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Figure IV
WATER FLOW DIAGRAM FOR A BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT
WITH MINIMUM RECYCLE OR REUSE
| RAW WATER |
^«
r-**
\
JBEET STORAGE J
-»-{FLUN
»•{ WASH
[ SLIC
.,1 ^ HOinrNR
-^SCREEN|_»>| PONDS J— ^»
| |^ j PULP SCREEN j-
— , 1
bh< 1 I PULP PRESSES 1-
r_/^K f ^ -q ^ ]
\ DIFFUSER 1 1 DRIER 1
T
LIMI
CARBON
| FILTE
j DRIED PULPJ
^
CaO - .
^ll» 2 J LIME KILN 1
ATION ^ CO, ' '
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1
i
CRYSTALLJZER 1 |
.
CENTRIFUGE 1 *^ MOLASSES | |
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^_ CaO |
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^^j STEFFEN |~~~
1 GRANULATOR
| LIME PONDS J
•^•••M
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i DEVICE y
^« _»^
TO SURFA
SUGAR
-------
Figure V
WATER FLOW DIAGRAM FOR A BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT
WITH SUBSTANTIAL IN-PROCESS RECYLE AND REUSE
|RAW WATER) BEET STORAGE
I— -L
\
1
\ IFLUMING) CLARIFIEROR^
.... SETTLING 1
' ' | .... MUU
| ^^| WASHERS | 1 ' POND
ISLIC
LI
CARBC
f
d
-* I |
rn-"! j 1
<^tf "J~T
FFUSER V** ' -i '
1
* [DRIED PULP |
VII NCI |JJ LIME KILN
-JN^TION ^^ CO 2 ' ' ' "•"
\_, , SACCHARATF MM K ^
1 |
1 ' 1
_^J Fv/flpnRATnn^L^, ^ s^
• /COOLING-V
/ DEVICE V /*K_
"^^l OR P
\HOLDING /
_ _3^_ v/aruiin/i PAN«;)-*J X^UINU^/-
CRYSTALLIZER
ChNIKIKJUt | ^ MC
f
\ -M. 1 1 — 1
1 ^*^ blbl-1-bN | ^^
1
GRANULATION | EVAPORATOR
J ' L \
CSF | 1
f SUGAR J CONTIN
INTERMITTENT DISCHARGE
TO SURFACE WATERS
45
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Figure VI
WATER FLOW DIAGRAM FOR A BEET SUGAR PROCESSING PLANT
WITH MAXIMUM IN-PROCESS AND DISCHARGE CONTROLS
[GRANULATION |
\EVAPORATOR |
I
CSF
j
| SUGAR I
4-6
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SECTION VI
POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
Major waste water parameters of pollutional significance for the beet
sugar processing segment of the sugar processing industry include BOD5
(5-dayr 20°C Biochemical Oxygen Demand), COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand),
fecal coliforms, pH, SS (Suspended Solids), alkalinity, ammonia
nitrogen, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, TOC (Total Organic Carbon),
total coliforms, and TDS (Total Dissolved Solids). On the basis of all
evidence reviewed, there does not exist any other pollutants (e.g.,
heavy metals, pesticides) in wastes discharged from beet sugar
processing plants. The use of waste water recycle systems with land
disposal of excess waste water are capable of accomplishing zero
discharge of all pollutants to navigable waters.
Waste parameters for the beet sugar processing segment of the beet sugar
processing industry are discussed below.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (5-day, 20°c (68°F) BOD5)
This parameter is an important measure of the biologically degradable
organic matter in the waste, and is a widely used criterion for
pollution control. Under improper land disposal techniques, pollution
of ground water may result from inadequate filtration control or
location. The equilibrium concentration of BOD5 in a completely
recycled flume water system is generally found to be quite high (6,000
to 7,000 mg/1).
Bacteriological Characteristics
The South Platte River Basin study confirmed that the source of coliform
organisms in flume waters is attributable to animal manures spread on
fields where sugar beets are grown. Because of the origin of the
organisms, it is likely that the indicator coliform organisms reflect
the existence of pathogens in the wastes: Salmonella organisms have
been isolated in flume (beet transport) wastes.
Bacteriological characteristics of flume water present no sanitary
problems in the production process. In production, high pH conditions
maintained in the recycled flume water system, final fresh water wash of
incoming beets, use of biocides in the diffuser for pH control, and
subsequent destruction of all bacteria in the evaporation process satis-
factorily limit and control bacterial growth for production purposes.
If fecal coliform bacteria are present in surface waters which serve as
the water supply for condensers, prolific bacterial growth will occur in
the heated condenser water with the normal concentration of organics
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through vapor entrainment. Bacteriological qualities of waste waters
are not normally a pollution problem where inplant recycle, waste
retention and land disposal are practiced. A problem of pollutional
concern in ground waters may arise in the absence of necessary
controlled filtration procedures with land disposal of waste waters.
However, no ground water pollution problems are presently known to exist
as directly attributed to land disposal of beet sugar processing wastes.
At present, a large portion of the waste waters of the industry are
disposed of on land in the absence of control filtration procedures.
PH
pH is a very important criteria for frequent measurement in providing
in-process quality control (pH between 8 and 11) for efficacious
recycling of flume water. High pH conditions help to control odors and
inhibit bacterial growth. The pH condition of the waste water relates
to the quality of waste water as affecting the growth of natural biota
in the disposal environment, as well as the aesthetic value of waters
for industrial use and human consumption.
Temperature
The temperature of condenser waters leaving the pan evaporation and
crystallization process may approach 65°C (149°F). Where adequate
cooling devices are provided for the heated condenser water (often with
additional cooling provided by fresh water addition through well or
surface water supplies) extensive recycling without surface or ground
water pollution can result. However, if water at or near this
temperature does reach surface or ground water formations, potentially
serious imbalances in micro-ecosystems can occur with upsets of chemical
equilibrium.
Heated waste discharges to surface waters create a variety of thermal
pollution effects including adverse modification of the aquatic flora
and fauna environment with the accompanying increase in the rate of
biological reactions, and possible permanent temperature elevations over
considerable stream areas with continued added thermal loading. Thermal
conditions have considerable effects on the concentration of dissolved
oxygen, the biochemical reaction rate, pH, and the physical activity of
aquatic animals. Cooling of barometric condenser waters is necessary
prior to discharge to navigable waters.
Alkalinity
Alkalinity is a measure of the presence of bicarbonate, carbonate and
hydroxide ions in waste water. Alkalinity of beet sugar processing
waste results from the addition of lime in flume water systems and from
ammonia entrainment in barometric condenser waters. As far as is known.
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the alkalinity of water has little sanitary significance. However,
highly alkaline waters are unpalatable, and disruptive to water
treatment systems.
Ammonia Nitrogen and Other Nitrogen Forms
Ammonia nitrogen is present in barometric condenser waters (3 to 15 mg/1
as nitrogen under best operation) due to vapor entrainment in barometric
condenser waters. With progressive oxidation, ammonia is converted to
nitrate nitrogen.
The U. S. Public Health Service (77) recommends that nitrate
concentrations in ground water supplies not exceed 10 mg/1 nitrate as
nitrogen.
Amonia nitrogen in effluent has several undesirable features:
(1) Ammonia consumes dissolved oxygen in the receiving water;
(2) Ammonia reacts with chlorine to form chloramines which are less
effective disinfectants than free chlorine;
(3) Ammonia has possible deleterious effects on fish life;
(4) Ammonia is corrosive to copper fittings;
(5) Ammonia increased the chlorine demand of waters for subsequent
treatment;
Ammonia may be reduced in waste waters by physical methods and converted
to nitrates by biological oxidation. A nitrified effluent,free of
substantial concentrations of ammonia, offers several advantages:
(1) Nitrates will provide oxygen to sludge beds and prevent the
formation of septic odors;
(2) Nitrified effluents are more effectively and efficiently
disinfected by chlorine treatment;
(3) A nitrified effluent contains less soluble organic matter than
the same effluent before nitrification.
Ammonia and nitrate are interchangeable nitrogenous nutrients for green
plants and algae, as well as bacteria. At the present time, predictive
generalizations cannot be made for the response of algae to nutrients
for all receiving waters. Different geophysical systems appear to be
responsive to different limiting nutrients. The nitrogen content of
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natural unpolluted waters is normally less than 1 mg/1, and during the
growing season, soluble nitrogen compound are virtually completely
depleted by growing plants and algae. Ammonia is rapidly adsorbed by
soil minerals and particulate matter containing nitrogen is also
effectively removed in the soil. However, if there is not sufficient
plant growth in the soil to use the bound ammonia, it will be converted
to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria.
Total Phosphorus
Phosphorus is found in flume waters as associated with incoming soil on
beets and in condenser waters due to addition of de-scaling chemicals
and entrainment of vapors from barometric condensers. Phosphorus is
often a contributing element in the eutrophication of lakes and streams,
having a "threshold" concentration" of about 0.01 mg/1 or less. Where
filtration of beet sugar processing wastes to water bodies is possible,
phosphorus may be of concern. Even though phosphorus is readily
absorbed tenaciously on soil particles once in sediment or benthos, the
phosphorus may desorb to become an available nutrient. Surveys by
Brenton indicate a total phosphorous concentration in condenser waters
of 0.06 mg/1.
Total Dissolved Solids
Total dissolved solids in recycled flume and condenser waters reach a
very high equilibrium level of approximately 9,000-11,000 mg/1.
Periodic with drawal of recirculated waste water is required to maintain
the equilibrium concentration. Seepage from land disposal in waste
holding facilities may increase total dissolved solids levels of ground
waters or subsequently, surface water sources. The amount of dissolved
solids present in water is a consideration in its suitability for
domestic use. Waters with total solids content of less than 500 mg/1
are most desirable for such purposes, and is recommended whenever
possible by the 0. S. Public Health Service. Waters having higher
solids content are often associated with catharic effects upon humans
without acclimation. Water with natural dissolved solids concentrations
greater than 500 mg/1 have not been known to cause humans to experience
ill effects. In potable waters, most of the solids matter is in
dissolved form and consists mainly of inorganic salts, small amounts of
organic matter, and dissolved gases. The total solids content of
potable waters usually ranges from 20 to 1,000 mg/1 and, as a rule,
hardness increases with total dissolved solid content. The U. S. Public
Health Service Standards recommend a limit of 1,000 mg/1 of total
dissolved solids for potable waters.
Ground waters are generally higher in dissolved solids than surface
waters. The average concentration of dissolved solids is quite variable
50
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in surface waters that range from about 60 to 70 mg/1 in major rivers of
the United States. The total dissolved solids content of some inland
brackish waters exceeds 1000 mg/1 (87).
The total dissolved solids contained in the underflow "blowdown volume
of an extensive recycle flume water system is due to the concentration
of primarily sodium and potassium salts. Brackish water that contains
appreciable amounts of sodium ions are known to interfere with the
normal behavior of soap -an effect commonly referred to as pseudo-
hardness.
Suspended Solids
Suspended solids as a parameter in completely recycled waste water
systems serve most importantly in measuring the efficiency of solid
separation devices such as mechanical clarifiers or earthen holding
ponds for flume water. The performance of these settling measures are
reasonably reliable and dependable. The suspended solids criteria has
less importance in determining efficiency of settling, but more impor-
tantly for use as a control measure in determining the quantity of soil
conveyed to the plant on incoming beets and subsequently transferred to
the beet transport (flume water).
51
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SECTION VII
CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
Current technology for the treatment and control of beet sugar pro-
cessing wastes does not provide a single scheme that is applicable to
all geographical areas. The major treatment and disposal methods
applicable to beet sugar processing wastes include reuse of wastes,
coagulation, waste retention ponds or lagooning, and methods of
irrigation.
In "arid" climates (California and Arizona), climatic conditions are
favorable to permit no discharge of waste waters to navigable waters
through land disposal. The waste waters are usually treated in waste
stabilization lagoons for subsequent irrigation purposes or are
contained in open earthen holding ponds where the waste water is
eliminated largely by evaporation and soil filtration.
Detailed studies and previous efforts at various plants in the South
Platte River Basin for treatment of beet sugar processing wastes
(primarily through land spreading, aeration fields and waste holding
ponds) have generally proven to be ineffective in obtaining waste water
effluents of suitable quality for discharge without detrimental effects
on receiving streams. The problems resulted from the unadaptability to
the regional climatic conditions, physical design limitations of
installed units, and poor operating and maintenance practices.
Pollution loads of wastes have been reduced by better control of inplant
practices; reuse of some wastes as process water; recirculation of
flume, condenser and other waste waters; screening; settling; waste
water retention; and waste treatment in waste stabilization ponds.
The proper design, operation and maintenance of all waste treatment
processes and pollution control facilities are considered essential to
an effective waste management program. Awareness of the problem and
priority recognition are necessary ingredients in an effective pollution
control program. The 1971 FWPCA report of the beet sugar industry in
the South Platte River Basin includes a discussion of recommended
staffing patterns requisite to adequate waste water and process
management.
53
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ln-Plant_CQntrol^Measures^anc[ Techniques
In-plant control measures are extremely important in the overall scheme
for pollution control of beet sugar processing wastes. These measures
include the proper handling of sugar beets prior to reaching the plantt
design of beet flume systems to facilitate dry-handling techniques,
process water reuse, dry methods for handling lime mud cakes, conversion
of Steffen filtrate to usable end-products, and the reuse and recovery
of various flows in the beet sugar plant.
Handling of Sugar Beets
Although handling of the beets in the field and enroute to the plant are
not strictly part of in-plant operations, these procedures are directly
related to the waste disposal problems at the plant, and therefore
warrant special attention. A. major item of concern in handling of beets
at the plant is the large quantities of soil brought into the plant with
the incoming beets. The sugar processors, however, generally consider
production factors, beet condition and sugar content to be of greatest
concern.
The soil and associated trash become part of the plant waste and may,
without proper control, eventually enter the receiving waterbody.
Increased mechanization on the farm, mechanical harvesting of the beets,
and harvesting during wet soil conditions has led to increases in
amounts of tare accumulated at plants. Some solid waste or tare is
removed by shaking and screening prior to processing, and it is returned
to the beet delivery source. However, the large majority of delivered
soil enters directly into the plant through the flume system.
To aid in waste abatement, a change in the method of harvesting and
delivery of sugar beets to the plant is suggested. The removal of soil,
leaves, and trash in the field would provide the plant with the cleanest
possible raw product and tend to solve many present problems. Without
adequate control measures, late season irrigation and wet-field
harvesting contribute to increased waste treatment needs and cost of
settling devices in complete recycled flume water systems. Many, if not
all, beet sugar processors possess sufficient influence to require that
proper measures be taken to reduce soil in the fields. Dry tare removal
techniques are highly desirable but may result in some undetermined
increase in harvesting costs. However, if extensive plant waste
treatment or retention facilities are to be relied upon for removing
these solid materials, the results will undoubtedly be even more costly
and less efficient.
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Whereas storage of beets in northern climates is necessary because of
the short growing season, storage of beets prior to processing is
generally not practiced in California and other southern climates of the
U. S. There the beets are processed directly after shipment from the
field. Storage of the beets in these areas for any length of time
(days) results in a loss of sugar content of about 1 kg of sugar/kkg of
beets sliced (2 Ib/ton of beets sliced.)
Deterioration of the sugar beets within storage can be minimized by
maintaining proper conditions in the stockpiles and reducing storage
time as much as possible. More care should be given to preventing
damage and breakage of the beets, and in this regard, the mechanical
equipment and handling procedures for loading and unloading appear to
suggest improvement needs. These measures are highly important for
reducing pollution loads in the beet flume water.
A satisfactory method for storing beets for long periods has not yet
become available for general use. The operation of the plants is
therefore intermittent, and the sugar is extracted during a seasonal
"campaign" of about 100 days duration mainly in the months of November
through January in the greatest portion of the United States.
The Beet Fluming System
In recent years, many plants have reduced their available beet storage
facilities, shortened their fluming system and integrated a truck
delivery and a truck hopper installation on the processing line. Other
plants have provided belt conveyors for transporting beets at least part
of the way into the plant. Either minimum contact time between the
sugar beets and the flume water, or dry handling procedures, serve to
reduce the waste loads imposed upon the beet flume system. At least two
plants have significantly reduced waste loads by this process (1).
From the standpoint of production, hydraulic fluming is an effective and
expedient means of transporting and cleaning the beets, and of thawing
frozen beets in the extreme northern climates. One disadvantage of this
technique is the loss of sugar to the flume waters. An additional
pollution control measure is the complete dry handling of beets until
they reach the washer. Beets may receive mechanical shaking or
scrubbing for removing most of the dirt and solids followed by high
pressure spray jets at the washing table. Dry handling, however, can be
a serious disadvantage in colder climates where flume waters promote
necessary warming and thawing of sugar beets. If hot exhaust gases and
steam are generally available at the plant, they may possibly be
adaptable for satisfying this requirement.
55
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The typical flume water recycling system, as is commonly used within the
beet sugar industry, is judged a relatively inexpensive means of
providing treatment for reuse and retention of flume water. Plants that
recycle flume water have demonstrated that the suspended solids
concentration of the waste are very amenable to gravity clarification,
especially if lime is added. Land is required for the settling device
and for the disposal of sludge removed from the clarification
facilities. Mechanical clarifiers are preferred to earthen holding
ponds for the settling and clarification of flume water because of
reduced land area requirements, increased efficiency of solids removal,
and better control of the chemical and physical characteristics of the
recycled flume water. Odors can generally be controlled to acceptable
levels with the addition of lime to maintain alkaline conditions (pH
above 10).
Reuse of Process Water
The reuse of processing waste waters (pulp press water, pulp transport
water, wet pulp screen waters) has been one of the better areas of waste
source elimination by the industry. Process waters are reused for a
variety of in-plant needs, although the general practice is to return
them to the diffuser. The favorable economics in producing dry
exhausted beet pulp for an established animal feed market, and
additional sugar recovery obtainable through reuse of process waters
have contributed in large part to this change.
The continuous diffuser has replaced multiple diffusion cells and
created flexibility in process water reuse by significantly reducing the
volume of waste waters generated as a result of the diffuser system. A
continuous diffuser consists of an inclined cylinder in which hot water
flows downwards by gravity while the beet cossettes are moved in the
opposite direction by means of paddles. These spent cossettes are
discharged continuously at the upper end of the diffuser. Process water
return to the continuous diffuser requires careful control and in some
cases, treatment. Although some decrease in processing rate may be
experienced by use of continuous diffusers, these factors are offset by
increased sugar recovery gains.
Pulp transport water has been eliminated in many plants by a dry
conveyor system which moves exhausted pulp to the presses. Return of
pulp press water to the diffuser is a universally accepted practice
today. The quantity of pressed water obtained varies with the
efficiency of the pressing operation.
Not all beet sugar processing plants return pulp press water to the
diffuser, however, a few plants with full pulp pressing and drying
56
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facilities continue to discharge press waters to the drain rather than
reuse them. The pulp press is effective in reducing the water content
of the exhausted beet pulp from 95 percent as the pulp leaves the
diffuser to 80 percent moisture from the presses.
Virtually the entire industry is now equippped with pulp drying
facilities. The one remaining plant employing a wet pulp disposal
through use of a pulp silo (Torrington, Wyoming) is scheduled for
replacement of the silo with a pulp drier by October 1973. With
installation of a pulp drier at this plant, pulp silo drainage water as
a polluting source will have been completely eliminated. In addition to
reducing a substantial waste disposal problem, pulp drying equipment can
usually be justified economically. Dried pulp yields from a beet sugar
plant average about 60 kg/kkg (120 Ibs/ton) of beets processed. With
molasses addition, the yield is about 75 kg/kkg 75 kg (150 Ib/ton) This
pulp is generally sold as a source of livestock feed. The price of pulp
varies on the competitive market with grains but is presently selling
for about $66/kkg ($60/ton) for use as livestock feed in early 1973.
Handling of Lime Muds
Handling of lime mud wastes has been associated with problems of
fermentation and noxious odors at many plants. The calcium carbonate
sludges are generated from "juice" purification and other operations
within the beet sugar plant. Lime mud cake is recovered from vacuum
filters at approximately 50 percent moisture content. The usual
practice consists of adding water to the lime mud cake thereby producing
a slurry which is easily transported by pumping to disposal locations.
Various techniques are presently in existence for the handling and reuse
of lime mud slurry wastes. The general procedure is to dispose of the
slurry through complete retention in an earthen holding pond. At the
Manteca, California plant the deposited lime mud cake is recovered from
the pond and recalcinated for reuse within the process. A similar
procedure is employed at the Mendota, California plant in which a
portion of the lime mud slurry is dewatered and recovered through a
centrifuge operation while the remaining lime mud slurry is contained in
a holding pond. At the Arizona plant, lime mud is handled by a low
water dilution/air pump conveyance for movement to Holding facilities
rather than by the conventional method of slurring. Other plants
project the use of similar conveyance facilities in the near future. A
number of plants in Europe and Canada also employ dry means of disposal.
All plants presently impound waste lime mud generally in separate
holding ponds. The lime mud pond must be sufficiently large and the
lime mud as concentrated as possible so that pond size, with normal
evaporation and seepage will permit complete containment. Lime mud pond
57
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discharge is an extremely strong waste, and discharge to receiving water
bodies can not be permitted. In some plants excess lime mud pond water
is recirculated to the fluming system. The industry commonly uses a
single storage pond for lime mud, whereas European practice is to employ
separate ponding of the settled solids and the supernatant.
Problems of fermentation and noxious odors have been associated with the
long-term holding of lime mud wastes, but these can be avoided with a
sufficiently shallow depth pond - optimum of 0.5 m (1.5 ft) for odor
control. Allowing accumulated lime mud to dry by containment in holding
ponds is commonplace. The industry is presently experimenting with lime
reclaiming and reuse systems for recovery of solid lime waste. The lime
mud may be recovered for use as a sweetener on acid soils. Studies have
also been directed to the reuse of burnt lime residue within the plant
and in the manufacture of cement and related products. The cost of
these methods must be balanced against those of waste abatement and
treatment costs that can be expected at the individual plant.
At one plant lime cake is dried in a kiln, pulverized, and optimum
moisture content for land spreading is maintained at about 17 percent.
A ton of lime mud filter cake may contain 3.2 kg (7 Ib) organic
nitrogen, 5.9 kg (13 Ib) phosphoric acids, .91 kg (2 Ib) potassium, and
200 kg (440 Ib) organic matter (13) .
Steffen Filtrate Conversion
Steffen filtrate generated in the Steffen process is generally converted
to concentrated Steffen filtrate (CSF) and added to dried pulp as a
component in animal feeds. An exception in one operation is that the
Steffen waste is spread under controlled conditions within a 8.1 hectare
(20 ac) holding pond for disposal.
Beet pulp with the addition of concentrated Steffen waste at most plants
is presently sold for livestock feed at approximately $60/ton of pulp.
However, the amount of concentrated Steffen filtrate which can be added
to beet pulp for livestock feed is limited by the high ash content of
the filtrate waste.
Barometric Condenser Waters
The beet sugar industry has demonstrated that waste water associated
with the condenser can be reused in the sugar manufacturing process.
These waters may be used for feed to the boilers, diffuser makeup water,
raw water supply, beet flume recirculation system makeup, lime mud
58
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slurrying, gas washing and for nils eel Ian ecus uses. Many such uses for
condenser water are made at plants exhibiting recycling and complete
retention technology.
Entrainment of organic matter in condenser water requires careful
control of the specific unit operation. However, entrainment separators
on evaporators and vacuum pans are effective in greatly eliminating
entrainment into condenser water. Most plants within the industry
presently employ some type of entrainment control device. Condenser
waters may be detrimental to the receiving water because of temperature
reaching as high as (65°C) (149°F) and the almost complete absence of
dissolved oxygen.
Where adequate water supply is available, the condenser waters are
seldom recycled. In some areas, the waters are first passed through
cooling devices and the pH level is controlled before subsequent
disposition. Under normal operating conditions, the BODjj content of
condenser waters may be as low as 15-30 mg/1. However, BOD5 levels
actually discharged to receiving waterbodies in excess of 100 mg/1 have
been documented. This was a result of careless operation and inadequate
control procedures.
Treatment of condenser waters on a one time use basis (without
recycling) is not judged technically or economically feasible because of
the large volume and relatively low pollutant concentrations. cooling
towers or spray ponds may be used to permit recycling of condenser
waters, and minimize total plant water use while containing discharge.
The highest degree of control is represented by recycling the condenser
waters in a separate system. A dual closed-loop condenser water system
was recently installed at one plant. One system is employed to supply
heated water for fluming purposes; the other system serves to cool the
condenser water for recycle with makeup from fresh water sources.
In open recirculating systems, the evaporation of water in cooling ponds
or towers increases its dissolved solids concentration, while windage
loss removes dissolved solids from the system (108) . Evaporation loss
generally accounts for about 1 percent for each drop in temperature of
5.6°C (10OF) through the pond or tower. Windage losses are 1.0 to 5.0
percent for spray ponds, 0.3 to 1.0 percent for atmospheric towers and
0.1 to 0.3 percent for mechanical draft cooling towers. The mineral
concentration can be held within desired limits by bleeding
recirculating water from the system, or by softening or demineralizing
the make up water. Slime and algal growths in condensers and heat
exchangers may seriously impair their effective operation. Control of
such growths is generally accomplished by the addition of cooling waters
chemicals such as chlorine that will either prevent the formation of
growths or destroy existing growths. Chlorine may be added inter-
59
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mittently to the system in an amount that will produce an excess of
several milligrams per liter of free available chlorine for a short
period to prevent slime growths. The free chlorine is readily removed
from the rscirculated water through the evaporative cooling process for
temperature reduction.
Water Use and Waste Water Management
Experience within the industry has shown that proper management, design,
construction, operation, and maintenance of waste treatment and disposal
facilities all contribute to an overall efficiency in plant operation.
A broad spectrum of water reuse and waste disposal practices presently
exists in the beet sugar industry throughout individual plants in the U.
S. and abroad. In-plant measures have proven more effective than end-
of-process waste treatment in contributing to a successful waste
management program.
In recent years, the industry has recognized its responsibilities for
pollution control and has begun programs to substantially reduce the
pollution impact through improved waste management, design of
facilities, reuse of waste water, flow reduction measures, and other
pollution control devices.
Proper planning and design of treatment and control efforts is
mandatory. Structures which bypass treatment or disposal sites should
be eliminated. Similar structures for bypassing treatment to land
disposal or standby storage should be designed with positive reliable
controls to serve only in emergency. The facilities must provide for
intercepting various spills and unintentional waste discharges and
returning these to the waste treatment or disposal system. Proper
compaction and construction of waste treatment lagoons and holding ponds
are necessary to afford satisfactory treatment and to properly control
land disposal of process waste waters.
Once the waste control and treatment facilities are established,
operation and maintenance of these facilities are most important. All
devices and procedures intended for waste abatement should be considered
as important as the process operations.
The importance of good administrative control and plant records must
also be emphasized in relation to the waste water control program.
Without proper administration, a program will suffer serious short-
comings; a logical division of responsibility and organized approach are
necessary. A successful program requires that lines of authority and
60
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responsibility be fully delineated and that each person clearly
understand his explicit responsibilities. The importance of prescribed
format of data gathering and recording is considered essential to a
well-functioning pollution control program.
Tre atment and Cgntrol Technplogy
Current Treatment and Control Practices Within the Industry
Classification of waste treatment and disposal techniques at the various
beet sugar plants is difficult, since such practices range from little
treatment to treatment, storage and land disposal of all wastes.
Procedures for reduction of BOD5 differ in principle, some companies
rely chiefly on anaerobic fermentation in deep holding ponds; others on
aerobic bio-degradation in shallow ponds with or without mechanical
aeration. Presently, a total of 12 beet sugar processing plants handle
all waste waters through extensive in-plant recycling and reuse and land
disposal of waste holding ponds, stabilization lagoons or by irrigation.
In California, use is made of lagoon contents in many cases for
irrigation of crops. No effects on water quality are identifiable or
attributable to this practice as the waste is completely disposed of on
the land and precluded from entrance to surface waters. Plants
presently accomplishing the level of technology resulting in zero waste
water discharge to surface waters are located at Moses Lake, Washington;
Hereford, Texas; Brawley, Spreckels (Salinas), Betteravia, Manteca,
Mendota, Tracy, Woodland and Hamilton City, California; Chandler,
Arizona; and Goodland, Kansas.
In general, plants in the North Central portion of the United States
(Montana, Wyoming, Nebraska and Colorado) and in Michigan and Ohio have
reported relatively higher amounts of BOD5 per unit weight of beets
sliced as discharged to streams. This generally is attributable to less
favorable soil and climatic conditions for land disposal, location of
plants near developed areas, and/or smaller and older plants generally
located in these regions. Notable exceptions are the plants at
Longmont, Eaton, and Brighton, Colorado. Present treatment and control
practices characteristic of the industry are summarized in Table VIII
entitled "Summary of Selected Pollution Control Practices at Beet Sugar
Processing Plants." The practices summarized in Table VIII are
applicable to Individual beet sugar processing plants for handling and
disposal of flume (beet transport) water and condenser water. These two
waste sources are presently those of remaining primary importance within
the industry. Process waters (pulp press, beet transport and pulp silo
drainage) have been eliminated as a waste source by in-plant recycling
or dry pulp transport. One plant still employes a silo for drainage of
wet beet pulp. However, the silo is scheduled for replacement by
61
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October, 1973. All other plants employ pulp dryers for handling
exhausted beet pulp. Lime mud is universally discharged to holding
ponds without discharge to surface waters. Steffen waste (Steffen
process only) is concentrated for addition to dried beet pulp or
disposed of on land in isolated cases without discharge to surface
waters. Miscellaneous waste waters (floor drainage, gas washer water,
chemical wastes from cleaning of evaporators and crystallizers, etc.)
are discharged to flume (beet transport) systems or disposed of by
separate land disposal facilities without discharge to surface waters.
Treatment and control technologies applicable to various waste water
components of the beet sugar plant are discussed below.
Flume Water
A preventive measure that can be developed at all plants for the
reduction of the flume water waste volume is dry handling and transport
of beets after they reach the plant. One plant presently has dry beet
handling facilities for conveyance of beets into the plant. The water
fluming system is substantially reduced to approximately 15 meters (50
ft) in length and the beets are washed under high-pressure sprays.
If dry fluming is not employed, the initial step in the treatment of
flume water is the screening process to remove suspended solid organic
material (beet fragments, etc.) which would otherwise settle in holding
ponds as slowly decaying organic material. In a recirculating flume
water system, clarification of the recirculated waste water flow is
accomplished through the use of earthern holding ponds or mechanical
clarifiers. The sludge removed from the settling facilities is
discharged to a separate earthen holding pond for complete retention.
The beet sugar processing industry has demonstrated that a drawoff or
blowdown rate of 20 percent of the total water flow is sufficient to
maintain the total dissolved solids concentrations at or below
approximately 10,000 mg/1. Such a level of total dissolved solids con-
centration in the fluming system will not promote, under the prevailing
pH conditions, an abnormal scaling of the piping in the waste water
conveyance system.
The pH of flume water is a highly variable and erratic factor, requiring
careful control by the addition of lime. Proper control can be
accomplished through pH determinations on grab samples of flume water
taken at least every two hours as is practiced at some plants. At a
number of other plants, milk of lime is added to the flume water as it
leaves the screens or as it enters settling ponds or clarifier
facilities. This lime addition serves to keep the pH at a level which
62
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Table VIII
Summary of Selected Pollution Control Practices at Beet Sugar Processing Plants
Beet Sugar
Processing Plant
Nampa, Idaho
Moses Lake, Washington
Rupert, Idaho
Nyssa, Oregon
Hereford, Texas
Brawley, California
Salinas, California
Drayton, North Dakota
Betteravia, California
Twin Falls, Idaho
Moorhead, Minnesota
Idaho Falls, Idaho
Billings, Montana
Manteca, California
Chandler, Arizona
Mendota, California
Crookston, Minnesota
Tracy t California
Toppenish, Washington
Bay City, Michigan
Woodland, California
Sidney, Montana
Ft. Morgan, Colorado
Loveland, Colorado
Fremont , Ohio
Rocky Ford, Colorado
Longmont, Colorado
Scottsbluff, Nebraska
Torrington, Wyoming
Goodland, Kansas
Clarksburg, California
E. Grand Forks, Minnesota
Ovid, Colorado
Garland, Utah
Hamilton City, California
Sterling, Colorado
Mason City, Iowa
Bayard, Nebraska
.Mitchell, Nebraska
Brighton, Colorado
Eaton, Colorado
Greeley, Colorado
Lovell, Wyoming
Gering, Nebraska
Sebewaing, Michigan
Carrollton, Michigan
Carol, Michigan
Worland , Wyoming
Delta, Colorado
Santa Ana, California
Findlay, Ohio
Ottawa, Ohio
Croswell, Michigan
Beets Sliced
Metric tons/day
8163
7710
0100
5964
5895
5895
5895
4716
4535
4376
4172
3991
3809
3809
3809
3809
3628
3628
3464
3447
3265
3174
3174
3174
3083
3083
2902
2902
2902
2902
2721
2630
2542
2449
2267
2177
2177
2041
2041
1995
1995
1995
1995
1995
1905
1814
1814
1746
1633
1633
1406
1451
1270
>,
o
"O 1
~-~ i
S !
o
H
(9000)
(8500)
(6725)
(6575)
(6500)
(6500)
(6500)
(5200)
(5000)
(4825)
(4600)
(4400)
(4200)
(4200)
(4200)
(4200)
(4000)
(4000)
(3825)
(3800)
(3600)
(3500)
(3500)
(3500)
(3400)
(340C)
(3200)
(3200)
(3200)
(3200)
(3000)
(2900)
(2800)
(2700)
(2500)
(2400)
(2400)
(2250)
(2250)
(2200)
(2200)
(2200)
(2200)
(2200)
(2100)
(2000)
(2000)
11800)
(1800)
(1800)
(1650)
(1600)
(14.00)
'Molasses Worked
Metric Tons/Day
204
185
317
205
113
163
200
102
103
167
172
85
171
59
126
100
91
69
54
87
(Tons/Day)
(225)
(204)
(350)
(226)
(125)
(180)
(220)
(123)
(180)
(187)
(190)
( 94)
(189)
(175)
(139)
(110)
(100)
( 76}
( 60)
( 96)
Existing Pollution Control Practices
Discharge to Navigable
Waters
Y
N
Y'
Y
N
N
N
Y'
N
Y
Y1
Y'
Y
N
N
N
Y'
N
Y
Y
N
Y1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y'
Y
Y'
N
Y
Y1
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Retention or Land
Disposal for Flume Water
Y°
Y
Y°
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y"
Y
Y°
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y°
Y°
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y
Y
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y°
Maximum Flume Water
Recycling
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Partial Flume Water
Recycling
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Maximum Condenser
Water Recycling or
Re-use
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Partial Condenser
Water Recycling or
Re-use
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Land Disposal of
Condcncor Water
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y
Y°
Y
Y
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y"
Y
Y
Y°
Y"
Y°
Y"
Y*
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y°
Y°
Discharge of Excccc
Waste Water to
Municipal System
Y
Y
y
V
V
Treated Waste Water
Used for Land
Irrigation
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Use of Cooling Devices
for Condenser Water
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y'
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
' Occasional discharge only Y = Yes
° Partial N = No
63
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impedes bacterial action and thereby reduced odors and corrosive
effects. It also assists in sedimentation as a flocculating agent.
The amount of soil associated with incoming beets varies with the
wetness or dryness of the harvesting season, soil type, and location. A
plant slicing 363,000 kkgs (400,000 ton) of beets during a campaign may
accumulate 5,100 to 6,130 cu meters (20 to 21 thousand cu yd of soil in
its settling ponds. At one plant 40,500 cu m (53,000 cu yd) of dirt
were removed from lagoons in 1969 after processing 903,000 kkgs (995,000
ton) of sugar beets.
Barometric Condenser Water
Condenser water is characterized by:
1) relatively high temperature 55-65°C (131-m9°F)
2) entrained organics from boiler vapor entrainment
3) alkaline properties
The pH varies between 8 and 10 but usually is less than 9 and results
from entrainment of ammonia during the raw juice evaporation process.
Reuse of condenser water is a common industry practice. In 1968, a
total of 38 plants reused waste condenser water for fluming and other
in-plant usages; 20 of these cooled and returned a portion of this water
to the condensers. Many plants make some in-plant reuse of condenser
water and discharge the excess to water bodies. A total of 12 plants
presently accomplish complete retention of condenser waters without
discharge to surface waters.
Cooling of condenser water before discharge to receiving streams, or re-
cycling is usually necessary for protection of the quality of receiving
waters.
Surface or non-contact condensers offer a possible means of non-
contaminant use of condenser waters in lieu of entrainment control
devices with conventional barametric condensers. Surface condensers
provide positive control against contamination of condenser water
through non-contact between vapors to be condensed and cooling water.
The alternative method of control is relatively expensive (estimated at
roughly $200,000 for the average sized beet sugar processing plant) and
requires larger water volumes than barometric condensers. The method is
reliable as a mechanism of pollution control, and is worthy of
consideration at new beet sugar processing plants to be constructed.
When using cooling towers for condenser water cooling and recirculation,
it has often been found economical and expedient to supplement the re-
-------
cycled condenser water with cool fresh water from wells in order to
reduce the temperature of the recycled water. Where employed, such
practices often do not result in conservation of water since larger
water volumes are used than that needed to meet minimal barometric
condenser requirements. In the Central and North Central portions of
the United States, additional cooling requirements for molasses in
Steffen operations is obtained through use of large volumes of water
from existing surface or ground water sources; at other locations, e.g.,
in California, heat exchangers are commonly employed to meet additional
cooling requirements of the Steffen process.
In recycle systems, cooling may be accomplished with spray ponds,
cooling towers, evaporative condensers and air cooled heat exchangers.
All but the last depend on the cooling effect of evaporation. The
effectiveness of an evaporative cooling system is determined by the wet
bulb temperature of the environment, since this is the absolute lower
limit to which the water can be cooled by evaporation. The actual
terminal temperature may range from a degree or two below atmosphere
temperature at high humidity to -1°C (1°F) or more below atmospheric
temperature when the air is very dry (88). Therefore, evaporative
coolers are most effective in arid regions.
As a rule of thumb, cooling towers are capable of lowering temperatures
on a once-through basis to within 12°C (22°F) of wet bulb temperature.
Forced draft cooling towers with bottom fans and countercurrent air flow
are gaining favor over induced draft (top fan) and natural draft types
for cooling heated waste waters. Cooling towers are generally more
efficient than spray ponds for waste water cooling because of increased
contact in the cooling tower between the heated water and circulating
air.
Barometric condenser water resulting from beet sugar processing plants
characteristically exhibits relative high nitrogen content, attributed
largely to ammonia (3 to 15 mg/1 NH^ as nitrogen) introduced by juice
evaporating and sugar crystallizing operations. Therefore, the removal
of nitrogen centers on the removal of ammonia-nitrogen.
Pilot plant experiments by Lof, et. al. support the ability of air
stripping to remove nitrogen from beet sugar plant condenser water
effluent. Data for ammonia removal from a synthetic medium (prepared by
the addition of MlI^Cl „ NalfO3 and NaNO2 to tap water) indicate that most
of the NH3 removal in cooling tower operations occurs by air stripping,
rather than by oxidation to nitrite nitrogen. Removal of ammonia
nitrogen at the 16 to IB mg/1 as N range was shown to be 25 to 50
percent over a 24 hour interval (6.2 passes through the cooling tower)
for G/L weight ratios of 0.3 and 0.6 respectively. The G/L weight ratio
65
-------
equals the weight rate ratio of air to water, e.g. kg (Ib) of air per
hr. divided by kg (Ib) of water per hr.
Applications of combined cooling and biotreatment of waste waters have
been utilized by means of cooling towers for refinery, corn milling
operations and bleached board production plants. Among other
constituents, cooling devices sometimes with the addition of synthetic
packing have been demonstrated effective in reduced temperature,
sulfides, chemical oxygen demand, biochemical oxygen demand and ammonia
in this double duty role. BOD5 and COD removals vary between 30 and 90
percent. Although heavy sliming occurred in several of the above
cooling units, growth was reported not to be sufficient to cause any
problem in cooling tower operation. Similar successful experiences with
biological oxidation of pollutants are known to occur with efficient
temperature reduction through use of aeration ponds, primarily at pulp
and paper mills (6). BOD5 reductions ranged from 80 to 95 percent.
Aerobic treatment processes have been demonstrated effective in removing
up to about 70 percent of total nitrogen in waste water (101). The air
to water ratio required in cooling barometric condenser waters by
cooling devices at beet sugar processing plants may be estimated based
on the following thermodynamic considerations. Assuming ambient air
with an absolute humidity of 0.011 kg (Ib) water vapor per kg (Ib) of
dry air (75 percent relative humidity and 70<>F dry bulb temperature) ,
adiabatic cooling and air leaving the cooling device is saturated with
water, exit conditions of air after use for cooling would have an
absolute humidity of 0.012 kg (Ib) water vapor per kg (Ib) dry air under
exit conditions (64°F dry bulb temperature and 100 percent relative
humidity). Therefore, under the assumptions, 0.001 kg (Ib) water vapor
per kg (Ib) of dry air would be added to the air during the evaporative
cooling process. In reducing the barometric condenser water temperature
from 60«C to 20°C (140°F to 68°F), a total temperature decrease of 40°C
(72QF) has occurred. With approximately 555 kg cal/kg (1000 BTU/lb) as
the heat of evaporation of water and an estimated 40 kg cal/kg (72
BTU/lb) of water recirculated, evaporation to accomplish the required
temperature drop would be estimated at 0.072 kg (Ib) of water
evaporated/kg (Ib) of water recirculated. Therefore, dry air
requirements for evaporative cooling to accomplish the designated
temperature decrease would be 72/0.012 x (1000) = 6 kg (Ib) dry air/kg
(Ib) water recirculated.
Ammonia stripping as a treatment process has been demonstrated to be pH
dependent, the optimum ammonia removal by stripping occurring at a pH of
approximately 11. Studies conducted at the University of Wisconsin and
others have substantiated high removals of ammonia (78 to 92 percent) by
stripping at air/liquid loadings of 3345 1/1 (447 cu ft / gal) and 4100
1/1 (549 cu ft/gal) respectively.
66
-------
The above discussion supports the conclusion that ammonia can be
substantially removed from waste waters through appropriate cooling
devices and aerobic waste treatment systems.
Ammonia is soluble in water and would be expected to be found within
minimal concentrations under natural conditions. At atmospheric
conditions, the solubility of ammonia in water is 0.89 mg/lf 0.53 mg/1,
0.33 mg/1 and 0.07 mg/1 at 0°C, 20°C, 40°C and 100°C respectively.
Lime Mud Wastes
Plants normally release lime mud in the form of a slurry which is con-
tained in holding ponds.
Two plants now reburn lime mud cake for the production of lime. One
recent lime mud cake reburning operation has been discontinued,
reportedly because of objections to dust emitted from the rotary kiln
and cost inefficiencies. Lime mud cake from this operation is now being
shipped to another factory for reburning.
Dry handling of lime mud cake is accomplished at a number of plants.
One plant indicates plans to install dry conveyance facilities for lime
mud cake during 1973. By using a dry conveyance system, the lime mud
cake is transported to the disposal area without the conventional
addition of slurrying water in order to permit pumping. Injection of
compressed air at 0.7 to 1.1 kg per sq cm (10 to 15 psi) to maintain
fluidity of the semi-liquified mass has also been an effective method of
transport at the Chandler, Arizaona plant.
Sale of lime mud cake for agricultural and other usages has not been
notably successful. At only two plants, one in California arid one in
Washington, has any considerable outside use been made of the material.
The rather large store of lime mud cake in California, is being sold to
farmers for use on peat soils at a somewhat faster rate than it is being
produced. In Washington, a commercial distributor collects lime mud
cake from the dry ponds for sale at 550/kkg (50£/ton) for use in areas
with acid soils.
A typical beet sugar plant employs one or more lime mud ponds, var i
in depth from 0,6 to 3,0 m (2 to 10 ft) . On occasion, miscellan -i
wastes may be added to the lime mud ponds. Deposits from a q:
campaign are scraped from the pond bottom and added onto the dike wa? ,s,
Where large ponds are employed, solids removal is not necessary i 1.1
period of many years, Active fermentation may begin near the e« "•
campaign in the central United States and is accelerated by the w,
temperatures occuring through spring and summer (13). Cleaning of j . ,
mud ponds is a continuing, expensive chore at many plants. As a ger- :
practice, two or more lime mud ponds are available at a plant, enai i
67
-------
the operators to take one of the ponds out of service as required to
permit removal of accumulated solid material.
The various difficulties in storing lime mud slurry, such as the viscous
nature of the waste, land and construction costs, and possible offensive
odors offer strong reasons for converting to a dry system of handling
and disposal in most cases.
Steffen Waste - Steffen plants produce a liquid waste which has a high
alkalinity as well as a high BOD5 and organic matter content. The
solids content of the waste resulting from the Steffen process, in
addition to the lime content, consist of the sugar and the nonsugars of
the original molasses. The Steffen waste includes various inorganics,
together with a variety of organic and nitrogenous comlb.
When Steffen waste biologically degrades, it soon loses its alkaline
nature and various malodorous comlb are formed. Where this waste is
disposed of in ponds, odor problems have become acute.
Because of the large variety of materials contained in Steffen wastes,
it has been given considerable study as a potential source of
byproducts. During World War I, a number of beet sugar plants
concentrated the Steffen waste and burned the concentrate to produce a
crude potash salt for fertilizer. Later, a successful process was
developed to produce monosodium glutamate (MSG) from the concentrated
Steffen filtrate (CSF). Feeding and nutritional studies have shown that
CSF can partially replace molasses as a cattle feed supplement. This
use has been the primary outlet for this material, since the
attractiveness for sale of MSG has decreased.
When used as a dried-pulp additive, CSF is normally limited in livestock
feed by the solids (ash) content. Experience has shown that only about
30% molasses by weight, may be added to dried pulp for cattle feed.
Land spreading is another alternative method of disposal of Steffen
waste. This can be accomplished with a minimum of odor production, if
managed properly. The dilute Steffen waste is spread in a thin layer
over a land area which is quite level and divided into small parcels by
low levees. This permits feeding the waste onto these parcels in
sequence to allow absorption and drying before further additions. It is
beneficial to disc or till the soil between campaigns to enhance its
absorptive capacity. Such land spreading of Steffen waste with
protection from runoff is practiced at the beet sugar plant near
Salinas, California.
A study on a laboratory scale (68) demonstrated that Steffen waste can
be treated with various yeasts, algae and bacteria to produce a
potential feed stuff while stabilizing the waste. But another study
68
-------
incorporating a four-pond system, was judged high in installation and
operating cost without subsequent production of a usable byproduct.
To reduce the cost of evaporating Steffen filtrate, considerable effort
is made to keep the concentration of the waste as high as possible
without adversely affecting the purity of the saccharate produced. One
method used is the return of cold saccharate filtrate as part of the
dilution water. The volume of Steffen waste is thus reduced from about
42 1/kkg (10 gal of waste/ton) of molasses to about 25 1/kkg (6 gal of
waste/ton).
General Wastes - General waste including floor and equipment, wash
waters, filter cloth wash, and miscellaneous effluents are usually
discharged to the general or flume water ponds.
Demonstrated and Potential Treatment and Control Technologies
General - Biological treatment of beet sugar waste has been
demonstrated. Two approaches to biological waste treatment are
currently being used; they are anaerobic and aerobic fermentation. The
former is believed to be the most efficient, resulting in the most
nearly complete stabilized effluent. Anaerobic action does give rise to
objectionable odors including particularly, the odor of hydrogen
sulfide. At many plants, neighboring residents have protested the
annual nuisance caused by anaerobic odors.
The removal efficiencies of waste treatment processes are difficult to
assess. Adequate BOD5 determinations are infrequently available in
statistically significant numbers. Exceptions to this are the results
of the intensive studies made by the EPA on the matter of pollution in
the South Platte River Basin, and the various studies of experimental
units conducted by companies or by the Beet Sugar Development
Foundation. Past studies indicate that, substantial BOD 5 reduction of
beet sugar wastes can be accomplished by biological oxidation.
Common to all processes available for biological treatment of beet sugar
plant wastes are the requirements for adequate screening of wastes to
remove fragments of beets and other organic matter and facil i < i es
(mechanical or other) for separation of muds. Previous method of
handling the clarified or partly clarified liquid wastes were one of the
following: 1) direct discharge to streams during periods of high v n in-
flows; 2) anaerobic biological treatment in deep ponds, followed u;i\ily
by aerobic action in shallow ponds or ponds equipped with mechanical
aerators; or 3) aerobic treatment alone.
Many studies have been performed on the treatment of beet sugar wastes
utilizing biological means, including activiated sludge, tric;kJinq
69
-------
filters, waste stabilization lagoons and other methods (11). In many
cases, results have been obtained well beyond the pilot-plant stage.
Even though numerous methods of treatment of the various wastes from
beet sugar plants have been applied with the objective of producing an
effluent suitable for discharge to surface waters, these methods are
generally undesirable in comparison with inplant waste water reuse and
recycling practices. Applicable treatment methods in the conventional
sense present operational and economic questions as applied to large
volumes of liquid produced during essentially a three month period of
the year known as the beet sugar campaign. Large treatment plant
facilities are required to handle the large waste volumes during a
relatively short seasonal operation. If such conventional biological
treatment systems are to be utilized, waste water would have to be
stored in large storage facilities to help sustain organic and hydraulic
loading for the treatment facilities on essentially a year round basis.
Inplant process control with reuse of waste waters rather than treatment
and discharge has been generally adopted by the industry as an expedient
and economical approach to pollution control from beet sugar industrial
operations. Various waste treatment and control methods applicable to
beet sugar processing plants are discussed below.
Coarse Solid Collectors - Trash collectors, traps, and other recovery
devices are normally placed at all major waste collection points within
the plants. Proper design, installation, and maintenance of these
devices are essential for adequate performance. Solids control is
necessary not only for routine waste but also for spills, leakage and
inadvertent releases to the floor drains.
Fine-Mesh Screening - The screening operation is a preliminary step in
waste treatment intended to reduce waste loads placed upon subsequent
treatment and control units. For screening of flume water, inclined
vibrating screens are generally preferred by the industry because they
are more effective and less costly than other screening devices.
Adequate screening of the waste flows from a typical plant may remove
from 9 to 36 kkg (10 to 40 ton) of coarse wet solids daily. The recov-
ered screenings are shredded and introduced into the pressed pulp and
fed to the dryer. Screenings removed from recycled flume water are also
generally fed to livestock with or without drying.
One plant provides dual vibrating screens which have 0.32 by 1.59 cm
(1/8 by 5/8 in) slotted openings, as the first unit within its flume
water recirculation system. The screens remove about 29.7 kkg (27 tons)
of wet solids daily which are sold directly to local farmers for use as
stock feed. Another operation employs three vibrating screens installed
70
-------
in parallel; the screens are preceded by a liquid cyclone or
hydroseparator for removal of heavy grit and solids.
Grit and Solids Removal - Mechanical clarifiers or earthen settling
ponds preceeded by coarse screening, are generally used in recycle flume
water systems. Mechanical settling units are usually preferred in the
industry. The objective is to remove as much dirt, soil and other
solids as possible. The large quantities of accumulated dirt and debris
are deposited into sludge storage ponds.
Both earthen ponds and mechanical clarifiers can cause serious problems
without proper operation, maintenance and control but the mechanical
clarifier merits careful attention. It is important that sludge
underflows and flotable scum and grease be removed quickly, preferably
on a continuous basis. If waste detention times are excessive, organic
fermentation may occur in the settling facilities, resulting in organic
acid and hydrogen sulfide buildup. Chlorination or pH control with lime
addition may be used to retard such odor-producing action. In any case,
efficient course screening ahead of the settling tank is essential.
Indications are that clarifiers with detention times from 30 minutes to
several hours will produce effective solids removal with minimum odors.
With continuous flume water recirculation, dissolved organic material
may increase to rather high levels (approximately 10,000 mg/1),
necessitating blowdown and water makeup in the system for solids and
scaling control.
Current state-of-the-art practices for mechanical clarifiers on wastes
with settleable solids of 30 to 125 mg/1, result in waters containing
0.3 to 1.0 mg/1 of settleable material. Fine clay particles which do
not readily settle must be removed by chemical flocculation in the pH
range 10.5 to 11.5. Addition of lime not only retards fermentation but
serves to raise the pH to the level necessary for effective
flocculation.
Waste Holding Ponds - Waste holding ponds have widespread use in the
beet sugar industry. Their function is similar to that provided by
mechanical settling. Less care is generally given to their design,
operation, and maintenance. The pond facilities normally serve for
retention of wastes as contrasted to treatment benefits. Waste water
detention times in earthen holding ponds generally range from 24 to US
hours. Minimum detention times are encouraged for minimizing noxious
odors associated with organic fermentation when ponds are used for
solids settling. Holding ponds, as distinguished from waste
stabilization lagoons, serve for solids removal, short term retention or
long term storage without discharge to surface waters. In the latter
case (long term storage), the waste water is disposed o± by evaporation
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and filtration. Waste stabilization ponds, on the otner hand, are
specifically designed and constructed to provide waste treatment for
subsequent controlled land disposal, irrigation, or discharge to surface
waters.
Jensen states that the pond system, using single or multiple basins, iias
been the most common means of solids removal for beet sugar waste
waters. He recommends that the system be shallow and flowing in order
to avoid the odor nuisances of hydrogen sulfide gas generation. From
his experience, Henry favored settling ponds for reasons of economy and
also suggested the following principles in relation to these ponds.
First, the waste water should enter the settling pond with minimum
velocity and circulate evenly but quickly without interference with
settling. Second, the use of large ponds is advisable in order to
minimize dike construction. Third, pond bottoms should be level, and
grass and weeds should be removed from the bottom and sides on a
frequent schedule. Other studies conducted in Great Britain have
indicated that the ideal shape for a settling pond may be a rectangle
five to six times as long as wide, providing a flow-through velocity of
about 0.24 m/min (0.8 ft/ min). The British investigations also
suggested that small ponds were advantageous in the event of dike
rupture, since less waste material would accidently enter the receiving
stream.
Experience within the industry has indicated that odor problems
accompanying the imlbment of waste waters in earthen ponds at many
plants can be minimized by the maintenance of shallow pond depths
(optimum of 45.7 cm or 18 in). In the U. S., shallow lagoons are
preferred to deep ponds, and operating depths are generally in the range
of 0.92 to 1.53 m (3 to 5 ft) However, effective settling depths will
range from less than 0.3 m (1 ft) to 6.1 m (20 ft). In actual practice
the holding ponds may fill rapidly with solids.
In the construction and operation of holding ponds, sealing of pond
bottoms to eliminate or control percolation to acceptable maximum rates
may be necessary even though a mat of solid organic material often
provides some degree of self-sealing. The general criteria, adopted by
many State pollution control agencies for waste stabilization lagoons
for municipal wastes, is a 0.635 cm (1/4 in) drop in liquid depth per
day. This has general application to waste holding ponds as a practical
limit of filtration and should not be exceeded. No contamination of
ground water must result from controlled ground soil filtration.
Holding ponds in use in the industry today have no specific provision
for filtration control.
A number of storage retention or land disposal systems have been
investigated, some systems proving to be of little or no protection
against polluted discharges. In this regard, two types of long-term
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waste ponding have been generally in use: (1) waste retention with
controlled regulated intermittent discharge of holding pond contents to
surface receiving waters (2) and long-term waste storage and disposal
with no discharge to navigable waters. The first practice of controlled
discharge from holding facilities to receiving waters is practiced at
the Moorhead, Crookston, and East Grand Forks, Minnesota, and at
Drayton, North Dakota plants. In this region, waste flows are contained
in holding ponds during the processing season and the contents are
discharged under controlled conditions to receiving waters during the
spring high stream flow period. Some reduction in BOD5 content of the
ponded waste takes place during the winter storage period and prior to
regulated discharge to the river, but the BOD reduction is usually not
significantly great.
The first extensive study of long-term waste storage was conducted at
the Moorhead, Minnesota plant during the 1949-1951 campaign. Waste
flume waters, together with pulp press waters, were released into two
3,7 meter (12 ft) ponds identical in capacity, with a total area of 33
hectares (82 ac) and a total volume of 1340 million liters (354 million
gal). A third lagoon, .9 meters (3 ft) deep, covering 20 hectares (50
ac) and providing 190 million liters (50 million gal) capacity, was
maintained in reserve until late in the campaign. The total campaign
used 1600 million liters water volume (423 million gal) in 1950.
Uncontrolled discharge from the ponds began in early spring following
severe winter conditions and much ice cover over the ponds.
The study showed that waste treatment during the campaign itself was
effected largely by settling of suspended matter within the ponds. Over
this period, BOD5 reductions ranged from 48 to 58 percent, and suspended
solids removal was indicated at about 97 percent. After the processing
campaign ended, the stored waste waters underwent no further decrease in
BOD reduction. This was attributed to complete cessation of biological
activity within the ponds because of freezing conditions and possible
lack of secondary nutrients. The study concluded that long-term waste
storage, even in cold climates, would provide effective removal of
suspended solids, but would be effective in removing only one-half of
the BOD5 load.
A later study, undertaken in 1964-1965 in the Red River of the North,
included the Moorhead, East Grand Forks and Crookston, Minnesota plants.
Discharge was controlled according to the amount of flow, dissolved
oxygen and BOD5 in the receiving stream, and was permitted prior to and
following ice cover on the river. The results of the study showed that
the Moorhead pond effluent contained 449 mg/1 BOD5_, 163 mg/1 total
suspended solids, and had median values of 1.5 million total coliform
bacteria and 1.25 million fecal coliform bacteria per100 ml. The dis-
charge at the East Grand Forks, N. D. plant had effluent values of 164
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mg/1 BOD5, 51 mg/1 total suspended solids, 22,100 total coliforms per
100 ml and 1,720 fecal coliforms per 100 ml. Waste removal efficiencies
were not determined.
Land Spreading of Wastes or Aeration Fields - The term aeration fields
is applied to the process of spreading wastes from beet sugar plants
over large land surfaces. The wastes infiltrate into the ground in
numerous, shallow channels, and are collected and disposed of at the
opposite end of the field.
The history of aeration fields for beet sugar processing waste in the U.
S. start with studies conducted at the Loveland, Colorado plant in 1951.
The aeration field there covered 539 ha (133 ac). Suspended solids and
alkalinity removals were reasonably good, but organic loads (BOD5) were
reduced only to a minumum degree. The facility provided less than
equivalent primary treatment, and waste concentrations in the final
effluents remained at high levels. The merits of maintaining this type
of extensive treatment area were seriously questioned in view of the
results obtained.
A similar aeration field that was formerly used at Windsor, Colorado,
was found even less effective than Loveland, producing less than 10
percent removal of BOD_, 60 percent removal of COD and 60 percent
reduction of TSS. The waste water entering the Cache la Poudre River
contained approximately 1100 mg/1 BOD5, 1060 mg/1 TSS, and 6.6 million
total coliform bacteria per 100 ml.
Full scale aeration field facilities were also constructed at a Nebraska
plant during 1952, and evaluation studies were carried out over the
1952-1953 campaign. The total combined plant wastes were delivered to a
1,069 by 534 meter (3,500 by 1,750 ft) area of fairly level contour.
Although native buffalo grass was present, only part of the field was
described as a grassland filter as compared to installations in Europe.
Waste channeling was quite evident and only 50 percent of the waste
volume disappeared by downward percolation before reaching the end of
the field.
The 1952-1953 survey results showed that incoming waste levels of 482
mg/1 BOD5 were reduced to 158 mg/1 in the aeration field or that 67
percent BOD5_ removal occurred. Corresponding values of total suspended
solids were 5,125 mg/1 and 63 mg/1, giving 99 percent apparent total
suspended solids reduction. Similarly, total coliform bacteria numbers
were reduced 89 percent. Although algal and fungal growths were
abundant, the dissolved oxygen was quite low in the field. Average
waste detention approximated 14 hours, and the results indicated that
odor production was at a minimum, aeration field is no longer in use.
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Aeration fields were also used during the 1963-1964 campaign at three
Colorado plants. It was observed that these treatment facilities did
not embody many of the favorable characteristics of the earlier
installation, and the aeration fields were beset with numerous
operational and maintenance problems. The 1968 South Platte River Basin
studies concluded that aeration fields, as they were maintained, could
not by any means satisfy the water quality criteria recommended for the
receiving waterbody. Further conclusions were that aeration fields
support little or no vegetative growth, and because of short circuiting,
the wastes often obtained application on only a small portion of the
field. Although the majority of suspended solids were removed, there is
little or no other apparent benefit from aeration fields.
Waste Stabilization Ponds or Lagoons - Waste stabilization ponds or
lagoons are distinguished from waste holding ponds in that the former
are designed, constructed, operated and maintained by established design
criteria and procedures for the primary purpose of effecting waste
treatment for pollutant reduction. Waste holding ponds, while affording
some benefit of waste treatment, serve primarily to store or retain the
waste with or without discharge of pond contents to surface waters.
Many of the plants in California utilize waste stabilization lagoons for
treatment of excess flume and condenser system waste waters. The
impetus to provide treatment of waste waters has resulted from the
advantages obtained by utilizing the treated waste waters for cropland
irrigation in water-short regions. The installations are characterized
by the use of many interconnected ponds generally in series,
specifically designed for settling, biological oxidation, evaporation
and filtration. The various lagoons range generally from 0.6 to 3.0
meters (2.0 to 10 ft) in depth, with surface areas up to 80 ha (197 ac) .
The shallow ponds are aerobic, whereas the deeper basins were designed
for controlled anaerobic digestion. The BOD5 of the waters pumped from
the final aerobic pond in series for irrigation is relatively low, of
approximately 105 to 190 mg/1 or less. The suspended nature of the BOD5
is demonstrated by the fact that studies show that the BOD5 of the pond
effluent may be reduced to 7 to 10 mg/1 by effective filtration.
Essentially complete removal of total suspended solids by filtration is
obtained.
Anaerobic-aerobic lagoons have been utilized in a pilot study basis for
treating beet sugar wastes with encouraging results (65). Encouraged by
the successful application of these principles in the treatment of other
wastes. The Beet Sugar Development Foundation with funding support from
EPA initiated a pilot plant study in California. The major objectives
of the study were to demonstrate the waste removal efficiencies of the
system and to determine methods to minimize odor in connection with this
means of treatment. The system was evaluated with respect to the
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effects of varying feed rates and recirculation ratios upon organic
waste removal, and the degree of odor control and microbial growth
associated with the operations.
Hopkins et. al. found that if total beet sugar wastes were discharged
uniformly across the upper end of 2 ha (5 ac) shallow lagoons with a
detention time of about one day, virtually all suspended solids, 55
percent of the concentration of BOD5_ and 63 percent of the weight of
BOD5 were removed. This procedure also reduced the alkalinity by 69
percent, completely eliminated nitrate nitrogen and reduced ammonia
nitrogen by 94.3 percent. Coliform type bacteria increased, but
phosphates were unchanged. Water loss was 4,040 cu meters (3.27 ac ft)
per day of which 222 cu m (0.18 ac ft) was due to evaporation and 3818
cu m (3.09 ac ft) due to filtration.
At the California pilot plant, screened, settled plant waste water
(principally flume water) was treated in a series of three ponds. These
consisted of a 4.6 m (15 ft) deep anaerobic pond, a faculative pond 2.1
m (7 ft) deep, and an aerobic pond 0.9 m (3.0 ft) deep, from which the
effluent could be discharged and also recycled to the anaerobic pond.
Detention times varied from about 10 to 25 days in the anaerobic pond,
10 to 30 days in the faculative pond, and 10 to 20 days in the aerobic
pond. Over the first two years of the study, the anaerobic, faculative
and aerobic ponds were used respectively as the first, second, and third
units in series. During September and October, 1966, influent BOD5_
values generally ranged from 1,200 to 1,650 mg/1. In the first
experimental run, the applied organic loadings were 1383 kg BOD5/ha/day
(1,235 Ibs BOD5/ac/day) for the anaerobic pond, 931 kg BOD5/ha/day (831
Ibs BOD5/ac/day) for the faculative pond, and 739 kg BOD5/ha/day (660
Ibs BOD5_/ac/day) for the aerobic pond. The results of the first run
represented an overall waste detention period of about 35 days and
provided 70 percent BOD5 removal and 38 percent COD removal. The BOD5
concentrations from inflow to outflow were reduced from approximately
1,200 mg/1 to 350 mg/1. Another test, where there was no recirculation
and the applied loadings were 1838 kg BOD5/ha/day (1,640 ib BOD5/ac/day)
for the anaerobic pond, 502 kg BOD5/ha/day (448 Ibs BOD5/ac/day) for the
faculative pond, and 355 kg BOD5/ha/day (317 Ibs BOD5/ac/day for the
aerobic pond, with overall waste retention time of 70 days, provided
approximately 90 per cent BOD5 removal and 77 percent COD removal.
Correspondingly, the BOD5 concentrations were reduced from about 1,650
mg/1 to 170 mg/1. These studies included the enumeration of algae,
coliform, and fecal streptococci bacteria present within the system.
Efficient removals were achieved in regard to both coliforms and fecal
streptococci organisms reaching 99.99 percent in practically all cases.
Although mechanical and other disturbances resulted in less than
desirable treatment operation, the system indicated that beet sugar
plant wastes could be successfully treated by such a system. BOD5 and
COD were effectively removed in the pond system with the highest removal
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rates occurring in the heavily loaded anaerobic pond. As long as algae
were present in the aerobic pond, recycle of waste water from the
aerobic pond to the anaerobic pond was beneficial in the prevention of
odors. Without recirculation, there were odor problems in the anaerobic
pond.
The use of waste water treatment lagoons for the propagation of fish at
plants in California has been investigated and has been reported by
industry representatives to have met with only partial success.
Laboratory studies have been conducted by the British Columbia Research
Council to determine the feasibility of using aerated lagoons to treat
waste flume waters. The studies also provided data on optimum load
conditions, determination of the time required in startup relative to
the beginning of the campaign, and adaptability of the aerated lagoon
method to intermittent operation and to temperature change. The waste
flume water was obtained from a plant with a high degree of recycling
and the initial BOD5 values ranged from 821 to 1121 mg/1. Results
showed that effluent BOD5 values range from 30 to 1UO mg/1.
The efficiency of a lagoon system depends to a large degree on the
climatic conditions, organic loading, and the ability to maintain
uniform flows through the lagoon system. Lagoon systems are effective
in removing essentially all the suspended solids. Effluents of low
BOD5 can be attained only by maintaining long retention periods which
require large land areas. The water in the lagoons must be kept
shallow, and water movement is preferable in order to avoid the
generation of hydrogen sulfide with its attendant nuisance odors (28).
Preliminary screening of beet processing wastes to remove particular
organic matter prior to discharge to lagoons substantially lessens the
occurence and intensity of noxious odors.
Waste stabilization lagoons for treatment of beet sugar plant wastes
would undoubtedly perform more efficiently in warm arid climates such as
Southern California than those in northern, colder climates such as the
Red River Valley of North Dakota and Minnesota. Relatively large land
requirements for lagoons result where treatment of waste water for
irrigation use is the primary objective. Lagoons must be located so as
not to contribute to ground water pollution. Selection of the proper
site by a qualified geologist to prevent pollution of nearby aquifers is
recommended.
Odors have been experienced with operation of some of the stablization
lagoons in California. The settling pond and the initial anaerobic
ponds in some cases have been found to be covered by a heavy
proteinaceous scum layer, and the anaerobic ponds at times have produced
serious odors. The utilization of purple sulfur bacteria (Thiopedia and
Chromatium) has been a recent innovation and has been quite effective
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for odor control in waste treatment lagoons in California. The bacteria
impart a pinkish to reddish coloi to the pond surface, and serve as
biological deodorizers by converting hydrogen sulfide photosynthetically
to produce elemental sulfur and sulfates. Where these bacteria are
present in sufficient numbers, hydrogen sulfide odors are usually
greatly diminished or eliminated. Experience with the use of these
bacteria for odor control have shown that although they are quite
effective in warm climates they are less efficient under the cooler
climatic conditions existing at Hereford, Texas.
Chemical Treatment - Although chemical additives are in fact used
throughout the beet sugar process cycle, this discussion is limited to
chemical flocculation as a unit operation employed in waste treatment.
Studies at one operation offer a noteworthy example of waste treatment
by chemical precipitation. Waste flume waters were received into a grit
separator for heavy solids removal then treated by chemical floc-
culation, with 40 percent of the treated waters being returned to the
beet flume and the remainder being discharged to the river. The sludges
from both the grit separator and the setting basin were directed to
sludge ponds and supernatants were returned to the grit chamber. This
plant utilized dry handling techniques in moving the sugar beets from
storage piles to the wet hopper. This resulted in minimum waste
loadings in the flume system. The average BODj> level in the flume
waters before treatment was 223 mg/1. Treatment results showed that the
chemical flocculation system obtained 90 percent removal of suspended
solids, and reduction of final BOD^ levels between 70 and 130 mg/1 or a
57 percent reduction in BOD5 content, equal to a residual waste load of
O.U3 kg/kkg (0.86 Ib/ton) of beets processed. Other plant wastes were
not accounted for in the total waste balance. These included the con-
tinuous discharge of excess condenser waters and some overflow from the
lime mud ponds to the river.
The British Columbia Research Council has given preliminary attention to
chemical flocculation as a polishing means following activated sludge
treatment. The Council found that effluents from aeration units were
measurably improved by adding lime or lime together with a coagulation
aid.
The use of polymers to promote solids settling in mechanical clarifiers
has been used with success at the Winnipeg, Manitoba plant in Canada.
In the United States, polymers have not received widespread use because
reliance for the improvement of settling in the flume water is made with
the addition of lime to the mechanical clarifier or to the earthen
holding ponds.
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Land Irrigation - The use of beet sugar plant effluents for irrigating
agricultural lands directly or indirectly is widely practiced throughout
the Western United States. Examples of this practice exist at plants in
California and Texas, and in the South Platte River Basin within
Colorado. Beet sugar processing wastes are applied directly to agri-
cultural lands when the processing campaign coincides with the growing
season. This is true for the warmer climates such as those existing in
California. Over much of the remaining Western United States, the waste
waters are generally stored in ponds or reservoirs until irrigation
commences the following spring. A high degree of water reuse in the
water-short areas of the Western United States, predominantly for
agricultural irrigation, is strongly reinforced by Western water law.
Irrigation in general does not require as high a water quality but
results in a completely consumptive use of the waste waters, with no
resultant discharge to surface waters under properly controlled
conditions.
Activated Sludge - It has been shown on a pilot scale basis that
activated sludge can effectively reduce the organic load in waste flume
waters by 83 to 97 percent. The maximum time required in fully adapting
the floe to the substrate was less than 96 hours. Bi-oxidation of beet
sugar wastes at about 239°C (75°F) was successful, and initial BOD5_
values of 1(35 to 2,000 mg/1 were lowered to less than 50 mg/1 within 20
to 30 hours.
Pilot plant evaluation of activated sludge treatment at Hereford, Texas
has provided favorable results. The study showed that an activated
sludge system could produce good organic removals, but the system was
rather easily upset. A system loading of 1 kg COD/kg (Ib/lb) mixed
liquor volatile suspended solids/day with 3,000 to 4,000 mg/1 mixed
liquor volatile suspended solids was suggested.
Laboratory activated sludge units were also used in Great Britain for
treating waste waters received from a plant settling pond. Aeration
periods varied from 6 to 24 hours. The first three runs used aeration
times of 6 to 17 hours and provided BOD5_ reductions of 48 to 83 percent.
The active floe may not have been fully adapted to the waste in these
runs. Five other runs using aeration times of 18 to 24 hours produced
BOD5 reductions in the range of 89 to 95 percent. Initial BOD5 values
in the above tests were approximately 400 mg/1. When pond muds were
used as a source of innoculum, startup rates were slower than desirable,
but with an established active floe, the rates of BOD5 removal were
entirely adequate to handle high BOD.5 loadings. Maximum BOD5_ removal
rates for flume wastes, employing an active floe, were obtained within
96 hours. A later report of experiments in which flume wastes from 38
beet sugar plants were subjected to bio-oxidative treatment showed that
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significant BOD5 reduction was obtained after 72 hours startup period
with aerobic treatment.
Trickling Filters - Trickling filter studies undertaken in Texas, Idaho
and at many full-scale installations in Great Britain and Western Europe
have suggested that such filters may have merit in beet sugar waste
treatment. On the other hand, two full-scale trickling filter treatment
plants have been constructed for the treatment of beet sugar wastes in
the United States (Idaho and Utah). In both cases, treatment
performance was most disappointing, and both plants have since been
closed. The failures were largely attributed to a gross underestimation
of the waste water production rate and difficulty in design and
selection of treatment units at these plants.
In Idaho, a conventional trickling filter plant was completed in the
summer of 1965 to provide treatment of wastes expected from the Rupert
plant during the following campaign. Lime mud slurry was separately im-
pounded, and other plant wastes which comprised essentially the flume
and condenser waters were directed for treatment. The facility con-
sisted of a screen station with six vibrating screens in parallel, twin
hydro-separators also arranged in parallel followed by a primary
settling tank, a single high rate trickling filter, secondary settling
tank, and a brush aerator installed on the effluent discharge canal.
The hydroseparators provided for removal of the heavier solids; flows in
excess of 317 I/sec (5,500 gpm) through the separators were returned to
the beet flumes. From the separators, the waste water entered the
primary clarifier which was approximately 37 m (120 ft) in diameter, 3.1
m (10 ft) deep and provided a waste retention period of about 2.5 hours.
the treatment plant was grossly overloaded, and only 189 I/sec (3,000
gpm) of settled waste water was subsequently applied to the trickling
filter; the remaining 158 I/sec (2,500 gpm) was discharged to the
receiving stream. Sludges from both the separators and primary settler
were pumped to a storage pond. The trickling filter was approximately
60 m (200 ft) in diameter, 3 m (10 ft) deep, and contained 5.1 to 5.2 cm
(2 to 6 in) slag material. The slag material was not uniformly
distributed within the filter. The recirculation ratio was about 3:1
for this single stage filter. Filter effluent was then received into
the secondary clarifier, and the final effluent was released into the
receiving stream. The design plants specified 3,200 kkg (3,500 ton) of
beets/day to be processed by the Rupert plant; however, during the very
first campaign the average processing rate actually amounted to 5,900
kkg (6,500 ton)/day. Treatment plant overload was inescapable and
drastic. Although firm data were not available concerning Rupert, it
was estimated (13) that the hydraulic load onto the trickling filter
approximated 23U million 1/ha/day (25 million gal/ac/day), and that the
waste load was in the order of 12.6 to 21.6 kg BOD5/cu m of filter
media/day (7 to 12 Ibs BOD5/cu yd of filter media/day) including
recirculation. These applied loads are extremely high. Besides poor
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distribution of media, there was little or no visible biological growth
on the surface of the filter. Water vapor forming over the filter
during cold weather retarded air movement in the filter bed, thereby
tending to provide insufficient air supply to the bed. Provisions for
including air undercurrents through the side and bottom of the bed
possibly would have alleviated this condition (13). Furthermore, an
automatic skimming device on the primary settler would have aided in
removing the substantial accumulation of scum and grease present.
Information obtained on Rupert indicated that the treatment plant was
providing around 30 to 40 percent BOD5 removal for that portion of the
beet sugar wastes receiving treatment. The conditions as described
above were observed principally during the 1965 and 1966 season and do
not reflect changes since that time.
The trickling filter in Utah was constructed in 1961 and was intended
for treating and recycling waste flume water. During the off-season the
filter received various wastes from the plant holding pond. The
facility consisted of a screen station, grit chamber, a mechanically-
operated clarifier 37 m (120 ft) in diameter by 3.0 m (10 ft) deep,
followed by a single trickling filter 37 m (120 ft) in diameter by 1.5 m
(5 ft) deep. Two and one-half hours waste detention was provided in the
primary settler; a portion of the filter effluent could be returned to
the clarifier. The treatment system was reported in 1963 to have major
defects. Serious deficiencies in the trickling filter included a poor
underdrainage system and improper media specifications. The underdrain
system experienced frequent flooding and required additional pumping
capacity. compaction of the media and damage to the underdrains were
suspected. The reduction of media interspace served to minimize air
circulation through the filter and retarded biological growths. The
Lewiston plant wastes also indicated an inorganic nutrient deficit,
which may have caused even further difficulty in treatment.
Operation of the filter was initiated too late in the 1961 season to
develop adequate biological growth. The filter was reactivated in
March, 1962, using holding pond wastes. The results collected during
March - May, 1962, showed 0 to 30 percent BOD5 reduction, with hydraulic
and organic loads (including recirculation) of 43.9 1/ha/day (4.7
million gal/ac/day) and 10.8 kg BOD5/cu m of filter media per day (6 Ibs
BOD5/CU yd of filter media/day), respectively. Through June, 1962, the
BOD5 removal increased to the 40 to 60 percent level, with applied
filter loads of about 6.3 kg BOD5/cu m of filter media/day (3.5 Ibs
BOD5/cu yd of filter media/day). By November, 1962, the treatment plant
BOD5 reduction dropped to a level of 10 to 50 percent.
Trickling filters have found wide favor at a number of beet sugar plants
in Great Britain and western Europe. Crane described the process by
which some plants have contained the wastes in ponds from which the
water is passed over trickling filters before discharge to a stream.
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During startup in the operation of the filters, it has been necessary to
use waste dilution and recycle to avoid overloading the filter system.
The contents of the pond are treated and discharged over a period of
many months, with maximum BOD5 of the discharged effluent of less than
20 mg/1. Phipps of Great Britain has suggested that trickling filters
offer one means of treating accumulated waste waters resulting from the
integrated flume and condenser water recycling system. The waste water
is stored over the campaign in a large pond and drawn off for treatment
at a relatively slow rate throughout the year. The average plant would
probably required storage capacity of 75.7 to 113.6 million liters (20
to 30 million gal). Phipps preferred a shallow rather than a deep pond
to take advantage of wind mixing and aeration. Research was conducted
in this regard, using an 8.1 ha (20 ac) lagoon and a percolating frilter
18.3 m (60 ft) in diameter and 1.8 m (6 ft) deep Filter inflow was
diluted with stream water and ranged from 17 to 230 mg/1 BOD5; the
outflow from 7 to 71 mg/1 BOD5. The results showed the filter system
produced BOD5 reductions from 60 to 90 percent.
The full-scale waste treatment system at the Bardney beet sugar
processing plant in Great Britain consisted of a single filter operating
either at low or high rate application and receiving settling pond
effluent diluted with river water prior to filter dosing. The pond
effluent varied in BOD5 concentrations from 1239 mg/1 in March, to about
38 mg/1 in October. The waste water temperature varied from 3 to 21°C
(39 to 60°F), and filter loadings ranged from 0.13 to 1.39 kg BOD5/cu m
of filter media/day (0.07 to 0.77 Ibs BOD5/cu yd of filter media/day)
with an average load around 0.72 kb BOD5/cu m of filter media/day (0.4
Ibs BODS/cu yd of filter media/day). Total waste volume treated was 1U4
million 1 (38 million gal). BOD5 reductions varied from 55 to 97
percent, with removals of 83 percent or higher occurring in 9 of the 12
months. Final effluent BOD5 values were approaching 20 mg/1. British
studies have shown that properly operated filters could consistently
produce effluents with less than 20 mg/1 BOD5 when the initial levels
were between 105 and 180 mg/1. In starting operation of a filter,
domestic sewage was recommended to be applied togetner with the beet
sugar plant waste to reduce the time required for full filter-
adaptation. Primary and secondary settling were considered essential,
and it was further recommended that for every 100 mg/1 BOD5, the waste
water should contain a phosphorous equivalent not less than 1 mg/1. A
reference was made to Russian experiences where strong beet sugar wastes
of 4,000 to 5,000 mg/1 BOD5 have been directly applied at low loading
rates to a three-stage filter system resulting in 75 to 85 percent BOD5
reduction.
Recirculation - Reuse Systems - In plants presently utilizing good
pollution control technology, both recirculation-reuse systems and
biological treatment systems are used to achieve waste load reduction.
The nearly-closed waste water recirculation system represents the best
82
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level of rigorous waste water control, and has generally proven to be
superior to biological methods in terms of overall results.
Flume Water Recycle Systems - A flume water recirculation circuit can be
described as one with continuous recycling of waste flume waters and
with essential treatment units in the line, thus providing efficient
water reuse. Flume water recycling systems are in use or are planned at
essentially all beet sugar plants. The extensive recycling flume water
system commonly in place or planned at beet sugar processing plants has
largely eliminated pollution originating from fecal coliforms in plant
waste water.
Mechanical clarifiers providing generally a 30 minute detention period
with lime addition may be employed for settling of flume water.
Mechanical clarifiers are preferred because they provide better pH
control of the recycling operations and require less land. Sludge
withdrawn from the clarifier or earthen pond facilities is generally
conveyed to a mud holding pond for complete retention; overflow from the
mud holding pond is contained in subsequent holding facilities. In most
cases where land is available, flume mud is allowed to accumulate within
the pond without removal. However, the accumulated mud at the plant at
Longmont, Colorado (an initial experimental project sponsored by the
Beet Sugar Development Foundation and Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration) must be periodically removed from alternate mud settling
ponds for disposal on adjacent land. Industry personnel report the cost
of removing the accumulated solid material from the pond at
approximately $15,000 per campaign or approximately $1.98 per cu meter
(50 cents per cu yard) of solid material removed).
Condenser Water Recycling Systems - Partial or most expensive recycling
of water for barometric condenser purposes is widely practiced in the
industry. A total of 17 plants accomplish recycling of condenser water
within the plant, the only waste water discharged being that necessary
for total dissolved solids control in the system to prevent excessive
scaling. The discharged volumes are disposed of to navigable waters.
Ground filtration of waste water is generally not controlled at these
installations.
Integrated Flume and Condenser Water Recycling Systems - condenser
waters may be added into the flume recycle circuit because of the flume
need for heat thawing of beets or other reasons. Many plants in Europe
employ the integrated system in whole or part. Integrated flume and
condenser water systems are in use in two U. S. plants. One system was
installed in 1956 and has as its basic components a screen station,
mechanical settling tanks, sludge pond, spray pond, lime pond, excess
83
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water storage pond, and a distribution line leading from the excess
water pond back into the plant. Reclaimed waters are pumped from the
excess water pond to the plant main water supply tank which in turn
serves to supply the beet flumes, beet washer, roller spray table, the
condenser system, and to slurry the lime mud.
Alternative methods of flume water recycling include separate discharge
of condenser water, dry methods of conveying beets into the plant, or a
combination of various inplant and treatment measures to achieve desired
waste load reduction. A multiplicity of choices and process
alternatives exists in the latter case. However, no discharge of
process waste water pollutants to navigable waters is possible through
mechanisms of water reuse and recycling in a beet sugar processing plant
with control and disposal of excess waste water.
One of the early systems was examined in 1962 by Force for possible
improvement. Two areas were found to be of particular significance;
first, separate flume and condenser water recycling systems would serve
to reduce the high flume water temperatuares existing in early fall.
The addition of a spray pond or other cooling device would be desirable
on the condenser water circuit. In colder weather, the two systems
could be combined thus taking advantage of the warm condenser water
which is desirable within the flume waters during colder weather.
Second, the lime pond overflow should be eliminated from the circuit
because of the many problems caused by high solids. Similar exclusion
of sludge pond overflow would aid the circuit, although to a lesser
extent.
Land Waste Water Disposal Without Discharge to Surface Waters. Waste
disposal of all beet sugar plant wastes without discharge to surface
waters may be accomplished through extensive inplant waste water
recycling and control and disposal. Any excess waste is ultimately by
evaporation and controlled filtration, or in some cases by use of waste
water after treatment for irrigation.
One plant in the western portion of the U.S. practices remarkable
recirculation and reuse of waste waters with very low intake of 900
1/kkg (215 gal of fresh water per ton) of beets. Although large areas
are available for ponding of wastes, actually little is used. There is
no discharge to surface waters.
-------
Mass Water Balance in a Beet Sugar Processing Plant
An account of water gains and losses that occur in a typical beet sugar
processing operation is given in this subsection. Schematic diagrams of
water balance (net gains and losses) for typical flume, condenser and
overall process operations are given in Figures VII, VIII and IX
respectively.
Water Gains
Water gains in a beet sugar plant result from incoming sugar beets and
fresh water intake. Incoming beets normally have between 75 and 80
percent moisture. A moisture content of 80 percent is assumed in sub-
sequent calculations.
Water from incoming beets (75-80% moisture) = 800 1/kkg of beets
processed (192 gal/ton)
The quantity of fresh water intake for a beet sugar processing plant is
highly variable. Factors to be considered are chemical, physical and
temperature qualities of water supplies (ground water or surface
sources), and "blowdown" water makeup requirements for solids and
scaling control in recycled flume and condenser water systems. Total
water requirements for flume and condenser water purposes amount to
10,840 1/kkg (2600 gal/ton) of beets sliced and (2000 gal/ton) of beets
sliced, respectively (49). Industrial experience has shown that
approximately 20 percent "blowdown" in volume is required to maintain
dissolved solids level and scaling control in a "closed" system with
fresh water makeup. This would amount to a water volume blowdown of
2170 1/kkg (520 gal/ton) of beets sliced and 1670 1/kkg (400 gal/ton) of
beets sliced for the recirculating flume and condenser water systems,
respectively.
Water losses in the plant result from:
. Wet weeds and leaves
. Carbonation tank venting
. Drum filter vapor
. Sulfitation vapor
. Ammonia venting on evaporators
. Pulp drying
. Molasses production
. Molasses dilution (Steffen process only)
. Cooling devices
85
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Wet weeds and leaves contribute to water loss in the plant. The
moisture content is attributed by Iverson to account for 1 percent by
weight of beets sliced. This amounts to 10 1/kkg of beets processed
(2.4 gal/ton) .
Small amounts of water vapor are lost through venting of carbonation
tanks. This water quantity is estimated by Iverson (75) to be 3 percent
by weight of beets processed.
Carbonation Tank venting water loss = 30 1/kkg of beets processed
(7.2 gal/ton)
Drum filter vapor is another source of water loss estimated by Iverson
to be 1 percent by weight of beets processed.
Drum filter vapor = 1 percent by weight of beets processed
Water Loss = 0.Olx(2000)/8.3U
=2.4 gal/ton of beets processed.
Sulfitating of the purified and clarified thin juices is conducted to
control juice color formation, to improve the boiling properties of the
juices, and to reduce excess alkalinity. Liquid sulfur dioxide is
introduced directly into the thin juice pipeline from the second
carbonation filters.
Sulfitation vapor water loss = 1 percent of the beets sliced by weight
= 10 1/kkg of beets processed
(2.4 gal/ton)
Some small undetermined water loss occurs through ammonia venting lines
on the stream chest of multi-effect evaporators. The venting lines and
valves are periodically opened to bleed off small accumulations of
ammonia gas in the evaporators.
Pulp drying produces the largest single loss of water in a beet sugar
processing plant.
Weight of dried pulp (7-10 percent moisture)=45 kg/kkg of beets sliced
(94 Ibs/kkg)
Water in dried pulp (7-10 percent moisture) = 2.9 1/kkg of beets processed
(0.7 gal/ton)
Water loss in pulp drying operation = 159 1/kkg of beets sliced (38 gal/ton)
Iverson reports a total water loss through dryer exhaust of 15 percent
on beets. Water loss would then account for 150 1/kkg of beets
processed (36 gal/ton).
86
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The values of 159 and 150 1/kkg of beets sliced (38 and 36 gal/ton) are
in close agreement. A water loss value of 159 I/ton of beets sliced (38
gal/ton) is selected.
Molasses production in a straight-house operation ranges between 4 to 6
percent by weight of the beets sliced for a Steffen-house operation
production is 5 to 7 percent by weight of beets sliced (65). Total
molasses production is 5.5 percent by weight of sliced beets (standard
industry parameter). A typical analysis of beet sugar molasses is 85
percent dry substance and 15 percent water.
Total molasses produced (5.5 percent by weight of beets sliced) =
55 kg/kkg of beets sliced (110 Ibs/ton)
Water in molasses (15 percent) = 8.3 1/kkg of beets sliced (2 gal/ton)
Iverson reports a loss of water in molasses produced of 1 percent of the
weight of beets sliced equals 10 1/kkg (2.4 gal/ton) of beets sliced.
The values of 8.3 and 10.0 liter/kkg (2.0 and 2.a gal/ton) of beets
sliced are in general agreement. A value of 8.3 1/kkg (2.0 gal/ton) of
beets sliced is taken.
Solids in molasses = 0.85(55)
= 47 kg/kkg of beets sliced (94 Ibs/ton)
Approximately 30 percent of molasses produced (maximum) may be disposed
of on dried beet pulp for animal feeds, or approximately 2.1 percent
molasses percent by weight of beets sliced (standard industry practice).
Molasses disposed of on pulp (30% of total molasses produced) =
= 0.021(2000)
= 21 kg/kkg of beets sliced (42 Ibs/ton)
Water in molasses disposed of on pulp =3.2 1/kkg of beets sliced (0.8 gal/ton)
Water in molasses not disposed of on pulp = 5.1 1/kkg of beets sliced (1.2 gal/
ton)
Straight-house molasses containing 85 percent dry substance by weight is
diluted with water to approximately 6 percent sugar for processing in the
Steffen process.
Solids in straight-house molasses=45 kg/kkg of beets sliced (94 Ib/ton)
Weight of molasses after dilution=783 kg/kkg of beets sliced (1568 Ib/ton)
Weight of water in diluted molasses = 736 kg/kkg of beets sliced (1473 Ib/ton)
87
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Volume of water in diluted molasses (Steffenhouse) =
736 1/kkg of beets sliced (176 gal/ton)
Required dilution water for molasses = 736 - 7
729 1/kkg of beets processed (175 gal/ton)
Cooling devices (spray ponds, open cooling ponds, cooling towers, etc.)
result in evaporative water losses in the process of cooling condenser
and other heated waters. Cooling towers account for an evaporative loss
of 10 to 15 percent of the total condenser water volume (8350 1/kkg of
beets processed) (2000 gal/ton). of beets sliced). A 10 percent
evaporative loss through cooling of condenser waters is assumed where
cooling devices are employed for condenser water (835 i/kkg of beets
processed) (200 gal/ton).
In-plant Water Uses
Pulp press water originates from the pressing of exhausted beet pulp
removed from the diffuser.
Weight of wet pulp from diffuser (80 percent of beets sliced by weight)
= 800 kg/kkg of beets processed (1600 Ibs/ton)
Water contained in wet pulp from the diffuser (95 percent moisture)
= 764 1/kkg of beets sliced (183 gal/ton)
Dry solids in wet pulp from diffuser = 40 kg/kkg of beets sliced (80 Ib/ton)
Water contained in the exhausted pulp after pressing ranges between 76
and 84 percent. Eighty percent moisture of pressed pulp is common.
Weight of wet pulp after pressing (80 percent mixture)
= 200 kg/kkg of beets sliced (400 Ibs/ton)
Water contained within pulp after pressing (80 percent moisture)
= 163 1/kkg of beets sliced (39 gal/ton)
Water extracted by pulp pressing = 764 - 163
= 600 1/kkg of beets sliced (144 gal/ton)
The diffusion process involves the extraction of sucrose from sliced
beets. The sugar-laden liquid (raw juice) and exhausted pulp resulting
from the process are used subsequently in the processing operation.
Total diffuser supply water is normally made up by 65 percent from pulp
press water (601 1/kkg of beets sliced) (144 gal/ton of beets sliced)
91
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which is returned to the diffuser. Estimated total diffuser supply of
this basis of water equals 918 1/kkg of beets sliced (220 gal/ton).
Raw or diffusion juice has 12 to 15 percent solids or sugar, which is
about 98 percent of the sugar which was contained in the beets when
sliced. Fifteen percent solids in diffusion juice is assumed (standard
industry parameter). Fifteen percent sucrose content is a normal figure
for beets.
Sugar contained in diffusion juice = 0.15 x 1820 x 0.98
0.15 x 2000 x 0.98
= 147 kg/kkg of beets processed (294 Ibs/ton)
Total weight of diffusion juice = 983 kg/kkg of beets sliced
(1960 Ib/ton)
Weight of water contained in diffusion juice =
836 kg/kkg of beets sliced (1670 Ibs/ton)
Volume of water in diffusion juice = 835 1/kkg of beets sliced (200 gal/ton)
Raw juice "draft" normally runs between 100 and 150 percent in the
diffusion process (120 percent is used in this calculation).
Draft (percent) = Weight of diffusion •juice drawn_from diffuser x 100
Weight of cossettes introduced (beets sliced)
Weight of raw juice from diffuser = 1200 kg/kkg of beets sliced
(2400 Ib/ton)
Weight of solids in raw diffusion juice = 180 kg/kkg of beets sliced
(360 Ib/ton)
Weight of water in raw diffusion juice = 1020 kg/kkg of beets sliced
(2040 Ib/ton)
Volume of water in raw diffusion juice = 1020 1/kkg of beets sliced
(245 gal/ton)
The diffusion process water supply requirements as determined by the
somewhat different approach above (835, 918, 1020 1/kkg of beets sliced
(200, 220, and 245 gal/ton) are in general agreement. A value for total
diffuser water supply requirements of 918 1/kkg of beets sliced (220
gal/ton) is taken as an industry-wide practice. On the basis of total
water supply requirements for diffusion purposes of 918 1/kkg of beets
sliced (220 gal/ton) and return of 600 1/kkg (14U gal/ton) of beets
sliced of pulp press water to the diffuser, requirements for diffuser
water makeup from other sources (condensate water, condenser water,
etc.) would be 918 - 600 = 318 1/kkg of beets sliced (76 gal/ton)
Condensate water, generally the purest water source within the plant, is
generated in large quantities through the process of concentrating the
92
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purified, thin juice after liming and carbonation. In the concentrating
process, the raw juice is reduced from 10 to 15 percent solids to 50 to
65 percent solids. When raw juice is concentrated, water is produced in
the concentration process through condensation of vapors from juice
boiling. A typical juice concentration of 55 percent solids is taken as
common practice (standard industry parameter).
Weight of solids in raw diffusion juice (15 percent solids) =
= 180 kg/kkg of beets sliced (360 Ibs/ton)
Volume of water in raw diffusion juice = 1020 1/kkg of beets sliced
(245 gal/ton)
Total weight of "thick" juice after concentration = 327 kg/kkg of beets
(655 Ibs/ton)
Weight of water in "thick" juice after concentration
= 148 kg/kkg of beets sliced (295 Ibs/ton)
Total condensate water produced from concentration of raw juice =
= 1022 - 146 = 876 1/kkg of beets sliced (210 gal/ton)
Condensate water is commonly used for boiler feed and makeup diffuser
supply, floor washing, or other uses in the plant. Vapor in multi-
effect evaporation are used sequently in evaporators for heating
effects. Excess vapor from evaporation are generally used for heating
purposes. Condenaate from the first evaporation effect is generally
preferred for the supply of diffuser water. Condensate from the second
through fifth evaporator effects is employed for boiler feed, washing
filters, washing floors, and diffuser water makeup.
Total condensate volume (918 1/kkg of beets sliced) (220 gal/ton) may be
attributed to diffuser supply (317 1/kkg of beets sliced) (76 gal/ton),
floor washings (46 1/kkg of beets sliced) (11 gal/ton), and an excess of
approximately 510 1/kkg of beets processed (123 gal/ton). The excess
condensate volume is not generally metered, and is usually discharged to
the condenser water system. Condensate water is essentially pure and
may be satisfactorily used for makeup in condenser systems for total
solids control.
Boiler feed is supplied by condensate water from the first, second and
third pan evaporation processes.
The steam has a temperature and pressure of about 302°C (575° F) and
28.2 atm (400 psi). The pressure of the exhaust steam after power
generation is 4.1 atm (45 psi). Makeup required by the necessity of
93
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blowdown for solids control in the boiler system is reported normally to
account for 4 percent of the generated steam.
Press water is supplied directly from condensate water from the fourth
and fifth effect evaporators, overflow from the boiler feed system, and
miscellaneous other sources such as second high raw and evaporator pans,
heaters, and juice boilers. The press water is used for washing lime
mud during dewatering of precipitated lime from juice purification on
vacuum filter. The combined filtrate and wash water from the rotary
vacuum filters is called "sweet water", and this is used to supply milk
of lime in a straighthouse, or saccharate milk in a Steffen house.
Excess "sweet water" is returned to first or second carbonation stages.
The quality of condensate water utilized for press water is unknown, and
is not metered at most plants. No reliable estimate can be made.
Floor washing is accomplished with a condensate water use as high as 192
I/sec (50 gpm) at one 5900 kg/day (6500 ton/day) plant. The quantity
of water used for floor washing would be expected to be largely
independent of plant size. Water use is approximately = 46 1/kkg of
beets processed (11 gal/ton).
Lime mud from vacuum filters is diluted with water from 50 percent to 40
percent solids to facilitate pumping to holding facilities.
Lime slurry volume = 375 1/kkg of beets processed (90 gal/ton)
Specific gravity of solids Ca(OH)2 = 2.08
Weight of solids in lime slurry = 23 kg/kkg of beets processed (46 Ib/ton)
Weight of water in lime slurry = 22 kg/kkg of beets processed (44 Ib/ton)
Volume of water in the lime slurry = 22 1/kkg of beets processed
(5.3 gan/ton)
Water use for lime slurrying is reported to be as high as 170 1/min (45 gpm)
(5900 kkg/day) =41 1/kkg of beets processed
(6,500 ton/day) = 10 gal/ton of beets processed.
The values, 22 and 41 1/kkg, (5.3 and 10 gal/ton) of beets processed are
in general agreement. A value of 25 1/kkg (6 gal/ton) of beets
processed is taken as an industry-wide figure. The water used for lime
slurrying may be provided from condenser water sources.
The mass water balance for the average sized (3600 ton/day) beet sugar
processing plant indicates the necessity to adequately dispose of 9.8
million I/day (2.6 million gal/day) (2700 1/kkg) (720 gal/ton of beets
94
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processed) of waste water generated over an average 100 day processing
campaign.
The length of the processing campaign may be considerably longer in warm
and arid climates, e.g. California (220 to 290 slice days); however,
land availability and climatic conditions in these locations permit
controlled land disposal of all waste waters or use after treatment for
crop irrigation purposes. Adequate disposal of waste waters from beet
sugar processing plants with zero discharge to navigable waters can be
accomplished through controlled land disposal. Controlled land disposal
is accomplished by limitation of maximum filtration in waste water
holding ponds (0.635 cm (1/4 in) drop in liquid surface per day); and
acceptable reduction in pollutants by treatment, if necessary, to permit
crop irrigation. No pollution of discrete underground aquifers may
result from the land disposal method, and surface runoff from irrigated
lands must be practically excluded from runoff from adjacent land areas.
Identification of Water., Pollution Related Operation and Maintenance
Problems_at_Beet Sugar Plants
Improper design and control of biological-recirculation systems, vari-
ability of waste water quantities and qualities, and process variables
can give rise to operation-related problems at beet sugar plants. These
operational problems are generally related to reduced performance of
waste treatment facilities, or odor and nuisance level control.
Variability in the quantity and qualities of flume water, condenser
water, and floor washing can present difficulties in treatment of these
wastes. Variability may often be accounted for due to accidental spills
and introduction of deteriorated beets into the fluming system.
Condensate water used as house hot water for evaporator and floor
cleaning often require the addition of acids or caustic soda. The
wastes are generally discharged to the main sewer of the plant and the
flume water system. The flow is intermittent and often results in
sudden change in the pH of the waste water as discharged to ponds. This
accounts, in part, for erratic behavior of waste treatment processes and
is indicative of the need for pH control facilities.
Improvement in the design and arrangement of new equipment for the
industry should help prevent unintended losses of miscellaneous waste
waters into the treatment and disposal system. Expanded use of
automation will also assist in maintaining better plant control and
reducing shock waste loads.
95
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Difficult problems often result from the use of waste lagoons and
mechanical clarifiers for treatment of beet sugar wastes. The problems
incurred generally relate to improper operation and maintenance, and
result in offensive odors from the state of anaerobic conditions
established in these facilities. Screening of effluent wastes, and
periodic removal of accumulated solids can substantially reduce or
minimize odor and nuisance-related problems.
Odors generated from various pollution control related operations are a
problem at a number of plants. Plants have used various aeration
devices in holding ponds with maintenance of shallow pond depths to
control odors. Holding ponds may receive overflow from the flume mud
pond, clarifier effluent from the flume system, and excess barometric
condenser water. Aeration may be accomplished by means of a spray
system. Mechanical aeration devices are often employed for the initial
anaerobic pond of an extensive anaerobic-aerobic lagoon system for odor
control.
Poor operation and maintenance (a common practice at many plants) con-
tributes to many difficulties. Where shallow ponds are employed for
waste treatment, the failure to remove routinely accumulated solids when
necessary from the ponds reduces the effectiveness of waste treatment.
Improper waste retention results in low organic removal, solids
carryover, and low bacteriological reduction efficiency. Waste reten-
tion is severely limited by solids filling, extensive weed growth, and
uneveness of the pond bottom.
Of greatest concern in the recycling of flume water is control of
odorous and corrosive properties of the recycled flume water. These
factors are primarily related to the maintenance of alkaline pH
conditions (pH 8-11) in the system, which is generally accomplished by
the addition of lime under carefully controlled and monitored
conditions. Lime addition also enhances the ability of solids to settle
in the recirculated flume water system.
The leaching of sugar from beets which have been frozen is considerably
higher than that from unfrozen beets in the flume system. Freezing and
thawing of beets destroys the structural integrity of the outer beet
fibers, releasing sugar contained in the beets to the flume waters. The
dislodged fibers of the beets often pass through screening devices and
are discharged to the flume water clarifier or earthern holding ponds.
These conditions present nuisance-related problems and operational
difficulties. Foaming within the flume and condenser water system is a
major problem particularly during the latter part of the campaign in
regions when processing frozen beets. The foaming problem is
particularly enhanced by low pH conditions.
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Fecal streptococcus organisms are known to increase dramatically in a
recirculating flume water system. This growth has been found to
increase as the processing season progresses. The bacterial growth
present no pollution or production-related problems in the recycling
process. A final freshwater wash of the sugar beets prior to slicing is
necessary for the beets prior to processing for production control
purposes.
The continuous processing of sugar beets over the entire processing cam-
paign without "shut down" presents difficulties (particularly in older
plants) with proper maintenance of acceptable housekeeping practices,
and continuous operation of equipment. Because of the nature of the
processing operation, leaks and breakages in waste water and molasses
conveyance lines are not repaired expediently. Water hoses are
frequently left running at intervals to control foaming, to flush
spilled materials into drains, and for other purposes. These practices
result in wasteful use of water with increased waste water contributions
for subsequent treatment and disposal. Much improved housekeeping
procedures are needed within the industry to minimize pollution,
particularly at older plants. The beet sugar industry has recently made
substantial efforts toward reducing pollution by improved housekeeping.
Improvements in the mechanical harvesting equipment for sugar beets are
being made to the end that the crops will be received at the plants in
cleaner condition. Improvements are also being made, almost routinely,
in the equipment used for dry separation of the unwanted material from
the sugar-bearing material.
Soil_Ag A_Waste Water Disposal Medium
With increasingly rigid pollution control standards for surface waters
emphasis has been placed in recent years on land disposal of industrial
wastes and municipal sewage effluents. In land disposal of waste
waters, the soil acts as an effective filter in removal of particular
contaminants. Aerobic biological action near the soil surface is
effective in substancial removal of biodegradable organics. The soil
particles are quite effective in removal of many substances,
particularly phosphates, by absorption and ion exchange. Of concern in
land disposal of waste waters is the current lack of complete knowledge
of the hydrology and hydro-mechanics of the ground water region, with
predictable regard for the fate and effects of subsurface pollutants.
Dissolved materials derived from wastes water particularly non-
biodegradable inorganic salts may tend to be persistent in ground waters
in as much as the capacity of the soil to remove minerals by absorption
and ion exchange could be exhausted, with decreased efficiency with the
passage of time. Effluent spraying on land has been demonstrated on a
full scale basis with total nitrogen removals from waste water from 5U
to 68 percent and 76 to 93 percent removal in total phosphorus (101) .
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Pollutant removal efficiencies are dependent on soil loading and
climatological conditions.
Agricultural is the major contribvitor to percolating of ground water
contaminants — chlorides, nitrates, and non-biodegradable organic
materials.
Agriculture contamination of ground water is intensified in arid areas
where ground water is used for irrigation process. Salt is inherently
concentrated in the irrigation process with water intake by growing
plants. Most contamination of ground waters in inland areas occurs from
breaching of imperious barriers between fresh and saline waters. Ground
water pollution problems are most evident in areas of intensive land
use. The build-up of contaminates in ground waters from percolating
pollutants is seldom dramatic, and sources of percolating pollutants are
both diffuse and diverse.
In inland areas of the U.S. approxomately two-thirds of the conterminous
region is underlain by saline waters containing greater than 1,000 mg/1
disolved solids. This condition has resulted largely by natural
geological factors with the washing of soluble salts from the soils in
large basins where the salts have been concentrated by evaporation.
Possible processes or combinations of processes for conversion of inland
saline water as well as sea water to fresh water for agriculture,
industrial, municipal, and other uses have been investigated since 1952,
by the U.S. Dept. of the Interior under authority of Public Law 448.
The Office of Saline Water, U.S. Department of the Interior classifies
any water containing from 1000 to about 35,000 ppm as brackish. Sea
water contains approximately 35,000 ppm and water containing more
dissolved solids than sea water, such as the Great Salt Lake is
classified as brine.
Processes include vapor-compression methods, ion exchange, solar
(multiple effects) distillation, freezing, osmotic processes,
electrodialysis (membrane process) and ultrasonics. Ion exchange
appears particularly promising when the concentration of dissolved
materials is below 4000 to 5000 mg/1. Several plants applying this
method have been constructed in recent years. At the present state-of-
the-art, large scale treatment of brackish waters with a comparatively
low content of dissolved solids is possible. Most existing
installations are limited in capacity, producing fresh water quantities
on thousands of I/day rather than millions of liters daily. The
membrane processes, reverse osmosis and electrodialysis, have their
primary application in the desalting of brackish waters in the general
range of 2000 to 10,000 ppm of total dissolved solids.
Large demonstration plants (1 MGD) have been constructed at Freeport,
Texas; San Diego, California; and Roswell, New Mexico.
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The cost of converting saline water has been reduced substantially
during the last 10 years. Conversion cost ranges from about $0.6 to
$1.50 per 3785 liters (1000 gal) exclusive of distribution costs
depending on the process used, the brackishness of the raw water, the
capacity of the plant, and other factors. Desalination is an expensive
process from the standpoint of capital investment and daily operating
costs.
Industry in the United states consumes on an average about 2 percent of
its total water use (619 billion I/day (110 billion gal/day in I960)).
The heaviest consumption is in connection with irrigation where 60
percent or more of the water is lost to the water system through
evaporation and transpiration. About 17 percent of water used for
public supplies is consumed. Consumptive use of water is the quantity
of water discharged to the atmosphere (evaporated) or incorporated in
the products of the process in connection with vegetative growth, food
processing or incidental to an industrial process. In the western
portion of the U.S., present salinity conditions resulting from
irrigation return flows (approximately 40 percent of all water withdrawn
from surface and ground sources in the United States is for irrigation)
far outweigh the salinity contribution attributed to the beet sugar
industry. Furthermore, the majority of beet sugar processing plants are
located in low intensity land use areas
Control of salinity and total dissolved solids contributions from beet
sugar processing wastes can be accomplished without ground water
pollution through proper location of land disposal sites, regulatiocn of
waste water filtration rates, consideration of geographical, hydrologic
and geologic factors and conduct of an adequate monitoring program of
nearby underground aquifers. At present all beet sugar processing
plants incorporate land for disposal of all or part of the waste water
flow. No serious ground water pollution problems are known to occur as
attributed to these practices.
In any method of dissolved solids removal, concentrated salt solutions
as a byproduct of the desalting technology must be disposed. The likely
method for disposal of this material is land disposal under controlled
conditions.
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SECTION VIII
COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
Cost and Reduction Benefits of Alternative Treatment and Control
A detailed analysis of the costs and pollution reduction benefits of
alternative treatment and control technologies applicable to the beet
sugar processing segment of the sugar processing industry is given in
Supplement A of this document. The basic results are summarized below
for an average-sized 3300 kkg/day (3600 ton/day) beet sugar processing
plant.
Alternative A - No waste Treatment or Control
Effluent waste load is estimated at 5.8 kg BOD5/kkg (11.7 Ibs BOD5/ton)
of beets processed (22 Ibs BOD5/ton of beets processed including Steffen
wastes) for the selected typical plant at this minimal control level.
Disposal of Steffen waste on dried pulp, byproduct recovery or land
disposal is assumed, as this is universally practiced in the industry.
No control of lime mud slurry, flume water discharge, or condenser water
flow is assumed. Pulp transport and press waters are recycled with the
plant process.
Costs. None. Reduction Benefits. None.
Alternative B - Control of Lime Mud But Discharge to Receiving Streams
of All Other Wastes
This alternative includes control of lime mud slurry in earthern holding
ponds without discharge to navigable waters but no control for other
wastes. This practice is used at all plants presently within the
industry. Effluent waste load is estimated at 2.6 kg BOD5/kkg (5.1 Ibs
BODSyton) of beets processed for the better plant at this control level.
Costs. Increased capital costs are approximately $50,000 over
Alternative A, thus total capital costs are $50,000.
Reduction Benefits. An incremental reduction in plant BOD5 of 57
percent compared to Alternative A is evidenced. Total plant reduction
in BOD5 is also 57 percent.
Alternative C - Extensive Recycle of Flume Water Without Discharge to
Navigable Waters
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Under Alternative C there would be extensive recycle of flume water with
no discharge of process waste water pollutants to navigable waters,
incorporating treatment of flume water by screening and settling, and
with mud drawoff to holding ponds for controlled land disposal. This
technique is presently practiced by a large portion of the industry.
Present industry plans call for complete installation of extensive flume
water recycling systems by 1975. Effluent waste load is estimated at
0.25 kg/kkg (0.5 Ibs BOD5/ton) of beets processed for a better plant at
this control level. Presently, all but 6 plants employ recirculating
flume water systems.
Costs. Increased capital costs of $228,000 to $310,000 over Alternative
B would be incurred, thus producing total capital costs of $278,000 to
$360,000.
Reduction Benefits. An increment reduction in BODS of 90 percent in
comparison to Alternative B would result, thereby producing a total
reduction in plant BOD5 of 96 percent.
Alternative D - Extensive Recycle of Condenser Water Without Discharge
to Navigable Waters
Alternative D would result in complete recycling of condenser water with
land disposal of excess waste waters without discharge to navigable
waters. Extensive water recycling and reuse within the plant process is
assumed. Effluent waste load is zero kg BOD5_/kkg (zero Ib BOD5/ton) of
beets processed for the better plants at this control level.
Costs. This alternative would require increased capital costs of
$176,000 to $316,000 over Alternative C, or total capital costs of
$454,000 to $676,000.
Reduction Benefits. There would be an increment reduction in BOD5_ of
100 percent in comparison to Alternative Cr or a total reduction in
plant BOD5 of 100 percent.
In consideration of land availability factors as variables in the
application of land based technology for accomplishing zero discharge of
waste waters to navigable waters, the following four conditions are
recognized as being applicable to existing plants within the beet sugar
processing industry. The capital costs of the application of technology
to accomplish zero discharge of all waste waters to navigable waters is
given for each of the various conditions are given curves representation
of the various conditions are given in Figures X through XIV. Cost
figures reflect land requirements based on a 0.635 cm/day (1/4-in/day)
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filtration rate, an average sized plant of 3300 kkg/day (3600 ton/day)
capacity, and an average 100-day processing campaign.
Condition A serves as the basis for the cost estimates and pollutant
reductions associated with zero discharge of waste waters to navigable
waters. Further datails of this analysis are given above under
Alternative A through D for varying levels of pollution control for this
condition. Other conditions described below (Conditions B, C, and D,)
serve to delineate possible restraints of land availability and their
resulting effects on the cost effectiveness of successful incremantal
pollutant removals under these land availability restraints.
Condition A - Land requirements for controlled land waste water disposal
are physically available adjacent to the plant site and under the
ownership of the plant. Total land costs are assumed at $810/ha
($2000/ac) which includes costs of holding pond construction and
infilatration control measures.
Total capital costs = $454,000 to $676,000 Cost-effectiveness curves are
shown in Figure X and XI.
Condition B - Land requirements for controlled waste water disposal are
physically available adjacent to the plant site but not under the
ownership of the plant. Land costs are taken at $1220/ha ($3000/ac)
including $405/ha ($1000 per ac) purchase price and $815/ha ($2000/ac)
costs for pond construction and seepage control measures.
Total capital cost = $609,000 to $800,00 A cost-effectiveness curve for
this condition is presented in Fig. XI.
Condition C - Land requirements for controlled land waste water disposal
are not physically available adjacent to the plant site, but suitable
land is available under ownership of the plant within the plant
vicinity. Suitable land for controlled waste water disposal is assumed
to be available at 4.82 km (3 mi) from the plant site. Land costs are
taken at $810/ha ($2000/ac) including costs for pond construction and
seepage control measures. Waste treatment costs are assumed to include
all construction costs including pipeline, pumping station, engineering
and design, right-of-way acquisition and contiuency costs. Costs of
right-of-way are taken at $2050 per ha ($5000/ac) with 0.38 ha
required/km (1.5 ac required/mi) of pipe. A 3.7 in (12 ft) right-of-way
is assumed.
Condition D - Land requirements for controlled land waste water disposal
are not physically available adjacent to the plant site. Suitable land
for controlled waste disposal is located within 4.82 km (3 mi) of the
plant site but not under ownership of the plant. Land costs are taken
at $1220/ha ($3000/ac) purchase price including $405/ha ($1000/ac)
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purchase price and $815/ha ($2000/ac) costs for pond construction and
seepage control measures. Waste transmission costs are assumed to
include all contruction costs including pipeline, pumping station,
engineering and design, right-of-way acquisition, and contigency costs.
Costs of right-of-way are taken at $2030/ha ($5000/ac) with 0.38 ha/km
(1.5 ac /mi) of pipe. A 3.7 m (12 ft) right-of-way is assumed.
As expected, the cost relative to increased effectiveness in removal of
pollutants (as measured by BOD5) increase as the level of pollutant in
the effluent decreases. This relationship is shown in Figure XI. As
illustrated, in proceeding from Alternative C to Alternative D the
increased capital costs perunit of pollution load reduced rises by a
factor of 5 to 12.
As developed in Supplement A, total industry capital costs with consi-
deration of existing pollution control facilities and processes
(Conditions A) are estimated to range between approximately $9 million
and $16 million for extensive recycling and reuse of flume (beet
transport) and condenser water without discharge to navigable waters.
Corresponding total industry wide annual costs including operation and
maintenance, depreciation and annualization of capital expenditures are
estimated at approximately $2.3 to $3.8 million for existing conditions.
Basis of Assumptions Employed in Cost Estimation
Judgments and Assumptions Used
Annual interest rate for capital costs = 8%
Salvage value of zero over 20 years for physical plant facilities and
equipment
Straight line depreciation of capital assets
Annual operating and maintenance expenses of 10 percent of capital
costs for pollution control measures, permanent physical facilities and
equipment, except that an additional cost of $15,000 is allowed for
solids removal from the flume water mud pond. The costs include all
expenses attributed to operation and maintenance of control facilities
routine maintenance of equipment, and facilities, labor, operating
personnel, and monitoring and power costs.
All economic terms are used as described in the Glossary (Section XV) of
this document.
Where adjustment of cost data to August 1971 dollars (the baseline of
this report, the cost figures have been adjusted in accord with indices
published for use in EPA publication "Sewage Treatment Plant and Sewer
Construction Cost Index," September, 1972. cost-effectiveness
relationships for the above alternative technologies are shown in
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Figures X and XIV. The basis for development of the curves is covered
in detail in Appendix A to this document, and the curves are included
here for purposes of clarity of presentation.
Relat ed Energy, Requirements of Alternative Treatment and Control
Technologies
Processing of sugar beets to refined sugar requires about 1.32 kw (1.61
hp) of electrical energy per kkg of beets sliced per day. This
electrical energy demand is affected by factors such as: 1) the type of
beet receiving and cleaning facilities, 2) whether or not a Steffen
house is provided, 3) the lime production method, 4) the drying and
pelletizing of beet pulp, and 5) the number of steam drive units
compared to electrical motor drives, particularly in the higher power
units.
The electrical energy consumption perunit of product output has
continually increased over the years, and this trend appears unlikely to
change in the foreseeable future. Among the primary reasons for
increased demand are the extensive mechanization of the process, higher
lighting, illumination levels, and new practices; i.e., waste water
treatment, requiring additional electrical power for circulation pumps
and aerators.
For the "typical" 3300 kkg (3600t) per day beet sugar processing plant,
total energy requirements are estimated at 4320 kw (5800 horsepower)
under operating conditions. Principal power requirements attributable
to pollution control in a beet sugar processing plant are related to
recirculation of waste water flows (primarily flume and condenser water)
for in-plant reuse. Iverson reports the energy requirements, on the
basis of experience with plants of the Great Western Sugar Company to
permit recycling of flume water flow. At a "typical" plant this is
approximately 370 kw (500 horsepower). Because of the general
similarity of waste volumes attributed to flume and condenser water,
power requirements for recycling condenser water may logically be
assumed to be the same as that for the recirculation of flume water.
Thus, the total power requirement for recycling of both flume and
condenser water is approximately 740 kw (1000 horsepower) or 20 percent
of the total plant power requirement. Iverson also estimates that the
additional annual power costs for pollution abatement purposes
incorporating both the flume and condenser water recycling systems is
estimated at approximately $22,000. The cost of energy is taken at 1
cent per kwh.
Because of its need for relatively large quantities of low pressure
process steam, the beet sugar industry usually finds it economical to
generate its own electric power. The power plant normally uses a
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noncondensing steam turbine generator which exhausts steam at the
pressure required by the process. This power can be generated for about
half the fuel required in a condensing steam turbine generator plant
used for power generation only.
Regardless of the source of electrical power, steam-boiler facilities
must be provided to supply the process steam requirements. With in-
plant generation, the fuel chargeable to power is the additional fuel
needed over that required for operation with purchased power. The cost
of fuel chargeable to electric power generation by a noncondensing steam
turbine is 0.425 mils per kwh for each 10 cents of fuel cost per 250,000
kg cal (1,000,000 Btu). Thus, using 40 cent fuel, and with a cost of
purchased power of 8 mils/kwh with an assumed load of UOOO kw (5300
horsepower) , the plant could pay for the entire installation cost of a
noncondensing steam-turbine generating set in approximately 3 years, not
including taxes.
The reliability of the main steam supply system and the need for process
steam has made it normal practice to power the large horsepower
individual loads with mechanically-driven, noncondensing steam turbines.
Typical of such units are the carbon - dioxide and Steffen-refrigeration
compressors. Turbine-driven compressors allow the steam designer
further flexibility in balancing out the steam requirements in the whole
plant.
Almost all beet sugar plants purchase some outside electrical power for
standby usage when the plant is not in operation. Power is required for
plant maintenance, liquid sugar production, bulk sugar handling,
packaging operations, lighting, and office - machine operation. In the
event of power plant disturbances and loss of plant generated power, the
standby power provides for critical electrical loads, such as emergency
lighting, and boiler plant and water systems. Usually it is not
economical to size the utility company purchased power standby source to
meet the total electrical demand of the plant. Generally, it is sized
for about 20 percent of the total plant demand.
If properly designed, the electrical power system may be expanded
readily with a minimum amount of additional investment.
Non-Water ^Quality Aspects of Alternative Treatment and Control
Techno1ogie s
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Air Pollution
There are three main items of air pollutional significance in the beet
sugar processing industry: suspended particulate matter, sulfur oxides
and odors. Fogging in the area of cooling towers or other cooling
devices may present visibility problems in isolated cases.
Suspended Particulate Matter. The primary sources of potential
particulate emissions result largely from the steam boiler and pulp
drier stacks. Minor sources of particulate emissions include granulator
exhaust, dry sugar, dried pulp, limestone, burnt lime and coal handling
equipment, waste ponds, and kiln booster fans.
Properly designed and maintained gas and oil fired boilers should
present no particulate emission problems. Fuel oil, however, can
present a sulfur dioxide emission problem. One of the most economical
methods to avoid sulfur dioxide emissions is to burn only low sulfur
fuels.
Since some plants burn coal as a primary fuel, particulate emissions can
be a problem. Fly ash, an emission common to all coal burning units, is
composed of the ash and unburned combustibles which become airborne in
the firebox and find their way to the atmosphere because of tne velocity
of the flue gas through the boiler and up the stack. The type of stoker
equipment used has much to do with the amount of fly ash emitted. In
terms of fly ash emission control, pulverized coal spreader stoker and
chain grate and underfeed stoker units emit lesser amounts of fly ash to
the atmosphere in that respective order.
Fly ash emissions can usually be controlled with multicyclone mechanical
collectors or electrostatic precipitators. A properly designed and
installed mechanical collector will do a satisfactory job on virtually
all types of coal-fired boilers except pulverized coal. Electrostatic
precipitators are generally required on pulverized-fuel fired units.
They have the advantage of increased efficiency with a low draft loss.
Generally, the lower the sulfur content of the coal, the poorer the
efficiency of the precipitator. Precipitators are the most costly of
the commonly used particulate collectors in boiler plants.
Smoke is unburned carbon and results from poor combustion. Smoke
emissions are usually the most troublesome and visible at a beet sugar
processing plant. Smoke emission problems from a boiler plant stem from
many sources. Some of the main sources include the type of coal, load
on the boiler, distribution of coal on the grate, overfire air, fuel to
air ratio, fuel oil atomization, and grate and setting air seals. All
of these problems may be alleviated through proper design, operation,
and maintenance of the boiler facilities. These considerations are
discussed in detail in Beet Sugar Technology, Second Edition. The other
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major source of air pollution emanating from a beet sugar plant is that
of the exhaust gases from the pulp dryer. These pollutants are pulp
dust, molasses dust, fly-ash (if coal or oil fired) and smoke. Reduced
emissions have been found to result by installing multiple cyclones of
smaller diameter, or skimming a cyclone vent stack, thus removing much
of the particulate matter load and return the purified air to the
furnace as dilution air for temperature control. A skimming system has
two major advantages. First, a large portion of the particulate matter
is removed from the exhaust; second, up to 10 percent increased thermal
efficiency can be realized because of the smaller heating load on the
dilution air, since the recycle gas is already above 93°C (200°F). The
other source of air pollution in the pulp dryer is the dust created by
the handling of dried pulp and pelleting equipment. This source can be
controlled with a well-designed hood pickup system and a high efficiency
mechanical collector.
Sulfur Dioxide. Boiler flue gas contains sulfur dioxide as an important
air pollution source. Sulfur is present in all coals and most heavy
fuel oils. Common gas scrubbing systems for removal of particulate
material are generally rather ineffective in removal of sulfur dioxide.
However, within the past year a Venturi-type scrubber has been installed
at one beet sugar plant in the U. S. The installation was installed at
a cost of $500,000 and is reported to be quite effective in removal of
sulfur dioxide as well as particulate solids. A similar installation is
planned in the near future at Loveland, Colorado. The Venturi scrubber
for boiler flue gas at the Longmont, Colorado, plant has an additional
advantage as it utilizes barometric condenser water in the scrubbing
process. This use results in reduction of condenser water volume
through vaporization which is a benefit where disposal of excess
condenser water is a serious consideration. Barometric condenser water
(1900 to 2300 1/min) (500 to 600 gal/min) is employed for the scrubbing
process primarily for removal of fly ash.
The industry has generally found that change of the fuel source from
coal to gas has been economically expedient in control of air pollution
because of the large capital and operating expenditures required in
scrubbing equipment needed for coal systems.
Odors. One of the most challenging problems of waste disposal at beet
sugar processing plants is related to the matter of odor. When most of
the plants were built, i.e., prior to 1930, they were located downstream
from small towns. Inevitably, the towns have grown, often pressing
close to the plant.
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Odors of significance at beet, sugar processing plants result largely
from anaerobic bacterial action in waste water treatment systems, the
pulp dryer and beet piles where deterioration of the beets is occurring.
Ponding, particularly in deep anaerobic ponds, frequently promotes the
growth of sulfur reducing organisms. It has been observed that careful
screening of wastes to remove organic matter lessens or minimizes
settling and septic deposits of solids on the bottom of ponds, thereby
reducing the quantity of noxious gases produced. Screening of waste
water for removal of suspended organic material prior to discharge to
holding ponds can substantially reduce the likelihood of noxious odor
generation. The maintenance of shallow holding ponds (approximately
0.45 m optimum) (1.5 ft) and alkaline pH conditions aid in odor
reduction and minimization. Purple sulfur bacteria (Chromatium and
Thiopedia) have been found to be successful odor control mechanisms when
cultured in waste stabilization lagoons utilized for beet plant wastes
at plants in California.
Fogging. A feature of cooling tower operation often overlooked is the
generation of fog. This can create a hazard to highway traffic by
impairment of visibility. A circle of influence of 0.8 km (0.5 mi) is
usually regarded as a safe distance for avoidance of the effects of fog
from such sources. Fogging due to water vapor in the vicinity of draft
cooling towers could be expected to present problems with visibility at
several existing plant locations. Such fogging practices would not be
in the best environmental control practice or in some cases comply with
local air pollution ordinances and state regulations. The potential
problem is surmountable by the use of closed, air-cooled heat exchanger
cooling systems for these isolated instances. Such systems would incur
an additional capital cost with reference to natural-draft or forced
draft cooling towers and can technologically help to alleviate the
problem. Air-cooled heat exchangers waste no water by evaporation, but
they can cool only to within a few degrees of atmospheric temperature,
and thus are limited to relatively high temperature applications.
Comlbing systems to cool as far as possible with air and then to turther
accomplish temperature reduction in a cooling tower or evaporative
system of another type is often a more economical way of handling
cooling loads.
Solid Waste Disposal
The large volumes of dirt and solid material removed from beets at the
plant poses a perplexing problem for permanent disposal. Generally,
about 50 kg of soil/kkg (100 Ibs/ton) of beets sliced is contributed by
a typical beet sugar processing plant. Where holding ponds are
employed, solids accumulated in the ponds are removed annually and
disposed of by adding the material to pond dikes. These ponds are
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generally abandoned after useful performance, with new pond facilities
being established.
Sugar beets stored in large piles at the plant site or in outlying areas
such as railroad sidings may be exposed to rodent activity and
additional pollution from truck or railroad car unloadings. Rainfall
may assist the spread of existing contamination.
In addition to the large volumes of soil delivered to the plant with the
incoming beets, solid waste is also generated in terms of trash normally
associated with municipal activities. Disposal of this material may be
at the plant site, or the waste material may be collected by the local
municipality with disposal by incineration or sanitary landfill. The
solid waste or trash consists of packaging materials, shipping crates
and similar dry combustible materials.
Sanitary landfills are generally best suited for non-combustible
as
Sanitary landfills are generally best suited for non-combust
material and organic wastes which are not readily combustible such
decomposed beets, weeds and peelings. Composting offers a viable
alternative for disposing of organic materials such as decomposed beets,
weeds and peelings. Experience with this method in the disposal of
municipal wastes has proved more costly than sanitary landfill
operations, however. The sanitary landfill is probably the lower cost
alternative, provided that adequate land is available.
Consideration of a suitable site is a prime factor in location of a
landfill site. Requirements in selection of a landfill site include
sufficient area, reasonable haulage distance, location relative to
residential developments, soil conditions, rock formations,
transportation access, and location of potential ground water polluting
aquifers. Location of sanitary landfills in sandy loam soils is most
desirable. Proper sloping of the landfill soil cover to promote runoff
rather than ground percolation is necessary to prevent ground water
pollution. Other factors to be considered include no obstruction of
natural drainage channels, installation of protective dikes to prevent
flooding when necessary, location of the base of the landfill operation
above the high water table and consideration of possible fire hazards.
The general methods and desirable practices in operation of municipal
sanitary landfill operations are equally as applicable to disposal of
solid waste from beet sugar processing plants. Open burning of
combustible wastes on the plant site is an undesirable and often
unlawful method of solid waste disposal. The need for a scrubber or
particulate collector on the stack of an incinerator must be evaluated
on an individual basis.
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Figure X
TOTAL COST EFFECTIVENESS RELATIONSHIP FOR COMPLETE LAND DISPOSAL
WITH NEEDED LAND LOCATED ADJACENT TO PLANT SITE
5 -
Z 3
«x
CJ
0.50
6.76
4.54'
3.60
2.78
ALTERNATIVE B
ALTERNATIVE A
20
40 55 60
PRECENT BOD5 REMOVAL
80
94 100
11.7 (100
5.1 (44
0.5 0
(4.4)
EFFLUENT QUALITY (LBS BOD5 /TON OF BEETS SLICED
(LBS BOD 5 /LB OF REFINED SUGAR)
LAND COSTS ATTRIBUTED AS $2000 PER ACRt INCLUDING POND CONSTRUCTION
AND INFILTRATION CONTROL MEASURES. BASED ON 3600 TON PER DAY
(832,000 LBS OF REFINED SUGAR PER DAY) PLANT, 100-DAY CAMPAIGN AND
V4INCH/DAY INFILTRATION RATE.
Ill
-------
FIGURE XI
UNIT COST EFFECTIVENESS RELATIONSHIP WITH LAND FOR WASTE WATER DISPOSAL
LOCATED ADJACENT TO PLANT SITE AND PRESENTLY UNDER PLANT OWNERSHIP
£"> 2
0. a
CO . u_
CO
OQ
- 2
«M
0.08
6.32-
J
ALTERNATIVE C
/
ALTERNATIVE A
ALTERNATIVE 8
20
0,
40 60
PRECENT BOD5 REMOVAL
80
94 100
11.7
0.5 (.002)
(.051) 5.1 (.022)
EFFLUENT OUALITY-LBS BOD5/TON OF BEETS SLICED
(LBS BOD5 /LBS REFINED SUGAR)
1 LAND COSTS ATTRIBUTED AS $2000 PER ACRE INCLUDING POND CONSTRUCTION AND
SEEPAGE CONTROL MEASURE 3600 TONS PER DAY (832.000 LBS REFINED SUGAR PER DAY)
PLANT, 100 DAY CAMPAIGN AND 1/4 INCH PER DAY INFILTRATION RATE.
112
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FIGURE XII
UNIT COST EFFECTIVENESS RELATIONSHIP WITH LAND FOR WASTE WATER DISPOSAL
LOCATED ADJACENT TO PLANT SITE NOT PRESENTLY UNDER PLANT OWNERSHIP
BUT AVAILABLE FOR PURCHASE AT A REASONABLE
7.0
6.0
LU
o c/> as"
^ «/» CD 5.0
5 " *» 4.0
& ^ flQ
^^ C3 _
£ " « 3.0
0 W> — J
z a co
Z • J2
v> s 2
s 5 I 2-°
1.0
0.11
B.89-
-
_
^
M ALTERNATIVE C
Wffifflfiffiffiffifflfflffifa
65 1
ALTERNATIVE A
I/ ALTERNATIVE B
r
\
A
L
T
E
R
N
A
T
I
V
E
D
n
11.7(100 LBS BOD 5.1 (44 LBS BOD O.SD
TON REFINED SUGAR 1 TON REFINED SUGAR) (4.4 LBS BOD
EFFLUENT QUALITY LOAD
TON SUGAR
LAND COSTS ARE TAKEN AT $3000 AND INCLUDE $1000 SALE VALUE AND $2000 FOR POND CONSTRUCTION
AND INFILTRAT.ION CONTROL MEASURES. AN INFILTRATION RATE i/4" PER DAY AIND 100-DAY LENGTH CAMPAIGN
IS ASSUMED. BASED ON 3600 TON/DAY (832,000 LBS REFINED SUGAR /IDAV j CAPACITY PLANT
113
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FIGURE XIII
UNIT COST EFFECTIVENESS RELATIONSHIP WITH SUITABLE LAND
NOT PHYSICALLY AVAILABLE ADJACENT TO THE PLANT SITE;
SUITABLE LAND LOCATED AT A REASONABLE DISTANCE UNDER PLANT OWNERSHIP
1.0
ft
.O
UJ (S>
a CM
LU II
CO
ALTERNATIVE C
ALTERNATIVE A
ALTERNATIVE B
20 40 60
PERCENT BOD 5 REMOVAL
80
100
11.7
5.1
LBS BOD
0.50 0
(4.4 LBS BOD/TON SUGAR )
(100 LBS BOD/TON REFINED SUGAR!
TON REFINED SUGAR)
EFFLUENT QUALITY-LBS BODj/TON OF BEETS SLICED
LAND COSTS OF $2000 PER ACRE ASSUMED, INCLUDING POND CONSTRUCTION AND
SEEPAGE CONTROL MEASURES. THREE MILE DISTANCE TO DISPOSAL SITE IS ASSUMED.
RIGHT-OF-WAY COSTS OF $5000 PER ACRE. BASED ON 3600 TON/DAY/PLANT,
100 DAY CAMPAIGN AND
-------
FIGURE XIV
UNIT COST EFFECTIVENESS RELATIONSHIP WITH
SUITABLE LAND FOR WASTE WATER DISPOSAL NOT PHYSICALLY
AVAILABLE ADJACENT TO THE PLANT SITE; SUITABLE LAND
LOCATED AT A REASONABLE DISTANCE NOT UNDER PLANT OWNERSHIP
BUT AVAILABLE FOR PURCHASE AT A REASONABLE COST
ct to
_l O
to
1.0
. .
oc
CB
" .8
LU
LU
oe
to
S -6
CO
CM
II
LU
5J .4
to
H-
GO
^ -2
A
L
T
E
R
N
A
T
1
V
E
D
-
-
r ALTERNATIVE C
^yy^^^xxxy^vyy/yyy^y^w
ALTERNATIVE A
/ ALERNATIVE B
r • 1 , 1 • 1 • 1 i
J77/I
x/^
vyj
//X
Yfif
0 20 40 60 80 100
PRECENT BOD, REMOVAL
3
r i ii
11.7 5.1 0.50
n LBS BOD M, LBS BOD (4.4 LBS BOD TO
1100 TON REFINED SUGAR ) '"TON REFINED SUGAR)
EFFLUENT QUALITY-LBS BOD5/TON OF BEETS SLICED
LAND COST OF $3000 PER ACRE IS ASSUMED, FNCLUDING PURCHASE PRICE,
POND CONSTRUCTION AND SEEPAGE CONTROL MEASURES. THREE MILE DISTANCE
TO DISPOSAL SITE ASSUMED. RIGHT-OF-WAY COSTS OF $5,000 PER ACRE BASED
ON 3600 TON/DAY PLANT, 100-DAY CAMPAIGN AND '/JNCH/DAY INFILTRATION RATE
115
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FIGURE XV
MINIMUM TOTAL LAND AREA REQUIREMENTS FOR WASTE DISPOSAL
BY CAPACITY OF PLANT AND LENGTH OF PRODUCTION CAMPAIGN
900
800
100
tst
£ 600
500
€/>
400
to
S 300
200
10U
BASED ON MAXIMUMI ALLOWANCE INFILTRATION
RATE OF 1/4 DAY, AND EXTENSIVE FLUME AND
CONDENSER WATER RECYCLE
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
CAPACITY OF PLANT, TONS / DAY
116
7000
8000
9000
-------
SECTION IX
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE
APPLICATION OF THE EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
I n t roduction
The effluent limitations which must be achieved by July 1, 1977 are to
specify the degree of effluent reduction attainable through the appli-
cation of the Best Practicable control Technology Currently Available.
Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available is generally
based upon the average of the best existing performance by plants of
various sizes, ages and unit processes within the industrial category
and peror subcategory industry. This average is not based upon a broad
range of plants within the beet sugar processing industry, but rather
upon performance levels achieved by better plants. Consideration must
also be given to:
a. The total cost of application of technology in relation to
effluent reduction benefits to be achieved from such application;
b. the size and age of equipment and facilities involved;
c. the processes employed;
the
d. the engineering
control techniques;
e. process changes;
f. non-water quality environmental impact
ments) .
aspects of the application of various types of
(including energy require-
Also, Best Practicable control Technology Currently Available emphasizes
treatment facilities at the end of a manufacturing process but includes
the control technology within the process itself when the latter are
considered to be normal practice within an industry.
A further consideration is the degree of economic and engineering
reliability which must be established for the technology to be
"currently available." As a result of demonstration projects, pilot
plants and general use, there must exist a high degree of confidence in
the engineering and economic practicability of the technology at the
time of commencement of construction or installation of the control
facilities.
117
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Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the Application of Best
Practicable Control Technology Currently Available
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through VIII of
this document, a determination has been made that the degree of effluent
reduction attainable through the application of the Best Practicable
Control Technology Currently Available is no discharge of waste water
pollutants to navigable waters.
The effluent limitation of no discharge of process waste water
pollutants to navigable waters is based upon the availability of
suitable land for controlled filtration of the excess process waste
water. If suitable land is not available for controlled filtration the
effluent limitation may be varied to allow the discharge of barometric
condenser water derived from sugar evaporation and crystallization
within the pollutant limitations set forth in the following table:
Effluent^Characteristic Limitation
BOD5 Maximum for any one day
3.3 kg/kkg refined sugar
(3.3 lb/1000 Ib)
Maximum average of daily values for
any period of 30 consecutive days
2.2 kg/kkg refined sugar
(2.2 lb/1000 Ib)
Temperature*
pH 6.0 to 9.0 units
*No discharge of heat from waste waters to navigable waters except that
resulting from blowdown from a recirculating system, the temperature of
which after cooling must not exceed the temperature of cooled water
returned to the heat producing process.
"Availability of suitable land" shall mean that amount of land as
determined by the formula set forth below which is adjacent to the point
source, under the ownership or control of the point source discharger,
his agents or representatives. The amount of land required for
controlled filtration of process waste waters is determined by the
application of the following formula:
118
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A= m.26(CL/S) x 10-s + 5.36C x 10-2 (for metric system units)
where A = land area requirements for controlled
waste water disposal, hectares
C = processing capacity of
plant, kkgs of refined sugar
production per day
L = length of sugar production campaign
of plant (including extended use
campaign), days
S = actual soil filtration rate for waste
water to be disposed of on land, cm. per day
not to exceed 0.635 cm. per day
A= 6.31(CL/S) x 10-* + 6.01C x 10-2 (for English system units)
where A = land area requirements for controlled
waste water disposal, ac
C = processing rate or capacity of plant,
ton of refined sugar production per day
L = length of sugar production campaign of
plant (including extended use campaign),
days
S = actual soil filtration rate for waste water
to be disposed of on land, in. per day not to exceed
1 /U in. per day
The soil percolation rate for existing and to be constructed waste water
holding ponds for land disposal must not exceed 0.635 cm (1/4 in) drop
in liquid surface per day. For facilities to be constructed, pond area
requirements must be based on a soil percolation tests as prescribed in
the "Manual of Septic Tank Parctice", PHS Publication 526, U. S. Public
Health Service (1962) , or equivalent. The soil percolation rate must be
determined at the bottom of the waste water holding pond as proposed to
be constructed.
119
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Identification of Best Practicable, Control^ Technology Currently
Available
Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available for the beet
sugar processing segment of the sugar processing industry is extensive
recycle and reuse of waste waters within the beet processing operation
with no discharge of process waste water pollutants to navigable waters.
To implement this level of technology requires:
a. Recycling of beet transport (flume) waters with land disposal of
excess waste water. This includes (1) screening; (2) suspended solids
removal and control in the recirculating system; and (3) pH control for
minimization of odors, bacterial populations, foaming, and corrosive
effects.
b. Recycling of barometric condenser water for condenser or other
inplant uses with land disposal of excess condenser water.
c. Land disposal of lime mud slurry and peror reuse or recovery.
d. Return of pulp press water and other process waters to the diffuser.
e. Use of continuous diffusers.
f. Use of pulp driers.
g. Concentration of Steffen waste for disposal on dried beet pulp or
use for byproduct utilization. Alternative methods such as land
disposal may be considered.
h. Dry conveyance of beet pulp from diffusers to pulp driers.
i. Handling of all miscellaneous wastes, e.g., floor and equipment
washes, filter cloth washes, etc. within the processing plant by
subsequent treatment and reuse or land disposal.
Where the exception for land availability applies as set forth above,
the Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available for the beet
sugar processing segment of the sugar processing industry is recycle of
flume (beet transport) water with no discharge of process waste water
pollutants to navigable waters. Implementation of this level of
technology includes all of the requirements above except that discharge
of barometric condenser water is permitted with extensive recirculation
and cooling. Entrainment control devices must be installed on
barometric condensers, and operation and control of the processes to
minimize entrainment is strongly encouraged.
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Rationale_for_the Selection of Best Practicable Control Technology
Currently_Available
Basis for Units of Measurement in Effluent Limitations Without Land
Availability. The inherent variability in the sugar content of beets to
be processed as influenced by climatic, soil and cultural practices, and
the application of effluent guidelines for condenser waters,
particularly at those plants employing the "extended use" campaign,
supports the rationale for use of effluent limitations for condenser
water based on unit production of refined sugar rather than based upont
of beets sliced.
The sugar solutions after thickening in the sugar end of the process are
relatively uniform in quality and predictable as to crystalline sugar
yield. Condenser water quantities and characteristics are related to
factors inherent in the processing of the relatively uniform sucrose
containing product. Sugar beets to be processed contain between 10 to
16 percent sugar. Sucrose content in sliced beets (cossettes) averaged
14.36 per cent in 1969 (Table II). Refined beet sugar production in the
U. S. in 1969 was 115 kg per kkg (231 Ibs. per ton) of beets sliced,
with an averaged extraction rate of 80.43 percent.
Basis of Pollutant Limitations for the Exception of Land Non
Availability
The pollutants of significance in barometric condenser water as
originating from beet sugar processing .are BOD5_, temperature, and
ammonia.
BOD5 (5-day, 20°C (68°F) Biochemical Oxygen Demand)
With proper attention to operation of evaporative and crystallizers in
the sugar making process, vapor entrainment through the condensing
process may be limited to between 30-50 mg/1 BOD5_. Under reasonable
control, BOD5 loading in condenser water can be limited to 2.2 kg
BOD5/kkg (2.2 lb/1000 Ibs) of refined sugar. This level of control
corresponds with barometric condenser water use of 8300 1/kkg (2000
qal/ton) of beets sliced at a BOD^ concentration of 40 mg/1 as now
practiced at the majority of plants within the industry. Calculations
based on the 0.5 Ib BOD5/ton of beets processed, and the average
production of 115 kg of refined sugar per kkg (231 Ibs. per ton) of
beets sliced, yields the established effluent limiation of 2.2 kg
BOD5/kkg (2.2 lb/1000 Ib) of refined sugar produced. On this basis the
discharge of BOD5_ during any period of 30 consecutive days shall not
exceed 2.2 kq/kkg refined sugar. The discharge of BOD5 during any one
day period shall not exceed 3.3 kg/kkg refined sugar. This increased
limitation for any one day discharge is justified on the basis of the
121
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occasional occurance of process upsets and mechanical failures. Further
reductions of BOD5_ in condenser waters are possible through reduction
allowances for cooling devices (15-50 percent) and elaborate entrainment
control mechanisms where discharge of condenser water would be permitted
under the limitations set forth herein.
Temperature
The quantity of barometric condenser water utilized or required at on
individual beet sugar plant varies with vapor condensing requirements,
raw water source, process temperature considerations, and climatic
factors. Condenser water leaving the barometric condenser process
normally exhibits temperature characteristics at or near 65°C (1<49°F).
Technology exists for cooling the condenser
water prior to discharge to navigable waters. Cascading, reuse, or
recycling of the mildly contaminated condenser water can reduce the
requirements and expense of facilities for cooling the total condenser
water flow. In practice, cooling of heated waters is accomplished with
spray ponds, cooling towers, evaporative condensers, and air-cooled heat
exchangers. All but the latter depend on the cooling effect of
evaporation. The terminal temperature to which heated water may be
cooled may range from several degrees below atmospheric temperature at
high humidity, to 17°C (30°F) or more below atmosperic temperature when
the air is dry (88). Evaporative coolers are most effective in arid
regions.
A technological standard for cooling of waste waters, proposed by the
Effluent Guidelines Division, Environmental Protection Agency for the
power industry stipulates no discharge of heat from waste waters
resulting from the industrial facility except that contained in blowdown
from a recirculating system. The blowdown must be at or below the
temperature of cooled water returned to the barometric condenser
process. This practically means that the condenser water system
blowdown must be discharged on the"cool" side of the recirculation
system (i.e. in the circuit between the cooling device and the heat
producing barometric condenser).
Auxilliary cooling devices for cooling of blowdown are technological
possibilities, however, they are not judged to constitute Best
Practicable Control Technology Currently Available for the industry.
The limit for heat has been adopted for the discharge of barometric
condenser water to navigable waters where variance for non-suitability
of land for controlled land disposal of waste waters without discharge
to navigable waters is applicable as defined herein.
Ammonia
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Ammonia in barometric condenser water varies between 3 and 15 mg/1 (NH3
as nitrogen depending upon the condition of beets processed and the
existence, non-existence, or effectiveness of entrainment control
devices. Higher ammonia entrainment in condenser water is evident
during the later stages of the processing campaign particularly in areas
where storage of beets is practiced and progressive deterioriation of
the beets results. Ammonia, like other dissolved gases, may be
separated by heat or agitation and leave no residue on evaporation.
Evaporative cooling devices for heated waste waters are effective in
accomplishing essentially complete removal of ammonia through stripping.
Because of this phenomenon no specific numerical standard for ammonia
nitrogen in barometric condenser discharge water is established.
pH
condenser water picks up ammonia from the evaporating juices, hence is
always alkaline ranging from pH 8 to 11, but usually less than 9.
Reduction of ammonia concentrations will effectively control the pH
within the designated limits. On this basis and in accord with accepted
water quality standards the pH of the discharge must be maintained
within the range of 6.0 to 9.0.
Total Cost of Application in Relation to Effluent Reduction Benefits
The cost - effectiveness of attaining zero discharge of waste waters to
navigable waters for the beet sugar processing industry is given in
Figures X through XII for various identified conditions. A detailed
cost analysis is presented in Supplement A. The requirement for land
availability may practically preclude the attainment of this level of
pollutant reduction at some beet sugar processing plants for best
practicable control technology currently achievable where unfavorable
soil, climate, land availability, and land costs exists. The cost -
effectiveness impact of these adverse land availability factors, where
they exist, are given in Figures XI through XIV, and discussed in
Section VIII. The cost - effectiveness relationships bear particular
significance to the relative costs of achieving the elimination of
barometric condenser water from navigable waters and the associated land
availability requirements. Exception to the effluent guideline
limitation of no discharge of process waste water pollutants to
navigable water is justified on the basis of practical land availability
considerations, and economic factors to be imposed upon industry in
achieving this limitation for affected plants by July 1, 1977. BOD5
reduction is accomplished through effective entrainment control devices
in pan evaporators and crystallizers. An undertermined amount of BOD5
reduction (probably 15 to 50 percent) occurs as a secondary benefit in
the required cooling device. The amount of BOD5 reduction under the
specified technology cannot be reliably predicted. The BOD5 reduction
123
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effected would be dependent to a large extent on individual operating
practices and type of facilities.
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
As set forth in this document, industry competition and general improve-
ments in production methods have hastened modernization of plant
facilities throughout the industry.
Age and size are not within themselves determining factors in the
application of Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available
for the beet sugar processing segment of the sugar processing industry.
Estimated costs of pollution reduction tend to vary uniformly with plant
size because of the land based waste disposal technology and variance of
raw waste contribution directly with plant capacity. Age and size of
plant are most appropriately related to general land availability - a
factor receiving appropriate consideration in establishing practical
effluent reduction levels attainable for this level of technology.
Based upon the information contained in Section VTII and Supplement A of
this report, the industry as a whole would have to invest less than an
estimated maximum of $36,000,000 to achieve zero discharge of waste
waters to navigable waters. This amounts to approximately a 2.0 percent
maximum increase in projected total capital investment, and an
anticipated increase of $13.50 to $19.20/kkg ($6.10 to $8.70/ton) in the
cost of bulk refined sugar having a current cost of about $517.00/kkg
($235.00/ton). It is therefore concluded that the reduction to no
discharge outweighs the cost. As 24.5* of plants are now achieving this
standard, it can be practically applied to the remaining 75.631 of the
industry.
Processes Employed
All plants in the industry manufacture refined sugar using the same or
similar production methods, the discharges from which are also similar.
There is no evidence that operation of any current process or subprocess
will substantially affect capabilities to implement Best Practicable
Control Technology Currently Available.
Engineering Aspects of Control Technique Applications
There are presently 12 of 53 beet sugar processing plants in the United
States accomplishing no discharge of process waste water pollutants to
navigable waters. This level of technology is generally being
accomplished through extensive recycling and peror reuse of waste water
with disposal of excess waste waters by soil filtration or for crop
irrigation after biological treatment with waste holding. No discharge
of waste waters to surface waters occurs from these waste disposal and
treatment operations. The plants accomplishing no discharge of process
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waste water pollutants to navigable waters are identified in Table VIII.
Even though these plants are generally in water short areas, where
factors are relatively favorable for land disposal, such a technology
can be technically accomplished at all beet sugar processing plants if
the necessary land is available.
The use of controlled land disposal of waste waters is a widespread
practice for many types of wastes including both municipal and
industrial within and outside the United States. As noted in Table
VIII, essentially all present beet sugar processing plants rely either
in whole or in part on land disposal. Such disposal on land by
filtration through holding ponds, or use after treatment for irrigation,
is not generally accomplished under controlled filtration conditions and
no significant problems of water quality from such waste water disposed
have been identified or recognized.
Land disposal of food processing and other wastes is extensively
practiced in many areas of the country without ill effects. A fully
developed water technology should make maximum practicable use of ground
water recharge.
The concepts are proven, available for implementation and required
production and waste management methods may be readily employed through
adaptation or modification of existing production units. Exceptions to
the established effluent reduction limitations attainable are made based
on practicable land availability factors.
Process Changes
In-process technology is as an integral part of the whole waste
management program now being implemented within the industry. Some
degree of in-process control is now practiced by all plants in the
industry.
Land Availability
The total land requirements for disposal of waste waters by soil
filtration is dependent upon size of the beet processing plant, length
of processing campaign, and filtration characteristics of the soil. The
land requirements are related in terms of these variables in the
formulation given above in definition of land availability. Extensive
recycle and reuse of flume (beet transport) water and condenser water
are assumed, such that only "blowdown" from these systems is required
for land disposal together with land containment of lime slurry waste.
The allowable soil filtration rate must not exceed 0.635 cm (1/4 in)
drop in holding pond liquid surface per day—a practical limit to
infiltation control commonly accepted by State pollution control
125
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agencies for application to waste stabilization lagoons. The filtration
rate is representative of a relatively impermeable soil. Infiltration
control measures are available through the use of various methods of
pond lining, and must be employed where found necessary (through the
results of a soil percolation tests or actual pond level observations)
to control soil filtration within the maximum allowable limit.
While technologically accomplishable, factors of land availability, soil
filtration rate and length of processing campaign at individual beet
sugar processing plants preclude the practical achievement (both
technologically and economically) of no discharge of process waste water
pollutants to navigable waters as best practicable control technology
currently achievable for all plants. Practical considerations for land
nonavailability are made as exceptions to the general effluent
limitation guidelines of no discharge of process waste water pollutants
to navigable waters set forth for this technology level.
Alternative criteria for effluent limitations for individual plants must
reasonably apply where the total area requirements under ownership of
the company and adjacent to the plant site is less than that given by
the total land area formulation for requireed land for controlled
disposal of waste water. In such case, the total land area requirements
for various plant capacities and length of production campaign are shown
in Figure XV for the maximum allowable seepage rate of 0.635 cm (1/4 in)
per day. Discharge of the equivalent of the condenser water flow is
allowed within the reasonable levels of contaiminants specified.
Achievement of the effluent limitations may be accomplished
technologically through adequate cooling of heated condenser waters,
with careful control and utilization of entrainment separators for the
barometric condensing process. At present, essentially the entire
industry employs or is planning within several years to incorporate
extensive recycling systems for flume water, thereby eliminating all
waste discharges to navigable waters with the exception of barometric
condenser water. Where discharge of barometric condenser water to
surface streams is presently employed, some type of cooling devices for
cooling the waste prior to discharge to surface waters are generally
employed. Discharge of barometric condenser water to streams is
accomplished only on an occasional basis (See Table VTII).
Climatic Factors
Climatic factors of precipitation and evaporation vary subs-tantially
throughout the regions in which beet sugar processing plants are
situated in the United States. Examination of evaporation and rainfall
records in these locations reveals that the most critical region for
disposal of waste water by evaporation is in the Ohio-Michigan area
where annual rainfall and lake evaporation approximately compensate one
126
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another. All other areas of the country in which beet sugar processing
plants are located experience a net evaporation effect.
The mechanism for controlled waste water land disposal adapted for
purposes of this document relies solely upon land disposal by controlled
soil filtration. Reliance upon controlled soil filtration would in all
cases except in the Michigan-Ohio area provide for increased benefits
for reduced land requirements due to actual net evaporation which
occurs. Therefore, reliance upon controlled seepage for waste water
disposal effectively eliminates or minimizes the effects of climatic
factors on the established pollution control technology. Effects of
land requirements and soil filtration rates have been appropriately
discussed under the heading of land availability above.
Climatic conditions, together with varying soil conditions, harvesting
procedures, and geographic factors may affect soil loads on incoming
beets and condition of beets are received for processing at the
processing plant. Increased soil loads on incoming beets result in
increased mud handling costs and expense of disposal. These increased
handling costs are assumed by the plant in accepting sugar beets from
growers and are a relatively insignificant expense relative to total
production costs. Increased soil loads may result in the need for more
frequent cleaning of flume water settling and holding ponds.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
There are two essential impacts upon major non-water elements of the
environment: a limited degree of direct effects upon ambient air
quality (e.g., fly ash from pulp driers, odors); a potential effect on
soil systems due to strong reliance upon the land for ultimate
disposition of final effluents. In the former case, responsible
operation and maintenance procedures have been shown to obviate the
problems. Moreover, the vast enhancement to water quality management
provided by using the various production perwaste processes
substantially outweigh these controllable air effects.
With respect to the latter concern, it is addressed only in a
precautionary context since no evidence has been discovered which even
intimates a direct impact—all evidence points to the contrary.
Technology and knowledge available to assure land disposal or irrigation
systems are maintained commensurate with crop need or soil tolerance.
Land disposal of waste waters without discharge to surface waters would
result in a possible net loss of water from surface streams from the
most extensive waste water recirculation system of 2500 1/K.kg (600 gal
pert) of beets sliced. The total water loss of this tonnage volume
would consist of 650 I/ kkg (160 gal/ton) of beets sliced loss to the
atmosphere through process venting and evaporation and molasses
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production; and 1900 1/kkg (450 gal/ton) of beets sliced loss due to
land disposal of required blowdown from flume and condenser water
recycling systems.
In consideration of water gains and losses in an average-sized (3300 kkg
(3600 ton) of beets sliced per day) beet sugar processing plant, net
loss of water to a stream would be estimated at about 8.3 million 1 (2.2
million gal) per day assuming the complete source of fresh water is a
surface water source. However, because of cooling considerations for
barometric condenser water, many beet sugar processing plants utilize
cooler ground water supplies as the source of fresh water requirements.
In such cases, approximately 6.1 million liters (1.6 million gal) per
day may be returned to ground water supplies through land disposal
without discharging process waste water pollutants to surface waters.
Where crop irrigation is practiced, uptake of water by plants offers a
consumptive but beneficial use of the waste water.In addition to fresh
water, incoming beets constitute a major source of water addition (8.0
million 1/kkg (190 gal/ ton) of beets sliced) to the extensive recycling
system
A detailed discussion of water gains and losses is included under the
heading of Mass Water Balance in a Beet Sugar Processing Plant of
Section VII of this document.
128
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SECTION X
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF THE BEST
AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
The effluent reduction attainable through the application of the Best
Available Technology Economically Achievable is no discharge of process
water pollutants to navigable waters as developed in Section IX without
variance. Factors by which the effluent reduction standards may be
varied are no longer needed due to the extended time period available
for obtaining the recommended land resources with which to meet the
requirement of no discharge of process waste water pollutants to
navigable waters.
129
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SECTION XI
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
The standard of performance for new sources representing the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the best
available demonstrated control technology has been determined to be no
discharge of process waste water pollutants to navigable waters. An
allowance for a variation of the standard is not needed since land
availability requirements should be considered in site selection for a
new point source. The rationale for the standard of no discharge of
process waste water pollutants to navigable waters is as developed in
Section IX.
Introduction
This level of technology is to be achieved by new sources. The term
"new source" is defined in the Act to mean "any source, the construction
of which is commenced after the publication of proposed regulations
prescribing a standard of performance." This level of technology shall
be evaluated by adding to the consideration underlying the
identification of Best Available Technology Economically Achievable, a
determination of what higher levels of pollution control are available
through the use of improved production processes and and/or treatment
techniques.
Et'f luent_Re duct ion y Identification and Rationale for ^Selection of o f
New Source Performance Standards
The effluent limitations for new sources is no discharge of process
waste water pollutants to navigable waters as developed in Section IX.
131
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SECTION XII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research and preparation of this document was accomplished through
the efforts of Mr. Richard V. Watkins, P. E., and Dr. Valentin Ulrich,
Professor in the Department of Agriculture at West Virginia University.
During the early stages of the document preparation. Dr. Ulrich was
employed as a Consultant to the Effluent Guidelines Division.
Dr. Ulrich performed some of the basic work associated with preparation
of certain basic segments of the first draft document, and was primarily
involved in preliminary editing, technical data collection and analysis,
and collection and evalution of cost related information.
Mr. Watkins is a Sanitary Enginneer within the Effluent Guidelines
Division, Office of Air and Water Programs, EPA. As the Project
Officer, the work was performed largely under his responsibility and
primary authorship.
Mr. George R. Webster, Chief, Technical Analysis 6 Information Branch,
Effluent Guidelines Division, provided a careful review of the
preliminary draft document and suggested organizational, technical and
editorial changes. Mr. Webster was also most helpful in making
arrangements for the drafting, printing, and distribution of the
document.
Mr. Joseph G. Ross, Jr. was quite helpful in the critical examination of
the draft document. Mr. Ross offered many helpful suggestions through
his many years of experience in the editing and production of scientific
and technical publications.
The figures contained within the document were prepared by Mr. Dick
Owens of the Audio-visual Branch, Facilities and Support Services
Division of EPA.
Great assistance was provided in review of the document by the Working
Group/Steering Committee. This Committee was established for in-house
EPA review of the document, provided many helpful comments and
suggestions. The Committee was composed of the following EPA personnel:
C. R. McSwiney Chairman, Effluent Guidelines Division
Richard V. Watkins Project Officer, Effluent Guidelines Division
George Webster Effluent Guidelines Division
Kit Krickenberger Effluent Guidelines Division
Swep Davis Office of Planning and Evaluation
George Keeler Office of Research and Monitoring
133
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Ken A. Dostal Office of Research and Monitoring
Corva His, Oregon
Harold W. Thompson Office of Research and Monitoring
Corvallis, Oregon
Ed Brooks Office of Toxic Substances
Ed Struzeski, Jr. National Field Investigation Center
Denver, Colorado
Kit Smith Office of General Council
Erik Krabbe Region II
M. Shamaiengar Region V
R. L. Markey Region VII
Melvin McCorkle Region VII
Bob Burm Region VIII
Irwin Dickstein Region VIII
Robert D. Shankland Region VIII
Mr. Allen Cywin, Director, Effluent Guidelines Division, offered many
helpful suggestions during briefing sessions conducted on the project
and greatly assisted in the development of the project through his
enthusiasm and leadership.
Miss Kit Krickenberger of the Effluent Guidelines Division was
particularly helpful and cooperative in her untiring efforts during
editing and preparation of the document. Her work is greatly
appreciated.
Acknowledgement and appreciation is also given to the secretarial staff
of the Effluent Guidelines Division for their efforts in the typing of
drafts, making necessary revisions and final preparation of the
document.
Appreciation is extended to various personnel within the beet sugar
processing industry for their willing cooperation in providing requested
data, and their assistance in regard to on-site plant visits. Mr. Clare
H. Iverson, Chief Engineer, The Great Western Sugar Company; Mr. J. P.
Abbott, Chief Engineer, Holly Sugar Corporation; and Mr. Ernest W. Beck,
Jr., Vice President - Operations and Mr. William O. Weckel, Assistant to
Vice President of Spreckels Sugar Division, Amstar Corporation deserve
special mention.
134
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SECTION XIII
REFERENCES
1. Anonymous, "State-of-Art, Sugarbeet Processing Waste Treatment", A
report prepared for the Beet Sugar Development Foundation for the U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C., July 1971.
2. Request for Proposal No. WA 73X-002 Effluent Limitation Guidelines,
Part II, Description of the Requirement, U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency, October 1972.
3. 1967 Census of Washington, Sugar and Confectionery Products
Publication MC67(2)-20F, Bureau of the Census, 0. S. Department of
Commerce, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 20242,
August 1970.
4. Gurnham, C. F., Industrial^Wastewater Control Academic Press, New
York, 1965.
5. Force, S. L., "Beet Sugar Factory Wastes and Their Treatment,
Primarily the Findlay System", 17th Purdue Industrial Waste Symposium.
(1962)
6. Lof, George O. G., Ward, John C. and Hao, O. J., "Combined Cooling
and Bio-treatment of Beet Sugar Factory condenser Water Effluent,"
Environmental Resources Center, Colorado State University, Fort Collins,
Colorado, completion Report OWRR, Project No. A-008-COLO submitted to
Office of Water Resources Research, U. S. Department of the Interior,
Washington, D. C. 20242, June 30, 1971.
7. Roy F. West, Inc., Preliminary unpublished summary report of sugar
industry, 1972.
8. Brent, Ronald W. and Fischer, James H., "Concentration of Sugarbeet
Wastes for Economic Treatment with Biological Systems." Proceedings
First National Symposium on Food Porcessing Wastes, April 6-8, 1970,
Portland, Oregon, Water Pollution Control Research Series 12060--04
per70, O. S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Quality
Administration.
9. Sugar Statistics and Related Data. Volume II (Revised). U. S.
Department of Agriculture Statistical Bulletin No. 244, Washington, D.
C., 1969.
135
-------
10. Howard, T. E. and Wai den, C. C. Treatment of Beet Sugar Plant
Ei.!3ni&_£li§£» British Columbia Research Council, University of British
Columbia, Vancouver, B. C. 196U.
11. Tsugita, Ronald A., Oswald, William J. , Cooper, Robert C. and
Golueke, Clarence G. , "Treatment of Sugarbeet Flume Waste Water by
Lagooning, a Pilot Study". J. Am. Sgc\ Sugar Beet Technology 15(4):
282-297, 1969.
12. Lof, George O. G., and Kneese, Allen Y. , The Economics _gf ^Watgr
Utilization _ in __ the Beet Sugar Industry, Resources of the Future, Inc. ,
Washington, D. C. The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Maryland (1968) .
13. The Beet Sugar Industry--7The Water Pollution Problem and Status of
Waste ^Abatement and Treatment __ , U. S. Department of the Interior,
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, South Platte River Basin
Project, Denver, Colorado (June 1967) .
1 U . Standa rd __ Methods __ for the Examination __ of __ Water and Wastewater ,
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York (1971) .
15. Jensen, L. T. , Sugar Found in Industrial Wastewater Control . (A
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Inc., Publishers, New York and London (1965).
16. Jensen, L. T. , "Recent Developments in Waste Water Treatment by the
Beet Sugar Industry", Proceedings of the Tenth ^industrial Waste
Conference, Purdue University, 439, May 9-11 (1955)7
17. Unpublished data in the files of the Technical Advisory and
Investigation Section, Technical Services Program, U. S. Department of
the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
18. "Proceedings of the Conference in the Matter of Pollution of the
Interstate Waters of the Red River of the North, North Dakota
Minnesota, September 14, 1965", Fargo, North Dakota, U. S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.
(September 1965) .
19. "Procedings, Volume I, II and III, of the Conference in the Matter
of Pollution of the South Platte River Basin in the State of Colorado,
Second Session, Denver, Colorado, April 27-28, 1966", U. S. Department
of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution control Administration,
Washington, D. C. (April 1966) .
136
-------
20. Black, H. H. and McDermott, G.N., "Industrial Waste Guide - Beet
Sugar", sewage and Industrial Wastes, 24, 2, 181, February 1952; also
presented at the first Ontario Industrial Waste conference, Ontario
Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontario June 15-18,1954.
21. "Treatment of Beet Sugar Flume Water - Project Report 64-117-B",
Prepared for the Beet Sugar Development Foundation, British Columbia
Research Council, University of British Columbia, Vancouver 8, Canada
(December 1964) .
22. "Rate Studies for BOD Removal in Beet Fluming Water - Progress
Report No. 3", Prepared for the Beet Sugar Development Foundation,
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23. Nemerow, Nelson, L. , Theories and Practices of Industrial Waste
Treatment, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading,
Massachusetts (1963).
24. Pearson, E. , and Sawyer, C. N., "Recent Developments in Chlorina-
tion in the Beet Sugar Industry", Proceedings of the ,5th _ Industrial
Waste_conference, Purdue University, p. 110, November 1949.
25. Elridge, E. F. , Industrial Waste Treatment Practice, New York,
McGraw-Hill, Inc. (1942).
26. Rodger s, H. G. , and Smith, L., "Beet Sugar Waste Lagooning",
Proceedings _ of __ 8th __ Industrial _ Waste Conference, Purdue University p.
136, Tway 1953)7
27. Hopkins, G.r et al. "Evaluation of Broad Field Disposal of Sugar
Beet Wastes" Sewage __ and __ Industrial Wastes __ Journal, 28, 12, 1466,
(December 1956) .
28. Industrial Wastewater control—A Textbook_and^ Reference Work, Edited
by C. Fred Gurnham, Academic Press, New York (1965).
29. southgate, B. A., Treatment and _ Disposal of __ Industrial __ Waste
Waters, London: His Majesty's Stationery Office (1948).
30. Hungerford, E. H. and Fischer, James H. , "State -of -Art Sugarbeet
Processing Waste Treatment", Proceedings of Second National Symposium on
Food ____ E£2£ess ing_Waste , Denver, Colorado, March 23-26, 1971, Water
Pollution Control Research Series 12060 — 03 per71 Superintendent of
Documents, Washington, D. C. (1971) .
137
-------
31. "Summary Report on the Beet Sugar Processing Industry (SIC 2063)",
0. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Programs,
Division of Applied Technology, The Industrial Wastes Studies Program
(1972) .
32. Oswald, William J. , Galueke, Clarence G., Cooper, Robert C. and
Tsugita, Ronald N., Anaerobic-Aerobic Ponds for Treatment of Beet
Sugar Wastes, Denver, Colorado, March 23-26, 1971, Water Pollution
Control Research Series, 12060 03 per71, Superintendent of Documents,
Washington, D. C. (1971)
33. Partially drafted report of findings and results of Phase I of EPA
Project No. 11060 ESC "Separation, Dewatering, and Disposal of Sugarbeet
Transplant Water Solids", Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
D. C. (1973) .
34. "Effluent Limitation Guidance for the Refuse Act Permit Program,
Beet Sugar Processing Industry", U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D. C. (June 13, 1972).
35. "Beet Sugar Companies in the United States (Executive offices and
Staffs, Factory Locations, Capacities, and Principal Personnel),"
Washington, D. C. (October 25, 1972).
36. "Sugar Statistics and Related Data", Administration^of ..the U. S.
Sugar Acts, Volume II (Revised), Statistical Bulletin No. 244,
Agricultural, Manufacturing and Income Statistics for Domestic Sugar
Areas, Revised February 1969, USDA, Washington, D. C. (Feb. 1970).
37. "Sugar Statistics and Related Data," Compiled in the Administration
of_the_Sugar_Acts, Volume I (Revised), Statistical Bulletin NO. 293,
Supplies, Distribution, Quota Operations, Prices and International Data
through 1968, Revised December 1969, USDA, Washington, D. C. (February
1970) .
38. The Gilmore Louisiana - Florida - Hawaii Sugar Manual 1971, Edited
by Aldrich cT Bloomguist, The Gilmore Sugar Manual Division, Bloomquist
Publications, Fargo, North Dakota.
39. "Economic Impact of Water Pollution Control Requirements on the
Sugar Beet Industry", A report prepared by Development and Planning
Research Assoc., Inc., for U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Water Programs, Division of Applied Technology, Washington, D. C.
(1972).
40. "Cost of Waste Water Treatment Processes". A report prepared by
the Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory, Robert A. Taft
138
-------
Research Center for U. S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration, Washington, D. C. (1968) .
41. "Pretreatment Guidelines for the Discharge of Industrial Waste to
Municipal Treatment Works." Roy F. West, Inc., West Chester,
Pennsylvania, Draft prepared for the U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D. C. , contract No. 68-01-0346 (November 17, 1972).
42. Linsley, Ray H. , Kohler, Max A. and Paulhaus, Joseph L. H. ,
32y-3£2l22LY. for Engineers, McGraw-Hill Book Co. , Inc. , New York (1950) .
43. Steel, Ernest W. , Water Supply and Sewage, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
Inc., New York (1960)
44. Grant, Eugene L. and Ireson, W. Grant, Principles^ of __ Engineering
Economy. The Ronald Press Co. , New York (1960) .
45. "Sewage Treatment Plant Design." Prepared by A Joint Committee of
the Water Pollution Control Federation and the American Society of Civil
Engineers. Water Pollution Control Federation, Washington, D. C.
(1959) .
46. "Recommended Standards for Sewage Works," A report of the Committee
of the Great Lakes-Upper Mississippi River Board of Sanitary Engineers,
Health Education Service, Albany, New York (1968) .
47. Brent, Ronald, W. , "Condenser Water Survey 1971-72 Campaign,"
Memorandum (March 1972) .
48. Smith, Robert and Eilers, Richard G. , "Cost to the Consumer for
collection and Treatment of Waste Water," Water Pollution Control
Research Series. Project No. 17070, Environmental Protection Agency
(1970) .
49. U. S. Public Health Service, "An Industrial Waste Guide to the Beet
Sugar Industry," (1950) .
50. Minnesota State Department of Health, "Progress Report on Study of
the Disposal of Beet Sugar Wastes by the Lagoon Method: Sept. 1950 to
March 1951", (1951) 51. McAdams, William E. , Heat .Transmission,
Chemical Engineering Series, Third Edition, Sponsored by the committee
on Heat Transmission National Research Council, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc. , New York (1954) .
52. McKelvey, K. K. and Brooke, M, The Industrial^Cooling Tower
Elsevier, Amsterdam, (1959) . ~~
139
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53. Berman, L. D. Evaporative Cooling of Circulating Water, Pergamon
Press, N.Y. (1961) . ~" ~
54. Parker, Frank L. and Krenkel, Peter A. "Thermal Pollution Status
of the Art," Report No. 3 Prepared for the Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration, Washington, D. C. (1969).
55. Cotter, T. J. and Lotz, R. W., "Cooling Pond Design in the
Southwest," Journal of the Power Division, ASCE 87, 85-103 (1961).
56. Climatic^AtlasTof the United States, U. S. Department of Commerce,
U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. (1968) .
57. Statistical_Abstracts of the United States, 92nd Annual Edition, U.
s. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, Washington, D. C. (1971).
58. Provided by Mr. Clare H. Iversen, Chief Engineer, The Great Western
Sugar company, Denver, Colorado (January 2, 1973).
59. Provided by Mr. Herbert O. Ebell, General Chemist, Michigan Sugar
Company, Saginaw, Michgan (February 1973).
60. Cost Information as provided by Black & Veatch Consulting
Engineers, 1500 Meadowlake Parkway, Kansas City, Missouri (February
1973) .
61. Information as provided by Mr. Dale Blant, Fluor Industry, Santa
Rosa, California (February 1973) .
62. Beet Sugar Industry, Background Information on Development of
Effluent Limitations, Office of Refuse Act Permit Programs,
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D. C. As provided to the
Effluent Guidelines Division, EPA by the Office of Permit Programs,
January U, 1973 (1973).
63. Provided by Mr. David C. Carter, Executive Vice President, U. S.
Beet Sugar Association (January 26, 1973).
61. Fordyce, I. V., and Cooley, A. M., "Separation, Dewatering and
Disposal of Sugar Beet Transport Water Solids, Phase I," A project
conducted under the sponsorship of the Office of Research and
Monitoring, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D. C., Grant
Project t!2060 ESC (June 1972) .
65. Beet-Sugar Technology, Edited by R. A. McGinnis, Second Edition,
published by Beet Sugar Development Foundation, P. O. Box 538, Fort
Collins, Colorado (1971).
1UO
-------
66. Blankenbach, W. W., and Williams, W. A., 15th Meeting American
Society of Sugar Beet Technology, Phoenix, Arizona (February 1968).
67. Miller, P. H., Eis, F. G., and Oswald, W. J., Pres. at 15th Meeting
American Society Sugar Beet Technology, Phoenix, Arizona (February
1968) .
68. Ichikawo, K., Golueke, G. G. and Oswald, W. J., Pres. at 15th
Meeting American Society Sugar Beet Technology, Phoenix, Arizona (Feb.
1968) .
69. Crane, G. W., "The Conservation of Water and Final Treatment
Effluent". Proc. at 19th Technical conference British Sugar
Corporation, Ltd. (June 1968) .
70. Tsugita, R. A., Oswald, W. J., Cooper, R. C. and Golueke, C. G.,
Pres. 15th Meeting American Society Sugar Beet Technology, Phoenix,
Arizona
71. Querio, C. W. and Powers, T. J., Proc. of the 34th Annual Meeting
Water Pollution Control Federation, *Milwaukee, Wisconsin, (Oct. 1961).
72. "Policy on Subsurface Emplacement of Fluids by Well Injection." A
policy statement issued by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
with accompanying "Recommended Data Requirements for Environmental
Evaluation of Subsurface Emplacement of Fluids by Well Injection,"
Washington, D.C. (February 1973).
73. "Treatment of selected Internal Kraft Mill Wastes in a Cooling
Tower," report of findings and results prepared by the Georgia Kraft
Company Research and Development Center under Program 112040 EEK, Grant
fWPRD 116-01-68 for the Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.
C. Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C. (Aug. 1971)
74. As obtained by on-site plant visits by EPA personnel during
January—February 1973.
75.
Iverson, Clair H.
"Water consumption of A Typical Beet Sugar
Factory,'
1973) .
The Great Western Sugar Company, Denver, Colorado (February
76. Sawyer, Clair N., Chemistry for Sanitary_Engineers, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, New York (1960) . ~ ~~
77. Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards,Revised 1962, U. S.
Department of Health, Education and welfare, U. S. Public Health Service
141
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Publication No. 956, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
(1962).
78. "Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes," Environmental
Protection Agency, National Environmental Research Center, Analytical
Quality Control Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio (1971).
79. Environmental Protection Agency, "Proposed Drinking Water
Standards" 1971 Revision, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Media Programs, Office of Water Hygiene, Division of Water Hygiene,
Washington, D. C. (1971).
80. "Existing and Proposed Effluent Criteria for common Pollution
Indices," Proposed by Refuse Act Permit Program, U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Region VIII, Denver, Colorado, (subject to revision)
(May 1972).
81. Fairall, J. M., Marshall, L. S. and Rhines, C. E., "Guide for
Conducting an Industrial Waste Survey (Draft)", U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Air and Water Programs, Effluent Guidelines
Division, Engineering and sciences Staff, Cincinnati, Ohio (1972),
82. Cooling^Towers • Prepared by editors of Chemical Engineering
Progress, A technical manual published by American Institute of Chemical
Engineers, New York, New York (1972).
83. Kolflat, T. D., "Cooling Towers - State of the Art", Department of
Interior perAtomic Industrial Forum Seminar, Washington, D. C., February
13-14, 1973 (1973).
84. Cost of Wastewater Treatment Processes, Report No. TWRC-6, Robert
A. Taft Water Research Center, Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration, Cincinnati, Ohio (December 1968).
85. Proceedings of a Symposium on Waste stabilization Lagoons, A Review
of Research and Experiences in Design, construction. Operation and
Maintenance, Kansas City, Missouri, Public Health Service Publication
No. 872, Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.
86. Glossary Water and sewage Control Engineering, Published Under the
Joint Sponsorship of American Public Health Association, American
Society of Civil Engineers, American Water Work Association and
Federation of Sewage and Industrial Wastes Associations.
87.Hardenberghbb, W. A. and Edward B. Rodie, Water Supply and Waste
Disposal, International Textbook company, Scrant, Pennsylvania, Third
Printing, August, 1966.
142
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88. Manual on Water, ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 442,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Third Edition, March, 1972.
89. Select Committee on National Resources, vs. Senate, "Water Supply
and Demand", Committed Print No. 32, 1960.
90. McGuinness, C. L., "The Role of Ground Water in the National
Situation," vs. Geological Survey Water - Supply Paper 1800, 1963.
91. Subsurface Pollution Problems in the United States, Technical
Studies Report: TS-00-72-02, Office of Water Programs, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., May, 1972.
92. Proceedings of the National Ground Water Quality Symposium,
Cosponsored by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the National
Water Well Association, August 25-27, 1971, Denver, Colorado, contract
No. 68-01-0004, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
93. Report on Water Quality Investigations, North Platte River Basin
Tarringt, Wyoming To Bayard, Nebraska, Office of Enforcement,
National Field Investigations center - Denver, Colorado and Region VIII,
Kansas City, Missouri, April, 1972.
94. Memorandum Report on the Evaluation of Great western Sugar Mills in
the North Platte River Basin, Nebraska, Environmental Protection Agency,
Water Quality Office, Division of Field investigations - Denver center,
Denver, Colorado, January, 1973.
95. Perry, John H., Chemical Engineering Handbook, 4th Edition, McGraw
Hill, New York, New York (1963).
96. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 36th Edition, Chemical Rubber
Publishing Company, Cleveland, Ohio (1954).
97. The Cost of Clean Water, Volume I, Summary Report, U. S. Department
of Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, January 10,
1968.
98. The Economics of Clean Water, Volume I, Detailed Analysis, U. S.
Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration, March, 1970.
99. Cost of Clean Water, Volume II, cost Effectiveness and Clean Water,
Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, March, 1971.
100. Proceedings of the Advanced Waste Treatment and Water Reuse
Symposium, Session 1 - 5, Sponsored by the U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Dallas, Texas, January 12-14, 1971.
143
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101. Martin, Edward J. and Leon W. Weinberger, Eutrophication and Water
Pollution, Publication No. 15, Great Lakes Research Division, the
University of Michigan, 1966.
102. St. Amant, Percy P. and Louis A. Beck, Methods of Removing
Nitrates from Water, Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Sept. perOct.,
1970.
103. Water Quality Management Problems in Arid Regions, Federal Water
Quality Administration, U. S. Department of the Interior, Program
#13030DYY, October, 1970.
104. Nitrogen Removal from waste Waters, Federal Water Quality Admin-
istration, Division of Research and Development, Advanced Waste
Treatment Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, May, 1970.
105. Anaerobic - Aerobic Ponds for Beet Sugar Waste Treatment,
Environmental Protection Technology Series, EPA - R2 - 73 - 025, Office
of Research and Monitoring, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D. C., February, 1973.
106. Cost of Wastewater Treatment Processes, Report No. TWRC - 6, The
Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory, Robert A. Taft Water
Research Center, U. S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration, Cincinnati, Ohio, December, 1968.
107. Cost and Performance Estimates for Tertiary Wastewater Treating
Processes, Report No. TWRC - 9, The Advanced Waste Estimates for
Tertiary Wastewater Treating Processes, Treatment Research Laboratory,
Robert A. Taft Water Research Center, U. S. Department of the Interior,
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Cincinnati, Ohio, June,
1969.
108. Fair, Gordon M. and John C. Geyer, Elements of Water Supply and
Wastewater Disposal, John Wiley and Sons, Second Printing, New York,
September, 1961.
144
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SECTION XV
GLOSSARY
Activated,Sludge Process
A biological sewage treatment process in which a mixture of sewage
and activated sludge is agitated and aerated. The activated
sludge is subsequently separated from the treated sewage (mixed
liquor) by sedimentation, and wasted or returned to the process
as needed. The treated sewage overflows the weir of the settling
tank in which separation from the sludge takes place.
Aeration
The bringing about of intimate contact between air and a liquid
by one of the following methods: Spraying the liquid in the air;
bubbling air through the liquid; or by agitation of the liquid
to promote surface absorption of air.
Aeration Period
(1) The theoretical time, usually expressed in hours, that
the mixed liquor is subjected to aeration in an aeration tank
undergoing activated sludge treatment; is equal to (a) the volume
of the tank divided by (b) the volumetric rate of flow of the
sewage and return sludge. (2) The theoretical time that water is
subjected to aeration.
Air_Pollution
The presence in the atmosphere of one or more air contaminants in
quantities, of characteristics, and of a duration, injurious to human,
plant, animal life, or property, or which unreasonably interferes with
the comfortable enjoyment thereof.
AlkalinitY
A quality of waste waters due to the presence of weak bases, composed
primarily of bicarbonates, carbonates and hydroxides.
Ammonia Nitrogen
All nitrogen in waste waters existing as the ammonium ion.
1U5
-------
Living or active in the absence of free oxygen.
The solid residue left after incineration in the presence of oxygen. In
analysis of sugar products, sulfuric acid is added to the sample, and
this residue as "sulfated ash" heated to 800°C is taken to be a measure
of the inorganic constituents. It is sometimes determined indirectly by
measure of the electrical conductivity of solutions of the products.
Bacterial^Quantit¥.,ynit (BQU)^
One measure of the total load of bacteria passing a given stream
location and is particularly useful in comparing relative loads between
stations. The number of BQU's is derived as the product of flow in cfs
and coliform density in MPN perlOO mlr divided by 100,000.
Beet End
The part of the sugar plant which includes the process through the
evaporators. In plants where the vacuum pans are heated by vapors, the
evaporators are usually included in the sugar end.
The vegetable matter left after sugar is extracted from cossettes.
Used, wet, dehydrated or pelleted as commercial cattle feed.
Biological Filtration
The process of passing a liquid through a biological filter containing
media on the surfaces of which zoogleal films develop which absorb fine
suspended, colloidal, and dissolved solids, and release end products of
biochemical action.
Biological process
The process by which the life activities of bacteria, and other
microorganisms in the search for food, break down complex organic
materials into simple, more stable substances. Self -purification of
sewage polluted streams, sludge digestion, and all so-called secondary
sewage treatments result from this process. Also called Biochemical
Process.
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Beet_ Wheel
A large wheel with baffles projecting radially inward from the surface
of the perforated rim, and used to raise beets to a higher plane and
separate them from the flume water; e.g., as from a flume to a beet
washer.
QxYgen Demand
The quantity of oxygen used in the biochemical oxidation of organic
matter over a five-day period of incubation at 20°C. The procedure is a
standard test used in accessing waste water pollutional strength. (The
term is printed as BOD5 rather than using the subscript number because
of printing limitations.)
Slowdown
A discharge from a system, designed to prevent a buildup of some
material, as in a boiler to control dissolved solids.
Brix
A hydormeter scale, calibrated to read percent sugar by weight in pure
sugar solutions. Originated by Balling, improved and corrected by Brix.
The roasting or burning of any substance to bring about physical or
chemical changes; e.g., the conversion of lime rock to quicklime.
The period of the year during which the beet plant makes sugar.
The process of treatment with carbon dioxide gas.
Caustic
Capable of destroying or eating away by chemical action. Applied to
strong bases.
Chain-grate^ Stoker
A stoker system which moves the coal in a continuous bed from the bottom
of a feed hopper into the furnace by means of a moving grate, consisting
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of a continuous belt constructed of many individual cast - iron chain
links so assembled as to allow air to pass through.
The process of removing undissolved materials from a liquid.
Specifically, removal of suspended solids either by settling or
filtration.
Coagulation
(1) The agglomeration of colloidal or finely divided suspended matter by
the addition to the liquid of an appropriate chemical coagulant, by
biological processes, or by other means. (2) The process of adding a
coagulant and necessary other reacting chemicals.
COD - Chemical Oxygen Demand
A measure of the oxygen consuming capacity of inorganic and organic
matter present in water or waste water. It is expressed as the amount
of oxygen consumed from a chemical oxidant in a specific test.
Con duct ivity
A. measure of the ability of water in conducting an electrical current.
In practical terms, it is used for approximating the salinity or total
dissolved solids content of water.
Cossette
Long, thin strips into which sugar beets are sliced before sugar-
containing juices are extracted. The strips somewhat resemble
shoestring potatoes.
Crop__Year
In the sugar beet area in Southern California and all other States the
crop year corresponds to the calendar year of planting. In Northern
California, a crop of sugar beets planted in the interval beginning
November 1 of one calendar year through October 31 of the following
calendar year is designated by crop year to correspond with such
following calendar year.
2§Bi§£ion_or_Loss
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The volume of water which is evaporated, embodied in product, or
otherwise disposed of in such a way that it is no longer available for
reuse in the plant or available for reuse by another outside the plant.
Diffuser
An apparatus into which water and cossettes are fed, the water
extracting sugar from the sugar beet cells.
Pet en t i on_P erj.od
The theoretical time required to displace the contents of a tank or unit
at a given rate of discharge (volume divided by rate of discharge.)
DO_-_Dissolved_Oxy.gen
The oxygen dissolved in waste water or other liquid expressed in mg/1 or
percent of saturation.
Pust^Box
A device to remove sugar dust from air, usually employing water sprays;
a dust collector.
Effluent
(1) A liquid which flows out of a containing space. (2) Sewage,
water, or other liquid, partially or completely treated, or in its
natural state, as the case may be, flowing out of a reservoir, basin, or
treatment plant, or part thereof.
EaEt^Sn_ Pond
A pond constructed with or without filtration control measures for the
purpose of detention, long-term storage, or land disposal of influent
waste waters.
Electrostatic Freeipitator
A gas cleaning device using the principle of placing an electrical
charge on a solid particle which is then attracted to an oppositely-
charged collector plate. The device used a d-c potential approaching
UO,000 volts to ionize and collect the particulate matter. The
collector plates are intermittently rapped to discharge the collected
dust into a hopper below.
Extraction Rate Efficiency
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The percentage relationship between the sugar recovered and the sugar
content in sugar beets.
Faculative Pond
A combination aerobic-anaerobic pond divided by loading stratification
into aerobic surface,and anaerobic bottom, strata.
Fecal Coliform Bacteria
A group of bacteria of fecal origin within the coliform group inhabiting
the intestines of man or animal. The group comprises all of the aerobic
and facultative anaerobic, gram negative, non-spore forming, rod-shaped
bacteria which ferment lactose with gas formation within 48 hours at
35°C. In addition, the bacteria will produce gas within 24 plus or
minus 3 hours at 43 plus or minus 0.2°C when inoculated into EC culture
medium.
Filtrate
Liquid after passing through a filter.
Filtration
Removal of solid particles from liquid or particles from air or gas
stream by passing the liquid or gas stream through a filter media.
Flume WastgMWater
The normal term applied to the discharge of flume water which is
employed to convey beets into the beet sugar processing plant.
Gas Washer
Apparatus used to remove entrained solids and other substances from
carbon dioxide gas from a lime kiln.
Glucose
(1) An alternate chemical name for dextrose. (2) A name given to corn
syrup which is obtained by the action of acids and peror enzymes on
cornstarch. Commercial corn syrups -are nearly colorless and very
viscous. They consist principally of dextrose and another sugar,
maltose, combined with gummy organic materials known as dextrins, in
water solution.
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A. rotary drier used to remove free moisture from sugar crystals prior to
packaging or storing.
Ground Water
Water in the ground beneath the surface. In a strict sense the term
applies only to water below the water table.
Holding Pond
An earthen facility, with or without lining to control seepage,
constructed for the primary purpose of waste detention prior to
discharge, or containment of waste water without direct discharge to
surface waters by the mechanism of evaporation and ground seepage.
Within the context of the meaning of the term seepage used in this
report, seepage shall imply controlled ground seepage within specified
limitations, and such as not to contribute adversely to the quality of
ground or surface waters. Seepage control measures may be required to
limit seepage from holding ponds within this context-
Lime_Cake
The lime mud resulting upon clarification and purification of the raw
sugar juice by heating, lime addition and precipitation in a insoluble
precipitate contains both organic and inorganic two-step process through
carbon dioxide addition. The impurities.
Lime Mud^Slurry
The product resulting from the addition of water to lime cake to
facilitate pumping of the material for disposal.
Lime Pond
A large diked area to which the lime mud slurry or waste filter cakes
are held.
Massecuite
The mixture of mother liquor and sugar crystals, produced in the sugar
boiling process (literally, a "cooked mass").
Mechanical^Clarifier
A man-made device designed specifically for the detention of waste water
for the purpose of removal of the settleable solids from the waste under
controlled operating conditions.
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Molasses
A dark-colored syrup containing non-sugars produced in processing both
beet and cane sugar. Beet molasses is used as commercial cattle feed or
in the manufacture of monosodium glutamate, a food flavoring agent,
alcohol, yeast, citric acid and other products.
Mother Liquor
The solution from which crystals are formed.
MPN^- Most_Probable Number
In the testing of bacterial density by the dilution method that number
of organisms perunit volume which, in acccordance with statistical
theory, would be more likely than any other possible number to yield the
observed test result or which would yield the observed test result with
the greatest frequency. Expressed as density of organisms perl00 ml.
The oxidation of organic nitrogen into nitrates through biochemical
action.
Nonsugar
Any material present, aside from water, which is not a sugar.
A single-effect evaporator used to crystallize sugar.
Percentage Reduction
The ratio of material removed from water or sewage by treatment to the
material originally presented (expressed as a percentage.)
EH
A measure of the relative acidity of alkalinity of water. The
reciprocal of the logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. A pH
value of 7.0 indicates a neutral condition; less than 7.0 indicates a
predominance of acids, and greater than 7, a predominance of alkalis.
Process_Effluent^or_pischarqe
The volume of water emerging from a particular use in the plant.
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Pond_Lime
Lime cake after being run into waste ponds.
t :L gn_ Eguiyalents (P . E. \
Describe the pollutional effect of various waste discharges in terms of
a corresponding effect of discharging raw sewage from an equivalent
number of human population. Each P.E. represent the waste contributed
by one person in a single day generally equivalent to 0.17 Ibs BOD5.
Process Water
Water which is used in the internal juice streams from which sugar is
ultimately crystallized.
Pulp_Press
A mechanical pressure device which squeezes the exhausted cossettes
(pulp) to remove a portion of the inherent water.
Pulp Screen Water
Water which is drained from the wet insoluble pulp after the diffusion
process but before the pulp is pressed to remove extraneous water and
sugar.
Pulp Silg^Drainage
Drainage water resulting from discharge of pulp from the diffuser with
screenings to a silo equipped with channels for drainage water
collection.
Purity
A measure of the actual sugar content in relation to the total dry
substance in sugar beets. Specifically, the percentage of sucrose in
total solids.
Raw Sugar
Raw Sugar is an intermediate product consisting of crystals of high
purity covered with a film of low quality syrup.
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Raw value is a computed weight of sugar used in the Sugar Act for a
common expression of different types and qualities of sugar. The major
types of sugars are converted to raw value as follows:
(1) For hard refined crystalline sugar multiply the
number of Ib thereof by 1.07.
(2) For raw cane sugar, multiply the number of Ib
by the figure obtained by adding to 0.93 the result
of multiplying 0.175 by the number of degrees and
fractions of a degree of polarization above 92 degrees.
(3) For sugar and liquid sugar, testing less than 92 degrees
by the polariscope, divide the number of Ib of
the "total sugar content" thereof by 0.972.
Sugar Juice
The liquid product remaining after extraction of sugar from the sliced
beets (cossettes) during the diffusion process.
Riparian
An adjective pertaining to anything connected with or adjacent to the
banks of a stream or other body of water.
Reflngd, Sugar
A high purity sugar normally used for human consumption.
Saccharatg^Milk
A slurry of calcium saccharate from the Steffen process.
Screening
The removal of relatively coarse floating and suspended solids by
straining through racks or screens.
Seal_Tank
The tank on, the bottom of a barometric , leg pipe .
Sedimentation
The sedimentation of suspended matter in a liquid aided or unaided by
chemicals or other special means and without provision for the
decomposition of deposited solids in contact with the sewage.
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Slicer
Usually a drum on which V-shaped corrugated knives are mounted. This
machine produces the cossettes.
Slicing Capacity
Processing capacity. The number of ts of sugar beets a plant is capable
of processing in a 24-hour period of time.
Sludge
The settled mud from a thickener clarifier. Also, in the Steffen
process, the vacuum filter tray bottoms returned to the process as wet
lime for preliming the diluted molasses. Generally, almost any
flocculated, settled mass.
Steffen^Process
A process employed at some beet sugar plants for recovery of additional
sucrose from molasses. The process is generally carried on in
conjunction with the main sugar extraction process at non-Steffen or
"straight-house" plants. The process consists of the addition of finely
ground calcium oxide to dilute molasses under low temperature
conditions. Sugar, Steffen filtrate and insoluble calcium saccharate is
produced, filtered out, and generally reused at the main purification
step of the normal "straighthouse" extraction process.
Steffen^Filtrate
The waste which is separated from the calcium saccharate.
Sucrose
A disaccharide having the formula C12H22011. The terms sucrose and
sugar are generally interchangeable, and the common sugar of commerce is
sucrose in varying degrees of purity. Refined cane and beet sugars are
essentially 100 percent sucrose.
A sweet, crystallizable substance, colorless or white when pure,
occurring in many plant juices, and forming an important article of
human food. The chief sources of sugar are the sugar cane and the sugar
beet, the completely refined products of which are identical and form
the granulated sugar of commerce. Chemically, sugar is a disaccharide
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with the formula CJ2H22O11 formed by union of one molecule of dextrose
with one molecule of levulose.
Supernatant
The layer floating above the surface of a layer of solids.
Spray Irrigation
Irrigation by means of nozzles along a pipe on the ground or from
perforated overhead pipes.
Surface, Irrigation
The process of sewage irrigation in which sewage is applied to and
distributed over the surface of the ground.
SusBgnded^Solids
(1) The quantity of material deposited when a quantity of water, sewage,
or other liquid is filtered through an asbestos mat in a Gooch crucible.
(2) Solids that either float on the surface of or are in suspension, in
water, sewage, or other liquids; and which are largely removable by
laboratory filtering.
Sweetwater
Dilute sugar solution, formed from washing filter cakes or granular
carbon beds, too dilute to continue with the filtrate into the main
process stream. Normally used in making milk of lime and saccharate
milk.
Tare
Waste material which must be discharged. Also, the empty weight of a
container used for weighing or transporting material.
Total Colif orjm,, Bacteria
Represents a diverse group of microorganisms whose presence have been
classically used as indication of sewage pollution in water supplies.
They are always present in the intestinal tract of man and other warm-
blooded animals and are excreted in large number in fecal wastes. Where
such fecal pollution exists, there is always the possibility of the
presence of enteric pathogenic bacteria and other pathogenic entities.
Increasing density of the coliform bacteria group is assumed to
represent an increase in the quantity of pollution, and therefore,
greater hazard. It must be noted under some circumstances total
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coliform may be present which are derived from sources other than fecal
excreta.
TPS - Total Dissolved Solids
The solids in water, sewage or other liquids, it includes the suspended
solids (largely removable by filter paper) and the filterable solids
(those which pass through filter paper).
Trickling^Filter
A filter consisting of an artificial bed of coarse material, such as
broken ste, clinkers, slate, slats, or brush, over which sewage is
distributed and applied in drops, films, or spray, from troughs,
drippers, moving distributors, or fixed nozzles, and through which it
trickles to the underdrains, giving opportunity for the formation of
zoogleal slimes which clarify and oxidize the sewage.
Vacuum_FiJLter
A filter consisting of a cylindrical drum mounted on a horizontal axis,
covered with a filter cloth, revolving with a partial submergence in
liquid. A vacuum is maintained under the cloth for the larger part of a
revolution to extract moisture. The cake is scraped off continuously.
Vapor
Derived from boiling juices, as differentiated from steam generated in
the boiler house or obtained from exhaust of turbines or engines.
Vernalization
To produce premature flowering or fruiting of a plant.
Wet Scrubbing
A gas cleaning system using water or some suitable liquid to entrap
particulate matter, fumes, and absorbable gases. The collected
substances are then withdrawn along with the scrubbing liquid.
Waste Discharged
The amount (usually expressed by weight) of some residual substance
which is suspended or dissolved in the plant effluent after treatment,
if any and conveyed directly to surface waters.
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Wast ^generated
The amount (usually expressed as weight) of some residual substance
generated by a plant process or the plant as a whole and which is
suspended or dissolved in water. This quantity is measured before
treatment.
Waste Water
All water used in or resulting from the processing of sugar beets to
refined sugar, including process water, barometric condenser water, beet
transport (flume) water, and all other liquid wastes including cooling
waters.
Watercourse
A channel in which a flow of water occurs, either continuously or
intermittently, and if the latter, with some degree of regularity. Such
flow must be in a definite direction. Watercourses may be either
natural or artificial, and the former may occur either on the surface or
underground. A. different set of legal principles may apply to rights to
use water from different classes of watercourses.
Water Rights
The rights, acquired under the law, to use the water occurring in
surface or ground waters, for a specified purpose and in a given manner
and usually within the limits of a given period. While such rights may
include the use of a body of water for navigation, fishing, and hunting,
other recreational purposes, etc., the term is usually applied to the
right to divert or store water for some beneficial purpose or use, such
as irrigation, generation of hydroelectric power, domestic or municipal
water supply. In some states, a water right by law becomes appurtenant
to the particular tract of land to which the water is applied.
Water Recirculation or Recycling
The volume of water already used for some purpose in the plant which is
returned with or without treatment to be used again in the same or
another process.
Water_Dse_or_Gross_Us>e
The total volume of water applied to various uses in the plant. It is
the sum of water recirculation and water withdrawal.
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1
Water Withdrawal or^Intake
The volume of fresh water removed from a surface or underground water
source (stream, lake, or aquifer) by plant facilities or obtained from
some source external to the plant.
Zooglea
A. jelly-like matrix developed by bacteria. The word is usually
associated with activated sludge growths in biological beds.
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TABLE XVIII
CONVERSION. JABLE
MULTIPLY (ENGLISH UNITS) by * TO OBTAIN (METRIC UNITS)
ENGLISH UNIT ABBREVIATION CONVERSION ABBREVIATION METRIC UNIT
acre ac
acre - feet ac ft
British Thermal
Unit BTU
British Thermal
Unit/pound BTU/lb
cubic feet/minute cfm
cubic feet/second cfs
cubic feet cu ft
cubic feet cu ft
cubic inches cu in
degree Fahrenheit F°
feet ft
gallon gal
gallon/minute gpm
horsepower hp
inches in
inches of mercury in Hg
pounds lb
million gallons/day mgd
mile mi
pound/square
inch (gauge) psig
square feet sq ft
square inches sq in
tons (short) ton
yard yd
0.405
1233.5
0.252
ha
cu m
kg cal
0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555(°F-32)1
0.3048
3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
3,785
1.609
kg cal/kg
cu m/min
cu m/min
cu m
1
cu cm
°C
m
1
I/sec
kw
cm
atm
kg
cu m/day
km
(0.06805 psig +1)1 atm
0.0929 sq m
6.452 sq cm
0.907 kkg
0.9144 m
hectares
cubic meters
kilogram - calories
kilogram calories/kilogram
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters
liters
cubic centimeters
degree Centigrade
meters
liters
liters/second
killowatts
centimeters
atmospheres
kilograms
cubic meters/day
kilometer
atmospheres (absolute)
square meters
square centimeters
metric tons (1000 kilograms)
meters
1 Actual conversion, not a multiplier
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