is clear that the sound power level
is not "fixed and unchangeable".

Sound Indoors

Sound Source Out in Space
     Sound from a source out in the center of a room behaves,
in the region very close to the source, just as it behaves
outdoors.  The room boundaries are so far away that they do
not influence the local sound behavior.  As the observation
points moves away from the source, the sound pressure level
decreases, just as it does outdoors, at 6 dB per doubling of
distance.
     Indoors, however, the sound energy from the source is
confined by the boundaries of the room; if there were no
sound absorptive material at all in the room, the sound
energy would continue to accumulate indefinitely, leading
to higher and higher sound pressure levels.  In fact, how-
ever, some sound absorption is always present, and the sound
pressure builds up only to the point where as much energy is
being lost to the sound absorptive room boundaries as is
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being supplied by the source.  The more sound absorption in
the room, the lower the built-up sound pressure level.
     The behavior of sound indoors, thus, is different _
each of two regions.  Near the source (the so-called "direct
field"), the behavior is like outdoors;  the sound pressure
level is determined by the sound power of the source, the
directionality of the source, and the distance of the obser-
ver from the source.  The sound pressure level decreases
with increasing distance from the source (at 6 dB per distance
doubled), until it equals the level of the built-up sound
confined in the room.  Beyond that "equal-point", the sound
pressure level is no longer determined by the direct field,
which continues to decrease with increasing distance.
     Instead, in the region beyond the equal-point (the
so-called "reverberant field"), the sound pressure level
is more or less the same everywhere; it is due to the accumu-
lated confined energy and is determined only by the sound
power of the source and the amount of sound absorptive
material in the room, not by the distance from the source
or the directivity of the source.
     This two-region behavior is illustrated in Figure 4-2
for three rooms containing different amounts of sound
absorption.*  The upper curve corresponds to a very "live"
room, containing only 30 sabines (typical of a bathroom
where the sound absorption might be 25 to 45 sabines).
The second curve is for a room with 70 sabines (typical of
*Sound absorption is measured in sabines:  the symbol is A.
 One sabin is roughly equivalent to 1 sq ft of open window
 through which incident sound is assumed to pass and be
 lost to the room.  A 4-sq ft patch of material that absorbs
 just half the incident sound energy is said to have a sound
 absorption coefficient of 0.5 and to contribute 2 sabines
 of sound absorption to the room.
                            4-11

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                                        0.01w,  Luu= 100dB, Q= 1   A = 30
               /  Q   4    \
   Lp=Lw + 10log  I	7+ —  +10)
               MTrr  A    /
   with LpindBre20/uN/m2
   and Lw in dB re 10~12 watts
                     1       235     10
                       Distance, r From Point Source (ft)
          Figure 4-2.   Behavior of Sound  Indoors,
                  Sound Source Out in  Space

a kitchen where  sound  absorption ranges from about 50 to 75
sabines).  The third curve is for a living  room with 300
sabines.   (Living rooms and bedrooms, which are usually
more heavily  furnished with absorptive furniture and
materials than other rooms, are rather "dead", acoustically;
typical  absorptions range from 180 to 500 sabines.)  The
lowest curve  represents the level of  direct-field outdoor
sound, which  is  masked by the reverberant sound at distances
greater  than  about 5 ft.
                            4-12

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     The curves of Fig. 4-2 correspond to the equation

                              Q
                 P2. x  = Wz ( 	 + - 1.               (4-5)
The first term is the direct sound, already encountered in

Eq. 3 in the discussion of sound behavior outdoors; the

second term accounts for the reverberant sound in the room.

If the absorption in the room is very great, the second

term tends to zero, and the sound behaves as if it is out-

doors; if the distance from the source is very great, the

first term tends to zero and the reverberant sound domi-

nates.  The decibel equivalent of Eq. 4-4 is
           L  = L  +10 log
            p    w        r
(4-6)
Note also that the boundary between the regions of the

direct and the reverberant sound fields, where the curve

levels off, lies somewhat nearer the source for a live room

than for a dead room; when there is lots of sound absorption

in a room, the "outdoor behavior" persists to greater

distances.*
*Acoustics textbooks sometimes point out the fact that in
 real rooms the sound level is not always so uniform as is
 indicated by the horizontal portions of the curves at the
 right of Fig. 2 (and 3).   Indeed, it is true that for
 narrowband sources there will be fluctuations of sound
 level (up to +5 dB) for pure tones) around those curves as
 averages in the reverberant sound field.  However, for
 broadband noise spectra,  for which the use of A-weighted
 sound levels is appropriate, such fluctuations are negli-
 gible.   If pure tones, which would tend to increase the
 spatial fluctuation of the sound level, are present, they
 would also disqualify the use of the A-weighted sound
 level for rating the noise.
                           4-13

-------
Sound Source Mounted in Hole in Wall
     Suppose now that the sound source (for example, a
window fan) is mounted in a hole in the wall, so that it
radiates half its energy outdoors and half indoors; in this
case, there is no reflected image of the source.
     Viewed from outdoors, the effective sound power is
half the original total sound power:  W = 0.005 watts,
L  = 97 dB.  Because this energy is radiated into only half
 ri
a hemisphere/ the directivity is doubled (Q = 2), as when
the source was resting on the ground in the example above;
but halving the sound energy corresponds to a decrease of
3 dB.  The net result is that the sound outside the build-
ing behaves just as in free space, according to Curve A of
Fig. 4-1; the presence of the building makes no difference.
     Inside the room, the sound power is also 0.005 watts,
and Q = 2, so the direct field sound pressure level will be
the same as outdoors (Curve A of Fig. 1)  and also the same
as the lowest curve of Fig. 4-2.  However, halving the
energy radiated into the room decreases the reverberant
sound pressure levels by 3 dB; doubling the directivity
does not compensate for this decrease, because the direc-
tivity of the source has no effect on the reverberant sound
pressure level off at values 3 dB below the values shown in
Fig. 4-2.

Constant-Volume-Velocity Sound Source on the Wall or Floor
     If, instead of being mounted in a hole in the wall, the
source is entirely within the room and against a hard room
boundary, the radiation is once more into a hemisphere, so
Q = 2; but now the source again coincides with its reflected
image, and the sound power is doubled:  W = 0.02 watts and
LW = 103 dB.
                           4-14

-------
     The direct sound field  (indoors or outdoors) behaves
according to Curve C of Pig. 4-1; it lies 6 dB above the
curve for "source out in space" at all distances.
     The curves in Fig. 4-2 of the reverberant field sound
pressure level for the three rooms now lie 3 dB higher,
because twice as much energy is being radiated into the
room.  This behavior for "constant-volume-velocity source
against a reflector" is shown in Fig. 4-3; this figure, for
the "source against a reflector", should be compared with
Figure 4-2 for the "source out in space."
     Again, for the two live rooms, the sound pressure level
equals the sound power level within 2 1/2 dB, provided that
the sound power was actually measured with the source
against a reflector, so that the energy doubling is properly
taken into account.

How Close is "Close"?
     The discussion so far has assumed small "point" sources
and the possibility that when a source is "on" a reflecting
surface, it virtually lies in the surface and coincides with
its reflected image.  This assumption is the theoretical
requirement for hemispherical directivity and energy-doubling
when a source lies against a reflecting surface.  Actual
noise makers have finite size, however, and the effective
source of the sound cannot be placed directly on a reflecting
surface.  The question thus arises as to how close such real
sources must be to a reflector in order to realize the
increased directionality and energy doubling discussed above.
     Figure 4-4a shows the variation in sound power output for
a single frequency, as sound sources of various types are
moved away from a large reflecting surface.  Figure 4-4b shows
that the behavior is not much different for broadband noise
                           4-15

-------
2

O
CNJ
CQ
"O
                                                W = 0.02CJ, Lw = 103 dB, Q = 2 A = 30
              /  Q   4 \
  Lp= Lw + 10 log  	-+ — 1+10
              MTT r   A '


with Lp in dB re
        and Lw in dB re 10'  watts
    0.1     0.2  0.3    0.5
                                                  20   30    50     100
     Figure 4-3.  Behavior of  Sound  Indoors,  Constant-Volume-

            Velocity  Sound Source on  Reflecting Surface
                                    4-16

-------
               2.0
               1.5
          W/W,, 1.0
               0.5
                         I    1    I   i    1    1    I    T
                      \\  /
   \ V     \ Dipole
    \/\      \ Axis Parallel to Wall
                                    -1;2dB
                                    - 1 dB
  '      V   V
  /         \      —    .
 /       Monopole     Dipole
 /                    Axis Normal to Wall
/
 i    i    i   i     I   I   i    i   I
                  0      0.2      0.4      0.6     0.8     1.0

                           Distance of Source from Wall
                           (Wavelengths, x/ X)
Figure  4-4a.   Variation  in Sound Power Outputs as  Source  is
               Moved  Away  From  Reflecting  Wall
             W/W,,
                  2.0
                  1.6
                  1.2
                  0.8
          5 Octave
          Bandwidth
Single
Frequency
                                           7
 _ Assymptote    ,—**
   For x/ X » 1     Octave Band
     i   I    I    i   i    I    i
                     0     0.2
               0.4

               x/X
  0.6     O.E
Figure 4-4b.   Behavior of  Sound Source Near a  Reflecting
Surface  (Not Much Changed  By Averaging Over Frequency.)
                                4-17

-------
spectra.  These theoretical results have been experimentally
verified by measurements of the reverberant sound levels in
a reverberation room.  Note that the power output drops off
rapidly as the source moves away from the reflector:  For
monopole sources, when the separation is 1/4 of a wavelength,
the power is down to the "out in space" value; at about
1/3-wavelength separation, the power has fallen considerably
below its normal value.  When the separation exceeds a wave-
length, the sound power has essentially its "out in space"
value - i.e., W/W0 = 1.
     The levels in decibels on Fig. 4-4a refer to the sound
power level relative to the value with the source directly
on the reflecting surface; the reverberant sound field in
the room would follow these levels, as the source is moved
away from the surface.  For the reverberant sound pressure
level to be within 1 dB of the "source on surface" value,
the source must be at a distance less than 1/5-wavelength
from the surface.  The direct sound field, however, is
affected by both the energy output of the source and its
directivity; the changes in direct-field sound pressure
level would therefore be twice as great.  For the direct-
field sound pressure level to be within 1 dB of the "source
on surface" value, the source must actually be within 1/10
of a wavelength of the surface.
     Note that these observations have implications for the
steady-state test method that measures the absorption in a
room by comparing the nearfield sound pressure of a small
source with the farfield  (reverberant) sound pressure, with
the distance from the source for the near measurement care-
fully fixed.  The assumption underlying the steady-state
method is that the difference between nearfield and farfield
pressures depends only upon the amount of absorption in the
                           4-18

-------
 TABLE 4-2.  SEPARATION DISTANCES "CLOSE" TO A REFLECTING
             SURFACE AND "OUT IN SPACE".
   Equipment         "Close to Surface"      "Out in Space"
Humidifier                  1.7                    27
Floor Fan                   2.7                    27
Dehumidifier                1.35                   13.5
Window Fan                  2.7                    27
Air Conditioner          0.6 to 5.4             6 to 54
Toilet                      1.35                   13.5
Dishwasher                  2.7                    27
Vacuum Cleaner              0.6                     6
Food Blender             0.3 to 0.6             3 to 6
Electric Shaver             0.3                     3
Food Disposal            0.3 to 0.6             3 to 6
Home Shop Tools             0.6                     6

     Note that for low frequencies it may be impossible for
indoor sources to get far enough away from the room bound-
aries for the energy-boosting effect to disappear entirely.
It is often found that the low-frequency sound power output
of a piece of equipment is substantially different when
measured outdoors (or in an anechoic room)  than when measured
in a reverberant room.  This difference represents a true
difference in sound power output, due to the reaction of the
room upon the source.  The difference may be positive or
negative, depending on whether the source is of the "constant-
volume-velocity" type (more power indoors)  or "constant force"
force" type (less power indoors).
     At high frequencies, however, where the wavelength is
small compared to the room dimensions, so long as we confine
ourselves to broadband noise sources  (no prominent single
tones), there is no significant room reaction on the source
                            4-20

-------
at distances more than a wavelength or so from the
boundaries.  (In other words, the acoustic impedance pre-
sented to a broadband source, in a room whose dimensions
are large compared to the wavelength, is the same as out-
doors, namely,  pc.)

Inherent Directivity of the Source
     The discussion so far has assumed a monopole ("simple"
or "point") source that radiates sound equally in all
directions, so long as it is "out in space"; for such a
source, the intrinsic value of Q is 1, and this value
changes only when the source is near a reflector.  Sound
sources of higher order (dipoles or quadrupoles, for exam-
ple)  have an intrinsic directivity:  For a given sound power,
the sound pressure at the user's ear depends on the direction
in which the source is pointing.  (The reverberant-field
sound pressure, of course, is the same as for a monopole
source of the same power.*)
     For such a sound source, the horizontal portions of
the curves at the right of Fig. 4-2 would always be the
same, as shown, but the direct-field portion of the curve
would move up or down, depending on whether the beam of the
source is pointed toward or away from the observation point.
     In practice, therefore, this difference is of concern
only for equipment for which the typical user's location is
in the direct field - i.e.,  equipment that is hand-held or
operator-attended.  Such equipment is typically moved about
*Gosele has studied a variety of hand-held equipment and
 has determined that the large majority represent source
 types between simple monopoles and dipoles [7].
                           4-21

-------
in use, so that the sound pressure at the user's ear is
sometimes greater and sometimes less than the average.
Thus, for noise-rating purposes, we can assume that the
effective sound pressure, as it affects the user, is approxi-
mately the same as for a monopole source having the same
power, and we can continue to use monopole curves such as
those of Fig. 4-2.

General Curves Relating Sound Power Level and Sound Pressure
Level
     In fact, however, Fig. 4-2 itself is not a very conven-
ient form for general use, because  (in order to simplify the
earlier discussion) it was plotted for a specific value of
sound power level, L  = 100 dB re 10~   watts.  (The same
                    rf
is true of Figs. 4-1 and 4-3.)   Therefore, we have replotted
Fig. 4-2 in general form in Fig. 4-5, which shows on the
vertical scale the difference between the sound pressure
level and the sound power level.  So long as the sound power
level is measured with the equipment in a location with
respect to reflecting surfaces that are typical of actual
use. Fig. 4-5 will give the correct sound pressure level.
No assumption is needed about the effect of nearby reflect-
ing surfaces on the relation between sound power and sound
pressure, because those effects concern only the direct
field of the sound source; the sources for which the user's
ear will be in the direct field are not likely to be used
"close" to a reflecting surface, as defined earlier.

TYPICAL USER DISTANCES AND LABEL-NOISE-RATING CATEGORIES
     We return now to consider typical user distances for
the various kinds of equipment likely to be labeled.  Such
equipment falls into three categories:
                           4-22

-------
CD
•o
I
a
         with Lp in dB re 20;uN/m2
     01     02  03    0.5      1      235      10

                           Distance, r From Point Source (ft)
20   30
50
       Figure 4-5.  Behavior of Sound  Indoors,  Sound Source Out
          in Space:  (Difference Between  Sound  Pressure Level
                         and Sound Power  Level.)
           A.    Equipment used on or about  the  head,  such as the
                various electrical grooming devices;
           B.    User-operated tools that  are hand-held or con-
                trolled within arm's length;
           C.    Fixed equipment that is not operator-attended.
           For equipment in Category A, the user  is always in the
      direct sound field; for Category C, the indoor  user is
      practically always in the reverberant field,  while the out-
      door user is usually far enough away  that the question of
      labeling is of little significance.   For  Category B, the
100
                                  4-23

-------
indoor user is in the transition region between direct and
reverberant fields; but, as can be seen from Fig. 4-5, at
distances from 1 ft and an arm's length, the sound pressure
level at the user's ear is nearly the same as in the
reverberant field.
     Further inspection of Fig. 4-5 reveals that, so far as
the sound pressure at the user's ear is concerned, practi-
cally all equipment falls into only two label-noise-rating
categories:
     1.   Equipment for which the sound pressure level is
about equal (+2 dB)* to the sound power level; this includes
Category A and all of Categories B and C that are used in
"live" rooms,  such as baths and kitchens and workshops.
     2.   Equipment for which the sound pressure level is
about 8 dB (+2 dB) lower than the sound power level/ this
includes all outdoor equipment in Category B and all indoor
equipment in Categories B and C that are used in "dead" roo
rooms, such as livingrooms and bedrooms.  (Outdoor equipment
in Category C, as mentioned above, is not of interest for
labeling purposes; if it were very noisy, it would be regu-
lated rather than labeled.)
     Table 4-3 indicates the typical user distance category
for the kinds  of equipment considered earlier and shows the
label-noise-rating category that would be appropriate.
     For all equipment in Label-Noise-Rating Category 1, the
number that appers on the label would be the sound power
level; for equipment in Category 2, the number on the label
would be the sound power level minus 8 dB.  The sound power
level in question is the value measured with the equipment
in its typical location with respect to reflecting surfaces.
*According to most noise-rating schemes, people do not
 discriminate noise levels in steps finer than about 5 dB.
                           4-24

-------
TABLE 4-3.  TYPICAL USER DISTANCE CATEGORY AND APPROPRIATE
            LABEL-NOISE-RATING CATEGORY
                         User Distance  Label-Noise-Rating
        Equipment          Category*         Category
Humidifier                     C                2
Floor Fan                      C                2
Dehumidifier                   C                2
Window Fan                     C                1  (?)
Air Conditioner                C                2
Toilet                         C                1
Dishwasher  (Note 1)            C                1
Vacuum Cleaner                 B                2
Food Blender  (Note 2)          B                ly
Electric Shaver  (Note 3)       A                1
Food Disposal                  B                1
Home Shop Tools                B                1
*A - equipment used on or about the head; B - operator-
 attended equipment, used at convenient working distance,
 less than an arm's length; C - equipment that is fixed and
 not operator-attended.
Note 1:  Includes clothes washers and driers.
Note 2:  Includes all other portable food preparation
equipment, such as electrical mixers, slicers, grinders,
etc.
Note 3:  Includes all other personal grooming equipment,
such as barber's clippers, hair driers and stylers, electric
toothbrushes, oral lavage, etc.  Possibly, electric shavers
should occupy a special class, since they can be used very
close to the ear, and thus, according tothe curve of Fig. 5,
could impose sound pressure levels that exceed the sound
power level by 5 or 6 dB.
                           4-25

-------
     In all cases, the number of the label represents the
actual sound pressure level at the typical user's ear; thus,
it may be used to estimate the human effect of the noise, in
terms of speech interference, annoyance, etc.

CONCLUSION
     At first sight, the variety of equipment types and the
complexities of sound behavior in different kinds of situa-
tions suggest formidable problems in formulating a meaningful
noise rating for labeling purposes.  It turns out, however,
that a consideration of the manner and the locations in which
the equipment will actually be used in practice can lead to
great simplification.  It is, in fact,  possible for a (single)
number on a label to relate directly both to the sound power
output of the device and to the human effect of the noise in
terms of the sound pressure level at the user's ear.
level at the user's ear.
     The consumer needs only to be educated to know that
the number on the label relates to the typical sound pres-
sure level at his ear, as he uses the equipment.  Technical
people, who are likely to find the sound power level useful,
will know from the text of the labeling regulation how to
relate the number on the label to the corresponding sound
power level in each case.
     The conclusions stated above are valid only to the
extent that sound in real rooms in dwellings behaves accord-
ing to the acoustical theory presented in textbooks/ i.e.,
there exists a "direct" sound field near a point source,
where the level diminishes at the rate of 6 dB per doubling
of distance, and a "reverberant" field filling most of the
rest of the room, where the level is almost uniform.  In
fact, however, most kinds of equipment that will be
                           4-26

-------
      considered for labeling  are  large  enough that within the
      direct field they are not  "point"  sources;  the attenuation
      with distance is more like 3 dB  than 6 dB per distance
      doubled.  Moreover, at distances far from the source, real
      rooms do not behave like the classical reverberant rooms of
      theoretical acoustics, but more  like lined ducts; again,
      there is an attenuation  of 3 dB  per distance doubled, rather
      than a uniform sound level without significant spatial
      dependence.
           The behavior of sound in real rooms can be illustrated
      by the preliminary measurements  shown in Fig. 4-6.  These


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  90
  80
  70
  60
  50
  40
0.1
0.2  0.3
0.5
                                235      10
                            Distance, r From Point Source (ft)
                                   20   30
                                                    50
100
       Figure  4-6.   Preliminary Results of Measurements of Sound
            Attenuation vs  Distance in Real Dwelling Rooms
              (Using  Household Devices as Sources of Sound)
                                  4-27

-------
data come from typically furnished living rooms, bedrooms,
bathrooms, kitchens, and laundry rooms, only one or two in
each case.  The same data are plotted in two ways:  once
with the sound pressure levels for all the devices normalized
to be equal at 1 ft from the source and then with the levels
normalized to be equal at 2 ft.  Note that only for the
electric shaver in the bathroom does the sound behave like
that of a point source (6 dB per distance doubled) and only
in one of the bedrooms and the laundry room does the sound
level tend to a constant value at large distances.  Instead,
on average, there is, for most of the cases, a steady atten-
uation of 3 dB per distance doubled at all distances.  Since
the power level of the sources was not known, it is not yet
possible to state a relation between sound power level and
sound pressure level similar to that of Eq. 4-3 or Eq. 4-4.
                            4-28

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APPENDIX A:
OCTAVE BANDS THAT DOMINATE THE A-WEIGHTED SOUND
LEVELS IN EQUIPMENT LIKELY TO BE LABELED
(DOMINATING LEVELS ARE UNDERLINED).
Table C-l.  Octave Bands of Equipment Likely to be Labeled
Equipment

Humidifer
A-weighted

Floor Fan
A-weighted

Dehumidifier
A-weighted

Window Fan
A-weighted

Air Conditioner
A-weighted

Toilet
A-weighted

Dishwasher
A-weighted
Vacuum Cleaner
A-weighted

Food Blender
A-weighted

Electric Shaver
A-weighted

Food Disposal
A-weighted

Home Shop Tools
A-weighted
    63   125
   Frequency

250   500   1000
            2000
4000
44
18*
50
24
40
14
57
31
52
26
(50)
(24)
63
37
48
22
45
19
42
16
60
34
53
27
60
44
55
39
58
42
65
49
70
54
60
44
68
52
53
37
50
34
38
22
72
56
58
42
60
52
52
44
45
37
61
53
63
5_5
70
62
66
58
54
46
55
47
36
28
58
50
63
55
59
5_6_
48
45
44
41
58
55
58
5_5
68
65
63
6_0
55
52
55
52
46
43
53
50
68
65
52
52
44
44
43
11
53
53
55
5_5
68
68
57
57
58
58
59
59
51
51
55
55
72
72
49
50
40
41
40
41
50
51
54
55
66
67
51
52
59
60
65
66
59
60
55
5_6
76
77
41
42
33
34
30
31
44
45
48
49
60
61
45
46
52
53
65
66
60
61
55
56_
72
73
*A-weighting
   -26   -16
 -8
-3
                            A-l

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              BIBLIOGRAPHY - Section 1 and 2
1.  Salcedo, Rodalpho N.,  et al.   "Improving the Communi-
    cation Adequacy of PestTcide Labels - Summary Report,"
    under contract to Pesticides Regulation Division, U.S.
    Department of Agriculture, by University of Illinois,
    College of Agriculture, Champaign-Urbana, Illinois,
    November 1970.

2.  Poprik, Maryclare and Staff.   "Consumer Perception of
    Safety - A Survey," ACPE Report 1, Food and Drug
    Administration.

3.  Poprik, Maryclare and Staff.   "Consumers and Food
    Labeling," OPE Study,  Food and Drug Administration,
    April 1975.

4.  "Proceedings of the First National Symposium on
    Pesticide Labeling," sponsored by the Office of
    Pesticide Programs, Environmental Protection Agency,
    June 1974.

5.  "Preliminary Staff Study (Precis):  Self-Regulation -
    Product Standardization Certification and Seals of
    Approval," Federal Trade Commission, Task Force on
    Industry Self-Regulation, 1972.

6.  "Report to Congress; Pursuant to the Public Health
    Cigarette Smoking Act," Federal Trade Commission,
    December 1972.

7.  "Report to Congress; Pursuant to the Public Health
    Cigarette Smoking Act," Federal Trade Commission,
    December 1973.

8.  "Report to Congress; Pursuant to the Public Health
    Cigarette Smoking Act," Federal Trade Commission,
    December 1974.

9.  Nicholls, Charles A.,  and Morrison, Margaret.   "Con-
    sumers Talk About Labeling,"  FDA Consumer;   4-7,
    February 1974.
                           B-l

-------
10.   Jcnr,sc,n,  Wallace F..  "Warning:   Hazardous to Children,"
     FDA Consumer:   16-23,  March 1973.

11.   Parkinson.  Thomas L.   "The Role of Seals and Certifi-
     cations of Approval in Consumer Decision-Making," The;
     Journal of Consumer Affairs:   1-14,  Summer 1975.

12.   Phone conversation with and miscellaneous written
     material from Mr. Richard Garber,  National Poison
     Center Network,  Pittsburgh, Pa. (topic:   "Mr. Yuk").

13.   Chapanis, Alphone.  "Words, Words, Words," Human
     Factors 7;   1-17, February 1965.

14.   Stessin,  Lawrence.  "The Hazards of Label Phrasing,"
     New York Times,  Sunday, August 17, 1975.

15.   "Delays in Establishing a Uniform Quality Grading
     System for Motor Vehicle Tires," Comptroller General
     of the United States,  RED-75-344.

16.   Spooner,  Herbert, The Visible Word,  Hastings House,
     New York, 1969.

17.   Markowitz,  J., and Dietrich,  C.W.   "An Investigation
     of the Design and Performance of Traffic Control
     Devices," BBN Report No. 1726.

18.   Kinkade and Van Cott.   Human Engineering Guide to
     Equipment Design, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,  New York, 1972.

19.   McGuire,  B.J., and Vadelund,  E.A.   "Voluntary Labeling
     for Household Appliances and Equipment to Effect
     Energy Conservation:   Annual Report for Calendar Year
     1974," National Bureau of Standards,  NBSIR 75-660,
     February 1975.
                             B-2

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             REFERENCES - Section 4
K. M. Eldred and T. J. Schultz, "Comparison of
Alternative Strategies for Identification and Regula-
tion of Major Sources of Noise," February 1975.

"Noise From Construction Equipment and Operations,
Building Equipment and Home Appliances," EPA NTID 300.1,
December 31, 1971.

Leo L. Beranek, Noise Reduction, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York 1960, p. 241, Fig. 11.9.

Richard V. Waterhouse, "Output of a Sound Source in a
Reverberation Chamber and Other Reflecting Environments,"
J. Aooust. Soa. Am. 30 (1): 4-13 (1958).

Harry F. Olson, Acoustical Engineering,  D. Van Nostrand
Company, Inc., Princeton, 1975, pp. 30-31.

T. J. Schultz, "Sound Power Measurements in a Reverberant
Room," J.  Sound Vib.  16 (1):119-129, Figs. 8 and 9.

K. Gosele, "Berechnung der Luftschallabstrahlung von
Maschinen aus ihrem Korperschall," VDl-Beriohte, Bd.
135:131-134 (1969); see also Theodore J. Schultz,
"Outlook for in situ measurement of noise from machines,"
J. Aooust. Soc. Am. 54(4): 982-984 (1973).
                       B-3

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