EPA 440/1-73/ 002-a
          DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT FOR
   PROPOSED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
   AND NEW SOURCE  PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
                    FOR THE
           CANE SUGAR  REFINING
                  SEGMENT OF THE
                 SUGAR PROCESSING
               POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
          UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                    DECEMBER 1973

-------
                        Publication Notice

This is a development document for proposed effluent limitations
guidelines and new source performance standards.  As such, this
report is subject to changes resulting from comments received
during the period of public comments of the proposed regulations
This document in its final form will be published at the time
the regulations for this industry are promulgated.

-------
              DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT

                      for

    PROPOSED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES

                      and

        NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
          CANE SUGAR REFINING SEGMENT
                     OF THE
           SUGAR PROCESSING INDUSTRY
                Russell E. Train
                 Administrator

                Robert L. Sansom
Assistant Administrator for Air & Water Programs
                  Allen Cywin
     Director, Effluent Guidelines Division

              Robert W. Dellinger
                Project Officer
                 December, 1973

          Effluent Guidelines Division
        Office of Air and Water Programs
      U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
            Washington, D.C.   20460
           U.S.  Enviromnental Protection
           Begion  5,  Library {'TL-'";
           230 :-,.  Dearborn Str^t, .
           Chicago,  IL   60604

-------
                                ABSTRACT
This document presents the findings of an extensive study of the cane
sugar refining industry for the purpose of recommending Effluent Limita-
tions Guidelines, Federal Standards of Performance, and Pretreatment
Standards for the Industry for the purpose of implementing Sections 304,
306, and 307 of the "Act."

Effluent Limitations Guidelines contained herein set forth the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the Best
Practicable Control Technology Currently Available  (BPCTCA) and the
degree of effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
Best Available Technology Economically Achievable  (BATEA) which must be
achieved by existing point sources by July 1, 1977, and July 1, 1983,
respectively.  The Standards of Performance for new sources  (NSPS) con-
tained herein set forth the degree of effluent reduction which is
achievable through the application of the Best Available Demonstrated
Control Technology, Processes, Operating Methods, or other alternatives.

The cane sugar refining segment of the sugar processing industry has
been divided into two subcategories:  liquid cane sugar refineries and
crystalline cane sugar refineries.  The proposed limitations for all
three levels of technology as set forth above establish the requirements
for discharge to navigable waters  (see Table 1).

Supportive data and rationale for development of the proposed Effluent
Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance are contained in
this document.   The remaining segments of the sugar processing industry
not contained within this report are raw cane sugar processing and beet
sugar processing.  Raw cane sugar processing is being studied at this
time and is to be presented at a later date.  Beet sugar processing has
been previously studied and is the subject of a separate report entitled
- Beet Sugar Processing Segment of the Sugar Processing Industry.
                                    ill

-------
                           TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECTION                                                PAGE

I        CONCLUSIONS                                      1
ii       RECOMMENDATIONS                                  2
III      INTRODUCTION                                     3
            Purpose and Authority                         3
            Sunmary of Methods                            4
            Background of the Cane Sugar Industry         7
            Definition of the Industry                    7
            Process Description                          10
IV       INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION                         28
V        WATER USE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION            32
            Specific Water Uses                          32
            Waste Water Characteristics                  46
VI       POLLUTANT PARAMETERS                            59
            Major Waste Water Control Parameters         59
            Additional Parameters                        60
VII      CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY                63
            In-plant Control Measures                    63
            Treatment and Disposal Technology            68
            Effluent Limitations Guidelines Development  74
            Establishment of Daily Average Limitations   80
VIII     COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS     82
            The Model Refineries                         82
            Basis of Cost Analysis                       82
            Crystalline Refining                         84
              Discharge of Process Waste Streams to
              Municipal Treatment Systems               101
            Liquid Refining                             103
              Discharge of Process Waste Streams to
              Municipal Treatment Systems               113
            Related Energy Requirements of Alternative
            Treatment and Control Technologies          114
            Non-Water Quality Aspects of Alternative
            Treatment and Control Technologies          116
IX       EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE
         APPLICATION OF THE BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL
         TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE - EFFLUENT
         LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES                         117
            Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the
            Application of Best Practicable Control
            Technology Currently Available for the
            Cane Sugar Refining Industry                117
X        EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE
         APPLICATION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY
         ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE - EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
         GUIDELINES                                     121
            Introduction                                121
                                          v

-------
            Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the
            Application of the Best Available Tech-
            nology Economically Achievable — Effluent
            Limitations Guidelines for the Cane Sugar
            Refining Processing Industry
XT       NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS               122
            Introduction                                124
            New Source Performance Standards for the
            Cane Sugar Refining Processing Industry     125
XII      AO
-------
                              TABLES
NUMBER                        TITLE                         PAGE
  1      Recommended Effluent Limitations and Standards
         of Performance                                        2
  2      Sources of Data                                       5
  3      American Cane Sugar Refineries                        8
  4      Multiple Ownership of Sugar Refineries               10
  5      Unit Water Intake and Waste Water Discharges         35
  6      Decolorization Media Used by Each Cane Sugar
         Refinery Currently in Operation                      40
  7      Summary of Types of Decolorization Media Used
         by Cane Sugar Refiners                               41
  8      Process Water Discharge For Crystalline Cane
         Sugar Refining ( All Refineries )                    43
  9      Process Water Discharge for Crystalline Cane
         Sugar Refining ( Average of the Best )               44
 10      Condenser Water Summary:  Loadings                   48
 11      Condenser Water Summary:  Concentrations             49
 12      Char Wash Summary:  Loadings                         50
 13      Char Wash Summary:  Concentrations                   50
 14      Waste Water Characteristics of Liquid Sugar
         Refineries                                           53
 15      Total Waste Loading Summary                          54
 16      Total Flow Summary                                   55
                                 Vll

-------
                              TABLES
                           (  CONTINUED )
NUMBER                        TITLE                         PAGE

  17      Summary of Waste Water Treatment and Disposal
          Techniques of United States Cane Sugar Refineries   71

  18      Summary of Waste Loads from Treatment Alternatives
          for the Selected Crystalline Refineries             90

  19      Summary of Alternative Costs for a 545 Metric
          Tons per Day Crystalline Sugar Refinery             91

  20      Summary of Alternative Costs for a 1900 Metric
          Tons per Day Crystalline Sugar Refinery             92

  21      Implementation Schedules for a Small Crystalline
          Sugar Refinery                                      93

  22      Implementation Schedules for a Large Crystalline
          Sugar Refinery                                      97

  23      Summary of Waste Loads from Treatment Alternatives
          for the Selected Liquid Refinery                   107

  24      Summary of Alternative Costs for a 508 Metric
          Tons per Day Liquid Sugar Refinery                 108

  25      Implementation Schedules for a Liquid Sugar
          Refinery                                           109
                                 Vlll

-------
                              FIGURES
NUMBER                        TITLE                          PAGE
   1       American Cane Sugar Refineries                       6
   2       Sucrose                                             11
   3       Simplified Process Diagram for Cane Sugar
           Refining                                            13
   4       Typical Bone Char Refinery                          14
   5       Typical Carbon Refinery                             17
   6       Triple-Effect Evaporation                           21
   7       Devices to Reduce Entrainment                       22
   8       Liquid Sugar Refining                               27
   9       Waste Water Flow Diagram for a Liquid Sugar
           Refinery                                            33
  10       Waste Water Flow Diagram for a Crystalline
           Sugar Refinery                                      34
  11       Water Balance in a Liquid Sugar Refinery            37
  12       Water Balance in a Crystalline Sugar Refinery       38
  13       Process Water Discharge Versus Size for Crys-
           talline Cane Sugar Refining                         45
  14       Raw Waste Loadings and Water Usage for the
           Average Crystalline Cane Sugar Refinery             57
  15       Raw Waste Loadings and Water Usage for the
           Average Liquid Cane Sugar Refinery                  58
                                  IX

-------
                              FIGURES
                           ( CONTINUED )
NUMBER                        TITLE                          PAGE
  16       Entrainment Reduction                               65
  17       Filter Cake Recycle System                          69
  18       Raw Waste Loadings and Water Usage for the
           Model Crystalline Cane Sugar Refinery               75
  19       Raw Waste Loadings and Water Usage for the
           Model Liquid Cane Sugar Refinery                    76
  20       Condenser Water Loadings and Water Usage for
           Crystalline Cane Sugar Refineries                   78
  21       Condenser Water Loadings and Water Usage for
           Liquid Cane Sugar Refineries                        78
  22       Schematic of Activated Sludge System                87

-------
                               SECTION I

                              CONCLUSIONS

For the purpose of developing Effluent Limitations  Guidelines  and  New
Source  Performance  Standards,  the  cane sugar refining segment of the
sugar processing industry has been divided into two  subcategories:  (1)
liquid cane sugar refineries, and (2)  crystalline cane sugar refineries.
The  main  criterea  for  subcategorization  of  the cane sugar refining
segment include differences in the manufacturing process employed  which
result in different waste water loadings.

Factors  such as age and size of facilities, nature of water supply, raw
material quality, and waste treatability were considered  and  found  to
further substantiate the subcategorization as stated.

It  was determined that three refineries are currently achieving no dis-
charge of pollutants to navigable waters by  means  of  land  retention.
Two  refineries  discharge  all  process  wastes  to municipal treatment
systems, and ten other refineries discharge all wastes except  condenser
cooling water to municipal systems.   The majority of the remaining four-
teen refineries partially treat their wastes.

It  is  estimated  that  the  total  industry cost of achieving the Best
Practicable Control Technology Currently Available  (BPCTCA)  and the Best
Available Technology Economically Achievable (BATEA) are $5,000,000  and
$15,000,000 respectively.

The remainder of the cane sugar processing industry, namely the raw cane
sugar  processing  segment,  will  be studied in a separate effort and a
report is to te presented at a later date.

-------
                               SECTION  II
                            RECOMMENDATIONS


It is recommended that the following  effluent limitations be applied  as
the  Best  Practicable  Control  Technology Currently Available (BPCTCA)
which must te achieved by existing  point  sources by July  1,  1977;  the
Best  Available Technology Economically Achievable (BATEA)  which must be
achieved by existing point sources  by July  1r 1983;  and the Standards of
Performance fcr new sources  (NSPS):

                                TABLE 1

          RECOMMENDED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS  AND STANDARDS
                         OF PERFORMANCE

                         MONTHLY AVERAGES
                                 Limitations-kg/kkg_(lb/tQrij __ of melt
                               BPCTCA          BATEA        NSPS
                              EQD5    TSS     BOD5   TSS   BOD     TSS
   Liquid Cane Sugar          0.24    0.10    0.06   0.03  0.06   0.03
    Re f ine r ie s               (0.48)  (0.20)  .(Q..12)  (0 . 06) (0.1 21 (p. 06)

   Crystalline Cane Sugar     0.38    0.06    0.04   0.03  0.04   0.03
   __Ref ineries __________ jQ.76y  (0.12)  ^Q.,08^ (0.06)  (0.08) (0^06)
                         DAI LY_ AVERAGES _____________

                              Lim itations~kg/kkq (Ib/ton)  of melt
                               BPCTCA         BATEA        NSPS
                              BOD5    TSS     BOD5    TSS   BOD5    TSS

   Liquid Cane Sugar          0.85    0.45    0.21   0.14  0.21   0.14
    Ref ineries                  000_42O2814042_(0_.. 2 8
   Crystalline Cane Sugar     1.14    0.24    0.12   0.12  0.12   0.12
   Refineries                (2.28)  (0.48)  (0.24)  (0.24)  (0.24) (0.24)
                 In addition  to  the  above  limitations, the
                 pH shall be  maintained within the range
                           of 6.0  to 9.0.

-------
                              SECTION III

                              INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE ANC AUTHORITY

Section 301 (b) of the Act requires the achievement  by  not  later  than
July 1, 1977, of effluent limitations for point sources, other than pub-
licly  owned  treatment works, which are based on the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available  as  defined  by
the Administrator pursuant to Section 304(b) of the Act.  Section 301(b)
also  requires  the  achievement  by  not  later  than  July 1, 1983, of
effluent limitations  for  point  sources,   other  than  publicly  owned
treatment  works,  which  are  based  on  the  application  of  the best
available  technology  economically  achievable  which  will  result  in
reasonable further progress towards the national goal of eliminating the
discharge  of  all  pollutants, and which reflect the greatest degree of
effluent reduction which the Administrator determines to  be  achievable
through  the  application  of  the  best  available demonstrated control
technology,  processes,  operating  methods,  or   other   alternatives,
including  where  practicable  a  standard  permitting  no  discharge of
pollutants.

Section 304 (b) of the Act requires the Administrator to  publish  within
one  year  of  the enactment of the Act regulations providing guidelines
for effluent limitations setting forth the degree of effluent  reduction
attainable  through  the  application  of  the  best practicable control
technology currently available and  the  degree  of  effluent  reduction
attainable  through  the  application  of  the best control measures and
practices  achievable  including  treatment  techniques,   process   and
procedure  innovations,  operation methods, and other alternatives.  The
regulations proposed herein set forth  effluent  limitations  guidelines
pursuant  to  Section  304(b)   of  the  Act  for the cane sugar refining
segment of the sugar processing source category.

Section 306 of the Act requires the Administrator, within one year after
a category of sources is  included  in  a  list  published  pursuant  to
Section  306 (b)   (1) (A) of the Act, to propose regulations establishing
Federal  standards  of  performances  for  new   sources   within   such
categories.   The  Administrator  published  in  the Federal Register of
January 16, 1973, (38 F.R.  1624),  a  list  of  27  source  categories.
Publication  of the list constituted announcement of the Administrator's
intention of establishing, under Section 306,  standards  of  performance
applicable  to new sources within the cane sugar refining segment of the
sugar processing source which was included  within  the  list  published
January 16, 1973.

-------
SUMMARY OF METHODS USED FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
GUIDELINES_AND STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE

The effluent limitations and standards of performance recommended in this
report were developed in the following manner.

General information was obtained on all plants and detailed information was
collected for 28 (91%) of the 29 domestic cane sugar refineries identified
as currently in operation (see Table 2) .  The sources and types of infor-
mation consisted of:

          a)  Applications to the Corps of Engineers for Permits to Dis-
              charge under the Refuse Act Permit Program  (RAPP) which were
              obtained for 2U refineries provided data on the charac-
              teristics of intake and effluent waters, water usages, waste-
              water treatment and control practices employed, daily pro-
              duction, and raw materials used.

          b)  A questionnaire previously submitted to segments of the in-
              dustry  (17 refineries) by the United States Cane Sugar Re-
              finers' Association.

          c)  On-site inspections of 19 refineries which provided infor-
              mation on process diagrams and related water usage, water
              management practices, and control and treatment practices.

          d)  A sampling of four refineries to verify the accumulated
              data.

          e)  Other sources of information including personal and telephone
              interviews and meetings with regional EPA personnel, industry
              personnel, and consultants; State Permit Applications; inter-
              nal data supplied by industry; and a review and evaluation
              of the available literature.

The reviews, analyses, and evaluations were coordinated and applied to the
following:

          a)  An identification of distinguishing features that could po-
              tentially provide a basis for subcategorization of the in-
              dustry.  These features included raw material quality, age
              and size of the refinery, nature of water supply, process
              employed, and others, discussed in detail in Section IV
              of this report.

          b)  A determination of the water usage and waste water character-
              istics for each subcategory, discussed in Section V, including
              the volume of water used, the sources of pollution in the plant,
              and the type and quantity of constituents in the waste waters.

          c)  An identification of those waste water constituents, discussed

-------
                                 TABLE 2
                            SOURCE OF DATA
Refinery
Type
Location
  Size-kkg/day
(Average Melt)  Visit Sample Data
Amstar C Baltimore, Md.
Ainstar C Boston, Mass.
Amstar C Brooklyn, N.Y.
Ainstar C Chalmette, La.
Ainstar C Philadelphia, Pa.
J. Aron C Supreme, La.
C&H C Aiea, Hawaii
C&H C Crockett, Ca.
Colonial C Gramercy, La.
Evercane C Clewiston, Fla.
Glades County C Moore Haven, Fla.
Godchaux C Reserve, La.
Guanica C Ensenada, P.R.
Iqualdad C Mayaguez, P.R.
Inperial C Sugar land, Texas
Mercedita C Ponce, P.R.
National C Philadelphia
Revere C Charlestown, Mass.
Roig C Yabucoa, P.R.
Savannah Foods C Port Wentworth, Ga.
South Coast C Mathews, La.
Southdown C Houma, La.
CPC C-L Yonkers, N.Y.
SuCrest C-L Brooklyn, N.Y.
Florida Sugar L Belle Glade, Fla.
Industrial L St. Louis, Mo.
Pepsico L Long Island, N.Y.
Ponce Candy L Ponce, P.R.
SuCrest L Chicago, 111.
C — Crystalline Refinery
L — Liquid Refinery
C-L— Combination Crystalline-Liquid Refinery
1 Corps of Engineers Application
2 Prior Analyses
3 Interview of Plant Personnel
4 Questionnaire
5 Verification Sampling
2350
900
1900
2800
1900
680
170
3175
1350
360
420
1540
200
630
1350
545
1900
1090
360
1700
635
635
1650
750
350
275
725
55
775








No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
NO
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
NO
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes








No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
NO
NO
No
Yes
No
No
NO
No
NO
NO
Yes
No
Yes








1,2,4
1,2,3,4
1,2,3,4,5
1,2,4
1,2,4
1,4
1/4
1,3,4
1,4
3
3
—
1,3
1
1,2,3,4
1,3
1,3,4
3
1,3
1,2,3,4,5
1,4
1,2,3,4
1,2,3,4
1,2,3
1,3,4
1,3,4
1,3,5
1,3
3,5









-------
CTi
CXI
                 in
              LU
              O
       ~     ^  cr
       ^     
-------
              in Section VI, which are characteristic of the industry and
              were determined to be pollutants subject to effluent limi-
              tations guidelines and standards of performance.

          d)  An identification of the control and treatment technologies
              presently employed or capable of being employed by the re-
              fining industry, discussed in Section VII, including the ef-
              fluent level attainable and associated treatment efficiency
              related to each technology.

          e)  An evaluation of the cost associated with the application of
              each control and treatment technology, discussed in Section
              VIII.

The  results  of  this  analysis  indicated  that  three  refineries are
currently achieving no discharge of pollutants to  navigable  waters  by
means  of land retention, two refineries discharge all process wastes to
municipal treatment systems, and  ten  other  refineries  discharge  all
wastes except condenser water to municipal systems.  The majority of the
remaining  fourteen refineries partially treat or partially retain waste
waters.

BACKGROUND OF THE CANE SUGAR INDUSTRY

The earliest recorded production of  sugarcane  was  in  Southeast  Asia
three  thousand  years ago.  Sugarcane was introduced into Europe in the
eleventh century, and by the thirteenth century the  crystallization  of
sugar  from  cane  juice  was  being  practiced  throughout  the Eastern
Hemisphere.

The origin of sugarcane in the Western World was with the second  voyage
of  Columbus  in  1493.   Commercial  cane sugar production began in the
United States in the late eighteenth  and  early  nineteenth  centuries.
The  growth  cf  the industry experienced considerable instability until
the Federal Sugar Act of 1936  (amended  in  1971)   provided  protective
tariffs, a quota system, and price control.

DEFINITION OF THE INDUSTRY

Cane  sugar  refineries  produce  either  a white crystalline or a clear
liquid sugar from unrefined raw sugar which is purchased  from  domestic
or  foreign factories.  Molasses is produced as a ty-product and is sold
as animal feed, for the making  of  alcohol,  as  a  source  of  certain
organic  chemicals  (ethyl  and  butyl alcoholols,  and acetic and citric
acids), and for other uses.

Due to the fact that raw sugar is more economically transported than  is
refined  sugar  (raw  sugar is not considered to be a foodstuff and thus
can  be  shipped  in  bulk  without  extensive   sanitary   safeguards),
refineries  are  generally  located  in urbanized retail market areas as

-------
Rgfinery	
                                TABLE 3

                     AMERICAN CANE SUGAR-REFINERIES

                                          Normal Melt
                     	Location	]SJS3/3ayJ	Map No.
[Crystalline Refineries

Amstar

Amstar

Amstar

Amstar

Amstar

California & Hawaiian

California & Hawaiian

Colonial  (Borden)
                           Baltimore, Md.

                           Boston, Mass.

                           Brooklyn, N.Y.

                           Chalmette, La.

                           Philadelphia, Penn.

                           Crockett, Calif.

                           Aiea, Hawaii

                           Gramercy, La.
Evercane  (Savannah Foods)  Clewiston, Fla.
Godchaux

Imperial

National

Revere
                           Reserve, La.

                           Sugarland, Texas

                           Philadelphia, Penn.

                           Charlestown, Mass.

                           Port Wentworth, Ga.
Savannah Foods

[Liquid Sugar Refineries  (5) ]

Florida Sugar (Borden)     Belle Glade, Fla.

Industrial  (Bcrden)

Pepsico

Ponce Candy
SuCrest
                           St. Louis, Mo.

                           Long Island, N.Y.

                           Ponce, P.R.

                           Chicago, 111.
2350
900
1900
2800
1900
3175
170
1350
360
15UO
1350
1900
1090
1700
350
275
725
55
775
6
1
2U
15
t*
25
19
12
26
8
11
5
27
18
17
10
2
29
9

-------
                           TABLE 3 (Continued)
Refinery
 AMERICAN CANE SUGAR REFINERIES




___________ Location
[Liquid-Crystalline Refineries  (2) ]



CPC                        Yonkers, N.Y.




SuCrest                    Brooklyn, N.Y.



[Refineries Operating with Sugar Factories  (8) ]
                              (kkcj/dayj
Glades County



Guanica



Igualdad



J. Aron & Company



Mercedita



Roig



South Coast



Southdown
Moore Haven, Fla.



Ensenada, P.R.



Mayaguez, P.R.



Supreme, La.



Ponce, P.R.



Yabucoa, P.R.



Mathews, La.



Houma, La.
                            1650



                             750








                             420



                             200



                             630



                             680



                             545



                             360



                             635



                             635
 3




 7








16




21




20




13




22




23




14




28

-------
shown in Figure 1 and Table 3.  The refinery located  in  Aiea,  Hawaii,
produces  sugar  primarily  for  island  consumption.   The  refinery at
Crockett, California, services the West Coast market  and  receives  its
raw material primarily from the Hawaiian sugar factories.

In  some cases, refineries can be located near both factories and retail
markets as can be observed in south Florida, New  Orleans,  and  Hawaii.
The  refineries in Puerto Rico, all of which operate in conjunction with
raw sugar factories, serve the Puerto Rican domestic market.

The 24 refineries in the continental United States and Hawaii are  owned
by fifteen private corporations or cooperatives.  Four of the refineries
in  Puerto  Rico  are  operated  by  the Puerto Rican government.  Those
organizations operating more than one refinery are listed in Table U.

                                TABLE U

                 MULTIPLE .OWNERSHIP OF SUGAR-REFINERIES

                                                      Number of
Owner ___________________ S§§clguarters

Amstar                   New York, N.Y.                      5

California & Hawaiian    San Francisco, California           2

Borden                   Columbus, Ohio                      3

Savannah Foods           Savannah, Georgia                   2

SuCrest                  New York, New York                  2
PROCESS DESCRIPTION - CANE SUGAR REFINERIES

The raw material for cane sugar refining is the raw,  crystalline   sugar
produced  by  the cane sugar factories.  Raw sugar consists primarily  of
crystals of sucrose   (C.12H?_2_ 0.1.1)  with  small  percentages  of  dextrose
(glucose)  and  levulose  (fructose) , both with formulas of  (CJ5H.120£) ,  as
shown in Figure 2, and various  impurities  which  may  include  bagasse
particles,  organics,  inorganic  salts,  and microorganisms.  Raw  sugar
crystals contain a film of molasses, the thickness of which varies   with
the  purity  of  sugar, and in which the non-sucrose components are con-
centrated.

The raw sugar processed by the American refineries may be of  domestic  or
foreign origin, and the production as well as  the  importation  of raw
sugar  is  closely  governed by U.S.D.A. quota.  From a refining process
                                  10

-------
CH2OH
                                                               :H2OH
    GLUCOSE
FRUCTOSE
                        FIGURE  2
   SUCROSE OR a-D-GLUCOPYRANOSYL—g-D-FRUCTOFURANOSIDE
                        11

-------
viewpoint, there is little difference in raw sugar related to its source
other than the amount of impurities present.

A cane sugar refinery receives raw sugar in bulk form  by  truck,  rail,
targe,  and/or  ship,  and stores it for periods up to several months in
large warehouses.  As required by the refining process, the raw sugar is
conveyed from storage through continuous weighing to the magma  mingler,
the  first  step  in  sugar  refining.   Figure  3 presents a simplified
process diagram of cane sugar refining.

Sugar refining may be broadly defined as the  removal  of  most  of  the
molasses  film  and  associated  impurities  from the surface of the raw
sugar crystals.  The crystalline raw sugar is washed to remove  part  of
the  molasses  film,  then  placed  into solution, taken through various
purification steps, and finally recrystallized.  While  the  process  is
simple  in  scope,  a detailed discussion could fill many volumes.  This
discussion will  be  necessarily  of  a  limited  nature.   Furthermore,
processes  may  vary  in  detail considerably from refinery to refinery,
particularly in decolorizaticn methods where the media may be bone char,
granular activated carbon, powdered activated carbon, vegetable  carbon,
ion-exchange  or  other  materials.  The predominate media in the United
States, however, is bone char.  Figure 4 presents a process flow diagram
of bone char refining and Figure 5 is a schematic of carbon refining.

Affination and^Melting

The first step in the refining process is affination which  begins  with
mingling,  or  placing the raw crystals into a syrup solution.  The main
source of the mingling syrup is the affination centrifugals.  Either the
recycled syrup is heated in order to aid in loosening the molasses film,
or the resulting magma is heated in a revolving mixer.  The magma is fed
into centrifugals, which separate the syrup and molasses from the sugar.
Hot water is then added to provide a washing action.  The  washed  sugar
is  discharged  into  a melter which also contains about one-half of the
sugar's weight in water.  High- test sweet waters and remelt syrups  may
also  be  added.   Steam  heat and mechanical mixing are supplied to the
melter.  Melt liquor leaves the melter at a constant  density  of  about
65° Brix and a temperature of about 66° Centigrade  (150° Fahrenheit).

The  liquor  is  subjected  to coarse screening and, in many cases, fine
screening to remove coarse materials such  as  sand  and  scale.   These
relatively  small  amounts of impurities are normally discarded as solid
waste.

Clarif ication_XDefecatign)_

The screened irelt liquor still contains  fine  suspended  and  colloidal
matter  which  are  removed in clarification.  Clarification may involve
coagulation and either flotation clarifiers or pressure filtration.  The
most common chemical defecants are phosphoric acid, carbon dioxide,  and
                                  12

-------
Raw Sugar
     Hot Water
                   AFFINATION
                  CENTRIFUGALS
      MELTER
        Mingling  Syrup
FILTRATION

                                  Scum  and
                                Cake  Disposal
                                                Cake  .
                                              Disposal
                                             Final
                                                   m

                                           Molasses
CLARIFICATION
                          PRESSURE
                          FILTRATION
                                                         DECOLORIZATION
                                                           EVAPORATION
                                                           VACUUM PANS
                        CENTRIFUGATION
                                                           GRANULATION
                                                            PACKAGING
                                                               OR
                                                             STORAGE
                              FIGURE  3

          SIMPLIFIED PROCESS DIAGRAM FOR CANE SUGAR REFINING
                                 13

-------
                          Syrup for Mingler
                      Hot Water
 Affiliation
Centrifugals
Affination
 Dilution
              'Sweet Water
              •Remelt from
               Vacuum Pans
               (from sheet 3)
Heater
                              Trash Disposal
                 -> To Vacuum Pans (sheet 3)
                                         >•  To Blow Up (sheet 2)
             To  Pressure
              Filters
              (sheet  2)
            Primary
          Clarifiers
                           FIGURE 4

                  TYPICAL BONE CHAR REFINERY
       Clarifier  Mud
       to  Secondary
      "Clarification
       (not shown)  or
       to  mud filters
         (sheet 2)
                             Sheet 1 of 3
                              14

-------
  Clarified
 Sugar Liquor
(from sheet 1)
     r
                Filter Aid
      Hot
Clarifier Mud
(from sheet 1
Raw Affination
(from sheet 1)
Steam
                                          Filtered  Sugar Liquor
                                       >Wash Water to
                                          Sweet Water
                Low Test Wash
                Water to Sewer
        Filtered Sugar Liquor
          to Evaporation or
        Vacuum Pans (sheet 3)
                 Sweet water
                                              Hot     Third  Syrup
                                             Water  (from  sheet  3)
                                              1          1
                                           Char Cisterns
                                                             Spent  Char
                        FIGURE 4 (CONTINUED)

                    TYPICAL BONE CHAR REFINERY
                                                            Sheet 2 of 3
                                15

-------
   s-
   Ol
   •

c
(O
Q.

T3   OJ
QJ S-
i- O -4-1
O) =3 Q)
4-> cr O>
i— -r- JT
•r- _J to
U-
   S- E
i- (O O
« CD S-
                             o
                             (O
            c
            IT3
            a.
O
res
                             o
                             ro
          c
          o

          •[->
          fO

          O
          Q.
          ro
E
3
3
u
>•
c:
Q.

\
h












\dn

\ „
I*

dn


^
F


S-
QJ
2:








S-
OJ


its

s-
O)
•I —
2:

l/Tc


S-
QJ
•r—
s:


^
F





\,
\

w
F

pu?

^
F

15 1
4:s L

w
F

QJ
C7>
14-
S_
-I-)
c
(I)
(^






CJ
cr
M-
S-
4->
C
0

QJ
CT
<+-
S-
•*->
c
0


tt)
0»
«4-
1-
•M
0)
0
••^M

^
F








. ^
F



. k.
W




^
F







c: CJi
O V) QJ C
•,- S- O» -i-
-(-> . O) to C7>
km k i k i . k m
^^ *r0 ' o ^ J5
a o •+-> o
c o c/i re
(Tj Q-
S-
CD

__^^





C
O
4J
o
T3 3
•r- -O
^ 3 O
F1 » *-
•r— Q-
_J
(— CD



                                     FIGURE 4  (CONTINUED)

                                  TYPICAL  BONE  CHAR  REFINERY
                                                                              Sheet  3 of  3
                                                16

-------
                 1
 CD
 <


 CJ
                                    oo
                                    z
                                    
-------
lime.   The  result of this treatment is neutralization of organic acids
and formation of a tri-calcium phosphate precipitate which entrains much
of the colloidal and other suspended matter in the liquor.   Carbonation
produces  a  calcium  carbonate  precipitate.   Inert  filter aids, most
ccmmonly diatcmaceous earth, may be used alone or  in  conjunction  with
phosphoric acid.

Clarification   systems   that   remove   the  colloidal  and  suspended
precipitate by air flotation are  called  frothing  clarifiers  and  are
based  simply  on  the  principle  of  rising  air  bubbles trapping the
precipitate  and  forming  a  scum  on  the  liquid  surface.   Pressure
filtration commonly takes place in a cloth or leaf-type filter with cake
removal fcy means of high pressure sprays.

The  muds, scums, and filter muds produced in clarification contain sig-
nificant  sugar  concentrations  which  must  be  recovered.    Frothing
clarifier  scums,  particularly  tri-calcium  phosphate scums, are often
sent to a second clarifier and the resulting scum is filtered on  rotary
vacuum drums with the addition of filter aid.  The press cake is usually
handled  in a dry form and taken to landfill but may be slurried.  High-
test sluicings may  be  dewatered  in  rotary  vacuum  filters  and  the
resulting  sweetwater  added to affination syrups and the dewatered cake
used as filter aid for filtration.

Decglorization

After affination and clarification, the sugar liquor still contains  im-
purities  and  color  that  require physical adsorption for removal.  As
previously stated, most large crystalline refineries use fixed bed  bone
char  cisterns   (also  called  filters),  although in more than 50 years
there have been no new refineries equipped  with  them.   An  individual
cistern  is  ccmmonly three meters (ten feet) in diameter and six meters
 (20 feet) deep and holds approximately 36 metric tons  (10 tons)  of  bone
char  and  20,800  liters   (5,500  gallons)  of sugar liquor.  There are
generally 30 cisterns per million kilograms of daily melt.

Sugar liquor passes in parallel  through  each  cistern  in  a  downWard
direction  and  undergoes adsorption of the color bodies and ions.  Elrom
90 to 99 percent of color is removed, with the higher removal  occurring
at  the  beginning  of  the  cycle.   Divalent  cations  and  anions and
polyvalent organic ions are effectively removed, as  are  phosphate  and
bicarbonate.  Monovalent ions are not removed.

After  some  period  of  operation, the decoloration ability of the char
decreases to an unacceptable level and  the  char  must  be  washed  and
regenerated  by  heat in kilns or char house furnaces.  The sugar liquor
in the cistern is displaced with a piston  effect  by  hoi;  water.   The
water  effluent  is a low purity sweet water and is taken to evaporation
for sugar recovery.  The total amount of sweet water produced is usually
about one-half of the cistern's volume.
                                  18

-------
After the purity of the water effluent has degraded  to  a  point  where
further  sugar  recovery is considered uneconomical, it is released as a
waste water stream.  The amount of  wash  water  used  may  be  governed
either by time or by ash content.

After  the last of the wash water has drained from the char cistern, the
char is discharged from the cisterns, dried by hot air, and  regenerated
in  kilns.  The kilns provide a temperature of about 550° Centigrade and
a controlled amount of air.  Under these conditions any organic  residue
is  destroyed and the buffering and decolorizing capacity of the char is
renewed.

The operation of a granular carbon refinery is in many ways  similar  to
that  of  a  char  refinery,  but there are at the same time significant
differences.   Granular  carbon  adsorbs  minimal   ash   and   produces
considerably more sweet water.  The only waste water normally associated
with   the  decolorization  step  in  the  process  is  water  used  for
transporting the carbon.  Transport water can  be  reused  as  transport
water,  but  must  be  discharged  periodically due to bacterial growth.
Most granular carbon refineries discharge transport water once or  twice
a week.

Powdered activated carbon is used for decolorization in small refineries
and  in  liquid  sugar  production.   Regeneration of powdered carbon is
difficult and  it  is  normally  discarded  after  one  or  two  cycles.
However,  in  1972,  one company announced the successful and economical
regeneration cf powdered activated carbon.

The clarified liquor is contacted  and  agitated  for  about  15  to  20
minutes  with  a slurry of carbon prepared with water or sugar solution.
After that period of time, carbon will not adsorb more coloring  matter,
but  coloring  matter already adsorbed can be washed back into the sugar
solution.  The temperature of treatment is about  82°  Centigrade   (180°
Fahrenheit).  After the treatment is completed, about five kilograms (10
pounds) of filter aid per 3,800 liters (1,000 gallons)  of  sugar  liquor
is  admixed  and  thoroughly  dispersed in the liquor before filtration.
The filtration is accomplished in filter aid precoat-type leaf  filters.
The  cycle  of  each  filter unit varies from five to twenty four hours,
depending on the filterability and color of the  sugar  liquor  that  is
being  filtered.   The decolorized filtrate is checked in a precoat-type
leaf  filter  and  then  sent  to  the  double-effect  evaporators   for
concentration   prior   to   crystallization.    The  total  filter  aid
consumption is about O.H to 0.5 percent based on refined  sugar  output.
The  filter  cake  containing  the filter aid, carbon, and impurities is
sent in slurry form to the clarification scum tank, and all this mixture
is filtered in a dry discharge type pressure filter  (either  plate  and
frame  or leaf type); all solids are discarded, after sweetening off, in
dry cake or slurry form in a suitable disposal area.
                                  19

-------
Ion-exchange resins are used to a limited extent in sugar  refining  for
demineralization  (deashing)   or  further  color removal.  They are used
most extensively  in  carbon  and  liquid  sugar  refineries.    Refinery
liquors are percolated through a cation-exchanger which adsorbs alkaline
salts  from  the liquor and leaves it highly acidic.   Then the liquor is
percolated through an anion-exchanger which removes the  free  acid  and
converts  the  sugar liqucr tc a neutral state.   This double percolation
can be avoided by using cationic and anionic resins mixed together in  a
single-bed cistern.  The operation of ion-exchange beds in refineries is
not  unlike  that  of  many  industrial  applications  in  that they are
regenerated in place with  sodium  chloride,  sulfuric  acid,   or  ether
chemicals  depending  en  the  type  of resin.  The cost and disposal of
chemicals needed for regeneration of ion-exchangers  has  precluded  its
application for the entire refining process.

Evaporation

No  matter what method of decclorization is used, the final steps of re-
crystallizing  and  granulating  are  essentially  the   same   in   all
refineries.  The first step in recrystallization is the concentration of
the  decolorized  sugar  liqucr  and  sweet  waters  in  continuous-type
evaporators.

An evaporator is a closed vessel heated by  steam  and  placed  under  a
vacuum.   The basic principle is that the juice enters the evaporator at
a temperature higher than its  boiling  temperature  under  the  reduced
pressure,  or  is  heated  to  that  temperature.   The  result is flash
evaporation and the principle allows evaporators to  be  operated  in  a
series  of  several  units.   This  practice  is  called multiple-effect
evaporation, with each evaporator being an "effect",  and is  illustrated
in  Figure  6.   In general, the vacuum in each effect is created by the
condensation of the vapors from that effect in  the  subsequent  effect.
The  heat of vaporization of the juice in each effect is supplied by the
vapors from the previous effect, with the exception  of  the  first  and
last effects.  The first effect normally has live steam or exhaust steam
resulting  frcm power production provided to it, and the last effect has
a vacuum caused by the condensation of its vapors in the condenser.  The
temperature and pressure of each effect is, therefore,  lower  than  the
preceding effect.

The  cane  sugar refining industry commonly uses double or triple-effect
evaporation with the short tube or  calandria  type  of  evaporator  (as
illustrated),  although  the  Lillie  film  evaporator  is  used in some
installations.

Condensation of the last effect vapors may be provided by one of several
condenser designs, but all operate on the principle of  relatively  cold
water  passing  through a cylindrical vessel, contacting the hot vapors,
and condensing them.  The resulting hot  water  leaves  through  a  long
vertical  pipe  called a barcmetric leg.  Air is removed from the system
                                  20

-------
LLJ
00
O
O
                                                                                                    O
                                                                                                    o
                                                                                                    Q-
                                                                                              UJ    ^

                                                                                              —    I—
                                                                                              CD    °

                                                                                              c    £
                                                                            GO

                                                                        LU  LU
                                                                        LU

                                                                        O  Q
O   LU
O   lo-
 ro   ro
Q   LU  :
                                                                         CM   CM
                                                                        Q  LU
             oo   nc:
             LU   —,
             >   00
                                                                                          Ct
                                                                                          Q..
                                                                                           m
                                                                                          a.
                                                                                           CM
                                                                                          a-
                                                                                              c/o
                                                                                              LU
                                                                                              o:
oc
LU
Q_

LU
H-



 n
h-



 CM
                                                                         i—  i—  i—  i—  t/»
                                                                        Q  LU  oo  >   a.
                                          21

-------
 (A) Zig-Zag Baffle
  (B) Catch All
(C)  Cyclone Separator
                                      (D) In-Line Baffle Box
(E) Demister
                           FIGURE  7




                DEVICES TO  REDUCE  ENTRAPMENT



                              22

-------
by a vacuum pump or steam ejector.   The  condenser  cooling  water,  or
barometric  leg water, at a flow rate of perhaps 76,000 cubic meters per
day  (20 million gallons)  in a large refinery, is the largest  volume  of
water used in a cane sugar refinery.  It is often untreated river or sea
water  and  is unsuitable for reuse in other processes in sugar refining
although some refineries use better  quality  water  which  is  recycled
after cooling in a cooling tower or spray pond, and then reused in ether
processes.

A  problem  common  to the sugar refiner in his attempt to prevent sugar
loss and to the environmentalist in his attempt to prevent pollution  is
the  entrainment  of sugar in the vapors from the evaporators and vacuum
pans.  The condensed steam from the  first  effect  has  not  come  into
direct  contact  with  the sugar solution and is essentially pure water.
It is usually used as feed  water  for  the  steam  boilers  as  is  the
condensate  from  the  second  effect.   The  condensates from the ether
effects experience relatively little sugar entrainment and are  used  as
process  water;  however,  in  some  cases  "excess"  condensate  may be
discharged as a waste stream.  The major  problem,  then,  is  with  the
vapor  from the last effect which tends to have greater entrainment than
the other effects.  Due to its mixing  with  the  condenser  water,  the
resultant  volume  is too large for reuse in the process.  However, con-
denser water .may be recirculated.  If recirculated, the warm water  from
the  condensers  of  evaporators  and  vacuum  pans is cooled in cooling
towers or spray ponds and recycled.  Only a fraction of the volume  goes
to  the  stabilization ponds as blowdown from the cooling tower or spray
pond.  This volume is a function of the dissolved solids content of  the
water  being  used as barometric condenser cooling water.  One would not
recycle brackish water because of the high  concentration  of  dissolved
solids.   With good quality water, this blowdown can amount to as little
as one percent.

Various methods of reducing entrainment are used in  the  industry,  but
most  are based on either the principle of centrifugal action or that of
direct impact; i.e., changing the direction of vapor flew so that liquid
droplets may veer away from the vapor, be impinged  on  a  surface,  and
ultimately be returned to the liquid body, or allowing the vapor to come
into  direct  contact with a wet surface.  Schematics of various methods
commonly used are shown in Figure 7.

The distance between the liquid level in the evaporator and the  top  of
the cylindrical portion of the body is called the vapor belt.  This dis-
tance  has  a  great  effect  on  the  degree of entrainment because the
further the vapor has to rise the greater  the  opportunity  for  liquid
droplets  to  fall out.  Most evaporator vapor belts in refineries range
from 3.7 to 4.9 meters (12 to 16 feet) or about 2.0  to  2.5  times  the
length of the tubes.

Refineries  monitor  sucrose  concentrations in condensate and condenser
water in order to avoid sugar contamination in boiler  feed  waters  and
                                  23

-------
sugar  loss  in  condenser  water.   The frequency of monitoring may vary
from continuous (auto analyzers)   to  hourly,   daily,  or  weekly.    The
methods of analysis for sucrose most commonly  used are the alphanaphthol
and  resorcinol tests.  Both methods are based on color change resulting
from the reaction of the test reagent with sucrose.

Crystallization

After  concentration  in  evaporators,  in  the  case   of   crystalline
refineries,  the  sugar  liquor  and  sweet waters  are crystallized in
single-effect, batch type evaporators called vacuum pans.  Several  pans
are  used  exclusively fcr ccmmercial granulated sugar and the resulting
syrups are boiled in ether pans, as shown in Figure 4.   Calandria  pans
are  commonly used and are similar to the calandria evaporator described
above except that the pans have larger diameters and  shorter  tubes  in
order to handle the more concentrated liquid.

In  order for sugar crystals to grow in a vacuum pan, the sugar solution
must be supersaturated.  There are three phases  of  supersaturation  in
sugar  boiling; the metastable phase in which  existing crystals grow but
new crystals do not form,  the  intermediate  phase  in  which  existing
crystals  grow  and  new crystals do form, and the labile phase in which
new crystals form spontaneously without the presence  of  others.   The
formation  of new or "false" crystals is undesirable and the pan must be
maintained in that narrow range of sucrose concentration and temperature
which provides the metastable  phase  and  allows  the  growth  of  seed
crystals.   Automatic  controls  such  as level, pressure, and viscosity
instrumentation  for  pan  operation  are  used  extensively  in   sugar
refining.

Since  vacuum  pans  are essentially single-effect evaporators, each pan
must have a vacuum source  and  a  condenser,   as  described  above  for
evaporators.   Sugar  entrainment  is  a potential problem, particularly
during  start-ups  or  upsets,  and   various    catchalls,   centrifugal
separators,   or   baffle  arrangements  are  used  along  with  sucrose
monitoring  (see Figure 7).  In some cases a small surface  condenser  is
inserted  between  the pan and the barometric  condenser to act as a heat
exchanger in order to heat process water.  This also  serves  to  reduce
sucrose entrainment.

After  the  formation of crystals in the pans, the massecuite content of
the pan—called a strike—is discharged into a mixer where it is  gently
agitated,  and  then into high speed centrifugals where the crystals are
separated from the syrup.  The crystals remaining  in  the  centrifugals
are washed with hot water to remove remaining  syrup, and the crystalline
sugar  is  discharged  and sent to a combined dryer-cooler or to a dryer
followed by a cooler.

There are normally four straight  refinery  massecuites  boiled  in  the
vacuum  pans:   filtered  and  evaporated  first liquor and three remelt
                                  24

-------
strikes derived from affination syrup, refinery run-off, soft sugar run-
offs, and excess sweet water.  The first refinery strike is boiled  from
first  liquor, the second is boiled from first strike run-off, the third
refinery strike is boiled from second run-off and the fourth strike frcm
third run-off.  The procedure  of  boiling  second,  third,  and  fourth
refinery  massecuites  is  the same as for the first one.  In a refinery
where only white sugar is produced, the  last  refinery  strike  run-off
 (fourth)  can be used in affination as a mingling syrup.  Some refineries
use it to produce "soft sugars".  It can be diluted and filtered through
bone  char  or granulated adsorbents, or treated with powdered activated
carbon and used again in boiling.  The sugar recovered from  the  remelt
strikes  is used for the production of additional refined sugar and well
exhausted refinery blackstrap molasses.  From 10 to 15  percent  of  the
original  solids  in  the  melt  are  recycled  through  the  remelt (or
recovery)  stations.

Finishing

The dryer or granulator is usually a horizontal, rotating  drum  1.5  to
2.4  meters (five to eight feet) in diameter and 7.6 to 11 meters (25 to
35 feet)  long which receives steam  heated  air  along  with  the  sugar
crystals.    It may consist of one or more drums in parallel.  The granu-
lators remove most of the one percent moisture content to  0.02  percent
or  less.    In  addition, the dryers serve to separate the crystals from
one another.  After drying, the sugar goes to coolers, which are similar
drums without the heating elements.

Any lumps remaining in the sugar are then  removed  by  fine  screening.
Screening also accomplishes crystal size grading.

Eoth  the  granulating  and  screening  processes  produce  considerable
amounts of dust.  Wet dust collectors are commonly used to collect  this
dust and the resulting sugar solution is collected as sweet water.

The  finished crystalline sugar is transported to conditioning silos and
then ultimately to packaging or bulk shipment.  In the larger granulated
sugar refineries it is not uncommon to produce liquid sugar  by  melting
granulated  sugars  and  then  decolorizing  the  solution with powdered
activated carbon; the resulting solution is  then  filtered  and  cooled
before being sent to storage as liquid sucrose.  It may also be inverted
to  either  100 percent, 50 percent or any other degree of inversion and
stored separately from liquid sucrose  in  stainless  steel  clad  tanks
provided  with  ultra-violet  lamps  and  air  circulation  filters  for
sterilization purposes.

Liquid Suqar^Production

As noted in Table 3, there are four refineries in the United States that
produce liquid sugar exclusively as a final product and two that produce
large portions of liquid as well as crystalline sugar.  Most of the  re-
                                   25

-------
maining  twenty-two  produce  some  liquid  sugar  by melting granulated
sugar.

As shown in Figure 8, the initial refining steps of affination, decolor-
ization, and even evaporation in a liquid sugar refinery are essentially
the same as in a crystalline sugar  refinery.   The  primary  difference
occurs  in  the  fact  that liquid sugar refineries do not recrystallize
their primary product.  While  this  preempts  the  necessity  of  using
vacuum  pans  to  effect crystal formation and growth in the case of the
primary product, nevertheless, all but two liquid refineries use  vacuum
pans  for  the crystallization of remelt sugars, producing molasses as a
by-product.  The two liquid refineries that do not remelt use  a  highly
pure  raw  material.   The  production  of liquid sugar is essentially a
concentration and decolorization  of  the  melted  raw  sugar  solution.
Because  crystal  formation  is  not  a  part  of  primary  liquid sugar
production, considerably less  condenser  water  and  process  steam  is
required.  This results in substantially less water usage to process the
same  quantity of raw cane sugar into liquid sugar than that required to
process it into crystalline sugar.  This is further discussed in Section
V.  After evaporation, the sugar solution is  filtered  and  cooled  and
then  sent  to  storage  as  liquid sugar.  It may also be inverted to a
specific degree and stored separately  in  stainless  steel  clad  tanks
equipped  with  ultra-violet lamps and air circulation filters to insure
sterilization.  The processes of filtration and inversion are  the  same
as  those  used  in  the  formulation  of liquid sugar by the melting of
crystalline sugar.
                                  26

-------
    Raw Sugar
       I
   AFFINATION
     MELTING
                 Steam
                 Water
 CLARIFICATION
   FILTRATION
             I
GRANULAR CARBON
  ION EXCHANGE
                   Water
   EVAPORATION
                   Carbon
   FILTRATION
                                              SWEET WATER
                                               HOT WATER
                   Diatomaceous Earth
    INVERSION
 Refined Sugar
                 FIGURE 8
         LIQUID SUGAR REFINING
                    27

-------
                               SECTION IV

                        INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION


In the development of effluent limitation guidelines  and  standards  of
performance  for  the  cane sugar refining industry, it was necessary to
determine whether significant differences exist which form a  basis  for
subcategorization   of   the   industry.     The  objective  of  industry
subcategorization is to subdivide the industry in  order  that  separate
effluent   limitations   and   standards    be   established   for   such
subcategories.  Several factors were considered significant with  regard
to  identifying  potential  subcategories  in  the  cane  sugar refining
industry.  These factors included:

               1)   Raw material quality
               2)   Refinery size
               3)   Refinery age
               H)   Nature of water supply
               5)   Land availability
               6)   Process variation

After consideration of  the  above  factors,  the  cane  sugar  refining
industry  has  been  divided  into two subcategories:  liquid cane sugar
refining and crystalline cane sugar  refining.   The  justification  for
this subcategorization is presented below.

Raw Material Quality

All  cane  sugar  refineries  process raw sugar as produced by raw sugar
factories.  An obvious point of inquiry in this regard is the source  of
raw  sugar—namely,  imported  versus domestic raw sugar.  A significant
portion of raw sugar refined in  the  United  States  is  imported  from
Africa,  Latin  America,  the  Phillipine  Islands,  and Southeast Asia.
Depending upon the operation cf the factory, and to some extent upon the
conditions under which raw sugar is shipped and stored, raw sugar  could
vary  in impurity and moisture content.  Investigations revealed that no
significant  variation  in  raw  sugar   quality   exists   because   of
specifications imposed by individual refineries.

The exceptions are two liquid refineries which impose higher than normal
standards  for  raw  sugar  purchases.  One refinery purchases raw sugar
from selected Louisiana and Central America factories, while  the  other
purchases  from  selected  Florida  factories.   The high quality of raw
sugar allows these two refineries to avoid remelting  and  preempts  the
use   of   vacuum   pans    (as  previously  discussed  in  Section  III,
Introduction).  Neither  of  these  refineries  discharges  waste  water
directly  to  surface  waters.   One  is  located  in  an urban area and
discharges all waste to a municipal sewer; the other has a rural  siting
                                   28

-------
and  has geographical conditions which allow for total impoundage of all
waste waters.

For the  purpose  of  establishing  national  effluent  limitations  and
standards,  these  two  refineries  are  considered  to be exceptions to
general practices.  They are therefore not  applicable  as  examples  of
best   practicable   or  best  available  technologies  because  of  the
nonavailability of this high-purity raw sugar to the  refining  industry
in  general.   For  this reason, separate subcategorization based on raw
material quality is not required.

Pefingry^Sizg

As indicated in Section III, cane sugar refineries vary considerably  in
size.   The  smallest  operation  is  the  Ponce  Candy refinery, with a
refining capacity of 55 metric tons (60 tons)  per day.  The California &
Hawaiian refinery at Crockett, California, with a refining  capacity  of
3175  metric  tons  (3500 tons)  per day, claims the distinction of being
the world's largest sugar refinery.  Other large refineries are  located
in the urbanized Northeast, in Savannah, Georgia, and in the New Orleans
area.   The smaller refineries are generally those associated with sugar
factories.

It might be expected that larger refineries would have better  operation
than  smaller  ones;  however, in actual practice this is not always the
case.  While data are more variable for small refineries, no evidence is
available which shows significant differences  in  process  water  usage
(See  Section  V).   For  the  above  reasons  size is not regarded as a
technical element for subcategorization.  Size is  considered  to  be  a
factor  to  be  further  studied  for possible economic impact; for this
reason, cost estimates for control and treatment pertaining  to  typical
large  and  small refineries are included in Section VIII, Cost^ Energy^
and Non-Water Quality_ Aspects.

Refinery^Age

Cane sugar refineries vary considerably in age of structure; several  of
the larger refineries currently operating were originally constructed in
the  decades  following  the  American Civil War, while others were con-
structed after the Second World War.  On a basis of unit operations  em-
ployed, all refineries have undergone a process of continuous moderniza-
tion.  The age of the walls of a refinery is no indication of the age of
the processing equipment within the walls.  No definitive subcategoriza-
tion on the basis of age can be established.  This conclusion is further
substantiated  in  that one of the oldest refineries has been determined
to be exemplary in terms of inplant controls and practices and raw waste
characteristics.
                                  29

-------
Nature^gf Water Supply

The quantity and quality of fresh water supplies utilized by  refineries
were   originally  considered  to  be  possible  elements  for  industry
subcategorization because of potential prohibitive factors that could be
encountered in control and treatment.  Water used for process or  boiler
water  must  be of highest quality; if a high quality source of water is
unavailable, a refinery must provide treatment.  However, the quality of
water used as condenser cooling water is unimportant; it was observed to
vary from municipal water to sea water.  Typically, refineries use a low
quality surface water as barometric condenser cooling water.

The major importance of the gross characteristics of condenser water  is
that with a high quality intake, the discharge (which essentially has no
net  pollution  except  for  temperature  and  entrained sucrose)  can be
reused in the refining  process.   Thus  a  major  waste  water  stream,
condenser  cooling  water, can be significantly reduced or, depending on
the relative volumes, virtually eliminated.  One  refinery  accomplishes
this  by  utilizing  municipal water as the source for condenser cooling
water.  It is a liquid refinery which does  not  use  vacuum  pans,  for
reasons  discussed  above  and in Section III, and thus has a relatively
low volume of condenser water.   More  typically,  due  to  the  volumes
required  and  based  on present practices, refineries utilize available
surface waters as condenser cooling water, regardless of quality.
Land availability was originally considered as a  possible  element  for
subcategorization  because  of  the  potential  economic  advantages and
technical  feasibility  of  waste  water  treatment  and  retention   by
lagooning,  land  disposal, and impoundage (see Section VII, Control and
Treatment Technology) .   Land  availability  has  been  defined  as  the
ownership or potential ownership of land, or the use or potential use of
land  owned  by others with the owner's permission, with such land being
of sufficient quantity to provide treatment of waste water by lagooning,
land disposal, or impoundage, and with the stipulation that the economic
value of the land does not prohibit its  use  in  such  manner.   For  a
number  of  large refineries in urban areas, the nonavailability of land
must further be defined as the lack of sufficient space  for  industrial
waste  water  treatment facilities.  However, these refineries presently
have access to municipal treatment  systems,  to  which  they  discharge
their process waste water.

It  was determined that relatively little of the sugar refining industry
has available land.  Forty-five percent of  the  refinery  installations
may  be considered to be rurally located, but these represent only about
25 percent of the industry on a production basis.  Land  and  excavation
costs   for  total  impoundage  of  waste  waters  make  this  treatment
alternative prohibitive for the industry as a whole.  The option exists,
however, with a proper choice  of  site  location  based  on  a  careful
                                  30

-------
consideration  of  geographical and climatic conditions, for new sources
to  utilize  the  availability  of  land  in  eliminating  discharge  to
navigable  waters.   For  the  purpose  of establishing uniform national
effluent limitations guidelines and standards land availability  is  not
regarded as a technical element necessitating subcategorization.

Prgcess_yariation

While  the  production  of refined sugar from raw sugar involves similar
operational principles in any refinery, in practice considerable process
variation can occur.  These variations may be caused by the end  product
desired or by the attitude of refinery management.

The  only  process variation which produces significant differences with
regard to waste water generation is that which  produces  liquid  versus
crystalline  sugar  (discussed  previously  in Section III) .  Due to the
reduced  amount  of  recrystallization  necessary  in  liquid  refining,
crystalline  refineries  discharge almost twice as much water (on a unit
basis)  as  liquid  refineries.   In  terms  of  BOD5  loading,   liquid
refineries  produce  approximately  two  times  as  much BOD5 (on a unit
basis) as crystalline refineries.  This will  be  further  discussed  in
Section V, Water Use and_ Wgste Characterization.

Another  process  difference  which  has to be considered as a potential
element for subcategorization is the type of decolorization medium  used
in  the  production  of  crystalline sugar—activated carbon versus bone
char.  As is shown in Section V, no  significant  differences  occur  in
process  water  use  as  a  result  of  utilization  of bone char versus
activated carbon as the decolorization medium.

Because of significant differences in water usage and waste loadings the
cane sugar refining industry has been divided  into  two  subcategories:
liquid  cane sugar refining and crystalline cane sugar refining.  Within
the liquid sugar subcategory there are  four  refineries  which  produce
exclusively  liquid  sugar  and  two  refineries which produce liquid in
addition to crystalline sugar.  These refineries account for over twenty
percent of total sugar production.  The remainder  of  the  twenty-eight
refineries produce crystalline sugar as their primary product.
                                  31

-------
                               SECTION V

                  WATER USE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION


SPECIFIC,WATER USES - CANE SUGAR REFINERIES

Figure  9 shows a schematic diagram of water usage and waste water flows
in a typical liquid sugar refinery and Figure  10  presents  one  for  a
typical crystalline refinery.  The major inplant water uses include:

          Barometric condenser cooling water
          Filter cake slurry
          Char wash
          Floor wash water
          Carton slurries
          Eoiler makeup
          Truck and car wash
          Affination water
          Ion-exchange regeneration

Water use varies widely among cane sugar refineries due to variations in
process, water reuse, and conservation techniques.  As shown in Table 5,
the  amount  of  fresh water used in refineries varies from 10.5 to 64.2
cubic meters per metric ton  (2,520 to 15,400 gallons  per  ton)  of  raw
melted.    The  average  water  usage  in  liquid  sugar  refineries  is
approximately 18.1 cubic meters per metric ton (4,350 gallons per  ton),
while the average for crystalline refineries is appxoximately 38.2 cubic
meters   per   metric   ton    (9,160   gallons  per  ton).   Combination
crystalline-liquid cane sugar refineries use  approximately  35.2  cubic
meters per metric ton  (8,450 gallons per ton).

Water  balances  for  a  liquid  and a crystalline refinery are shown in
Figures 11 and  12,  respectively.   Negligible  water  enters  a  sugar
refinery  from raw material.  High quality fresh water enters the liquid
refinery illustrated at a rate of 1.67 cubic meters per  metric  ton  of
raw  sugar   (400  gallons  per ton) and is used for all process purposes
other than cooling water.  Cooling water  is  used  for  the  barometric
condensers  at a rate of 20.9 cubic meters per metric ton  (5,000 gallons
per ton) of raw sugar melted, and the source of this water is  typically
the  nearest  body  of  surface  water.   Raw  water  in the crystalline
refinery shown is used at a rate of 45.1 cubic  meters  per  metric  ton
 (10,800  gallons  per  ton)  of raw sugar melted; 3.38 cubic meters  (810
gallons) of this is high quality water used for various  purposes  while
41.7  cubic meters  (10,000 gallons) is low quality surface water used as
barometric condenser cooling water.

In general, cane sugar refineries are more sophisticated in waste  water
control techniques than are sugar factories  (and more conscious of sugar
losses);  however,  current  practices  for  water  reuse  are generally
                                  32

-------
                 RAW SUGAR
 WATER
 STEAM
 WATER
CARBON

WATER
                                        REMELT SUGAR
                                                                          EXCESS SWEET WATER
                                            CONDENSATE TO BOILER FEED OR OTHER USE
                                                                                     MOLASSES
                                                                                 REFINED LIQUID
                                                                                 SUGAR
                                                                                     TO BOILER
                                                                                     FEED OR
                                                                                     OTHER USE
WATER   STEAM
           TO SWEET WATER

                                           FIGURE  9

                       WASTEWATER  FLOW  DIAGRAM  FOR A LIQUID SUGAR REFINERY
                                              33

-------
                                                           MOLASSES
                     FIGURE 10



WASTEWATER FLOW  DIAGRAM FOR A CRYSTALLINE REFINERY
                       34

-------
                                  TABLE 5

               UNIT WATER* INTAKE AND WASTE WATER DISCHARGES
                           CANE SUGAR REFINERIES
Refinery
C-l
C-2
C-3
C-4
C-5
C-6
C-7
C-8
C-9
C-ll
C-12
C-14
L-l
L-2
L-3
L-4
Intake Discharge
48.5 48.5
16.8 16.8
42.9
44.6
45.2 43.8
42.4
25.8 25.8
64.2
38.1
25.0
63.1
3.322
10.5 10.5
16.0 16.0
16.0
30.0
Condenser
Water
44.9
16.1

43.2
42.5
40.6
24.4
62.8
34.1
24.4
61.71
23.5
8.0
16.0
14.1
26.9
Process
Water
3.6
0.7

1.4
1.3
1.8
1.4
1.4
4.0
0.6
1.4
2.7


1.9
3.1
Decolorization
Wash

0.66




0.54
0.84



0.22




* All values expressed as cubic meters per kkg of melt.
1 Based on pump capacity, not on actual measured flows.
2 Has a recycle system for barometric condenser cooling
   water resulting in a reduction in water discharged.
                                        35

-------
                                  TABLE  5
                               (  CONTINUED )

               UNIT WATER* INTAKE AND  WASTE WATER DISCHARGES
                           CANE SUGAR  REFINERIES
Refinery Intake Discharge
CL-1 22.5
CL-2 47.9 47.9
CF-1
CF-2
CF-3
CF-4
Condenser
Water
21.3
47.1
91. 33
45.0
68. 65
72. 06
Process
Water
1.2
0.8
1.0
8.6*
2.2
1.4
Decolorization
Wash






* All values expressed as cubic meters per kkg of melt.
3 Based on vacuum pan capacity, not on actual  measured flows.
4 Includes substantial water usage as a result of factory operations
   (i.e. continuous water spray of bagasse pile).  Maximum discharge
   as a result of refinery operation alone approximated at 3.0 m^/kkg
   of melt.
5 Based on pump capacity, not on actual measured flows.
6 Based on maximum barometric condenser capacity; a greater than 50%
   overflow occurs over, pumping capacity of 86.9 m^/kkg of melt making
   43.5 m3/kkg of melt the upper limit of actual barometric condenser
   cooling water flow.
                                        36

-------
 EVAPORATOR
CONDENSERS
10.45 m3/kkg
  FILTER WASH
  .313 m3/kkg
CARBON COLUMN
.0835 m3/kkg
                      DISCHARGE
                      20.9 m3/kkg
                    FILTER WATER
                      DISCHARGE
                      1.67 m3/'kkg
VACUUM PAN
CONDENSER-
10.^5 m3/kkg
  ION EXCHANGE
  1.25 m3/kkq
   FLOOR WASH
   .0209 m3/kkg
                      FIGURE 11

       WATER BALANCE IN A LIQUID SUGAR REFINERY
                          37

-------
 SURFACE  WATER
(10,000)   41.7
                                Values  in M3/kkg of melt
                                Parenthetical values in  gallons/ ton of melt
                  EVAPORATOR CONDENSER
                   (3.300)   13.8	
                  VACUUM PAN CONDENSER
                   (6.700)   27.9	
                  SAND  FILTER BACKWASH
                     (90)   0.38
                    CHAR WASH WATER
                    (250)   1.04
                       MISCELLANEOUS
                     (10)   0.04
               TRUCK  OR  CAR WASH AND  FLOOR
               DRAIN  (15)   0.06	
                  VACUUM PAN  WASHOUT
                     (45)   0.19
              BOILER FEED WATER (SLOWDOWN)
                     (20)   0.08  	
                     COIL  AND HEATER
                      (7)    0.03
                 MISCELLANEOUS COOLING
                    (373)    1.56
 FRESH WATER
(810)   3.38
                                                  (10,000)
                                                  (350)
                                                   (60)  0.25^
                                              (20)   0.08
                                                   (380)
I                                                      TOTAL  DISCHARGE
                                                      (10.810) 45.1
                            FIGURE 12

          WATER BALANCE FOR A CRYSTALLINE  SUGAR  REFINERY
                                38

-------
limited to recovery of high purity sweetwaters for their sucrose content
and reuse of condensates for boiler feed water and other purposes.

Obviously, the factor  most  affecting  total  water  usage  is  process
variation.   As  indicated  above,  crystalline  refineries  with  their
requirements for large volumes of barometric condenser cooling water use
60 percent more raw water than liquid refineries.  The extremes of  this
situation   may   be  illustrated  by  Refinery  L-l  which  employs  no
recrystallization in its manufacture of  liquid  sugar  as  compared  to
Refinery C-8 which produces strictly crystalline sugar.  The crystalline
refinery in this case uses over 600 percent more raw water.

Of  all  factors affecting water use, one of the most influential is the
availability of land for disposal, or conversely, the cost of sewer sur-
charges.  For example. Refineries C-l, C-2, O4, C-5, C-9, and C-14 dis-
charge process wastes to municipal sewers and average 36.6 cubic  meters
of  water  usage  per  metric ton (8,600 gallons per ton) of melt, while
Refinery C-3 which does not discharge to municipal sewers, averages 42.9
cubic meters per metric ton (10,300 gallons per ton)of melt.  Refineries
L-l and L-4 employ very similar processes but the former discharges  all
waste   waters   to  municipal  sewers,  while  the  latter  uses  total
impoundage.  The difference in water usage is a factor of one to three.

Char_Wash

Forty-eight percent of all refineries use bone char for  decolorization,
and  these  refineries  include all of the largest refineries.  Tables 6
and 7 give a breakdown of the type of/decolorization medium used by each
of the 29 refineries currently in operation.  The waste  water  produced
by the washing of char is a major waste stream in bone char refineries.

The  amount  of water used for char washing appears to be more dependent
on the opinion of the operator  than  on  any  other  factor.   This  is
dictated by the fact that in almost all aspects, the use of bone char is
more art than science.

The unit flew of char wash water varies from about 0.22 to approximately
0.84  cubic  meters  per  metric  ton (53 to 200 gallons per ton)  of raw
sugar melted.  The typical flow would  appear  to  be  about  0.6  cubic
meters per metric ton (144 gallons per ton).

Other Process Wastes

A  non-char  refinery,  whether  crystalline or liquid, uses granular or
powdered activated carbon and possibly a combination of carbon and  ion-
exchange  to effect color removal.  The major process wastes in a carbon
refinery consist of carbon wash water (and in some cases carbon slurry),
and possibly ion-exchange  regeneration.    For  liquid  refineries,  the
total   process  water  discharge  (total  waste  water  discharge  less
                                  39

-------
                   TABLE 6

DECOLORIZATION MEDIA USED BY EACH CANE SUGAR
        REFINERY CURRENTLY OPERATING

                  Decolorizatlon Media
Refinery
C-l
C-2
C-3
C-4
C-5
C-6
C-7
C-8
C-9
C-10
C-ll
C-12
C-13
C-14
l-l
1-2
1-3
L-4
L-5
CL-1
CL-2
CF-1
CF-2
CF-3
CF-4
CF-5
CF-6
CF-7
CF-8
Bone
Char
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X















Activated
Carbon




X
















X

X
X
X
X
X
X
Activated Carbon Bone Char, Carbon,
plus Ion-Exchange and Ion-Exchange














X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X






                      40

-------
                                  TABLE 7

                   SUMMARY OF TYPES OF DECOLORIZATION MEDIA
                         USED BY CANE SUGAR REFINERS
Decolorization Media
Ref i nery
Type
Crystalline
Liquid
Bone
Char
13
0
Activated
Carbon
8
0
Activated Carbon
plus lon-Exchanqe
1
5
Bone Char, Carbon,
and Ion-Exchange
0
0
Crysta nine-
 Li quid	

Total
13
                                        41

-------
barometric condenser cooling water)   averages  approximately  2.5  cubic
meters per metric ton (600 gallons per ton)  of raw sugar melted.

A  major  factor  considered  in the subcategorization of the cane sugar
refining segment is the potential difference in process water  discharge
due   to   the   use  of  activated  carbon  versus  bone  char  as  the
decolorization medium in the production of crystalline  cane  sugar.   A
substantial  difference  in discharge flow would mean a substantial cost
difference associated with the treatment of  this  waste  water  stream.
The  average  process  water discharge for all crystalline refineries is
1.86 cubic meters per metric ton (450 gallons per  ton)  of  melt.   The
average process water discharge fcr all crystalline refineries utilizing
bone  char  as the decolorization medium is 1.90 cubic meters per metric
ton (455 gallons per ton) of  melt,  while  for  those  using  activated
carbon  is  1.78  cubic  meters  per metric ton (430 gallons per ton) of
melt.    This  amounts  to  a  difference  of  6.5%  more  process  water
discharged  by  crystalline  bcne  char refineries.  The average process
water discharge by the  better  crystalline  refineries  is  1.18  cubic
meters  per  metric  ton  (283  gallons  per  ton) of melt.  The average
process water discharge by the better crystalline bone  char  refineries
is 1.15 cubic meters per metric ton  (276 gallons per ton) of melt, while
for  the  better  refineries using activated carbon is 1.23 cubic meters
per metric ton  (295 gallons  per  ton)  of  melt.   This  amounts  to  a
difference   of  6.8%  more  process  water  discharged  by  the  better
crystalline activated carbon refineries.  (See Tables 8 and 9).  It  has
been determined from this analysis that no significant difference exists
in the process water discharge of crystalline bone char versus activated
carbon refineries.

Another  factor considered was the difference in process water discharge
versus size for crystalline cane sugar refineries.  As shown  in  Figure
13,  no  correlation  exists between process water discharge and size of
the refinery.

Miscellaneous Water Uses_and_Waste_Streams

Water is used for a number of purposes in a cane sugar refinery in addi-
tion to those previously discussed.   Fortunately,  most  of  the  waste
streams  produced can be recovered as low purity sweet water.  In a well
operated refinery essentially all floor drainage is recovered.   Conden-
sates  produced by the condensation of vapors in all but the last effect
of multiple-effect evaporators are used for boiler feed water and  other
purposes in the refinery.

Sludges,  scums, and filter cakes have in some' past instances been slur-
ried and discharged to streams.  Current practice is to  either  impound
these slurries after desweetening or to handle them dry and provide  land
disposal.
                                  42

-------
                TABLE 8

PROCESS WATER DISCHARGE FOR  CRYSTALLINE
 CANE SUGAR REFINING (  ALL REFINERIES  )
Type of Number in
Refinery Study
Crystalline ( All )
Bone Char
Activated Carbon
15
10
5
Average Process
Water Discharge
( m^/kkg of melt )
1.86
1.90
1.78
Range
( nvVkkg of melt )
0.6
0.6
1.0
- 4.0
- 4.0
- 3.0
   Difference  =  1.90 -  1.78  =   6.5%
                     1.86
                      43

-------
                  TABLE 9

  PROCESS WATER DISCHARGE FOR CRYSTALLINE
CANE SUGAR REFINING ( AVERAGE OF THE  BEST  )
Type of
Refinery
Crystalline
( Best )
Bone Char
Activated Carbon
Number in
Study
9
6
3
Average Process
Water Discharge
( nr/kkg of melt )
1.18
1.15
1.23
Range
( m3/kkg of
0.6 -
0.6 -
1.0 -
melt )
1.4
1.4
1.4
 Difference  =  1.23 - 1.15  =  6.8%
                   1.18
                        44

-------
1 1 1
&
s
1
"flR
1
O

X
X

X



X X
—
i
i o o 9
!o t' CO CM

X




X



X
X
X
X
<

1
+•*
CA
m
«
.c
"S _
O)
(0
w
0)


X


-
X


X
1
o
1 ^^

§

O

° 1
"S
0)
0)
§ £
in

1 T—

§
in


                                                                                     CC
                                                                                     o
                                                                                     LL

                                                                                     LU
                                                                                     N

                                                                                     CO


                                                                                     D

                                                                                     OC ""
                                                                                     LU QC
                                                                                  LU


                                                                              ^

                                                                                  <
                                                                                  O
                                                                                  LU
                                                                              O

                                                                              CC
                                                                              LU
                                                                              LU
                                                                                  CO
                                                                                  o
                                                                              oc
                                                                              a.
(6)|)|/»
ui
                     SSBOOJJ
                 45

-------
Minor waste streams may include boiler blowdown, cooling tower blowdcwn,
water  treatment  sludges,  and  various  wash waters.  These are highly
variable and minor in individual volume, but may be significant in terms
of total pollution load, particularly in a poorly operated refinery.

Barometric Condenser Cooling Water

The major waste water stream in any refinery, in  terms  of  volume,  is
barometric  condenser  cooling water produced by contact condensation of
vapors from the last effect  of  multiple-effect  evaporators  and  from
vacuum  pans.   The  amount of condenser water used on a unit basis in a
refinery varies with the availability of water, the extent of automation
in the control of operations, and the thermodynamic relationship between
the intake water and the vapors to be condensed; i.e.,  the  higher  the
temperature  of  condenser  water  influent,  the  larger  the volume of
cooling water required for vapor condensation.

From the most reliable of data available, the average once^through  flow
of condenser water for refineries of all categories is nearly 31.5 cubic
meters  per metric ton  (7,550 gallons per ton) of raw sugar melted.  For
liquid sugar refineries the average is  nearer  16.3  cubic  meters  per
metric  ton  (3,900  gallons  per  ton)   of  raw sugar melted, while for
crystalline refineries the average  is  nearly  36.5  cubic  meters  per
metric ton  (8,750 gallons per ton) of melt.

Recirculation  of  barometric  condenser  cooling  water is practiced by
several refineries; this technique of reduction of the  discharge  waste
water  stream is further discussed in Section VII, Control and Treatment
Technology.

VvASTE WATER CHARACTERISTICS—CANE SUGAR REFINERIES

The characteristics of the total waste water effluent from a cane  sugar
refinery   vary  widely,  depending  upon  the  characteristics  of  the
individual waste stream as  described  below.   However,  the  following
major total raw waste streams can be identified:

          1.  The waste water produced by a crystalline sugar refinery
              using bone char for decolorization.  The majority of
              waste stream components are char wash water which
              is a part of the process water  stream, condenser
              cooling water.

          2.  The waste water produced by a crystalline sugar refinery
              using carbon for decolorization.  The major waste streams
              from this type of refinery are barometric condenser
              cooling water and process water,  including ion-exchange
              regeneration solutions and carbon slurries.

          3.  The waste water produced by a liquid sugar refinery  em-
                                  46

-------
              ploying affination and remelt and,  therefore,  using
              vacuum pans.   The discharge from this refinery is simi-
              lar to that from the carbon crystalline refinery except
              that the flow of condenser water is less.

          4.  The waste waters produced by a liquid refinery which does
              not use affination, does not remelt, and therefore, dees
              not use vacuum pans.  The discharge from this  refinery
              is similar to the discharge from number three  except that
              the barometric condenser flow is less.

          5.  The waste waters produced by a refinery which  produces
              both liquid and crystalline sugar by separate  processes.
              The discharge is a combination of numbers two  and three.

Barometric Condenser Cooling^Water

Theoretically,  barometric  condenser  cooling  water  should  carry net
values of only two  constituents—sucrose  and  heat.   The   sucrose  is
obtained from entrainment in last-effect evaporators and vacuum pans and
heat  is  a  result  of  heat-exchange  between the barometric condenser
cooling water and vapors.  In  terms  of  waste  water  characteristics,
sucrose  appears  in condenser water as BOD5, COD, and dissolved solids.
In practice,  as  indicated  in  Tables  10  and  11,  relatively  small
concentrations  of  other  constituents  appear.    In  some   cases these
probably appear as a result of  analytical  error  and  in  other  cases
because  of  contamination  of  the  condenser  water  by  unknown waste
streams.

The chemical composition of barometric condenser cooling  water  from  a
particular  refinery  is highly variable because of variable operational
parameters as well as factors in the design of  evaporators   and  vacuum
pans.  The characteristics are similar to those from a raw sugar factory
and  do  not  significantly  vary according to process differences.  The
BOD5 concentrations vary from 4 mg/1 to 39 mg/1 and  the  BOD^  loadings
from  0.07  to 1.8 kilograms per metric ton  (0.13 to 3.6 pounds per ton)
of melt.

Tables 10 and 11  indicate  that  the  volume  of  barometric  condenser
cooling water from liquid refineries is less than that from  crystalline;
however,  the  BOD5 concentrations are higher.  It is estimated that the
average crystalline refinery  discharges  barometric  condenser  cooling
water  with  a  BOD5  concentration  of about 12 mg/1 and a  flow of 36.5
cubic meters per metric ton (8,750 gallons per ton)  of melt,  while that
from a liquid refinery has a BOD5 concentration of approximately 19 mg/1
and a flow of 16.3 cubic meters per metric ton (3,900 gallons per  ton).
The  BOD5 loadings for all refineries are generally between  0.15 and 1.0
kilograms per metric ton (0.3 and 2.0 pounds per ton) of melt.
                                  47

-------


$
2
1
on
O
2
I
H
0)

23
1
§


C/}
a




w
EH




ml
§

tji

<^

B

|

0^
3

8

*j
s


1
-H
S
on
rH
o
o
CM
•
O

^
o
•
0
CM
O
O

in
•
^*
^*


rH
OO
O


rH
rH
O
0


Cn
•*
^j*


O
in
n
CM



^*




rH
6

o
o






o
•
o










c\
CM
O

«?
VO
0
r-
o
0


i-H
VD
rH


o
o
en
rH



n




CM

rH
rH 0
0 O
rH
^*
•
O

en
CM O

0 0
VD
o o
0 O
CM
00 T
• •
OO O



ro oo i — i *si* CM
^ on o rH CM o oo
O O O O O O rH

in on ^i*
rH vo en r^1 oo ^3* r** co VD
rHVOrHOOrHCMOVD
rH
^3 r—\ ^3* oo c^j ^r VD r**
vDcsicnonin^rHrHoo
OOOOOOOOrH


CMinOOrH^l'rHCn'^rH
CO CM CM ^5* ^i* ^3* VD rH I™"*
^^"VDOnCM"— iCMCM^J1


o o o o o in
ooinoint^ooo
cnaioncnonf^inonm
^ ^ ^ *• on VD r^
rH rH H rH
rH



«rcMCMCMCMoncMCN«r



i
^J'lnCOCnrHnrl'rHCM
AiAuuiihi^i

















I"O
d)
-H
m
-H
U
8,
tn
co o
(0 -H
^
(0 rH 0)
°| °
W -P w
rA (""* rn
UJ )— « UJ
ryi p— j QJ
rn 5" 3
rH
QJ
^
MH
O
tP
5 <
frt (0 O^
i 1 Q K^
(rt
^ -S
§ i s
^^~. o
rH CM ti
Q)
fi
CD ca
O m
Cj rt

-------


1
ro
s
I
•I—I
1
ro
K
* S
CO
H
EH CO
$ Q
1
1 w
S CO
O EH




g
co m|
^ Q
S S
g
£~
rt
W £*i
co % ?b
& ®<.

2 £1
8
4j|f
rH "X.
Q S1
^

&
Oj
S1
s
ft
o^ o ^D o
CN CNJ
^ in
• «
"^ O^
in o co o
• •
r-H <£>
rH
•^f in o
• • •
O rH O



o ro o
en o ro
en CN
ooooccn o cocnrHoo
rH rH rH rO



inomr-HOfN^CTiOCNrH
cN-^CNcnrocNrocno ^
00 rH rH


cn^**minrHrHrHvDoocn
rH rH rH CN ro ro


ooooooooooo
ooomooooooo
voinrocNOor^ocn^J'r^ro
inocNcoTxj'roocn'^rin
orooorooovDOOtH roro
i-H

oooooooinooo
inoooinomr^inrom
ro en en en ro en ro t^ ro vo r^
CN rH rH rH rH rH rH


^ro^rcMCNCNCNro'^CMM'
rH
rHCN'5rinoocnrHro'

4J
ft1
o
X
rH
(d 4J Qi
4-5 nj S
(0 Q
Q f-i
^
f^ g "S
§§ |
•" — * * — * Q
rH CN o;

rH
ffl rH
Q *
49

-------
Adsorbents

Commercial adsorbents play an  important  role  in  the  sugar  refining
process.   While  a  large portion of the original impurities in the raw
sugar is removed during defecation and  clarification,  there  are  con-
siderable  amounts of colloidal and dissolved impurities that yield only
to adsorbent action.

Impurities that are removed by adsorbents may  be  classified  (2)  into
three  types:   (1)  colloidal material, (2)  color-forming compounds, and
(3)  inorganic constituents.

Although a large number of adsorbents could  theoretically  be  used  in
sugar refining, only a few are in current use.  These include:

           1)  Bone char
           2)  Ion-exchange resins, mixed media
           3)  Ion-exchange resins, specific media
           U)  Granular activated carbon
           5)  Powdered activated carbon

Bone  char  is used in most of the larger sugar refineries in the United
States and accounts for approximately 69 percent of all  American  sugar
refining.    Bone  char  is  effective  in  the removal of both inorganic
materials  (ash) and organic impurities (colorants),  and  the  resulting
char  wash  waters  have  high concentrations of both ash and colorants.
Since the subsequent char kiln does not affect the ash  content  in  the
char,  and  since  ash buildup in the char leads to decreased char effi-
ciency, considerable attention is given by refiners to the char  washing
operation.   The  basic  philosophy is that it is better to use too much
water than not enough.

As mentioned in Section III, the first portion of the char wash water is
recycled for sucrose recovery.  The limiting factors on  the  amount  of
char  wash  recycled are:   (1)  Sucrose concentrations in the wash water
decrease with washing time and eventually reach the point where recovery
is impractical; and (2)  Ash concentrations in the wash water increase as
the sucrose concentrations decrease.

The spent char wash waters have BOD5 concentrations ranging from 500  to
2,000  mg/1  and  dissolved  solids concentrations ranging from 1,000 to
3,000 mg/1 (see Tables 12 and 13).  The  BOD5  loading  from  bone  char
washing  is  between  0.15 and 1.7 kilograms per metric ton (0.3 and 3.4
pounds per ton) of raw sugar melted.

Ion-exchange is an effective remover of color as  well  as  ash  and  is
utilized  as the decolorization medium in liquid and combination liquid-
crystalline refineries.   The waste characteristics  resulting  from  the
regeneration  of  an  ion-exchange  bed  are  greatly  dependent  on the
particular use of that bed.  Ion-exchange is often used  in  combination
with  carbon columns, and in these cases the usual practice is to remove
organics with the carbon column and then use  ion-exchange  as  a  final
                                  50

-------
fj
t1
*n
I
0)
•n
«
f
CO
§
a
1

§

ml
s
1
V
!
a
I
I
o
o

rH
0
•
o


o
CT\
•
rH
CO
O
O
r~
CM
rH
CT>
r^>
o
VO
vo
d
o
0
c^
H"
CO
CM
6







in
o
o
rH
CM
CM
in
VO
rH
^
CO
O
O
in
n
r-T
•^r
00
U
o
o

o
•
o
o
0
r^
CO
•
o
rH
O
O
in
^j-
o
t^
H
C5
CM
CM
O
O
O
t^-
rH
CO
**
rH
i











5
§
U
*— 
      in



      o
      ^r
      o
       *,
      CM
O
ID
      o
      00
      CO
      o
      o
                                     n

                         s
                                           I
51

-------
polishing  to  remove  inorganics.    The  inorganics  of concern include
anions as well as cations;  for such removal,  a "monobed"  consisting  of
both  cationic  and  anionic  exchangers  is   often  used.   The cation-
exchanger can also be used as a polishing step.    Most  of  the  organic
material found in the sugar liquor  is anionic, so that a strongly acidic
anion-exchanger (cationic resin)  can be used  to remove color.

Regeneration  of ion-exchange beds  usually results in a higher volume of
non-recoverable water than those from carbon  columns and bone char.    If
the  ion-exchange  bed  is  used  primarily  as an organic color remover
rather than as a final polishing and inorganic remover, the wash  waters
have  higher concentrations of organic carbon and correspondingly higher
BOD5 concentrations.  The BOD5 loading  from   a  liquid  refinery  using
carbon  columns  for  organic  color  removal  as  well as for inorganic
removal is approximately 2.9 kilograms per metric ton   (5.8  pounds   per
ton)  of  melt.   No  analyses  from  ion-exchange  beds  used  only for
inorganic removal have been made, but it appears that the  BOD5_  loading
is higher than from bone char and granular carbon and considerably lower
than from ion-exchange used for organic carbon removal.

Granular carbon is strictly an organic carbon remover and is, therefore,
a  color remover.  The regeneration of granular carbon requires sweeten-
ing off with water and heating  of   the  carbon  to  volatilize  organic
material,  thereby  reactivating  the  surface.   Most of the wash water
which results from sweetening off a carbon column can be  recovered  for
process  because  of  its sucrose content.  A certain amount of water is
usually wasted because of low purity.  While  very little information  on
the  characteristics  of this water is available, samples were collected
from one liquid sugar refinery.  In this refinery a flow of  0.08  cubic
meters  per metric ton  (19.2 gallons per ton) of melt was wasted and the
resulting EOD5 loading was approximately 0.1 kilograms  per  metric  ton
(0.2 pounds per ton) of melt.


Miscellaneous Waste Streams

In  addition  to the waste water resulting from condensers and adsorbent
regeneration, there are a number of minor waste streams generated  in  a
cane  sugar  refinery.  These include:  floor washings, filter washings,
truck and car washings, and boiler blowdown.

The flows associated with these waste streams are highly variable and in
some cases can be eliminated by reducing the volume of water used.  This
results in a waste stream of higher sucrose concentration which  can  be
recycled  back  into the process.  Table m indicates characteristics of
some of the filter wash waters.

Tables  15 and  16 list waste water characteristics in  terms  of  concen-
trations   and   loadings  from  crystalline,  liquid,  and  combination
crystalline-liquid refineries.  It is apparent that  in  terms  of  unit
                                  52

-------
                                TABLE 14

         WASTE WATER GHARACTERISTICS OF LIQUID SUGAR REFINERIES
Characteristic
BOD5_, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TS, mg/1
DS, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
pH
NH3 -N, mg/1
KN, mg/1
N03_ -N, mg/1
TP, mg/1
Total Coliform
per 100 ml
Fecal Coliform
per 100 ml
Filter
Cake Slurry
735(3
2,120(3
3,880(3
1,430(3
2,360(3
6.3(3
0.32(3
12.2 (3
75.8 (3



Truck &
Car Wash
17,250(1,3
40,300(1,3
6,530(1,3
6,480(1,3
50(1,3
7.2(1,3
3.04(1,3
0.49(1,3
1.80(1
0.60(3
240(1
240(1
Boiler
Blowdown
0(1
0(1
2,110(1
2,020(1
90(1
5.7(1
0(1
0(1
0(1
2(3
0(1
0(1
(1  RAPP data
(2  USCSRA questionnaire
(3  Internal data

Figures 14 and 15 are illustrations of the estimated flow and loadings
for the process water and barometric condenser cooling water, and total
discharge streams for the average crystalline and liquid cane sugar
refineries, respectively.
                                  53

-------
&

CO
f
rH
OJ
-I—I
2
co
a
en
g
P
o1
S

fr
1
£1
*
1
&
1
TO CO O
rH O O O
O O O O
rH O
CN 0
0 O
00 rH rH O
00 O O
O O O O
CN O O
0 0 O
O O O
CT> CN
^i* f~H
^^ ^3* 00 VO ^3* ^^*
O"\ ro VQ ^* LO o o <"O CN en ^* o*> ^ t — i
OOCOHCNO OOiHrHOOOr^rH
O^ O\ ^D i — i *~H l-O V£) ^3* LO ^* LO r~^ kO P^ VO
iHiHinror^rHvorororoiHVDVDtnm
i~H
co r~-
vo o oo r^- rH o^ TJ* r — t^* i — i oo i — i r^ CN co i — i
OrHrHrHrHrHCNi-HrHCNOincOCNCNi-H

CN
in r*- o\ vo oo T oo CN i — i o co in o o in cj^
oovocNTcocNinToomcoovQocNr^
^* rH ^3* ^* ^* ^J* CN VO CO CN rH rH CO CN ^3*
ooooooinooooinmooo
moooor^t^inoinor^r^ininin
COCT\OOCTvCNt~-COVOr-
CNrHCNrH COrHrHrHrH rH
•^TCOCNCNCNCNCNCNCSICNCNCNCOCNCNrH

rH ^J1
rH CN CO T in VO t — 00 C^ rH i — 1 i — 1 CO ^J* i — 1 CN
u u





i
•H
•H
U
1
-P <1J
,5 °
fO rH
•p ig co
(rt r^ m
ty t~t UJ
§ rH
^ rl
co T 
-------
VO
&

ro
I
Q)
•n
t,
CO
C/D
EH
§
ml

ll
faco
c
>i
fli Cn
*
I
&
QJ
o
oo
CN
co
ro
vo
vo
rH
VD
o
VD
VO
en
en
H
00
CO
rH

O
O
O
H
rH
0
m
CN*
^

rH
u
o
0
o

o
vo
0


o m
CN 00
in vo
rH rH
O CO
VD ^*

O 0
O O
en o
rH O
CO CN
rH
O O
o o
en oo
i-7 CN"
CO CN

CN CO
U U
rH
VO O
rH CD
O
O
rH CN
in o
ez> CD
CO
0 0
o o
rH
O
rH*
OVOCN rHenvot^voent^rH
moo ^j'enenin^i'in
CN co r~ CN
OrHvoincorHvoocninor^
r~encoininencovor~rHen^'
CO CN rHM'in^'i-HCN
en^vocNvoinincoi^ocN'sJ'CN
roeN^encN^oovDOOcor^ocN
CN ^ CN rH

ooooooooooooo
ooooooomooooo
oo ^sj* c^ C3 r*^ f*) oo vo c^ ^* LO CM o^
^enr-cNvocNcoincNCNOt^m
COCO OOOOI^CO rHrHCOCO
oooinoooommooo
oot^r^-inoinor^r^ininm
enenrHrHroencop^cNr^covor^
rH CO rH rH rH rH r-H
CNCNCNCNCNCNCNCOCNCOCNeNrH

rH ^<
'3'invor^ooenrHrHi-Hfo^d'rHCN
L)iuv6c!)cI)c!)CJHlHJiiii






1
I ^
10 rH ,5
& n °
ifi I
en^T ^
i
| |
,§2 S
s*
?* !
B rH
3 (0
O J>
s 3
•H •<
s
                                            55

-------
organic  loadings,  liquid sugar refineries have higher loadings than do
crystalline refineries.  This is apparently  due  to  the  high  organic
levels  produced  in  the  waste  waters resulting from ion-exchange re-
generation (all of  the  liguid  sugar  installations  listed  use,  ion-
exchange  as  an  integral  part  of their process)  and to the extent of
recrystallization and subsequent remelt practiced by  these  refineries.
An  extreme example of this is Refinery L-l, which has the highest waste
loading of all refineries listed.  It is important  to  note  that  this
refinery  does  not  remelt  sugar (i.e., produces no molasses)  and some
impurities that would otherwise be contained in molasses must leave  the
refinery  in its waste water.  This principle is true to a lesser extent
for other  liquid  and  liquid-crystalline  refineries  that  remelt  to
varying  degrees.   Refinery  L-3f for example, does not remelt sugar in
its primary product line but must recrystallize in a side  product  line
(refer  to Figure 9) to effect recovery of additional sugar and molasses
by-product.  This  refinery  still  produces  a  BOD5  loading  of  3.70
kilograms per metric ton (7.40 pounds per ton)  of raw sugar melted.  The
impact   of  ion-exchange  on  the  BOD5  loading  from  a  refinery  is
illustrated by the fact that 77 percent of the total BOD5 loading at the
latter refinery is due to ion-exchange regeneration waste water.

Figures 11 and 15 are illustrations of the estimated flow  and  loadings
for  the process water and barometric condenser cooling water, and total
discharge streams for the average  crystalline  and  liquid  cane  sugar
refineries, respectively.
                                  56

-------
Barometric Condenser
   Cooling Water

  BOD5 0.44 kg/kkg
   (0.88 Ib/ton)
  Flow:
36.5 m3/kkg
(8750 gal/ton)
       Process Water

BOD5 1.10 kg/kkg (2.20 Ib/ton)

 TSS 2.17 kg/kkg (4.34 Ib/ton)
                                                        Flow:
                                                      1.86m3/kkg
                                                      (450 gal/ton)
                             Flow:
                           38.4 m3/kkg
                           (9200 gal/ton)
                               Discharge

                       BOD5 1.54 kg/kkg (3.08 Ib/ton)

                        TSS 2.17 kg/kkg (4.34 Ib/ton)
                              Figure 14
        RAW WASTE LOADINGS AND WATER USAGE FOR THE
         AVERAGE CRYSTALLINE CANE SUGAR REFINERY
                                 57

-------
Barometric Condenser
    Cooling Water

 BOD5 0.31 kg/kkg
    (0.62 Ib/ton)
   Flow:
16.3m3/kkg
(3900 gal/ton)
       Process Water

BOD5 3.36 kg/kkg (6.72 Ib/ton)

TSS 5.58 kg/kkg (11.16 Ib/ton)
                                                          Flow:
                                                       2.5 m3/kkg
                                                       (600 gal/ton)
                               Flow.
                            18.8 m3/kkg
                            (4500 gal/ton)
                                 Discharge

                        BOD5 3.67 kg/kkg (7.34 Ib/ton)

                        TSS 5.58 kg/kkg (11.16 Ib/ton)
                                Figure 15
          RAW WASTE LOADINGS AND WATER USAGE FOR THE
               AVERAGE LIQUID CANE SUGAR REFINERY
                                    58

-------
                               SECTION VI

                   SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
Major waste water parameters of pollutional significance  for  the  cane
sugar  refining  segment  include BOD (5-day, 20° Centigrade) , suspended
solids, and pH.  Additional  parameters  of  significance  include  COD,
temperature,  sucrose,  alkalinity,  total  coliforms,  fecal colifcrms,
total  dissolved  solids,  and  nutrients    (forms   of   nitrogen   and
phosphorus) .   On the basis of all evidence reviewed, there do not exist
any  purely  hazardous  or  toxic  pollutants    (e.g.,   heavy   metals,
pesticides) in wastes discharged from cane sugar refineries.

When  land  disposal of waste water is practiced, contribution to ground
pollution must be prevented.  If deep well injection is used,  all  prac-
tices  must  be in accordance with the Environmental Protection Agency's
"Policy on Subsurface Emplacement of  Fluids  by  Well  Injection"  with
accompanying "Recommended Data Requirements for Environmental Evaluation
of Subsurface Emplacement of Fluids by Well Injection" (6) .

                  MAJOR WASTE WATER CONTROL PARAMETERS

The  following  selected  parameters  are  determined  to  be  the  most
important characteristics of cane sugar refining wastes.  Data collected
during the preparation of this document was limited  in  most  cases  to
these  parameters.  Nevertheless, the use of these parameters adequately
describes the waste water characteristics of the refining industry.  BOD
(5-day) , suspended solids,  and  pH  are  the  parameters  selected  for
effluent  limitations  guidelines  and  standards of performance for new
sources.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)  is a semi-quantitative  measure  of  the
biologically  degradable  organic  matter  in  a  waste water.  For this
reason, in waste water treatment, it is commonly used as  a  measure  of
treatment efficiency.  It is a particularly applicable parameter for the
sugar industry since sucrose is highly biodegradable.  It is significant
to   ground   water  pollution  control  in  that  it  is  possible  for
biodegradable organics to seep into ground water from  earthen  settling
or impounding basins.

The primary disadvantage of the BOD test is the time period required for
analysis  (five days is normal)  and the considerable amount of care that
must be taken to obtain valid results.

Typical BOD5 levels in both crystalline and liquid cane  sugar  refining
are  quite  high,  ranging from several hundred to several thousand mg/1
                                  59

-------
for  certain  waste streams.  Discharge of such wastes to surface waters
can result in oxygen depletion and damage to aquatic life.

Suspended^Sglids

Suspended solids serve as a parameter for measuring  the  efficiency  of
waste  water treatment facilities and for the design of such facilities.
In sugar waste waters, most suspended solids are  inorganic  in  nature,
originating  from process flows such as char wash and carbon slurries in
refineries.  Condenser  water  is  essentially  free  of  net  suspended
solids.

El

pH  is  an  important  criterion  for  in-process  quality control, odor
control, and bacterial growth retardation.   Highly  acidic  or  caustic
solutions can be harmful to aquatic environments.

                          ADDITONAL PARAMETERS

Chemical Oxygen Demand

Under  the  proper conditions, the chemical oxygen demand  (COD) test can
be used as an alternative to the BOD test.  The COD test is widely  used
as  a  means  of  measuring  the  total  amount  of  oxygen required for
oxidation of organics to carbon dioxide and water by  the  action  of  a
strong  oxidizing  agent under acid conditions.  It differs from the BOD
test in that it is independent of biological assimilability.  The  major
disadvantage  of  the  COD  test is that it does not distinguish between
biologically active and inert organics.  The major advantage is that  it
can be conducted in a short period of time, or continuously in automatic
analyzers.   In  many  instances, COD data can be correlated to BOD data
and the COD test can then be used as a substitute for the BOD test.

Considerable difficulties occur with the COD test  in  the  presence  of
chlorides, and it must be noted that condenser cooling water in a number
of refineries consists of brackish water.

No   definitive   relationship  between  BOD   (5-day)  and  COD  can  be
established at the present  time.   Therefore,  it  was  concluded  that
effluent  limitations  guidelines and standards of performance could not
be established for COD.

Bacteriological Characteristics

No bacteriological problems are present in  the  refined  sugar  product
from  a cane sugar refinery due to the fact that any bacteria present in
the product prior  to  evaporation  are  destroyed  in  the  evaporation
process.   There  is  no  introduction of microorganisms in the refining
process.
                                  60

-------
Temperature

The  temperatures  of waste waters discharged from cane sugar refineries
can present a problem in the case of barometric condenser cooling  water
and  other  miscellaneous  cooling  waters.   These streams are normally
discharged at temperatures in the range of 16° to 43°C  (60°  to  110°F),
but  may in some instances be as high as 63°C (145°F).  The discharge of
these heated waters, with inadequate dilution,  may  result  in  serious
consequences to aquatic environments.

Alkalinity

Alkalinity in water is a measure of hydroxide, carbonate and bicarbonate
ions.   Its primary significance in water chemistry is its indication of
a  water's  capacity  to   neutralize   acidic   solutions.    In   high
concentrations,   alkalinity  can  cause  problems  in  water  treatment
facilities.

Nutrients

Forms of nitrogen and phosphorus act as  nutrients  for  	   growth  of
aquatic  organisms  and  can  lead to advanced eutrophication in surface
water  bodies.   In  water  supplies,  nitrate  nitrogen  in   excessive
concentrations can cause methemoglobinemia in human infants and for this
reason  has  been  limited by the United States Public Health Service to
ten milligrams per liter, as nitrogen, in public water supplies (7).

Ammonia nitrogen may be entrained in barometric condenser cooling  water
along  with vapors.  Under aerobic conditions it is oxidized to nitrite,
and ultimately to nitrate nitrogen.  Phosphorus compounds  are  commonly
used  to  prevent  scaling  in  boilers  and orthophosphate may occur in
boiler blowdowns.  The use of phosphate detergents for general  cleaning
can contribute phosphates to total waste water discharges.   When applied
to  soil,  phosphorus  normally  is  fixed  by minerals in the soil, and
movement to ground water is precluded.

Total_Digsolved Solids

Total dissolved solids may reach levels of 1,000 milligrams per liter in
refinery waste waters.  In refinery  condenser  water,  where  entrained
sucrose  causes  dissolved  solids,  the  concentration  is typically 20
milligrams per liter. When land impoundage is used, the dissolved solids
concentrations in  seepage  may  considerably  exceed  raw  waste  water
values.

The  quantity  of  total  dissolved solids in water is of little meaning
unless the nature of the solids is defined.  In domestic water supplies,
dissolved solids are usually  inorganic  salts  with  small  amounts  of
dissolved  organics.   In sugar refinery effluents, dissolved solids are
more often organic in nature, originating from sucrose.
                                  61

-------
Sugar Analysis

Analysis for sucrose content is important in process control as an indi-
cator of sugar loss.  The two common tests used are the alphanapthol and
resorcinol methods.   Neither of these methods provides high accuracy  at
low  sucrose  concentrations,  but  they  do  serve  a useful purpose by
indicating slug loads of sugar and thus  provide  a  danger  signal  for
improper operation of evaporators or vacuum pans, or for spills of sugar
or  molasses.   Due to its inaccuracy at low levels and to the fact that
sugar content is measured by BOD, the sugar analysis is not an  adequate
parameter for guidelines establishment.
                                   62

-------
                              SECTION VII

                    CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY

Current  -technology for the control and treatment of cane sugar refinery
waste waters consists primarily of process control  (recycling and  reuse
of  water,  prevention  of  sucrose  entrainment in barometric condenser
cooling water, recovery of sweet waters) , impoundage  (land  retention) ,
and disposal cf process wastes to municipal sewer systems.

The  general  scope of current technology, and the attitude of refiners,
is that the volume of process water is sufficiently low that it  can  be
handled  by  end-of-line treatment and disposal systems whereas the much
higher volume of barometric condenser cooling water makes it impractical
to treat.  This position is illustrated by the fact that few  refineries
release substantial amounts of process waters to receiving streams while
all  but five refineries discharge barometric condenser cooling water to
surface water bodies.
      Ht Control Measures and Techniques  in  the  Cane  Sucjar  Refining
Industry In-plant control measures are essential in the total effort for
pollution  control in cane sugar refineries.  In-plant control refers to
the operational and design characteristics of the refinery and their im-
pact on total waste management.  Specific elements are water utilization
and conservation, housekeeping techniques, and any operational or design
factors that affect waste water  quantity  and/or  quality.   A  primary
portion of in-plant control is for the prevention of sugar loss and thus
is an extension of historical efforts.  To the refiner the loss of sugar
in  waste  water represents lost money; to the environmentalist it is an
organic pollutant.  Other  measures  of  in-plant  control  include  the
facilitation  of  dry-handling  techniques for sludges and filter cakes,
maximum recovery and reuse of  various  process  streams,  and  improved
housekeeping practices.

Raw  Sucjar  Handling.   Raw sugar is normally delivered to refineries by
truck, rail car, barge, or ship.  The unloading of the raw sugar at  the
receiving  area  offers  an  opportunity  for  sugar  spillage,  and the
periodic washdown of the receiving area produces a variable waste stream
with a high sugar content.  In one refinery visited, raw sugar  conveyor
belts  were routinely washed down and the resulting sugar solutions were
allowed to flow into  a  surface  water  body,  carrying  with  them  an
indeterminable amount of BOD5.

Most  refineries  recover  floor  washings in the receiving area to some
extent--some refineries almost in  total.   The  practice  in  some  re-
fineries  is  to  recover as much spilled sugar as possible by sweeping,
then discharge subsequent rinse water to waste.   A  minimal  effort  at
sugar  loss  prevention  through  equipment  modification  and  improved
housekeeping can essentially prevent the loss of sugar and its resulting
pollutant load from the raw sugar receiving area.
                                  63

-------
Truck and Cay^Vjash.   The tank trucks and rail tank cars  that  transport
liquid  sugar  and  edible syrups must be maintained under sanitary con-
ditions.  This normally involves cleaning of the tanks  with  steam  and
water after each use.  The first few minutes of washing produces a sweet
water  that  is  of sufficient sucrose concentration to allow economical
recovery fcr processing.  The sucrose concentration in  the  wash  water
effluent  after  the first few minutes is considered by most refiners to
be too low for recovery and is wasted.  This stream can be minimized  by
maximizing  recovery, but in any event the stream is small in volume and
a minor contribution tc total process waste water flow.
             Since any bacteriological contamination to  the  raw  sugar
syrup prior to evaporation is eliminated by evaporation, the recovery of
essentially  all  floor  wash  drains  as sweet water is possible and is
practiced in some refineries.

Barometric Condenser Cooling Water.  The development  of  calandria-type
vacuum pans and evaporators in the sugar industry has afforded increased
boiling  rates,  but  at  the  same  time  the  possibility  of  sucrose
entrainment in the barometric condenser water  has  increased.   Sucrose
entrainment  represents  an  economic loss to the refiners as well as an
organic pollutant  load  to  the  environment  in  the  condenser  water
effluent.  All sugar refineries employ some means to reduce entrainment,
with the motive in the past being primarily an economic one.

Entrainment  is a result of liquid droplets being carried out with water
vapors in evaporators and vacuum pans.  There are three  important  fac-
tors which affect the efficiency of entrainment control:

          (1)   Height of the vapor belt  (vapor height)
          (2)   Operation and maintenance
          (3)   Liquid^vapor separation devices

One of the most important factors in determining liquid carryover is the
height  the liquid bubbles must rise before entering the relatively high
velocity area of the discharge tube.  If the height of the vapor belt is
of sufficient magnitude, most liquid droplets will fall  back  into  the
boiling  liquor  due  to  gravity  and  be removed from the vapor before
exiting the evaporator or vacuum pan.  It has been found from experience
that the vapor height should be at least 250 percent of  the  height  of
the  calandria tubes to minimize entrainment.  Vapor heights in the cane
sugar refining industry have been generally found to  be  more  adequate
than those in raw sugar factories.  However, when existing vapor heights
are  insufficient,  they  can  be  increased  by  installing a spacer in
existing equipment.  This has been done in several cases for the purpose
of increasing evaporation capacity, but entrainment reduction has been a
secondary result.

In addition to proper design, proper operation of  the  evaporators  and
vacuum  pans  is  essential  in  minimizing  sucrose entrainment.  It is
                                  64

-------


WHITE SUGAR
VACUUM PANS

RFMPI T iND
SOFT VACUUM
PANS

TRIPLE EFFECT
EVAPORATOR
(A-LIQOUR)

QUAD EFFECT
EVAPORATOR
SWEET WATER


MISCELLANEOUS
EVAPORATOR


5252 Kg
F

183 Kg


752 Kg
F

819 Kg
R

43 Kg


ENTRAPMENT
SEPARATION
i
4838 Kg
RETURN TO PROCES

ENTRAINMENT
SEPARATION
i
58 Kg
RETURN TO PROCES

ENTRAINMENT
SEPARATION
I
701 Kg
ETURN TO PROCES!

ENTRAINMENT
SEPARATION
I
263 Kg
ETURN TO PROCES!

ENTRAINMENT
SEPARATION


414 Kg
S

125 Kg
S

51 Kg


556 Kg


13 Kg
RIVER WATER
I

CONDENSER
RIVER WATER
i

CONDENSER
RIVER WATER
i

CONDENSER
RIVER WATER
1

CONDENSER
RIVER WATER

CONDENSER


414 Kg
DISCHARGE


125 Kg
DISCHARGE


• 51 Kg
DISCHARGE


556 Kg
DISCHARGE


13 Kg
DISCHARGE
      7
     30 Kg
RETURN TO PROCESS
        FIGURF 16
  ENTRAINMENT REDUCTION
            65

-------
important to maintain the liquid level in evaporators  and  vacuum  pans
near the design level; in essence,  if the liquid level is increased, the
vapor  height  is  decreased.    An   important  variable  which  must  be
carefully controlled is the pressure inside the vessel.  If the pressure
is suddenly decreased, flash evaporation is likely tc occur resulting in
an increase in boiling rate and liquid  carryover.   Automatic  controls
are  available  for the operation of evaporators and pans and these have
been installed in a number of  refineries.    The  typical  refinery  has
liquid  level controllers on all evaporator bodies and absolute pressure
control on last bodies of multiple  effects  and on vacuum pans.

In addition tc proper design and operation, a number of devices  can  be
installed   to   separate  liquid  droplets  from  the  vapors.   Baffle
arrangements which operate on either centrifugal  or  impingement  prin-
ciples  are  commonly  used.  The Serner separator (7), a type of baffle
arrangement, is used in several refineries.  Figure  16  shows  the  ef-
fectiveness of Serner separators, used in conjunction with other baffles
and   direction   reversals,   based   on  experience  in  a  particular
installation.  The total BOD5 reduction in  this  case  is  84  percent.
Higher  reductions  are  considered possible with careful design coupled
with proper operation.

Demisters have been found to be applicable  to entrainment  reduction  in
certain  cases.   These  devices, which consist basically of a wire mesh
screen serving the dual purpose of   impingement  and  direction  change,
were  used to a large extent in the Cuban sugar industry before 1960 and
have been used to a limited extent  in the United States.  One  refinery,
upon the installation of demisters  in most of its evaporators and vacuum
pans  experienced a 50 percent reduction in barometric condenser cooling
water COD.  However, during the same maintenance program,  changes  were
made  in  the  baffles  and  other  control equipment, and the amount of
reduction due solely tc the demisters remained unclear.

At least two major refineries use partial  surface  condensers  as  heat
exchangers in the exhaust ducts prior to barometric condensation.  These
units not only affect liquid-vapor separation but also capture heat from
the vapors, and have been installed for the latter purpose.

Total  surface  condensers have also been considered but in general they
have  been  rejected,  primarily  due  to  the  costs  associated   with
installation,   but  also  for  a  number  of  other  reasons  including
operational problems and the questionable benefits associated with their
use.  A total surface  condenser  condenses  vapors  by  indirect   (non-
contact)  cooling  resulting in no sucrose loss in condenser water and a
stream of hot condensate that must be  discharged  because  of  its  low
sucrose content.

One  potential  problem  with  surface  condensers is fouling.  Most re-
fineries use low quality surface (river or estuarine) water for  conden-
ser  cooling.   While total surface condensers have not been used in re-
                                  66

-------
fineries, a comparison can be made with surface heat exchangers used for
air and oil coolers of turbine generators.  The  general  experience  of
the  sugar  industry  has  been that raw river water is unacceptable for
such applications because of fouling (13).

A second problem area, in the use of surface condensers is vacuum control
on the vacuum pans.  Fcr proper operation of a vacuum pan,  an  absolute
pressure  with  a tolerance of plus or minus 0.003 atmospheres (0.1 inch
mercury) must be maintained.  Adjustments to the absolute pressure, made
necessarily by variations in calandria steam pressure, feed density, and
ncn-condensible leakage, can be made  with  a  barometric  condenser  by
changing  the  flow  in  the condenser; however, the lag time associated
with a surface condenser makes absolute  pressure  control  considerably
more difficult and can actually increase sugar entrainment.

The  physical  installation  of surface condensers would be a problem in
many refineries, and in some cases an almost insurmountable  one.   Ver-
tical  height when unavailable can often be obtained by raising the roof
of  a  refinery,  but  horizontal  space  can  be  achieved  only   with
considerable  difficulty.   The weight of surface condensers could cause
severe structural problems in older refineries.  The units would have to
be installed on the fourth or fifth floor of a building that might be  a
century old.  The structural analysis required to insure the feasibility
of doing so would be extremely difficult.

USCSRA  has  estimated  (13)  that in a typical 1900 metric ton (2100 ton)
refinery, surface condensers would approximately double required pumping
energy, increase electrical requirements by about  1000  kilowatts,  and
require 11,350 to 13,620 kilograms per hour (25,000 to 30,000 pounds per
hour)  additional steam capacity.

Recirculation  of  barometric  condenser cooling water through a cooling
tower is feasible and is practiced at  three  refineries.   Spray  ponds
have  proved  to  be  feasible  for  the  cooling  and  recirculation of
condenser water for two small rural refineries, for several  cane  sugar
factories,  and  for  a  number of beet sugar plants.  However,  the land
required for these facilities generally prohibits their  use  for  urban
refineries.

One  large  urban  refinery  recycles barometric condenser cooling water
through a cooling tower and discharges on the average about two to three
percent of the flow as blowdcwn.  Cooling towers, while expensive, might
be applicable to other refineries and offer a means  of  reducing  waste
water  volume;  however,  in northern climates winter temperatures would
interfere with operation, and in dense urban areas wind blown sprays and
odors can present problems.   These problems can  be  reduced  by  proper
design and operation, and probably eliminated for most wind conditions.

Filter_Cake.  Most refineries use pressure filters such as the Valley or
Industrial type for removing impurities from sugar liquors.  Filter aid,
                                  67

-------
usually diatomaceous earth,  is used with the filters.  When the pressure
drop  across  the  filter increases to an unacceptable value or when the
filter efficiency drops, the filter cake is  removed.   The  desweetened
cake  is semi-dry (about 50  percent moisture)  and may be handled in that
form or it may be slurried for pumping.  In the dry form it is  normally
conveyed  to  trucks which in turn transport the material to landfill or
other land  disposal.   In  the  slurried  form  it  may  be  pumped  to
impoundage  or  municipal  sewage.   A  major portion of the cake can be
recovered in a kiln by revivification of the filter  aid.   An  existing
system  for  filter  cake  recycle  and  land disposal is illustrated in
Figure 17.  In this system approximately  80  percent  of  the  cake  is
conveyed  to  a  multiple  hearth kiln where the cake is heated to about
816°C (1,500°F).  Revivified filter aid is  discharged  from  the  kiln,
pulverized, and returned to  the filtration step of the refining process.
Makeup  filter aid is added  to the system as required.  The installation
of a continuous carbonation  process for liire  mud  slurry,  to  make  it
suitable  for  vacuum  filtration  and  removal  of sugar by washing, is
reported by one refinery to  have reduced total settleable solids  by  96
percent and BCD5 by 20 percent.

Adsorbant	Regeneration.   In-plant  modifications  for the reduction of
waste waters resulting  from  the  regeneration  of  bone  char,  carbon
columns,  and ion-exchange resins are practically non-existent, although
there are some minor, mainly operational, modifications to reduce  waste
water loads which include:

          (1)  Recovery of waste waters with lower sucrose
              concentrations, i.e., recovery of a greater
              portion of spent char wash water,

          (2)  Reduction in the volume of wash water used
              to sweeten off bone char and carbon columns,
              and greater dependence on volatilization of
              organics,

          (3)  Elimination or reduction in the use of ion-
              exchange as an organic color remover.

These  modifications  are merely proposals and the implications of their
adaptation are not fully known; research on this subject is needed.   At
present,  control and treatment of these wastes is restricted to end-of-
line treatment.

Treatment and Disposal Technology Currently_Ayailable to_the_Cane	Sugar
Ref ining_Industry_

Waste  water  treatment and disposal in the cane sugar refining industry
ranges from essentially no treatment to complete land retention with  no
discharge  to  surface  waters.  Since the early 1950's most large urban
refineries have discharged major process waste  streams,  such  as  char
                                  68

-------
                                     I
hrom FiItration
15 kkg solids/day
                                Industrial
                               Desweetening

                                  FiIters
                Sweet
                Water
                  to
               Process
Return to
 Process
 15 kkg Sol Ids/Day
                                       Cake
                                       Discharge
                                       15 kkg Solids/Day
                                           Cake to
                                           Landfill
                                           Disposal
    3 kkg Solids/Day
 0.18 kkg BOD/Day
                       Regeneration
                         Recycle
                          Kiln
                              12 kkg Solids/Day
                                                      Make up
                                                      3 kkg Solids/Day
                         FIGURE 17

                FILTER CAKE RECYCLE SYSTEM
                             69

-------
wash,  to  municipal  sewers.   The  current standard practice for urban
refineries, which represent approximately two-thirds of American refined
cane sugar production, is to discharge  all  waste  streams  other  than
condenser water to municipal sewage treatment plants.  Rural refineries,
representing   the   remaining  one-third  of  total  sugar  production,
generally have available land for impoundment, and the standard practice
in these refineries is either total or partial waste water retention.  A
summary of disposal  methods  currently  employed  in  the  industry  is
presented in Table 17.

There  are  two  notable  exceptions to the practice of urban refineries
discharging process wastes to municipal sewers and barometric  condenser
cooling  water to surface water bodies.  One large crystalline refinery,
which uses  a  cooling  tower  for  recirculation  of  condenser  water,
discharges  all  waste  water  except  uncontaminated  cooling  water to
municipal treatment.  This is made possible by  the  use  of  a  cooling
tower  recycle  system  which  reduces  condenser  water discharge by 98
percent.

The second exception is a small liquid  refinery  which  uses  municipal
water  for  barometric  condenser  cooling  water  intake.  Unlike other
refineries that use low quality surface water for condenser water,  this
refinery  is  able  to  extensively use the condenser water effluent in-
plant and discharges all waste water to municipal treatment.  It must be
noted, however, that the refinery does not use affination, does not have
vacuum pans, and, therefore, uses an atypically small flew of barometric
condenser cooling water.

The following table, Table 17,  is  a  summary  of  the  existing  waste
treatment  practices  of  the  refineries currently operating.  All cane
sugar refineries are represented  and  the  most  reliable  and  current
information presented.

Biological  treatment of sugar wastes has been demonstrated to a limited
extent in the raw cane sugar industry and more  extensively  outside  of
the  industry.   Sucrose  is  well known to be highly biodegradable, and
substantial BOD5 reductions have been observed in impoundage lagoons for
both factories and refineries.  In the beet  sugar  industry,  anaerobic
and  aerobic  fermentation  processes  have been successfully used  (17).
The applicability of biological treatment to refinery waste  waters  has
also  been well demonstrated by the 12 refineries that discharge process
wastes to municipal biological treatment systems.  While  no  refineries
currently employ biological treatment in the form of activated sludge or
aerated  lagoons, these systems are considered to be currently available
technology for the industry.   With  proper  design  and  with  nutrient
addition  to the nutrient deficient wastes, these systems can achieve 90
to 95 percent and  higher  treatment  efficiencies  for  highly  organic
wastes such as process waste water from cane sugar refining.
                                  70

-------
                           TABLE  17

              SUMMARY OF WASTE WATER TREATMENT
          AND DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES OF UNITED STATES
                   CANE SUGAR REFINERIES
Refinery                    Disposal of Waste Waters

 C-l                 All process  water to municipal sewers;
                     barometric condenser cooling water to
                     river.   Filter slurry to sewer.

 C-2                 All process  water to municipal sewers;
                     barometric condenser cooling water to
                     river.   Dry  haul filter cake after
                     regeneration and recycle of filter aid.

 C-3                 All liquid wastes to river.  Filter
                     slurry  to river.

 C-4                 All process  water to municipal sewers;
                     barometric condenser cooling water to
                     river.   Dry  haul filter cake after
                     regeneration and recycle of filter aid.

 C-5                 All process  water to municipal sewers;
                     barometric condenser cooling water to
                     river.   Dry  haul filter cake.

 C-6                 All liquid wastes to river.  Dry haul
                     cake after regeneration and recycle of
                     filter  aid.

 C-7                 Primary settling of process water;
                     overflow discharges to river.

 C-8                 All liquid wastes to river.  Future
                     use of  municipal system is probable
                     (sewer  hook-up is in-place).  Dry haul
                     filter  cake.

 C-9                 Most process water to municipal sewers;
                     barometric condenser cooling water to
                     river.   Dry  haul filter cake.

 C-10                Most process water to municipal sewers;
                     barometric condenser cooling water to
                     river.   Dry  haul filter cake.
                                71

-------
 C-ll                 Discharge  into  a  swamp  after  traveling
                     through  a  two and  a half mile  canal.
                     Have  recently constructed  a spray  pond.
                     Recycle  of barometric condenser  cooling
                     water is a possibility.

 C-12                 Total impoundment  of waste water
                     resulting  in no discharge  to  navigable
                     waters.  Have two  cooling  towers for
                     recycle  of barometric condenser  cooling
                     waters;  blowdowns are  .3  and  .7 percent.

 C-13                 Discharges into a  swamp.

 C-14                 All process wastes to municipal  sewers;
                     recycle  of barometric condenser  cooling
                     water through a cooling tower  and
                     discharge  of blowdown to municipal sewers
                     Dry haul filter cake.

 L-l                  All liquid wastes  to municipal sewers.
                     Filter slurry to  municipal sewer.

 L-2                  All process water  to municipal sewer;
                     barometric condenser cooling  water to
                     river.  Filter  slurry to settling,
                     dewatering, and dry haul.

 L-3                  All process water  to municipal sewer:
                     barometric condenser cooling  water to
                     river.  Filter  slurry to sewer.

 L-4                  Total impoundment  of waste waters
                     resulting  in no discharge  to  navigable
                     waters.  Barometric  condenser cooling
                     water recycled  through  a spray canal.
                     Filter slurry  to  total  impoundage.

 L-5                  Barometric condenser cooling  water
                     recycled through  a cooling tower.
                     Process  water  and filter slurry
                     discharged with no treatment.

CL-1                  Most  process water to municipal  sewers;
                     barometric condenser cooling  water to
                     river.  Filter  slurry  dewatered  and
                     dry hauled.

CL-2                  Most  of  process wastes  to  municipal
                     sewers;  barometric  condenser cooling
                     water to river.  Dry haul  filter cake.
                               72

-------
CF-1                Closed system of canals and holding
                    ponds resulting in no discharge to
                    navigable waters.   Filter slurry to
                    total impoundage.   Barometric condenser
                    cooling water recycled through a spray
                    pond.

CF-2                Total impoundment  of acid/caustic wastes
                    and filter cake slurry;  impoundment
                    with overflow of all other waste waters,
                    700 acres of lagoons.

CF-3                Barometric condenser cooling water passed
                    through spray pond (partial recycle,
                    75-90%, possible)  before discharge;  all
                    process waters discharge to total im-
                    poundage.  Filter  slurry to total im-
                    poundage .

CF-4                Barometric condenser cooling impounded,
                    then discharged;  all other waters im-
                    pounded completely in ponds;  cooling
                    tower recently built (50% of condenser
                    water);  recycle possible.  Filter
                    slurry to total impoundage.

CF-5                Partial impoundment.

CF-6                Partial reuse of waste waters in raw
                    sugar factory for  cane washing during
                    grinding season.

CF-7                Partial impoundment.

CF-8                Partial impoundment.
                               73

-------
Waste holding lagoons have widespread use in the raw cane sugar industry
and  are  employed by several cane sugar refineries in rural areas.  One
small liquid refinery was at one time operated in conjunction with a raw
sugar factory, and a lagoon system was designed to  contain  all  wastes
from  both  operations.   The subsequent closing of the factory left the
refinery with more  than  adequate  pond  area  for  total  waste  water
impcundage.   Several  factory-refinery  combinations  in  Louisiana and
Puerto Rico use impoundage to various extents; two refineries  discharge
to  large,  swampy  private  land  holdings  with  a resulting undefined
eventual discharge.

Those refineries which utilize waste holding ponds to achieve impoundage
with an overflew are those operating in conjunction with raw cane  sugar
factories.  Wastes from both the refinery and the factory are discharged
to  the same holding ponds, making it impossible to determine the treat*
ment efficiency associated with this technology.

In the construction and operation of  holding  ponds,  sealing  of  pond
bottoms  tc  control  percolation may be necessary (although expensive),
but self sealing may occur as a result of  organic  mat  formation.   No
contamination of groundwater should be allowed.

Land  irrigation is practiced at only one refinery - a small refinery in
Puerto Rico which is located on the  dry  south  coast  of  the  island.
Other refineries are prohibited from using this technology by either (1)
being  located  in  urban  areas,  or (2) being located in areas of high
rainfall.

Deep-well injection is not practiced in cane sugar refining nor in  beet
sugar processing; one raw sugar factory in Florida practices this method
of  disposal.   Deep-well injection may exist as a disposal alternative;
however, the effects of subsurface injection are  usually  difficult  to
determine.   This  method  of  disposal can only be recommended with the
stipulation that extensive studies be conducted to insure  environmental
protection beyond any reasonable doubt.

Effluent Limitations_Guidelines Development

For  the purposes of establishing effluent limitations guidelines, model
refineries were hypothesized to represent  the  crystalline  and  liquid
cane sugar refining industry subcategories.  These model refineries were
derived  from a basis of good water usage and conservation, but poor in-
plant controls to limit BOD5 and suspended solids loadings.  These ircdel
refineries  are  illustrated  in  Figures  18  and  19.   The  following
treatment  alternatives  have  been applied to these model refineries to
determine the best practicable control  technology  currently  available
 (EPCTCA), the best available technology economically achievable  (BATEA),
and the standards of performance for new sources  (NSPS):

     Alternative^A:  This Alternative represents the baseline
                                  74

-------
Barometric Condenser
     Cooling Water
   BOD5 0.54 kg/kkg
     (1.08lb/ton)
   Flow:
33.4 m3/kkg
(8000 gal/ton)
       Process Water
BOD5 0.82 kg/kkg (1.64 Ib/ton)
 TSS 1.30 kg/kkg (2.60 Ib/ton)
                              Filter Cake Slurry
                        BOD5 0.18 kg/kkg (0.36 Ib/ton)
                         TSS 0.56 kg/kkg (1.12 Ib/ton)
                               Flow:
                               Flow:
                           0.25 m3/kkg
                           (60 gal/ton)
                           35.1 m3/kkg
                           (8410 gal/ton)
                                 Discharge
                        BOD5 1.54 kg/kkg (3.08 Ib/ton)
                         TSS 1.86 kg/kkg (3.72 Ib/ton)
                                                           Flow:
                                                        1.46m3/kkg
                                                        (350 gal/ton)
                                Figure 18
          RAW WASTE LOADINGS AND WATER USAGE FOR THE
            MODEL CRYSTALLINE CANE SUGAR REFINERY
                                   75

-------
Barometric Condenser
   Cooling Water
  BOD5 0.50 kg/kkg
    (I.OOIb/ton)
    Flow.
15.0 m3/kkg
(3600 gal/ton)
                                                   Process Water
                                           BOD5 2.75 kg/kkg (5.50 Ib/ton)
                                            TSS 1.00 kg/kkg (2.00 Ib/ton)
                               Filter Cake Slurry
                         BOD5 0.18 kg/kkg (0.36 Ib/ton)
                          TSS 0.56 kg/kkg (1.12 Ib/ton)
                                Flow:
                                Flow:
                             0.25 m3/kkg
                             (60 gal/ton)
                             16.9m3/kkg
                             (4050 gal/ton)
                                   Discharge
                         BOD5 3.43 kg/kkg (6.86 Ib/ton)
                          TSS 1.56 kg/kkg (3.12 Ib/ton)
                                                             Flow:
                                                          1.64m3/kkg
                                                          (393 gal/ton)
                                 Figure 19
          RAW WASTE LOADINGS AND WATER USAGE FOR THE
                 MODEL LIQUID CANE SUGAR  REFINERY
                                      76

-------
and includes good water usage but poor in-plant controls.
This Alternative also assumes no treatment, and represents
the model raw waste loadings.

Alternatiye^B;  This Alternative involves the elimination
of a discharge of filter cake, which results from the
clarification  of melt liquor.  Filter cake can be disposed
of without discharge to navigable waters by controlled
impoundage of the filter slurry  (Alternative B-l)  or by
dry handling of the filter cake  (Alternative B-2).  A
decrease in water usage of 0.25 cubic meters per metric
ton  (60 gallons per tons)  of melt is evidenced over
Alternative A if dry handling of filter cake is in-
corporated.

Alternative_C^  This Alternative involves, in addition
to Alternative B, the addition of demisters and external
separators to reduce entrainment of sucrose into baro-
metric condenser cooling water.  This technology is
illustrated for both liquid and crystalline refineries
in Figures 20 and 21.  For the barometric condenser
cooling water flows developed for both the crystalline
and liquid cane sugar refining subcategories, BOD5 entrain-
ment can te reduced to below 10 mg/1.

Alternative D^  This Alternative  involves, in addition
to Alternative C, the addition of an activated sludge
system to treat process waters.

Alternative_E^  This Alternative involves, in addition
to Alternative D, the recycle of barometric condenser
cooling water through a cooling device with biological
treatment of the assumed two percent blowdown and in-
corporates sand filteration of the effluent from the
activated sludge system to further effect solids removal.
This results in reductions in water usages of 88 percent
for liquid refineries and 94 percent for crystalline
refineries, over Alternative D.

£lternative_F_^  This Alternative includes, in addition
to Alternative C, the elimination of a discharge of
process waters by total impoundage of this waste stream.
This technology requires that large quantities of land
be available and is not judged to be available technology
for urban refineries.  It is a current practice of many
rural refineries, however.

Bi^§ID^£iY§_G^  This Alternative involves in addition
to Alternative F, a recycling of barometric condenser
cooling water through a cooling device and total re-
                              77

-------
                            CRYSTALLINE REFINERIES
    Average
 Condenser Water

BOD5 0.44 kg/kkg
  (0.88 Ib/ton)
 Flow:
36.5 m3/kkg
(8750 gal/ton)
                       Good Water Conservation
                      But Poor Entrainment Control
                              Good Water Conservation
                            And Good Entrainment Control
                           Condenser Water

                          BOD5 0.54 kg/kkg
                            (1.08 Ib/ton)

                               (Model)
                                  Condenser Water

                                 BOD5 0.34 kg/kkg
                                   (0.68 Ib/ton)
                                  (Alternative C)
Flow:
33.4 m3/kkg
(8000 gal/ton)
Flow:
33.4m3/kkg
(8000 gal/ton)
                                       Figure 20
              CONDENSER WATER LOADINGS AND WATER USAGE FOR
                      CRYSTALLINE CANE SUGAR REFINERIES
                                LIQUID REFINERIES
    Average
 Condenser Water

BOD5 0.31 kg/kkg
   (0.62 Ib/ton)
  Flow:
16.3m3/kkg
(3900 gal/ton)
                        Good Water Conservation
                      But Poor Entrainment Control
                              Good Water Conservation
                            And Good Entrainment Control
                           Condenser Water

                          BOD5 0.50 kg/kkg
                            (1.00 Ib/ton)

                               (Model)
Flow:
 15.0 m3/kkg
 (3600 gal/ton)
                                  Condenser Water

                                 BOD5 0.15 kg/kkg
                                    (0.30 Ib/ton)

                                   (Alternative C)
Flow:
15.0 m3/kkg
(3600 gal/ton)
                                       Figure 21
              CONDENSER WATER LOADINGS AND WATER USAGE FOR
                          LIQUID CANE SUGAR REFINERIES
                                          78

-------
     tention of the assumed two percent blowdown.   This
     technology requires that large quantities of land be
     available and is not judged to be available technology
     for urban refineries.  It is a current practice of
     three refineries, all rurally located.  Reduction in
     water usages of 88 percent for liquid refineries and
     9U percent for crystalline refineries results, over
     Alternative F.

Specific features of the reccmmended best practicable control technology
currently available (EPCTCA)  for the two subcategories are:

—Containment  of  filter mud slurry or dry handling of filter cake with
land disposal.

—Prevention of  spillage  during  raw  sugar  handling,  unloading  and
storage.

—Entrainment  prevention  in  evaporators  and  pans  through baffling,
centrifugal separators, dimisters, and utilization of the proper  height
of the vapor belt.

—Maximum reuse of all general waste streams, i.e. - floor and equipment
washes,  filter  screen  washes.   (At  present  some refineries recycle
essentially all floor and equipment washes back to the process.)

—Biological  treatment  of  process  waters  by  activated  sludge   or
equivalent biological treatment system.

These  features  are  the  equivalent  of  Alternative  D  as  discussed
previously.

The effluent limitations guidelines were established  on  the  following
bases.    It  has  been  determined  that  sucrose  entrainment  in  the
barometric condenser cooling water, at the flows chosen  for  the  model
refineries,  can  be  reduced to the equivalent of 10 mg/1 EOD^ for both
crystalline and liquid refineries.  It has  also  been  determined  that
process  water  can be treated to the extent that the resulting effluent
monthly average waste loadings from the activated sludge system  are  30
mg/1  BOD5  and 40 mg/1 TSS fcr the crystalline cane sugar refinery, and
50 mg/1 BOD5 and 60 mg/1 TSS for the liquid cane  sugar  refinery.   The
addition  of  the  BOD5  attributed  to the barometric condenser cooling
water to that cf the process water results in the limitation  guideline.
The TSS limitation guidelines is that amount attributable to the process
water.

Specific   features   of   the  recommended  best  available  technology
economically achievable (BATEA)  for the two subcategories are:
                                  79

-------
—Those features considered to be best  practicable  control  technology
currently available.

—Recycle  of  barometric condenser cooling water for condenser or other
in-plant  uses  with  recycle  of  the  blowdown  stream  to  biological
treatment.   Cooling  devices (canals, ponds, or towers) are in integral
part of a barometric condenser cooling water recycle system.

—The additon of sand filtration of  the  effluent  from  the  activated
sludge or equivalent biological treatment system.

These  features  are  the  equivalent  of  Alternative  E  as  discussed
previously.

The effluent limitations guidelines were established  on  the  following
bases.   The  activated  sludge system which treats the process water of
the model refineries has been expanded to  handle  the  blowdown  stream
from  the  coding  device  utilized  in  recycling barometric condenser
cooling water.  The effluent levels from the activated sludge system are
the same as those  designed  for  in  the  treatment  of  process  water
(BPCTCA) .   The  Effluent  limitations  guidelines  reflect the level of
treatment attributed to the further solids removal as a result  of  sand
filtration.   It  has been determined that at the effluent waste loading
entering the sand filtration units from the activated sludge  systeir,  a
resulting  monthly  average waste loading from the sand filtration units
of 15 mg/1  TSS  can  be  easily  achieved.   The  effluent  limitations
guidelines  are  established  to reflect a value of 15 mg/1 TSS and that
amount of BOD5 removed with  the  solids.   These  effluent  levels  are
determined  to  be 28 mg/1 BOD5 for the liquid refinery and 18 mg/1 BODj>
for the crystalline refinery.

Specific features of the recommended best available demonstrated control
technology, processes, operating methods or  other  alternatives  (NSPS)
are:

—Those features considered to be best available technology economically
achievable.

These  features  are  the  equivalent  of  Alternative  E  as  discussed
previously.

The effluent limitations guidelines are further developed and the  costs
of  application  of  the various treatment alternatives are presented in
Section VIII, Cost, Energy, and gon-Water ^uality. Aspects.

Establishment of Daily Average Effluent Limitations Guidelines

Based on engineering judgement and an evaluation of what can be achieved
by the application of activated sludge for the treatment of  cane  sugar
refining  waste waters, daily average limitations have been established.
                                  80

-------
It is felt that the daily average limitations cannot  be  as  strict  as
those variances above the monthly average typical of a well-designed and
well-operated  municipal  treatment  system.  This is due to the greater
variation in waste loadings typical of industrial waste waters  and  for
other  unknown  factors.   No  cane sugar refinery currently utilizes an
activated sludge  system  to  treat  its  waste  waters.   However,  the
activated   sludge   system  is  currently  available  well-demonstrated
technology for wastes similar in nature to those  associated  with  cane
sugar refining.

For  the  crystalline  cane  sugar  refining  subcategory, daily average
effluent limitations guidelines have been  established  based  on  three
times  the  ironthly  average  limitations  for  BOD5  and four times the
monthly average limitations for TSS.  Because of a higher BODjj raw waste
loading and the potential  for  a  correspondingly  higher  variability,
daily  average effluent limitations guidelines have been established for
the liquid cane sugar refining subcategory based on three  and  one-half
times  the  ironthly  average  limitations for BOD5 and four and one-half
times the monthly average limitations for TSS.
                                  81

-------
                              SECTION VIII

                     COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS

 COST AND REDUCTION BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVEJTREATMENT AND CONTROL TECH-
                   NOLOGIES FOR CANE SUGAR REFINERIES

                          The_Model Refineries

The  cost  estimates  contained  in  this  document  are  based  on  two
crystalline  refineries with melts of 545 metric tons (600 tons) per day
and 1900 metric tons (2100 tons) per day,  respectively,  and  a  liquid
refinery  with  a  melt  of  508  metric tons  (560 tons) per day.  These
refineries are considered to be generally representative of  both  large
and  small  crystalline operations and of liquid operations.  Obviously,
any given existing installation may vary considerably  from  the  models
presented;  each  sugar  refinery  has unique characteristics and unique
problems that must be  taken  into  consideration.   The  following  are
assumed features of the representative refineries:

            1.  The present level of barometric condenser cooling water
                BOD5 entrainment is 16 ppm in crystalline refineries
                and 33 ppm in liquid refineries.
            2.  Both liquid and crystalline refineries employ liquid level
                controls on evaporators and absolute pressure controls on
                the last evaporator body.
            3.  Both crystalline refineries employ triple-effect evapora-
                tors;  the liquid refinery uses double-effect evaporators.
            4.  Total mud slurry equals 114 cubic meters (30,000 gallons)
                per day for the liquid refinery, 135 cubic meters (35,700
                gallons) per day for the 545 metric ton (600 ton) per day
                crystalline refinery, and 455 cubic meters  (120,000 gallons)
                per day for the 1900 metric ton (2100 ton)  per day crystal-
                line refinery.
            5.  The operating year consists of 250 days.
            6.  Ninety-eight percent of condenser water BOD5 is due to
                sucrose.
            7.  Both liquid and crystalline refineries discharge dia-
                tomaceous earth filter slurries.
            8.  The liquid and crystalline refineries do not recycle
                condenser water.
            9.  There is presently a discharge of process water with no
                treatment in the case of both liquid and crystalline
                refineries.

Bagis_of_Cgst_Analysis

The following are the basic assumptions made in presentation of cost
information:
                                  82

-------
            1.  Investment costs are based on actual engineering cost
                estimates.
            2.  0.454 kg  (one Ib.) of sugar is equivalent to .511 kg
                (1.125 Ib.) of BOD5.
            3.  3.79 liters  (one gallon) of 80° Brix final molasses
                sells for $.042 per liter  ($.16 per gallon).
            4.  All costs are August 1971 dollars.
            5.  Equipment depreciation is based on an 18 year straight-
                line method, except for rolling stock which is depre-
                ciated over 6 years by the straight-line method.
            6.  Excavation of filter mud pits costs $0.53 per cubic meter
                ($.40 per cubic yard); annual excavation and disposal
                costs $0.79 per cubic meter ($0.60 per cubic yard).
            7.  Annual interest rate for capital cost equals 8 percent.
            8.  Salvage value for all facilities depreciated over 18
                years is zero.
            9.  Only sugar losses in the barometric condenser cooling
                water can be recovered.
           10.  Liquid sugar sells for $254.00 per metric ton ($230.50
                per ton);  crystalline sugar sells for $260.00 per metric
                ton ($236.40 per ton).
           11.  Contingency is taken at 10 percent of installed cost.
           12.  Engineering and expediting costs are taken at 10 percent
                of installed cost plus contingency.
           13.  Total yearly cost equals:
                (Investment cost)  . (Yearly depreciation percentage) +
                Yearly operating cost +  (Investment cost /2) (.08)
           14.  Hook-up charges associated with disposal to municipal
                systems are assumed to be zero.

Qualifying  Statements.   The  following  cost  analyses include in some
cases considerable costs for excavation and dyke construction.  In  some
instances  these  costs  may  be  minimized  or nullified by topographic
conditions.  In other instances they may be  reduced  by  utilizing  in-
house equipment and labor.

Land  costs  vary  widely.  The figures used herein are considered to be
representative of non-urban  areas  where  the  use  of  land  would  be
expected.   In urban areas land is often not available; when it is used,
the cost can be expected to be substantially  higher  than  reported  in
this document.

The  investment cost associated with hook-up to a municipal waste system
is assumed herein to be nil.  In actuality this cost can vary from  zero
to  considerable  sums  of money;  for purposes of economic impact, it is
necessary to assess the cost on an individual basis.  However,   for  the
purposes of presenting cost information for the entire industry, it must
be  noted  that  thirteen  refineries  already  have  municipal hock-up.
Therefore,  for  these  thirteen  refineries,   the  assumption  of  zero
additional cost is valid because they already have municipal hook-up.
                                  83

-------
Crysta11ine_Refinery

Two  representative  crystalline  refineries  were chosen as a basis for
cost estimates:  a small refinery with a melt of 545  metric  tons   (600
tons)  per day and a large refinery with a melt of 1900 metric tons  (2100
tens)   per  day.  The following treatment alternatives may be applied to
both refineries.

Altgrnatiye^A;	No Waste Treatment_or Control.  The effluent from a  545
metric ton (600 ton)  per day crystalline refinery is 19,100 cubic meters
(5.05  million  gallons)  per day and from a 1900 metric ton (2100 tens)
per day crystalline  refinery  is  66,700  cubic  meters   (17.7  million
gallons)  per  day.   The  resulting BOD5 and suspended solids loads are
1.54 kilograms per metric ton (3.08 pounds per ton) and  1.86  kilograms     ""
per  metric ton (3.72 pounds per ton)  respectively, for both refineries.
Since no waste treatment is involved,   no  cost  associated  with  waste
treatment or control can be attributed to this Alternative.

             COSTS:  0
REDUCTION BENEFITS:  None

Alternative^E:	Elimination_Qf_Discharge^frgm_Filters.  This Alternative
can  be  achieved  either by impounding the mud resulting from slurrying
filter cake with water or by dry hauling the desweetened filter cake  to
landfill.   The  resulting  effluent  waste loads for BOD5 and suspended
solids are 1.36 kilograms per metric ton (2.72 pounds per ton)   of  melt
and  1.30  kilograms  per  metric  ton   (2.60  pounds  per  ton)  of melt
respectively, at this control level.

               B-l:  Impound Filter Slurry

             COSTS:  545 metric tons  (600 tons) per day crystalline refinery

                     Incremental Investment Cost: $33,000
                     Total Investment Cost:       $33,000
                     Total Yearly Cost:           $ 8,600

                     1900 metric tons  (2100 tons) per day crystalline refiner

                     Incremental Investment Cost: $66,000
                     Total Investment Cost:       $66,000
                     Total Yearly Cost:           $20,000

               B-2:  Dry Disposal of Filter Cake

             COSTS:  545 metric tons  (600 tons) per day crystalline  refinery

                     Incremental Investment Cost: $61,000
                     Total Investment Cost:       $61,000
                     Total Yearly Cost:           $45,000
                                   84

-------
REDUCTION BENEFITS:
                     1900 metric tons (2100 tons)  per day crystalline refinei

                     Incremental Investment cost:  $61,000
                     Total Investment cost:       $61,000
                     Tctal Yearly Cost:            $71,000

                     An incremental reduction in BOD5 of approximately 0.18
                     kilograms per metric ton (0.36 pounds per ton)  of melt
                     and in suspended solids of approximately 0.56 kilograms
                     per metric ton (1.12 pounds per ton) of melt is evi-
                     denced over Alternative A.   Total plant reductions of
                     11.7 percent for BOD5 and 30.5 percent for suspended
                     solids would be achieved.

                     For the purpose of accruing total costs in this
                     section of the report, the use of dry disposal of
                     filter cake (B-2)  will be considered representative
                     of Alternative B.

Alternative Cj^  In plant Modifications to Reduce Entrainment of  Sucrose
into  Condenser  Water.   This  Alternative  includes,  in  addition  to
Alternative B, the installation of demisters and external separators  in
order  to  reduce entrainment of sucrose in barometric condenser cooling
water.  It is assumed that,  in  addition,  both  refineries  have  good
baffling and operational controls in the evaporators and vacuum pans, as
well  as  good  vapor  height.   This  technology  is  currently  widely
practiced in the industry.  The resulting effluent waste loads for  BOD5
and  suspended solids are 1.16 kilograms per metric ton  (2.32 pounds per
ton) of melt and 1.30 kilograms per metric ton (2.60 pounds per ton)  of
melt respectively, for the selected refineries at this control level.

            COSTS:  545 metric tons (600 tons) per day crystalline refinery

                    Incremental Investment Cost: $ 52,000
                    Total Investment Cost:       $113,000
                    Total Yearly Cost:            $ 62,000

                    1900 metric tons (2100 tons)  per day crystalline refinery

                    Incremental Investment Cost: $ 73,000
                    Total Investment Cost:       $134,000
                    Total Yearly Cost:            $ 75,000

REDUCTION BENEFITS: An incremental reduction in BOD5 of 0.20 kilograms
                    per metric ton (0.42 pounds per ton) of melt is
                    evidenced over Alternative B.   The total reduction
                    in BOD^ is 24.7 percent.  No further reduction in
                    suspended solids is achieved.
                                  85

-------
                                                        This Alternative
assumes the addition of an activated sludge plant to  Alternative  C  to
treat process water.  Presently there are no refineries which have their
own  biological  treatment  systems,  but  refinery  wastes are commonly
treated in municipal  biological  treatment  plants.   As  discussed  in
Section  VII,  Control and Treatment Technology, refinery waste water is
highly biodegradable and thus well suited for biological treatment.

A schematic of the activated sludge system is shown in Figure 22.  Waste
water is pumped through a primary clarifier to an aerated  lagoon,  with
biological  sludge being returned to the aerated lagoon from a secondary
clarifier.  Excess sludge is pumped to a  sludge  digester;  the  sludge
from  the  digester  is  pumped to a holding lagoon.  The total effluent
waste loadings as a result of  the  addition  of  this  Alternative  are
estimated  to  be 0.38 kilograms per metric ton  (0.76 pounds per ton) of
melt for BOD5 and 0.06 kilograms per metric ton  (0.12 pounds per ton) of
melt for suspended solids.

            COSTS:  545 metric tons (600 tons)  per day crystalline refinery

                    Incremental Investment Cost: $255,000
                    Total Investment Cost:       $368,000
                    Total Yearly Cost:           $205,000

                    1900 metric tons  (2100 tons) per day crystalline refinery

                    Incremental Investment Cost: $662,000
                    Total Investment Cost:       $796,000
                    Total Yearly Cost:           $296,000

REDUCTION BENEFITS: An incremental reduction in BOD5 of approximately
                    0.78 kilograms per metric ton  (1.56 pounds per
                    ton) of melt and in suspended solids of approx-
                    imately 1.24 kilograms per metric ton  (2.48 pounds
                    per ton) of melt is evidenced over Alternative C.
                    Total reductions of 75.3 percent for BOD5 and 96.8
                    percent for suspended solids would be achieved.

Alternative E_^  Recycle of Condenser Water and Biologj.ca.1  Treatment  of
Blowdowri.   This Alternative includes, in addition to Alternative D, the
recycle of barometric condenser cooling  water  followed  by  biological
treatment  of a blowdown in an activated sludge unit and the addition of
sand filtration to further treat the effluent from the activated  sludge
unit.   The  blowdown  is assumed to be approximately two percent of the
condenser flow.  Presently, there are  three  refineries  using  cooling
towers  and  two which utilize a spray pond for the purpose of recycling
barometric  condenser  cooling  water.   Recycle  of   condenser   water
accomplishes  two  important  things;   (1)  it  cools the water, thereby
removing the heat normally discharged and  (2) it concentrates the  waste
loadings  into  the smaller blowdown stream, making biological treatment
                                   86

-------

CM

CVJ
 o
 H

 fe
        H

        OT
w
o
o

3
en


8
        PC*

        O

-------
of  this  waste stream feasible.   The total effluent waste loadings as a
result of the addition of this Alternative  are  estimated  to  be  0.04
kilograms per metric ton (0.08 pounds per ton)  of melt for BOD5 and 0.03
kilograms  per  metric  ton  (0.06 pounds per ton)  of melt for suspended
solids.  In addition, 665,000 kilogram  calories  per  metric  ton  (2.4
trillion  BTU  per  ton)   of  melt are effectively removed from condenser
water.

There are a number of methods of  recycling  condenser  water;  for  the
purposes of this document,  the following are considered:   cooling towers
and spray ponds.

              E-l:  Alternative E with a Cooling Tower
                                                                           *
            COSTS:  545 metric tons  (600 tons)  per day crystalline refinery

                    Incremental Investment Cost: $346,000
                    Total Investment Cost:       $714,000
                    Total Yearly Cost:           $283,000

                    1900 metric tons  (2100 tons) per day crystalline refiner

                    Incremental Investment Cost: $  714,000
                    Total Investment Cost:       $1,510,000
                    Total Yearly Cost:           $  470,000

              E-2:  Alternative E with a Spray Pond

            COSTS:  545 metric tons  (600 tons)  per day crystalline refinery

                    Incremental Investment Cost: $  282,000
                    Total Investment Cost:       $  650,000
                    Total Yearly Cost:           $  271,000

                    1900 metric tons  (2100 tons) per day crystalline refinei

                    Incremental Investment Cost: $  596,000
                    Total investment Cost:       $1,392,000
                    Total Yearly Cost:           $  438,000

REDUCTION BENEFITS: An incremental reduction in BOD5 of approximately
                    0.34 kilograms per metric ton  (0.68 pounds per ton)
                    of melt and in suspended solids of 0.03 kilograms
                    per metric ton  (0.06 pounds per ton)  of melt
                    is evidenced by addition of this Alternative
                    to Alternative D.  Total reductions of 97.5 percent
                    for BOD5 and 98.4 percent for suspended solids wculd
                    be achieved.
                                  88

-------
Alternative  FI   Elimination  of  Discharge  of  Process  Water.   This
Alternative  assumes  that,  in  addition  to Alternative C, all process
waters are eliminated by controlled retention and total impoundage.  The
resulting effluent waste loading for BOD5 associated with  this  control
level  is  estimated  at  0.34 kilograms per metric ton (0.68 pounds per
ton)  of melt, that amount attributable to barometric  condenser  cooling
water.   The  suspended  solids  loading  is  zero as the only suspended
solids-bearing waste stream has been eliminated.

                F:  Elimination of Discharge of Process Water
                    by Containment

Total impoundment of process water  is  sucessfully  practiced  by  five
refineries;  however,  a  considerable  amount  of land is required (see
Tables  17  and  18,  Path  13).   Containment  of  process  waters  is,
therefore,  not  considered  to  be  practicable  technology  for  urban
crystalline refineries.

            COSTS:  545 metric tons (600 tons)  per day crystalline refinery.

                    Incremental Investment Cost:  $1,410,000
                    Total Investment Cost:        $1,530,000
                    Total Yearly Cost:            $  211,000


                    1900 metric tons  (2100 tons) per day crystalline refinery

                    Incremental Investment Cost:  $4,870,000
                    Total Investment Cost         $5,000,000
                    Total Yearly Cost:            $  591,000

REDUCTION BENEFITS: An incremental reduction in plant BOD5 of 0.82 kilograms
                    per metric ton  (1.64 pounds per ton) of melt and in
                    suspended solids of 1.30 kilograms per metric ton  (2.60
                    pounds per ton) of melt is evidenced in comparison to
                    Alternative C.  Total reductions in BOD5_ of 78.0 percent
                    and in suspended solids of 100 percent are achieved.

iBiternative  G^   Elimination  of  Discharge  of_  Barometric  Condenser
Cooling Water.  This Alternative assumes that in addition to Alternative
F,  there is an elimination of discharge of barometric condenser cooling
water.  To achieve this level of treatment, it  has  been  assumed  that
condenser water is recycled and the blowdown impounded.  The blowdown of
barometric  condenser  cooling water is assumed to be two percent of the
total condenser flow.  Effluent waste loads associated with this control
level are zero kilograms per metric ton (zero pounds per ton)  of melt.

              G-l:  Recycle of Condenser Water Through a Cooling Tower
                    with an Assumed Two Percent Blowdown to Controlled
                    Land Retention, in Addition to Alternative F.
                                 89

-------





























oo
i— i

W
hJ
PQ
<
H







































x-\
O


Fn


CO *
W *
> w
M
H
<
FH Pi pq
CJ
CO
P P
H O > 4J
Pi Pn CO co
< Pi cd
1 *
JE
t3
CO








4->
0 CO
CU H
4J 3 (1)
0 4-1 4-1
0) iH CO
3 4J B
rH CO CO
«H C M
M-t O CO
W U P*
0 0
^^
x-^
•J- 00
CO VO
• •
0 0
^x
x^
-* oo
o o
* *
o o
^^

s~\
00 VO
co r^
• •
o o
N^


X^^
VO CM
•-I CO
• *
i-l CM
*~s


S~\
VO CM
co r~s
• •
i-l CM
0 O
Ai
AS C
•^ o
00 4J
A! ^
ja
m|H
P"-'
O
«

X— \
0 0
^s
x—\
o o
<+*s



x^
CO VO
O O
• •
0 0
N^X

X-N
VD CN
0 rH
• •
O O
\»x


/— \
o o
CO vO
• •
rH CN
^^


X-N
O 0
CO vO
• •
rH CM
V-'



X-N
VO CM
OO l-»
• •
i-H CO
N-^



X"*\
VO CM
oo r^
• •
rH CO
N-'



4-> x^.
rH 4->
0) i-H
B 4H
O
00
A! C
A! 0
-^ 4J
60-^
A! &
rH
CO *-*
OT
H
1^. vO
VO <•
. . 0
O i-l
VO
>* «*
. . o
CO rH
CO
r- vo
vO «*
• • o
O i-H



vO
-3- «tf
. . O
CO rH
CO



vO
<• -d-
. . o
CO i-l
CO



VO
»3- st
. . o
CO i-H
CO




vo m
<• -d- CM
• * •
CO rH O
CO




vo m
<*  W
^ CU CO rl
B 
-------
                           TABLE 19

       SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVE COSTS FOR A 545 METRIC TONS
          (600 TONS) PER DAY CRYSTALLINE SUGAR REFINERY



Alternative
A
B-l
B-2
C
D
E-l
E-2
F
G-l
G-2


BODS
Load*
1.54
1.36
1.36
1.16
0.38
0.04
0.04
0.34
0.0
0.0


% BOD_5
Removal
0.0
11.7
11.7
24.7
75.3
97.5
97.5
78.0
100
100


TSS
Load*
1.86
1.30
1.30
1.30
0.06
0.03
0.03
0.0
0.0
0.0


% TSS
Removal
0.0
30.5
30.5
30.5
96.8
98.4
98.4
100
100
100


Investment
Cost
0
33,000
61,000
113,000
368,000
714,000
650,000
1,530,000
2,530,000
2,470,000
Total
Yearly
Operating
Cost
0
5,400
36,700
55,600
174,000
219,000
214,000
70,000
114,000
109,000

Total
Yearly
Cost
0
8,600
45,000
62,000**
205,000
283,000
271,000
211,000
352,000
340,000
 *Waste Loadings in Kilograms per Metric Ton of Melt

**Includes Sugar Savings of $7,400/yr. as a Result
  of Entrainment Prevention.
                                91

-------
                           TABLE 20

      SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVE COSTS FOR A 1,900 METRIC TONS
        (2,100 TONS) PER DAY CRYSTALLINE SUGAR REFINERY
BOD5_
Alternative Load*
A
B-l
B-2
C
D
E-l
E-2
F
G-l
G-2
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
.54
.36
.36
.16
.38
.04
.04
.34
.0
.0
% BOD5_
Removal
0.0
11.7
11.7
24.7
75.3
97.5
97.5
78.0
100
100
TSS
Load*
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
.86
.30
.30
.30
.06
.03
.03
.0
.0
.0
% TSS
Inves
tment
Removal Cost
0.0
30.5
30.5
30.5
96.8
98.4
98.4
100
100
100
0
66
61
134
796
1,510
1,390
5,000
7,620
7,510
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
Total
Yearly Total
Operating Yearly
Cost
14
64
87
244
350
330
137
245
226
0
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
Cost
0
20,000
71,000
75,000**
296,000
470,000
438,000
591,000
950,000
918,000
 *Waste Loadings in Kilograms per Melt

**Includes Sugar Savings of $27,000/yr. as a
  Result of Entrainment Prevention.
                                 92

-------




































1 — I
CM
W
(J
pQ
^J
H











































I-i 60
cd co d
CU 4-1 -H ^
>i CO T3 CU
033
i-H U iH O
cd CJ PL,
4-1 C
0 M
H
4-1
d
cu
a w
4-1 CO
0) O
>-i CU CJ
oS >
W d
Z M
M
2 cd -a
CX M CU
full -H CU I-I
3. CJ 3 -H
O -H 0) 3
[3 d CO CT1
CO 3 CU
S OH
M O 0)
.-1 iH T3
_] CO ,0 0)
<3 cu cd l-i
H M i-H 13 -H
co cd 1-1 d 3
^-1 4-1 Cd Cd C7
OS O > >J CU
CJ CU 0 ^
4J d w ^
<3 cd t-i cd --^
CU T3 .d i-I
OS 33 cd 0 cd
O 0 CO CJ
tn hJ -H 1
Q .*^
CO
w
hJ 13
£> cu
Q 60 60 6(
H d I-I ^i
33 Q iH cd J»J
CJ O T) X! ~^-
CO PQ cd CJ 6£
O CO ^i
Z i-I -H
0 O
M
H
•-3 ti

§ -!-f (~f
M 4-1 4-1
cx cd
•H PL,
I-I
O 14-1
CO O
cu
Q




j2
cd
PL,
00 0
0 O O
O O O
•l •> M
vO •^f CO
^H O M
CO CO i— i



o o o
00 0
00 0

O o r^-
c^ *^ c^
in ^ CN
A M
CN CM




CO
o o cu
Z Z r*"*




^
•
iH i-H O
vO vO









0 O O











0 O O







l-i l-i M 60
cu cu cu d
4-1 C! 4-1 d 4J -rl
.-H 31-1 t-H 3 rHCUrHt-H
•HCOOCU tHCOO -H 60 T) O ctf
14-1 co *^ 3 ^4-1 co id m M d O cx
cu3o cu§i3 cdcdo-H
U-IOO4-J W-ICJOC! W-I^C O
O O t— 1 OOiHO OO1-I0-H
1-1,060 t-j JD O. COCUOd
4-1Q. d 4-lfX 4J-H4-l|-l3
d *T3 "H d T3 ^*» d t3 Cd M-l a
CU-HdiH CUtHdcd CU 3 4J
a-Hcdo s-HtdM a^ doc
gcd o dcd cx Bdco34Jcu
•H «o -H «cn -Hcdcoo a
Cd»l-l Cd»M Cd CUT3I-I4-I
4JCOCUa 4-ICOCUa 4JCOO|SCUCd
dT34JO dT34-!O dl3OO3CU
O3cdM O3cdl-i O 3 l-i tH O M
Cja3>4-l UBS1!-! CJ8CX^34J4J
rH CM CO

o o
0 O
0 0
* •*
CN CM
o in
i— 1 CO



0 0
0 O
0 0
M M
co O
CO CO
CN m
*
CM




CO
CU O
>> Z




^
•
0 0
vO









o o











o o






I-I
I-I M-l CU CO
CU O 4-1 4-1 I-I
4J >, i-i d cu
rH CU Cd iH CU 4J
•H 60T3 i-i in >4-i a cd a

cd cd co cx 14-1 -H i-i
M-I 42 *H o cd co m
OCJM8O 4J03 I-I
COCUO-H ^Hdcudcu
4->vH4->}-ld CdOCJ33
d *^3 cd 4-1 3 CO O O O O
CU 3 B4J O I-I134-I
0T3 d d CXT3CX3
3dco3ocu cod ooo
•HcdCOO4-ia -HcdiHi-Hd
cd CUt3 4J T3 1-IJ3-H
4-1 CO O 3 'O cd el) cd i~H
dxioodcu >»^i T3O
O3l-ii — 1OI-I McdM-ldO
CjaCXJ3CX4J QOOcdCJ

-------
































I — I
CN

W
M
<^
H












































rH
J_|
CO
cu
>H

rH
cfl
4J
O
H





^-4
03
W
M
§
53
o
1 >
CO
w
M
l-l

Q
W
P2

CO

p^
o
j 1
H
•
^
C
M
rH
CO Tj
P. J-i 0)
•H CU rl
O 3 -H
•H CU 3
C co cr
3 cu
CU
i~l T3
43 CU
CO T3 M
rH fi -H
•H CO 3
Cfl |-J CT
> CU



CU M
00 00.^
(2 J-i ^
•H CO -~-
rO 4^J i — |
cfl O cfl
O CO C_>
hJ -H I
Q .^


13
CU
00 00 OC
c2 J-i .^
•H cfl ^
13 42 ^.
cfl O M
O CO ^4
l-l -rl
Q






f3
O
•H 42
4-1 4-1
a. co
•H PH
J-I
O <4-l
CO O
CU
Q






42
CO
PH

O
O 0
0 0
0
•* C7\
O -0
4-1 4J C 4-1 £2
rH C2 CO >-, rH CU -rl
•H CU Cfl -H 00 T3 rH rH
"4-I0J-IJ-I lWJ-lf2OCO
5 cu ex cfl co o a.
U-l -H 4-> CO 4-1 42 CJ -H
O cfl cfl O O CO O
4-130 CO J-i 0 -H
rHpi 0 rH-rHCUOC
cflOCOJ-i COT34-IJ-I3
COaW4H CO C04-I0
O CU O 42 ^ 4J
PHT3OC2 0.4-1 cod
COCO3 CO-HC034-1CU
•HcOJ-iO -H3WO g
13 CX T3 T) CU 13 J-i 4J
cu 313 a)O3cucfl
^ASi-IOC !>~.^!OO3CU
J-lCflrHrHO J-ICOJ-lrHOJ-l
QOC043PL, QOP.434-I4-I

VD r^



0
o
o

OO
en
rH


O
0
0

rH
vO
CM



CO
CU




CM

o










o











0




C C
J-I CO O 4-1
CU CX (2
4-1 4J J-I CU
rH C CU >> 0
•H CU 4-1 Cfl 4-J
4-1 0 cO J-i cfl
C2 3 Pi CU
4-1 -rl CO J-i
O Cfl CO 4J
4-1 CO 0
rH £2 CU O rH
Cfl O O JH Cfl
CO O O 4H P.
0 JH -H
P. 13 P. C O
CO C2 3 -rl
•H CO rH 0 (2
13 rH 13 3
CU cfl 3 0
r-^> .M O
Jj CO 4-1 rH O
Q 0 O 43 4J

OO




























































JH
CU
4J
rH
•H
4-1

4-1
O

4J
rj
CU
0
a
•H
CO
4-1
C
0
CJ

cr\






























































rH
cfl
O
•H
00
O
rH
O
•H
43

13
C
cfl

CO
13
3
0































































CO
CO
CU C
O 3
O 0
J-i 13
P. 3
0
4-1 rH
0 43

4-1 TJ
a c
cu cfl
0
4J JH
cd cu
CU 4J
J-I Cfl
4-1 3





O
O
O

P^
,^-
CM


O
O
o
•t
vD
OO




O





00

O










O










^3-
,
o


1
rH
0
4-1

wt •
CO JH
JH 4-1
CU rH
3 -rH
O 4-1
4J
13
00 C
C CO
•H CO
rH
O >.
0 43
O
13
0  0

0
rH


o
o
O

u~\
en
CM


O
0
o

CM
CM
VD



O





a\
»
o










o









^J-
o

o





1
CO rH .
CO O l-l
CU C 4H 4-1
CJ 3 rH
O O « -rl
J-I 13 13 4-1
P. 3 C
0 0 T)
4H rH P< (2
O 43 cfl
?>~. CO
4J -a co
a a M >.
CU cO p. 43
0 to
4-1 J-I 13
CO CU 0 CU
Q) 4-1 0 3
J-i cfl J-i O
4-1 S 4-1 rH



94

-------




































I— 1
CM

W
,-1

<3j
H














































rH 60
r< C
cfl 03 -iH M
CU 4J T> 0)
>> to 3 IS
O rH O
rH U 0 PH
CO fi
•iJ ^^
O
H
4J
C
CD
0 *-*
4J CO
03 O
>-< 01 U
PH ^
w c
53 H
W rH
fv] Cy "73
Q, l-( Q)
pi -H 01 J-i
 30)
S Pi
w
a
M <4H
rJ O Q)
!-) rH 13
 cfl 13 M
CO M rH fi vH
>H cfl -r( cfl 3
pi 4J CO nJ CT
0 0 >  <3 pi
1-1 ^ &

< 0) 13
S3 0) 60
CO 0 60 60 ^
•H 4J C M ^
<; 4J cfl -H co \
a Q) 13 XI rH
Pi O P3 cfl o CO
O O O co U
fn *~s J -H 1
Q .^
CO
w
hJ T3
^j a)
Q 60 60 6C
W fl M ^A
K Q -H CO ^
c_> O 13 Xl —
CO pq cfl o 60
O CO ^
Z J -rl
0 Q
1 — f
H
>
03 fi a) cfl o xi
•rl CO 0 0
13 4J S-l 13
a) cfl a; 0 a)
>,^ Q) 4-1 O &
to cfl M cfl t-i O
O O 4J > 4-1 rH

rH
rH

o
o
0

rH
f^
CM



0
o
0
M
o
in
\Q





o
J55







s^"
•
o











o








"•d"
o
•
o






to
0) I
4-1 03 rH •
rH rH 03 O to
•H CO CU p 4H 4J
4-1 CJ O |S rH
•H O O « -H
4H 60 to 13 *O 4-1
O O Qi ^ fi
rH 0 O T3
rH 0 4-1 rH O. fi
CO -iH O XI cfl
03 Xt ^*» 03
O 4-1 T3 CO
a. 13 c fi to >,
co fi a) cd a. xi
•H cfl 0 03
rd 4J I-l 13
Q) cfl CU 0 CD
£*•» .^ CU 4-1 O ^
M cfl M cfl M O
Q O 4-1 |S 4-1 rH

CM
rH

o
0
0
A
 O O CU
*PI pC r~i
4-1 O3 4-1 4-1 CJ
03 O *H t^i
4-4 01 SO
o u cu cu
O 60 t-i M
4J IJ t-l 01
fi f\ cO 4-i to
Q) , *~i Cfl O
0 13 CJ S
C fi CO 60
•H cfl -H H fi
cfl 13 01 -H
4J 03 03 rH
fi *O 13 fi O
O 3 C CU O


en
rH

o
o
o

CO
«n




o
o
o
M
in
oo





03
0)
^H







in

d








f*^
vO
,
o








"^
ff)
*
o





M
1 CO
M 4-1 M 1
01 CO 01 C 4-1
4J 01 4-1 O 3
rH M Cfl 0 O 01
•H 4-1 1$ Xl rH
14-1 14-1 4J CJ
rH 03 O *H ^t
4H CO 03 ^O
O Qi CU 01 0)
•H CJ 60 rl to
4-i u o H cu
rt *rH ^ 00 4— ' V^
QJ rt p^ _(~{ cy Q
03 03
fi 0 4-1 03 60
•H O vH M fi
cfl » 13 0) -H
4J CO 4-1 03 rH
fi 13 fi 13 fi O
O 3 (U fi CU O


^J-
rH

o
o
o

r-T
rH
CN



o
o
0
•t
o
fO
u"l
M




o










oo
OO







p*^
vO

o








^.
OO
*
o






to 1
01 03 60
4J 4H -rl C

•H 01 rH
4-1 4J 13 03 O
fi fi fi O
14-1 01 cO 01 O
O 0 13
5 to fi 4-*
i-H vH 0) O 3
cfl cfl 4-i o O
03 4-) cfl x! CU
O C IS 4H 4J rH
D. O O -rl CJ
CO O 03 3 >%
•H CO CU CJ
T) ~ 0 to 
-------
>,
rH 60
M C
CO CO T-l V^
CU 4J 13 CU
>H co 3 5
O rH 0
i-H U O PH
CO C
4J M
0
H
4-1
C
CU
e w
4-1 CO
CO O

Pi C
W H
a
I-H
fH rH
W cfl 13
ed ex i-i cu
•H CU M
Pi O S T-l
«C -H 0) 3
O 13 CO CT
ED 3 CU
co s 0$
U
% 4H
M O CU
(-1 rH 13
h4 CD 42 0)
H 4-1 cfl nJ CT
r-t {£ CJ > CU
r-j o cu <£ PH
^_ rr*
x— x 35
W i-4 13
rJ h4 Q) T)
M 
CO




O
O
O
M
CO
rH
rH





CO
CU
>-l





o








r-~
o
•
0






-3-
ro
,
0






l-i 1 *»
CU 4-1 l-l 1
4J CO CU (3 4-1
rH CU 4J O 3
-H r-l Cfl U O CU
«4H 4J JS 43 rH
14H 4-1 O
UH rH CO O -H >,
O Cfl CO IS O
cx cu cu cu
rH -H CJ 60 J-l l-l
CO 0 0 M CU
CO -H l-i Cfl 4-1 IH
O (3 O.43 CO O
O, 3 O^
CO g >4H CO 60
•H O -H »-i S3
T3 . 13 0) -rl
CU 4-1 W rH
>,^ 0 13 13 O
IH cfl CU C 01 O
P O g cfl 13 O

vD
rH


0
O
O
n
cr>
VJ3
r-H



O
O
0
9t
O
"^
M





O
a





r~~
•
0







r^
^o
•
0






CO
m
•
o





i
V4 Cfl W |
CU CU CU 13 4-1
4-1 IH 4J O 3
r-l 4J Cfl CJ O 0)
•H & 43 r-l
14H rH 14H 4-1 O
Cfl CO O -H >.
>4H O CO 15 O
O .rH (U CU CU
60 O 60 IH l-l
4-1 O O IH CU
f3 rH l-l Cfl 4-1 VJ
0) O CX43 cfl 0
0 -H CJ >
d 43 4-1 W 60
•H O -H M ti
cfl « 13 CU -rl
4J CO 4-1 CO r-l
C T> C 13 £3 0
O 3 CU ti CU O
0 6 0 cfl 13 0

r—
r-H


o
o
o

u-i
0
CN



O
O
O
*t
00
^o
f>





o
a





CN

o







r>-
vO

CD






00
01
•
O





1
IH 4-1 «»
CU cfl |-i 1
4-1 CU CU (3 4-1
r-l l-l 4-1 O 3
•H 4-1 CO O O >
O O CO SO
•iH CU CU CU
r-H 60 O 60 l-l l-i
cfl O O r-l CU
CO t-H l-l CO 4J l-l
O O CX 43 cfl O
CX -H OS
CO 43 14H CO 60
•H O -H M C
T3 » TJ CU iH
CU 4-1 CO rH
t^^S C 13 G O
r-l Cfl 0) (3 CU O
P 0 6 cfl 13 0

CO
rH
96

-------































CN
CN

W
H









































rH 00
t-i a
co en -H ^
0) 4-1 T3 CU
SH CO 3 &
O rH O
•H O 0 PM
CO d
O
H
tH C
Pi cu
W 0 4J
13 4J CD
M CO O
Pn CU U
W >
M
O rH
Cfl CX r< CU
•H CU t-i
W 0 £ -H
2 -H CU 3
M d C/1 CT
H-I 3 CU
H
C/3 M-l
[M O CU
cj co xi cu
CU cO "O M
W >-i iH d -H
O CO -H CO 3
pi 4-1 cO iJ cr
2 o > cu
i-3 cu •< pi
53
O CU 00
PI-I 00 W} .**\
4J C M ^
c/3 cO *H cO "*^
W CU T) X! rH
nJ 33 CO O CO
S O CO CJ
Q rJ iH I
fjj Q *^{
U
cu
2; oo oo M
O d M ,*i
M O iH CO ^
H O T3 Xl ^"»

rH CO
m m


CO
o cu
a >-<






oo oo
CTv •
rH rH







O O









O O





M t-i 00
cu cu d
•u d *-* -H
i-H 3 rH CU i-H rH
•HCOO -rlOOldOCO
UH CO 'rj 14-4 M d O Ot
CU 5 T) CO CO 0 -H

OOrHO OCJJ-I0-H
t-l X) CX CO CU O d
4-> CX 4J >H 4J 1-1 3
d TJ K*» d ^ CO m 0
Q) rH d cO CU IS 4-1
0rHcOM 0T3 dOd
dco cx ddcojs4-icu
•H *cn -HcOCOO 0
cO M V-i cO CU ^ )-4 4-1
4JCOCU0 4-1 en o 3 01 cO
dT34JO dTioolscu
O3cOM O3V-irHOV-i

CN ro

0 0
0 0
0 0
M M
rH O
CN m
CN CTi



0 0
0 0
0 O
M M
m o
CN CN
•J- ^


en o
cu a
^H






cy* ^o
• CJ\
rH rH







0 0









0 O




M
>-( ^ CU CO
CU O 4-1 4-1 >-l
4-1 >. rH d CU
rH 0) CO -H CU 4-1
•H C>0 *T3 i-l rH ^-l 0 Cfl 0
MH V^ d CX CO d ^ O
co co en cx 14-1 -H M
<4-l X! iH O Cfl CO U-l
OCJM0CJ 4-1CO M
WCUO-H tHdCUdCU
4JiH4-IVjd COOOISJS
diacou-is waooo
01 £ 04J O J-1T34J
6 *O fl C* Oi 'O p^ ^
ddcoSocu cod OM
•HCOCOQ4-I0 -rHCOrHrHd
cfl CU T3 4-1 ''O rH Xi *tH
4-ICQOI3T3CO CUCO rH
d TJ o o d 
-------

































CN
CN

w
I_J
PQ
 0)
•H 0)  m





o o
o o
o o
M •*
o <•
rH rn
in m
«


co
o cu
J2J ^l







vO CN
CJ\ •
rH O










O O











0 O




MO M
0) *O 0) 4H OO
4-14-10 4J O (3
rH C Cfl >> H -H
tHCU CO •HCU'OrHrH
4-1 I M l-i 4-( bO (3 0 CO
S 01 Pi I-l CO O P.
4H*H4-ICO 4-1 CO CJTH
O CO CO O 43 CO CJ
4-> ? a u M a *r<
rH (3 O rH CO D O (3
CO O CO M CO-H4JM3
U) O CO 4-1 CO T3 CO 4-1 0
O CU O S 4J
Pi n3 O C3 Pi 43 £2 O CJ
CO f3 O § CO 4-> M ? 4-1 CU
•H cfl I-l O iH-HCOO 3
*T3 Pi *O 'rj ^ 0) *O (^ 4J
CO 5 "O U ? CU CO
t»>'O rH O C £*•> "^ O O U CU
I-l 3 rH rH O I-l 3 I-l rH O I-l
P a (0 43 Pi Pa ft 43 4J 4-1

vO t^

O
o
o

CN
1^.
CN





O
o
0
M
00
rH
*


CO
01






CN

O












O











0




M T>
0) 0
4-1 UH CO
rH O rS
•H - CO
4-1 4J M I-l rH
C 0) Pi CO
<4H CU 4-1 CO Pi
o a co -H
5 s a cj
rH iH O -H
cd cd co n c
CO 4J CO "4H 3
o c oi S 4J
P. 0 0 t3 C
co o o 5 o cu
•H M o 4-1 a
*O •* ft, 13 4J
0) > TJ Cd
fs4«! rH O C 01
M Id rH rH O H
P U CO 43 P, 4-1

oo

o
0
o

Oi
rH






o
o
o

o
rH
m
rH


o







p.^
m
rH












o








^-
o

0



1
o
I-l 4-1
0) CO
4-1 i-H CO • M
rH CO 0) C M 4-1
•H U CJ 3 0) H
4H -H O O > -H
00 M T3 O MH
MH O P. U 4-1
O rH O T>
O MH rH 00 (3
4-1 -H O 43 C CO
C 43 -H CO
0) 4J ^O rH
§ -a (3 a o >%
C (3 CU CO O 43
•H cd 8 CJ
Cd 4J M "d
4J co co cu a oi
C -d cu 4J o >
O 3 M  > MH rH

o->

O
0
0

1^
OO
ro





O
O
O

cT
O
rH


O







CJ*
«
l-»












0








^^.
o

o





^1
cu co I
4J rH CO rH H
rH CO CU C O 4J
•rl O O ? 4H i-H
MH -H O O -H
00 M ^3 n3 MH
MH O P, U (3
O rH O O "O
O M-l i-H ft, C
4-1 iH O 43 CO
(3 43 >•> CO
0) 4-1 T3 CO
I 13 C £3 H >-.
S C cu co a. 43
•H co a co
CO 4J i-l TJ
4-1 CO CO CU B 0)
(3 T3 0) 4J O >
O 3 rl CO M O


O
rH
98

-------



































CN
CN

w
|J
*3
H








































rH
rl 00

0) CO -H I-l
>H 4-1 T3 CU
CO 3 S
i-H O i-l O
CO U CJ PH
O H
H
4J
^•i r«
P4 CU
H 0 4J
53 4-1 CO
M CO O
Fn cu u
§ g
M
28
0 rH
P CO 13
^0 Q« ^ QJ
•H CU M
W CJ IS -H
S3 iH CU 3
M C to CT
i-l 3 CU
s! ^
H
CD MH
>H O CU
cj co ,0 cu
CU CO T3 rl
W rl I-H C iH
O /-x CO -H CO 3
prf 13 4J cfl t_3 u
<]  cu
n3 3 CU  M
iH CO CU C I-l 4J
M-l CJ CJ ? CU rH
•H O O 5 iH
MH 00 I-l 13 O MH
O O CX S 4-1
rH 0 T3
rH O MH i-H 00 C!
CO iH O 43 pj cO
CO JQ -H CO
O 4J T3 H
P.T3 C (3 0 f^
CO C CU Cfl O J3
•H Cfl 0 O

CU CO CU 0 CU
>,^J o) 4J o S
M co IH cd i-i o
P CJ 4J S MH rH
^
rH

O
O
O
A
00
ro
-^-



O
O
O
M
O
o\

rH




O









*^"
•
O








o







,^
o
o



J^
cu i
4-1 CO i-l •
rH CO OH
•H >-, cu c3 MH 4J
MH M 0 ? rH
CO O O «-H

O Pi CX S P!
O O O T)
rH CJ MH i-H CX Pi
Cfl CU O 43 Cfl
CO CO >-, M
O 4-1 T3 Cfl
CX ^O Pi P! M ^
CO pi CU cfl CX43
•rl CO g CO
•U 4J M TJ
CU CO CU 0 CU
jx,,^ eu 4J o >
I-l CO M Cd IH O
P CJ 4-> U MH i-l
CN
H

O
O
o
ft
O
x^-
m



o
o
o
M
O
H
O
m




o









**o
CO
i-H






^
vO
O







^>
CO
•
o


CO
t-t
IH 0) 1
CU 4-1 pi 4J
4J CO O 3
rH > CJ 0 CU

MH CD MH 4-1 CJ
CO O -H tx,
M-l CU SO
O o cu cu
O 00 rl M
4J Vl IH 0)
(3 CX cfl 4-1 M
cu 4: co o
a 13 0 ;s

•H cd -H n pi
CO T3 CU iH
4J CO CO rH
Ci 'XJ TJ Pi O
0 3 Pi CU 0
CJ 0 cd T3 0
en
H

o
o
o
M
0
CN
<->



O
o
o
f.
ON

i-H





CO
CU
t*"*







^O
•
iH






PN.
^O
d







>^-
ff)
*
o


«
1 CO
M 4-1 IH I
cu cd cu cl 4-i
4-1 CU 4-1 O 3
I-H rl Cfl CJ O CU
iH 4-1 |S 43 rH
MH MH 4-1 U
rH CO O iH >,
MH CO CO SO
O O. CU CU CU
•H O OO M M
4-1 O O rl CU
P! iH M cfl 4J V-i
CU Pi CX43 Cd O
03 cj IS
S 6 MH CO 00
•rl 0 iH rl C
Cd « TJ CU iH
4-1 CO 4J CO H
Pi *O Pi *^ Pi O
O 3 CU Pi CU O
O 0 0 cd T3 CJ
^.
i-H

O
O
0
•t
rH

in



o
o
o
A
o
o
o
m




o
53








in
C*")
rH






1*^
^O
d







^f
fT)
•
O



H 1
Q) to 00
4J MH iH Pi
rH O Ti M -H
•rl CU rH
^_| J^J *^ (J) Q
P! a 0 o
MH CU Cd CU U
OS T3
S rl Pi 4J
rH -H Q) O 3
Cd Cd 4-> CJ O
CO 4-1 CO 43 CU
O Pi IS MH 4J rH
CX O O iH O
CO U CO S >»
•H CO 0) CJ
T> •> CU 00 IH CU
cu a n cu VH

M td M ,^1 cd M
P cj cx cj 5 o
m
rH

99

-------


































CM
CM

W

PQ
^3
H












































i-i 00
cd C
CU CO -H t-l
SH 4J TJ CU
CO 3 S
rH O t-l O
cd CJ O pj
4J a
O t-l
H
4-1
>• C
K 3
w a 4J
Z 4J CO
IH co o
pn CU O
pa r^
M
CJ rH
£> cd T3
co cx ri cu
•H CD H
pa o ;s VH
Z -H CO 3
M C CO CT
hJ 3 CO
i^ S Pi
H
CO UH
>i O -l
W H rH C5 1-1
O ^ cd -H cd 3
pi T3 4J Cd 1-4 CT
 CO
,-43 CO <3 Pi
CJ Si
<; -H
4J ^
pi c co ex
O O 00 OO^i
PH U 4J a rl J>5
v-' cd -H cd ~>-
CO CU T3 ^3 rH
pa si cd cj cd
i-4 O CO O
p hJ 1-1 1
Q Q -^
H
M
U
to -U
cu
53 00 60 (>C
O Q C rl J«J
H O "rl Cd ^
H FP -O Ji -^
<: cd cj M
H O CO ,*!
W Q
2J
pa
ij
PH
j?
PH
ti
o
•H J3
4J ^J
ex cd
•H PH
t-l
U MH
CO O
CU
O





4-1
cd
PM

o
0
o
M
f— f
r^.
rH



O
O
O
M
sj-
CO
rH


co
cu
^|










o








r«N.
vD
•
o








^^
ro
•
o



rl 1
CU 4J 1-1 1
4J Cd CU C 4-1
rH CU 4J O 3
•H ri cd a o cu
MH 4-1 |5 ^3 rH
14H 4J O
<4H i-t CO O -rt >%
O Cd CO £ CJ
CX CU CU CO
rH >H U 00 t-l t-l
cd cj o t-i cu
CO -rH M cfl 4J M
o pi cx,c cd o
CX 3 0 >
CO a **H CO M
•H O -r( M C
-a • T3 CO iH
CU 4-> CO rH
>^J«5 C -U C O
t-i cd cu c cu o
Q CJ 8 Cd T3 CJ
vO
rH


0
o
o
ft
u-l

CM



o
o
o

rH*
o
co



0
z








f-^.
«
rH








r>*
vO
•
o








00
CO
•
o


1
4-1 «
M cd to \
CO CO CU C 4J
4J t-l 4J O 3
i-H 4J Cd O O tO
iH > £: rH
UH i-H 14-1 4-1 O
cd CO O iH 5»>
MH CJ CO ^ CJ
O -H <3) CU CU
00 0 60 H t-l
4-1 O O t-l CU
r* i-H t-i cd 4J t-i
co o cx.c cd o
a *^ vj ^
5 ,Q «4-l CO 00
•rl O iH M C
cd • T3 CU -H
4J 00 4J CO rH
ti T) C T3 C 0
0 3 CU C CO O
CJ 8 S cd T3 O
^
rH


O
O
O

vO

CM




O
O
o
•t
vO
r£



o









CM

O








|X.
vO

O








00
CO

O


1
t-l 4J •
cu cd n i
4J CO CU C 4J
rH M 4J 0 3
•H 4J Cd O O <0
<4H ? J3 i-H
rH <4H 4-> O
U-l Cd M O iH X
o cj co > cj
•H CO CO 0)
rH CX) CJ 00 rl M
cd O O l-i Q)
CD rH t-l Cd 4J t-l
o o cx.c cd o
CX tH OS
CO ^) UH CO 00
•H O iH rl G
•O •> T3 CU -H
(U 4J CO rH
>t44 C3 T3 C O
u cd cu c 01 o
Q O 8 cd "O O
CO
rH

100

-------
            COSTS:   545 metric tons (600 tons)  per day crystalline refinery

                    Incremental Investment Cost:  $1,000,000
                    Total Investment Cost:       $2,530,000
                    Total Yearly Cost:            $  352,000

                    1900 metric tons (2100 tons)  per day crystalline refinery

                    Incremental Investment Cost:  $2,620,000
                    Total Investment Cost:       $7,620,000
                    Total Yearly Cost:            $  950,000

              G-2:   Recycle of Condenser Water  Through a Spray Pond
                    with an Assumed Two Percent Slowdown to Controlled
                    Land Retention, in  Addition to Alternative F.

            COSTS:   545 metric tons (600 tons)  per day crystalline refinery
                    Incremental Investment Cost:
                    Total Investment Cost:
                    Total Yearly Cost:
                                                 $  940,000
                                                 $2,470,000
                                                 $  340,000
REDUCTION BENEFITS:
                    1900 metric tons (2100 tons)  per day crystalline refinery

                    Incremental Investment Cost:  $2,510,000
                    Total Investment Cost:       $7,510,000
                    Total Yearly Cost:            $  918,000

                    An incremental reduction in plant BOD5 of 0.34 kilo-
                    grams per metric ton  (0.68 pounds per ton)  of melt
                    is evidenced by addition of this Alternative to Al-
                    termative F.  Total reduction of BOD5_ and suspended
                    solids is 100 percent.

Discharge of Process Waste Streams to^Municipal Treatment Systems.
For the purpose of presenting cost information which  is  representative
of  the  industry,  it  is  necessary to determine costs associated with
various schemes of discharge to municipal  treatment  systems.     Twelve
refineries  currently  discharge  all  or  a  portion of their wastes to
municipal treatment systems.  seven of these are crystalline  refineries
with  one  other  crystalline  refinery having sewer hook-up and soon to
practice this treatment technique.  The following schemes  are  possible
and the resulting costs presented.

            M.T.11:  Discharge of Process Water to
                     Municipal Treatment

This  method  of  treatment  of  process  water  is  practiced by twelve
refineries, all urbanly located.  This technology is  not  available  to
                                 101

-------
most rural refineries or to those refineries whose waste is not accepted
by  a  municipal  treatment  system.  It is however, a well demonstrated
treatment  method  and  practiced  by  42  per  cent  of  the   nation's
refineries.   The costs presented here include the costs associated with
Alternative C.

             COSTS:  545 metric tons  (600 tons)
                     per day crystalline refinery

                     Incremental Investment Cost:    $0
                     Total Investment Cost:          $113,000
                     Total Operating Cost:           $ 83,000
                     Total Yearly Cost:              $ 90,000*

                     1900 metric tons  (2100 tons)
                     per day crystalline refinery

                     Incremental Investment Cost:    $0
                     Total Investment Cost:          $134,000
                     Total Operating Cost:           $183,000
                     Total Yearly Cost:              $171,000*

* Includes savings as a result of recovery of sugar which would
  normally be entrained in the barometric condenser cooling
  water.

           M.T.f2:   Recycle of condenser Cooling Water Through
                     a Cooling Tower with an Assumed Two Per-
                     cent Blowdown to Municipal Treatment,  in
                     Addition to M.T.fl

             COSTS:  545 metric tons  (600 tons)
                     per day crystalline refinery

                     Incremental Investment Cost:    $212,000
                     Total Investment Cost:          $325,000
                     Total Operating Cost:           $123,000
                     Total Yearly Cost:              $149,000

                     1900 metric  (2100 tons)
                     per day crystalline refinery

                     Incremental Investment Cost:    $400,000
                     Total Investment Cost:          $534,000
                     Total Operating Cost:           $276,000
                     Total Yearly Cost:              $303,000

           M.T.t3:   Recycle of Condenser Cooling Water Through
                     a Spray Pond with an Assumed Two  Percent
                     Blowdown to Municipal Treatment,  in Addition
                     to M. T. #  1
                                  102

-------
             COSTS:  545 metric  (600 tons)
                     per day crystalling refinery

                     Incremental Investment Cost:    $148,000
                     Total Investment Cost:          $261,000
                     Total Operating Cost:           $118,000
                     Total Yearly Cost:              $138,000

                     1900 metric tons  (2100 tons)
                     per day crystalline refinery

                     Incremental Investment Cost:    $284,000
                     Total Investment Cost:          $418,000
                     Total Operating Cost:           $256,000
                     Total Yearly Cost:              $272,000


LiguiciJRef inery

A liquid refinery with an average melt of 508 metric tons  (560 tons)  of
sugar  per  day was chosen as a basis for cost estimates.  The following
treatment alternatives may be applied to this refinery.

Alternatiye_A^  No Waste_Treatment_or Control.  The effluent from a  508
metric ton  (560 ton) per day liquid refinery is 8,590 cubic meters  (2.23
million  gallons)   per  day.   The  resulting  BOD5 and suspended solids
loadings are 3.43 kilograms per metric ton (6.86  pounds  per  ton)  and
1.56  kilograms  per metric ton  (3.12 pounds per ton)  respectively.  Be-
cause no waste treatment is involved, no cost can be attributed to  this
Alternative.

             COSTS:  0
REDUCTION BENEFITS:  None
            E: _ Eli mi nation_of^Dis charge from^Filters.  This Alternative
can  be  achieved  either by impounding the mud resulting from slurrying
filter cake with water or by dry hauling the desweetened filter cake  to
landfill.   The  resulting  effluent  waste loads for BOD5 and suspended
solids are estimated to be 3.25 kilograms per metric  ton  (6.50  pounds
per ton)  and 1.00 kilograms per metric ton  (2.00 pounds per ton) of melt
respectively, at this control level.

               B-l:  Impound Filter Slurry

             COSTS:  Incremental Investment Cost:  $31,000
                     Total Investment Cost:        $31,000
                     Total Yearly Cost:            $12,000
                                 103

-------
               B-2:  Dry Disposal of Filter Cake

             COSTS:  Incremental Investment Cost:  $61,000
                     Total Investment Cost:        $61,000
                     Total Yearly Cost:            $U5,000

REDUCTION BENEFITS:  An incremental reduction in BOD5 of approximately
                     0.18 kilograms per metric ton (0.36 pounds per
                     ton) of melt and in suspended solids of approxi-
                     mately 0.56 kilograms per metric ton (1.12 pounds
                     per ton)  of melt is evidenced over Alternative A.
                     Total plant reductions of 5.3 percent for BOD5 and
                     35.9 percent for suspended solids would be achieved.

                     For the purpose of accruing total costs in this
                     section of the report, the use of dry disposal
                     of filter cake (B-2)  will be considered repre-
                     sentative of Alternative B.

Alternative  gi   iDEiant Modifications to Reduce Entrainment of Sucrose
      Condenser  Water.   This  Alternative  includes,  in  addition  to
Alternative B,  the installation of demisters and external separators in
order  to  reduce entrainment of sucrose in barometric condenser cooling
water.  It is assumed, in addition, that the refinery has good  baffling
and  operational controls in the evaporators and vacuum pans, as well as
good vapor height.  The resulting effluent  waste  loads  for  BOD5  and
suspended solids are 2.90 kilograms per metric ton (5.80 pounds per ton)
of  melt and 1.00 kilograms per metric ton  (2.00 pounds per ton) of melt
respectively, at this control level.

             COSTS:  Incremental Investment Cost:  $ 5U,000
                     Total Investment Cost:        $115,000
                     Total Yearly Cost:            $ 62,000

REDUCTION BENEFITS:  An incremental reduction in BOD5 of 0.35 kilograms
                     per metric ton (0.70 pounds per ton) of melt is
                     evidenced over Alternative B.  The total reduction
                     in BOD5 is 15.4 percent and in suspended solids is
                     35.9 percent.

Alternative_D: _ Biological Treat ment._ of grocess Water.  This Alternative
assumes the addition of an  activated  sludge  plant  to  treat  process
water.    Presently  there  are  no  refineries  which  have  their  own
biological treatment systems, but refinery wastes are  commonly  treated
in  municipal biological treatment plants.  As discussed in Section VII,
refinery  waste  is  highly  biodegradable  and  thus  well  suited  for
biological treatment.

A schematic of the activated sludge system is shown in Figure 22.  Waste
water  is  pumped  through a primary clarifier to an aerated lagoon with
                                 104

-------
    biological sludge being returned to the aerated lagoon from a  secondary
    clarifier.   Excess  sludge  is  pumped to a sludge digester; the sludge
    from the digester is pumped to a holding  lagoon.   The  total  effluent
    waste  loadings  as  a  result  of  the addition of this Alternative are
    estimated to be 0.2U kilograms per metric ton (0.48 pounds per  ton)  of
    melt for BOD5 and 0.10 kilograms per metric ton  (0.20 pounds per ton) of
    melt for suspended solids.

                 COSTS:  Incremental Investment Cost:  $337,000
                         Total Investment Cost:        $452,000
                         Total Yearly Cost:            $230,000

    REDUCTION BENEFITS:  An incremental reduction in BOD5 of approximately
                         2.66 kilograms per metric ton (5.32 pounds per ton)
                         of melt and in suspended solids of 0.90 kilograms
                         per metric ton (1.80 pounds per ton)  of melt is
„                        evidenced over Alternative C.  Total reductions of
                         93.0 percent for BOD5 and 93.6 percent for suspended
                         solids would be achieved.

    Alternative  E:_   Bicycle  pf  Barometric  Condenser  Cooling  Water and
    liolP-Sical  Treatment  of  Blowdown.   This  Alternative  includes,   in
    addition  to  Alternative D, the recycle of barometric condenser cooling
    water followed by biological  treatment  of  blowdown  in  an  activated
    sludge  unit  and  the  addition of sand filtration to further treat the
    effluent from the activated sludge unit.  The blowdown is assumed to  be
    approximately  two percent of the total flow.  Presently there are three
    refineries using cooling towers and two which utilize a spray  pond  for
    the purpose of recycling condenser cooling water.  Recycle of barometric
    condenser  cooling water accomplishes two important things:  (1) it cools
    the water, thereby removing the heat  normally  discharged  and   (2)  it
    concentrates the waste loadings into the smaller blowdown stream, making
    biological  treatment of this waste stream feasible.  The total effluent
    waste loadings as a result of  the  addition  of  this  Alternative  are
    estimated  to  be 0.06 kilograms per metric ton  (0.12 pounds per ton) of
    melt for BOD5 and 0.03 kilograms per metric ton  (0.06 pounds per ton) of
    melt for suspended solids.  In addition, 250,000 kilogram  calories  per
    metric  ton  (0.9  million  BTU per ton) of melt are effectively removed
    from condenser water.
 i
    There are a number of methods of  recycling  condenser  water;  for  the
    purposes of this document, the following are considered:  cooling towers
    and spray ponds.

                   E-l:  Alternative E with a Cooling
                         Tower

                 COSTS:  Incremental Investment Cost:   $174,000
                         Total Investment Cost:         $626,000
                         Total Yearly Cost:             $265,000
                                     105

-------
               E-2:   Alternative E with a Spray
                     Pond

             COSTS:   Incremental Investment Cost:    $152,000
                     Total Investment Cost:         $604,000
                     Total Yearly Cost:             $261,000

REDUCTION BENEFITS:   An incremental reduction in BOD5 of 0.18 kilograms
                     per metric ton (0.36 pounds per ton)  of melt and
                     in suspended solids of 0.07 kilograms per metric
                     ton  (0.1U pounds per ton)  of melt is
                     evidenced by addition of this Alternative to
                     Alternative D.  Total reductions of 98.3 percent
                     for BOD5 and 98.1 percent for suspended solids
                     are achieved.

Alternative  Hi   Elimination  of  Discharge  of  Process  Water.   This
Alternative assumes that, in addition  to  Alternative  C,  all  process
waters are eliminated by controlled retention and total impoundage.  The
resulting  effluent  waste loading for BOD5 associated with this control
level is estimated at 0.15 kilograms per metric  ton  (0.30  pounds  per
ton)  of  melt, that amount attributable to barometric condenser cooling
water.  The suspended solids loading  is  zero  as  the  only  suspended
solids-bearing waste stream has been eliminated.

                 F:   Elimination of Discharge of
                     Process Water by Containment

Total  impoundment  of  process  water is successfully practiced by five
refineries; however, a considerable amount  of  land  is  required   (see
Table  21,  Path  13).   Containment of process water is, therefore, not
considered to be practicable technology for urban liquid refineries.

             COSTS:   Incremental Investment Cost:   $1,455,000
                     Total Investment Cost:         $1,570,000
                     Total Yearly Cost:             $  217,000

REDUCTION BENEFITS:   An incremental reduction in plant BOD5 of 2.75
                     kilograms per metric ton  (5.50 pounds per ton)
                     of melt and in suspended solids of 1.00 kilograms
                     per metric ton (2.00 pounds per ton) of melt is
                     evidenced in comparison to Alternative C.  Total
                     reductions in BOD5 of 95.6 percent and in sus-
                     pended solids of 100 percent are achieved.

Alternative GI  Elimination of Barometric Discharge of Condenser Cooling
Water.  This Alternative assumes that in addition to Alternative F there
is an elimination of discharge of barometric  condenser  cooling  water.
To  achieve  this level of treatment, it has been assumed that condenser
                                  106

-------


























CO
(N

W
i-l
«

H
H
rf**
^4
S3
fat
PS
W
H
rJ S*
<: prf
H S3
S3 H
W Pn
S w
H Prf
*4 ~
H to
O"
a H
O (J
PS
Pn Q
W
CO H
Q U
< W
O hJ
iJ W
CO
W
H M
co EC
-l
Prf

CO






















O


p^

*
*
W




*
Q






CJ






W








 +J
CO CO
Prf CO
&










4->
C m
0) rl
4J 3 (U
C 4J 4J
«/


x~s
m o
CM in
• •
CO VO
V-'



s~\
CO VO
sr oo
• •
CO vO
\^


s-\
CO vO
sr oo
• •
CO vO
'*^


4-1
rH x^
Q) 4J
6 rH
(U
>«H 3
o
4-1
60 0
M
x n
— . o
60 4J
A!-^
.&
m|i-H
P ^
0
PQ


x-^
O 0
N— '

x-v
0 0
N_x
x™\
CO VO
O O
• •
0 0
S—'

0 0
i-H CM
• •
O O
^/


X-N
0 0
0 0
• •
rH CM
\*s


X"N
O O
O O
• •
rH CM
**^



x->
vO CM
m I-H
• •
rH CO
s«x


x^
VD CM
in rH
• •
i-H CO
**^



4-> x-N
i-H 4J
(U rH
0 0)
6
M-l
O MH
o
t>0
^ a
X 0
»-. 4J
00^.
A! J3
rH
CO ^^
CO
H
o sr
CO vD
• - o
O rH
sr
O VO
. . o
m I-H
rH
o sr
CO VD
. . o
O rH


sr
O VO
. . O
in rH
f_t



sr
O vO
• • 0
m rH
,_{



sr
o vo
. . o
in rH
rH



sr m
O VO CM
• • •
m I-H
rH




sr m
O VO CM
• • •
in rH
t-H
CO
rl
(U
CO
a
0)
-a
c
x-s O M >>
60U 0) rl
,*; 4-1 rl
Ai o ca 3
~^ -rl !3 rH
CO rl PH
e 4J to
'^ 01 M rl
00)0)
!3 O O 4J
O rl O rH
1-4 Cfl M -H
Pn pq cxi Pn






















































CO
Pi
CO
K
< "
u 
-------
                           TABLE 24

       SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVE COSTS  FOR A 508 METRIC TON
            (560 TONS)  PER DAY LIQUID SUGAR REFINERY



Alternative
A
B-l
B-2
C
D
E-l
E-2
F
G-l
G-2


BODS
Load*
3.43
3.25
3.25
2.90
0.24
0.06
0.06
0.15
0.0
0.0


% BOD_5_
Removal
0.0
5.3
5.3
15.4
93.0
98.3
98.3
95.6
100
100


TSS
Load*
1.56
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.10
0.03
0.03
0.0
0.0
0.0


% TSS
Removal
0.0
35.9
35.9
35.9
93.6
98.1
98.1
100
100
100


Investment
Cost
0
31,000
61,000
115,000
452,000
626,000
604,000
1,570,000
2,040,000
2,013,000
Total
Yearly
Operating
Cost
0
5,800
37,000
59,000
194,000
213,000
210,000
74,000
93,000
90,000

Total
Yearly
Cost
0
12,000
45,000
62,000**
230,000
265,000
261,000
217,000
280,000
275,000
 *Waste Loadings in Kilograms per Metric Ton of Melt

**Includes Sugar Savings of $10,000/yr. as a Result
  of Entrainment Prevention.
                                108

-------






























Csl

3
3
H


































rH
to 00
cd co d
CU 4J iH V4
>-i co ta cu
o 3 5
H CJ i-H O
cd o CM
1 1 f*
*^ M
O H
H
w
£
CU
g ^j
-4-1 m
CO O
CU CJ
!>
(H
w
M
JV|
a

f^
3
CO
Q

o
H

^j
C*J
2

CO
W
g

w
PQ
CJ
co
O
M
H
<;

^
P^
Q
£
§
d
H
,_,
cd T3
CX M CU
•H CU M
O & iH
•H CU 3
d CO C7
S P*
^W
O CU
CO J3 CU
CU Cd to
M i-H T> -H
Cd -r* d 3
4-i cd cd CT
O > J 0)
«  ^
4J 4-1
o« cd
•H CU

O <4H
CO O
CU
Q




U3
4-1
cd
o
o
o
M
f«^
vl-
CN


O
O
O
^
O
rH
O
*%
CN





O
21





In







0








*
o



»-i
CU
•*-* s

•H CO O CU
4-1 CO T3 S
CU > 5
M-l U O 4-1
O O rH
to 43 00
•U (X d
C TJ iH
CU rH (3 rH
•H • O
cd • M
4J CO CU 0
C -O 4J O
0 3 tOM



i-H
O O O
O O O
O O O
«t A M
CN r- CN
»* r^ r~~
CN


o O O
o o O
O 0 O
** •> •»
O vO -*
OO 00 v£>
0> rH rH
A
rH




CO CO
o cu cu
2! >H !>-!




m in
rH • «
moo







000









000



to to 00 M 4-i
cu cu d cu o
4J d 4J -H 4J >,
i-H S i-HCUrHrH ,-HCU cd
•H CO O -H 00 T3 O cd iH 00 T) rl H
u-i co -o u-i n d o a. u-i M d a n)
cuDt'cJ cdcdu*H cdcdcocx
U-l CJ O d 4-1 43 U U-l 43 iH
OOrHO O O M 0 -H O O M 0 CJ
tJ 43 CX CD CU O d CD CU O -H
4J CX 4J1H4JM3 4-> -H 4-1 I-l d
C •at-v dtJcd»4HS (3tJcd>4H3
0 rH CO M 0 "O d O d £3 T3 d 0
d  "d CO
d T) 4-1 O d T3 O O > 0) dTJOO0CU
O 3 « H O 3 M rH O M O 3 rl rH O M
U 0 S 4-1 CJ 0 O.43 4J 4J U8CX43CX4J


CN cn >j
o
o
o
•»
o
00
CN


O
o
o
^
0
^"
o
*
CN





O
^





O
m







o









o



CU CO
4J 4-1 to
rH d CU
•H CU *J
UH 0 CO 0
U-l iH to
O CO CO 4-1
4J CO l-l
rH d CU d CU
cd o o S S
CO U O O O
O M 13 4-1
CXT3 CX 3
co d o oo
•H Cd rH H d
TJ rH 43 iH
CU Cd rH
>^^ TJ O
rl Cd UH d O
Q CJ O cd CJ


m
109

-------


































LO



W
r-4

^
H













































rH 60
r4 C
Cfl CO -H r-l
01 4J i(3 01
>-i CO 3 3
0 rH 0
rH U CJ PL,
cfl a
4-1 M
0
H
4-1
c
0)
B *-*
4-1 CO
CO O
01 c_>
^H £>
Prf C
W M
52
M
W rH

P. l-i 01
Prf -H 0) r-l
 pi co cr
co 3 o)
n
4H MH
J3 00)
CD1 rH -O
M /-s CD ^D 01
r-J T3 01 Cfl "O rJ
0) r-l rH Pi -H
 0)
O 4-1 Q) <\ Pi
PM C tC
O
CO U 13
W ^— - 01 61
,J 60 60 A!
p^ 4-i C ^i M
O CO -H cfl --,.
W 01 13 ,C rH
p- PC cfl o cfl
U O CO U
CO r4 -H 1
p Ai
3
o
M TJ
H 01
•< 60 60 60
E— 1 0 M .**!
fc Q -H tO AJ

§ PQ CO CJ 61
W O CO A!
rJ rJ -H
r\ i £^
p^j
M





a
O
•H ,C
^ i ^j
P. cfl
•H PLI

O MH
co o
01
P


j:
n
PM


0 0
o o
o o
M M
m o
r- rH
CN rH


O 0
o o
0 0
* *
O vO
rH rH
O CM
M
CN





CO
O Ol
£2 r*"*






rH
•
O O
LO










O 0











O 0





MH
MO r4 MH
Ol T3 0) O 60
4-1 4-1 a 4J C
rH C CO >> <-H Q) -H
•H 01 CO -H OO-O rH i-H
M-l g r-l r-l MHMCOtO
B 01 a, to co o p.
M-l -H 4-1 W MH^i O -H
o cs ca o o to u
4-i S B co r-i B -H
i-HC O rH-HOIOC
cfl o CO l-i nj T3 4-1 (-I 3
COCJCOMH CO tOMHg
O 01 O ,C > 4J
Pi*r3CJC Pf*-1 COC
co c o 3 co -H co 3 4-> a>
•HtOMO iHjJUOO 8
^3 PI ^3 *O Q) *O V^ ^^
01 3TJ OIU30ltO
>\AS rH O G ^AS O O 3 Ol
1-ICOrHrHO MCOV-lrHOrl
PUC04DP, PCJP,rQ4J4J

vo r~



o
o
o
*
in
o
rH


o
0
0
M
VJ-


ao



0
0
O
M
CN
CO
CM


o
0
o
A
vO
CTv
in







o
z







vO
*
o











o








vO
0
*
o




1
rH
o
M MH
01 CO
4J rH CO • >H
rH Cfl O) Pi 1-1 4J
•H CJ O 3 01 rH
MH -H O O 3 i-l
60 rJ t) O MH
MH O P. > 4J
O rH O tJ
O MH rH 60 Pi
4J iH O f> G tO
Pi ,0. -H CO
01 4J T3 rH
I T3 C C 0 f>.
Pi Pi 01 CO o ^3
•H tO B CJ
CO 4-1 M T3
4-1 Cfl Cfl 01 g 0)
C -a oi w o ?
O 3 M cfl M O
U B •*-> 3 M-l rH

ON



O
o
o

oo
CM
CM


O
o
0

-a-

m







o
;z;







vO

O











O








vO
O

O







M 1
Ol CO rH •
4J rH CO O iH
rH tO 01 Pi MH 4-1
•rH O O 3 rH
MH -H O O « -H
60 r^ 'O *VJ MH
MH O P. 3 P!
O rH O O T3
O MH rH p. p!
4-1 -H O ,£> Cfl
Pi ,Q >% CO
01 4-> T3 tO
B -a PJ pi ri >,
pi C Ol tO CXjO
•H tO 0 CO
Cfl 4-> r-l TJ
4J CO CO 01 B 01
p! T3 Ol 4J O 3
O D M cfl l-i O
U 6 4-> > MH rH

o
rH
110

-------

































m
CM


W

s!
H










































rH 00

Cd CO -H M
CU 4J Ti CU
>> co 3 3
0 r-l O
rH CJ O {Xj
Cd d
0
H
4J
d
cu
a 4J
4-1 CO
CO O
CU CJ
^"* K*
Crf d
W M
55
I-H
W cd -X3
erf ex t-i cu
•H CU t-i
erf o u -H
 3  o cu
O rH TJ
M ^>. co ,Q Q)
tJ TJ CU Cd T3 r-l
CU r-l rH d -H
 CU
O 4J cu 
CN
vO






O
53





CN
•
O








o








o
•
o



1
r-l
M O
CU >4H
4-1 CD •
rH r-l CO « M
•H Cd 0> 0 M 4-1
4-1 CJ O ? CU rH
•H O O S iH
U-l 00 t-t T3 O M-l
o o a, 3 4-1
rH O T3
rH O >4H rH 00 d
CO -rl O ^0 d CO
CO ,O -H CO
O 4-> *O r— 1
O.T3 d d O f*,
CO d Q) CO O ,O
•H CO 0 0
*rj 4\J ^4 'rj
cu cd cu 0 a)
^» .M CU 4-* O »£
M CO (-1 CO M O
Q CJ 4-1 > "4H rH

i-H
rH

o
o
o
A
rH
\D
CN




o
0
o
A
, co
O 4J T3 Cd
CU »rj d d M £*•*
co d cu co ex ja
•rl Cd 0 CO
TJ 4-1 >-l T3
cu to cu a cu
^ v^ CU 4-* O [S
H tO r-l tfl M O
P CJ 4J ^ <4-( t-H

CN
rH

0
0
o
A
,
4-1 CO CO 3O
O CX CU CU >
•H CO CU U
t3 » CU 00 M 0)
CU U r-l CU ^
[^\ !,**{ O t(J 4J
M cd M JM cd M
Q O f\ CJ Jj O

m
iH
111

-------

































in
CN

W
J-^
9
H












































t^ 00
«-l G
M CO -rl I-l
Cfl 4-1 t) 0)
0) CO 3 S
SH 0 i-H O
O 0 PH
H G
Cd M
4J
O
H
4-1
G
0)
Q <->
4J CO
CO O
cu cj
r*^ r^
p4 G
M M
a
H
W cd T3
p^ ex >j cu
•rl CU I-l
P3 CJ S -H
< -H CU 3
O G CO CT
3 3  .
o cd co so
(X CU CU CU
rH -H CJ 00 h M
cd U O M CU
CO -rl t-l Cd 4J J-t
O G Cu 42 cd O
ex 3 OS
CD S U-l 0) 00
•rl O -rl M G
T3 « T3 CU -rl
0) 4-1 CO rH
t^J^ C T3 G O
M cd  O 3
i-H 4-1 Cd CJ O (U
•rl & J! i-l
U-| H U-l 4J CJ
cd CO O -H f>,
u-i u co so
O i-l CU CU CU
00 O 00 I-l M
4-1 O O M CU
G i-l Wl Cd 4-1 rl
CU O CX.G cd O
i-H os
G ,0 u-i co 00
i-l 0 -rl U G
Cd « TJ 0) -H
4J CO 4J CO i-H
G t) G T> G 0
O 3 CU G CU O
cj S 8 cd TS cj

r«^
1-1


o
o
o
ft
o

CN




o
o
o

CN
in
^«





o






CN

o







m
CN
*
o






,^-
CM
•
0




1
M 4-1 •
cu cd n i
4-1  J3 rH
i-l U-l 4J U
u-i cd co o -H >>
o u co n o
i-l CU CU CU
rH 00 U 00 I-l I-l
cd o o i-i cu
CO rH I-l Cd 4J t-l
O O CX.G Cd O
a-ri cj s
CO fl UH CO 00
•H O T-I M G
•O « -O 
-------
water is  recycled  and  the  blowdown  impounded  or  discharged  to  a
municipal  treatment  system.   The  blowdown  of  barometric  condenser
cooling water is assumed to be two percent of the total condenser  flow.
Effluent  waste  loads  associated  with  this  control  level  are zero
kilograms per metric ton (zero pounds per ton)  of melt.
               G-1:
                     Recycle of Condenser Water Through
                     a Cooling Tower with an Assumed Two
                     Percent Blowdown to Controlled Land
                     Retention, in Addition to Alterna-
                     tive F.
             COSTS:
               G-2:
                     Incremental Investment Cost:
                     Total Investment Cost:
                     Total Yearly Cost:
$  470,000
$2,040,000
$  280,000
                     Recycle of Condenser Cooling Water
                     Through a Spray Pond with an Assumed
                     Two Percent Blowdown to Controlled Land
                     Retention in Addition to Alternative F.
             COSTS:
REDUCTION BENEFITS:
                     Incremental Investment Cost:
                     Total Investment Cost:
                     Total Yearly Cost:
$  443,000
$2,013,000
$  275,000
                     An incremental reduction in plant BOD5 of 0.15
                     kilograms per metric ton (0.30 pounds per ton)
                     of melt is evidenced by addition of this
                     Alternative to Alternative F.  Total reductions
                     of BOD5 and suspended solids are 100 percent.

Discharge of Process Wajste Strearns to Municipal Treatment  System.   For
the  purpose  of  presenting cost information which is representative of
the industry, it is necessary to determine costs associated with various
schemes of discharge to municipal treatment systems.  Twelve  refineries
currently  discharge  all  or  a  portion  of  their wastes in municipal
treatment systems.  Three of these are liquid  refineries  and  two  are
combination  crystalline - liquid refineries.  The following schemes are
possible and the resulting costs presented.

            M.T.fl:   Discharge of Process Water to
                      Municipal Treatment

This method of treatment of process water is practiced by three  of  the
five  liquid  refineries  and  by  both combination crystalline - liquid
refineries, all urbanly located.  This technology is  not  available  to
most rural refineries or to those refineries whose waste is not accepted
                                  113

-------
by  a  municipal  treatment  system.   It is however, a well demonstrated
treatment method and practiced by 42  percent of the nation's refineries.
The costs presented include those costs attributable to Alternative C.

              COSTS:  Incremental Investment Cost:     $0
                      Total Investment Cost:           $115,000
                      Total Operating Cost:            $ 81,000
                      Total Yearly Cost:               $ 84,000*

* Includes savings as a result of recovery of sugar which would
  normally be entrained in the barometric condenser cooling
  water.

            M.T.t2:   Recycle of Condenser Cooling Water Through
                      a Cooling Tower with an Assumed Two Percent
                      Slowdown to Municipal Treatment, in Addition
                      to M.T. t1

              COSTS:  Incremental Investment Cost:     $101,000
                      Total Investment Cost:           $216,000
                      Total Operating Cost:            $ 97,000
                      Total Yearly Cost:               $110,000

            M.T.#3:   Recycle of Condenser Cooling Water Through
                      a Spray Pond with an Assumed Two Percent
                      Blowdown to Municipal Treatment, in
                      Addition to M.T.fl

              COSTS:  Incremental Investment Cost:     $ 79,000
                      Total Investment Cost:           $194,000
                      Total Operating Cost:            $ 94,000
                      Total Yearly Cost:               $105,000


RELATED  ENERGY  REQUIREMENTS  OF  ALTERNATIVE  TREATMENT  AND   CONTROL.
TECHNOLOGIES"- CANE SUGAR REFINING

To process 0.9 metric tons  (one ton)  of raw sugar into refined sugar, it
is  estimated  that 60 and 64 kilowatt-hours of electricity are required
for crystalline and liquid sugar refineries, respectively.   This  elec-
trical  energy  is  affected  by  process variations, in-place pollution
control devices, and amount of lighting.

At a cost of 2.3 cents per kilowatt-hour, a crystalline  sugar  refinery
processing  136,250  metric  tons  (150,000 tons) of raw sugar per year,
would have a yearly  energy  cost  of  $209,000.   Associated  with  the
control  alternatives  are  additional  annual  energy costs.  These are
estimated to be:
                                  114

-------
             Alternatives
                        Cost
                  A
                 B-l
                 B-2
                  c
                  D
                 E-l
                 E-2
                 F
                 G-l
                 G-2
                 M.T.
                 M.T.
                 M.T.
                   $
#1
#2
f3
   -0-
   300
 1,200
 1,200
 8,140
27,000
27,000
 1,460
19,700
14,000
 1,200
19,300
13,600
At a cost of 2.3 cents  per  kilowatt-hour,  a   crystalline   cane   sugar
refinery  processing 475,000 metric tons  (525,000 tons)  of raw sugar per
year would have a yearly energy cost of $725,000.  Associated  with  the
control  alternatives  are  additional  annual   energy  costs.   These are
estimated to te:
             Alternative^

                  A
                 B-l
                 B-2
                  C
                  D
                 E-l
                 E-2
                 F
                 G-l
                 G-2
                 M.T. f1
                 M.T. tt2
                 M.T. #3
                      Cost

                       -0-
                       500
                     1,200
                     1,200
                    28,000
                    83,000
                    71,000
                     1,600
                    51,800
                    40,400
                     1,200
                    51,200
                    39,800
At a cost of 2.3 cents per kilowatt-hour, a liquid cane   sugar  refinery
processing  127,000  metric  tons   (140,000  tons) of raw sugar per  year
would have a yearly  energy  cost  of  $206,000.   Associated  with  the
control  alternatives  are  additional  annual  energy costs.  These are
estimated to te:
           Alternatives
                        Cost
                 A
                B-l
                B-2
                 C
                 D
                E-l
                      5    -0-
                          300
                        1,200
                        1,200
                       21,300
                       27,000
                                   115

-------
                E-2                          26,000
                F                             1,400
                G-l                           6,500
                G-3                           5,300
               M.T. #1                        1,200
               M.T. #2                        6,200
               M.T. #3                        5,100

NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS OF ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT AND CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY

Air Pollution

Waste water lagooning,  particularly  under  anaerobic  conditions,  can
promote  the  growth of sulfur reducing organisms and associated noxious
gases.  The maintenance of aerobic conditions can be maintained  by  the
design  of  shallow  ponds  (two  feet  or less), by the use of aerators
(although these can increase an existing problem), by pH adjustment,  or
by other means.

As previously mentioned, spray drift from cooling towers and spray ponds
can  present  a  problem  in urban areas.  This can be reduced by proper
design, and can probably be eliminated for most wind conditions.

Solid Wastes

The removal of solids from waste water produces a solid  waste  disposal
problem  in  the form of sludges.  In these cases, where the sludges are
to be impounded, previously discussed measures for protection of  ground
water  must be taken.  Sanitary landfills, when available, usually cffer
an economical solution if hauling distances are reasonable.   The  addi-
tional solids waste produced by waste water treatment is not expected to
be  a  significant  problem.   Technology and knowledge are available to
prevent harmful effects to the environment as a result of land  disposal
of sludge.
                                   116

-------
                             SECTION IX

         EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF
       THE BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
                    EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES

The  effluent limitations which must be achieved by July 1, 1977, are to
specify the degree of effluent reduction attainable through the applica-
tion of the Best Practicable  Control  Technology  Currently  Available.
Best  Practicable  Control  Technology  Currently Available is generally
based upon the average of best existing performance by plants of various
sizes, ages and unit processes within  the  industrial  category  and/or
subcategory.   This  average is not based upon the broad range of plants
within the cane sugar refining segment of the sugar processing category,
but based upon performance levels achievable by exemplary plants.

Consideration must also be given to:

          a.  The total cost of application of technology
              in relation to the effluent reduction benefits
              to be achieved from such application;

          b.  The size and age of equipment and facilities involved;

          c.  The process employed;

          d.  The engineering aspects of the application
              of various types of control techniques;

          e.  Process changes;

          f.  Non-water quality environmental impact
              (including energy requirements);


Best  Practicable  Control  Technology  Currently  Available  emphasizes
treatment  facilities at the end of a manufacturing process but includes
the control technologies  within  the  process  itself  when  these  are
considered to be normal practice within the industry.

A  further  consideration  is  the  degree  of  economic and engineering
reliability  which  must  be  established  for  the  technology  to   be
"currently  available".   As  a  result of demonstration projects, pilot
plants, and general use, there must exist a high degree of confidence in
the engineering and economic practicability of  the  technology  at  the
time of construction or installation of the control facilities.
                                  117

-------
I££LUENT_REpyCTION_ATTAINABLE_THROUGH_THE_APPLICATION_gF_BEST_PRACTICABLE
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE FOR THE~CANE SUGAR, REFINING_SEGMENli

Based  upon  the  information  contained in Sections III through VIII of
this document, it has  been  determined  that  the  degree  of  effluent
reduction  attainable  through  the  application of the Best Practicable
Control Technology Currently Available is that  resulting  from  maximum
sucrose  entrainment  prevention  in barometric condenser cooling water,
elimination of a discharge of filter cake, and biological  treatment  of
all  process water other than uncontaminated (non-contact)  cooling water
and barometric condenser cooling water.  The effluent levels  attainable
for this degree of reduction are shown in Table 1.
The  final  effluent  BODjS  limits were derived by assuming the use of a
biological treatment system to attain reductions in process  water  BOD5
loading  to  30  and  50  mg/1  for  crystalline  and  liquid cane sugar
refineries respectively, and attaining a BOD5 entrainment  reduction  in
barometric condenser cooling water to 10 mg/1.  This does not imply that
plants  must necessarily duplicate the assumed raw waste loadings, water
usages, and treatment  efficiencies.   It  is  possible  for  plants  to
achieve  the  indicated  final  effluent  waste loads operating at lower
average treatment efficiencies  but  receiving  lower  raw  waste  loads
and/or  using  less  process  or barometric condenser cooling water.  In
addition, an entirely different approach such as disposal by  controlled
irrigation or controlled land impoundage may be employed.

Suspended Solids

The final effluent TSS limits were derived by assuming process water TSS
loading  reductions  to  40  and 60 mg/1 for crystalline and liquid cane
sugar refineries, respectively.  No TSS limit has been  established  for
barometric  condenser  cooling  water  because  of the low TSS raw waste
loading associated with this waste water stream.
Identification  °!  Best  Practicable   Control   Technology   Currently
Available

Best  Practicable  Control  Technology  Currently Available for the cane
sugar refining segment of the sugar processing category is  recycle  and
reuse  of certain process waters of the sugar processing category within
the refining process, minimization of sucrose entrainment in  barometric
condenser  cooling  water, elimination of a discharge of filter cake and
biological treatment of excess process waters.  Implementation  of  this
requires the following:

    a.  Collection and recovery of all floor drainage.
                                   118

-------
    b.   Minimization  of  sucrose  entrainment  in barometric condenser
cooling water by the use of improved baffling systems, demisters, and/or
other control devices.

    c.  Dry handling of filter cakes after desweetening with disposal to
sanitary landfills, or complete containment of filter cake slurries.

    d.  Biological treatment of all waste water  discharges  other  than
uncontaminated  (non-contact)   cooling  water  and  barometric condenser
cooling water.

Engineering Aspects of Control Technique Applications

The technology  defined  for  this  level  is  practicable.   There  are
refineries  which  currently  collect all floor drains.  Most refineries
currently achieve either dry handling or complete containment of  filter
cake.  All of the control devices described for entrainment control have
been  demonstrated  by  various  refineries.  Biological treatability of
refinery waste waters has been demonstrated  by  the  twelve  refineries
that discharge into municipal biological treatment systems.

Costs of_Application

The  costs  of  attaining  the  effluent reductions set forth herein are
summarized in Section VIII, Ccstx_Ener2yx_and__Norv^Water_2ualitY_Asp_ects.

The investment costs associated with this level of technology  represent
approximately 2% of the total investment needed to build the typical re-
finery.  The  total  cost to the cane sugar refining segment is approxi-
mately $5,000,000.

Non^water Quality Environmental Impact

The primary non-water quality environmental impacts  are  summarized  in
Section  VIII,  Costx  Energy  and Non-water Quality Aspects^  The major
concern is the strong reliance upon the land for  ultimate  disposal  of
wastes.   However,  the technology is available to assure that land dis-
posal systems are maintained commensurate with soil tolerances.

A secondary concern is the generation of solid wastes  in  the  form  of
sludges  and rmds and the possibility of odors resulting from impoundage
lagoons.   In  both  cases,  responsible   operation   and   maintenance
procedures  coupled with sound environmental planning have been shown to
obviate the problems.

Factgrs_tg be Considered_in_Agp_lYing_Effluent_ Limitations

The above assessment of what constitutes the  best  practicable  control
technology  currently  available  is  predicated  on the assumption of a
degree of uniformity among refineries that, strictly speaking, does  not
                                  119

-------
exist.    Tables   21,   22,   and  25  list  various  treatment  control
alternatives and summarize requirements  and  benefits  associated  with
each.    It  is  believed that the data in these tables can be a valuable
aid in  assessing  problems  and  associated  solutions  for  individual
installations.
                                   120

-------
                               SECTION X

           EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF
             THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
                              EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES

INTRODUCTION

The  effluent limitations which must be achieved by July I, 1983, are to
specify  the  degree  of  effluent  reduction  attainable  through   the
application  of  the  best available technology economically achievable.
The best available technology economically achievable is not based  upon
an average of the best performance within an industrial category, but is
to  be  determined  by  identifying  the very best ccntrol and treatment
technology employed by a specific point  source  within  the  industrial
category  or  subcategory,  or where it is readily transferable from one
industrial process to another.  A specific finding must be  made  as  to
the  availability  of  control  measures  and practices to eliminate the
discharge  of  pollutants,  taking  into  account  the  cost   of   such
elimination.

Consideration must also be given to:

           (a)  the age of equipment and facilities involved;
           (b)  the process employed;
           (c)  the engineering aspects of the application of
               various types of control techniques;
           (d)  process changes ;
           (e)  cost of achieving the effluent reduction
               resulting from application of the best
               economically achievable technology;
           (f)  non-water quality environmental impact
               (including energy requirements).

In  contrast to the best practicable control technology currently avail-
able, the best economically achievable technology assesses  the  availa-
bility  in  all cases of in-process controls as well as control or addi-
tional treatment techniques employed at the end of a production process.

Those plant processes and control technologies which at the pilot  plant
semi-works,  cr  other levels, have demonstrated both technological per-
formances and economic viability at a  level  sufficient  to  reasonably
justify  investing in such facilities may be considered in assessing the
best available economically achievable technology.  The  best  available
economically  achievable  technology  is  the  highest degree of control
technology that has been achieved or has been demonstrated to be capable
of being designed for plant scale operation  up  to  and  including  "no
discharge"  of  pollutants.  Although economic factors are considered in
this development, the costs for this level of control are intended to be
the top-of-the-line of current technology subject to limitations imposed
                                  121

-------
by economic ar.d engineering feasibility.   However,   the  best  available
technology   economically   achievable  may  be  characterized  by  some
technical risk with respect tc performance and with respect to certainty
of  costs.   Therefore,  the  best  available  technology   economically
achievable  may necessitate some industrially sponsored development work
prior to its application.
AVAILABLE_TEC™OLOGY_ECONOMICALLY_ACHIEVABLE-ZEFFLUENT_LIMITATIQNS
GUIDELINES

Based upon the information contained  in  this*  document,  it  has  been
determined  that the degree of effluent reduction attainable through the
application of the Best Available Technology Economically Achievable  is
that  resulting  from the technology of cooling and recycling barometric
condenser cooling water with biological treatment of  the  blowdown  and
the  addition  of sand filtration to further treat the effluent from the
biological treatment system.  The effluent levels  attainable  for  this
degree of reduction are shown in Table 1.

Identif ication_of_Best_Availablg_Technology_EconQmically Achievable

Best  Available  Technology  Economically  Achievable for the cane sugar
refining segment is the technology  described  in  Section  IX  of  this
document  with  the  addition  of  a  cooling  and  recycling system for
barometric condenser cooling water, with the blowdown from the recycling
system being discharged to the  biological  treatment  system,  and  the
addition  of  sand  filtration  to  further  treat the effluent from the
biological treatment system.  Alternatives to this system would  be  the
futher  reduction  of  sucrose  entrainment  in  condenser  waters to an
acceptable level for discharge, controlled  irrigation,  and  controlled
land impoundage.

Engineering A spec ts_of_Ccntrol Techniques Applicationg

The  technology  defined  for  this  level is currently practiced by one
major cane sugar refinery in the southern United States.   The  specific
recycling method in this instance is a cooling tower.

Cos t s_ gf

The  costs  of  obtaining  the  effluent reductions set forth herein are
summarized in Section VIII, Cogt^ Energy^ and_Non-Waterguality_ Aspects.

The investment costs associated with this level of technology  represent
approximately  3.5  percent  of the total investment needed to build the
typical refinery.  The total investment cost to the cane sugar  refining
segment is approximately $15,000,000, or $10,000,000 above that required
to achieve the best practicable control technology currently available.
                                   122

-------
   -Watgr_ Qua1ity_ Enyircnmen ta1_Impact

The  non-water  quality environmental impact would be an intensification
of those impacts described in Section IX.

Factors to be Considered in Applying Effluent Limitations

The same factors as discussed in Section IX  should  be  considered  for
this  level.   For  refineries in rural areas, spray ponds or irrigation
canals may be more feasible for recycling barometric  condenser  cooling
water than cooling towers.  Tables 21, 22, and 25 list various treatment
control  alternatives and summarize requirements and benefits associated
with each.
                                   123

-------
                               SECTION XI

                    NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

INTRODUCTION

In addition  to  guidelines  reflecting  the  best  practicable  control
technology   currently  available  and  the  best  available  technology
economically achievable, applicable to existing point source  discharges
July  1,  1977,  and  July  1, 1983, respectively, the Act requires that
performance standards be established for new  sources.   The  term  "new
source"  is  defined in the Act to mean "any source, the construction of
which  is  commenced  after  the  publication  of  proposed  regulations
prescribing  a standard of performance."  New source technology shall be
evaluated by adding to the consideration underlying  the  identification
of  best available technology economically achievable a determination of
what higher levels of pollution control are available through the use of
improved production processes and/or  treatment  techniques.   Thus,  in
addition  to  considering  the  best in-plant and end-of-process control
technology,  identified  in  best  available   technology   economically
achievable, new source technology is to be based upon an analysis of how
the  level of effluent may be reduced by changing the production process
itself.  Alternative processes, operating methods or other  alternatives
must  be considered.  However, the end result of the analysis will be to
identify effluent standards which reflect levels of  control  achievable
through  the  use  of  improved production processes  (as well as control
technology) , rather than prescribing a particular  type  of  process  or
technology  which  must be employed.  A further determination which must
be made for new source technology is whether a  standard  permitting  no
discharge of pollutants is practicable.

         Ftors -to be Taken into Consideration
At  least  the  following  factors  should be considered with respect to
production processes which are to be analyzed in  assessing  new  source
technology:
           (a)  the type of process employed and process changes;
           (b)  operating methods ;
           (c)  batch as opposed to continuous operations;
           (d)  use of alternative raw materials and mixes of
               raw materials ;
           (e)  use of dry rather than wet processes (including
               substitution of recoverable solvents for water) ;
               and
           (f)  recovery of pollutants as by-products.
                                   124

-------
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR THE CANE SUGAR REFINING SEGMENT OF
THE SUGAR PROCESSING INDUSTRY
Because of the large  number  of  specific  improvements   in  management
practices, design of eqiupment, and processes and systems  that  have  some
potential  of  development,  it  is  not  possible  to determine, within
reasonable accuracy, the potential waste reductions  achievable through
their  application in new sources.  However, the implementation of those
in-plant and end-of-pipe controls described in Section VII, Control  _and
Treatment_ .Technology, would enable new sources to achieve the effluent
discharge levels defined in Section X.

The short lead time for application of new source performance   standards
(less  than  a  year  versus  approximately four and ten years  for other
guidelines)  affords  little  opportunity   to   engage    in    extensive
development and testing of new procedures.  The single justification for
more  restrictive  limitations for new sources than for existing sources
would be one of relative economics of installation in new  plants  versus
modification  of existing plants.  There is no data to indicate that the
economics of the application of in-plant  and  end-of-pipe technologies
described  in  Section  VII,  Control and_Treatment_TechnQlQgy, would be
significantly weighted in favcr of new sources.

The attainment of zero discharge of pollutants does  not   appear  to  be
feasible for cane sugar refineries, other than those with  sufficient and
suitable land for irrigation or total impoundage.

In  view  of  the  aforegoing,  it  is  recommended  that   the  effluent
limitations for new sources be the same as those determined to  be   best
available  control  technology  economically  achievable,   presented  in
Section X.
                                    125

-------
                               SECTION XII

                             ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


The  Environmental  Protection  Agency   wishes   to   acknowledge   the
contributions  of  Environmental Science and Engineering, Inc., (ESE)  of
Gainesville, Florida,  with  the  assistance  of  F.  C.   Schaffer  and
Associates,  Inc.  (FCS)   of Eaton Rouge, Louisiana, and Reynolds, Smith
and Hills   (RSSH)  of  Jacksonville,  Florida.   The  work  of  ESE  was
performed under the direction cf Dr. Richard H. Jones, Project Director,
Mr.  John  D.  Crane,  Project  Manager,  and  Mr.  Robert  A.  Morrell,
Assistant Project Manager.

Appreciation is expressed  to  those  in  the  Environmental  Protection
Agency  who assisted in the performance of the project:  Kenneth Dostal,
NERC, Corvallis; Erik Krabbe, Region II;  Ed  Struzeski,  NFIC,  Denver;
Karl  Johnson,  ORAP,  Headquarters;  George  Keeler, OR&D Headquarters;
Allen Cywin, Ernst P. Hall, C. Ronald McSwiney, George R. Webster,  John
Riley,  Richard  V.  Watkins,  and  Linda  K.  Rose, Effluent Guidelines
Division; and many others in  the  EPA  regional  offices  and  research
centers  who  assisted  in  providing  information and assistance to the
project.  Special acknowledgement is made of  the  assistance  given  by
Robert  W. Dellinger, Project Officer, whose leadership and direction on
this program are most appreciated.

Appreciation is extended to Mr. Irving Hoff of the  United  States  Cane
Sugar  Refiners'  Association   (USCSRA) and to the members of the USCSRA
Environmental Task Force for their willing cooperaticn.  Appreciation is
particularly extended to individuals within the  refining  industry  who
provided   assistance  and  cooperaticn  in  supplying  information  and
arranging en-site visits.  Individuals who particularly deserve  mention
are  Mr.  Thomas  Baker  of Amstar Corporation, Mr. Rufus Herring cf the
Savannah Refinery, Mr. Fred Bruder of SuCrest, Mr. George Spink of North
American Sugar, Dr. P. F. Meads of CSH, Mr. A. M. Bartolo  of  Imperial,
and Dr. J. C. F. Chen of Southdown.
                                   126

-------
                           SECTION XIII

                            REFERENCES

1.    Spencer, G.  L. ,  and Meade, G. P., Ca ne_Sugar_Handbook , Ninth Edition,
      John Wiley and Sons, New York,  (1964).

2.    Keller, A. G. ,  and Huckabay, H. K. , "Pollution Abatement in the Sugar
      Industry of Louisiana," Journal Wat er_Pollution_Control Federation ,
      37, 7, (July 1960) .

     Biaggi, N.,  "The Sugar Industry in Puerto Rico and Its Relation to
      the Industrial  Waste Problem," Journal_Water_Pollution_iCQntrol
      Federation, U0j_   8, (August 1968) .

4-    ^D^Ddus^ial_Waste_Gjaide_to_the_Cane_Sugar_lndustrY, U. S. Depart-
      ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service
      Publication 691, Washington, D.C., (1963).

5.    "Policy on Subsurface Emplacement of Fluids by Well Injection," A
      Policy Statement issued by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
      with Accompanying "Recommended Data Requirements for Environmental
      Evaluation of  Subsurface Emplacement of Fluids by Well Injection,"
      Washington, D.C., (February 1973).
6 •    Py^Ii£_ii§^th_Ser vice_Dr inking_Wat er _St andar ds , ESYi§ed_l 9 6 2 , U.S.
      Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, U.S. Public Health
      Service Publication 956, Washington, D.C., (1962).

7.    Serner, H.E.,  "Entrainment in Vacuum Pans," Sugar_Y_Azucar , (January
      1969) .

8.    Personal Communication from F. C. Schaffer, (June 1973) .

9.    Bhaskaran, T.  R., and Chakrabarty, R. N. , "Pilot Plant for Treat-
     ment of Cane Sugar Waste," Journal Water_Pgllution Contrgl^Federa-
     tion,  (July 1966) .

10.   §tate~of-Art,  Sugarbeet_Processing_Waste_Treatment, Environmental
     Protection Agency, Water Pollution Control Research Series 12060
     DSI, (July 1971) .

11.   Complete Mix_Actiyated_sludge_Treatment of Citrus_Process_Wastes ,
     Environmental  Protection Agency, Water Pollution Control Research
     Series 12060 EZY, (August 1971) .

12.   T£§§tm^nt_of_Citrjas_Pj:oces^^ng_Wa^tes, Environmental Protection
     Agency, Water  Pollution Control Research Series 12060, (October
                                   127

-------
     1970) .

13.   Compari^cn_of_Barornetric_and_SurJace_Conder^sers, Unpublished
     paper by the U.S. Cane Sugar Refiners' Association,  (March 9,
     1973) .

14.   Tsugita, R.  A., et.al., "Treatment of Beet Sugar Plant Flume Water,"
     British Columbia Research Council, University of British Columbia,
     (1964) .

15.   ApBlicatign_fgr_FSUOD Pi schargg to Delaware Estuary, Report
     Submitted to Delaware River Basin Commission, by Amstar Phila-
     delphia Refinery, (July 1972) .

16.   Baumert, G.S.,  Ref inerY_Vjastes_and_Pollution_Contggl^ SSI, (1969).

17.   Dennis, Warren H., A Statistical Analysis of the BQD5 and FSOD
           ^of_Inta}^_and_Disc^arg^_W^ter^t_Amstar_Phila
           ry_, Warf Institute, Madison, Wisconsin, (1973) .
18.   Guzman, Ramon M. ,  "Control of Cane Sugar Wastes in Puerto Rico,"
     Journal^Water Pol lutign^Cgntrol Federation, _3Jt, 12,  (December 1962)

19.   Kemp,  P. H. ,  and Cox, S. M. H., Pol lution_and_ Pol lution_ Abatement
     in_t h e_Natal_S ugar_Indu st ry , Proceedings of the 13th Congress of
     the International  Society of Sugar cane Technologists,  (1969) .


20.   Oswald, William J., et.al., Anaerobic-Aerobic Ponds for Treatment
     of_B eet_§ucjar_Was_tes , Proceedings, Second National Symposium on
     Food Processing Wastes, Denver, Colorado,  (March 23-6, 1971) .

21.   Pace,  G. L.,  "Making Cane Sugar for Refining," Chemical .and Metal-
     lurgical Engineering, 48,  (July 1941) .

22.   Salley, George H., A_Re£ort_on_the_Florida_Sugar_Industry_, Private
     Publication,  (1967) .

23.   Shreve, R. N. , Chemical .^Process Industries, Third Edition, McGraw-
     Hill,  New York, (1967) .

24.   Smith, Dudley, Where^Puerto Rico Stands in Sugar, Paper Presented
     to the Sugar Club  of New York, (February 15, 1972) .

25.   South Florida Sugar_lndustry., Florida State Board of Health, Bureau
     of Sanitary Engineering, Jacksonville, Florida,  (1964) .

26.   Structure of the U^S. Cane_Sugar_Industry, U. S. Department of
     Agriculture,  Economic Research Service,  (1972) .
                                   128

-------
27.   §ugar_Manual,  Hawaiian Sugar Planters'  Association, (1972).

28.   Sugar Reports,  U.S.  Department of Agriculture,  Agricultural  Stabi-
     lization and Conservation Service, Washington,  D.C., (1971).

29.   §ugar_Statistics_and_Related_Data, Volumes I and II, Revised, U.S.
     Department of  Agriculture, Washington,  D.C., (February 1970).
                                  129

-------
                              SECTION XIV

                                GLOSSARY


Affinati.on - Washing to remove the adhering film of molasses from the
surface of the raw sugar crystal, the first step in the refining operation.

Af f inatign_Centrif ugal - A high speed centrifugal which separates syrup
and molasses from sugar.  Syrup from this centrifugal is recycled to the
mingling phase of refinement.

Alkalinity - Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of water to neutral-
ize an acid.

MEh£LD§El2ihol_Test ~ A test for sucrose concentration in condensate and
condenser water.  The method is based on a color change which occurs in
the reaction of the inorganic constituents.
            * In analysis of sugar products, sulfuric acid is added to the
sample, and this residue, as "sulfated ash" heated to 800°C is taken to
be a measure of the inorganic constituents.

                  §2I ~ See Condenser, Barometric.
Barcmetric_Leg - A long vertical pipe through which spent condenser water
leaves the condenser.  Serves as a source of vacuum.

!§£221§tric_Leg_Water ~ Condenser cooling water.

Sioi22i£^l_W|LStewater_Treatment - Forms of waste water treatment in which
bacterial or biochemical action is intensified to stabilize, oxidize, and
nitrify the unstable organic matter present.  Trickling filters, and
activated sludge processes are examples.

Blackstrap Molasses - Molasses produced by the final vacuum pans, and from
which sugar is unrecoverable by ordinary means.  Blackstrap is usually
sold for various uses.

BODjj - Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a semiquantitative measure of bio-
logical decomposition of organic matter in a water sample.  It is deter-
mined by measuring the oxygen required by micro-organisms to oxidize the
contaminants of a water sample under standard laboratory conditions.  The
standard conditions include incubation for five days at 20°C.

Boilgr Ash - The solid residue remaining from combustion of fuel in a
bciler furnace.
                                    130

-------
!°il§£_Zeedwater - Water used to generate steam in a boiler.  This water
is usually condensate, except during boiler startup, when treated fresh
water is ncrirally used.

Boiler_Blgwdown - Discharge from a boiler system designed to prevent a
buildup of dissolved solids.
B2Qe_£har - An adsorption material used in cane sugar refineries which is
utilized in the removal of organic and inorganic impurities from sugar
liquor.

Calandria - The steam belt or heating element in an evaporator or vacuum
pan, consisting of vertical tube sheets constituting the heating surface.

Calandria Evaporator - An evaporator using a calandria; the standard
evaporator in current use in the sugar industry.

Calandria_Vacuum_Pan - A vacuum pan using a calandria; the standard
vacuum pan in current use in the sugar industry.

S-SQtrifugaticn ~ A procedure used to separate materials of differing
densities by subjecting them to high speed revolutions.  In sugar pro-
cessing, centrifugation is used to remove sugar crystals from massecuite.


Char_cist_ern - Cylindrical vats, measuring approximately 10 feet in
diameter by 20 feet deep, which contain approximately 40 tons of bone
char.

Clarification - The process of removing undissolved materials (largely
insoluble lime salts)  from cane juice by settling, filtration, or
flotation.

Coagulation - In water and waste water treatment,  the destabilization
and initial aggregation of colloidal and finely divided suspended matter
by the addition of a floe-forming chemical or by biological process.

COD - Chemical Oxygen Demand.  Its determination provides a measure cf
the oxygen demand equivalent to that portion of matter in a sample which
is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant.

Condensate - Water resulting from the condensation of vapor.

Condenser - A heat exchange device used for condensation.

     Barometric: Condenser in which the cooling water and the vapors
                 are in physical contact;  the condensate is mixed
                 in the cooling water.

     Surface:    Condenser in which heat is transferred through a
                                  131

-------
                 barrier that separates the cooling water and the
                 vapor.  The condensate can be recovered separately.

Condenser^Water - Water used for cooling in a condenser.

£L£y,§iallizatign ~ The process through which sugar crystals separate from
massecuite.
Recasting ~ Separation of a liquid from solids by drawing off the upper
layer after the heavier material has settled.
               - The refining process of removing color from sugar. The
predominantly used methods involve the use of bone char, granular acti-
vated carbon, vegetable carbon, or powdered activated carbon.

Defecants - Chemicals which are added to melt liquor in order to remove
remaining impurities.  They include phosphoric acid (or carbon dioxide)
and lime.  The result of the treatment is the neutralization of organic
acids and formation of a tri-calcium phosphate precipitate which entrains
much of the colloidal and other suspended matter in the liquor.

Defecation Process - A method for purifying the cane juice involving lime,
heat, and a small amount of phosphate.  The result is the formation of an
insoluble precipitate which is then removed in the clarification process.

Demineralization - Removal of mineral impurities from sugar.
         ~ Glucose.  An invert sugar with the formula C6#H12O6.  Dextrose
is a minor component of raw sugar.

piatomacegus^Earth - A viable earthy deposit composed of nearly pure
silica and consisting essentially of the shells of the microscopic plants
called diatoms.  Diatomaceous earth is utilized by the cane sugar industry
as a filter aid.

Disaccharides - A sugar such as sucrose composed of two monosaccharides.

D^O^ - Dissolved Oxygen is a measure of the amount of free oxygen in a
water sample.  It is dependent on the physical, chemical, and biochemical
activities of the water sample.

Dry-cleaning - Cleaning of raw cane without the use of water.

[VEffect^ - In systems where evaporators are operated in series of several
units, each evaporator is known as an effect.

iQtrainment - The entrapment of liquid droplets containing sugar in the
water vapor produced by evaporation of syrup.

Evaporator - A closed vessel heated by steam and placed under a vacuum.
                                  132

-------
The basic principle is that syrup enters the evaporator at a temperature
higher than its boiling point under the reduced pressure, or is heated
to that temperature.  The result is flash evaporation of a portion of the
water in the syrup.

False Crystals - New sugar crystals which form spontaneously without the
presence of others.  This event is undesirable, and therefore vacuum pan
conditions are maintained in a narrow range of sucrose concentration and
temperature which precludes their formation.

Filter ^Cake - The residue remaining after filtration of the sludge
produced by the clarification process.

Filter Mud - A mud produced by slurrying filter cake.  The resultant waste
stream is a significant source of solids and organics within a
cane sugar refinery.
             ~ *n the past the most common type of filter used to separate
solids from sludge.  It consists of a simple and efficient plate and frame
filter which allows filtered juice to mix with clarified juice and be sent
to the evaporators.

Fixed Beds - A filter or adsorption bed where the entire media is exhausted
before any of the media is cleaned.

Flocculant - A substance that induces or promotes fine particles in a
colloidal suspension to aggregate into small lumps, which are more easily
removed.

Floorwas_h - Water used to wash factory or refinery floors and equipment.

Flotation - The raising of suspended matter to the surface of the liquid
in a tank as scum - by aeration, the evolution of gas, chemicals, elec-
trolysis, heat, or bacterial decomposition - and the subsequent removal
of the scum by skimming.

Frothing^ Clarifiers - Flotation devices that separate tri-calcium phosphate
precipitate from the liquor.

Furfural - An aldehyde C4H3OCHO used in making Furaw and as a resin.

Glucose - Dextrose.

GPP - Gallons per day.

GPM - Gallons per minute.

Granular Actiyated_Carbon - Substance used for decolorization of sugar.
It differs from bone char in that it produces more sweet water, adsorbs
no ash, and is normally not washed.  There is little waste water produced
from this  process.
                                  133

-------
            ~ The process which removes remaining moisture from sugar,
thus also separates the crystals from one another.

Granulator - A rotary dryer used in sugar refineries to remove free
moisture from sugar crystals prior to packaging or storing.

fiY^£Oii2S^i2D ~ Tne addition of H2O to a molecule.  In sugar production,
hydrolization of sucrose results in an inversion into glucose and fructose
and represents lost production.

Impoundment - A pond, lake, tank, basin, or other space which is used for
storage of waste water.
           " Fine particles of bagasse, fats, waxes, and gums contained
in the cane juice after irilling.  These impurities are reduced by
successive refining processes.

!SY.ert_Suc[ars - Glucose and fructose formed by the splitting of sucrose
by the enzyme sucrase.
           § ~ Reversible exchange of ions contained in a crystal for
different ions in solution without destruction of crystal structure or
disturbance of electrical neutrality.  Used in sugar refining for color
removal or removal of impurities .
             .B§JLiDs~ Resins consisting of three-dimensicnal hydrocarbon
networks to which are attached ionizable groups.

Isgmers - Two or more compounds containing the same elements and having
the same molecular weights, but differing in structure and properties,
e.g. glucose and fructose.

Juices - Clarified:  The juice obtained as a result of the clarification
                     process , and synonymous with evaporator supply when
                     the filtered juice is returned to the mixed juice.

         Mixed:      The juice sent from the extraction plant to the
                     boiling house.

Leyulose - Fructose.  An invert sugar composed of six carbon chains with
the formula C6H12O6.  Levulose is a component of raw sugar.

Magma - A heated sugar syrup solution to which raw crystals have been
added.

Magma mingler - A revolving coiled mixer in which magma is heated in
order to facilitate loosening the molasses film from raw sugar crystals;
the first step in the refinement process.
                                  134

-------
Mas^ecuite - Mixture of sugar crystals and syrup which originates in the
boiling of the sugar  (literally cooked mass).

Malt^Liguor - Molten sugar to which has been added a small amount of
water  (half the weight of the sugar) .

MGD - Million gallons per day.

mg/1 - Milligrams per liter  (equals parts per million ±ppm1 when the
specific gravity is unity).

Moj-Sture - Loss in weight due to drying under specified conditions,
expressed as percentage of total weight.

Molasses - A dark-colored syrup containing non-sugars produced in process-
ing cane and beet sugar.

Mgngsaccharides - Simplified form of sugar.

Moving Beds - A filtration or adsorption bed where the media is con-
stantly being removed and fresh media added.

Mud - The precipitated sludge resulting from the clarification process.

Multiple Effect^Evaporation - The operation of evaporators in a series.

Nutrients - The nutrients in contaminated water are routinely analyzed
to characterize the food available for micro-organisms to promote organic
decomposition.  They are:

                Ammgnia_Nitrggen (NH3), mg/1 as N
                K-jeldahl Nitrogen (ON) , mg/1 as N
                Nitrate_Nitrogen (NO3), mg/1 as N
                Tota1_Phosphate (TP),   mg/1 as P
                Ortho_Phosphate (OP),   mg/1 as P.

gH - pH is a measure of the negative log of hydrogen ion concentraticn.

Phases of Supersaturation - metastable phase in which existing sugar
crystals grow but new crystals do not form; the intermediate phase in
which existing crystals grow and new crystals do form; and the labile
phase in which new crystals form spontaneously without the presence of
others.

Pl§te_ajid_Franie_Filter ~ A filtering device consisting of a "screen"
fastened inside a metal frame.

FOL - The value determined by single polarization of the normal weight of
a sugar product made up to a total volume of 100 milliliters at 20°C,
                                  135

-------
clarified when necessary, with dry lead subacetate and read in a tube
200 milliliters long at 20°C, using the Bates-Jackson saccharimeter scale.
The term is used in calculations as if it were a real substance.

E2iY§i§£troly_tes ~ Coagulent aids consisting of long chained organic
molecules.

Precoat_Filter - A type of filter in which the media is applied to
an existing surface prior to filtration.

Raw_Sugar - An intermediate product consisting of crystals of high purity
covered with a film of low quality syrup.

RecrY§tallization - Formation of new crystals from previously melted
sugar liqucr.  Recrystallization is encouraged by evaporators and accom-
plished in vacuum pans.

B§2§S§E§t.ion_Kilns "*" Ovens which operate with a controlled amount of
air, and in which bone char is placed for renewal of its capacities
for buffering and decolorizing.

Regeneration of Char - After some sixty hours of operation, the de-
colorizing ability of bone char decreases to an unacceptable level,
and the char must be washed and regenerated by heat in kilns or char
house furnaces.

Remelt - A solution of low grade sugar in clarified juice or water.
                " A color indicator test for determining the concen-
tration of sucrose in condensate and condenser waters.

Rotary Vacuum Filter - A rotating drum filter which utilizes suction
to separate solids from the sludge produced by clarification.
      tion ~ Tne use of water in the milling process to dissolve
sucrose.  Identical, in this connotation, with imbibition and macer-
ation.
Sged^Sugar - Small sucrose crystals which provide a surface for con-
tinued crystal growth.

Settlings - The material which collects in the bottom portion of a
clarif ier.

Sludgg - The separated precipitate from the clarification process.  It
consists largely of insoluble lime salts and includes calcium phosphates,
coagulate albumin, fats, acids and gums, iron, alumina, and other mat-
erial.

       ~ A mixture of water and solids.  Filter cakes, ash, or other
                                  136

-------
solids may be slurried to facilitate handling.

Solids - Various types of solids are commonly determined on water
samples.  These types of solids are:

         X2tal_Sglids (TS):       The material left after evaporation and
                                 drying of a sample at 103° to 105°C.
         Dissolved Solids (DS):  The difference between the total and
                                 suspended solids.
         Volatile Solids (VS):    Organic material which is lost when

                                 the sample is heated to 550°C.
         Settleable_Solids (STS):The materials which settle in an
                                 Immhoff cone in one hour.

StabJLlization_Pond - A type of oxidation pond in which biological oxi-
dation of organic matter is effected by natural or artificially acceler-
ated transfer of oxygen to the water from air.

Strike - The massecuite content of a vacuum pan.

Sucrose - A disaccharide having the formula C12H22O11.  The terms sucrose
and sugar are generally interchangeable, and the common sugar of ccmmerce
is sucrose in varying degrees of purity.  Refined cane sugar is essen-
tially 100 percent sucrose.

Sugar - The sucrose crystals,  including adhering mother liquor, remaining
after centrifugation.

         Ccmmercial:  Sugar from high grade massecuite, which enters into
                      commerce.
         Lew Grade:   Sugar from low grade massecuite, synonymous with
                      remelt sugar.
         96 DA:       A value used for reporting commercial sugar on a
                      common basis, calculated from an empirical formula
                      issued by the United States Department of Agri-
                      culture.

Supersaturation - The condition of a solution when it contains more
solute  (sucrose) than would be present under normal pressure and temp-
erature,  when equilibrium is established between the saturated solution
and undissolved solute, crystal growth commences.

§ur^ac:e_Conden_ser - See condenser. Surface.

Susj3endj?d_soli.ds - solids found in waste water or in the stream which in
most cases can be removed by filtration. The origin of suspended matter
may be man-made wastes or natural sources as from erosion.

YJIB2£ ~ Steam liberated from boiling sugar liquor.
                                  137

-------
Vap_gr_Belt - The distance between the liquid level in air  evaporator or
vacuum pan and the top of the cylindrical portion of the body.

yegetabj.e_Carbon - A media for sugar decolorization.

              ~ Any liquid waste material produced by a refinery.
                                   138

-------
W

pq

H
W
O
U






X—.
to
4-1
•H
d
£3

O
•rl
rl
4-J
CU
S
C
•rH
cfl
1 1
43
O
O
H











p^
42



















s~ •,
CO
4J
•H
C
!=>

43
CO
•H
i-H
00
d
W
s- '

>,
i-H
Cu
•H
4-1
rH
3
;S
en
cu
•rl
Jj
O
CO rH
4_l
•r1
p
&

O
•r-
(_|
4-1
CU
Jr;








O
•H
4-1
Cfl
•H
>
Ol
rl
43
43
c
0
•H
to
J-J
cu
>
d
o
u




£3
O
*rH
4-J
cd
•rl
£>
cu
n
43
43
.
CO 4J
•H iH
4_> pj
•H t>
IH
pq




cu
CO 4-J
rl 3
CU d
4-1 -H
CU B
B
^4
O CU
•H CU
rd
3
o









(3
•H
a
^
6

3
O



OO
CN
o
•
o













B
>4H
o












cu
4J
4J 3
CU C
CU -H
KH S

O M
•H Q)
43 CU
3
O





to
>_l
0)
4J
cu
0

o
•H
43
3
O









d
•H
B
— ^
a

3
O





l~»
•
rH













CO
MH
O














4-1
CU
CU
>4H

O
•H
43
3
O




CU
4-1
3
Cl
•H
B

i-i
cu
P.























































T3
(3
O
O
0)
CO

M
Ol
Cu







CO
}-l
01
4J
01
B

0
•H
43
3
O












S

3
O



00
CN
O
•
0











4-1
MH

3
O














4-1
CU
cu
IH

0
•H
43
3
o











CO
P
CU
4-J
•H
rH















rH




CN
m
•
00
CN










4J
<4H

3
0














4-J
0)
cu
<4-l

O
•H
43
3
O
CO
P
Q)
4-1
CU
B
iH
4-J
d
cu
o

o
•H
43
3
O











B
o

3
O




O\
CO
•
V4P
i-H










0
•H

3
O












CO
01
43
O
a
T\

O
•H
43
3
O
01
T3
CO
}-i
oo d
•H O
4-1 4J
d rl rl
Ol 0) T3 Ol O CO
U P, d P. -H 4-1
O rl 4J
CU CO CO O CO 4J CO
CU l-l rl (-1 0) MO) &
i-i cu cu ai en a> E o
00 4J 4-1 4-1 4-1 rH
0) CU iH iH -H iH
13 B rH rH rH Ai











O 00
0) v?
CJ> CO AJ
o -^. ^^ Jj
S rH rH rH Ai

rH
X-N 00 rH 1^
CN -* m on co in
co o oo vo r~~ «a-
1 CO f^ O rH l*»
fti • • • • •
o o CO O 4H 00 00 00 43








































rl
cu
iH
i-H
•H
4-1
i-H
3
B

cd

4-1
0
d

*
d
o
•H
CO
IH
0)
^
d
o
o

i-H
cd
3
4-J
O
<;
i-H
                                        139

-------
H
.J
H  O
   H
23  &
O  S3
l-l  M
W  H

W  O
>  O
2S  s—'
o
u






/-N
CO
4-J
•H
C
tD

O
•H
1-1
4J
cu
a
c
•H
CO
I)
.£>
O
O
H












>•,
,Q



















CO
4-1
•H
£3

r;
CO
•H
•H
00
C
W
*~s

>,
iH
P.
•H
4-1
i-l
3
53




X-N 1^0
cu a) o
4J
•H
0
^3

O
•H
}-l
4J
cu
a









0
O
1, 1
•n
4-1
0)
•H
>
0)
t-i
^
0
0
•H
CO
1-1
CU
>
£
O
U




0
O
•H
4-J
CO
•H
>
CU
^
-°
<£









4J
•H
0
|3

,0
CO
n-
i— 1
OC
C
K
CO CO 4-1 P. 4J
>-i CU 3
cu l-i iH co cn a
4J cu 0 B B -H
CU ,0 CO CO CO 1-1
B P. & 1-1 1-14-1
•H co cd oo oo cu
4J 0s-- o o B
0 B iH i-H
CU 4J -H -H
o cd ,i! ^












00
^
^4
B ^^
B 4-> oo oo
o cd ^A ^t
CN
W >< CU
O J-i P.
3
CO CO O CO CO
CU CO M T3 73
,0 J3 CU 0 0
a us 3 3
C (3 00
•H -H P, p.





CO
M

n










T3
00
B







CO
0
0
i-l
i-l
td
00 >,
to
C *O
o
•H l-i
i-l CU
iH P.
•H
B








h
cu
4-1
CU
B
o
i— i
•H
Ji
















B



Cn
O
vO
•
i— \















•H
B


















0)
I-l
•H
B




^
cu
CO 4->
0) 3
^ I— 1
cu o
X to
P. ,0
CO CO
o -^
B
4J
rO















£3
4->
CO
1-1
i-H
00
•H
CO
p.

0
oo
^o
o
.
o
V— '








00
•H
CO
p.






CU
J-I
CO X-N
3 CU
cr oo
co 3
tfl
M 00
0) V_x
p.
rC
13 CJ
0 0
3 -H
0
P.
CO CO
n B
CU Cfl
1 1 t.
cu oo
cn B o
l-l -H iH
CU 4J W -H
4-1 0 0 ^
CU Q) O
B 0 4J 0
0
cu cu cj o
l-l l-l -H i-l 1-1
to cfl J-i ^ CU
334-) 4-1
cr cr -,









CD
CU x-v
4J ^: 4J
cu u 1-4
CU 0 0
<4-l -H ,0
CO
cu cu ^
l-l l-l
tO tfl CO 'O
330 l-i
cr cr o co
CO CO 4-1 >,












































t-i
0)
•H
r-f
P.
•H
4J
iH
3
s

(0
4-1
o
0
VI
0
o
•H
CO
^
01
>
0
O
0

•H
CO
3
4J
CJ
<;
iH
                                                140

-------