EPA 440/1-74/033-a
Group II
       Development Document for
 Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines
 and New Source Performance Standards
                 for the
        WOOD  FURNITURE AND
       FIXTURE MANUFACTURING
             Segment of the

  TIMBER PRODUCTS PROCESSING

         Point Source Category
 UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
              NOVEMBER 1974

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                   DEVELOPMENT  DOCUMENT

                           for

         PROPOSED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES

                           and

             NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

                         for the

     WOOD FURNITURE AND FIXTURE MANUFACTURING SEGMENT
      OF THE TIMBER PRODUCTS PROCESSING  POINT SOURCE
                         CATEGORY
                     Russell  E. Train
                      Administrator

                      James L. Agee
Assistant Administrator for Water and Hazardous Materials
                       Allen Cywin
          Director, Effluent Guidelines Division

                   Richard E. Williams
                     Project Officer
                      November 1974
               Effluent Guidelines Division
         Office of Water and Hazardous Materials
      United States  Environmental Protection Agency
                 Washington, D.C.  20460

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                          ABSTRACT


This document presents the  findings  of  a  study  of  wood
furniture  and fixture manufacturing.  This study is part of
an  extensive  study  of  the  timber  products   processing
industry  for the purpose of developing effluent limitations
guidelines for the industry with the purpose of implementing
Sections 301,  304,  306,  and  307  of  the  Federal  Water
Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972.

The   proposed  effluent  limitations  guidelines  contained
herein"set forth the degree of effluent reduction attainable
through the application  of  the  best  practicable  control
technology  currently  available   (BPCTCA) and the degree of
effluent reduction attainable through the application of the
best available technology  economically  achievable   (BATEA)
which  must be achieved by existing point sources by July 1,
1977, and July 1,  1983,  respectively.   The  standards  of
performance  for  new  sources  (NSPS)  contained herein set
forth the degree of effluent reduction which  is  achievable
through  the  application of the best available demonstrated
control technology, processes, operating methods,  or  other
alternatives.

The  wood  furniture  and  fixture manufacturing segment has
been divided into four  subcategories:    (1)  Furniture  and
fixture  production  which  neither employs wet spray booths
nor  has  laundry  facilities,  (2)   furniture  and   fixture
production  which  employs no wet  spray booths but which has
laundry facilities,  (3)  furniture  and   fixture  production
which  employs  wet  spray  booths  but   which does not have
laundry facilities, and  (4) furniture and fixture production
which  employs  wet  spray  booths  and   which  has   laundry
facilities.   The  proposed regulations for all three levels
of technology as set forth above establish  the  reguirement
of  no  discharge  of  process  waste  water  pollutants  to
navigable waters for all subcategories.   Supportive data and
rationale  for  development   of   the    proposed   effluent
limitations  guidelines  and  standards   of  performance are
contained in this document.

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                     TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION

    I

   II

  III
   IV

    V
   VI
CONCLUSIONS

RECOMMENDATIONS

INTRODUCTION

Purpose and Authority
Summary of Methods
Definition of the Industry
Background of the Industry
Description of the Process

INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION

WATER USE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION

Water Usage
Wastewater Characterization
Model Plants

SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS

Wastewater Parameters of Pollutional  Significance
PAGE

  1

  3

  5

  5
  6
  8
  9
 13

 25

 31

 31
 36
 39

 43

 43
  VII     CONTROL AND TREATMENT  TECHNOLOGY

          In-Plant Control Measures
          Existing Treatment Technology
          Potential Treatment Technology
          Description of Model Systems

 VIII     COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY  ASPECTS

          Cost and Reduction Benefits of  Alternative
            Treatment and Control  Technologies
          Related Energy Requirements of  Alternative
            Treatment and Control  Technologies
          Non-Water Quality Aspects  of Alternative
            Treatment and Control  Technologies

   IX     BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
                                                           53

                                                           53
                                                           54
                                                           56
                                                           56

                                                           67
                                                           67

                                                           86

                                                           90

                                                           91

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SECTION
    X      BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE                  95

   XI      NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS                            97

  XII      ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS                                             99

 XIII      BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                101

  XIV      GLOSSARY                                                    1 07

           APPENDIX A - FURNITURE FINISHING MATERIALS AND
           METHODS                                                     1 1 9

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                          FIGURES
NUMBER
  11     Treatment Alternative D, Evaporation Ponds
                                                                   PAGE
   1     Timber Products Consumed by the Manufacture

         of Furniture


                                                                    12
   2     Furniture and Fixture Plants



   3     Furniture Manufacturing Process Diagram - Prefinishing



   U     Furniture Manufacturing Process Diagram - Finishing



   5     Hydraulic Bending Process


                                                                    ?1
   6     Basic Water Wash Spray Booth, Pump Type


                                                                    ??
   7     Water Wash Spray Booth, Pump Type



   8     Water Wash Spray Booth, Pan Type                           23



   9     Water Flow in a Large Furniture Plant



  10     Treatment Alternatives B and C                             58
                                                                     63
  12     Treatment Alternative E, Spray Irrigation with

         Pretreatment                                                 b
                                   VI 1

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   2     Analysis of Spray Booth Effluent According to Finish

   3     Descriptive Information for Each Reporting Plant

   U     Wastewater Production for Various Furniture Plants
   6     Flow and Composition of Wastewater from Model Plants
                           TABLES
NUMBER

   1     Summary of Data Sources
                                                                     27
   5     Chemical Analyses of Various Waste Streams
                                                                     41
   7     Wastewater Disposal Methods Employed by Plants
         Surveyed

   8     Treatment Alternative B, Equipment Summary                  59

   9     Treatment Alternative C, Equipment Summary

  10     Treatment Alternative D, Evaporation Ponds                  &1

  11     Treatment Alternative D, Spray Evaporation                  62

  12     Treatment Alternative E, Spray Irrigation                   66

  13     Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative Bf Model  1            69

  1U     Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative C, Model  1            71

  15     Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative D, Model  1            72

  16     Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative B, Model  2            74

  17     Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative C, Model  2            76

  18     Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative D, Model  2            77

  19     Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative Er Model  2            79

  20     Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative B, Model  3            81

  21     Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative C, Model  3            81

  22     Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative D, Model  3            83

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NUMBER                                                             PAGE




  23     Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative B, Model 1            85



  2H     Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative C, Model 4            85



  25     Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative D, Model U            87



  26     Itemized Cost Summary for Alternative E, Model H            88



  27     Energy Requirements                                         89

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                         SECTION I

                        CONCLUSIONS


For  the  purpose   of   developing   effluent   limitations
guidelines  and standards of performance, this study divides
the wood furniture and fixture manufacturing  industry  into
four   subcategories:    (1)    wood  furniture  and  fixture
production which neither employs wet spray  booths  nor  has
laundry   facilities,    (2)   wood   furniture  and  fixture
production which employs no wet spray booths but  which  has
laundry   facilities,    (3)   wood   furniture  and  fixture
production which employs wet spray booths but which does not
have laundry facilities, and (4) wood furniture and  fixture
production  which  employs  wet  spray  booths and which has
laundry facilities.  The main criteria for subcategorization
of this industrial  segment  include  differences  in  water
usage,  manufacturing  processes, and size of plants.  It is
concluded that no further  subcategorization of  the  segment
is  necessary.   Factors   such  as  age of facilities, waste
treatability, and raw materials  usage  were  considered  as
criteria  for subcategorization, however, their effects were
not sufficient to influence subcategorization.

It  is  concluded  that  by  July  1,  1977,  all  furniture
factories  not  currently  doing  so  can achieve a level of
waste control that eliminates the discharge of process waste
water pollutants to navigable waters.

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                         SECTION II

                      RECOMMENDATIONS


It is proposed that no  discharge  of  process  waste  water
pollutants  to  navigable  water  be  required after July 1,
1977, for existing installations,  and  after  the  date  of
proposal  of regulations for new installations.  This repre-
sents the degree of effluent  reduction  attainable  through
the  application  of the best practicable control technology
currently available.

The  elimination  of  discharge  of  process   waste   water
pollutants  from  existing sources by July 1, 1977, and from
new sources, may be  achieved  through  the  application  of
evaporation  ponds,  spray  irrigation,  burning with boiler
fuel, or a combination of  these  techniques.   It  is  also
achievable through direct discharge to municipal waste water
treatment   systems,   hauling   to  municipal  waste  water
treatment systems, or hauling to landfill.

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                        SECTION III

                        INTRODUCTION
PURPgSE_AND_AUTHORITY

Section 301(b)  of the Federal Water Pollution  Control  Act,
as  amended,   hereinafter  cited  as "The Act," requires the
achievement by not later than  July  1,  1977,  of  effluent
limitations  for  point  sources,  other than publicly owned
treatment works, which are based on the application  of  the
best  practicable  control technology currently available as
defined by the Administrator pursuant to Section  30U(b)   of
the  Act.   Section 301 (b)  also requires the achievement by
not later than July 1, 1983,  of  effluent  limitations  for
point  sources,  other  than publicly owned treatment works,
which are based on the application  of  the  best  available
technology  economically  achievable  which  will  result in
reasonable further progress towards  the  national  goal  of
eliminating  the  discharge  of  all  pollutants,  and which
reflect the greatest degree of effluent reduction which  the
Administrator   determines  to  be  achievable  through  the
application  of  the  best  available  demonstrated  control
technology,  and  processes,  operating  methods,  or  other
alternatives,  including  where   practicable   a   standard
permitting no discharge of pollutants.

Section  30U(b)  of  the  Act  requires the Administrator to
publish  within  one  year  of  the  enactment  of  the  Act
regulations  providing  guidelines  for effluent limitations
setting forth the degree of  effluent  reduction  attainable
through  the  application  of  the  best practicable control
technology currently available and the  degree  of  effluent
reduction    practices    achievable   including   treatment
techniques, process  and  procedure  innovations,  operation
methods,  and  other  alternatives.   This document presents
proposed effluent limitations guidelines pursuant to Section
301(b) of  the  Act  for  the  wood  furniture  and  fixture
manufacturing  segment  of  the  timber  products processing
industry.

Section 306 of the Act required  the  Administrator,  within
one  year  after a category of sources is included in a list
published pursuant to Section 306  (b)(1)(A) of the  Act,  to
propose   regulations   establishing  Federal  standards  of
performances for new sources within  such  categories.   The
Administrator  published  in the Federal Register of January
16, 1973,  (38 F.R. 1624), a list of  27  source  categories.
Publication  of  the  list  constituted  announcement of the

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Administrator1s intention  of  establishing,  under  Section
306,  standards  of  performance  applicable  to new sources
within the timber products industry source.

SUMMARY OF METHODS
The  effluent  limitations  and  standards  of   performance
proposed  in  this  document were developed in the following
manner:

1.   A  review  of  the  limited  available  literature  was
conducted.   This  included  research  at  the University of
Florida, the Forest Products Laboratory of Mississippi State
University, the United Nations Library in New York, and  the
Forest Products Laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin.

2.  On-site inspections and sampling programs were conducted
at  a  number  of  installations throughout the U.S.  Infor-
mation obtained included process diagrams and related  water
usage,    water    management    practices,    waste   water
characteristics, and control and treatment practices.  Table
1 summarizes the plants surveyed, visited and sampled.

3.  Other sources of  information  included:   personal  and
telephone   interviews;   meetings  with  industry  advisory
committees,  consultants,  and  EPA  personnel;  State   and
Federal  permit  applications;  and  data  supplied  by  the
industry.

The reviews, analyses, and evaluations were coordinated  and
applied to the following:

1.   An  identification  of  pertinent  features  that could
potentially provide a basis  for  subcategorization  of  the
industry.     These  features  included  the  nature  of  raw
materials utilized,  plant  size  and  age,  the  nature  of
processes,  and  others  as  discussed in Section IV of this
report.

2.  A determination of  the  water  usage  and  waste  water
characterization  for  each  subcategory,  as  discussed  in
Section V, including the volume of water used,  the  sources
of  pollutants,  and the types and quantities of constituents
in the waste waters.

3   An identification of the waste  water  constituents,   as
discussed  in Section VI, which are characteristic and which
were  determined  to  be  pollutants  subject  to   effluent
limitation guidelines and standards of performance.

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                            TABLE  1

                   SUKMARY OF DATA SOURCES


Plant            Visited            Sampled            Telephoned

  ix                                      x
  2                 x                  x
  3                 x                  x
  !|                 x
  5                 x
  6                 x
  7                 x                                      x
  8                                                        x
  9                 x                                      x
 10                 x                  x
 11                 x
 12                 x
 13                 x                                      x
 lU                 x
 15                 x                  x                   x
 16                                                        x
 IT                                                        x
 18                                                        x
 19                                                        x
 20                                                        x
 21                                                        x
 22                                                        x
 23                 x                  x
 2k                 x                  x

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4.    An    identification   of  the   control   and   treatment
technologies presently employed or capable of  being employed
by the  industry, as discussed in Section VII,  including   the
effluent    level   obtainable   and   treatment    efficiency
associated  with each technology.

5.  An  evaluation of the cost, energy, and non-water quality
aspects associated with the application of each control   and
treatment technology as discussed in  Section VIII.
DEFINITION_OF_THE_W001D_FyRNITyRE_MANyFACTy]RING_INDySTRY

The  furniture  manufacturing  industry  is  defined in this
study as that portion of Standard Industrial  Classification
(SIC)  Major  Group 25, Furniture and Fixtures, which covers
the production of  wooden  furniture  and  fixtures.   Those
segments which are directly served by timber products are:

1.  SIC 2511 - Wood Household Furniture, Except Upholstered,

2.  SIC 2512 - Wood Household Furniture, Upholstered,

3.   SIC  2517  -  Wood  Television,  Radio, Phonograph, and
Sewing Machine Cabinets,

4.  SIC 2521 - Wood Office Furniture,

5.   SIC  2531  -  Public  Building  and  Related  Furniture
(wooden) ,

6.   SIC  25U1  -  Wood  Partitions,  Shelving, Lockers, and
Office and Store Fixtures.

The variety of products produced range from domestic bedroom
furniture to telephone booths, and meets the needs  of  both
the  general homeowner and the contract buyer.   The industry
itself  varies  widely  in  complexity  of  production  and,
accordingly,   in  the  quality  of  the  finished  product.
Automation, process variations, and development in new forms
of raw materials have enabled increases in  plant  size  and
dollar  sales,  but  have  not  displaced  the  smaller hand
crafted manufacturers.   Because of diverse customer  tastes,
the industry remains fluid in its processes and products.

The  manufacture  of  wooden  furniture  and fixtures relies
heavily on the timber products industry for  the  supply  of
much  of  its raw material.  Earlier the industrial segments
of raw material storage and handling, sawmills,  veneer  and
plywood   mills,    hardboard  mills,  insulation  board  and

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particleboard  plants,  and  wood  preserving  plants   were
covered    in   respect   to   waste   water   volumes   and
concentrations,  and  effluent  limitation  guidelines  were
developed.  According to the degree of specialization, over-
lapping  of  these  industries  with furniture manufacturing
does  occur  in  the  form  of  unit  processes  within  the
furniture  plant.   Coverage of such processes, however, was
included in CFR, Part U29.


BACKGRgyND_QF_THE_FyRNITyRE_MANyFACTyRING_INDySTRY

Even with continuing development in the fields  of  plastics
and  metals  and  increasing  use  of these materials in the
production of furniture,  wood  is  still  the  most  common
material  used  for  furniture.   The  oldest known piece of
furniture, the bed, was developed by the Egyptians over 3200
years  ago,  and  since  that  time   progression   in   the
manufacture   of   furniture  has  paralleled  cultural  and
economic  development.   Originally,  furniture   size   and
configuration  were  limited  to  the  width  of  the boards
available,  but  the  fifteenth   century   development   of
procedures  for  piecing  wood together to form panels revo-
lutionized the concept of furniture and its function.

In the past century,  furniture manufacturing has experienced
increased substitution of other wood  products  for   lumber.
Changes   in  economics,  customer  tastes  in  design,  and
technical developments, have contributed  to  the  increased
use of plywood, veneers, particleboard, and hardboard.

Traditionally,  solid  wood  has  been  associated with high
quality   in  furniture,  but  the  present  availability  of
particleboard   as  an acceptable core material for furniture
has relegated  the use of  many  hardwoods  only  to   exposed
surfaces.   The  process of applying thin veneers of  wood to
furniture surfaces came into  widespread  use  late   in  the
nineteenth   century,   and  has  enabled  better  and  more
efficient utilization of  wood.   Mahogany,  cherry,  maple,
walnut   and  oak  are some of the hardwoods prized for  their
finely grained veneers.

Particleboard  is by  far the most  widely  used  product for
lumber    substitutions    in    furniture   and   fixtures.   As
mentioned previously, it  finds use  as  a  core  material  in
furniture having veneers  or plastic  laminates  because of its
uniformity,  dimensional  stability,  and  economy.  Within the
past  15  years,  consumption  of   particleboard  by  furniture
manufacturers  has  increased seven  fold.

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 Hardboard   is   another  wood   product   finding wide  use  as  a
 lumber substitute.   The last  decade has  seen  a   tripling in
 the   amount of  hardboard used  as shelving,  drawer  bottoms,
 and  chest  backing in the  manufacture   of  promotional   and
 institutional  furniture lines and inexpensive furniture.

 Saw-timber makes up  less   than  half  the  timber  produced
 annually.   Remanufacturing uses  consume  about 10 percent of
 all   sawmill   and veneer  mill  production.   The furniture
 industry uses  approximately 60 to 70 percent  of  the lumber
 and   pressboard  used  by the remanufacturing industry.   The
 substantial increasing use  of   lumber,  particleboard,   and
 hardboard   in   the   past two  decades is  shown graphically in
 Figure 1.

 It is  the  manufacture of household furniture, however,   that
 demands  such   large amounts  of  timber products  since metals
 and   plastics   are   used  extensively  in   commercial    and
 institutional     furniture.      Nonwood    materials     have
 successfully replaced lumber  in  areas of the  furniture   and
 fixtures   industry   where  standardization of product can be
 achieved.   Metal  office  furniture  and  metal  partitions,
 lockers,   and   file  cabinets  are  all  examples  of such a
 standardized product.  Other  segments of the  industry  which
 have   replaced  lumber with metals, plastics,  and fabrics  are
 porch  and  lawn  furniture,  school furniture,   and  auditorium
 and  theater  seating.   In   household furniture production,
 however, the use  of plastics  and metals has   been  generally
 limited  to adornment such as molded drawer fronts,  hardware
 such as drawer  handles,   and  laminated  surfaces   such  as
 plastic table tops.

 The  furniture  and  fixture  industry  is as diversified in
 manufacturing   locations  as  it  is  in  the  size  of  its
 establishments.     Presently,   there   are   about   7,000
 establishments within the six  SIC  codes  covered  in  this
 study,  with about 90 percent of these having fewer than  100
 employees.   However this  majority  of  establishments  only
 represents  35  percent of the industry's sales,  documenting
 the fact that the market is well controlled  by  the  larger
 companies.    The  state  of  North  Carolina  alone supports
 almost 20 percent of the industry's  business  while  having
 less  than 7 percent of the total establishments.  Figure 2,
 locating the industry's concentration by  state,   shows  the
 middle  Atlantic,  southern Atlantic,  and east north central
 divisions to have the highest concentration of  plants  with
California having the highest number of plants.

In 1973 the industry's annual shipments reached nearly seven
billion  dollars,  an  increase  of  36  percent  from  1971

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  THOUSAND THOUSAND

  CUBIC     SQUARE

  METERS   METERS
8000  -
7500
7000
  80
6500
6000
5500
5OOO
 120 -
 100 -
  60
  40
  20
                   X
                     X
                       X
                         X
                           X
                              X
                    1950
                             1  '
                            I960
 1
1970
A
8

C
D
              LUMBER , MILLION -CUBIC METERS.
              VENEER  AND PLYWOOD, MILLION SQUARE METERS
                BASED ON 9.5 mm. THICKNESS
              HARDBOARD, MILLION SQUARE METERS ON 3.2mm BASIS
              PARTICLEBOARD, MILLION SQUARE METERS ON 19.1 mm
                BASIS.
             FIGURE 1  TIMBER PRODUCTS CONSUMED BY THE
                     MANUFACTURE OF FURNITURE

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  U.  S. TOTA L  6814
HAWAII- 12
              FIGURE 2  FURNITURE AND  FIXTURE PLANTS

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figures.  With such a rapidly growing market,  manufacturers
recognize the need for additional production facilities, and
in  areas  where  labor  is  available,  construction on new
plants or expansion of existing facilities is underway.

DESCRIPTION_OF_THE_FURNITyRE_MANyFACTURING_PROCESS

The following  discussion  of  the  furniture  manufacturing
process  is  intended  to provide a general knowledge of the
operations involved in the industry.  It  must  be  realized
that  considerable  variation occurs and that all plants are
different to  varying  degrees.   The  description  here  is
considered  to  be a general description of processes in the
industry and is oriented toward water use  and  waste  water
generation.  Figures 3 and U illustrate the overall process.

RAW_MATERIAL_HANDLING_AN|D_STORAGE

The  principal raw materials used in furniture manufacturing
are lumber, veneer, plywood, hardboard,  and  particleboard.
Occasionally,  if  a plant is sufficiently large, timber may
be purchased or cut from the plants  own  forest  lands  and
then  processed  to  rough dimension at its own rough mills.
Particleboard or hardboard mills are usually associated with
such an operation to utilize the waste wood from  the  rough
mill  and  furniture  plant.  Otherwise, and particularly in
small operations, composition panels and plywood panels  are
purchased.

Lumber  is  usually  stored  in  an  area protected from the
weather until it is  ready  for  kiln  drying.   After  kiln
drying  the lumber enters a dry storage area where a five to
six percent moisture content is maintained.

MACHINING

The first step in  the  processing  of  raw  materials  into
furniture  occurs in the machine room where the stock is cut
to length, ripped to width, and planed to  thickness.   This
may  be a completely automated operation in a large plant or
a manual operation in a smaller plant.  From this point  the
stock  is  passed  on  to  further  cutting where it is face
finished, by such means as routing, boring, etc.,  and  edge
or  end  cut  for  joining.  Prior to assembly, the stock is
sanded on all faces that will be  exposed  on  the  finished
product.

When  composition  board  and  plywood  are used as finished
surfaces they are either  veneered  or  laminated  prior  to
reaching  the  furniture assembly line.  These panels may be

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                                              FURNITURE
                                              ASSEMBLY
FIGURE 3  FURNITURE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
           DIAGRAM - PREFINISHING

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   BLEACHING
 SPRAY BOOTH
  1
  WOOD

GRAINING
                      ASSEMBLY
                FINISHING   OPERATIONS
SAP STAINING
SPRAY BOOTH
                       STAINING
                      SPRAY BOOTH
                    WASH  COATING
                     SPRAY  BOOTH
  FILLING
 SPRAY BOOTH
                       SEALING

                      SPRAY  BOOTH
                        TOPCOATING
                     SPRAY BOOTH
BARRIER  COATS
SPRAY  BOOTH
                    RUBBING ft POLISHING
                          i
                  [   PACKING a SHIPPING
         FIGURE 4  FURNITURE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
                     DIAGRAM - FINISHING

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 cut and edge finished to the  exact  size  of  the  finished
 product  or  cut  to  rough dimension and edge finished at a
 process farther down the assembly line.   The  panel  surface
 may be left unfinished at this point and later finished with
 the  furniture  unit, or it may be prefinished by a printing
 process or lamination.
 Wood  has  good   bending   stress    gualities   about   the
 longitudinal   axis  of  grain  but   has  rather  poor stress
 qualities  about  the  lateral   axis.    when  a  curved   or
 serpentine piece of wood is  required for strength,  it may be
 composed   of   small  pieces  of  wood glued together  to form a
 longitudinal  grain or may be a  single piece  of wood bent   by
 the   process   of steam application,  as illustrated  in Figure
 D •

 The  first step in the steam  bending process  is  to   cut  the
 wood  to  a predetermined size and length.  It  is then placed
 in a steam chamber or retort under  atmospheric pressure  for
 a  period  of  time,  usually about  30  minutes  depending upon
 the  wood  species and  size.   The  wood is   then   placed  in  a
 flexible  metal band and  bent to  shape  in  a hydraulic bender
 The   band  is  secured  by metal straps and  wood spacers  are
 inserted  to hold the  wood  in the bent  shape  after   pressure
 is released from the  bender.  The strapped wood  is  then oven
 dried and cooled at  a controlled rate.   Thin  pieces  of wood
 are  bent  in the  same  manner  except they can  be  bent  by  hand
 over a mold and  held  in  place by other means until  dried  and
 cooled.

 ASSEMBLY

 After all  component  parts  have been fabricated, they  are
 transported to the  assembly  area.    in  this   stage   of   the
 process   the  parts  are fastened together  by the  use of  metal
 fasteners   (nails,  screws,  staples,  etc.)    and/or    glued
 joints.    Sub-assemblies  are  fabricated  and   in  turn  are
 passed down the  assembly line for final fabrication.

 Glue  may  be used  at any of several points  in  the  assembly
 process  depending  on  the  type  of  product   being  made.
Generally, a higher quality product will have both glued and
metal fastened joints.

The application of glue involves the use of either hand held
bottles or automatic machines.  The  two  general  types  of
glue used are solvent base and water base, ^such as urea glue
that requires water for mixing.

-------
I      I
                       /^STEAMED  WOOD
                                  BAND
             B
                           HYDRAULIC  BENDER
                           METAL  STRAP
                           WOOD  SPACER
FIGURE 5  HYDRAULIC BENDING PROCESS
                     — t

-------
ZINISHING_OPERATIONS

After   complete  assembly,  the  furniture  components  are
transported to the finishing room where the steps  shown  in
Figure   4   are  carried  out.   The  primary  purposes  of
finishing, for both inexpensive and expensive furniture, are
beautification, protection, and preservation  to  the  wood.
The  finish  prevents  excessive  absorption  of atmospheric
moisture which would cause swelling and warping of the wood.
It also provides resistance to surface soiling and staining.
It is possible to provide wood  with  sufficient  protection
for  average  conditions  of  interior service with a simple
finish coat of lacquer, varnish, or enamel paint.   However,
the  demand for refinement requires a considerable number of
operations and finishing  materials.   A  summary  of  these
operations  and  materials  is presented in the remainder of
this section and a more detailed discussion is contained  in
Appendix A.

As  illustrated  in Figure 4, finishing operations typically
consist of the following:

    1.  Bleaching is the use of  a  strong  oxidizing  agent
    such  as  hydrogen  peroxide  to  remove  or  subdue the
    natural wood colorant.

    2.  Staining,  done  after  bleaching  if  bleaching  is
    required,  involves  the  application  of transparent or
    semitransparent liquids made from dyes,  finely  divided
    pigments,  or  chemicals.  The purpose of staining is to
    provide an undertone to the finished wood.

    3.  Filling is the application of a solution  consisting
    of  translucent,  inert  pigments, a vehicle binder, and
    thinners.  Fillers are normally applied  to  woods  with
    large  pores  in  order  to  fill the pores and make the
    pattern of the wood stand out more clearly.

    4.  Sealing prevents the transfer of materials from  one
    finish  coat to another.  Sealers may be applied on bare
    wood as a barrier coat, between the stain and filler  as
    a  wash  coat, or after the filling operation as a prime
    coat.

    5.  Topcoating is the application of a lacquer or,  less
    commonly,  a  varnish  to the wood as a final protective
    coat.

    6.  Wood graining is the  process  of  printing  a  wood
    grain on

-------
    the  surface  of  composition  board,  plywood, or solid
wood.

The various finishing materials may be applied by  brush  or
roller,  but  most  often  they  are  sprayed  onto the wood
surfaces.   Spraying  operations,  as  shown  in  Figure  4,
require  the  use of spray booths to collect and contain the
overspray and thus provide fire and health protection.   The
air  drawn  into  the booth from the object being sprayed is
filtered by one of several methods before  discharge  to  an
outside source.

The two categories of spray booths are the dry booth  and the
water  wash  spray booth.  Both types vary in size and shape
to meet specific needs  and  have  definite  advantages  and
limitations.    Before  selection,  the  following  must  be
considered:

     1.  Location of booth in the plant,

     2.  Kind, viscosity, and drying speed of materials being
     sprayed,

     3.  Size  and  shape  of   products   to  be   sprayed  and
     handling method  (manual or conveyorized),

     4.     Spraying   operation—limited,   intermittent,  or
     continuous; automatic or manual;  compressed  air,  airless
     or electrostatic, and

     5.  Air movement requirements.

 In addition, regulations on  safety,   fire,   insurance,   and
 building  codes  must  be  considered.

 The  difference  between  the  dry   booth  and  the water  wash
 spray booth is  the method  of  cleaning  the   air  prior to
 discharge.    In the  dry booth  air is  filtered  by being drawn
 through one or  more  filters  or  paint  arresters.    These
 filters  may   be  constructed  of paper,  fiberglass,  or other
 materials which may  or  may not be reuseable.   In  the  water
 wash  spray   booth,  the  solids   are removed  by being forced
 through a series  of  water  sprays or by being  collected in  a
 water pan.

 The  dry  booth has  the lowest cost for installation but the
 cleaning maintenance  can   be   a  major  problem  where  the
 overspray  collects.    These  booths  are   well  suited_ for
 production spraying for all  types  of  finishing  materials,
 quick or slow drying.   However,  fire insurance underwriters,

-------
finishing  engineers,  and  operators generally prefer water
wash spray booths which are not dependent upon exhaust stack
locations,  outside  plant  extensions,  or  type   material
considerations for installation.

The  water  wash  spray  booth is said to remove at least 98
percent of solid overspray particles from  the  exhaust  air
and  to  keep  the  inside  of  the exhaust stack clean.  In
addition, these booths permit the  overspray  solids  to  be
salvaged  and  reprocessed depending upon the material being
sprayed.

A basic pump type booth is shown in Figure  6.   An  exhaust
fan  draws  the  air  from  the spray area through the water
curtain discharge and washing  chamber,  where  the  air  is
cleaned of solids, and then to the moisture eliminator prior
to  discharge.   The solids fall back with the water and are
collected in the pan.  Common to all pump  type  booths  are
the following:

    1.   A tank large enough to hold the necessary amount of
    compounded water,

    2.  A pump for water circulation through  the  discharge
    manifolds,

    3.  Manifolds containing discharge nozzles to generate a
    spray condition,

    U.  A background water curtain to collect spray mist,

    5.   One  or more washing chambers for removal of solids
    contamination,

    6.  A moisture eliminator to remove any moisture  picked
    up during operation,

    7.  An exhaust fan for air movement.

One  variation  of the pump type booth is shown in Figure 7.
Because of the additional components it has a higher initial
cost, but it provides more efficient filtration because  the
air is being forced through a longer water spray.

The pan type water wash booth is shown in Figure 8.  In this
booth  air  is  drawn  under an entrainment plate and causes
movement of the water towards the rear of  the  booth.   The
air  velocity  causes  the water surface behind the plate to
lift into a rotating cascade  which  scrubs   the  overspray.
The  air  and  water are further separated by flowing around

-------
                     CLEAN AIR
EXHAUST
   FAN
WATER SPRAY  (3
                                    „>  MOISTURE
                                    6) ELIMINATION
                                      WATER SPRAY

                                      WASHING
                                      CHAMBER
                                    FLOAT VALVE



                                    INTAKE TO PUMP
         FIGURE 6  BASIC WATER WASH SPRAY BOOTH,
                      PUMP TYPE

-------
                                      CLEAN AIR
SPRAY  MANIFOLD
WATER  CURTAIN
        DIRTY  AIR
                                                  MOISTURE 'ELIMINATOR
                                                SPRAY  MANIFOLD
                                              WATER  TANK
                FIGURE 7  WATER WASH SPRAY BOOTH, PUMP TYPE

-------
       NOPUMP  SPRAY  BOOTH
    ENTRAINMENT PLATE  PROFILE
LEGEND
 ^====


 AIR MOVEMENT



 WATER




 FINISH  PARTICLES
                FIGURE 8  WATER  WASH SPRAY BOOTH, PAN  TYPE

-------
 and  striking  the  eliminator  plates.   The compounded water  in
 the  pan   booth  contains   an  anti-coagulant  to   cause  the
 overspray  to  settle   to  the bottom of the pan.  The water
 then returns  to the  front  of   the   spray  area  through   an
 underwater  trough.   A variation of this booth is the shallow
 water pan  type which normally would not have the  underwater
 trough.

 The  critical  factor  in  a pan booth is the distance of  water
 below the  entrainment plate.   A   decrease in water level
 because   of   evaporation   causes    a  low   air   pressure
 differential  and  reduces efficiency.  Most pan type booths
 have a control  mechanism to  maintain proper water  depth.

 The  cleaning  operation  common  to both types  of  water  wash
 spray booths  is normally conducted once a week, but may vary
 according  to   usage  of the booth.   It consists of draining
 the  water to  a  point of discharge and then manually removing
 the  settled solids.  A  small amount  of water may be used   to
 flush  the  booth  prior  to   refilling.   Once  the  pan  is
 refilled,  the  water   is    continuously   recycled   during
 operation  by   the  pumps  or   air   movement  until the next
 cleaning operation.  As stated  before,  water  is  added   as
 necessary.

 Spray  booths are usually constructed of 18 gauge  or heavier
 metal except for bleaching booths which are  constructed   of
 concrete  or  masonry  and glazed for protection against the
 corrosive action of bleaches.  They  are dry  filter  booths,
 but  are  cleaned  for fire protection by water wash down  at
 least every two or three hours or at  the  end  of  a  spray
 cycle.

In  larger  furniture  factories  it is not uncommon to find
 laundry  facilities  for  the  rags  used  in  the   various
 finishing operations.  Sometimes these facilities consist of
one  or two commercial type washing machines serving several
 furniture plants.

-------
                         SECTION IV

                  INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION
In the development of  effluent  limitation  guidelines  and
standards  of  performance  for  the  wooden  furniture  and
fixture  manufacturing  industry,  it   was   necessary   to
determine whether significant differences exist which form a
basis  for subcategorization of the industry.  The rationale
for subcategorization was based  on  emphasized  differences
and   similiarities   in   the   following   factors:    (1)
constituents and/or quantity  of  waste  produced,   (2)  the
engineering  feasibility of treatment and resulting effluent
reduction, and (3) the cost  of  treatment.   While  factors
such  as  process  employed,  plant  age  and  size, and raw
material  utilized  tend  to  affect  the  constituents  and
quantity  of  waste  produced,  the  emphasis  herein is not
merely on  an  analyzation  of  these  factors  but  on  the
resulting   differences   in   waste  produced,  engineering
feasibility, and cost.

Since the manufacture of furniture and fixtures  encompasses
such a varied field of products and processes, consideration
was  given to several factors which might identify potential
subcategories within the industry.  The  factors  considered
included:

     (1)  Process variation,
     (2)  Nature of raw materials,
     (3)  Plant size and age,
     (4)  Nature of water supply,
     (5)  Plant location and land availability, and
     (6)  Water usage.

In  consideration  of  the above factors, the segment of the
furniture industry covered in  this  study   and  subject  to
recommended  effluent limitations has been subcategorized as
follows:

     (1)  Furniture  and  fixture  production which  neither
    employs   water   wash  spray  booths  nor  has  laundry
    facilities for finishing rags,

     (2)  Furniture and fixture production which  employs  no
    water  wash  spray booths but has laundry facilities for
    finishing rags,

-------
     (3)  Furniture  and  fixture  production  which  employs
    water  wash  spray  booths but has no laundry facilities
    for finishing rags,

     (4)  Furniture  and  fixture  production  which  employs
    water  wash  spray booths and has laundry facilities for
    finishing rags.

The rationale for the above categorization is as follows:

PROCESS VARIATION

As indicated in Section III, the production of furniture and
fixtures includes many processes which may  or  may  not  be
utilized,  according to the type and quality of tha finished
product.   The  product  dictates  the  variations  in   the
complexity  of  the  machining and finishing operations; and
the complexity of these processes will to some extent affect
the amount and characteristics of  waste  water.   The  wood
bending,  bleaching, printing, and glue spreading operations
all contribute somewhat to  the  total  waste  flow  of  the
industry.    The   first   three  operations,  however,  are
practiced only in specialized cases, and their  significance
does not affect subcategorization.  Glue spreading also does
not    justify    subcategorization,    not    because    of
specialization,  however,   but  because  of  generalization.
Since  glue  spreading  with its resulting cleanup water has
widespread use throughout  the industry,  this  operation  is
included  in all subcategories.  Therefore, although process
variations do exist, their effect  on  waste  water  volume,
characteristics, control,  and treatment is not sufficient to
substantiate subcategorization.

NATURE OF RAW MATERIALS

No  subcategorization  resulted  from  consideration  of the
nature of raw  materials.    Since  this  study  is  directed
toward   wooden   furniture   and  fixtures,  raw  materials
originate  primarily  from  wood  products-lumber,  plywood,
particleboard,  and  hardboard;  a  smaller percentage comes
from plastics.  Since raw  material storage is usually inside
the plant, however,  and the production process is  generally
dry insofar as water contact with materials is concerned, no
subcategorization is warranted.

Finishing   materials   are   utilized   in   a  variety  of
combinations as discussed  in Section  III.   The  effect  of
some  different  finishes  on the waste water from water wash
spray booths is shown in Table 2.  It can be seen  that  the
type  of  finish  used  causes variations in the waste water

-------
                                          TABLE 2

                  ANALYSIS OF SPRAY BOOTH EFFLUENT * ACCORDING TO FINISH


               COD      TS     TDS     TSS     TVS    TVDS   TVSS    TOG    TIC           Color
Type Finish    mg/1    mg/1   rag/I    mg/1    mg/1    mg/1   mg/1   mg/1   rag/I     pH    Units


   Stain       8,068 16,000  15,300     TOO   2,6lO   2,260    350  1,956   1,356   12.1     500



   Sealer     22,071 30,800  22,1*00   8,1+00  11,200   h ,620  6,580   1,822    86?   11. U     500



  Lacquer     3^,7^0 1*2,000  29,500  12,500  18,200   8,260   9,9^0    732    217   10.7     500



   *Effluent from pan type spray booths after hk hours of use.
                                                - I

-------
constituents.  However, since waste waters from  water  wash
spray  booths  are usually treated as a unit, not individual
streams; since the same booth is often  used  for  different
finishes;  and  since  the  use  of  a  variety of finishing
materials is common to all  furniture  and  fixture  plants,
subcategorization   because   specific   finishes   is   not
justified.

PLANT SIZE AND AGE

Operations in the furniture and fixture  industry  range  in
size  from  home  workshops  to  complexes  with hundreds of
employees.  In some cases size of operation and waste  water
volume  and  pollutant load will be proportional.  It should
be noted that because of economic factors related  to  plant
size,   larger  plants  can  support  equipment  not  always
economically available to the  smaller  establishments.   In
two  specific  instances,  laundry facilities and water wash
spray booths, the  equipment  directly  contributes  to  the
quantity  and  character of the waste streams.  Because this
is not categorically  inclusive  of  all  large  plants  and
exclusive   of  all  small  plants,  however,  it  does  not
constitute a basis for subcategorization of the industry.

Plant  age   cannot   be   considered   as   a   basis   for
subcategorization  since operations vary in age of equipment
as well as structures,  i.e.,  plants  generally  undergo  a
continuous  modernization of facilities and the actual "age"
of  an  installation  is  indeterminable.    The  only  trend
related_  to  age observed in this study is that newer plants
and finishing rooms tend  to  have  more  water  wash  spray
booths   than   those   with   older   finishing  equipment.
Increasing emphasis placed on occupational safety and health
standards and air pollution control has  encouraged  use  of
this type equipment.

NATURE OF WATER SUPPLY

The quantity and quality of fresh water supplies utilized by
furniture  and fixture operations were originally considered
to  be  possible  elements  for  industry  subcategorization
because  of  potential  prohibitive  factors  that  could be
encountered in control and treatment.  However,  despite  the
fact that the industry tends to use the most available water
supplies, in most cases a municipal distribution system,  and
some  variation in the nature of the water supplies results,
no detectable effects on control and treatment have resulted
from this study.   Therefore, nature of water supply  is  not
regarded    as    a    technical    element    necessitating
subcategorization.

-------
PLANT LOCATION AND LAND AVAILABILITY

The  location  of  a  furniture  or  fixture  plant  may  be
significant  in  terms of climatic effects on operations and
control  and  treatment  technology,  the  availability   of
adequate  land for the construction of treatment facilities,
and   other   factors.    These   factors   have    received
consideration  in  the  development of control and treatment
technology (see Section VII)  in which, for example,  various
evaporation  rates were considered for different sections of
the  country  and  different  treatment  alternatives   were
developed for varying amounts of available land.

Despite  the  fact that plant location and land availability
can seriously affect the practicality of various control and
treatment  methods   as   well   as   costs,   no   rational
subcategorization can be based on this consideration because
of  the  wide variability of conditions.  The considerations
taken in the development of control and treatment technology
are considered adequate  for  the  development  of  effluent
limitation   guidelines,   and   plant   location  and  land
availability   are   rejected    as    technical    elements
necessitating subcategorization.

WATER USAGE

Several  operations  in  the  furniture and fixture industry
necessitate an increased usage of water above that generally
used throughout the industry.  These are the  use  of  water
wash  spray  booths,  in-plant  laundry  facilities, and wet
scrubbers as emission  control  devices.   The  waste  water
streams   generated   by   the   first  two  operations  are
significant enough to substantiate subcategorization of  the
industry.   The  waste  volumes of both the water wash spray
booths and laundry facilities comprise the majority  of  all
wastes  from furniture and fixture manufacturing plants, and
thus each must be treated accordingly.  The third operation,
wet scrubbers, result  in  an  intermitent  discharge  of  a
relatively small volume of water from the scrubber which can
be  disposed  of  by  the treatment and control alternatives
presented in Section VII.
                                - J

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                         SECTION V

            WATER USE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION


Water  usage  in  the  furniture industry is highly variable
primarily because its usage is not  required  on  a  regular
basis.    Water  is  used  for  cooling,  steam  production,
cleaning, mixing, laundering, and air pollution  control  in
amounts that vary from none for some plants to several cubic
meters   (thousand  gallons) per day for others.  The purpose
of this section is to quantify water usage in  the  industry
and  to  define  waste  water  characteristics to the degree
possible on an industry-wide basis.

WATER_ySAGE

As discussed  in  Section  III,  the  operations  which  are
present  at  a  given  furniture  plant  vary  widely.   The
production of lumber, veneer, plywood, and particleboard may
take place on the same site as the production of  furniture.
On  the  other  hand, all the components of furniture may be
purchased  in  a  finished  form,  and   consequently,   the
furniture  plant  may consist basically of an assembly plant
and a finishing line.  Figure 9 illustrates  the  production
units  which  might  be  present  at a large furniture plant
producing  some  or  all  of  the  component  parts  of  the
furniture.   This figure also delineates the points of water
usage which are of concern in this section.

The degree of water usage  in a furniture plant is  primarily
dependent  on  the  presence  of  water  wash  spray booths,
laundry  facilities, and, to some  degree,  the  presence  of
glue  applicators,  which  must  be  cleaned.   These  three
sources  will  generally   account  for  nearly  all  of  the
discharge  of contaminated water from a furniture plant.  In
addition, the size and number of water wash spray booths and
the number of loads of laundry washer per day will  directly
affect the volume of waste water discharged.

Table    3   provides   descriptive  information  on  various
furniture plants while water usage and waste water discharge
information is presented in Table U.  The raw material usage
percentages indicate to some extent the  type  of  finishing
systems  which  exist  in  each  plant.   Those plants using
primarily wood, rather than plywood or  particleboard,  will
usually   require   more   spray  finishing  operations  and,
consequently, will have a  greater  likelihood  of  utilizing
water  wash  spray  booths.   The number of spray booths per
plant is listed by type of booth.  Also included in Table   3

-------
FRES
WATE
STEA
FRES
WATE
FRES
WATE
SAWMILL
PLANING
MILL

Rj_^
M 	 *
H(
Rj
^
H(
R
\ —


• GLUE CL
- WOOD B
-^- GLUE
>- GLUE C

^ ftl FAPH

— »» LAUND

MIXIN
.EAN
ENDIN(
MIXING
LEAN
BOOT
ING
UP
RY
VENEER MILL
PLYWOOD MILL


ID


JP 	








K



PARTICLEBOARD FINISHING
MILL MATFRIAI 9
HARDBOARD PLASTICS
MILL PLASTICS

1
1AC
R(
\

RAW
MATERIALS

rllNh ^^ oLUt WAi>M
DOM
	 *- WOOD BENDING COND
P
ENSATE
CABINET
ROOM *^ QLUC WAoH




i
FINISH


f
	 >-SPRAY BOOTH DISCH>
No ^ DUbAUnllMw UlbUHAKUl

\RGE
FIGURE 9  WATER FLOW IN A LARGE FURNITURE PLANT

-------
                                        TABLE  3

                   DESCRIPTIVE INFORMATION FOR EACH REPORTING  PLANT
Plant
    Material  Usage by Percent
        (Particleboard             Finishing Material    Spray Booths
(Wood)    and  Plyvood)    (Plastic)      (liters/day)       (Dry)   (Wet)    Employees
1 22
2 69
3 100
U 50
5 55
6
7 100
8 90
9 60
10 92
11 65
12 65
13 55
lit 5
15 75
67 11
31
—
50
20 25
65 35
—
10
20 20
8
35
35
30 15
75 20
25
1,610
1,500
—
1,320
—
190
—
2,1+60
1,100
5,700
1,090
—
980
—
1,900
0
2
All
All
0
1+
All
19
0
58
10
All
0
All
All
9
11
0
0
6
0
0
12
7
5
1
0
2?
0
0
1+00
275
285
1+50
220
125
300
1,250
270
1,800
280
160
600
130
335

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                       TABLE 1+




WASTE WATER PRODUCTION FOR VARIOUS FURNITURE PLATA'S
Plant
1
2

3

1+
5
6

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
111
15
Weekly Spray
Booth Discharge
(liters)
6,250
11,700

—

—
5,700


—
18,200
9,500
18,200
5,700
—
19,000
—
—
Daily Glue Daily Laundry
Wash Discharge Discharge
(liters) (liters)
75 800
380

—

760
—


20
760 h,000
-
6,100 19,000
—
ho
190
—
380
Total Daily
Other Discharge Avg. Discharge
(liters) (liters)
2,125
Viet scrub'ber dis-
charge 22,700/wk
Wood "bending con- 170
densate 170/day
760
1,11*0

0
20
8,1*00
1,900
28,71+0
1.1UO
1*0
3,990
0
Bleaching discharge 1*75
                                          95/day

-------
 is   the   approximate  number   of   employees per  plant.   This
 provides  a  rough  indication of relative plant  sizes.

 The  volume  of water discharged from   each  spray   booth  as
 indicated  in Table U is  dependent  on  the size of  the  booth,
 the  frequency of  its usage, the type of material captured  by
 the  booth,  and  other operational constraints.    In general,
 the  booths  are  drained weekly   in  order to  minimize the
 accumulation of finishing materials  in  the   water and  to
 insure  efficient operation.   The  volume of water contained
 in each booth varies from 760  liters   to  5700  liters   (200
 gallons to  1500 gallons), but  is generally about 1140  liters
 (300 gallons) .

 The  amount of  water utilized  for glue cleanup is  also quite
 variable  as is  indicated  in  Table  t.   The   glue used  in
 furniture manufacturing  is   generally polyvinyl  acetate  or
 urea formaldehyde and  is  applied  with  applicators  which
 require   some   small  amount   of  cleanup.  The  large volume
 reported  by plant 10 results from the  presence  of plywood
 glue  spreaders,  the waste water from which is  discussed  in
 the  document presenting effluent  guidelines   and   standards
 for  plywood manufacturing (EPA-440/1-74-023-a).

 The  only other major source of waste  water in the  furniture
 industry  is that  associated with  laundry  facilities.   The
 reported  volumes  of waste water are  given in Table U.  The
 reported  waste  water volumes vary  considerably  because  in
 many  cases  laundry  facilities in one plant  actually serve
 several neighboring plants.   Thus, the size of the  machines
 and  the  number of loads per day differ widely from plant  to
 plant.  The majority of plants, especially the smaller   ones
 in  metropolitan  areas,  do   not maintain their own laundry
 facilities.

 Other miscellaneous waste  streams  result  from   bleaching,
 bending,  and   air  pollution  control devices.   Bleaching  is
 practiced to a  limited extent  as discussed in  Section   III.
 The  waste  water resulting from bleaching is  reported to  be
 intermittent with volumes seldom  exceeding  190  liters/day
 (50  gpd).  Bending of wood,  also an infrequent practice,  is
 accomplished by steaming the wood.   The condensate  formed  as
 a result of this operation was reported to amount   to  about
 380  liters/day   (100   gpd)  at one plant.   Wet scrubbers are
 reported at some  furniture plants utilizing boilers.   While
the  scrubber  water  is  recycled  to  a large extent,  some
 continuous bleedoff may be required  to  avoid  high  solids
buildup  and a resulting loss of efficiency.   Generally,  the
rate of bleedoff ranges  from  8  to  40   liters   (2  to   10
gallons)  per minute.

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WASTE_WATER_CHARACTERIZATION

As  noted above, the primary sources of waste water from the
furniture manufacturing process are  spray  booths,  laundry
facilities,    and    glue    cleanup    operations.     The
characteristics of the waste  water  discharged  from  spray
booths  is  dependent  on  the  amount and type of overspray
material captured by the  water.   The  amount  of  material
captured  is  a  function  of the efficiency of the booth in
removing overspray from the air, the intensity of  usage  of
the  spray  booth,  and  the  length  of  time between booth
drainages.  The type of material used is dependent primarily
upon  the  particular  type  of  finishing  operation  being
performed.   The results of chemical analyses on spray booth
waste waters containing  various  types  of  finishes  after
varying  lengths  of  service  are  shown in Table 5.  While
generalization about the various finishes is  inappropriate,
some^ general  statements  regarding  the  waste  water  are
applicable.  The pH of the various samples is generally high
because of the presence of  alkaline  agents  in  the  water
which  are added to disperse the finishing materials.  These
deflocculating agents are available commercially and usually
consist of alkaline  and  surfactant  materials  in  various
combinations.  Solids concentrations are quite high with the
greater  percentage  being  dissolved  and nonvolatile.  COD
levels are also high while the corresponding BOD  levels  in
some cases may indicate a low biodegradability.

The waste water generated by laundry facilities at furniture
plants  is also quite concentrated as shown in Table 5.  The
high pH and solids concentrations result from  the  addition
of  soda ash, caustics such as sodium hydroxide, and clay to
the washwater.  These materials are used in combination with
strong detergents to clean the  rags  used  for  wiping  and
rubbing  furniture.    The  resulting  waste  water is highly
colored and contains high levels of COD and  BOD.    The  BOD
levels  indicate  biodegradability of a portion of the waste
water as is typical of other laundry wastes.

Glue waste water characteristics from cleanup operations are
presented in Table 5.    The  concentration  of  the  various
constitutents is a function of the type of glue used and the
volume  of  water  used for cleanup.   In general,  the solids
content is almost entirely volatile and for  the  most  part
dissolved.

Characteristics  of  various miscellaneous waste streams are
also  given  in  Table  5.    These  constitute   small   but
concentrated  streams  which  may or may not be present at a
given plant.

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                     COD      BOO      TS     TDS      TSS    TVS     TVDS    TVSS    TOC     TIC         Color  Phenol    Pt   Co    Pb   Discharge
     Sample          nq/1     nq/1     mq/1    inq/1     no/1    mq/1    i>iq/l    mq/1    mg/1    ng/1  pH    Units   ing/1    nig/1  nq/1  mg/1    liters
 Starting water,        3,410          26,100  25,100     900   4,840   a,390     150    730    520   13.1   392                              530/week
 deflocculant added,
 pan  type booth

 Stain                  3,700          16,100  13,100   3,000   6,740   3,990     250  1,876    813   12.6   500
 22 hr. operation
 nan  tyue booth

 Stain                  3,070          16,000  15,300     700   2,610   2,260     350  1,956  1,356   12.1  > 500
 44 hr. operation
 pan  type booth

 Filler                33,430  16,350  56,800  48,300   3,500  11,400   11,200   3,200  4,666  2,167   129  : 500                              530/week
 22 hr  ooeration
 pan  type booth

 Ciller               122,100          97,400  54,900  42,500  32,400   11,600  20,800  7,405  3,035   12.7  ^500
 44 hr. operation
 Dan  type booth
 Sealer                22,070          30,800   22,400   8,400  11,200    4,620   6,530  1,822    367   11 4   500                              470/week
 44  hr. ooeration
 pan  tyoe booth

                                     90,300   63,600  26,700  50,600   29,200  21,400    295  1,462   11.3  -500                 0.7  '0.5     300/week



 Lacquer               34,740          42,000   29,500  12,500  18.200    8,260   9,940    732    217   10 7  '-500                              300/week
 44  hr  operation
 dan  tyoe booth

 Sealer and Lacquer     1,300   1,680    ,v,/     887      10     483     480       3  1,734    223    78    75
 30  hr. ooeration
 waterfall type booth

 Lacquer                4,750   1,980  1,170     344     833   1,027     223     804  1,530    163    6.6    71
 30  hr  operation
 waterfall tyoe booth

 Filler                  550     130    VI     256      91      1"7     101      46    280    163    6 7    18
 30  hr. operation
 Dan  tyoe booth

 Glaze
 5 hr  ooeration
•waterfall tyie booth

 Laundry wash          35,620   3,100  32,300   14,000  18,300   9,790    4,260   5,530  2,396  1,495   12.7  ^500      1  0  103                 570/.;eek
 cycle discharge

                           TABLE 5    CHEMICAL  ANALYSES  OF VARIOUS  WASTE  STREAMS

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                  COD     BOD     TS     IDS     TSS    TVS     TVDS    TVSS  TOC    TIC         Color  Phenol   Pt    Co    Pb    Discharge
  Samole          mg/1    wg/1   mg/1     mg/1    mg/1   mg/1     mg/1    mg/1   mg/1  rng/1    pH   Units   mq/1   mg/1  nig/1   mg/1    liters
Glue mixer and   11,470   1,520  11,200   9,910  1,290  10,900   9,700   1,200  1,547  1,300  4.9    63   0.172
spreader wash-
down
Glue spreader    23,470
washdown
Glue spreader    41,230
washdown
Bleach booth
discharge

Uet scrubber
Discharge,
7 days

Wet scrubber
discharge,
9 days

Wood bending
discharge
              21,000  17,300  3,700  20,500  16,900  3,600  2,744  1,474  5.0     0   0.043


              24,000  15,200  3,300  23,700  14,800  3,900  2,648  1,517  4.4     8   0.167


2,030     90   2i,600  19,100  5,500   8,720   3,300  5,420    105  1,951  9.2   100   0.150


1,150     90   1,040     754   286     580     304    276    185    195  6.8   125



1,190     80   1,360     635   725     842     250    592    436    260  7.6    bu
  720    230     671      547    124     392     385
598    325   4.1   394   0.276
   380/day



   380/day


   380/day


   190/day


22,700/week



22,700/week



   380/day
                          TABLE  5   CHEMICAL ANALYSES  OF  VARIOUS WASTE STREAMS  (CONT'D)

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MQPEL_PLANTS

On the basis  of  the  information  discussed  above,  model
plants can be formulated.  As was noted, the volume of waste
water  generated  in  a  furniture  plant  is  predominantly
dependent on the presence of wet spray  booths  and  laundry
facilities.   Pour  subcategories  of  furniture plants were
developed in Section  IV  based  on  combinations  of  these
operations.   On  the  basis  of these subcategories and the
data represented in this section the four model plants are:

    1.  Model plant 1 (Subcategory I)  contains no water wash
    spray  booths,  no  laundry  facilities  and  two   glue
    spreaders requiring daily cleanup.

    2.   Model  plant  2  (Subcategory II) contains no water
    wash spray booths,  laundry  facilities,  and  two  glue
    spreaders requiring daily cleanup.

    3.   Model plant 3 (Subcategory III) contains water wash
    spray  booths,  no  laundry,  and  two  glue   spreaders
    requiring daily cleanup.

    4.   Model  plant 4  (Subcategory IV) contains water wash
    booths and laundry facilities and two glue spreaders.

In order to develop the above models  and  their  associated
waste   water   characteristics   certain  assumptions  were
necessary.  The basic assumptions are as follows:

    1.  The total weekly mass of pollutants is the same  per
    booth regardless of the booth volume.

    2.  Booths are dumped on a weekly basis.

    3.  Volumes may be computed on a basis of plant averages
    from available information.

    i*.  All plants utilize an alkaline deflocculant.

    5.   The  plants  with wet booths utilize eight pan type
    booths of 1140 liter (300 gallon)  capacity each.

    6.  Two glue spreaders are assumed for each  plant  with
    cleanup of 380 liters (100 gallons)/spreader/day.

    7.   In laundries loadings of rinse water are assumed to
    be 10 percent of loadings from wash water.

    8.  All plants operate five days/week.
                                     J

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       MpdeJ

'•1 :   Dry  Spray Booths
No  Laundry  Facilities
Two  Glue  Spreaders

-•2:   Dry  Spray Booths
Laundry Faci1ities
Two  Glue  Spreaders

=3:   Met  Spray Booths
No  Laundry  Facilities
Two  Glue  Spreaders
  Average Flows

  760  1iters/day
        COD
        i'ig/1
                                                                               TVS
                                                                                       TVDS
                                                                                       mq/j
                                                                        TVSS
                                                                        mq/1
TIC        Color
mg/J    pH   Units  Phenol
1,500  25,400  18,700  14,100    4,600  18,400  14,000   4,600  2,300  1,400   4.8
4,550  liters/day   2,750  15,150  12,950   7,940    2,060  11,040   3,630   2,430  1,120
                                                                                       610
Pt
rmj/J
                                                                                                                 6.0
  760  liters/day   1,500  25,400  18,700  14,100   4,600  18,400  14,000   4,600  2,300  1,400   4.8
with additional
9,120  liters/week         46,700  47,225  31,200  16,000  16,700   7,380  12,400  2,980  1,370  11.7  >500
                                                                                     0.127
»4:   'Jet Spray  Booths   4,550  liters/day   2,750  15,150  12,950   7,940   2,060  11,040
Laundry Facilities      with additional
Two  Glue Spreaders      9,120  1iters/week         46,700  47,225  31,200  16,000  16,700
                                                                3,630   2,430   1,120    610

                                                                7,380  12,400   2,980  1,370  11.7  > 500
                                                                                                                                        6.0
                         TABLE  6  FLOW AND  COMPOSITION  OF WASTEWATER  FROM  MODEL  PLANTS

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                         SECTION VI

             SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS

WESTE_WATER_PARAMETERS_OF_POLLUTIONAL_SIGNIFICANCE

Waste  water  parameters  of  primary  significance  for the
furniture and fixture manufacturing segment  of  the  Timber
Products industry include:

     COD
     Total Suspended solids
     Dissolved solids
     pH
     Temperature
     Phosphorus

Waste water parameters of secondary significance include:

     BOD
     Phenols
     Color
     Oil and grease
     Inorganic ions

The  above  parameters  have  been  selected as representing
those chemical constituents which might be present in  waste
water  produced  by  the  industry  and  which  might have a
detrimental effect on a receiving water.    However,  all  of
these parameters are not present in the raw waste streams of
each  plant  in  the  furniture  and  fixture  manufacturing
industry.  The inorganic ions occasionally  associated  with
finishing  materials are specific to the finishing materials
used.

When land disposal of waste water is practiced, contribution
to ground water pollution must  be  prevented.   Under  land
disposal  procedures,  all practices should be in accordance
with  the  Environmental  Protection  Agency's  "Policy   on
Subsurface  Emplacement  of  Fluids  by Well Injection" with
accompanying    "Recommended    Data    Requirements     for
Environmental Evaluation of Subsurface Emplacement of Fluids
by Well Injection".

Significant  pollutional  parameters  for  the protection of
ground  water  from  land  disposal  include  organics,  pH,
temperature, total dissolved solids, and nutrients.

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Suspended   solids   include   both  organic  and  inorganic
materials.  The inorganic components include sand, silt, and
clay.  The  organic  fraction  includes  such  materials  as
grease, oil, tar, animal and vegetable fats, various fibers,
sawdust,  hair,  and  various  materials from sewers.  These
solids may settle out rapidly and bottom deposits are  often
a  mixture  of  both  organic  and  inorganic  solids.  They
adversely affect fisheries by covering  the  bottom  of  the
stream  or lake with a blanket of material that destroys the
fish-food bottom fauna  or  the  spawning  ground  of  fish.
Deposits  containing  organic  materials  may deplete bottom
oxygen  supplies  and  produce  hydrogen   sulfide,   carbon
dioxide, methane, and other noxious gases.

In  raw  water  sources for domestic use, state and regional
agencies generally specify that suspended solids in  streams
shall  not  be  present  in  sufficient  concentration to be
objectionable  or  to  interfere   with   normal   treatment
processes.   Suspended  solids  in  water may interfere with
many industrial processes, and cause foaming in boilers,  or
encrustations  on  equipment exposed to water, especially as
the temperature rises.  Suspended solids are undesirable  in
water  for  textile  industries;  paper and pulp; beverages;
dairy  products;  laundries;  dyeing;  photography;  cooling
systems,  and  power plants.  Suspended particles also serve
as a transport mechanism for pesticides and other substances
which are readily sorbed into or onto clay particles.

Solids may be suspended in water for a time, and then settle
to the bed of the stream or lake.  These  settleable  solids
discharged   with   man's   wastes   may  be  inert,  slowly
biodegradable materials, or rapidly decomposable substances.
While in suspension, they  increase  the  turbidity  of  the
water,    reduce    light   penetration   and   impair   the
photosynthetic activity of aguatic plants.

Solids in suspension are  aesthetically  displeasing.   When
they  settle  to  form sludge deposits on the stream or lake
bed, they are often much more damaging to the life in water,
and they  retain  the  capacity  to  displease  the  senses.
Solids,  when  transformed  to  sludge  deposits,  may  do a
variety of damaging things, including blanketing the  stream
or  lake  bed  and  thereby destroying the living spaces for
those benthic organisms  that  would  otherwise  occupy  the
habitat.   When  of  an  organic  and therefore decomposable
nature, solids use a portion or all of the dissolved  oxygen
available  in  the  area.   Organic materials also serve as a

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seemingly inexhaustible  food  source  for  sludgeworms  and
associated organisms.

Turbidity  is  principally  a measure of the light absorbing
properties of suspended solids.  It is frequently used as  a
substitute  method of quickly estimating the total suspended
solids when the concentration is relatively low.
In natural waters the dissolved  solids  consist  mainly  of
carbonates,  chlorides,  sulfates,  phosphates, and possibly
nitrates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium,  with
traces of iron, manganese and other substances.

Many communities in the United States and in other countries
use water supplies containing 2000 to UOOO mg/1 of dissolved
salts,  when  no better water is available.  Such waters are
not palatable,  may  not  quench  thirst,  and  may  have  a
laxative  action  on new users.  Waters containing more than
4000 mg/1 of total salts are generally considered unfit  for
human  use,  although  in  hot  climates  such  higher  salt
concentrations can be tolerated whereas they could not be in
temperate climates.  Waters containing 5000 mg/1 or more are
reported to be bitter and  act  as  bladder  and  intestinal
irritants.    It   is   generally   agreed   that  the  salt
concentration of good, palatable water should not exceed 500
mg/1.

Limiting concentrations of dissolved solids for  fresh-water
fish  may  range  from  5,000  to  10,000 mg/1, according to
species and prior acclimatization.  Some fish are adapted to
living in more saline waters, and a few  species  of  fresh-
water  forms  have  been found in natural waters with a salt
concentration of 15,000 to 20,000  mg/1.   Fish  can  slowly
become acclimatized to higher salinities, but fish in waters
of  low  salinity  cannot  survive  sudden  exposure to high
salinities, such as those resulting from discharges of  oil-
well brines.  Dissolved solids may influence the toxicity of
heavy metals and organic compounds to fish and other aquatic
life,  primarily  because  of  the  antagonistic  effect  of
hardness on metals.

Waters with  total  dissolved  solids  over  500  mg/1  have
decreasing utility as irrigation water.  At 5,000 mg/1 water
has little or no value for irrigation.

Dissolved  solids  in industrial waters can cause foaming in
boilers and cause  interference  with  cleaness,  color,  or

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taste of many finished products.  High contents of dissolved
solids also tend to accelerate corrosion.

Specific  conductance  is a measure of the capacity of water
to convey an electric current.  This property is related  to
the  total  concentration of ionized substances in water and
water temperature.  This property is frequently  used  as  a
substitute method of quickly estimating the dissolved solids
concentration.

BSr Acidity and Alkalinity

Acidity  and  alkalinity  are  reciprocal terms.  Acidity is
produced  by  substances  that  yield  hydrogen  ions   upon
hydrolysis  and  alkalinity  is  produced by substances that
yield hydroxyl ions.  The terms "total acidity"  and  "total
alkalinity" are often used to express the buffering capacity
of  a  solution.   Acidity  in  natural  waters is caused by
carbon dioxide, mineral acids, weakly dissociated acids, and
the salts of strong acids and  weak  bases.   Alkalinity  is
caused  by strong bases and the salts of strong alkalies and
weak acids.

The term pH is a logarithmic expression of the concentration
of hydrogen ions.  At a pH of 7, the hydrogen  and  hydroxyl
ion  concentrations  are  essentially equal and the water is
neutral.  Lower pH  values  indicate  acidity  while  higher
values indicate alkalinity.  The relationship between pH and
acidity or alkalinity is not necessarily linear or direct.

Waters  with  a  pH  below  6.0 are corrosive to water works
structures,  distribution  lines,  and  household   plumbing
fixtures  and  can  thus  add  such constituents to drinking
water as iron, copper, zinc, cadmium and lead.  The hydrogen
ion concentration can affect the "taste" of the water.  At a
low pH water tastes  "sour".   The  bactericidal  effect  of
chlorine  is  weakened  as  the  pH  increases,  and  it  is
advantageous to keep the  pH  close  to  7.   This  is  very
significant for providing safe drinking water.

Extremes  of  pH  or  rapid  pH  changes  can  exert  stress
conditions  or  kill  aquatic  life  outright.   Dead  fish,
associated  algal  blooms,  and  foul stenches are aesthetic
liabilities of any waterway.   Even  moderate  changes  from
"acceptable"  criteria  limits of pH are deleterious to some
species.  The relative toxicity  to  aquatic  life  of  many
materials   is   increased  by  changes  in  the  water  pH.
Metalocyanide complexes  can  increase  a  thousand-fold  in
toxicity  with  a drop of 1.5 pH units.  The availability of

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many nutrient substances  varies  with  the  alkalinity  and
acidity.  Ammonia is more lethal with a higher pH.

The   lacrimal   fluid   of  the  human  eye  has  a  pH  of
approximately 7.0 and a deviation of 0.1 pH  unit  from  the
norm   may   result  in  eye  irritation  for  the  swimmer.
Appreciable irritation will cause severe pain.

Temperature

Temperature is one of the  most  important  and  influential
water quality characteristics.  Temperature determines those
species  that  may  be present; it activates the hatching of
young,  regulates  their   activity,   and   stimulates   or
suppresses  their  growth  and development; it attracts, and
may kill when the water becomes too hot or  becomes  chilled
too    suddenly.     Colder   water   generally   suppresses
development.  Warmer water  generally  accelerates  activity
and  may  be a primary cause of aquatic plant nuisances when
other environmental factors are suitable.

Temperature is a prime regulator of natural processes within
the water environment.  It governs  physiological  functions
in   organisms   and,   acting  directly  or  indirectly  in
combination  with  other  water  quality  constituents,   it
affects  aquatic  life  with  each  change.   These  effects
include  chemical  reaction  rates,   enzymatic   functions,
molecular   movements,   and   molecular  exchanges  between
membranes within and between the physiological   systems  and
the organs of an animal.

Chemical  reaction rates vary with temperature and generally
increase as the temperature is increased.  The solubility of
gases in water varies with temperature.  Dissolved oxygen is
decreased by the decay or decomposition of dissolved organic
substances and the decay rate increases as  the   temperature
of  the  water  increases  reaching   a maximum at about  30 °C
 (86°F).   The  temperature  of  stream  water,   even  during
summer,   is  below  the  optimum  for  pollution-associated
bacteria.  Increasing the water  temperature  increases  the
bacterial   multiplication  rate  when  the   environment  is
favorable and the food supply is abundant.

Reproduction  cycles  may  be   changed   significantly   by
increased  temperature  because  this   function   takes place
under restricted temperature  ranges.  Spawning may not occur
at  all  because temperatures are  too  high.   Thus,  a   fish
population  may  exist  in  a  heated area only  by continued
immigration.   Disregarding   the   decreased   reproductive
potential,  water  temperatures need  not reach lethal  levels

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to  decimate a species.  Temperatures that favor competitors,
predators, parasites, and disease can destroy a  species  at
levels  far below those that are lethal.

Fish  food  organisms are altered severely when temperatures
approach or exceed 90°F.  Predominant algal species  change,
primary production  is  decreased,  and  bottom  associated
organisms may be depleted or altered drastically in  numbers
and  distribution.   Increased  water temperatures may cause
aquatic plant nuisances when other environmental factors are
favorable.

Synergistic actions of pollutants are more severe at  higher
water   temperatures.   Given  amounts  of  domestic  sewage,
refinery wastes, oils, tars, insecticides,  detergents,  and
fertilizers  more  rapidly deplete oxygen in water at higher
temperatures, and the  respective  toxicities  are  likewise
increased.

When  water  temperatures  increase,  the  predominant algal
species may change from diatoms to green algae, and  finally
at high temperatures to blue-green algae, because of species
temperature   preferentials.   Blue-green  algae  can  cause
serious odor  problems.    The  number  and  distribution  of
benthic  organisms  decreases as water temperatures increase
above 90°F, which is close to the tolerance  limit  for  the
population.   This  could seriously affect certain fish that
depend on benthic organisms as a food source.

The cost of fish being attracted to heated water  in  winter
months may be considerable,  due to fish mortalities that may
result when the fish return to the cooler water.

Rising  temperatures  stimulate the decomposition of sludge,
formation  of  sludge  gas,   multiplication  of  saprophytic
bacteria  and fungi (particularly in the presence of organic
wastes), and  the  consumption  of  oxygen  by  putrefactive
processes,  thus  affecting  the  esthetic  value of a water
course.

In general, marine  water  temperatures  do  not  change  as
rapidly  or range as widely as those of freshwaters.   Marine
and  estuarine  fishes,   therefore,   are  less  tolerant  of
temperature  variation.    Although this limited tolerance is
greater in estuarine than  in  open  water  marine  species,
temperature  changes  are  more important to those fishes in
estuaries and bays than   to   those  in  open  marine  areas,
because  of  the  nursery and replenishment functions of the
estuary  that  can  be   adversely   affected    by   extreme
temperature changes.

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Phgsghorus

During  the  past  30 years, a formidable case has developed
for the belief that increasing  standing  crops  of  aquatic
plant growths, which often interfere with water uses and are
nuisances  to  man,  frequently  are  caused  by  increasing
supplies of phosphorus.  Such phenomena are associated  with
a  condition' of  accelerated  eutrophication  or  aging  of
waters.  It is generally recognized that phosphorus  is  not
the  sole  cause of eutrophication, but there is evidence to
substantiate that it is frequently the key element in all of
the elements required by fresh water plants and is generally
present in the least amount relative to need.  Therefore, an
increase in phosphorus allows use of other, already present,
nutrients  for  plant  growths.    Phosphorus   is   usually
described, for this reasons, as a "limiting factor."

When  a  plant  population  is  stimulated in production and
attains a nuisance." status,  a  large  number  of  associated
liabilities  are immediately apparent.  Dense populations of
pond weeds  make  swimming  dangerous.   Boating  and  water
skiing  and  sometimes  fishing may be eliminated because of
the mass of vegetation that serves as an physical impediment
to such activities.  Plant populations have been  associated
with  stunted fish populations and with poor fishing.  Plant-
nuisances emit vile stenches, impart  tastes  and  odors  to
water  supplies,  reduce  the  efficiency  of industrial and
municipal water treatment,  impair aesthetic  beauty,  reduce
or  restrict resort trade,  lower waterfront property values,
cause skin rashes to man during water contact, and serve  as
a desired substrate and breeding ground for flies.

Phosphorus   in the elemental form is particularly toxic, and
subject to bioaccumulation  in much the same way as  mercury.
Colloidal  elemental   phosphorus  will  poison  marine   fish
 (causing  skin tissue breakdown  and  discoloration).   Also,
phosphorus    is  capable  of  being  concentrated  and   will
accumulate in organs and  soft  tissues.   Experiments   have
shown  that   marine  fish   will  concentrate phosphorus  from
water containing as  little  as 1 ug/1.

Biochemical  Oxygen Demand 1BOD).

Biochemical  oxygen demand  (BOD) is  a measure of   the  oxygen
consuming capabilities of  organic  matter.   The BOD does not
in  itself cause  direct harm to a water system, but  it   does
exert  an  indirect  effect  by depressing the oxygen content of
the  water.   Sewage  and other organic  effluents during their
processes of decomposition  exert a  BOD,   which  can   have   a
catastrophic effect  on the  ecosystem  by  depleting the oxygen

-------
 supply.    Conditions  are reached frequently where all  of the
 oxygen is used and the  continuing decay process   causes  the
 production  of  noxious  gases   such as hydrogen sulfide and
 methane.   Water with  a  high BOD indicates   the   presence  of
 decomposing  organic  matter and  subsequent high bacterial
 counts that degrade its quality and potential uses.

 Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a  water quality  constituent   that,
 in  appropriate concentrations,  is essential not  only to keep
 organisms  living  but  also to  sustain  species reproduction,
 vigor,  and  the  development   of  populations.     Organisms
 undergo   stress  at reduced DO  concentrations that make them
 less  competitive and  able to sustain their species  within
 the   aquatic   environment.     For  example,    reduced  DO
 concentrations  have  been   shown  to  interfere  with  fish
 population  through  delayed hatching  of  eggs,  reduced size
 and vigor of embryos, production of  deformities  in  young,
 interference  with food digestion,  acceleration  of  blood
 clotting,  decreased tolerance to certain toxicants,  reduced
 food   efficiency  and   growth   rate,   and  reduced  maximum
 sustained swimming speed.   Fish  food organisms are  likewise
 affected   adversely in  conditions with  suppressed  DO.   Since
 all aerobic  aquatic  organisms   need a  certain  amount  of
 oxygen,   the  consequences  of total  lack of  dissolved oxygen
 due to a  high  BOD can kill  all inhabitants of  the  affected
 area.

 If  a  high  BOD   is  present,   the   quality of  the  water  is
 usually visually  degraded by  the  presence  of  decomposing
 materials  and   algae   blooms  due to the  uptake of  degraded
 materials  that  form the  foodstuffs of the  algal  populations.
QllSffiica l_Ox Y2§Q_ Demand_ ICOD
Under the proper conditions the chemical oxygen demand  (COD)
test can be used as an alternative to the BOD test.  The COD
test is widely used as a means of measuring the total amount
of oxygen required  for  oxidation  of  organics  to  carbon
dioxide  and water by the action of a strong oxidizing agent
under acid conditions.  It differs from the BOD test in that
it is independent of biological assimilability.   The  major
disadvantage of the COD test is that it does not distinguish
between  biologically  active and inert organics.  The major
advantages are:  1)  that it can be conducted in a matter  of
hours or continuously in an automatic analyzer, and 2)  it is
not affected by retardation of biological activity.  In some
instances,  COD  can  be  correlated to BOD data and the COD
test can then be used as a substitute for the BOD test.
                               J

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Phenol s

Phenols and phenolic  wastes  are  derived  from  petroleum,
coke,   and  chemical  industries;   wood  distillation;  and
domestic and animal wastes.   Many  phenolic  compounds  are
more  toxic than pure phenol; their toxicity varies with the
combinations and general nature of total wastes.  The effect
of  combinations  of   different   phenolic   compounds   is
cumulative.

Phenols   and   phenolic  compounds  are  both  acutely  and
chronically toxic to fish and other aquatic animals.   Also,
chlorophenols produce an unpleasant taste in fish flesh that
destroys their recreational and commercial value.

It  is  necessary  to  limit phenolic compounds in raw water
used for drinking water supplies, as conventional  treatment
methods  used  by  water  supply  facilities  do  not remove
phenols.  The ingestion of concentrated solutions of phenols
will result in severe  pain,  renal  irritation,  shock  and
possibly death.

Phenols  also  reduce  the  utility  of  water  for  certain
industrial uses, notably food and beverage processing, where
it creates unpleasant tastes and odors in the product.

Color

Wastewaters in the furniture manufacturing  segment  of  the
timber  products  processing  industry may obtain color from
finishing materials.  Color  in  itself  has  little  health
related signficance, but is primarily an aesthetic concern.
Oil  and grease exhibit an oxygen demand.  Oil emulsions may
adhere to the gills of fish or coat  and  destroy  algae  or
other  plankton.   Deposition of oil in the bottom sediments
can  serve  to  exhibit   normal   benthic   growths,   thus
interrupting the aquatic food chain.  Soluble and emulsified
material  ingested  by fish may taint the flavor of the fish
flesh.  Water soluble components may exert toxic  action  on
fish.   Floating oil may reduce the re-aeration of the water
surface and in conjunction with emulsified oil may interfere
with photosynthesis.  Water insoluble components damage  the
plumage  and  costs  of  water  animals  and fowls.  Oil and
grease  in  a  water  can  result  in   the   formation   of
objectionable  surface  slicks preventing the full aesthetic
enjoyment of the water.

Oil spills can damage the surface of boats and  can  destroy
the aesthetic characteristics of beaches and shorelines.

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As  indicated  previously,  the  inorganic  ions produced by
certain fabricating and finishing operations depend  on  the
formulations   used   in  the  processes.   If  released  to
receiving streams, these ions  can  be  detrimental  to  the
aquatic  biota  and  to fish life.  If waste water and water
treatment plants  are  not  designed  specifically  for  the
removal  of  these  ions, some of them will pass through the
plants.  Section  VII,  Control  and  Treatment  Technology.,
discusses   methods  for  preventing  the  release  of  such
substances.

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                        SECTION VII

              CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
This  section  identifies,  documents,   and   verifies   as
completely  as  possible  the  full  range  of  control  and
treatment technology which exists or has  the  potential  to
exist  within  each  industrial  subcategory  identified  in
Section IV.  In addition, it develops the control and treat-
ment alternatives applicable to the model  plants  developed
in Section V.

Historically,  waste water has been of little concern in the
furniture  and  fixture  manufacturing  industry.    Primary
concern  has  been with air emissions from boilers and spray
booths.  Essentially no literature  exists  and  no  studies
have been previously conducted on the subject of waste water
generation by furniture factories.

A  survey  of  the  industry  reveals  that  an estimated 9^
percent of all furniture factories  either  discharge  their
waste  waters to a municipal sewage system, contract them to
be hauled away by commercial disposal companies,  or  use  a
combination  of  these  disposal  methods.   The remaining 5
percent, however, represent some  of  the  nation's  largest
factories  and,  as indicated in Section V, larger factories
tend to have more waste water than smaller plants.
In-plant control measures to  reduce  the  volume  of  waste
water  generated  by  the  application  of  glue  consist of
various  clean-up  techniques.   One  of  these   techniques
consists  of  scraping the mixing tanks, glue spreaders, and
other surfaces prior to clean-up with water.  This practice,
along with high pressure hoses, can reduce the total  amount
of water appreciably.  Another technique involves the use of
steam  or  steam-water  mixtures  on  metal surfaces.  It is
estimated  that  such  techniques  as   these,   and   water
conservation  in  general, can reduce the volume of clean-up
water from 50 percent UOO liters (100 gallons) per  clean-up
to less than 200 liters (50 gallons) .

Past  in-plant  air pollution control measures have caused a
transition from the dry spray  booth  to  water  curtain  or
cavity  back  pan  type  booths, and have thus resulted in a
source of process waste water.  As indicated in Section III,
the  batch  discharge  from  wet  spray  booths  occurs   on
approximately  a  weekly basis.  In some cases the discharge

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is on Friday afternoon or Saturday morning as  a  matter  of
operating convenience, but even in cases where the discharge
is  not  on a weekly basis, it occurs generally on a regular
basis.

A prolonging of the batch life of  wet  spray  booth  waters
would  decrease the total discharge volume, if not the total
mass of pollutants, and, in terms of both water conservation
and waste water handling, would be  advantageous.   However,
the  water  cannot  be  used  past  the  point  at which its
efficiency for spray removal is decreased,  and  this  point
would  appear  to  be  near  the  one-week  interval.   Each
particular operation should be judged by factory  management
and,  as  a  general management technique, the water held as
long as possible without a loss in spray booth efficiency.

A  few  factories  operate  laundries  in  association  with
finishing  operations  for  laundering  of  rags.  Since the
volume of water used and the resulting waste water is  fixed
by the number of loads washed and the capacity and number of
cycles  of  the  washers,  the ability to reduce waste water
flow and concentration is limited.

EXISTING_END-OF-LINE_TREATMENT

Existing end-of-line treatment is primarily  a  function  of
plant  location.   The  vast  majority of plants are located
near municipalities and utilize a municipal treatment system
as their  disposal  method.   As  illustrated  by  Table  7,
approximately  60  percent  of the plants surveyed discharge
all or part of their waste water to municipal sewer  systems
or  haul  it to landfill.  It is estimated, however,that the
actual percentage of plants discharging to  municipal  sewer
systems  or hauling to landfill probably exceeds 90 percent.
The discrepancy in the above percentages is because  of  the
fact  that  a high percentage of the plants visited were the
larger plants in the industry which utilize disposal methods
other than these to a greater extent  than  smaller  plants.
The alternate disposal methods observed include septic tanks
with tile fields and lagooning.

Septic   tanks   followed  by  tile  fields  may  provide  a
reasonable degree of treatment in some cases.  However,  the
efficiency  of  treatment  is dependent on the nature of the
waste water, soil type,  hydrologic  conditions,  and  other
factors  which preclude septic tanks from consideration as a
recommended treatment system.  Oxidation  ponds  or  lagoons
may  provide  a degree of treatment, but still result in the
discharge of contaminated waste water.  The  only  furniture
plant (Number 10) observed to have a continuous discharge to

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                            TABLE 7

                 WASTE WATER DISPOSAL METHODS
                  EMPLOYED BY PLANTS Sb'RVEYED
Plant

  1
  2

  3
  U
  5
  •7
  I
  8

  9

 10

 11
 12
 13


 15

 16
 IT
 19
 20
 21
 23
Wastewater Source

  Spray Booth
  Glue Waste
  Spray Booth
  Steam Bending
  Glue Waste
  Spray Booths
  Glue Waste
  Wet Booth
  Laundry
  Spray Booth
  Skimmings
  Spray Booths
  Laundry
  Wet Booth
  Glue Waste
  Glue Waste
  Laundry
  Spray Booths
  Glue Waste
  Bleaching Waste
  Wet Booth
  Laundry
  Laundry
  Laundry
  Laundry
  Spray Booth
  Spray Booth
Disposal Method

Hauled by Contractor
Storm Drain
Septic Tank
No treatment
Municipal Sewer
Hauled by Contractor
No treatment
Municipal Sewer
Municipal Sewer
Municipal Sewer
Hauled by Contractor
Lagoon & Discharge
Lagoon & Discharge
Hauled by Contractor
Municipal Sewer
Lagoon
Municipal Sewer
Municipal Sewer
Storm Drain
Storm Drain
Hauled by Contractor
Septic Tank
Municipal Sewer
Municipal Sewer
Municipal Sewer
Municipal Sewer
Municipal Sewer

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navigable  waters  utilized  four lagoons in series to treat
its laundry and spray booth waste waters.   A  reduction  of
approximately 50 percent in COD was observed.

POTENTIAL_TREATMENT_TECHNOLOGY

Potential  treatment  technologies considered applicable for
furniture and fixture plants are the following:

    1.  Incineration via spraying on hog fuel
    2.  Evaporation ponds
    3.  Spray irrigation
    u.  Trucking to landfill

Spraying of waste waters on hog fuel is a viable alternative
in  those  cases  where  the  volume  of  waste   water   is
sufficiently low and a hog fuel boiler exists on-site.  This
sytem  may increase the moisture content of the hog fuel and
require more energy to operate the boilers.   Because of  the
nature  of the waste waters, negligible increases in ash can
be expected.

Evaporation pond operation  involves  the  concentration  of
waste  water  in  a  lined  lagoon  by natural or mechanical
evaporation with the accumulated sludge being deposited in a
landfill.  In regions  where  yearly  precipitation  exceeds
evaporation,   a  spray  mechanism  is  necessary,  and  the
resulting energy requirements, as discussed in Section VIII,
are relatively high.

Spray irrigation utilizes soil  microorganisms'  ability  to
decompose  organic  matter in addition to the soil's natural
filtering ability  to  achieve  waste  water  treatment  and
disposal.  With proper design and operation, there is little
danger of groundwater contamination.  In application of this
technique  to  furniture  factory  waste water, pretreatment
consisting of sedimentation and  skimming  is  usually  nec-
essary.

DESCRIPTION_OF_MODEL_SYSTEMS

The   recommended   treatment  alternatives  are  considered
applicable to all four model plants with the exception  that
spray  irrigation  alternative is considered applicable only
to the Model Plants 2 and U.  This is because  of  the  fact
that  the waste water from these two models contains laundry
wastes and is considered to be more biodegradable  than  the
effluent  from Model Plants 1 and 3.  Discharge to municipal
treatment systems is considered to be a viable  alternative.
Pretreatment,  if required, may consist of neutralization or

-------
screening and will vary with  each  state  or  municipality.
The remaining model treatment systems are as follows:

Alternative __ A - This alternative consists of no control and
treatment and results in no reduction in waste water  volume
or concentration.

Alternative __ B  -  Alternative  B, illustrated in Figure 10,
consists~of a flat screen with 3.2 mm (1/8 inch)  openings, a
sump with sufficient capacity to hold all plant waste waters
for a week, and a pump and sufficient hose to transport  the
waste water to a tank truck.  It is assumed that a truck can
be contracted to haul the waste water on a weekly basis and,
as  demonstrated  in  practice,  that  the  waste  water  is
acceptable for landfill disposal.   The  specific  equipment
capacities  required for each model plant are given in Table
8.
           _C ~ Alternative C, incineration of  waste  water
by" spraying on the plant's hog fuel, is shown in Figure 10.
This system requires a flat screen with 3.2  mm   (1/8  inch)
openings,  a  sump, a pump, and sufficient piping and valves
to allow spraying the waste water on the hog fuel  prior  to
injecting  the  fuel into the furnace.  It is assumed that  a
hog fuel boiler is already in existence in the  plant.   The
required  pump  and sump capacities for each model plant are
presented in Table 9.
          .. __ D  ~  This   alternative   provides   for   the
evaporation "of  all  waste water from a plant.  All systems
require a sump and a transfer pump  for  pumping  the  waste
water  from  the  plant  to  the evaporation pond.  The  size
requirements  for  the  ponds  for  each  model  plant   are
presented  in Tables 10 and 11.  The pond sizes are bas'ed on
yearly precipitation and evaporation  data  for  five  areas
where furniture plants are commonly located.  In areas where
precipitation  exceeds  rainfall   (Grand  Rapids,  Michigan;
Greensboro, N.C.; and New England), mechanical spray  units,
consisting  of  a  pump  and  spray nozzles, are required to
provide  adequate  evaporative  capacity  to  evaporate  the
entire   yearly   waste   water   flow  as  well  as  excess
precipitation.  The spray units  are  designed  for  a   five
month operating period.  In two of the areas  (Dallas, Texas;
and Los Angeles, California) , the yearly evaporation exceeds
the  yearly precipitation, therefore, only  shallow ponds are
required.

Alternative __ S  ~  This  alternative   consists   of   spray
irrigation "with pretreatment to remove settleable materials
and a portion of the  biodegradable  content  of  the  waste

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3.2mm {
SCREEN
\
FROM PLANT

\


SUMP
                                         HOSE
                                   PUMP
                                             TRUCK TO LANDFILL
                                             WEEKLY
3.2mm ( '/8 )
SCREEN v
FROM PLANT


\




<;i i w P



PUMP
                                                 SPRAY ON HOG
                                                 FUEL DAILY
     FIGURE 10  TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES B AND C

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                                   TABLE 8

                TREATMENT ALTERNATIVE B, EQUIPMENT SUMMARY
Sump Capacity
Pump Capacity
Pump Power
Requirements
Volume Hauled
  Per Week
Model
1
2
3
1*
(ft3)
5
(175)
30
(1,01*0)
15
(590)
1*0
(1,1*60)
liter/sec
(gpm)
(50)
3
(50)
3
(50)
(80)
kw
(hp)
1.5
(2.0)
1.5
(2.0)
1.5
(2.0)
l.Q
(2.5)
liters
(gal)
1*,000
(1,000)
20,000
(6,000)
13,000
32,000
(8,1*00)
Trips
Per Year
35
208
118
292
  In addition to the above, other equipment requirements are piping, valves,
  controls, flat screen with 3.2 mm (1/8 inch) openings, and a 6.0 m_3_ (1500
  gal) capacity contracted tank truck.

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                              TABLE 9

              TREATMENT ALTERNATIVE C,  EQUIPMENT SUMMARY
                                                            Pump Pover
                Sump Capacity        Pump Capacity         Requirements
                   cu- m                  Ips                    kv
Model             (cu ft) '              (gpm)                  (hp)

  1                 1.0                   1                     0.56
                    (35)                (20)                   (0.75)

  2                  10                   3                     1.5
                                        (50)                   (2.0)
  3                  13                   2                     0.75
                   (1*56)                (25)                    (1.0)

  It                  Ul                   U                     1.5
                  (1,1*60)                (60)                    (2.0)

  In addition to the above, other equipment requirements are piping, valves,
  spray nozzles, and controls.

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                                               TABLE 10

                             TREATMENT ALTEP.1IATIYE D, EVAPORATION PC-IDS


                                                Evaporation Pond Size  &  Depth

                                           Dallas,   Los Angeles,        Greensboro,      Grand Papids,
Model         Units        Hew England	Texjas	California	N . C .	'-fi chigan	
1 s qn2
(sqft2)
m
(ft)
2 sq2
(sqft2j
n
(ft)
3 sqn2
(sqft_2)
r.
(ft)
ij s qm2
(sqft2_)
m
(ft)
5?
(625)
? . Q
(9.5)
2lG
(2,60G)
l-.O
(13)
190
(2,000)
•5 . o
Uc)
330
(3,600)
ii "
(is!i)
51?
(5,510)
0.7
! -i i\
(S.3)
3,070
(33,050)
0.7
(2.3)
1.7^0
(1?,73C)
0 ^
\s • I
(2.3)
li,276
(U6.270)
0.7
(2.3)
323
(3,^75)
0.3
(1)
1,9' 8
(20,860)
C. 7>
(1)
1 ,008
(ll,8?C)
p -3
(1)
2,710
(29,200)
0 Q,
"(1)
58
(625)
3.U
(11)
27Q
(3,000)
y.c
(13)
IPO
(2,000)
"^.5
(11.5)
?QO
(li,200)
k.C
(13)
58
(f?5)
"5 ^
(10.^^
280
(?,POO)
'J >•>
( 12 . 5 )
:QO
(2,000)
3.^
(11 )
370
(U,000)
li.O
(13)
               In  addition to the above, other  equipment  requirements  are piping, valves,
               controls, flat screen with  3.2 mm. (1/8  inch)  openings,  and an evaporator
               Dump as  shewn in Table  11.

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                             TABLE 11

                ALTERNATIVE  D,  SPRAY EVAPORATION
                         Evaporation Pump  Hours/Day
del
1
2
•5
k
New England*
2.5
13.5
7.5
13.5
Dallas , Texas
none
none
none
none
L.A., Calif.
none
none
none
none
Greensboro, N.C.*
2.5
13.5
7.5
19.0
Grand Rapids, Mich
2.5
13.0
7.5
18.5
^Evaporator pump is  15  kw.  (?0  hp)  evaporating  at  O.l8 I/sec (2.79
 Number pumps required  =  one.   Pumps  operate  5  months/year.

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FROM
PLANT
               A
                 SPRAY NOZZLES
 --/
i  A
\f
           O—f
V   A.   yi
        *-*   ;
             -x"
                                         LAGOON
                         PUMP
 PI an-view of Evaporation Pond with Mechanical Spray Unit
           Profile of Evaporation Pond
       FIGURE  11  TREATMENT ALTERNATIVE D,
               EVAPORATION PONDS

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water.   This  is accomplished, as illustrated in Figure 12,
by pumping the waste water to two ponds in series  in  which
settling  and  skimming  are  accomplished.  The settled and
skimmed waste water is then adjusted to proper  pH  by  acid
addition  prior  to its entering a small aeration pond.  The
aeration pond effluent is  then  sprayed  on  an  irrigation
field at an application rate of 5600 liters per hectare (600
gallons  per  acre)   per  day.   As  noted  previously, this
alternative is considered applicable for Model Plants 2  and
U  only.  The specific equipment requirements for each model
plant are presented in Table 12.

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FROM
PLANT
                       SETTLING AND  SKIMMING
                       PONDS
                                                                 AERATOR
                                                                 —X
                                                                O
TO  SPRAY
IRRIGATION
                                                        AERATION  POND
                        FIGURE 12  TREATMENT ALTERNATIVE  E,  SPRAY
                              IRRIGATION WITH PRETREATMENT

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                                              TABLE 12

                                   TREATMENT E, SPRAY IRRIGATION
                                                   SPRAY IRRIGATION                          AERATION
           SUMP CAPACITY      TRANSFER PUMP          FIELD SIZE          SETTLING POND         POND
              cu m            OPERATION TIME          hectares           DENTENTION TIME     DETENTION
MODEL         (cu ft)             min/day              (acres)	     	days	     TIME days

  2               2               50                   0.8                    50               100
                (80)                                  (2)

  k              17               70                   1.2                    36                72
               (630)                                  (3)
  In addition to the above, the equipment requirements are piping,  valves, controls,  flat screen with
  3.2 mm (1/8 inch) openings, and a O.h kw (0.5 hp)  1.5 Ips  (2U gpm) capacity transfer pump and an
  8 kw (10 hp) aerator.

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                        SECTION VIII

        COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS

This section presents an evaluation  of  the  costs,  energy
requirements,  and non-water quality aspects associated with
the treatment and control alternatives developed in  Section
VII  in terms of the model processes and plants developed in
Section V.

CQST_ANp_REpUCTION_BENEFITS_OF_ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT
END_CONTROL~TECHNOLOGIES~

In absence  of  complete  cost  information  for  individual
processes,  the  cost  figures developed herein are based on
reliable  actual   cost   figures   reported   for   various
installations  coupled with engineering estimates.  Adequate
engineering  estimates  for  a  single   installation   must
necessarily involve consideration of a multitude of factors.
An  estimate  completely  applicable  to  all  members of an
entire industry subcategory is obviously  impossible.   Land
costs  and  construction  cost,  in  terms of both labor and
materials cost, are only two items  that  vary  widely  from
plant  to  plant.  Therefore, the costs presented herein are
intended to serve as a guide only.

The engineering estimates for  all  cost  analyses  in  this
section employed the following assumptions:

    1.  Excavation cost = $2.29/cu m (1.75/cu yd).

    2.  contract labor = $10.QO/hr.

    3.  Power costs = 2.32/kw hr.

    t».  All costs reported in August 1971 dollars.

    5.  Trucking haul cost = $20.00/trip.

    6.   Landfill  fee  =  $2.64/cu  m ($10.00/1000 gal)  for
        sludge.

    7.  Landfill fee = $2.75/kkg  ($2.50/ton).

    8.  Tank truck assumed to be of 5.68  cu  m  (1500  gal)
        capacity.

    9.  Annual interest rate for capital cost = 8 percent.

-------
   10.  Salvage value of zero  over  20  years  for physical
         facilities and equipment.

   11.  Depreciation is straight line.

   12.  Total yearly cost  =   (investment  cost/2)   (0.08) +
         (investment cost) (0.05) + yearly operating cost.
The  model plant developed in Section V for this subcategory
has a total average daily waste water  flow  of  760  liters
(200  gallons)   and includes no laundry or spray booth waste
water.

Alternative A -  This  alternative  assumes  no  control  or
treatment.   The resulting wasteload for this subcategory is
760 liters per day  (200 gallons per day) , a COD load  of  20
kilograms  per  day   (43 pounds per day) , and a total solids
load of 11 kilograms per day (31 pounds per day) .

The costs of control and treatment for Alternative A are  as
follows:

    Total Investment Costs              $0
    X§a.rly._Ogerating_Costs              12
    Total Yearly Costs                  $0

There   are   no  reductions  in  COD  or  suspended  solids
associated with Alternative A.

Ai£ernative_B ~ This alternative  consists  of  hauling  the
waste water on a weekly basis by tank truck to  a landfill.

    The costs of control and treatment are as follows:

    Total Investment Costs           $3,200
    X§IElY._°.E§Eatin3_Costs           llz.230
    Total YearIy~Costs               $1,520

An itemized cost breakdown for this alternative is presented
in Table  13.

The  reduction benefits for this alternative are 100 percent
reduction  of  the  discharge   of   process    waste   water
pollutants.

Ai£ir.Q§Liiv.§_Q ~ This alternative assumes the availability of
incineration  in  the  form of a hog fuel boiler.  The waste

-------
                      TABLE 13

 ITEMIZED COST SUM/IAHY FOP. ALTERNATIVE  B,  f'CPE
Investment Costs:
   Screen                                   *
   Suir.p
   Pump                                      n-,OOC
   Piping, Valves, etc.                        800
   Engineering @1.Q%                            300
   Contingencies $10 5                          300
   TOTAL                                    137-CO
Operating and Maintenance :
   Screen
   Punip
   Piping, Valves, Etc.
   Trucking to Landfill
   TOTAL
                                            S   UQ

-------
water is screened and sprayed onto the  hog  fuel  prior  to
burning.

The  costs of control and treatment for Alternative C are as
follows:

    Total Investment Costs           $2,300
    X§§£lY._22§£§£iD3_C.2§ts           $_ 12P_
    Total Yearly~Costs  ~            $ ~380

An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative C is presented in
Table 14.  The reduction benefits for Alternative C are  100
percent  reduction  of  the discharge of process waste water
pollutants.
	D - This alternative  consists  of  the  use  of
evaporation ponds discussed in Section VII.

    The costs of control and treatment for Alternative D are
as follows:

                                      Los                Grand
                      New   Dallas  Angeles Greensboro  Rapids
                   England   Texas  Calif.     N.C.      Mich.

Total Investment
    Costs          $19,000  $8,400  $6,100  $20,900   $20,90^
Yearly Operating
    Costs          $ 1,440  $  315  $  265  $ 1,450   $ 1,450
Total Yearly
    Costs          $ 3,220  $1,070  $  815  $ 3,330   $ 3,330

An itemized cost breakdown for this alternative is presented
in  Table  15.   The reduction benefits for this alternative
are 100 percent reduction of pollutants.
            F - This alternative consists of discharging  to
a  sewer  for treatment in a municipal treatment system.  It
is assumed that the model plant is presently discharging  to
the  municipal  treatment system and that no pretreatment is
required.  A minimum monthly sewer charge of $25 is assumed.

The costs of control and treatment for this alternative  are
as follows:

    Total Investment Costs           $  0
    X§§£iY_QE§E§£i.S2_S2§t§           $300
    Total Yearly Costs               $300

-------
                      TABLE 14

ITEMIZED COST SlIL'-MARY FOR ALTERNATIVE C, MODEL
Investment Cost:
  Screen                                    $   LOC
  Sump                                         ^00
  Pump                                         ^00
  Piping, Valves, Etc.                         P00
  Engineering ?1C??                             200
  Contingencies ?10f                           _200_
  TOTAL

Operating and liaintenance:
  Screen
  Sump
  Pump
  Piping, Valves, Etc.
  TOTAL

-------
                                                           TABLE 15
                                      ITFMI77T;  CCHT SUMT7VRY FOE ALTERNATIVE ^
INVESTMENT COST:




         ITEM
New England    Dallas, Texas     L.A.,  Calif.     Greensboro, IT.C.     Grand Rapids,  Mich.
1.

2.
3.

It.
5.

Lagoon Control
Structure & Liner
Spray Units
Land

Engineering
Contingencies


$3,500 $6,200
12,600
300 700
(0.07ha) (0.17ha)
1,600 700
1,800 600
$19, BOO $8, lOQ

$^,500 $ ^,LOO $U,ltOO
12,600 12,600
500 ?00 300
(0.13ha) (0.07ha) (0.07ha)
500 1,700 1,700
600 1,900 1,900
$6,100 $20,900 $20,900
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE:
1.

2.
Operation and
Maintenance
Power

$ 1 ,330 $ 310
110 5

$ 260 $ 1,3J-0 fl,-5lO
5 110 ] 10
                            $. l.U-O
                                                       : ,1*50
$1150

-------
The  reduction benefits for this alternative are 100 percent
reduction  of  the  discharge   of   process   waste   water
pollutants.

Subcategory II

The  model plant developed in Section V for this subcategory
has a total average daily waste water flow  of  4550  liters
(1200  gallons) and includes 760 liters per day (200 gallons
per day)  of glue  wastes  and  3790  liters  per  day   (1000
gallons per day) of laundry wastes.

Alternative __ A  -  This  alternative  assumes  no control or
treatment.  The resulting wasteload for this subcategory  is
4550 liters per day (1200 gallons per day), a COD load of 69
kilograms  per  day (152 pounds per day), and a total solids
load of 59 kilograms per day (130 pounds per day) .

The costs of control and treatment for Alternative A are  as
follows:

    Total Investment Costs           $0
    X§§£lY._2B§rJl£iS3_c.2§£§           $P_
    Total Yearly~Costs               $0

There   are   no  reductions  in  COD  or  suspended  solids
associated with Alternative A.

Alternative_B - This alternative  consists  of  hauling  the
waste water on a weekly basis by tank truck to a landfill.

The costs of control and treatment are as follows:

    Total Investment Costs            $3,200
    XS§£lY_2E§£§tiG9_Cgsts            £6.^390
    Total Yearly Costs"               $6,680

An itemized cost breakdown for this alternative is presented
in Table 16.

The  reduction benefits for this alternative are 100 percent
reduction  of  the  discharge   of   process   waste   water
pollutants.
^l£§£HS£i2§_Q ~ This alternative assumes the availability of
incineration  in  the  form of a hog fuel boiler.  The waste
water is screened and sprayed onto the  hog  fuel  prior  to
burning.

-------
                       TABLE 16

  ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE B, MODEL 2



Investment Cost

  Screen                                $  UOO
  Sump                                     UOO
  Pump                                   1,000
  Piping, Valves, Etc.                     800
  Engineering @10$                         300
  Contingencies @ 10%                      300
  TOTAL                                 $3,200

Operating and Maintenance

  Screen                                $   i+0
  Sump                                      90
  Pump                                      60
  Piping, Valves, Etc.                      80'
  Trucking to Landfill                   6,120
  TOTAL                                 $6,390

-------
The  costs of control and treatment for Alternative C are as
follows:
    Total Investment Costs
    XS§£lY_2E§£§ting_C
    Total Yearly Costs
                       $3,400
                       $ _23C
                       $  540
An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative C is presented in
Table 17.

The reduction benefits for Alternative  C  are  100  percent
reduction   of   the   discharge   of  process  waste  water
pollutants.

Alternative^!) - This alternative  consists  of  the  use  of
evaporation ponds as discussed in Section VII.

The  costs of control and treatment for Alternative D are as
follows:

                                     Los               Grand
                    New    Dallas  Angeles Greensboro  Rapids
                  England   Texas  Calif.     N.C.     Mich.
Total Investment
    Costs
yearly Operating
    Costs         $ 4,190  $
Total Yearly
    Costs
$23,900  $25,600 $12,300  $24,500  $24,500

             705     525    4,200    4,080

$ 6,340  $ 3,010 $ 1,630  $ 6,410  $ 6,290
An itemized cost breakdown for this alternative is presented
in Table 18.

The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100  percent
reduction   of   the   discharge   of  process  waste  water
pollutants.

A!fe§£2Si:iy.§	I  ~  This  alternative   consists   of   spray
irrigation  with pretreatment to reduce suspended solids and
organic materials.

The costs of control and treatment for this alternative  are
as follows:
    Total Investment Costs
    Yearly Operating Costs
    Total Yearly Costs
                  $28,300
                  $ 9,080
                  $11,630
                                  J

-------
                     TABLE 17

ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE C, MODEL 2
Investment Cost:
  Screen                                  $  lj.00
  Sump                                       600
  Pump                                     1,000
  Piping, Valves, Etc.                       800
  Engineering @10%                           300
  Contingencies % 1Q%                        300
  TOTAL                                   $3,UOO
Operating and Maintenance:
  Screen                                  $   liO
  Sump                                        60
  Pump                                        50
  Piping, Valves, Etc.                        80
  TOTAL                                   |  230"
                             , r»
                             - J

-------
                                              TABLE 18




                         ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE D, MODEL 2
INVESTMENT COSTS:
Item New England
1.
2.
3.
IK
5.
Lagoon, Control
Structure , Liner
Spray Units
Land
Engineering
Contingencies
$ 6,600
12,600
500
(0.13 ha)
2,000
2,200
$23,900
Dallas , Texas
$18,900
—
2,300
(0.56 ha)
2,100
2,300
$25,600
L.A., Calif.
$ 8,600
—
1,600
(0.38 ha)
1,000
1,100
$12,300
Greensboro, N.C.
$ 7,100
12,600
600
(O.lUO ha)
2,000
2,200
$2^,500
Grand Rapids, Mich.
$ 7,100
12,600
600
(O.lU ha)
2,000
2.200-
$2U,500
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE:
1.
2.
Item
Operation and
Maintenance
Power
$3,610
580
$ TOO
5
$ 520
5
$ 3,620
580
$ 3,520
560
                            $ U.190
705
525
$ 1,200
$ 1*,080

-------
An  itemized breakdown of the costs for this alternative are
presented in Table 19.   The  reduction  benefits  for  this
alternative  are  100  percent reduction of the discharge of
process waste water pollutants.

Alternative_F - This alternative consists of discharging  to
a  municipal  sewer  for  treatment in a municipal treatment
system.  It is assumed that the  model  plant  is  presently
discharging  to  the  municipal treatment system and that no
pretreatment is required.  A minimum 'monthly charge  of  $25
is assumed.

The  costs of control and treatment for this alternative are
as follows:

    Total Investment Costs              $  0
    X§iElY._Op.erating_Costs              $300
    Total Yearly Costs"                 $300

The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100  percent
reduction   of   the   discharge   of  process  waste  water
pollutants .

            1 1 1
The model plant developed in Section V for this  subcategory
has  a  total  average daily waste water flow of 25 8U liters
(680 gallons) and includes 760 liters per day   (200  gallons
per  day)   of  glue  wastes  and  9120 liters per week  (2400
gallons per week)  of spray booth waste water.
 ....-A -  This  alternative  assumes  no  control  or
treatment.   The resulting wasteload for this subcategory is
258U liters per day  (680 gallons per day) , a COD load of 105
kilograms per day  (230 pounds per day) , and a  total  solids
load of 92 kilograms per day  (203 pounds per day) .

The  costs of control and treatment for Alternative A are as
follows:

    Total Investment Costs            $0
    Xs§EiY._2Ee.E§ting_Cgsts            $0_
    Total Yearly Costs                $0

There  are  no  reductions  in  COD  or   suspended   solids
associated with Alternative A.

Alternative __ B  -  This  alternative consists of hauling the
waste water on a weekly basis by tank truck to a landfill.

-------
               TABLE 19


ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE E,  MODEL 2
Investment Costs:
  Screen                                  $   400
  Sump                                        300
  Pump, Sump to Settling Basins               400
  Settling Basins  (2)                       4,700
  pH Control                                1,700
  Aeration Pond                             4,900
  Aerator                                   2,500
  Pump, Aeration to Spray Irrigation          700
  Spray Irrigation Field                    7,000
  Piping, Valves,  etc.                        800
  Engineering @10%                          2,300
  Contingencies 010%                        2,600
  TOTAL                                   $28,300

Operating and Maintenance:
  Screen                                  $    40
  Sump                                         20
  Pump                                         30
  Settling Basins                              110
  pH Control                                1,000
  Aerator and Basin                         1,500
  Irrigation Field, Equipment               6,300
  Pump, Aeration to Spray Irrigation           40
  Piping, Valves,  Etc.                   	4£
  TOTAL                                   $ 9,080

-------
The costs of control and treatment are as follows:
    Total Investment Costs
    Yearly_Op_erating_Costs
    Total Yearly Costs
         $3,600
         $3^,720
         $4,040
An itemized cost breakdown for this alternative is presented
in Table 20.

The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100  percent
reduction   of   the   discharge   of  process  waste  water
pollutants.
            C - This alternative assumes the availability of
incineration in the form of a hog fuel  boiler.   The  waste
water  is  screened  and  sprayed  on  the hog fuel prior to
burning.

The costs of control and treatment for Alternative C are  as
follows:
    Total Investment Costs
    2§^ElZ_22§£§feiS3_C
    Total Yearly Costs
$3,200
$  220
$  sTc
An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative C is presented in
Table 21.

The  reduction  benefits  for  Alternative C are 100 percent
reduction  of  the  discharge   of   process   waste   water
pollutants.

Alternative	D   -   This   alternative  consists  of  pond
evaporation of the waste water as discussed in Section VII.

The costs of control and treatment for Alternative D are  as
follows:

                                        Los               Grand
                     New      Dallas  Angeles Greensboro  Rapids
                   England    Texas   Calif.     N.C.     Mich.

Total Investment
  Costs            $22,300  $13,800  $10,800  $22,700   $22,700
Yearly Operating
  Costs "          $ 2,700  $   515  $   395  $ 2,700   $ 2,700
Total Yearly
  Costs            $ 4,710  $ 1,760  $ 1,370  $ 4,740   $ 4,740

-------
                    TABLE 20

ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE B,  MODEL 3
   Investment Cost:
     Screen                                  $  400
     Sump                                       800
     Pump                                     1,000
     Piping,  Valves, Etc.                        800
     Engineering, @10%                          300
     Contingencies @10%                         300
     TOTAL                                   $3,600

   Operating  and Maintenance:
     Screen                                  $   40
     Sump                                        80
     Pump                                        50
     Piping,  Valves, Etc.                         80
     Trucking to Landfill                      3.470
     TOTAL                                   $3,720
                    TABLE 21

ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE C, MODEL 3
  Investment Cost:
    Screen                                   $  400
    Sump                                        700
    Pump                                        700
    Piping, Valves, Etc.                        800
    Engineering @10%                            300
    Contingencies @1C%                          300
    TOTAL                                    $3,200

  Operating and Maintenance:
    Screen                                   $   40
    Sump                                         70
    Pump                                         30
    Piping, Valves, Etc.                         80
    TOTAL                                    I  210"

-------
An itemized cost breakdown for this alternative is presented
in Table 22.

The  reduction benefits for this alternative are 100 percent
reduction  of  the  discharge   of   process   waste   water
pollutants.

Alternative __ F - This alternative consists of discharging to
a municipal sewer for treatment  in  a  municipal  treatment
system.   It  is  assumed  that the model plant is presently
discharging to the municipal treatment system  and  that  no
pretreatment is required.  A minimum monthly sewer charge of
$25 per month is assumed.

The  costs of control and treatment for this alternative are
as follows:

    Total Investment Costs              $  0
    X§§ElY_2B§£§ting_Costs              1300
    Total Yearly Costs ~                $300

The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100  percent
reduction   of   the   discharge   of  process  waste  water
pollutants.
The model plant developed in Section V for this  subcategory
has  a  total  average daily waste water flow of 6374 liters
(1680 gallons)   and  includes  4550  liters  per  day   (1200
gallons per day)  of glue wastes and laundry waste waters and
9120  liters per week (2400 gallons per week)  of spray booth
waste water.
            A -  This  alternative  assumes  no  control  or
treatment.   The resulting wasteload for this subcategory is
6374 liters per day (1680 gallons per day), a  COD  load  of
154  kilograms  per  day  (339  pounds per day) , and a total
solids load of 145 kilograms per day (319 pounds per day).

The costs of control and treatment for Alternative A are  as
follows:

    Total Investment Costs                $0
    X®§EiY._QE§E§iiB2_Costs               _$?__
    Total Yearly Costs                    $0

There   are   no  reductions  in  COD  or  suspended  solids
associated with Alternative A.

-------
                                                  TABLE 22

                                  ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE D, MODEL 3
INVESTMENT COSTS:

         Item

].   Lagoon, Control
    Structures, Liner

2.   Spray Units

3.   Land


4.   Engineering

5.   Contingencies



OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE:

          Item

].   Operation and
    Maintenance

2.   Power
New England
$ 5,300
]2,600
500
(0.]] ha)
],900
2,000
$22,300
:E:
$ 2,380
320
$ 2,700
Dallas, Texas
$ 9,900
--
],500
(0.37 ha)
],]00
]5300
$]3,800
$ 5]0
5
$ 5]5
L.A., Calif.
$ 7,800
--
1,100
(0.25 ha)
900
],000
$10,800
$ 390
5
$ 395
Greensboro, N.C.
$ 5,600
]2,600
500
(0.11 ha)
1,900
2,100
$22,700
$ 2,380
320
$ 2,700
Grand Rapids, Mich.
$ 5,600
J2.600
500
(0.11 ha)
1,900
2,100
$22,700
$ 2,380
320
$ 2,700

-------
 Alternative_B_  -  This  alternative consists  of  hauling  the
 waste  water  on  a  weekly basis  by tank truck to a landfill.

 The  costs  of control and treatment are as  follows:
     Total  Investment  Costs
     X§arlY_Qp.erating_Costs
     Total  Yearly  Costs
                        $4,500
                        $8.1.890
                        $9,300
An  itemized cost  breakdown  for  this  alternative  is  presented
in  Table  23.

The reduction benefits  for this  alternative  are 100  percent
reduction of  the  discharge   of    process   waste    water
pollutants.

Alternative^ - This alternative  assumes  the  availability  of
incineration  in  the  form of  a  hog fuel boiler.   The  waste
water is  screened and sprayed onto the  hog   fuel   prior   to
burning.

The costs of control and treatment  for Alternative C are  as
follows:
    Total Investment Costs
    XearlY_Op_erating_Costs
    Total Yearly Costs
                       $3,600
                       $  260
                       $  580
An itemized cost breakdown for Alternative C is presented in
Table 24.

The reduction benefits for Alternative  C  are  100  percent
reduction   of   the   discharge   of  process  waste  water
pollutants.

Aiternative	D  -  This   alternative   consists   of   pond
evaporation of the waste water as discussed in Section VII.

The  costs of control and treatment for Alternative D are as
follows:
Total Investment
  Costs
Yearly Operating
  Costs
Total Yearlv
                     New    Dallas
                   Encrland   Texas
                     Los               Grand
                   Angeles Greensboro  Rapids
                   Calif.      N.C.    Mich.
$25,600  $34,000  $19,400   $26,200   $25,600

$ 5,560  $   875  $   625   $ 5,570   $ 5,570

-------
                      TABLE 23

  ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE B, MODEL
Investment Cost:
  Screen                                  $
  Sump                                     1,200
  Pump                                     1,300
  Piping, Valves, Etc.                       800
  Engineering @IO%                           ^00
  Contingencies @10$                         ^00
  TOTAL                                   $U,500

Operating and Maintenance:
  Screen                                  $   ^0
  Sump                                       120
  Pump                                        TO
  Piping, Valves, Etc.                        80
  Trucking to Landfill                   __ 8,580
  TOTAL                                   $8,890

                       TABLE 24

  ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE C, MODEL k
Investment Cost:
  Screen                                    $
  Sump                                         800
  Pump                                       1,000
  Piping, Valves, Etc.                         800
  Engineering @10$                             300
  Contingencies @10$                           300
  TOTAL                                     $3,600

Operating and Maintenance:
  Screen                                    $   ^0
  Sump                                          80
  Pump                                          60
  Piping, Valves, Etc.                          80
  TOTAL                                    "1  260

-------
  Costs            $ 7,860  $ 3,9UO  $ 2,370   $ 7,930   $ 7,740

An itemized cost breakdown for this alternative is presented
in Table 25.

The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100  percent
reduction   of   the   discharge   of  process  waste  water
pollutants,
             I  ~  This  alternative   consists   of   spray
irrigation  with pretreatment to reduce suspended solids and
organic materials.

The costs of control and treatment for this alternative  are
as follows:

    Total Investment Costs                $32,700
    Y.§§r.Iy._°.E§ESting_Costs                $ 9^090
    Total Yearly~Costs   ~                $12,030

An  itemized breakdown of the costs for this alternative are
presented in Table 26.

The reduction benefits for this alternative are 100  percent
reduction   of   the   discharge   of  process  waste  water
pollutants.
            E ~ This alternative consists of discharging  to
a  municipal  sewer  for  treatment in a municipal treatment
system.  It is assumed that the  model  plant  is  presently
discharging  to  the  municipal treatment system and that no
pretreatment is required.  A minimum monthly sewer charge of
$25 is assumed.

The costs of control and treatment for this alternative  are
as follows:

    Total Investment costs                $  0
    X§§£lY_22§£§£iQ2_Qosts                $300
    Total Yearly Costs                    $300

The  reduction benefits for this alternative are 10C percent
reduction  of  the  discharge   of   process   waste   water
pollutants .

RELATED  ENERGY  REQUIREMENTS  OF  ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT AND
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES

The energy requirements associated  with  each  control  and
treatment alternative are presented in Table 27.  Because of

-------
                                                          TABLE 25

                                     ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE D, MODEL
C J
-4
      INVESTMENT COSTS:

      1.  Lagoon, Control
          Struc-tTures, Liner

      2.  Spray Units

      3.  Land


      U.  Engineering

      5.  Contingencies
OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE:

          Item

 1.  Operation and
     Maintenance

 2.  Power
New England
$ 8,000
12,600
600
(0.15 ha)
2,100
2,300
$25,600
$ U,7l*0
820
$ 5,560
Dallas , Texas
$25,000
—
3,000
(0.72 ha)
2,800
3,100
$3*1,000
$ 870
5
$ 875
L.A., Calif.
$lU,000
—
2,000
(O.W ha)
1,600
1,800
$19,^00
$ 620
5
$ 625
Greensboro, N.C.
$ 8,300
12,600
700
(0.16 ha)
2,200
2,UOO
$26,200
$ U.T50
820
$ 5,570
Grand Rapids, Mich.
$ 8,000
12,600
600
(0.15 ha)
2,100
2,300
$25,600
$ !4,6UO
800
$ 5, MUD

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                     TABLE 26

ITEMIZED COST SUMMARY FOR ALTERNATIVE E, MODEL U
 Investment Costs:
   Screen                                  $    ^00
   Sump                                         800
   Pump, Sump to Settling Basins                ^00
   Settling Basins  (2)                        ^,700
   pH Control                                 1,700
   Aeration Pond                              14,900
   Aerator                                    2,500
   Pump, Aeration to Spray Irrigation           TOO
   Spray Irrigation Field                    10,100
   Piping, Valves,  Etc.                         800
   Engineering @10$                           2,700
   Contingencies @10$                         3,000
   TOTAL                                    $32,700

 Operating and Maintenance:
   Screen                                  $     ^0
   Sump                                          30
   Pump                                          30
   Settling Basins                              110
   pH Control                                 1,000
   Aerator and Basin                          1,500
   Irrigation Field, Equipment                6,300
   Pump                                          ^0
   Piping, Valves, Etc.
                                           _
   TOTAL                                   $  9,090

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                         TABLE 27

                  ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Alternative
A
B



C



D*



E

Model
All
1
2
3
U
1
2
3
k
I
2
3
It
2
h
Kw-hrs/yr
0
39
157
91
170
35
196
96
196
U,780
2^,780
13,910
3^,220
65,630
65,630
Dollars/yr
0.00
0.90
3.60
2.10
3.90
0.80
U.50
2.20
4.50
110.00
570.00
320.00
810.00
1,510.00
1,510.00
*Average energy requirement for model plants in regions
 requiring mechanical spray units

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the  small  volumes  of  waste  water  to be handled and the
uncomplicated  control  techniques  employed,   the   energy
requirements   for  all  alternatives  are  small.   Of  the
recommended  alternatives,  spray  evaporation   and   spray
irrigation  require the highest degree of energy consumption
and, consequently, may be less desirable  than  one  of  the
remaining alternatives.

NON-WATER  QUALITY  ASPECTS  OF  ALTERNATIVE  TREATMENT  AND
CONTROL'TECHNOLOGIES"

Non-water quality aspects  of  the  recommended  alternative
control   and   treatment   technologies,  including  energy
requirements as discussed  above,  are  considered  minimal.
The  non-water  quality aspects which are applicable to each
alternative are discussed below.

Alternative_B, Haul_tg_Landfill, has the potential for  non-
water  quality  impact only where final landfill disposal is
not  done  properly.   Disposal  in  properly  designed  and
managed landfills should result in minimal impact.

Alternative	C, SpraY_on_Ho2_Fuel, may result in an increase
in energy consumption by the boiler because of the  increase
in  moisture  content  of  the hog fuel.  The potential also
exists  for  increased  air  emissions  resulting  from  the
incineration  of  the  waste  water and for some increase in
solid wastes from increased ash in the boiler.  All  of  the
above  are  estimated  to  be  minimal and will probably not
result in measurable impact on any non-water quality aspect.

Alternative_Dx_Eva£oratign_Ponds, when utilizing  mechanical
spray  units  will require the highest energy consumption as
discussed above.  The use of evaporation ponds results in  a
buildup  of  solids in the pond which may eventually require
dredging and landfill disposal.  This should  result  in  no
non-water  quality  aspects  if  disposal  is  to a properly
designed landfill.

Aitej^ative_Ex._Sp.ray__Irrigation  should  result  in  minimal
non-water   quality  impact.   The  pretreatment  operations
recommended should reduce or  eliminate  the  potential  for
ground or surface water contamination.

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                         SECTION IX

            BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
                    CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
The  effluent  limitations which must be achieved by July 1,
1977, are  to  specify  the  degree  of  effluent  reduction
attainable  through  the application of the Best Practicable
Control Technology Currently  Available.   Best  practicable
control technology currently available is generally based on
the  average  of  best  existing  performance  by  plants of
various  sizes,  ages,  and  unit   processes   within   the
industrial category and/or subcategory.

Consideration must also be given to:

    a.   The  total  cost  of  application  of technology in
    relation  to  the  effluent  reduction  benefits  to  be
    achieved from such application;

    b.   The  size  and  age  of  eguipment  and  facilities
    involved;

    c.  The process employed;

    d.   The  engineering  aspects  of  the  application  of
    various types of control techniques;

    e.  Process changes;

    f.   Non-water  quality  environmental impact (including
    energy requirements);

    g.   Availability  of  land  for  use  in  waste   water
    treatment disposal.

Best  practicable  control  technology  currently  available
emphasizes  treatment   facilities   at   the   end   of   a
manufacturing  process but includes the control technologies
within the process itself when these are  considered  to  be
normal practice within the industry.

A  further  consideration  is  the  degree  of  economic and
engineering reliability which must be  established  for  the
technology  to  be  "currently  available."   As a result of
demonstration projects, pilot plants, and general use, there
must exist a high degree of confidence  in  the  engineering
and economic practicability of the technology at the time of
construction or installation of the control facilities.

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In  addition  to  the above factors, consideration should be
given to furniture  plants  that  form  part  of  industrial
complexes.   While  a  numerical addition of pollutant loads
from all operations will yield the total effluent load  from
a  complex,  several  factors  may affect the application of
available control and treatment technology.  In treatment of
its total waste water discharge, the complex  may  have  the
advantages of economy of scale, improved potential for water
recycle,  and joint use of a unit process.  It may also have
the disadvantages of lack  of  available  land,  substantial
previous  investments  in  control  and treatment technology
that  may  not  be  applicable  to  recommended  guidelines,
alteration  of  waste  water  treatability  as  a  result of
combining of waste streams, or, if  waste  must  be  treated
separately,  the  additional  expense  of segregation of the
combined waste waters.  Therefore the  technology  discussed
in  this  document  and the recommended effluent limitations
may not necessarily apply to an industrial complex  composed
of  individual plants or unit processes discussed in this or
other  effluent  limitations  documents.   That   is,   wood
furniture  and  fixture manufacturing facilities are allowed
to discharge waste water to a treatment system servicing and
industrial complex, however, with no allowance  being  given
for  additional  discharge  of pollutants from the treatment
system attributable  to  the  wood  furniture  manufacturing
facility.

EFFLUENT  REDUCTION  ATTAINABLE  THROUGH  THE APPLICATION OF
BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL~TECHNOLOGY~CURRENTLY AVAILABLE  FOR
FURNITURE'MANUFACTURING

Based  on  the information contained in Sections III through
VII of this document, it has been determined that the degree
of effluent reduction attainable through the application  of
the  best practicable control technology currently available
for all subcategories of  the  wood  furniture  and  fixture
manufacturing segment is no discharge of process waste water
pollutants to navigable waters.

IDENTIFICATION   OF   BEST  PRACTICABLE  CONTROL  TECHNOLOGY
         ~
The technology identified as the  best  practicalbe  control
technology   currently  available  for  the  wood  furniture
manufacturing segment, as described in  Section  VTI,  which
will  result  in  the  elimination  of waste water pollutant
discharges  requires  the  implementation  of  one  of   the
following:

    1.  Disposal to municipal treatment system

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    2.  Trucking to land fill
    3.  Incineration via spraying on hog fuel
    4.  Evaporation ponds
    5.  Spray irrigation
While  all  control  technigues  are considered to be viable
alternatives, it must be  noted  that  spray  irrigation  is
limited to those subcategories which utilize laundries since
these  waste  waters  are  the  only  ones  considered to be
sufficiently biodegradable for this treatment method.  Also,
spray irrigation requires an amount of land that may not  be
available in all cases.

No  pretreatment is assumed for municipal system disposal of
waste waters;  however  in  some  cases,  particularly  when
relatively large plants are located in small municipalities,
pretreatment may be required.

In  general,  all of the control techniques listed above are
feasible and uncomplicated in nature.  There  should  be  no
problems  associated  with  their  implementation within the
time frame of the Act.
The costs of attaining the recommended  effluent  reductions
set  forth  herein  are  presented  in  Section  VIII, Cost,
Energy, and Non-Water Quality Aspects,  and  are  summarized
below:

                                           Capital Investment
                                           as Percent of New
             Capital*        Total*        Plant Cost (New
                                           2!§.nt_Cost) ________
Model 1      $20,900         $ 3,330              1X
                                             ($4,000,000)
Model 2      $28,300         $11,630              1%
                                             ($7,000,000)
Model 3      $22,700         $ 4,740              1%
                                             ($5,000,000)
Model 4      $32,700         $12,020              ±%
                                             ($6,000,000)

*Cost are for the most expensive alternatives presented in
Sections VII and VIII.

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Non-Water_2ualitY_Environmental_Imgact

Because  of the relatively small volumes of water associated
with wood furniture and fixture manufacturing, the non-water
quality  aspects,  including  energy  consumption,  of   the
various  alternatives  are  considered  to  be negligible as
discussed in Section VIII.

Factor s_to_be_Considered_in_A2glYing_Effluent_Li.mit at ions
The control technologies  considered  herein  are  based  on
normal  furniture  finishing  operations.  In the event that
particular  plants  should  employ   non-typical   finishing
materials, the characteristics of the resulting waste waters
may  change  appreciably  and special consideration would be
necessary.

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                         SECTION X

                 BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY
                  ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE

The effluent limitations which must be achieved by  July  1,
1983,  are  to  specify  the  degree  of  effluent reduction
attainable through the application  of  the  best  available
technology  economically  achievable.   The  best  available
technology economically achievable  is  not  based  upon  an
average   of  the  best  performance  within  an  industrial
category, but is to be determined by  identifying  the  very
best control and treatment technology employed by a specific
point  source within the industrial category or subcategory,
or transfer of technology where it is  readily  transferable
from  one industrial process to another.  A specific finding
must be made as to the availability of control measures  and
practices  to  eliminate the discharge of pollutants, takincr
into account the cost of such elimination.

Consideration must also be given to:

     (a)  the age of equipment and facilities involved;

     (b)  the process employed;

     (c)  the engineering aspects of the application of various
    types of control techniques;

     (d)  process changes;

     (e)  cost of achieving the effluent reduction resulting
    from application of the best available technology
    economically achievable; and

     (f)  non-water quality environmental  impacts  (including
    energy requirements).

In contrast  to  the  best  practicable   control  technoloqy
currently   available,   the   best   available   technology
economically achievable assesses  the   availability  in  all
cases   of   in-process  controls  as   well  as  control   or
additional treatment techniques employed  at  the  end  of   a
production process.

Those  plants  processes  and control technologies, which  at
the  pilot  plant  semi-works,   or   other    levels,   have
demonstrated  both  technological  performances and economic
viability  at  a  level  sufficient  to  reasonably  justify
investing in such facilities, may be considered in assessing

-------
the  best available technology economically achievable.  The
best available technology  economically  achievable  is  the
highest  degree of control technology that has been achieved
or has been demonstrated to be capable of being designed for
plant scale operation up to and including "no discharge"  of
pollutants.   Although  economic  factors  are considered in
this development, the costs for this level  of  control  are
intended  to  be  the  top-of-the-line of current technology
subject to limitations imposed by economic  and  engineering
feasibility.

EFFLUENT  REDUCTION  ATTAINABLE  THROUGH  THE APPLICATION OF
BEST AVAILABLE~TECHNOLOGY~ECONOMICALLYACHIEVABLEFOR  ALL
SUBCATEGORIESOFTHE ~ WOODFURNITUREAND  "FIXTURE
MANUFACTURING SEGMENT

The effluent limitations reflecting this technology  are  no
discharge  of  process  waste  water pollutants to navigable
waters as developed in Section IX.

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                         SECTION XI

              NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
This level of technology is to be achieved by  new  sources.
The  term  "new  source"  is defined in the Act to mean "any
source, the construction of which  is  commenced  after  the
publication  of  proposed regulations prescribing a standard
of performance."  New source technology shall  be  evaluated
by adding to the consideration underlying the identification
of  best  available  technology  economically  achievable  a
determination of what higher levels of pollution control are
available through the use of improved production  processes,
and/or   treatment   technigues.    Thus,   in  addition  to
considering the best  in-plant  and  end-of-process  control
technology   identified   in   best   available   technology
economically achievable, new  source  technology  is  to  be
based  on  analysis  of  how  the  level  of effluent may be
reduced  by  changing   the   production   process   itself.
Alternative    processes,   operating   methods   or   other
alternatives must be considered.  However, the end result of
the analysis will be to identify  effluent  standards  which
reflect  levels  of  control  achievable  through the use of
improved  production   processes   (as   well   as   control
technology) ,  rather  than  prescribing a particular type of
process or technology which must  be  employed.   A  further
determination  which  must be made for new source technology
is whether a standard permitting no discharge of  pollutants
is practicable.

At  least  the  following  factors should be considered with
respect to production processes which are to be analyzed  in
assessing new source technology:

    a.  The type of process employed and process changes;

    b.  Operating methods;

    c.  Batch as opposed to continuous operations;

    d.   Use  of  alternative raw materials and mixes of raw
    materials;

    e.  Use of dry rather than wet processes {including sub-
    stitution of recoverable solvents for water); and

    f.  Recovery of pollutants as by-products.

-------
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR THE WOOD FURNITURE  AND
        MANUFACTURING SEGMENT
The  recommended  effluent limitations for new sources is no
discharge of process waste  water  pollutants  to  navigable
waters, as developed in Section IX.

-------
                        SECTION XII

                      ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This  document  is based on a study by Environmental Science
and  Engineering,  Inc.,  Gainesville,  Florida,  under  the
direction  of  Dr.  Richard  H.  Jones,  project manager and
assistant project manager were John  D.  Crane  and  Beverly
Young,   respectively.    The  staff  members  were  Pussell
Roberts, John T. white,  Monte  H.  Swann,  and  Leonard  P.
Levine.

Technical  assistance  and  consultation was provided by Dr.
Warren S.  Thompson, Mississippi State University.

Appreciation is extended to Mr. Douglas Kerr and Mr. Doualas
Brackett   of   the   Southern    Furniture    Manufacturers
Association,    Mr.   Charles   Solon   of   the   Furniture
Manufacturers Association of Grand Rapids, Mr. Lee Hahn  and
Mr.  Eddy Feldman of the Furniture Manufacturers Association
of California, Ms. Joy Henninger of the Southwest  Furniture
Manufacturers Association, and Mr. John Snow of the National
Association  of  Furniture  Manufacturers.   Appreciation is
also expressed to numerous individuals within  the  industry
who   provided  information  and  arranged  on-site  visits.
Special recognition is due Mr. Colon Prestwood of  Bernhardt
Industries for assistance in waste water sampling.

Intra-agency  review,  analysis, and assistance was provided
by the Timber  Products  Processing  Working  Group/Steering
Committee  comprised of the following EPA personnel:  Harold
Coughlin, Office of water Planning and  Standards  Chairman;
Richard Williams, Office of Water Planning and Standards; Al
Ewing,  National  Environmental  Research Center, Corvallis,
Oregon; Arthur Mallon, Office of Research  and  Development;
Irving  Susel,  Office  of  Planning  and  Evaluation; Peter
Smith, Office  of  Federal  Activities;  George  Marienthal,
Office of Regional Liason; Ed Bogdan, Region IX; Dan Bodien,
Region  X; Jim Stiebing, Region VI; William Frick, Office of
Enforcement and General Counsel; Reinhold Thieme, Office  of
Enforcement  and  General Counsel; Charles Sutfin, Office of
Water Program  Operations;  and  Dennis  Tirpak,  Office  of
Research and Development.

Special  appreciation  and  acknowledgement  is given to the
secretarial staffs of Environmental Science and Engineering,
Inc. and the Effluent Guidelines Division.
                                   , J

-------
                        SECTION XIII

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Societies for Paint TechnoIogyT Philadelphia, Pa. (1966).

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Rhine, G. W. ,   "The   Hot   Spray   Process,"   Forest  Products
                 r  3(2)  (1953).
Ridell,  A.  W. ,   "New   Concepts   in Wood Finishing," Forest
                   1.8 (7)  (1968) .
Ridell, A. W. ,  "Factors  in Converting to "Super"  Finishes,"
       Products Journal,  2_1  (5)  (1971) .
Robinson,  U.  L. ,  "Changing  Hardwood Market:   The Furniture
Industry," Forest Products  Journal  1.5(7)  (1965).

Sac, N. I., Dangerous  Prop_erties  of   Industrial   Materials,
Reinhold Publishing Corp.,~New  York,  N.Y7~7l963f.

Stewart,  W.  J. ,   "Paint   Driers and Additives,"  Federation
§§•£!£§  2Q  Coatings   Technology^   Unit   V[,   Federation  of
Societies for Paint Technology, Philadelphia,  Pa.  (1969).

Stoy,  W. ,  Usowski, E. T. , Larson, L. P.,  et  al,  "Black and
Metallic Pigments" Federation Series  on  Coatings Technology^
SD.it 1£,  Federation   of   Societies   for Paint Technology,
Philadelphia, Pa.  (1969).

Suchland,   0. ,  "Linear   Expansion   of   Veneered   Furniture
Panels," Forest  Products J2U£nal, 2.1(9)  (September 1971).
       Facts §nd  Figures,  Reliance  Universal,   Inc. ,   2nd
Edition  (November 1965).

Whaley,  J. H. , Jr., and Carrier, R. E.,  Furniture F
Textbook, Production Publishing Company  ("1972) .

Yale, R. H. , "Composition  Board  Has  Found   Its   Place  in
Furniture Industry," Forest Products Journal  (October 1966) .

Yelverton, T. K. , "Electrostatic Process  Used  to Finish  7000
Legs/Day," Wood and Wood Products, 73, (6)  (June  1968).

DIRECTORIES
          Industrial  Classification  Manual,   United  States
Government Printing Of fice~(Stock~No. «?01-0066)  (1972).
     Census of Manufactures, Bureau of  the  Census,   United
States Department of Commerce  (July 1967).
           Wood-Using  Industries  in Florida.:  A  Directory,
Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services "(197T) .

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1223  Directory  of  the  Forest  Products  Industry,   5Uth
Edition.

Membership  Directory:   Furniture Manufacturers Association
of California (July 1973) .

1974 Membershig Director,  Southwestern  Furniture  Suppliers
Association ^December 1973) .

Furniture Manufacturers Association of Grand Ragidsj.  B.2§£er
2f Member-Directors.

1973  Who^s Who In the Southern Furniture Industry, Southern
Furniture Manufacturers Association.

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                        SECTION XIV

                          GLOSSARY
Abrasive - A substance used for wearing away  a  surface  by
friction.   Powdered  pumice, rottenstone, sand paper, steel
wool, and rubbing compound are some of  the  abrasives  used
for rubbing enamel, varnish and lacquer surfaces.

Absorjgtiori - The penetration of one substance into the inner
structure of another.

Acetates_ -  A  group  of  organic  solvents  used in making
lacquers derived from the reaction of various alcohols  with
acetic  acid.   The  acetate usually takes its name from the
alcohol, such as ethyl acetate from ethyl alcohol.

Acry.lic_Resin - A synthetic, thermoplastic resin  formed  by
polymerizing esters of acrylic acid and methacrylic acid.

"Act"  -  The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
of™972.
               ~ A natural or man-made waste water treatment
pond in which mechanical or diffused-air aeration is used to
supplement the oxygen supply.

Aerobic - A condition in which  free,  elemental  oxygen  is
present.

Air __ BEYiQ3_ *" A finishing material is said to be air drying
when it is capable of hardening or curing at  ordinary  room
temperature, i.e., 15° to 27°C.

Alky.1 __ Resin  -  A  synthetic,  thermoplastic  resin used in
paints, varnishes and lacquers produced by the reaction of a
polybasic acid, such as phthalic, maleic or  succinic  acid,
with a polyhydric alcohol such as glycerine.

Anaerobic  -  A  condition in which free elemental oxygen is
absent.

Antigue_Finish - A finish  that  is  designed  to  give  the
appearance  of  age  to  the article being finished, usually
achieved by  highlighting  the  parts  that  would  normally
receive  the  greatest  wear  or  by  darkening  the  unworn
portion.

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Aromatic __ Compound  -  An  unsaturated  cyclic   hydrocarbon
containing one or more rings, highly reactive and chemically
versatile.

             ~ See Ground Coating.
Binder - The non-volatile, film-forming solid portion of the
vehicle  in  a  coating  which  binds  the pigment particles
together after the film is dry.

BleachjLng_Agent - A  material  which,  when  properly  used,
permanently  lightens the color of the object on which it is
used.
!li£!lili2_lQ ~ T^e process of repairing scratches and  damaged
spots  in  a  finish  by  melting  stick  shellac or similar
compounds into the defect by means of a heated knife.

luty.l_Acetate ~ A widely  used  lacquer  solvent.   Specific
gravity  C.872.   Flash point about 38°C. (open cup method).
Boiling point about 126°C.
       --. ~ A nonflammable liquid that  has  good
solvent  jproperties  for many resins, oils, and waxes.  Used
to some extent in the varnish and lacquer industry, also  as
a fire extinguisher.
Casein ___ B§§iS ___ 2i!i§   ~  A  glue  commonly  used  in  wood
fabricating, made from a derivative of skimmed milk.

Catalyst - An acid or acid salt used to promote quick curing
of" resins.   Common  catalysts  are   ammonium   hydroxide,
ammonium chloride, and ammonium sulfate.

Cellulose  -  A  complex  polymeric  carbohydrate,  C6H1.005,
yielding  only  glucose  on   complete   hydrolysis,   which
constitutes the chief part of the cell walls of plants.

Chlorinated __ Rubber - A synthetic resin made by chlorinating
rubber under specified conditions.

Coal_Tar - A black liquid consisting of a complex mixture  of
hydrocarbons, obtained from coal during  its  conversion   to
coke.   Coal  tar  is the basic raw material for many of the
solvents, dyes, chemicals, and resins used  in  the  coating
industry.

Cold __ Setting - In resin curing, the setting of resins which
requires no heat as compared to heat curing.

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£olpr_Coats - Those coats of finishing material  which  give
color to the finish.

Core - The central piece of wood used in the construction of
plywood.   Its grain is usually at right angles to the grain
of the adjacent plies.

Qy-CiiC-Qomgound ~ A*1 organic  compound  whose  structure  is
characterized by a closed ring.

Dimension_Lumber - Lumber sawn to specified dimensions.

Direct  Roll	Coating  -  A  method  used in applying liquid
finishingmaterials  to  flat  substrate   surfaces.    The
equipment  consists  of an applicator roll which applies the
liquid material to the substrate surface,  a  metering  roll
which  controls  the thickness of the liquid material on the
applicator roll, and feed and support rolls which  feed  the
panel  substrate  through  the  coating  device  and provide
support for the panel against the applicator roll.

DrYing_Time - The time required for an  applied  film  of  a
coatingmaterial  to reach the desired stage of hardness or
non-stickiness.  The various stages  of  drying  are:  "dust
free, to touch, tack free, to handle, hard, to sand, to rub,
and to pack."

Embossing  - The raising in relief of a surface to produce a
design.

Enamel - A. broad classification  of  free-flowing  pigmented
finishing  materials which dry to a smooth, hard, glossy, or
semi-gloss finish.  Generally the liquid portion consists of
varnish or lacquer and the pigment portion is  ground  to  a
very small particle size.

EJDOXV.	Resin  - A thermosetting resin, commercially produced
by a reaction between Bisphenol  A,  made  from  phenol  and
acetone,   and   EpicMorohydrin,   a   by-product   in  the
manufacture of synthetic glycerine.

Ester - A compound that is formed when the hydrogen  ion  of
anacid  is replaced by a hydrocarbon radical.  Some of the
more familiar esters used as solvents in  the  industry  are
ethyl acetate, butyl acetate,  and amyl acetate.

Ethy.1	Alcohol  - A colorless  and inflammable liquid derived
by~the~distillation of fermented liquors.   Second  only  to
water in being the oldest and  most widely used solvent.

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Fabricating  ~  Tne  joining of pieces of wood by mechanical
means or adhesives.

Fac§_Veneer  ~  Tne  outside  piece  of  wood  used  in  the
construction  of  plywood.   Its  grain  is usually at right
angles to the grain of adjacent plies.
       ~ Tne loss of color resulting from exposure to light,
heat or other destructive agents.

Filler - A liquid  finishing  material,  usually  containing
considerable quantities of pigment, used to build up or fill
depressions  and  imperfections  in  the surface of the wood
substrate.
Finishing - Consists of surface smoothing such as sanding or
planing, covering with  liquid  coatings  or  covering  with
various sheet materials or combinations of these operations.

Flow __ Coat  -  A  coat  of  finishing  material applied to a
vertical surface in an excessive amount, the  surplus  being
allowed  to  flow  down  over  the  surface and drip off the
bottom edge.

Formaldehyde - A colorless gas with a sharp odor  formed  by
the partial combustion of methanol.  Used in the industry in
a   37  percent  solution  in  water.   A  preservative  and
disinfectant  and  ingredient  used  in  phenolic  and  urea
resins.

Fossil __ Resins  -  Those  natural  resins which derive their
hardness and desirable characteristics  from  aging  in  the
ground .
      ~ A term used to describe different types of finishincr
materials.   (1)   A  glazing  putty  is a creamy consistency
surfacing material, usually applied with  a  knife  to  fill
imperfections  in  the  surface.   (2)   A glazing stain is a
pigmented stain applied over a stained,  filled  or  painted
surface  to  soften  or  blend  the  original  color without
obscuring it.

§E§.in_Printing - The process  of  printing  a  natural  wood
grain  pattern  onto  the surface of a wood-based product by
roll or flat-plate printing using a colored ink or paint  to
produce an imitation wood grain effect on the surface of the
prefinished product.

Ground __ Coating  -  The  coat  of  colored material, usually
opaque, applied before the grain printing ink, in  producing

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imitation  wood  grain effects for various prefinished wood-
based products.  Often referred to as Base Coating.
          - A compressed fiberboard  of  0.50  g/cu  cm  (31
 b/cu  ft  or greater)  density.  Alternative term:  fibrous-
felted hardboard.

Hardwood  -  Wood  from  deciduous  or  broad  leaf   trees.
Hardwoods  include oak, walnut, lavan, elm, cherry, hickory,
pecan,  maple,  birch,   gum,  cativo.  teak,  rosewood,  and
mahogany.

Hog_Fuel - Fractionalized wood used to fire a boiler.
            ~ An organic compound containing only carbon and
hydrogen and often occuring in petroleum, natural gas, coal,
and bitumens.

J2iDiiS2  ~ ^n operation employed to join two or more pieces
of wood in fabricated wood products.  Depending  on  product
requirements,   joints  are  of  three  basic  types:   edge
jointing or  side-to-side-grain  joints,  end  to-side-grain
joints, and end jointing or end-to-end-grain joints.  In all
joints  the  application  of  adhesives  and  the subsequent
curing process are performed.

Ketone - An organic  compound  that  contains  the  bivalent
ketone groups.  Usually a colorless volatile liquid, such as
acetone  or  dimethyl  ketone, but may also be a crystalline
solid, such as camphor.

Kiln - A room or separate compartment  with  regulated  heat
and  circulation  of  fresh  air.  The relative humidity may
also be controlled.

Lacguer - A thin-bodied, quick-drying coating material  that
forms  a  hard film.  Originally it referred to solutions of
shellac and other resins that dried  by  evaporation  alone.
More  recently  the term applies to mixtures of solutions of
nitro-cellulose,  ethyl-cellulose,  natural  and   synthetic
resins which dry by evaporation alone.

LiD§eed_Oil - A yellowish oil obtained by crushing the seeds
of  flax.  Contains a mixture of glycerides of several fatty
acids.  Has the ability to absorb oxygen from  the  air  and
gradually  form  a  tough hardened coating when exposed in a
thin film.  Used as a vehicle in paints and as the softening
agent for resins in the manufacture of varnishes.

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Lumber_DrYing - The process in which lumber is dried by  one
of two methods:

1)  Air seasoning - boards are segregated according to board
    weight, coated with chemical preservatives  and  stacked
    in   a   manner   that   will   provide  sufficient  air
    circulation.

2) Kiln drying - a process whereby green or pre-air seasoned
    boards are dried in a  kiln  which  is  a  humidity  and
    temper ature controlled building.
          BS§ins  -  Synthetic resins made from melamine and
formaldehyde.   They  cure   quickly   at   relatively   low
temperatures  and  are  quite  stable  in  color,  even when
exposed to high temperatures .

Mineral_S]3irits - A medium  boiling  fraction  of  petroleum
naphtha  having a boiling range between 66°C. and 95°C.  The
flash point is usually slightly above 38°C.  and  weight  is
about 6 pounds per gallon.

Nitro-Cellulose   -   The   product  obtained  by  nitrating
cellulose, in the form of linters, cotton waste, wood  pulp,
etc. ,  by  treatment  with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric
acid.  For different purposes the cellulose is  nitrated  to
various  degrees.   That  used  for  manufacturing  lacquers
contains about 12% nitrogen.

Non-Contact Waste Water- Waste water such as  spent  cooling
water  which is independent of the manufacturing process and
contain no pollutants attributable to the process.

Non-Volatile - 1) That portion of a material which does  not
evaporate  at ordinary temperatures; 2)  the solid substances
left behind after heating a  dried  waste  water  sample  at
550°C for 60 minutes.

Oil __ Polish  - A polishing material containing oil as one of
the  ingredients.   Also  the  finish  obtained  by  rubbing
successive thin coats of linseed oil on wood.

Oil __ Rubbing  -  The  process  of  dulling  the  luster  and
smoothing the surface of a dried film of finishing  material
by  rubbing it with pumice stone or other abrasive materials
while lubricating the surface with oil.

Pt - Total phosphorus as P.

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B§£ticleboard  ~  A   sheet   material   manufactured   from
lignocellulosic  pieces  or particles, as distinguished from
fibers, combined with a synthetic resin  or  other  suitable
binder and bonded together under heat and pressure in a hot-
press  by  a process in which the entire inter-particle bond
is created by the added binder.

P.H - A measure of the  hydrogen  ion  activity  of  a  water
sample.  It is expressed as the negative log of the hydrogen
ion concentration.

       (C6H50H) - A simple aromatic compound.
Phenol-formaldehYde __ Resin  - A synthetic, oil soluble resin
produced  as  a   condensation   product   of   phenol   and
formaldehyde .

Phenolic __ Resins  - Synthetic, thermosetting resins, usually
made by the reaction of phenol with an aldehyde.

Pigment - The  fine,  solid  particles  used  for  color  or
opacity  properties  in  the  manufacture of paint and other
coatings.

Pigment __ Stains  -  Those  stains  which  get  their   color
primarily  from  pigments  mixed  with  binder  and volatile
thinner s.

Planing - A finishing process which is carried out by  means
of surfacing tools, i.e., planer knives that are attached to
a rotating cutterhead.
             -  A  softening  material  added to lacquers or
other  compounds  to  impart  elongation,  elasticity,   and
flexibility.

Plywood  -  Wood  which is built up by gluing thin pieces of
wood together in three or more laminations.   The  grain  of
adjacent plies usually are at right angles to each other.
E2lislJ  ~ Tne act of increasing the luster of the dried film
of a finishing material by friction.  The material used  for
producing  the  high  luster,  the  result  and, brilliantly
glossy finish produced by polishing.


Poly.ester_Resin - A synthetic, thermosetting resin formed by
a chain of molecules, composed alternately of  molecules  of
acid and alcohol.  The chain formation linking the molecules
together is polymerization.
                                    -i. - J

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                - A chemical reaction involving a successive
linkage of a large number of molecules.
             B§§iD§  ~  Synthetic  resins  formed   by   the
polymerization of styrene.

P2lyviny.l  Acetate Resins - Synthetic, thermoplastic resins,
commonly used in the manufacture of emulsion coatings.
                  ~ A  settling  tank  through  which  waste
water is passed in a treatment system.
B§§iB  ~ A semi-solid or solid mixture of organic or carbon-
based compounds which may be drawn from animal, vegetable or
synthetic sources and may be thermosetting or thermoplastic.
               ~ A method of applying finishing materials to
flat surfaces by passing the surface between rollers, one or
both of which are coated with the material.
E^febina - The act of applying mechanical  friction,  usually
in  conjunction  with an abrasive and a lubricant, to a film
of finishing  material  to  bring  it  to  a  level,  smooth
surface,  to  deaden the luster, to remove specks of dirt or
for similar purposes.
             ~ Selective staining of lighter areas  of  wood
to  minimize  or  cover  their contrast, usually done before
other staining.

Sealer - A liguid finishing material which is  applied  with
the primary purpose of stopping the absorption of succeeding
coats.

Sedimentation - The gravity separation of suspended solids.
              ~  A  single-story  settling tank in which the
settled sludge is in immediate contact with the waste  water
flowing  through  the  tank,  while  the  organic solids are
decomposed by anaerobic bacterial action.

§ettling_Ponds ~ An impoundment  for  the  settling  out  of
settleable solids.
          T§DlS ~ A tank or basin, in which water, sewage, or
other liquid containing, settleable solids, is retained  for
a  sufficient  time,  and  in  which the velocity of flow is
sufficiently  low  to  remove  by  gravity  a  part  of  the
suspended   matter.    Usually,  in  sewage  treatment,  the

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detention  period  is  short  enough  to   avoid   anaerobic
decomposition.

Shellac  - The resinous material secreted by an insect which
feeds~upon the twigs of  certain  trees  in  India.   It  is
soluble in alcohol to form liquid shellac which is used as a
sealer and finishing material for wood.

Size - An additive which increases water resistance.

Solids  - Various types of solids are commonly determined on
water samples.  These types of solids are:

Total Solids ITS)_ - The material left after evaporation  and
drying a sample'at 103-105°C.
T2tal  Suspended  Solids  iS§i_ - The material removed  from  a
sample filtered~through a standard glass  fiber  filter.  Then
it is dried at  103-105°C.

Dissolved_Solids  (DS) - The difference between  the total  and
suspended solids.

Volatile Solids  (VS) - The material which is lost  when   the
sample is heated  at  550°C.

y.2l§tile_Susgended_Solids  (VSS) - The material  lost  when  the
suspended solids  sample is heated at 550°C.

Volatile	Dissolved	Solids   (VDS)  - The difference between
volatile~solids~~and  volatile  suspended solids.

S.Br§Y._l22th - An  enclosure, used in conjunction with   spray
coatingequipment,   designed  to  provide  fire   and   air
pollution protection by removal of both   the  solvent   fumes
and  the spray mist associated with spray  coating operations.
Spray  booths are of two types:   1)  A water-wash type which
uses water as the filtering media and 2)   a  dry-type  which
uses dry filter elements.

Sgra^	Coating   - A  method used in applying liquid  finishing
materials~to~~almost  all  types  of  wood-based substrates,
accomplished  by various types of spray  equipment  including
fixed gun, reciprocating arm  and rotary arm spray equipment.
 Spray_Evagoration  -  A method   of  waste  water  disposal  in
 which  thewater  in  a   holding lagoon equipped with spray
 nozzles is  sprayed into the air to expedite evaporation.

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Staining ~ Tne act °f changing the  color  of  wood  without
disturbing  the texture or markings, through the application
of transparent or semi-transparent liquids made  from  dyes,
finely divided pigments or chemicals.

Steaming - Treating wood material with steam to soften it.

sY.2£hetic	Resins  -  Complex,  organic  semi-solid or solid
materials built up by  chemical  reaction  of  comparatively
simple  compounds  .  Synthetic resins often approximate the
natural resins  in  various  physical  properties;   namely,
luster,  fracture,  comparative brittleness, insolubility in
water, fusibility, or plasticity when exposed  to  heat  and
pressure and, at a narrow temperature range before fusion, a
degree  of  rubber like extensibility.  They commonly differ
widely from natural  resins  in  chemical  constitution  and
behavior with reagents.
               B£§iQ§  ~  Resins  which  soften  and  may be
reformed under heat and pressure.

Thermosetting	Resins  -  Resins  which  undergo   permanent
physical and chemical change through the application of heat
and pressure.
TOC - Total organic carbon as C.

Top. __ Coat  - A liquid finishing material, usually applied as
the final finish coating for any prefinished wood product.
Totai Tr§e Harvesting - The on site chipping and  subsequent
utilization of a whole tree.
Undercoats  -  Those  coats  which  are applied prior to the
finishing or final coats.
                  Resin -  A  synthetic  resin  produced  by
condensing urea with formaldehyde.

Urea^resin_Glue - A synthetic-resin adhesive system based on
the   thermosetting,   urea-formaldehyde   resin,   used  in
overlaying  veneers   and   hardboard   onto   particleboard
substrates as well as in many other wood gluing operations.

Varnish  -  A  homogeneous transparent or translucent liquid
material which, when applied as  a  thin  film,  hardens  on
exposure   to   air  or  heat,  by  evaporation,  oxidation,

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polymerization  or  a  combination  of  these  to   form   a
continuous   film  that  imparts  protective  or  decorative
properties to wood finishes.

               " There are four basic methods:
1. Rotary lathing - cutting continuous strips by the use  of
    a stationary knife and a lathe.

2.   Slicing  - consists of a stationary knife and an upward
    and downward moving log bed.   On  each  down  stroke  a
    slice of veneer is cut.

3.   Stay  log  - A flitch is attached to a "stay log," or a
    long flanged, steel casting mounted in eccentric  chucks
    on a conventional lathe.

U.  Sawn veneer - veneer cut by a circular type saw called a
    segment saw.

Veneer __ Drying - Freshly cut veneers are ordinarily unsuited
for gluing because of their wetness and are also susceptible
to molds, fungi, and blue stain.  Veneer is  usually  dried,
therefore,  as  soon  as  possible, to a moisture content of
about 10 percent.
       Acetate  -  A  colorless  liquid  with  the   formula
CH3COOCH:CH2  used  in  the  manufacture  of synthetic vinyl
resins.
YiQZi_B§§iQ§ ~ Synthetic, thermoplastic resins formed by the
polymerization of a vinyl compound,  with  or  without  some
other substance.
Water	Base_or_Water_Reducible_Coatings - Emulsions (of high
molecular weight), dispersions  (of fine particle  size)  and
other water soluble coating systems which, at application of
solids,  comprise  a minimum of 80 percent of their volatile
material as water, with the balance as exempt solvent.

Waste Water - The broad term referring to water that is  not
needed or that has been used and is permitted to escape.


Wet	Scrubbers  -  An  air  pollution  control  device which
involves the wetting of particles in an air stream  and  the
impingement  of  wet or dry particles on collecting surfaces
followed by flushing.

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                         APPENDIX A

         FURNITURE FINISHING MATERIALS AND METHODS
Finishing materials, despite the large number of types,  may
be  grouped  into  two  broad  categories:  non-film-forming
materials and film-forming materials.  The  non-film-forming
materials  are  composed  of a vehicle, which is normally an
organic solvent, plus a coloring material which  is  usually
dye   and/or   pigments.    Film-forming  materials  include
varnishes, shellacs, lacquers, drying oils such  as  linseed
oils  and  tung  oil,  and  various synthetic resins such as
epoxies,  polyurethanes,  phenolics,  melamines,  and   urea
formaldehyde.

Finishing  materials may be further divided into transparent
finishes and opaque or pigmented finishes.   Pigmented  type
of finishes are used primarily as undercoats for other types
of   finishes.   In  finishing  furniture  with  transoarent
finishes, the number of steps may vary from as  few  as  ten
for a relatively inexpensive type of furniture to as many as
thirty  for  an  expensive  line.  The basic operations are:
(1) bleaching,  (2)  staining,  (3)  filling, (4)   sealing,  (5)
topcoating, and (6) rubbing and polishing.

Ii§§£hi22  ~  Bleaching consists of removing or subduing the
natural wood  coloring  to  produce  a  light  undertone  or
background color.   The public demand for light colored wood,
and  the  resulting amount of bleaching is cyclic in nature.
The last period of high  popularity  occurred  in  the  late
nineteen  sixties and presently bleaching is not extensively
practiced.   The  plants  that  do  practice  bleaching  are
generally those that produce relatively high grade furniture
and  find  it  easier  to  provide  uniformity  in  matching
furniture by bleaching the wood and then  adding  color.   A
typical bleaching operation is shown in Figure A.

While  a  variety  of  chemicals  may be used for bleaching,
nearly all bleaching is done with a 35 percent  solution  of
hydrogen   peroxide.   This  strong  oxidizing  agent,  when
combined with an activator such as sodium hydroxide, removes
the natural wood colorants by oxidizing them.

When mixed, the hydrogen  peroxide  and  activator  form  an
unstable  solution that must be used within a few hours.  It
is  applied,  particularly  in  volume  production,   either
simultaneously  by a double headed spray gun or sequentially
with hydrogen peroxide followed by the activator.

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BLEACH APPLICATION
WEAK BLEACH



HEATING
STRONG BLEACH

I
SECOND BLEACH
APPLICATION
t
HEATING

M
^ HI
SI

1
f
VTER SPRAY TO
JN OFF AND
3ONGE WIPE
1
OVEN DRYING
              SAN DING a BLOW OFF
                   I
              FINISHING OPERATIONS
FIGURE A  TYPICAL BLEACHING OPERATION

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In general, it is desirable  to  use  the  least  amount  of
bleach   to   produce  the  desired  color  since  excessive
bleaching  destroys  wood  value  and   creates   subsequent
working,  drying,  and  finishing  problems.  Therefore, the
trend in production bleaching is not to  use  full  strength
materials,  but  to dilute with water or alcohol.  A typical
diluted mixture would contain one part activator, two  parts
peroxide,  and  two  to  four parts reducer.  For mixing gun
application the components are supplied  proportionally  and
can   be   further  varied  by  pressure  and  spray  nozzle
adjustments.

If a reducer is to be used, alcohol is preferred over water.
Commercial methanol, isopropanol, or denatured  alcohol  may
be  used.   Since  many  bleaching  materials  are  in water
solution initially, it is not desirable to add more water as
this causes slow drying and swelling  of  wood  fibers,  and
thus results in additional sanding operations.

When  strong  mixtures  are  used,  or  when  more  than one
bleaching solution utilizing a  caustic  soda  activator  is
applied, removal of the alkali is essential.  The removal is
normally  accomplished  by  either a water spray rinse or by
application of acetic acid or vinegar.  When the acetic acid
neutralizer is used, washing is still required to remove the
sodium acetate formed by reaction of  sodium  hydroxide  and
acetic acid.  Another alternative is the use of commercially
available  activators  which volatilize during drying, leave
no residue, and require no water washing of the  wood.   The
bleaches  in  this  group  are  based  on ammonia or ammonia
compounds, or on organic amines.   The  problems  associated
with  ammonia  compounds are a residual yellow color, a fire
risk, and a thorough  drying  to  avoid  blistering  in  the
subsequent   finishing   operations.    The   organic  amine
compounds are not equal to the best caustic soda  activators
and must be thoroughly force dried to avoid residual odor.

If  a  strong bleach is used, the furniture may be  (1) water
sprayed to run off and sponged down,  then  dried,  or,   (2)
heated  for  ten minutes at 50°C to 55°C (120° to 130°F) and
bleached a second time to be followed by a  water  wash  and
oven drying.

When  non-residue  bleaches are used, the furniture can pass
to an oven directly  after  bleaching.   If  more  than  one
bleaching  operation  is  conducted, a washdown is preferred
before the second bleaching and drying.
         ~ In most finishing operations  the  first  primary
unit   operation   is  staining.   Staining  is  done  after

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bleaching, if bleaching is required or after equalization of
color variations by sap staining if that is necessary.   The
purpose  of  staining  is  to adjust the wood to the desired
undertone color without disturbing its texture or  markings.
It  is  accomplished  by  the  application of transparent or
semitransparent  liquids  made  from  dyes,  finely  divided
pigments,  or  chemicals.   The four general types of stains
are water stains, spirit stains, non-grain  raising  stains,
and oil stains.

Water stains are solutions of dyes which have been dissolved
in  water,   Methanol is sometimes substituted for a portion
of the water to decrease surface tension  and  lessen  fiber
swelling.  Water stains are usually made with acid dyes, but
may  be  of the acid-mordant or basic types.  In addition to
dyes, water stains include wetting agents and a rosin  size.
In  the  past,  stains of this type were used extensively in
furniture finishing, but be cause they wet the wood  surface
thus  necessitating  drying  after application, and, in some
instances,  have  an  undesirable   effect   on   subsequent
finishing  operations,  they  have  been largely replaced by
other types of stains.  Currently, however, there is a trend
within the industry to  return  to  water  based  materials.
This  primarily  results  from  the  energy shortage and the
inability of  the  industry  to  obtain  the  quantities  of
organic solvents required for use with other type of stains.

Spirit  stains  are  generally  0.5  percent  to  12 percent
solutions of alcohol soluble dyes, with or without  binders.
The  binders,  when  used,  are  usually  shellac or resins.
These  stains  receive  very  limited  use   in   industrial
furniture finishing.

Oil  stains  are  of  two  types:   penetrating  stains  and
pigmented wiping stains.   The  former,   like  water  stains,
finds  limited  use  in  present  day  furniture  finishing.
However, the wiping stains are second in importance  in  the
furniture  industry  only  to  the non-grain-raising stains.
The coloring material used is finely ground pigment  instead
of  a  soluble  dye.   The  pigments are ground in a vehicle
containing  a  drying  oil,   varnish,   or  synthetic  resin.
Hydrocarbon solvents such as naphtha,  mineral spirits, etc.,
are  used  to  thin  the  stains  and  control  the  drying.
Pigmented wiping stains are widely  used  because  they  are
inexpensive  and  flexible  in  application.    They  may  be
sprayed, brushed,  or dipped,  but in all cases the wood  must
be wiped to remove the excess stain.

Non-grain-raising  stains  do  not  have  the  disadvantages
presented  by  the  water,  spirit,  and  oil   stains   and

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consequently  are  used  more on high quality furniture than
any other type stain.  They are fast drying and, as the name
implies, have less effect on the grain of the wood  than  do
the  water  stains.   Because  they  are  fast drying, these
stains normally cannot be brushed and are therefore  usually
applied by spraying.

Non-grain-raising  stains  are  made  by dissolving the same
type acid dyes as used in water stains in a  combination  of
solvents.   Glycol-ethers,  particularly the monoethyl ether
of ethylene  glycol  and  the  diethylene  glycol  monoethyl
ether, are the most important solvents for non-grain-raising
stains.   Sometimes  a binder such as nitrocellulose or low-
solids-content lacquer is added to non-grain-raising  stains
to  control  the  penetration  of stain into the wood.  This
combination of stain and binder is sometimes called  a  non-
grain-raising  toner.  It also performs the function of both
a stain and  a  washcoat  in  situations  where  a  separate
washcoat cannot be used because of the finishing schedule or
limitations of plant facilities.

Special  type  stains used in the furniture industry include
shading stains  or  shading  lacquers.   These  are  usually
sprayed  over  the  filler  or  lacquer  sealer  to create a
uniform finish.  Basically  they  consist  of  a  low-solids
lacquer  containing  non-grain-raising dyes or pigments as a
colorant.  Sometimes a shading stain is  sprayed  along  the
grain  of  the wood in a light, thin line in order to accent
the grain.  Another type of stain is the padding  or  accent
stain.   This stain is also made with non-grain-raising dyes
dissolved in a special solvent and with a  small  amount  of
binder such as shellac.

The  use of pigmented toners has increased rapidly in recent
years and today more furniture is being finished  with  some
type  of  pigmented  toner  than with any other method.  The
purpose of the pigmented toners is to obscure either totally
or partially the natural color of the wood.  They consist of
finely ground pigments dispersed in a binder such as a vinyl
compound or nitrocellulose and with  some  type  of  solvent
added  to  control  the  speed  of drying.  Pigmented toners
designed only to partially obscure the natural color of  the
wood  contain  less  pigment  and  more  binder and a slower
evaporating solvent.  This enables the  toner  to  penetrate
and  only  partially  obscure  the wood, thereby giving it a
more natural look.   Regular  finishing  materials  such  as
wiping  stains,  sealers,  etc.  are  used over this type of
toner to produce a light colored finish which simulates  the
bleached  finishes.  Because of the problems associated with
bleaching,  many  manufacturers  have  turned  to  pigmented

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toners  to  obtain  somewhat  the  same  effect  provided by
bleaching.

Undercoats are used on wood for two purposes:   (1)   to  hide
the color of the wood with the proper color, and (2) to help
fill  the  voids  in  the  wood in order to produce a level,
smooth  surface  when  sanded.   Most  undercoats  used   on
furniture  contain  a  combination  of pigments which have a
high hiding power, such as titanium dioxide, color pigments,
and inert pigments, which are used  to  fill  the  wood  and
provide  good sanding.  These pigments are usually ground in
a lacquer or synthetic resin  base  and  dispersed  in  fast
evaporating solvents.

Enamels used in the furniture industry are primarily lacquer
enamels.   They  are  prepared  with  just enough pigment to
provide hiding power and obscure the  wood.   The  trend  is
toward  the  use  of  darker enamels such as red, green, and
blue.  These colors are normally used on furniture  that  is
to  receive  a distressed treatment.  The majority of enamel
finishes, however, are of white and off-white colors.

Emulsion  paints  are  also  receiving  increased  use.   A.n
emulsion  paint  consists  of pigments and extender pigments
dispersed in  a  latex  emulsion  resin  such  as  polyvinyl
acetate  or  acrylic.   These emulsion resins contain water,
but are formulated to dry quickly.  They are usually applied
over  a  lacquer-type  undercoat.   After  application,  the
furniture is usually glazed and brush blended to antique the
wood and leave glaze in the brush marks.

Filling  - Fillers consist of translucent, inert pigments, a
vehicle binder, and thinners.  They are normally composed of
75 percent pigment and 25 percent vehicle.  Their purpose in
wood finishing is  to  produce  a  smooth  wood  surface  by
filling  the  pores and enhance the beauty of wood by making
the pattern or figure stand  out  more  clearly.   They  are
applied  primarily  in finishing woods with large open pores
such as in mahogany, oak,  pecan,  and  walnut.   Wood  with
relatively  small  pores, such as beech, birch, maple, etc.,
need not  be  filled  prior  to  the  application  of  other
finishing  materials,  although  a  liquid  filler  such  as
shellac is often used.  The pigments  used  in  fillers  are
silica,  gypsum,  and  talc, which impart filling qualities,
and materials such as umbers, red oxide,  and  carbon  black
which  contribute  coloring  qualities.    The binders may be
natural or chemically treated linseed oil, soybean oil, tuner
oil,  and  other  oils  and  resins,  or  blends  of   these
materials.   The thinners that are used with fillers consist
mostly of naphthas and slow-drying mineral spirits.
                                 ^ . z

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Fillers are made in paste consistency to avoid settling  and
caking  prior to use and may be applied to wood by brushing,
spraying, roller-coating, dipping,  or  flow-coating,  after
the heavy paste has been thinned to a soupy consistency.

For  spray  application  fillers  are  mixed on the order of
three to five kilograms  (eight to ten pounds)  of  filler  to
four liters (one gallon) of thinner.  For brush application,
the  ratio may be five to six kilograms (10 to 12 pounds) to
four liters (one gallon).  The thinners most  commonly  used
are  naptha, which is fast evaporating, and mineral spirits,
which are slow evaporating.

Fillers  are  commonly  brushed   onto   tops   and   fronts
immediately  after  spraying,  to  promote  penetration  and
wetting of the pores.  When the filler  has  dried  in  part
through the evaporation of some of the thinner, it is worked
into  the pores of the wood with motor-driven felt pads, or,
at some plants, manually by rags moved in a circular motion.
Excess filler is removed by wiping across the grain  with  a
clean rag.

Fillers  usually  require  a  minimum of 16 hours air drying
time  before  recoating   with   lacquer   sealer   can   be
accomplished.    Nearly  all production plants now use drying
ovens.

Sealing - Sealers serve the primary  purpose  of  preventing
the  transfer  of  materials from one coat to another.  when
used on bare wood, they are often called  barrier  coats  or
sizes,  and  when  used  between  the  stain  and  filler, a
washcoat.  Sealers used  after  the  filling  operation  are
called sealer or prime coats.

Barrier  coats  are impenetrable films used on certain woods
to prevent the natural stains or resins from penetrating and
ruining the finish.  Their use, therefore,  depends  on  the
particular species of wood being used.

Washcoating  has  the primary purpose of preventing staining
action by the filler while at  the  same  time  producing  a
uniformly  harder surface so that colors, wiping stains, and
glazes wipe easily and evenly.  A washcoat sealer must  form
a  very thin film; otherwise, it could bridge and seal large
pores and prevent proper filling.   The  solids  content  of
washcoat  sealers  may  range  from  three  to  ten percent,
depending on the overall wood porosity, but  generally  does
not  exceed  five  or  six  percent.   Shellac  and  lacquer
washcoats are used occasionally, but more  often  conversion
type  vinyl-amino sealers are employed.  Washcoats are often

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colored with stains or pigments  to  produce  a  combination
stain and washcoat.  When used in the place of toners, these
washcoats  serve  to eliminate an operation in the finishing
room.

The main purpose of a prime coat sealer is  to  protect  the
wood  from  moisture  and  general  usage.  However, it also
provides a smooth surface for the topcoat and seals  in  the
previously applied stains, fillers, and colors.

When  a glaze is to be used, it is applied as a sealer.  The
purpose of a glaze is to provide  "highlighting"  on  better
grades  of  furniture.   The  furniture  may be difficult to
distinguish, but it provides richness and depth of color  to
the  finish.  A typical application sequence is the use of a
glazing sealer followed by a  glaze.   Glazing  sealers  are
normally  produced  at a solids content ranging from 6 to 15
percent, but it may be as high as 18 percent.

As an alternative to glaze, sanding and building  coats  may
be  applied.   Their  purpose  is to produce a smooth, level
surface for the subsequent top coats.  These coats,  ranging
from  18  to  21  percent solids or higher, do not provide a
finish as resistant as the glaze sealer.
            -  The  application  of  topcoats  is  the  most
important   step  in  the  total  finishing  operation,  and
lacquers are the most important single topcoating  materials
used.   Film  formers  in  commerical  use  for lacquers are
nitrocellulose,   ethyl   cellulose,   cellulose    acetate,
cellulose   acetate   butyrate,  certain  vinyl  copolymers,
chlorinated  rubber,   and   the   thermoplastic   acrylics.
However, nitrocellulose is the film former most widely used.
As  a  matter  of  fact, in the protective coatings trade, a
lacquer is presumed to be  based  on  nitrocellulose  unless
specifically stated otherwise.

Nitrocellulose  used in the finishing of furniture occurs in
several  different  grades  varying   either   in   chemical
composition  or  in  viscosity.   Three  chemical  types are
available for lacquer use.  These are designated RS, AS, and
SS types.  The RS type, which by far is  the  most  commonly
used  in  commercial  lacquers, contains 12 percent nitrogen
and is soluble in the so-called regular solvents,  primarily
esters  and  ketones.   Because  nitrocellulose films are by
themselves too brittle  for  commercial  use  on  furniture,
various   plasticizers   are  used  to  impart  flexibility.
Dibutyl phtalate, raw castor oil,  and  various  polymerized
oils   with   resins  are  often  used  as  plasticizers  in
nitrocellulose formulations.

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In addition to plasticizers,  various  resins  are  normally
applied to lacquers composed of nitrocellulose.  Frequently,
the  volume  of  resin  used  is  as  great  as  that of the
nitrocellulose  itself.   The  resins   commonly   used   in
nitrocellulose  lacquers  are  usually of two general types:
rosin esters and alkyds.  The rosin maleates are extensively
used in furniture lacquers, while alkyds are  normally  used
for   lacquers   for   other  purposes,  such  as  finishing
automobiles.

RS-type nitrocellulose is soluble in three main  classes  of
solvents:  1)  esters  such as ethyl acetate, butyl acetate,
and ethyl lactate; 2) ketones such as acetone, methyl  ethyl
ketone,  and  methyl  isobutyl ketone; and 3) various glycol
ethers.  It is not soluble in alcohols other than  methanol,
nor  is  it  soluble  in  hydrocarbons  of  the aliphatic or
aromatic type.  However, a solution of nitrocellulose in  an
active  solvent  such  as  one  of  the esters will tolerate
almost   unlimited   dilution    with    alcohols    without
precipitation.    Alcohols  are,  therefore,  considered  as
cosolvents.

As a general use, an ester-alcohol mixture gives lacquers of
lower  viscosity  than  does  pure   ester.    An   aromatic
hydrocarbon  such  as  toluene  or xylene may be added to an
ester solution of  RS-type  nitrocellulose  without  causina
precipitation  in  concentrations  up  to  about  two  parts
hydrocarbon to one part ester.  Since hydrocarbons are  much
cheaper  than ketones, glycol ethers, and alcohols, they are
used as dilutants as much as possible.  The industry usually
uses the least expensive  mixture  that  gives  satisfactory
results.  This generally means at least 50 percent aliphatic
or  aromatic  hydrocarbon,  some ethanol or isopropanol, and
only 20 to 30 percent ester or ketone.  Some  commonly  used
lacquer thinner components are listed in Table A-1.

In addition to lacquers, various types of varnishes are also
used   as  top  coats  in  furniture  finishing.   Varnishes
basically consist of a liquid vehicle,  usually  an  organic
solvent  plus  a  resin  which  may  either be of natural or
synthetic origin.  The  film-former  itself  may  be  either
thermoplastic  or  convertible.    In the broadest sense, the
word "varnish"  is  applied  to  any  film  former  that  is
oleoresinous  in  nature.    Resins used in varnishes include
alkyds, epoxies, and oil-modified urethanes.   There are  two
general  types  of  varnishes:   spirit  varnishes  and oleo
resinous varnishes.

The simplest varnishes, the  spirit  varnishes,   are  simple
solutions  of  thermoplastic  resins  dispersed  in  mineral

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      TABLE A-l  COMMONLY USED LACQUER THINNER COMPONENTS
Solvents
Dilution Ratio
Toluene
Naphtha
Acetone
Methyl ethyl ketone
Ethyl acetate
Isopropyl acetate
Methyl isobutyl ketone
Butyl acetate
Amy! acetate
Methyl amyl acetate
Methyl amyl ketone
Disobutyl ketone
Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether
Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether
   acetate
Ethyl lactate
Ethylene glycol monobutyl ether

Latent Sol vents
Ethyl alcohol (95%)
Isopropyl alcohol
Butyl alcohol
Methyl isobutyl carbinol

Aromatic Diluents
Benzene
Toluene
Xylene

Aromatic Naphthas
Amsco A
19/27 Solvsol
Socal 1
Hi-Flash Naphtha

Aliphatic Naphthas
Shell Benzo-Sol
Shell "A"
Lactol spirits
Shell Tolu-Sol
Apcothinner
V.M. and P. naphtha
Mineral spirits
4.4
4.3
3.3
3.0
3.6
2.6
2.1
1.7
3.9
1.5
4.9

2.5
5.0
3.3
0.8
0.9
1.3
1.2
1.0
1.5
1.2
1.0
1.2
0.8
1.1

0.9
0.7
1.8

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spirits or  other  aliphatic  hydrocarbons.   A  few  resins
require  an  alcohol  as a solvent.  Spirit varnishes dry by
evaporation of the solvent.  Since the resin under  goes  no
substantial   change   during   drying,   this   coating  is
essentially non-convertible.   Among  the  resins  that  are
dissolved in aliphatic solvents to make spirit varnishes are
limed rosin, rosin ester, maleic resin, and petroleum resin.
The  only  noteworthy alcohol-soluble resins are shellac and
manilla gum.

Because  oleoresinous  varnishes  in  oil  do  not  have   a
practicable  drying  rate,  metallic  dryers  are  included.
These  dryers  are  soluble  compounds  of   lead,   cobalt,
manganese,  calcium, and zirconium.  The composition of some
classical varnishes is shown in Table A-2.

In addition to the varnishes  and  lacguers,  various  other
types  of  "exotic coatings" are finding increasing usage in
furniture finishing.  These are primarily materials  of  the
polyester,  epoxy,  and  polyur ethane  classes.    The  epoxy
resins, while finding some use in wood furniture,  are  used
primarily  in  metal coatings.  Urethanes and polyesters, on
the other hand, are  experiencing  increased  usage  in  the
wooden furniture and fixture industry.
    .      - All paints, enamels, varnishes, stains, fillers,
primers, inks, and similar products  are  built  on  a  base
product  called  a  film  former.   In  order  to  provide a
consistency suitable for application, the film  formers  are
dissolved  by solvents.  Both organic solvents and water are
used  for  wood-finishing   materials.    However,   organic
solvents  are  by  far the most commonly used and, barring a
limit in the supply of organic solvents, it is probable that
the organic solvents will continue to be  the  primary  type
used.

Organic  solvents  for  coating  may  be  divided  into  the
following general groups:

    1.  terpenes

    2.  hydrocarbons
        a.   aliphatic
        b.   napthanenic
        c.   aromatic

    3.  oxygenated
        a.   alcohols
        b.   esters
        c.   ketones
                                       ~4
                                      . J

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        TABLE A-2  COMPOSITION OF  CLASSICAL  VARNISHES
   Component
     Type
Oils
Resins
Solvents
Driers
Other Additives
Hard
Soft
Chemically modified
Natural
Synthetic
Metallic soaps

Aliphatic
Aromatic
Terpenic
Alcoholic

Lead
Mangenese
Cobalt
Calcium
Zirconium
Anti-skinning agent
Ultra-violet absorber
Flatting agent
Reactive
Non-reactive

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        d.  ether-alcohols
    i*.  furans

    5.  nitroparaffins

    6.  chlorinated solvents

Solvents in the terpene group receive only  limited  use  in
the furniture industry and will not be discussed here.  This
is  also true of the furans, nitro-paraffins and chlorinated
materials.  The principle hydrocarbon solvents used  in  the
industry  are mineral spirits, V.M. and P. naphtha, toluene,
xylene, hi-flash solvent  naphtha,  and  aromatic  naphthas.
Among  the oxygenated solvents, within the alcohol group the
most  commonly  used  chemicals  are  ethyl  alcohol,   amyl
alcohol,  butyl  alcohol  and  its  isomers,  and  isopropyl
alcohol.  Methanol is seldom used as a  solvent  because  it
evaporates too rapidly and the vapors are toxic.

The  principal  esters  used as solvents are methyl acetate,
ethyl  acetate,  normal  propyl  acetate,  and   the   butyl
acetates.    Within the ketone group, the principal chemicals
used  are  methyl  ethyl  ketone,  diethyl  ketone,   methyl
isobutyl   ketone,   methyl  isoamyl  ketone,  and  acetone.
Acetone receives only limited use because of its very  rapid
evaporation  rate.   Within  the  ether-alcohol  group,  the
monoethyl  ether  of  ethylene  glycol,  better   known   as
Cellosolve,  is  one  of the most commonly used.  Diethylene
glycol monethyl ether is also used extensively and,  as  was
pointed  out previously, is the most widely used dye solvent
for non-grain-raising stains.
                                     ., JL

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                                                TABLE  28
GO
ro
                                               METRIC TABLE

                                             CONVERSION TABLE
             MULTIPLY  (ENGLISH  UNITS)

                 ENGLISH  UNIT      ABBREVIATION
acre                    ac
acre - feet             ac ft
British Thermal
  Unit                  BTU
British Thermal
  Unit/pound            BTU/lb
cubic feet/minute       cfm
cubic feet/second       cfs
cubic feet              cu ft
cubic feet              cu ft
cubic inches            cu in
deqree Fahrenheit       °F
feet                    ft
gallon                  qal
gallon/minute           gom
horsenower              hp
inches                  in
inches of mercury       in Hg
pounds                  Ib
million gallons/day     mgd
mi 1e                    mi
pound/square
  inch (gauge)          psia
square feet             sq ft
square inches           sq in
ton (short)             ton
yard                    yd
                                           by                TO OBTAIN (METRIC UNITS)

                                      CONVERSION   ABBREVIATION   METRIC UNIT
                                                    0.405
                                                  1233.5

                                                    0.252
ha
cu m

kq cal
0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555(°F-32)*
0.3048
3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
785
1.609
kq cal/kq
cu m/min
cu m/min
cu m
1
cu cm
°C
m
1
I/sec
kw
cm
atm
kq
cu m/day
km
                                              (0.06805 osig +1)*  atm
                                                    0.0929
                                                    6.452
                                                    0.907
                                                    0.9144
sq m
sq cm
kka
m
hectares
cubic meters

kilogram - calories

kiloqram calories/kiloqram
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters
liters
cubic centimeters
deqree Centigrade
meters
liters
liters/second
killowatts
centimeters
atmospheres
kiloqrams
cubic meters/day
kilometer

atmosnheres (absolute)
souare meters
square centimeters
metric ton (1000 kilograms)
meter
               Actual  conversion, not a multinlier

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