-------
lime. The result of this treatment is neutralization of organic acids
and formation of a tri-calcium phosphate precipitate which entrains much
of the colloidal and other suspended matter in the liquor. Carbonation
produces a calcium carbonate precipitate. Inert filter aids, most
ccmmonly diatcmaceous earth, may be used alone or in conjunction with
phosphoric acid.
Clarification systems that remove the colloidal and suspended
precipitate by air flotation are called frothing clarifiers and are
based simply on the principle of rising air bubbles trapping the
precipitate and forming a scum on the liquid surface. Pressure
filtration commonly takes place in a cloth or leaf-type filter with cake
removal fcy means of high pressure sprays.
The muds, scums, and filter muds produced in clarification contain sig-
nificant sugar concentrations which must be recovered. Frothing
clarifier scums, particularly tri-calcium phosphate scums, are often
sent to a second clarifier and the resulting scum is filtered on rotary
vacuum drums with the addition of filter aid. The press cake is usually
handled in a dry form and taken to landfill but may be slurried. High-
test sluicings may be dewatered in rotary vacuum filters and the
resulting sweetwater added to affination syrups and the dewatered cake
used as filter aid for filtration.
Decglorization
After affination and clarification, the sugar liquor still contains im-
purities and color that require physical adsorption for removal. As
previously stated, most large crystalline refineries use fixed bed bone
char cisterns (also called filters), although in more than 50 years
there have been no new refineries equipped with them. An individual
cistern is ccmmonly three meters (ten feet) in diameter and six meters
(20 feet) deep and holds approximately 36 metric tons (10 tons) of bone
char and 20,800 liters (5,500 gallons) of sugar liquor. There are
generally 30 cisterns per million kilograms of daily melt.
Sugar liquor passes in parallel through each cistern in a downWard
direction and undergoes adsorption of the color bodies and ions. Elrom
90 to 99 percent of color is removed, with the higher removal occurring
at the beginning of the cycle. Divalent cations and anions and
polyvalent organic ions are effectively removed, as are phosphate and
bicarbonate. Monovalent ions are not removed.
After some period of operation, the decoloration ability of the char
decreases to an unacceptable level and the char must be washed and
regenerated by heat in kilns or char house furnaces. The sugar liquor
in the cistern is displaced with a piston effect by hoi; water. The
water effluent is a low purity sweet water and is taken to evaporation
for sugar recovery. The total amount of sweet water produced is usually
about one-half of the cistern's volume.
18
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After the purity of the water effluent has degraded to a point where
further sugar recovery is considered uneconomical, it is released as a
waste water stream. The amount of wash water used may be governed
either by time or by ash content.
After the last of the wash water has drained from the char cistern, the
char is discharged from the cisterns, dried by hot air, and regenerated
in kilns. The kilns provide a temperature of about 550° Centigrade and
a controlled amount of air. Under these conditions any organic residue
is destroyed and the buffering and decolorizing capacity of the char is
renewed.
The operation of a granular carbon refinery is in many ways similar to
that of a char refinery, but there are at the same time significant
differences. Granular carbon adsorbs minimal ash and produces
considerably more sweet water. The only waste water normally associated
with the decolorization step in the process is water used for
transporting the carbon. Transport water can be reused as transport
water, but must be discharged periodically due to bacterial growth.
Most granular carbon refineries discharge transport water once or twice
a week.
Powdered activated carbon is used for decolorization in small refineries
and in liquid sugar production. Regeneration of powdered carbon is
difficult and it is normally discarded after one or two cycles.
However, in 1972, one company announced the successful and economical
regeneration cf powdered activated carbon.
The clarified liquor is contacted and agitated for about 15 to 20
minutes with a slurry of carbon prepared with water or sugar solution.
After that period of time, carbon will not adsorb more coloring matter,
but coloring matter already adsorbed can be washed back into the sugar
solution. The temperature of treatment is about 82° Centigrade (180°
Fahrenheit). After the treatment is completed, about five kilograms (10
pounds) of filter aid per 3,800 liters (1,000 gallons) of sugar liquor
is admixed and thoroughly dispersed in the liquor before filtration.
The filtration is accomplished in filter aid precoat-type leaf filters.
The cycle of each filter unit varies from five to twenty four hours,
depending on the filterability and color of the sugar liquor that is
being filtered. The decolorized filtrate is checked in a precoat-type
leaf filter and then sent to the double-effect evaporators for
concentration prior to crystallization. The total filter aid
consumption is about O.H to 0.5 percent based on refined sugar output.
The filter cake containing the filter aid, carbon, and impurities is
sent in slurry form to the clarification scum tank, and all this mixture
is filtered in a dry discharge type pressure filter (either plate and
frame or leaf type); all solids are discarded, after sweetening off, in
dry cake or slurry form in a suitable disposal area.
19
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Ion-exchange resins are used to a limited extent in sugar refining for
demineralization (deashing) or further color removal. They are used
most extensively in carbon and liquid sugar refineries. Refinery
liquors are percolated through a cation-exchanger which adsorbs alkaline
salts from the liquor and leaves it highly acidic. Then the liquor is
percolated through an anion-exchanger which removes the free acid and
converts the sugar liqucr tc a neutral state. This double percolation
can be avoided by using cationic and anionic resins mixed together in a
single-bed cistern. The operation of ion-exchange beds in refineries is
not unlike that of many industrial applications in that they are
regenerated in place with sodium chloride, sulfuric acid, or ether
chemicals depending en the type of resin. The cost and disposal of
chemicals needed for regeneration of ion-exchangers has precluded its
application for the entire refining process.
Evaporation
No matter what method of decclorization is used, the final steps of re-
crystallizing and granulating are essentially the same in all
refineries. The first step in recrystallization is the concentration of
the decolorized sugar liqucr and sweet waters in continuous-type
evaporators.
An evaporator is a closed vessel heated by steam and placed under a
vacuum. The basic principle is that the juice enters the evaporator at
a temperature higher than its boiling temperature under the reduced
pressure, or is heated to that temperature. The result is flash
evaporation and the principle allows evaporators to be operated in a
series of several units. This practice is called multiple-effect
evaporation, with each evaporator being an "effect", and is illustrated
in Figure 6. In general, the vacuum in each effect is created by the
condensation of the vapors from that effect in the subsequent effect.
The heat of vaporization of the juice in each effect is supplied by the
vapors from the previous effect, with the exception of the first and
last effects. The first effect normally has live steam or exhaust steam
resulting frcm power production provided to it, and the last effect has
a vacuum caused by the condensation of its vapors in the condenser. The
temperature and pressure of each effect is, therefore, lower than the
preceding effect.
The cane sugar refining industry commonly uses double or triple-effect
evaporation with the short tube or calandria type of evaporator (as
illustrated), although the Lillie film evaporator is used in some
installations.
Condensation of the last effect vapors may be provided by one of several
condenser designs, but all operate on the principle of relatively cold
water passing through a cylindrical vessel, contacting the hot vapors,
and condensing them. The resulting hot water leaves through a long
vertical pipe called a barcmetric leg. Air is removed from the system
20
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21
-------
(A) Zig-Zag Baffle
(B) Catch All
(C) Cyclone Separator
(D) In-Line Baffle Box
(E) Demister
FIGURE 7
DEVICES TO REDUCE ENTRAPMENT
22
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by a vacuum pump or steam ejector. The condenser cooling water, or
barometric leg water, at a flow rate of perhaps 76,000 cubic meters per
day (20 million gallons) in a large refinery, is the largest volume of
water used in a cane sugar refinery. It is often untreated river or sea
water and is unsuitable for reuse in other processes in sugar refining
although some refineries use better quality water which is recycled
after cooling in a cooling tower or spray pond, and then reused in ether
processes.
A problem common to the sugar refiner in his attempt to prevent sugar
loss and to the environmentalist in his attempt to prevent pollution is
the entrainment of sugar in the vapors from the evaporators and vacuum
pans. The condensed steam from the first effect has not come into
direct contact with the sugar solution and is essentially pure water.
It is usually used as feed water for the steam boilers as is the
condensate from the second effect. The condensates from the ether
effects experience relatively little sugar entrainment and are used as
process water; however, in some cases "excess" condensate may be
discharged as a waste stream. The major problem, then, is with the
vapor from the last effect which tends to have greater entrainment than
the other effects. Due to its mixing with the condenser water, the
resultant volume is too large for reuse in the process. However, con-
denser water .may be recirculated. If recirculated, the warm water from
the condensers of evaporators and vacuum pans is cooled in cooling
towers or spray ponds and recycled. Only a fraction of the volume goes
to the stabilization ponds as blowdown from the cooling tower or spray
pond. This volume is a function of the dissolved solids content of the
water being used as barometric condenser cooling water. One would not
recycle brackish water because of the high concentration of dissolved
solids. With good quality water, this blowdown can amount to as little
as one percent.
Various methods of reducing entrainment are used in the industry, but
most are based on either the principle of centrifugal action or that of
direct impact; i.e., changing the direction of vapor flew so that liquid
droplets may veer away from the vapor, be impinged on a surface, and
ultimately be returned to the liquid body, or allowing the vapor to come
into direct contact with a wet surface. Schematics of various methods
commonly used are shown in Figure 7.
The distance between the liquid level in the evaporator and the top of
the cylindrical portion of the body is called the vapor belt. This dis-
tance has a great effect on the degree of entrainment because the
further the vapor has to rise the greater the opportunity for liquid
droplets to fall out. Most evaporator vapor belts in refineries range
from 3.7 to 4.9 meters (12 to 16 feet) or about 2.0 to 2.5 times the
length of the tubes.
Refineries monitor sucrose concentrations in condensate and condenser
water in order to avoid sugar contamination in boiler feed waters and
23
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sugar loss in condenser water. The frequency of monitoring may vary
from continuous (auto analyzers) to hourly, daily, or weekly. The
methods of analysis for sucrose most commonly used are the alphanaphthol
and resorcinol tests. Both methods are based on color change resulting
from the reaction of the test reagent with sucrose.
Crystallization
After concentration in evaporators, in the case of crystalline
refineries, the sugar liquor and sweet waters are crystallized in
single-effect, batch type evaporators called vacuum pans. Several pans
are used exclusively fcr ccmmercial granulated sugar and the resulting
syrups are boiled in ether pans, as shown in Figure 4. Calandria pans
are commonly used and are similar to the calandria evaporator described
above except that the pans have larger diameters and shorter tubes in
order to handle the more concentrated liquid.
In order for sugar crystals to grow in a vacuum pan, the sugar solution
must be supersaturated. There are three phases of supersaturation in
sugar boiling; the metastable phase in which existing crystals grow but
new crystals do not form, the intermediate phase in which existing
crystals grow and new crystals do form, and the labile phase in which
new crystals form spontaneously without the presence of others. The
formation of new or "false" crystals is undesirable and the pan must be
maintained in that narrow range of sucrose concentration and temperature
which provides the metastable phase and allows the growth of seed
crystals. Automatic controls such as level, pressure, and viscosity
instrumentation for pan operation are used extensively in sugar
refining.
Since vacuum pans are essentially single-effect evaporators, each pan
must have a vacuum source and a condenser, as described above for
evaporators. Sugar entrainment is a potential problem, particularly
during start-ups or upsets, and various catchalls, centrifugal
separators, or baffle arrangements are used along with sucrose
monitoring (see Figure 7). In some cases a small surface condenser is
inserted between the pan and the barometric condenser to act as a heat
exchanger in order to heat process water. This also serves to reduce
sucrose entrainment.
After the formation of crystals in the pans, the massecuite content of
the pan—called a strike—is discharged into a mixer where it is gently
agitated, and then into high speed centrifugals where the crystals are
separated from the syrup. The crystals remaining in the centrifugals
are washed with hot water to remove remaining syrup, and the crystalline
sugar is discharged and sent to a combined dryer-cooler or to a dryer
followed by a cooler.
There are normally four straight refinery massecuites boiled in the
vacuum pans: filtered and evaporated first liquor and three remelt
24
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strikes derived from affination syrup, refinery run-off, soft sugar run-
offs, and excess sweet water. The first refinery strike is boiled from
first liquor, the second is boiled from first strike run-off, the third
refinery strike is boiled from second run-off and the fourth strike frcm
third run-off. The procedure of boiling second, third, and fourth
refinery massecuites is the same as for the first one. In a refinery
where only white sugar is produced, the last refinery strike run-off
(fourth) can be used in affination as a mingling syrup. Some refineries
use it to produce "soft sugars". It can be diluted and filtered through
bone char or granulated adsorbents, or treated with powdered activated
carbon and used again in boiling. The sugar recovered from the remelt
strikes is used for the production of additional refined sugar and well
exhausted refinery blackstrap molasses. From 10 to 15 percent of the
original solids in the melt are recycled through the remelt (or
recovery) stations.
Finishing
The dryer or granulator is usually a horizontal, rotating drum 1.5 to
2.4 meters (five to eight feet) in diameter and 7.6 to 11 meters (25 to
35 feet) long which receives steam heated air along with the sugar
crystals. It may consist of one or more drums in parallel. The granu-
lators remove most of the one percent moisture content to 0.02 percent
or less. In addition, the dryers serve to separate the crystals from
one another. After drying, the sugar goes to coolers, which are similar
drums without the heating elements.
Any lumps remaining in the sugar are then removed by fine screening.
Screening also accomplishes crystal size grading.
Eoth the granulating and screening processes produce considerable
amounts of dust. Wet dust collectors are commonly used to collect this
dust and the resulting sugar solution is collected as sweet water.
The finished crystalline sugar is transported to conditioning silos and
then ultimately to packaging or bulk shipment. In the larger granulated
sugar refineries it is not uncommon to produce liquid sugar by melting
granulated sugars and then decolorizing the solution with powdered
activated carbon; the resulting solution is then filtered and cooled
before being sent to storage as liquid sucrose. It may also be inverted
to either 100 percent, 50 percent or any other degree of inversion and
stored separately from liquid sucrose in stainless steel clad tanks
provided with ultra-violet lamps and air circulation filters for
sterilization purposes.
Liquid Suqar^Production
As noted in Table 3, there are four refineries in the United States that
produce liquid sugar exclusively as a final product and two that produce
large portions of liquid as well as crystalline sugar. Most of the re-
25
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maining twenty-two produce some liquid sugar by melting granulated
sugar.
As shown in Figure 8, the initial refining steps of affination, decolor-
ization, and even evaporation in a liquid sugar refinery are essentially
the same as in a crystalline sugar refinery. The primary difference
occurs in the fact that liquid sugar refineries do not recrystallize
their primary product. While this preempts the necessity of using
vacuum pans to effect crystal formation and growth in the case of the
primary product, nevertheless, all but two liquid refineries use vacuum
pans for the crystallization of remelt sugars, producing molasses as a
by-product. The two liquid refineries that do not remelt use a highly
pure raw material. The production of liquid sugar is essentially a
concentration and decolorization of the melted raw sugar solution.
Because crystal formation is not a part of primary liquid sugar
production, considerably less condenser water and process steam is
required. This results in substantially less water usage to process the
same quantity of raw cane sugar into liquid sugar than that required to
process it into crystalline sugar. This is further discussed in Section
V. After evaporation, the sugar solution is filtered and cooled and
then sent to storage as liquid sugar. It may also be inverted to a
specific degree and stored separately in stainless steel clad tanks
equipped with ultra-violet lamps and air circulation filters to insure
sterilization. The processes of filtration and inversion are the same
as those used in the formulation of liquid sugar by the melting of
crystalline sugar.
26
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Raw Sugar
I
AFFINATION
MELTING
Steam
Water
CLARIFICATION
FILTRATION
I
GRANULAR CARBON
ION EXCHANGE
Water
EVAPORATION
Carbon
FILTRATION
SWEET WATER
HOT WATER
Diatomaceous Earth
INVERSION
Refined Sugar
FIGURE 8
LIQUID SUGAR REFINING
27
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SECTION IV
INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION
In the development of effluent limitation guidelines and standards of
performance for the cane sugar refining industry, it was necessary to
determine whether significant differences exist which form a basis for
subcategorization of the industry. The objective of industry
subcategorization is to subdivide the industry in order that separate
effluent limitations and standards be established for such
subcategories. Several factors were considered significant with regard
to identifying potential subcategories in the cane sugar refining
industry. These factors included:
1) Raw material quality
2) Refinery size
3) Refinery age
H) Nature of water supply
5) Land availability
6) Process variation
After consideration of the above factors, the cane sugar refining
industry has been divided into two subcategories: liquid cane sugar
refining and crystalline cane sugar refining. The justification for
this subcategorization is presented below.
Raw Material Quality
All cane sugar refineries process raw sugar as produced by raw sugar
factories. An obvious point of inquiry in this regard is the source of
raw sugar—namely, imported versus domestic raw sugar. A significant
portion of raw sugar refined in the United States is imported from
Africa, Latin America, the Phillipine Islands, and Southeast Asia.
Depending upon the operation cf the factory, and to some extent upon the
conditions under which raw sugar is shipped and stored, raw sugar could
vary in impurity and moisture content. Investigations revealed that no
significant variation in raw sugar quality exists because of
specifications imposed by individual refineries.
The exceptions are two liquid refineries which impose higher than normal
standards for raw sugar purchases. One refinery purchases raw sugar
from selected Louisiana and Central America factories, while the other
purchases from selected Florida factories. The high quality of raw
sugar allows these two refineries to avoid remelting and preempts the
use of vacuum pans (as previously discussed in Section III,
Introduction). Neither of these refineries discharges waste water
directly to surface waters. One is located in an urban area and
discharges all waste to a municipal sewer; the other has a rural siting
28
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and has geographical conditions which allow for total impoundage of all
waste waters.
For the purpose of establishing national effluent limitations and
standards, these two refineries are considered to be exceptions to
general practices. They are therefore not applicable as examples of
best practicable or best available technologies because of the
nonavailability of this high-purity raw sugar to the refining industry
in general. For this reason, separate subcategorization based on raw
material quality is not required.
Pefingry^Sizg
As indicated in Section III, cane sugar refineries vary considerably in
size. The smallest operation is the Ponce Candy refinery, with a
refining capacity of 55 metric tons (60 tons) per day. The California &
Hawaiian refinery at Crockett, California, with a refining capacity of
3175 metric tons (3500 tons) per day, claims the distinction of being
the world's largest sugar refinery. Other large refineries are located
in the urbanized Northeast, in Savannah, Georgia, and in the New Orleans
area. The smaller refineries are generally those associated with sugar
factories.
It might be expected that larger refineries would have better operation
than smaller ones; however, in actual practice this is not always the
case. While data are more variable for small refineries, no evidence is
available which shows significant differences in process water usage
(See Section V). For the above reasons size is not regarded as a
technical element for subcategorization. Size is considered to be a
factor to be further studied for possible economic impact; for this
reason, cost estimates for control and treatment pertaining to typical
large and small refineries are included in Section VIII, Cost^ Energy^
and Non-Water Quality_ Aspects.
Refinery^Age
Cane sugar refineries vary considerably in age of structure; several of
the larger refineries currently operating were originally constructed in
the decades following the American Civil War, while others were con-
structed after the Second World War. On a basis of unit operations em-
ployed, all refineries have undergone a process of continuous moderniza-
tion. The age of the walls of a refinery is no indication of the age of
the processing equipment within the walls. No definitive subcategoriza-
tion on the basis of age can be established. This conclusion is further
substantiated in that one of the oldest refineries has been determined
to be exemplary in terms of inplant controls and practices and raw waste
characteristics.
29
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Nature^gf Water Supply
The quantity and quality of fresh water supplies utilized by refineries
were originally considered to be possible elements for industry
subcategorization because of potential prohibitive factors that could be
encountered in control and treatment. Water used for process or boiler
water must be of highest quality; if a high quality source of water is
unavailable, a refinery must provide treatment. However, the quality of
water used as condenser cooling water is unimportant; it was observed to
vary from municipal water to sea water. Typically, refineries use a low
quality surface water as barometric condenser cooling water.
The major importance of the gross characteristics of condenser water is
that with a high quality intake, the discharge (which essentially has no
net pollution except for temperature and entrained sucrose) can be
reused in the refining process. Thus a major waste water stream,
condenser cooling water, can be significantly reduced or, depending on
the relative volumes, virtually eliminated. One refinery accomplishes
this by utilizing municipal water as the source for condenser cooling
water. It is a liquid refinery which does not use vacuum pans, for
reasons discussed above and in Section III, and thus has a relatively
low volume of condenser water. More typically, due to the volumes
required and based on present practices, refineries utilize available
surface waters as condenser cooling water, regardless of quality.
Land availability was originally considered as a possible element for
subcategorization because of the potential economic advantages and
technical feasibility of waste water treatment and retention by
lagooning, land disposal, and impoundage (see Section VII, Control and
Treatment Technology) . Land availability has been defined as the
ownership or potential ownership of land, or the use or potential use of
land owned by others with the owner's permission, with such land being
of sufficient quantity to provide treatment of waste water by lagooning,
land disposal, or impoundage, and with the stipulation that the economic
value of the land does not prohibit its use in such manner. For a
number of large refineries in urban areas, the nonavailability of land
must further be defined as the lack of sufficient space for industrial
waste water treatment facilities. However, these refineries presently
have access to municipal treatment systems, to which they discharge
their process waste water.
It was determined that relatively little of the sugar refining industry
has available land. Forty-five percent of the refinery installations
may be considered to be rurally located, but these represent only about
25 percent of the industry on a production basis. Land and excavation
costs for total impoundage of waste waters make this treatment
alternative prohibitive for the industry as a whole. The option exists,
however, with a proper choice of site location based on a careful
30
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consideration of geographical and climatic conditions, for new sources
to utilize the availability of land in eliminating discharge to
navigable waters. For the purpose of establishing uniform national
effluent limitations guidelines and standards land availability is not
regarded as a technical element necessitating subcategorization.
Prgcess_yariation
While the production of refined sugar from raw sugar involves similar
operational principles in any refinery, in practice considerable process
variation can occur. These variations may be caused by the end product
desired or by the attitude of refinery management.
The only process variation which produces significant differences with
regard to waste water generation is that which produces liquid versus
crystalline sugar (discussed previously in Section III) . Due to the
reduced amount of recrystallization necessary in liquid refining,
crystalline refineries discharge almost twice as much water (on a unit
basis) as liquid refineries. In terms of BOD5 loading, liquid
refineries produce approximately two times as much BOD5 (on a unit
basis) as crystalline refineries. This will be further discussed in
Section V, Water Use and_ Wgste Characterization.
Another process difference which has to be considered as a potential
element for subcategorization is the type of decolorization medium used
in the production of crystalline sugar—activated carbon versus bone
char. As is shown in Section V, no significant differences occur in
process water use as a result of utilization of bone char versus
activated carbon as the decolorization medium.
Because of significant differences in water usage and waste loadings the
cane sugar refining industry has been divided into two subcategories:
liquid cane sugar refining and crystalline cane sugar refining. Within
the liquid sugar subcategory there are four refineries which produce
exclusively liquid sugar and two refineries which produce liquid in
addition to crystalline sugar. These refineries account for over twenty
percent of total sugar production. The remainder of the twenty-eight
refineries produce crystalline sugar as their primary product.
31
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SECTION V
WATER USE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
SPECIFIC,WATER USES - CANE SUGAR REFINERIES
Figure 9 shows a schematic diagram of water usage and waste water flows
in a typical liquid sugar refinery and Figure 10 presents one for a
typical crystalline refinery. The major inplant water uses include:
Barometric condenser cooling water
Filter cake slurry
Char wash
Floor wash water
Carton slurries
Eoiler makeup
Truck and car wash
Affination water
Ion-exchange regeneration
Water use varies widely among cane sugar refineries due to variations in
process, water reuse, and conservation techniques. As shown in Table 5,
the amount of fresh water used in refineries varies from 10.5 to 64.2
cubic meters per metric ton (2,520 to 15,400 gallons per ton) of raw
melted. The average water usage in liquid sugar refineries is
approximately 18.1 cubic meters per metric ton (4,350 gallons per ton),
while the average for crystalline refineries is appxoximately 38.2 cubic
meters per metric ton (9,160 gallons per ton). Combination
crystalline-liquid cane sugar refineries use approximately 35.2 cubic
meters per metric ton (8,450 gallons per ton).
Water balances for a liquid and a crystalline refinery are shown in
Figures 11 and 12, respectively. Negligible water enters a sugar
refinery from raw material. High quality fresh water enters the liquid
refinery illustrated at a rate of 1.67 cubic meters per metric ton of
raw sugar (400 gallons per ton) and is used for all process purposes
other than cooling water. Cooling water is used for the barometric
condensers at a rate of 20.9 cubic meters per metric ton (5,000 gallons
per ton) of raw sugar melted, and the source of this water is typically
the nearest body of surface water. Raw water in the crystalline
refinery shown is used at a rate of 45.1 cubic meters per metric ton
(10,800 gallons per ton) of raw sugar melted; 3.38 cubic meters (810
gallons) of this is high quality water used for various purposes while
41.7 cubic meters (10,000 gallons) is low quality surface water used as
barometric condenser cooling water.
In general, cane sugar refineries are more sophisticated in waste water
control techniques than are sugar factories (and more conscious of sugar
losses); however, current practices for water reuse are generally
32
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RAW SUGAR
WATER
STEAM
WATER
CARBON
WATER
REMELT SUGAR
EXCESS SWEET WATER
CONDENSATE TO BOILER FEED OR OTHER USE
MOLASSES
REFINED LIQUID
SUGAR
TO BOILER
FEED OR
OTHER USE
WATER STEAM
TO SWEET WATER
FIGURE 9
WASTEWATER FLOW DIAGRAM FOR A LIQUID SUGAR REFINERY
33
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MOLASSES
FIGURE 10
WASTEWATER FLOW DIAGRAM FOR A CRYSTALLINE REFINERY
34
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TABLE 5
UNIT WATER* INTAKE AND WASTE WATER DISCHARGES
CANE SUGAR REFINERIES
Refinery
C-l
C-2
C-3
C-4
C-5
C-6
C-7
C-8
C-9
C-ll
C-12
C-14
L-l
L-2
L-3
L-4
Intake Discharge
48.5 48.5
16.8 16.8
42.9
44.6
45.2 43.8
42.4
25.8 25.8
64.2
38.1
25.0
63.1
3.322
10.5 10.5
16.0 16.0
16.0
30.0
Condenser
Water
44.9
16.1
43.2
42.5
40.6
24.4
62.8
34.1
24.4
61.71
23.5
8.0
16.0
14.1
26.9
Process
Water
3.6
0.7
1.4
1.3
1.8
1.4
1.4
4.0
0.6
1.4
2.7
1.9
3.1
Decolorization
Wash
0.66
0.54
0.84
0.22
* All values expressed as cubic meters per kkg of melt.
1 Based on pump capacity, not on actual measured flows.
2 Has a recycle system for barometric condenser cooling
water resulting in a reduction in water discharged.
35
-------
TABLE 5
( CONTINUED )
UNIT WATER* INTAKE AND WASTE WATER DISCHARGES
CANE SUGAR REFINERIES
Refinery Intake Discharge
CL-1 22.5
CL-2 47.9 47.9
CF-1
CF-2
CF-3
CF-4
Condenser
Water
21.3
47.1
91. 33
45.0
68. 65
72. 06
Process
Water
1.2
0.8
1.0
8.6*
2.2
1.4
Decolorization
Wash
* All values expressed as cubic meters per kkg of melt.
3 Based on vacuum pan capacity, not on actual measured flows.
4 Includes substantial water usage as a result of factory operations
(i.e. continuous water spray of bagasse pile). Maximum discharge
as a result of refinery operation alone approximated at 3.0 m^/kkg
of melt.
5 Based on pump capacity, not on actual measured flows.
6 Based on maximum barometric condenser capacity; a greater than 50%
overflow occurs over, pumping capacity of 86.9 m^/kkg of melt making
43.5 m3/kkg of melt the upper limit of actual barometric condenser
cooling water flow.
36
-------
EVAPORATOR
CONDENSERS
10.45 m3/kkg
FILTER WASH
.313 m3/kkg
CARBON COLUMN
.0835 m3/kkg
DISCHARGE
20.9 m3/kkg
FILTER WATER
DISCHARGE
1.67 m3/'kkg
VACUUM PAN
CONDENSER-
10.^5 m3/kkg
ION EXCHANGE
1.25 m3/kkq
FLOOR WASH
.0209 m3/kkg
FIGURE 11
WATER BALANCE IN A LIQUID SUGAR REFINERY
37
-------
SURFACE WATER
(10,000) 41.7
Values in M3/kkg of melt
Parenthetical values in gallons/ ton of melt
EVAPORATOR CONDENSER
(3.300) 13.8
VACUUM PAN CONDENSER
(6.700) 27.9
SAND FILTER BACKWASH
(90) 0.38
CHAR WASH WATER
(250) 1.04
MISCELLANEOUS
(10) 0.04
TRUCK OR CAR WASH AND FLOOR
DRAIN (15) 0.06
VACUUM PAN WASHOUT
(45) 0.19
BOILER FEED WATER (SLOWDOWN)
(20) 0.08
COIL AND HEATER
(7) 0.03
MISCELLANEOUS COOLING
(373) 1.56
FRESH WATER
(810) 3.38
(10,000)
(350)
(60) 0.25^
(20) 0.08
(380)
I TOTAL DISCHARGE
(10.810) 45.1
FIGURE 12
WATER BALANCE FOR A CRYSTALLINE SUGAR REFINERY
38
-------
limited to recovery of high purity sweetwaters for their sucrose content
and reuse of condensates for boiler feed water and other purposes.
Obviously, the factor most affecting total water usage is process
variation. As indicated above, crystalline refineries with their
requirements for large volumes of barometric condenser cooling water use
60 percent more raw water than liquid refineries. The extremes of this
situation may be illustrated by Refinery L-l which employs no
recrystallization in its manufacture of liquid sugar as compared to
Refinery C-8 which produces strictly crystalline sugar. The crystalline
refinery in this case uses over 600 percent more raw water.
Of all factors affecting water use, one of the most influential is the
availability of land for disposal, or conversely, the cost of sewer sur-
charges. For example. Refineries C-l, C-2, O4, C-5, C-9, and C-14 dis-
charge process wastes to municipal sewers and average 36.6 cubic meters
of water usage per metric ton (8,600 gallons per ton) of melt, while
Refinery C-3 which does not discharge to municipal sewers, averages 42.9
cubic meters per metric ton (10,300 gallons per ton)of melt. Refineries
L-l and L-4 employ very similar processes but the former discharges all
waste waters to municipal sewers, while the latter uses total
impoundage. The difference in water usage is a factor of one to three.
Char_Wash
Forty-eight percent of all refineries use bone char for decolorization,
and these refineries include all of the largest refineries. Tables 6
and 7 give a breakdown of the type of/decolorization medium used by each
of the 29 refineries currently in operation. The waste water produced
by the washing of char is a major waste stream in bone char refineries.
The amount of water used for char washing appears to be more dependent
on the opinion of the operator than on any other factor. This is
dictated by the fact that in almost all aspects, the use of bone char is
more art than science.
The unit flew of char wash water varies from about 0.22 to approximately
0.84 cubic meters per metric ton (53 to 200 gallons per ton) of raw
sugar melted. The typical flow would appear to be about 0.6 cubic
meters per metric ton (144 gallons per ton).
Other Process Wastes
A non-char refinery, whether crystalline or liquid, uses granular or
powdered activated carbon and possibly a combination of carbon and ion-
exchange to effect color removal. The major process wastes in a carbon
refinery consist of carbon wash water (and in some cases carbon slurry),
and possibly ion-exchange regeneration. For liquid refineries, the
total process water discharge (total waste water discharge less
39
-------
TABLE 6
DECOLORIZATION MEDIA USED BY EACH CANE SUGAR
REFINERY CURRENTLY OPERATING
Decolorizatlon Media
Refinery
C-l
C-2
C-3
C-4
C-5
C-6
C-7
C-8
C-9
C-10
C-ll
C-12
C-13
C-14
l-l
1-2
1-3
L-4
L-5
CL-1
CL-2
CF-1
CF-2
CF-3
CF-4
CF-5
CF-6
CF-7
CF-8
Bone
Char
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Activated
Carbon
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Activated Carbon Bone Char, Carbon,
plus Ion-Exchange and Ion-Exchange
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
40
-------
TABLE 7
SUMMARY OF TYPES OF DECOLORIZATION MEDIA
USED BY CANE SUGAR REFINERS
Decolorization Media
Ref i nery
Type
Crystalline
Liquid
Bone
Char
13
0
Activated
Carbon
8
0
Activated Carbon
plus lon-Exchanqe
1
5
Bone Char, Carbon,
and Ion-Exchange
0
0
Crysta nine-
Li quid
Total
13
41
-------
barometric condenser cooling water) averages approximately 2.5 cubic
meters per metric ton (600 gallons per ton) of raw sugar melted.
A major factor considered in the subcategorization of the cane sugar
refining segment is the potential difference in process water discharge
due to the use of activated carbon versus bone char as the
decolorization medium in the production of crystalline cane sugar. A
substantial difference in discharge flow would mean a substantial cost
difference associated with the treatment of this waste water stream.
The average process water discharge for all crystalline refineries is
1.86 cubic meters per metric ton (450 gallons per ton) of melt. The
average process water discharge fcr all crystalline refineries utilizing
bone char as the decolorization medium is 1.90 cubic meters per metric
ton (455 gallons per ton) of melt, while for those using activated
carbon is 1.78 cubic meters per metric ton (430 gallons per ton) of
melt. This amounts to a difference of 6.5% more process water
discharged by crystalline bcne char refineries. The average process
water discharge by the better crystalline refineries is 1.18 cubic
meters per metric ton (283 gallons per ton) of melt. The average
process water discharge by the better crystalline bone char refineries
is 1.15 cubic meters per metric ton (276 gallons per ton) of melt, while
for the better refineries using activated carbon is 1.23 cubic meters
per metric ton (295 gallons per ton) of melt. This amounts to a
difference of 6.8% more process water discharged by the better
crystalline activated carbon refineries. (See Tables 8 and 9). It has
been determined from this analysis that no significant difference exists
in the process water discharge of crystalline bone char versus activated
carbon refineries.
Another factor considered was the difference in process water discharge
versus size for crystalline cane sugar refineries. As shown in Figure
13, no correlation exists between process water discharge and size of
the refinery.
Miscellaneous Water Uses_and_Waste_Streams
Water is used for a number of purposes in a cane sugar refinery in addi-
tion to those previously discussed. Fortunately, most of the waste
streams produced can be recovered as low purity sweet water. In a well
operated refinery essentially all floor drainage is recovered. Conden-
sates produced by the condensation of vapors in all but the last effect
of multiple-effect evaporators are used for boiler feed water and other
purposes in the refinery.
Sludges, scums, and filter cakes have in some' past instances been slur-
ried and discharged to streams. Current practice is to either impound
these slurries after desweetening or to handle them dry and provide land
disposal.
42
-------
TABLE 8
PROCESS WATER DISCHARGE FOR CRYSTALLINE
CANE SUGAR REFINING ( ALL REFINERIES )
Type of Number in
Refinery Study
Crystalline ( All )
Bone Char
Activated Carbon
15
10
5
Average Process
Water Discharge
( m^/kkg of melt )
1.86
1.90
1.78
Range
( nvVkkg of melt )
0.6
0.6
1.0
- 4.0
- 4.0
- 3.0
Difference = 1.90 - 1.78 = 6.5%
1.86
43
-------
TABLE 9
PROCESS WATER DISCHARGE FOR CRYSTALLINE
CANE SUGAR REFINING ( AVERAGE OF THE BEST )
Type of
Refinery
Crystalline
( Best )
Bone Char
Activated Carbon
Number in
Study
9
6
3
Average Process
Water Discharge
( nr/kkg of melt )
1.18
1.15
1.23
Range
( m3/kkg of
0.6 -
0.6 -
1.0 -
melt )
1.4
1.4
1.4
Difference = 1.23 - 1.15 = 6.8%
1.18
44
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Minor waste streams may include boiler blowdown, cooling tower blowdcwn,
water treatment sludges, and various wash waters. These are highly
variable and minor in individual volume, but may be significant in terms
of total pollution load, particularly in a poorly operated refinery.
Barometric Condenser Cooling Water
The major waste water stream in any refinery, in terms of volume, is
barometric condenser cooling water produced by contact condensation of
vapors from the last effect of multiple-effect evaporators and from
vacuum pans. The amount of condenser water used on a unit basis in a
refinery varies with the availability of water, the extent of automation
in the control of operations, and the thermodynamic relationship between
the intake water and the vapors to be condensed; i.e., the higher the
temperature of condenser water influent, the larger the volume of
cooling water required for vapor condensation.
From the most reliable of data available, the average once^through flow
of condenser water for refineries of all categories is nearly 31.5 cubic
meters per metric ton (7,550 gallons per ton) of raw sugar melted. For
liquid sugar refineries the average is nearer 16.3 cubic meters per
metric ton (3,900 gallons per ton) of raw sugar melted, while for
crystalline refineries the average is nearly 36.5 cubic meters per
metric ton (8,750 gallons per ton) of melt.
Recirculation of barometric condenser cooling water is practiced by
several refineries; this technique of reduction of the discharge waste
water stream is further discussed in Section VII, Control and Treatment
Technology.
VvASTE WATER CHARACTERISTICS—CANE SUGAR REFINERIES
The characteristics of the total waste water effluent from a cane sugar
refinery vary widely, depending upon the characteristics of the
individual waste stream as described below. However, the following
major total raw waste streams can be identified:
1. The waste water produced by a crystalline sugar refinery
using bone char for decolorization. The majority of
waste stream components are char wash water which
is a part of the process water stream, condenser
cooling water.
2. The waste water produced by a crystalline sugar refinery
using carbon for decolorization. The major waste streams
from this type of refinery are barometric condenser
cooling water and process water, including ion-exchange
regeneration solutions and carbon slurries.
3. The waste water produced by a liquid sugar refinery em-
46
-------
ploying affination and remelt and, therefore, using
vacuum pans. The discharge from this refinery is simi-
lar to that from the carbon crystalline refinery except
that the flow of condenser water is less.
4. The waste waters produced by a liquid refinery which does
not use affination, does not remelt, and therefore, dees
not use vacuum pans. The discharge from this refinery
is similar to the discharge from number three except that
the barometric condenser flow is less.
5. The waste waters produced by a refinery which produces
both liquid and crystalline sugar by separate processes.
The discharge is a combination of numbers two and three.
Barometric Condenser Cooling^Water
Theoretically, barometric condenser cooling water should carry net
values of only two constituents—sucrose and heat. The sucrose is
obtained from entrainment in last-effect evaporators and vacuum pans and
heat is a result of heat-exchange between the barometric condenser
cooling water and vapors. In terms of waste water characteristics,
sucrose appears in condenser water as BOD5, COD, and dissolved solids.
In practice, as indicated in Tables 10 and 11, relatively small
concentrations of other constituents appear. In some cases these
probably appear as a result of analytical error and in other cases
because of contamination of the condenser water by unknown waste
streams.
The chemical composition of barometric condenser cooling water from a
particular refinery is highly variable because of variable operational
parameters as well as factors in the design of evaporators and vacuum
pans. The characteristics are similar to those from a raw sugar factory
and do not significantly vary according to process differences. The
BOD5 concentrations vary from 4 mg/1 to 39 mg/1 and the BOD^ loadings
from 0.07 to 1.8 kilograms per metric ton (0.13 to 3.6 pounds per ton)
of melt.
Tables 10 and 11 indicate that the volume of barometric condenser
cooling water from liquid refineries is less than that from crystalline;
however, the BOD5 concentrations are higher. It is estimated that the
average crystalline refinery discharges barometric condenser cooling
water with a BOD5 concentration of about 12 mg/1 and a flow of 36.5
cubic meters per metric ton (8,750 gallons per ton) of melt, while that
from a liquid refinery has a BOD5 concentration of approximately 19 mg/1
and a flow of 16.3 cubic meters per metric ton (3,900 gallons per ton).
The BOD5 loadings for all refineries are generally between 0.15 and 1.0
kilograms per metric ton (0.3 and 2.0 pounds per ton) of melt.
47
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Adsorbents
Commercial adsorbents play an important role in the sugar refining
process. While a large portion of the original impurities in the raw
sugar is removed during defecation and clarification, there are con-
siderable amounts of colloidal and dissolved impurities that yield only
to adsorbent action.
Impurities that are removed by adsorbents may be classified (2) into
three types: (1) colloidal material, (2) color-forming compounds, and
(3) inorganic constituents.
Although a large number of adsorbents could theoretically be used in
sugar refining, only a few are in current use. These include:
1) Bone char
2) Ion-exchange resins, mixed media
3) Ion-exchange resins, specific media
U) Granular activated carbon
5) Powdered activated carbon
Bone char is used in most of the larger sugar refineries in the United
States and accounts for approximately 69 percent of all American sugar
refining. Bone char is effective in the removal of both inorganic
materials (ash) and organic impurities (colorants), and the resulting
char wash waters have high concentrations of both ash and colorants.
Since the subsequent char kiln does not affect the ash content in the
char, and since ash buildup in the char leads to decreased char effi-
ciency, considerable attention is given by refiners to the char washing
operation. The basic philosophy is that it is better to use too much
water than not enough.
As mentioned in Section III, the first portion of the char wash water is
recycled for sucrose recovery. The limiting factors on the amount of
char wash recycled are: (1) Sucrose concentrations in the wash water
decrease with washing time and eventually reach the point where recovery
is impractical; and (2) Ash concentrations in the wash water increase as
the sucrose concentrations decrease.
The spent char wash waters have BOD5 concentrations ranging from 500 to
2,000 mg/1 and dissolved solids concentrations ranging from 1,000 to
3,000 mg/1 (see Tables 12 and 13). The BOD5 loading from bone char
washing is between 0.15 and 1.7 kilograms per metric ton (0.3 and 3.4
pounds per ton) of raw sugar melted.
Ion-exchange is an effective remover of color as well as ash and is
utilized as the decolorization medium in liquid and combination liquid-
crystalline refineries. The waste characteristics resulting from the
regeneration of an ion-exchange bed are greatly dependent on the
particular use of that bed. Ion-exchange is often used in combination
with carbon columns, and in these cases the usual practice is to remove
organics with the carbon column and then use ion-exchange as a final
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polishing to remove inorganics. The inorganics of concern include
anions as well as cations; for such removal, a "monobed" consisting of
both cationic and anionic exchangers is often used. The cation-
exchanger can also be used as a polishing step. Most of the organic
material found in the sugar liquor is anionic, so that a strongly acidic
anion-exchanger (cationic resin) can be used to remove color.
Regeneration of ion-exchange beds usually results in a higher volume of
non-recoverable water than those from carbon columns and bone char. If
the ion-exchange bed is used primarily as an organic color remover
rather than as a final polishing and inorganic remover, the wash waters
have higher concentrations of organic carbon and correspondingly higher
BOD5 concentrations. The BOD5 loading from a liquid refinery using
carbon columns for organic color removal as well as for inorganic
removal is approximately 2.9 kilograms per metric ton (5.8 pounds per
ton) of melt. No analyses from ion-exchange beds used only for
inorganic removal have been made, but it appears that the BOD5_ loading
is higher than from bone char and granular carbon and considerably lower
than from ion-exchange used for organic carbon removal.
Granular carbon is strictly an organic carbon remover and is, therefore,
a color remover. The regeneration of granular carbon requires sweeten-
ing off with water and heating of the carbon to volatilize organic
material, thereby reactivating the surface. Most of the wash water
which results from sweetening off a carbon column can be recovered for
process because of its sucrose content. A certain amount of water is
usually wasted because of low purity. While very little information on
the characteristics of this water is available, samples were collected
from one liquid sugar refinery. In this refinery a flow of 0.08 cubic
meters per metric ton (19.2 gallons per ton) of melt was wasted and the
resulting EOD5 loading was approximately 0.1 kilograms per metric ton
(0.2 pounds per ton) of melt.
Miscellaneous Waste Streams
In addition to the waste water resulting from condensers and adsorbent
regeneration, there are a number of minor waste streams generated in a
cane sugar refinery. These include: floor washings, filter washings,
truck and car washings, and boiler blowdown.
The flows associated with these waste streams are highly variable and in
some cases can be eliminated by reducing the volume of water used. This
results in a waste stream of higher sucrose concentration which can be
recycled back into the process. Table m indicates characteristics of
some of the filter wash waters.
Tables 15 and 16 list waste water characteristics in terms of concen-
trations and loadings from crystalline, liquid, and combination
crystalline-liquid refineries. It is apparent that in terms of unit
52
-------
TABLE 14
WASTE WATER GHARACTERISTICS OF LIQUID SUGAR REFINERIES
Characteristic
BOD5_, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TS, mg/1
DS, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
pH
NH3 -N, mg/1
KN, mg/1
N03_ -N, mg/1
TP, mg/1
Total Coliform
per 100 ml
Fecal Coliform
per 100 ml
Filter
Cake Slurry
735(3
2,120(3
3,880(3
1,430(3
2,360(3
6.3(3
0.32(3
12.2 (3
75.8 (3
Truck &
Car Wash
17,250(1,3
40,300(1,3
6,530(1,3
6,480(1,3
50(1,3
7.2(1,3
3.04(1,3
0.49(1,3
1.80(1
0.60(3
240(1
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Figures 14 and 15 are illustrations of the estimated flow and loadings
for the process water and barometric condenser cooling water, and total
discharge streams for the average crystalline and liquid cane sugar
refineries, respectively.
53
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organic loadings, liquid sugar refineries have higher loadings than do
crystalline refineries. This is apparently due to the high organic
levels produced in the waste waters resulting from ion-exchange re-
generation (all of the liguid sugar installations listed use, ion-
exchange as an integral part of their process) and to the extent of
recrystallization and subsequent remelt practiced by these refineries.
An extreme example of this is Refinery L-l, which has the highest waste
loading of all refineries listed. It is important to note that this
refinery does not remelt sugar (i.e., produces no molasses) and some
impurities that would otherwise be contained in molasses must leave the
refinery in its waste water. This principle is true to a lesser extent
for other liquid and liquid-crystalline refineries that remelt to
varying degrees. Refinery L-3f for example, does not remelt sugar in
its primary product line but must recrystallize in a side product line
(refer to Figure 9) to effect recovery of additional sugar and molasses
by-product. This refinery still produces a BOD5 loading of 3.70
kilograms per metric ton (7.40 pounds per ton) of raw sugar melted. The
impact of ion-exchange on the BOD5 loading from a refinery is
illustrated by the fact that 77 percent of the total BOD5 loading at the
latter refinery is due to ion-exchange regeneration waste water.
Figures 11 and 15 are illustrations of the estimated flow and loadings
for the process water and barometric condenser cooling water, and total
discharge streams for the average crystalline and liquid cane sugar
refineries, respectively.
56
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Barometric Condenser
Cooling Water
BOD5 0.44 kg/kkg
(0.88 Ib/ton)
Flow:
36.5 m3/kkg
(8750 gal/ton)
Process Water
BOD5 1.10 kg/kkg (2.20 Ib/ton)
TSS 2.17 kg/kkg (4.34 Ib/ton)
Flow:
1.86m3/kkg
(450 gal/ton)
Flow:
38.4 m3/kkg
(9200 gal/ton)
Discharge
BOD5 1.54 kg/kkg (3.08 Ib/ton)
TSS 2.17 kg/kkg (4.34 Ib/ton)
Figure 14
RAW WASTE LOADINGS AND WATER USAGE FOR THE
AVERAGE CRYSTALLINE CANE SUGAR REFINERY
57
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Barometric Condenser
Cooling Water
BOD5 0.31 kg/kkg
(0.62 Ib/ton)
Flow:
16.3m3/kkg
(3900 gal/ton)
Process Water
BOD5 3.36 kg/kkg (6.72 Ib/ton)
TSS 5.58 kg/kkg (11.16 Ib/ton)
Flow:
2.5 m3/kkg
(600 gal/ton)
Flow.
18.8 m3/kkg
(4500 gal/ton)
Discharge
BOD5 3.67 kg/kkg (7.34 Ib/ton)
TSS 5.58 kg/kkg (11.16 Ib/ton)
Figure 15
RAW WASTE LOADINGS AND WATER USAGE FOR THE
AVERAGE LIQUID CANE SUGAR REFINERY
58
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SECTION VI
SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
Major waste water parameters of pollutional significance for the cane
sugar refining segment include BOD (5-day, 20° Centigrade) , suspended
solids, and pH. Additional parameters of significance include COD,
temperature, sucrose, alkalinity, total coliforms, fecal colifcrms,
total dissolved solids, and nutrients (forms of nitrogen and
phosphorus) . On the basis of all evidence reviewed, there do not exist
any purely hazardous or toxic pollutants (e.g., heavy metals,
pesticides) in wastes discharged from cane sugar refineries.
When land disposal of waste water is practiced, contribution to ground
pollution must be prevented. If deep well injection is used, all prac-
tices must be in accordance with the Environmental Protection Agency's
"Policy on Subsurface Emplacement of Fluids by Well Injection" with
accompanying "Recommended Data Requirements for Environmental Evaluation
of Subsurface Emplacement of Fluids by Well Injection" (6) .
MAJOR WASTE WATER CONTROL PARAMETERS
The following selected parameters are determined to be the most
important characteristics of cane sugar refining wastes. Data collected
during the preparation of this document was limited in most cases to
these parameters. Nevertheless, the use of these parameters adequately
describes the waste water characteristics of the refining industry. BOD
(5-day) , suspended solids, and pH are the parameters selected for
effluent limitations guidelines and standards of performance for new
sources.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a semi-quantitative measure of the
biologically degradable organic matter in a waste water. For this
reason, in waste water treatment, it is commonly used as a measure of
treatment efficiency. It is a particularly applicable parameter for the
sugar industry since sucrose is highly biodegradable. It is significant
to ground water pollution control in that it is possible for
biodegradable organics to seep into ground water from earthen settling
or impounding basins.
The primary disadvantage of the BOD test is the time period required for
analysis (five days is normal) and the considerable amount of care that
must be taken to obtain valid results.
Typical BOD5 levels in both crystalline and liquid cane sugar refining
are quite high, ranging from several hundred to several thousand mg/1
59
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for certain waste streams. Discharge of such wastes to surface waters
can result in oxygen depletion and damage to aquatic life.
Suspended^Sglids
Suspended solids serve as a parameter for measuring the efficiency of
waste water treatment facilities and for the design of such facilities.
In sugar waste waters, most suspended solids are inorganic in nature,
originating from process flows such as char wash and carbon slurries in
refineries. Condenser water is essentially free of net suspended
solids.
El
pH is an important criterion for in-process quality control, odor
control, and bacterial growth retardation. Highly acidic or caustic
solutions can be harmful to aquatic environments.
ADDITONAL PARAMETERS
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Under the proper conditions, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) test can
be used as an alternative to the BOD test. The COD test is widely used
as a means of measuring the total amount of oxygen required for
oxidation of organics to carbon dioxide and water by the action of a
strong oxidizing agent under acid conditions. It differs from the BOD
test in that it is independent of biological assimilability. The major
disadvantage of the COD test is that it does not distinguish between
biologically active and inert organics. The major advantage is that it
can be conducted in a short period of time, or continuously in automatic
analyzers. In many instances, COD data can be correlated to BOD data
and the COD test can then be used as a substitute for the BOD test.
Considerable difficulties occur with the COD test in the presence of
chlorides, and it must be noted that condenser cooling water in a number
of refineries consists of brackish water.
No definitive relationship between BOD (5-day) and COD can be
established at the present time. Therefore, it was concluded that
effluent limitations guidelines and standards of performance could not
be established for COD.
Bacteriological Characteristics
No bacteriological problems are present in the refined sugar product
from a cane sugar refinery due to the fact that any bacteria present in
the product prior to evaporation are destroyed in the evaporation
process. There is no introduction of microorganisms in the refining
process.
60
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Temperature
The temperatures of waste waters discharged from cane sugar refineries
can present a problem in the case of barometric condenser cooling water
and other miscellaneous cooling waters. These streams are normally
discharged at temperatures in the range of 16° to 43°C (60° to 110°F),
but may in some instances be as high as 63°C (145°F). The discharge of
these heated waters, with inadequate dilution, may result in serious
consequences to aquatic environments.
Alkalinity
Alkalinity in water is a measure of hydroxide, carbonate and bicarbonate
ions. Its primary significance in water chemistry is its indication of
a water's capacity to neutralize acidic solutions. In high
concentrations, alkalinity can cause problems in water treatment
facilities.
Nutrients
Forms of nitrogen and phosphorus act as nutrients for growth of
aquatic organisms and can lead to advanced eutrophication in surface
water bodies. In water supplies, nitrate nitrogen in excessive
concentrations can cause methemoglobinemia in human infants and for this
reason has been limited by the United States Public Health Service to
ten milligrams per liter, as nitrogen, in public water supplies (7).
Ammonia nitrogen may be entrained in barometric condenser cooling water
along with vapors. Under aerobic conditions it is oxidized to nitrite,
and ultimately to nitrate nitrogen. Phosphorus compounds are commonly
used to prevent scaling in boilers and orthophosphate may occur in
boiler blowdowns. The use of phosphate detergents for general cleaning
can contribute phosphates to total waste water discharges. When applied
to soil, phosphorus normally is fixed by minerals in the soil, and
movement to ground water is precluded.
Total_Digsolved Solids
Total dissolved solids may reach levels of 1,000 milligrams per liter in
refinery waste waters. In refinery condenser water, where entrained
sucrose causes dissolved solids, the concentration is typically 20
milligrams per liter. When land impoundage is used, the dissolved solids
concentrations in seepage may considerably exceed raw waste water
values.
The quantity of total dissolved solids in water is of little meaning
unless the nature of the solids is defined. In domestic water supplies,
dissolved solids are usually inorganic salts with small amounts of
dissolved organics. In sugar refinery effluents, dissolved solids are
more often organic in nature, originating from sucrose.
61
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Sugar Analysis
Analysis for sucrose content is important in process control as an indi-
cator of sugar loss. The two common tests used are the alphanapthol and
resorcinol methods. Neither of these methods provides high accuracy at
low sucrose concentrations, but they do serve a useful purpose by
indicating slug loads of sugar and thus provide a danger signal for
improper operation of evaporators or vacuum pans, or for spills of sugar
or molasses. Due to its inaccuracy at low levels and to the fact that
sugar content is measured by BOD, the sugar analysis is not an adequate
parameter for guidelines establishment.
62
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SECTION VII
CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
Current -technology for the control and treatment of cane sugar refinery
waste waters consists primarily of process control (recycling and reuse
of water, prevention of sucrose entrainment in barometric condenser
cooling water, recovery of sweet waters) , impoundage (land retention) ,
and disposal cf process wastes to municipal sewer systems.
The general scope of current technology, and the attitude of refiners,
is that the volume of process water is sufficiently low that it can be
handled by end-of-line treatment and disposal systems whereas the much
higher volume of barometric condenser cooling water makes it impractical
to treat. This position is illustrated by the fact that few refineries
release substantial amounts of process waters to receiving streams while
all but five refineries discharge barometric condenser cooling water to
surface water bodies.
Ht Control Measures and Techniques in the Cane Sucjar Refining
Industry In-plant control measures are essential in the total effort for
pollution control in cane sugar refineries. In-plant control refers to
the operational and design characteristics of the refinery and their im-
pact on total waste management. Specific elements are water utilization
and conservation, housekeeping techniques, and any operational or design
factors that affect waste water quantity and/or quality. A primary
portion of in-plant control is for the prevention of sugar loss and thus
is an extension of historical efforts. To the refiner the loss of sugar
in waste water represents lost money; to the environmentalist it is an
organic pollutant. Other measures of in-plant control include the
facilitation of dry-handling techniques for sludges and filter cakes,
maximum recovery and reuse of various process streams, and improved
housekeeping practices.
Raw Sucjar Handling. Raw sugar is normally delivered to refineries by
truck, rail car, barge, or ship. The unloading of the raw sugar at the
receiving area offers an opportunity for sugar spillage, and the
periodic washdown of the receiving area produces a variable waste stream
with a high sugar content. In one refinery visited, raw sugar conveyor
belts were routinely washed down and the resulting sugar solutions were
allowed to flow into a surface water body, carrying with them an
indeterminable amount of BOD5.
Most refineries recover floor washings in the receiving area to some
extent--some refineries almost in total. The practice in some re-
fineries is to recover as much spilled sugar as possible by sweeping,
then discharge subsequent rinse water to waste. A minimal effort at
sugar loss prevention through equipment modification and improved
housekeeping can essentially prevent the loss of sugar and its resulting
pollutant load from the raw sugar receiving area.
63
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Truck and Cay^Vjash. The tank trucks and rail tank cars that transport
liquid sugar and edible syrups must be maintained under sanitary con-
ditions. This normally involves cleaning of the tanks with steam and
water after each use. The first few minutes of washing produces a sweet
water that is of sufficient sucrose concentration to allow economical
recovery fcr processing. The sucrose concentration in the wash water
effluent after the first few minutes is considered by most refiners to
be too low for recovery and is wasted. This stream can be minimized by
maximizing recovery, but in any event the stream is small in volume and
a minor contribution tc total process waste water flow.
Since any bacteriological contamination to the raw sugar
syrup prior to evaporation is eliminated by evaporation, the recovery of
essentially all floor wash drains as sweet water is possible and is
practiced in some refineries.
Barometric Condenser Cooling Water. The development of calandria-type
vacuum pans and evaporators in the sugar industry has afforded increased
boiling rates, but at the same time the possibility of sucrose
entrainment in the barometric condenser water has increased. Sucrose
entrainment represents an economic loss to the refiners as well as an
organic pollutant load to the environment in the condenser water
effluent. All sugar refineries employ some means to reduce entrainment,
with the motive in the past being primarily an economic one.
Entrainment is a result of liquid droplets being carried out with water
vapors in evaporators and vacuum pans. There are three important fac-
tors which affect the efficiency of entrainment control:
(1) Height of the vapor belt (vapor height)
(2) Operation and maintenance
(3) Liquid^vapor separation devices
One of the most important factors in determining liquid carryover is the
height the liquid bubbles must rise before entering the relatively high
velocity area of the discharge tube. If the height of the vapor belt is
of sufficient magnitude, most liquid droplets will fall back into the
boiling liquor due to gravity and be removed from the vapor before
exiting the evaporator or vacuum pan. It has been found from experience
that the vapor height should be at least 250 percent of the height of
the calandria tubes to minimize entrainment. Vapor heights in the cane
sugar refining industry have been generally found to be more adequate
than those in raw sugar factories. However, when existing vapor heights
are insufficient, they can be increased by installing a spacer in
existing equipment. This has been done in several cases for the purpose
of increasing evaporation capacity, but entrainment reduction has been a
secondary result.
In addition to proper design, proper operation of the evaporators and
vacuum pans is essential in minimizing sucrose entrainment. It is
64
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WHITE SUGAR
VACUUM PANS
RFMPI T iND
SOFT VACUUM
PANS
TRIPLE EFFECT
EVAPORATOR
(A-LIQOUR)
QUAD EFFECT
EVAPORATOR
SWEET WATER
MISCELLANEOUS
EVAPORATOR
5252 Kg
F
183 Kg
752 Kg
F
819 Kg
R
43 Kg
ENTRAPMENT
SEPARATION
i
4838 Kg
RETURN TO PROCES
ENTRAINMENT
SEPARATION
i
58 Kg
RETURN TO PROCES
ENTRAINMENT
SEPARATION
I
701 Kg
ETURN TO PROCES!
ENTRAINMENT
SEPARATION
I
263 Kg
ETURN TO PROCES!
ENTRAINMENT
SEPARATION
414 Kg
S
125 Kg
S
51 Kg
556 Kg
13 Kg
RIVER WATER
I
CONDENSER
RIVER WATER
i
CONDENSER
RIVER WATER
i
CONDENSER
RIVER WATER
1
CONDENSER
RIVER WATER
CONDENSER
414 Kg
DISCHARGE
125 Kg
DISCHARGE
• 51 Kg
DISCHARGE
556 Kg
DISCHARGE
13 Kg
DISCHARGE
7
30 Kg
RETURN TO PROCESS
FIGURF 16
ENTRAINMENT REDUCTION
65
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important to maintain the liquid level in evaporators and vacuum pans
near the design level; in essence, if the liquid level is increased, the
vapor height is decreased. An important variable which must be
carefully controlled is the pressure inside the vessel. If the pressure
is suddenly decreased, flash evaporation is likely tc occur resulting in
an increase in boiling rate and liquid carryover. Automatic controls
are available for the operation of evaporators and pans and these have
been installed in a number of refineries. The typical refinery has
liquid level controllers on all evaporator bodies and absolute pressure
control on last bodies of multiple effects and on vacuum pans.
In addition tc proper design and operation, a number of devices can be
installed to separate liquid droplets from the vapors. Baffle
arrangements which operate on either centrifugal or impingement prin-
ciples are commonly used. The Serner separator (7), a type of baffle
arrangement, is used in several refineries. Figure 16 shows the ef-
fectiveness of Serner separators, used in conjunction with other baffles
and direction reversals, based on experience in a particular
installation. The total BOD5 reduction in this case is 84 percent.
Higher reductions are considered possible with careful design coupled
with proper operation.
Demisters have been found to be applicable to entrainment reduction in
certain cases. These devices, which consist basically of a wire mesh
screen serving the dual purpose of impingement and direction change,
were used to a large extent in the Cuban sugar industry before 1960 and
have been used to a limited extent in the United States. One refinery,
upon the installation of demisters in most of its evaporators and vacuum
pans experienced a 50 percent reduction in barometric condenser cooling
water COD. However, during the same maintenance program, changes were
made in the baffles and other control equipment, and the amount of
reduction due solely tc the demisters remained unclear.
At least two major refineries use partial surface condensers as heat
exchangers in the exhaust ducts prior to barometric condensation. These
units not only affect liquid-vapor separation but also capture heat from
the vapors, and have been installed for the latter purpose.
Total surface condensers have also been considered but in general they
have been rejected, primarily due to the costs associated with
installation, but also for a number of other reasons including
operational problems and the questionable benefits associated with their
use. A total surface condenser condenses vapors by indirect (non-
contact) cooling resulting in no sucrose loss in condenser water and a
stream of hot condensate that must be discharged because of its low
sucrose content.
One potential problem with surface condensers is fouling. Most re-
fineries use low quality surface (river or estuarine) water for conden-
ser cooling. While total surface condensers have not been used in re-
66
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fineries, a comparison can be made with surface heat exchangers used for
air and oil coolers of turbine generators. The general experience of
the sugar industry has been that raw river water is unacceptable for
such applications because of fouling (13).
A second problem area, in the use of surface condensers is vacuum control
on the vacuum pans. Fcr proper operation of a vacuum pan, an absolute
pressure with a tolerance of plus or minus 0.003 atmospheres (0.1 inch
mercury) must be maintained. Adjustments to the absolute pressure, made
necessarily by variations in calandria steam pressure, feed density, and
ncn-condensible leakage, can be made with a barometric condenser by
changing the flow in the condenser; however, the lag time associated
with a surface condenser makes absolute pressure control considerably
more difficult and can actually increase sugar entrainment.
The physical installation of surface condensers would be a problem in
many refineries, and in some cases an almost insurmountable one. Ver-
tical height when unavailable can often be obtained by raising the roof
of a refinery, but horizontal space can be achieved only with
considerable difficulty. The weight of surface condensers could cause
severe structural problems in older refineries. The units would have to
be installed on the fourth or fifth floor of a building that might be a
century old. The structural analysis required to insure the feasibility
of doing so would be extremely difficult.
USCSRA has estimated (13) that in a typical 1900 metric ton (2100 ton)
refinery, surface condensers would approximately double required pumping
energy, increase electrical requirements by about 1000 kilowatts, and
require 11,350 to 13,620 kilograms per hour (25,000 to 30,000 pounds per
hour) additional steam capacity.
Recirculation of barometric condenser cooling water through a cooling
tower is feasible and is practiced at three refineries. Spray ponds
have proved to be feasible for the cooling and recirculation of
condenser water for two small rural refineries, for several cane sugar
factories, and for a number of beet sugar plants. However, the land
required for these facilities generally prohibits their use for urban
refineries.
One large urban refinery recycles barometric condenser cooling water
through a cooling tower and discharges on the average about two to three
percent of the flow as blowdcwn. Cooling towers, while expensive, might
be applicable to other refineries and offer a means of reducing waste
water volume; however, in northern climates winter temperatures would
interfere with operation, and in dense urban areas wind blown sprays and
odors can present problems. These problems can be reduced by proper
design and operation, and probably eliminated for most wind conditions.
Filter_Cake. Most refineries use pressure filters such as the Valley or
Industrial type for removing impurities from sugar liquors. Filter aid,
67
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usually diatomaceous earth, is used with the filters. When the pressure
drop across the filter increases to an unacceptable value or when the
filter efficiency drops, the filter cake is removed. The desweetened
cake is semi-dry (about 50 percent moisture) and may be handled in that
form or it may be slurried for pumping. In the dry form it is normally
conveyed to trucks which in turn transport the material to landfill or
other land disposal. In the slurried form it may be pumped to
impoundage or municipal sewage. A major portion of the cake can be
recovered in a kiln by revivification of the filter aid. An existing
system for filter cake recycle and land disposal is illustrated in
Figure 17. In this system approximately 80 percent of the cake is
conveyed to a multiple hearth kiln where the cake is heated to about
816°C (1,500°F). Revivified filter aid is discharged from the kiln,
pulverized, and returned to the filtration step of the refining process.
Makeup filter aid is added to the system as required. The installation
of a continuous carbonation process for liire mud slurry, to make it
suitable for vacuum filtration and removal of sugar by washing, is
reported by one refinery to have reduced total settleable solids by 96
percent and BCD5 by 20 percent.
Adsorbant Regeneration. In-plant modifications for the reduction of
waste waters resulting from the regeneration of bone char, carbon
columns, and ion-exchange resins are practically non-existent, although
there are some minor, mainly operational, modifications to reduce waste
water loads which include:
(1) Recovery of waste waters with lower sucrose
concentrations, i.e., recovery of a greater
portion of spent char wash water,
(2) Reduction in the volume of wash water used
to sweeten off bone char and carbon columns,
and greater dependence on volatilization of
organics,
(3) Elimination or reduction in the use of ion-
exchange as an organic color remover.
These modifications are merely proposals and the implications of their
adaptation are not fully known; research on this subject is needed. At
present, control and treatment of these wastes is restricted to end-of-
line treatment.
Treatment and Disposal Technology Currently_Ayailable to_the_Cane Sugar
Ref ining_Industry_
Waste water treatment and disposal in the cane sugar refining industry
ranges from essentially no treatment to complete land retention with no
discharge to surface waters. Since the early 1950's most large urban
refineries have discharged major process waste streams, such as char
68
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I
hrom FiItration
15 kkg solids/day
Industrial
Desweetening
FiIters
Sweet
Water
to
Process
Return to
Process
15 kkg Sol Ids/Day
Cake
Discharge
15 kkg Solids/Day
Cake to
Landfill
Disposal
3 kkg Solids/Day
0.18 kkg BOD/Day
Regeneration
Recycle
Kiln
12 kkg Solids/Day
Make up
3 kkg Solids/Day
FIGURE 17
FILTER CAKE RECYCLE SYSTEM
69
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wash, to municipal sewers. The current standard practice for urban
refineries, which represent approximately two-thirds of American refined
cane sugar production, is to discharge all waste streams other than
condenser water to municipal sewage treatment plants. Rural refineries,
representing the remaining one-third of total sugar production,
generally have available land for impoundment, and the standard practice
in these refineries is either total or partial waste water retention. A
summary of disposal methods currently employed in the industry is
presented in Table 17.
There are two notable exceptions to the practice of urban refineries
discharging process wastes to municipal sewers and barometric condenser
cooling water to surface water bodies. One large crystalline refinery,
which uses a cooling tower for recirculation of condenser water,
discharges all waste water except uncontaminated cooling water to
municipal treatment. This is made possible by the use of a cooling
tower recycle system which reduces condenser water discharge by 98
percent.
The second exception is a small liquid refinery which uses municipal
water for barometric condenser cooling water intake. Unlike other
refineries that use low quality surface water for condenser water, this
refinery is able to extensively use the condenser water effluent in-
plant and discharges all waste water to municipal treatment. It must be
noted, however, that the refinery does not use affination, does not have
vacuum pans, and, therefore, uses an atypically small flew of barometric
condenser cooling water.
The following table, Table 17, is a summary of the existing waste
treatment practices of the refineries currently operating. All cane
sugar refineries are represented and the most reliable and current
information presented.
Biological treatment of sugar wastes has been demonstrated to a limited
extent in the raw cane sugar industry and more extensively outside of
the industry. Sucrose is well known to be highly biodegradable, and
substantial BOD5 reductions have been observed in impoundage lagoons for
both factories and refineries. In the beet sugar industry, anaerobic
and aerobic fermentation processes have been successfully used (17).
The applicability of biological treatment to refinery waste waters has
also been well demonstrated by the 12 refineries that discharge process
wastes to municipal biological treatment systems. While no refineries
currently employ biological treatment in the form of activated sludge or
aerated lagoons, these systems are considered to be currently available
technology for the industry. With proper design and with nutrient
addition to the nutrient deficient wastes, these systems can achieve 90
to 95 percent and higher treatment efficiencies for highly organic
wastes such as process waste water from cane sugar refining.
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TABLE 17
SUMMARY OF WASTE WATER TREATMENT
AND DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES OF UNITED STATES
CANE SUGAR REFINERIES
Refinery Disposal of Waste Waters
C-l All process water to municipal sewers;
barometric condenser cooling water to
river. Filter slurry to sewer.
C-2 All process water to municipal sewers;
barometric condenser cooling water to
river. Dry haul filter cake after
regeneration and recycle of filter aid.
C-3 All liquid wastes to river. Filter
slurry to river.
C-4 All process water to municipal sewers;
barometric condenser cooling water to
river. Dry haul filter cake after
regeneration and recycle of filter aid.
C-5 All process water to municipal sewers;
barometric condenser cooling water to
river. Dry haul filter cake.
C-6 All liquid wastes to river. Dry haul
cake after regeneration and recycle of
filter aid.
C-7 Primary settling of process water;
overflow discharges to river.
C-8 All liquid wastes to river. Future
use of municipal system is probable
(sewer hook-up is in-place). Dry haul
filter cake.
C-9 Most process water to municipal sewers;
barometric condenser cooling water to
river. Dry haul filter cake.
C-10 Most process water to municipal sewers;
barometric condenser cooling water to
river. Dry haul filter cake.
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C-ll Discharge into a swamp after traveling
through a two and a half mile canal.
Have recently constructed a spray pond.
Recycle of barometric condenser cooling
water is a possibility.
C-12 Total impoundment of waste water
resulting in no discharge to navigable
waters. Have two cooling towers for
recycle of barometric condenser cooling
waters; blowdowns are .3 and .7 percent.
C-13 Discharges into a swamp.
C-14 All process wastes to municipal sewers;
recycle of barometric condenser cooling
water through a cooling tower and
discharge of blowdown to municipal sewers
Dry haul filter cake.
L-l All liquid wastes to municipal sewers.
Filter slurry to municipal sewer.
L-2 All process water to municipal sewer;
barometric condenser cooling water to
river. Filter slurry to settling,
dewatering, and dry haul.
L-3 All process water to municipal sewer:
barometric condenser cooling water to
river. Filter slurry to sewer.
L-4 Total impoundment of waste waters
resulting in no discharge to navigable
waters. Barometric condenser cooling
water recycled through a spray canal.
Filter slurry to total impoundage.
L-5 Barometric condenser cooling water
recycled through a cooling tower.
Process water and filter slurry
discharged with no treatment.
CL-1 Most process water to municipal sewers;
barometric condenser cooling water to
river. Filter slurry dewatered and
dry hauled.
CL-2 Most of process wastes to municipal
sewers; barometric condenser cooling
water to river. Dry haul filter cake.
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CF-1 Closed system of canals and holding
ponds resulting in no discharge to
navigable waters. Filter slurry to
total impoundage. Barometric condenser
cooling water recycled through a spray
pond.
CF-2 Total impoundment of acid/caustic wastes
and filter cake slurry; impoundment
with overflow of all other waste waters,
700 acres of lagoons.
CF-3 Barometric condenser cooling water passed
through spray pond (partial recycle,
75-90%, possible) before discharge; all
process waters discharge to total im-
poundage. Filter slurry to total im-
poundage .
CF-4 Barometric condenser cooling impounded,
then discharged; all other waters im-
pounded completely in ponds; cooling
tower recently built (50% of condenser
water); recycle possible. Filter
slurry to total impoundage.
CF-5 Partial impoundment.
CF-6 Partial reuse of waste waters in raw
sugar factory for cane washing during
grinding season.
CF-7 Partial impoundment.
CF-8 Partial impoundment.
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Waste holding lagoons have widespread use in the raw cane sugar industry
and are employed by several cane sugar refineries in rural areas. One
small liquid refinery was at one time operated in conjunction with a raw
sugar factory, and a lagoon system was designed to contain all wastes
from both operations. The subsequent closing of the factory left the
refinery with more than adequate pond area for total waste water
impcundage. Several factory-refinery combinations in Louisiana and
Puerto Rico use impoundage to various extents; two refineries discharge
to large, swampy private land holdings with a resulting undefined
eventual discharge.
Those refineries which utilize waste holding ponds to achieve impoundage
with an overflew are those operating in conjunction with raw cane sugar
factories. Wastes from both the refinery and the factory are discharged
to the same holding ponds, making it impossible to determine the treat*
ment efficiency associated with this technology.
In the construction and operation of holding ponds, sealing of pond
bottoms tc control percolation may be necessary (although expensive),
but self sealing may occur as a result of organic mat formation. No
contamination of groundwater should be allowed.
Land irrigation is practiced at only one refinery - a small refinery in
Puerto Rico which is located on the dry south coast of the island.
Other refineries are prohibited from using this technology by either (1)
being located in urban areas, or (2) being located in areas of high
rainfall.
Deep-well injection is not practiced in cane sugar refining nor in beet
sugar processing; one raw sugar factory in Florida practices this method
of disposal. Deep-well injection may exist as a disposal alternative;
however, the effects of subsurface injection are usually difficult to
determine. This method of disposal can only be recommended with the
stipulation that extensive studies be conducted to insure environmental
protection beyond any reasonable doubt.
Effluent Limitations_Guidelines Development
For the purposes of establishing effluent limitations guidelines, model
refineries were hypothesized to represent the crystalline and liquid
cane sugar refining industry subcategories. These model refineries were
derived from a basis of good water usage and conservation, but poor in-
plant controls to limit BOD5 and suspended solids loadings. These ircdel
refineries are illustrated in Figures 18 and 19. The following
treatment alternatives have been applied to these model refineries to
determine the best practicable control technology currently available
(EPCTCA), the best available technology economically achievable (BATEA),
and the standards of performance for new sources (NSPS):
Alternative^A: This Alternative represents the baseline
74
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Barometric Condenser
Cooling Water
BOD5 0.54 kg/kkg
(1.08lb/ton)
Flow:
33.4 m3/kkg
(8000 gal/ton)
Process Water
BOD5 0.82 kg/kkg (1.64 Ib/ton)
TSS 1.30 kg/kkg (2.60 Ib/ton)
Filter Cake Slurry
BOD5 0.18 kg/kkg (0.36 Ib/ton)
TSS 0.56 kg/kkg (1.12 Ib/ton)
Flow:
Flow:
0.25 m3/kkg
(60 gal/ton)
35.1 m3/kkg
(8410 gal/ton)
Discharge
BOD5 1.54 kg/kkg (3.08 Ib/ton)
TSS 1.86 kg/kkg (3.72 Ib/ton)
Flow:
1.46m3/kkg
(350 gal/ton)
Figure 18
RAW WASTE LOADINGS AND WATER USAGE FOR THE
MODEL CRYSTALLINE CANE SUGAR REFINERY
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Barometric Condenser
Cooling Water
BOD5 0.50 kg/kkg
(I.OOIb/ton)
Flow.
15.0 m3/kkg
(3600 gal/ton)
Process Water
BOD5 2.75 kg/kkg (5.50 Ib/ton)
TSS 1.00 kg/kkg (2.00 Ib/ton)
Filter Cake Slurry
BOD5 0.18 kg/kkg (0.36 Ib/ton)
TSS 0.56 kg/kkg (1.12 Ib/ton)
Flow:
Flow:
0.25 m3/kkg
(60 gal/ton)
16.9m3/kkg
(4050 gal/ton)
Discharge
BOD5 3.43 kg/kkg (6.86 Ib/ton)
TSS 1.56 kg/kkg (3.12 Ib/ton)
Flow:
1.64m3/kkg
(393 gal/ton)
Figure 19
RAW WASTE LOADINGS AND WATER USAGE FOR THE
MODEL LIQUID CANE SUGAR REFINERY
76
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and includes good water usage but poor in-plant controls.
This Alternative also assumes no treatment, and represents
the model raw waste loadings.
Alternatiye^B; This Alternative involves the elimination
of a discharge of filter cake, which results from the
clarification of melt liquor. Filter cake can be disposed
of without discharge to navigable waters by controlled
impoundage of the filter slurry (Alternative B-l) or by
dry handling of the filter cake (Alternative B-2). A
decrease in water usage of 0.25 cubic meters per metric
ton (60 gallons per tons) of melt is evidenced over
Alternative A if dry handling of filter cake is in-
corporated.
Alternative_C^ This Alternative involves, in addition
to Alternative B, the addition of demisters and external
separators to reduce entrainment of sucrose into baro-
metric condenser cooling water. This technology is
illustrated for both liquid and crystalline refineries
in Figures 20 and 21. For the barometric condenser
cooling water flows developed for both the crystalline
and liquid cane sugar refining subcategories, BOD5 entrain-
ment can te reduced to below 10 mg/1.
Alternative D^ This Alternative involves, in addition
to Alternative C, the addition of an activated sludge
system to treat process waters.
Alternative_E^ This Alternative involves, in addition
to Alternative D, the recycle of barometric condenser
cooling water through a cooling device with biological
treatment of the assumed two percent blowdown and in-
corporates sand filteration of the effluent from the
activated sludge system to further effect solids removal.
This results in reductions in water usages of 88 percent
for liquid refineries and 94 percent for crystalline
refineries, over Alternative D.
£lternative_F_^ This Alternative includes, in addition
to Alternative C, the elimination of a discharge of
process waters by total impoundage of this waste stream.
This technology requires that large quantities of land
be available and is not judged to be available technology
for urban refineries. It is a current practice of many
rural refineries, however.
Bi^§ID^£iY§_G^ This Alternative involves in addition
to Alternative F, a recycling of barometric condenser
cooling water through a cooling device and total re-
77
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CRYSTALLINE REFINERIES
Average
Condenser Water
BOD5 0.44 kg/kkg
(0.88 Ib/ton)
Flow:
36.5 m3/kkg
(8750 gal/ton)
Good Water Conservation
But Poor Entrainment Control
Good Water Conservation
And Good Entrainment Control
Condenser Water
BOD5 0.54 kg/kkg
(1.08 Ib/ton)
(Model)
Condenser Water
BOD5 0.34 kg/kkg
(0.68 Ib/ton)
(Alternative C)
Flow:
33.4 m3/kkg
(8000 gal/ton)
Flow:
33.4m3/kkg
(8000 gal/ton)
Figure 20
CONDENSER WATER LOADINGS AND WATER USAGE FOR
CRYSTALLINE CANE SUGAR REFINERIES
LIQUID REFINERIES
Average
Condenser Water
BOD5 0.31 kg/kkg
(0.62 Ib/ton)
Flow:
16.3m3/kkg
(3900 gal/ton)
Good Water Conservation
But Poor Entrainment Control
Good Water Conservation
And Good Entrainment Control
Condenser Water
BOD5 0.50 kg/kkg
(1.00 Ib/ton)
(Model)
Flow:
15.0 m3/kkg
(3600 gal/ton)
Condenser Water
BOD5 0.15 kg/kkg
(0.30 Ib/ton)
(Alternative C)
Flow:
15.0 m3/kkg
(3600 gal/ton)
Figure 21
CONDENSER WATER LOADINGS AND WATER USAGE FOR
LIQUID CANE SUGAR REFINERIES
78
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tention of the assumed two percent blowdown. This
technology requires that large quantities of land be
available and is not judged to be available technology
for urban refineries. It is a current practice of
three refineries, all rurally located. Reduction in
water usages of 88 percent for liquid refineries and
9U percent for crystalline refineries results, over
Alternative F.
Specific features of the reccmmended best practicable control technology
currently available (EPCTCA) for the two subcategories are:
—Containment of filter mud slurry or dry handling of filter cake with
land disposal.
—Prevention of spillage during raw sugar handling, unloading and
storage.
—Entrainment prevention in evaporators and pans through baffling,
centrifugal separators, dimisters, and utilization of the proper height
of the vapor belt.
—Maximum reuse of all general waste streams, i.e. - floor and equipment
washes, filter screen washes. (At present some refineries recycle
essentially all floor and equipment washes back to the process.)
—Biological treatment of process waters by activated sludge or
equivalent biological treatment system.
These features are the equivalent of Alternative D as discussed
previously.
The effluent limitations guidelines were established on the following
bases. It has been determined that sucrose entrainment in the
barometric condenser cooling water, at the flows chosen for the model
refineries, can be reduced to the equivalent of 10 mg/1 EOD^ for both
crystalline and liquid refineries. It has also been determined that
process water can be treated to the extent that the resulting effluent
monthly average waste loadings from the activated sludge system are 30
mg/1 BOD5 and 40 mg/1 TSS fcr the crystalline cane sugar refinery, and
50 mg/1 BOD5 and 60 mg/1 TSS for the liquid cane sugar refinery. The
addition of the BOD5 attributed to the barometric condenser cooling
water to that cf the process water results in the limitation guideline.
The TSS limitation guidelines is that amount attributable to the process
water.
Specific features of the recommended best available technology
economically achievable (BATEA) for the two subcategories are:
79
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—Those features considered to be best practicable control technology
currently available.
—Recycle of barometric condenser cooling water for condenser or other
in-plant uses with recycle of the blowdown stream to biological
treatment. Cooling devices (canals, ponds, or towers) are in integral
part of a barometric condenser cooling water recycle system.
—The additon of sand filtration of the effluent from the activated
sludge or equivalent biological treatment system.
These features are the equivalent of Alternative E as discussed
previously.
The effluent limitations guidelines were established on the following
bases. The activated sludge system which treats the process water of
the model refineries has been expanded to handle the blowdown stream
from the coding device utilized in recycling barometric condenser
cooling water. The effluent levels from the activated sludge system are
the same as those designed for in the treatment of process water
(BPCTCA) . The Effluent limitations guidelines reflect the level of
treatment attributed to the further solids removal as a result of sand
filtration. It has been determined that at the effluent waste loading
entering the sand filtration units from the activated sludge systeir, a
resulting monthly average waste loading from the sand filtration units
of 15 mg/1 TSS can be easily achieved. The effluent limitations
guidelines are established to reflect a value of 15 mg/1 TSS and that
amount of BOD5 removed with the solids. These effluent levels are
determined to be 28 mg/1 BOD5 for the liquid refinery and 18 mg/1 BODj>
for the crystalline refinery.
Specific features of the recommended best available demonstrated control
technology, processes, operating methods or other alternatives (NSPS)
are:
—Those features considered to be best available technology economically
achievable.
These features are the equivalent of Alternative E as discussed
previously.
The effluent limitations guidelines are further developed and the costs
of application of the various treatment alternatives are presented in
Section VIII, Cost, Energy, and gon-Water ^uality. Aspects.
Establishment of Daily Average Effluent Limitations Guidelines
Based on engineering judgement and an evaluation of what can be achieved
by the application of activated sludge for the treatment of cane sugar
refining waste waters, daily average limitations have been established.
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It is felt that the daily average limitations cannot be as strict as
those variances above the monthly average typical of a well-designed and
well-operated municipal treatment system. This is due to the greater
variation in waste loadings typical of industrial waste waters and for
other unknown factors. No cane sugar refinery currently utilizes an
activated sludge system to treat its waste waters. However, the
activated sludge system is currently available well-demonstrated
technology for wastes similar in nature to those associated with cane
sugar refining.
For the crystalline cane sugar refining subcategory, daily average
effluent limitations guidelines have been established based on three
times the ironthly average limitations for BOD5 and four times the
monthly average limitations for TSS. Because of a higher BODjj raw waste
loading and the potential for a correspondingly higher variability,
daily average effluent limitations guidelines have been established for
the liquid cane sugar refining subcategory based on three and one-half
times the ironthly average limitations for BOD5 and four and one-half
times the monthly average limitations for TSS.
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SECTION VIII
COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
COST AND REDUCTION BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVEJTREATMENT AND CONTROL TECH-
NOLOGIES FOR CANE SUGAR REFINERIES
The_Model Refineries
The cost estimates contained in this document are based on two
crystalline refineries with melts of 545 metric tons (600 tons) per day
and 1900 metric tons (2100 tons) per day, respectively, and a liquid
refinery with a melt of 508 metric tons (560 tons) per day. These
refineries are considered to be generally representative of both large
and small crystalline operations and of liquid operations. Obviously,
any given existing installation may vary considerably from the models
presented; each sugar refinery has unique characteristics and unique
problems that must be taken into consideration. The following are
assumed features of the representative refineries:
1. The present level of barometric condenser cooling water
BOD5 entrainment is 16 ppm in crystalline refineries
and 33 ppm in liquid refineries.
2. Both liquid and crystalline refineries employ liquid level
controls on evaporators and absolute pressure controls on
the last evaporator body.
3. Both crystalline refineries employ triple-effect evapora-
tors; the liquid refinery uses double-effect evaporators.
4. Total mud slurry equals 114 cubic meters (30,000 gallons)
per day for the liquid refinery, 135 cubic meters (35,700
gallons) per day for the 545 metric ton (600 ton) per day
crystalline refinery, and 455 cubic meters (120,000 gallons)
per day for the 1900 metric ton (2100 ton) per day crystal-
line refinery.
5. The operating year consists of 250 days.
6. Ninety-eight percent of condenser water BOD5 is due to
sucrose.
7. Both liquid and crystalline refineries discharge dia-
tomaceous earth filter slurries.
8. The liquid and crystalline refineries do not recycle
condenser water.
9. There is presently a discharge of process water with no
treatment in the case of both liquid and crystalline
refineries.
Bagis_of_Cgst_Analysis
The following are the basic assumptions made in presentation of cost
information:
82
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1. Investment costs are based on actual engineering cost
estimates.
2. 0.454 kg (one Ib.) of sugar is equivalent to .511 kg
(1.125 Ib.) of BOD5.
3. 3.79 liters (one gallon) of 80° Brix final molasses
sells for $.042 per liter ($.16 per gallon).
4. All costs are August 1971 dollars.
5. Equipment depreciation is based on an 18 year straight-
line method, except for rolling stock which is depre-
ciated over 6 years by the straight-line method.
6. Excavation of filter mud pits costs $0.53 per cubic meter
($.40 per cubic yard); annual excavation and disposal
costs $0.79 per cubic meter ($0.60 per cubic yard).
7. Annual interest rate for capital cost equals 8 percent.
8. Salvage value for all facilities depreciated over 18
years is zero.
9. Only sugar losses in the barometric condenser cooling
water can be recovered.
10. Liquid sugar sells for $254.00 per metric ton ($230.50
per ton); crystalline sugar sells for $260.00 per metric
ton ($236.40 per ton).
11. Contingency is taken at 10 percent of installed cost.
12. Engineering and expediting costs are taken at 10 percent
of installed cost plus contingency.
13. Total yearly cost equals:
(Investment cost) . (Yearly depreciation percentage) +
Yearly operating cost + (Investment cost /2) (.08)
14. Hook-up charges associated with disposal to municipal
systems are assumed to be zero.
Qualifying Statements. The following cost analyses include in some
cases considerable costs for excavation and dyke construction. In some
instances these costs may be minimized or nullified by topographic
conditions. In other instances they may be reduced by utilizing in-
house equipment and labor.
Land costs vary widely. The figures used herein are considered to be
representative of non-urban areas where the use of land would be
expected. In urban areas land is often not available; when it is used,
the cost can be expected to be substantially higher than reported in
this document.
The investment cost associated with hook-up to a municipal waste system
is assumed herein to be nil. In actuality this cost can vary from zero
to considerable sums of money; for purposes of economic impact, it is
necessary to assess the cost on an individual basis. However, for the
purposes of presenting cost information for the entire industry, it must
be noted that thirteen refineries already have municipal hock-up.
Therefore, for these thirteen refineries, the assumption of zero
additional cost is valid because they already have municipal hook-up.
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Crysta11ine_Refinery
Two representative crystalline refineries were chosen as a basis for
cost estimates: a small refinery with a melt of 545 metric tons (600
tons) per day and a large refinery with a melt of 1900 metric tons (2100
tens) per day. The following treatment alternatives may be applied to
both refineries.
Altgrnatiye^A; No Waste Treatment_or Control. The effluent from a 545
metric ton (600 ton) per day crystalline refinery is 19,100 cubic meters
(5.05 million gallons) per day and from a 1900 metric ton (2100 tens)
per day crystalline refinery is 66,700 cubic meters (17.7 million
gallons) per day. The resulting BOD5 and suspended solids loads are
1.54 kilograms per metric ton (3.08 pounds per ton) and 1.86 kilograms ""
per metric ton (3.72 pounds per ton) respectively, for both refineries.
Since no waste treatment is involved, no cost associated with waste
treatment or control can be attributed to this Alternative.
COSTS: 0
REDUCTION BENEFITS: None
Alternative^E: Elimination_Qf_Discharge^frgm_Filters. This Alternative
can be achieved either by impounding the mud resulting from slurrying
filter cake with water or by dry hauling the desweetened filter cake to
landfill. The resulting effluent waste loads for BOD5 and suspended
solids are 1.36 kilograms per metric ton (2.72 pounds per ton) of melt
and 1.30 kilograms per metric ton (2.60 pounds per ton) of melt
respectively, at this control level.
B-l: Impound Filter Slurry
COSTS: 545 metric tons (600 tons) per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $33,000
Total Investment Cost: $33,000
Total Yearly Cost: $ 8,600
1900 metric tons (2100 tons) per day crystalline refiner
Incremental Investment Cost: $66,000
Total Investment Cost: $66,000
Total Yearly Cost: $20,000
B-2: Dry Disposal of Filter Cake
COSTS: 545 metric tons (600 tons) per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $61,000
Total Investment Cost: $61,000
Total Yearly Cost: $45,000
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REDUCTION BENEFITS:
1900 metric tons (2100 tons) per day crystalline refinei
Incremental Investment cost: $61,000
Total Investment cost: $61,000
Tctal Yearly Cost: $71,000
An incremental reduction in BOD5 of approximately 0.18
kilograms per metric ton (0.36 pounds per ton) of melt
and in suspended solids of approximately 0.56 kilograms
per metric ton (1.12 pounds per ton) of melt is evi-
denced over Alternative A. Total plant reductions of
11.7 percent for BOD5 and 30.5 percent for suspended
solids would be achieved.
For the purpose of accruing total costs in this
section of the report, the use of dry disposal of
filter cake (B-2) will be considered representative
of Alternative B.
Alternative Cj^ In plant Modifications to Reduce Entrainment of Sucrose
into Condenser Water. This Alternative includes, in addition to
Alternative B, the installation of demisters and external separators in
order to reduce entrainment of sucrose in barometric condenser cooling
water. It is assumed that, in addition, both refineries have good
baffling and operational controls in the evaporators and vacuum pans, as
well as good vapor height. This technology is currently widely
practiced in the industry. The resulting effluent waste loads for BOD5
and suspended solids are 1.16 kilograms per metric ton (2.32 pounds per
ton) of melt and 1.30 kilograms per metric ton (2.60 pounds per ton) of
melt respectively, for the selected refineries at this control level.
COSTS: 545 metric tons (600 tons) per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $ 52,000
Total Investment Cost: $113,000
Total Yearly Cost: $ 62,000
1900 metric tons (2100 tons) per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $ 73,000
Total Investment Cost: $134,000
Total Yearly Cost: $ 75,000
REDUCTION BENEFITS: An incremental reduction in BOD5 of 0.20 kilograms
per metric ton (0.42 pounds per ton) of melt is
evidenced over Alternative B. The total reduction
in BOD^ is 24.7 percent. No further reduction in
suspended solids is achieved.
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This Alternative
assumes the addition of an activated sludge plant to Alternative C to
treat process water. Presently there are no refineries which have their
own biological treatment systems, but refinery wastes are commonly
treated in municipal biological treatment plants. As discussed in
Section VII, Control and Treatment Technology, refinery waste water is
highly biodegradable and thus well suited for biological treatment.
A schematic of the activated sludge system is shown in Figure 22. Waste
water is pumped through a primary clarifier to an aerated lagoon, with
biological sludge being returned to the aerated lagoon from a secondary
clarifier. Excess sludge is pumped to a sludge digester; the sludge
from the digester is pumped to a holding lagoon. The total effluent
waste loadings as a result of the addition of this Alternative are
estimated to be 0.38 kilograms per metric ton (0.76 pounds per ton) of
melt for BOD5 and 0.06 kilograms per metric ton (0.12 pounds per ton) of
melt for suspended solids.
COSTS: 545 metric tons (600 tons) per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $255,000
Total Investment Cost: $368,000
Total Yearly Cost: $205,000
1900 metric tons (2100 tons) per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $662,000
Total Investment Cost: $796,000
Total Yearly Cost: $296,000
REDUCTION BENEFITS: An incremental reduction in BOD5 of approximately
0.78 kilograms per metric ton (1.56 pounds per
ton) of melt and in suspended solids of approx-
imately 1.24 kilograms per metric ton (2.48 pounds
per ton) of melt is evidenced over Alternative C.
Total reductions of 75.3 percent for BOD5 and 96.8
percent for suspended solids would be achieved.
Alternative E_^ Recycle of Condenser Water and Biologj.ca.1 Treatment of
Blowdowri. This Alternative includes, in addition to Alternative D, the
recycle of barometric condenser cooling water followed by biological
treatment of a blowdown in an activated sludge unit and the addition of
sand filtration to further treat the effluent from the activated sludge
unit. The blowdown is assumed to be approximately two percent of the
condenser flow. Presently, there are three refineries using cooling
towers and two which utilize a spray pond for the purpose of recycling
barometric condenser cooling water. Recycle of condenser water
accomplishes two important things; (1) it cools the water, thereby
removing the heat normally discharged and (2) it concentrates the waste
loadings into the smaller blowdown stream, making biological treatment
86
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of this waste stream feasible. The total effluent waste loadings as a
result of the addition of this Alternative are estimated to be 0.04
kilograms per metric ton (0.08 pounds per ton) of melt for BOD5 and 0.03
kilograms per metric ton (0.06 pounds per ton) of melt for suspended
solids. In addition, 665,000 kilogram calories per metric ton (2.4
trillion BTU per ton) of melt are effectively removed from condenser
water.
There are a number of methods of recycling condenser water; for the
purposes of this document, the following are considered: cooling towers
and spray ponds.
E-l: Alternative E with a Cooling Tower
*
COSTS: 545 metric tons (600 tons) per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $346,000
Total Investment Cost: $714,000
Total Yearly Cost: $283,000
1900 metric tons (2100 tons) per day crystalline refiner
Incremental Investment Cost: $ 714,000
Total Investment Cost: $1,510,000
Total Yearly Cost: $ 470,000
E-2: Alternative E with a Spray Pond
COSTS: 545 metric tons (600 tons) per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $ 282,000
Total Investment Cost: $ 650,000
Total Yearly Cost: $ 271,000
1900 metric tons (2100 tons) per day crystalline refinei
Incremental Investment Cost: $ 596,000
Total investment Cost: $1,392,000
Total Yearly Cost: $ 438,000
REDUCTION BENEFITS: An incremental reduction in BOD5 of approximately
0.34 kilograms per metric ton (0.68 pounds per ton)
of melt and in suspended solids of 0.03 kilograms
per metric ton (0.06 pounds per ton) of melt
is evidenced by addition of this Alternative
to Alternative D. Total reductions of 97.5 percent
for BOD5 and 98.4 percent for suspended solids wculd
be achieved.
88
-------
Alternative FI Elimination of Discharge of Process Water. This
Alternative assumes that, in addition to Alternative C, all process
waters are eliminated by controlled retention and total impoundage. The
resulting effluent waste loading for BOD5 associated with this control
level is estimated at 0.34 kilograms per metric ton (0.68 pounds per
ton) of melt, that amount attributable to barometric condenser cooling
water. The suspended solids loading is zero as the only suspended
solids-bearing waste stream has been eliminated.
F: Elimination of Discharge of Process Water
by Containment
Total impoundment of process water is sucessfully practiced by five
refineries; however, a considerable amount of land is required (see
Tables 17 and 18, Path 13). Containment of process waters is,
therefore, not considered to be practicable technology for urban
crystalline refineries.
COSTS: 545 metric tons (600 tons) per day crystalline refinery.
Incremental Investment Cost: $1,410,000
Total Investment Cost: $1,530,000
Total Yearly Cost: $ 211,000
1900 metric tons (2100 tons) per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $4,870,000
Total Investment Cost $5,000,000
Total Yearly Cost: $ 591,000
REDUCTION BENEFITS: An incremental reduction in plant BOD5 of 0.82 kilograms
per metric ton (1.64 pounds per ton) of melt and in
suspended solids of 1.30 kilograms per metric ton (2.60
pounds per ton) of melt is evidenced in comparison to
Alternative C. Total reductions in BOD5_ of 78.0 percent
and in suspended solids of 100 percent are achieved.
iBiternative G^ Elimination of Discharge of_ Barometric Condenser
Cooling Water. This Alternative assumes that in addition to Alternative
F, there is an elimination of discharge of barometric condenser cooling
water. To achieve this level of treatment, it has been assumed that
condenser water is recycled and the blowdown impounded. The blowdown of
barometric condenser cooling water is assumed to be two percent of the
total condenser flow. Effluent waste loads associated with this control
level are zero kilograms per metric ton (zero pounds per ton) of melt.
G-l: Recycle of Condenser Water Through a Cooling Tower
with an Assumed Two Percent Blowdown to Controlled
Land Retention, in Addition to Alternative F.
89
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TABLE 19
SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVE COSTS FOR A 545 METRIC TONS
(600 TONS) PER DAY CRYSTALLINE SUGAR REFINERY
Alternative
A
B-l
B-2
C
D
E-l
E-2
F
G-l
G-2
BODS
Load*
1.54
1.36
1.36
1.16
0.38
0.04
0.04
0.34
0.0
0.0
% BOD_5
Removal
0.0
11.7
11.7
24.7
75.3
97.5
97.5
78.0
100
100
TSS
Load*
1.86
1.30
1.30
1.30
0.06
0.03
0.03
0.0
0.0
0.0
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Removal
0.0
30.5
30.5
30.5
96.8
98.4
98.4
100
100
100
Investment
Cost
0
33,000
61,000
113,000
368,000
714,000
650,000
1,530,000
2,530,000
2,470,000
Total
Yearly
Operating
Cost
0
5,400
36,700
55,600
174,000
219,000
214,000
70,000
114,000
109,000
Total
Yearly
Cost
0
8,600
45,000
62,000**
205,000
283,000
271,000
211,000
352,000
340,000
*Waste Loadings in Kilograms per Metric Ton of Melt
**Includes Sugar Savings of $7,400/yr. as a Result
of Entrainment Prevention.
91
-------
TABLE 20
SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVE COSTS FOR A 1,900 METRIC TONS
(2,100 TONS) PER DAY CRYSTALLINE SUGAR REFINERY
BOD5_
Alternative Load*
A
B-l
B-2
C
D
E-l
E-2
F
G-l
G-2
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
.54
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.36
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.38
.04
.04
.34
.0
.0
% BOD5_
Removal
0.0
11.7
11.7
24.7
75.3
97.5
97.5
78.0
100
100
TSS
Load*
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
.86
.30
.30
.30
.06
.03
.03
.0
.0
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% TSS
Inves
tment
Removal Cost
0.0
30.5
30.5
30.5
96.8
98.4
98.4
100
100
100
0
66
61
134
796
1,510
1,390
5,000
7,620
7,510
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
Total
Yearly Total
Operating Yearly
Cost
14
64
87
244
350
330
137
245
226
0
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
Cost
0
20,000
71,000
75,000**
296,000
470,000
438,000
591,000
950,000
918,000
*Waste Loadings in Kilograms per Melt
**Includes Sugar Savings of $27,000/yr. as a
Result of Entrainment Prevention.
92
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COSTS: 545 metric tons (600 tons) per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $1,000,000
Total Investment Cost: $2,530,000
Total Yearly Cost: $ 352,000
1900 metric tons (2100 tons) per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $2,620,000
Total Investment Cost: $7,620,000
Total Yearly Cost: $ 950,000
G-2: Recycle of Condenser Water Through a Spray Pond
with an Assumed Two Percent Slowdown to Controlled
Land Retention, in Addition to Alternative F.
COSTS: 545 metric tons (600 tons) per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost:
Total Investment Cost:
Total Yearly Cost:
$ 940,000
$2,470,000
$ 340,000
REDUCTION BENEFITS:
1900 metric tons (2100 tons) per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $2,510,000
Total Investment Cost: $7,510,000
Total Yearly Cost: $ 918,000
An incremental reduction in plant BOD5 of 0.34 kilo-
grams per metric ton (0.68 pounds per ton) of melt
is evidenced by addition of this Alternative to Al-
termative F. Total reduction of BOD5_ and suspended
solids is 100 percent.
Discharge of Process Waste Streams to^Municipal Treatment Systems.
For the purpose of presenting cost information which is representative
of the industry, it is necessary to determine costs associated with
various schemes of discharge to municipal treatment systems. Twelve
refineries currently discharge all or a portion of their wastes to
municipal treatment systems. seven of these are crystalline refineries
with one other crystalline refinery having sewer hook-up and soon to
practice this treatment technique. The following schemes are possible
and the resulting costs presented.
M.T.11: Discharge of Process Water to
Municipal Treatment
This method of treatment of process water is practiced by twelve
refineries, all urbanly located. This technology is not available to
101
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most rural refineries or to those refineries whose waste is not accepted
by a municipal treatment system. It is however, a well demonstrated
treatment method and practiced by 42 per cent of the nation's
refineries. The costs presented here include the costs associated with
Alternative C.
COSTS: 545 metric tons (600 tons)
per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $0
Total Investment Cost: $113,000
Total Operating Cost: $ 83,000
Total Yearly Cost: $ 90,000*
1900 metric tons (2100 tons)
per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $0
Total Investment Cost: $134,000
Total Operating Cost: $183,000
Total Yearly Cost: $171,000*
* Includes savings as a result of recovery of sugar which would
normally be entrained in the barometric condenser cooling
water.
M.T.f2: Recycle of condenser Cooling Water Through
a Cooling Tower with an Assumed Two Per-
cent Blowdown to Municipal Treatment, in
Addition to M.T.fl
COSTS: 545 metric tons (600 tons)
per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $212,000
Total Investment Cost: $325,000
Total Operating Cost: $123,000
Total Yearly Cost: $149,000
1900 metric (2100 tons)
per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $400,000
Total Investment Cost: $534,000
Total Operating Cost: $276,000
Total Yearly Cost: $303,000
M.T.t3: Recycle of Condenser Cooling Water Through
a Spray Pond with an Assumed Two Percent
Blowdown to Municipal Treatment, in Addition
to M. T. # 1
102
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COSTS: 545 metric (600 tons)
per day crystalling refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $148,000
Total Investment Cost: $261,000
Total Operating Cost: $118,000
Total Yearly Cost: $138,000
1900 metric tons (2100 tons)
per day crystalline refinery
Incremental Investment Cost: $284,000
Total Investment Cost: $418,000
Total Operating Cost: $256,000
Total Yearly Cost: $272,000
LiguiciJRef inery
A liquid refinery with an average melt of 508 metric tons (560 tons) of
sugar per day was chosen as a basis for cost estimates. The following
treatment alternatives may be applied to this refinery.
Alternatiye_A^ No Waste_Treatment_or Control. The effluent from a 508
metric ton (560 ton) per day liquid refinery is 8,590 cubic meters (2.23
million gallons) per day. The resulting BOD5 and suspended solids
loadings are 3.43 kilograms per metric ton (6.86 pounds per ton) and
1.56 kilograms per metric ton (3.12 pounds per ton) respectively. Be-
cause no waste treatment is involved, no cost can be attributed to this
Alternative.
COSTS: 0
REDUCTION BENEFITS: None
E: _ Eli mi nation_of^Dis charge from^Filters. This Alternative
can be achieved either by impounding the mud resulting from slurrying
filter cake with water or by dry hauling the desweetened filter cake to
landfill. The resulting effluent waste loads for BOD5 and suspended
solids are estimated to be 3.25 kilograms per metric ton (6.50 pounds
per ton) and 1.00 kilograms per metric ton (2.00 pounds per ton) of melt
respectively, at this control level.
B-l: Impound Filter Slurry
COSTS: Incremental Investment Cost: $31,000
Total Investment Cost: $31,000
Total Yearly Cost: $12,000
103
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B-2: Dry Disposal of Filter Cake
COSTS: Incremental Investment Cost: $61,000
Total Investment Cost: $61,000
Total Yearly Cost: $U5,000
REDUCTION BENEFITS: An incremental reduction in BOD5 of approximately
0.18 kilograms per metric ton (0.36 pounds per
ton) of melt and in suspended solids of approxi-
mately 0.56 kilograms per metric ton (1.12 pounds
per ton) of melt is evidenced over Alternative A.
Total plant reductions of 5.3 percent for BOD5 and
35.9 percent for suspended solids would be achieved.
For the purpose of accruing total costs in this
section of the report, the use of dry disposal
of filter cake (B-2) will be considered repre-
sentative of Alternative B.
Alternative gi iDEiant Modifications to Reduce Entrainment of Sucrose
Condenser Water. This Alternative includes, in addition to
Alternative B, the installation of demisters and external separators in
order to reduce entrainment of sucrose in barometric condenser cooling
water. It is assumed, in addition, that the refinery has good baffling
and operational controls in the evaporators and vacuum pans, as well as
good vapor height. The resulting effluent waste loads for BOD5 and
suspended solids are 2.90 kilograms per metric ton (5.80 pounds per ton)
of melt and 1.00 kilograms per metric ton (2.00 pounds per ton) of melt
respectively, at this control level.
COSTS: Incremental Investment Cost: $ 5U,000
Total Investment Cost: $115,000
Total Yearly Cost: $ 62,000
REDUCTION BENEFITS: An incremental reduction in BOD5 of 0.35 kilograms
per metric ton (0.70 pounds per ton) of melt is
evidenced over Alternative B. The total reduction
in BOD5 is 15.4 percent and in suspended solids is
35.9 percent.
Alternative_D: _ Biological Treat ment._ of grocess Water. This Alternative
assumes the addition of an activated sludge plant to treat process
water. Presently there are no refineries which have their own
biological treatment systems, but refinery wastes are commonly treated
in municipal biological treatment plants. As discussed in Section VII,
refinery waste is highly biodegradable and thus well suited for
biological treatment.
A schematic of the activated sludge system is shown in Figure 22. Waste
water is pumped through a primary clarifier to an aerated lagoon with
104
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biological sludge being returned to the aerated lagoon from a secondary
clarifier. Excess sludge is pumped to a sludge digester; the sludge
from the digester is pumped to a holding lagoon. The total effluent
waste loadings as a result of the addition of this Alternative are
estimated to be 0.2U kilograms per metric ton (0.48 pounds per ton) of
melt for BOD5 and 0.10 kilograms per metric ton (0.20 pounds per ton) of
melt for suspended solids.
COSTS: Incremental Investment Cost: $337,000
Total Investment Cost: $452,000
Total Yearly Cost: $230,000
REDUCTION BENEFITS: An incremental reduction in BOD5 of approximately
2.66 kilograms per metric ton (5.32 pounds per ton)
of melt and in suspended solids of 0.90 kilograms
per metric ton (1.80 pounds per ton) of melt is
„ evidenced over Alternative C. Total reductions of
93.0 percent for BOD5 and 93.6 percent for suspended
solids would be achieved.
Alternative E:_ Bicycle pf Barometric Condenser Cooling Water and
liolP-Sical Treatment of Blowdown. This Alternative includes, in
addition to Alternative D, the recycle of barometric condenser cooling
water followed by biological treatment of blowdown in an activated
sludge unit and the addition of sand filtration to further treat the
effluent from the activated sludge unit. The blowdown is assumed to be
approximately two percent of the total flow. Presently there are three
refineries using cooling towers and two which utilize a spray pond for
the purpose of recycling condenser cooling water. Recycle of barometric
condenser cooling water accomplishes two important things: (1) it cools
the water, thereby removing the heat normally discharged and (2) it
concentrates the waste loadings into the smaller blowdown stream, making
biological treatment of this waste stream feasible. The total effluent
waste loadings as a result of the addition of this Alternative are
estimated to be 0.06 kilograms per metric ton (0.12 pounds per ton) of
melt for BOD5 and 0.03 kilograms per metric ton (0.06 pounds per ton) of
melt for suspended solids. In addition, 250,000 kilogram calories per
metric ton (0.9 million BTU per ton) of melt are effectively removed
from condenser water.
i
There are a number of methods of recycling condenser water; for the
purposes of this document, the following are considered: cooling towers
and spray ponds.
E-l: Alternative E with a Cooling
Tower
COSTS: Incremental Investment Cost: $174,000
Total Investment Cost: $626,000
Total Yearly Cost: $265,000
105
-------
E-2: Alternative E with a Spray
Pond
COSTS: Incremental Investment Cost: $152,000
Total Investment Cost: $604,000
Total Yearly Cost: $261,000
REDUCTION BENEFITS: An incremental reduction in BOD5 of 0.18 kilograms
per metric ton (0.36 pounds per ton) of melt and
in suspended solids of 0.07 kilograms per metric
ton (0.1U pounds per ton) of melt is
evidenced by addition of this Alternative to
Alternative D. Total reductions of 98.3 percent
for BOD5 and 98.1 percent for suspended solids
are achieved.
Alternative Hi Elimination of Discharge of Process Water. This
Alternative assumes that, in addition to Alternative C, all process
waters are eliminated by controlled retention and total impoundage. The
resulting effluent waste loading for BOD5 associated with this control
level is estimated at 0.15 kilograms per metric ton (0.30 pounds per
ton) of melt, that amount attributable to barometric condenser cooling
water. The suspended solids loading is zero as the only suspended
solids-bearing waste stream has been eliminated.
F: Elimination of Discharge of
Process Water by Containment
Total impoundment of process water is successfully practiced by five
refineries; however, a considerable amount of land is required (see
Table 21, Path 13). Containment of process water is, therefore, not
considered to be practicable technology for urban liquid refineries.
COSTS: Incremental Investment Cost: $1,455,000
Total Investment Cost: $1,570,000
Total Yearly Cost: $ 217,000
REDUCTION BENEFITS: An incremental reduction in plant BOD5 of 2.75
kilograms per metric ton (5.50 pounds per ton)
of melt and in suspended solids of 1.00 kilograms
per metric ton (2.00 pounds per ton) of melt is
evidenced in comparison to Alternative C. Total
reductions in BOD5 of 95.6 percent and in sus-
pended solids of 100 percent are achieved.
Alternative GI Elimination of Barometric Discharge of Condenser Cooling
Water. This Alternative assumes that in addition to Alternative F there
is an elimination of discharge of barometric condenser cooling water.
To achieve this level of treatment, it has been assumed that condenser
106
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TABLE 24
SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVE COSTS FOR A 508 METRIC TON
(560 TONS) PER DAY LIQUID SUGAR REFINERY
Alternative
A
B-l
B-2
C
D
E-l
E-2
F
G-l
G-2
BODS
Load*
3.43
3.25
3.25
2.90
0.24
0.06
0.06
0.15
0.0
0.0
% BOD_5_
Removal
0.0
5.3
5.3
15.4
93.0
98.3
98.3
95.6
100
100
TSS
Load*
1.56
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.10
0.03
0.03
0.0
0.0
0.0
% TSS
Removal
0.0
35.9
35.9
35.9
93.6
98.1
98.1
100
100
100
Investment
Cost
0
31,000
61,000
115,000
452,000
626,000
604,000
1,570,000
2,040,000
2,013,000
Total
Yearly
Operating
Cost
0
5,800
37,000
59,000
194,000
213,000
210,000
74,000
93,000
90,000
Total
Yearly
Cost
0
12,000
45,000
62,000**
230,000
265,000
261,000
217,000
280,000
275,000
*Waste Loadings in Kilograms per Metric Ton of Melt
**Includes Sugar Savings of $10,000/yr. as a Result
of Entrainment Prevention.
108
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water is recycled and the blowdown impounded or discharged to a
municipal treatment system. The blowdown of barometric condenser
cooling water is assumed to be two percent of the total condenser flow.
Effluent waste loads associated with this control level are zero
kilograms per metric ton (zero pounds per ton) of melt.
G-1:
Recycle of Condenser Water Through
a Cooling Tower with an Assumed Two
Percent Blowdown to Controlled Land
Retention, in Addition to Alterna-
tive F.
COSTS:
G-2:
Incremental Investment Cost:
Total Investment Cost:
Total Yearly Cost:
$ 470,000
$2,040,000
$ 280,000
Recycle of Condenser Cooling Water
Through a Spray Pond with an Assumed
Two Percent Blowdown to Controlled Land
Retention in Addition to Alternative F.
COSTS:
REDUCTION BENEFITS:
Incremental Investment Cost:
Total Investment Cost:
Total Yearly Cost:
$ 443,000
$2,013,000
$ 275,000
An incremental reduction in plant BOD5 of 0.15
kilograms per metric ton (0.30 pounds per ton)
of melt is evidenced by addition of this
Alternative to Alternative F. Total reductions
of BOD5 and suspended solids are 100 percent.
Discharge of Process Wajste Strearns to Municipal Treatment System. For
the purpose of presenting cost information which is representative of
the industry, it is necessary to determine costs associated with various
schemes of discharge to municipal treatment systems. Twelve refineries
currently discharge all or a portion of their wastes in municipal
treatment systems. Three of these are liquid refineries and two are
combination crystalline - liquid refineries. The following schemes are
possible and the resulting costs presented.
M.T.fl: Discharge of Process Water to
Municipal Treatment
This method of treatment of process water is practiced by three of the
five liquid refineries and by both combination crystalline - liquid
refineries, all urbanly located. This technology is not available to
most rural refineries or to those refineries whose waste is not accepted
113
-------
by a municipal treatment system. It is however, a well demonstrated
treatment method and practiced by 42 percent of the nation's refineries.
The costs presented include those costs attributable to Alternative C.
COSTS: Incremental Investment Cost: $0
Total Investment Cost: $115,000
Total Operating Cost: $ 81,000
Total Yearly Cost: $ 84,000*
* Includes savings as a result of recovery of sugar which would
normally be entrained in the barometric condenser cooling
water.
M.T.t2: Recycle of Condenser Cooling Water Through
a Cooling Tower with an Assumed Two Percent
Slowdown to Municipal Treatment, in Addition
to M.T. t1
COSTS: Incremental Investment Cost: $101,000
Total Investment Cost: $216,000
Total Operating Cost: $ 97,000
Total Yearly Cost: $110,000
M.T.#3: Recycle of Condenser Cooling Water Through
a Spray Pond with an Assumed Two Percent
Blowdown to Municipal Treatment, in
Addition to M.T.fl
COSTS: Incremental Investment Cost: $ 79,000
Total Investment Cost: $194,000
Total Operating Cost: $ 94,000
Total Yearly Cost: $105,000
RELATED ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT AND CONTROL.
TECHNOLOGIES"- CANE SUGAR REFINING
To process 0.9 metric tons (one ton) of raw sugar into refined sugar, it
is estimated that 60 and 64 kilowatt-hours of electricity are required
for crystalline and liquid sugar refineries, respectively. This elec-
trical energy is affected by process variations, in-place pollution
control devices, and amount of lighting.
At a cost of 2.3 cents per kilowatt-hour, a crystalline sugar refinery
processing 136,250 metric tons (150,000 tons) of raw sugar per year,
would have a yearly energy cost of $209,000. Associated with the
control alternatives are additional annual energy costs. These are
estimated to be:
114
-------
Alternatives
Cost
A
B-l
B-2
c
D
E-l
E-2
F
G-l
G-2
M.T.
M.T.
M.T.
$
#1
#2
f3
-0-
300
1,200
1,200
8,140
27,000
27,000
1,460
19,700
14,000
1,200
19,300
13,600
At a cost of 2.3 cents per kilowatt-hour, a crystalline cane sugar
refinery processing 475,000 metric tons (525,000 tons) of raw sugar per
year would have a yearly energy cost of $725,000. Associated with the
control alternatives are additional annual energy costs. These are
estimated to te:
Alternative^
A
B-l
B-2
C
D
E-l
E-2
F
G-l
G-2
M.T. f1
M.T. tt2
M.T. #3
Cost
-0-
500
1,200
1,200
28,000
83,000
71,000
1,600
51,800
40,400
1,200
51,200
39,800
At a cost of 2.3 cents per kilowatt-hour, a liquid cane sugar refinery
processing 127,000 metric tons (140,000 tons) of raw sugar per year
would have a yearly energy cost of $206,000. Associated with the
control alternatives are additional annual energy costs. These are
estimated to te:
Alternatives
Cost
A
B-l
B-2
C
D
E-l
5 -0-
300
1,200
1,200
21,300
27,000
115
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E-2 26,000
F 1,400
G-l 6,500
G-3 5,300
M.T. #1 1,200
M.T. #2 6,200
M.T. #3 5,100
NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS OF ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT AND CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY
Air Pollution
Waste water lagooning, particularly under anaerobic conditions, can
promote the growth of sulfur reducing organisms and associated noxious
gases. The maintenance of aerobic conditions can be maintained by the
design of shallow ponds (two feet or less), by the use of aerators
(although these can increase an existing problem), by pH adjustment, or
by other means.
As previously mentioned, spray drift from cooling towers and spray ponds
can present a problem in urban areas. This can be reduced by proper
design, and can probably be eliminated for most wind conditions.
Solid Wastes
The removal of solids from waste water produces a solid waste disposal
problem in the form of sludges. In these cases, where the sludges are
to be impounded, previously discussed measures for protection of ground
water must be taken. Sanitary landfills, when available, usually cffer
an economical solution if hauling distances are reasonable. The addi-
tional solids waste produced by waste water treatment is not expected to
be a significant problem. Technology and knowledge are available to
prevent harmful effects to the environment as a result of land disposal
of sludge.
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SECTION IX
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF
THE BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
The effluent limitations which must be achieved by July 1, 1977, are to
specify the degree of effluent reduction attainable through the applica-
tion of the Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available.
Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available is generally
based upon the average of best existing performance by plants of various
sizes, ages and unit processes within the industrial category and/or
subcategory. This average is not based upon the broad range of plants
within the cane sugar refining segment of the sugar processing category,
but based upon performance levels achievable by exemplary plants.
Consideration must also be given to:
a. The total cost of application of technology
in relation to the effluent reduction benefits
to be achieved from such application;
b. The size and age of equipment and facilities involved;
c. The process employed;
d. The engineering aspects of the application
of various types of control techniques;
e. Process changes;
f. Non-water quality environmental impact
(including energy requirements);
Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available emphasizes
treatment facilities at the end of a manufacturing process but includes
the control technologies within the process itself when these are
considered to be normal practice within the industry.
A further consideration is the degree of economic and engineering
reliability which must be established for the technology to be
"currently available". As a result of demonstration projects, pilot
plants, and general use, there must exist a high degree of confidence in
the engineering and economic practicability of the technology at the
time of construction or installation of the control facilities.
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I££LUENT_REpyCTION_ATTAINABLE_THROUGH_THE_APPLICATION_gF_BEST_PRACTICABLE
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE FOR THE~CANE SUGAR, REFINING_SEGMENli
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through VIII of
this document, it has been determined that the degree of effluent
reduction attainable through the application of the Best Practicable
Control Technology Currently Available is that resulting from maximum
sucrose entrainment prevention in barometric condenser cooling water,
elimination of a discharge of filter cake, and biological treatment of
all process water other than uncontaminated (non-contact) cooling water
and barometric condenser cooling water. The effluent levels attainable
for this degree of reduction are shown in Table 1.
The final effluent BODjS limits were derived by assuming the use of a
biological treatment system to attain reductions in process water BOD5
loading to 30 and 50 mg/1 for crystalline and liquid cane sugar
refineries respectively, and attaining a BOD5 entrainment reduction in
barometric condenser cooling water to 10 mg/1. This does not imply that
plants must necessarily duplicate the assumed raw waste loadings, water
usages, and treatment efficiencies. It is possible for plants to
achieve the indicated final effluent waste loads operating at lower
average treatment efficiencies but receiving lower raw waste loads
and/or using less process or barometric condenser cooling water. In
addition, an entirely different approach such as disposal by controlled
irrigation or controlled land impoundage may be employed.
Suspended Solids
The final effluent TSS limits were derived by assuming process water TSS
loading reductions to 40 and 60 mg/1 for crystalline and liquid cane
sugar refineries, respectively. No TSS limit has been established for
barometric condenser cooling water because of the low TSS raw waste
loading associated with this waste water stream.
Identification °! Best Practicable Control Technology Currently
Available
Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available for the cane
sugar refining segment of the sugar processing category is recycle and
reuse of certain process waters of the sugar processing category within
the refining process, minimization of sucrose entrainment in barometric
condenser cooling water, elimination of a discharge of filter cake and
biological treatment of excess process waters. Implementation of this
requires the following:
a. Collection and recovery of all floor drainage.
118
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b. Minimization of sucrose entrainment in barometric condenser
cooling water by the use of improved baffling systems, demisters, and/or
other control devices.
c. Dry handling of filter cakes after desweetening with disposal to
sanitary landfills, or complete containment of filter cake slurries.
d. Biological treatment of all waste water discharges other than
uncontaminated (non-contact) cooling water and barometric condenser
cooling water.
Engineering Aspects of Control Technique Applications
The technology defined for this level is practicable. There are
refineries which currently collect all floor drains. Most refineries
currently achieve either dry handling or complete containment of filter
cake. All of the control devices described for entrainment control have
been demonstrated by various refineries. Biological treatability of
refinery waste waters has been demonstrated by the twelve refineries
that discharge into municipal biological treatment systems.
Costs of_Application
The costs of attaining the effluent reductions set forth herein are
summarized in Section VIII, Ccstx_Ener2yx_and__Norv^Water_2ualitY_Asp_ects.
The investment costs associated with this level of technology represent
approximately 2% of the total investment needed to build the typical re-
finery. The total cost to the cane sugar refining segment is approxi-
mately $5,000,000.
Non^water Quality Environmental Impact
The primary non-water quality environmental impacts are summarized in
Section VIII, Costx Energy and Non-water Quality Aspects^ The major
concern is the strong reliance upon the land for ultimate disposal of
wastes. However, the technology is available to assure that land dis-
posal systems are maintained commensurate with soil tolerances.
A secondary concern is the generation of solid wastes in the form of
sludges and rmds and the possibility of odors resulting from impoundage
lagoons. In both cases, responsible operation and maintenance
procedures coupled with sound environmental planning have been shown to
obviate the problems.
Factgrs_tg be Considered_in_Agp_lYing_Effluent_ Limitations
The above assessment of what constitutes the best practicable control
technology currently available is predicated on the assumption of a
degree of uniformity among refineries that, strictly speaking, does not
119
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exist. Tables 21, 22, and 25 list various treatment control
alternatives and summarize requirements and benefits associated with
each. It is believed that the data in these tables can be a valuable
aid in assessing problems and associated solutions for individual
installations.
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SECTION X
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF
THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
INTRODUCTION
The effluent limitations which must be achieved by July I, 1983, are to
specify the degree of effluent reduction attainable through the
application of the best available technology economically achievable.
The best available technology economically achievable is not based upon
an average of the best performance within an industrial category, but is
to be determined by identifying the very best ccntrol and treatment
technology employed by a specific point source within the industrial
category or subcategory, or where it is readily transferable from one
industrial process to another. A specific finding must be made as to
the availability of control measures and practices to eliminate the
discharge of pollutants, taking into account the cost of such
elimination.
Consideration must also be given to:
(a) the age of equipment and facilities involved;
(b) the process employed;
(c) the engineering aspects of the application of
various types of control techniques;
(d) process changes ;
(e) cost of achieving the effluent reduction
resulting from application of the best
economically achievable technology;
(f) non-water quality environmental impact
(including energy requirements).
In contrast to the best practicable control technology currently avail-
able, the best economically achievable technology assesses the availa-
bility in all cases of in-process controls as well as control or addi-
tional treatment techniques employed at the end of a production process.
Those plant processes and control technologies which at the pilot plant
semi-works, cr other levels, have demonstrated both technological per-
formances and economic viability at a level sufficient to reasonably
justify investing in such facilities may be considered in assessing the
best available economically achievable technology. The best available
economically achievable technology is the highest degree of control
technology that has been achieved or has been demonstrated to be capable
of being designed for plant scale operation up to and including "no
discharge" of pollutants. Although economic factors are considered in
this development, the costs for this level of control are intended to be
the top-of-the-line of current technology subject to limitations imposed
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by economic ar.d engineering feasibility. However, the best available
technology economically achievable may be characterized by some
technical risk with respect tc performance and with respect to certainty
of costs. Therefore, the best available technology economically
achievable may necessitate some industrially sponsored development work
prior to its application.
AVAILABLE_TEC™OLOGY_ECONOMICALLY_ACHIEVABLE-ZEFFLUENT_LIMITATIQNS
GUIDELINES
Based upon the information contained in this* document, it has been
determined that the degree of effluent reduction attainable through the
application of the Best Available Technology Economically Achievable is
that resulting from the technology of cooling and recycling barometric
condenser cooling water with biological treatment of the blowdown and
the addition of sand filtration to further treat the effluent from the
biological treatment system. The effluent levels attainable for this
degree of reduction are shown in Table 1.
Identif ication_of_Best_Availablg_Technology_EconQmically Achievable
Best Available Technology Economically Achievable for the cane sugar
refining segment is the technology described in Section IX of this
document with the addition of a cooling and recycling system for
barometric condenser cooling water, with the blowdown from the recycling
system being discharged to the biological treatment system, and the
addition of sand filtration to further treat the effluent from the
biological treatment system. Alternatives to this system would be the
futher reduction of sucrose entrainment in condenser waters to an
acceptable level for discharge, controlled irrigation, and controlled
land impoundage.
Engineering A spec ts_of_Ccntrol Techniques Applicationg
The technology defined for this level is currently practiced by one
major cane sugar refinery in the southern United States. The specific
recycling method in this instance is a cooling tower.
Cos t s_ gf
The costs of obtaining the effluent reductions set forth herein are
summarized in Section VIII, Cogt^ Energy^ and_Non-Waterguality_ Aspects.
The investment costs associated with this level of technology represent
approximately 3.5 percent of the total investment needed to build the
typical refinery. The total investment cost to the cane sugar refining
segment is approximately $15,000,000, or $10,000,000 above that required
to achieve the best practicable control technology currently available.
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-Watgr_ Qua1ity_ Enyircnmen ta1_Impact
The non-water quality environmental impact would be an intensification
of those impacts described in Section IX.
Factors to be Considered in Applying Effluent Limitations
The same factors as discussed in Section IX should be considered for
this level. For refineries in rural areas, spray ponds or irrigation
canals may be more feasible for recycling barometric condenser cooling
water than cooling towers. Tables 21, 22, and 25 list various treatment
control alternatives and summarize requirements and benefits associated
with each.
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SECTION XI
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
INTRODUCTION
In addition to guidelines reflecting the best practicable control
technology currently available and the best available technology
economically achievable, applicable to existing point source discharges
July 1, 1977, and July 1, 1983, respectively, the Act requires that
performance standards be established for new sources. The term "new
source" is defined in the Act to mean "any source, the construction of
which is commenced after the publication of proposed regulations
prescribing a standard of performance." New source technology shall be
evaluated by adding to the consideration underlying the identification
of best available technology economically achievable a determination of
what higher levels of pollution control are available through the use of
improved production processes and/or treatment techniques. Thus, in
addition to considering the best in-plant and end-of-process control
technology, identified in best available technology economically
achievable, new source technology is to be based upon an analysis of how
the level of effluent may be reduced by changing the production process
itself. Alternative processes, operating methods or other alternatives
must be considered. However, the end result of the analysis will be to
identify effluent standards which reflect levels of control achievable
through the use of improved production processes (as well as control
technology) , rather than prescribing a particular type of process or
technology which must be employed. A further determination which must
be made for new source technology is whether a standard permitting no
discharge of pollutants is practicable.
Ftors -to be Taken into Consideration
At least the following factors should be considered with respect to
production processes which are to be analyzed in assessing new source
technology:
(a) the type of process employed and process changes;
(b) operating methods ;
(c) batch as opposed to continuous operations;
(d) use of alternative raw materials and mixes of
raw materials ;
(e) use of dry rather than wet processes (including
substitution of recoverable solvents for water) ;
and
(f) recovery of pollutants as by-products.
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NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR THE CANE SUGAR REFINING SEGMENT OF
THE SUGAR PROCESSING INDUSTRY
Because of the large number of specific improvements in management
practices, design of eqiupment, and processes and systems that have some
potential of development, it is not possible to determine, within
reasonable accuracy, the potential waste reductions achievable through
their application in new sources. However, the implementation of those
in-plant and end-of-pipe controls described in Section VII, Control _and
Treatment_ .Technology, would enable new sources to achieve the effluent
discharge levels defined in Section X.
The short lead time for application of new source performance standards
(less than a year versus approximately four and ten years for other
guidelines) affords little opportunity to engage in extensive
development and testing of new procedures. The single justification for
more restrictive limitations for new sources than for existing sources
would be one of relative economics of installation in new plants versus
modification of existing plants. There is no data to indicate that the
economics of the application of in-plant and end-of-pipe technologies
described in Section VII, Control and_Treatment_TechnQlQgy, would be
significantly weighted in favcr of new sources.
The attainment of zero discharge of pollutants does not appear to be
feasible for cane sugar refineries, other than those with sufficient and
suitable land for irrigation or total impoundage.
In view of the aforegoing, it is recommended that the effluent
limitations for new sources be the same as those determined to be best
available control technology economically achievable, presented in
Section X.
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SECTION XII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Environmental Protection Agency wishes to acknowledge the
contributions of Environmental Science and Engineering, Inc., (ESE) of
Gainesville, Florida, with the assistance of F. C. Schaffer and
Associates, Inc. (FCS) of Eaton Rouge, Louisiana, and Reynolds, Smith
and Hills (RSSH) of Jacksonville, Florida. The work of ESE was
performed under the direction cf Dr. Richard H. Jones, Project Director,
Mr. John D. Crane, Project Manager, and Mr. Robert A. Morrell,
Assistant Project Manager.
Appreciation is expressed to those in the Environmental Protection
Agency who assisted in the performance of the project: Kenneth Dostal,
NERC, Corvallis; Erik Krabbe, Region II; Ed Struzeski, NFIC, Denver;
Karl Johnson, ORAP, Headquarters; George Keeler, OR&D Headquarters;
Allen Cywin, Ernst P. Hall, C. Ronald McSwiney, George R. Webster, John
Riley, Richard V. Watkins, and Linda K. Rose, Effluent Guidelines
Division; and many others in the EPA regional offices and research
centers who assisted in providing information and assistance to the
project. Special acknowledgement is made of the assistance given by
Robert W. Dellinger, Project Officer, whose leadership and direction on
this program are most appreciated.
Appreciation is extended to Mr. Irving Hoff of the United States Cane
Sugar Refiners' Association (USCSRA) and to the members of the USCSRA
Environmental Task Force for their willing cooperaticn. Appreciation is
particularly extended to individuals within the refining industry who
provided assistance and cooperaticn in supplying information and
arranging en-site visits. Individuals who particularly deserve mention
are Mr. Thomas Baker of Amstar Corporation, Mr. Rufus Herring cf the
Savannah Refinery, Mr. Fred Bruder of SuCrest, Mr. George Spink of North
American Sugar, Dr. P. F. Meads of CSH, Mr. A. M. Bartolo of Imperial,
and Dr. J. C. F. Chen of Southdown.
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SECTION XIII
REFERENCES
1. Spencer, G. L. , and Meade, G. P., Ca ne_Sugar_Handbook , Ninth Edition,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, (1964).
2. Keller, A. G. , and Huckabay, H. K. , "Pollution Abatement in the Sugar
Industry of Louisiana," Journal Wat er_Pollution_Control Federation ,
37, 7, (July 1960) .
Biaggi, N., "The Sugar Industry in Puerto Rico and Its Relation to
the Industrial Waste Problem," Journal_Water_Pollution_iCQntrol
Federation, U0j_ 8, (August 1968) .
4- ^D^Ddus^ial_Waste_Gjaide_to_the_Cane_Sugar_lndustrY, U. S. Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service
Publication 691, Washington, D.C., (1963).
5. "Policy on Subsurface Emplacement of Fluids by Well Injection," A
Policy Statement issued by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
with Accompanying "Recommended Data Requirements for Environmental
Evaluation of Subsurface Emplacement of Fluids by Well Injection,"
Washington, D.C., (February 1973).
6 • Py^Ii£_ii§^th_Ser vice_Dr inking_Wat er _St andar ds , ESYi§ed_l 9 6 2 , U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, U.S. Public Health
Service Publication 956, Washington, D.C., (1962).
7. Serner, H.E., "Entrainment in Vacuum Pans," Sugar_Y_Azucar , (January
1969) .
8. Personal Communication from F. C. Schaffer, (June 1973) .
9. Bhaskaran, T. R., and Chakrabarty, R. N. , "Pilot Plant for Treat-
ment of Cane Sugar Waste," Journal Water_Pgllution Contrgl^Federa-
tion, (July 1966) .
10. §tate~of-Art, Sugarbeet_Processing_Waste_Treatment, Environmental
Protection Agency, Water Pollution Control Research Series 12060
DSI, (July 1971) .
11. Complete Mix_Actiyated_sludge_Treatment of Citrus_Process_Wastes ,
Environmental Protection Agency, Water Pollution Control Research
Series 12060 EZY, (August 1971) .
12. T£§§tm^nt_of_Citrjas_Pj:oces^^ng_Wa^tes, Environmental Protection
Agency, Water Pollution Control Research Series 12060, (October
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1970) .
13. Compari^cn_of_Barornetric_and_SurJace_Conder^sers, Unpublished
paper by the U.S. Cane Sugar Refiners' Association, (March 9,
1973) .
14. Tsugita, R. A., et.al., "Treatment of Beet Sugar Plant Flume Water,"
British Columbia Research Council, University of British Columbia,
(1964) .
15. ApBlicatign_fgr_FSUOD Pi schargg to Delaware Estuary, Report
Submitted to Delaware River Basin Commission, by Amstar Phila-
delphia Refinery, (July 1972) .
16. Baumert, G.S., Ref inerY_Vjastes_and_Pollution_Contggl^ SSI, (1969).
17. Dennis, Warren H., A Statistical Analysis of the BQD5 and FSOD
^of_Inta}^_and_Disc^arg^_W^ter^t_Amstar_Phila
ry_, Warf Institute, Madison, Wisconsin, (1973) .
18. Guzman, Ramon M. , "Control of Cane Sugar Wastes in Puerto Rico,"
Journal^Water Pol lutign^Cgntrol Federation, _3Jt, 12, (December 1962)
19. Kemp, P. H. , and Cox, S. M. H., Pol lution_and_ Pol lution_ Abatement
in_t h e_Natal_S ugar_Indu st ry , Proceedings of the 13th Congress of
the International Society of Sugar cane Technologists, (1969) .
20. Oswald, William J., et.al., Anaerobic-Aerobic Ponds for Treatment
of_B eet_§ucjar_Was_tes , Proceedings, Second National Symposium on
Food Processing Wastes, Denver, Colorado, (March 23-6, 1971) .
21. Pace, G. L., "Making Cane Sugar for Refining," Chemical .and Metal-
lurgical Engineering, 48, (July 1941) .
22. Salley, George H., A_Re£ort_on_the_Florida_Sugar_Industry_, Private
Publication, (1967) .
23. Shreve, R. N. , Chemical .^Process Industries, Third Edition, McGraw-
Hill, New York, (1967) .
24. Smith, Dudley, Where^Puerto Rico Stands in Sugar, Paper Presented
to the Sugar Club of New York, (February 15, 1972) .
25. South Florida Sugar_lndustry., Florida State Board of Health, Bureau
of Sanitary Engineering, Jacksonville, Florida, (1964) .
26. Structure of the U^S. Cane_Sugar_Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Economic Research Service, (1972) .
128
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27. §ugar_Manual, Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, (1972).
28. Sugar Reports, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Stabi-
lization and Conservation Service, Washington, D.C., (1971).
29. §ugar_Statistics_and_Related_Data, Volumes I and II, Revised, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., (February 1970).
129
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SECTION XIV
GLOSSARY
Affinati.on - Washing to remove the adhering film of molasses from the
surface of the raw sugar crystal, the first step in the refining operation.
Af f inatign_Centrif ugal - A high speed centrifugal which separates syrup
and molasses from sugar. Syrup from this centrifugal is recycled to the
mingling phase of refinement.
Alkalinity - Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of water to neutral-
ize an acid.
MEh£LD§El2ihol_Test ~ A test for sucrose concentration in condensate and
condenser water. The method is based on a color change which occurs in
the reaction of the inorganic constituents.
* In analysis of sugar products, sulfuric acid is added to the
sample, and this residue, as "sulfated ash" heated to 800°C is taken to
be a measure of the inorganic constituents.
§2I ~ See Condenser, Barometric.
Barcmetric_Leg - A long vertical pipe through which spent condenser water
leaves the condenser. Serves as a source of vacuum.
!§£221§tric_Leg_Water ~ Condenser cooling water.
Sioi22i£^l_W|LStewater_Treatment - Forms of waste water treatment in which
bacterial or biochemical action is intensified to stabilize, oxidize, and
nitrify the unstable organic matter present. Trickling filters, and
activated sludge processes are examples.
Blackstrap Molasses - Molasses produced by the final vacuum pans, and from
which sugar is unrecoverable by ordinary means. Blackstrap is usually
sold for various uses.
BODjj - Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a semiquantitative measure of bio-
logical decomposition of organic matter in a water sample. It is deter-
mined by measuring the oxygen required by micro-organisms to oxidize the
contaminants of a water sample under standard laboratory conditions. The
standard conditions include incubation for five days at 20°C.
Boilgr Ash - The solid residue remaining from combustion of fuel in a
bciler furnace.
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!°il§£_Zeedwater - Water used to generate steam in a boiler. This water
is usually condensate, except during boiler startup, when treated fresh
water is ncrirally used.
Boiler_Blgwdown - Discharge from a boiler system designed to prevent a
buildup of dissolved solids.
B2Qe_£har - An adsorption material used in cane sugar refineries which is
utilized in the removal of organic and inorganic impurities from sugar
liquor.
Calandria - The steam belt or heating element in an evaporator or vacuum
pan, consisting of vertical tube sheets constituting the heating surface.
Calandria Evaporator - An evaporator using a calandria; the standard
evaporator in current use in the sugar industry.
Calandria_Vacuum_Pan - A vacuum pan using a calandria; the standard
vacuum pan in current use in the sugar industry.
S-SQtrifugaticn ~ A procedure used to separate materials of differing
densities by subjecting them to high speed revolutions. In sugar pro-
cessing, centrifugation is used to remove sugar crystals from massecuite.
Char_cist_ern - Cylindrical vats, measuring approximately 10 feet in
diameter by 20 feet deep, which contain approximately 40 tons of bone
char.
Clarification - The process of removing undissolved materials (largely
insoluble lime salts) from cane juice by settling, filtration, or
flotation.
Coagulation - In water and waste water treatment, the destabilization
and initial aggregation of colloidal and finely divided suspended matter
by the addition of a floe-forming chemical or by biological process.
COD - Chemical Oxygen Demand. Its determination provides a measure cf
the oxygen demand equivalent to that portion of matter in a sample which
is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant.
Condensate - Water resulting from the condensation of vapor.
Condenser - A heat exchange device used for condensation.
Barometric: Condenser in which the cooling water and the vapors
are in physical contact; the condensate is mixed
in the cooling water.
Surface: Condenser in which heat is transferred through a
131
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barrier that separates the cooling water and the
vapor. The condensate can be recovered separately.
Condenser^Water - Water used for cooling in a condenser.
£L£y,§iallizatign ~ The process through which sugar crystals separate from
massecuite.
Recasting ~ Separation of a liquid from solids by drawing off the upper
layer after the heavier material has settled.
- The refining process of removing color from sugar. The
predominantly used methods involve the use of bone char, granular acti-
vated carbon, vegetable carbon, or powdered activated carbon.
Defecants - Chemicals which are added to melt liquor in order to remove
remaining impurities. They include phosphoric acid (or carbon dioxide)
and lime. The result of the treatment is the neutralization of organic
acids and formation of a tri-calcium phosphate precipitate which entrains
much of the colloidal and other suspended matter in the liquor.
Defecation Process - A method for purifying the cane juice involving lime,
heat, and a small amount of phosphate. The result is the formation of an
insoluble precipitate which is then removed in the clarification process.
Demineralization - Removal of mineral impurities from sugar.
~ Glucose. An invert sugar with the formula C6#H12O6. Dextrose
is a minor component of raw sugar.
piatomacegus^Earth - A viable earthy deposit composed of nearly pure
silica and consisting essentially of the shells of the microscopic plants
called diatoms. Diatomaceous earth is utilized by the cane sugar industry
as a filter aid.
Disaccharides - A sugar such as sucrose composed of two monosaccharides.
D^O^ - Dissolved Oxygen is a measure of the amount of free oxygen in a
water sample. It is dependent on the physical, chemical, and biochemical
activities of the water sample.
Dry-cleaning - Cleaning of raw cane without the use of water.
[VEffect^ - In systems where evaporators are operated in series of several
units, each evaporator is known as an effect.
iQtrainment - The entrapment of liquid droplets containing sugar in the
water vapor produced by evaporation of syrup.
Evaporator - A closed vessel heated by steam and placed under a vacuum.
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The basic principle is that syrup enters the evaporator at a temperature
higher than its boiling point under the reduced pressure, or is heated
to that temperature. The result is flash evaporation of a portion of the
water in the syrup.
False Crystals - New sugar crystals which form spontaneously without the
presence of others. This event is undesirable, and therefore vacuum pan
conditions are maintained in a narrow range of sucrose concentration and
temperature which precludes their formation.
Filter ^Cake - The residue remaining after filtration of the sludge
produced by the clarification process.
Filter Mud - A mud produced by slurrying filter cake. The resultant waste
stream is a significant source of solids and organics within a
cane sugar refinery.
~ *n the past the most common type of filter used to separate
solids from sludge. It consists of a simple and efficient plate and frame
filter which allows filtered juice to mix with clarified juice and be sent
to the evaporators.
Fixed Beds - A filter or adsorption bed where the entire media is exhausted
before any of the media is cleaned.
Flocculant - A substance that induces or promotes fine particles in a
colloidal suspension to aggregate into small lumps, which are more easily
removed.
Floorwas_h - Water used to wash factory or refinery floors and equipment.
Flotation - The raising of suspended matter to the surface of the liquid
in a tank as scum - by aeration, the evolution of gas, chemicals, elec-
trolysis, heat, or bacterial decomposition - and the subsequent removal
of the scum by skimming.
Frothing^ Clarifiers - Flotation devices that separate tri-calcium phosphate
precipitate from the liquor.
Furfural - An aldehyde C4H3OCHO used in making Furaw and as a resin.
Glucose - Dextrose.
GPP - Gallons per day.
GPM - Gallons per minute.
Granular Actiyated_Carbon - Substance used for decolorization of sugar.
It differs from bone char in that it produces more sweet water, adsorbs
no ash, and is normally not washed. There is little waste water produced
from this process.
133
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~ The process which removes remaining moisture from sugar,
thus also separates the crystals from one another.
Granulator - A rotary dryer used in sugar refineries to remove free
moisture from sugar crystals prior to packaging or storing.
fiY^£Oii2S^i2D ~ Tne addition of H2O to a molecule. In sugar production,
hydrolization of sucrose results in an inversion into glucose and fructose
and represents lost production.
Impoundment - A pond, lake, tank, basin, or other space which is used for
storage of waste water.
" Fine particles of bagasse, fats, waxes, and gums contained
in the cane juice after irilling. These impurities are reduced by
successive refining processes.
!SY.ert_Suc[ars - Glucose and fructose formed by the splitting of sucrose
by the enzyme sucrase.
§ ~ Reversible exchange of ions contained in a crystal for
different ions in solution without destruction of crystal structure or
disturbance of electrical neutrality. Used in sugar refining for color
removal or removal of impurities .
.B§JLiDs~ Resins consisting of three-dimensicnal hydrocarbon
networks to which are attached ionizable groups.
Isgmers - Two or more compounds containing the same elements and having
the same molecular weights, but differing in structure and properties,
e.g. glucose and fructose.
Juices - Clarified: The juice obtained as a result of the clarification
process , and synonymous with evaporator supply when
the filtered juice is returned to the mixed juice.
Mixed: The juice sent from the extraction plant to the
boiling house.
Leyulose - Fructose. An invert sugar composed of six carbon chains with
the formula C6H12O6. Levulose is a component of raw sugar.
Magma - A heated sugar syrup solution to which raw crystals have been
added.
Magma mingler - A revolving coiled mixer in which magma is heated in
order to facilitate loosening the molasses film from raw sugar crystals;
the first step in the refinement process.
134
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Mas^ecuite - Mixture of sugar crystals and syrup which originates in the
boiling of the sugar (literally cooked mass).
Malt^Liguor - Molten sugar to which has been added a small amount of
water (half the weight of the sugar) .
MGD - Million gallons per day.
mg/1 - Milligrams per liter (equals parts per million ±ppm1 when the
specific gravity is unity).
Moj-Sture - Loss in weight due to drying under specified conditions,
expressed as percentage of total weight.
Molasses - A dark-colored syrup containing non-sugars produced in process-
ing cane and beet sugar.
Mgngsaccharides - Simplified form of sugar.
Moving Beds - A filtration or adsorption bed where the media is con-
stantly being removed and fresh media added.
Mud - The precipitated sludge resulting from the clarification process.
Multiple Effect^Evaporation - The operation of evaporators in a series.
Nutrients - The nutrients in contaminated water are routinely analyzed
to characterize the food available for micro-organisms to promote organic
decomposition. They are:
Ammgnia_Nitrggen (NH3), mg/1 as N
K-jeldahl Nitrogen (ON) , mg/1 as N
Nitrate_Nitrogen (NO3), mg/1 as N
Tota1_Phosphate (TP), mg/1 as P
Ortho_Phosphate (OP), mg/1 as P.
gH - pH is a measure of the negative log of hydrogen ion concentraticn.
Phases of Supersaturation - metastable phase in which existing sugar
crystals grow but new crystals do not form; the intermediate phase in
which existing crystals grow and new crystals do form; and the labile
phase in which new crystals form spontaneously without the presence of
others.
Pl§te_ajid_Franie_Filter ~ A filtering device consisting of a "screen"
fastened inside a metal frame.
FOL - The value determined by single polarization of the normal weight of
a sugar product made up to a total volume of 100 milliliters at 20°C,
135
-------
clarified when necessary, with dry lead subacetate and read in a tube
200 milliliters long at 20°C, using the Bates-Jackson saccharimeter scale.
The term is used in calculations as if it were a real substance.
E2iY§i§£troly_tes ~ Coagulent aids consisting of long chained organic
molecules.
Precoat_Filter - A type of filter in which the media is applied to
an existing surface prior to filtration.
Raw_Sugar - An intermediate product consisting of crystals of high purity
covered with a film of low quality syrup.
RecrY§tallization - Formation of new crystals from previously melted
sugar liqucr. Recrystallization is encouraged by evaporators and accom-
plished in vacuum pans.
B§2§S§E§t.ion_Kilns "*" Ovens which operate with a controlled amount of
air, and in which bone char is placed for renewal of its capacities
for buffering and decolorizing.
Regeneration of Char - After some sixty hours of operation, the de-
colorizing ability of bone char decreases to an unacceptable level,
and the char must be washed and regenerated by heat in kilns or char
house furnaces.
Remelt - A solution of low grade sugar in clarified juice or water.
" A color indicator test for determining the concen-
tration of sucrose in condensate and condenser waters.
Rotary Vacuum Filter - A rotating drum filter which utilizes suction
to separate solids from the sludge produced by clarification.
tion ~ Tne use of water in the milling process to dissolve
sucrose. Identical, in this connotation, with imbibition and macer-
ation.
Sged^Sugar - Small sucrose crystals which provide a surface for con-
tinued crystal growth.
Settlings - The material which collects in the bottom portion of a
clarif ier.
Sludgg - The separated precipitate from the clarification process. It
consists largely of insoluble lime salts and includes calcium phosphates,
coagulate albumin, fats, acids and gums, iron, alumina, and other mat-
erial.
~ A mixture of water and solids. Filter cakes, ash, or other
136
-------
solids may be slurried to facilitate handling.
Solids - Various types of solids are commonly determined on water
samples. These types of solids are:
X2tal_Sglids (TS): The material left after evaporation and
drying of a sample at 103° to 105°C.
Dissolved Solids (DS): The difference between the total and
suspended solids.
Volatile Solids (VS): Organic material which is lost when
the sample is heated to 550°C.
Settleable_Solids (STS):The materials which settle in an
Immhoff cone in one hour.
StabJLlization_Pond - A type of oxidation pond in which biological oxi-
dation of organic matter is effected by natural or artificially acceler-
ated transfer of oxygen to the water from air.
Strike - The massecuite content of a vacuum pan.
Sucrose - A disaccharide having the formula C12H22O11. The terms sucrose
and sugar are generally interchangeable, and the common sugar of ccmmerce
is sucrose in varying degrees of purity. Refined cane sugar is essen-
tially 100 percent sucrose.
Sugar - The sucrose crystals, including adhering mother liquor, remaining
after centrifugation.
Ccmmercial: Sugar from high grade massecuite, which enters into
commerce.
Lew Grade: Sugar from low grade massecuite, synonymous with
remelt sugar.
96 DA: A value used for reporting commercial sugar on a
common basis, calculated from an empirical formula
issued by the United States Department of Agri-
culture.
Supersaturation - The condition of a solution when it contains more
solute (sucrose) than would be present under normal pressure and temp-
erature, when equilibrium is established between the saturated solution
and undissolved solute, crystal growth commences.
§ur^ac:e_Conden_ser - See condenser. Surface.
Susj3endj?d_soli.ds - solids found in waste water or in the stream which in
most cases can be removed by filtration. The origin of suspended matter
may be man-made wastes or natural sources as from erosion.
YJIB2£ ~ Steam liberated from boiling sugar liquor.
137
-------
Vap_gr_Belt - The distance between the liquid level in air evaporator or
vacuum pan and the top of the cylindrical portion of the body.
yegetabj.e_Carbon - A media for sugar decolorization.
~ Any liquid waste material produced by a refinery.
138
-------
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