EPA 440/1-74/033-a
Group II
Development Document for
Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines
and New Source Performance Standards
for the
WOOD FURNITURE AND
FIXTURE MANUFACTURING
Segment of the
TIMBER PRODUCTS PROCESSING
Point Source Category
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
NOVEMBER 1974
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DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT
for
PROPOSED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
and
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
for the
WOOD FURNITURE AND FIXTURE MANUFACTURING SEGMENT
OF THE TIMBER PRODUCTS PROCESSING POINT SOURCE
CATEGORY
Russell E. Train
Administrator
James L. Agee
Assistant Administrator for Water and Hazardous Materials
Allen Cywin
Director, Effluent Guidelines Division
Richard E. Williams
Project Officer
November 1974
Effluent Guidelines Division
Office of Water and Hazardous Materials
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
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ABSTRACT
This document presents the findings of a study of wood
furniture and fixture manufacturing. This study is part of
an extensive study of the timber products processing
industry for the purpose of developing effluent limitations
guidelines for the industry with the purpose of implementing
Sections 301, 304, 306, and 307 of the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972.
The proposed effluent limitations guidelines contained
herein"set forth the degree of effluent reduction attainable
through the application of the best practicable control
technology currently available (BPCTCA) and the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology economically achievable (BATEA)
which must be achieved by existing point sources by July 1,
1977, and July 1, 1983, respectively. The standards of
performance for new sources (NSPS) contained herein set
forth the degree of effluent reduction which is achievable
through the application of the best available demonstrated
control technology, processes, operating methods, or other
alternatives.
The wood furniture and fixture manufacturing segment has
been divided into four subcategories: (1) Furniture and
fixture production which neither employs wet spray booths
nor has laundry facilities, (2) furniture and fixture
production which employs no wet spray booths but which has
laundry facilities, (3) furniture and fixture production
which employs wet spray booths but which does not have
laundry facilities, and (4) furniture and fixture production
which employs wet spray booths and which has laundry
facilities. The proposed regulations for all three levels
of technology as set forth above establish the reguirement
of no discharge of process waste water pollutants to
navigable waters for all subcategories. Supportive data and
rationale for development of the proposed effluent
limitations guidelines and standards of performance are
contained in this document.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
CONCLUSIONS
RECOMMENDATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Purpose and Authority
Summary of Methods
Definition of the Industry
Background of the Industry
Description of the Process
INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION
WATER USE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
Water Usage
Wastewater Characterization
Model Plants
SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
Wastewater Parameters of Pollutional Significance
PAGE
1
3
5
5
6
8
9
13
25
31
31
36
39
43
43
VII CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
In-Plant Control Measures
Existing Treatment Technology
Potential Treatment Technology
Description of Model Systems
VIII COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
Cost and Reduction Benefits of Alternative
Treatment and Control Technologies
Related Energy Requirements of Alternative
Treatment and Control Technologies
Non-Water Quality Aspects of Alternative
Treatment and Control Technologies
IX BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
53
53
54
56
56
67
67
86
90
91
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SECTION
X BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE 95
XI NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS 97
XII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 99
XIII BIBLIOGRAPHY 101
XIV GLOSSARY 1 07
APPENDIX A - FURNITURE FINISHING MATERIALS AND
METHODS 1 1 9
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FIGURES
NUMBER
11 Treatment Alternative D, Evaporation Ponds
PAGE
1 Timber Products Consumed by the Manufacture
of Furniture
12
2 Furniture and Fixture Plants
3 Furniture Manufacturing Process Diagram - Prefinishing
U Furniture Manufacturing Process Diagram - Finishing
5 Hydraulic Bending Process
?1
6 Basic Water Wash Spray Booth, Pump Type
??
7 Water Wash Spray Booth, Pump Type
8 Water Wash Spray Booth, Pan Type 23
9 Water Flow in a Large Furniture Plant
10 Treatment Alternatives B and C 58
63
12 Treatment Alternative E, Spray Irrigation with
Pretreatment b
VI 1
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2 Analysis of Spray Booth Effluent According to Finish
3 Descriptive Information for Each Reporting Plant
U Wastewater Production for Various Furniture Plants
6 Flow and Composition of Wastewater from Model Plants
TABLES
NUMBER
1 Summary of Data Sources
27
5 Chemical Analyses of Various Waste Streams
41
7 Wastewater Disposal Methods Employed by Plants
Surveyed
8 Treatment Alternative B, Equipment Summary 59
9 Treatment Alternative C, Equipment Summary
10 Treatment Alternative D, Evaporation Ponds &1
11 Treatment Alternative D, Spray Evaporation 62
12 Treatment Alternative E, Spray Irrigation 66
13 Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative Bf Model 1 69
1U Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative C, Model 1 71
15 Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative D, Model 1 72
16 Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative B, Model 2 74
17 Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative C, Model 2 76
18 Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative D, Model 2 77
19 Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative Er Model 2 79
20 Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative B, Model 3 81
21 Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative C, Model 3 81
22 Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative D, Model 3 83
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NUMBER PAGE
23 Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative B, Model 1 85
2H Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative C, Model 4 85
25 Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative D, Model U 87
26 Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative E, Model H 88
27 Energy Requirements 89
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
For the purpose of developing effluent limitations
guidelines and standards of performance, this study divides
the wood furniture and fixture manufacturing industry into
four subcategories: (1) wood furniture and fixture
production which neither employs wet spray booths nor has
laundry facilities, (2) wood furniture and fixture
production which employs no wet spray booths but which has
laundry facilities, (3) wood furniture and fixture
production which employs wet spray booths but which does not
have laundry facilities, and (4) wood furniture and fixture
production which employs wet spray booths and which has
laundry facilities. The main criteria for subcategorization
of this industrial segment include differences in water
usage, manufacturing processes, and size of plants. It is
concluded that no further subcategorization of the segment
is necessary. Factors such as age of facilities, waste
treatability, and raw materials usage were considered as
criteria for subcategorization, however, their effects were
not sufficient to influence subcategorization.
It is concluded that by July 1, 1977, all furniture
factories not currently doing so can achieve a level of
waste control that eliminates the discharge of process waste
water pollutants to navigable waters.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
It is proposed that no discharge of process waste water
pollutants to navigable water be required after July 1,
1977, for existing installations, and after the date of
proposal of regulations for new installations. This repre-
sents the degree of effluent reduction attainable through
the application of the best practicable control technology
currently available.
The elimination of discharge of process waste water
pollutants from existing sources by July 1, 1977, and from
new sources, may be achieved through the application of
evaporation ponds, spray irrigation, burning with boiler
fuel, or a combination of these techniques. It is also
achievable through direct discharge to municipal waste water
treatment systems, hauling to municipal waste water
treatment systems, or hauling to landfill.
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
PURPgSE_AND_AUTHORITY
Section 301(b) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act,
as amended, hereinafter cited as "The Act," requires the
achievement by not later than July 1, 1977, of effluent
limitations for point sources, other than publicly owned
treatment works, which are based on the application of the
best practicable control technology currently available as
defined by the Administrator pursuant to Section 30U(b) of
the Act. Section 301 (b) also requires the achievement by
not later than July 1, 1983, of effluent limitations for
point sources, other than publicly owned treatment works,
which are based on the application of the best available
technology economically achievable which will result in
reasonable further progress towards the national goal of
eliminating the discharge of all pollutants, and which
reflect the greatest degree of effluent reduction which the
Administrator determines to be achievable through the
application of the best available demonstrated control
technology, and processes, operating methods, or other
alternatives, including where practicable a standard
permitting no discharge of pollutants.
Section 30U(b) of the Act requires the Administrator to
publish within one year of the enactment of the Act
regulations providing guidelines for effluent limitations
setting forth the degree of effluent reduction attainable
through the application of the best practicable control
technology currently available and the degree of effluent
reduction practices achievable including treatment
techniques, process and procedure innovations, operation
methods, and other alternatives. This document presents
proposed effluent limitations guidelines pursuant to Section
301(b) of the Act for the wood furniture and fixture
manufacturing segment of the timber products processing
industry.
Section 306 of the Act required the Administrator, within
one year after a category of sources is included in a list
published pursuant to Section 306 (b)(1)(A) of the Act, to
propose regulations establishing Federal standards of
performances for new sources within such categories. The
Administrator published in the Federal Register of January
16, 1973, (38 F.R. 1624), a list of 27 source categories.
Publication of the list constituted announcement of the
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Administrator1s intention of establishing, under Section
306, standards of performance applicable to new sources
within the timber products industry source.
SUMMARY OF METHODS
The effluent limitations and standards of performance
proposed in this document were developed in the following
manner:
1. A review of the limited available literature was
conducted. This included research at the University of
Florida, the Forest Products Laboratory of Mississippi State
University, the United Nations Library in New York, and the
Forest Products Laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin.
2. On-site inspections and sampling programs were conducted
at a number of installations throughout the U.S. Infor-
mation obtained included process diagrams and related water
usage, water management practices, waste water
characteristics, and control and treatment practices. Table
1 summarizes the plants surveyed, visited and sampled.
3. Other sources of information included: personal and
telephone interviews; meetings with industry advisory
committees, consultants, and EPA personnel; State and
Federal permit applications; and data supplied by the
industry.
The reviews, analyses, and evaluations were coordinated and
applied to the following:
1. An identification of pertinent features that could
potentially provide a basis for subcategorization of the
industry. These features included the nature of raw
materials utilized, plant size and age, the nature of
processes, and others as discussed in Section IV of this
report.
2. A determination of the water usage and waste water
characterization for each subcategory, as discussed in
Section V, including the volume of water used, the sources
of pollutants, and the types and quantities of constituents
in the waste waters.
3 An identification of the waste water constituents, as
discussed in Section VI, which are characteristic and which
were determined to be pollutants subject to effluent
limitation guidelines and standards of performance.
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TABLE 1
SUKMARY OF DATA SOURCES
Plant Visited Sampled Telephoned
ix x
2 x x
3 x x
!| x
5 x
6 x
7 x x
8 x
9 x x
10 x x
11 x
12 x
13 x x
lU x
15 x x x
16 x
IT x
18 x
19 x
20 x
21 x
22 x
23 x x
2k x x
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4. An identification of the control and treatment
technologies presently employed or capable of being employed
by the industry, as discussed in Section VII, including the
effluent level obtainable and treatment efficiency
associated with each technology.
5. An evaluation of the cost, energy, and non-water quality
aspects associated with the application of each control and
treatment technology as discussed in Section VIII.
DEFINITION_OF_THE_W001D_FyRNITyRE_MANyFACTy]RING_INDySTRY
The furniture manufacturing industry is defined in this
study as that portion of Standard Industrial Classification
(SIC) Major Group 25, Furniture and Fixtures, which covers
the production of wooden furniture and fixtures. Those
segments which are directly served by timber products are:
1. SIC 2511 - Wood Household Furniture, Except Upholstered,
2. SIC 2512 - Wood Household Furniture, Upholstered,
3. SIC 2517 - Wood Television, Radio, Phonograph, and
Sewing Machine Cabinets,
4. SIC 2521 - Wood Office Furniture,
5. SIC 2531 - Public Building and Related Furniture
(wooden) ,
6. SIC 25U1 - Wood Partitions, Shelving, Lockers, and
Office and Store Fixtures.
The variety of products produced range from domestic bedroom
furniture to telephone booths, and meets the needs of both
the general homeowner and the contract buyer. The industry
itself varies widely in complexity of production and,
accordingly, in the quality of the finished product.
Automation, process variations, and development in new forms
of raw materials have enabled increases in plant size and
dollar sales, but have not displaced the smaller hand
crafted manufacturers. Because of diverse customer tastes,
the industry remains fluid in its processes and products.
The manufacture of wooden furniture and fixtures relies
heavily on the timber products industry for the supply of
much of its raw material. Earlier the industrial segments
of raw material storage and handling, sawmills, veneer and
plywood mills, hardboard mills, insulation board and
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particleboard plants, and wood preserving plants were
covered in respect to waste water volumes and
concentrations, and effluent limitation guidelines were
developed. According to the degree of specialization, over-
lapping of these industries with furniture manufacturing
does occur in the form of unit processes within the
furniture plant. Coverage of such processes, however, was
included in CFR, Part U29.
BACKGRgyND_QF_THE_FyRNITyRE_MANyFACTyRING_INDySTRY
Even with continuing development in the fields of plastics
and metals and increasing use of these materials in the
production of furniture, wood is still the most common
material used for furniture. The oldest known piece of
furniture, the bed, was developed by the Egyptians over 3200
years ago, and since that time progression in the
manufacture of furniture has paralleled cultural and
economic development. Originally, furniture size and
configuration were limited to the width of the boards
available, but the fifteenth century development of
procedures for piecing wood together to form panels revo-
lutionized the concept of furniture and its function.
In the past century, furniture manufacturing has experienced
increased substitution of other wood products for lumber.
Changes in economics, customer tastes in design, and
technical developments, have contributed to the increased
use of plywood, veneers, particleboard, and hardboard.
Traditionally, solid wood has been associated with high
quality in furniture, but the present availability of
particleboard as an acceptable core material for furniture
has relegated the use of many hardwoods only to exposed
surfaces. The process of applying thin veneers of wood to
furniture surfaces came into widespread use late in the
nineteenth century, and has enabled better and more
efficient utilization of wood. Mahogany, cherry, maple,
walnut and oak are some of the hardwoods prized for their
finely grained veneers.
Particleboard is by far the most widely used product for
lumber substitutions in furniture and fixtures. As
mentioned previously, it finds use as a core material in
furniture having veneers or plastic laminates because of its
uniformity, dimensional stability, and economy. Within the
past 15 years, consumption of particleboard by furniture
manufacturers has increased seven fold.
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Hardboard is another wood product finding wide use as a
lumber substitute. The last decade has seen a tripling in
the amount of hardboard used as shelving, drawer bottoms,
and chest backing in the manufacture of promotional and
institutional furniture lines and inexpensive furniture.
Saw-timber makes up less than half the timber produced
annually. Remanufacturing uses consume about 10 percent of
all sawmill and veneer mill production. The furniture
industry uses approximately 60 to 70 percent of the lumber
and pressboard used by the remanufacturing industry. The
substantial increasing use of lumber, particleboard, and
hardboard in the past two decades is shown graphically in
Figure 1.
It is the manufacture of household furniture, however, that
demands such large amounts of timber products since metals
and plastics are used extensively in commercial and
institutional furniture. Nonwood materials have
successfully replaced lumber in areas of the furniture and
fixtures industry where standardization of product can be
achieved. Metal office furniture and metal partitions,
lockers, and file cabinets are all examples of such a
standardized product. Other segments of the industry which
have replaced lumber with metals, plastics, and fabrics are
porch and lawn furniture, school furniture, and auditorium
and theater seating. In household furniture production,
however, the use of plastics and metals has been generally
limited to adornment such as molded drawer fronts, hardware
such as drawer handles, and laminated surfaces such as
plastic table tops.
The furniture and fixture industry is as diversified in
manufacturing locations as it is in the size of its
establishments. Presently, there are about 7,000
establishments within the six SIC codes covered in this
study, with about 90 percent of these having fewer than 100
employees. However this majority of establishments only
represents 35 percent of the industry's sales, documenting
the fact that the market is well controlled by the larger
companies. The state of North Carolina alone supports
almost 20 percent of the industry's business while having
less than 7 percent of the total establishments. Figure 2,
locating the industry's concentration by state, shows the
middle Atlantic, southern Atlantic, and east north central
divisions to have the highest concentration of plants with
California having the highest number of plants.
In 1973 the industry's annual shipments reached nearly seven
billion dollars, an increase of 36 percent from 1971
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THOUSAND THOUSAND
CUBIC SQUARE
METERS METERS
8000 -
7500
7000
80
6500
6000
5500
5OOO
120 -
100 -
60
40
20
X
X
X
X
X
X
1950
1 '
I960
1
1970
A
8
C
D
LUMBER , MILLION -CUBIC METERS.
VENEER AND PLYWOOD, MILLION SQUARE METERS
BASED ON 9.5 mm. THICKNESS
HARDBOARD, MILLION SQUARE METERS ON 3.2mm BASIS
PARTICLEBOARD, MILLION SQUARE METERS ON 19.1 mm
BASIS.
FIGURE 1 TIMBER PRODUCTS CONSUMED BY THE
MANUFACTURE OF FURNITURE
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U. S. TOTA L 6814
HAWAII- 12
FIGURE 2 FURNITURE AND FIXTURE PLANTS
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figures. With such a rapidly growing market, manufacturers
recognize the need for additional production facilities, and
in areas where labor is available, construction on new
plants or expansion of existing facilities is underway.
DESCRIPTION_OF_THE_FURNITyRE_MANyFACTURING_PROCESS
The following discussion of the furniture manufacturing
process is intended to provide a general knowledge of the
operations involved in the industry. It must be realized
that considerable variation occurs and that all plants are
different to varying degrees. The description here is
considered to be a general description of processes in the
industry and is oriented toward water use and waste water
generation. Figures 3 and U illustrate the overall process.
RAW_MATERIAL_HANDLING_AN|D_STORAGE
The principal raw materials used in furniture manufacturing
are lumber, veneer, plywood, hardboard, and particleboard.
Occasionally, if a plant is sufficiently large, timber may
be purchased or cut from the plants own forest lands and
then processed to rough dimension at its own rough mills.
Particleboard or hardboard mills are usually associated with
such an operation to utilize the waste wood from the rough
mill and furniture plant. Otherwise, and particularly in
small operations, composition panels and plywood panels are
purchased.
Lumber is usually stored in an area protected from the
weather until it is ready for kiln drying. After kiln
drying the lumber enters a dry storage area where a five to
six percent moisture content is maintained.
MACHINING
The first step in the processing of raw materials into
furniture occurs in the machine room where the stock is cut
to length, ripped to width, and planed to thickness. This
may be a completely automated operation in a large plant or
a manual operation in a smaller plant. From this point the
stock is passed on to further cutting where it is face
finished, by such means as routing, boring, etc., and edge
or end cut for joining. Prior to assembly, the stock is
sanded on all faces that will be exposed on the finished
product.
When composition board and plywood are used as finished
surfaces they are either veneered or laminated prior to
reaching the furniture assembly line. These panels may be
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FURNITURE
ASSEMBLY
FIGURE 3 FURNITURE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
DIAGRAM - PREFINISHING
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BLEACHING
SPRAY BOOTH
1
WOOD
GRAINING
ASSEMBLY
FINISHING OPERATIONS
SAP STAINING
SPRAY BOOTH
STAINING
SPRAY BOOTH
WASH COATING
SPRAY BOOTH
FILLING
SPRAY BOOTH
SEALING
SPRAY BOOTH
TOPCOATING
SPRAY BOOTH
BARRIER COATS
SPRAY BOOTH
RUBBING ft POLISHING
i
[ PACKING a SHIPPING
FIGURE 4 FURNITURE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
DIAGRAM - FINISHING
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cut and edge finished to the exact size of the finished
product or cut to rough dimension and edge finished at a
process farther down the assembly line. The panel surface
may be left unfinished at this point and later finished with
the furniture unit, or it may be prefinished by a printing
process or lamination.
Wood has good bending stress gualities about the
longitudinal axis of grain but has rather poor stress
qualities about the lateral axis. when a curved or
serpentine piece of wood is required for strength, it may be
composed of small pieces of wood glued together to form a
longitudinal grain or may be a single piece of wood bent by
the process of steam application, as illustrated in Figure
D •
The first step in the steam bending process is to cut the
wood to a predetermined size and length. It is then placed
in a steam chamber or retort under atmospheric pressure for
a period of time, usually about 30 minutes depending upon
the wood species and size. The wood is then placed in a
flexible metal band and bent to shape in a hydraulic bender
The band is secured by metal straps and wood spacers are
inserted to hold the wood in the bent shape after pressure
is released from the bender. The strapped wood is then oven
dried and cooled at a controlled rate. Thin pieces of wood
are bent in the same manner except they can be bent by hand
over a mold and held in place by other means until dried and
cooled.
ASSEMBLY
After all component parts have been fabricated, they are
transported to the assembly area. in this stage of the
process the parts are fastened together by the use of metal
fasteners (nails, screws, staples, etc.) and/or glued
joints. Sub-assemblies are fabricated and in turn are
passed down the assembly line for final fabrication.
Glue may be used at any of several points in the assembly
process depending on the type of product being made.
Generally, a higher quality product will have both glued and
metal fastened joints.
The application of glue involves the use of either hand held
bottles or automatic machines. The two general types of
glue used are solvent base and water base, ^such as urea glue
that requires water for mixing.
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I I
/^STEAMED WOOD
BAND
B
HYDRAULIC BENDER
METAL STRAP
WOOD SPACER
FIGURE 5 HYDRAULIC BENDING PROCESS
— t
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ZINISHING_OPERATIONS
After complete assembly, the furniture components are
transported to the finishing room where the steps shown in
Figure 4 are carried out. The primary purposes of
finishing, for both inexpensive and expensive furniture, are
beautification, protection, and preservation to the wood.
The finish prevents excessive absorption of atmospheric
moisture which would cause swelling and warping of the wood.
It also provides resistance to surface soiling and staining.
It is possible to provide wood with sufficient protection
for average conditions of interior service with a simple
finish coat of lacquer, varnish, or enamel paint. However,
the demand for refinement requires a considerable number of
operations and finishing materials. A summary of these
operations and materials is presented in the remainder of
this section and a more detailed discussion is contained in
Appendix A.
As illustrated in Figure 4, finishing operations typically
consist of the following:
1. Bleaching is the use of a strong oxidizing agent
such as hydrogen peroxide to remove or subdue the
natural wood colorant.
2. Staining, done after bleaching if bleaching is
required, involves the application of transparent or
semitransparent liquids made from dyes, finely divided
pigments, or chemicals. The purpose of staining is to
provide an undertone to the finished wood.
3. Filling is the application of a solution consisting
of translucent, inert pigments, a vehicle binder, and
thinners. Fillers are normally applied to woods with
large pores in order to fill the pores and make the
pattern of the wood stand out more clearly.
4. Sealing prevents the transfer of materials from one
finish coat to another. Sealers may be applied on bare
wood as a barrier coat, between the stain and filler as
a wash coat, or after the filling operation as a prime
coat.
5. Topcoating is the application of a lacquer or, less
commonly, a varnish to the wood as a final protective
coat.
6. Wood graining is the process of printing a wood
grain on
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the surface of composition board, plywood, or solid
wood.
The various finishing materials may be applied by brush or
roller, but most often they are sprayed onto the wood
surfaces. Spraying operations, as shown in Figure 4,
require the use of spray booths to collect and contain the
overspray and thus provide fire and health protection. The
air drawn into the booth from the object being sprayed is
filtered by one of several methods before discharge to an
outside source.
The two categories of spray booths are the dry booth and the
water wash spray booth. Both types vary in size and shape
to meet specific needs and have definite advantages and
limitations. Before selection, the following must be
considered:
1. Location of booth in the plant,
2. Kind, viscosity, and drying speed of materials being
sprayed,
3. Size and shape of products to be sprayed and
handling method (manual or conveyorized),
4. Spraying operation—limited, intermittent, or
continuous; automatic or manual; compressed air, airless
or electrostatic, and
5. Air movement requirements.
In addition, regulations on safety, fire, insurance, and
building codes must be considered.
The difference between the dry booth and the water wash
spray booth is the method of cleaning the air prior to
discharge. In the dry booth air is filtered by being drawn
through one or more filters or paint arresters. These
filters may be constructed of paper, fiberglass, or other
materials which may or may not be reuseable. In the water
wash spray booth, the solids are removed by being forced
through a series of water sprays or by being collected in a
water pan.
The dry booth has the lowest cost for installation but the
cleaning maintenance can be a major problem where the
overspray collects. These booths are well suited_ for
production spraying for all types of finishing materials,
quick or slow drying. However, fire insurance underwriters,
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finishing engineers, and operators generally prefer water
wash spray booths which are not dependent upon exhaust stack
locations, outside plant extensions, or type material
considerations for installation.
The water wash spray booth is said to remove at least 98
percent of solid overspray particles from the exhaust air
and to keep the inside of the exhaust stack clean. In
addition, these booths permit the overspray solids to be
salvaged and reprocessed depending upon the material being
sprayed.
A basic pump type booth is shown in Figure 6. An exhaust
fan draws the air from the spray area through the water
curtain discharge and washing chamber, where the air is
cleaned of solids, and then to the moisture eliminator prior
to discharge. The solids fall back with the water and are
collected in the pan. Common to all pump type booths are
the following:
1. A tank large enough to hold the necessary amount of
compounded water,
2. A pump for water circulation through the discharge
manifolds,
3. Manifolds containing discharge nozzles to generate a
spray condition,
U. A background water curtain to collect spray mist,
5. One or more washing chambers for removal of solids
contamination,
6. A moisture eliminator to remove any moisture picked
up during operation,
7. An exhaust fan for air movement.
One variation of the pump type booth is shown in Figure 7.
Because of the additional components it has a higher initial
cost, but it provides more efficient filtration because the
air is being forced through a longer water spray.
The pan type water wash booth is shown in Figure 8. In this
booth air is drawn under an entrainment plate and causes
movement of the water towards the rear of the booth. The
air velocity causes the water surface behind the plate to
lift into a rotating cascade which scrubs the overspray.
The air and water are further separated by flowing around
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CLEAN AIR
EXHAUST
FAN
WATER SPRAY (3
„> MOISTURE
6) ELIMINATION
WATER SPRAY
WASHING
CHAMBER
FLOAT VALVE
INTAKE TO PUMP
FIGURE 6 BASIC WATER WASH SPRAY BOOTH,
PUMP TYPE
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CLEAN AIR
SPRAY MANIFOLD
WATER CURTAIN
DIRTY AIR
MOISTURE 'ELIMINATOR
SPRAY MANIFOLD
WATER TANK
FIGURE 7 WATER WASH SPRAY BOOTH, PUMP TYPE
-------
NOPUMP SPRAY BOOTH
ENTRAINMENT PLATE PROFILE
LEGEND
^====
AIR MOVEMENT
WATER
FINISH PARTICLES
FIGURE 8 WATER WASH SPRAY BOOTH, PAN TYPE
-------
and striking the eliminator plates. The compounded water in
the pan booth contains an anti-coagulant to cause the
overspray to settle to the bottom of the pan. The water
then returns to the front of the spray area through an
underwater trough. A variation of this booth is the shallow
water pan type which normally would not have the underwater
trough.
The critical factor in a pan booth is the distance of water
below the entrainment plate. A decrease in water level
because of evaporation causes a low air pressure
differential and reduces efficiency. Most pan type booths
have a control mechanism to maintain proper water depth.
The cleaning operation common to both types of water wash
spray booths is normally conducted once a week, but may vary
according to usage of the booth. It consists of draining
the water to a point of discharge and then manually removing
the settled solids. A small amount of water may be used to
flush the booth prior to refilling. Once the pan is
refilled, the water is continuously recycled during
operation by the pumps or air movement until the next
cleaning operation. As stated before, water is added as
necessary.
Spray booths are usually constructed of 18 gauge or heavier
metal except for bleaching booths which are constructed of
concrete or masonry and glazed for protection against the
corrosive action of bleaches. They are dry filter booths,
but are cleaned for fire protection by water wash down at
least every two or three hours or at the end of a spray
cycle.
In larger furniture factories it is not uncommon to find
laundry facilities for the rags used in the various
finishing operations. Sometimes these facilities consist of
one or two commercial type washing machines serving several
furniture plants.
-------
SECTION IV
INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION
In the development of effluent limitation guidelines and
standards of performance for the wooden furniture and
fixture manufacturing industry, it was necessary to
determine whether significant differences exist which form a
basis for subcategorization of the industry. The rationale
for subcategorization was based on emphasized differences
and similiarities in the following factors: (1)
constituents and/or quantity of waste produced, (2) the
engineering feasibility of treatment and resulting effluent
reduction, and (3) the cost of treatment. While factors
such as process employed, plant age and size, and raw
material utilized tend to affect the constituents and
quantity of waste produced, the emphasis herein is not
merely on an analyzation of these factors but on the
resulting differences in waste produced, engineering
feasibility, and cost.
Since the manufacture of furniture and fixtures encompasses
such a varied field of products and processes, consideration
was given to several factors which might identify potential
subcategories within the industry. The factors considered
included:
(1) Process variation,
(2) Nature of raw materials,
(3) Plant size and age,
(4) Nature of water supply,
(5) Plant location and land availability, and
(6) Water usage.
In consideration of the above factors, the segment of the
furniture industry covered in this study and subject to
recommended effluent limitations has been subcategorized as
follows:
(1) Furniture and fixture production which neither
employs water wash spray booths nor has laundry
facilities for finishing rags,
(2) Furniture and fixture production which employs no
water wash spray booths but has laundry facilities for
finishing rags,
-------
(3) Furniture and fixture production which employs
water wash spray booths but has no laundry facilities
for finishing rags,
(4) Furniture and fixture production which employs
water wash spray booths and has laundry facilities for
finishing rags.
The rationale for the above categorization is as follows:
PROCESS VARIATION
As indicated in Section III, the production of furniture and
fixtures includes many processes which may or may not be
utilized, according to the type and quality of tha finished
product. The product dictates the variations in the
complexity of the machining and finishing operations; and
the complexity of these processes will to some extent affect
the amount and characteristics of waste water. The wood
bending, bleaching, printing, and glue spreading operations
all contribute somewhat to the total waste flow of the
industry. The first three operations, however, are
practiced only in specialized cases, and their significance
does not affect subcategorization. Glue spreading also does
not justify subcategorization, not because of
specialization, however, but because of generalization.
Since glue spreading with its resulting cleanup water has
widespread use throughout the industry, this operation is
included in all subcategories. Therefore, although process
variations do exist, their effect on waste water volume,
characteristics, control, and treatment is not sufficient to
substantiate subcategorization.
NATURE OF RAW MATERIALS
No subcategorization resulted from consideration of the
nature of raw materials. Since this study is directed
toward wooden furniture and fixtures, raw materials
originate primarily from wood products-lumber, plywood,
particleboard, and hardboard; a smaller percentage comes
from plastics. Since raw material storage is usually inside
the plant, however, and the production process is generally
dry insofar as water contact with materials is concerned, no
subcategorization is warranted.
Finishing materials are utilized in a variety of
combinations as discussed in Section III. The effect of
some different finishes on the waste water from water wash
spray booths is shown in Table 2. It can be seen that the
type of finish used causes variations in the waste water
-------
TABLE 2
ANALYSIS OF SPRAY BOOTH EFFLUENT * ACCORDING TO FINISH
COD TS TDS TSS TVS TVDS TVSS TOG TIC Color
Type Finish mg/1 mg/1 rag/I mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 rag/I pH Units
Stain 8,068 16,000 15,300 TOO 2,6lO 2,260 350 1,956 1,356 12.1 500
Sealer 22,071 30,800 22,1*00 8,1+00 11,200 h ,620 6,580 1,822 86? 11. U 500
Lacquer 3^,7^0 1*2,000 29,500 12,500 18,200 8,260 9,9^0 732 217 10.7 500
*Effluent from pan type spray booths after hk hours of use.
- I
-------
constituents. However, since waste waters from water wash
spray booths are usually treated as a unit, not individual
streams; since the same booth is often used for different
finishes; and since the use of a variety of finishing
materials is common to all furniture and fixture plants,
subcategorization because specific finishes is not
justified.
PLANT SIZE AND AGE
Operations in the furniture and fixture industry range in
size from home workshops to complexes with hundreds of
employees. In some cases size of operation and waste water
volume and pollutant load will be proportional. It should
be noted that because of economic factors related to plant
size, larger plants can support equipment not always
economically available to the smaller establishments. In
two specific instances, laundry facilities and water wash
spray booths, the equipment directly contributes to the
quantity and character of the waste streams. Because this
is not categorically inclusive of all large plants and
exclusive of all small plants, however, it does not
constitute a basis for subcategorization of the industry.
Plant age cannot be considered as a basis for
subcategorization since operations vary in age of equipment
as well as structures, i.e., plants generally undergo a
continuous modernization of facilities and the actual "age"
of an installation is indeterminable. The only trend
related_ to age observed in this study is that newer plants
and finishing rooms tend to have more water wash spray
booths than those with older finishing equipment.
Increasing emphasis placed on occupational safety and health
standards and air pollution control has encouraged use of
this type equipment.
NATURE OF WATER SUPPLY
The quantity and quality of fresh water supplies utilized by
furniture and fixture operations were originally considered
to be possible elements for industry subcategorization
because of potential prohibitive factors that could be
encountered in control and treatment. However, despite the
fact that the industry tends to use the most available water
supplies, in most cases a municipal distribution system, and
some variation in the nature of the water supplies results,
no detectable effects on control and treatment have resulted
from this study. Therefore, nature of water supply is not
regarded as a technical element necessitating
subcategorization.
-------
PLANT LOCATION AND LAND AVAILABILITY
The location of a furniture or fixture plant may be
significant in terms of climatic effects on operations and
control and treatment technology, the availability of
adequate land for the construction of treatment facilities,
and other factors. These factors have received
consideration in the development of control and treatment
technology (see Section VII) in which, for example, various
evaporation rates were considered for different sections of
the country and different treatment alternatives were
developed for varying amounts of available land.
Despite the fact that plant location and land availability
can seriously affect the practicality of various control and
treatment methods as well as costs, no rational
subcategorization can be based on this consideration because
of the wide variability of conditions. The considerations
taken in the development of control and treatment technology
are considered adequate for the development of effluent
limitation guidelines, and plant location and land
availability are rejected as technical elements
necessitating subcategorization.
WATER USAGE
Several operations in the furniture and fixture industry
necessitate an increased usage of water above that generally
used throughout the industry. These are the use of water
wash spray booths, in-plant laundry facilities, and wet
scrubbers as emission control devices. The waste water
streams generated by the first two operations are
significant enough to substantiate subcategorization of the
industry. The waste volumes of both the water wash spray
booths and laundry facilities comprise the majority of all
wastes from furniture and fixture manufacturing plants, and
thus each must be treated accordingly. The third operation,
wet scrubbers, result in an intermitent discharge of a
relatively small volume of water from the scrubber which can
be disposed of by the treatment and control alternatives
presented in Section VII.
- J
-------
SECTION V
WATER USE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
Water usage in the furniture industry is highly variable
primarily because its usage is not required on a regular
basis. Water is used for cooling, steam production,
cleaning, mixing, laundering, and air pollution control in
amounts that vary from none for some plants to several cubic
meters (thousand gallons) per day for others. The purpose
of this section is to quantify water usage in the industry
and to define waste water characteristics to the degree
possible on an industry-wide basis.
WATER_ySAGE
As discussed in Section III, the operations which are
present at a given furniture plant vary widely. The
production of lumber, veneer, plywood, and particleboard may
take place on the same site as the production of furniture.
On the other hand, all the components of furniture may be
purchased in a finished form, and consequently, the
furniture plant may consist basically of an assembly plant
and a finishing line. Figure 9 illustrates the production
units which might be present at a large furniture plant
producing some or all of the component parts of the
furniture. This figure also delineates the points of water
usage which are of concern in this section.
The degree of water usage in a furniture plant is primarily
dependent on the presence of water wash spray booths,
laundry facilities, and, to some degree, the presence of
glue applicators, which must be cleaned. These three
sources will generally account for nearly all of the
discharge of contaminated water from a furniture plant. In
addition, the size and number of water wash spray booths and
the number of loads of laundry washer per day will directly
affect the volume of waste water discharged.
Table 3 provides descriptive information on various
furniture plants while water usage and waste water discharge
information is presented in Table U. The raw material usage
percentages indicate to some extent the type of finishing
systems which exist in each plant. Those plants using
primarily wood, rather than plywood or particleboard, will
usually require more spray finishing operations and,
consequently, will have a greater likelihood of utilizing
water wash spray booths. The number of spray booths per
plant is listed by type of booth. Also included in Table 3
-------
FRES
WATE
STEA
FRES
WATE
FRES
WATE
SAWMILL
PLANING
MILL
Rj_^
M *
H(
Rj
^
H(
R
\ —
• GLUE CL
- WOOD B
-^- GLUE
>- GLUE C
^ ftl FAPH
— »» LAUND
MIXIN
.EAN
ENDIN(
MIXING
LEAN
BOOT
ING
UP
RY
VENEER MILL
PLYWOOD MILL
ID
JP
K
PARTICLEBOARD FINISHING
MILL MATFRIAI 9
HARDBOARD PLASTICS
MILL PLASTICS
1
1AC
R(
\
RAW
MATERIALS
rllNh ^^ oLUt WAi>M
DOM
*- WOOD BENDING COND
P
ENSATE
CABINET
ROOM *^ QLUC WAoH
i
FINISH
f
>-SPRAY BOOTH DISCH>
No ^ DUbAUnllMw UlbUHAKUl
\RGE
FIGURE 9 WATER FLOW IN A LARGE FURNITURE PLANT
-------
TABLE 3
DESCRIPTIVE INFORMATION FOR EACH REPORTING PLANT
Plant
Material Usage by Percent
(Particleboard Finishing Material Spray Booths
(Wood) and Plyvood) (Plastic) (liters/day) (Dry) (Wet) Employees
1 22
2 69
3 100
U 50
5 55
6
7 100
8 90
9 60
10 92
11 65
12 65
13 55
lit 5
15 75
67 11
31
—
50
20 25
65 35
—
10
20 20
8
35
35
30 15
75 20
25
1,610
1,500
—
1,320
—
190
—
2,1+60
1,100
5,700
1,090
—
980
—
1,900
0
2
All
All
0
1+
All
19
0
58
10
All
0
All
All
9
11
0
0
6
0
0
12
7
5
1
0
2?
0
0
1+00
275
285
1+50
220
125
300
1,250
270
1,800
280
160
600
130
335
-------
TABLE 1+
WASTE WATER PRODUCTION FOR VARIOUS FURNITURE PLATA'S
Plant
1
2
3
1+
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
111
15
Weekly Spray
Booth Discharge
(liters)
6,250
11,700
—
—
5,700
—
18,200
9,500
18,200
5,700
—
19,000
—
—
Daily Glue Daily Laundry
Wash Discharge Discharge
(liters) (liters)
75 800
380
—
760
—
20
760 h,000
-
6,100 19,000
—
ho
190
—
380
Total Daily
Other Discharge Avg. Discharge
(liters) (liters)
2,125
Viet scrub'ber dis-
charge 22,700/wk
Wood "bending con- 170
densate 170/day
760
1,11*0
0
20
8,1*00
1,900
28,71+0
1.1UO
1*0
3,990
0
Bleaching discharge 1*75
95/day
-------
is the approximate number of employees per plant. This
provides a rough indication of relative plant sizes.
The volume of water discharged from each spray booth as
indicated in Table U is dependent on the size of the booth,
the frequency of its usage, the type of material captured by
the booth, and other operational constraints. In general,
the booths are drained weekly in order to minimize the
accumulation of finishing materials in the water and to
insure efficient operation. The volume of water contained
in each booth varies from 760 liters to 5700 liters (200
gallons to 1500 gallons), but is generally about 1140 liters
(300 gallons) .
The amount of water utilized for glue cleanup is also quite
variable as is indicated in Table t. The glue used in
furniture manufacturing is generally polyvinyl acetate or
urea formaldehyde and is applied with applicators which
require some small amount of cleanup. The large volume
reported by plant 10 results from the presence of plywood
glue spreaders, the waste water from which is discussed in
the document presenting effluent guidelines and standards
for plywood manufacturing (EPA-440/1-74-023-a).
The only other major source of waste water in the furniture
industry is that associated with laundry facilities. The
reported volumes of waste water are given in Table U. The
reported waste water volumes vary considerably because in
many cases laundry facilities in one plant actually serve
several neighboring plants. Thus, the size of the machines
and the number of loads per day differ widely from plant to
plant. The majority of plants, especially the smaller ones
in metropolitan areas, do not maintain their own laundry
facilities.
Other miscellaneous waste streams result from bleaching,
bending, and air pollution control devices. Bleaching is
practiced to a limited extent as discussed in Section III.
The waste water resulting from bleaching is reported to be
intermittent with volumes seldom exceeding 190 liters/day
(50 gpd). Bending of wood, also an infrequent practice, is
accomplished by steaming the wood. The condensate formed as
a result of this operation was reported to amount to about
380 liters/day (100 gpd) at one plant. Wet scrubbers are
reported at some furniture plants utilizing boilers. While
the scrubber water is recycled to a large extent, some
continuous bleedoff may be required to avoid high solids
buildup and a resulting loss of efficiency. Generally, the
rate of bleedoff ranges from 8 to 40 liters (2 to 10
gallons) per minute.
-------
WASTE_WATER_CHARACTERIZATION
As noted above, the primary sources of waste water from the
furniture manufacturing process are spray booths, laundry
facilities, and glue cleanup operations. The
characteristics of the waste water discharged from spray
booths is dependent on the amount and type of overspray
material captured by the water. The amount of material
captured is a function of the efficiency of the booth in
removing overspray from the air, the intensity of usage of
the spray booth, and the length of time between booth
drainages. The type of material used is dependent primarily
upon the particular type of finishing operation being
performed. The results of chemical analyses on spray booth
waste waters containing various types of finishes after
varying lengths of service are shown in Table 5. While
generalization about the various finishes is inappropriate,
some^ general statements regarding the waste water are
applicable. The pH of the various samples is generally high
because of the presence of alkaline agents in the water
which are added to disperse the finishing materials. These
deflocculating agents are available commercially and usually
consist of alkaline and surfactant materials in various
combinations. Solids concentrations are quite high with the
greater percentage being dissolved and nonvolatile. COD
levels are also high while the corresponding BOD levels in
some cases may indicate a low biodegradability.
The waste water generated by laundry facilities at furniture
plants is also quite concentrated as shown in Table 5. The
high pH and solids concentrations result from the addition
of soda ash, caustics such as sodium hydroxide, and clay to
the washwater. These materials are used in combination with
strong detergents to clean the rags used for wiping and
rubbing furniture. The resulting waste water is highly
colored and contains high levels of COD and BOD. The BOD
levels indicate biodegradability of a portion of the waste
water as is typical of other laundry wastes.
Glue waste water characteristics from cleanup operations are
presented in Table 5. The concentration of the various
constitutents is a function of the type of glue used and the
volume of water used for cleanup. In general, the solids
content is almost entirely volatile and for the most part
dissolved.
Characteristics of various miscellaneous waste streams are
also given in Table 5. These constitute small but
concentrated streams which may or may not be present at a
given plant.
-------
COD BOO TS TDS TSS TVS TVDS TVSS TOC TIC Color Phenol Pt Co Pb Discharge
Sample nq/1 nq/1 mq/1 inq/1 no/1 mq/1 i>iq/l mq/1 mg/1 ng/1 pH Units ing/1 nig/1 nq/1 mg/1 liters
Starting water, 3,410 26,100 25,100 900 4,840 a,390 150 730 520 13.1 392 530/week
deflocculant added,
pan type booth
Stain 3,700 16,100 13,100 3,000 6,740 3,990 250 1,876 813 12.6 500
22 hr. operation
nan tyue booth
Stain 3,070 16,000 15,300 700 2,610 2,260 350 1,956 1,356 12.1 > 500
44 hr. operation
pan type booth
Filler 33,430 16,350 56,800 48,300 3,500 11,400 11,200 3,200 4,666 2,167 129 : 500 530/week
22 hr ooeration
pan type booth
Ciller 122,100 97,400 54,900 42,500 32,400 11,600 20,800 7,405 3,035 12.7 ^500
44 hr. operation
Dan type booth
Sealer 22,070 30,800 22,400 8,400 11,200 4,620 6,530 1,822 367 11 4 500 470/week
44 hr. ooeration
pan tyoe booth
90,300 63,600 26,700 50,600 29,200 21,400 295 1,462 11.3 -500 0.7 '0.5 300/week
Lacquer 34,740 42,000 29,500 12,500 18.200 8,260 9,940 732 217 10 7 '-500 300/week
44 hr operation
dan tyoe booth
Sealer and Lacquer 1,300 1,680 ,v,/ 887 10 483 480 3 1,734 223 78 75
30 hr. ooeration
waterfall type booth
Lacquer 4,750 1,980 1,170 344 833 1,027 223 804 1,530 163 6.6 71
30 hr operation
waterfall tyoe booth
Filler 550 130 VI 256 91 1"7 101 46 280 163 6 7 18
30 hr. operation
Dan tyoe booth
Glaze
5 hr ooeration
•waterfall tyie booth
Laundry wash 35,620 3,100 32,300 14,000 18,300 9,790 4,260 5,530 2,396 1,495 12.7 ^500 1 0 103 570/.;eek
cycle discharge
TABLE 5 CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF VARIOUS WASTE STREAMS
-------
COD BOD TS IDS TSS TVS TVDS TVSS TOC TIC Color Phenol Pt Co Pb Discharge
Samole mg/1 wg/1 mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 rng/1 pH Units mq/1 mg/1 nig/1 mg/1 liters
Glue mixer and 11,470 1,520 11,200 9,910 1,290 10,900 9,700 1,200 1,547 1,300 4.9 63 0.172
spreader wash-
down
Glue spreader 23,470
washdown
Glue spreader 41,230
washdown
Bleach booth
discharge
Uet scrubber
Discharge,
7 days
Wet scrubber
discharge,
9 days
Wood bending
discharge
21,000 17,300 3,700 20,500 16,900 3,600 2,744 1,474 5.0 0 0.043
24,000 15,200 3,300 23,700 14,800 3,900 2,648 1,517 4.4 8 0.167
2,030 90 2i,600 19,100 5,500 8,720 3,300 5,420 105 1,951 9.2 100 0.150
1,150 90 1,040 754 286 580 304 276 185 195 6.8 125
1,190 80 1,360 635 725 842 250 592 436 260 7.6 bu
720 230 671 547 124 392 385
598 325 4.1 394 0.276
380/day
380/day
380/day
190/day
22,700/week
22,700/week
380/day
TABLE 5 CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF VARIOUS WASTE STREAMS (CONT'D)
-------
MQPEL_PLANTS
On the basis of the information discussed above, model
plants can be formulated. As was noted, the volume of waste
water generated in a furniture plant is predominantly
dependent on the presence of wet spray booths and laundry
facilities. Pour subcategories of furniture plants were
developed in Section IV based on combinations of these
operations. On the basis of these subcategories and the
data represented in this section the four model plants are:
1. Model plant 1 (Subcategory I) contains no water wash
spray booths, no laundry facilities and two glue
spreaders requiring daily cleanup.
2. Model plant 2 (Subcategory II) contains no water
wash spray booths, laundry facilities, and two glue
spreaders requiring daily cleanup.
3. Model plant 3 (Subcategory III) contains water wash
spray booths, no laundry, and two glue spreaders
requiring daily cleanup.
4. Model plant 4 (Subcategory IV) contains water wash
booths and laundry facilities and two glue spreaders.
In order to develop the above models and their associated
waste water characteristics certain assumptions were
necessary. The basic assumptions are as follows:
1. The total weekly mass of pollutants is the same per
booth regardless of the booth volume.
2. Booths are dumped on a weekly basis.
3. Volumes may be computed on a basis of plant averages
from available information.
i*. All plants utilize an alkaline deflocculant.
5. The plants with wet booths utilize eight pan type
booths of 1140 liter (300 gallon) capacity each.
6. Two glue spreaders are assumed for each plant with
cleanup of 380 liters (100 gallons)/spreader/day.
7. In laundries loadings of rinse water are assumed to
be 10 percent of loadings from wash water.
8. All plants operate five days/week.
J
-------
MpdeJ
'•1 : Dry Spray Booths
No Laundry Facilities
Two Glue Spreaders
-•2: Dry Spray Booths
Laundry Faci1ities
Two Glue Spreaders
=3: Met Spray Booths
No Laundry Facilities
Two Glue Spreaders
Average Flows
760 1iters/day
COD
i'ig/1
TVS
TVDS
mq/j
TVSS
mq/1
TIC Color
mg/J pH Units Phenol
1,500 25,400 18,700 14,100 4,600 18,400 14,000 4,600 2,300 1,400 4.8
4,550 liters/day 2,750 15,150 12,950 7,940 2,060 11,040 3,630 2,430 1,120
610
Pt
rmj/J
6.0
760 liters/day 1,500 25,400 18,700 14,100 4,600 18,400 14,000 4,600 2,300 1,400 4.8
with additional
9,120 liters/week 46,700 47,225 31,200 16,000 16,700 7,380 12,400 2,980 1,370 11.7 >500
0.127
»4: 'Jet Spray Booths 4,550 liters/day 2,750 15,150 12,950 7,940 2,060 11,040
Laundry Facilities with additional
Two Glue Spreaders 9,120 1iters/week 46,700 47,225 31,200 16,000 16,700
3,630 2,430 1,120 610
7,380 12,400 2,980 1,370 11.7 > 500
6.0
TABLE 6 FLOW AND COMPOSITION OF WASTEWATER FROM MODEL PLANTS
-------
SECTION VI
SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
WESTE_WATER_PARAMETERS_OF_POLLUTIONAL_SIGNIFICANCE
Waste water parameters of primary significance for the
furniture and fixture manufacturing segment of the Timber
Products industry include:
COD
Total Suspended solids
Dissolved solids
pH
Temperature
Phosphorus
Waste water parameters of secondary significance include:
BOD
Phenols
Color
Oil and grease
Inorganic ions
The above parameters have been selected as representing
those chemical constituents which might be present in waste
water produced by the industry and which might have a
detrimental effect on a receiving water. However, all of
these parameters are not present in the raw waste streams of
each plant in the furniture and fixture manufacturing
industry. The inorganic ions occasionally associated with
finishing materials are specific to the finishing materials
used.
When land disposal of waste water is practiced, contribution
to ground water pollution must be prevented. Under land
disposal procedures, all practices should be in accordance
with the Environmental Protection Agency's "Policy on
Subsurface Emplacement of Fluids by Well Injection" with
accompanying "Recommended Data Requirements for
Environmental Evaluation of Subsurface Emplacement of Fluids
by Well Injection".
Significant pollutional parameters for the protection of
ground water from land disposal include organics, pH,
temperature, total dissolved solids, and nutrients.
-------
Suspended solids include both organic and inorganic
materials. The inorganic components include sand, silt, and
clay. The organic fraction includes such materials as
grease, oil, tar, animal and vegetable fats, various fibers,
sawdust, hair, and various materials from sewers. These
solids may settle out rapidly and bottom deposits are often
a mixture of both organic and inorganic solids. They
adversely affect fisheries by covering the bottom of the
stream or lake with a blanket of material that destroys the
fish-food bottom fauna or the spawning ground of fish.
Deposits containing organic materials may deplete bottom
oxygen supplies and produce hydrogen sulfide, carbon
dioxide, methane, and other noxious gases.
In raw water sources for domestic use, state and regional
agencies generally specify that suspended solids in streams
shall not be present in sufficient concentration to be
objectionable or to interfere with normal treatment
processes. Suspended solids in water may interfere with
many industrial processes, and cause foaming in boilers, or
encrustations on equipment exposed to water, especially as
the temperature rises. Suspended solids are undesirable in
water for textile industries; paper and pulp; beverages;
dairy products; laundries; dyeing; photography; cooling
systems, and power plants. Suspended particles also serve
as a transport mechanism for pesticides and other substances
which are readily sorbed into or onto clay particles.
Solids may be suspended in water for a time, and then settle
to the bed of the stream or lake. These settleable solids
discharged with man's wastes may be inert, slowly
biodegradable materials, or rapidly decomposable substances.
While in suspension, they increase the turbidity of the
water, reduce light penetration and impair the
photosynthetic activity of aguatic plants.
Solids in suspension are aesthetically displeasing. When
they settle to form sludge deposits on the stream or lake
bed, they are often much more damaging to the life in water,
and they retain the capacity to displease the senses.
Solids, when transformed to sludge deposits, may do a
variety of damaging things, including blanketing the stream
or lake bed and thereby destroying the living spaces for
those benthic organisms that would otherwise occupy the
habitat. When of an organic and therefore decomposable
nature, solids use a portion or all of the dissolved oxygen
available in the area. Organic materials also serve as a
-------
seemingly inexhaustible food source for sludgeworms and
associated organisms.
Turbidity is principally a measure of the light absorbing
properties of suspended solids. It is frequently used as a
substitute method of quickly estimating the total suspended
solids when the concentration is relatively low.
In natural waters the dissolved solids consist mainly of
carbonates, chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, and possibly
nitrates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium, with
traces of iron, manganese and other substances.
Many communities in the United States and in other countries
use water supplies containing 2000 to UOOO mg/1 of dissolved
salts, when no better water is available. Such waters are
not palatable, may not quench thirst, and may have a
laxative action on new users. Waters containing more than
4000 mg/1 of total salts are generally considered unfit for
human use, although in hot climates such higher salt
concentrations can be tolerated whereas they could not be in
temperate climates. Waters containing 5000 mg/1 or more are
reported to be bitter and act as bladder and intestinal
irritants. It is generally agreed that the salt
concentration of good, palatable water should not exceed 500
mg/1.
Limiting concentrations of dissolved solids for fresh-water
fish may range from 5,000 to 10,000 mg/1, according to
species and prior acclimatization. Some fish are adapted to
living in more saline waters, and a few species of fresh-
water forms have been found in natural waters with a salt
concentration of 15,000 to 20,000 mg/1. Fish can slowly
become acclimatized to higher salinities, but fish in waters
of low salinity cannot survive sudden exposure to high
salinities, such as those resulting from discharges of oil-
well brines. Dissolved solids may influence the toxicity of
heavy metals and organic compounds to fish and other aquatic
life, primarily because of the antagonistic effect of
hardness on metals.
Waters with total dissolved solids over 500 mg/1 have
decreasing utility as irrigation water. At 5,000 mg/1 water
has little or no value for irrigation.
Dissolved solids in industrial waters can cause foaming in
boilers and cause interference with cleaness, color, or
-------
taste of many finished products. High contents of dissolved
solids also tend to accelerate corrosion.
Specific conductance is a measure of the capacity of water
to convey an electric current. This property is related to
the total concentration of ionized substances in water and
water temperature. This property is frequently used as a
substitute method of quickly estimating the dissolved solids
concentration.
BSr Acidity and Alkalinity
Acidity and alkalinity are reciprocal terms. Acidity is
produced by substances that yield hydrogen ions upon
hydrolysis and alkalinity is produced by substances that
yield hydroxyl ions. The terms "total acidity" and "total
alkalinity" are often used to express the buffering capacity
of a solution. Acidity in natural waters is caused by
carbon dioxide, mineral acids, weakly dissociated acids, and
the salts of strong acids and weak bases. Alkalinity is
caused by strong bases and the salts of strong alkalies and
weak acids.
The term pH is a logarithmic expression of the concentration
of hydrogen ions. At a pH of 7, the hydrogen and hydroxyl
ion concentrations are essentially equal and the water is
neutral. Lower pH values indicate acidity while higher
values indicate alkalinity. The relationship between pH and
acidity or alkalinity is not necessarily linear or direct.
Waters with a pH below 6.0 are corrosive to water works
structures, distribution lines, and household plumbing
fixtures and can thus add such constituents to drinking
water as iron, copper, zinc, cadmium and lead. The hydrogen
ion concentration can affect the "taste" of the water. At a
low pH water tastes "sour". The bactericidal effect of
chlorine is weakened as the pH increases, and it is
advantageous to keep the pH close to 7. This is very
significant for providing safe drinking water.
Extremes of pH or rapid pH changes can exert stress
conditions or kill aquatic life outright. Dead fish,
associated algal blooms, and foul stenches are aesthetic
liabilities of any waterway. Even moderate changes from
"acceptable" criteria limits of pH are deleterious to some
species. The relative toxicity to aquatic life of many
materials is increased by changes in the water pH.
Metalocyanide complexes can increase a thousand-fold in
toxicity with a drop of 1.5 pH units. The availability of
-------
many nutrient substances varies with the alkalinity and
acidity. Ammonia is more lethal with a higher pH.
The lacrimal fluid of the human eye has a pH of
approximately 7.0 and a deviation of 0.1 pH unit from the
norm may result in eye irritation for the swimmer.
Appreciable irritation will cause severe pain.
Temperature
Temperature is one of the most important and influential
water quality characteristics. Temperature determines those
species that may be present; it activates the hatching of
young, regulates their activity, and stimulates or
suppresses their growth and development; it attracts, and
may kill when the water becomes too hot or becomes chilled
too suddenly. Colder water generally suppresses
development. Warmer water generally accelerates activity
and may be a primary cause of aquatic plant nuisances when
other environmental factors are suitable.
Temperature is a prime regulator of natural processes within
the water environment. It governs physiological functions
in organisms and, acting directly or indirectly in
combination with other water quality constituents, it
affects aquatic life with each change. These effects
include chemical reaction rates, enzymatic functions,
molecular movements, and molecular exchanges between
membranes within and between the physiological systems and
the organs of an animal.
Chemical reaction rates vary with temperature and generally
increase as the temperature is increased. The solubility of
gases in water varies with temperature. Dissolved oxygen is
decreased by the decay or decomposition of dissolved organic
substances and the decay rate increases as the temperature
of the water increases reaching a maximum at about 30 °C
(86°F). The temperature of stream water, even during
summer, is below the optimum for pollution-associated
bacteria. Increasing the water temperature increases the
bacterial multiplication rate when the environment is
favorable and the food supply is abundant.
Reproduction cycles may be changed significantly by
increased temperature because this function takes place
under restricted temperature ranges. Spawning may not occur
at all because temperatures are too high. Thus, a fish
population may exist in a heated area only by continued
immigration. Disregarding the decreased reproductive
potential, water temperatures need not reach lethal levels
-------
to decimate a species. Temperatures that favor competitors,
predators, parasites, and disease can destroy a species at
levels far below those that are lethal.
Fish food organisms are altered severely when temperatures
approach or exceed 90°F. Predominant algal species change,
primary production is decreased, and bottom associated
organisms may be depleted or altered drastically in numbers
and distribution. Increased water temperatures may cause
aquatic plant nuisances when other environmental factors are
favorable.
Synergistic actions of pollutants are more severe at higher
water temperatures. Given amounts of domestic sewage,
refinery wastes, oils, tars, insecticides, detergents, and
fertilizers more rapidly deplete oxygen in water at higher
temperatures, and the respective toxicities are likewise
increased.
When water temperatures increase, the predominant algal
species may change from diatoms to green algae, and finally
at high temperatures to blue-green algae, because of species
temperature preferentials. Blue-green algae can cause
serious odor problems. The number and distribution of
benthic organisms decreases as water temperatures increase
above 90°F, which is close to the tolerance limit for the
population. This could seriously affect certain fish that
depend on benthic organisms as a food source.
The cost of fish being attracted to heated water in winter
months may be considerable, due to fish mortalities that may
result when the fish return to the cooler water.
Rising temperatures stimulate the decomposition of sludge,
formation of sludge gas, multiplication of saprophytic
bacteria and fungi (particularly in the presence of organic
wastes), and the consumption of oxygen by putrefactive
processes, thus affecting the esthetic value of a water
course.
In general, marine water temperatures do not change as
rapidly or range as widely as those of freshwaters. Marine
and estuarine fishes, therefore, are less tolerant of
temperature variation. Although this limited tolerance is
greater in estuarine than in open water marine species,
temperature changes are more important to those fishes in
estuaries and bays than to those in open marine areas,
because of the nursery and replenishment functions of the
estuary that can be adversely affected by extreme
temperature changes.
-------
Phgsghorus
During the past 30 years, a formidable case has developed
for the belief that increasing standing crops of aquatic
plant growths, which often interfere with water uses and are
nuisances to man, frequently are caused by increasing
supplies of phosphorus. Such phenomena are associated with
a condition' of accelerated eutrophication or aging of
waters. It is generally recognized that phosphorus is not
the sole cause of eutrophication, but there is evidence to
substantiate that it is frequently the key element in all of
the elements required by fresh water plants and is generally
present in the least amount relative to need. Therefore, an
increase in phosphorus allows use of other, already present,
nutrients for plant growths. Phosphorus is usually
described, for this reasons, as a "limiting factor."
When a plant population is stimulated in production and
attains a nuisance." status, a large number of associated
liabilities are immediately apparent. Dense populations of
pond weeds make swimming dangerous. Boating and water
skiing and sometimes fishing may be eliminated because of
the mass of vegetation that serves as an physical impediment
to such activities. Plant populations have been associated
with stunted fish populations and with poor fishing. Plant-
nuisances emit vile stenches, impart tastes and odors to
water supplies, reduce the efficiency of industrial and
municipal water treatment, impair aesthetic beauty, reduce
or restrict resort trade, lower waterfront property values,
cause skin rashes to man during water contact, and serve as
a desired substrate and breeding ground for flies.
Phosphorus in the elemental form is particularly toxic, and
subject to bioaccumulation in much the same way as mercury.
Colloidal elemental phosphorus will poison marine fish
(causing skin tissue breakdown and discoloration). Also,
phosphorus is capable of being concentrated and will
accumulate in organs and soft tissues. Experiments have
shown that marine fish will concentrate phosphorus from
water containing as little as 1 ug/1.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand 1BOD).
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the oxygen
consuming capabilities of organic matter. The BOD does not
in itself cause direct harm to a water system, but it does
exert an indirect effect by depressing the oxygen content of
the water. Sewage and other organic effluents during their
processes of decomposition exert a BOD, which can have a
catastrophic effect on the ecosystem by depleting the oxygen
-------
supply. Conditions are reached frequently where all of the
oxygen is used and the continuing decay process causes the
production of noxious gases such as hydrogen sulfide and
methane. Water with a high BOD indicates the presence of
decomposing organic matter and subsequent high bacterial
counts that degrade its quality and potential uses.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a water quality constituent that,
in appropriate concentrations, is essential not only to keep
organisms living but also to sustain species reproduction,
vigor, and the development of populations. Organisms
undergo stress at reduced DO concentrations that make them
less competitive and able to sustain their species within
the aquatic environment. For example, reduced DO
concentrations have been shown to interfere with fish
population through delayed hatching of eggs, reduced size
and vigor of embryos, production of deformities in young,
interference with food digestion, acceleration of blood
clotting, decreased tolerance to certain toxicants, reduced
food efficiency and growth rate, and reduced maximum
sustained swimming speed. Fish food organisms are likewise
affected adversely in conditions with suppressed DO. Since
all aerobic aquatic organisms need a certain amount of
oxygen, the consequences of total lack of dissolved oxygen
due to a high BOD can kill all inhabitants of the affected
area.
If a high BOD is present, the quality of the water is
usually visually degraded by the presence of decomposing
materials and algae blooms due to the uptake of degraded
materials that form the foodstuffs of the algal populations.
QllSffiica l_Ox Y2§Q_ Demand_ ICOD
Under the proper conditions the chemical oxygen demand (COD)
test can be used as an alternative to the BOD test. The COD
test is widely used as a means of measuring the total amount
of oxygen required for oxidation of organics to carbon
dioxide and water by the action of a strong oxidizing agent
under acid conditions. It differs from the BOD test in that
it is independent of biological assimilability. The major
disadvantage of the COD test is that it does not distinguish
between biologically active and inert organics. The major
advantages are: 1) that it can be conducted in a matter of
hours or continuously in an automatic analyzer, and 2) it is
not affected by retardation of biological activity. In some
instances, COD can be correlated to BOD data and the COD
test can then be used as a substitute for the BOD test.
J
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Phenol s
Phenols and phenolic wastes are derived from petroleum,
coke, and chemical industries; wood distillation; and
domestic and animal wastes. Many phenolic compounds are
more toxic than pure phenol; their toxicity varies with the
combinations and general nature of total wastes. The effect
of combinations of different phenolic compounds is
cumulative.
Phenols and phenolic compounds are both acutely and
chronically toxic to fish and other aquatic animals. Also,
chlorophenols produce an unpleasant taste in fish flesh that
destroys their recreational and commercial value.
It is necessary to limit phenolic compounds in raw water
used for drinking water supplies, as conventional treatment
methods used by water supply facilities do not remove
phenols. The ingestion of concentrated solutions of phenols
will result in severe pain, renal irritation, shock and
possibly death.
Phenols also reduce the utility of water for certain
industrial uses, notably food and beverage processing, where
it creates unpleasant tastes and odors in the product.
Color
Wastewaters in the furniture manufacturing segment of the
timber products processing industry may obtain color from
finishing materials. Color in itself has little health
related signficance, but is primarily an aesthetic concern.
Oil and grease exhibit an oxygen demand. Oil emulsions may
adhere to the gills of fish or coat and destroy algae or
other plankton. Deposition of oil in the bottom sediments
can serve to exhibit normal benthic growths, thus
interrupting the aquatic food chain. Soluble and emulsified
material ingested by fish may taint the flavor of the fish
flesh. Water soluble components may exert toxic action on
fish. Floating oil may reduce the re-aeration of the water
surface and in conjunction with emulsified oil may interfere
with photosynthesis. Water insoluble components damage the
plumage and costs of water animals and fowls. Oil and
grease in a water can result in the formation of
objectionable surface slicks preventing the full aesthetic
enjoyment of the water.
Oil spills can damage the surface of boats and can destroy
the aesthetic characteristics of beaches and shorelines.
-------
As indicated previously, the inorganic ions produced by
certain fabricating and finishing operations depend on the
formulations used in the processes. If released to
receiving streams, these ions can be detrimental to the
aquatic biota and to fish life. If waste water and water
treatment plants are not designed specifically for the
removal of these ions, some of them will pass through the
plants. Section VII, Control and Treatment Technology.,
discusses methods for preventing the release of such
substances.
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SECTION VII
CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
This section identifies, documents, and verifies as
completely as possible the full range of control and
treatment technology which exists or has the potential to
exist within each industrial subcategory identified in
Section IV. In addition, it develops the control and treat-
ment alternatives applicable to the model plants developed
in Section V.
Historically, waste water has been of little concern in the
furniture and fixture manufacturing industry. Primary
concern has been with air emissions from boilers and spray
booths. Essentially no literature exists and no studies
have been previously conducted on the subject of waste water
generation by furniture factories.
A survey of the industry reveals that an estimated 9^
percent of all furniture factories either discharge their
waste waters to a municipal sewage system, contract them to
be hauled away by commercial disposal companies, or use a
combination of these disposal methods. The remaining 5
percent, however, represent some of the nation's largest
factories and, as indicated in Section V, larger factories
tend to have more waste water than smaller plants.
In-plant control measures to reduce the volume of waste
water generated by the application of glue consist of
various clean-up techniques. One of these techniques
consists of scraping the mixing tanks, glue spreaders, and
other surfaces prior to clean-up with water. This practice,
along with high pressure hoses, can reduce the total amount
of water appreciably. Another technique involves the use of
steam or steam-water mixtures on metal surfaces. It is
estimated that such techniques as these, and water
conservation in general, can reduce the volume of clean-up
water from 50 percent UOO liters (100 gallons) per clean-up
to less than 200 liters (50 gallons) .
Past in-plant air pollution control measures have caused a
transition from the dry spray booth to water curtain or
cavity back pan type booths, and have thus resulted in a
source of process waste water. As indicated in Section III,
the batch discharge from wet spray booths occurs on
approximately a weekly basis. In some cases the discharge
-------
is on Friday afternoon or Saturday morning as a matter of
operating convenience, but even in cases where the discharge
is not on a weekly basis, it occurs generally on a regular
basis.
A prolonging of the batch life of wet spray booth waters
would decrease the total discharge volume, if not the total
mass of pollutants, and, in terms of both water conservation
and waste water handling, would be advantageous. However,
the water cannot be used past the point at which its
efficiency for spray removal is decreased, and this point
would appear to be near the one-week interval. Each
particular operation should be judged by factory management
and, as a general management technique, the water held as
long as possible without a loss in spray booth efficiency.
A few factories operate laundries in association with
finishing operations for laundering of rags. Since the
volume of water used and the resulting waste water is fixed
by the number of loads washed and the capacity and number of
cycles of the washers, the ability to reduce waste water
flow and concentration is limited.
EXISTING_END-OF-LINE_TREATMENT
Existing end-of-line treatment is primarily a function of
plant location. The vast majority of plants are located
near municipalities and utilize a municipal treatment system
as their disposal method. As illustrated by Table 7,
approximately 60 percent of the plants surveyed discharge
all or part of their waste water to municipal sewer systems
or haul it to landfill. It is estimated, however,that the
actual percentage of plants discharging to municipal sewer
systems or hauling to landfill probably exceeds 90 percent.
The discrepancy in the above percentages is because of the
fact that a high percentage of the plants visited were the
larger plants in the industry which utilize disposal methods
other than these to a greater extent than smaller plants.
The alternate disposal methods observed include septic tanks
with tile fields and lagooning.
Septic tanks followed by tile fields may provide a
reasonable degree of treatment in some cases. However, the
efficiency of treatment is dependent on the nature of the
waste water, soil type, hydrologic conditions, and other
factors which preclude septic tanks from consideration as a
recommended treatment system. Oxidation ponds or lagoons
may provide a degree of treatment, but still result in the
discharge of contaminated waste water. The only furniture
plant (Number 10) observed to have a continuous discharge to
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TABLE 7
WASTE WATER DISPOSAL METHODS
EMPLOYED BY PLANTS Sb'RVEYED
Plant
1
2
3
U
5
•7
I
8
9
10
11
12
13
15
16
IT
19
20
21
23
Wastewater Source
Spray Booth
Glue Waste
Spray Booth
Steam Bending
Glue Waste
Spray Booths
Glue Waste
Wet Booth
Laundry
Spray Booth
Skimmings
Spray Booths
Laundry
Wet Booth
Glue Waste
Glue Waste
Laundry
Spray Booths
Glue Waste
Bleaching Waste
Wet Booth
Laundry
Laundry
Laundry
Laundry
Spray Booth
Spray Booth
Disposal Method
Hauled by Contractor
Storm Drain
Septic Tank
No treatment
Municipal Sewer
Hauled by Contractor
No treatment
Municipal Sewer
Municipal Sewer
Municipal Sewer
Hauled by Contractor
Lagoon & Discharge
Lagoon & Discharge
Hauled by Contractor
Municipal Sewer
Lagoon
Municipal Sewer
Municipal Sewer
Storm Drain
Storm Drain
Hauled by Contractor
Septic Tank
Municipal Sewer
Municipal Sewer
Municipal Sewer
Municipal Sewer
Municipal Sewer
-------
navigable waters utilized four lagoons in series to treat
its laundry and spray booth waste waters. A reduction of
approximately 50 percent in COD was observed.
POTENTIAL_TREATMENT_TECHNOLOGY
Potential treatment technologies considered applicable for
furniture and fixture plants are the following:
1. Incineration via spraying on hog fuel
2. Evaporation ponds
3. Spray irrigation
u. Trucking to landfill
Spraying of waste waters on hog fuel is a viable alternative
in those cases where the volume of waste water is
sufficiently low and a hog fuel boiler exists on-site. This
sytem may increase the moisture content of the hog fuel and
require more energy to operate the boilers. Because of the
nature of the waste waters, negligible increases in ash can
be expected.
Evaporation pond operation involves the concentration of
waste water in a lined lagoon by natural or mechanical
evaporation with the accumulated sludge being deposited in a
landfill. In regions where yearly precipitation exceeds
evaporation, a spray mechanism is necessary, and the
resulting energy requirements, as discussed in Section VIII,
are relatively high.
Spray irrigation utilizes soil microorganisms' ability to
decompose organic matter in addition to the soil's natural
filtering ability to achieve waste water treatment and
disposal. With proper design and operation, there is little
danger of groundwater contamination. In application of this
technique to furniture factory waste water, pretreatment
consisting of sedimentation and skimming is usually nec-
essary.
DESCRIPTION_OF_MODEL_SYSTEMS
The recommended treatment alternatives are considered
applicable to all four model plants with the exception that
spray irrigation alternative is considered applicable only
to the Model Plants 2 and U. This is because of the fact
that the waste water from these two models contains laundry
wastes and is considered to be more biodegradable than the
effluent from Model Plants 1 and 3. Discharge to municipal
treatment systems is considered to be a viable alternative.
Pretreatment, if required, may consist of neutralization or
-------
screening and will vary with each state or municipality.
The remaining model treatment systems are as follows:
Alternative __ A - This alternative consists of no control and
treatment and results in no reduction in waste water volume
or concentration.
Alternative __ B - Alternative B, illustrated in Figure 10,
consists~of a flat screen with 3.2 mm (1/8 inch) openings, a
sump with sufficient capacity to hold all plant waste waters
for a week, and a pump and sufficient hose to transport the
waste water to a tank truck. It is assumed that a truck can
be contracted to haul the waste water on a weekly basis and,
as demonstrated in practice, that the waste water is
acceptable for landfill disposal. The specific equipment
capacities required for each model plant are given in Table
8.
_C ~ Alternative C, incineration of waste water
by" spraying on the plant's hog fuel, is shown in Figure 10.
This system requires a flat screen with 3.2 mm (1/8 inch)
openings, a sump, a pump, and sufficient piping and valves
to allow spraying the waste water on the hog fuel prior to
injecting the fuel into the furnace. It is assumed that a
hog fuel boiler is already in existence in the plant. The
required pump and sump capacities for each model plant are
presented in Table 9.
.. __ D ~ This alternative provides for the
evaporation "of all waste water from a plant. All systems
require a sump and a transfer pump for pumping the waste
water from the plant to the evaporation pond. The size
requirements for the ponds for each model plant are
presented in Tables 10 and 11. The pond sizes are bas'ed on
yearly precipitation and evaporation data for five areas
where furniture plants are commonly located. In areas where
precipitation exceeds rainfall (Grand Rapids, Michigan;
Greensboro, N.C.; and New England), mechanical spray units,
consisting of a pump and spray nozzles, are required to
provide adequate evaporative capacity to evaporate the
entire yearly waste water flow as well as excess
precipitation. The spray units are designed for a five
month operating period. In two of the areas (Dallas, Texas;
and Los Angeles, California) , the yearly evaporation exceeds
the yearly precipitation, therefore, only shallow ponds are
required.
Alternative __ S ~ This alternative consists of spray
irrigation "with pretreatment to remove settleable materials
and a portion of the biodegradable content of the waste
-------
3.2mm {
SCREEN
\
FROM PLANT
\
SUMP
HOSE
PUMP
TRUCK TO LANDFILL
WEEKLY
3.2mm ( '/8 )
SCREEN v
FROM PLANT
\
<;i i w P
PUMP
SPRAY ON HOG
FUEL DAILY
FIGURE 10 TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES B AND C
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TABLE 8
TREATMENT ALTERNATIVE B, EQUIPMENT SUMMARY
Sump Capacity
Pump Capacity
Pump Power
Requirements
Volume Hauled
Per Week
Model
1
2
3
1*
(ft3)
5
(175)
30
(1,01*0)
15
(590)
1*0
(1,1*60)
liter/sec
(gpm)
(50)
3
(50)
3
(50)
(80)
kw
(hp)
1.5
(2.0)
1.5
(2.0)
1.5
(2.0)
l.Q
(2.5)
liters
(gal)
1*,000
(1,000)
20,000
(6,000)
13,000
32,000
(8,1*00)
Trips
Per Year
35
208
118
292
In addition to the above, other equipment requirements are piping, valves,
controls, flat screen with 3.2 mm (1/8 inch) openings, and a 6.0 m_3_ (1500
gal) capacity contracted tank truck.
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TABLE 9
TREATMENT ALTERNATIVE C, EQUIPMENT SUMMARY
Pump Pover
Sump Capacity Pump Capacity Requirements
cu- m Ips kv
Model (cu ft) ' (gpm) (hp)
1 1.0 1 0.56
(35) (20) (0.75)
2 10 3 1.5
(50) (2.0)
3 13 2 0.75
(1*56) (25) (1.0)
It Ul U 1.5
(1,1*60) (60) (2.0)
In addition to the above, other equipment requirements are piping, valves,
spray nozzles, and controls.
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TABLE 10
TREATMENT ALTEP.1IATIYE D, EVAPORATION PC-IDS
Evaporation Pond Size & Depth
Dallas, Los Angeles, Greensboro, Grand Papids,
Model Units Hew England Texjas California N . C . '-fi chigan
1 s qn2
(sqft2)
m
(ft)
2 sq2
(sqft2j
n
(ft)
3 sqn2
(sqft_2)
r.
(ft)
ij s qm2
(sqft2_)
m
(ft)
5?
(625)
? . Q
(9.5)
2lG
(2,60G)
l-.O
(13)
190
(2,000)
•5 . o
Uc)
330
(3,600)
ii "
(is!i)
51?
(5,510)
0.7
! -i i\
(S.3)
3,070
(33,050)
0.7
(2.3)
1.7^0
(1?,73C)
0 ^
\s • I
(2.3)
li,276
(U6.270)
0.7
(2.3)
323
(3,^75)
0.3
(1)
1,9' 8
(20,860)
C. 7>
(1)
1 ,008
(ll,8?C)
p -3
(1)
2,710
(29,200)
0 Q,
"(1)
58
(625)
3.U
(11)
27Q
(3,000)
y.c
(13)
IPO
(2,000)
"^.5
(11.5)
?QO
(li,200)
k.C
(13)
58
(f?5)
"5 ^
(10.^^
280
(?,POO)
'J >•>
( 12 . 5 )
:QO
(2,000)
3.^
(11 )
370
(U,000)
li.O
(13)
In addition to the above, other equipment requirements are piping, valves,
controls, flat screen with 3.2 mm. (1/8 inch) openings, and an evaporator
Dump as shewn in Table 11.
-------
TABLE 11
ALTERNATIVE D, SPRAY EVAPORATION
Evaporation Pump Hours/Day
del
1
2
•5
k
New England*
2.5
13.5
7.5
13.5
Dallas , Texas
none
none
none
none
L.A., Calif.
none
none
none
none
Greensboro, N.C.*
2.5
13.5
7.5
19.0
Grand Rapids, Mich
2.5
13.0
7.5
18.5
^Evaporator pump is 15 kw. (?0 hp) evaporating at O.l8 I/sec (2.79
Number pumps required = one. Pumps operate 5 months/year.
-------
FROM
PLANT
A
SPRAY NOZZLES
--/
i A
\f
O—f
V A. yi
*-* ;
-x"
LAGOON
PUMP
PI an-view of Evaporation Pond with Mechanical Spray Unit
Profile of Evaporation Pond
FIGURE 11 TREATMENT ALTERNATIVE D,
EVAPORATION PONDS
-------
water. This is accomplished, as illustrated in Figure 12,
by pumping the waste water to two ponds in series in which
settling and skimming are accomplished. The settled and
skimmed waste water is then adjusted to proper pH by acid
addition prior to its entering a small aeration pond. The
aeration pond effluent is then sprayed on an irrigation
field at an application rate of 5600 liters per hectare (600
gallons per acre) per day. As noted previously, this
alternative is considered applicable for Model Plants 2 and
U only. The specific equipment requirements for each model
plant are presented in Table 12.
-------
FROM
PLANT
SETTLING AND SKIMMING
PONDS
AERATOR
—X
O
TO SPRAY
IRRIGATION
AERATION POND
FIGURE 12 TREATMENT ALTERNATIVE E, SPRAY
IRRIGATION WITH PRETREATMENT
-------
TABLE 12
TREATMENT E, SPRAY IRRIGATION
SPRAY IRRIGATION AERATION
SUMP CAPACITY TRANSFER PUMP FIELD SIZE SETTLING POND POND
cu m OPERATION TIME hectares DENTENTION TIME DETENTION
MODEL (cu ft) min/day (acres) days TIME days
2 2 50 0.8 50 100
(80) (2)
k 17 70 1.2 36 72
(630) (3)
In addition to the above, the equipment requirements are piping, valves, controls, flat screen with
3.2 mm (1/8 inch) openings, and a O.h kw (0.5 hp) 1.5 Ips (2U gpm) capacity transfer pump and an
8 kw (10 hp) aerator.
-------
SECTION VIII
COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
This section presents an evaluation of the costs, energy
requirements, and non-water quality aspects associated with
the treatment and control alternatives developed in Section
VII in terms of the model processes and plants developed in
Section V.
CQST_ANp_REpUCTION_BENEFITS_OF_ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT
END_CONTROL~TECHNOLOGIES~
In absence of complete cost information for individual
processes, the cost figures developed herein are based on
reliable actual cost figures reported for various
installations coupled with engineering estimates. Adequate
engineering estimates for a single installation must
necessarily involve consideration of a multitude of factors.
An estimate completely applicable to all members of an
entire industry subcategory is obviously impossible. Land
costs and construction cost, in terms of both labor and
materials cost, are only two items that vary widely from
plant to plant. Therefore, the costs presented herein are
intended to serve as a guide only.
The engineering estimates for all cost analyses in this
section employed the following assumptions:
1. Excavation cost = $2.29/cu m (1.75/cu yd).
2. contract labor = $10.QO/hr.
3. Power costs = 2.32/kw hr.
t». All costs reported in August 1971 dollars.
5. Trucking haul cost = $20.00/trip.
6. Landfill fee = $2.64/cu m ($10.00/1000 gal) for
sludge.
7. Landfill fee = $2.75/kkg ($2.50/ton).
8. Tank truck assumed to be of 5.68 cu m (1500 gal)
capacity.
9. Annual interest rate for capital cost = 8 percent.
-------
10. Salvage value of zero over 20 years for physical
facilities and equipment.
11. Depreciation is straight line.
12. Total yearly cost = (investment cost/2) (0.08) +
(investment cost) (0.05) + yearly operating cost.
The model plant developed in Section V for this subcategory
has a total average daily waste water flow of 760 liters
(200 gallons) and includes no laundry or spray booth waste
water.
Alternative A - This alternative assumes no control or
treatment. The resulting wasteload for this subcategory is
760 liters per day (200 gallons per day) , a COD load of 20
kilograms per day (43 pounds per day) , and a total solids
load of 11 kilograms per day (31 pounds per day) .
The costs of control and treatment for Alternative A are as
follows:
Total Investment Costs $0
X§a.rly._Ogerating_Costs 12
Total Yearly Costs $0
There are no reductions in COD or suspended solids
associated with Alternative A.
Ai£ernative_B ~ This alternative consists of hauling the
waste water on a weekly basis by tank truck to a landfill.
The costs of control and treatment are as follows:
Total Investment Costs $3,200
X§IElY._°.E§Eatin3_Costs llz.230
Total YearIy~Costs $1,520
An itemized cost breakdown for this alternative is presented
in Table 13.
The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100 percent
reduction of the discharge of process waste water
pollutants.
Ai£ir.Q§Liiv.§_Q ~ This alternative assumes the availability of
incineration in the form of a hog fuel boiler. The waste
-------
TABLE 13
ITEMIZED COST SUM/IAHY FOP. ALTERNATIVE B, f'CPE
Investment Costs:
Screen *
Suir.p
Pump n-,OOC
Piping, Valves, etc. 800
Engineering @1.Q% 300
Contingencies $10 5 300
TOTAL 137-CO
Operating and Maintenance :
Screen
Punip
Piping, Valves, Etc.
Trucking to Landfill
TOTAL
S UQ
-------
water is screened and sprayed onto the hog fuel prior to
burning.
The costs of control and treatment for Alternative C are as
follows:
Total Investment Costs $2,300
X§§£lY._22§£§£iD3_C.2§ts $_ 12P_
Total Yearly~Costs ~ $ ~380
An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative C is presented in
Table 14. The reduction benefits for Alternative C are 100
percent reduction of the discharge of process waste water
pollutants.
D - This alternative consists of the use of
evaporation ponds discussed in Section VII.
The costs of control and treatment for Alternative D are
as follows:
Los Grand
New Dallas Angeles Greensboro Rapids
England Texas Calif. N.C. Mich.
Total Investment
Costs $19,000 $8,400 $6,100 $20,900 $20,90^
Yearly Operating
Costs $ 1,440 $ 315 $ 265 $ 1,450 $ 1,450
Total Yearly
Costs $ 3,220 $1,070 $ 815 $ 3,330 $ 3,330
An itemized cost breakdown for this alternative is presented
in Table 15. The reduction benefits for this alternative
are 100 percent reduction of pollutants.
F - This alternative consists of discharging to
a sewer for treatment in a municipal treatment system. It
is assumed that the model plant is presently discharging to
the municipal treatment system and that no pretreatment is
required. A minimum monthly sewer charge of $25 is assumed.
The costs of control and treatment for this alternative are
as follows:
Total Investment Costs $ 0
X§§£iY_QE§E§£i.S2_S2§t§ $300
Total Yearly Costs $300
-------
TABLE 14
ITEMIZED COST SlIL'-MARY FOR ALTERNATIVE C, MODEL
Investment Cost:
Screen $ LOC
Sump ^00
Pump ^00
Piping, Valves, Etc. P00
Engineering ?1C?? 200
Contingencies ?10f _200_
TOTAL
Operating and liaintenance:
Screen
Sump
Pump
Piping, Valves, Etc.
TOTAL
-------
TABLE 15
ITFMI77T; CCHT SUMT7VRY FOE ALTERNATIVE ^
INVESTMENT COST:
ITEM
New England Dallas, Texas L.A., Calif. Greensboro, IT.C. Grand Rapids, Mich.
1.
2.
3.
It.
5.
Lagoon Control
Structure & Liner
Spray Units
Land
Engineering
Contingencies
$3,500 $6,200
12,600
300 700
(0.07ha) (0.17ha)
1,600 700
1,800 600
$19, BOO $8, lOQ
$^,500 $ ^,LOO $U,ltOO
12,600 12,600
500 ?00 300
(0.13ha) (0.07ha) (0.07ha)
500 1,700 1,700
600 1,900 1,900
$6,100 $20,900 $20,900
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE:
1.
2.
Operation and
Maintenance
Power
$ 1 ,330 $ 310
110 5
$ 260 $ 1,3J-0 fl,-5lO
5 110 ] 10
$. l.U-O
: ,1*50
$1150
-------
The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100 percent
reduction of the discharge of process waste water
pollutants.
Subcategory II
The model plant developed in Section V for this subcategory
has a total average daily waste water flow of 4550 liters
(1200 gallons) and includes 760 liters per day (200 gallons
per day) of glue wastes and 3790 liters per day (1000
gallons per day) of laundry wastes.
Alternative __ A - This alternative assumes no control or
treatment. The resulting wasteload for this subcategory is
4550 liters per day (1200 gallons per day), a COD load of 69
kilograms per day (152 pounds per day), and a total solids
load of 59 kilograms per day (130 pounds per day) .
The costs of control and treatment for Alternative A are as
follows:
Total Investment Costs $0
X§§£lY._2B§rJl£iS3_c.2§£§ $P_
Total Yearly~Costs $0
There are no reductions in COD or suspended solids
associated with Alternative A.
Alternative_B - This alternative consists of hauling the
waste water on a weekly basis by tank truck to a landfill.
The costs of control and treatment are as follows:
Total Investment Costs $3,200
XS§£lY_2E§£§tiG9_Cgsts £6.^390
Total Yearly Costs" $6,680
An itemized cost breakdown for this alternative is presented
in Table 16.
The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100 percent
reduction of the discharge of process waste water
pollutants.
^l£§£HS£i2§_Q ~ This alternative assumes the availability of
incineration in the form of a hog fuel boiler. The waste
water is screened and sprayed onto the hog fuel prior to
burning.
-------
TABLE 16
ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE B, MODEL 2
Investment Cost
Screen $ UOO
Sump UOO
Pump 1,000
Piping, Valves, Etc. 800
Engineering @10$ 300
Contingencies @ 10% 300
TOTAL $3,200
Operating and Maintenance
Screen $ i+0
Sump 90
Pump 60
Piping, Valves, Etc. 80'
Trucking to Landfill 6,120
TOTAL $6,390
-------
The costs of control and treatment for Alternative C are as
follows:
Total Investment Costs
XS§£lY_2E§£§ting_C
Total Yearly Costs
$3,400
$ _23C
$ 540
An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative C is presented in
Table 17.
The reduction benefits for Alternative C are 100 percent
reduction of the discharge of process waste water
pollutants.
Alternative^!) - This alternative consists of the use of
evaporation ponds as discussed in Section VII.
The costs of control and treatment for Alternative D are as
follows:
Los Grand
New Dallas Angeles Greensboro Rapids
England Texas Calif. N.C. Mich.
Total Investment
Costs
yearly Operating
Costs $ 4,190 $
Total Yearly
Costs
$23,900 $25,600 $12,300 $24,500 $24,500
705 525 4,200 4,080
$ 6,340 $ 3,010 $ 1,630 $ 6,410 $ 6,290
An itemized cost breakdown for this alternative is presented
in Table 18.
The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100 percent
reduction of the discharge of process waste water
pollutants.
A!fe§£2Si:iy.§ I ~ This alternative consists of spray
irrigation with pretreatment to reduce suspended solids and
organic materials.
The costs of control and treatment for this alternative are
as follows:
Total Investment Costs
Yearly Operating Costs
Total Yearly Costs
$28,300
$ 9,080
$11,630
J
-------
TABLE 17
ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE C, MODEL 2
Investment Cost:
Screen $ lj.00
Sump 600
Pump 1,000
Piping, Valves, Etc. 800
Engineering @10% 300
Contingencies % 1Q% 300
TOTAL $3,UOO
Operating and Maintenance:
Screen $ liO
Sump 60
Pump 50
Piping, Valves, Etc. 80
TOTAL | 230"
, r»
- J
-------
TABLE 18
ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE D, MODEL 2
INVESTMENT COSTS:
Item New England
1.
2.
3.
IK
5.
Lagoon, Control
Structure , Liner
Spray Units
Land
Engineering
Contingencies
$ 6,600
12,600
500
(0.13 ha)
2,000
2,200
$23,900
Dallas , Texas
$18,900
—
2,300
(0.56 ha)
2,100
2,300
$25,600
L.A., Calif.
$ 8,600
—
1,600
(0.38 ha)
1,000
1,100
$12,300
Greensboro, N.C.
$ 7,100
12,600
600
(O.lUO ha)
2,000
2,200
$2^,500
Grand Rapids, Mich.
$ 7,100
12,600
600
(O.lU ha)
2,000
2.200-
$2U,500
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE:
1.
2.
Item
Operation and
Maintenance
Power
$3,610
580
$ TOO
5
$ 520
5
$ 3,620
580
$ 3,520
560
$ U.190
705
525
$ 1,200
$ 1*,080
-------
An itemized breakdown of the costs for this alternative are
presented in Table 19. The reduction benefits for this
alternative are 100 percent reduction of the discharge of
process waste water pollutants.
Alternative_F - This alternative consists of discharging to
a municipal sewer for treatment in a municipal treatment
system. It is assumed that the model plant is presently
discharging to the municipal treatment system and that no
pretreatment is required. A minimum 'monthly charge of $25
is assumed.
The costs of control and treatment for this alternative are
as follows:
Total Investment Costs $ 0
X§iElY._Op.erating_Costs $300
Total Yearly Costs" $300
The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100 percent
reduction of the discharge of process waste water
pollutants .
1 1 1
The model plant developed in Section V for this subcategory
has a total average daily waste water flow of 25 8U liters
(680 gallons) and includes 760 liters per day (200 gallons
per day) of glue wastes and 9120 liters per week (2400
gallons per week) of spray booth waste water.
....-A - This alternative assumes no control or
treatment. The resulting wasteload for this subcategory is
258U liters per day (680 gallons per day) , a COD load of 105
kilograms per day (230 pounds per day) , and a total solids
load of 92 kilograms per day (203 pounds per day) .
The costs of control and treatment for Alternative A are as
follows:
Total Investment Costs $0
Xs§EiY._2Ee.E§ting_Cgsts $0_
Total Yearly Costs $0
There are no reductions in COD or suspended solids
associated with Alternative A.
Alternative __ B - This alternative consists of hauling the
waste water on a weekly basis by tank truck to a landfill.
-------
TABLE 19
ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE E, MODEL 2
Investment Costs:
Screen $ 400
Sump 300
Pump, Sump to Settling Basins 400
Settling Basins (2) 4,700
pH Control 1,700
Aeration Pond 4,900
Aerator 2,500
Pump, Aeration to Spray Irrigation 700
Spray Irrigation Field 7,000
Piping, Valves, etc. 800
Engineering @10% 2,300
Contingencies 010% 2,600
TOTAL $28,300
Operating and Maintenance:
Screen $ 40
Sump 20
Pump 30
Settling Basins 110
pH Control 1,000
Aerator and Basin 1,500
Irrigation Field, Equipment 6,300
Pump, Aeration to Spray Irrigation 40
Piping, Valves, Etc. 4£
TOTAL $ 9,080
-------
The costs of control and treatment are as follows:
Total Investment Costs
Yearly_Op_erating_Costs
Total Yearly Costs
$3,600
$3^,720
$4,040
An itemized cost breakdown for this alternative is presented
in Table 20.
The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100 percent
reduction of the discharge of process waste water
pollutants.
C - This alternative assumes the availability of
incineration in the form of a hog fuel boiler. The waste
water is screened and sprayed on the hog fuel prior to
burning.
The costs of control and treatment for Alternative C are as
follows:
Total Investment Costs
2§^ElZ_22§£§feiS3_C
Total Yearly Costs
$3,200
$ 220
$ sTc
An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative C is presented in
Table 21.
The reduction benefits for Alternative C are 100 percent
reduction of the discharge of process waste water
pollutants.
Alternative D - This alternative consists of pond
evaporation of the waste water as discussed in Section VII.
The costs of control and treatment for Alternative D are as
follows:
Los Grand
New Dallas Angeles Greensboro Rapids
England Texas Calif. N.C. Mich.
Total Investment
Costs $22,300 $13,800 $10,800 $22,700 $22,700
Yearly Operating
Costs " $ 2,700 $ 515 $ 395 $ 2,700 $ 2,700
Total Yearly
Costs $ 4,710 $ 1,760 $ 1,370 $ 4,740 $ 4,740
-------
TABLE 20
ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE B, MODEL 3
Investment Cost:
Screen $ 400
Sump 800
Pump 1,000
Piping, Valves, Etc. 800
Engineering, @10% 300
Contingencies @10% 300
TOTAL $3,600
Operating and Maintenance:
Screen $ 40
Sump 80
Pump 50
Piping, Valves, Etc. 80
Trucking to Landfill 3.470
TOTAL $3,720
TABLE 21
ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE C, MODEL 3
Investment Cost:
Screen $ 400
Sump 700
Pump 700
Piping, Valves, Etc. 800
Engineering @10% 300
Contingencies @1C% 300
TOTAL $3,200
Operating and Maintenance:
Screen $ 40
Sump 70
Pump 30
Piping, Valves, Etc. 80
TOTAL I 210"
-------
An itemized cost breakdown for this alternative is presented
in Table 22.
The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100 percent
reduction of the discharge of process waste water
pollutants.
Alternative __ F - This alternative consists of discharging to
a municipal sewer for treatment in a municipal treatment
system. It is assumed that the model plant is presently
discharging to the municipal treatment system and that no
pretreatment is required. A minimum monthly sewer charge of
$25 per month is assumed.
The costs of control and treatment for this alternative are
as follows:
Total Investment Costs $ 0
X§§ElY_2B§£§ting_Costs 1300
Total Yearly Costs ~ $300
The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100 percent
reduction of the discharge of process waste water
pollutants.
The model plant developed in Section V for this subcategory
has a total average daily waste water flow of 6374 liters
(1680 gallons) and includes 4550 liters per day (1200
gallons per day) of glue wastes and laundry waste waters and
9120 liters per week (2400 gallons per week) of spray booth
waste water.
A - This alternative assumes no control or
treatment. The resulting wasteload for this subcategory is
6374 liters per day (1680 gallons per day), a COD load of
154 kilograms per day (339 pounds per day) , and a total
solids load of 145 kilograms per day (319 pounds per day).
The costs of control and treatment for Alternative A are as
follows:
Total Investment Costs $0
X®§EiY._QE§E§iiB2_Costs _$?__
Total Yearly Costs $0
There are no reductions in COD or suspended solids
associated with Alternative A.
-------
TABLE 22
ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE D, MODEL 3
INVESTMENT COSTS:
Item
]. Lagoon, Control
Structures, Liner
2. Spray Units
3. Land
4. Engineering
5. Contingencies
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE:
Item
]. Operation and
Maintenance
2. Power
New England
$ 5,300
]2,600
500
(0.]] ha)
],900
2,000
$22,300
:E:
$ 2,380
320
$ 2,700
Dallas, Texas
$ 9,900
--
],500
(0.37 ha)
],]00
]5300
$]3,800
$ 5]0
5
$ 5]5
L.A., Calif.
$ 7,800
--
1,100
(0.25 ha)
900
],000
$10,800
$ 390
5
$ 395
Greensboro, N.C.
$ 5,600
]2,600
500
(0.11 ha)
1,900
2,100
$22,700
$ 2,380
320
$ 2,700
Grand Rapids, Mich.
$ 5,600
J2.600
500
(0.11 ha)
1,900
2,100
$22,700
$ 2,380
320
$ 2,700
-------
Alternative_B_ - This alternative consists of hauling the
waste water on a weekly basis by tank truck to a landfill.
The costs of control and treatment are as follows:
Total Investment Costs
X§arlY_Qp.erating_Costs
Total Yearly Costs
$4,500
$8.1.890
$9,300
An itemized cost breakdown for this alternative is presented
in Table 23.
The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100 percent
reduction of the discharge of process waste water
pollutants.
Alternative^ - This alternative assumes the availability of
incineration in the form of a hog fuel boiler. The waste
water is screened and sprayed onto the hog fuel prior to
burning.
The costs of control and treatment for Alternative C are as
follows:
Total Investment Costs
XearlY_Op_erating_Costs
Total Yearly Costs
$3,600
$ 260
$ 580
An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative C is presented in
Table 24.
The reduction benefits for Alternative C are 100 percent
reduction of the discharge of process waste water
pollutants.
Aiternative D - This alternative consists of pond
evaporation of the waste water as discussed in Section VII.
The costs of control and treatment for Alternative D are as
follows:
Total Investment
Costs
Yearly Operating
Costs
Total Yearlv
New Dallas
Encrland Texas
Los Grand
Angeles Greensboro Rapids
Calif. N.C. Mich.
$25,600 $34,000 $19,400 $26,200 $25,600
$ 5,560 $ 875 $ 625 $ 5,570 $ 5,570
-------
TABLE 23
ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE B, MODEL
Investment Cost:
Screen $
Sump 1,200
Pump 1,300
Piping, Valves, Etc. 800
Engineering @IO% ^00
Contingencies @10$ ^00
TOTAL $U,500
Operating and Maintenance:
Screen $ ^0
Sump 120
Pump TO
Piping, Valves, Etc. 80
Trucking to Landfill __ 8,580
TOTAL $8,890
TABLE 24
ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE C, MODEL k
Investment Cost:
Screen $
Sump 800
Pump 1,000
Piping, Valves, Etc. 800
Engineering @10$ 300
Contingencies @10$ 300
TOTAL $3,600
Operating and Maintenance:
Screen $ ^0
Sump 80
Pump 60
Piping, Valves, Etc. 80
TOTAL "1 260
-------
Costs $ 7,860 $ 3,9UO $ 2,370 $ 7,930 $ 7,740
An itemized cost breakdown for this alternative is presented
in Table 25.
The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100 percent
reduction of the discharge of process waste water
pollutants,
I ~ This alternative consists of spray
irrigation with pretreatment to reduce suspended solids and
organic materials.
The costs of control and treatment for this alternative are
as follows:
Total Investment Costs $32,700
Y.§§r.Iy._°.E§ESting_Costs $ 9^090
Total Yearly~Costs ~ $12,030
An itemized breakdown of the costs for this alternative are
presented in Table 26.
The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100 percent
reduction of the discharge of process waste water
pollutants.
E ~ This alternative consists of discharging to
a municipal sewer for treatment in a municipal treatment
system. It is assumed that the model plant is presently
discharging to the municipal treatment system and that no
pretreatment is required. A minimum monthly sewer charge of
$25 is assumed.
The costs of control and treatment for this alternative are
as follows:
Total Investment costs $ 0
X§§£lY_22§£§£iQ2_Qosts $300
Total Yearly Costs $300
The reduction benefits for this alternative are 10C percent
reduction of the discharge of process waste water
pollutants .
RELATED ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT AND
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
The energy requirements associated with each control and
treatment alternative are presented in Table 27. Because of
-------
TABLE 25
ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE D, MODEL
C J
-4
INVESTMENT COSTS:
1. Lagoon, Control
Struc-tTures, Liner
2. Spray Units
3. Land
U. Engineering
5. Contingencies
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE:
Item
1. Operation and
Maintenance
2. Power
New England
$ 8,000
12,600
600
(0.15 ha)
2,100
2,300
$25,600
$ U,7l*0
820
$ 5,560
Dallas , Texas
$25,000
—
3,000
(0.72 ha)
2,800
3,100
$3*1,000
$ 870
5
$ 875
L.A., Calif.
$lU,000
—
2,000
(O.W ha)
1,600
1,800
$19,^00
$ 620
5
$ 625
Greensboro, N.C.
$ 8,300
12,600
700
(0.16 ha)
2,200
2,UOO
$26,200
$ U.T50
820
$ 5,570
Grand Rapids, Mich.
$ 8,000
12,600
600
(0.15 ha)
2,100
2,300
$25,600
$ !4,6UO
800
$ 5, MUD
-------
TABLE 26
ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE E, MODEL U
Investment Costs:
Screen $ ^00
Sump 800
Pump, Sump to Settling Basins ^00
Settling Basins (2) ^,700
pH Control 1,700
Aeration Pond 14,900
Aerator 2,500
Pump, Aeration to Spray Irrigation TOO
Spray Irrigation Field 10,100
Piping, Valves, Etc. 800
Engineering @10$ 2,700
Contingencies @10$ 3,000
TOTAL $32,700
Operating and Maintenance:
Screen $ ^0
Sump 30
Pump 30
Settling Basins 110
pH Control 1,000
Aerator and Basin 1,500
Irrigation Field, Equipment 6,300
Pump ^0
Piping, Valves, Etc.
_
TOTAL $ 9,090
-------
TABLE 27
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Alternative
A
B
C
D*
E
Model
All
1
2
3
U
1
2
3
k
I
2
3
It
2
h
Kw-hrs/yr
0
39
157
91
170
35
196
96
196
U,780
2^,780
13,910
3^,220
65,630
65,630
Dollars/yr
0.00
0.90
3.60
2.10
3.90
0.80
U.50
2.20
4.50
110.00
570.00
320.00
810.00
1,510.00
1,510.00
*Average energy requirement for model plants in regions
requiring mechanical spray units
-------
the small volumes of waste water to be handled and the
uncomplicated control techniques employed, the energy
requirements for all alternatives are small. Of the
recommended alternatives, spray evaporation and spray
irrigation require the highest degree of energy consumption
and, consequently, may be less desirable than one of the
remaining alternatives.
NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS OF ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT AND
CONTROL'TECHNOLOGIES"
Non-water quality aspects of the recommended alternative
control and treatment technologies, including energy
requirements as discussed above, are considered minimal.
The non-water quality aspects which are applicable to each
alternative are discussed below.
Alternative_B, Haul_tg_Landfill, has the potential for non-
water quality impact only where final landfill disposal is
not done properly. Disposal in properly designed and
managed landfills should result in minimal impact.
Alternative C, SpraY_on_Ho2_Fuel, may result in an increase
in energy consumption by the boiler because of the increase
in moisture content of the hog fuel. The potential also
exists for increased air emissions resulting from the
incineration of the waste water and for some increase in
solid wastes from increased ash in the boiler. All of the
above are estimated to be minimal and will probably not
result in measurable impact on any non-water quality aspect.
Alternative_Dx_Eva£oratign_Ponds, when utilizing mechanical
spray units will require the highest energy consumption as
discussed above. The use of evaporation ponds results in a
buildup of solids in the pond which may eventually require
dredging and landfill disposal. This should result in no
non-water quality aspects if disposal is to a properly
designed landfill.
Aitej^ative_Ex._Sp.ray__Irrigation should result in minimal
non-water quality impact. The pretreatment operations
recommended should reduce or eliminate the potential for
ground or surface water contamination.
-------
SECTION IX
BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
The effluent limitations which must be achieved by July 1,
1977, are to specify the degree of effluent reduction
attainable through the application of the Best Practicable
Control Technology Currently Available. Best practicable
control technology currently available is generally based on
the average of best existing performance by plants of
various sizes, ages, and unit processes within the
industrial category and/or subcategory.
Consideration must also be given to:
a. The total cost of application of technology in
relation to the effluent reduction benefits to be
achieved from such application;
b. The size and age of eguipment and facilities
involved;
c. The process employed;
d. The engineering aspects of the application of
various types of control techniques;
e. Process changes;
f. Non-water quality environmental impact (including
energy requirements);
g. Availability of land for use in waste water
treatment disposal.
Best practicable control technology currently available
emphasizes treatment facilities at the end of a
manufacturing process but includes the control technologies
within the process itself when these are considered to be
normal practice within the industry.
A further consideration is the degree of economic and
engineering reliability which must be established for the
technology to be "currently available." As a result of
demonstration projects, pilot plants, and general use, there
must exist a high degree of confidence in the engineering
and economic practicability of the technology at the time of
construction or installation of the control facilities.
-------
In addition to the above factors, consideration should be
given to furniture plants that form part of industrial
complexes. While a numerical addition of pollutant loads
from all operations will yield the total effluent load from
a complex, several factors may affect the application of
available control and treatment technology. In treatment of
its total waste water discharge, the complex may have the
advantages of economy of scale, improved potential for water
recycle, and joint use of a unit process. It may also have
the disadvantages of lack of available land, substantial
previous investments in control and treatment technology
that may not be applicable to recommended guidelines,
alteration of waste water treatability as a result of
combining of waste streams, or, if waste must be treated
separately, the additional expense of segregation of the
combined waste waters. Therefore the technology discussed
in this document and the recommended effluent limitations
may not necessarily apply to an industrial complex composed
of individual plants or unit processes discussed in this or
other effluent limitations documents. That is, wood
furniture and fixture manufacturing facilities are allowed
to discharge waste water to a treatment system servicing and
industrial complex, however, with no allowance being given
for additional discharge of pollutants from the treatment
system attributable to the wood furniture manufacturing
facility.
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF
BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL~TECHNOLOGY~CURRENTLY AVAILABLE FOR
FURNITURE'MANUFACTURING
Based on the information contained in Sections III through
VII of this document, it has been determined that the degree
of effluent reduction attainable through the application of
the best practicable control technology currently available
for all subcategories of the wood furniture and fixture
manufacturing segment is no discharge of process waste water
pollutants to navigable waters.
IDENTIFICATION OF BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
~
The technology identified as the best practicalbe control
technology currently available for the wood furniture
manufacturing segment, as described in Section VTI, which
will result in the elimination of waste water pollutant
discharges requires the implementation of one of the
following:
1. Disposal to municipal treatment system
-------
2. Trucking to land fill
3. Incineration via spraying on hog fuel
4. Evaporation ponds
5. Spray irrigation
While all control technigues are considered to be viable
alternatives, it must be noted that spray irrigation is
limited to those subcategories which utilize laundries since
these waste waters are the only ones considered to be
sufficiently biodegradable for this treatment method. Also,
spray irrigation requires an amount of land that may not be
available in all cases.
No pretreatment is assumed for municipal system disposal of
waste waters; however in some cases, particularly when
relatively large plants are located in small municipalities,
pretreatment may be required.
In general, all of the control techniques listed above are
feasible and uncomplicated in nature. There should be no
problems associated with their implementation within the
time frame of the Act.
The costs of attaining the recommended effluent reductions
set forth herein are presented in Section VIII, Cost,
Energy, and Non-Water Quality Aspects, and are summarized
below:
Capital Investment
as Percent of New
Capital* Total* Plant Cost (New
2!§.nt_Cost) ________
Model 1 $20,900 $ 3,330 1X
($4,000,000)
Model 2 $28,300 $11,630 1%
($7,000,000)
Model 3 $22,700 $ 4,740 1%
($5,000,000)
Model 4 $32,700 $12,020 ±%
($6,000,000)
*Cost are for the most expensive alternatives presented in
Sections VII and VIII.
-------
Non-Water_2ualitY_Environmental_Imgact
Because of the relatively small volumes of water associated
with wood furniture and fixture manufacturing, the non-water
quality aspects, including energy consumption, of the
various alternatives are considered to be negligible as
discussed in Section VIII.
Factor s_to_be_Considered_in_A2glYing_Effluent_Li.mit at ions
The control technologies considered herein are based on
normal furniture finishing operations. In the event that
particular plants should employ non-typical finishing
materials, the characteristics of the resulting waste waters
may change appreciably and special consideration would be
necessary.
-------
SECTION X
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY
ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
The effluent limitations which must be achieved by July 1,
1983, are to specify the degree of effluent reduction
attainable through the application of the best available
technology economically achievable. The best available
technology economically achievable is not based upon an
average of the best performance within an industrial
category, but is to be determined by identifying the very
best control and treatment technology employed by a specific
point source within the industrial category or subcategory,
or transfer of technology where it is readily transferable
from one industrial process to another. A specific finding
must be made as to the availability of control measures and
practices to eliminate the discharge of pollutants, takincr
into account the cost of such elimination.
Consideration must also be given to:
(a) the age of equipment and facilities involved;
(b) the process employed;
(c) the engineering aspects of the application of various
types of control techniques;
(d) process changes;
(e) cost of achieving the effluent reduction resulting
from application of the best available technology
economically achievable; and
(f) non-water quality environmental impacts (including
energy requirements).
In contrast to the best practicable control technoloqy
currently available, the best available technology
economically achievable assesses the availability in all
cases of in-process controls as well as control or
additional treatment techniques employed at the end of a
production process.
Those plants processes and control technologies, which at
the pilot plant semi-works, or other levels, have
demonstrated both technological performances and economic
viability at a level sufficient to reasonably justify
investing in such facilities, may be considered in assessing
-------
the best available technology economically achievable. The
best available technology economically achievable is the
highest degree of control technology that has been achieved
or has been demonstrated to be capable of being designed for
plant scale operation up to and including "no discharge" of
pollutants. Although economic factors are considered in
this development, the costs for this level of control are
intended to be the top-of-the-line of current technology
subject to limitations imposed by economic and engineering
feasibility.
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF
BEST AVAILABLE~TECHNOLOGY~ECONOMICALLYACHIEVABLEFOR ALL
SUBCATEGORIESOFTHE ~ WOODFURNITUREAND "FIXTURE
MANUFACTURING SEGMENT
The effluent limitations reflecting this technology are no
discharge of process waste water pollutants to navigable
waters as developed in Section IX.
-------
SECTION XI
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
This level of technology is to be achieved by new sources.
The term "new source" is defined in the Act to mean "any
source, the construction of which is commenced after the
publication of proposed regulations prescribing a standard
of performance." New source technology shall be evaluated
by adding to the consideration underlying the identification
of best available technology economically achievable a
determination of what higher levels of pollution control are
available through the use of improved production processes,
and/or treatment technigues. Thus, in addition to
considering the best in-plant and end-of-process control
technology identified in best available technology
economically achievable, new source technology is to be
based on analysis of how the level of effluent may be
reduced by changing the production process itself.
Alternative processes, operating methods or other
alternatives must be considered. However, the end result of
the analysis will be to identify effluent standards which
reflect levels of control achievable through the use of
improved production processes (as well as control
technology) , rather than prescribing a particular type of
process or technology which must be employed. A further
determination which must be made for new source technology
is whether a standard permitting no discharge of pollutants
is practicable.
At least the following factors should be considered with
respect to production processes which are to be analyzed in
assessing new source technology:
a. The type of process employed and process changes;
b. Operating methods;
c. Batch as opposed to continuous operations;
d. Use of alternative raw materials and mixes of raw
materials;
e. Use of dry rather than wet processes {including sub-
stitution of recoverable solvents for water); and
f. Recovery of pollutants as by-products.
-------
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR THE WOOD FURNITURE AND
MANUFACTURING SEGMENT
The recommended effluent limitations for new sources is no
discharge of process waste water pollutants to navigable
waters, as developed in Section IX.
-------
SECTION XII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This document is based on a study by Environmental Science
and Engineering, Inc., Gainesville, Florida, under the
direction of Dr. Richard H. Jones, project manager and
assistant project manager were John D. Crane and Beverly
Young, respectively. The staff members were Pussell
Roberts, John T. white, Monte H. Swann, and Leonard P.
Levine.
Technical assistance and consultation was provided by Dr.
Warren S. Thompson, Mississippi State University.
Appreciation is extended to Mr. Douglas Kerr and Mr. Doualas
Brackett of the Southern Furniture Manufacturers
Association, Mr. Charles Solon of the Furniture
Manufacturers Association of Grand Rapids, Mr. Lee Hahn and
Mr. Eddy Feldman of the Furniture Manufacturers Association
of California, Ms. Joy Henninger of the Southwest Furniture
Manufacturers Association, and Mr. John Snow of the National
Association of Furniture Manufacturers. Appreciation is
also expressed to numerous individuals within the industry
who provided information and arranged on-site visits.
Special recognition is due Mr. Colon Prestwood of Bernhardt
Industries for assistance in waste water sampling.
Intra-agency review, analysis, and assistance was provided
by the Timber Products Processing Working Group/Steering
Committee comprised of the following EPA personnel: Harold
Coughlin, Office of water Planning and Standards Chairman;
Richard Williams, Office of Water Planning and Standards; Al
Ewing, National Environmental Research Center, Corvallis,
Oregon; Arthur Mallon, Office of Research and Development;
Irving Susel, Office of Planning and Evaluation; Peter
Smith, Office of Federal Activities; George Marienthal,
Office of Regional Liason; Ed Bogdan, Region IX; Dan Bodien,
Region X; Jim Stiebing, Region VI; William Frick, Office of
Enforcement and General Counsel; Reinhold Thieme, Office of
Enforcement and General Counsel; Charles Sutfin, Office of
Water Program Operations; and Dennis Tirpak, Office of
Research and Development.
Special appreciation and acknowledgement is given to the
secretarial staffs of Environmental Science and Engineering,
Inc. and the Effluent Guidelines Division.
, J
-------
SECTION XIII
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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2Q Coatings Technology^ Unit 20, Federation of Societies for
Paint Technology7~Philadelphia, Pa. (1972).
Allyn, G., "Acrylic Resins," Federation Series on Coatings
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Barret, W. J., Morneau, G. A., Roden, J. T., III,
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Baxter, G. F., and Kreibich, R. E., "A Fast-Curing Phenolic
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Blegen, J. R., "Alkyd Resins," Federation Series on Coatings
I§SliS2l23Yi Suit 5, Federation of Societies for Paint
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Browing, B. L., The Chemistry of Wood, Interscience
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Buell, H. W., and Stevens, S. F,, "Rough and Finish Sanding
of Wood Plastic Combinations with Coated Abrasives," Forest
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Canadian Paint and Finishing.,. Modern Finishing Methods,
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Caster, R. W., "Meter-Mix Hardware for Fast Cure Adhesive
Systems Used in Lumber Gluing," Forest Products Journal^ 2_3
(1) (January 1973).
Cisco, J. W., and Seidman, L. W.r Furniture ShiBments to Hit
$7 Billion in '73, Fairchild Publications, Inc. "(1973) .
-------
Cisco, J. W. , and Seidman, L. W. , The Seidman Report:.
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Clark, L. E. , Jr., "A Practical Guide to Wood Adhesives,"
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Clope, P. W. and Glaser, M. A. "Silicone Resins for Organic
Coatings," Federation Series on Coatings Technology^ Unit
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Philadelphia, Pa. (1970) .
Connelly, H. H. "New Techniques in Furniture Finishes,"
Products J2u.rn.alj,. 12 CO (1967).
"Development Documents For Effluent Limitations Guidelines
and New Source Performance Standards: Timber Products
Processing Industry, Phase I and II," Environmental Science
and Engineering, Inc. (1973) .
Fox, F. L., "Oils for Organic Coatings," Federation Series
2S ^gating H§ShnologYx Unit 3, Federation of Societies for
Paint Technology, Philadelphia, Pa. (1969) .
Fuller, W. R., "Introduction to Coatings," Federation Series
2Q Coatings Technology^. Unit J, Federation of Societies for
Paint Technology, Philadelphia, Pa. (1964) .
Fuller, W. R., "Solvents," Federation Series on Coatings
Technology^. Unit 6, Federation of Societies for Paint
Technology, Philadelphia, Pa. (1967) .
Fuller, W. R. and Love, C. H. , "Inorganic Color Pigments,"
r,§£le.r.§3=i2Q §§.£!§.§ 2D Q2§£iH2§ T^chnology^. 22it §r Federation
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Manufacturing Bulletin, Seidman and Seidman, June,
July, August, September, October, and November 1973.
Gatslick, H. B. , Furniture Finishing, Hitchcock Publishing
Co., Wheaton, Ill7~(1956)7
Gatslick, H. B. "Annual Review of Treatments and Coatings,"
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Gibson, G. B., "Current Trends in Furniture Finishes,"
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Hamilton, E. C. and Early, R. W. , "Nitrocellulose and
Organosoluble Cellulose Ethers in Coatings," Federation
-------
2Q Coatings T.§Sl3n.2i22Y.jL Unit 21, Federation of
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Hensely, W. L. and McGinty, W. E. , "Amino Resins in
Coatings," Federation Series on Coatings Technology^ Unit
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1, 1972) .
Industry Advisory Committee Meeting January 9, 197U,
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DIRECTORIES
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-------
1223 Directory of the Forest Products Industry, 5Uth
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Furniture Manufacturers Association.
-------
SECTION XIV
GLOSSARY
Abrasive - A substance used for wearing away a surface by
friction. Powdered pumice, rottenstone, sand paper, steel
wool, and rubbing compound are some of the abrasives used
for rubbing enamel, varnish and lacquer surfaces.
Absorjgtiori - The penetration of one substance into the inner
structure of another.
Acetates_ - A group of organic solvents used in making
lacquers derived from the reaction of various alcohols with
acetic acid. The acetate usually takes its name from the
alcohol, such as ethyl acetate from ethyl alcohol.
Acry.lic_Resin - A synthetic, thermoplastic resin formed by
polymerizing esters of acrylic acid and methacrylic acid.
"Act" - The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
of™972.
~ A natural or man-made waste water treatment
pond in which mechanical or diffused-air aeration is used to
supplement the oxygen supply.
Aerobic - A condition in which free, elemental oxygen is
present.
Air __ BEYiQ3_ *" A finishing material is said to be air drying
when it is capable of hardening or curing at ordinary room
temperature, i.e., 15° to 27°C.
Alky.1 __ Resin - A synthetic, thermoplastic resin used in
paints, varnishes and lacquers produced by the reaction of a
polybasic acid, such as phthalic, maleic or succinic acid,
with a polyhydric alcohol such as glycerine.
Anaerobic - A condition in which free elemental oxygen is
absent.
Antigue_Finish - A finish that is designed to give the
appearance of age to the article being finished, usually
achieved by highlighting the parts that would normally
receive the greatest wear or by darkening the unworn
portion.
-------
Aromatic __ Compound - An unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbon
containing one or more rings, highly reactive and chemically
versatile.
~ See Ground Coating.
Binder - The non-volatile, film-forming solid portion of the
vehicle in a coating which binds the pigment particles
together after the film is dry.
BleachjLng_Agent - A material which, when properly used,
permanently lightens the color of the object on which it is
used.
!li£!lili2_lQ ~ T^e process of repairing scratches and damaged
spots in a finish by melting stick shellac or similar
compounds into the defect by means of a heated knife.
luty.l_Acetate ~ A widely used lacquer solvent. Specific
gravity C.872. Flash point about 38°C. (open cup method).
Boiling point about 126°C.
--. ~ A nonflammable liquid that has good
solvent jproperties for many resins, oils, and waxes. Used
to some extent in the varnish and lacquer industry, also as
a fire extinguisher.
Casein ___ B§§iS ___ 2i!i§ ~ A glue commonly used in wood
fabricating, made from a derivative of skimmed milk.
Catalyst - An acid or acid salt used to promote quick curing
of" resins. Common catalysts are ammonium hydroxide,
ammonium chloride, and ammonium sulfate.
Cellulose - A complex polymeric carbohydrate, C6H1.005,
yielding only glucose on complete hydrolysis, which
constitutes the chief part of the cell walls of plants.
Chlorinated __ Rubber - A synthetic resin made by chlorinating
rubber under specified conditions.
Coal_Tar - A black liquid consisting of a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons, obtained from coal during its conversion to
coke. Coal tar is the basic raw material for many of the
solvents, dyes, chemicals, and resins used in the coating
industry.
Cold __ Setting - In resin curing, the setting of resins which
requires no heat as compared to heat curing.
-------
£olpr_Coats - Those coats of finishing material which give
color to the finish.
Core - The central piece of wood used in the construction of
plywood. Its grain is usually at right angles to the grain
of the adjacent plies.
Qy-CiiC-Qomgound ~ A*1 organic compound whose structure is
characterized by a closed ring.
Dimension_Lumber - Lumber sawn to specified dimensions.
Direct Roll Coating - A method used in applying liquid
finishingmaterials to flat substrate surfaces. The
equipment consists of an applicator roll which applies the
liquid material to the substrate surface, a metering roll
which controls the thickness of the liquid material on the
applicator roll, and feed and support rolls which feed the
panel substrate through the coating device and provide
support for the panel against the applicator roll.
DrYing_Time - The time required for an applied film of a
coatingmaterial to reach the desired stage of hardness or
non-stickiness. The various stages of drying are: "dust
free, to touch, tack free, to handle, hard, to sand, to rub,
and to pack."
Embossing - The raising in relief of a surface to produce a
design.
Enamel - A. broad classification of free-flowing pigmented
finishing materials which dry to a smooth, hard, glossy, or
semi-gloss finish. Generally the liquid portion consists of
varnish or lacquer and the pigment portion is ground to a
very small particle size.
EJDOXV. Resin - A thermosetting resin, commercially produced
by a reaction between Bisphenol A, made from phenol and
acetone, and EpicMorohydrin, a by-product in the
manufacture of synthetic glycerine.
Ester - A compound that is formed when the hydrogen ion of
anacid is replaced by a hydrocarbon radical. Some of the
more familiar esters used as solvents in the industry are
ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, and amyl acetate.
Ethy.1 Alcohol - A colorless and inflammable liquid derived
by~the~distillation of fermented liquors. Second only to
water in being the oldest and most widely used solvent.
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Fabricating ~ Tne joining of pieces of wood by mechanical
means or adhesives.
Fac§_Veneer ~ Tne outside piece of wood used in the
construction of plywood. Its grain is usually at right
angles to the grain of adjacent plies.
~ Tne loss of color resulting from exposure to light,
heat or other destructive agents.
Filler - A liquid finishing material, usually containing
considerable quantities of pigment, used to build up or fill
depressions and imperfections in the surface of the wood
substrate.
Finishing - Consists of surface smoothing such as sanding or
planing, covering with liquid coatings or covering with
various sheet materials or combinations of these operations.
Flow __ Coat - A coat of finishing material applied to a
vertical surface in an excessive amount, the surplus being
allowed to flow down over the surface and drip off the
bottom edge.
Formaldehyde - A colorless gas with a sharp odor formed by
the partial combustion of methanol. Used in the industry in
a 37 percent solution in water. A preservative and
disinfectant and ingredient used in phenolic and urea
resins.
Fossil __ Resins - Those natural resins which derive their
hardness and desirable characteristics from aging in the
ground .
~ A term used to describe different types of finishincr
materials. (1) A glazing putty is a creamy consistency
surfacing material, usually applied with a knife to fill
imperfections in the surface. (2) A glazing stain is a
pigmented stain applied over a stained, filled or painted
surface to soften or blend the original color without
obscuring it.
§E§.in_Printing - The process of printing a natural wood
grain pattern onto the surface of a wood-based product by
roll or flat-plate printing using a colored ink or paint to
produce an imitation wood grain effect on the surface of the
prefinished product.
Ground __ Coating - The coat of colored material, usually
opaque, applied before the grain printing ink, in producing
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imitation wood grain effects for various prefinished wood-
based products. Often referred to as Base Coating.
- A compressed fiberboard of 0.50 g/cu cm (31
b/cu ft or greater) density. Alternative term: fibrous-
felted hardboard.
Hardwood - Wood from deciduous or broad leaf trees.
Hardwoods include oak, walnut, lavan, elm, cherry, hickory,
pecan, maple, birch, gum, cativo. teak, rosewood, and
mahogany.
Hog_Fuel - Fractionalized wood used to fire a boiler.
~ An organic compound containing only carbon and
hydrogen and often occuring in petroleum, natural gas, coal,
and bitumens.
J2iDiiS2 ~ ^n operation employed to join two or more pieces
of wood in fabricated wood products. Depending on product
requirements, joints are of three basic types: edge
jointing or side-to-side-grain joints, end to-side-grain
joints, and end jointing or end-to-end-grain joints. In all
joints the application of adhesives and the subsequent
curing process are performed.
Ketone - An organic compound that contains the bivalent
ketone groups. Usually a colorless volatile liquid, such as
acetone or dimethyl ketone, but may also be a crystalline
solid, such as camphor.
Kiln - A room or separate compartment with regulated heat
and circulation of fresh air. The relative humidity may
also be controlled.
Lacguer - A thin-bodied, quick-drying coating material that
forms a hard film. Originally it referred to solutions of
shellac and other resins that dried by evaporation alone.
More recently the term applies to mixtures of solutions of
nitro-cellulose, ethyl-cellulose, natural and synthetic
resins which dry by evaporation alone.
LiD§eed_Oil - A yellowish oil obtained by crushing the seeds
of flax. Contains a mixture of glycerides of several fatty
acids. Has the ability to absorb oxygen from the air and
gradually form a tough hardened coating when exposed in a
thin film. Used as a vehicle in paints and as the softening
agent for resins in the manufacture of varnishes.
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Lumber_DrYing - The process in which lumber is dried by one
of two methods:
1) Air seasoning - boards are segregated according to board
weight, coated with chemical preservatives and stacked
in a manner that will provide sufficient air
circulation.
2) Kiln drying - a process whereby green or pre-air seasoned
boards are dried in a kiln which is a humidity and
temper ature controlled building.
BS§ins - Synthetic resins made from melamine and
formaldehyde. They cure quickly at relatively low
temperatures and are quite stable in color, even when
exposed to high temperatures .
Mineral_S]3irits - A medium boiling fraction of petroleum
naphtha having a boiling range between 66°C. and 95°C. The
flash point is usually slightly above 38°C. and weight is
about 6 pounds per gallon.
Nitro-Cellulose - The product obtained by nitrating
cellulose, in the form of linters, cotton waste, wood pulp,
etc. , by treatment with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric
acid. For different purposes the cellulose is nitrated to
various degrees. That used for manufacturing lacquers
contains about 12% nitrogen.
Non-Contact Waste Water- Waste water such as spent cooling
water which is independent of the manufacturing process and
contain no pollutants attributable to the process.
Non-Volatile - 1) That portion of a material which does not
evaporate at ordinary temperatures; 2) the solid substances
left behind after heating a dried waste water sample at
550°C for 60 minutes.
Oil __ Polish - A polishing material containing oil as one of
the ingredients. Also the finish obtained by rubbing
successive thin coats of linseed oil on wood.
Oil __ Rubbing - The process of dulling the luster and
smoothing the surface of a dried film of finishing material
by rubbing it with pumice stone or other abrasive materials
while lubricating the surface with oil.
Pt - Total phosphorus as P.
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B§£ticleboard ~ A sheet material manufactured from
lignocellulosic pieces or particles, as distinguished from
fibers, combined with a synthetic resin or other suitable
binder and bonded together under heat and pressure in a hot-
press by a process in which the entire inter-particle bond
is created by the added binder.
P.H - A measure of the hydrogen ion activity of a water
sample. It is expressed as the negative log of the hydrogen
ion concentration.
(C6H50H) - A simple aromatic compound.
Phenol-formaldehYde __ Resin - A synthetic, oil soluble resin
produced as a condensation product of phenol and
formaldehyde .
Phenolic __ Resins - Synthetic, thermosetting resins, usually
made by the reaction of phenol with an aldehyde.
Pigment - The fine, solid particles used for color or
opacity properties in the manufacture of paint and other
coatings.
Pigment __ Stains - Those stains which get their color
primarily from pigments mixed with binder and volatile
thinner s.
Planing - A finishing process which is carried out by means
of surfacing tools, i.e., planer knives that are attached to
a rotating cutterhead.
- A softening material added to lacquers or
other compounds to impart elongation, elasticity, and
flexibility.
Plywood - Wood which is built up by gluing thin pieces of
wood together in three or more laminations. The grain of
adjacent plies usually are at right angles to each other.
E2lislJ ~ Tne act of increasing the luster of the dried film
of a finishing material by friction. The material used for
producing the high luster, the result and, brilliantly
glossy finish produced by polishing.
Poly.ester_Resin - A synthetic, thermosetting resin formed by
a chain of molecules, composed alternately of molecules of
acid and alcohol. The chain formation linking the molecules
together is polymerization.
-i. - J
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- A chemical reaction involving a successive
linkage of a large number of molecules.
B§§iD§ ~ Synthetic resins formed by the
polymerization of styrene.
P2lyviny.l Acetate Resins - Synthetic, thermoplastic resins,
commonly used in the manufacture of emulsion coatings.
~ A settling tank through which waste
water is passed in a treatment system.
B§§iB ~ A semi-solid or solid mixture of organic or carbon-
based compounds which may be drawn from animal, vegetable or
synthetic sources and may be thermosetting or thermoplastic.
~ A method of applying finishing materials to
flat surfaces by passing the surface between rollers, one or
both of which are coated with the material.
E^febina - The act of applying mechanical friction, usually
in conjunction with an abrasive and a lubricant, to a film
of finishing material to bring it to a level, smooth
surface, to deaden the luster, to remove specks of dirt or
for similar purposes.
~ Selective staining of lighter areas of wood
to minimize or cover their contrast, usually done before
other staining.
Sealer - A liguid finishing material which is applied with
the primary purpose of stopping the absorption of succeeding
coats.
Sedimentation - The gravity separation of suspended solids.
~ A single-story settling tank in which the
settled sludge is in immediate contact with the waste water
flowing through the tank, while the organic solids are
decomposed by anaerobic bacterial action.
§ettling_Ponds ~ An impoundment for the settling out of
settleable solids.
T§DlS ~ A tank or basin, in which water, sewage, or
other liquid containing, settleable solids, is retained for
a sufficient time, and in which the velocity of flow is
sufficiently low to remove by gravity a part of the
suspended matter. Usually, in sewage treatment, the
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detention period is short enough to avoid anaerobic
decomposition.
Shellac - The resinous material secreted by an insect which
feeds~upon the twigs of certain trees in India. It is
soluble in alcohol to form liquid shellac which is used as a
sealer and finishing material for wood.
Size - An additive which increases water resistance.
Solids - Various types of solids are commonly determined on
water samples. These types of solids are:
Total Solids ITS)_ - The material left after evaporation and
drying a sample'at 103-105°C.
T2tal Suspended Solids iS§i_ - The material removed from a
sample filtered~through a standard glass fiber filter. Then
it is dried at 103-105°C.
Dissolved_Solids (DS) - The difference between the total and
suspended solids.
Volatile Solids (VS) - The material which is lost when the
sample is heated at 550°C.
y.2l§tile_Susgended_Solids (VSS) - The material lost when the
suspended solids sample is heated at 550°C.
Volatile Dissolved Solids (VDS) - The difference between
volatile~solids~~and volatile suspended solids.
S.Br§Y._l22th - An enclosure, used in conjunction with spray
coatingequipment, designed to provide fire and air
pollution protection by removal of both the solvent fumes
and the spray mist associated with spray coating operations.
Spray booths are of two types: 1) A water-wash type which
uses water as the filtering media and 2) a dry-type which
uses dry filter elements.
Sgra^ Coating - A method used in applying liquid finishing
materials~to~~almost all types of wood-based substrates,
accomplished by various types of spray equipment including
fixed gun, reciprocating arm and rotary arm spray equipment.
Spray_Evagoration - A method of waste water disposal in
which thewater in a holding lagoon equipped with spray
nozzles is sprayed into the air to expedite evaporation.
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Staining ~ Tne act °f changing the color of wood without
disturbing the texture or markings, through the application
of transparent or semi-transparent liquids made from dyes,
finely divided pigments or chemicals.
Steaming - Treating wood material with steam to soften it.
sY.2£hetic Resins - Complex, organic semi-solid or solid
materials built up by chemical reaction of comparatively
simple compounds . Synthetic resins often approximate the
natural resins in various physical properties; namely,
luster, fracture, comparative brittleness, insolubility in
water, fusibility, or plasticity when exposed to heat and
pressure and, at a narrow temperature range before fusion, a
degree of rubber like extensibility. They commonly differ
widely from natural resins in chemical constitution and
behavior with reagents.
B£§iQ§ ~ Resins which soften and may be
reformed under heat and pressure.
Thermosetting Resins - Resins which undergo permanent
physical and chemical change through the application of heat
and pressure.
TOC - Total organic carbon as C.
Top. __ Coat - A liquid finishing material, usually applied as
the final finish coating for any prefinished wood product.
Totai Tr§e Harvesting - The on site chipping and subsequent
utilization of a whole tree.
Undercoats - Those coats which are applied prior to the
finishing or final coats.
Resin - A synthetic resin produced by
condensing urea with formaldehyde.
Urea^resin_Glue - A synthetic-resin adhesive system based on
the thermosetting, urea-formaldehyde resin, used in
overlaying veneers and hardboard onto particleboard
substrates as well as in many other wood gluing operations.
Varnish - A homogeneous transparent or translucent liquid
material which, when applied as a thin film, hardens on
exposure to air or heat, by evaporation, oxidation,
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polymerization or a combination of these to form a
continuous film that imparts protective or decorative
properties to wood finishes.
" There are four basic methods:
1. Rotary lathing - cutting continuous strips by the use of
a stationary knife and a lathe.
2. Slicing - consists of a stationary knife and an upward
and downward moving log bed. On each down stroke a
slice of veneer is cut.
3. Stay log - A flitch is attached to a "stay log," or a
long flanged, steel casting mounted in eccentric chucks
on a conventional lathe.
U. Sawn veneer - veneer cut by a circular type saw called a
segment saw.
Veneer __ Drying - Freshly cut veneers are ordinarily unsuited
for gluing because of their wetness and are also susceptible
to molds, fungi, and blue stain. Veneer is usually dried,
therefore, as soon as possible, to a moisture content of
about 10 percent.
Acetate - A colorless liquid with the formula
CH3COOCH:CH2 used in the manufacture of synthetic vinyl
resins.
YiQZi_B§§iQ§ ~ Synthetic, thermoplastic resins formed by the
polymerization of a vinyl compound, with or without some
other substance.
Water Base_or_Water_Reducible_Coatings - Emulsions (of high
molecular weight), dispersions (of fine particle size) and
other water soluble coating systems which, at application of
solids, comprise a minimum of 80 percent of their volatile
material as water, with the balance as exempt solvent.
Waste Water - The broad term referring to water that is not
needed or that has been used and is permitted to escape.
Wet Scrubbers - An air pollution control device which
involves the wetting of particles in an air stream and the
impingement of wet or dry particles on collecting surfaces
followed by flushing.
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APPENDIX A
FURNITURE FINISHING MATERIALS AND METHODS
Finishing materials, despite the large number of types, may
be grouped into two broad categories: non-film-forming
materials and film-forming materials. The non-film-forming
materials are composed of a vehicle, which is normally an
organic solvent, plus a coloring material which is usually
dye and/or pigments. Film-forming materials include
varnishes, shellacs, lacquers, drying oils such as linseed
oils and tung oil, and various synthetic resins such as
epoxies, polyurethanes, phenolics, melamines, and urea
formaldehyde.
Finishing materials may be further divided into transparent
finishes and opaque or pigmented finishes. Pigmented type
of finishes are used primarily as undercoats for other types
of finishes. In finishing furniture with transoarent
finishes, the number of steps may vary from as few as ten
for a relatively inexpensive type of furniture to as many as
thirty for an expensive line. The basic operations are:
(1) bleaching, (2) staining, (3) filling, (4) sealing, (5)
topcoating, and (6) rubbing and polishing.
Ii§§£hi22 ~ Bleaching consists of removing or subduing the
natural wood coloring to produce a light undertone or
background color. The public demand for light colored wood,
and the resulting amount of bleaching is cyclic in nature.
The last period of high popularity occurred in the late
nineteen sixties and presently bleaching is not extensively
practiced. The plants that do practice bleaching are
generally those that produce relatively high grade furniture
and find it easier to provide uniformity in matching
furniture by bleaching the wood and then adding color. A
typical bleaching operation is shown in Figure A.
While a variety of chemicals may be used for bleaching,
nearly all bleaching is done with a 35 percent solution of
hydrogen peroxide. This strong oxidizing agent, when
combined with an activator such as sodium hydroxide, removes
the natural wood colorants by oxidizing them.
When mixed, the hydrogen peroxide and activator form an
unstable solution that must be used within a few hours. It
is applied, particularly in volume production, either
simultaneously by a double headed spray gun or sequentially
with hydrogen peroxide followed by the activator.
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BLEACH APPLICATION
WEAK BLEACH
HEATING
STRONG BLEACH
I
SECOND BLEACH
APPLICATION
t
HEATING
M
^ HI
SI
1
f
VTER SPRAY TO
JN OFF AND
3ONGE WIPE
1
OVEN DRYING
SAN DING a BLOW OFF
I
FINISHING OPERATIONS
FIGURE A TYPICAL BLEACHING OPERATION
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In general, it is desirable to use the least amount of
bleach to produce the desired color since excessive
bleaching destroys wood value and creates subsequent
working, drying, and finishing problems. Therefore, the
trend in production bleaching is not to use full strength
materials, but to dilute with water or alcohol. A typical
diluted mixture would contain one part activator, two parts
peroxide, and two to four parts reducer. For mixing gun
application the components are supplied proportionally and
can be further varied by pressure and spray nozzle
adjustments.
If a reducer is to be used, alcohol is preferred over water.
Commercial methanol, isopropanol, or denatured alcohol may
be used. Since many bleaching materials are in water
solution initially, it is not desirable to add more water as
this causes slow drying and swelling of wood fibers, and
thus results in additional sanding operations.
When strong mixtures are used, or when more than one
bleaching solution utilizing a caustic soda activator is
applied, removal of the alkali is essential. The removal is
normally accomplished by either a water spray rinse or by
application of acetic acid or vinegar. When the acetic acid
neutralizer is used, washing is still required to remove the
sodium acetate formed by reaction of sodium hydroxide and
acetic acid. Another alternative is the use of commercially
available activators which volatilize during drying, leave
no residue, and require no water washing of the wood. The
bleaches in this group are based on ammonia or ammonia
compounds, or on organic amines. The problems associated
with ammonia compounds are a residual yellow color, a fire
risk, and a thorough drying to avoid blistering in the
subsequent finishing operations. The organic amine
compounds are not equal to the best caustic soda activators
and must be thoroughly force dried to avoid residual odor.
If a strong bleach is used, the furniture may be (1) water
sprayed to run off and sponged down, then dried, or, (2)
heated for ten minutes at 50°C to 55°C (120° to 130°F) and
bleached a second time to be followed by a water wash and
oven drying.
When non-residue bleaches are used, the furniture can pass
to an oven directly after bleaching. If more than one
bleaching operation is conducted, a washdown is preferred
before the second bleaching and drying.
~ In most finishing operations the first primary
unit operation is staining. Staining is done after
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bleaching, if bleaching is required or after equalization of
color variations by sap staining if that is necessary. The
purpose of staining is to adjust the wood to the desired
undertone color without disturbing its texture or markings.
It is accomplished by the application of transparent or
semitransparent liquids made from dyes, finely divided
pigments, or chemicals. The four general types of stains
are water stains, spirit stains, non-grain raising stains,
and oil stains.
Water stains are solutions of dyes which have been dissolved
in water, Methanol is sometimes substituted for a portion
of the water to decrease surface tension and lessen fiber
swelling. Water stains are usually made with acid dyes, but
may be of the acid-mordant or basic types. In addition to
dyes, water stains include wetting agents and a rosin size.
In the past, stains of this type were used extensively in
furniture finishing, but be cause they wet the wood surface
thus necessitating drying after application, and, in some
instances, have an undesirable effect on subsequent
finishing operations, they have been largely replaced by
other types of stains. Currently, however, there is a trend
within the industry to return to water based materials.
This primarily results from the energy shortage and the
inability of the industry to obtain the quantities of
organic solvents required for use with other type of stains.
Spirit stains are generally 0.5 percent to 12 percent
solutions of alcohol soluble dyes, with or without binders.
The binders, when used, are usually shellac or resins.
These stains receive very limited use in industrial
furniture finishing.
Oil stains are of two types: penetrating stains and
pigmented wiping stains. The former, like water stains,
finds limited use in present day furniture finishing.
However, the wiping stains are second in importance in the
furniture industry only to the non-grain-raising stains.
The coloring material used is finely ground pigment instead
of a soluble dye. The pigments are ground in a vehicle
containing a drying oil, varnish, or synthetic resin.
Hydrocarbon solvents such as naphtha, mineral spirits, etc.,
are used to thin the stains and control the drying.
Pigmented wiping stains are widely used because they are
inexpensive and flexible in application. They may be
sprayed, brushed, or dipped, but in all cases the wood must
be wiped to remove the excess stain.
Non-grain-raising stains do not have the disadvantages
presented by the water, spirit, and oil stains and
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consequently are used more on high quality furniture than
any other type stain. They are fast drying and, as the name
implies, have less effect on the grain of the wood than do
the water stains. Because they are fast drying, these
stains normally cannot be brushed and are therefore usually
applied by spraying.
Non-grain-raising stains are made by dissolving the same
type acid dyes as used in water stains in a combination of
solvents. Glycol-ethers, particularly the monoethyl ether
of ethylene glycol and the diethylene glycol monoethyl
ether, are the most important solvents for non-grain-raising
stains. Sometimes a binder such as nitrocellulose or low-
solids-content lacquer is added to non-grain-raising stains
to control the penetration of stain into the wood. This
combination of stain and binder is sometimes called a non-
grain-raising toner. It also performs the function of both
a stain and a washcoat in situations where a separate
washcoat cannot be used because of the finishing schedule or
limitations of plant facilities.
Special type stains used in the furniture industry include
shading stains or shading lacquers. These are usually
sprayed over the filler or lacquer sealer to create a
uniform finish. Basically they consist of a low-solids
lacquer containing non-grain-raising dyes or pigments as a
colorant. Sometimes a shading stain is sprayed along the
grain of the wood in a light, thin line in order to accent
the grain. Another type of stain is the padding or accent
stain. This stain is also made with non-grain-raising dyes
dissolved in a special solvent and with a small amount of
binder such as shellac.
The use of pigmented toners has increased rapidly in recent
years and today more furniture is being finished with some
type of pigmented toner than with any other method. The
purpose of the pigmented toners is to obscure either totally
or partially the natural color of the wood. They consist of
finely ground pigments dispersed in a binder such as a vinyl
compound or nitrocellulose and with some type of solvent
added to control the speed of drying. Pigmented toners
designed only to partially obscure the natural color of the
wood contain less pigment and more binder and a slower
evaporating solvent. This enables the toner to penetrate
and only partially obscure the wood, thereby giving it a
more natural look. Regular finishing materials such as
wiping stains, sealers, etc. are used over this type of
toner to produce a light colored finish which simulates the
bleached finishes. Because of the problems associated with
bleaching, many manufacturers have turned to pigmented
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toners to obtain somewhat the same effect provided by
bleaching.
Undercoats are used on wood for two purposes: (1) to hide
the color of the wood with the proper color, and (2) to help
fill the voids in the wood in order to produce a level,
smooth surface when sanded. Most undercoats used on
furniture contain a combination of pigments which have a
high hiding power, such as titanium dioxide, color pigments,
and inert pigments, which are used to fill the wood and
provide good sanding. These pigments are usually ground in
a lacquer or synthetic resin base and dispersed in fast
evaporating solvents.
Enamels used in the furniture industry are primarily lacquer
enamels. They are prepared with just enough pigment to
provide hiding power and obscure the wood. The trend is
toward the use of darker enamels such as red, green, and
blue. These colors are normally used on furniture that is
to receive a distressed treatment. The majority of enamel
finishes, however, are of white and off-white colors.
Emulsion paints are also receiving increased use. A.n
emulsion paint consists of pigments and extender pigments
dispersed in a latex emulsion resin such as polyvinyl
acetate or acrylic. These emulsion resins contain water,
but are formulated to dry quickly. They are usually applied
over a lacquer-type undercoat. After application, the
furniture is usually glazed and brush blended to antique the
wood and leave glaze in the brush marks.
Filling - Fillers consist of translucent, inert pigments, a
vehicle binder, and thinners. They are normally composed of
75 percent pigment and 25 percent vehicle. Their purpose in
wood finishing is to produce a smooth wood surface by
filling the pores and enhance the beauty of wood by making
the pattern or figure stand out more clearly. They are
applied primarily in finishing woods with large open pores
such as in mahogany, oak, pecan, and walnut. Wood with
relatively small pores, such as beech, birch, maple, etc.,
need not be filled prior to the application of other
finishing materials, although a liquid filler such as
shellac is often used. The pigments used in fillers are
silica, gypsum, and talc, which impart filling qualities,
and materials such as umbers, red oxide, and carbon black
which contribute coloring qualities. The binders may be
natural or chemically treated linseed oil, soybean oil, tuner
oil, and other oils and resins, or blends of these
materials. The thinners that are used with fillers consist
mostly of naphthas and slow-drying mineral spirits.
^ . z
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Fillers are made in paste consistency to avoid settling and
caking prior to use and may be applied to wood by brushing,
spraying, roller-coating, dipping, or flow-coating, after
the heavy paste has been thinned to a soupy consistency.
For spray application fillers are mixed on the order of
three to five kilograms (eight to ten pounds) of filler to
four liters (one gallon) of thinner. For brush application,
the ratio may be five to six kilograms (10 to 12 pounds) to
four liters (one gallon). The thinners most commonly used
are naptha, which is fast evaporating, and mineral spirits,
which are slow evaporating.
Fillers are commonly brushed onto tops and fronts
immediately after spraying, to promote penetration and
wetting of the pores. When the filler has dried in part
through the evaporation of some of the thinner, it is worked
into the pores of the wood with motor-driven felt pads, or,
at some plants, manually by rags moved in a circular motion.
Excess filler is removed by wiping across the grain with a
clean rag.
Fillers usually require a minimum of 16 hours air drying
time before recoating with lacquer sealer can be
accomplished. Nearly all production plants now use drying
ovens.
Sealing - Sealers serve the primary purpose of preventing
the transfer of materials from one coat to another. when
used on bare wood, they are often called barrier coats or
sizes, and when used between the stain and filler, a
washcoat. Sealers used after the filling operation are
called sealer or prime coats.
Barrier coats are impenetrable films used on certain woods
to prevent the natural stains or resins from penetrating and
ruining the finish. Their use, therefore, depends on the
particular species of wood being used.
Washcoating has the primary purpose of preventing staining
action by the filler while at the same time producing a
uniformly harder surface so that colors, wiping stains, and
glazes wipe easily and evenly. A washcoat sealer must form
a very thin film; otherwise, it could bridge and seal large
pores and prevent proper filling. The solids content of
washcoat sealers may range from three to ten percent,
depending on the overall wood porosity, but generally does
not exceed five or six percent. Shellac and lacquer
washcoats are used occasionally, but more often conversion
type vinyl-amino sealers are employed. Washcoats are often
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colored with stains or pigments to produce a combination
stain and washcoat. When used in the place of toners, these
washcoats serve to eliminate an operation in the finishing
room.
The main purpose of a prime coat sealer is to protect the
wood from moisture and general usage. However, it also
provides a smooth surface for the topcoat and seals in the
previously applied stains, fillers, and colors.
When a glaze is to be used, it is applied as a sealer. The
purpose of a glaze is to provide "highlighting" on better
grades of furniture. The furniture may be difficult to
distinguish, but it provides richness and depth of color to
the finish. A typical application sequence is the use of a
glazing sealer followed by a glaze. Glazing sealers are
normally produced at a solids content ranging from 6 to 15
percent, but it may be as high as 18 percent.
As an alternative to glaze, sanding and building coats may
be applied. Their purpose is to produce a smooth, level
surface for the subsequent top coats. These coats, ranging
from 18 to 21 percent solids or higher, do not provide a
finish as resistant as the glaze sealer.
- The application of topcoats is the most
important step in the total finishing operation, and
lacquers are the most important single topcoating materials
used. Film formers in commerical use for lacquers are
nitrocellulose, ethyl cellulose, cellulose acetate,
cellulose acetate butyrate, certain vinyl copolymers,
chlorinated rubber, and the thermoplastic acrylics.
However, nitrocellulose is the film former most widely used.
As a matter of fact, in the protective coatings trade, a
lacquer is presumed to be based on nitrocellulose unless
specifically stated otherwise.
Nitrocellulose used in the finishing of furniture occurs in
several different grades varying either in chemical
composition or in viscosity. Three chemical types are
available for lacquer use. These are designated RS, AS, and
SS types. The RS type, which by far is the most commonly
used in commercial lacquers, contains 12 percent nitrogen
and is soluble in the so-called regular solvents, primarily
esters and ketones. Because nitrocellulose films are by
themselves too brittle for commercial use on furniture,
various plasticizers are used to impart flexibility.
Dibutyl phtalate, raw castor oil, and various polymerized
oils with resins are often used as plasticizers in
nitrocellulose formulations.
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In addition to plasticizers, various resins are normally
applied to lacquers composed of nitrocellulose. Frequently,
the volume of resin used is as great as that of the
nitrocellulose itself. The resins commonly used in
nitrocellulose lacquers are usually of two general types:
rosin esters and alkyds. The rosin maleates are extensively
used in furniture lacquers, while alkyds are normally used
for lacquers for other purposes, such as finishing
automobiles.
RS-type nitrocellulose is soluble in three main classes of
solvents: 1) esters such as ethyl acetate, butyl acetate,
and ethyl lactate; 2) ketones such as acetone, methyl ethyl
ketone, and methyl isobutyl ketone; and 3) various glycol
ethers. It is not soluble in alcohols other than methanol,
nor is it soluble in hydrocarbons of the aliphatic or
aromatic type. However, a solution of nitrocellulose in an
active solvent such as one of the esters will tolerate
almost unlimited dilution with alcohols without
precipitation. Alcohols are, therefore, considered as
cosolvents.
As a general use, an ester-alcohol mixture gives lacquers of
lower viscosity than does pure ester. An aromatic
hydrocarbon such as toluene or xylene may be added to an
ester solution of RS-type nitrocellulose without causina
precipitation in concentrations up to about two parts
hydrocarbon to one part ester. Since hydrocarbons are much
cheaper than ketones, glycol ethers, and alcohols, they are
used as dilutants as much as possible. The industry usually
uses the least expensive mixture that gives satisfactory
results. This generally means at least 50 percent aliphatic
or aromatic hydrocarbon, some ethanol or isopropanol, and
only 20 to 30 percent ester or ketone. Some commonly used
lacquer thinner components are listed in Table A-1.
In addition to lacquers, various types of varnishes are also
used as top coats in furniture finishing. Varnishes
basically consist of a liquid vehicle, usually an organic
solvent plus a resin which may either be of natural or
synthetic origin. The film-former itself may be either
thermoplastic or convertible. In the broadest sense, the
word "varnish" is applied to any film former that is
oleoresinous in nature. Resins used in varnishes include
alkyds, epoxies, and oil-modified urethanes. There are two
general types of varnishes: spirit varnishes and oleo
resinous varnishes.
The simplest varnishes, the spirit varnishes, are simple
solutions of thermoplastic resins dispersed in mineral
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TABLE A-l COMMONLY USED LACQUER THINNER COMPONENTS
Solvents
Dilution Ratio
Toluene
Naphtha
Acetone
Methyl ethyl ketone
Ethyl acetate
Isopropyl acetate
Methyl isobutyl ketone
Butyl acetate
Amy! acetate
Methyl amyl acetate
Methyl amyl ketone
Disobutyl ketone
Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether
Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether
acetate
Ethyl lactate
Ethylene glycol monobutyl ether
Latent Sol vents
Ethyl alcohol (95%)
Isopropyl alcohol
Butyl alcohol
Methyl isobutyl carbinol
Aromatic Diluents
Benzene
Toluene
Xylene
Aromatic Naphthas
Amsco A
19/27 Solvsol
Socal 1
Hi-Flash Naphtha
Aliphatic Naphthas
Shell Benzo-Sol
Shell "A"
Lactol spirits
Shell Tolu-Sol
Apcothinner
V.M. and P. naphtha
Mineral spirits
4.4
4.3
3.3
3.0
3.6
2.6
2.1
1.7
3.9
1.5
4.9
2.5
5.0
3.3
0.8
0.9
1.3
1.2
1.0
1.5
1.2
1.0
1.2
0.8
1.1
0.9
0.7
1.8
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spirits or other aliphatic hydrocarbons. A few resins
require an alcohol as a solvent. Spirit varnishes dry by
evaporation of the solvent. Since the resin under goes no
substantial change during drying, this coating is
essentially non-convertible. Among the resins that are
dissolved in aliphatic solvents to make spirit varnishes are
limed rosin, rosin ester, maleic resin, and petroleum resin.
The only noteworthy alcohol-soluble resins are shellac and
manilla gum.
Because oleoresinous varnishes in oil do not have a
practicable drying rate, metallic dryers are included.
These dryers are soluble compounds of lead, cobalt,
manganese, calcium, and zirconium. The composition of some
classical varnishes is shown in Table A-2.
In addition to the varnishes and lacguers, various other
types of "exotic coatings" are finding increasing usage in
furniture finishing. These are primarily materials of the
polyester, epoxy, and polyur ethane classes. The epoxy
resins, while finding some use in wood furniture, are used
primarily in metal coatings. Urethanes and polyesters, on
the other hand, are experiencing increased usage in the
wooden furniture and fixture industry.
. - All paints, enamels, varnishes, stains, fillers,
primers, inks, and similar products are built on a base
product called a film former. In order to provide a
consistency suitable for application, the film formers are
dissolved by solvents. Both organic solvents and water are
used for wood-finishing materials. However, organic
solvents are by far the most commonly used and, barring a
limit in the supply of organic solvents, it is probable that
the organic solvents will continue to be the primary type
used.
Organic solvents for coating may be divided into the
following general groups:
1. terpenes
2. hydrocarbons
a. aliphatic
b. napthanenic
c. aromatic
3. oxygenated
a. alcohols
b. esters
c. ketones
~4
. J
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TABLE A-2 COMPOSITION OF CLASSICAL VARNISHES
Component
Type
Oils
Resins
Solvents
Driers
Other Additives
Hard
Soft
Chemically modified
Natural
Synthetic
Metallic soaps
Aliphatic
Aromatic
Terpenic
Alcoholic
Lead
Mangenese
Cobalt
Calcium
Zirconium
Anti-skinning agent
Ultra-violet absorber
Flatting agent
Reactive
Non-reactive
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d. ether-alcohols
i*. furans
5. nitroparaffins
6. chlorinated solvents
Solvents in the terpene group receive only limited use in
the furniture industry and will not be discussed here. This
is also true of the furans, nitro-paraffins and chlorinated
materials. The principle hydrocarbon solvents used in the
industry are mineral spirits, V.M. and P. naphtha, toluene,
xylene, hi-flash solvent naphtha, and aromatic naphthas.
Among the oxygenated solvents, within the alcohol group the
most commonly used chemicals are ethyl alcohol, amyl
alcohol, butyl alcohol and its isomers, and isopropyl
alcohol. Methanol is seldom used as a solvent because it
evaporates too rapidly and the vapors are toxic.
The principal esters used as solvents are methyl acetate,
ethyl acetate, normal propyl acetate, and the butyl
acetates. Within the ketone group, the principal chemicals
used are methyl ethyl ketone, diethyl ketone, methyl
isobutyl ketone, methyl isoamyl ketone, and acetone.
Acetone receives only limited use because of its very rapid
evaporation rate. Within the ether-alcohol group, the
monoethyl ether of ethylene glycol, better known as
Cellosolve, is one of the most commonly used. Diethylene
glycol monethyl ether is also used extensively and, as was
pointed out previously, is the most widely used dye solvent
for non-grain-raising stains.
., JL
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TABLE 28
GO
ro
METRIC TABLE
CONVERSION TABLE
MULTIPLY (ENGLISH UNITS)
ENGLISH UNIT ABBREVIATION
acre ac
acre - feet ac ft
British Thermal
Unit BTU
British Thermal
Unit/pound BTU/lb
cubic feet/minute cfm
cubic feet/second cfs
cubic feet cu ft
cubic feet cu ft
cubic inches cu in
deqree Fahrenheit °F
feet ft
gallon qal
gallon/minute gom
horsenower hp
inches in
inches of mercury in Hg
pounds Ib
million gallons/day mgd
mi 1e mi
pound/square
inch (gauge) psia
square feet sq ft
square inches sq in
ton (short) ton
yard yd
by TO OBTAIN (METRIC UNITS)
CONVERSION ABBREVIATION METRIC UNIT
0.405
1233.5
0.252
ha
cu m
kq cal
0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555(°F-32)*
0.3048
3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
785
1.609
kq cal/kq
cu m/min
cu m/min
cu m
1
cu cm
°C
m
1
I/sec
kw
cm
atm
kq
cu m/day
km
(0.06805 osig +1)* atm
0.0929
6.452
0.907
0.9144
sq m
sq cm
kka
m
hectares
cubic meters
kilogram - calories
kiloqram calories/kiloqram
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters
liters
cubic centimeters
deqree Centigrade
meters
liters
liters/second
killowatts
centimeters
atmospheres
kiloqrams
cubic meters/day
kilometer
atmosnheres (absolute)
souare meters
square centimeters
metric ton (1000 kilograms)
meter
Actual conversion, not a multinlier
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