United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
Planning and Standards
Washington, D.C. 20460
EPA 440/5-79-001
Water
vvEPA Lake Restoration
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o
CS
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REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the Office of
Water Planning and Standards, EPA, and approved
for publication. Approval does not signify that the
contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of
the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products
constitute endorsement or recommendations for use.
EPA 440/5-79-001
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FOREWORD
The Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C. §1251 et seq.)
under 304(j) requires that the Administrator of EPA
publish for the public a biennial report on the current
understanding of the methods, procedures, and proc-
esses as may be appropriate to restore and enhance
the quality of the Nation's publicly owned freshwater
lakes. It is the primary purpose of this volume to
satisfy this legislative requirement. The secondary
purpose is to present the proceedings of the first
National Conference on Lake Restoration held on
August 22-24, in Minneapolis, Minn. The conference
was attended by approximately 450 persons repre-
senting 39 States, the District of Columbia, and Can-
ada. The make-up of the audience included individu-
als from State and Federal pollution control agencies,
local governmental units, consulting firms, universi-
ties, and the interested public.
In order to meet the primary purpose of this report,
a conference format was carefully established to
encourage a comprehensive presentation of current
water pollution control policies, waste management
planning, implementable technology, and research
on a variety of lake restoration aspects. We were
interested in discussing practical applications of this
technology that would be useful to the public in
developing and putting in place effective long-lasting
lake enhancement programs. This report achieves
that objective.
Assistance to the Office of Water Planning and
Standards in developing the topical agenda and sug-
gesting 32 of the most respected and knowledgeable
speakers was provided by the EPA Office of Research
and Development, the Minnesota Pollution Control
Agency, the University of Wisconsin-Extension, and
in part by the internationally recognized limnological
experts that the EPA clean lakes program uses as
consultants to review lake restoration proposals sub-
mitted to EPA. These include: Dr. David G. Frey, Dr.
Robert C. Ball, Dr. Frank, Hooper, Dr. Raymond T. 0-
glesby. Dr. Paul Uttormark, Dr. Charles Goldman, and
Dr. Patrick Brezonik.
EPA's Office of Water Planning and Standards is
providing matching grants to States under the au-
thority of section 314 of the Clean Water Act at 50
percent cost sharing to implement lake protection
and restorative procedures. As of October 1, 1978,
73 grants had been awarded in 23 States. These
grants represent a multiplicity of water pollution con-
trol measures and in-lake restorative procedures. As
these projects continue and are completed, informa-
tion from them will contribute greatly to the already
rapidly expanding technology of lake enhancement.
EPA will draw heavily from this source of information
as future volumes of this report are prepared and
published on a biennial basis.
SWEP T. DAVIS
Deputy Assistant
Administrator for
Water Planning
and Standards
III
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INTRODUCTION
Freshwater lakes of the United States, which num-
ber over 100,000 and range in size from a few
hectares to Lake Superior at 8.41 x 106 hectares,
have long satisfied numerous freshwater needs of
this country. Early settlers used our lakes as sources
of drinking water and food supply, and for agricul-
tural and recreational purposes; we continue to do
this today. But as our national population grew and
our territorial boundaries became established, we
progressed from a sparsely populated agricultural
society to a highly industrialized, more urbanized
Nation. Accompanying this growth were increasing
quantities of municipal and industrial wastewater,
which generally received inadequate treatment prior
to discharge into our lakes, rivers, and streams. The
eutrophication process, naturally common to lakes,
was greatly accelerated while little was being done to
control or eliminate the pollution problem.
Recognition of lake degradation was sporadic in
the early 1900's, but for two reasons the problems
became more pronounced after World War II. First,
phosphate-based detergents were introduced into
the marketplace, and the subsequent wastewater,
highly enriched with plant nutrients, encouraged eu-
trophication in lakes and rivers. Second, a combina-
tion of increased leisure time for the American
worker, resulting from a shorter work week, and the
greater mobility of the public, brought about by wide-
spread ownership of the automobile, broadcast the
water pollution problem from the urban centers to
the rural vacation retreats. These vacation areas of-
ten contained the family's favorite water spots. In
most instances, people were alarmed at the de-
graded quality of water found in many of our lakes.
Federal involvement to control water pollution ex-
panded in the mid 20th century. A series of legisla-
tive measures passed from 1948 over the next 20
years culminated in the far-reaching Federal Water
Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (P.L.
92-500). Section 314 of this Act required each State
to identify and classify its lakes according to eu-
trophic condition, and to identify the procedures,
processes, and methods required to both control the
source of pollution affecting these lakes and to re-
store the quality of such lakes. Section 314 of P.L
92-500 thus became known as the "clean lakes sec-
tion" and the EPA program associated with it became
known as the "clean lakes program."
The Federal legislation for improving water quality
combined with a growing public awareness of the
size and input of the water quality degradation prob-
lems encouraged public action. The 1960's saw citi-
zens working together effectively on environmental
issues—"saving Lake Erie," stabilizing streambanks,
and demanding that business and industry imple-
ment available water pollution control technology.
States other than the Great Lakes States, such as
South Dakota and Florida, have enacted significant
legislation and promulgated regulations supporting
lake protection and restoration efforts. Lake quality
evaluation and restoration technology is rapidly
evolving from a Stone Age position into one gener-
ally associated with our modern electronics age. Non-
point source pollution control is becoming a fact
rather than a thought. Federal agencies such as EPA
are applying millions of dollars to develop these
technologies and making the results quickly available
to the public through reports and meetings. The Na-
tional Lake Restoration Conference was part of this
effort.
The national awareness of lake pollution problems
and the desire to improve the situation was
dramatically shown by the number of people
registered for the conference, over 450.* This
conference demonstrated to Government officials
that more and more people are concerned about our
Nation's lakes, and are seeking ways to become
involved in protecting them and improving their
quality for future generations.
The dialog among those researching and working
with lake restoration illustrated a full range of inter-
est, geographically as well as in the extremely varied,
sometimes controversial, approaches to the problem.
The excitement of watching lakes clarify theories as
they respond to experiments was reflected in many
of the papers delivered at the conference.
This book reproduces all 34 conference papers.
Many authors have supplemented their oral presenta-
tions with tables and illustrative figures that graphi-
cally explain and support their ideas. The papers
range from reminiscences of the Nation's first efforts
to fund lake restoration, to methods of stimulating
citizen participation on all governmental levels, to
accounts of how specific methods work, and the
directions lake restoration should take.
This is not a do-it-yourself manual, but rather a
collection of tested theories and methods, pragmati-
cally presented. The reader may disagree with some
viewpoints but may find them and others modifiable
for the lake with which he is concerned. It is to be
hoped that these proceedings have captured the dy-
namics of the conference, and its objectives of sup-
plying information and stimulating lake restoration
activity.
"The composition of the audience was multidisciplinary. A
large group representing the general public came in search
of programmatic and technical information that could be
quickly translated into effective lake improvement and
management efforts Many local. State, and Federal Govern-
ment representatives attended, either seeking assistance
for programs or offering suggestions to other lake enhance-
ment projects Also participating were engineering and
environmental consulting groups equipped with expertise
or seeking new approaches to assist the public And the
academic sector contributed information on recent con-
cepts for understanding and developing solutions for lake
degradation problems.
IV
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The clean lakes program, extended in time by the
Clean Water Act of 1977 (P.L 95-217, 1977), has
awarded or approved for award 90 lake restoration
projects (16 of which are State classification grants)
in 33 States for over $32 million. Forty-seven propos-
als requesting $17.9 million in support have been
rejected or withdrawn, mostly on technical grounds.
A discussion of approved projects presented in Ap-
pendix A indicates the variety of methods and proce-
dures being used to protect and improve the quality
of the Nation's public lakes.
The future of the clean lakes program is promising.
Five lake restoration projects have been completed
with positive results reported for each. Descriptions
of some of these projects also appear among the
papers presented at the conference as well as in
Appendix A. With increasing public awareness of
both the benefits of good quality lakes and the many
avenues now open to support and encourage lake
restoration, the clean lakes program will continue to
satisfy a vital need in the improvement of the Nation's
freshwater lakes.
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CONTENTS
Foreword jjj
Introduction jv
ASSESSING THE PROBLEM AND ALTERNATIVE
SOLUTIONS
OPENING SESSION
Welcome Address 3
Sandra S. Gardebring
The Beginnings....
J. Edward Roush
Putting Ourselves in Our Place 7
Donald M. Fraser
Achieving the 1983 Water Quality Goals 11
Swap T. Davis
Region V Clean Lakes Program 17
Charles H. Sutfin
Applied Limnology in
the State of Maine 21
Matthew Scott
General Concepts of Lake Degradation
and Lake Restoration 65
Paul D. Uttormark
Lake Measurements 71
Darrell L King
Measurement and Uses of Hydraulic
and Nutrient Budgets 77
W A. Scheider, J J. Moss, P. J. Oil Inn
Some Watershed Analysis Tools
for Lake Management 85
Roger K. Rodiek
Treatment of Domestic Wastes in
Lakeshore Developments 95
Richard J. Otis
FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL PROGRAMS
The Means and Ends of
Public Participation
Lowell L Klessig
27
Effective Local Authority to Ensure Lasting Lake
Restoration and Protection 33
Frans Bigelow
Florida's Water Resources
Restoration Program
A. Jean To/man
39
Establishing a Lake Restoration
Program in Minnesota
Joel G. Schilling
South's Dakota's Lake Program.
James R. Seyfer
Vermont Lakes and Ponds Program
James W. Morse II
41
43
47
Interrelationship of the Clean Lakes Program and
Water Quality Management 51
Joseph A. Krivak
Integration of Assistance Programs to Achieve
Water Quality Standards 55
Leonard J. Guarraia
The Future of the
Clean Lakes Program ....
Kenneth M. Mackenthun
... 59
IN-LAKE TREATMENTS
Dredging and Lake Restoration 105
Spencer A. Peterson
Physical and Chemical Treatment
of Lake Sediments 115
Thomas L. Theis
Artificial Aeration as a Lake
Restoration Technique 121
Arlo W. Fast
Lake Restoration by Dilution 133
Eugene B. Welch
Lake Restoration by Nutrient
Inactivation 14 •]
William H. Funk, Harry L Gibbons
Wetlands and Organic Soils for the Control
of Urban Stormwater 153
Eugene A Hickok
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
The Need for More Biology
in Lake Restoration
Joseph Shapiro
Phosphorus Transport Across the
Sediment-Water Interface
David £ Armstrong
. . 161
169
VII
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Aquatic Plant Harvesting as a
Lake Restoration Technique
T. M. Burton, D. L. King, J. L Ervin
EPA's Lake Restoration
Evaluation Program
Spencer A. Peterson
Monitoring of Hydraulic Dredging
for Lake Restoration
Phillip D. Snow, R. Paul Mason,
Carl J. George, Peter L. Tobiessen
Lake Cochrane Perimeter Road-Sediment
Traps Restoration Project
Jerry L. Siege/
177
187
..195
.205
Preliminary Findings of
Medical Lake Restoration 209
A. F. Gasper/no, G. R. Keizur, R. A. Soltero
The White Clay Lake
Management Plan 2 1 5
James O. Peterson, F. W. Madison, Arthur £
Peterson
APPENDIXES
Appendix A: Summation of Clean Lakes Program 223
Appendix B: Conference Participants 237
Appendix C: Conference Attendees 239
VIII
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OPENING SESSION
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WELCOME ADDRESS
SANDRA S. GARDEBRING
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
Roseville, Minnesota
Ladies and gentlemen, my name is Sandra Gardebr-
ing and I am the executive director of the Minnesota
Pollution Control Agency. On behalf of the Agency,
which has been involved in lake restoration efforts
for a number of years, and on behalf of Minnesota's
Governor, Rudy Perpich, I welcome you.
It seems particularly fitting to me that this very
significant conference is being held in the State of
Minnesota, "Land of 10,000 Lakes," and in Minneap-
olis, "The City of Lakes." It is indeed a pleasure to
have the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
choose Minnesota for the site of this National Confer-
ence on Lake Restoration. I hope these next 3 days
will provide you with a unique opportunity to ex-
change ideas and perhaps further the program of
protection and restoration of our publicly owned
freshwater lakes.
While Minnesota is known widely as having
10,000 lakes, in actuality we estimate that number to
be about 12,000, and perhaps more, including that
special jewel of fresh water, Lake Superior. In fact,
we have such an embarrassment of riches in this
regard that we don't know exactly how many lakes
exist in the State.
Unfortunately, this wealth has not taught us to
protect our resources. I'm sure many of you are not
aware that between 100 and 150 lakes in Minnesota
are impacted either directly or indirectly by municipal
wastewater treatment plant discharges. Reserve Min-
ing Co.'s industrial discharge to Lake Superior is all
too well known to many of us, but it should not go
unnoticed that a half dozen cities on Minnesota's
Lake Superior coastline discharge their wastewaters
directly to the lake.
The future, however, looks very good for eliminat-
ing or upgrading many of these impacting point
source discharges in Minnesota. Reserve's discharge
to Superior should cease by April of 1980. The con-
struction and operation of the advanced wastewater
treatment facility at Ely resulting in the improvement
of Shagawa Lake is another example. Less well
known, but in operation for a longer period, has been
the tertiary treatment facility at Stillwater to protect
Lake St. Croix.
Lake Superior has not been forgotten as newly built
advanced treatment plants are running at the major
cities of Grand Marais, Silver Bay, and Two Harbors.
A soon to be operational multimillion dollar plant in
Duluth will handle the flows from the Western Lake
Superior Sanitary District, which includes a number
of industrial dischargers as well as municipal wastes
from a four-county surrounding area. The heavily
used recreational lakes in Northwestern Minnesota
have received much needed protection with con-
struction of tertiary facilities for the Detroit Lakes
area as well as the new Alexandria Lakes Area Sani-
tary District.
Add-on tertiary treatment equipment is providing
interim protection for Lakes Minnewaska and Black-
duck by the cities of Glenwood and Blackduck. Diver-
sion of wastewaters has probably been one of the
most common and easiest forms of lake restoration.
In Minnesota, it is exemplified most notably in Lake
Minnetonka. The work of Dr. Robert Megard of the
University of Minnesota clearly demonstrates that
diverting wastewaters has measurably improved
lower Lake Minnetonka. New plant construction in-
corporating diversion will soon be underway for cit-
ies impacting the following: Albert Lea Lake, West
Lake, Woodcock Lake, Green Lake, Cokato Lake, Buf-
falo Lake, and Wagonga Lake.
At this point, it is important not to disregard the
high costs involved in these projects or those pro-
posed for the future. But as executive director of the
Pollution Control Agency, I would emphasize that we
have not been given the option to "write off" some
lakes as impossible tasks simply because a discharge
has continued into a lake for 40 years or more.
We are proud of the efforts we have made so far in
point source control, but we know we have more to
do. Further, in this conference I know you will deal
with the control of nonpoint sources to lakes in addi-
tion to in-lake treatment measures. The control of
both point and nonpoint sources is expensive, and
the technological measures to achieve them are quite
different.
While on one hand the technology to control point
sources has been known for a number of years,
nonpoint source control is in its infancy. In-lake mea-
sures are highly dependent on the complex nature of
a lake's characteristics. It is often said that a measure
that works on one lake may not work on another
simply because of the differences between two lakes.
We hope this meeting will give you a chance to
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LAKE RESTORATION
explore alternative treatment techniques and to ex-
change ideas on how to solve complex
site-dependent problems.
In Minnesota, we have been fortunate to receive
seven grants under section 314, clean lakes pro-
gram. It is evident with these projects that much will
be learned about nutrient control and the behavior of
lakes in response to these lake restoration attempts.
We have already experienced some success and
some failure. This is inevitable in the initiation of a
new program where the answers are not obvious.
In conclusion, it is our hope that these 3 days will be
an enlightening experience for each of you. Take the
knowledge you will gain back to your States to be put
to test. Enjoy your time spent in Minnesota, take a
look at our lakes if you can, and we hope to see you
again in the future.
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THE BEGINNINGS
J. EDWARD ROUSH
Office of Regional and Intergovernmental Operations
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
This conference represents an effort to enhance
the EPA's clean lakes program by providing a forum
to discuss the practical application of lake restoration
technology.
My interests in this are twofold: (1) I am interested
in the realistic application of technology; and (2) I'm
concerned that the knowledge be transferred to
those who should use it, i.e., the State water pollution
control agencies, the local governments, the poten-
tial clean lakes grant applicants.
Clean lakes restoration has been for many years
one of my own goals. In preparing for this confer-
ence, I recently came across a brief report called "To
Save America's Small Lakes." It's dated August 23,
1957 and it was prepared by a congressional sub-
committee I served on.
That was when I was a congressman from Indiana
and it was long before the Nation—or even its lead-
ers—expressed an interest in the environment.
During my years in the Congress, I spent a decade
on the Committee on Science and Technology. There
my interest in the environment blended with my
growing awareness that the rapidly developing tech-
nology of this scientific era was not being put to
practical use on behalf of the people of this country.
That's why I am glad to see that at this conference
there is a deliberate attempt to share technology so
that we might accomplish a common purpose and a
common goal.
My interest in clean lakes has both personal and
practical roots—we have 400 lakes in northeastern
Indiana. During the time I served on the Appropria-
tions subcommittee handling the EPA, I received
countless letters asking that funding for clean lakes
be authorized. But it didn't happen until a great Sena-
tor from the State of Minnesota went to work for it.
Following the passage of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments of 1972, Senator Mondale
got funds to support the bill from the Senate side and
we got funds from the House.
We didn't get much, but there were appropriations.
There was $4 million in 1975, $ 15 million in 1976,
$15 million in 1977, and $2.3 million in 1978. We
can expect $ 1 4.7 million forfiscal year 1979.
There is an interest in the clean lakes program on
the part of the officials of this country. And I think
they will be gratified to know that the kind of support
demonstrated by this conference exists in the Nation.
For some of them have found it tough to advocate the
clean lakes program, not knowing to what extent the
public supported the concept. It is indeed tremen-
dously exciting to see that support exhibited here in
this outpouring of people who are interested in lake
restoration and the technology involved.
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PUTTING OURSELVES IN OUR PLACE
DONALD M. FRASER
Member, U.S. House of Representatives
Fifth District, Minnesota
ABSTRACT
Man's historic relationship with his environment is described, followed by a brief analysis of the
early American's need to tame his environment. This country's growing awareness of its
destruction of the environment is discussed, along with the impact of the ecological legislation
of the 1960's. That this is just the beginning and an enormous task still lies ahead is
emphasized.
It is a pleasure to be here today at this first National
Conference on Lake Restoration held in our land of
supposedly "Sky Blue Water." Since this is the "Land
of 10,000 Lakes"—actually we have over 12,000
with greater than 10 acres of surface area—there are
probably few places that would be any more
appropriate.
I want to talk briefly today about what I see as our
American search for a new relationship with nature.
There is a growing awareness among many people
that we cannot stand apart from our environment,
manipulating or ignoring it, without peril to it and to
ourselves. There is also the realization that the job we
have undertaken may turn out to be bigger than we
had imagined.
We are beginning to abandon the idea that we can
wall off a few protected places of beauty and do as
we like with the rest of the natural environment. We
are, in fact, beginning to realize that while for a long
time we have been despoiling many parts of our
landscape, at the same time we also have preserved it
when it was important to us.
We can utilize some of the knowledge gained in
those efforts in solving present problems.
I see lake restoration as part of this new attempt to
once more place ourselves in a constructive, symbi-
otic relationship with nature, and I'd like to explore
that with you for a few minutes.
For some time now we have been in the midst of
what has been called the "ecological" or "environ-
mental" revolution. We began to see clearly in the
1960's that we were destroying our living environ-
ment. We were warned that we were commiting
"terracide"—destroying the earth through our ac-
tions and policies.
We knew we were not the first generation to have
mismanaged the earth. Historians now tell us that
while many causes—warfare, disease, and civil
strife—helped bring on the collapse of ancient civili-
zations, the primary reason may have been the dam-
age caused to the quality of the soil and to water
supplies by poor ecological practices. We knew our
civilization could be affected too—that environmen-
tal destruction had never before gone on as inten-
sively and on as large a scale.
We took these warnings seriously and passed wid-
eranging environmental legislation which created
task forces, agencies, commissions, offered grants,
and established air, water, and noise pollution stan-
dards. Many people looked forward to ecotopia.
We learned, as we do with most things, that the
reality of change is more complex and time-
consuming than we expected, and that competing
interests must be reconciled at each step. Perhaps
that is not all bad. It gives us a chance to think a little
harder, dig a little deeper, try to understand some-
what better just what we need to do, and what the
costs of action are—in human and economic terms.
Our consciousness of what we are doing and what
needs to be done has expanded, and I see the grow-
ing interest in lake restoration as part of that ex-
panded consciousness.
We in this country are asking ourselves the ques-
tion Thoreau asked many years ago: "What is the use
of a house if you haven't got a tolerable planet to put
it on?" How, we are asking ourselves, can we keep
this planet tolerable? What kind of attitudes do we
need to change; what kind of insights will that take?
One of the Puritan leaders who settled the Massa-
chusetts Bay Colony referred to that emigration from
Europe to America as an "errand into the wilder-
ness." I think we sometimes forget that for the major-
ity of early Americans, and indeed into the late
1800's when the frontier closed, nature was often an
overpowering and inhospitable force that had to be
managed or transcended if life were to be possible.
This surely formed American thinking about the need
to subdue the environment and mold it to human
needs. Sometimes we did it with a vengeance, espe-
cially once the industrial revolution was in full swing.
Not until the early years of this century did it begin
to occur to us that it might be wise to set aside some
of that wild land that seemed to be disappearing
under the waves of immigration and population
growth. During the presidency of Theodore Roose-
velt the great conservation push began, setting aside
many of our most treasured national parks.
One eminent environmental scientist says that now
that we have succeeded in humanizing most of the
earth's surface we are simultaneously developing a
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8
LAKE RESTORATION
cult for wilderness. Rene Dubos says that after being
so long frightened by the primeval forest, we have
come to realize that its eerie light evokes in us a mood
of wonder that cannot be experienced in an orchard
or a garden. He goes on to talk about the mystic
quality we find in the wilderness, an "expression of
an aspect of our fundamental being that is still in
resonance with cosmic events"-an emotion that we
do not feel in humanized environments.
Wilderness, then, can afford us spiritual insights,
deep enjoyment, and a sense of harmony between
ourselves and the rest of creation. That is important,
and we must preserve it for those reasons. We need
at least one quiet place. But unfortunately, all too
often wilderness is only usable on vacations and
weekends. We need, as well, environments to sustain
us in our everyday lives.
Here in the city I often stay with a friend who lives in
a quiet, shaded neighborhood of winding streets and
rolling lawns. The wife, although a businesswoman,
finds time to be an avid gardener. Her yard is laced
with flower beds, and a vegetable plot furnishes the
family table. She spends hours caring for these
pieces of ground, shaping her environment with her
own hands. Throughout that neighborhood, and
neighborhoods all over this State, there are people
painstakingly shaping their immediate environments
with their own hands.
We have, in fact, been molding and forming this
earth with our hands for centuries, and we have, in
countless cases, improved on nature herself. We
have human-made environments in the beautiful
parks and squares of every great city; we have land-
scaped the settings of public buildings and monu-
ments to add to their grandeur; we have converted
creeks into streams and finally into chains of lakes
and cultivated them to embellish neighborhoods,
adorn college campuses, or develop new towns. We
have, in the lines of the old joke, done what God could
have done if he had only had the money. And, it might
be added—the insight, the will, and the energy.
That is what we are doing in lake restoration—
assuring that nature's original gift will be preserved
in our human-made environment. We are finally—
again in Dubos' words—"using scientific knowledge
and ecological wisdom to manage the earth so as to
create environments which are ecologically stable,
economically profitable, aesthetically rewarding, and
favorable to the continued growth of civilization."
To speak of working for an environment "favorable
to the continued growth of civilization" may sound to
us somewhat high-flown, but perhaps it is not if we
reflect a little about what it would mean to our lives—
our civilization, if you will—if our lakes became dead,
stagnant pools. We know how keenly we were af-
fected when they began to go bad.
Many a Minnesota adult my age who was fortunate
enough to live by a lake remembers those warm
summer afternoons splashing about in the cool
water, diving for stones, painfully holding the eyes
open to explore the shady depths trying to spot a
minnow or a turtle. They can remember misty twi-
lights fishing for crappies or bullheads or lying on a
grassy bank in early morning smelling the fresh odor
of living water, watching the sun through leaves on
the trees shading the lake rim.
Thoreau wrote: "A lake is the landscape's most
beautiful and expressive feature. It is earth's eye;
looking into which the beholder measures the depth
of his own nature."
A lot of Minnesotans wanted to measure those
depths in the years after 1950. As population spread
to the suburbs, more and more families settled
around the outlying lakes, many of them utilizing
septic tanks for sewage disposal. Some of the over-
flow of those tanks went directly into the nearby
water. Small cities, and large, utilized lakes for sew-
age disposal purposes. Shorelines were altered for
human use; marshy areas were filled to provide more
space for homebuilding; water levels in some lakes
changed because of excavation for construction and
subsequent erosion or change in water flow into and
out of the existing lakes. Recreational use of these
bodies of water increased enormously. All of these
activities had an effect on the water quality of metro-
politan lakes. In the 1960's large numbers of urban
dwellers went north to build summer residences on
the local lakes, creating many of the same problems
for those areas.
The "blue jewels" on which Minnesota prided her-
self became greenish-brown and scum laden, often
choked with weeds, and decorated with floating
clumps of algae.
By 1971 the need for action to save the lakes was
apparent. Senator Mondale introduced a Clean Lakes
Act to provide for a coordinated and comprehensive
program to restore lakes in danger of becoming life-
less and useless. Legislation authorizing the program
was incorporated into the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments in 1972. Section 314 of
the law required the States to report on the water
quality of their freshwater lakes and authorized funds
to help the States take action to restore the water
quality of the lakes that were deteriorating.
Although Congress authorized $300 million over
the next 5-year period from 1972-1975 to provide
Federal funds to State and local governments for up
to 70 percent of the cost of lake pollution control and
restoration projects, only $4 million had been made
available to the States by the spring of 197 5.
Some States such as Minnesota, had begun a
State-financed inventory of their lakes in hopes of
obtaining Federal funds, but the Nixon-Ford Adminis-
tration stalled on implementing the program. During
the 5 years from 1972-1977, that Administration did
not once request funds for the clean lakes program.
They were not interested in it.
In light of that situation, Congress decided on its
own to supply an appropriation of $36.3 million; over
$30 million of this was spent for project grants.
Only the efforts of some of us from Minnesota and
our colleagues from Wisconsin, New York, Maine,
and Washington keptthe program alive.
The Carter Administration is showing an interest
and has requested approximately $ 15 million for the
program in the 1979 budget. Both the House and
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OPENING SESSION
Senate have approved this figure. A conference
committee meeting has not been set yet, but no
problem is expected.
This request is still inadequate. It represents only
25 percent of the authorization level, $60 million,
and many States, including Minnesota, can use more
money. Other States, such as Michigan, South
Dakota, Florida, California, and Massachusetts, for
the first time are becoming interested in seeking
money for lake restoration projects.
Since the first grant was awarded in 1976, the
program has aided restoration activities at 73 lakes
in 23 States, including seven lakes in Minnesota:
Albert Lea/Fountain, Chain of Lakes, Clear, Hyland,
Long, Penn, and Phelan.
A 1976 grant of $179,000 was given to
Minneapolis to test new ways of controlling storm
runoffs. The project will get underway this fall. At
Lake of the Isles, runoff will be diverted away from
the lake into the sanitary sewer system through a
process known as "first flush" diversion. At Lake
Harriet, a vacuum-sweeping procedure will be used
to clean the algae-producing nutrients and
contaminants from the streets that feed into the lake.
As these and other pollution techniques are
perfected, they can be used at other city lakes.
This new EPA-funded effort is important to the
people of our city because we know that our 22 lakes
are an irreplaceable resource. Our lakes are more
than a pleasant amenity. They are essential to the
unique character, lifestyle, and economy of the city. If
we allow the lakes to suffer an ecological death, the
character of Minneapolis would be drastically
altered.
While our lake waters are unpolluted by either
industrial wastes or human sewage, urbanization of
areas around the lakes has caused deterioration of
their water quality. This is especially true when storm
and sanitary sewer systems have been separated and
storm water runoff—with its large phosphorus
concentrations—has been diverted into the lakes
without treatment.
We are hopeful that the EPA program will give us
the tools we need to restore that clear, sparkling
quality to our lakes.
But unless we act soon, it may be too late in
Minnesota and elsewhere throughout the country.
Unlike rivers, freshwater lakes cannot adequately
cleanse themselves. Each year we fail to move means
more costly restorative steps in the future. And once
our lakes die, they can never be brought back to life.
An editorial in this morning's St. Paul Pioneer Press
entitled "Unpleasant Sewage Lesson" talks about the
serious problems of water quality Bemidji and
Waseca are having in their lakes as a result of algae
thriving on sewage nutrients. The editorial discusses
the steps being taken to alleviate the difficulties. Lake
restoration is obviously an urgent and current
concern in Minnesota.
You will have an opportunity to take field trips in
and around the Twin Cities to see the Lake
Harriet/Lake of the Isles project as well as the Penn
Lake and Hyland projects firsthand.
We have made only a small start on realizing the
dream envisioned by Congress 6 years ago. It is
imperative that we maintain an effective level of
funding for the clean lakes program and that the EPA
respond to the increasing interest in it.
Thus far, just over $2 million of the $36 million
appropriated has been set aside to be used for
research, monitoring, and evaluating the
effectiveness of ongoing projects. We must,
however, support these research and evaluation
programs so that further decisions on restoration can
be made from a strong technical base.
These two entities—research and development and
grants to clean up lakes—can serve to complement
one another while still remaining separate.
We have learned some hard lessons in the 20th
century. We have learned that the man-against-
nature dualism is no longer valid, that it permitted us,
without a second thought, to ruthlessly destroy the
natural environment, and that we are now paying a
heavy price for our foolishness.
We have learned that we are intimately related to
our physical world, that we can nurture or destroy it,
and that it can do the same thing to us. We have
begun to accept what many of the great religions
have always taught—that our own sense of life
depends on our interrelatedness to all forms of life.
The competing interests I spoke of earlier have not
all been reconciled, and it is not going to be easy to
do that. But we must succeed. We must strive for
balance in our lives. We humans and all our human
activities—whether personal or economic—must
become a part of a whole with our natural
environment. We must be sustained by nature in our
work and play, and we must care for and sustain
nature.
Here in this conference you are continuing work on
one aspect of this enormous task ahead of us. I wish
you well. You have my full support.
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ACHIEVING THE 1983 WATER QUALITY GOALS
SWEP T. DAVIS
Deputy Assistant Administrator
for Water Planning and Standards
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C.
ABSTRACT
In 1972 and again in 1977, Congress amended the Federal Water Pollution Control Act to
provide the Agency both with more comprehensive responsibility for water pollution abatement
and with the authority to ensure implementation of the steps necessary to reach the stated goal-
fishable and swimmable waters by 1983. During the early stages of implementation, emphasis
was placed on instituting the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES permits)
and the construction grants program for wastewater treatment plants. When these programs
were well established, the 208 areawide planning process was accelerated. The emphasis now
placed on State/EPA agreements is a recent aspect of the water quality management (208)
process. These agreements will ensure significant State involvement in a continuing water
quality planning process and will facilitate the integration and coordination of various environ-
mental programs. The clean lakes program is an integral part of the concerted effort to restore
and maintain the quality of our Nation's waters.
Section 101 of the Clean Water Act, which was
initially proclaimed by the Congress in 1972, outlines
the national goals of preserving and restoring our
Nation's waters. Specifically, these goals, wherever
attainable, include a water quality that provides for
the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and
wildlife, and provides for recreation in and on the
water by 1983, and an elimination of pollutant dis-
charges by 1985.
Achieving these goals by 1983 is a very sizable task
for a highly industrialized Nation. For a number of
years too little attention was directed to the environ-
mental consequences of the byproducts of our pro-
lific growth. In response to a degrading environment,
a changing consciousness emerged in the late
1960's and early 1970's. The people of this Nation
made it known that they were committed to the
protection and restoration of our national environ-
mental resources.
During that period a number of significant laws
were passed establishing programs and providing
financial support to initiate wide-ranging water pollu-
tion controls to make the 1983 goals a workable
reality. A recent Lou Harris poll indicates that public
support for these programs remains at a high level.
Pollution of lakes and rivers has risen to top place
among the environmental worries of Americans; 69
percent believe this condition is very serious.
The Environmental Protection Agency has been
authorized to administer a number of pollution con-
trol programs. This conference considers the ongo-
ing activities of one of those programs. Under section
314 of the Clean Water Act, the Agency is authorized
to provide technical and financial assistance to de-
fine, design, and implement source controls to pre-
vent lake degradation, and to undertake in-lake
management practices to help restore our Nation's
publicly owned freshwater lakes.
Over the next 3 days a prestigious group of speak-
ers will discuss the administrative and technical as-
pects of the clean lakes program. I would like to take
this opportunity to provide a backdrop to those pre-
sentations by discussing some of EPA's other pollu-
tion control programs and giving you an overview of
the Agency's activities and accomplishments.
As a result of a Presidential order to minimize
bureaucratic requirements and the realization of the
need to coordinate pollution control programs, the
Agency is emphasizing integrating and coordinating
program planning and implementation at the State
level. The thrust of my comments will be on the
importance of the State/EPA agreements in accom-
plishing the 1983 goals and some of the Agency's
programs that are to be included in such agreements.
Over the next few years, EPA expects to obligate
over $500 million of planning and program manage-
ment funds to State and local governments under the
authority of various sections of the Clean Water Act,
plus the Safe Drinking Water Act, and the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act. This sounds like a
large sum of money; however, spread over several
programs, 54 States and territories, and numerous
areawide agencies and municipalities, it still can-ad-
dress only the highest priority problems. In addition,
due to the variety of legislative authorities involved,
there is tremendous potential for these funds to be
used in a redundant manner, often working at con-
flicting objectives. If the 1983 water quality goals
and environmental and public health objectives are
to be achieved in the near future, a coherent and
coordinated approach toward managing these funds
is absolutely essential.
11
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12
LAKE RESTORATION
In the past, the Agency has successfully used the
State/EPA agreement as a regulatory management
tool. The agreements, negotiated annually between
each State and EPA, have established the level of
detail and timing in the preparation of the States'
water quality management plans. The original intent
of the agreements emphasized planning as required
under section 208 of the Clean Water Act.
EPA has been reviewing the merits of the negoti-
ated agreements as a means of increasing the coordi-
nation of pollution control activities and simplifying
the diversified, complicated planning and manage-
ment requirements placed on the State pollution con-
trol agencies. President Carter has stressed the im-
portance of reducing the bureaucratic burden on the
States and local governments. During the summer of
1977, President Carter initiated a study of Federal
programs to identify any areas that could be
consolidated.
To fully appreciate the need for such reforms, it is
helpful to understand the requirements and responsi-
bilities the States are asked to carry out with these
Federal funds in order to achieve the pollution control
objectives mandated by law. Let me spend a few
minutes describing some of the water quality
management programs, explaining their objectives
in terms of pollution control, and outlining the work
output requirements placed on the States.
The construction grants program, described under
section 201 of the Act, provides technical and finan-
cial assistance to municipalities for the construction
of sewage treatment facilities. Congress recognized
the need for Federal assistance in this area as early as
1948, and authorized loans to any State, municipal-
ity, or interstate agency for the construction of neces-
sary treatment works. In 1956, in P.L 84-660, Con-
gress authorized grants for the construction of treat-
ment works. The Federal share was 30 percent of the
total construction costs; fiscal year authorization was
$50 million.
During the early 1960's Federal and State pro-
grams began to emphasize to a greater extent the
importance of controlling municipal sewage wastes
to reduce the amount of pollutants discharged di-
rectly into the Nation's waters. The Federal Water
Pollution Control Act Amendments, passed in Octo-
ber of 1972, provided the first real impetus at the
Federal level for water quality improvement.
Since 1972, nearly $ 24 billion has been appropri-
ated for the municipal construction grants program.
Approximately $ 19 billion has been awarded to over
14,000 projects. Many of these projects are very
complex and involve extensive engineering design
and assessment of environmental impacts. Because
of this, some of these projects require more than 10
years to complete.
The Clean Water Act Amendments of 1977 provide
some new elements which are expected to improve
the effectiveness of the construction grants program.
The Act allows small or rural communities more flexi-
bility in choosing a waste treatment system that is
most appropriate in terms of treatment capability and
cost effectiveness. Individual systems, septic tanks,
and waterless toilet systems can maintain water qual-
ity in less populated areas without overtaxing the
financial resources of the local residents.
The Agency has developed cost-effective guide-
lines, now in the proposal stage, to discourage com-
munities from designing projects that are oversized
compared to reasonable population projections for
the service area, or that are too technically sophisti-
cated to be operated effectively by a small commu-
nity. Innovative and alternative technologies also are
being encouraged by the Agency under the new
sections of the Act. Land treatment, accomplished
through methods such as spray irrigation, and other
recycling waste programs are being investigated and
seriously encouraged. While all of these initiatives
are aimed at improving the program, they also add
complexity and additional coordination demands to
the State and Federal agencies involved in managing
the program.
To receive an initial facilities planning grant, a State
must establish a priority list of projects within the
State. This list must be prepared in accordance with
the State pollution control strategy plan, State water
quality standards, and discharge permits. All three of
these elements require considerable work by the
State to obtain essential water quality data, monitor
existing facilities, and provide administrative report-
ing requirements. Priority setting also is dependent
on factors such as population growth, industrial
growth, and energy requirements.
Securing facilities planning resources is but one
portion of the State effort in the construction grants
program. After the facility plan is completed, it must
be submitted to both the State and EPA for review
and approval prior to funds being awarded by EPA to
support the facility design phase. When the plans
and specifications stage is completed, once again the
State and EPA must review the design to ensure all
environmental, technical, and administrative require-
ments have been met. If approved, the project is
placed on the State's priority list for construction
funding where it will compete for available resources
with other eligible projects.
Once a facility is completed, the State and EPA
conduct final pre-operation inspections and then
monitor the project periodically throughout its life to
ensure its operation and maintenance conform to
State and EPA permit requirements.
The 1977 amendments to the Act allow for greater
State participation in administering water pollution
control programs and authorize 2 percent of the
State construction grant allotment to support such
State programs. This money is available to States to
support the administrative staff needed to assume
and manage the State construction grants program.
Once these needs have been met, any remaining
funds can be used to assist State 208 water quality
planning, pretreatment, 402 point source permits,
and the 404 discharge of dredged or fill material
programs.
The permits program, under section 404 of the
Clean Water Act, is an example of another Agency
program that requires a specific work output from the
States. Closely related to the clean lakes program is
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OPENING SESSION
13
the section 404 permit program to control the dis-
charge of dredged or fill material. Lake dredging
activities routinely become involved with this pro-
gram. The 1977 amendments provide that a State,
with EPA approval, may assume the permit responsi-
bilities for the discharge of dredged or fill material in
State waters that are not navigable in fact. The Corps
of Engineers is responsible for the permit responsibil-
ity in truly navigable waters and for all waters not in a
State approved program. The Act also provides that
certain dredge and fill activities, if managed under
approved State operated programs, no longer re-
quire section 404 permits either from the Corps or
from the State.
The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination Sys-
tem, referred to as NPDES, is another permit program
authorized under section 402 of the Act. While
States retain primary responsibility to combat water
pollution, they must now do so within the framework
of the NPDES program. The NPDES permit is the
enforcement mechanism for ensuring that all require-
ments of the Act for controlling point source dis-
charges are met on schedule. More than half of the
States have accepted the primary responsibility for
managing the NPDES program. With the growing
emphasis on toxic pollution, the operation of this
program will become increasingly complex.
Since the NPDES program began, over 50,000
permits have been issued. Approximately half of
these have been written for industrial dischargers.
Approximately 85 percent of the industrial permit
recipients have met the July 1, 1977 goal while only
30 percent of the municipalities have complied. The
Agency currently is working hard to facilitate munici-
pal compliance.
Municipal compliance has been a problem because
of the complexity of waste treatment facility con-
struction and the political problems associated with
yearly congressional appropriations. There have
been apparent peaks and valleys in the rate of obliga-
tion of construction grant funds. As of June 15, I978,
a total of 779 projects with a grant value of $2.8
billion had not initiated construction. Of this number,
approximately 540 projects had not started construc-
tion within 6 months of the grant award. Since April,
the number of projects in this lag category has de-
creased by 205 projects. We expect that most of the
projects in the preconstruction category for more
than 6 months will be under construction by the end
of the summer.
The major cause of the delay in initiating construc-
tion has been last minute design changes and various
grantee administrative difficulties. Site problems,
local funding problems, legal difficulties, and compli-
cations concerning the scope of the project also have
played a role. Delays may occur in the obligation rate
because the appropriations are often late. The 1977
amendments include a number of provisions to facili-
tate the design and construction phases of these
projects. In addition, Congress has provided for
greater planning stability through longer-term
funding.
Water Quality Management (WQM) is the name
EPA has given to a complex environmental program
under the combined authority of several sections of
the Act. The WQM program combines State water
pollution programs funded under section 106, State
and regional comprehensive waste treatment
management planning funded under section 208,
and other State planning mandated by section 303 of
the Act into a single planning and implementation
program. Public participation is essential to all as-
pects of the program.
Each State, along with local or regional agencies in
specially designated areas, conducts water quality
management planning. Each State and substate
agency is required to have a plan that identifies
sources of pollution, the severity of the pollution, and
control programs. Each plan must be updated annu-
ally and the control measures must be designed to
attain the 1983 goal of the Act. The Water Quality
Standards program is an important factor in water
quality management planning. States are required to
review and revise such standards at least every 3
years. EPA is emphasizing the water quality stan-
dards program as one means of controlling toxic
pollutants.
Each State is required to have a continuing plan-
ning process, consisting of the procedures by which
the State controls water pollution, including WQM
planning and implementation. Among other things,
the continuing planning process includes the State's
system for prioritizing construction grants projects,
and the clean lakes program proposals.
Other areas that require State participation include:
1. Nonpoint source management activities;
2. Monitoring and assessment of point and non-
point source pollutants;
3. Enforcement;
4. Training and facilities operation and
maintenance;
5. Emergency response programs;
6. Program evaluation.
Many of these programs are interconnected, yet
require separate State management and reporting
requirements. Thereby, States frequently are re-
quired to submit repetitive information to receive
Federal funds to support their activities.
EPA is developing policy and revised WQM regula-
tions to establish State/EPA agreements as the mech-
anism to integrate the planning and implementation
at the State level of programs under the Clean Water
Act. Agreements negotiated for fiscal year 1979 will
include, at a minimum, the integration of State pro-
gram grants under section 105, State and areawide
section 208 waste treatment management planning,
basin planning under section 303(e), State manage-
ment assistance programs for construction grants
under section 205(g), and the clean lakes program of
section 314, all of the Clean Water Act.
The State/EPA agreement process will provide a
forum to identify key water quality problems in a
State and to develop solutions to those problems.
The agreement will: (1) lay out those activities which
the State will undertake to solve its water quality
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14
LAKE RESTORATION
problems during the upcoming year; and (2) identify
the responsible planning and management agencies
who will perform those activities and target funds
from various sources to achieve the year's objectives.
Starting in fiscal year 1980 the role of the
State/EPA agreement will be expanded significantly.
FY 80 agreements will at a minimum incorporate all
programs under the Resource Conservation and Re-
covery Act (RCRA) and the Safe Drinking Water Act
(SDWA). As a result, the coordination and integration
of these programs at the State level with those under
the Clean Water Act (CWA) will be greatly facilitated.
The integration of programs under these three stat-
utes with the possibility of further integration, e.g., by
including Clean Air Act programs, at the discretion of
States and EPA regions, will provide an exciting op-
portunity for overall environmental planning and
management, instead of a piecemeal approach. In-
termedia transfers of pollutants from water to land to
air can be considered to a much larger extent. Ulti-
mate disposal problems can begin to be addressed.
Creative and innovative solutions hopefully will
emerge as a result of a coordinated and expanded
approach to environmental problems through the
State/EPA agreement process.
EPA will encourage States to look for all reasonable
opportunities to integrate programs under RCRA,
SDWA, and CWA. Let me give some examples of
ways in which State/EPA agreements can integrate
and coordinate pollution control efforts. First I'll dis-
cuss an example of a broad integration area that
presents opportunities for pure environmental (vs.
water or solid waste) planning and management by
bringing the various statutes together. Then I'll
quickly run through some more detailed opportuni-
ties for coordination.
Linking permitting authorities under CWA and
RCRA, in particular NPDES permits under CWA and
hazardous waste permits under RCRA, can create
opportunities for the permitting authority to make
trade-offs between water vs. land contamination and
the regulated industries to consider alternative com-
pliance strategies such as source control, since two
sets of environmental requirements will be identified
simultaneously rather than piecemeal. Timing the
reissuance of expiring NPDES permits with issuance
of RCRA section 3005 permits for existing sources
and joint issuance of both permits for new sources
would encourage better environmental decisions in
regulating toxic pollutants from industrial sources.
Admittedly, this is a complicated process that would
take some time and effort to work out. However, we
want to encourage States to think "big" as well as
creatively because that is how our complex environ-
mental problems will be solved.
More detailed opportunities for coordination
include:
1. Data collection for population and wasteload
projections for all programs. For example, popula-
tion, economic base, and land use projections could
be made uniform for individual planning areas for all
EPA programs. Wasteload projections between pro-
grams could be associated with shared population
forecasts and residual waste projections in Water
Quality Management Plans could be used by RCRA
solid waste plans.
2. Monitoring efforts for all programs. Eventually,
a comprehensive monitoring program may evolve to
meet the needs of each program at minimum costs.
Monitoring of toxic pollutants could identify "hot
spots" in need of enforcement or some form of miti-
gation through NPDES as well as RCRA
self-monitoring provisions. Key nonpoint sources of
toxic pollutants that may be controlled under the
water quality management planning process could
be identified. Additional water quality parameters
could be identified if monitoring is currently
insufficient.
All water quality/quantity parameters and
information-gathering activities of the U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey (USGS), the EPA, States, and local govern-
ments could be coordinated. Monitoring of ground
and surface water supplies and point and nonpoint
sources of pollution could be conducted jointly or
coordinated between WQM, SDWA, and RCRA pro-
grams. Where feasible, co-locating of sampling sites,
standardizing of sampling procedures, coordinating
quality control programs and procedures, and stan-
dardizing recordkeeping and data retrieval proce-
dures could be encouraged.
3. Water quality assessments for both surface
and groundwater resources. WQM plans should
consider areas where ground water does not meet
Interim Primary Drinking Water Standards. Water
quality data from RCRA and SDWA inventories could
be transmitted to WQM planning agencies. NPDES
permitting and monitoring data could be transmitted
to SDWA agencies for use in control of underground
injection. Locations of existing and proposed drink-
ing water intakes could be provided to agencies
responsible for locating effluent discharges or moni-
toring their quality. States could coordinate the iden-
tification of water quality problems among programs
(WQM, SDWA, USGS, etc). The identification of
amount, location, and source of toxic pollutants (65
toxic pollutants identified pursuant to section 307(a)
of the Act) should be coordinated among programs.
4. Effective facility planning. Planning can pre-
vent construction of unnecessarily large facilities or
facilities providing treatment at greater levels than
required. Development of the project priority list for
construction grants should include consideration of
water supply intakes, aquifer threats, and other ele-
ments that might be affected by wastewater effluent
and sludge disposal. Also, projected capital improve-
ments for lake restoration activities could be consid-
ered where sewage discharges are near lakes tar-
geted for restoration activities. Facility plans could
identify potential toxic substances within each mu-
nicipal service area. Facility planning must consider
impacts on designated sole source aquifers.
Common data on population projections are man-
dated by regulation. However, other information such
as land use data pertinent to flow projections, soils
information on possible land disposal of sludge, or
land application of wastewater could be coordinated
between agencies. Assessments could include heavy
metals, the 65 toxic pollutants, and industrial and
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OPENING SESSION
treatment plant discharges. Assessments could iden-
tify all aquifer interfaces with surface water, espe-
cially low flow interfaces. Assessments could identify
aquifer storage capacity, recharge, and depth.
5. Wasteload allocations. WQM agencies could
assess the trade-offs of planning capital and energy
intensive projects, such as advanced waste treat-
ment systems and the alternative of implementing
best management practices, in order to achieve
water quality standards. A process could be devel-
oped to integrate NPDES permits (municipal and in-
dustrial discharge), section 405 permits (sewage
15
sludge), and hazardous waste disposal permits under
RCRA.
Integration and coordination of some of these pro-
grams would provide a more logical approach toward
achieving the 1983 water quality goals as well as the
goals of other environmental legislation. A consolida-
tion of current efforts and requirements not only
would ease the administrative burden placed on the
State agencies but also would provide the States
with a better strategy to achieve their environmental
objectives.
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REGION V CLEAN LAKES PROGRAM
CHARLES H. SUTFIN
Water Division, Region V
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Chicago, Illinois
ABSTRACT
The success of lake restoration in Region V is a story of independent State efforts and
cooperation with Federal agencies. Around the turn of the century, all of the Region V States
established State biological research stations, generally in connection with State universities to
promote the development of game fisheries. As concern for the Great Lakes grew several
States also provided financial resources for restoration projects on small inland lakes All of the
Region V States provide some degree of technical assistance to the public and conduct their
own lake monitoring programs without Federal assistance. With funding of the clean lakes
program in FY 1975, moneys became available to fund larger, more complex restoration
projects. At present. Region V has funded 18 restoration projects involving a number of
watershed and m-lake restoration measures. The nonpoint source controls of the developed
208 plans need to be implemented. The availability of Federal funds and Federal program
guidance will result in the funding of projects that advance the state of the art of lake restoration
in a coordinated manner and provide for a more systematic evaluation of restoration methods
INTRODUCTION
I hope to be able to acquaint you with some of the
unique lake problems that face us here in Region V, to
describe our present program for lake restoration,
and to share with you some of the opportunities we
see for improving our knowledge of lake ecosystems
and our rate of successful lake restorations.
STATE CONTRIBUTIONS TO
REGIONAL LIMNOLOGY
By the early part of this century many States had
established biological research stations to inventory
State biological resources and to improve the quality
of existing fisheries. In addition to producing a num-
ber of highly qualified aquatic biologists, these facili-
ties provided a testing ground for the principles of
European limnology in North America. The work of
such noted individuals as Birge and Juday from Wis-
consin, Paul Welch of Michigan, and Stephen Forbes
and his associates in Illinois helped to further the
study of regional lake ecosystems. As concerns over
the polluted condition of lakes increased in the
1930's investigations focused on the characteristics
of over-productive lakes and the development of me-
thods for restoring and protecting such lakes.
By 1975 all of the Region V States had completed
lake inventories, and all but two were published re-
ports. These inventories included over 34,000 lakes
or 36 percent of the nationally inventoried lakes of
the contiguous 48 States. Although far fewer lakes
have been surveyed, and even fewer still are sampled
regularly, the sampling conducted prior to the 1974
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency national lake
eutrophication survey was generally tied to the mu-
nicipal and industrial point source program. Since
the completion of the survey the emphasis of State
lake monitoring efforts has gradually shifted toward
the collection of data on the trophic character of their
lakes and the loading rates from various land use
patterns.
These changes are reflective of three points:
1. The emphasis that Public Law 92-500 has placed
on areawide pollution control and, particularly after
1974, the overall strategy of EPA and local planning
agencies in implementing the section 208 planning
program.
2. The need to collect a broader range of water
quality parameters expressing primary production
capabilities and the trophic condition of lakes.
3. The data base provided by the survey, which
indicates the significant role that nonpoint source
pollution plays in the degradation of the Nation's
lakes. The survey pronounced 80 percent of the lakes
surveyed in the eastern United States to be eu-
trophic. Phosphorus was found to be the limiting
agent to nuisance biological production in at least 67
percent of the cases.
The next logical step after a classification of State
lakes was, and continues to be, an organized State
effort to restore and protect the Nation's lakes. With
its commanding position on lake restoration research
and lake classification, Wisconsin in 1974 was able
to initiate one of the first State grant programs for
lake restoration. Although every State in Region V is
active in collecting lake data, there have also been
sporadic attempts to deal with serious lake problems.
These efforts have been aided through special appro-
priations by State legislatures and technical assis-
tance provided by a diverse number of State agen-
cies; unfortunately, these efforts have been unsuc-
17
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18
LAKE RESTORATION
cessful in many cases, because of limited resources
and a lack of thoroughness in evaluating the prob-
lems and available abatement methods. Many of
these problems local residents still face in attempting
to restore their lakes.
Mr. Mackenthun's discussion will deal with the
present limitations of the 314 program and the
changes that will be incorporated in the newly pro-
posed regulation. Therefore, I will not go into these
problems or the impact of the proposed program
changes on the national situation at this time. In-
stead, I would like to acquaint you with the Region's
plans for implementing the new regulations and the
success of the Region V clean lakes grant program to
date.
REGION V CLEAN LAKES PROGRAM
At present the Agency has awarded 18 grants with
a total project cost of $17.3 million; two more
projects have been recommended for award in FY
79. Since the first year of funding, the Region has
reviewed 32 proposals. Costs for awarded projects
range from $176,000 to over $2.5 million with an
average of approximately $965,000. By comparison,
this is somewhat above the national program average
of $612,000, and I believe reflects the scale and
diversity of the technology being demonstrated on
Region V lakes.
Of the 22 restoration methods in use nationally, 16
are represented by Region V projects. Approximately
71 percent of the awarded projects involved water-
shed controls for urban or agricultural nonpoint
source drainage either as the entire treatment pro-
gram, or in connection with in-lake treatment mea-
sures. This need for nonpoint source control of nutri-
ents nationally is further substantiated by the Na-
tional Lake Eutrophication Survey Assessment of the
effectiveness of point source nutrient controls. Based
on the implementation of a reasonable phosphorus
effluent limit of 1 mg/7, it was determined that 72
percent of the lakes affected by point sources would
not show any improvement in water quality due to
remaining nonpoint source contributions.
At present the Region V program focuses largely on
urban lakes. The reasons for this are numerous, but
one major factor has been the interest shown by the
State of Minnesota in restoring and protecting lakes
in the Twin Cities area. For this reason a number of
the watershed control projects in this Region involve
various techniques for controlling stormwater pollu-
tion of lakes. A good cross section of this technology
is demonstrated in the Twin Cities.
Of the in-lake controls dredging is the most often
utilized technique, being involved in approximately
44 percent of the regional grants (which is only
slightly more frequent than the national average of
40 percent). As Dr. Peterson's presentation on
dredging technology will suggest, this approach is
frequently the only way of ameliorating the effects of
past abusive land-use practices. Selective dredging
has been found to be especially effective for increas-
ing recreational boating and fisheries potential
where light transmission is limited by natural turbid-
ity or coloration. It should be noted here that the
Region has supported projects only when appropri-
ate watershed controls have been implemented.
Eleven of the 1 8 projects are in construction at this
time. The remaining seven are either in the final
engineering stage or are undergoing further
cost-effective analysis. Five projects are scheduled
for completion in FY 78 and an additional six in FY
79. Although all projects are subject to routine moni-
toring to assess their effectiveness and environmen-
tal consequence, four of the Region V restoration
projects have received additional funds from the
clean lakes program. These supplemental funds are
grants from the Corvallis Research Laboratory to as-
sess in detail the limnological and socioeconomic
effects of the projects; seven separate grants have
been made for this work.
As yet none of the projects has produced sufficient
data to conclusively determine the degree of suc-
cess. Seven projects have shown some effects from
the treatment administered thus far; among these are
White Clay and Mirror Lakes in Wisconsin. Although
Jim Peterson will be discussing the socioeconomic
results of the White Clay Lake project, I would like to
highlight my presentation today with a few words on
the results obtained from these two projects, which
indicate the need for a flexible approach to lake
restoration proposals.
Only 11 (83 percent) of the contributing farm oper-
ations could be dealt with at White Clay Lake; this
total does not include two major livestock operations
located directly on the lakeshore. It has been hypoth-
esized that marsh areas do play a major role in reduc-
ing nutrient paniculate matter from surface runoff;
perhaps as much as 80 percent of existing loadings
to the marsh are removed there. At present, it is
unknown whether the flows from the marsh are suffi-
ciently low in phosphorus concentration and high in
volume to reduce total loadings below the dangerous
level. Further study of the role of the marsh is now in
progress. In any event, it is possible that once influent
phosphorus has been reduced to its maximum extent,
some form of low-cost in-lake nutrient inactivation
process may be utilized to further improve the lake.
Incidently, there is the possibility that the lake district
may be able to persuade the remaining three opera-
tors to participate, as a result of the favorable results
obtained by the project to date.
The Mirror Lake project is not scheduled to be
completed unitl early 1980, but the lake is already
showing signs of scientific improvement. Although at
Mirror Lake the phosphorus loading cannot be re-
duced below the calculated dangerous level, a fol-
lowup treatment with alum is expected to have a
long-term beneficial effect by reducing algal
production. Secchi disk measurements are expected
to show a major improvement, because the algae
producing the transparency problems in spring and
late fall normally migrate to colder, deeper waters
during the summer months.
The major indicators of an improving water quality
at this time are the shift in algal species from the
obnoxious blue-green species to the more desirable
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OPENING SESSION
19
green algal species, and the increase of the epilimn-
ion, orthe zone of biological activity.
CONCLUSION
This brief description indicates the contribution the
Region V States have made to regional limnology and
the science of lake restoration. We anticipate that the
lake surveys now being conducted by State and
Federal agencies will increase in intensity and fre-
quency in the coming years. There also has been a
discernible increase in interest by State legislatures
in addressing lake problems. To support this in-
creased activity, our regional office has provided
additional manpower for pre-application assistance
and program administration from its operating bud-
get, including 2 man-years for program administra-
tion in FY79.
In response to the findings of the national lake
eutrophication survey and the results of the surveys
conducted by the Region V States, the regional office
has implemented several programmatic changes to
specifically address lake pollution sources for which
208 and 201 moneys are available. We currently are
developing a handbook of procedures to assist lake
communities in assessing the degree of pollution
from septic tanks. This handbook will provide the
information necessary for evaluating less costly alter-
native treatment systems that may be implemented
through the 201 program.
Organizationally, the Region has attempted to place
the clean lakes program into a closer working rela-
tionship with the 208 areawide wastewater manage-
ment program. Regional program policy for lake res-
toration work is being distributed to State and area-
wide planning agencies through our clean lakes
transmittal memorandum system. This guidance and
frequent contact with regional office personnel dur-
ing the development of local lake restoration propos-
als have helped clarify the role of these agencies and
define realistic goals for lake restoration projects.
Our experience with the present clean lakes grants
has shown that in addition to setting realistic goals
for lake improvement, it may be necessary in some
cases to readjust local goals depending upon the lake
response. Our Region has tried to stress two factors
as the most significant considerations of the restora-
tion project design: first, the selection of goals that
seek to maximize recreational usability of a lake; and,
second, the analysis of alternative combinations of
available lake restoration techniques to select the
most cost-effective approach that will meet the estab-
lished goals.
It is too early to claim full success on the present
lake restoration projects. But the results from the two
projects cited do indicate that the measures em-
ployed have produced a beneficial lake response. In
both instances, it has been shown that some form of
followup in-lake treatment may prove beneficial, al-
though the total extent of the improvement cannot be
determined at this time. In any event, the most signifi-
cant result of the clean lakes projects may well be the
new spirit of local cooperation that is generated by a
mutual concern for the lake and its successful
restoration.
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APPLIED LIMNOLOGY IN THE
STATE OF MAINE
MATTHEW SCOTT
Department of Environmental Protection
State of Maine
ABSTRACT
A brief review is made of the historical subject matter and its evolution to modern times. The
significance of limnology in Maine is discussed and recent levels of research on Maine lakes by
the university and State agencies are summarized. A review is given of methods for background
monitoring plus diagnostic studies. Maine's purview of section 314 is discussed with its State
strategy and position for funding current programs. The applied aspect of limnology is
presented with respect to classification, restoration, and regulations. Maine's trophic state
index and its use by the Maine Department of Environmental Protection and 208 planning
agencies are presented. The future needs for Maine, section 314 are discussed, particularly
expansion of the concept of lake protection. Also considered is future limnological research at
the University of Maine and how this may help fulfill the needs of applied limnology.
INTRODUCTION
Limnology is that branch of science that deals with
the study of inland waters. The term includes the
external and internal, physical, chemical, and biologi-
cal processes. A complicated subject, limnology has
fascinated the minds of many scientists; by compari-
son with other sciences it is still young in years.
Early limnologists formulated the descriptive begin-
nings of the science. Ruttner (1973) mentions a few
of the early European limnologists: Ford, Thiene-
mann, Lenz, Gessner, Pavlovsky, and Brehm. Al-
though communications in this young science were
not good in the mid-19th century, the European work
was informative to the science in North America.
The first generation of limnologists in North Amer-
ica was associated with universities; Birge and Juday
were pioneers in the United States. Various memoirs
(Sellery, 1956) testify to Birge's contribution to lim-
nology. Mortimer (1956) called Birge an "explorer of
lakes." Mortimer also pointed out that Ford intro-
duced the term limnology between 1892-1895 in
his monograph of Lake Geneva. Birge later intro-
duced the terms thermocline, epilimnion, and hypo-
limnion in his work on temperature, stratification,
seasons of lake circulation, and dissolved gases. Both
Juday and Birge, according to Ruttner (1973), laid the
bare mechanics of how photosynthesis, respiration,
and decay combine to produce stratification of the
dissolved gases.
Frey (1963) in Chapter 1 of "Limnology in North
America" has done a modern review, evaluating the
contributions of the Birge-Juday era. Anyone inter-
ested in the historical aspect of limnology in this
country would profit from reading "Limnology in
North America."
The modern era of limnology, which should be
considered as the maturing stage of the science, has
developed another generation of limnologists in
North America. George Evelyn Hutchinson, who per-
haps has had the greatest influence on this genera-
tion, in my opinion, should be called the father of
modern limnology. He has provided the science with
three comprehensive volumes on the subject, treat-
ing it in the first volume from a mathematical ap-
proach (Ruttner, 1973). Hutchinson produced nearly
one Ph.D. per year (34) at Yale from 1937-1971.
Fisheries and Environment Canada (formerly the
Fisheries Research Board of Canada) in 1971 re-
named Lake 305 in the Experimental Lakes Area
Hutchinson Lake. I believe this is a fitting tribute to a
man who has made such a significant contribution to
basic and applied limnology.
LIMNOLOGY IN NEW ENGLAND
Politically, New England might have been governed
better had it been one State because of its more or
less unified culture; however, the limnology of north-
ern and southern New England is different, with the
largest glaciated lakes appearing in the north and the
smaller ones in the south. Maine is the largest of the
New England States, and also contains the largest
number (3,000) of glaciated lakes, as well as the
deepest (Sebago Lake) and the largest (Mosshead
Lake) of all New England lakes. The historical record
of New England limnology is presented by Brooks
and Deevey (1963) in "Limnology in North America."
Most of the limnoiogical knowledge of New En-
gland lakes was gained through fishery biological
surveys. New England inland water fisheries long
have been centers of sports and recreational activity,
thus the completed surveys were aimed at the fishery
management program in each State. The fishery pro-
grams were handled by the State Fisheries and Wild-
life Departments, and Cooperative Fisheries Units
21
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22
LAKE RESTORATION
were established at two of New England's State uni-
versities. No limnological institutes have been estab-
lished; however, various faculty members at schools
such as Yale, the University of Maine, and the Univer-
sity of Massachusetts, have kept high the interest in
lake biology. Consequently, most of the research
efforts have been by individuals, not institutions.
It appears that Cooper, while on the faculty of the
University of Maine, directed the longest biological
survey of lakes and ponds in Maine (from
1936-1944). His data, however, lacked Secchi disk
values. Limnological surveys of New Hampshire
streams resulted in analyses by Hooper, Bekney, Trip-
pensee, Rainwater, and Embody. Connecticut bene-
fited from the work of Davey, becoming the only
State to undergo a thorough examination of its lake
water chemistry. Survey reports on the fishes of
Massachusetts were done by Swartz, McGabe, and
Stroud, with fairly complete morphometric data.
UTILIZATION OF METHODS
With the fishery resource inventories of Cooper and
the associated water quality data, we have a very
good beginning to study many of Maine's lakes. The
current fishery management program for Maine is
carried out by the Maine Department of Inland Fisher-
ies and Wildlife; Secchi disk transparency reading is
being done by the fisheries staff in Maine, adding
significant information for future reference.
The environmental movement focused attention on
cultural eutrophication in Maine's lakes. These
stressed lakes were receiving nutrient loadings from
point and nonpoint sources, creating nuisance algal
blooms. The only historical remedy was copper sul-
fate or other aquatic herbicides. To compound the
problem, no State agency was equipped or staffed to
spend full time on lake problems, protection, or water
quality. In 19701 joined the staff of the Maine Depart-
ment of Environmental Protection, then called the
Water Improvement Commission. My objective was
to organize a biological services division within the
agency. This was the birth of the Division of Lakes
and Biological Studies, which has made slow but
progressive growth ever since its beginning. Initially,
the agency was equipped with a laboratory and a
limited staff of chemists and engineers. With the
continuing strong environmental protection interest,
staff expertise was added that helped us progress
with more accuracy.
Thus the Lakes Division in Maine is now in the
business of applied limnology. In the past decade
laboratory studies of the nutrient limitation question
applied to whole lake studies, modeling, and nutrient
budgets have thrown applied limnologists into a posi-
tion of solving lake problems. In Maine we saw the
need to work cooperatively with the University and to
become involved with needed research, going
through a learning curve on the intensive monitoring
of Maine's lakes with the available techniques of
water analysis. Our laboratory met the problem of
measuring low phosphorus levels in Maine lakes dur-
ing the very early 1970's; later we found that others
were experiencing the same problem. This problem
was solved by refining the autoclave digestion tech-
nique. Shore property owners on Maine lakes started
to demand action to solve some of their problems;
however, the problem lakes are few.
On the other hand, a large number of lake associa-
tions rallied to the cause of protection rather than
restoration. Maine passed a Great Ponds Research
Program permitting additional staff for lake activities
in the Department of Environmental Protection (DEP).
Our first responsibility was to protect lakes through
legislation. Section 314 of the 1972 Federal Water
Pollution Control Act allowed for Federal participa-
tion in lake restoration.
Davis and Scott (1970) provided some new lake
data, supplemented by several graduate theses by
Sasserville (1974), Thurlow (1974), Dubiel (1976),
and Bailey (1978). Because funds for monitoring
were not available through 314 at that time, the
Maine DEP Lakes Division decided to enter into a
cooperative program with the U. S. Geological Sur-
vey (USGS), Water Resources Division. This program
gathered 3 years of limnological data on 43 selected
Maine lakes (Cowing and Scott, in press). Davis, et al.
(in press) also did a descriptive and comparative
study of 16 Maine lakes.
These studies, combined with previous ones, pro-
vide more baseline limnological data about our lakes.
The main objectives of the USGS-DEP project were to
gather baseline data on a large number of Maine
lakes, evaluate any proposed trophic state index, and
synthesize the data for future needs of lake monitor-
ing programs in Maine. Bailey (unpublished) then
used the data to develop a trophic state index, which
happens to be similar to Carlson's (1977) scale but
inverted. Modifications of Bailey's early work are now
under revision as Maine has adopted the use of the
trophic state index for classification of its lakes and
ponds, becoming the first State to do so in regulating
water quality standards for lakes and ponds.
Volunteer lay monitors assisted the DEP in collect-
ing lake water quality data. The use of total phospho-
rus at spring overturn, Secchi disk (minimum), and
the open water seasonal mean chlorophyll a met with
great interest and enthusiasm from lake association
members. This volunteer program was a spin-off idea
from Michigan, Minnesota, and Ontario's experi-
ences. The University of Maine, Orono, also assisted
in the very early development stages of training moni-
tors. We have had the program in operation for 3
years, collecting data from 150 lakes. It provides
feedback to the monitor through an annual report
and direct contact on a one-to-one basis for training
and information. The trophic state index has been
used by a few 208 planning agencies and the DEP to
determine a change or impact from activity within the
drainage basin by land use coefficient values.
At the same time Haley Pond, Maine's first restora-
tion project, was being monitored on a long-term
basis. Through the combined efforts of Rangeley
officials, Maine DEP staff, and the EPA's Washington
staff, demonstration funds for a tertiary treatment
system in Rangeley were made available. Credit is
due to Ken Mackenthun of EPA, for his assistance in
funding this project. The technical success story of
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OPENING SESSION
23
Haley Pond is reported by Bailey, et al. (in press).
Haley Pond is an example of a lake that was under
nutrient pollution for a short period of time but with
tertiary treatment recovered in about the same
amount of time. The project objectives were to evalu-
ate tertiary treatment with pre- and postdate col-
lected over a 7-year period.
The Division of Lakes and Biological Studies also
embarked on its first so-called 314 project funded
under 104(h) as an innovative study. This was a
biological manipulation utilizing juvenile sea-run
a\ewives,A/osapseudoharengus, as a filter feeder on
zooplankters. Zooplankton were reduced but a signif-
icant reduction of phosphorus was not evident, ac-
cording to Mower (1978). The fish did crop the zoo-
plankton populations, thus eliminating filter clogging
organisms. This project leads us to more fully recog-
nize aquatic systems biology. This study at Little Pond
was to develop a nutrient budget, introduce sea-run
alewives, measure any effect of controlling the prob-
lem, and evaluate the innovative idea of biological
control. Because Little Pond has a history of copper
sulfate applications we felt it a good opportunity to
apply biological management. There is, however, a
need for more research in this area to give us a better
understanding of applied limnology.
Our experiences of the past 8 years, utilizing the
models of Vollenweider(1975) and Dillon and Rigler
(1974), and literature published by Schindler (1975),
Shapiro (197 1), and Kirchner and Dillon (1975), have
put Maine into an era of applied limnology. We still
need basic research and I feel that some sort of
arrangement has to be made with the University at
Orono for lake research.
Recent contributions have come from the work by
Uttormark and Hutchins (1978) on input-output mod-
els for lake restoration and Hannula (1978) on the
model of phosphorus cycling in Sebasticook Lake.
Also we are working in cooperation with the Cobbos-
see Watershed District in Maine on the largest alum
application in the United States, to precipitate phos-
phorus in the hypolimnion of a 575-hectare lake. This
project is considered experimental limnology based
on the size of the operation and the monitoring or
post evaluation necessary to determine its success or
failure. I feel it is a good experiment. Alum is being
injected at the 7-meter contour and only the anaero-
bic area of the hypolimnion is receiving treatment.
Based on small lake applications of alum it should
work; however, it is very early to predict anything. If
the project is a success then the credit is due to the
Cobbossee Watershed District staff. Tom Gordon,
executive director, can be contacted for any details.
The DEP experience will assist us in the proper direc-
tions for other lake restoration grant applications in
Maine and we are providing Cobbossee Watershed
District with technical, field, and laboratory support.
FUTURE NEEDS FOR LAKES
What I see as an immediate need in Maine is
assistance in doing diagnostic studies of input and
output of some of our so-called problem lakes, while
still maintaining a high level of lake protection activ-
ity. Protection is much less expensive than restora-
tion and this is the best way to utilize section 314
funds. Otherwise, we will be spending tax dollars
forever to restore lakes by allowing a problem to take
place without some form of prevention. One may
conclude thus far that Maine has little experience
with lake restoration; however, a great deal of effort
spent in classification, monitoring, and utilizing regu-
lations, such as Shoreline Zoning, Maine Plumbing
Code, Great Ponds Dredge and Fill Act, and the Site
Location Law, have gone into protecting Maine's
lakes.
Future information needs to prepare a restoration
plan under314 are:
1. Identify the problem.
2. Evaluate or diagnose the problem.
3. Recommend alternatives.
4. Actual restoration plan. ,
To prepare a restoration or protection project
would require a 5-year plan and it would mean add-
ing on problem lakes as others were evaluated or
solved on a priority basis. It behooves each State to
prepare a strategy and present it to EPA; otherwise I
don't see how long-term projects can be funded by
314 funds. In our strategy for 1975 we exemplified
the need for protection. We are now revising the
strategy for 1978 because new rules, regulations,
and funding from 314 also are being revised. We
therefore will expand on our concept of lake protec-
tion as funds become available for lakes in need of
protection or those with potential problems. I see
future regulation needs for Maine lakes as follows:
1. Total phosphate ban on detergents.
2. State legislation for dedicated funds for 314.
3. Sediment and erosion control.
4. Regulation of water levels and dams on lakes.
5. Forestry and agricultural control practices in
lakesheds.
6. Drainage areas for all lake basins in Maine to
determine flushing.
7. Prohibiting the use of chemicals for cosmetic
purposes.
8. Set aside lakes for future studies.
9. Protection as of remote ponds from
development.
10. Designation of some lakes as critical areas.
11. Expansion of the lay monitoring program as
early warning for protection purposes.
The future research needs for Maine and perhaps
the Nation as a whole lie in the concept of limnologi-
cal institutes. I feel it would be a good opportunity to
propose, again, the concept of a limnologies! insti-
tute at the University of Maine, Orono. Maine has
3,000 glaciated lakes with a diversity of limnological
problems; a properly funded institute could draw
some excellent limnological talent to the university.
Interested State agencies should participate by sup-
porting funding and working cooperatively with the
institute, much as the Cooperative Fishery Units have
done. The Orono campus has four scientists,
Drs. Ronald Davis, Steve Norton, Paul Uttormark, and
Tom Hannula, who are willing to support the estab-
lishment of such an institute.
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24
LAKE RESTORATION
The Nation's sport fisheries programs have been
with us since the Dingle-Johnson Act was passed in
the 1950's. Since then Cooperative Fishery Units
have been established at many of the major land
grant universities throughout the United States. With
such interest and emphasis in sustaining yields to
anglers the fishery biologist must have more basic
and applied research.
Therefore it seems that on a long-term basis EPA
ought to consider using 314 funds to encourage the
States to support limnological institutes. If only a
small fraction of restoration funds was directed to
research we could provide answers. The following is
a list of basic research that will have to be addressed
in the next decade:
1. Acid rain, its significance, and problems for the
future.
2. Long-term chemical effects on the biota from
alum applications or other chemicals that may be
used in restoring lakes.
3. Development of limnological research for ap-
plied purposes—new approaches of paleolimnology
and sediment stratigraphy.
4. The aesthetics or sociological impact on the
limnology of lakes.
5. Changes in forest management in Maine lak-
esheds due to discontinuance of budworm control.
6. Development of and manipulation of lake biologi-
cal systems to improve water quality.
Hutchinson (1963) in predicting the future of lim-
nology was hopeful about a number of things that
scientists would have to consider. He felt that higher
standards of accuracy should prevail and that the
same people who gather the facts should be the
evaluators. This underlines EPA's positive decision
for States to be the only agency eligible to accept
314 funds. The fairly new approach of paleolimnol-
ogy and lake sediment stratigraphy can be useful to
applied limnology and lake management. Any basic
or pure scientific studies ought to be through the
wise development of applied limnology.
Another important aspect is aesthetic limnology,
which is associated with human welfare and the
lakes' recreational role. With such interests and de-
mands, control of nutrient pollution will become
more difficult, yet more valuable and imperative;
there may well be a decrease in cultural
eutrophication.
Finally, I hope I have conveyed some valuable
thoughts about our work in Maine. Some of these
philosophical views might prove to be valuable as we
must think about future needs and the responsibility
we owe to the public to do the job the best way
possible with what we have available. The alternative
now is we must draw upon the basic research litera-
ture, and hope that it is applicable for our limnology
program.
REFERENCES
Bailey, J., et al. Response of Haley Pond, Maine to changes
in effluent loading. Jour. Water Pollut. Control Fed. (In
press.)
Bailey, J. H. 1978. Quantitative comparison of limnological
characteristics and diatom surface sediment assem-
blages in 19 Maine lakes. Thesis. University of Maine,
Orono.
Brooks, J. L, and E. S. Deevey, Jr. 1963. New England.
Pages 117-162 in D. G. Frey, ed. Limnology in North
America. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Carlson, R. E. 1977. A trophic state index for lakes. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 22:361.
Cowing, D. J., and M. Scott. 1978. A limnological study of
43 selected Maine lakes. Water-Resour. Invest., U.S. Geo-
logical Survey. (In press.)
Davis, R. B., and M. Scott. 1970. North Kennebec Regional
Planning Commission, Data Prog. Rep. Waterville, Maine.
Davis, R. B, et al. Descriptive and comparative studies of
Maine lakes. Dep. Botany Geolog. Sci., University of
Maine Press, Orono. (In press.)
Dillon, P. J., and F. H. Rigler. 1974. A test of a simple nutrient
budget model predicting phosphorus concentration in
lake water. Jour Fish. Res. Board Can. 31:1771.
Dubiel, R. F. 1976. Spatial and temporal variations of sedi-
ment and interstitial water chemistry in Lake Sebasticook,
Maine. Thesis. University of Maine, Orono.
Frey, D. G. 1963. Wisconsin- the Birge-Juday era. Pages
3-54 in D. G Frey, ed. Limnology in North America. Univer-
sity of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Hannula, T. A. 1978. Modeling phosphorus cycling in Lake
Sebasticook, Newport, Maine. Proj. Completion Rep. A-
039-Me. Land Water Resour. Inst, University of Maine,
Orono.
Hutchinson, G. D. 1963. The prospect before us. Pages
683-690 in D. G. Frey, ed. Limnology in North America.
University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Mortimer, C. H. 1956. E A. Birge: an explorer of lakes.
University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Mower, B. 1978. Utilization of juvenile alewives to control a
lake water quality problem. EPA Grant No. S 804272010.
(Mimeo.)
Ruttner, F. 1973. Fundamentals of limnology. 3rd ed. Uni-
versity of Toronto Press, Toronto.
Sasserville, D. R. 1974. Present and historical geochemical
relationships in four Maine lakes. Thesis. University of
Maine, Orono.
Sellery, G. D. 1956. E. A. Birge: a memoir. University of
Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Thurlow, D. L. 1974. Primary productivity, phytoplankton
populations and nutrient bioassays in China Lake, Maine.
Thesis. University of Maine, Orono.
Uttormark, P. D., and M. L. Hutchins. 1978. Input/output
models as decision criteria for lake restoration. Tech.
Completion Rep. C-7232. Land Water Resour. Inst, Uni-
versity of Maine, Orono.
Vallentyne, J. R. 1971. A description of Hutchinson Lake,
Ontario. Limnol. Oceanogr. 15:473.
Vollenweider, R. A. 1975. Input-output models, with special
reference to the phosphorus loading concept in limnol-
ogy. Schweig. A. Hydrol. 37:53.
-------
FEDERAL,
STATE,
AND LOCAL
PROGRAMS
-------
THE MEANS AND ENDS
OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
LOWELL L KLESSIG
Environmental Resources Unit
University of Wisconsin-Extension
Madison, Wisconsin
ABSTRACT
This paper focuses on the role of local property owners and the local community in lake
management. The objective of the paper is to encourage professional humility among lake
managers as they interact with the people most directly impacted by management programs.
The three central points of the paper are: (1) Public education is not public participation; (2) a
participation technique appropriate to the function should be institutionalized in the decision-
making process; and (3) parochialism is not all bad The Wisconsin Lake Management Program
is used to illustrate institutional arrangements that attempt to incorporate these principles.
INTRODUCTION
Our political system was once characterized as
government of the people, by the people, and for the
people. I suspect we all believe in that democratic
ideal expressed by Abe Lincoln. I also suspect that we
believe it applies everywhere except to our own
work. We probably all suffer from the same disease
when it comes to lake management—a very common
disease called "professional elitism."
We exhibit this elitism in many ways. We even
subtly exhibit it in our motto of "clean water." Clean
water is high in the hierarcy of means and ends but it
is still a means to the higher end of human happiness.
Before discussing this point as it relates to public
participation, I'd like to share a story which occurred
at a public involvement workshop with National Park
superintendents. A sociologist colleague of mine was
asked whether he really believed "in all this survey
business." In particular, he was asked if he would like
his physician to take a survey of the people in the
waiting room before deciding on an operation. My
colleague admitted that he didn't think a survey was
appropriate in that situation, but he told the ques-
tioner, "the doctor sure as hell better ask me where it
hurts before he operates and he better let me make
the final decision regarding surgery."
This story raises the issue of which public should be
participating, but let us assume for purposes of our
discussion that we agree that some public should tell
us where it hurts and whether they want us to apply
oursurgical devices.
PUBLIC EDUCATION: NECESSARY
BUT NOT SUFFICIENT
Public Education—on the Lake Ecosystem
Just as we need to have a general understanding of
human anatomy and physiology before we can dis-
cuss our health with our physician, the segment of
the public that relates to lakes needs to understand
the basic processes that cycle water, nutrients, and
energy in lakes and promote natural and cultural
eutrophication. Such education can take place in
high schools, youth groups, park naturalists' pro-
grams, lake association meetings, and a variety of
other places.
Probably the most effective education occurs when
the learner is faced with a particular problem and
decision. Such situations are referred to as "teach-
able moments." The Cooperative Extension Service
has utilized such opportunities to provide information
regarding agriculture, home economics, and more
recently a broad range of natural resource and com-
munity development issues. While Extension has no
monopoly on adult education, it does have the highly
developed system of county based and locally ac-
cepted agents. Our specific experience in Wisconsin
(Klessig, 1977b) and a recent EPA-sponsored study
of the Oklahoma Extension System indicate that the
Extension model that has been so successful in com-
mercial agriculture, can be applied to natural re-
sources (Fite, etal. 1977).
Public Education—on Management
Potential
An understanding of lakes and lake problems (Born
and Yanggen, 1972) must be supplemented with an
understanding of lake management options. Citizens
who are to be involved in decisionmaking must have
a basic appreciation of the techniques available to
limit fertility, treat the products of over-fertilization, or
mitigate some other problem. In this regard, the edu-
cator often walks a fine line between providing infor-
mation and promoting a particular management pro-
gram. To protect credibility of the program and him-
27
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28
LAKE RESTORATION
self, it is the educator's responsibility to indicate the
degrees of predictability associated with the various
techniques and to discuss the risks involved.
Public Education—on Organizational
Options
The third major educational need for a lake commu-
nity is to understand the process of organizing, decid-
ing on a management plan, obtaining funding, and
administering a project. General purpose units of
government (counties, cities, villages, and towns),
special purpose units of government, and incorpo-
rated associations have varying abilities to cope with
lake management responsibilities and to adequately
address structural issues (Klessig, 1973; Klessig and
Yanggen, 1975). These include:
Boundary definition: Since 1974, over 100 lake
communities in Wisconsin have formed lake dis-
tricts—special purpose units of government. The
State enabling statute sets no restrictions on bounda-
ries. The decision on boundaries is made by local
people who understand the management implica-
tions, the tax base implications, and the local political
realities of their decision. The local community must
grapple with the issue and decide who is part of that
community of interest.
Lake district boundaries can cut across municipal
lines, but they do not necessarily include the entire
watershed, which would be our ideal as lake manag-
ers. In some cases, the upstream farmers feel no
community of interest with the lake people, and any
effort to force them into a lake district would spell
political and organizational disaster. In other cases,
such as the Upper Willow Flowage, it has been possi-
ble to mobilize housewives and the local high school
Future Farmers of America Club in a petition drive
that collected signatures from thousands of landown-
ers and resulted in a St. Croix County Board resolu-
tion creating a district encompassing the entire
watershed.
Functional jurisdiction: Institutional powers are out-
lined by State enabling legislation. For instance, lake
districts in Wisconsin do not have most police pow-
ers; they cannot zone the land or regulate surface
water use of the lake. Those powers are retained
exclusively by the general purpose units of govern-
ment (county, town, village, and city). The lake district
has management powers in the lake in partnership
with the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
(DNR) and can work on watershed projects with per-
mission of the landowner. At its annual meeting, the
lake district decides which management powers to
exercise, including the provision of sanitary services
(septic tank monitoring, sewer, water, garbage
collection). Neither the State nor local municipalities
can dictate which functions the lake district must
carry out.
Equity. General principles of fairness demand a
sharing of the costs of lake management. The public
in general and the public recreational lake user in
particular benefit from lake management and should
bear some of the costs. Federal and State aids, which
in Wisconsin range up to 80 percent of total project
costs, are premised on this public benefit. But the
local community and riparian owners reap special
benefits and should bear a special responsibility.
Lake districts in Wisconsin can vote to tax them-
selves and have the option of dividing their financial
responsibility with a mill levy, a special service
charge (user fee), a special assessment, or a combina-
tion of these revenue generating mechanisms.
Voting rights: Taxation without representation is a
major issue in lake communities with large numbers
of nonresident property owners. Within the guide-
lines of the U.S. and State Constitutions, provisions
can be made to provide a formal voice for all affected
property owners. Wisconsin law gives nonresident
property owners the right to vote on any project over
$5,000 and allows the district to establish additional
rules forvoting.
PARTICIPATION TECHNIQUES
APPROPRIATE TO THE FUNCTION
Direct participatory democracy as characterized by
voting at a town or lake district annual meeting is an
extreme type of public involvement. But the classic
town hall participation has limits of applicability in a
mass society with representative government. Thus,
Federal and State legislation has attempted to pro-
vide other mechanisms for public involvement
though they are less complete than direct decision-
making by the electorate.
Public Participation—Functions
Tom Heberlein (1976) has identified five major
functions of public involvement:
Informational—to give: The most common reason
cited for public participation by professionals is the
need to tell the community about their plans. Often
this information is provided at the end of the planning
process.
Informational—to get: The function of obtaining
information about preferences is less well accepted
by professionals. For example, lake management
projects in Wisconsin and elsewhere typically pro-
ceed through a study phase where all the important
parameters are systematically measured except the
social preferences of the impacted population.
Assurance: It is not enough for the professional to
know how the public feels. An important function of
public participation is the generation of confidence in
citizens that their views are heard and not ignored.
The image of the agency and the perceived attitude
of agency personnel are very significant in fulfilling
this function. The mandated involvement of Univer-
sity Extension in the Wisconsin program is largely
premised on this function.
Interactive: This function provides a dialog—a rapid
transfer of information back and forth between the
professionals and the public. However, the transmit-
tal of information is secondary; the sheer process of
working together is the dominant goal of this func-
tion. The Wisconsin program attempts to stimulate
this interaction with linkages through local offices of
University Extension and DNR and through program
-------
FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL PROGRAMS
29
staff traveling to numerous lake district annual meet-
ings and commission meetings.
Ritualism: Some forms of public involvement, espe-
cially the public hearing, are largely a legal ritual
which democratic processes require. This function
serves to convince others, but not the impacted popu-
lation, that a formal opportunity for public involve-
ment has been provided. The Wisconsin statutes
require several public hearings in the lake program.
Some hearings, such as those held by the town board
or county board on petitions to create a lake district,
often result in spirited debate and influence deci-
sions. Other hearings, such as the DNR hearing that
follows the affirmative vote of the lake district annual
meeting to proceed with a project, are ritualistic; the
interested population has already voted and the gen-
eral population never makes an appearance at any
hearing.
Public Participation—Techniques
With five functions to be performed, it is clear that
no single technique will do a good job of fulfilling all
functions. Institutional arrangements should help the
professional decide (1) which functions are most
critical at a given stage of lake management, and (2)
what combination of techniques should be employed
to fulfill those functions.As shown in Tables 1-4, a
multitude of techniques can be listed under the broad
rubric of public participation.
Table 1 - Techniques of public participation utilized
Wisconsin's lake management program
Techniques
Ad hoc committee
Advisory committee
Analysis of incoming mail
Analysis of mass media
Behavioral observations
Brochures and bulletins
Day-to-day public contacts
Direct mail from agency to
public
Interview influential
Key contacts
News releases to mass
media
Public informational meeting
Public hearing
Presentations to groups
Referendum
Reports from key staff
Workshops
Agency & Program Stage
Lake association during organization
of lake district
Inland Lake Council - policy formation
Continuous by DNR and Extension
Continuous by DNR and Extension
Continuous by DNR and Extension
Extension educational network
cooperatively with DNR
Continuous by DNR and Extension
"Lake Tides" newsletter
Frequent by DNR and Extension
Frequent by DNR and Extension
Extension educational network
During organization by Extension
agents and specialists
District formation and DNR permits
During organization and at annual
meeting by DNR and Extension
Annual meeting or direct mail
DNR personnel and County Extension
agents
Multi-agency staff coordinated by
Extension specialists
Table 2 - Fulfillment of public participation functions
(assurance, interactive, ritualistic) by select techniques
Techniques
Advisory committee
Analysis of media
Behavioral observation
Interview influential
Public hearing
Referendum
Social survey
Assurance
Function
Interactive
Ritualistic
Table 3 - Fulfillment of public participation function of giving information by select techniques
Techniques
Advisory committee
Direct mailing from agency
Key contacts
Media releases
Public hearing
Referendum
Workshops
Representativeness
of
audience
Function
To give information (sub-criteria)
Cost Convenience Completeness
to to of
agency audience information
Likelihood
of
use
Table 4 - Fulfillment of public participation function of getting information by select technique
Techniques
Advisory committee
Analysis of media
Behavioral observation
Interview influential
Public hearing
Referendum
Social survey
Representativeness
Function
To get information (subcntena)
Measure Measure
direction strength Convenience
of of to
conviction conviction participants
Sensitivity
to
local
politics
-------
30
Public Participation—Criteria
LAKE RESTORATION
Initiate Interest
The principal criterion for any technique is fulfill-
ment of the desired function. To keep the tables
manageable, this discussion is limited to seven tech-
niques. The degree to which a given technique is
judged to fulfill (+) or not fulfill (-) a given function is
based on experience and social science training.
While literature on participation techniques has pro-
liferated in recent years (Voth and Bonner, 1977),
applied research is scant.
However, it should be noted that when research has
been conducted, the results are not always consis-
tent with expectations. For instance, Heberlein and
Proudy (1977) discovered in two case studies that
the people who appeared at a public hearing were
representatives of the general population in the com-
munity, contrary to the "self-evident" expectation
that hearings are biased (Bultena and Rogers, 1974;
Wengert, 1971; White, 1973).
Public Participation—Institutionalization
Institutionalization is a dilemma of public policy. If
statutes and administrative codes require an elabo-
rate and rigid system of public participation, the
process is costly, time consuming, and unresponsive
to local conditions. If the need for public involvement
is not codified, we as professionals and as bureau-
crats are likely to avoid public interaction and slip
back into our comfortable professional elitism.
Chapter 33 of the Wisconsin statutes and DNR
administrative codes for the lake program attempts
to steer a middle course (Klessig, 1976). The princi-
ple of local initiative and control is strongly codified
by the legislation. Project decisions must be ap-
proved by both the local district at an annual meeting
and by DNR. University of Wisconsin-Extension is
statutorily designated to provide the educational
services. However, the statutes leave a great deal of
discretion to local communities in the determination
of boundaries and operation of the district, to DNR in
providing a program of technical and financial assis-
tance, and to Extension in delivering educational
services that can evolve with the program and be
tailored for local conditions (Klessig, 1977a).
APPROPRIATE DEGREES OF
PAROCHIALISM
Professionals generally take pride in their long
range cosmopolitan perspective and they are gener-
ally critical of the short-sightedness of local officials
and the selfishness of local property owners. "Paro-
chialism" is almost as dirty a word as "politics." Like
politics, parochialism is viewed as interfering with
good planning and professional resource manage-
ment. But good politics is part of good planning! And
parochialism is often essential for implementation!
Under the grass roots concept employed in Wis-
consin's program, parochialism is necessary long
before implementation. Lake property owners will
not be motivated to create a district and conduct a
study unless they perceive that such action will result
in better property values, better aesthetics, more
satisfying recreation, and/or a finer legacy for their
heirs. By statute, the legislature (1) recognizes that
success ultimately depends on local leadership, and
(2) requires local initiative before the program be-
comes operational in the community.
Support for Management Projects
After creation, a typical Wisconsin lake district con-
ducts a feasibility study with State cost sharing. The
next big decision is again a local one based on the
self-interest of the district taxpayers. They are re-
quired to balance the costs in taxes (and limnological
risks) with the potential benefits of a managed lake.
While unanimity is rare and some projects will go
sour during implementation, the possibility of com-
munity conflict and distrust of government is reduced
and the potential for community pride, project sup-
port, and improved governmental relations is en-
hanced because the decision was formally made by a
local institution. The major projects that have been
undertaken by Wisconsin lake districts (Table 5) have
sparked vigorous debate at the annual meetings, but
have enjoyed broad public support after the decision
to proceed was made.
Table 5 - Maior lake district projects in Wisconsin
Lake District
Mirror/Shadow
White Clay
Half Moon
Largon
Henry
Noquebay
Emery
Lilly
Bugle
Little Muskego
Decorah
Project
Storm sewer diversion
Alum treatment
Aeration
Manure storage facilites
Grass waterways
Underground drainage
Dredging
Pumping
Aeration
Storm sewer diversion
Dam construction
Aeration
Stream bank nprappmg
Dredging
Reestablish natural wetland
Winter drawdown
Intensive weed harvesting
Purchase flowage rights
Rebuild dam
Dredging
Alum treatment
Watershed controls
Dredging
Dredging
Dredg'ng
Stage
Completed
Completed
On-going
Completed
Completed
Completed
Completed
On-going
On-going
Pending
Completed
On-going
Completed
Final stages
Next 5 years
Next 5 years
Next 5 years
Expected
completion 1978
Expected
completion 1979
Engineering
Engineering
Engineering
Cost
$ 430,000
230,000
730,000
30,000 of work
for
5,200 plus
local labor
440,000
490,000
35,000
700,000
380,000
2.000.000
525,000
-------
FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL PROGRAMS
Maintain the Management Role REFERENCES
31
As yet, we have no track record with the long-term
maintenance and monitoring aspects of lake
management. It will be difficult to motivate such
continuing management activities after big projects
are completed and everyone breathes a sigh of relief
as special assessments are paid off.
The only motivational scheme, short of continuing
Federal and State grants, that has reasonable chance
of success is enlightened self-interest, the continuity
of leaders who are rewarded with social recognition,
and parochial oride in community achievement.
SUMMARY
My objective was threefold in this presentation:
First, I hope I have encouraged humility in our
professional attitude as we approach local communi-
ties and attempt to assist them in managing "their"
lake. Experts like us should be on tap, but not on top.
Second, I hope I have outlined some major institu-
tional questions and provided an explanation of why
the Wisconsin program is structured the way it is.
Third, I tried to press three points regarding the
hierarchy of ends and means in public participation
per se and in a management program as a whole: (a)
Public education is necessary but not sufficient for
public participation; (b) public participation tech-
niques should be consciously chosen as appropriate
to the functions to be fulfilled; (c) parochialism and
local self-interest are essential motivational forces.
If we succeed in reducing the phosphate levels in a
lake, but in the process insult local dignity and reduce
the capacity for self-governance, then we have failed.
If we fail to eliminate a complicated lake problem,
but citizens are happy that government was respon-
sive to their needs and that they played a central role
in community decisionmaking, then we have
succeeded.
Born, S., and D. Yanggen. 1972. Understanding lakes and
lake problems. Publ. No. G2411. University of
Wisconsin-Extension, Madison.
Bultena, G , and D. Rogers. 1974. Considerations in deter-
mining the public interest. Jour. Soil Water Conserv
29:168.
File, R., et al. 1977. Transferring environmental technology
to local leaders. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater.
Heberlein, T. 1976. Principles of public involvement. Staff
Pap. Ser. in Rural and Community Development. Dep.
Rural Sociology, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Heberlein, T., and M. Prouty. 1 977. Public opinion for policy
decisions: comparing self-selected participants in hear-
ings with representative samples. Pap. presented at
NCRS-2, Chicago.
Klessig, L. 1973. Recreational property owners and their
organizational alternatives for resources protection. Uni-
versity of Wisconsin-Extension, Madison.
1976. Institutional arrangements for lake manage-
ment in Wisconsin. Jour. Soil Water Conserv. 31:152.
1977a. Ten years of education on lake management
Trans. 42nd North Am. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 313.
19776. Open marriage: community development
and environmental management. Jour. Extension 1 5: 6.
Klessig, L, and D. Yanggen. 1975. The role of lake property
owners and their organizations in lake management. Publ.
No. G2548 (2nd ed.) University of Wisconsin-Extension,
Madison.
Voth, D., and W. Bonner. 1977. Citizen participation in rural
development: A bibjiography. Southern Rural Develop-
ment Center, Mississippi State University.
Wengert, N. 1971. Public participation in water planning: a
critique of theory, doctrine, and practice. Water Resour
Bull. 7:26.
White, G. 1973. The role of public opinion. In C. Goldman et
al. eds. Environ. Water Dev. W. H. Freeman, San
Francisco.
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EFFECTIVE LOCAL AUTHORITY TO ENSURE LASTING
LAKE RESTORATION AND PROTECTION
FRANS BIGELOW
Westlake Lake Management
Westlake Village, California
ABSTRACT
The challenge of urban lake management is learning how to deal with the "people problem"
which includes pollution caused by local residents, their lack of understanding of lake problems,
and the need for their financial support and interest. A management program that addresses
these problems can be devised by a developer, homeowners association, local municipality, or
others. It calls for the creation of an institution that is competent to deal with the biological,
legal, financial, and public relations functions as well as other environmental aspects of lake
management.
INTRODUCTION
The experiences reported in this paper stem from
the management of a 150-acre lake in Westlake
Village, Calif., which is halfway between Los Angeles
and Santa Barbara in the Santa Monica Mountains.
This lake was created in 1967 by a developer as the
central element of a new residential community of
20,000 people. The developer managed the lake for
7 years. In 1974, this responsibility was turned over
to the local residents who incorporated into the West-
lake Lake Management Association.
The lake was dug in a natural basin draining 18
square miles of runoff. The lake has 9 miles of shore-
line with 700 homes on, and 700 off the lake; all
participate in its management.
The lake management association has a 33-
member general board of directors that in turn, elects
an executive board to meet on a monthly basis and
hire a lake manager and crew. This smaller executive
board serves to expedite needed policy decisions
and still allow full representation of the seven home-
owners associations that are in the lake's sphere of
influence.
The key here is fair and equal representation. This
applies to the developer and municipalities, as well
as to homeowner associations. Once residents are
isolated from the management process, they do not
feel personally involved with the lake. This usually
results in a loss of interest and lack of understanding
and pride. All they may see is a body of water that
appears unaesthetic, causing them to feel that their
lake maintenance fees are not being effectively
applied.
LAKE MAINTENANCE FEES
A primary duty of the Westlake Lake Management
Association is to prepare an annual operation budget.
The first job is to determine all the categories neces-
sary for lake operation, including setting aside re-
serves for those items that will eventually need repair
or maintenance, such as dock, boardwalk, shoreline,
pump, dam, inflows, aeration equipment, dredging,
desilting basins, lake management facilities, and
other items peculiar to the situation.
Now that you know what you're going to spend, you
have to determine where you're going to get the
money. Income is available through fishing permits,
boat and dock permits, and loans and grants. But if
these are not sufficient to cover the yearly expenses,
then what?
One effective method is to have a special lake
assessment levied against all the individual homes
benefiting from the lake. Those who benefit do not
necessarily live on the lakeshore, but may simply
have a view or just access to the lake. One method for
defining the boundaries of the lake's sphere of influ-
ence is to make an appraisal of what would happen to
property values of nearby homes if the lake becomes
unfit for public use. Would the value of the homes
drop or be unaffected?
Assessing every homeowner the same amount of-
ten causes conflict and discontent as some lots have
more lake frontage than others or have a better view.
The people with the least lake frontage or lake access
will want to be prorated. This may be accomplished
through the formula that takes the county or State
assessor's value of the lot (without including the
structure on it) into consideration. The assessed val-
ues of all the lots are added together. The value of an
individual lot is divided by the total value of all the lots
which produces a figure representing the percentage
of the total lake assessment that homeowners will
pay. Those with higher county assessed values will
pay equivalently higher percentages of the lake
assessment.
To pinpoint the amount each homeowner will pay,
determine what the difference is between the antici-
pated expenses versus anticipated income as estab-
lished by the budget. If this difference is $10,000
dollars, then this amount is multiplied by the percent
that each homeowner pays. If the homeowner is
33
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34
LAKE RESTORATION
responsible for 1 percent of the deficit based on his
property value, he would contribute $100 that year.
If the income from this assessment is needed every
year, how do you ensure that you can legally enforce
the payment of this fee? The most effective method is
to record the formula for the assessment against the
property at the county recorder's office and have the
obligation carry with the sale of the property. This is
most readily accomplished by the land owner or
developer prior to the sale of any lake lots. This
makes the lake assessment fee enforceable in court.
It would also entitle the lake association to file a lien
against the property in the event of nonpayment.
When determining the budget for the first time, be
wary of hidden expenses. For example, when a lake is
turned over from a developer to a homeowners
group, certain expenses that the developer incurred
may easily be overlooked. Administration expense is
usually one of these. The developer may not have
kept accurate account of how much time was de-
voted to decisions or analyses made by engineering,
financial, or top management components of the
company. The figures may only allocate the time
spent by the lake manager or maintenance crews
without reflecting the valuable and necessary time
spent by others in the organization. This expertise
may have to be purchased from outside sources
when the developer is no longer available.
Insurance is another category often overlooked. A
policy covering an entire development may have the
lake as a relatively inexpensive rider on the policy.
But watch out when you approach an insurance car-
rier for the policy covering just a lake without all the
"gravy" of the rest of the development project. The
premiums are not even comparable. Usually, the de-
veloper will not have made provision for the buildup
of reserves as a necessary budgetary factor. This
component alone can have a substantial effect on the
budget.
The instrument often used to record these assess-
ment formulas and requirements is the covenants,
conditions, and restrictions document for the lake
management association, also referred to as the
CC&R's.
COVENANTS, CONDITIONS, AND
RESTRICTIONS
The CC&R's set forth not only information on the
method for determining the assessment fee, but also
include such items as:
1. Architectural guidelines for the lake regarding
the construction of docks, decks, etc.;
2. The size and number of boats allowed per dock;
3. The landscaping and property maintenance
requirements;
4. The number of people on the general and execu-
tive boards;
5. Methods for election;
6. Requirements for the quality of the lake mainte-
nance programs;
7. Methods for enforcing violations;
8. Authorization for the board to hire a manager
and staff; and
9. Definition of the rights and obligations of the
lake homeowners.
The CC&R's, in essence, become the lake manag-
er's Bible. This is why it is imperative that great care
be exercised in writing these guidelines because any
changes would require a two-thirds majority vote of
all the homeowners.
The concern of many private lake owners today is
how to keep them from becoming public. Many
States claim to own all water in that State. Thus, the
farmer who builds a small fish pond for irrigation is
often subject to State requirements and must even
have a fishing license to legally fish. Then how can
one hope to keep the public off a lake maintained by
private funds?
The answer in California and other States seems to
lie in three main areas. The first question to ask is:
"Was the lake ever a part of a navigable waterway?"
If so, the State might claim that you as lake owners
and operators have no rights to inhibit that navigabil-
ity. The second key in maintaining private control is
to make sure that the entire length of shoreline is 100
percent under private ownership. A common error
that has been made in the past is to allow the con-
struction of a public road to border the edge of the
lake at some point. With a public road bordering
public water, you might have little or no grounds for
prohibiting public use of yourwater.
The third, and most often overlooked area, is to
make sure that there are no inherent rights that carry
with the ownership of lake association property. In
other words, the only rights a lake resident has via
ownership of his property is the right to go down and
look at the lake and that's all. Any other rights such as
a dock, boat, fishing, and launching, are all granted
via a yearly license fee and agreement This license
agreement is issued by the lake association only after
the proper liability insurance policy has been secured
and the yearly fee has been paid. This should be
spelled out in the CC&R's document, which is
recorded against the property and as such, is public
knowledge.
If you allow these rights to carry automatically with
the ownership of lake property, you have no method
of enforcing the collection of the yearly use fees. If,
however, the residents are licensed on an annual
basis and a given resident refuses to pay his fee, no
license would be issued and his use of the lake would
be treated legally as a trespass.
The CC&R's may also make provisions for what to
do in the event that the local homeowners fail in their
ability to do a proper job of managing the lake. With
the agreement of the local government, the CC&R's
could stipulate that the county or township has the
right to form a local tax district of the lake association
for the purpose of generating funds to the lake. This
would take the management away from the home-
owners, but would require them to pay for it. Many
local governments require this stipulation before al-
lowing new lakes to be constructed to avoid the
development of an unhealthy lake condition.
TAX EXEMPT STATUS
Under the Internal Revenue Code, a lake can file for
tax exempt status. To be eligible, the lake must be
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FEDERAL. STATE AND LOCAL PROGRAMS
35
operated on a nonprofit basis with all excess income
going to preallocated reserves. The IRS recognizes
that these reserves are needed for future expenses
that inevitably will appear. A $100,000 dredging
project is not at all uncommon for a lake to incur. The
IRS looks to see if your reserves are reasonable, so
don't allocate money to funds where you don't need
it.
It is not sufficient to have one general bank account
labeled reserves, but each reserve should have a
separate accounting as required by the IRS. Taking
the time and money to hire competent legal and
financial assistance to apply for this status could
repay itself many times over each year in tax savings.
OPERATING INSURANCE
Lakes have been one of the hardest hit victims of
the recent upsurge in insurance cost. Certain courts
have awarded large sums to families of drowning
victims, even though it may have been questionable
whether the lake operators were negligent in any
manner. For this and other reasons, lakes are not
viewed with favor by the insurance industry. Dam
insurance is perhaps even harder to obtain due to
various disasters in recent years.
So, if you need liability insurance on your lake, what
should you do? First, get your insurance broker to
contact the potential carrier and have its representa-
tive come to your lake and look around. All lakes are
not equally risky and yours should be judged on its
own merits.
The carrier will look to see if you have a gently
sloping lake bottom starting from shore or if it just
drops and becomes deep immediately. If a child
stepped into the lake, would he be standing in shal-
low water or in deep? Are there obstacles in the water
that a swimmer could be caught on, such as a sub-
merged tree or structure? Do you allow swimming
and, if not, how do you enforce that? Do you allow
power boats at all? What is the maximum speed and
horsepower you allow? What provisions do you have
available to rescue stranded or capsized boats? Do
you have a rescue service with qualified personnel
and a two-way radio system for quick
communication?
These are the kind of questions that they will have
in mind when they look around your lake. If you can
show you run a well organized safe operation with an
accident prevention attitude, then you have come a
long way to securing liability insurance at the most
reasonable rate possible. If your attitude is, "What-
ever happens, happens," then you'll feel it on your
premiums.
ROLE OF THE LAKE RESIDENT
When you manage a lake, you become much like a
public agency in that everything you do affects the
lake association members. You have hundreds or
perhaps thousands of potential critics. The key is to
stay in touch with all of them and let them know
what's going on. The most effective way is through a
regular newsletter and public meetings. If these are
the people paying the bill for lake operations, you've
got to provide them with the whats, hows, and whys,
or their lack of knowledge will work against you.
In a recent public meeting, I was asked, "When will
we have a clear lake," as I have been asked on many
other occasions. This is one of dozens of questions
that must be answered as it is of concern to all lake
residents. "With luck, I hope we never have a clear
lake," I replied. "Clean water means the sun can
penetrate to 10-foot and 15-foot depths. With our 80
degree Farenheit summer water temperatures and
our nutrient concentration, this could mean rampant
weed growth over 80 percent of our lake's area. With
these weeds come clinging algae, and with the bio-
logical burden when they die, the excess oxygen
demand can result in a massive fish kill plus hydro-
gen sulfide odors in the periods when the lake turns
over. I don't think anyone in this room wants that."
In our quarterly newsletter, we published this ques-
tion and answer along with many others often asked.
The public finds these question and answer columns
highly informative and, as such, feels much more at
ease with the management program. These honest
and informative answers tend to draw interested
residents to our board meetings with offers of assis-
tance in various areas of the management program.
That is exactly what you need—public involvement.
Incorporate all these interested people into your pro-
gram. There is plenty of room on the financial, legal,
technical, public relations, budget, newsletter, archi-
tectural, and other committees to use residents with a
sincere interest in getting involved.
The lake newsletter has always been the most pow-
erful medium of communication and should not be
treated casually. It enables a manager to respond in
detail to the most recent concerns of the lake public.
Questions like: "What are my lake assessments being
used for?" "What problems is the lake having?"
"What is being done to improve fishing?" "What
chemicals are used and why?" "Is it safe for my
children to swim in the water?" "Who should I con-
tact for more information?" "How do I get involved?"
are examples of common questions of concern that
should be answered in the newsletter on a regular
basis.
Quite often the problem that the managing body is
having the most trouble with is convincing lake resi-
dents that it really does cost money to maintain their
lake. The lake won't just take care of itself. "After all,"
a lake resident may tell you, "where I grew up the
lakes were always crystal clear and nobody spent any
money or time on them so why do we need to?" This
is the type of concern that the lake resident justifiably
has, and it is the job of the managing organization to
recognize these concerns and answer them.
Each resident should, in time, become a semi lake
expert. He should be taught to understand what
changes have occurred in recent years regarding
inflows into the lake being caused by upstream agri-
culture, rainfall, over-fertilization of residential lawns,
street runoff, and the heavy metals, and what effect
these and other sources have on the biological com-
munity in the lake and its productivity.
Residents must become familiar with words like
algae, aquatic weeds, zooplankton, phytoplankton,
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36
LAKE RESTORATION
dissolved oxygen, aeration, stratification, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and the names of the chemicals used in
the water. They should be made to feel at ease with
these words, what they mean, and how they apply to
the lake. They should be taught about the advantages
of having a limited amount of weeds and algae, that
these absorb the nutrients and help to balance out
the lake biological system, provide protection and
oxygen forfish and the general health of the lake.
This type of public relations is especially critical for
nonhomeowner managed bodies of water. Develop-
ers and sometimes even municipalities have one
strike against them from the start if they are oblivious
to public sentiment. Combine this with a situation
where the lake public doesn't understand the
management problems and public criticism or apathy
develops.
In addition to a newsletter, there should be a regu-
lar quarterly meeting open to the general public
where they can come and hear what's going on.
Invite public comments during a segment of this
meeting and be prepared to answer their questions.
Have a technical portion during which pictures and
diagrams of the biological workings of the lake are
shown. Continue the lessons already taught in the
newsletter.
More than anything else, be honest and direct.
Explain what is and what is not known about solving
various lake problems. Giving people false hope will
only backfire down the road. Be willing to ask for
ideas and act on them. Get involved with a local
college on a mutually beneficial research program.
High school science classes are also a great source of
enthusiastic help on routine data collection pro-
grams. In simple terms, get the community involved.
LAKE MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION
The best public relations is to have a clean and
aesthetic lake. The number of people on or near the
lake, type and amount,of inflow, and manhour use of
the lake will determine your maintenance program
and staff.
A good distinction to keep in mind is that there are
two methods that are often used for determining the
amount of maintenance and patrol required. One is to
base it on the surface acreage of the lake and com-
pare that to other lakes and the amount of mainte-
nance and patrol personnel they have. This is not
always an equitable method of comparison because
much of lake cleanup and algae control is done along
the shoreline and not in the middle of the lake. There-
fore, a lake having 150 surface acres may have a 3-
mile shoreline whereas another lake of the same
acreage may have 9 miles of shoreline. This is the
case of many development lakes built for shoreline
maximization.
The number of personnel a lake requires depends
on the services the management intends to cover.
Possible categories are trash cleanup in the lake and
raking of shoreline and beaches, lake rescue and
patrol for illegal boat launchers, fishermen, and other
trespassers, safety patrol for rescuing overturned sail
and motorboats, patrol for speeders and rule viola-
tors, dredging staff, dock repair, boat rental and
repair, laboratory staff, manager, secretary, fore-
man—the list could go on to include gardening staff
for lake perimeter and more. As a consequence of
this, the number of people required depends on the
needs of the lake and the money available for payroll.
Past experience indicates that the prime concern of
local residents is the removal of trash and overabun-
dant weeds and algae. Once these goals are accom-
plished, the tendency is to desire additional services.
These second level needs might be a dredging pro-
gram, security lake patrol for trespassers and viola-
tors, and clearer water. However, should the weeds,
algae, and trash become a problem again, they will
usually revert to being the primary concern of the
lake public.
Because of the sometimes unpredictable problems
that arise, lake management requires innovative
thinking on subjects like aeration, dredging, chemi-
cal application, shoreline repair, and storm cleanup.
Traditional approaches are not always the most prac-
tical or economical. For example, if you have a high
point in your lake 30 by 30 feet in size that needs to
be dredged, and it's far from any accessible shoreline
area, you could spend $20,000 or more to hire a
dredge. The alternative might be to purchase a small
16 horsepower goldmining dredge for approximately
$800 and a pumping hose for another $800, and
spend 10 days lowering the sand bar 3 to 4 feet. The
dredged material could be pumped up to 100 feet to
shore, or be pumped out into deeper water. On a
larger scale, if 1,000 cubic yards of material is lying
in shallow water within 100 feet of shore, it may be
less expensive to build a riprap road out to and on top
of the sandbar than to dredge it with a barge. Once
the road is built, dump trucks and a gradeall or crane
can dig their way back to shore, removing the road
and silt as they go.
Aeration systems also require special tailoring to
unique situations. Some work best in industrial treat-
ment ponds, others in sewage treatment plants, deep
lakes, or long and shallow lakes. You may find your-
self installing and modifying your own system to get
what you want.
The examples of problem-solving situations are nu-
merous, but each will require some creative thinking
by the lake operators.
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Most lakes are at the low point of a drainage basin.
As a consequence, large amounts of foreign materi-
als flow into the lake during rainstorm periods. The
goal of lake operators is to reduce to a minimum the
inflow of anything but water. Of special concern are
nitrogen and phosphorus as related to the growth of
aquatic weeds and algae. These elements flow in
with the excess lawn fertilizers in residential areas
and from numerous other sources.
Trace metals and numerous industrial byproducts
are also of great concern as their inflow through a
storm drain or otherwise could harm or destroy the
aquatic environment.
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FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL PROGRAMS
37
The first step is to find out if anything is flowing into
the lake and in what amounts. You will find clues of
what to look for by checking how the surrounding
land is being used. Water and mud samples should
be taken at inflows to the lake and analyzed by a
competent laboratory. Lake areas farthest away from
these inflows should be checked against the inflow
areas and the difference, if any, could indicate an
inflow problem.
If a drainage-related problem is found, every effort
should be made to trace it to the source. Most States
have strict statutes controlling what may be dumped
into storm drains and rivers. Pointing this out to the
offender usually corrects the problem. If not, the local
authorities will help to take further action. Often,
however, the sources of these nutrients or heavy
metals are not identifiable because they may have
washed in from the surrounding streets after having
accumulated for several months.
Perhaps the best weapon is public awareness of
this inflow problem. Usually, the average citizen is
not aware that the storm drainage system runs into
the lake. Residents may fertilize their lawns, dump old
oil, paint, detergents, or chemicals into the drain
without realizing where it ends up. A campaign in the
local newsletters and newspapers could have excel-
lent results.
A major inflow problem is silt and organic matter.
Desilting basins located at major inflow areas are
effective at reducing these inflows. A strong public
awareness program, clean storm drains, clean
streets, effective settling and desilting basins, and
strict enforcement against blatant violators comprise
the best preventive medicine available.
LAKE MANAGEMENT
Managing a living lake and keeping lake residents
happy are not necessarily mutually exclusive state-
ments. Once you have successfully communicated to
the lake public that they are living on a lake and not
on a sterile swimming pool, you have already won
half the battle. To win the other half, you have to
control the aquatic environment by developing bio-
logical checks and balances.
A well balanced lake will have enough competition
for the nutrient supply to prevent the domination of
any one species. Therefore, if any one species were
to cycle out and decompose, the nutrients made
available would be used by many organisms, and no
one organism would acquire enough to grow out of
control.
The overuse of many aquatic chemicals will cause
an imbalance in the lake. This is due to the fact that
most chemicals do not selectively kill one organism,
but destroy all that they come in contact with. This
imbalance allows a small number of species to mono-
polize the nutrient supply of the lake, such as bull-
rush, floating water hyacinth, aquatic weeds, green
algae, and others. Unchecked growth could also lead
to the hazards resulting from a depleted oxygen
supply.
Ideally, a chemical treatment should destroy only
the organisms you are seeking to control. If toxins are
released slowly, large doses do not drift to other
areas to destroy beneficial organisms.
This approach is based on the premise that a eu-
trophic lake is always biologically active. If one spe-
cies is destroyed, another will take its place. If this
second species is eliminated, shortly thereafter a
third will appear, and so on. Realizing that the biologi-
cal activity of the lake cannot and should not be
destroyed, the manager makes a choice of which
group of aquatic organisms is most acceptable to his
body of water. Through this philosophy, the operator
is managing the consequences of eutrophication.
Of course, every effort should be made to stop the
sources of any additional eutrophication, but once
you've got problems, you have to develop a manage-
ment program that considers the results today as well
as the consequences tomorrow.
As the seasons change, so too does the aquatic
environment due to variations in light and tempera-
ture. As one season ends and another begins, the
dominant species in the lake may also change. Dur-
ing the changeover period, the lake environment
often becomes a battleground of numerous orga-
nisms of every type attempting to gain a strong
foothold in the lake ecosystem. When the lake is in
this state, we call it "up for grabs." The strongest,
quickest, and most adept species will win control of
the environment. If this species is not aesthetically
acceptable, then a potential problem exists. How-
ever, if the undesirable species is chemically treated
or manually removed during its initial growth, it will
not become dominant. If manual removal is not feasi-
ble, only a mild dosage of chemicals is needed be-
cause organisms are very susceptible at their early
stage of development. By stopping the growth of this
species, other more desirable species like varying
types of zooplankton and acceptable phytoplankton
will develop.
Once the lake manager has closely observed the
aquatic environment, has determined the general
order of dominance, has made judgments as to the
desirability of these organisms, and has determined
that the lake is "up for grabs," he must decide on the
proper treatment. If the problem is a developing
filamentous shoreline algae, then the best remedy is
manually raking it out. As it tries to grow back, other
organisms will be locking up the nutrient supply.
If treatment is required, an effective method we
have had great success with at Westlake is to use
large copper sulfate crystals, which are dropped di-
rectly on areas where algae are growing. These algal
spores are highly susceptible to chemical treatment
in their early stages of growth, and therefore require
only small dosages. The large crystal copper sulfate
releases very slowly and may require up to a week to
completely dissolve in the water. During that time,
the copper releases toxins which control algal
growth for as long as the crystal is present. In the
meantime, beneficial organisms are competing for
control of the nutrient supply that the shoreline algae
would have utilized.
Selective treatment is the key. Only the organisms
you seek to control should be affected. Another good
example of this is the use of preemergent herbicide
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38
LAKE RESTORATION
to control aquatic plants. Some of these compounds
are spread in the form of pellets on the surface of the
water and sink to the bottom where the weeds are
growing. The pellets are soil-activated and take effect
only when they come in contact with the mud. As a
result, no toxins are released into the water column
and no other organisms are affected.
Using this kind of approach to chemical treatments
at Westlake, we reduced our chemical expenditures
from $38,800 in 1 973 to $ 1 1,500 in 1977 for our 9-
mile shoreline, 150-acre lake. In addition, a water
sample viewed under a microscope showed many
new organisms which, in turn, are helping to balance
out the aquatic environment.
This is why it is desirable to have a small on-site
laboratory with a few analytical instruments to moni-
tor your water quality. A microscope is certainly be-
neficial for observing changes in the water. Algal grid
counts could be taken to provide a figure on the
number of organisms of a certain type per milliliter
and their life cycle. A dissolved oxygen and tempera-
ture meter would help to monitor the development of
stratification and determine the need for an aeration
system in certain areas of the lake. A plankton net
and mud sampler can also be very useful in finding
out how much you've got of what and how it's doing.
The list goes on and the number of tests you should
conduct will vary depending on circumstances. Col-
leges and private laboratories also can be utilized. A
practical monitoring program becomes invaluable to
the operator when water quality decisions are being
made.
LAKE PLANNING TO REDUCE
MANAGEMENT COST
The success of any lake management program will
depend most heavily on the foresight given to solving
lake problems before they arise. An enforceable set
of covenants, conditions, and restrictions, a practical
monitoring program, trained personnel, proper bud-
geting and public relations, adequate safety precau-
tions, and more will insure your success.
If you're fortunate enough to be involved in the
preplanning of an urban lake, even more of these
potential problems can be eliminated. A list of critical
planning criteria would have to include a special
shoreline treatment that also would serve as a safety
apron for nonswimmers. Bottom depth and slope
would be considered as they are related to stratifica-
tion, weed, and algal growth. An economic analysis
would be needed to determine what the water acre-
age versus shoreline length should be in order to
have a tax base sufficient to cover lake operation
costs while not overcrowding the lake. To avoid
flooding, hydrological reports would determine pad
elevations and various dimensions of the lake.
Other planning criteria of equal importance include
wind orientation for sailing, trash collection, circula-
tion and aeration, inlet width, depth, provisions for
low water years, desilting basins, control of undesir-
able inflow, water disposal sites, shoreline landscap-
ing, provision for access to lake, design of greenbelts
and beache,s, access by shoreline dredging equip-
ment to potential silt deposits, proper housing mix,
management office, and storage for chemicals and
equipment.
The lake public both on and off the lake may have
use of boat repair facilities and several hundred pub-
lic rental docks depending on the number of potential
users. In addition, a facility for social gatherings or a
lake sailing club is also desirable.
These and other requirements, which will vary from
one lake to another, should be considered. An excel-
lent source of information on all aspects of lake
management and design would be other lakes, espe-
cially in your area. Understanding their programs and
techniques, their strengths and weaknesses, will give
you a better insight into your management program.
COORDINATION WITH OTHER
ORGANIZATIONS
You can create your own self-help program by
organizing an informal get-together with your fellow
lake owners and operators in the area. Ideas and
techniques could be exchanged benefiting
everybody.
We did this 3 years ago at Westlake and drew 15
lake representatives to our first backyard meeting.
From there it continued to grow into a nonprofit
corporation called the Academy of Aquatic Ecosys-
tems (32123 Lindero Canyon Road, Westlake Vil-
lage, Calif. 91461) with a 60-lake membership,
mostly in the United States. We hold quarterly semi-
nars on all aspects of lake management. Those that
live too far away to attend receive the quarterly publi-
cation that contains the proceedings of the seminar
along with other articles contributed from many
sources on lake management. This publication is
called the Bulletin of Lake Science and is included in
the nominal membership fee.
Through our association with dozens of lakes and
our endless bull sessions, we have all gained in our
knowledge of lake management and had a great time
to boot.
Local, county, State, and Federal agencies are great
sources for all kinds of information and research.
Universities all around the country have also become
research centers for freshwater management.
Keeping your lake in an aesthetic and healthy state
is the goal of lake managers everywhere. To accom-
plish this, you must first solve your people problem.
With their help, understanding, and financial support,
this goal can be met through an effective manage-
ment program.
REFERENCES
Bigelow, F. 1976. Public relations: the developers insurance
policy. Bull. Lake Sci. 9:15.
Hanson, W. A. 1977. Elementary hydrology for lake manag-
ers. Bull. Lake Sci. 9:4.
Hanson, W. A., and F. Bigelow. 1977. Lake management
case study: Westlake Village, Calif. Urban Land Institute,
Washington, D.C.
_. 1978. Urban lake design parameters. Bull. Lake Sci.
1:6.
Jordan, L. S., and W. C. Senter 1974. Westlake aquatic
plant management; research report. Dep. Plant Sci. Uni-
versity of California, Riverside.
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FLORIDA'S WATER RESOURCES RESTORATION PROGRAM
A. JEAN TOLMAN
Water Resources Restoration and Preservation
Florida Department of Environmental Regulation
Tallahassee, Florida
ABSTRACT
The first step toward the establishment of Florida's Water Resources Restoration Program was
taken in 1976 when the Florida Legislature appropriated $ 1.5 million in general revenue for the
restoration of Lakes Apopka and Jackson and Bayous Chico and Texar. In July of 1977, the
Legislature passed the Water Resources Restoration and Preservation (WRR&P) Act establishing
the program by law. Florida currently has two clean lakes assisted projects underway: Lake
Apopka and Lake Jackson. Lake Apopka is a 31,000-acre lake near Orlando which is hypereu-
trophic, primarily due to nutrient overloading. Lake Jackson is a 4,000-acre lake located in
Tallahassee. Rapid urbanization has caused heavy Sedimentation and general water quality
degradation in the lake's two southeast arms.
It is a matter of general knowledge that Florida is
almost entirely surrounded by water. In fact, it has
approximately 11,000 miles of coastline with scores
of bays and bayous. It is less well known that Florida
is a State of lakes, with approximately 7,000 lakes of
at least 10 acres each—the largest lake is almost
one-half million acres. The State of Florida can hardly
afford to ignore the condition of its waters, both
coastal and inland, because the State's economy
depends heavily on tourism, which in turn demands
attractive water bodies for fishing and recreation.
Construction booms of the 1950'sand 1960'sand
uncontrolled development have resulted in the deg-
radation of many of Florida's water bodies. In re-
sponse, Florida has developed the present Water
Resources Restoration and Preservation Program.
The program is firmly established; three projects
have been completed and 10 others are underway,
including two that are being assisted by section 314
grants.
The experience we have gained and directions we
have taken should be helpful to other States in their
efforts to establish related programs. The first thing I
should point out, however, is that Florida does not
have a strictly "lake restoration" program; instead,
we have a "water resources" restoration program
that by our own definition, includes "rivers, lakes,
streams, springs, impoundments, and all other
waters or bodies of water including fresh, brackish,
saline, tidal, surface, or underground." Of course,
only lake projects can qualify for the EPA clean lakes
program.
For over a decade, numerous restoration efforts
including lake restorations, have been undertaken in
Florida under the direction of various State agencies.
Florida's Environmental Reorganization Act of 1975
combined several agencies and agency functions
under the new Department of Environmental Regula-
tion (DER) allowing a more centralized administration
of environmental laws and programs. The present
water resources restoration program has evolved
rather rapidly from that point.
The first step was taken in 1976 when the Florida
Legislature appropriated $1.5 million in State gen-
eral revenue to be administered by DER for the resto-
ration of Lakes Apopka and Jackson and Bayous
Chico and Texar. Using part of this initial funding, the
department established the program's organizational
structures and resource requirements, and initiated a
few of the required feasibility and engineering stud-
ies forthose projects specified by the legislature.
In July of 1 977, the Florida Legislature passed the
Water Resource Restoration and Preservation Act
establishing the WRR&P program by law. This Act,
Chapter 77-369 of the Laws of Florida, is the corner-
stone of our program. The law provided a funding
mechanism, created nine State career service posi-
tions to staff the program, authorized the department
to acquire lands as necessary to accomplish the pro-
gram's objectives, and directed the department to
adopt a rule for the allocation of restoration and
preservation funds.
The Act specified that funding shall come from
three sources: the State general revenue fund, funds
transferred from the pollution recovery fund, and
available Federal moneys. The first source, general
revenue, is appropriated each year by the Florida
Legislature and reverts back to the general revenue
fund at the end of each fiscal year unless carried
forward by the next legislative session. For example,
both the 1977 and 1978 legislatures carried forward
the unspent portion of the program's original $1.5
million appropriation, and the 1978 legislature
added another $315,000.
The second and third sources, Federal moneys
from EPA's clean lakes program and money from the
State pollution recovery fund, are combined into the
WRR&P trust fund, also established by the Act. The
39
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40 LAKE
pollution recovery fund, established by earlier State
legislation, receives money collected from fines and
penalties for environmental violations. If possible, the
recovered money must be used to restore the site at
which the violation occurred. Otherwise, the recov-
ered money is transferred from the pollution recovery
fund to the WRR&P trust fund where it can be used in
accordance with the program at any restoration
location.
WRR&P trust fund moneys do not revert with the
termination of any fiscal year. Of course, it is impossi-
ble to predict from one year to the next how much
money will be collected in fines and damages from
environmental violations, and how much will be avail-
able for transfer to the WRR&P trust fund.
The WRR&P staff positions created by the 1977
legislature include an administrator, two secretaries,
a limnologist, a marine biologist, a civil engineer, an
administrative assistant, a field project director, and
an attorney. Hiring for these positions began in the
fall of 1977, and all are currently filled except the
limnologist position. Although this sounds like a very
small staff to do such an enormous job, it must be
noted that much of the work of the WRR&P program
is accomplished through contracts with universities,
private consultants, and engineering and construc-
tion firms.
As I mentioned previously, the WRR&P Act directed
the Department to adopt a rule establishing the crite-
ria for allocating restoration funds. The Act specified
that the criteria must include: (1)The degree of water
quality degradation; (2) the degree to which sources
of pollution have been abated; (3) the public uses that
can be made of the subject waters; (4) the ecological
value of the subject waters in relation to other waters
proposed for restoration; (5) measures being taken by
local government to prevent further and subsequent
degradation of the subject waters; and (6) the com-
mitment of local government resources to assist in
the proposed restoration.
After several months of efforts by the WRR&P staff
and with the help and input from many other people
in the Department, the WRR&P rule was formally
RESTORATION
adopted on April 28, 1978, and is now in effect. It
comprises sections 17-1.123 through 17-1.131, of
the Florida Administrative Code. This rule explains
the limitations on funding, sets forth the criteria for
selection of projects for funding, and includes an
application form for use by State, regional, or local
governmental entities applying to DER for restoration
funding. Together, the WRR&P rule and the WRR&P
Act essentially define the scope and goals of our
program.
Two projects of our program are being 50 percent
funded by section 314. In June 1976, Florida re-
ceived a clean lakes grant for restoration of Lake
Apopka, a 31,000-acre lake in Central Florida. Until
the middle of this century, the lake contained luxuri-
ant vegetation and extremely clear water, and sup-
ported an impressive bass fishery. Lake Apopka is
now hypereutrophic, with continuous algal blooms
and no rooted aquatic vegetation. A drawdown of the
lake appears to be the most feasible restoration me-
thod for this lake, and an extensive engineering de-
sign study on that alternative is nearing completion.
In addition, DER is involved in preparing a joint
environmental impact statement with EPA on the
Apopka restoration. If the drawdown alternative is
selected and funded by our next legislature, con-
struction could begin in July 1979 with the draw-
down starting in October 1979.
Lake Jackson, a 4,000-acre lake located in Talla-
hassee, is famous throughout the Southeast for its
clear waters and largemouth bass population. How-
ever, beginning in 1969, rapid urbanization caused
heavy sedimentation and general water quality deg-
radation in the lake's two southeast arms. In October
1976, Florida received a clean lakes grant for Lake
Jackson. This restoration project is directed toward
the construction of two large sedimentation basins in
conjunction with a marsh biofiltration system to re-
move particulate matter and treat stormwater runoff
before it enters the lake. The parcels of land neces-
sary for the sedimentation basins have been sur-
veyed and appraised and we are beginning negotia-
tions fortheir purchase,
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ESTABLISHING A LAKE RESTORATION
PROGRAM IN MINNESOTA
JOEL G. SCHILLING
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
Roseville, Minnesota
ABSTRACT
The restoration and management of Minnesota's freshwater lakes require a coordinated
interdepartmental program of communication and cooperation along with a positive fiscal
commitment of resources. Presently, the management of the State's water resources is divided
among several departments and agencies resulting in some overlap of programs and confusion
in jurisdictional responsibility. With a biennial budget of approximately $6.4 billion, the State of
Minnesota spends about $0.15 billion on the development and conservation of natural re-
sources. These facts contrast with the $ 1.4 billion generated annually by our tourist industry,
built primarily on the lure of our many lakes. Increasing pressures on our approximately 12,000
lakes will occur from expanding agriculture and tocanite industries along with possible future
impacts from peat and copper-nickel mining. While the Minnesota Legislature provided nearly
$1.4 million to match lake restoration projects in receipt of section 314 grants, a statutory
commitment has not been forthcoming establishing a comprehensive lake restoration program.
It is likely that damage to the State's tourist industry will be felt in the long term without an
established program to deal with these problems.
To someone outside the State of Minnesota it
would appear to be a relatively simple task to estab-
lish a lake restoration and protection program in the
State, since we have the largest number of freshwa-
ter lakes in the 48 contiguous States. With over
12,000 lakes greater than 10 acres in surface area it
is not surprising that we really do not know how
many we actually have. We can boast of having some
of the largest bodies of fresh water within our bound-
aries, such as Red Lake (451 mi2), Mille Lacs Lake
(207 mi2), and Leech Lake (170 miz), along with 2,200
square miles of the largest surface area of fresh water
in the world—Lake Superior.
And yet, except for Lake Superior, we know rela-
tively little about these large expanses of fresh water.
One might guess that given these tremendous re-
sources, the State of Minnesota would pioneer the
development of knowledge of freshwater lakes. I'm
not about to rationalize why this is in fact not the case
and I would only hope that it is not due to simply
having "too many" lakes.
It is more important in the context of a lake restora-
tion and protection program to look at the impor-
tance of our freshwater lakes to our State's budget.
The State of Minnesota currently is operating on a
biennial budget of $6.4 billion. On a biennial basis,
Minnesota spends about $0.15 billion on protecting
the environment and developing and conserving our
natural resources. This 2 percent outlay of State
moneys encompasses all expenditures that relate to
our environment such as the Pollution Control
Agency and Department of Natural Resources' bud-
gets and related items such as parkland acquisition
and research in the natural resources area. Obvi-
ously, many of these matters have no direct relation-
ship to lakes per se, such as: air quality and solid
waste control or forest management and game and
fish license enforcement. Nonetheless, these expen-
ditures are very important and I would not belittle
them in anyway.
It is presently estimated that the tourist industry is
worth $ 1.4 billion annually to Minnesota. This figure
represents the third largest industry in our State and
does not take into account the more than $0.3 billion
spent annually on boats, motors, fishing licenses, and
related expenses. It would be fair to say that a very
substantial percentage of this industry is due to the
lure of freshwater lakes. One could conservatively
say that our freshwater lakes are easily responsible
for $ 1 billion in expenditures.
To put this into perspective, consider the following
comparison. We have in Minnesota about 3.4 million
acres of lake surface. When comparing this to our
tourist industry expenditures, assuming $1 billion
related to lakes, we see that each acre of surface
water returns about $300 to the State's economy.
And if, on the other hand, we were to assume that the
entire $0.15 billion environmental budget were
poured into programs related to lakes then the result
would be a mere $40 per acre of lake surface. While
this may be a questionable comparison, the use of a
conservative figure in tourist dollars and a liberal
figure for lake-resource expenditures would seem to
at least indicate a clear trend.
What this all means is quite evident. First, while it is
apparent that the State's budget is very large, it is not
evident that we are spending excessively to protect
the environment or conserve and develop natural
resources. Second, our freshwater lakes obviously
have a bearing on the State's tourist industry, but it is
41
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42
not clear whether the lack of a lake restoration and
protection program has had a negative effect.
Three years ago, I began drafting a program that
would have established a comprehensive lake resto-
ration and protection program. Being somewhat na-
ive regarding the legislative process, I believed it
would be very simple to begin such a program in the
State that had the largest number of freshwater
lakes. After all, who could possibly disagree with a
program that was directed at protecting or restoring
something that formed an integral part of one of the
State's largest industries.
Optimism was slowly replaced by pessimism fol-
lowing the 1977-78 legislative sessions. Aside from
the experience I gained as a frequent legislative wit-
ness, the comprehensive program was not passed
into law. All was not a complete failure, however, as
the Legislative Commission on Minnesota Resources
appropriated $1.4 million to be used only as a State
match to existing projects in receipt of a section 314
grant. At least a start has been made to achieve our
original goal of a comprehensive program defined
and enacted by statute.
It has been said by legislators, State personnel, and
the public, that water resources management in Min-
nesota is a confused mess with overlapping jurisdic-
tion among various governmental bodies. I would not
take issue with that statement; but it does not appear
to be the reason behind our lack of a comprehensive
approach to this problem. Some would say that all
water-related matters ought to be placed under one
authority. The State of Wisconsin perhaps best exem-
plifies this approach. However, if this were the total
answer, why have the States of South Dakota and
Washington with situations very similar to Minne-
sota, established ongoing lake restoration programs?
I think the answer is more elusive than what we have
talked about here.
It is very simply, how important are our freshwater
lakes? In the 6 years I have been with the Pollution
Control Agency I have noticed a subtle complacency
about the management of our freshwater lakes.
When you have a great deal of something you have a
tendency not to be as protective of it on a long-term
basis. My experience in attending college in a west-
ern arid State and my discussions with colleagues in
other States less endowed than Minnesota with
freshwater lakes has given me the attitude that when
you don't have much of something you protect it
greatly for the future.
Our past and present actions in Minnesota have
drained literally thousands of lakes for agricultural
LAKE RESTORATION
purposes. This practice has not been entirely bad.
Having come from an agricultural background my-
self, I can see that our State's economy has benefited
from these actions. However, my field investigations
of a number of areas have shown me that the creation
of marginal farmland has often been the result of
drainage to say nothing of the loss of waterfowl
habitat. Urbanization, as well, has impacted many of
our lakes. It is still a common practice in many grow-
ing communities to construct a storm sewer directly
into a lake without considering treatment measures
to control the impact of the runoff. Only now have we
begun to realize the serious effects of these
practices.
The loss of a limited number of lakes or their degra-
dation due to pollutional impacts does not appear to
have had a significant effect on the State's economy.
On the other hand, who has even looked at this
particular effect? What may be an insignificant loss
to the State in general, may be in the opposite ex-
treme a major impact on a local community. I can
readily show you lakes in Minnesota, which in the
sunshine and heat of the summer, cannot be used
because of the impact of nutrient discharges. The
loss to that local economy may be far more severe
than to the State in general.
While I have seemed to ramble along on an issue
that has probably come across more as a campaign
speech than as a technical paper, I hope I have struck
some nerves in each of you. You may agree or dis-
agree with some of what I have said here today. The
task facing Minnesota is enormous to say the least. I
once calculated how long it would take a field crew to
sample each of our lakes only once, figuring an
average of 10 lakes sampled per week for 52 weeks
per year. If I was on that sampling team it would take
about 15 years to visit each of our lakes once. I
present this not in jest but rather to indicate that we
have accomplished in Minnesota about 40 percent of
the task.
I would end with one last thought on this subject.
There can be no greater reward or happiness for the
lake manager than to observe people using our pub-
licly owned freshwater lakes. This conference and
your attendance and interest in it give a clear picture
that the future holds the answers to protecting and
restoring our lakes. We can succeed but it will take a
firm commitment by our States and the public in
general to accomplish this goal.
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SOUTH DAKOTA'S LAKE PROGRAM
JAMES R. SEYFER
South Dakota Department of Environmental Protection
Pierre, South Dakota
ABSTRACT
South Dakota is blessed with many beautiful lakes and a citizenry concerned with environmen-
tal problems. As a result, the State Lake Preservation Committee was created in 1975 by the
South Dakota Legislature and charged with making recommendations for lake preservation.
One of the SLPC's recommendations was to set up a lake preservation grant fund, resulting in
House Bill 1060. The 208 program in South Dakota setup 10 Water Quality Study Areas, eight
of which were lake watersheds. Through the detailed planning conducted by 208 on these
areas, several 314 applications should result. Also using the 208 mechanism Lake Herman was
chosen as one of the seven Model Implementation Projects (MIP) in the Nation by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture.
When most people think of South Dakota, they do
not think of lakes, as they might think of in Minnesota.
However, South Dakota is well-endowed with this
important natural resource, with approximately 800
publicly owned lakes. Eastern South Dakota has a
glacial lakes region called the Prairie Coteau, which
consists of many potholes and sloughs, but also has
well over 200 publicly owned lakes. Most lakes out-
side of the Prairie Coteau are manmade. The Depart-
ment of Environmental Protection (DEP) estimates
that over 90 percent of the lakes in the State are
eutrophic. However, we have just begun to monitor
our lakes in South Dakota, and with limited budget
and manpower it will take about 10 years before we
really can determine lake water quality in the State.
Of the 800 publicly owned lakes 544 are classified
as fisheries, a classification within the South Dakota
Water Quality Standards. Listed in order of increas-
ing protection under the standards, we have warm
water marginal, warm water semipermanent, warm
water permanent, cold water marginal, and cold
water permanent. The marginal lakes are expected to
have a fish kill 1 year out of 5; semipermanent lakes
are expected to have fish kills 1 year out of 10; and
permanent lakes are not expected to have fish kills.
In addition to the five fishery classifications, lakes
can be classified as one or more of the following:
domestic water supply, immersion recreation, limited
contact recreation, wildlife propagation and stock
watering, irrigation, and commerce and industry.
Each of these classifications has limits for various
physicochemical parameters.
Public concern for lakes in South Dakota developed
along with the general environmental movement of
the early 1970's. This public concern culminated
with the creation of the State Lake Preservation Com-
mittee (SLPC) by the 1975 South Dakota Legislature.
The SLPC was assigned the following major tasks for
the lakes in the 1 5-county Prairie Coteau:
1. Identify the problems of lake eutrophication in
the Prairie Coteau;
2. Inventory and classify Coteau lakes using exist-
ing data;
3. Develop criteria for prioritizing lakes for preser-
vation and restoration work; and
4. Insure that existing agencies have adequate au-
thority for implementing restoration projects and, if
not, make legislative recommendations.
An additional task charged to the SLPC was to
make general recommendations regarding lake
management in South Dakota. Of a total of 28 recom-
mendations, the major one was that legislation be
enacted to provide grants to assist local governmen-
tal units in financing lake preservation and restora-
tion projects and that this grant program be adminis-
tered by the DEP. In January 1978, H.B. 1060, which
established a lake protection and rehabilitation grant
program, was passed unanimously by both houses of
the South Dakota Legislature. The secretary of DEP,
Allyn Lockner, was quoted as saying that this was the
most popular piece of environmental legislation
since the creation of DEP in 1973.
H.B. 1060, now codified as SDCL 34A-2-92.3, set
four general criteria for determining and developing
an eligibility and priority system of distributing
grants: (1) the severity of the problem; (2) the impact
on area recreation; (3) the likely effectiveness of the
plan; and (4) the ability of the applicant unit of govern-
ment to implementthe plan.
Grant moneys under H.B. 1060 can be distributed
in three ways: (1) up to 25 percent of the eligible
project costs can be provided when Federal funding
is available; (2) up to 60 percent of the eligible project
costs can be provided when Federal funding is not
available; and (3) up to 100 percent for projects on
lakes that are principally surrounded by State-owned
land. Of $770,000 originally requested, $200,000
was appropriated.
A major cause of cultural eutrophication in South
Dakota lakes is land runoff of sediment and agricul-
tural chemicals. To aid in dealing with this a unique
feature was added to H.B. 1060. No application for
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44
LAKE RESTORATION
State funds may be accepted unless assurance has
been given in writing to the applicant by any affected
conservation district, that it approves of the plan for
lake protection and rehabilitation and that it controls
and identifies sources of pollutants from point and
nonpoint sources that come under the jurisdiction of
the districts. This approval requirement reflects the
fact that the districts have the sole statutory authority
and responsibility for administering the soil erosion
and sediment damage control law enacted by the
1976 legislature; this law is South Dakota's only
mechanism for correcting and preventing nonpoint
source water pollution.
Under H.B. 1060 several requirements must be met
in order for grants to be awarded. A "Lake Signifi-
cance List" must be prepared by DEP that rates all
South Dakota lakes classified as fisheries. Points are
awarded to these lakes in the following categories:
(1) mean depth; (2) surface area; (3) fisheries classifi-
cations; (4) public accessibility; (5) domestic water
supply; (6) the amount of publicly owned acreage
adjoining the lakeshore; and (7) public facilities
present.
Proposed projects are then rated on the "Project
Priority List." Project priority points are awarded in
the following categories:
1. Whether the affected conservation district pro-
vides for the protection of surface water quality un-
der the soil erosion and sediment damage control
law;
2. The ratio of public water per capita within a
40-mile radius;
3. Population within a 15-mile radius;
4. Scope of the project; and
5. Points awarded on the Lake Significance List.
Other requirements include a guarantee of public
access to the lake and, as mentioned earlier, the
approval of the affected conservation district or dis-
tricts. A public hearing must be held on the project
and the applicant must also obtain approval of the
work plan from DEP.
The required components of the work plan are
basically the same as the requirements for funding
under section 314 of P.L. 92-500, as amended, with
the addition of an identification and discussion of
zoning regulations in the project area and the antici-
pated effects of these provisions on the project.
Within 60 days after application to DEP the secretary
either will approve or disapprove the lake protection
and rehabilitation work plan, based on several fac-
tors. These factors include the technical feasibility
and cost effectiveness of the work plan, the antici-
pated benefits, and other relevant factors that must
be assessed on a case-by-case basis.
Upon tentative completion of a Project Priority List
containing all DEP-approved projects a public hear-
ing must be held. Those projects that are on the top of
the Project Priority List (i.e., those that receive the
most points) and for which funds are available will be
approved for up to 25 percent State funding. The
applicant then has up to 2 months to apply for 314
funding. In addition, no one project shall receive
more than 40 percent of each year's appropriation
and the total amount of State and Federal funding
cannot exceed 80 percent of the total project costs.
The remaining 20 percent must be raised by local
governments and/or by citizens in the private sector.
At the time the grant is awarded an agreement is
signed between the applicant and the secretary of
DEP stating any conditions that may be necessary.
Payment is in accordance with a schedule contained
in the approved application. Pending final approval of
the project 20 percent of the State grant is withheld.
Projects requesting 60 or 100 percent funding will
be handled in a similar manner as that described for
25 percent funding. These rules implementing H.B.
1060 are pending and the public hearing necessary
for their adoption is scheduled for August 25, 1978.
South Dakota's lake program has worked very
closely with 208 Water Quality Management Plan-
ning in the State. South Dakota has a unique 208
program. We selected 10 areas in the State as what
we call Water Quality Study Areas (WQSA's). Eight of
these WQSA's were lakes. The information gathered
during the present 208 planning effort was sufficient
to make recommendations for restoration and preser-
vation. Several of these WQSA's should result in the
submittal of 314 applications to EPA.
In January this year, primarily through the estab-
lished 208 mechanism, South Dakota was awarded a
Model Implementation Program (MIP) project, for
Lake Herman. This project is one of seven selected
nationwide. The MIP is a cooperative agreement be-
tween the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The ob-
jective of the program is to select areas on which best
management practices (BMP's) to control nonpoint
sources of pollution could be applied in a 3-year
period and to determine their effectiveness in im-
proving water quality.
Various Federal, State, and local agencies as well
as private organizations and individual citizens are
involved in planning and implementing this project.
Agencies involved include the Lake County Conserva-
tion District, South Dakota Department of Environ-
mental Protection, South Dakota Conservation Com-
mission, South Dakota Department of Wildlife, Parks,
and Forestry, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
U.S. Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Agricultural Sta-
bilization and Conservation Service, U.S. Science
and Education Administration-Federal Research, U.S.
Farmers Home Administration, U.S. Economics, Sta-
tistics, and Cooperatives Service, U.S. Extension Ser-
vice, and the U.S. Forest Service.
The major objectives of the Lake Herman MIP in-
clude the strengthening of working arrangements
with USDA agencies, EPA, DEP, and other Federal,
State, and local agencies so as to provide planning
and technical and financial assistance to land users
in the Lake Herman drainage area and to facilitate
having 100 percent of the drainage area adequately
treated by BMP's in the next 3 years. Monitoring will
be conducted to determine the effectiveness of the
various BMP's and sediment control structures.
Another important aspect of this project has been
the putting together of the funding strategy. The 314
application proposes dredging, lakeshore riprapping,
and placement of sediment control structures in the
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FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL PROGRAMS
45
watershed. Funds for the project are coming from
EPA, DEP, East Dakota Conservancy Sub-district,
Lake County, Old West Regional Commission, South
Dakota Department of Wildlife, Parks, and Forestry,
and possibly the City of Madison. Most of the BMP's
are being funded by the Agricultural Stabilization and
Conservation Service through the Agricultural Con-
servation program on a 90 percent cost share basis
for 14 different practices.
It is DEP's philosophy that an approach similar to
that of the MIP will be necessary if lakes located in an
agricultural setting are to be preserved or restored.
No one associated with the MIP expects miracles;
however, we do expect positive and encouraging
results. The amount of cooperation and enthusiasm
exhibited by all entities involved has been very
encouraging.
In conclusion I would like to say that the future of
South Dakota's lake program looks bright. If the re-
sults of the MIP are encouraging we expect more
projects like it. The USDA agencies in the State also
appear to be in favor of this approach. Because South
Dakota is primarily an agricultural State it is DEP's
feeling that only through a coordinated effort by
agricultural and environmental factions will we be
able to preserve and rehabilitate our valuable lake
resource.
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VERMONT LAKES AND PONDS PROGRAM
JAMES W. MORSE II
Vermont Department of Water Resources
Montpelier, Vermont
ABSTRACT
Vermont has 527 freshwater lakes of which 287 have a surface area of greater than 20 acres.
Although Vermont fortunately has lakes in various natural trophic levels, recently some have
demonstrated signs of culturally accelerated eutrophicatien. This problem comes under the
jurisdiction of the Vermont Lakes and Ponds Program which is designed to provide a continuity
through various phases of lake investigations. The primary objective of the program is to assure
the maximum sensible recreational potential of Vermont's lakes and ponds through sound water
quality management practices. Under the three phases of the lakes program basic limnological
data are gathered and detailed reports are prepared to determine if lakes have culturally
induced problems. If so, lake management and restorative programs are developed and initiated
utilizing moneys from local, State, and Federal restoration funds. Satellite aspects of the Lakes
and Ponds Program involve establishing trophic indices utilizing various lake models and
monitoring changes in trophic levels through a lay monitoring program.
INTRODUCTION
To facilitate all activities involving lake work, the
Vermont Department of Water Resources has re-
cently developed a Lakes and Ponds Program. In so
doing, the maximum sensible recreational potential
of Vermont lakes can be assured through sound
water quality management practices. In addition, a
continuity is established through various phases of
lake investigations. This continuity is essential to
assure that lakes can be monitored properly for
changes in their trophic status, and to be able to
develop meaningful restoration projects for those
lakes found to exhibit problems stemming from cul-
tural influences.
Vermont has 527 freshwater lakes of which 287
have a surface area of greater than 20 acres. By
statute, all Vermont lakes greater than 20 acres will
be suitable for fishing, body contact sports, and
drinking, with proper treatment. Although matters-
pertaining to trophic levels are not directly discussed
by legislation, the Vermont Department of Water
Resources' policy concerning eutrophication is im-
portant in that it pervades many aspects of lake work
and eventually determines priorities for State involve-
ment in lake restoration programs.
Vermont is fortunate to have lakes in various natu-
ral trophic levels, and the Department of Water Re-
sources encourages the public to realize the recrea-
tional potential of lakes at all trophic levels. State
policy dictates that a lake's natural rate of eutrophica-
tion should not be tampered with. Restorative prac-
tices are encouraged only when lakes can be demon-
strated to have culturally induced problems that are
accelerating the natural rate of eutrophication. The
only exception to this rule is when, for known rea-
sons, the most sensible recreational potential of a
lake is not being met. In these situations complex
diagnostic studies are recommended.
THE PROGRAM DEFINED
The primary objective of Vermont's Lakes and
Ponds Program is to assure the maximum sensible
recreational potential of these waters through sound
water quality management practices. To achieve this,
it is mandatory to keep abreast of water quality
changes occurring in Vermont lakes and ponds, to
identify the reasons for these changes, and to take
the necessary corrective or preventive action(s) to
improve or maintain the water quality of those lakes
and ponds. A close working relationship must be
established and maintained among local, regional,
State, and Federal groups to accomplish this primary
objective.
The Lakes and Ponds Program has been divided
into three phases. Following is an outline of the
objectives and programs included under each phase.
A more detailed discussion of each specific program
complete with sampling details and parametric cov-
erage is available from the Vermont Department of
Water Resources.
Phase I (Lakes and Ponds Surveillance)
Objective:
The objective of the initial phase of the Lakes and
Ponds Program is (1) to monitor the water quality of
lakes and ponds through the collection of basic lim-
nological data, and (2) to identify those lakes and
ponds that may be experiencing water quality
problems.
Program:
Each year approximately 30 to 35 lakes and ponds
are sampled in Phase I. With flexibility in scheduling
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48
LAKE RESTORATION
and time for public relations required, the actual
selection depends on the location, size, and accessi-
bility of the lake, and public interest. In this phase
basic water quality data are collected and analyzed,
and the results made public by distribution of sum-
mary sheets and appearances at local lake associa-
tion meetings. Water quality parameters are mea-
sured three times during the summer.
Phase II (Lakes and Ponds Studies)
Objective:
The objective of the second phase of the Lakes and
Ponds Program is to document in greater depth than
the general surveillance program the present water
quality condition and trophic status of lakes and
ponds selected from Phase I studies. In so doing, the
maximum sensible recreational potential of the lake
or pond is established using a combination of water
quality data, historical information, and predictive
models. In this phase, lake reports are prepared for
the public which present this information, serve as a
basis for evaluating future changes in the lakes, and
delineate likely problem areas that require further
work.
These lake reports satisfy both the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency's New England require-
ments for background information necessary to sup-
port a "Step 2" grant under the revised section 314
regulations and the State of Vermont's requirement
for a biological survey prior to the release of funds
under the Vermont Aquatic Nuisance Control Pro-
gram. They thus provide the basis for local and State
participation in State and Federally funded lake
management and restoration projects. Depending on
the severity of their water quality problems, lakes and
ponds are placed on a priority list following Phase II
studies.
Program:
A limited number of lakes and ponds are selected
for 1-year study under this phase, based upon infor-
mation collected during Phase I regarding present or
changing water quality conditions, the use of the
waters, and public interest. The number of lakes
chosen each year is small enough to allow for individ-
ual attention and flexibility.
Early in the study the drainage area of each lake is
mapped and land uses are determined from Vermont
State Planning Office maps. The total phosphorus
loading to each lake is then calculated using the
appropriate rate coefficients for various land uses
and local U.S. Geological Service hydrological data.
Predictive models are also completed to predict the
average summer chlorophyll a concentrations, the
total phosphorus loading to the lake, and the hypoth-
etical all-forest phosphorus loading situation to the
lake. These models use necessary drainage basin
information and the spring overturn total phosphorus
data collected for this purpose under the
Phosphorus/Chlorophyll Modeling Program. At the
end of the study, the desired future average chloro-
phyll a concentration and phosphorus loading levels
are determined for each lake. These values are cho-
sen to coincide with the most sensible recreational
potential of each lake. To determine the most sensi-
ble recreational potential historical information con-
cerning the lake is gathered from various sources. In
addition, local, regional, and State organizations
(lake associations, municipalities. Soil Conservation
Service, Department of Fish and Game, Department
of Forests and Parks, and regional planning offices)
are consulted regarding problems in and around the
lake, changes they would like, and the most sensible
recreational potential for that lake as they see it.
The chosen lakes are visited a minimum of six times
during the year of study (fall, winter, spring, June,
July, August) and monitored intensely for physical,
chemical, and biological parameters.
Phase III (Management and
Restorative Action)
Objective:
The objective of the third phase of the Lakes and
Ponds Program is to develop, initiate, and administer
lake management and restorative programs as re-
commended under this phase and in previous phases
of the Lakes and Ponds Program.
Program:
A limited number of "problem" lakes, i.e., lakes and
ponds that (1) are experiencing culturally accelerated
eutrophication, (2) are not meeting their most sensi-
ble recreational potential for a variety of reasons, or
(3) are considered fragile and in need of protection
from excessive cultural development, are selected for
further study under Phase III. Additional pertinent
information is collected on these lakes and various
local, regional. State, and Federal disciplines are
drawn closely together to make specific recommen-
dations for the management and/or restoration of the
water quality of each Phase III lake. The course of
each management or restorative program is individu-
ally determined according to the specific require-
ments of the lakes involved.
SATELLITE LAKE PROGRAMS
Each of the satellite lake programs is designed to
gather information that will aid in developing an
efficient means of monitoring trophic changes in the
largest practical number of lakes and ponds in the
State.
Some of these programs involve the use of model-
ing techniques. As more and more relatively simplis-
tic limnological relationships are discovered, the job
of monitoring lakes for changing trophic states may
become easier. The Vermont Lakes and Ponds Pro-
gram, through satellite programs, examines the appli-
cability of some of these relationships to Vermont
lakes. These programs are generally temporal, and
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FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL PROGRAMS
49
relationships determined to be applicable are incor-
porated into the Lakes and Ponds Program.
Program 1. Phosphorus/Chlorophyll
Modeling Program
Objective:
The objective of Vermont's Phosphorus/ Chloro-
phyll Modeling Program is to obtain sufficient data to
enable the Department of Water Resources to use
springtime total phosphorus data in currently avail-
able lake models to determine average summer chlo-
rophyll a concentrations in, and total phosphorus
loadings to the maximum possible number of lakes
and ponds in the State (Dillon and Rigler, 1975).
Program:
This program is divided into two definitive parts.
Part I involves the collection of total phosphorus data
to be used in the lake modeling formulae. Water
samples are collected for total phosphorus analysis
from a maximum practical number of lakes and
ponds throughout the State at the time of spring
overturn while the waters are not stratified. The time
of ice-out for each lake or area is determined and the
lakes and ponds are sampled as soon as possible
thereafter. Temperature profiles are taken to verify
nonstratified conditions. Three stations are sampled
in triplicate at each lake. Composite samples over the
total depth are collected by means of a Kemmerer or
a hose sampler.
Part II involves verifying the spring total
phosphorus/average summer chlorophyll a relation-
ship for Vermont lakes. An appropriate number of
representative lakes are sampled weekly for chloro-
phyll a during the period of summer stratification
(April-October). Two stations on each lake are sam-
pled in duplicate for chlorophyll a using a hose sam-
pler extended to a depth of twice the Secchi disk
transparency. Secchi disk measurements are taken
at the same time. At the end of the sampling period
the data are compiled and analyzed to determine
what relationships, if any, exist between springtime
total phosphorus concentrations, average summer
chlorophyll a concentrations, and Secchi disk
transparencies.
Program 2. Hypolimnetic
Dissolved Oxygen
Objective:
The objective of the Hypolimnetic Dissolved Oxy-
gen Program is to monitor the depletion of dissolved
oxygen during the summer months in the hypolim-
netic waters of several lakes and ponds to determine
whether a relationship exists between spring total
phosphorus concentrations and summer dissolved
oxygen depletions in Vermont lakes.
Program:
Several inland lakes and one bay of Lake Cham-
plain are being sampled for hypolimnetic dissolved
oxygen as often as practical (weekly, biweekly, or
monthly) for dissolved oxygen and temperature pro-
files at the deepest mid-lake station. Temperature
profiles are determined and water samples are col-
lected for dissolved oxygen analysis at 1- or 2-meter
intervals beginning at the second point of inflection
on the temperature profile and continuing to the
bottom of the lake. Samples are collected throughout
the summer and in some cases until fall overturn. The
data collected under this program will be analyzed to
determine whether a relationship exists between
spring total phosphorus concentrations and summer
dissolved oxygen depletions in Vermont lakes.
Program 3. Lay Monitoring Program
Objective:
The objective of the Lay Monitoring Program is to
establish a data base adequate to determine existing
lake water quality primarily in terms of trophic state
index (TSI) and to assist in determining lake trophic
levels. A record objective is to monitor long-term
trends in water quality primarily in relation to the TSI,
and to provide a data base adequate enough to utilize
various mathematical modeling tools for lake
management. Further, the program will provide a
mechanism by which interested citizens can become
directly involved in managing individual lake re-
sources and help the Department of Water Resources
directly educate local citizens in the causes and con-
sequences of eutrophication.
Program:
To meet the above objectives, a basic program and
a more advanced program will be developed. The
choice of implementing the basic or advanced pro-
gram in a certain area will depend upon various
objective and subjective criteria: (1) depth of local
time and resources commitment; (2) extent of devel-
opment on the lake; (3) expected future development;
(4) presence or absence of problems in the lake; and
(5) sample handling logistics. The basic program in-
volves collection of spring turnover phosphorus and
weekly Secchi readings, while the advanced program
adds weekly chlorophyll a and total phosphorus col-
lection. Both programs map aquatic vegetation beds
once a year and take weekly water temperatures.
Program 4. Lake and Pond Inventory
Objective:
The object of the Lake and Pond Inventory Program
is to develop and maintain a current directory of
information concerning each lake, including morpho-
logical, hydrological, trophic status, fish and wildlife,
lake use, draining basin land use, shoreland soils,
shoreland zoning, and administrative data.
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50
Program:
To develop and maintain a current lake and pond
inventory it is necessary to update bathymetric maps
and to compile the hydrological data necessary for
the determination of water budgets and the utiliza-
tion of modeling techniques. Drainage basin maps
and land use maps are developed and kept current
and a central clearinghouse is established for munici-
pal shoreland zoning documents.
In summary, Vermont has attempted to deal with
both its lake problems and the increasingly complex
State and Federal programs developed to deal with
such problems. The Vermont Lakes and Ponds Pro-
LAKE RESTORATION
gram has been created by consolidating various lake
studies into a system which coordinates all efforts,
from basic preliminary limnological evaluations to
complex lake restoration programs. In addition, the
trophic status of lakes is monitored in various ways
including lake modeling techniques and a lay moni-
toring program.
REFERENCES
Dillon, P., and F. Rigler. 1975. A simple method for predict-
ing the capacity of a lake for development based on lake
trophic status. Jour. Fish. Res. Board Can. 32:1519.
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INTERRELATIONSHIP OF THE CLEAN LAKES PROGRAM
AND WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
JOSEPH A. KRIVAK
Water Planning Division
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
ABSTRACT
The concept of program integration is essential to improve the quality of our lakes. There has
been a low degree of coordination between clean lakes projects and State water quality
management programs. Little coordination has existed among other Federal programs in
approximately two-thirds of the clean lakes projects. The State/EPA agreements can improve
the coordination of other programs with the clean lakes program. Water quality management
programs developed under section 208 of the Clean Water Act also can be useful in assisting
clean lakes planning and coordination 208 plans may in the future provide the initiative for
clean lakes projects. The Model Implementation Project is an example of a 208 implementation
program that closely parallels the clean lakes program.
Congressional intent in establishing a clean lakes
program was to provide for the development and
implementation of a comprehensive approach to re-
storing and maintaining publicly owned freshwater
lakes. States were given the primary role for develop-
ing a clean lakes strategy that would enable them to
use a wide range of public and private resources to
restore their polluted lakes. The important role of
State representatives at this conference attests to the
interest and involvement of the States in this
program.
Anyone who has been involved in the clean lakes
program is aware that it has not had a high priority at
the Washington level. While a quantum jump in the
Federal funding commitment under section 314
does not appear likely, there are ways by which the
kinds of projects we have fostered under the clean
lakes program can be increased. I would like to pro-
vide some examples of how that can be done but first
it may be helpful to look at a few elements in the
clean lakes program of previous years to see if we
can determine its strong and its weak points, and
then build upon that experience in the future.
Historically, the program has tended to emphasize
support of structural, water-related, curative kinds of
techniques. Our analysis indicates that about
two-thirds of the projects have developed programs
to both control sources of pollution (preventive), and
to restore water quality (curative). The remaining
third have focused exclusively on programs that
treated only the symptoms of the problem and notthe
causes.
Let me define some of these terms, such as struc-
tural and nonstructural techniques. Structural tech-
niques include dredging, bottom sealing, sediment
ponds, and storm water diversion. Nonstructural
techniques include drawdowns, land use controls,
and buffer zones.
Structural techniques generally tend to be water
related whereas nonstructural techniques are usually
land related. I would quickly point out that there are
exceptions on each side. The same generalization
can be made between curative measures, which are
usually water related, and preventive measures,
which are usually land related.
Our analysis also dealt with the degree of coordina-
tion between the project sponsors and State water
quality management programs. Of 54 projects ana-
lyzed 24 percent had a high degree of coordination,
43 percent had a low degree of coordination, and 33
percent indicated little to no coordination. A high
level of coordination denotes active participation,
funding, or supporting studies by the water quality
agency, as well as a statement by the project spon-
sors that the project is part of the comprehensive
water quality management program. Low coordina-
tion indicates a review of the project programs by the
water quality agency and a finding that the project is
not in conflict with regional goals.
Another area of coordination occurs at the Federal
level. High coordination, indicating some type of ac-
tive participation by another Federal agency, oc-
curred in 1 7 percent of the projects, while low coordi-
nation, indicating consultation with another Federal
agency, occurred in 20 percent of the projects. The
findings indicated that in two-thirds of the projects no
Federal coordination existed. While coordination
does improve at the State and local levels, nearly half
of the projects indicated no cooperative involvement.
What this backdrop of information indicates is (1)
the need to develop a clear set of objectives and
priorities for the program at the State level; (2) the
placement of more emphasis on using preventive
techniques along with curative restoration measures;
(3) the need to develop a comprehensive water qual-
ity management program, of which clean lakes is an
51
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52
LAKE RESTORATION
important element; and (4) the need for coordination
of all applicable public and private programs in speci-
fied project areas.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has
made an important policy decision that will assist the
clean lakes program both in setting objectives and
priorities and in coordination activities. This is the
requirement of State/EPA agreements.
You will become more acquainted with the
State/EPA agreement concept in the near future be-
cause it will serve as the principal management tool
for achieving State/EPA environmental objectives. It
will serve both a long-range strategy and a near-term
work program function. It will be the basic document
for determining allocation of funds including the
clean lakes program. The agreement is mandated for
use in the FY 79 program year.
Another coordinating mechanism that can be very
useful in assisting clean lakes planning and imple-
mentation is the water quality management program
being developed under section 208 of the Clean
Water Act. The institutional and management agree-
ments developed through the 208 process can often
be utilized to initiate and manage clean lakes
projects. In many cases, 208 plans will provide the
initiative for these projects.
Let me give you an example of how the 208 pro-
gram acted as a catalyst for a series of pilot projects
called Model Implementation Projects (MIP's), whose
objectives parallel those of the clean lakes program.
About a year ago EPA and the U.S. Department of
Agriculture agreed to (1) identify a limited number of
rural areas having water quality problems, and (2) use
available resources to eliminate or control those
water quality problems. States identified more than
50 of these areas in the fall of 1977 and seven were
selected as pilot projects. Major problem areas were
represented, such as a corn belt area, irrigated agri-
culture area, dairy area, et cetera. Perhaps because
we were not bound by a need for new regulations the
projects became operational in a few months. The
projects were selected in January 1978, resource
commitments were made by March, and some imple-
mentation started in April.
The projects provide for the establishment of best
management practices (BMP) designed to keep sedi-
ment, nutrients, pesticides, and animal wastes from
entering streams and lakes and reduce the pollution
effects of irrigation return flows. They are working
examples of program integration and coordination
between various Federal, State, and local agencies,
together with private interests.
Perhaps a limited amount of data will give you a
better insight into these projects. The projects vary
from 24,000 to 287,000 acres in size and average
100,000 acres. Project sponsors estimated that total
water quality management costs would be $26 mil-
lion or about $35 per acre for the entire 755,000
acres. It should be recognized, however, that not all
acres required treatment so we do not have informa-
tion on the cost per acre requiring treatment.
How much progress has been made in the first
year? EPA and USDA have committed about $2 mil-
lion to the projects. Funds were provided to establish
best management practices, accelerate information
and education programs, and initiate monitoring and
analytical studies.
To date the landowner cooperation has been ex-
tremely strong. For example, in the New York project
even though the normal USDA Soil Conservation
Service staff was augmented by four additional peo-
ple the signing of landowners who wanted to estab-
lish BMP's was stopped because the technical assis-
tance and construction equipment available could
not handle any more requests.
Two of the MIP's are Broadway Lake, S.C., and Lake
Herman, S. Dak. Project sponsors in both areas have
submitted clean lake applications to obtain assis-
tance for additional lake restoration and watershed
protection measures that were determined to be nec-
essary as a result of the 208 planning effort.
With respect to the Broadway Lake MIP, some of
the BMP's being applied include field borders, ter-
races, diversions, farm ponds, and cover crops to
protect the watershed. The 314 grant application is
for roadside seeding and debris basin construction—
specific measures needed to prevent further deterio-
ration of the lake. The significance of the Broadway
Lake MIP to the clean lakes program is that its major
goal is to alleviate nonpoint source pollution contrib-
uting to the degradation of Broadway Lake.
The Lake Herman MIP is located in South Dakota,
40 miles northwest of Sioux Falls. The major prob-
lems in Lake Herman are sedimentation and nutrient
loading. Because of the sediment impact, Lake Her-
man has become so shallow that aquatic vegetation
can grow to the surface throughout the lake. The
decaying vegetation causes increased oxygen de-
mand andfishkills.
Dredging of the lake is required to decrease the
internal loading of nutrients and also deepen the lake
to permit wider public use. Best management prac-
tices are needed to protect the surrounding water-
shed to assure that the lake quality is maintained.
An assessment of land treatment needs was com-
pleted in the watershed, indicating that 15,750 acres
of cropland, eight active gullies, and 6 miles of erod-
ing stream bank provided the main source of prob-
lems. The major conservation practices needed are
terraces, grassed waterways, contour farming, con-
servation tillage, livestock waste management sys-
tems, pasture management, pasture planting, wildlife
habitat management, conservation cropping sys-
tems, crop residue management, stream bank shap-
ing, and fencing.
The 314 grant application is being submitted to
complete the work being done as a result of the MIP.
The application is for construction of sediment reten-
tion basins and for the dredging of the lake.
Lake Herman is a heavily used recreational lake due
to its very accessible shorelines and the attraction of
Lake Herman State Park, the second most popular
State park in South Dakota.
In considering a comprehensive approach to clean-
ing up lakes, attention should also be given to the
implementation provisions of section 208(j) of the
Clean Water Act, now called the Rural Clean Water
Program. As a result of this section, implementation
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FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL PROGRAMS
53
of rural nonpoint source programs is expected to
accelerate in FY 79. Under section 208(j), the Secre-
tary of Agriculture, with the concurrence of the Ad-
ministrator of EPA, is authorized to establish and
administer a program to enter into long-term con-
tracts (of 5 to 10 years) with rural landowners and
operators for the purposes of installing and maintain-
ing best management practices to control nonpoint
source pollution.
To be eligible for cost share assistance, an area
must have agricultural nonpoint source water quality
problems, be included in an approved agricultural
portion of a 208 plan, and must be able to ensure an
adequate level of participation. The program is de-
signed for areas with critical water quality problems
resulting from agricultural activities. BMP's eligible
for cost sharing are those that reduce agricultural
nonpoint source pollution and that are included in the
approved agricultural portion of a 208 plan.
The Rural Clean Water Program can work in tan-
dem with the clean lakes program to restore and
maintain many more public lakes than can be done if
the programs operate independently.
To sum up, I wish to stress the concept of program
integration as the driving force behind improving the
quality of our lakes. Statewide strategies should be
developed that provide for comprehensive and inte-
grated clean lakes programs. The State/EPA agree-
ment should be used as the management tool that
defines the goals, priorities, and implementation stra-
tegies for meeting the intent of section 314 of the
Clean Water Act. There are clean lakes roles for many
different water quality management programs and I
am confident that by coordinating those roles, we will
attain the clean lakes objectives.
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INTEGRATION OF ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS
TO ACHIEVE WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
LEONARD J. GUARRAIA
Criteria Branch
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C.
ABSTRACT
Because water quality standards are used to define the use of bodies of water, when a lake is
designated for fishing or swimming appropriate steps must be taken to protect water quality
and water use. Such steps may include measures to prevent runoff from the watershed, control
of wastes from either industrial or agricultural practices, and control of wastes from sewage
treatment plants. In restoring a lake, funds may be available from the Environmental Protection
Agency clean lakes program to control pollution in the watershed and to remedy in-lake
pollution problems. In addition, programs are supported by other Government agencies such as
the Department of Interior, the Department of Housing and Urban Development, the Department
of Agriculture, and the Corps of Engineers to complement the achievement of water quality
standards and the protection and restoration of the Nation's freshwater lakes.
State water quality standards are a public definition
of the use to which waters will be put and as such
form the basis for a State's water quality manage-
ment plan. The water quality standards are the start-
ing point for the water quality based permit system,
for the water quality standards serve as a basis on
which to judge the limits in the National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits.
Water quality standards also serve as the basis for
evaluating and modifying best management prac-
tices to control nonpoint sources, as well as aiding in
the judgment of other water quality related pro-
grams, e.g., water storage for regulation of stream
flow, water quality inventories, control of toxic sub-
stances, thermal discharges, cooling lakes, aquacul-
ture, and dredge and fill activities.
In establishing the water quality standards, a State
must set standards that will maintain current water
uses. If the current use is actually higher than that
called for in the standards, the standards must be
upgraded to reflect the higher use. A downgrading of
a water use may occur only in cases where the
existing designated use is not attainable because of:
(1) natural background, (2) irretrievable man-induced
conditions, or (3) adverse social and economic condi-
tions. In all cases, however, the State's standards
must ensure that the public health is protected and
that the national water quality goals for the protec-
tion and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife,
and recreation are met. Where State water quality
standards designate uses below those of the national
water quality goals, the standards must be upgraded
to the higher use wherever feasible.
The water quality criteria, the second half of water
quality standards, define the water quality necessary
to support the standards, and as such define the
levels and ranges of water quality constituents that
provide for the various uses that a water body has.
The criteria and the water-use designation form the
groundwork for other water regulatory activities by
the Environmental Protection Agency.
Criteria are not new to the protection of aquatic life,
but their development and use have been acceler-
ated and strengthened with the passage of three
Federal water pollution control laws: the Clean Water
Act of 1977, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
of 1972, and the Water Quality Act of 1965. As a
result of the passage of these laws and the growing
awareness that pollution must be brought under con-
trol, the role of water quality criteria is evolving from
the guidance and advisory type toward one of criteria
as a basis for regulatory control of waste discharges.
It appears that the future of water quality criteria,
and water quality standards, will be along two major
lines: (1) such criteria will continue to be required for
more and more identified pollutants as time passes,
and (2) such criteria will become more and more an
inseparable part of regulatory activity. The time may
come when national criteria will be a requirement for
consideration on the establishment of State water
quality standards.
To achieve the water quality standards, appropriate
steps must be taken to protect the designated water
use. This may include measures to prevent runoff
from the watershed, control of wastes from either
industrial or agricultural practices, and control of
wastes from sewage treatment plants. One program
designed to upgrade the quality of the water is EPA's
clean lakes program.
The clean lakes program is intricately linked to the
State's water quality standards development in two
ways. First, the water quality information collected
during the development phase of a 314 application
could be successfully used to further refine the State
55
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56
LAKE RESTORATION
water quality standards. In some Instances, States
have been unable to establish specific numerical
standards to attain designated water uses because of
the lack of detailed information. By utilizing the infor-
mation gained from the clean lakes study, the exist-
ing uses can be protected more easily. In cases
where the existing use is upgraded by the successful
implementation of section 314 pollution controls and
procedures, a State can upgrade its standards to
reflect the higher use. These changes in standards
are important to maintain the improved water quality
of the clean lake restoration project lakes.
Funds have been available from the EPA clean lakes
program to control nonpoint source pollution in the
watershed, and to remedy in-lake pollution problems.
Other EPA programs may be integrated with the
clean lakes program; these include the 208 water
quality management program, NPDES permits pro-
gram, and the 201 construction grants program. All
of the above, including the clean lakes program, are
authorized by the Clean Water Act of 1977.
The 208 water quality management program is
integrated with the clean lakes program on some of
the grant projects. The association of the clean lakes
program with the water quality management pro-
gram permits the water quality management authori-
ties to collect much of the baseline information nec-
essary to formulate a viable clean lakes proposal and
provide a comprehensive nonpoint source manage-
ment control strategy.
The NPDES permit is part of a comprehensive effort
set in motion by the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act of 1972 to prevent, reduce, and eliminate water
pollution. The NPDES permit system replaced and
improved upon the old permit system under the Riv-
ers and Harbors Act of 1899. The NPDES permit is
the mechanism for ensuring that effluent limits are
controlled in order to meet the goals of
fishable/swimmable waters by 1983.
The 201 construction grants program is also an
integral part of the scheme to upgrade the Nation's
water quality. Municipalities can apply to EPA for
moneys to construct wastewater treatment facilities.
The application is a three-step grant process, involv-
ing facility planning, design, and construction.
Throughout the entire process, care is taken to en-
sure that the facility is environmentally sound, that
the impacts resulting from the construction of the
facility have been considered, and that the project
will be cost effective. The treatment plant design is
based on the goal of complying with effluent limita-
tions used to enforce water quality standards.
Other Federal agency programs have been used to
supplement the clean lakes program. These include
the Agriculture Soil and Conservation Service, the
Community Development Block Grant program, the
Appalachian Commission, and the Land and Water
Conservation Fund.
The Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act
authorizes the Department of Agriculture, through
the Agriculture Stabilization and Conservation Ser-
vice (ASCS) to help farmers, ranchers, and woodland
owners carry out approved soil, water, woodland,
and wildlife conservation practices. The Agricultural
Stabilization and Conservation Service has worked in
conjunction with the clean lakes program through
the Agricultural Conservation Project (ACP) in con-
trolling nonpoint source pollution in the watershed.
The objectives of the ACP program are to encourage
and aid rural landowners in establishing and main-
taining best management practices to control non-
point source pollution, and thus improve water qual-
ity. These practices could include better fertilization
procedures or animal waste storage.
An area that has an approved 208 agricultural
nonpoint sources plan can qualify for financial assis-
tance to cost share the installation of best manage-
ment practices. Presently the Federal portion is not to
exceed 75 percent of the total cost; the average grant
perfarm is approximately $449.
The Cobbossee Lake watershed project is an exam-
ple of ASCS funds being used in conjunction with
clean lakes money. One of the major factors contrib-
uting to the degradation of Cobbossee Lake resulted
from both the improper storage of animal wastes and
fertilization of fields. Dairy farming is a major industry
in this part of the State; formerly, the animal wastes
were spread directly onto the fields. During the
spring thaw and ensuing rains, the runoff into the
lake from the fertilized fields had a very high nutrient
content, contributing to the rapid eutrophication of
the lake.
An application was submitted for clean lakes
money and ASCS money. To control the nonpoint
source pollution associated with the dairy farming
industry, ASCS funds were used to build manure
storage facilities and other runoff control measures.
These storage facilities allow up to 180-day storage,
enabling the farmers to apply the wastes to cropland
when there is less chance of the fertilizer being
washed off into the lake.
Another Federal funding program is the Community
Development Block Grant program of the Depart-
ment of Housing and Urban Development which re-
ceives its authority under Title I of the Housing and
Community Development Act of 1974. The purpose
of this grant program is to develop urban communi-
ties that promote decent housing, a suitable living
environment, and expanded economic opportunity,
principally for persons of low and moderate income.
Funds from this grant program can be used directly
with clean lakes money, but certain conditions must
first be met. First, the proposed action must benefit
low-to-middle-income citizens, and second, the pro-
posed project must be an eligible activity under the
Block Grant program. Eligible activities include funds
for the removal of blighted and deteriorated struc-
tures, the installation of adequate sewer lines, and
the establishment of neighborhood parks and recrea-
tion facilities.
Similar to the Community Development Block
Grant program, but more encompassing, is the Appa-
lachian Commission, authorized by the Appalachian
Regional Development Act of 1965. The Commission
is comprised of several grant programs ranging from
the reclamation of mined areas to the building of
highways, although the most relevant to the clean
lakes program is the Energy, Environment, and Natu-
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FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL PROGRAMS
ral Resources Program. The overall objectives of the
Commission are to stimulate social and economic
development in the region, taking into account all the
special problems created by the Nation's energy
needs and policies. To meet these objectives the
Commission concentrates its efforts initially at the
regional level, then the State, and finally at the com-
munity level; the interaction of other Federal pro-
grams with the Commission's programs to attain the
goals of both is stressed. To this end, funds from the
Appalachian Commission may be used to supple-
ment grants from other Federal agencies, that is, as
matching moneys for the clean lakes grants.
The Energy, Environment, and Natural Resources
Program funds a variety of different programs that
could potentially impact clean lakes grants. Funds
are supplied to applicants for the construction of
sewer lines, solid waste disposal sites, the control of
acid mine drainage, and the reclamation of
strip-mined lands. Further, the Energy, Environment,
and Natural Resources Program uses part of its allo-
cation for education grants; this includes publicity for
grants, knowledge dissemination, and other related
areas. Although limited to the Appalachian States,
the Commission offers an excellent opportunity for
developing program interaction to attain water qual-
ity goals.
Another potential source of money comes from the
Land and Water Conservation Fund, Bureau of Recre-
ation, U.S. Department of the Interior. Authorization
for this program comes from the Land and Water
Conservation Fund Act of 1965. These funds can be
57
used for the acquisition and development of outdoor
recreation areas to meet the present and future
needs of the general public. Purchased lands can be
developed into parks or left in a natural state, creat-
ing recreational areas around the lake. Besides the
recreational aspects of the land acquired, the areas
may also act as a buffer zone around the lake.
These moneys can be used not only in rural areas
but also in urban areas. The Land and Water Conser-
vation Fund will provide 50 percent of the funds for a
project; the remaining 50 percent must be supplied
by the State or a designated subdivision. Other Fed-
eral moneys can be used for the matching funds if
enabling legislation is included in the regulations of
the individual funding program.
Hence, in developing a clean lakes program, other
Federal agencies may form a partnership with EPA
and the State or local community for the restoration
of publicly owned freshwater lakes. In some cases,
other Federal moneys can be used to match our EPA
clean lakes grant. However, the enabling legislation
of the other Federal agency must specifically include
such an authorization. But in all cases joint projects
may be initiated for the restoration of a lake and
control of pollutants entering a lake from the
watershed.
Finally, within EPA, restoration of a lake is an inte-
grated process involving section 314 with the area-
wide planning process, and when appropriate, con-
struction grants and the NPDES permit system, with
the water quality standard forming the basis for the
water use which best protects the lake.
-------
THE FUTURE OF THE CLEAN LAKES PROGRAM
KENNETH M. MACKENTHUN
Criteria and Standards Division
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
ABSTRACT
r thf Jake envir?nment has existed in the scientific community since early in the
FArtpni I** State! were lnst'tutmg measures to improve the use of lakes in the 1940's The
Federa lake restoration program began in 1975 when the Congress appropriated funds to
!uPP°,rt r!?.etn°ds and Procedures to restore publicly owned freshwater lakes Since 1975
ill mm-n i6ln aPPr°Pri!>ted bV the Congress for such purposes At a Federal cost of
$31 million, proposals have been supported to restore the water quality in 73 lakes in 23 States
This represents a total commitment of $60 million because the Federal support level has been
Rprpn fv^h °PPAta' Pr°Ject 'Of New Pro?™<" initiatives are being implemented or planned
Recently the EPA announced the availability of funds to States to (1) inventory the nature and
extent of eutrophication in Significant lakes in each State, and 2) support diagnostic or
feasibility stud.es to identify those methods and procedures most appropriate to restore the
quality of particular lakes in a State. Other program changes are being proposed Several statel
rZn, 3tVe V'a^- ake res'?ratlon Programs with legislative support and appropriate funds to
th« &ntVe8tfgatlve Ud'eS and SUP,P°rt rest°rative measures. Cognizance is being taken of
?mnuT t H°, nonpom sourcue P°»"tants on lake water quality and measures Ire being
™5 th£?nh th P- T akeS -hr°U?h areawide wastewater management planning activities
En?h,«i«,S « " lmP'emen at'°n of best management practices to control waste sources
Enthusiasm among the professional community is high. I believe that lakes and the many
beneficial uses that society makes of them are now taking their rightful place with streams Ind
rivers in water pollution control and restoration programs streams and
Concern to improve the quality of lake water is not a
recent phenomenon. Because of a controversy over
the removal of aquatic weeds from Pewaukee Lake in
1937, the State of Wisconsin by executive order
established an interdepartmental committee to re-
view the whole problem of algal and weed control
and to adopt a suitable uniform policy and procedure
of administration (State of Wisconsin, 1939). That
committee functioned actively in the following dec-
ades. The control of algae with copper sulfate and of
vascular plants with sodium arsenite in Wisconsin
had continued from the early 1920's.
Claire Sawyer (1947) in his often quoted studies on
the nutrient quality of southeastern Wisconsin lakes
in 1942 and 1943 heralded national concern about
the impact of nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients on
lake water quality. In these studies he developed his
often misquoted concept that algal nuisances could
be expected in southern Wisconsin lakes if, at the
time of the spring overturn, concentrations of inor-
ganic phosphorus and inorganic nitrogen (ammonia
plus nitrate nitrogen) exceeded 0.01 and 0.3 mg//,
respectively.
In a 16-year time span from 1950 through 1965,
the State of Wisconsin applied 1,357,432 pounds of
commercial copper sulfate and 1,938,077 pounds of
arsenic trioxide to its publicly owned freshwater
lakes for the control of algal and vascular plant nui-
sances, respectively. As many as 130 lakes received
such chemicals. The State of Minnesota in 1958,
1959, and 1960 applied chemicals to 160 lakes for
similar purposes and used 620,155 pounds of com-
mercial copper sulfate and 291,996 pounds of arse-
nic trioxide (Jones, 1956). These chemicals were
applied under a legal permit program and sophisti-
cated equipment, for that era, was developed for
chemical application (Mackenthun, 1958).
A survey that I conducted of aquatic nuisance con-
trol activities in the United States in 1956 indicated
that 37 States conducted vascular plant control activ-
ities and 28 States conducted algal control activities.
Eight of these States regulated chemical introduc-
tions by statute and executive order, and 23 operated
by informal supervision on some or all projects.
In 1967, the British Columbia Research Council
published "The Market for Algicides" and "The Mar-
ket for Molluscicides." These publications repre-
sented excellent and extensive reviews of the respec-
tive problems and attempted to define the present
and future market for copper in the control of algae,
schistosome dermatitis, oyster drills, and bilharziasis!
It was not until the enactment of the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act of 1972 that a Federal program
for lake restoration came into being. This program,
like an ungainly colt, experienced an unsteady in-
fancy. In 1975, the Congress appropriated $4 million
to initiate Federal financial support of methods and
procedures to restore publicly owned freshwater
lakes. Through fiscal year 1978, $36.3 million have
been appropriated by the Congress for such activi-
ties. A sum of $ 15 million is in the President's budget
forfiscalyear 1979.
Although legislation authorized funding up to 70
percent of a total lake restoration project cost.
Agency administrative action established the Federal
support level at 50 percent of the project cost. This
59
-------
60
LAKE RESTORATION
level of financial support was established because of
three factors: the universe of lakes requiring restora-
tion was unknown, the extent of Federal financial
support for the program was unknown, and there was
a belief that to ensure project success and manage-
ment following the construction phase there had to
be a substantial local citizens' commitment to a lake
restoration project.
The clean lakes program fills an important niche in
the management of waters to reduce pollution and
preserve the resource. The program is directed prin-
cipally toward the control of nonpoint or diverse
pollutants that otherwise would enter a lake ecosys-
tem, and the implementation of methods and proce-
dures within a lake to hasten a lake's recovery follow-
ing the control of pollution sources. It is associated
closely with the areawide wastewater control
management program and it will become a viable
part of EPA/State water quality management agree-
ments currently being developed.
The program will support such activities as pollu-
tant source diversion, low-nutrient water diversion to
a lake, chemical precipitation to remove phosphates,
hypolimnetic aeration, dredging, construction of sed-
imentation basins and nutrient traps in the lake's
immediate watershed, long-term leasing or purchase
of land buffer areas to reduce nutrient or sediment
inflows to a lake, and other land management or
in-lake practices designed to reduce the amount of
pollutants that a lake will receive.
The thrust of the program is to support long-term
pollutant controls. Thus, vascular plant harvesting or
algal control is supported only when it can be shown
that such activities are a necessary part of a lake
restoration project to hasten lake recovery or that
inflowing pollutant sources have been controlled to
the maximum and the initiation of such activities is a
cost-effective means of improving lake water quality.
Those activities that can be controlled in a timely
manner through financial support by other portions
of the Clean Water Act such as publicly owned treat-
ment works construction or through the National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit pro-
gram are not supported with clean lakes grants. For a
proposal to qualify for financial support, the principal
contributing pollutant sources to a lake must be con-
trolled prior to the proposed project completion date;
this may require local ordinances or other local regu-
latory action.
An example of the need to control nutrient sources
to a lake before completing in-lake restorative proce-
dures is demonstrated in the Liberty Lake restoration
project in Spokane County, Wash. Since the middle
1960's, this 780-acre lake has been plagued by mas-
sive blooms of Anabaena, widespread growths of
vascular plants, decreased water clarity, and water
odor. About 50 percent of the nitrogen and phospho-
rus nutrients supporting the vegetative growth are
contributed by a tributary stream that flows through
an adjacent wetland. The wetland has been used
extensively as a grazing area for cattle. Now the
wetland acts, uncharacteristically, as a source for
nutrients rather than a sink for nutrients. Leaching
from shoreside septic tank drain fields, urban runoff,
and ^introduction of nutrients from benthic sedi-
ments are other sources of nutrients to the lake
water.
In 1 968 concerned citizens established an Ecology
Committee within the Liberty Lake Property Owners
Association. Their activities led to the formation of
the Liberty Lake Sewer District in the spring of 1973
and to voter approval of a general plan for sewering
the area in November 1974. In that same election,
revenue bonds totaling $ 1.7 million were authorized
to pay for the system.
Also, in the fall of 1974, alum (aluminum sulfate)
was applied to Liberty Lake to precipitate the inor-
ganic phosphorus dissolved in the lake water. The
reversal of an algal bloom that fall and improvement
in lake clarity were attributed to that treatment. Al-
though the benefits of the alum treatment were ap-
parent throughout 1975, the fact that nutrient
sources were not yet controlled was demonstrated
by the reappearance of profuse growths of algae in
1976, 1977, and again this year.
Under the clean lakes grant awarded last year,
nutrient influx from the marsh will be minimized by
installing diversion gates to separate the marsh from
the stream and by rebuilding a dike that separates the
lake from the nutrient-rich marsh waters. In addition,
the Liberty Creek channel has been cleared to in-
crease its capacity to carry runoff, thus avoiding
routing of waters through the marsh.
The sewer hookups of lakeside homes should be
85 percent completed this year, and 100 percent
completed by late next spring. A moderate amount of
sediment removal by dredging (6 inches over approx-
imately 200 acres) will be done to remove
nutrient-rich sediments and macrophyte biomass.
Another application of alum is planned for late 1980
to mitigate the immediate effects of dredging and
recovery of the lake.
Up to the present time, EPA has recommended for
award, has awarded, or is in the process of awarding
$31 million for support of lake restoration methods
and procedures in 73 lakes. These lakes are located
in 23 States. The five States that have received the
highest total grant awards include California, Minne-
sota, New York, Washington, and Wisconsin.
Thirty-nine lake restoration proposals have been re-
jected for funding on their technical merits and seven
proposals have been withdrawn by the applicants.
On July 10, 1978, EPA published a notice of the
availability of clean lakes funds to support an inven-
tory according to eutrophic conditions of significant
publicly owned freshwater lakes in a State and the
development of a priority scheme for the restoration
of the eutrophic lakes, or the carrying out of diagnos-
tic or feasibility studies upon which to base a lake
restoration proposal (43 FR 29617). Guidance was
provided for the lake inventory and for the diagnostic
or feasibility studies. This notice announced that
such support would consist of 70 percent Federal
funds and 30 percent State funds for a grant award
of up to $ 100,000 Federal funds per State. Although
it is not mandatory to use such funds for a lakes
inventory it was the Agency's expectation that the
inventory of significant eutrophic lakes within each
State would be completed within 2 years. Two years
from the date of the notice, a State would not be
-------
FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL PROGRAMS
61
eligible for clean lakes restoration funds until the
inventory had been completed.
The inventory of eutrophic lakes was a prominent
part of section 314 of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act of 1972 and the Congress made particu-
lar note of this fact in the Clean Water Act amend-
ments of 1977 when it stated that the Administrator
shall provide funds for such inventory. The inventory,
when completed, will provide a national assessment
of the nature and extent of eutrophic lakes and a
basis upon which to conduct future planning for the
clean lakes program.
The Agency is in the process of developing a regu-
lation to define the future management of the clean
lakes program. The regulation will be proposed for
public comment in August and it is expected to be
promulgated in December 1978. The regulation will
provide for two types of grants: a Step 1 diagnostic or
feasibility study to define methods that would be
most appropriate to restore the quality of particular
lakes, and a Step 2 engineering design and imple-
mentation grant that could use the report prepared
under a Step 1 grant as a basis for the implementa-
tion. All Step 2 grant applicants would be required to
submit as part of their application an assessment of
the environmental impacts of the proposed project.
Grant proposals must be accompanied with written
State certification from the State agency charged
with the responsibility of administering the State-EPA
agreement, and a State priority for lake restoration
must be assigned.
Clean lakes proposals will continue to be reviewed
on their technical merits and on the extent to which
anticipated benefits to the public are high in relation-
ship to the estimated costs of the proposed project.
Additional review criteria include an assessment of
(1) the probability for success of the project to up-
grade the water quality of the lake; and (2) the poten-
tial for adverse environmental impact resulting from
the proposed course of lake-restorative action.
The regulation will provide for an EPA Regional
Administrator to award the clean lakes grant follow-
ing a proposal's approval by the Assistant Adminis-
trator for Water and Waste Management. All grant
administration responsibilities will reside in the re-
gional offices.
Like life's future for an ungainly colt, the future of
the clean lakes program depends upon many factors,
some of which are interrelated. I believe that it is
incumbent upon the EPA to continue a stringent
technical review of all lake restoration proposals and
to fund only those that have a high probability for
success in restoring lake water quality.
It is essential that the successes and failures of the
program be evaluated. This evaluation has been insti-
tuted and will continue. A condition of each grant
award, and a grant condition specified in the pro-
posed regulation, is that progress reports be filed
during the implementation of a lake restoration
project and that a final project report be filed after the
project is completed. Water quality monitoring re-
quirements are made a part of the grant award and
the results of these efforts are a required part of the
reports. Provision is made in the proposed regulation
to continue such monitoring activities on selected
projects after they are completed. In addition, certain
funds were set aside with the program's initiation to
provide for long-term evaluation of selected lake res-
toration projects by EPA's Office of Research and
Development. All of these efforts will be summarized
in the biennial report on methods and procedures to
restore lakes that is required by section 304(j) of the
Clean Water Act. The next report is due in December
1979.
The Congress must be kept informed of the needs,
successes, and failures of the program. Meetings
such as the one we are participating in today are
helpful to solidify issues, highlight unresolved prob-
lems, and summarize lake restoration successes.
Through such events, the public and the Congress
are more informed about the clean lakes program.
I believe that it is incumbent upon the States to
provide strong programs in lake restoration activities.
States must participate financially with the capability
to supply some of the matching project funds.
States should develop and submit to EPA their
inventories of significant eutrophic lakes as rapidly
as possible and establish a priority scheme for partic-
ular lake-restorative actions. The lake inventory will
serve to project program needs and can be used in
future clean lakes planning activities.
States should participate actively in developing
lake restoration proposals to ensure that those pro-
posals submitted for EPA approval are technically
sound, scientifically defensible, and have a high prob-
ability for long-lasting improvement of lake water
quality.
The technical rationale for the methods and proce-
dures to be employed in lake restoration should be
the responsibility of the States. Such rationale is the
heart of a lake restoration proposal and it will be in
large measure the basis for judging the ultimate
success of the project.
Obviously, for a viable national clean lakes pro-
gram, appropriate Federal funding is required. This, I
believe, is a dual responsibility of EPA and the State
working in partnership to ensure that such funds are
made available.
I recall the International Symposium on Eutrophica-
tion which was sponsored by the National Academy
of Sciences-National Research Council. It had its be-
ginning in a Planning Committee on Eutrophication,
appointed in 1 965, and culminated in the publication
of Proceedings of a Symposium on Eutrophication
(1969). The summary of the symposium dealt with
the general topics of: removing nutrients from sew-
age, improving agricultural practices, controlling
available nutrients within lakes, removing nutrients
from lakes, relieving symptoms of eutrophication,
measuring the extent of eutrophication, and political
and social aspects. Recommendations from the sym-
posium centered around increasing education and
the flow of information and research.
How much have we learned in this past decade? I
believe that we have taken some significant steps
forward. Several States now have viable lake restora-
tion programs with legislative support and appropri-
ate funds to conduct investigative studies and to
support restorative measures for particular lakes.
There is a genera! recognition that lakes, and the
-------
62 LAKE RESTORATION
many beneficial uses that society makes of them, REFERENCES
should share at least equally with streams and rivers British Columbia Research Council. 1967. The market for
in water pollution control and restoration programs. algicides.Vancouver,B.C.
There is a sound foundation for a viable Federal lake 1967. The market for molluscicides. Vancouver,
D f*
restoration program. Cognizance is also being taken • '
of the impacts of nonpoint source pollutants on lake Jones, B. R. 1956. Personal communication. State of
. . • • i -i Minnesota.
water quality and measures are being implemented ... „ ,., ,0 = 0 • , i «
H ' , . .,, . Mackenthun, K. W. 1958. The chemical control of aquatic
to protect lakes through areawide wastewater nuisances. Comm. Water Pollut, Madison, Wis.
management planning activities, and through the im- National Academy of Sciences. 1969. Eutrophication:
plementation of best management practices to con- causes, consequences, correctives. Proc.symp Washing-
trol waste sources. Enthusiasm among the profes- ton, D.C.
sional community is high. I believe that the clean Sawyer, C. N. 1947 Fertilization of lakes by agricultural and
i » urban drainage. Jour. New England Water Works Assoc
lakes program has a bnghtruture. 51:109.
State of Wisconsin, Committee on Water Pollution. 1939.
Report on the chemical treatment of lakes and streams
with special reference to the origin and control of swim-
mers' itch.
-------
ASSESSING THE
PROBLEM AND
ALTERNATIVE
SOLUTIONS
-------
GENERAL CONCEPTS OF LAKE DEGRADATION
AND LAKE RESTORATION
PAUL D. UTTORMARK
Environmental Studies Center/
Land and Water Resources Institute
University of Maine
Orono, Maine
ABSTRACT
Eutrophication, the process of lake enrichment with nutrients, affects lakes by increasing the
growth of algae and/or rooted aquatic plants. This may cause undesirably high plant popula-
tions, reduced dissolved oxygen, changes in fish populations, and tastes/odors in drinking
water supplies. Nutrients, essential for the growth of aquatic plants, are transported to lakes
from many sources and by many pathways, some external, others resulting from internal
recycling. The objective of most lake restoration efforts is to restrict the quantity of nutrients that
reach the surface water of lakes in a biologically available form at a time when they contribute to
the undesirable growth of aquatic plants. Restoration approaches include techniques to reduce
nutrient inflow from external sources, to accelerate nutrient outflow, to disrupt internal cvclinq
and to channel nutrients to beneficial, rather than undesirable, biological production
INTRODUCTION
Lake degradation may take many forms. Excessive
erosion in the watershed may cause siltation in lakes
to the extent that lakes become more shallow and
volumes are reduced. Sedimentation also reduces
the amount of surface area available for recreation,
impairs aesthetic values, and provides rooting subs-
trate for aquatic plants. Pollutants or toxic sub-
stances may enter lakes, eradicating or altering natu-
ral plant and animal communities; contaminants may
also present hazards to human health.
Some also view lake degradation in the context of
lake and shoreland uses—unsightly development
may detract from a user's recreational experience.
Crowding, caused by conflicting uses (or overuse) of
a lake's surface, may have similar effects. For pur-
poses of this report, lake degradation is viewed in a
far more narrow context and is restricted to problems
of lake eutrophication—water quality degradation re-
sulting from the direct or indirect effects of excessive
fertilization. Siltation and pollution are considered
only insofar as they contribute to the overall nutrient
status of lakes.
Although the process of eutrophication is ex-
tremely complex and poorly understood, many of the
effects of this process are well known. The direct
effect of lake fertilization is the stimulation of primary
productivity—the growth of algae and rooted aquatic
plants. Excessive growths of either of these can de-
tract from the recreational use of lakes. Thick
growths of rooted aquatic plants can severely restrict
the use of shallow, near-shore areas, making it virtu-
ally impossible to fish or boat there. Algal blooms,
particularly blue-green algae, can form unsightly
scums and mats that decay and give off unpleasant
odors.
Repercussions of excess fertilization impact the
entire lake ecosystem. Some effects, such as the loss
of cold-water fishery as a result of oxygen depletion
in the colder bottom waters during summer stratifica-
tion, are likely to alarm anglers. In contrast, changes
in benthic communities populating bottom sedi-
ments are likely to pass unnoticed by most lake users.
Likewise, changes in dissolved constituents in lakes
may go virtually unnoticed, but if a lake is used as a
municipal water supply, unpleasant tastes and odors
may be apparent to many. In general, the ecosystem
impact of over-fertilization may be described by in-
creases in productivity, increases in standing crops
of plants and animals, but less diversity in the com-
munities represented. For the most part, the effects
are detrimental to desired lake uses, and as a result
there is considerable concern for developing
management approaches to offset the undesirable
effects of eutrophication and to restore lakes to prior,
less fertile conditions.
NUTRIENT LIMITATION
A good deal of the present day understanding of
the eutrophication process, along with much of the
theory behind lake restoration strategies, is based on
a knowledge of algal nutrition. Until about 40 years
ago, algae were cultured in the laboratory using soil
extract as the growth medium. While this permitted
algae to be grown under controlled conditions of
light, temperature, and agitation, questions relating
to nutritional requirements remained largely unan-
swered because it was not known which specific
constituents of soil extract were utilized by algae.
65
-------
66
LAKE RESTORATION
A major breakthrough occurred with the develop-
ment of artificial growth media consisting solely of
inorganic chemical compounds dissolved in distilled
water. Then, with the exception of microcontami-
nants present in reagent grade chemicals, the com-
position of the growth medium was known, and it
was possible to eliminate constituents one at a time,
as well as to vary their relative amounts in the
medium.
By noting the algal growth response in differing
modifications of the growth medium, it has been
established that algae require some 25 elements and
substances to meet nutritional needs. Macronutrients
essential for the growth of algae include carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, po-
tassium, magnesium, and calcium. The essential mi-
cronutrient elements are iron, boron, zinc, copper,
molybdenum, manganese, cobalt, and sometimes so-
dium, chlorine, and vanadium. Relative requirements
also are known for some of the essential nutrients; for
example, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are re-
quired in ratios of about 100:15:1.
Nutrient deficiencies have been observed in terres-
trial vegetation for nearly all the essential mineral
nutrients. It would not be surprising if similar situa-
tions were found to occur in freshwater lakes. How-
ever, if one compares the nutritional demands of
algae to the amounts of nutrients likely to occur in
lake waters, it is clear that the elements most likely to
be in short supply are nitrogen and phosphorus.
Carbon and iron are also possibilities, but the condi-
tions under which deficiencies are likely to occur are
more restrictive.
Furthermore, if one takes into account the manage-
ment possibilities that exist for controlling the supply
of nutrients to lakes, the list of potential controllable
nutrients becomes even shorter. It is generally
agreed that phosphorus is the most logical target
element for inducing nutrient deficiencies in lakes,
and most lake restoration approaches are designed
to control the supply of that nutrient.
Two key questions are basic to the design of any
restoration project intended to control the nutrient
content of lake waters: What is an acceptable in-lake
nutrient level that is consistent with desired uses?
And, what management steps are necessary to
achieve the desired levels? These questions cannot
be answered precisely; however, some guidelines are
available, and improved criteria are being developed.
On the basis of water analyses from 17 Wisconsin
lakes, Sawyer (1947) suggested that if, at time of
spring overturn, concentrations of inorganic phos-
phorus and inorganic nitrogen (ammonia plus nitrate
nitrogen) exceed 10 and 300 mg/m3 respectively, a
lake may be expected to produce excessive growth of
algae or other aquatic plants. These critical concen-
trations, although not to be construed as rigid lines of
demarcation, do provide target values for lake re-
newal efforts. Their direct usefulness has been lim-
ited, however, because of the lack of understanding
of specific management actions necessary to achieve
the desired in-lake values.
A significant step forward was made when Vollen-
weider(1968) suggested provisional nutrient loading
criteria for lakes, in which the rate of nitrogen and
phosphorus influx (expressed as gm/mVyr) was rela-
ted to subsequent trophic status (see Table 1). "Ac-
ceptable" and "excessive" loading rates were de-
fined. These loading criteria were developed empiri-
cally by comparing loading value to trophic state for
about 30 large lakes in North America and Europe.
Although subsequent studies have shown provisional
loading levels to be inadequate for some lakes—
particularly those lakes with high flushing rates—an
important contribution was made, because the load-
ing criteria could be used to link activities in water-
sheds to water quality conditions in lakes. More re-
cently, input/output models have been developed
(Vollenweider, 1975, 1976; Dillon and Rigler, 1974;
Uttormark and Hutchins, 1978) that improve under-
standing of the link between nutrient influx and water
quality conditions in lakes.
Table 1 - Specific nutrient loading levels for
lakes (expressed as total nitrogen and total
phosphorus in g/m2/yr}*
Mean depth
up to
(m)
5
10
50
100
150
200
Permissible
N
10
1 5
40
60
75
90
loading
up to
P
007
010
025
040
050
0.60
Dangerous
in
N
20
3.0
80
120
15.0
180
loading
excess of
P
0.13
020
050
080
100
120
Source Vollenweider, 1968
NUTRIENT SOURCES AND TRANSPORT
Most would agree that, considering present knowl-
edge of lake restoration, the approach most likely to
achieve long-term beneficial results is to curb the
influx of nutrients from external sources. Although
practical constraints prevent attaining desired reduc-
tions in all instances, efforts to identify nutrient
sources and to curb influx are integral parts of most
restoration attempts.
However, in considering the flow of nutrients
across the landscape it becomes clear that, in a strict
sense, there are no sources or sinks, but rather a
multitude of pathways along which nutrients are
transported. In this context, "sources" are simply
points along the nutrient flow paths which are desig-
nated for convenience. For example, the phosphorus
in sewage effluents is considered to emanate from a
point source, but some of the phosphorus probably
occurs because of phosphates in detergents, which
were formulated in some distant plant, which ob-
tained raw materials from... etc., etc.
Though arbitrary, the designation of sources can
influence the perception of available management
options; consequently, it is important that sources be
defined carefully and be distinguished from transport
mechanisms. Toward this end, the following defini-
tions may be helpful.
Nutrient source: a site from which nutrients are
discharged, or an area from which nutrients are ex-
-------
ASSESSING THE PROBLEM AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
ported, with subsequent transport occurring through
uncontrolled natural mechanisms.
Point source: a discernible confined and discrete
conveyance from which nutrients are discharged, to
include but not be limited to pipes, channels, or
conduits (example: sewage treatment plant outlet).
Nonpoint source: an area from which nutrients are
exported by natural means (example: croplands).
Specific contributor, materials or products contain-
ing nutrients that are discarded or used in a manner
such that the nutrients contribute to point or diffuse
sources (example: detergents, fertilizers).
In the context of these definitions, ground water,
precipitation, and dry fallout (dust fall) are treated as
transport vectors, not as sources of nutrients. This is
an important distinction, because from the stand-
point of nutrient control or abatement, management
action usually can be applied most readily to point
sources and specific contributors. Both technological
and regulatory approaches can be used. Control of
nutrient transport from diffuse sources is generally
more difficult and is based on reducing the efficiency
of transport mechanisms (for example, contour farm-
ing to minimize runoff from agricultural lands).
The concepts of pathway definition and mode of
transport are particularly important when consider-
ing nutrient flux from diffuse sources, because nutri-
ents may be exported simultaneously along many
pathways and can be transported by several mecha-
nisms. For example, soil particles from a given area
could become airborne and reach a lake via dry
fallout or precipitation. Storm runoff could transport
nutrients overland to an inflowing stream, or rainwa-
ter could percolate through the soil profile to the
groundwater aquifer and subsequently enter a lake
directly or through the base flow of tributary streams.
Waterfowl could feed in a field and deposit nutrients
in a lake. These are just a few of many potentially
significant modes of transport.
Table 2 - Modes of nutrient transport to lakes
Mode of transport
Groundwater
Surface water
a) streamflow
b) overland flow
Precipitation
Dry fallout
Miscellaneous
e.g, waterfowl
Entry to lake
Land-water
interface
Inlet streams
Lake perimeter
Lake surface
Lake surface
Lake surface
Contributions from
Unknown portion of
groundwater
drainage basin
Drainage basin
immediately
adjacent lands
?
7
-
Table 2 lists transport mechanisms for nutrients,
points of entry to a lake, and the land areas that
contribute nutrients via the various modes of trans-
port. It is apparent from this tabulation, that with
respect to a particular lake, the land areas contribut-
ing nutrients are not identical for all modes of trans-
port. Nutrients contained in rainfall may have been
transported for great distances through the air before
returning to earth, and the contributing area defies
description. A similar situation exists for other trans-
port mechanisms that involve air pathways.
67
Lands contributing nutrients to shallow groundwa-
ter aquifers can be defined more clearly, since bound-
aries of groundwater basins are often approximately
the same as the surface drainage basins. However, it
is not necessary that all ground water leaving the
basin pass through the lake and, since the extent of
communication between ground and surface waters
is often poorly defined, it is extremely difficult to
determine that portion of the total groundwater basin
actually contributing water to a lake. Contributing
lands can be defined with reasonable certainty only
when surface water transport is considered.
Even if all lands within a lake's drainage basin are
taken into account, it is clear that (1) it is not neces-
sary that all nutrients exported from the land ulti-
mately reach the lake and, conversely, (2) it is not
necessary that those nutrients which are transported
to a lake originate from sources within the drainage
basin. While the watershed is a useful planning unit
for lake management, it is apparent that in some
instances nutrient abatement outside the watershed
may be necessary if nutrient loadings are to be re-
duced to desired levels.
NUTRIENT RECYCLING
In addition to nutrient influx from external sources,
the nutrient status of lakes is dependent also on the
degree of internal nutrient recycling that occurs. It is
well established that, on an annual basis, most lakes
are nutrient traps. That is, they receive nutrients in
excess of the amount discharged through their out-
lets. These nutrients are stored in bottom sediments,
and the large amounts typically found there attest to
the trapping efficiency of lakes.
Accumulation of nutrients in sediments is not a
unidirectional process, however. Seasonal changes
in near-sediment conditions can cause the release of
nutrients to overlying waters where they may remain
for several months, to be redeposited in the sedi-
ments later. Thus, superimposed on the net annual
flow of nutrients to the sediments are seasonal
surges of release and deposition. These surges can
contribute significantly to water quality problems;
however, the effect varies greatly among lakes, de-
pending on lake morphometry, in-lake mixing proc-
esses, and trophic condition. Unfortunately, nutrient
recycling is likely to be most important in eutrophic
lakes, where it reinforces already high nutrient levels
and provides a buffer that may work to resist lake
restoration efforts.
Thermal stratification plays an important and com-
plex role in nutrient recycling, simultaneously en-
hancing and inhibiting the process. Anoxic condi-
tions in bottom waters—a byproduct of thermal strati-
fication in many eutrophic lakes—enhances the
transfer of nutrients from sediments to overlying
waters. Exchange rates for anaerobic systems are
known to be several times as large as those for
aerobic systems. On the other hand, thermal stratifi-
cation—more accurately, differences in water den-
sity with respect to depth—greatly reduces vertical
mixing in lakes, thereby reducing the transport com-
ponent of recycling.
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68
LAKE RESTORATION
In addition to producing countervailing effects, the
role of thermal stratification is further complicated
because it is a time-dependent phenomenon that is
influenced strongly by seasonal temperatures and
wind. Furthermore, the breakdown of stratification is
accompanied by reaeration. Thus, despite its recog-
nized significance, it should not be surprising that
nutrient recycling cannot be taken into account prop-
erly in the design of many lake restoration projects.
This discussion has emphasized the role of nutrient
recycling in the deepwater areas of lakes. Another
dimension of this process, perhaps even less well
understood, is the addition of nutrients to surface
waters from littoral, or shallow water, sediments.
Although exchange rates may be smaller than for
deepwater sediments, the surface waters are nor-
mally well mixed, eliminating any inhibition due to
stratification, and the net effect may be very signifi-
cant. In addition, under some circumstances, rooted
aquatic plants are thought to serve as nutrient
pumps, expediting the exchange process.
OPTIONS FOR LAKE RESTORATION
Based on the present understanding of
nutrient/lake condition relationships, a variety of lake
restoration approaches has been suggested, all with
the common objective of restricting the amounts of
essential nutrients which reach the photic zone of
lakes in a biologically available form at a time when
they can contribute to the undesirable growth of
aquatic plants. For discussion purposes, the renewal
techniques may be placed in three groups as shown
in Table 3.
Table 3. - Lake renewal techniques
Techniques to reduce nutrient inflow
a) Wastewater treatment
b) Wastewater/stormwater diversion
c) Land treatments (primarily agricultural)
d) Treatment of inflow
e) Product modification (eg, detergents)
Techniques to disrupt internal nutrient cycles
a) Dredging
b) Destratification/aeration
c) Hypolimnetic aeration
d) Nutrient machvation/preciprtation
e) Bottom sealing
Techniques to accelerate nutrient outflow
a)
b)
c)
Biotic harvesting
Selective discharge
Dilution/flushing
The first group of restoration techniques is de-
signed to improve water quality in lakes by reducing
nutrient influx. This may be accompanied by signifi-
cant changes in water inflow (storrnwater diversions),
or the water flow may not be greatly affected (ad-
vanced wastewater treatment). Of those lake restora-
tion experiences that have measurably improved
water quality, most have involved the application of
techniques in this group.
Techniques in the second group are intended to
accomplish water quality improvements by disrupt-
ing the internal movement or recycling of nutrients
within lakes. The ultimate objective is to restrict the
nutrient supply to epilimnetic waters during the
growing season, but this is usually accomplished
indirectly as a result of altering in-lake conditions. For
example, hypolimnetic aeration may reduce the
transport of nutrients from sediments to overlying
waters by maintaining aerobic conditions in the bot-
tom waters; however, the resulting effect on the
nutrient content of surface waters cannot be quanti-
fied readily, because internal transport processes are
poorly understood. Likewise, dredging may reduce
internal cycling by removing nutrient-rich sediments
and exposing sediments containing fewer nutrients,
but the overall effect on a lake's nutrient budget
cannot be quantified adequately at present.
The third group of restoration techniques deals
with the accelerated outflow of nutrients. Included
are such diverse methods as selective discharge,
dilution/flushing, and biotic harvesting. With all tech-
niques, the objective is to artificially force nutrients to
leave the lake at a rate greater than that which would
occur naturally. However, the nutrient pathways dif-
fer considerably among the various techniques.
At present, lake restoration is an emerging science
with few proven techniques and limited predictive
capabilities. Input/output models have been shown
to provide useful guidelines in some instances, but
they are not applicable to all the restoration ap-
proaches listed in Table 3. In general, it appears that
the models are potentially useful as decisionmaking
tools when the restoration approach is aimed at re-
ducing the input of phosphorus to lakes from external
sources. Also, the models handle some approaches
to accelerating phosphorus outflow reasonably well,
and they may provide useful guides. When the resto-
ration approach involves manipulating conditions
within the lake proper to disrupt internal nutrient
cycles, input/output models are likely to be of only
minimal value, and other types of models are needed.
Mention also should be made of an alternative
approach to lake restoration that could be more desir-
able and more widely applicable than any of the
approaches discussed so far. That is "biomanipula-
tion," an approach in which no attempt is made to
reduce the basic fertility of lake systems—in fact, the
benefits rather than the detrimental effects of fertil-
ization are emphasized; the biological components of
the system are managed in such a way that the
nutrients are channeled into desirable end products
(such as fish) rather than into algae or weeds. Current
capabilities in this area are extremely limited, but it is
a topic worthy of more consideration in the future.
REFERENCES
Dillon, P. J., and F. H. Rigler. 1974. A test of a simple nutrient
budget model predicting the phosphorus concentrations
in lake water. Jour. Fish. Res. Board Can. 31:1771.
Sawyer, D. N. 1947. Fertilization of lakes by agricultural and
urban drainage. Jour. New England Water Works Assoc.
61:109.
-------
ASSESSING THE PROBLEM AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS 69
Uttormark, P. D., and M. L. Hutchins. 1978. Input/output factors in eutrophication. Tech. Rep. DAS/CSI/68.27.
models as decision criteria for lake restoration. Tech. Organ. Econ. Coop. Dev., Paris.
.
rnn- ReSOUr 'nSt" -- 1975' ">P"t-output models with special reference to
, Orono. the phosphorus loading concept in limnology. Schweiz. Z.
Hydrol. 37:53.
Vollenweider, R. A. 1968. Scientific fundamentals of the -- 1976. Advances in defining critical loading levels for
eutrophication of lakes and flowing waters, with phosphorus in lake eutrophication. Mem. 1st. Ital. Idrobiol.
particular reference to nitrogen and phosphorus as 33:53.
-------
LAKE MEASUREMENTS
DARRELL L KING
Institute of Water Research
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
ABSTRACT
Basic measurements required to formulate a comprehensive lake renovation plan are discussed.
Included are measurements required to quantify nutrient induced problems in a lake, to define
the source of the problem, and to evaluate the potential for control of accelerated nutrient
enrichment of the lake. Special consideration is given to lake drainage basin factors of import in
defining lake character.
INTRODUCTION
When challenged by watershed manipulation and
increased public pressure, most lakes give evidence
of deterioration. While such changes may be subtle
and gradual, the time comes to many lakes when
there is a public outcry for correction of those factors
that lead to reduced recreational and water quality
values. In most cases, the observed problems are
associated with increased nutrient input to the lake
from the drainage basin.
The purpose of this paper is to present a method for
assembling basic data for the preparation of a com-
prehensive plan for the renovation of such
nutrient-enriched lakes. Consideration is given to col-
lection and interpretation of required measurements
with emphasis on evaluation of those lake drainage
basin characteristics which to a large extent control
the fate of a lake.
DRAINAGE BASIN-LAKE INTERACTIONS
Lakes in their natural state are in balance with the
watershed in which they lie. Often formed as a geo-
logical accident, natural lakes and the quality of the
water they contain reflect the parent geology and
evolutionary development of their individual drain-
age basins. Parent geology, weathering of parent
rocks and soils, and type and amount of terrestrial
plant development under the control of climate and
rainfall within a lake drainage basin determine the
base character of water quality and benthic sedi-
ments of a lake. These features characterize a lake
and play significant roles in determining the ability of
lakes to maintain their original desirable qualities in
the face of human perturbations within the
watershed.
Clearly, lake parameters such as water hardness
and alkalinity, nutrient supply, and benthic sediments
will vary from limestone to granite, to sand, to various
clay soil dominated drainage basins. Different terres-
trial vegetative assemblages responding to climate,
rainfall, and soil type within individual drainage ba-
sins will further alter lake water quality through the
addition of paniculate and dissolved organics. These
factors coupled with variable depth, volume, and
water throughput rate practically guarantee that each
lake will be unique even in its natural state.
Human occupation and perturbation within lake
drainage basins alter the natural balance causing
changes in lake biodynamics as the lake tends to-
ward reequilibration with the new watershed charac-
teristics. Variation in the number of lake drainage
basins used for agriculture and urban and industrial
development further insures that each will be unique.
Increased phosphorus loading of lakes is the most
common detrimental characteristic associated with
human occupation of lake drainage basins. Phospho-
rus has been shown by many (e.g., Sawyer, 1947,
1952;Ohle, 1953; Thomas, 1969; Vallentyne, 1974)
to be the nutrient most often limiting aquatic plant
production in lakes. Current empiric models have
documented well the relationship between phospho-
rus loading to lakes and lake productivity (Vollenw-
eider, 1968, 1975; Dillon and Rigler, 1974; Schin-
dler, 1978; Reckhow, 1978). While this
phosphorus-induced enrichment of lakes has been
explained as an acceleration of a natural process
(Hasler, 1 947), it is in many ways a different process.
Lake sediments are characteristic of the individual
drainage basin and include soil particles washed
from the basin and a variety of inorganic and organic
complexes reflecting the interaction between the
biodynamics of the lake and the flux of both particu-
late and dissolved material from the basin to the lake.
Each type of lake sediment has some capacity to sorb
phosphorus as a function of phosphorus concentra-
tion in the water. The general form of this equilibrium
sorbtion is illustrated in Figure 1. Under natural con-
ditions, soils in the drainage basins are less disturbed
than when actively used by humans and tend to bind
available phosphorus in place. The result is that in the
native state, lakes receive phosphorus at a very slow
rate and both lake sediment sorbtion and equilibrium
water concentration of phosphorus are low. Over
geologic time the lake gradually fills with sediments,
many of which retain a significant unused capacity to
sorb phosphorus.
71
-------
72
LAKE RESTORATION
•5
«>
in
SEDIMENT A
SEDIMENT B
SEDIMENT C
mg P/i >
Figure 1.- Phosphorus sorbtion by lake sediments in equilib-
rium with phosphorus concentration of lake water.
Under what is referred to as cultural eutrophication,
phosphorus is added at greatly accelerated rates that
may exceed the rate of sediment sorbtion. But, even
when in equilibrium with benthic sediments, the in-
creased phosphorus load yields elevated equilibrium
phosphorus concentrations in the water, often high
enough to stimulate undesirable levels of aquatic
plant photosynthesis. Increased sediment sorbtion
and increased equilibrium phosphorus levels in the
water are peculiar to cultural eutrophication and
rarely would be characteristic of the natural process.
Clearly, the ability of lake benthic sediment to bind
phosphorus will vary with the sediment type charac-
teristic of individual lake drainage basins.
Increased phosphorus concentration on littoral
zone sediments often offers suitable growth condi-
tions for those macrophytes with sufficient root mass
to extract phosphorus from the sediment before the
equilibrium concentration of phosphorus in the water
reaches a level sufficient to promote undesirable
levels of planktonic algal photosynthesis.
Increased phosphorus loading to lakes yields in-
creased algal photosynthesis but the amount of phos-
phorus required to yield visible problem conditions is
related to the alkalinity of the water. The alkalinity of
the freshwater lake is a direct function of the geology
of the drainage basin and serves as both the only
significant buffer and the reserve carbon source for
aquatic plant photosynthesis (King, 1970).
With increased phosphorus concentration algae
demand carbon dioxide at rates greater than can be
supplied from the atmosphere and from respiration.
Under these conditions carbon dioxide is extracted
from the alkalinity system, with a resultant decrease
in equilibrium carbon dioxide concentration and an
increase in pH (King, 1970). Decreasing levels of
carbon dioxide yield decreasing algal growth rates
and increasing algal sink rates resulting in a sequen-
tial replacement of one alga with another (King,
1972, 1976; King and Hill, 1978). If phosphorus
availability is great enough, this process continues
until blue-green algae dominate the water. Buoyed up
by their gas vacuoles, and not possessing the com-
mon decency to sink from sight, the blue-green algae
form massive undesirable growths near the lake sur-
face, markedly increasing both the chlorophyll con-
tent and turbidity of the lake water.
King (1972) suggested from literature values that
blue-green algae begin to dominate when the carbon
dioxide concentration is reduced to about 7.5 u mo-
les C02/ /. Results of laboratory determinations (Zies-
emer, 1974; King, 1976; King and Hill, 1978) sug-
gest that the carbon dioxide concentration at which
blue-green algae replace green algae is determined
in enriched lakes by available light intensity. If it is
assumed that available light places this critical car-
bon dioxide concentration at 3 u moles C02/7 and
that 1 atom of phosphorus is required for every 100
atoms of carbon fixed by the algae, the concentration
of phosphorus required to reduce the carbon dioxide
concentration from atmospheric equilibrium of 12.3
u moles C02/7 at 20 C to 3 u moles CO2// can be
calculated for various alkalinities.
The result of this calculation is presented in Figure
2. Also presented in Figure 2 are calculations of the
oxygen demand that would result in the bottom me-
ter of the lake if all algae produced in Deducing the
carbon dioxide from 12.3 to 3.0 u moles CO2/ / in the
top 7 meters of a lake were respired in the bottom
meter with a respiratory quotient of 1 mole of oxygen
per mole of organic carbon oxidized.
While the assumptions used in these calculations
are subject to considerable variation, it is apparent
from Figure 2 that the amount of phosphorus re-
quired to force blue-green algal dominance in a lake
is a function of the alkalinity of the lake. It is also
apparent from this figure that with phosphorus addi-
tion one would expect blooms of blue-green algae
prior to hypolimnetic oxygen debt in softwater lakes
while oxygen deficits at the lake bottom would be
expected before blue-green algal blooms in hardwa-
ter lakes. Reckhow (1978) presents calculations
which suggest that phosphorus volumetric loadings
in excess of 30 ug P/7/yr are sufficient to cause
anaerobic lake bottom waters.
Continued additions of phosphorus to a lake result-
ing in increased phosphorus concentrations lead to
increased pH and reduced carbon dioxide concentra-
tions. Algal demand for nitrogen per unit carbon fixed
increases with increased pH (Atherton, 1974; Garcia,
1974) and, with the increased rate of nitrogen cy-
cling and accelerated ammonia loss to the air as a
function of elevated pH, the lake can be forced to a
nitrogen limit (King, 1978). Here again alkalinity is
important with less phosphorus being required to
raise pH and force nitrogen limits in softwater lakes.
Despite the role of carbon and nitrogen limits, the
success of any scheme to renovate nutrient enriched
lakes will be related directly to the ability to reduce
the phosphorus concentration of the lake water. Even
in those lakes supporting large blooms of Aphanizo-
menon, Anabaena, or other nitrogen-fixing
blue-green algae, relief from excess algal activity is
predicated on the ability to reduce the amount of
phosphorus available to the algae.
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ASSESSING THE PROBLEM AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
73
As shown in Figure 2, the concentration of phos-
phorus required to produce problem conditions in a
lake is related to the alkalinity of the lake. Both
alkalinity and type of benthic sediments are functions
of the parent geology of the drainage basin. Sedi-
ments in basins that give rise to low alkalinity water
often have reduced capacity to sorb phosphorus. The
combination of reduced phosphorus sorbtion, low
alkalinity, and the resultant small amount of phospho-
rus required to stimulate problem growths in softwa-
ters places a special importance on control of phos-
phorus addition to such lakes and suggests great
difficulty in recovering softwater lakes from nutrient
enrichment. Because the biodynamics of each lake
are controlled to a significant extent by the character
of the drainage basin, measurement of parameters
associated with parent geology, climate controlled
evolutionary development, and current land use of
lake drainage basins must be included in the formula-
tion of any lake renovation plan.
60r
25
50
75 100
ALKALINITY
mg CoCO /£)
125
Figure 2.- Lake water phosphorus concentration required
for blue-green algal dominance with resultant oxygen de-
mand in the bottom meter of the lake as functions of
alkalinity of the lake water.
FORMULATION OF A LAKE
RENOVATION PLAN
The institutional authority may be a governmental
agency, a quasi-governmental agency, or some other
incorporated body willing to assume responsibility
for management of the lake over the long term. Once
this criterion is met, steps can be initiated to acquire
the data necessary to formulate a plan for improving
the lake.
Definition of the Problem
Essentially three basic problems are generated by
nutrient enrichment of lakes. These are too many
algae, often of the wrong type; too many macro-
phytes; and too little dissolved oxygen someplace in
the lake during some time of the year.
Secchi disk measurements (Lind, 1974) can be
made by a lake resident who also can collect and
preserve water samples and forward them on a prear-
ranged basis to someone capable of evaluating their
chlorophyll content.
The Secchi disk values yield an index of water
clarity and the chlorophyll measurements give an
index of algal abundance. Both parameters are nec-
essary to separate turbidity caused by algal growth
from that caused by suspended soil particles. In addi-
tion, knowledge of the type of algae dominating the
lake during the summer is useful and can be obtained
by periodic evaluation of algal samples by someone
with the required taxonomic expertise. While fre-
quent data collection is of obvious advantage, weekly
Secchi disk readings, and biweekly or perhaps even
monthly chlorophyll analyses and taxonomic identifi-
cation of the algae during the late spring, summer,
and early fall months are usually sufficient to evaluate
the extent of the algae problem in a lake.
Evaluation of problems caused by macrophytes can
best be documented by aerial photographs of the
lake during the time of year of greatest macrophyte
abundance. Assessment of such photographs cou-
pled with limited ground truth samples of the macro-
phytes for plant type and density determination gives
sufficient estimates of existing macrophyte
abundance.
Measurement of dissolved oxygen and tempera-
ture from lake surface to bottom at depth intervals
suitable for calculation of oxygen concentration and
temperature as functions of lake depth allows evalua-
tion of the extent of oxygen deficit within the lake.
Such measurements should be conducted in late
summer and again in late winter.
If any or all of these measurements yield evidence
of excessive algal or macrophyte abundance or sig-
nificant dissolved oxygen deficits in a lake without
obvious organic addition from the land, the lake is
subject to phosphorus enrichment and may benefit
from renovation measures. The existence of exces-
sive aquatic photosynthesis or significant oxygen
deficits in such lakes is sufficient evidence of excess
phosphorus availability. The next step in the formula-
tion of a lake renovation plan is definition of the
source of phosphorus relative to the hydrology and
configuration of the lake and the land use of the
basin.
Defining the Source of the Problem
After problem conditions have been documented in
a lake, it is necessary to characterize both the lake
and the lake drainage basin to evaluate the source,
amount, and potential control of phosphorus addition
to the lake.
Characterization of the lake: Physical dimensions of
a lake including size, shape, mean and maximum
depth, and total volume can be determined from
contour maps of the lake. If such maps are not avail-
able, these lake parameters can be determined from
aerial photographs of the lake and soundings of the
lake depth.
Calculation of mean detention time of water in the
lake is dependent on the volume of the lake and some
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74
LAKE RESTORATION
measure of water input to or output from the lake.
Where available, measures of both inflow and out-
flow should be used to include estimates of direct
groundwater addition to the lake. Stream gauging
records give the best estimates of water loading to or
from a lake but, if such records are not available, a
method for estimating the total outflow volume per
year that yields estimates generally within 25 per-
cent of measured values is given by Dillon and Rigler
(1975). In arid regions, corrections for evaporation
are critical while the period of ice cover should be
noted in areas where it occurs.
Chemical quality of the lake water should be deter-
mined during spring overturn. The minimum parame-
ters which should be measured include ortho and
total phosphorus; nitrate, ammonium, and total nitro-
gen; pH, temperature, alkalinity, and dissolved oxy-
gen. Sediments should be sampled at the same time
for physical description and measures of their phos-
phorus content and oxygen demand, particularly in
the littoral areas of the lake. Additional determina-
tions of these chemical parameters throughout the
summer are useful but the lake can be characterized
reasonably well from a good series of springtime
values. Obviously, any available historic measures of
lake water quality are of value.
Characterization of the drainage basin: A descrip-
tion of the contours, geology, and soils of the basin or
at least the general region is available for most areas
in map form from State and Federal geological sur-
veys and soil conservation agencies. Analysis of aer-
ial photographs of the lake drainage basin allows
measurement of the percent of the total basin occu-
pied by each land use.
These land use estimates coupled with literature
values of annual nutrient runoff from various land
uses (e.g., Sylvester, 1961; Uttormark, et al. 1974;
Wagner, et al. 1976; Stewart, et al. 1975, 1976;
Schwab, et al. 1973; Loehr, 1974; Harms, et al.
1974;Omernik, 1 977; Correll, 1977;Weibel, 1969;
Bryan, 1972; Dillon and Kirchner, 1975; McGriff,
1972) allow estimates of phosphorus addition from
each portion of the basin as a function of each land
use. Summation of these estimates from the entire
basin yield an estimate of total phosphorus addition
to the lake from nonpoint sources.
Estimation of point source phosphorus addition
begins with a survey of all point sources within the
basin. If the point source is an industrial or domestic
wastewater effluent, data on both water quantity and
water quality should be on file with the State agency
responsible for ensuring compliance with National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permits. If
such data are not available, periodic chemical mea-
surement of the point source may be required. Al-
though, for domestic effluents reasonable phospho-
rus values appear to be 1.0 kg P/cap/yr for areas
without phosphorus removal from wastewater or
phosphorus detergent bans, 0.5 kg P/cap/yr for
areas with phosphorus detergent bans, and 0.4 kg
P/cap/yr for areas practicing wastewater phospho-
rus removal (Gakstatter, et al. 1978).
Addition of the resulting point and nonpoint source
phosphorus loading estimates within the basin to
estimates of direct atmospheric input to the lake
(Murphy and Doskey, 1975; Delumyea and Petel,
1977) yield an estimate of the total annual phospho-
rus load to the lake. While this approach will not yield
exact measures of phosphorus loading, estimates
obtained in this manner are apt to be as reliable as
estimates from large, complex, and extremely costly
direct sampling schemes. Hines, et al. (1977) dis-
cussed some of the difficulties involved in generating
reliable water quality information from stream sam-
pling programs.
Calculations based on lake and drainage basin
characteristics: Estimates of phosphorus loading to
the lake together with measures of the hydrology and
configuration of the lake and springtime concentra-
tion of phosphorus in the lake can be used to calcu-
late the phosphorus retention coefficient of the lake
from equations presented by Dillon and Rigler
(1975). These researchers also present equations
which allow calculation of permissible phosphorus
loading to achieve any desired springtime phospho-
rus concentration in the water.
Selection of the desirable springtime phosphorus
concentration as a function of the alkalinity of the
lake from Figure 2 with an upper limit imposed by a
volumetric loading of 30 t/g P/ //yr (Reckhow, 1978)
allows calculation of permissible annual phosphorus
loading rates that should protect the lake from both
blue-green algal dominance and hypolimnetic oxy-
gen depletion. Calculation of permissible springtime
phosphorus concentration as a function of alkalinity
for a 100 ha lake with a flushing rate of 0.4 yr"1, a
retention coefficient of 0.7, and a mean depth of 10
M is presented in Figure 3. However, attainment of
such permissible phosphorus loads does not guaran-
tee the absence of macrophytes. The ability of these
300 -
200 -
>-
—
0-
100 -
25
50
75
100
125
150
ALKALINITY
(mgCaCO /ft)
Figure 3.- Permissible phosphorus loading rate for a 100 ha,
10 m deep lake with a flushing rate of 0.4 and a retention
coefficient of 0.7 as a function of the alkalinity of the lake
water.
-------
ASSESSING THE PROBLEM AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
75
plants to extract the phosphorus they need from the
sediments and the ability of the sediments to sorb
phosphorus are not included in these calculations.
Assembly of this body of data and completion of
the calculations allow comparison of desired phos-
phorus loading to current loadings. This in turn al-
lows consideration of various schemes to minimize
phosphorus addition to the lake prior to development
of the best plan for renovation of the lake.
Control of the Problem
Obviously, the best control strategy is to reduce
phosphorus input to the desired level. This involves
control of phosphorus runoff from all of the various
land uses in the drainage basin.
Strict zoning, sediment basins on tributaries, green-
belts, diversion, dilution, and collection and treat-
ment of stormwater, street-sweeping, and the use of
porous pavement in urban areas are a few of the
techniques for controlling phosphorus runoff from a
basin. Initial establishment of such control measures
must be followed by continuous vigilant manage-
ment to maximize protection of the lake. Zoning laws
must be enforced, sediment must be removed from
the sediment basins on a routine basis, and continu-
ous attention must be given to all of the various
measures for control of phosphorus-laden runoff.
Failure to maintain such continuous operational
management will prevent the best laid plans from
meeting the goal of improving the lake.
If it is not possible to reduce the phosphorus load to
a lake to the desired level by these various control
measures or by diversion of phosphorus-rich water
around the lake, in-lake management techniques are
called for. These include lake dredging, physical and
chemical treatment of lake sediments, artificial aera-
tion, dilution, biological manipulation, poisoning of
algae and macrophytes, and macrophyte harvest.
However, it should be noted that if the input of phos-
phorus from the drainage basin to the lake cannot be
controlled to desirable levels, each of these in-lake
techniques is a management measure which either
requires frequent attention or must be repeated at a
frequency determined by the characteristics of and
phosphorus load to the individual lake.
COST OF PREPARING A
COMPREHENSIVE LAKE
RESTORATION PLAN
The great differences from lake to lake and from
basin to basin make it impossible to place meaningful
estimates of cost incurred in preparing a lake renova-
tion plan. The cost may vary from a few hundred to
several thousand dollars depending on factors such
as the availability of data, maps, and aerial photo-
graphs; the size, shape, and complexity of the lake
and its drainage basin; and whether you hire a starv-
ing graduate student or a professional consulting
firm to prepare the plan.
REFERENCES
Atherton, M. 1974. The role of nitrate-nitrogen in algal
growth Ph. D. thesis. University of Missouri, Columbia.
Bryan, E. 1972. Quality of stormwater drainage from urban
land. Water Resour. Bull. 12:529.
Correll, D. 1977. Watershed research in eastern North
America - a workshop to compare results. Vol. I, II. Chesa-
peake Bay Center for Environ. Stud. Smithsonian Inst.
Washington, D.C.
Delumyea, R., and R. Petel. 1977. Atmospheric inputs of
phosphorus to southern Lake Huron, April to October
1975. EPA-600/3-77-032. Natl. Tech. Inf. Serv. Spring-
field, Va.
Dillon, P., and W. Kirchner. 1975. The effects of geology
and land use on the export of phosphorus from water-
sheds. Water Res. 9:135.
Dillon, P., and F. Rigler. 1974. The phosphorus-chlorophyll
relationship in lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 19:767.
1975. A simple method for predicting the capacity
of a lake for development based on lake trophic status.
Jour. Fish. Res. Board Can. 32:1519.
Gakstatter, J., et al. 1978. A survey of phosphorus and
nitrogen levels in treated municipal wastewater. Jour.
Water Pollut. Control. Fed. 50:7 18.
Garcia, F. 1974. Interacting carbon, nitrogen and pH limits
on algal growth and development. M.S. thesis. University
of Missouri, Columbia.
Harms, L, et al. 1974. Physical and chemical quality of
agriculture land runoff. Jour. Water Pollut. Control Fed.
46:2460.
Hasler, A. 1947. Eutrophication of lakes by domestic drain-
age. Ecology 28:383.
Mines, W., et al. 1 977. Hydrologic analysis and river-quality
data programs. Jour. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 49:2031.
King, D. 1970. The role of carbon in eutrophication. Jour
Water Pollut. Control Fed. 42:2035.
1972. Carbon limitation in sewage lagoons Pages
98-1055 inG E. Likens, ed. Special symposium-nutrients
and eutrophication. Am. Soc. Limnol. Oceanogr.
1976 Changes in water chemistry induced by algae.
Pages 73-84 in E. F. Gloyna, et al. eds Ponds as a waste-
water treatment alternative. Center Res. Water Resour.
University of Texas, Austin
1978. The role of ponds in land treatment of waste-
water. In Int. Symp. on land treatment of wastewater Vol.
2. U S. Army Cold Regions Res. Eng. Lab Hanover, N.H. (In
press.)
King, D., and M. Hill. 1978. Interacting environmental fac-
tors which control the sinking rate of planktonic algae
Final Rep. OWRT/A-090-MICH. Natl. Tech. Inf. Serv.
Springfield, Va.
Lind, O. 1974. Handbook of common methods in limnology
C.V. Mosby Co., St. Louis, Mo.
Loehr, R. 1974. Characteristics and comparative magnitude
of non-point sources Jour. Water Pollut. Control Fed
46:1849.
McGriff, E. Jr. 1972. The effects of urbanization of water
quality. Jour. Environ. Qual. 1:86.
Murphy, T., and P. Doskey. 1975. Inputs of phosphorus from
precipitation to Lake Michigan. EPA-600/3-75-005 Natl.
Tech. Inf. Serv. Springfield, Va.
Ohle, W. 1953 Phosphor als Initialfactorde Gewassereutro-
phierung.Vom Wasser 20:11.
Omernik, J. 1977. Non-point source-stream nutrient level
relationships: A nationwide study. EPA-600/3-77-105
Natl. Tech. Inf. Serv Springfield, Va.
Reckhow, K. 1978. Lake quality discriminant analyses
Water Res. Bull. 14:856.
Sawyer, D. 1947. Fertilization of lakes by agricultural and
urban drainage. Jour. New England Water Works Assoc
61:650.
-------
76
LAKE RESTORATION
1952. Some aspects of phosphates in relation to
lake fertilization. Sewage Ind. Wastes. 24:768.
Schindler, D. 1978. Factors regulating phytoplankton
production and standing crop in the world's freshwaters.
Limnol. Oceanogr. 23:478.
Schwab, G., et al. 1973. Quality of drainage water from a
heavy-textured soil. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. 16:1 104.
Stewart, B., et al. 1975. Control of water pollution from
cropland. Vol. I. A manual for guideline development
EPA-600/2-75-026a. U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C.
1976. Control of water pollution from cropland. Vol.
II. An overview. EPA-600/2-75-026b. U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C .
Sylvester, R. 1961. Nutrient content of drainage water from
forested, urban and agricultural areas. In Algae and met-
ropolitan wastes. U.S. Pub. Health Serv. Trans. 1960
Seminar, Taft San. Eng. Publ. No. SEC-TR-W61-3.
Thomas, E. 1969. The process of eutrophication in central
European lakes. Pages 20-49 in Eutrophication: causes,
consequences, correctives. Natl. Acad. Sci./Natl. Res.
Coun. Publ. 1700.
Uttormark, P. M., et al. 1974. Estimating nutrient loadings of
lakes from non-point sources. EPA-660/13-74-020. U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Vallentyne, J. 1974. The algal bowl. Misc. Spec. Publ. 22.
Dep. Environ. Fish. Mar. Serv. Ottawa.
Vollenweider, R. 1968. Water management research OECD
Paris. DAS/CSI/68:27.
1975. Input-output models. Schweiz. Z. Hydrol.
37:53.
Wagner, G., et al. 1976. Water quality as related to linears,
rock chemistry, and rainwater chemistry in rural carbon-
ate terrain. Jour. Environ. Qual. 5:444.
Weibel, S. 1969. Urban drainage as a factor in eutrophica-
tion. In Eutrophication: causes, consequences, correc-
tives. Natl. Acad. Sci./Natl. Res. Coun. Publ. 1700.
Ziesemer, C. 1974. The influence of carbon and light varia-
tion onChlorella vulgaris and Anacystis nidulans ability to
maintain plankton populations. M.S. Thesis. University of
Missouri, Columbia.
-------
MEASUREMENT AND USES OF
HYDRAULIC AND NUTRIENT BUDGETS
W. A. SCHEIDER
J. J. MOSS
P. J. DILLON
Ontario Ministry of the Environment
Rexdale, Ontario
ABSTRACT
Measurement of hydraulic and nutrient budgets is a valuable method of assessing the relative
importance of nutrient sources to a lake. The measured budgets are also the basis for the mass
balance models that are now widely used to predict the effects of a change in input on lake
water quality. The terms in a hydraulic budget of a Precambrian lake include precipitation on,
and evaporation from the lake surface; runoff from the watershed; and discharge from the lake
outlet. Calculation of a nutrient budget requires measurement of nutrient concentrations of the
hydraulic budget components and in the case of a non-conservation element, loss and supply of
the nutrient within the lake. This paper discusses techniques of measuring these budget
parameters, the frequency of measurement needed for accurate budget estimates, and different
ways of calculating budgets from field measurements. Harp Lake, a Precambrian lake in
southern Ontario, is used to demonstrate these techniques. The importance of anthropogenic
phosphorus inputs from recreational development to the phosphorus budget of the lake is
assessed from the measured budget.
INTRODUCTION
A material budget is an accounting procedure de-
scribing the movement of a substance into and out of
a lake. In terms of eutrophication, the budgets of
concern are those of the algal nutrients, primarily
carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Major ion budgets
also are important as is the water, or hydraulic,
budget.
A nutrient budget can be used to assess the relative
importance of the different nutrient sources to a lake
(Johnson and Owen, 1971; Jordan and Likens, 1975;
Schindler, et al. 1976). It also provides the necessary
data for the mass balance models (Dillon, 1974) that
describe the levels of a nutrient in a lake (Dillon and
Rigler, 1974a; Schindler, etal. 1978;0glesby, 1977;
Scheider, 1978). The information needed to con-
struct a mass balance model includes the nutrient
budget, the hydraulic budget, and the physical char-
acteristics of the lake (mean depth, surface area,
volume). If the lake model can be quantitatively linked
to variables indicative of the trophic state of the lake
(nutrient concentration, algal biomass, water clarity)
then the effects of a change in the nutrient budget
can be used to predict a change in the trophic state.
In this paper, we describe techniques of construct-
ing nutrient and hydraulic budgets and give an exam-
ple of their use, employing Harp Lake in southern
Ontario.
STUDY AREA
Harp Lake (Figure 1) is a softwater, oligotrophic
lake located on the Precambrian Shield of southern
Ontario. It has six inflows, one outflow, and a total
drainage basin area (including the lake surface) of
530 ha. The Harp Lake watershed is forested primar-
ily with hemlock and balsam fir in the low-lying areas
and maple and birch in the dry upland areas. Pre-
cambrian granite and metasedimentary bedrock un-
derlie the watershed, biotite gneiss and amphibolite
being the dominant rock types. Basal tills cover the
HARP LAKE
surface area = 66 9 ho
late volume = 826 XlcP
mean depth = 12 4 m
Lot 45' 23' Long 79- 08'
Figure 1.- Map showing location of study area. Contour map
of Harp Lake ( 8 m contours) shows location of major
inflows and outflows.
77
-------
78
LAKE RESTORATION
higher areas of the basin and sand deposits are found
in the low areas and valleys. Peat formations com-
monly occur on the sand deposits. There are 90
dwellings around the shore of Harp Lake (Ontario
Ministry of Housing, 1977), used mostly as cottages.
METHODS
Water samples were collected from Harp Lake for
total phosphorus analyses twice during spring turn-
over in May 1977. The water column was sampled at
2 m intervals from 1 m below the surface to the lake
bottom with a Cole-Parmer peristaltic pump. An
amount of water from each depth proportional to the
volume of that stratum in the lake was pooled to give
a single volume-weighted sample representative of
the whole lake. The pooled samples were filtered
through a 200 um mesh net and analyzed for total
phosphorus (Jeffries, et al. 1978a).
Hydrological gauging stations, each consisting of a
90° V-notch weir, and/or a flume, and a Leopold and
Stevens Type 71A continuous stage recorder, were
constructed for each stream near its point of entry to
(or exit from) the lake. Measurements of discharge
Were taken 12 to 30 times per year on each stream by
the area-velocity method or by catchment. The
area-velocity method requires measurement of the
water velocity with a Teledyne Gurley Pygmy Model
625 current meter or an Ott Type C31-00 current
meter across a surveyed section of stream. The catch-
ment method involves catching the entire flow of the
stream in a bucket for a measured time period. The
discharge measurements are used to construct a
stage-discharge relationship which can be used to
translate the continuous stage records to a continu-
ous discharge record.
Samples of stream water were taken 12 to 43 times
per year on each stream. The water was filtered
through a 200 um mesh net and duplicate subsam-
ples were analyzed for total phosphorus (Jeffries, et
al. 1978a) within 48 hours. Discharge measurements
and stream samples were taken approximately at
weekly intervals from May to November, bimonthly
from November to March, and biweekly during the
spring thaw of March and April.
The precipitation input to Harp Lake was monitored
by a network of collectors described in Dillon, et al.
(1978). Bulk precipitation samples were collected in
continuously open vessels and thus contained both
wet and dryfall. Rain samples were collected with
26.7 cm diameter, polyethylene funnels leading into
glass bottles. Funnels were fitted with 200 um Nitex
mesh to prevent contamination by insects. Any visi-
bly contaminated samples were discarded. Snow
samples were collected with 63 cm high, 43 cm
diameter polyethylene containers. All sampling con-
tainers were about 1 m above ground or snow level.
Samples usually were collected at weekly or bi-
monthly intervals and analyzed within 48 hours.
Rainfall depths were measured at each collector
site using standard, 10 cm diameter rain gauges.
Snow samples collected in the polyethylene contain-
ers were melted and their volumes measured to ob-
tain water equivalent depths.
Pr
= Pr-Evtr-R±Gr ±AS= Pr
±Gr
Figure 2.- Schematic representation of the components of a
hydraulic budget of a lake and its watershed.
Sw - storage in watershed; Pr = precipitation; Evtr =
evapotranspiration; R = runoff; Gr = ground water; SL =
storage in lake; Ev = evaporation; Q = lake outflow; Vo =
lake volume.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Construction of a Hydraulic Budget
A generalized hydraulic budget for a lake and its
watershed is shown in Figure 2. For the drainage
basin, the hydraulic inputs can be precipitation and
ground water, which crosses the drainage basin
boundary. The outputs are evapotranspiration, ru-
noff, and ground water. The hydraulic budget of the
lake includes'inputs from precipitation on the lake
surface, runoff from the basin, and ground water.
Losses occur through evaporation, outflow, and
groundwater flow from the lake. Others working on
the Precambrian Shield have reported that ground
water is not an important hydraulic component
(Schindler, et al. 1 976). We have measured precipita-
tion and runoff (as stream discharge) directly, and
have obtained evaporation and evapotranspiration
either by difference or by climatological models
(Bruce and Weisman, 1 966; Morton, 1 976).
To properly assess the importance of direct precipi-
tation input to the hydraulic budget of a lake, precipi-
tation gauges should be placed on the lake surface
rather than on shore. Likens, etal.( 197 7) have shown
that 82 percent of the incident precipitation to a
forested watershed reached the ground as through-
fall. The remaining 1 8 percent is stemflow (5 percent)
and is evaporated (or absorbed) directly from the
surfaces of plants. In our study area, Jeffries, et al.
(1978b)also demonstrated that gauges placed in the
drainage basin tend to underestimate the hydraulic
loading to the lake. The importance of monitoring
each precipitation event is clear because of the great
variability between events.
There is also marked temporal variability in stream
discharge, with peak flow occurring after snow melt
in March and April (Figure 3). As 48 to 60 percent of
the annual discharge occurred in these months for
the seven Harp streams, the number of discharge
measurements should be increased during this time
to obtain the best estimate of the annual input. Con-
tinuous gauging is preferable. Annual variations in
the amount of precipitation and stream discharge
occur and more than 1 year of measurements need to
-------
ASSESSING THE PROBLEM AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
79
Table 1 - A comparison of the hydraulic input calculated by five commonly used methods
Calculations were done for seven streams on Harp Lake for the period January - December 1977
Data available
Discharge calculated from
continuous stage records
Discharge measured at
discrete time intervals
No measured discharge
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Stream discharge
calculation method
integration of continuous
discharge vs time plot
integration of discrete
discharge vs time plot
3-point running mean
of discrete discharge
long-term unit runoff
(Pentland, 1968)
precipitation-evapotranspiration
(Morton, 1976)
Mean absolute1
% error
0
12
35
18
36
Range in % error
0
-19 to +35
-15 to +130
- 2 to +68
+ 12 to +91
'The absolute % error is defined as the absolute % difference between the results of
given calculation method and the results of the -best method (method 1)
200-
150-
100-
50-
o
in
&
HARP 4 INFLOW
876
OJL
1977
JAN FEB MAR APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
Figure 3.- Hydrograph (mean daily discharge in 1 sec'1 for
Harp inflow 4 for 1976 and 1977.
be taken to adequately characterize the hydraulic
budget (Likens, etal. 1977;Schindler,etal. 1976).
Hydraulic budgets may be constructed with contin-
uous, discrete, or no measured stream discharge data
(Table 1). In the latter case, the hydraulic input is
calculated simply as the product of drainage basin
area and the unit areal runoff, defined as the depth of
water running off a given area per unit time (m yr1).
In the Great Lakes basin, unit runoff maps have been
published by Pentland (1968) and Coulson (1967).
Elsewhere, unit runoff may be calculated on an an-
nual basis as the difference between precipitation
and evapotranspiration (Morton, 1976).
Stream discharge measurements taken at discrete
time intervals are commonly used to calculate the
hydraulic input by integrating the discharge vs. time
plot or using a 3-point running mean of discharge. If
continuous stage records are available, these are
converted to continuous discharge then integrated
vs. time to give the hydraulic input.
We have compared the results of calculating the
hydraulic input using five calculation techniques (Ta-
ble 1) for seven streams on Harp Lake over a 1-year
time period (January 1977 - December 1977). We
assumed that the technique giving the best results
uses the continuous discharge data, and the results
of the other techniques are expressed as a percent-
age of this best technique. The technique giving the
least mean error (12 percent) integrates the discrete
discharge vs. time curve. The error would, of course,
increase as the number of measurements was re-
duced and would also increase had the measure-
ments been taken at evenly spaced time intervals
throughout the year.
Taking the 3-point running mean of discharge has
the effect of damping any peak values, but as a result
the peak values affect longer periods of time causing
an overall increase in the mean error to 35 percent.
The long-term mean areal runoff (Pentland, 1968)
gave results with a mean error of 18 percent in this
case. The error depends upon how closely the precip-
itation depth of the year in question conforms to the
long-term mean. In 1977, the annual precipitation
(95.08 cm) was 96 percent of the long-term mean.
Calculating the hydraulic input as the difference be-
tween precipitation and evapotranspiration gave the
largest mean error (36 percent), implying that the
evapotranspiration model used (Morton, 1976) was
not readily applicable to the small watersheds in this
study.
Construction of a Nutrient Budget
Dillon (1974) reviewed several nutrient budget
models. We have used the phosphorus budget model
described in Dillon and Rigler (1974a) which as-
sumes that the lake behaves as a single compartment
system. This model equates the change in phospho-
rus concentration in the lake with time with the phos-
phorus input per unit lake volume minus the phospho-
rus loss through sedimentation and outflow. More
complex models taking thermal stratification into ac-
count have been discussed by Imboden (1974) and
Snodgrass and O'Melia (1975) but are not tested
here.
Construction of a phosphorus budget requires mea-
surement of the phosphorus inputs from all sources
(Figure 4). The phosphorus input directly to the lake
surface by precipitation should be measured by col-
lectors on the lake surface as the phosphorus con-
centration of precipitation increases substantially af-
ter passing through the forest canopy (Likens, et al.
1977). In our study area, Jeffries, et al. (1978b) have
found the collectors located on shore tend to overes-
timate the phosphorus input for this reason. As with
the hydraulic input by precipitation, significant varia-
tion in phosphorus input occurs between events (Jef-
fries, et al. 1978b) and each event must be collected.
-------
80
LAKE RESTORATION
Pr [
[Cj
Figure 4.- Nutrient inputs and losses measured for single
compartment lake model (described in Dillon and Rigler,
1974a).
R = runoff volume: [CR] = concentration of nutrient in
runoff; Pr = precipitation; [CPr] = concentration of nutrient
in precipitation; Q = lake outflow volume; [CQ] = concen-
tration of nutrient in lake outflow; [CJ = concentration of
nutrient in the lake.
The phosphorus input from the terrestrial drainage
basin showed marked temporal variability, with peak
inputs associated with snowmelt in March and April
(Figure 5). Although the phosphorus concentrations
in streams were generally higher during the summer
months, the pattern of phosphorus input vs. time was
similar to the pattern of the hydraulic input. Natural
annual variations occur and more than 1 year of data
should be taken to obtain a good estimate of inputs to
a lake.
In the construction of a budget, stream phosphorus
samples are commonly taken at two intervals:
monthly and each time a discrete stream discharge is
measured. The ideal situation of continuous sampling
is not frequently attempted. However, if discrete
stream [P] can be related to discrete stream dis-
charge, then continuous stream [P] may be interpo-
lated from the more commonly available continuous
stream discharge data. We found no statistically sig-
nificant relationship between [P] and discharge in
any of our seven streams on either an annual or a
seasonal basis with the exception of one stream for a
part of the year. This technique was not pursued
further.
HARP 4 INFLOW
I976
Regressing phosphorus input vs. discharge is
sometimes attempted to obtain continuous input
from continuous discharge. This is an artificial corre-
lation. Because input is the product of concentration
and discharge, regressing input vs. discharge is sim-
ply regressing a function of discharge vs. discharge,
thereby forcing the data into a rectilinear relation-
ship. In fact, Riggs (1970) has shown that if x and y
are random numbers, and z (z = xy) is regressed
against x, a good rectilinear relationship is found
where one did not exist between x and y.
Combining discrete stream [P] with continuous dis-
charge data results in the best estimate of stream
phosphorus input. Our preferred technique assumes
that the best estimate of stream [P] for a given period
of time is obtained by taking the [P] at the midpoint of
the time period. In Table 2 we have compared the
results of other calculation techniques employing
eight commonly available combinations of stream [P]
and discharge data. These calculations were carried
out for seven streams on Harp Lake for a 1-year time
period (January - December 1977). As before, the
results of the other calculation techniques are ex-
pressed as a percentage of the best technique.
Table 2 - A comparison of phosphorus input calculated by nine commonly
used methods Calculations were done for seven streams on Harp Lake for
the period January - December 1977
Data available
Discharge calculated
from continuous
stage records and
[P] measured at
discrete time
intervals
Phosphorus input
calculation method
1) product of integrated
discharge vs time
plot and [P] at mid
point of time interval
Mean
absolute1
% error
0
Range in
% error
0
2) product of integrated
discharge vs time plot
and mean of [P] at
endpomts of time
interval
-4 to +5
JAN FEB MAR APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUS SEPT OCT NOV DEC
Figure 5.- Plot of total P supply (grams month"' for Harp
inflow 4 for 1976 and 1977.
Discharge and [P]
measured at discrete
time intervals
No measured discharge
and [P] measured
monthly
3) product of integrated
discharge vs time plot
and [P] at midpoint of
time interval
4) product of integrated
discharge vs time plot
and [P] at endpomts
of time interval
5) product of discharge as
calculated by 3 point
running mean and [P]
at midpoint of time
interval
6) integrating the plot of
the product of discharge
and [P] vs time
7) 3 point running mean of
product of discharge
and [P]
8) product of total
monthly discharge
(Pentland, 1968)
and [P]
9) product of total
monthly discharge
(precipitation -
evapotranspiration)
and [P]
11 -19 to +11
14 -25 to +16
30 -19 to +92
10 -19 to +8
27 -14 to +57
49 +4 to +85
71 +19 to +111
'The absolute % error is defined as the absolute % difference
between the results of a given calculation method and the
results of the best method (method 1)
-------
ASSESSING THE PROBLEM AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
81
Using continuous discharge data and discrete [P],
we calculated the phosphorus inputs as the product
of total discharge for a time period and the mean of
the two phosphorus concentrations at the end points
of the time period. This technique gave results almost
identical to our preferred technique (mean error 3
percent).
We calculated stream phosphorus inputs five ways,
using discrete discharge measurements combined
with discrete [P]. Three techniques calculated the
total discharge for a given time period first, then
obtained phosphorus input for that time period as the
product of total discharge and the best estimate of
[P]. Of these three methods, integrating the discrete
discharge vs. time curve for a given time interval then
multiplying by the [P] at the midpoint of the time
interval gave the least mean error (11 percent). Using
the same discharge value and the mean of the two [P]
at the endpoints of the time interval gave a similar
mean error of 14 percent. Calculating the discharge
for a time interval by a 3-point running mean tech-
nique and using the [P] at the midpoint of the time
interval gave an error of 30 percent. The 3-point
mean technique overestimated the phosphorus input
for the same reasons it overestimated the hydraulic
input.
The other two techniques employing discrete dis-
charge and discrete [P] are done by taking the
product of discharge and [P] first, then obtaining a
total phosphorus input for a given period of time.
Integrating the input vs. time curve gave a mean error
of 10 percent. Calculating the input by a 3-point
running mean method gave a mean error of 27
percent.
We conclude that in general, the best method of
calculating phosphorus input from discrete dis-
charge and [P] is method number 7 in Table 2. For a
given time period, the best estimate of discharge is
obtained by integrating under the discharge vs. time
curve and the best estimate of [P] is the measured [P]
at the midpoint of that time interval. Once one has
these values, then the phosphorus input is calculated
as the product. Taking the product of the discrete
values first and then integrating to get an input can
exaggerate any errors in discharge of [P].
Finally, two calculation methods were carried out
using a predicted, rather than a measured, discharge
and a monthly measured [P] based on three to six
samples per month. Calculating discharge from Pent-
land (1968) gave a mean error of 49 percent in the
phosphorus input. Calculating the annual discharge
as the difference between precipitation and evapo-
transpiration (Morton, 1976), then using Pentland's
figures forthe percent of this annual discharge occur-
ring per month gave a mean error of 71 percent in the
phosphorus input. This latter method gave the worst
estimate for stream phosphorus input because it was
the technique giving the highest error for discharge.
Combining the continuous discharge data with ev-
ery second, third, and fourth measured phosphorus
concentration was done to evaluate the effect of
differing phosphorus sampling frequencies on the
phosphorus input (Table 3). This was done for two
streams on Harp Lake for two consecutive 1-year
Table 3. - Summary of the effect of varying phosphorous
sampling frequency on phosphorus input Calculations were
done for two streams on Harp Lake for two consecutive
1-year time periods (Jan - Dec 1976, Jan - Dec 1977)
[P] Sampling frequency
Every measured [P]
Every 2nd measured [P]
Every 3rd measured [P]
Every 4th measured [P]
Mean absolute % error'
0
8
9
10
Range in % error
0
-22 to +12
-20 to +12
-30 to +11
'The absolute % error is defined as the absolute % difference between
the results of a given calculation method and the results of best
method.
periods. As before, the results are expressed as a
percentage of the best estimate of phosphorus input.
The mean error varied from 8 to 10 percent regard-
less of the sampling frequency. This result occurred
because in our study area, the variability in stream [P]
is small. However, if there were large, irregularly
spaced point phosphorus inputs (e.g., industrial),
these results would not hold.
Hydraulic and Nutrient Budgets
for Harp Lake
The hydraulic and phosphorus budgets of Harp
Lake for January - December' 1977 are summarized
in Table 4. We applied a mean unit runoff figure from
our smallest basins to the ungauged areas to calcu-
late their hydraulic input. The total hydraulic input
was 2.L80!x 106 m3 yr1, 89 percent of which we
gauged directly either as terrestrial runoff or precipi-
tation on the lake surface. The outflow volume was
2'.65x lO'm'yr1, and by difference, 0.15 x 106m3
yr"1 evaporated.This evaporation figure is about 300
percent lower than the predicted value of 0.44 x 106
m3 yr"1 (Bruce and Weisman, 1966).
Table 4 - Summary of the hydraulic and phosphorus
budgets for Harp Lake, January - December 1977
Gauged inflows
Ungauged areas
Precipitation on
lake surface
Total input
Outflow
Evaporation
(by difference)
Total output
Input-output
Hydraulic budget
10' m3 yr-i
1 91
0 34
0 55
2 80
2.65
0 15
2 80
Phosphorus budget
Kg P yr-i
326
2 1
268
61 5
19 6
0
19 6
41 9
We applied the mean phosphorus export of our
gauged watersheds to the ungauged areas. The total
phosphorus input to Harp Lake excluding anthropo-
genic sources was 61.5 kg P yr1, 97 percent of
which we gauged as terrestrial runoff or precipitation
input. 19.6 kg Pyr"1 was lost to the outflow and 41.9
kg Pyr"1 (68 percent), was retained by the lake. Using
the model of Dillon and Kirchner (1975), the pre-
dicted retention is'77percent.
-------
82 LAKE RESTORATION
Management Application of Budgets REFERENCES
The Dillon and Rigler (1974a) phosphorus budget
model is one of a series of models that we are using
to quantify the link between the trophic status of
Precambrian Shield lakes in Ontario and the anthro-
pogenic nutrient inputs from lakeshore development.
Our approach is summarized in Figure 6.
Our purpose was to relate the phosphorus content
of a lake to an anthropogenic phosphorus input. The
lake model required information on the hydraulic
budget, the natural phosphorus budget, the lake mor-
phometry, and the anthropogenic phosphorus input.
We measured the first three but the anthropogenic
input, associated with sewage disposal systems,
clearing of land around the lake, road building, and
other human activities, could not be measured di-
rectly. Using the three measured inputs to the model,
we calculated the phosphorus content of the lake and
compared it to the measured phosphorus content.
The difference between the two values was assumed
to be due to the unmeasured, anthropogenic input.
This in turn is related to the amount and type of
development around the lake.
The phosphorus content of the lake is related to
trophic state variables such as mean summer chloro-
phyll a (Dillon and Rigler, 1974b) and algal biomass
(Nicholls and Dillon, 1978). These are related to
water clarity (Dillon and Rigler, 1975). Other trophic
state variables such as primary production and hypo-
limnetic oxygen depletion are also in the scheme.
Using the method just described, we calculated the
anthropogenic phosphorus input to Harp Lake. These
results must be considered to be preliminary because
they are based on the one compartment lake model
using only 1 calendar year of data. The predicted
spring phosphorus concentration of 7.4 mg nrf3 was
within analytical error of the measured value of 6.7
mg rrT3. The close agreement implies that the anthro-
pogenic phosphorus input did not contribute signifi-
cantly to the phosphorus budget of Harp Lake.
,— GEOCHEMISTRY
LAND USE
PRECIPITATION
INPUT FROM
WATERSHED
HYDBOLOGJC.
BUDGET
. NATURAL
PHOSPHORUS-
INPUT
ANTHROPOGENIC
DEVELOPMENT PHOSPHORUS
* INPUT
IONIC
CONTENT
OF LAKE
MORPHOEDAPHIC
INDEX
PRIMARY -~
PRODUCTION
LAKE
PHOSPHORUS
CONTENT
'OF LAKE
-CHLOROPHYLL a
MORPHOMETRY CONCENTRATION
-PHYTOPLANKTON
BIOMASS
HYPOLIMNETIC
OXYGEN
DEPLETION
Bruce, J. P., and B. Weisman, 1 966 Provisional evaporation
maps of Canada. Meteorological Branch, Can. Dep. Trans-
port. (Manuscript.)
Coulson, A 1967. Estimating runoff in southern Ontario.
Tech. Bull. No. 7. Inland Waters Branch, Can. Dep. Energy
Mines Resour.
Dillon, P. J. 1974. A critical review of Vollenweider's nutri-
ent budget model and other related models. Water Res-
our. Bull. 10:969.
Dillon, P. J., and W. B. Kirchner. 1975. Reply. Water Resour.
Res. 1 1:1035.
Dillon, P. J., and F. H. Rigler. 1974a. A test of a simple
nutrient budget model predicting the phosphorus concen-
tration in lakewater Jour. Fish. Res. Board Can. 31:1771.
_. 1974b. The phosphorus-chlorophyll relationship in
WATER CLARITY
(SECCHI DISC)
lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 19:767
1975. A simple method for predicting the capacity
of a lake for development based on lake trophic status.
Jour. Fish. Res. Board Can. 32:1 51 9.
Dillon, P. J., et al. 1978. Acidic precipitation in southcentral
Ontario: recent observations. Jour. Fish. Res. Board Can.
35:809.
Imboden, D. M. 1974. Phosphorus model of lake eutrophica-
tion Limnol. Oceanogr. 19:297.
Jeffries, D. S., et al. 1978a. Performance of the autoclave
digestion method for total phosphorus analysis. Water
Res. (In press.)
1978b. Small-scale variations in precipitation load-
ing near Dorset, Ontario. Proc 13th Can. Symp. Water
Pollut. Res. Can. (In press.)
Johnson, M. G., and G. E. Owen. 1971. Nutrients and nutri-
ent budgets in the Bay of Quinte, Lake Ontario. Jour.
Water Pollut. Control Fed. 43:836.
Jordan, M., and G. E. Likens. 1975. An organic carbon
budget for an oligotrophic lake in New Hampshire, U.S.A.
Verh. Int Verein Limnol. 19:994.
Likens, G. E, et al. 1977. Biogeochemistry of a forested
ecosystem. Springer-Verlag, New York, Heidelberg,
Berlin.
Morton, F. I. 1976. Climatological estimates of evapotran-
spiration. Jour. Hydraul. Div. Am. Soc. Civil Eng. 102.275.
Nicholls, K., and P. J. Dillon. 1978. An evaluation of
phosphorus-chlorophyll-phytoplankton relationships for
lakes. Int. Rev. ges. Hydrobiol. 63:141.
Oglesby, R. T. 1977. Phytoplankton summer standing crop
and annual productivity as functions of phosphorus load-
ing and various physical factors. Jour. Fish. Res. Board
Can. 34:2255.
Ontario Ministry of Housing. 1977. Personal
communication.
Pentland, R. L. 1968. Runoff characteristics in the Great
Lakes basin. Proc. 1 1th Conf. Great Lakes Res. 1968:326.
Int. A^»oc. Great Lakes Res.
Riggs, D. S. 1970. A mathematical approach to physiologi-
cal problems. Mass. Inst. Technol. Press, Cambridge.
Figure 6.- Scheme of relationships used to assess effects of
development on trophic status of Precambrian lakes.
Scheider, W. A. 1978. Applicability of phosphorus budget
models to small Precambrian lakes, Algonquin Park, On-
tario Jour. Fish. Res. Board Can. 35:300.
-------
ASSESSING THE PROBLEM AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS 83
Schindler, D. W., et al. 1976. Natural water and chemical imental lakes area and in similar lakes. Jour. Fish. Res.
budgets for a small Precambrian lake basin in central Board Can. 35:190.
Canada. Jour. Fish. Res. Board Can. 33'2526.
1978. Phosphorus input and its consequences for Snodgrass, W. J., and C. R. O'Melia. 1975. Predictive model
phytoplankton standing crop and production in the exper- for phosphorus in lakes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 9'937.
-------
SOME WATERSHED ANALYSIS TOOLS
FOR LAKE MANAGEMENT
ROGER K. RODIEK
Division of Environmental Impact Studies
Argonne National Laboratory
Argonne, Illinois
ABSTRACT
In the absence of extensive sampling programs planners and engineers working to restore
eutrpphied inland lakes need efficient techniques for estimating sources and magnitudes of
nutrient inputs. Using a southeastern Michigan watershed as an example, the author illustrated
the use of a total phosphorus budget model to focus lake restoration efforts on either restricting
phosphorus input or removing or inactivating phosphorus already in the lake. When analytical
results indicate the need for phosphorus input reduction, EPA has encouraged lake managers to
investigate alternatives to conventional sewage treatment. The design of cost-effective effluent
treatment requires an understanding of watershed soil suitability for accepting and immobiliz-
ing phosphorus bearing wastes. The author presents an overlay mapping technique for identify-
ing soils suited for domestic effluent treatment. Knowledge of the extent and location of these
soils can help watershed managers treat phosphorus from existing malfunctioning septic
systems, as well as future wastes generated by community growth.
INTRODUCTION
After many years of ignoring the interconnection
between land activities and water quality, Americans
have wisely chosen to help restore and maintain the
aesthetic, recreational, and ecological attributes of
lakes and their associated watersheds. The Clean
Water Act (P.L 92-500) provides financial assistance
for restricting the input of undesirable materials to
lakes or providing in-lake treatment for the removal
or inactivation of undesirable materials.
The Act addresses two broad categories of potenti-
ally controllable lake inputs: pathogenic organisms
and aquatic nutrients. Past emphasis on mechanisms
to restore lake water quality has focused on eliminat-
ing pathogenic inputs to lakes. Wastewater collec-
tion and treatment technology coupled with Federal
subsidies administered through section 201 of the
Act has effectively reduced health-related deteriora-
tion of water quality.
In addition to pathogenic water quality problems,
comprehensive watershed research has identified
aquatic nutrient loading as the primary stimulus of
eutrophication, the aging process that can destroy
the cultural value of even aseptic lakes. It is now
widely accepted that eutrophication problems are
attributable to large algal standing crops resulting
from the interaction of excessive nutrient inputs with
lake basin structure and flushing rates. Vollenweider
(1968), Dillon (1974), and Schindler (1977) have
indicated that for the majority of temperate lakes,
phosphorus is the limiting nutrient that dictates long-
term trophic conditions. In essence, overabundant
concentrations of available phosphorus in the water
column can lead to excessive algal growth. A large
algal standing crop can, in turn, result in surface
water scums, land water turbidity, and foul odors and
oxygen depletion upon algal decomposition. All of
these symptoms can seriously degrade the aesthetic,
recreational, and ecological value of lakes.
Preliminary approaches for halting and reversing
eutrophication processes have employed available
sewage and wastewater treatment technologies to
reduce phosphorus inputs to lakes. Unfortunately,
although these technologies can eliminate both path-
ogen input and nutrient loading from cultural point
sources, they do little to divert or reduce nutrient
loading from natural, nonpoint, and internal sources.
Additionally, lakewide sewage collection and central-
ized treatment require large capital outlays and trans-
port fresh water, normally recycled to groundwater
aquifers, out of the watershed.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has rec-
ognized the inappropriateness of routine application
of sewage collection and treatment technology to all
lake eutrophication problems. Under section 104 of
the Clean Water Act, grants may be provided for
treatment or control of nonpoint source, nutrient
influents and removal or inactivation of undesirable
materials. Unfortunately, whereas section 201
awards financial assistance for planning studies in
the form of Step 1 grants, section 104 offers no
financial support for surveys or planning activities.
Consequently, costly and time-consuming nutrient
budget studies are often lacking in lake restoration
plans. Yet, it is still essential to have a technique for
identifying the best restoration approach before
large amounts of capital are irreversibly committed.
While reviewing sewage collection and treatment
plans for a group of southeastern Michigan lakes, it
became apparent to the author that a methodology
was required to predict responses in lake trophic
85
-------
86
LAKE RESTORATION
status which would result from anticipated reduction
of phosphorus inputs. The author decided to apply
state-of-the-art models and mapping analysis tools to
investigate the potential of theoretically testing sew-
erage plans before they were officially sanctioned.
Lobdell Lake was chosen as a test watershed.
Figure 1.- Location of Lobdell Lake and its associated water-
shed in Michigan.
Lobdell Lake straddles the boundary between Gen-
esee and Livingston Counties near Flint, Mich, (see
Figure 1). The watershed and structural lake basin
reflect the glacial activity that molded this region in
recent geologic time. The various soil types of the
watershed are derived from glacial drift. The shore-
line of the lake is highly convoluted, forming distinct
lobes where residential development has flourished.
Lake community houses are slowly being converted
from recreational summer cottages to year-round res-
idences. The exaggerated palmate shoreline has en-
couraged development concentration in the immedi-
ate nearshore area, leaving only 1 5 to 20 percent of
the shoreline undisturbed. The houses are clustered
in densities of up to 40 dwellings per linear kilometer
along the 15-kilometer lake perimeter.
Along with increasing development, the lake is
experiencing classic eutrophication symptoms such
as blue-green algal blooms, hypolimnetic oxygen de-
pletion during stratification, and an abundance of
littoral macrophytes. Local health officials have
pointed to ineffective and overloaded septic systems
as the major cause of nutrient enrichment. The abun-
dance of impermeable till soils and crowding of cot-
tages near the lakeshore seem to support health
officials' concern for elimination of septic system
inputs through lake sewerage. Unfortunately, the
promises to reverse eutrophication symptoms are
matched with a price tag of $2 million to be financed
by 3,000 lake community residents (Carlson, et al.
1976).
The rationale directing lake restoration plans has tc
be elevated from conjecture to quantifiable lake nutri-
ent dynamic assessment. Toward this goal, the au-
thor will illustrate the use of an objective procedure
developed by Vollenweider (1968) and Dillon and
Rigler(1974a) for predicting spring phosphorus con-
centrations in lakes. These predictions can be used to
design and evaluate nutrient reduction programs that
meet desired lake management goals.
When predictive models and sound judgment indi-
cate that reduction of septic system inputs could be
an effective way of slowing and reversing the eutro-
phication process, the willingness and capability of
lake community residents to finance the recom-
mended program must be a motivating factor for
subsequent restoration plans. Septic system phos-
phorus loading can result from improper design or
placement of drainage fields, inadequate mainte-
nance, old age, or lack of suitable soils for drainage
fields. To fulfull EPA eligibility requirements for Step
1 grants, applicants are obligated to investigate the
potential for "upgrading malfunctioning systems ...
(and for)... providing alternative collection and treat-
ment measures for those users whose systems can-
not reasonably be expected to function (U.S. Environ.
Prot. Agency, 1972).
This means that soils containing malfunctioning
septic systems and other watershed soils that might
serve as sites for future effluent treatment of commu-
nity domestic wastes must be evaluated. The author
will present a procedure for identifying watershed
soils suitable for accepting and immobilizing phos-
phorus inputs from domestic wastes. An application
of an overlay mapping method is used to help evalu-
ate the areal extent and location of watershed soils
needed when considering cost-effective alternatives
to lakewide sewerage and conventional treatment
technologies.
METHODS
The criteria used to choose a phosphorus budget
model useful to lake managers must include the
ability to estimate all model parameters without ex-
tensive field research. The model also should predict
an average lake phosphorus concentration that corre-
lates highly with measured values under a range of
limnologic conditions representative of the lake man-
ager's needs. A model developed by Vollenweider
(1969), and refined by Dillon and Rigler (1974a) and
Kirchner and Dillon (1975), meets these require-
ments. The model accounts for the interaction of
dissolved and paniculate forms of phosphorus enter-
ing the lake with flushing and sedimentation proc-
esses and predicts the fraction of total annual phos-
phorus that is not flushed from the lake or lost to lake
sediments. Presumably, this phosphorus, [P], may
become available as a nutrient stimulating phyto-
plankton population growth. In its most useful form,
the model can be described by the following
equation:
-------
ASSESSING THE PROBLEM AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
87
[P] =
1 )
where
[P] =
L =
R =
P =
Z =
concentration of total phosphorus mg«m-3
m the water column at spring overturn
areal loading of total phosphorus mg.m-2-yr-1
phosphorus retention coefficient
flushing rate yr1
mean depth m
Morphologic and hydrologic data needed for model
application, i.e., lake drainage area (Ad), surface area
(A0), lake volume (V), precipitation (Pr), lake evapora-
tion (Ev), mean depth (z), and long-term areal runoff (r),
have often been collected for developed watersheds.
These data are usually accessible through published
reports by State lake management units, water re-
sources branches of geologic surveys, or universities.
Garn and Parrott (1977) have detailed the steps re-
quired for estimation of R and p using the above data.
Athorough discussion of the nutrient budget model
needs is presented in the authors' original model
development papers (Vollenweider, 1969; Dillon and
Rigler, 1974a, 1975; Dillon, 1 975; Kirchner and Dil-
lon, 1975.) Despite the frequent accessibility of R, p,
and z, an estimate of total annual phosphorus inputs
to the lake, L, is required before Equation 1 can be
used to predict [P]. The author will present a proce-
dure helpful in estimating the quantities of total phos-
phorus transported into the lake, L, while avoiding
costly field sampling programs.
In a thorough summary of nonpoint nutrient load-
ing sources and pathways, Uttormark, et al. (1974)
collected field generated values of total phosphorus
contributions transported to lakes via overland ru-
noff, precipitation, and dryfall (bulk precipitation),
and septic system seepage. The object of the nutrient
loading inventory process should be to provide data
to identify those transport pathways that contribute
significant amounts of total phosphorus to the lake.
Figure 2 illustrates the critical loading pathways that
must be evaluated.
Loading values summarized by Uttormark, et al.
(1974) are representative of all phosphorus "forms ...
whether dissolved or in suspension that are mea-
sured by an acid-oxidation procedure." Care was
taken to report values of total phosphorus loading
Figure 2.- Major phosphorus loading pathways to inland
lakes.
that were representative of consistent measurement
procedures. The intentional use of total rather than
inorganic forms of phosphorus meets the budget
model requirements for a conservative estimate of
the amount of nutrient that could become available in
the course of a year. The summarized loading values
were adjusted for geographic location, land use, and
residential behavior occurring at Lobdell Lake.
Weighted average values used in the phosphorus
inventory from overland runoff, bulk precipita-
tion,and domestic waste loading to septic systems
are presented in Table 1.
Groundwater seepage and hydrologic interconnec-
tion with wetlands were also cited as possible path-
ways of lake phosphorus loadings (Uttormark, et al.
1974). Additionally, work done by Mortimer (1941,
1942) and Cooke, et al. (1977) suggested that re-
lease of surficial sediment phosphorus under anoxic
conditions (internal loading) could contribute signifi-
cant quantities of dissolved phosphorus back into the
water column. Since loadings from groundwater
seepage, wetlands, and release of previously con-
tained sediment phosphorus must be evaluated on a
site-specific basis, they were excluded from the Lob-
dell Lake inventory. The exclusion of phosphorus
loading through groundwater pathways has no signif-
icant effect on the accuracy of the model since an
inventory of septic system seepage will account for
the majority of subsurface phosphorus inputs in rural
watersheds. On the other hand, deliberate exclusion
of anticipated internal loading and wetland contribu-
tions limits the model's predictive capacity to an
Table 1 - Literature values used to calculate total phosphorus loading to Lobdell Lake
Residential
Mixed
Forest
Agricultural
With phosphorus
detergent contribution
Without phosphorus
detergent contribution
Omernik
(1976)
320
155
140
320
Brezonik
(1973)
440
Ligman,
et al (1974)
1 50
075
Overland runoff (mg x m-2 watershed area x yr1 )
Kirchner, Uttormark, Timmons, Kluesener,
et al (1975) et al (1974) et al (1968) et al (1974)
— 1500 — 1100
288 — _ _
107 200 — _
— 300 180 —
Bulk precipitation (mg x m-2 lake surface area x yr')
Kluesener, Pecor, University of
et al (1972) et al (1973) Michigan (1974)
1020 184 350
Domestic waste loading to septic systems (kg x capita x yr1)
Ellis, University of
et al (1973) Michigan (1974)
1 60 1 60
050 050
Weighted
average
1000
190
13 0
260
Weighted
average
400
Weighted
average
1 60
050
-------
88
LAKE RESTORATION
underestimate of lake phosphorus concentration
(Cooke, etal. 1 977;Uttormark, etal. 1974).
While developing the total phosphorus budget for
Lobdell Lake, it became apparent that a special ac-
commodation would have to be made for the model
assumption, that any substance once introduced to
the lake is completely mixed (Vollenweider, 1969).
Equation 1 is useful in predicting only spring phos-
phorus concentrations when, presumably, stratifica-
tion has deteriorated to vertical mixing. The author
reasoned that highly lobate watersheds with extreme
variations in basin depth and flushing rates cannot be
assumed to have complete lakewide horizontal mix-
ing and dilution. Also, as lakes become larger and
more complex, the assumption that phosphorus load-
ing around the lake perimeter is homogeneous on a
weight per unit area basis will result in less accurate
phosphorus concentration predictions. The author
tried to account for phosphorus loading and dilution
variations by dividing the lake and watershed into
subbasins defined by flushing and drainage patterns,
respectively.
In preparing for a phosphorus loading inventory,
Lobdell Lake was divided into six aquatic subbasins
based upon apparent hydrologic features (see Figure
3). Subbasins (a) and (b) are in the direct line of lake
flushing due to their location between the main tribu-
tary input and lake outfall. It was assumed that the
remaining basins—(c), (d), (e), and (f)—were not di-
rectly influenced by tributary input. Horizontal circu-
lation patterns in these basins were assumed to be
hydrologically driven, mainly by overland runoff. Esti-
mated flushing rates of basins (a) and (b) versus (c),
(d), (e), and (f) served to divide the aquatic subbasins
into two distinct lake sections. Available data did not
allow further resolution of flushing rates on a subba-
sin level.
Figure 3.- Lobdell Lake aquatic (letters) and terrestrial (num-
bers) subbasins.
To determine the annual overland runoff contribu-
tion of total phosphorus to aquatic subbasins, each
terrestrial subbasin was divided into four possible
land use types. Elevation contours from seven and
one-half minute quadrangle maps were used to out-
line drainage boundaries. Low altitude black and
white aerial photography helped designate land use
categories. Land areas characterized as predomi-
nantly residential, forest, or agricultural were classi-
fied as such. All other land types, including inactive
fields and barren land, were grouped into one cate-
gory and designated as mixed-land use. Annual total
phosphorus loading from overland runoff was esti-
mated by multiplying the land area in each category
by its associated phosphorus loading rate. A sample
calculation showing the contribution of phosphorus
from terrestrial subbasin (7) to aquatic subbasin (d) is
presented in Table 2.
Table 2 - Methods used to calculate annual phosphorus loading to Lobdell Lake aquatic subbasins from
overland runoff and bulk precipitation and to septic systems from lake residences
Land use
category
residential
mixed
forest
agricultural
total
Phosphorus loading rate
(kg x ha-1 x yr1)
10
019
0 13
026
—
Overland
Surface area per
land category (ha)
150
250
70
21 0
680
runoff
Annual P
loading per
land category
(kg x yr1)
150
4 75
091
546
2612
Bulk precipitation
4 people
Aquatic subbasin
a
b
f
Assumptions
per residence
Phosphorus loading rate
(kg x ha-1 x yr1)
040
040
040
50% occupancy of residences
50% use
M050 -
of phosphorus detergent
kg P 4 cap .
cap x yr residence
1 (l 1 kg P i
1 U1 cap x yr x
Aquatic subbasin
surface area (ha)
220
130
850
without detergent
with detergent
detergent only
4 cap 050 P
residence detergent
Annual P
loading per
aquatic subbasin
(kg x yr1)
88
52
340
Lake residences
Loading rates to septic systems
0 50 kg x capita-1 x yr1
1 60 kg x capita-1 x yr1
110 kg x capita-1 x yr1
)] 050 kg P
| occupancy residence x yr
-------
ASSESSING THE PROBLEM AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
89
Phosphorus contribution from the atmosphere was
estimated by multiplying the surface area of each
aquatic subbasin by the bulk precipitation loading
rate as illustrated in Table 2. This loading rate has
been adjusted to account for the location of Lobdell
Lake in an agricultural watershed, since windblown
particulate matter containing phosphorus-bearing
minerals and adsorbed phosphorus fertilizer can add
to the total lake loading.
In estimating phosphorus loading from septic sys-
tems, assumptions were made concerning residen-
tial behavior patterns within the watershed. Inputs of
phosphorus into a septic system can vary depending
on the number of people using the system, percent-
age of time the property is occupied, and whether or
not phosphorus detergents are used. Based on study
results of a similar rural-recreational watershed (Univ.
Mich. 1974), it was assumed that lake residences
were occupied 50 percent of the year by a family of
four, and that half of the watershed septic systems
received effluent containing phosphorus from deter-
gents. Based on these assumptions, nutrient loading
to each watershed septic system was estimated at
2.1 kg phosphorus per residence per year (see Table
2).
The amount of phosphorus that actually enters the
lake would then depend on the ability of drainage
field soil to immobilize phosphorus contributions. A
county Soil Conservation Service map was used to
divide terrestrial subbasins into soil types. Soils with
good drainage and high phosphorus adsorption ca-
pacity were assigned a high efficiency rating for
accepting effluent and immobilizing phosphorus as
demonstrated in Table 3.
The only septic systems considered in the loading
estimate were those less than 100 meters from the
lake surface or within 100 meters of tributaries with
direct surface water contact to the lake. Data from
Ellis and Childs (1973) have demonstrated that
ground water can routinely transport phosphorus
from septic system effluent greater than 100 feet (33
meters) at significant concentrations (greater than
8.0 ppm). A 100-meter boundary was therefore cho-
sen, to include all septic system drainage fields with
potential groundwater contact with the lake. Phos-
phorus loading to each aquatic subbasin can be cal-
culated by the following equation for all terrestrial
subbasin soil types (see Table 3):
(Soil
jfficiency
rating
number of
residences"
soil type
2 1 kg
kg P
residence x yr
soil type x yr
"Each residence was assumed to have a septic
system.
The phosphorus loading inventory was completed
by estimating the quantity of phosphorus transported
annually into Lobdell Lake by direct tributary connec-
tion with Bennett Lake (see Figure 1). Since there is
almost no residential development on Bennett Lake,
no accounting of loading through septic seepage
was made. The majority of watershed land is repre-
sentative of the mixed land use category. Loading via
overland runoff was estimated using the mixed land
use loading rate (see Table 2). Also phosphorus input
from the atmosphere was estimated by multiplying
the bulk precipitation loading rate by the lake surface
area. Summing up these inputs, it was estimated that
Bennett Lake received 99.00 kg x yr"' of total phos-
phorus from inventoried pathways.
But as demonstrated in Equation 1, only a fraction
of this loading will be transferred downstream from
Bennett Lake. The author relied heavily on work per-
formed by Kirchner and Dillon to empirically derive
the phosphorus retention coefficient. In measuring
the fraction of phosphorus transferred out of south-
ern Ontario lakes, Kirchner and Dillon (1975) were
able to demonstrate a high correlation between the
phosphorus retention coefficient, R, and areal water
load (qs). The relationship is defined by.
R = 0.426 exp [-0.271 (q,)] + 0.574 exp [-0.009 4 9(qJ] (2)
Table 3 - Data used to determine annual phosphorus loading to aquatic subbasins from septic seepage
Soil efficiency rating for accepting and immobilizing phosphorus wastes from septic systems*
Fractions of phosphorous
not retained by
Phosphorus adsorption Efficiency drainage field soil
Drainage capacity (kg x m-3) rating (ER.) (1-ER)
Good High-very high
1 76 x 10-1 - 240 x 10-1
Good Medium
1 40 x 10-i - i 76 x 10-1
Good Low-very low
1 20 x 10-1 _ l 40 x 10-1
Poor High-very high
1 76 x 10-i - 240 x 10-i
Poor Medium
140 x 10-1 - 1 76 x 10-i
Poor Low-very low
1 20 x 10-1 - 1 40 x 10-i
Annual contribution of total phosphorus through septic
Soil series Drainage P-Adsorption (1-ER)
Boyer Good Low 065
Brookston Poor High 035
Conover Poor High 035
Miami Good High 025
075
055
035
065
045
025
seepage from terrestrial subbasin (7) to aquatic
Loading rate
Residences to septic systems
soil type (kg x residence-i x yr1)
2 1
2 1
23 2 1
82 21
025
045
065
0.35
055
075
subbasin (d)
P-Loading
from each soil type
(kg x soil type-1 x yr1)
170
430
-------
90
LAKE RESTORATION
Table 4 - Total annual phosphorus loading (in kg x yr1) to Lobdell Lake aquatic subbasms from overland runoff,
bulk precipitation, septic seepage, and Bennett Lake
Lake Aquatic
section subbasin
b
1 a,b
d
e
f
II c,d,e,f
1,11 a through f
Subbasin
surface area
(ha)
220
130
350
210
230
460
850
1750
2100
Contributing
terrestrial
subbasms
1,2.10
4
1,2.4,10
6
7
8a,8b
9,11
6,7,8a.8b
9,11
Overland
runoff
350(23)
220(27)
570(24)
250(25)
260(27)
680(40)
350(20)
1540(29)
211 0(27)
Bulk
precipitation
90(6)
50(6)
140(6)
80(8)
90(10)
180(11)
340(20)
690(13)
830(11)
Septic
seepage
540(35)
550(67)
1090(46)
660(67)
600(63)
830(49)
1030(60)
3120(58)
4210(55)
Bennett
Lake
550(36)
—
550(23)
—
—
—
—
—
550(7)
Total P
loading to
aquatic
subbasin
1530
820
2350
990
950
1690
1720
5350
7700
Total P
loading
minus septic
seepage
990
270
1260
330
350
86.0
690
2230
3490
*Values in parentheses represent percentages
(qs)can be calculated from accessible limnological
parameters, using the following equation:
qs = Lake outflow volume (Q) , m x yr"1
Lake surface area (A0)
For Bennett Lake, (qs) was estimated to be 26 m x
yr"1. Substituting the predicted value of (qs) in Equa-
tion 2, the phosphorus retention coefficient, R, is
0.445. The amount of phosphorus transferred from
Bennett Lake to aquatic subbasin (a) of Lobdell Lake
istherefore:
(1-R)99.00kg = 55kgxyr"1
A summary of phosphorus loadings to Lobdell Lake
aquatic subbasins from overland runoff, bulk precipi-
tation, septic seepage, and Bennett Lake is presented
in Table 4.
Lobdell Lake watershed soils were investigated to
evaluate their suitability for accepting and immobiliz-
ing phosphorus-bearing effluents from septic tanks.
Soils that control subsurface migration of dissolved
phosphorus into lake water are optimally suited for
location of septic system drainage fields. Effective
soil treatment of dissolved and paniculate phospho-
rus is dependent on both physical and chemical proc-
esses. The effluent must be in contact with the soil
long enough so that chemical fixation reactions can
take place. Subsurface permeability, slope, and
depth to water table are factors influencing contact
duration.
Immobilization of phosphorus results from either
the formation of insoluble iron and aluminum phos-
phate compounds or absorption of phosphate ions
onto clay lattice structures (Tilstra, et al. 1 972). Phos-
phorus adsorption capacity values are available for
various soil types through reports published by the
Soil Conservation Service. As previously discussed,
phosphorus not immediately immobilized by drain-
age field soils could be transported in saturated
groundwater flow over distances greater than 100
feet (33 meters ) at significant concentrations. To
prevent seepage of phosphorus into lake water dur-
ing periods of overloading or unpredictably • high
water tables, it is important that drainage fields be
located at least 50 meters from the lake surface.
Soils optimally suited for septic system drainage
fields were identified by mapping each soil property
related to maximum acceptance and immobilization
of phosphorus An application of McHarg's single
factor overlay method was used (McHarg, 1969).
Maps were constructed of watershed soil types
showing moderate subsurface permeability, 0 to 6
percent slope, depth to water table greater than 3
feet (1 meter), medium to high phosphorus adsorp-
tion capacity, areas greater than 50 meters from the
lakeshore, and areas of no existing development.
Each map was drawn on a clear plastic sheet with soil
properties designated above in green. The sheets
were overlaid on a light table to form a composite
map resulting in shades of green, representing vari-
ous levels of suitability.
The darkest green shading indicated a combination
of soil properties optimally suited for the location of
new drainage fields. Areas with no green shading
had none of the properties judged essential for re-
stricting phosphorus seepage to the lake. A single
composite map was redrawn to show the location of
soils optimally suited for the location of drainage
fields in uniform gray shading (see Figure 4). The
areal extent of these soils was calculated using a dot-
grid estimation procedure. Table 5 presents the re-
sults for each terrestrial subbasin.
Table 5 - Area of each terrestrial subbasin
judged optimally suited for location of
septic system drainage fields
Aquatic
subbasin
a
b
Contributing
terrestrial
subbasin
1
2
10
4
Terrestrial
subbasin
surface
area (ha)
Section 1
7~40
140
160
330
Soils
optimally
suited for
drainage
fields (ha)
130
05
00
1 2
Percentage
of
terrestrial
subbasin
180
40
00
40
Total
Section
1.2,4,10
1370
147
107
fa
7
8a
8b
9
11
Section II
400
680
840
2200
680
70
65
150
00
1780
21 5
00
160
220
00
810
320
00
Total
Section
6,7,8a,8b,9,ll
4870
221 0
Although the mapping process identifies gradation
of suitable soils for drainage fields, it cannot allow
quantitative evaluation of each site's capacity for
accepting and immobilizing phosphorus. Site spe-
cific engineering analysis is required to determine
design criteria for each soil type identified The analy-
sis does allow identification of soils that should be
eliminated from further consideration because of
-------
ASSESSING THE PROBLEM AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
91
Table 6 - Estimated morphologic and hydrologic parameters and
loading, total phosphorus, and chlorophyll a predictions
for Lobdell Lake
Morphologic and hydrologic
parameters
Section I Section II
aquatic subbasins aquatic subbastns
(a) and (b) (c). (d), (e) and (f)
j
Figure 4.- Composite map showing the location of water-
shed soils judged optimally suited for septic system drain-
age fields.
prohibitive costs involved in adapting these soils for
drainage field use. Conversely, drainage fields lo-
cated in soils designated in Figure 4 will have the
least monetary, environmental, and social costs
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The phosphorus loading inventory for Lobdell Lake
was performed on a subbasin level with the hope of
identifying interactions between loading and in-lake
nutrient dynamic processes. Prediction of subbasin
total phosphorus concentrations at spring overturn
would require an accurate estimate of outflow vol-
ume, Q, for each aquatic subbasin. Since Q and
hence flushing rate, p, and areal water load, qs, could
be realistically estimated only on a lake section basis,
individual subbasin loadings were averaged to calcu-
late two lake-section values.
Morphologic and hydrologic characteristics for
subbasins (a) and (b) (Section I) and (c), (d), (e), and (f)
(Section II) are presented in Table 6. Average areal
phosphorus loading for each section was calculated
by first dividing subbasin phosphorus loading (kg x
yr"1) by subbasin surface area (ha). Areal loading
values (kg x ha n x yr1) for subbasins (a) and (b), and
(c), (d), (e), and (f) were weighted by water volume to
Table 7 - Data used to calculate weighted averagi
sections I a
Drainage area
Lake surface area
Average section depth
Section volume
Section outflow volume
Section flushing
Areal water loading
Phosphorus retention
coefficient
Phosphorus transfer
coefficient
Aa
A0
Z
V
Q
p = Q/V
qs = Q/A0
R
(1-R)
137 ha
35 ha
1 3 m
45 Ox 10" m3
25 x 106 mSxyr1
(28 cfs)
55xyr'
71 mxyr1
0293
0707
487 ha
175 ha
29 m
5130x 10" m3
93 x 104 m3xyrj
~ 1 cfs)
0 181 xyr1
0 53 m x yr1
0940
0060
Loading, inventory, and model
predictions
Section I Section li
aquatic subbasms aquatic subbasms
(a) and (b) (c), (d), (e) and (f)
Estimated areal
phosphorus loading L
(L) minus septic
system loading L*
Predicted total phosphorus
concentration at
spring overturn [P]
[P] minus septic system
loading [p]*
Predicted summer average
chlorophyll a
concentration [Chi a]
[Chi a] minus septic
system loading [Chi a]*
674 mg x m-2 x yr1 289 mg x rrrz x yr-1
369 mgxm-Zxyr-1 122 rng x m-2 x yr»
6 7 ug x L-1 33 0 ugx L-1
37 ugxL-1 139 ygxL-i
1 1 ug x L"1 1 1 6 ug x L-1
05 iygxL-1 33 ug x L-1
account for the influence subbasin size would have
on its representative section average. The average
areal loading values for Section I and Section II are
presented in Table 7.
Estimates of L, R, p, and z from Table 6 were
substituted into Equation 1 to obtain predicted spring
phosphorus concentrations for Sections I and II. Val-
ues labeled with an asterisk represent what might be
expected if all phosphorus loading from septic sys-
tems were eliminated. Elimination of septic system
loading could result from sewerage and diversion of
treated effluent from the lake or use of adequate soils
for effluent treatment.
Predicted summer average chlorophyll a concen-
trations for Section I and Section II of Lobdell Lake
areal phosphorus loading to Lobdell Lake
nd II
Subbasin
Aquatic area
subbasin (ha)
a 220
b 130
c 210
d 230
e 460
1 850
Subbasin
volume
(m3 x 10")
220
134
482
465
129 1
2892
Total P
loading to
subbasin
(kg x yr1 )
1530
820
990
950
1690
1720
Areal P
loading
(kg x ha-1 x yr1)
695
631
674
4 71
4 13
367
202
Volume
weight
Section 1
2
f = 6 f
(weighted
Section II
5
5
IS
29
E = 52 f =
Areal P
loading x
volume
weight
2780
1260
= 4042
average)
2355
2065
4771
5858
15049
Total P
loading
minus
septic
seepage
(kg x yr1)
990
270
330
350
860
690
Areal P
loading
minus
septic
seepage
(kg x ha-1 x yr1)
4 50
208
369
1 57
1 52
1 87
081
Volume
weight
4
2
£^6 f
(weighted
5
5
13
29
f = 5 f
Areal P
loading
minus
septic
seepage ;
volume
weight
1800
4 16
=. 22 16
average)
785
760
2431
2349
= 6325
289
(weighted average)
122
(weighted average)
-------
92
LAKE RESTORATION
Table 8 - Critical concentrations of total phosphorus
and chlorophyll a often associated with eutrophic
lake conditions, as reported by various authors
[P]
10
10
Total phosphorus
concentration
(ug x L->)
> 10
< [P] < 90
< [P] < 30
Reference
Sawyer (1947)
Sakamoto (1966)
Vollenweider (1968)
50
100
88
100
Chlorophyll a
concentration
(ug x L-i)
< [Chi a] < 140.0
< [Chi a]
< [Chi 3}
< [Chi a]
Reference
Sakamoto (1966)
NAS & NAW (1973)
Dobson, et al (1974)
Dillon & Rigler (1975)
are also presented in Table 6. These values were
generated using an empirical relationship developed
by Sakamoto (1966) and later refined for temperate
lakes by Dillon and Rigler (1974b). Using data from
19 lakes representing characteristics similar to Lob-
dell Lake, Dillon and Rigler demonstrated a high
cprrelation between measured total phosphorus at
spring overturn and summer chlorophyll a concentra-
tions averaged between May and September. Using
the following regression line,
1og,0[chl.a] = 1og,0 [P]-1.14, (3)
predicted values of [P] were used to generate pre-
dicted values of [chl. a].
Using the predicted phosphorus and chlorophyll a
concentrations for Sections I and II, it is possible to
design a lake management approach tailored to load-
ing, morphologic, and hydrologic features of each
section of Lobdell Lake. Field measurements of phos-
phorus and chlorophyll a concentrations are rou-
tinely correlated with lake trophic status. Assuming
that the simple phosphorus budget model (Equation
1) and chlorophyll a model (Equation 3) predict realis-
tic values of total phosphorus and chlorophyll a,
model predictions can be used as surrogates for
field-generated data.
Interest in developing restoration plans was first
generated by lake residents' concern over increas-
ingly obvious eutrophication symptoms. Further re-
ference to eutrophic status suggests a condition
where lake water can no longer support total body
contact recreation and cold water fisheries due to the
effects of excessive algal standing crop, e.g., in-
creased turbidity, exceptionally low quantities of dis-
solved oxygen, and an abundance of nuisance
macrophytes.
Table 8 shows how various investigators have de-
fined eutrophic waters in terms of total phosphorus
and chlorophyll a concentrations. According to Saw-
yer (1947), Sakamoto (1966), and Vollenweider
(1968), lake waters with total phosphorus concentra-
tions in excess of 10 ug x L"1 are in danger of
becoming eutrophic. Similarly, Sakamoto (1966),
Natl. Acad. Sci. Natl. Acad. Eng. (1973), Dobson, et al.
(1974), and Dillon and Rigler (1975) have defined the
lower bound of eutrophication for chlorophyll a con-
centration at 10 ug x L"1. If total body contact recrea-
tion is a prime lake management goal, restoration
plans should be considered for lake waters exhibiting
characteristics exceeding these standards.
As presented in Table 5, phosphorus loading to
Section I (674 mg P x rrT2 x yr"1) is greater than
loading to Section II (289 mg P x m"2 x yr1). Septic
system seepage constitutes 35 percent and 65 per-
cent of the total phosphorus contribution to aquatic
subbasins (a) and (b), respectively. If Section I soils
and hydrologic characteristics were disregarded,
management efforts might be directed unnecessarily
at reduction of septic system loading through sewer-
age and diversion of effluent from the lake or trans-
port of domestic effluent offsite to community drain-
age fields.
Use of the phosphorus budget model (Equation 1)
results in a useful prediction of Section I trophic
status when loading, morphologic, and hydrologic
characteristics are integrated. The model demon-
strates that the relatively high flushing rate of Section
I (55 x yr"1) transports a large percentage of phospho-
rus inputs out of the lake. Predicted total phosphorus
concentration (6.7 ug x L"1) and chlorophyll a concen-
tration (1.1 UQ x L"1) are well below the reported
standard for eutrophic water.
Consequently, efforts to mitigate eutrophication
symptoms in Section I should not be focused on
structural, high cost methods for reducing phospho-
rus loading to the lake. Sewerage or even intensive
nonpoint phosphorus loading control would require
large capital outlays with no perceived benefits in
trophic status of Section I (although downstream
discharges of phosphorus from Lobdell Lake might
be slightly decreased if Section I nutrient loading
were reduced). Also, due to the small surface area
and inconvenient location of soils suited for accep-
tance and immobilization of phosphorus (14.7 hect-
ares or 10.7 percent of total Section I land area, see
Table 5 and Figure 4), the potential for use of soils as
offsite effluent treatment media is restricted.
Therefore, the most cost-effective management
plan for Section I would be in-lake treatment of spe-
cific eutrophication symptoms. Although costly, use
of herbicides and flocculants or seasonal removal of
macrophytes would provide tangible symptomatic
relief when needed (Univ. Wis. 1974).
Additionally, in the interest of reducing the amount
of phosphorus unnecessarily exported downstream
from Lobdell Lake, Section I residents should be
encouraged to upgrade malfunctioning septic sys-
tems through mounding technology (Bouma, et al.
1972) and to have their septic tanks pumped out
every 6 months. Following the assumptions
presented in Table 2, elimination of phosphorus de-
tergents by Section I residents would decrease total
phosphorus loading to septic systems from 2.1 kg P x
residence"1 x yr"1 to 1.0 kg P x residence "1 x yr"1 (52
percent). Alternatively, substitution of non-
phosphorus detergents could result in a 24 percent
reduction in P-loading to Section I without any modifi-
cation of existing septic systems.
Despite the relatively lower phosphorus loading to
-------
ASSESSING THE PROBLEM AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
93
Section II (289 mg P x m"2 x yr'1 or 43 percent of the
total phosphorus loading to Section I), the predicted
total spring phosphorus concentration of Section II is
dangerously high (33 ug x L"1). The predicted differ-
ence in phosphorus concentration and hence trophic
status of Section I and II results from the large varia-
tions in lake basin water volumes (V) and outflow
volumes (Q) between the two lake sections. Section II
has an estimated outflow volume (Q = 1 cfs) that is
only a small fraction of that estimated for Section I (Q
= 28 cfs). Additionally, the water volume of Section II
is over 1 1 times larger than Section I. These differ-
ences are taken into account when calculating the
model parametersp and R used in Equation 1. Hydro-
logic and morphologic data used to calculatep and R
are shown in the following equations:
flushing rate: P = -
phosphorus retention coefficient (Eq.2):
R =0426 exp [-0271(qs)] + 0574 exp [-0 00949(q,)]
where (qs) = -
A0
The predicted summer average chlorophyll a concen-
tration for Section II (1 1.6 ug x L"1) is also greater
than the standard judged acceptable for total body
contact recreation (10 ug x L"1).
The phosphorus loading inventory demonstrates
that 58 percent of the total phosphorus contributions
to aquatic subbasins in Section II results from septic
system seepage (see Table 4). If this loading source
were eliminated, predicted spring phosphorus con-
centration would be reduced from 33 ug x L'1 to 13.9
ug x L"1. The chlorophyll a model (Equation 3) pre-
dicts a corresponding decrease in summer average
chlorophyll a concentration, from 1 1.6 ug x L'1 to 3.3
ug x L"1. Consequently, reduction of septic system
phosphorus loading is identified as an effective pro-
cedure for restoring Section II trophic status to a level
that supports total body contact recreation.
Results of the soil suitability analysis in Table 5 and
Figure 4 show that 45 percent of the soil in Section II
is optimally suited for location of septic system drain-
age fields. The availability and convenient location of
these potential sites suggest that soil can be used as
an effective treatment medium for accepting and
immobilizing phosphorus from domestic effluent.
Transport of effluent from existing residences to
community septic system drainage fields would re-
sult in an environmentally sound mechanism for cy-
cling ground water within the watershed. Costs of
sewerage and treatment technologies and commu-
nity drainage field construction would have to be
compared before a final phosphorus reduction plan
could be recommended based on economic criteria.
SUMMARY
Plans to restore the quality of eutrophied inland
lakes can be based on two approaches: nutrient load-
ing reduction or treatment of selected eutrophication
symptoms. Phosphorus has been identified as the
limiting nutrient that dictates long-term trophic char-
acteristics of most temperate lakes. Since human
wastes and detergents often contribute the largest
portion of phosphorus to developed watersheds, res-
toration plans have historically focused on reduction
of phosphorus loading from these cultural sources.
Improvements in lake trophic status resulting from
phosphorus reduction plans should be evaluated
prior to committing restoration moneys to a single
approach.
Given phosphorus loading, and hydrologic and
morphologic data, lake managers can use existing
models to predict total spring phosphorus and sum-
mer average chlorophyll a concentrations. Whereas
morphologic and hydrologic data are frequently
available for developed lakes, an estimate of phos-
phorus loading has conventionally required exten-
sive field sampling programs.
As an alternative to field research, a procedure was
presented for estimating magnitudes of phosphorus
inputs using average literature values for overland
runoff, bulk precipitation, and septic seepage. Phos-
phorus loading from septic seepage was hypotheti-
cally eliminated from the total lake loading estimate
to evaluate anticipated changes in spring phospho-
rus and summer average chlorophyll a concentra-
tions. The predicted values were compared to phos-
phorus and chlorophyll a standards representing a
desired lake management goal, i.e., total body con-
tact recreation.
If reduction of phosphorus loading through septic
seepage elimination resulted in a desired trophic
status, sewerage and diversion of treated effluent
from the lake or construction of offsite drainage
fields could be recommended as effective restoration
procedures. Otherwise, treatment of in-lake eutrophi-
cation symptoms would be required. Morphologic
and hydrologic characteristics of lake subbasins
were used to design and evaluate anticipated results
of restoration plans for independent lake sections.
Using this approach, cost-effective restoration plans
could be tailored for unique lake section problems.
Finally, the author has illustrated a mapping tech-
nique useful for identifying soils optimally suited for
accepting and immobilizing phosphorus from domes-
tic effluent. Knowledge of the extent and location of
these soils can help lake managers investigate the
potential for transport of domestic effluent from sep-
tic tanks to community drainage fields. Since rural
lake communities most often obtain water from
wells, reinjection of effluent back into the watershed
aquifer provides an environmentally acceptable alter-
native to sewerage and diversion of treated effluent
to surficial water. The soil suitability analysis is also
useful in providing a guideline for the watershed's
carrying capacity for new housing accompanied by
septic systems.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author acknowledges the contribution of William A.
Brown for his soil suitability mapping procedure. Mr. Brown
co-authored the original Lobdell Lake Watershed Analysis
(1977)from which this paper was developed.
-------
94
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LAKE RESTORATION
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-------
TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC WASTES IN
LAKESHORE DEVELOPMENTS
RICHARD J. OTIS
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin
ABSTRACT
The deterioration of water quality in lakes with extensive shoreline development is often
attributed to septic tank systems. Septic tank system failure is not due to inherent shortcomings
of the system itself, but rather to misapplication and misuse. Experience has shown that owners
cannot be relied upon to provide the necessary maintenance. Management districts or similar
organizations that take the responsibility for the system out of the hands of the homeowner and
place it with trained personnel can provide the needed assurances that the system will be
correctly sited, designed, constructed, and maintained. Septic tank systems and alternatives, if
coupled with central management, can solve many of the existing lakeshore problems at a
relatively low cost. Such facilities must be seriously considered.
INTRODUCTION
The deterioration of water quality in lakes with
extensive shoreline development is often attributed,
in part, to contamination by domestic wastewaters.
Unless located within a metropolitan sewerage dis-
trict, homes surrounding lakes usually are not con-
nected to public wastewater facilities and therefore,
must have their own private disposal systems. Al-
though raw wastes are occasionally discharged di-
rectly into the lakes, a septic tank soil absorption
system is the most common disposal system (Figure
1).
SOIL DISPOSAL OF SEPTIC TANK EFFLUENT
Figure 1 -Schematic profile of septic tank system.
Where soils are suitable for installation, this system
is an excellent method of onsite wastewater disposal.
However, lakeshore development is not effectively
restricted only to areas with suitable soils. As much
as 68 percent of the total land area of the United
States has soils unsuitable for septic tank systems
(Wenk, 1971). Consequently, with no alternative but
a costly holding tank, systems are often installed in
areas where failure is assured. Even where soils are
suitable, failures often occur because of poor design,
installation, or maintenance of the system. The result
is contamination of the lake by nitrogen and phos-
phorus (critical aquatic weed nutrients) as well as
pathogenic bacteria and viruses.
Typically, the solution for failing septic tank sys-
tems has been to construct a public facility consisting
of gravity collection sewers which convey all the
wastewaters to a central treatment plant. This works
well in urban areas where the density of homes is
high, but in lakeshore developments the cost of con-
structing a conventional collection and treatment
facility is frequently prohibitive. Where this is the
case, pollution abatement efforts are delayed and
deterioration of water quality continues.
This dilemma could be avoided if lower cost alter-
natives to conventional sewerage were to be em-
ployed. Technologies exist that could achieve this
goal but they require that engineers, regulatory offi-
cials, and the public overcome some strong preju-
dices for conventional sewerage. In particular, those
prejudices are:
1. Sewers are the best and most cost-effective
wastewater facility.
2. Onsite disposal systems don't work.
3. Onsite systems cannot be publicly owned.
CONVENTIONAL PUBLIC FACILITIES
The prejudice that gravity sewers with a common
treatment facility are the best wastewater facility is a
difficult one to overcome. This belief by engineers,
regulatory agencies, and the public is due to several
factors. First, this facility is tried and proven. There is
much technical expertise in the theory, design, and
operation of central sewerage. This has lead to great
confidence in the system, particularly by the general
public because the responsibility for the system is
placed on others.
95
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96
LAKE RESTORATION
Second, central sewerage is usually more cost ef-
fective because of economics of scale. In densely
populated areas, it is less costly to serve many people
with one system than to serve each one individually.
Third, central sewerage makes central (and usually
public) management responsible for the system. This
is quite desirable from regulatory authorities' point of
view because they deal with a single entity.
For lakeshore developments, however, conven-
tional central sewerage is often impractical because
of the high costs of constructing sewers. Smith and
Eilers (1970) computed the 1968 average costs of all
municipal wastewater collection and treatment facili-
ties constructed in the United States. The study
showed that 65 percent of the total annual cost is for
amortization and maintenance of the collection sys-
tem. A more recent study of 16 small communities in
Oklahoma by Sloggett and Badger (1975) showed a
similar distribution (Table 1). Thus it is clear from
these analyses that sewers are the most costly com-
ponent cf central sewerage. It can become exces-
sively so around lakes where homes are typically
scattered and there is little topographic relief. Thus, if
an alternative is to be found, it must be one that can
reduce the cost of the collection sewers.
Table 1 - Distribution of total annual costs for
municipal sewerage
Current expenses
Operation_&
Amortization cost maintenance
Over-
Collection Treatment Collection Treatment head Total
Smith 8.
Eilers
(1968
dollars)
Sloggett
& Badger
(1972
dollars)
603%
153%
47%
84% 84% 1000%
- 726% -
142% 32% 100% 1000%
(lagoon)
OIMSITE SYSTEMS AS ALTERNATIVES
One obvious method of reducing the costs of col-
lection is to eliminate the sewers altogether and treat
and dispose of the wastes where they are generated.
This can be achieved by using onsite systems. How-
ever, onsite systems are usually considered the cause
of the problem rather than the solution. This is an-
other prejudice that must be overcome.
Onsite treatment and disposal systems can take
many forms. To be acceptable, each must be capable
of discharging water of a quality that prevents exces-
sive accumulation of pollutants in the environment.
Ultimate discharge of the treated waste may be to the
ground water, surface water, or the atmosphere.
However, the most attractive method of disposal for
small wastewater flows is discharge to the ground
water via soil percolation because the soil is an excel-
lent biological and physical filter, which operates
with virtually no attention. Where the soil is suitable,
the septic tank soil absorption field is the most effec-
tive system because of its simplicity and low cost.
The Septic Tank System
The conventional septic tank system consists of a
septic tank and a soil absorption field. The septic tank
acts as a settling tank that removes and stores settle-
able and floatable solids that could clog the soil. The
liquid discharged from the septic tank, which is still a
very strong waste, must be absorbed and treated by
the soil absorption field to remove the undesirable
pollutants. Occasionally, the soil absorption field will
fail to perform one of these two functions but the
failures seem to result from misapplication and mis-
use of the system rather than from inherent short-
comings of the system itself.
So/7 Clogging
When wastewater is continuously applied to the
soil, a clogging mat usually forms at the infiltrative
surface. The mat creates a barrier to liquid flow,
restricting the movement of water into the soil by
closing the entrance to the pores. This is beneficial to
a point, for it enhances treatment of the wastewater
by creating unsaturated conditions below the mat but
it does slow absorption. Fortunately, the clogging
mat does not seal off the soil completely, but contin-
ues to transmit liquid, albeit at a much reduced rate.
The flow rate through the mat seems to reach an
equilibrium value that varies from soil to soil when
the system is operated under uniform conditions
(Bouma, 1975). Therefore, failure due to excessive
clogging can be prevented by the proper design and
construction of the absorption field (Otis, etal. 1978).
Wastewater Treatment by Soil
The primary pollutants in domestic wastewaters
are pathogenic organisms, viruses, and the plant
nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus. The soil very
effectively removes most of these. Mechanisms that
operate in soils to remove pollutants include filtra-
tion, sedimentation, adsorption, and biochemical oxi-
dation. All are enhanced when the soil is unsaturated
because under this condition liquid flow occurs only
through the finer pores of the soil. Unsaturated flow
slows the rate of liquid percolation, improving treat-
ment because the average distances between efflu-
ent particles and the soil particles decrease and the
time of contact increases. Under saturated condi-
tions, liquid movement would be predominately
through the larger pores resulting in significantly less
liquid-soil contact and retention time.
Fortunately, saturated flow rarely occurs in soils
immediately below correctly installed septic tank
drainfields. The clogging mat that forms on the soil's
infiltrative surface restricts the downward movement
of water to rates below those which the soil can
accept. Thus, the larger soil pores drain and only the
finer pores transmit the waste. It is in soils that are
either too coarse to permit the development of the
clogging mat or in soils that have shallow water
tables that rise up to the infiltrative surface where
unsaturated flow is not likely to occur. Proper design
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ASSESSING THE PROBLEM AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
97
of a septic tank drainfield requires that a sufficient
depth of unsaturated soil and separation distance
between the drainfield and wells or surface waters be
maintained.
Bacteria Removal by Soil: The literature is replete
with data of bacteria travel through porous media.
This material has been well summarized in several
good reviews (Gerba, et al. 1975; McGauhey and
Krone, 1967; Romero, 1970) all of which conclude
that the soil is an excellent removal medium for
pathogenic indicator bacteria if the waste percolates
through a sufficient depth of unsaturated soil before
reaching the ground water. Once into the ground
water, however, bacteria are able to move several
hundred feet.
Most of the indicator organisms are removed in the
first few inches of soil below which additional treat-
ment rapidly diminishes. Several recent studies of
septic tank systems indicate that 3 feet of unsatu-
rated sandy soil is usually sufficient to remove fecal
indicators below detectable limits (Brown, et al.
1978; Peavy and Groves, 1978; Reneau and Pettry,
1975; University of Wisconsin, in press). In finer
textured soils, even less would be required as long as
the clogging mat is present.
Virus Removal by Soil: Reviews by Gerba, et al.
(1975) and Green and Oliver (1974) indicate that the
soil is more effective in removing virus than bacteria.
Unlike bacteria, adsorption seems to be the predomi-
nant factor in removing virus in the soil. Movement in
sands rarely exceeded 2 feet in all studies reviewed
(Gerba, et al. 1975). Movement in finer textured soils
would be even less because of the soil's greater
adsorptive capacity.
Nutrient Removal by Soil: Nitrogen is a key nutrient
that must be considered because of its potential
health hazard in causing methemoglobinemia in in-
fants when concentrations exceed 10 mg N/7 in
water supplies, and its contribution to eutrophication
of surface waters. Nitrogen exists in the ammonia
and organic forms in septic tanks but is quickly nitri-
fied under aerobic soil conditions. The nitrate that
forms is very soluble and readily leached through the
soil. Significant concentrations in the ground water
below soil absorption fields occur frequently, often
above the 10 mg//level (Brown, et al. 1978; Dudley
and Stephenson, 1973; Peavy and Groves, 1978;
Preul, 1966; Reneau, 1977; Sikora and Corey, 1976;
Walker, etal. 1973).
The occurrence of high nitrate concentrations in
ground water is particularly frequent below drain-
fields installed in sand. In tighter soils where oxygen
diffusion is more difficult the ammonium in the waste
may not be nitrified and will be adsorbed by the clay
removing it from the waste stream (Sikora and Corey,
1976). The ammonium can be nitrified when aerobic
conditions return, however. After nitrification some
denitrification may occur if an anaerobic condition
and a carbon source exist together, deeper in the soil
profile. This does not always happen, however. Thus,
one must assume that all nitrogen discharged to a
drainfield will potentially leach to the ground water in
the form of nitrates. Once there, dilution offers about
the only means of reducing its concentration. This
supports a need for a suitable separation distance
between the drainfield and wells and surface waters
to allow for adequate dilution.
Phosphorus is of concern only as a plant nutrient
Drainfields located near surface waters are a poten-
tial source of phosphorus leading to premature eutro-
phication. Unlike nitrogen, however, phosphorus is
readily absorbed by the soil. It is retained primarily as
a precipitate of calcium, aluminum, and iron. Thus,
phosphorus contamination of the ground water is
seldom a serious problem (Dudley and Stephenson,
1973; Sawhney, 1977; Sikora and Corey, 1976; Re-
neau and Pettry, 1976). Contamination may be ex-
pected to occur in sandy soils low in organic content,
soils with high water tables, or from systems oper-
ated for many years. Below a septic tank drainfield
movement is estimated to be less than 10 cm/yr in a
silt loam (Sikora and Corey, 1976). Because phospho-
rus is not a public health concern but a potential
surface water contaminant causing eutrophication, it
is important only that a long travel distance exist
between the drainfield and the surface water body.
Therefore, if constructed where 3 feet of unsatu-
rated soil with a suitable hydraulic conductivity is
maintained between the bottom of the system and
the ground water, and a separation distance of 50
feet from surface waters is provided, a suitably de-
signed septic tank system will serve as an excellent
disposal system. However, not all soil and site condi-
tions are equally effective in providing absorption
and treatment over a reasonable lifetime. Where the
soils and site are not suitable for a conventional
septic tank system, other alternatives must be used
(Figure 2).
SATISFACTORY
SOIL AND SITE'
CHARACTERISTICS
\
UNSATISFACTORY
SOIL ABSORPTION
CONVENTIONAL SOIL ABSORPTION
MOUND
ET-ABSORPTION
EVAPORATION
gME**™
Figure 2.- Alternative strategies for onsite wastewater treat-
ment and disposal.
The Mound System
In many areas, the conventional septic tank soil
absorption field is not a suitable system of wastewa-
ter disposal. For example, sites with slowly permea-
ble soils, excessively permeable soils, or soils over
shallow bedrock or high ground water do not provide
the necessary absorption or purification of the septic
tank effluent. However, these limitations often can be
overcome by modifying the site.
One method of site modification is to fill the area
and construct the soil absorption field above the
natural soil in a mound of medium sand (Figure 3).
There are several advantages to raising the soil ab-
sorption field. At sites with shallow or excessively
permeable soils the fill below the absorption
-------
98
LAKE RESTORATION
INSULATED COVER
SEPTIC TANK PUMPING CHAMBER
Figure 3.- A plan view and cross section of a mound system
for problem soils.
trenches within the mound provides additional soil
material necessary to purify the wastewater before it
reaches the ground water. At sites with slowly perme-
able soils, the purified liquid is able to infiltrate the
more permeable natural topsoii over a large area and
safely move away laterally until absorbed by the less
permeable subsoil. Also, the clogging mat that even-
tually develops at the bottom of the gravel trench
within the mound will not clog the sandy fill to the
degree it would in the natural soil. Finally, smearing
and compaction of the wet subsoil is avoided be-
cause excavation in the natural soil is not necessary.
Mound systems have been installed and monitored
since 1 972 and are performing satisfactorily (Bouma,
et al. 1974, 1975). However, application of proper
siting, design, and construction techniques, de-
scribed in detail by Converse, et al. (1976a, b, c), are
critical for satisfactory performance.
The Sand Filter
At some sites, the soils may be totally inadequate as
a treatment and disposal medium. In such instances,
it may be necessary to install onsite wastewater treat-
ment systems not dependent upon soil disposal, but
which discharge the treated wastewater to surface
waters or to the atmosphere.
Systems that discharge to surface waters must be
designed to meet a certain water quality objective.
They may incorporate a variety of treatment proc-
esses yet only a select few will prove to be econom-
ically and environmentally acceptable. The most
promising system is a septic tank sand filter system.
Two basic flow configurations have been success-
fully tested: the intermittent sand filter and the recir-
culating sand filter.
The intermittent sand filter is a 2- to 3-foot deep
bed of sand over which septic tank effluent is ap-
plied. By intermittently dosing the filter, the sand
-
1 RVENT 1
1 « SPLASH
SAND'
• ; . '. PEA GRAVEL
" ° fiT." COARSE •>
» .O.' STONE- .
IDISTRIBUTIC
PIPE^LL[
N 1
\" ,"" ° ' c
CONCRETE SLAB /*
) ° 0 V
^COLLECTION PIPE
Figure 4.- Profile of typical intermittent sand filter.
remains aerobic and serves as a biological filtei,
removing not only suspended solids, but also dis-
solved organics (Figure 4). The filtrate is collected by
underdrains for further treatment or disposal.
It is recommended that two filters be employed in
an alternating mode. When one filter becomes
ponded, it is taken out of service, raked to a depth of
2 to 4 inches, and rested prior to reapplication of
wastewater. After a second loading period, the top 4
inches of sand from that filter are replaced with clean
sand (Sauer and Boyle, 1978). Effluent quality from
field systems has shown that BOD5 (biochemical oxy-
gen demand) and suspended solids concentrations
can be consistently maintained below 10 mg/7
(Sauer and Boyle, 1978).
The recirculating sand filter system consists of a
septic tank, a recirculation tank, and an open sand
filter (Mines and Favreau, 1975). The filter bed is
made up of 3 feet of coarse filter sand over approxi-
mately 12 inches of graded gravel used to support
the sand and surround the underdrain system. The
recirculation tank collects and stores septic tank and
sand filter effluent until the mixture is pumped onto
the filter. If the tank is full, the filtrate is diverted from
the recirculation tank and discharged. To maintain
the system, the top 1 inch of sand is replaced each
year to prevent serious ponding problems. Results
indicate that effluent BOD5 values average less than 5
mg/7 and total suspended solids values less than 6
mg/1 (Nines and Favreau, 1975; Bowne, 1977).
It is apparent that effluents produced by either type
of filter could meet current U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency standards for BOD5 and suspended
solids. However, unacceptable levels of indicator or-
ganisms and phosphorus may remain that would
require further treatment before discharge.
The Evapotranspiration Bed
Evapotranspiration (ET) may provide a means of
wastewater disposal in some localities where site
conditions preclude soil absorption. Evaporation of
moisture either from the soil surface or by plant
transpiration is the mechanism of ultimate disposal.
In areas where the annual evaporation rate equals or
exceeds the rate of annual moisture addition from
rainfall or wastewater application, ET systems can
provide a simple means of liquid disposal without
danger of surface or groundwater contamination. ET
systems can also be designed to supplement soil
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ASSESSING THE PROBLEM AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
99
IMPERMEABLE
PLASTIC LINER
Figure 5.-Typical evapotranspiration bed.
absorption in slowly permeable soils.
A typical ET bed system consists of a 1 1/2- or
3-foot depth of selected sand over an impermeable
plastic liner (Bennett and Linstedt, 1978). A cross
section of a typical bed is sketched in Figure 5. The
bed's surface area must be large enough that suffi-
cient evapotranspiration occurs to prevent the water
level in the bed from rising to the surface. This re-
quires that the annual evaporation rate must be sig-
nificantly higherthan the annual rainfall.
The design of an ET bed is based on the annual
weather cycle for the location. Theoretically, evapo-
transpiration can remove significant volumes of efflu-
ent from subsurface disposal systems in late spring,
summer, and early fall, particularly if high silhouette,
good transpiring bushes and trees are present. How-
ever, the practical application of nondischarging eva-
potranspiration bed systems is limited to areas of the
country where pan evaporation exceeds rainfall by at
least 24 inches per year and where winter monthly
evaporation exceeds monthly precipitation by 2
inches each month. Also, extreme freezing condi-
tions or deep snow cover should not exist where the
systems are used. The decrease of evapotranspira-
tion in winter at middle and high latitudes greatly
limits it for winter disposal; underfreezing conditions
evapotranspiration would be totally inadequate.
Thus, in high latitude, cool winter locations evapo-
transpiration cannot be relied upon (Tanner and
Bouma, 1975).
Locations for possible application of ET disposal
systems exist in semiarid regions of the United
States, including parts of the southwestern States of
Texas, Oklahoma, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Ari-
zona, California, and Nevada. Even in these areas,
household water conservation should always be con-
sidered as part of the system (Bennett and Linstedt,
1978).
Wastewater Modification
Recently, emphasis has been put on modifying the
characteristics of the wastewater discharged from
the home to either enhance soil infiltration, reduce
the dependence on soils for final treatment, or elimi-
nate the need for soil absorption. Elimination or isola-
tion of pollutants at the source such as flow, organic
matter, nutrients, and pathogenic organisms would
improve the characteristics of the raw wastewater,
thereby broadening the application of conventional
disposal methods or facilitating the development of
other alternatives.
Flow reduction to produce lower wastewater vol-
umes can be accomplished through water conserva-
tion and recycling. Reductions can be achieved
through improved water use habits or by simple mod-
ifications in water use appliances or plumbing fix-
tures. Nearly 70 percent of the total wastewater
generated in the homes is derived from the toilet,
laundry, and bath (Siegrist, et al. 1976). The most
substantial water savings can therefore be made in
these areas. Low flow toilets, "sudsaver" washing
machines, restricted flow shower heads, and recy-
cling of bath and laundry wastes for toilet flushing
are four commonly mentioned saving devices. By
reducing the toilet flushing volume to 3 gallons,
clothes washing to 28 gallons by using a sudsaver,
and baths and showers to 15 gallons, average water
use could be reduced by 17 percent in rural Wiscon-
sin homes (Witt, 1974). Recycling bath and laundry
wastes to flush toilets could increase the savings to
33 percent.
HASTE SEGREGATION
Figure 6.- In-house waste segregation (Siegrist, 1978).
Another strategy for altering wastewater character-
istics involves in-house waste segregation. As illus-
trated in Figure 6, waste segregation involves the
separation of the individual waste streams produced
within a household into three major fractions: (1) the
toilet waste, often referred to as black water, (2) the
garbage waste; and (3) the remaining wastewater,
collectively referred to as grey water. Eliminating the
garbage disposal and removing toilet waste through
using a nonconventional toilet system (e.g., compost-
ing, incinerating, recycling, low volume/flush holding
tank) would serve to: (1) eliminate unnecessary water-
borne wastes; (2) eliminate dilution of concentrated
raw waste materials; (3) avoid the comingling of
wastes of different character; and (4) reduce the
wastewater flow volume.
A particular advantage of this strategy is the re-
moval of approximately 70 percent of the total nitro-
gen and 30 percent of the total phosphorus by con-
tainment in the black water. If coupled with the use of
non-phosphate detergents, which further reduces the
phosphorus in the waste stream by approximately 65
percent nutrient, contamination of the wastewater is
nearly eliminated.
Various strategies have been proposed to enable
segregation and separate management of the toilet
-------
100
LAKE RESTORATION
STRATEGIES FOR BLACK HASTE 1A1AGBE1T
1 BLACK HASTE I
E.T.
SOLAR
EVAP. ]
SOIL
ABS.
Figure 7.- Strategies for black waste management (Siegrist,
1978).
wastes. Those strategies that currently appear most
feasible for residential use are outlined in Figure 7. A
discussion of these strategies is presented elsewhere
(Rybczynski and Ortega, 1975; Orr and Smith, 1976;
Milne, 1976; Siegrist, etal. 1978).
Grey Water Management
In segregated systems toilet wastes are usually
handled through an alternative toilet system, and
grey water disposal through a conventional septic
tank soil absorption system. However, more innova-
tive management schemes may be feasible based on
the reduced pollutant load and contamination of the
grey water. Several potential strategies of grey water
management are outlined in Figure 8. As yet, little is
known about the performance and reliability of many
of these schemes.
STRATEGIES FOR GREV MATER NANAGE1ENT
Figure 8.- Strategies for grey water management (Siegrist,
1978).
MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES
As should be obvious from the preceding discus-
sion, onsite systems can provide acceptable waste-
water treatment and disposal if they are well de-
signed, installed, and maintained. However, because
of their location on private property, onsite systems
have always been considered as belonging to the
property owner and, therefore, his responsibility to
operate and maintain.
Typically, a septic tank system is installed. A very
simple and maintenance free system, it requires only
a periodic pumping. However, more often than not,
the homeowner neglects this simple chore. Thus, the
system is not maintained and failure results.
The failure to maintain systems has severely limited
the application of onsite technology. If a homeowner
cannot be relied upon to pump his septic tank when
necessary, then he certainly cannot be expected to
maintain a more complex alternative system. There-
fore, regulatory agencies attempt to prohibit housing
development in areas where the soils are unaccepta-
ble for any wastewater disposal methods more com-
plex than conventional septic tank systems.
Public management districts have been proposed
that would have the authority to own, operate, and
maintain onsite systems located on private property
(Winneberger and Anderman, 1972). (Such a con-
cept is similar to telephone utilities that own and
maintain the telephones located in the homes for a
monthly service charge.) The district would employ
only trained personnel whose responsibilities would
be to site, design, construct, operate, and maintain all
onsite systems within its jurisdiction.
Implementation of management districts would of-
fer several advantages:
1. By maintaining onsite systems in good working
order, costly public sewers could be avoided.
2. With qualified personnel, more complex alterna-
tive systems could be used to serve homes in areas
unsuitable for conventional septic tank systems.
3. Clustering of several homes on a single onsite
system could be employed to provide a more
cost-effective facility.
4. Less costly treatment facilities usually can be
constructed because smaller flows are collected
from limited areas.
5. Strip growth, which is encouraged by the con-
struction of interceptor sewers used to collect wastes
from isolated clusters of homes, can be avoided.
6. Onsite systems are more ecologically sound be-
cause the many scattered systems dispose of the
wastes over wider areas for better assimilation by the
environment.
7. Pollution abatement would proceed more rapidly
because of the lower costs and less homeowner
opposition. Often homeowners who are not having
trouble or who have recently installed new onsite
systems do not wish to support a community action
for sewering that will cost them more money unnec-
essarily. In a management district, functioning sys-
tems would be retained.
Powers Needed by a Management Entity
Though relatively untried, there are several me-
thods of exerting public (or in some cases private)
management over onsite facilities. The powers
needed to properly manage onsite systems are simi-
lar to those powers needed to manage a municipal
sewerage district. Some of the methods have been
successfully applied in various locations in the Un-
ited States (Otis and Stewart, 1976).
Necessary Powers
Any management entity that endeavors to effec-
tively administer onsite wastewater disposal systems
must have the authority to perform vital functions.
The entity should be able to:
1. Own, operate, manage, and maintain all waste-
water systems within its jurisdiction. The entity must
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ASSESSING THE PROBLEM AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
101
be empowered to acquire by purchase, gift, grant,
lease, or rent both real and personal property. It must
also have the authority to plan, design, construct,
inspect, operate, and maintain all types of onsite
systems whether the system is a typical individual
septic tank system or a more complex system serving
a group of residences. The entity should have at least
these "ownership and operation" powers within its
boundaries. The entity may be given extra territorial
jurisdictional authority to operate, maintain, and per-
haps own such systems outside of the entity's bound-
aries by State statute, by case law, or contract terms.
2. Enter into contracts, to undertake debt obliga-
tions either by borrowing and/or by issuing bonds,
and to sue and be sued. These powers are more than
mere legal niceties because without them the entity
would not be able to acquire the property, equipment,
supplies, and services necessary to construct or oper-
ate the individual or jointly used onsite systems.
3. Raise revenue by fixing and collecting user
charges and levying special assessments and taxes.
The power to tax is limited to various public or
quasi-public management entities. In lieu of taxing
powers, the nongovernmental management entities
must have the authority implied or directly granted to
set and charge user fees to cover administrative
costs.
4. Plan and control how and at what time wastewa-
ter facilities will be extended to those within its
jurisdiction.
Though not necessary to provide adequate
management of onsite systems, two additional pow-
ers are desirable. These are that the entity be able to:
1. Make rules and regulations regarding the use of
onsite systems and provide for their enforcement
through express statutory authorization. To promote
good public sanitation, the entity should be empow-
ered to require the abatement of malfunctioning sys-
tems and to require the replacement of all such
systems, all according to the plans of the entity. This
power, however, may already be inferred from the
statute authorizing the system.
2. Meet the eligibility requirements for both loans
and grants in aid of construction from both the Fed-
eral and State Governments. While it is obvious that a
management entity can function without being eligi-
ble for these loans and grants the viability of manage-
ment districts is strengthened when grant money is
used to offset some or most of the costs to the
families served by the entity.
The types of entities that could manage a noncen-
tral facility vary from State to State. The various State
constitutions, statutes, and administrative agency
rules and regulations must be examined on a State by
State basis, to determine which types of entities are
authorized to manage onsite systems. In addition, the
case law (essentially interpretations of State laws
made by the courts) must be checked to determine if
the courts have construed the constitution, statutes,
or regulations to give to or remove from a possible
entity the authority to manage such a system. Various
entities that may be permitted by States include:
Municipalities, counties and townships, special dis-
tricts, private nonprofit corporations, rural electric
cooperatives, and private profit-sharing businesses.
SUMMARY
Improper disposal of domestic wastewater from
homes surrounding lakes is a cause for concern.
Typically, homes are served by onsite disposal sys-
tems that have failed because of poor design, con-
struction, or maintenance. The solution to this prob-
lem has been the construction of gravity sewers with
a central treatment plant. However, the cost of pro-
viding conventional sewerage is often beyond the
financial capabilities of the residents. Thus, in many
cases, the problem is unresolved.
The solution lies in finding lower cost, yet effective
alternatives to conventional sewerage. Because con-
structing sewers accounts for most of the cost, alter-
natives are needed that eliminate sewers by treating
and disposing of the wastes where they are
generated.
Onsite systems provide this alternative; however,
this obvious solution is rarely seriously considered,
because septic tank systems have a reputation for
failure. Recent developments in onsite technology
have demonstrated that septic tank systems are relia-
ble when properly sited, designed, installed, and
maintained, but they do not work everywhere. For
sites unsuited for the conventional septic tank sys-
tem, other alternatives exist. These also can be relia-
ble if properly managed.
The key to the success of onsite systems is provid-
ing good management. Management districts have
been proposed whereby trained personnel are em-
ployed by a public management entity to operate and
maintain all onsite systems installed within the dis-
trict. Though a relatively new concept, this idea is
rapidly catching on and proving to be a cost-effective
alternative.
REFERENCES
Bennett, E., and K, Lindstedt. Sewage disposal by
evaporation-transpiration. U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio. (In press.)
Bouma, J. 1975. Unsaturated flow during soil treatment of
septic tank effluent. Jour. Environ. Eng. Div. Am. Soc Civil
Eng 101:967.
Bouma, J., et al. 1974. A mound system for disposal of
septic tank effluent in shallow soils over creviced bed-
rock. Proc. Int. Conf. Land for Waste Manage Agric. Inst.
Canada, Ottawa.
1975. A mound system for onsite disposal of septic
tank effluent in slowly permeable soils with seasonally
perched water tables. Jour. Environ. Qual. 4:382.
Bowne, W. 1977. Experience in Oregon with the Hines-
Favreau recirculating sand filter. Presented at the North-
west States Conference on On-Site Sewage Disposal,
University of Washington, Seattle
Brown, K., et al. 1978. The movement of salts, nutrients,
fecal coliform and virus below septic leach fields in three
soils. Home Sewage Treat. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng Publ.
5-77. St. Joseph, Mich.
Converse, J., et al. 1976a. Design and construction proce-
dures for fill systems in permeable soils with high water
-------
102
LAKE RESTORATION
tables Small Scale Waste Manage. Proj. University of
Wisconsin, Madison.
1976b. Design and construction procedures for fill
systems in permeable soils with shallow creviced or po-
rous bedrock. Small Scale Waste Manage. Proj University
of Wisconsin, Madison.
1976c. Design and construction procedures for
mounds in slowly permeable soils with or without season-
ally high water tables Small Scale Waste Manage Proj.
University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Dudley, J., and D. Stephenspn. 1973. Nutrient enrichment
of ground water from septic tank disposal systems. Inland
Lake Renewal and Shoreland Manage. Demon. Proj. Rep
University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Gerba, C., et al 1975. Fate of wastewater bacteria and
viruses in soil. Jour. Irrigation Drainage Div Am. Soc. Civil
Eng. 101:157
Green, K , and D. Oliver. 1974. Removal of virus from septic
tank effluent. Home sewage disposal, proc. Natl Home
Sewage Disposal Symp. Am. Soc. Agric Eng. 175:137.
Hines, J.,and R Favreau. 1975. Recirculating sand filter: an
alternative to traditional sewage absorption systems.
Home sewage disposal, proc. Natl. Home Sewage Dis-
posal Symp. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. 175.
McGauhey, P., and R. Krone. 1967. Soil mantle as a waste-
water treatment system—final report. Rep. No. 67-11,
San. Eng. Res. Lab. University of California, Berkeley.
Milne, M. 1976. Residential water conservation. Calif.
Water Resour. Center, Rep. No. 35, University of Califor-
nia, Davis.
Orr, R., and D. Smith. 1976. A review of self-contained toilet
systems with emphasis on recent developments. North-
ern Technol. Center, Environ. Prot. Serv Edmonton, Al-
berta, Canada.
Otis, R., and D. Stewart. 1976. Alternative wastewater facili-
ties for small unsewered communities in rural America.
Small Scale Waste Manage. Demon. Phase III, Annu. Rep.
to the Upper Great Lakes Regional Comm., Small Scale
Waste Manage. Proj. University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Otis, R., et al. 1978. Design of conventional soil absorption
trenches and beds. Home Sewage Treat. Am. Soc. Agric.
Eng. Publ. 5-77. St. Joseph, Mich.
Peavy, H., and K. Groves. 1 978. The influence of septic tank
drainfields on ground water. Home Sewage Treat Am
Soc. Agric. Eng. Publ. 5-77. St. Joseph, Mich.
Preul, H. 1966. Underground movement of nitrogen. Jour.
Water Pollut. Control Fed. 38:335.
Reneau, R. Jr. 1977. Changes in inorganic nitrogenous
compounds from septic tank effluent in a soil with fluctu-
ating water table. Jour. Environ. Qual. 6:1 73.
Reneau, R. Jr., and D. Peltry. 1975. Movement of coliform
bacteria from septic tank effluent through selected
coastal plain soil in Virginia. Jour. Environ. Qual. 4:41.
. 1976. Phosphorus distribution from septic tank ef-
fluent in coastal plain soils. Jour. Environ. Qual. 5:34
Romero, J. 1970. Movement of bac^ria and viruses through
porous media. Ground Water 8:3 /.
Rybczynski, W., and A. Ortega. 1975. Stop the 5-gallon
flush. Minimum Cost Housing Group, School of Architec-
ture, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec
Sauer, D., and W Boyle. 1978. Intermittent sand filtration
and disinfection of small wastewater flows. Home Sew-
age Treat. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. Publ. 5-77. St. Joseph,
Mich.
Sawhney, B. 1977. Predicting phosphate movement
through soil columns. Jour Environ. Qual. 6:86.
Siegrist, R. 1978. Waste segregation to facilitate onsite
wastewater disposal alternatives. Home Sewage Treat.
Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. Publ. 5-77. St Joseph, Mich.
Siegrist, R., et al. 1976. Characteristics of rural household
wastewater. Jour. Environ. Eng. Div. Am. Soc. Aqric Enq
102:533.
1978. Water conservation and wastewater disposal.
Home Sewage Treat. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. Publ. 5-77. St.
Joseph, Mich.
Sikora, L, and R. Corey. 1976. Fate of nitrogen and phos-
phorus in soils under septic tank waste disposal fields.
Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. 19:866.
Slpggett, G., and D. Badger. 1975. Economics of construct-
ing and operating sewer systems in small Oklahoma com-
munities. Bull. B-718, Agric. Exp. Sta., Oklahoma State
University.
Smith, R., and R. Eilers. 1970. Cost to the consumer of
collection and treatment of wastewater. Water Pollut.
Control Res. Ser. No. 17090. U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency,
Washington, D.C.
Tanner, C., and J. Bouma. 1975. Influence of climate on
subsurface disposal of sewage effluent. Proc. 2nd Natl.
Conf. Individual Onsite Wastewater Systems, Natl. San.
Foundation, Ann Arbor, Mich.
University of Wisconsin. Small scale waste management
project—final report to USEPA. U.S. Environ. Prot.
Agency, Washington, D. C. (In press.)
Walker, W., et al. 1973. Nitrogen transformations during
subsurface disposal of septic tank effluent in sands: part
II; groundwater quality. Jour. Environ. Qual. 2:521.
Wenk, V. 1971. Water pollution: domestic wastes. A tech-
nology assessment methodology. Vol. 6 Publ. No. PB
202778-06. Prepared for the Office Sci. Technol. Execu-
tive Office of the President, Washington, D.C.
Winneberger, J., and W. Anderman, Jr. 1972. Public
management of septic tank systems is a practical method
of maintenance. Jour. Environ. Health 35:2.
Witt, M. 1974. Water use in rural homes. Small Scale Waste
Manage. Proj. Publ. University of Wisconsin, Madison.
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IN-LAKE
TREATMENTS
-------
DREDGING AND LAKE RESTORATION
SPENCER A. PETERSON
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon
ABSTRACT
Positive and negative aspects of dredging freshwater lakes are addressed, including sediment
composition, toxic substances, primary productivity, water temperature, nutrient concentra-
tions, and disposal area. Types and uses of grab, hydraulic cutterhead, and special purpose
dredges are described. Results of selected dredging projects demonstrate that sediment
removal can improve water quality and fish habitat in lake and pond environments. Positive
results may be measured from alterations in nutrient and chlorophyll a concentrations, diversity
indices for phytoplankton and benthic faunal populations, and, in some instances, fish
production. Dredging costs are shown to substantially depend on a number of variables
including geographic location.
INTRODUCTION
A number of techniques are being used throughout
the United States to restore the quality of the Nation's
freshwater lakes. Restoration implies a returning of
the entire lake to a former unimpaired condition, but
many so-called lake restoration techniques fall short
of this goal. Most of those currently being used
should be referred to more properly as lake quality
modification techniques because they modify lake
water quality to make it more compatible with man's
intended use of the system and do not necessarily
return the entire lake to its pristine state.
One technique, however, more than any of the
others, tends to shift the entire lake closer to its
original state. That technique is dredging. Dredging,
in fact, is the only restoration technique that directly
removes the accumulated products of degradation
(sediment) from lake systems, thereby deepening
them, removing potentially recyclable nutrients, and
returning sedimented material to the watershed
where it originated. If carried to the extreme, and
done with precision, dredging theoretically could re-
turn the morphology and sediment composition of
the lake basin very near to its pre-eutrophic condition.
Until recently little documented information has
been available to assist engineers and aquatic ecolo-
gists in determining if such actions would be desir-
able or practical. In a review of 49 dredging projects
in 1970, Pierce (1970) stated that "there is no fin-
ished lake dredging project in the upper Midwest
from which complete and reliable data can be ob-
tained on the effects of lake dredging on the total
lake environment."
The mere mention of dredging runs cold chills up
and down the spine of some who would maintain that
dredging of any kind is detrimental to the environ-
ment. They liken the dredge to a dragon in paradise
wreaking havoc and destruction on all of the valued
natural resources in its path. While this view is proba-
bly extreme, a number of legitimate environmental
concerns are associated with dredging.
These concerns can be classified generally into two
broad categories: dredge site and disposal site. This
paper is directed primarily toward the dredge site or
to be more specific the in-lake dredging activities. It
will present an overview of some environmental con-
cerns, types of dredging equipment, a few of the
more successful lake dredging projects to date, and
information on dredging costs.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
ASSOCIATED WITH DREDGING
Most of the environmental concerns about dredg-
ing center around altered chemical/physical parame-
ters and their effects on the biological community.
Resuspension of bottom sediment into the water
column with resultant increases in turbidity is one
such concern. Much of the resuspended material is
inorganic and chemically inert, consisting primarily
of graded material such as clay, silt, sand, gravel, and
rocks. Most of this material resettles at a rate largely
dependent on particle size and density of the material
and on the water velocity and associated turbulence
in the immediate vicinity. Colloidal size particles,
however, may remain in suspension almost
indefinitely.
Collectively, these small particles have vast surface
areas, which act as effective adsorbers of many types
of chemicals that may be resuspended and possibly
resolubilized in the water column during dredging. If
the particles resettle rapidly, along with coarser ma-
terial, this sorbtive quality may be advantageous to
removing the undesirable substances. If they remain
suspended, shifts in pH and other variables in the
water column might produce periodic resolubiliza-
tion, which could be detrimental to biological orga-
nisms in the water column.
When resuspended particles are of organic origin,
they present a different type of problem. The density
of most natural organic materials is only slightly
greater than that of water, making them easily trans-
portable and subject to resuspension during dredg-
105
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106
LAKE RESTORATION
ing. The fact that they also are biodegradable
presents a potential for local oxygen depletion. This
may prove to be significant when dredging lake sedi-
ments that commonly contain large quantities of or-
ganic materials.
Table 1 shows a range of values for the organic
content of sediment from various lakes in the Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics and the upper midwest-
ern part of the United States. The values in Table 1 for
Minnesota lakes represent total carbon (Wright, et al.
1974; Schults, et al. 1976) but they may be consid-
ered almost entirely organic carbon (Schults, per-
sonal comm.)
Among the U.S. lakes shown, Burntside can be
considered the most oligotrophic and Lilly the most
eutrophic as reflected in the organic content of their
sediments. Lilly Lake, Wis. currently is being
dredged. This project should prove to be most inter-
esting with regard to the final outcome and any
problems encountered during dredging and disposal
operations.
Table 1 - Organic content of sediment in several USSR
and upper Midwestern lakes in the United States
Lake
Percent
organic content
of sediment
Burntside, Mn USA'
Shagawa, Mn USA"
Gabrozero (Karelia) USSR2
Krugloe USSR'
Salhe, Mn USA3
St Clair, Mn USA3
Medvezkie USSR2
Beloe (Kosmo) USSR'
Chernoe (Kosmo) USSR2
Meloe Medvezh'e USSR2
Lilly, Wi USA«
Svyatoe (Kosmo) USSR2
925
120
181
208
2505
4005
41 7
459
407
52.7
620
814
'Schults, Malueq and Smith (1976)
2Wetzel (1975)
3Wnght, et al (1974)
«Frey (1976)
5Total carbon
Toxic Substances
Synthetic organics in lake sediment potentially are
more hazardous than natural organics. Many are
long-chain polychlorinated polymers such as pesti-
cides, herbicides, and industrial chemicals, most of
which are toxic and highly persistent in the aquatic
environment. These substances have been deposited
at various concentrations in recent lake sediments
and dredging may resuspend them. While most of
the toxic materials will be adsorbed to fine sediment
particles, some may be liberated in soluble form and
taken up by plankton fish. Because fine particle sedi-
ment will resettle slowly, it will tend to concentrate at
the sediment-water interface. Consequently, the at-
tached toxic materials also tend to concentrate at the
sediment-water surface where they will be in close
proximity to benthic organisms and thus, probably
more available for biologic uptake than if they had
remained buried in the sediment.
The Lake Vancouver, Wash, pilot scale dredging
report (Dames and Moore, 1977) contains informa-
tion illustrating some of the reasons for concern
about toxic substances during dredging projects.
Vancouver Lake is located just downstream from
Portland, Ore. and Vancouver, Wash., separated from
the Columbia River by a narrow strip of land. Vancou-
ver Lake encompasses 1,052 ha and has a mean
depth of approximately 0.5 m. It suffers from exces-
sive nutrient and sediment loading. The lake is slated
to be dredged, removing 7 to 10 million cubic meters
of sediment. The pilot project tested the dredging
and disposing techniques prior to committing a large
amount of funds to full-scale dredging.
Tests performed during the pilot scale project in-
cluded, among others, the measuring of DDT, lin-
dane, and aldrin in the lake water. DDT was detected
in only one sample (0.13 mg//) and that was taken
prior to dredging. Lindane was undetected before or
during dredging at one site in the lake, but at another
site was found at concentrations of 0.016 mg//,
slightly exceeding the water quality criterion of 0.01
mg// (U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, 1976). Of further
interest is the fact that, on occasion, return flow
water from the settling ponds at the second site
exceeded the criterion by more than five times. The
maximum concentration reported was 0.053 mg//.
All samples taken during the pilot scale dredging
operation contained aldrin in excess of the 0.003
mg/ / water quality criterion level. The amount found
in the lake prior to dredging was approximately
0.012 mg//. During dredging that amount was in-
creased by three times at one dredge site and by
nearly 10 times at another site, indicating that dredg-
ing increased the aldrin content of lake water near
the dredge. The return flow water from settling ponds
contained significantly higher concentrations. At one
site, it reached 0.336 mg/7—more than 100 times
the criterion. These levels are high enough to warrant
some special consideration when determining the
dredging and disposing techniques to be used at
Vancouver Lake.
The pilot report indicated that aldrin was probably
adsorbed to particulate material rather than existing
in soluble form. The Japanese have shown that when
dredging in PCB-contaminated areas as much as
99.7 percent of the PCB contaminants adhere to
sediment particles less than 74 u in size (Murakami
and Takeishi, 1977). Particles of this size frequently
contribute significantly to the suspended solids (SS)
concentrations. The Japanese, therefore, have recog-
nized the need to minimize resuspension of bottom
sediments and have developed some highly special-
ized dredges for that purpose.
If toxicants are absent and hence of no concern in a
dredging project, there are still a number of other
general reasons for minimizing the resuspension of
bottom sediments.
Oxygen Depletion
Oxygen depletion is closely tied to the natural or-
ganic composition and particle size of lake sedi-
ments. Resuspended fine organics rapidly become
bacteria coated and subsequent, rapid decomposi-
tion may totally deplete dissolved oxygen concentra-
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IN-LAKE TREATMENTS
107
tions within these turbid areas. While the effect is
generally localized and of limited duration it will
impact less mobile organisms in those areas. Rapid
decomposition may also result in a downward shift of
pH if the suspended sediments are of a noncalcare-
ous composition and provide little buffering
capability.
Reduced Primary Production
Reduced primary production rates may occur due
to decreased light penetration in turbid waters. This
factor coupled with an increased decomposition rate
may produce rapid shifts in oxygen concentrations.
Resuspended sediment may further contribute to this
general problem by adsorbing small phytoplankters
and removing them from the water column as the
particles settle to the bottom again (Lackey, et al
1959).
Temperature Alteration
Suspended sediments in surface water adsorb radi-
ation from the sun and transform it into heat. If
intense enough, this might produce minithermal
stratification, preventing mixing and distribution of
oxygen (Parker, et al. 1975). Theoretically, this prob-
lem could become severe if dredging was being done
during warm, quiescent conditions. Temperature in-
creases would affect the metabolic rates of the bio-
logical community directly and would also reduce the
oxygen-holding capacity of the water. Most aquatic
organisms require free oxygen for respiration and are
quite sensitive to reductions in oxygen concentration
below critical minimum levels. Significant reductions
in oxygen levels by any of the above mechanisms
would have a predictable impact on most species.
Increased Nutrient Levels
One of the greatest concerns associated with resus-
pended sediments has to do with increased nutrient
levels, which, ironically, in most cases are precisely
the reason for undertaking the dredging activity in
the first place. Phosphorus is the greatest problem in
this respect because of its: (1) adsorption to fine
sediment particles; (2) tendency to become dissolved
in interstitial waters; and (3) potential for increasing
primary production. Ammonium nitrogen also may
create a problem for some of the same reasons. Both
may be liberated in quantity from anaerobic deep
water areas during dredging and be available to
primary producers.
The Benthic Community
Dredging has a direct impact on the benthic com-
munity by removing a large number of organisms. In
fact, an argument frequently voiced against dredging
is that it will destroy the benthic population of fish
food organisms and spawning areas, thereby reduc-
ing fish production. Experience with fish rearing
ponds is cited as evidence to support that position.
On the contrary, researchers are finding that dredg-
ing in lakes and in some types of fish ponds does not
necessarily result in significant production losses
(Wilbur, 1974;Spitler, 1973;Carline and Brynildson,
1977). Spitler (1973) demonstrated increased fish
production as a result of lake dredging, and Carline
and Brynildson (1 977) have shown the same result in
dredged Wisconsin spring ponds.
The lake restoration evaluation program currently
being conducted by the Corvallis Environmental Re-
search Laboratory will address these concerns, de-
veloping better recommendations for future dredg-
ing projects. The same will be done for other types of
lake restoration practices.
Disposal Site
Disposal of dredged material in shipping channels
has posed problems but those encountered with lake
dredging may be even more difficult. Simply pump-
ing to lowland/marsh areas will no longer suffice.
Wetlands are now considered to be a valuable na-
tional resource not to be degraded.
Over the past 5 years the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers has developed a great deal of information
on disposing of dredged materials. The Corps of
Engineers program was oriented toward maintaining
navigable waters and thus was directed more at
marine and brackish waters, but much of the technol-
ogy is applicable to freshwater dredging problems. A
number of reports on this subject are available from
the Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Sta-
tion, Vicksburg, Miss.
TYPES OF DREDGING EQUIPMENT
A variety of dredges is available for use in lake
reclamation. A recent report by Barnard (1978) de-
scribes the different types and discusses their posi-
tive and negative aspects. Most of the information
contained in this section is from Barnard's report.
Grab, Bucket, and Clamshell Dredges
The grab, bucket, and clamshell dredges are typi-
cally a dragline configuration and operated from a
barge-mounted crane. One advantage of this system
is that it removes sediment at nearly its in situ density
and is easily transported. Some disadvantages are
that production is low, thus usually limiting use to
volumes less than 200,000 m3, and the potential for
creating turbidity is high. The turbidity is due to:
bottom impact of the bucket; the bucket pulling free
from the bottom; water flowing over sediment in the
open bucket on its ascent; bucket overflow and leak-
age after it breaks the surface; and, in some cases,
the intentional overflow of water from receiving
barges to increase their solids content. Barnard indic-
ated that the extent of turbidity due to clamshell
dredge operations would depend on a number of
different factors, including bucket size, operating
conditions, sediment types, and hyrodynamic condi-
tions of the site.
Attempts to overcome the turbidity problem with
grab type dredging resulted in the development of
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108
LAKE RESTORATION
the watertight bucket dredge (Figure 1). One Japa-
nese manufacturer makes the dredge in sizes ranging
from 2 to 20 m3. The manufacturer, Mitsubishi Seiko
Co. Ltd., claims that the watertight grab bucket re-
duces turbidity by 30 to 70 percent compared to
open buckets.
CLOSED POSITION.
Figure 1.- Open and closed positions of the watertight
bucket (redrawn from Barnard, 1978).
Cutterhead Dredges
Hydraulic cutterhead dredges are the most com-
monly employed dredges in the United States. Their
configuration is typically a rotating auger or cutter-
head on the end of a ladder that is lowered to the
sediment-water surface. Material excavated by the
cutterhead is pumped in a slurry of 10 to 20 percent
solids by a centrifugal pump to a floating discharge
pipe. The cutterhead and pickup device swing from
side to side on the "cut path" by pulling alternately on
port and starboard swing wires at the bow of the
dredge. The dredge advances by alternately lowering
and raising spuds, one on either side at the stern of
the craft (Figure 2).
While hydraulic dredges are relatively expensive to
mobilize they can move larger volumes of material
than bucket dredges. An obvious reason for this is
that they operate continuously rather than on the
interrupted basis of a bucket dredge. However, this
increased production rate poses some disadvan-
tages. Because of the large volume of slurry
produced, large capacity disposal sites are required.
These sites are becoming progressively more diffi-
cult to obtain at reasonable costs. An additional prob-
lem with hydraulic dredging is that it may result in an
undesirable lake drawdown. This can be prevented in
some cases by returning carriage water flows to the
lake. Depending on the sediment type and the size of
the containment area, return flows may be quite
turbid. The return flow could be treated to remove
suspended solids but that would add considerably to
the expense of the project. Another method for mini-
mizing the effect of turbid return flows on the lake
might be to partition the lake at the return flow inlet
with a silt curtain.
Turbidity from hydraulic dredging is largely due to
inefficiency of the suction head. Barnard (1978)
states that "the amount of material supplied to the
suction is controlled primarily by the rate of cutter
rotation, the vertical thickness of the dredge cut, and
the swing rate of the dredge." Improper combination
of any of these may generate unnecessary turbidity.
From his examination of the limited amount of data
dealing with turbidity created by cutterhead dredg-
ing, Barnard concluded that it is possible to maximize
the production rate of the dredge without resuspend-
ing excessive amounts of bottom sediment. In addi-
tion to careful operation, a number of modifications
to cutterhead configuration and size, and pumping
techniques would minimize turbidity production. Sev-
eral of these are addressed by Barnard (1978).
Specialized Dredges
Mud Cat- A number of dredges have been devel-
oped recently that are designed primarily to minimize
turbidity production and to pump a slurry of high
solids content. One such small scale, highly portable
dredge is the Mud Cat (Figure 3). It is equipped with a
Figure 2.- Typical configuration of a cutterhead dredge and
the stabbing method for advancing it (modified from Bar-
nard, 1978).
Figure 3.- Mud Cat dredge cutterhead (from National Car
Rental Manufacturing Co. brochure).
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IN-LAKE TREATMENTS
109
unique horizontal cutter and suction head resembling
that of an upright vacuum cleaner. Sediment is au-
gered from both ends of the 2.4 m wide pickup head
toward the center where it is taken up by the 20.3 cm
suction pipe.
A mud shield over the cutter assists in minimizing
the resuspension of sediments and associated turbid-
ity. A report by Nawrocki (1974) states that the sus-
pended sediment plume around the Mud Cat was
confined to within 6 m of the dredge; however, oper-
ating conditions were not clearly specified. The con-
centration of suspended solids in the plume ranged
from 39 to 1,260 mg// with typical concentrations
near the bottom being approximately 1,000 mg/7.
Forward movement of the dredge resulted in more
resuspension of bottom materials than did reverse
motion. This apparently is associated with the operat-
ing procedure, where the mud shield is up during
forward movement and down during reverse move-
ment. Mallory and Nawrocki (1974) indicate that the
Mud Cat dredge should be capable of producing a
slurry with a solids content in the 30 to 40 percent
range.
Bucket Wheel® - is a recent innovation by Ellicott
Machine Corp. (Figure 4). It was designed primarily
for excavating consolidated materials, and, to my
knowledge, has not been tested in soft sediment;
therefore, the practicality of its use in dredging lake
sediments is unknown. Positive aspects of the ma-
chine's operation, however, are that it tends to
force-feed cut material into the suction as a result of
the turning of the cutter wheel. The manufacturer
states that the solids content of the slurry can be
controlled by varying the RPM's of the cutter wheel.
This should maximize pickup and thus reduce turbid-
ity. No independent evaluations of this dredge are
available.
Figure 4.- Bucket-wheel dredge head (redrawn from Turner
1977).
Japanese Special Purpose Dredges - The Pneuma
dredging system was first developed in Italy. It was
the first system to use compressed air for removing
and transporting bottom sediments through a pipe-
line. It appears to be ideally suited for soft, viscous
sediment removal.
The Oozer® dredge system, a Japanese modifica-
tion of the Italian air driven system, consists of two
cylindrical pump bodies, a suction head, a compres-
sor, and a distributor system to supply, alternately,
partial vacuum and air pressure to the pump bodies.
The standard Pneuma system operates on the princi-
ple that sediment and water, under hydrostatic pres-
sure, will be forced into the pump body when it is at
atmospheric pressure. Therefore, the filling effi-
ciency is increased with increased dredging depth
(thus, increased pressure). At depths less than 10 m,
however, hydrostatic pressure is inadequate for effi-
cient operation. The Japanese Oozer® system has
overcome the minimum depth limitation problem by
applying a vacuum to the cylinders (Figure 5).
Figure 5 - Schematic of Oozer dredge system.
The Oozer® pump is mounted on the end of a
ladder similar to conventional cutterhead dredges.
The high suction capacity coupled with underwater
television cameras to monitor placement and turbid-
ity, high frequency sonar gear to determine sediment
depth, and the specialized suction head design, per-
mits efficient operation, with minimum resuspension
of sediments. Production capacity of the Oozer®
dredge system is reported to be approximately 300
to 500 mVhr(Sato, personal comm.)
TOA Harbor Works Co. of Japan has also developed
a dredge specialized for the removal of contaminated
silty sediment. The manufacturers maintain the most
critical part of a pollution-free dredging system is the
suction head (Sato, personal comm.) They developed
a suction device consisting of an auger, movable
plates to direct sediment flow, a "floating" wing to
hold sediment in place, and a large gas-collecting
shroud in combination with a submerged centrifugal
pump (Figure 6).
This combination of equipment permits this system
to dredge high density slurrys (20 to 70 percent
solids according to TOA) with little resuspension of
bottom sediments. Pumping capacity of the sub-
merged centrifugal pumps on the largest system ap-
proaches 2,000 mVhr (Koba, et al. 1975).
A recent experiment using these two Japanese
systems showed suspended solids concentrations of
approximately 6 to 8 mg//, 1.5 m above the
sediment-water interface in the immediate vicinity of
the dredge heads. This was compared to concentra-
tions of approximately 60 to 90 mg// for conven-
-------
110
LAKE RESTORATION
Figure 6.- Suction-head of Clean Up dredge system.
tional dredges (Figure 7). No direct comparisons can
be made between the specialized and the conven-
tional dredges, however, because the two dredging
experiences were separated by time and probably
sediment type. The Japanese, however, indicate that
the relative differences shown in Figure 7 represent
real differences they have experienced in the field.
For further information on other specialized
dredges being used in the United States and foreign
countries consult Barnard (1978).
06
05
04
03
02
O.I
0
1 1 1 — I — [ 1 1 ' ' '
CONVENTIONAL CUT!
_ Cutler revolution
Swing speeds
L
FERHEAD DREDGE
Nc= ISrpm
Vs = 6m /mm
-
CONVENTIONAL
CUTTERHEAD DREDGE
\ ^AVERAGE
SPECIALIZED-, \
DREDGE -1 I CnA .
' — i=7=* \S/ r™wr
- SPECIALIZED^ t^r\V\ ^'^
DREDGE-2 L/w^e KVy \^
1 1 111 1 1 1 1
\ , ill
2 468 10 2 468 10 2 4681
SUSPENDED SOLIDS SS (mg/l)
Figure 7.- Comparison of suspended solids around suction-
head of conventional and specialized dredges (modified
fromSuda, 1978).
EXAMPLES OF SUCCESSFUL DREDGING
PROJECTS
Lake Trummen, Sweden
Lake restoration by dredging usually has two pri-
mary objectives. One is physical improvement of the
basin, by either removing macrophyte vegetation or
undertaking a general deepening. The second is to
remove nutrients, concomitantly minimizing the sedi-
ments' ability to recycle nutrients. There is little ques-
tion that the first objective may be accomplished by
dredging; more uncertainty surrounds the ability of
dredging to accomplish the second. Perhaps the
most encouraging project to date in this respect is
the work done at Lake Trummen, Sweden.
The project at Lake Trummen was implemented in
1 970 when a half meter of gyttja type (finely divided
gray to grayish-brown) lake sediment was dredged
uniformly from the main lake basin. Part of the
dredged material was disposed of in three diked-off
bays that were overgrown with macrophytes (Figure
8). The remainder of the dredged material was
pumped to diked settling ponds where return flow
water was treated with alum to remove phosphorus
and suspended solids.
Figure 8.- Lake Trummen after restoration. A: main lake from
which sediment was removed.
B: bay preserved as a waterfowl reserve.
C: artificial island for waterfowl.
D: settling ponds and treatment plant. E: bays filled with
dredged spoil (Peterson, 1977).
In 1971, another half meter of sediment was re-
moved from the same area, bringing the total sedi-
ment and water removed from the lake to 600,000
m3. It was reported that prerestoration total phospho-
rus concentration in the lake was approximately 600
ug ?/1, in the dredge slurry about 1,000 t/g P/ 7, and
in the treated return flow about 30 t/g P/ /.
Chemically, the results of this project are very
promising (Figure 9). Bengtsson, et al. (1975) indicate
Kjeldahl-Nitrogen mgN/l
Total Phosphorus mg P/ I
I On
Phosphate mg P/l
Silica mg Si02/l
Figure 9.- Kjeldahl-nitrogen, total phosphorus, phosphate
phosphorus, and silica in Lake Trummen (0.2 m) 1968-73.
(From Bengtsson, 1975.)
-------
IN.LAKE TREATMENTS
11 1
that the role of the sediments in recycling nutrients
has been minimized. There was a general reduction
in total and orthophosphorus, Kjeldahl-nitrogen, and
silica as dredging began. Since 1971 when dredging
ended, these nutrient levels have remained far lower
that they were prior to dredging.
Biologically the phytoplankton diversity index
(Shannon index) has increased from 1.6 in 1968 to
3.0 in 1973. Secchi disk transparency increased
from 23 to 75 cm over the same period and mean
annual phytoplankton productivity was reduced from
370 g C/m2 in 1968 to 225 g C/m2 in 1972.
Blue-green algae biomass was drastically reduced
and one nuisance species, Oscillatoria agardhii, has
disappeared completely.
Benthic community disturbances during dredging
have always concerned ecologists. Andersson, et al.
(1975), however, indicated that oligochaetes and chi-
ronomids, which dominated the benthic community
prior to dredging, were not permanently reduced in
number by dredging but were actually present in
larger numbers a year after dredging. They attributed
this to the motility of chironomid larvae and the fact
that this particular species swarms all summer, thus
probably recolonizing the newly dredged areas al-
most immediately.
Fish Habitat Improvement
One person's concept of the "ideal lake" will differ
from that of another, dependent on the individual's
intended use. Recognizing this, most lake restoration
projects are directed toward reinstatement of a multi-
ple use recreational facility. It has been speculated by
some, that because of this approach, lake restoration
in general, and dredging in particular will benefit a
number of uses at the expense of fish production.
In the past, lake dredging projects have been con-
ducted without any systematic assessment of their
outcome and there are a number of cases where
limited assessments were inconclusive, but at the
same time, there seems to be little real documenta-
tion of the adverse effects of dredging on fish popula-
tion. Recent information points in just the opposite
direction. A couple of examples follow.
Long Lake, Mich. - The Michigan Department of
Natural Resources conducted a dredging project
from 1961 to 1965 at Long Lake to improve the fish
habitat (Spitler, 1973). It involved the removal of
more than 765,000 m3 of organic sediment from the
60 ha lake. Dredging actually increased the lake size
from 60 to 63 ha, the average depth from 0.75 to 2.0
m, and the maximum depth from 2 to 4 m. A post-
dredging survey in 1969 indicated that on the aver-
age, bass caught in that year were nearly 4.8 cm
larger than they had been in predredging years.
Other species remained approximately the same size.
Spitler's report stated that people now using the lake
enjoyed good boating and excellent bass fishing.
Improvements in overall water quality accompanied
improved fishing and boating. The point is that while
this dredging project was by definition directed at
improving a fish habitat there was a concomitant net
improvement in water quality. Intuitively, one might
expect a dredging project, or most other lake restora-
tion applications directed toward water quality im-
provement, to result in a net improvement in fish
production.
Wisconsin Spring Ponds - One of the most thor-
ough documentations of the effects of dredging on
fish production in small (less that 4 ha) spring-fed
ponds was completed recently in Wisconsin (Carline
and Brynildson, 1977). Major physical and biological
features of two spring ponds (Sunshine Springs Pond
and Krause Springs Pond) were monitored for 2 to 3
years prior to dredging and for 4 to 5 years after
dredging. During the same period of time, seven
other ponds were studied as controls for comparative
purposes. Five of them had been dredged previously
while two of them never had been dredged.
Sediment was removed from the entire basin of
these natural spring ponds. The same practice is not
uncommon to the management of artificial fish rear-
ing ponds. It certainly represents the most severe
conditions possible in the short run because all vege-
tation is removed and the benthic communities are
decimated. What about the results in the long run,
however? Carline and Brynildson (1977) have had the
luxury of 5 years' postdredging evaluation and the
results appear to bear out the premise that dredging
will, in the long run, enhance the fishery of eutro-
phied ponds.
Sunshine Springs was 60 percent covered with
Chara beds prior to dredging. One year after dredg-
ing, Chara began to reestablish, but 4 years later it
covered only 28 percent of the pond bottom. Pre-
dredging biomass had reached 1,226 g/m2, but 5
years after dredging it was only 10 percent of that
value.
Decimation of benthos, of course, is a prime con-
cern to the fisheries manager because of the poten-
tial impact in the form of reduced fish food orga-
nisms. In Sunshine Springs Pond the predredging
mean annual density for benthos was 5,500
organisms/m2. Immediately after dredging the aver-
age density had declined to 84 m2. Five years later in
1975, the density of benthic organisms had in-
creased by 190 percent over the predredging levels
and reached 16,000/m2. The results for Krause
Springs Pond were similar with a 143 percent in-
crease (from 4,100 organisms/m2 to 10,000/m2).
Carline and Brynildson point out that not only did
the density of organisms change but so did the struc-
ture of the benthic community. The predredging ben-
thos was dominated by chironomid larvae and 5
years after dredging the dominant organisms were
oligochaetes. Approximately 3 years were required
for the important fish food organisms (amphipods
and chironomid larvae) to reestablish themselves to
their previous significance. These changes did re-
duce fish production temporarily, but according to
Carline and Brynildson these effects were statisti-
cally insignificant. They found that fish growth rates
declined sharply in 1971 during the dredging activ-
ity, but that by 1972, they were back within the
predredging range.
Results of this experiment on the fish population
itself in Sunshine Springs Pond are shown in Table 2.
-------
112
LAKE RESTORATION
Table 2 - Summary of mean density and biomass of brook
and brown trout m Sunshine Springs before dredging
and m 1974-75 (Carlme and Brymldson, 1977)
Brook trout
no/ha
Less than 152 mm
Greater than 152 mm
Totals
kg/ha
Less than 152 mm
Greater than 152 mm
Totals
Predredgmg
1968-1969
912
221
1,133
155
186
34 1
Postdredgmg Change
1974-1975 pre- vs post-
dredging
1,017
540
1,557
126
428
554
+ 12%
+ 144%
+ 37%
- 19%
+ 130%
+ 62%
Brown trout
no /ha
Less than 152 mm
Greater than 152 mm
Totals
kg/ha
Less than 152 mm
Greater than 152 mm
Totals
Both species
no /ha
Less than 152 mm
Greater than 1 52 mm
Totals
kg/ ha
Less than 152 mm
Greater than 152 mm
Totals
37
7
44
07
07
14
949
228
1,177
162
19.3
355
16
135
151
03
339
342
1,033
675
1,608
129
766
896
- 57%
+ 1,829%
+ 243%
-57%
+ 4,743%
+ 2,343%
+ 9%
+ 196%
+ 37%
-26%
+ 297%
+ 152%
It indicates that 4 to 5 years after restoration by
dredging, the mean density and biomass of
fishable-size fish were substantially greater than dur-
ing the predredging period. This was considered to
be due primarily to a reduction in population fluctua-
tions. That is, when fish migrated into the ponds after
the dredging, they tended to stay rather than to leave
again as they had prior to dredging. In 1974-75 this
behavior change produced 37 percent greater densi-
ties and 62 percent greater biomass of brook trout
than had existed before dredging. Krause Springs, on
the other hand, showed slight decreases of 2 to 4
percent.
The major significance of this work to lake restora-
tion, and in particular to fish production associated
with lake restoration by dredging, is that the adverse
effects appear to be quite limited while the positive
effects show a great deal of promise. Keep in mind
that most lake restoration dredging projects will not
be conducted in the same manner as the "mainte-
nance dredging" of fish rearing ponds. Seldom will
entire basins be stripped clean of bottom sediment
deposits. Carline and Brynildson (1977) estimated
that in lakes where only parts of the basins were
dredged, benthic recolonization could occur in 2
years. The overall importance of this is that the initial
impact of dredging on benthic organisms and fish
populations in larger lakes should be far less signifi-
cant than it is in relatively small fish rearing ponds
and lakes. However, the same general trend in
long-term benefits should be realized. Carline and
Brynildson concluded from their work on Krause and
Sunshine Springs Ponds that "the economic results
of the projects were generally favorable."
DREDGING COSTS
Cost Variables
Dredging costs are difficult to determine accurately
and even more difficult to compare because they vary
a great deal depending on a number of factors. Cost
is influenced by (1) the types and quantity of sedi-
ment removed, (2) type of dredges used, (3) nature of
the operational environment, and (4) the geographic
location and mode of disposal of the dredged
material.
In general, sediments with low to medium viscosity
will be less expensive to remove with suction
dredges than compacted high viscosity sediments
where clamshells on cutterheads are required. Treat-
ment of finely divided sediment at the delivery end of
the pipe, however, may increase handling problems
and costs dramatically if increased retention time or
chemical treatment is required. Furthermore, floccu-
lation chemistry of organics differs significantly from
that of inorganics and presents some special han-
dling problems (Calhoun, personal comm.)
According to the Corps of Engineers (Calhoun, per-
sonal comm.) the most disproportionate and difficult
dredging cost to determine is that of the disposal
area acquisition and preparation. The reasons for this
are: (1) high land cost in densely populated areas; (2)
incompatibility of dredged material disposal areas
and local land management practices; (3) the rela-
tively recent policy of preserving wetland habitats
that formerly might have been used for disposal; and
(4) the single most important cost-increasing factor—
the placement of contaminated or thought-to-be-
contaminated dredged material on land behind
dikes.
Actual Dredging Costs
The Corps of Engineers has computed average
dredging cost figures for their navigation projects
(Figure 10). These figures, while not directly compa-
rable to lake dredging costs, demonstrate the vari-
ability in costs throughout the United States. High
costs in the New England and Great Lakes areas
result mostly from the high cost of land for disposal in
highly populated areas. The low cost in the New
Orleans District probably represents the large volume
of material removed, the types of dredges used, and
the disposal methods. Costs shown in Figure 10 are
averages; costs on individual projects may run much
higher. For example, dredging costs in the Great
Lakes Region run as high as $ 18.50/m3 when upland
diked disposal is required (Calhoun, personal comm.)
That cost is based on a disposal site lifespan of 10
years. By comparison, Japanese dredging costs
range from $ 1.60 to $7/m3 (based on an exchange
rate of 300 yen/$) for dredging and transportation
and from $5 to $16/m3 if the sediments are contami-
nated and require detoxification. Dredging and dis-
posing of toxic substances in Japan may reach
$40/m3 where detoxification and confinement be-
hind dikes are required.
-------
|N.|_AKE TREATMENTS
113
Table 3 - Sediment removal costs based on lake restoration proposal estimates and bids*
EPA
region
I
II
V
VII
X
Lake name
and location
Nutting Lake,
Mass
Morse's Pond
Collins Park
NY
Trivoli Lakes
NY
Stemmetz Lake
NY
Central Park Pond
NY
Delaware Park
NY
Lilly Lake
Wis
Lansing Lake
Mich
Henry Lake
Wis
Half Moon
Wis
Long Lake
Minn
Lenox Lake
Iowa
Blue Lake
Iowa
Vancouver Lake
Wash
Vancouver Lake
Wash (pilot)
Long Lake
Wash
Sediment
removal
method
Hydraulic
Hydraulic
Hydraulic
(Mudcat)
Bulldoze
Bulldoze
Bulldoze
Bulldoze
Hydraulic
Hydraulic
Hydraulic
—
Hydraulic
Hydraulic
Hydraulic
Hydraulic
Hydraulic
pneuma***
oozer***
Hydraulic
Amt of
sediment
removed
(m3)
275,256
198,796
78,794
30,584
7,401
12,682
55.815
596,388
1,230,317
152,920
25,461
246,736
76,460
305,840
6,116,800
to
11,469,000
—
258,511
Area to
lake
(ha)
31 6
453
210
1 9
16
16
'
11 9
356
1820
174
_
745
133
3715
1,0520
1,0520
563
Area to
be dredged
(ha)
178
100
90
19
12
16
119
356
~ 1365
~ 165
—
133
part.
—
4.0
% of total
lake area
to be dredged
563
22 1
429
1000
750
1000
1000
1000
~ 750
Z_ 95.0
100.0
71
Dredging
cost
(m3)««
1 22
1 56
089
1 14
523
1373
1570
027
100
1 12
1 37
296
235
263
1 64
229
294-366
333
316
no
returns, mobilization, etc
"$/m3 x 07646 = $/yd3
***Alternate dredging techniques considered
treating water
COST/m3 BY CE DIVISIONS
— ACTUAL COST PER m3
Figure 10.- U.S. Army Corps of Engineers maintenance
dredging costs for various areas of the United States (re-
drawn from Saucier, 1976).
Dredging cost figures for freshwater lake projects
are less common than are figures for Corps naviga-
tion projects. There appear to be two reasons for this.
One is that no Federally funded program covered
freshwater lake dredging costs until section 314 was
inserted into P.L. 92-500; therefore, few U. S. lakes
have been dredged. Second, projects conducted in-
dependently of Federal funding either have not been
closely monitored or the records are generally una-
vailable. EPA's lake restoration program includes a
number of dredging projects in which accurate
records are being kept so that better cost figures for
freshwater dredging will be available soon. Most of
the projects, of course, are still underway so that cost
figures, to date, are estimates and perhaps subject to
change.
From Table 3 it appears that bulldozing of sedi-
ments from lake basins is considerably more expen-
sive than hydraulic dredging. That is not necessarily
true. In the case of the Central Park project, for
example, the reason for the high cost is primarily the
location. The contractor on this project is required to
remove the dredged material to some remote loca-
tion and it has to be hauled by watertight tank truck,
thus substantially increasing the cost. The apparent
high sediment removal costs at Delaware Park Lake
reflect the fact that the cost of actual bulldozing could
not be separated from associated drawdown, shore-
line stabilization, and other costs.
It is relatively difficult to cost out dredging projects
on a comparative basis for the reasons stated previ-
ously about the number of variables involved. Some
proposals combine costs for mobilization, diking,
trucking, dredging, pipeline equipment, etc., while
others break them down individually. Table 3 at-
tempts to show variations in dredging costs per se.
There are, no doubt, some inaccuracies as pointed
out for Central Park and Delaware Park, but the fig-
-------
114
LAKE RESTORATION
Table 4 - Mean dredging costs for lake
restoration projects in the United States
Geographic
location
Great Lakes area
Northwest
Central States
Northeast
No of projects Cost range
considered ($/m3)
Mean cost
$/m3
027-296 134
164-316 236
235-263 249
089 -1570 563
ures illustrate the broad range of costs encountered.
Grouping cost variations by major geographic areas
indicates that sediment removal from freshwater
lakes in the Northeast is much more costly than for
other parts of the country (Table 4). Interestingly
enough, the Army Corps of Engineers cost figures for
dredging on navigation projects show a similar dis-
proportionate cost for the Northeast.
Carline and Brynildson (1977) indicated that dredg-
ing costs on their project ranged from $0.52 to
$2.07/m3 and that costs were inversely related to
size of the dredged area. No general trend such as
that is evident from the lake restoration dredging cost
/igures at this time. Final cost accounting may
change this picture.
SUMMARY
i have presented a number of environmental con-
cerns associated with dredging, some examples of
the more positive aspects of actual lake restoration
dredging projects, and a glimpse of cost variables
associated with them. Dredging is not without ad-
verse environmental impacts, however. Results to
date indicate these impacts to be of relatively short
duration and the longer-term benefits to be of suffi-
cient significance to place dredging among the more
effective lake restoration procedures. That is not to
say that dredging is the preferred restoration tech-
nique. A number of alternatives are available and
individual circumstances will dictate which approach
should betaken.
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ties in some Minnesota lakes Final Res. Rep. Grant No
16010 DZG. U.S. Environ Prot. Agency, Corvallis, Ore.
-------
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL TREATMENT
OF LAKE SEDIMENTS
THOMAS L THEIS
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Notre Dame
Notre Dame, Indiana
ABSTRACT
It has been shown that many eutrophic and hypereutrophic lake systems exhibit a very slow
improvement in water quality upon reduction or elimination of external nutrient sources. Lakes
that have received excessive nutrient loadings for long time periods and/or have low hydraulic
flushing rates (i.e., high hydraulic retention times) can experience significant internal loading of
nutrients from the sediments during anoxic periods. In such cases, the physical or chemical
treatment of sediments, or a portion of the sediments, may be warranted. The suitability of a
given lake for sediment manipulation will depend on several factors: (1) the physical and
chemical properties of both sediments and materials; (2) the relative contribution of sediments
to the phosphorus budget of the system, (3) lake morphology; (4) the need for supplemental
chemicals, (5) possible deleterious effects such as fish kills and heavy metal cycling; (6)
aesthetic and economic factors. If the input of nutrients from the sediments is deemed
significant, specific sediment treatments can be applied. Of the several treatments described
herein, some results from a specific case study using fly ash will be given for illustrative
purposes
INTRODUCTION
This paper will address in general terms the treat-
ment of lake sediments by various external means.
Such treatments are normally applied to those lakes
that have experienced pollutional stresses and con-
tain, therefore, high nutrient levels—a state often
referred to as cultural eutrophication. Descriptions of
such systems can be found in several reports that are
included in the reference list (Natl. Acad. Sci. 1969;
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, 1976; Fruh, 1967; Wet-
zel, 1975).
Among the nutrients that contribute to eutrophic
conditions, phosphorus often plays an important role
because of its large demand by aquatic plants rela-
tive to its average water supply (Vallentyne, 1974). It
is often stoichiometrically limiting to phytoplankton
in lakes (Sawyer, 1947). When it ts not limiting, the
aim of most lake restoration measures is to make it
so. Because the concentration of phosphorus, which
is regarded as desirable for limiting growth, is rather
small—about 10 to 20 ug P/—the response of a
system to pollution abatement procedures is often
not immediate Figure 1 shows the total average
phosphorus concentration in Stone Lake, Mich, as a
function of time after abatement. It is clear that even
several years after major external phosphorus
sources were eliminated, the lake showed no im-
provement in water quality.
In Stone Lake, as in many eutrophic lakes, the
release of phosphorus from the sediments is a major
factor in maintaining water column levels above
those anticipated. This phenomenon will be explored
first by examining the chemical and physical factors
that affect phosphorus in sediments and second, by
assessing the conditions under which sediment re-
lease will contribute to the phosphorus budget in a
2500
5 I500 -
0 0 I 234567.,
TIME - YEARS AFTER POLLUTION ABATEMENT
Figure 1.-Total phosphorus concentrations (during
circulation) for Stone Lake as compared with theoretical
washout after pollution abatement.
lake. From these considerations, rationale for sedi-
ment treatments will be derived and specific tech-
niques will be described.
PHOSPHORUS IN LAKE SEDIMENTS
In natural waters the most stable structural configu-
ration of phosphorus is as the orthophosphate ion,
P04~3. Other forms such as pyro-, poly-, and organic
phosphates, tend to revert to the ortho form with
time. Orthophosphate is reactive in water with a
number of dissolved species, among them calcium,
iron, and aluminum. Some of the important equilibria
are given in Table 1.
In eutrophic lake sediments, the partitioning of
phosphate between dissolved and paniculate forms
1 15
-------
116
LAKE RESTORATION
Table 1 - Pertinent thermodynamic data on orthophosphate
Reaction
Log equilibrium constant
H3P04 = H2P04- + H>
H2P04- = HP04-2 + H +
HP04-! = P04-3 = H +
Ca5(OH)(P04)3(sl =
5Ca + * + 3P04-3 + OH-
FeP04(s) = Fen + P04-3
AIP04(S) = Al* 3 + P04-3
- 22
- 7 1
-122
-55.6
-230
-21
is governed by the specific chemistry of the sedi-
ments with respect to the precipitating cations al-
ready mentioned, pH, and the relative degree of oxi-
dation or reduction that exists. This latter phenome-
non is most conveniently expressed in terms of the
oxidation reduction potential, EH (in volts). In dimictic
hardwater eutrophic lakes, the sediments undergo
predictable fluctuations in both pH and EH. During
periods of circulation both parameters tend to in-
crease; pH because of the natural buffering of dis-
solved carbonate in equilibrium with the atmosphere,
and EH as reflective of high dissolved oxygen levels
throughout the system. When stratified conditions
develop, sediment pH is depressed due to the accu-
mulation of acidic components while EH drops when
oxygen is depleted and chemical forms are succes-
sively reduced.
ORNL-DWG 78-13585
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-------
|N-|_AKE TREATMENTS
117
I 5
0 5
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z -I 0
ORNL-DWG 76-13582
LAKE CHARLES EAST
b 1973
1974
1975 1976
YEAR
1978
Figure 4.- Phosphorus internal reaction rate constant (first
order) vs. time in Lake Charles East.
J ASONDJFMAMJ J ASONOJ FMAMJ JASONDJFMAMO JAS
19" T 1975 "1~ ~ ifK ~ f" "~J977~ "~
TIME
Figure 5.- Total and soluble phosphorus concentrations vs.
time in Lake Charles East after wastewater diversion.
model formulations it was taken to be a constant
positive quantity reflecting, over the short term, the
biological, chemical, and physical reactions that act
to remove phosphorus from the water column. How-
ever, if the influence of sediments on phosphorus
interactions is significant, cris often found to display
a regular variation in both sign and magnitude. This is
shown in Figure 4 for Lake Charles East, Ind — a
eutrophic system. Here summer release brings about
a negative reaction rate constant reflecting the effect
of the sediments on net phosphorus reactivity. At
other times of the year crbecomes positive and is
generally positive on a total yearly basis. The varia-
tion of o brings about large fluctuations in total phos-
phorus measurements in the water column during
the year as shown in Figure 5.
A closed form solution to equation 1 can be found if
lake volume and cr are assumed constant. This is a
reasonable assumption, for most purposes, over
short time intervals only — such as those shown in
Figure 4. The form of the solution is given by
CP = C°°p - (C°°p -C°p) exp [-t(
( 2
where C°°p
C°
= steady state phosphorus
concentration, and
= phosphorus concentration at
time zero.
The quantity ( Q + o) has units of time ° and its
inverse is often termed the phosphorus residence
time, Rp. If cr\s positive, Rp is less than Q, the hydraulic
residence time. ^
If cris negative, as shown for certain times in Figure 4,
then Rp is greater than the hydraulic residence time.
When cris negative for extended time periods, simple
dilution, or flushing, of the lake water will not bring
about reductions of phosphorus. Such a case is
shown for Stone Lake in Figure 1. In these situations,
the internal cycling of phosphorus through the sedi-
ments is a dominant feature of the phosphorus
budget.
The data shown in Figure 4 can be determined from
any set of phosphorus and flow measurements for a
lake and its watershed. It is important to establish the
contribution of sediments, for both net yearly and
seasonal losses, to the phosphorus budget prior to
any sediment treatment scheme that is contem-
plated. In general it is those lakes that have received
large inputs of phosphorus over long periods and/or
have low flushing rates (high hydraulic retention
times) for which sediment contributions cannot be
ignored.
THE TREATMENT OF LAKE SEDIMENTS
It is clear how the rationale for lake sediment treat-
ments has come about. All treatment techniques at-
tempt to enhance the role of sediments as nutrient
sinks and diminish their role as sources. There are
two general approaches: treatment through physical
alteration of sediments, and treatment through
chemical alteration. Several common methods in use
illustrate these changes.
Physical Liners
When flexible plastic lining materials are used to
cover sediments, the mode of action is a purely physi-
cal one. The material is designed to present a barrier
to diffusion of phosphate from the sediments. The
plastic is often covered with sand to keep it in place.
Although the use of liners is well known in various
industrial and municipal applications, such as for
lagoons and small reservoirs, its effectiveness for
lake treatment is less certain. Born, et al. (1973), and
Hynes and Greib (1970) have reported on this tech-
nique, elaborating on its advantages and disadvan-
tages. Major unanswered questions relate to the per-
manency of the treatment and possible deleterious
effects on benthic organisms.
Sand
Sand has been widely used as a sediment covering
material in littoral areas to help suppress macrophyte
growth and create recreational beach areas. The ma-
jor advantage is the low cost. It is seldom used in
deep water areas by itself because it provides little in
the way of a barrier to diffusion and brings about
almost no positive chemical effects. Some consolida-
tion of flocculent sediments may occur upon its
addition.
Clay
As with physical lining materials, compacted layers
of clay, especially montmorillonite, have been exten-
-------
118
LAKE RESTORATION
sively used to retard seepage from various water
bodies. The use of clays in lakes has not yet been
tested but appears to have promise because it length-
ens the diffusional path for phosphate release and
results in positive chemical effects, primarily via ad-
sorption of nutrients onto the clay particles. Problems
associated with the treatment relate to the opera-
tional logistics of bringing about good settleability of
the clay to a compact layer on the lake bottom, If the
sediments have too low a specific gravity the clay
may simply become mixed, reducing its effective-
ness. In many cases it may be necessary to draw the
lake down and apply the clay layer to the sediments
directly before refilling.
Chemical Addition
The addition of chemical salts to sediments is a
direct attempt to alter the sediment chemistry, en-
hancing those reactions that bring phosphorus to the
sediments. There is usually little, if any, physical
change in the sediments affecting phosphorus re-
lease. Ratherthe goal is to limit phosphorus available
for release. An ancillary benefit is the removal of
soluble phosphorus from the water column. The ma-
jor cations used are aluminum, calcium, and iron.
Several lake treatments have been made (Dunst, et al
1974), and the results suggest that this method may
have wide applicability.
The chemicals are comparatively expensive, how-
ever, and there is a likelihood that the treatment may
need to be repeated on an annual basis much as with
algal and weed control agents. Among the chemicals
available, aluminum salts are often preferred be-
cause the phosphorus associated with this cation is
not greatly affected by the annual
oxidation-reduction cycle in eutrophic lakes.
100 r
_ 80
£ S
IT eo-
3 I 40-
LU I
Si 20
0
uj >-
| S 20
|1 40
= 5 60
80
LAKE CHARLES EAST -|
Treated -i
1~
HO 30 I50 I70 190 210 230 250 270 290 310 330 350
A|M1J|J|A|S|0|N|D
DAY OF THE YEAR 1976
Figure 6a.- Phosphate release and uptake characteristics in
Lake Charles East fly ash treated sediments.
5 I
LAKE CHARLES EAST
Control
I'O 130 TsO 170 190 210 230 250 270 290 310 330 350
A M|J|J|AlslOlNID
DAY OF THE YEAR, 1976
Figure 6b.- Phosphate release and uptake characteristics in
Lake Charles East control sediments.
Fly Ash
The use of fly ash as a sediment sealant has re-
ceived some attention recently because it is inexpen-
sive, is available in large quantities from coal-fired
power plants, and has properties that make it useful
for retarding phosphate release in sediments. It often
has high lime and alumina contents and is extremely
fine-grained (size range 0.1 to 100 urn). Thus it can
have both physical and chemical effects on the sedi-
ments. There is the added benefit that it is usually
considered a waste product and its application to
lakes could provide a needed reuse of the material
The relative effects of a 2 to 5 centimeter layer of
fly ash on the release of phosphorus from the sedi-
ments of Lake Charles East, Ind. (a hypereutrophic
system) are shown in Figures 6a and b. Peak phos-
phate release is considerably dampened by the fly
ash although some release still occurred due to a
detrial layer that developed on top of the ash. The
chemical alterations in the sediments caused by the
fly ash are shown through comparison of Figures 7a
and b. The greater amounts of nonapatite phospho-
rus in the treated sediments are due to the high
aluminum content of the fly ash. As seen in Figures
8a and b, the interstitial phosphorus available for
IIO I30 ISO [70 I90 2IO 230 250 270 290 3IO 330 350
AlM|JlJlA|S|0|N|D
DAY OF THE YEAR 1976
Figure 7a.- Chemical distribution of phosphorus forms in
Lake Charles East fly ash treated sediments.
10
I"
' 06
U-
: 04
)
! 02
0
COB- P
LAKE CHARLES EAST
Control
IIO I30 (50 I/O I90 2IO 230 250 270 290 3IO 330 350
AI M I J I J I A I S I 0 I N | D
DAY OF THE YEAR I976
Figure 7b.- Chemical distribution of phosphorus forms in
Lake Charles East control sediments.
-------
|N-|_AKE TREATMENTS
119
. 24
CO
Z>
fr
i 20
0.
CO
O ,6
Q.
< I2
}-
v> 08
o:
Ld
^ 04
LAKE CHARLES EAST
Treated
"
1 1 _l il
I ,
J
110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250 270 290 310 330 350
A| M | J
I J | A | S ]
DAY OF THE YEAR 1976
0
N | D
Figure 8a.- Soluble interstitial phosphorus concentration in
Lake Charles East fly ash treated sediments.
x J £
Q_
f 2 8 -
^24-
CO
Z>
§ 20-
I
Q_
^ 1 6 -
r
Q_
_, 12 -
P
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ir
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.
E
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LAKE CHARLES EAST -
1
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1 ,
_, ll
170 ISO 210 230
J | J I A
DAY OF THE
1976
Control
n
i .
P]
I
1.
'
|
!
i
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T -
ii
i
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II
, j
M i *
, fll , (ill
250 270 290 310 330 3S
S
YEAR
0 | N | D
Figure 8b.- Soluble interstitial phosphorus concentration in
Lake Charles East control sediments.
release to the overlying water is much lower within
the fly ash layer. Further details of this treatment can
be found inTheisand McCabe (1 978b).
Hypolimnetic Aeration
Although not normally thought of as a sediment
treatment technique, hypolimnetic aeration has pro-
nounced effects on the mineral iron in lake sedi-
ments. When oxygen is introduced to the system, the
redox cycle described previously is disrupted and
oxidation iron (Fe(lll)) is formed This promotes the
sorption of phosphate so that less is available for
release to the overlying water. There is also evidence
that the oxidized zone of iron provides some resist-
ance to the diffusion of sediment interstitial ions. This
technique has been studied extensively and its ef-
fects will not be discussed here because other papers
in this symposium will address it directly.
Dredging
The dredging of eutrophic lake sediments is clearly
a physical sediment manipulation. For those sedi-
ments that have acted as a net sink for phosphorus,
as most do, this may represent the most effective
means of dealing with the contribution of eutrophic
sediments although it is expensive and there are
often deleterious environmental effects associated
with the dredging operation. Modern dredging tech-
niques, however, are considerably less disruptive to
the water column. Again, the technology of dredging
is well advanced due to its application in other types
of systems. As with aeration, other papers are con-
cerned with this subject.
Summary
The foregoing discussions are summarized in Fig-
ure 9. Here both physical and chemical effectiveness
of the various techniques discussed are located on
relativized scales. Figure 9 is not meant to indicate
the preference of one technique over another. It sug-
gests, on the mechanistic level, a ranking of effective-
ness of treatment methods. Many factors must be
considered prior to the selection of a specific sedi-
ment treatment, not the least of which is the demon-
strated contribution of the sediments to the phospho-
rus budget of the lake. Once this has been estab-
lished, other considerations will include the specific
sediment chemistry of the lake, cost, effectiveness of
treatment, methodology of application, availability of
material and equipment to be used, and associated
environmental effects.
ORNL-DWG 78-13583
LINING
MATERIALS
T
I—CLAYS•
T
|- SAND H
T
FLY ASH '
HYPOLIMNETIC -
AERATION
-CHEMICAL ADDITION
(LIME, ALUM,ETC)
CHEMICAL ALTERATION
INCREASING EFFECTIVENESS
Figure 9.- Relative physical and chemical effectiveness of
sediment treatment methods.
REFERENCES
Born, S. M , et al. 1 973 Restoring the recreational potential
of small impoundments the Marion Millpond experience.
Inland Lake Demon. Proj, Upper Great Lakes Regional
Comm., Madison, Wis.
DiGiano, F A. 1971 Mathematical modeling of nutrient
transport. Publ. 1 7, Water Resour. Res. Center, University
of Massachusetts, Amherst.
Dunst, R. C., et al. 1974. Survey of lake rehabilitation tech-
niques and experiences. Tech Bull 75. Dep. Nat. Resour.,
Madison, Wis.
Fruh, E G. 1967. The overall picture of eutrophication Jour
Water Pollut. Control Fed. 39.1 449
Hynes, H B. N., and B J Greib. 1970 Movement of phos-
phate and other ions from and through lake muds Jour
Fish. Res. Board Can. 27:653
-------
120
LAKE RESTORATION
National Academy of Sciences. 1969. Eutrophication:
causes, consequences, correctives. Proc. Int. Symp. Eutro-
phication. Washington, D.C.
Sawyer, C. N. 1947. Fertilization of lakes by agricultural and
urban drainage New England Water Works Assoc. Jour.
61:109.
Serruya, C. 1971. Lake Dinneret. the nutrient chemistry of
the sediments. Limnol. Oceanogr. 16:5 10.
Shukla, S. S., et al. 1971. Sprption of inorganic phosphate
by lake sediments. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 35:244.
Sonzogni, W. C., et al. 1976. A phosphorus residence time
model: theory and application. Water Res. 10:429.
Stumm, W., and J. 0. Leckie. 1970. Phosphate exchange
with sediments: the role in the productivity of surface
waters. Proc. 5th Int. Water Pollut. Res. Conf. 111-26/1—III-
26/16.
Syers, J. K., et al. 1976. Phosphate chemistry in lake sedi-
ments. Jour. Environ. Qual. 2:1.
Theis, T. L, and P. J. McCabe. 1978a. Phosphorus dynamics
in hypereutrophic lake sediments. Water Res. 1 2:677.
1978b. Retardation of sediment phosphorus release
by fly ash application. Jour. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 50.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1976. Quality crite-
ria for water. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton, D.C.
Uttormark, P. D., and M. L. Hutchins. 1978. Input-output
models as decision criteria for lake restoration. Tech Rep.
WIS WRC 78-03. Water Resour. Center, Madison, Wis.
Vallentyne, J. H. 1974. The algal bowl: lakes and man. Spec.
Publ. 22. Can. Fish. Mar. Serv. Ottawa.
Vollenweider, R. A. 1975. Input-output models. Schweiz. Z.
Hydrol. 37:53.
Wetzel, R. G 1975. Limnology. Saunders, Philadelphia.
Williams, J. D H.,etal. 1971. Characterization of inorganic
phosphate in noncalcareous lake sediments. Soil Sci.
Soc. Am. Proc. 35:556.
-------
ARTIFICIAL AERATION AS A
LAKE RESTORATION TECHNIQUE
ARLO W. FAST
Limnological Associates
San Diego, California
ABSTRACT
A large variety of lake aeration systems exist. They increase the oxygen content of the water
through mechanical mixing or agitation, air injection, or the injection of pure oxygen. These
systems either mix waters at all depths and cause thermal destratification, or they preserve the
thermal gradient and aerate the bottom waters only. The effects of artificial aeration on nutrient
concentrations and algal growth are poorly understood. In some cases they can either increase
or decrease these parameters depending on a variety of circumstances. Destratification is
probably beneficial for most warmwater fisheries, and hypolimnetic aeration can create or
greatly expand the coldwater fishery potential of a lake. A new process for rearing coldwater
fish in a lake has been invented. The rearing chambers float on the lake's surface, and the
process may remove nutrients from the lake. Air injection into lakes can cause nitrogen gas
supersaturation, and consequently fish kills downstream. Special care must be used when
aerating a lake with bottom withdrawals.
INTRODUCTION
Artificial aeration is a useful lake restoration tech-
nique. It can improve the potability of domestic water
supplies, reduce treatment costs of domestic and
industrial waters, create or greatly expand trout and
salmon fisheries, and prevent fish kills. Artificial aera-
tion is often misused as well. Its misuse is generally
harmless resulting only in a waste of money. How-
ever, in some situations its misuse can result in sub-
stantial fishery losses due to gas supersaturation.
Simply stated, artificial aeration is not a panacea; and
like most things in life, it should be applied with
understanding and discretion.
The purpose of this paper is to briefly describe: (a)
the categories of lake aeration, (b) some of the eco-
logical consequences of lake aeration, (c) an applica-
tion to aquaculture, (d) the effects of air injection on
nitrogen gas concentrations, and (e) the decisionmak-
ing process when considering or selecting an aera-
tion system. This paper obviously cannot cover all of
these topics in detail, but hopefully you will receive
sufficient background to proceed in a reasonable
manner.
Artificial aeration is but one of many possible lake
restoration techniques. "Restoration" here refers to
'.'. . the manipulation of a lake ecosystem to effect an
in-lake improvement in degraded, or undesirable con-
ditions" (Dunst, et al. 1974). The judicial application
of lake aeration, like any other restoration technique,
requires a careful analysis of desired lake uses, and
of possible lake uses. These are then compared with
possible restoration techniques. This procedure
seems obvious, but it is often poorly executed. I've
therefore included a separate section on the deci-
sionmaking process.
Artificial aeration is generally used in eutrophic
lakes that are deep enough to stratify thermally.
These are not the only kinds of lakes where aeration
is used, but I will limit the discussion to these cases.
Eutrophic lakes are those that have excessive nutri-
ents, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen. The prin-
cipal source of these nutrients, whether external or
internal, can have a significant influence on the con-
sequences of an in-lake treatment such as aeration.
External nutrient loading refers to nutrients that enter
the lake from sources outside the lake basin. Internal
nutrient loads are from nutrients cycled within the
lake and between the water and sediments.
While factors affecting the nutrient concentrations
in the lake waters are complex and imperfectly under-
stood, Vollenweider (1968) through his studies of
more than 30 lakes in North America and Europe has
established loading rate criteria. He confirmed earlier
work by Sawyer (1 947) and others and he also estab-
lished "permissible" and "dangerous" external load-
ing rates for nitrogen and phosphorus.
Artificial aeration will not affect external loading
rates as such, and if these rates are excessive, it may
not reduce any of the more obvious symptoms of
eutrophication. Artificial aeration may affect the rates
and directions of nutrient cycling once the nutrients
are in the lake. Under some circumstances, this may
alleviate some symptoms of eutrophication. I use the
word "may" because man's ability to measure cause
and effect in these circumstances is poorly devel-
oped. What is known is that lakes vary widely regard-
ing the relative importance of internal and external
nutrient loads, and in regards to the inferred conse-
quences of artificial aeration
ARTIFICIAL AERATION
Artificial aeration of lakes here refers to processes
whereby air or oxygen is directly added to the water
121
-------
122
LAKE RESTORATION
ARTIFICIAL AERATION
PONDS
STREAMS
LAKES
DESTRATIFICATION
EUTROPHIC L
OLlGOTROPHIC L
HYPOLIMNION
AERATION
EUTROPHIC
Figure 1 - These are artificial aeration systems for lakes,
ponds, and streams Lake aeration systems can be classified
as either destratif ication or hypolimnetic aeration.
Figure 2 - A simple lake destratification system (Fast, 1 968).
A single air line leads from the shore-based compressor to
the deepest point in the lake The distal end of the air line is
perforated to allow the escape of air.
Figure 3 - The destratification process. Hypolimnetic water
is upwelled by the rising air bubbles. Upon reaching the
surface, this water flows out horizontally and sinks. It mixes
with the warm surface water in the process (Fast, 1 968).
EMPERATURE I°C)
Figure 4.- Oxygen and temperature values at El Capitan
Reservoir before and during artificial destratification. Val-
ues are for mid-August each year The lake was not aerated
during 1964. It was aerated mJune 1965 and March 1966.
and/or the water is circulated. The lake's oxygen
content consequently increases due to uptake from
the atmosphere, air bubbles, or from photosynthesis.
There are a large variety of aeration techniques, in-
cluding systems for ponds, lakes, and streams (Figure
1). Lake aeration systems fall into two categories-
Destratification and hypolimnetic aeration systems.
Destratification is most commonly achieved by air
injection through a single air diffuser (Figure 2). A
shore-based air compressor delivers air through a
perforated diffuser pipe that extends into deep water.
The rising air bubbles cause hypolimnetic water to
upwel! and mix with warmer surface waters (Figure
3). If sufficient air is injected, this process continues
until the entire lake is of nearly equal temperature
and oxygen is distributed throughout (Figure 4). I will
stress the qualifiers "nearly equal," because most
destratification systems do not create isothermal
conditions. Almost all systems leave some microther-
mal stratification near the surface. This constitutes
only a partial mix, and as we will see later this can
result in increased algal growth rather than the
hoped for decrease. However, even with incomplete
mixes, many of the chemical properties will be more
uniform and barriers to the distribution of fish, zoo-
plankton, benthic fauna, and other biota will be
minimized.
Aeration by destratification was first reported by
Scott and Foley (1919), but has become popular only
during the past 10 to 15 years. In addition to the air
injection described, other techniques include me-
chanically pumping bottom water to the surface, and
mechanically pumping surface water to the bottom
(Hooper, et al. 1952; Symons, et al. 1967; Ditmars,
1970; Ridley, et al. 1966; Quintero and Garton,
1973).
Destratification not only makes conditions more
uniform throughout a lake, it also results in a greater
total heat in a lake during the summer months. This
occurs because the entire lake during continuous and
thorough destratification will nearly approximate the
•surface temperatures before aeration began. In es-
sence, the cold water is eliminated. In some cases
this may be undesirable because it can eliminate cold
water species such as trout and salmon.
-------
IN-LAKE TREATMENTS
Hypolimnetic aeration differs from destratification
by aerating the hypolimnetic waters only without
mixing them with surface waters. This can be accom- 0
plished by a large variety of means, including air
injection, injection of pure oxygen, and mechanical
means. Fast and Lorenzen (1976) reviewed 21 pro- 4
posed or tested designs. The most commonly used
designs use compressed air to aerate and circulate
hypolimnetic water through the aeration device (Fig- 8
ure 5). The injected air causes the water to circulate
by the "air lift pump" principle; it oxygenates the -^
water and strips undesirable gases such as carbon .^. 12
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia. Small
changes usually occur in the temperature profile, but
the cold temperatures are maintained. With hypolim-
netic aeration, oxygen can be increased from 0.0
mg/7 to 5 mg/7 or more (Figure 6). If the system is
underdesigned, that is, the oxygen input is less than
the oxygen demand, then the oxygen concentration 8
may not exceed 0.0 mg/ 7 (Smith, et al. 1974).
12'
123
Figure 5 - New hypolimnetic aerator at Lafayette Reservoir
Calif The aerator was designed by J Harlan Glenn and
Associates and Arlo W. Fast under contract with East Bay
Municipal Water District and the U.S [Environmental Protec-
tion Agency Federal clean lakes funds were used The
aerator has a telescoping upwelling tube to accommodate
water level changes and uses plastic pond liner in the
degrassing/downswellmg section. It should begin opera-
tion during 1979.
A proprietary hypolimnetic oxygenation system
that uses liquid was successfully used at Ottoville
Quarry, Ohio (Figure 7; Fast, et al. 1976a, 1977). This
system, called side-stream pumping (SSP), increased
the hypolimnetic oxygen content from 0.0 mg/7 to
a.
LU
Q
TEMPERATURE (°C)
15 2.0 25
— 1 1 1 r
9-6-72 =
9-6-73
9-6-72 : I 9-6-73
OXYGEN
(mg/l)
—T-
12
Figure 6- Oxygen and temperature values at Lake Wacca-
buc, N.Y before and during hypolimnetic aeration (Fast,
1975) The lake was not aerated during 1972, but aeration
began during early July 1973 Oxygen concentrations in-
creased from 00 mg// to more than 4 mg/7, while the
temperature did not change much.
Figure 7.- A system of hypolimnetic oxygenation that uses
liquid oxygen (Fast, et al. 1977) Oxygen concentrations
were increased from 0.0 mg/ / to more than 2 1 mg/ / by the
system while strong thermal stratif.cation was maintained
more than 21 mg/7 while maintaining thermal
stratification.
Fast, et al. (1976b) and Lorenzen and Fast (1977)
compared the costs of three types of hypolimnetic
aerators. They found that the full air lift design had a
much lower operating cost and greater efficiency
than either the SSP or a partial air lift design. The SSP
had a lower capital cost.
Some Effects of Artificial Aeration
on Lake Biology
We have already discussed the two types of lake
aeration systems and some of their influences on the
-------
124
LAKE RESTORATION
lake. Now we will discuss other possible impacts of
each type of system on a lake's biology.
Very little is known about the effect of any aeration
system on bacteria and virus. We would expect es-
sentially no effect on those found in shallow water. If
aeration is "satisfactory," we would expect a reduc-
tion of anaerobic forms in deep water and their re-
placement by aerobic forms. This does not mean that
anaerobic forms would be eliminated from the lake,
because they would still exist actively only a few
inches under the sediment interface and possibly
elsewhere. The effect of aeration on pathogenic mi-
crobes is of particular interest to health authorities.
Will they persist longer due to aeration? There is no
information presently available on this subject
More information is available regarding the effects
of aeration on higher life forms. We will discuss these
separately for the two types of aeration.
Destra tifica tion
Most destratification systems are installed to im-
prove domestic and industrial water quality. Destrati-
fication is generally very effective in this regard espe-
cially when hydrogen sulfide, iron, manganese, and
other conditions associated with anaerobic water are
a problem; destratification has been notably less
effective in reducing algal densities and primary
production. At one time destratification was thought
to be a good method of reducing algal growth by one
or more of three influences: (a) Preventing nutrient
regeneration during anaerobic conditions, thereby
reducing internal loading; (b) increasing the mixed
depth of the algae, thereby reducing algal growth
due to light limitation; and (c) subjecting the algae to
turbulence and rapid changes in hydrostatic pressure
as they are swept through a large vertical distance of
the water column. Although these influences may be
operative in specific instances, in general they do not
seem to be manifestly effective in reducing algal
densities. Possibly we can see why if we further
evaluate these influences.
It is generally accepted that phosphorus regenera-
tion from the sediments to the water is greatly in-
creased when the hypolimnion becomes anaerobic
(Mortimer, 1941, 1942). The two important ques-
tions then, are: (1) Is this phosphorus of consequence
in the annual phosphorus budget of a lake? and (2) If
it is important, does artificial aeration decrease the
total amount regenerated? Although I cannot defi-
nitely prove the answers to either question, I believe
the answers are, respectively: Yes, in some cases;
probably not in most cases. One of the most signifi-
cant unanswered questions of limnology is how im-
portant is the phosphorus that is regenerated under
anaerobic conditions? While I obviously cannot an-
swer it here, I believe most limnologists agree that it
is important in cases where the internal loading is
large relative to the external loading, and where algal
growth usually is limited by phosphorus. How often is
this the case? I do not know.
Regarding the second question, phosphorus con-
centrations in deep water almost always decrease
during destratification. However, this does not mean
that the total amount of phosphorus exchanged with
the sediments is less. Even though the phosphorus
concentration of the water decreases, the rate of
exchange could increase. If this happens, the total
availability of phosphorus to the plants may actually
be greater during destratification. It is my intuitive
feeling that destratification does increase the ex-
change rates between sediments and water because
destratification greatly increases the sediment tem-
perature and the flow of water over the sediments.
Profundal sediments that may never exceed 10 to
15°C under normal conditions may be heated to 27°C
or warmer by destratification (Fast, 1968, 1971; Fast
and St. Amant, 1971). Furthermore, benthic orga-
nisms will reinvade the profundal zone during destra-
tification (Fast, 1973a). These burrowing organisms
vertically mix the sediments (Davis, 1974) and circu-
late water through the sediments (Brinkhurst, 1972;
Lee, 1970), undoubtedly affecting the nutrient ex-
change rates. In any event, there is no clear evidence
of reduced nutrient concentrations in the shallow
euphotic zone during destratification.
OXYGEN Cmg/l)
2468
10
TEMPERATURE (°C)
. IP . . . 20 .
24
REDOX POTENTIAL (rrw)
100 200
PHOSPHORUS (mg/l)
0.02 0.04
200
60
Figure 8.- Phosphorus, oxygen, redox potential, and temper-
ature conditions at Lake Casitas, Calif, during July 1976,
(Richard Barnett, personal communication, 1977). The lake
was only partially destratified by an air injection system
which injected air at the 46 m depth. The air injection
system operated continuously from April through October.
There is no good evidence that destratification will
reduce epilimnetic nutrient concentrations, but there
is evidence that it can upwell nutrients into the eu-
photic zone thereby simulating algal growth. At Lake
-------
IN-LAKE TREATMENTS
125
A
B
C
COMPENSATION
DEPTH
r~^~^
^Ja._>
/^~"V*S.
u.
.Ca~3.
L A
20
TEMPERATURE (°C)
22 24 26
NORMAL
STRATIFICATION
COMPLETE
DESTRATIFICATION
PARTIAL
DESTATIFICATION
Figure 9.- Schematic of algal mixing depths during: (A) no
artificial mixing, (B) thorough destratification, and (C) partial
destratification. If destratification is not thorough, algal
mixed depth may be decreased, and algal growth may thus
be favored due to improved light conditions.
Casitas, Calif., for example, phosphorus concentra-
tions were lowest at the surface and highest in deep
water (Figure 8). Furthermore, orthophosphorus was
23 percent of the total at the surface, but 87 percent
of the total at the bottom. The lake was mixed only
partially by the destratification, while oxygen and
redox potential values were high at all depths. The
deep water phosphorus increased during the sum-
mer, presumably due to the settling and decomposi-
tion of shallow water materials and to sediment re-
leases. The destratification system continuously up-
welled deep waters (from 46 m depth; 150 feet) into
the surface waters. The potential for causing in-
creased algal growth by this manner is obvious.
If a very thorough mix can be achieved, and if the
lake has sufficient depth relative to its euphotic zone,
then destratification could limit algal growth (Mur-
phy, 1962; Bella, 1970; Oskam, 1971; Lorenzen and
Mitchell, 1975). Without artificial mixing the algae
are mostly distributed in the epilimnion where light
conditions are satisfactory for photosynthesis (Figure
9); if a thorough mix is achieved the algae will be
redistributed into deeper water where light condi-
tions will be less favorable. Thus their growth may be
limited even if nutrient conditions are optimum.
A thorough mix is often easier said than done.
There is evidence that a thorough mix is difficult to
achieve because the closer the lake comes to isoth-
ermy, the less efficient the destratification process
becomes (Fast, 1973b). More thermal energy may be
absorbed at the lake's surface than the destratifica-
tion system is able to redistribute. This is especially
true for low energy (relative to water volume) destrati-
fication systems. Unfortunately, most aeration sys-
tems are low energy. The result is microthermal strati-
fication of 2 to 3°C or more near the lake's surface
(Figure 10). This shallow zone of warm water may in
effect keep the algae in an even shallower depth than
before aeration began (Figure 9). Within limits, this
reduction in mixed depth of the algae should in-
crease the algal growth rates. Consequently, an inad-
equate destratification system may result in greater
algal densities than if the lake were not aerated at all.
A combination destratification system may be more
efficient in creating a thorough mix than any single
system used thus far. Air injection systems (Figure 2)
are effective in creating nearly isothermal conditions,
CHLOROPHYLL A (mg/m3)
0 4 8 12
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^_
PRIMARY PROD.(mgC/m3/4hrs.)
0 20 40 60
I
I-
Q. 9
12'
15
Figure 10- Phytoplankton net primary production, total
chlorophyll a, and temperature depth profiles at El Capitan
Reservoir during 1966. The reservoir was partially mixed at
the time, but note the microthermal stratification between 0
and 3 meters (Fast, 1973)
but they usually leave a microthermal stratification
zone at the surface. The Carton pump (Carton, et al.
1976) is very efficient in moving surface waters
downward, but it has difficulty mixing to deep depths
due to the spreading and bouyancy of the plume.
Consequently, a combination system using both sys-
tems may be the most efficient in eliminating thermal
stratification and thus reducing algal growth.
There is some evidence that destratification turbu-
lence will reduce certain algae (Robinson, et al. 1 969;
Malueg, et al. 1971; Bernhardt, 1974). Blue-green
species that have gas vacuoles that are sensitive to
rupture by rapid pressure changes, and species that
have specific light and temperature optima, may be
most sensitive to turbulence. However, there is also
evidence that destratification may increase the total
amount of blue-green algae (Lackey, 1973; Haynes,
1971). This question is largely unresolved and may
be directly related to the degree of mixing as already
discussed. An inadequate mix may allow the algae to
remain in shallow water, and if other conditions are
suitable, blue-green algae may prosper.
A 1970 survey by the American Water Works Asso-
ciation (1971) was most revealing regarding the ef-
fects of destratification on algal densities. The survey
-------
12(5
LAKE RESTORATION
polled 26 water suppliers who used artificial destrati-
fication and the results showed that 7 percent said
algal blooms were decreased by destratification, 12
percent said algal blooms were increased by destrati-
fication, and 81 percent observed no change due to
destratification. These destratification systems var-
ied greatly in their energy input: water volume ratio
with unsurprising results. What was surprising was
that 90 percent of the suppliers were satisfied with
their destratification systems. The reason for this
apparent disparity is that algae are only one of many
factors affecting water quality. Although algal growth
may have increased, improvements in other condi-
tions were compensatory.
Destratification is generally considered beneficial
for warmwater fish but this effect has not been thor-
oughly documented. Many studies have shown a
substantial increase in depth distribution of fish asso-
ciated with destratification (Gebhart and Summerfelt,
1975a, b; Brynildson and Serns, 1977; Miller and
Fast, in prep.) Benthic fauna production often in-
creases greatly during mixing (Wirth, et al. 1970;
Fast, 1973a). These increases in habitat and forage
organisms imply a greater potential for fish growth.
Logically this should occur, but it has been difficult to
document because of the natural variability in fish
population and concomitant changes that also affect
their dynamics. Johnson (1966) has documented one
of the few instances of increased fish production and
survival attributable to artificial destratification. Sil-
ver salmon (Coho) smolt survival increased from 1 2.9
percent before destratification to 42.1 percent dur-
ing destratification.
Because destratification warms the deep waters, it
can eliminate certain coldwater fishes or preclude
their establishment if the temperature increase is too
great (Fast, 1968; Fast and St. Amant, 1971). How-
ever, these species may not be jeopardized in lakes
where surface temperatures normally are not lethal
(Fast and Miller, 1974).
Destratification systems can also prevent winter
fish kills by oxygenation of ice covered lakes (Wirth,
et al. 1970; Halsey, 1968; Halsey and Galbraith,
1971). Oxygen depletions were prevented by oxida-
tion of organic matter before and during winter stag-
nation, direct absorption of injected oxygen, and
removal of ice and snow cover, allowing atmospheric
and photosynthetic recharge of the lake's oxygen.
Artificial circulation of ice covered lakes is not always
successful and can result in a reduction m oxygen
content if the oxygen input does not exceed the
demand (Patriache, 1961).
Hypolimnetic Aeration
Most hypolimnetic aeration systems have been in-
stalled in an attempt to improve domestic water qual-
ity, and/or to provide habitat for coldwater fish such
as trout. They have been successlul with the latter,
but like destratification systems, they greatly improve
certain aspects of domestic water quality without
much apparent influence on algal densities. Like des-
Iratification, hypolimnetic aeration can effectively re-
duce hydrogen sulfide, iron, manganese, and other
conditions associated with anaerobiosis
Because hypolimnetic aeration does not have an
effect on the depth distribution of most algae, the
most likely means by which it could affect algal
densities are; (a) changing nutrient cycling rates and
pathways, and (b) creating changes in species com-
position and densities of zooplankton, benthic fauna,
and other trophic levels. On both accounts, the avail-
able information is conflicting and a pattern has not
yet emerged.
Fast (1975) and Garrell, et al. (1977) observed a
marked decrease in hypolimnetic phosphorus con-
tent during the first year of hypolimnetic aeration at
Lake Waccabuc, N.Y. However, these observations
were reversed during the second summer of hypolim-
netic aeration when hypolimnetic phosphorus in-
creased. Ammonia and nitrate values were altered
only slightly by aeration either year. These results
indicated that external nutrient loadings at Lake Wac-
cabuc masked the effects of hypolimnetic aeration
on nutrient cycling. Nutrient data from other lakes
with hypolimnetic aeration are scanty and largely
uninterpretable.
Hypolimnetic aeration can increase species diver-
sity by creating suitable coldwater habitat. Its effi-
cacy for creating suitable habitat for coldwater fish
such as trout and salmon is well documented (Fast,
1976a).
Equally interesting is the creation of habitat diver-
sity for zooplankton and benthic fauna Fast (1971)
observed a significant increase in the population
density of Daphnia pu/ex during hypolimnetic aera-
tion of Hemlock Lake, Mich. This species was virtually
absent from the lake before aeration began. Without
aeration, D. pulex apparently was forced into shallow
water where it was preyed upon by fish and possibly
other predators. During aeration, D. pulex invaded
the dimly lit hypolimnion where it could escape pred-
ation more effectively. Concurrent with these
changes in D. pulex, significant changes occurred in
phytoplankton densities, which may be attributable
to D. pulex.
Before aeration, the herbivorous zooplankters in
Hemlock Lake were characterized by relatively small
species, and D. pulex, a large species, was absent
The apparent reason for this is that these species
were limited to shallow, well-lit water where preda-
tion on their numbers was optimum. The larger zoo-
plankters were more appealing targets and were
virtually eliminated from the lake. During aeration,
the larger species could escape into deeper water. If
they have a diel n.igration pattern, (i.e., deep water
during the day, shallow water at night), they could
then both escape predation and graze on the high
phytoplankton densities m shallow water. If this
mechanism develops during hypolimnetic aeration,
then we have a means whereby algai densities could
be greatly reduced whether or not internal nutrient
loading is reduced.
Confer, et al. (1974) evaluated zooplankton data
from three lakes lhat had hypolimnetic
aeration/oxidation. They did not observe the dra-
matic changes in the zooplankton observed by Fast.
Although Confer, et al observed an increase in hypo-
-------
IN-LAKE TREATMENTS
127
SUMMER WITH
TEMERATURE (°C>
30 U SO 60 70 30 40 50 60 ?0 30 40 50 60 70
£20'
0s
°2
OXVGEN (ppm)
Figure 1 1.- Some typical influences of artificial aeration on a
eutrophic lake's fishery during the summer months. Without
any aeration, the fish are limited to shallow waters and only
warmwater species are present Destratification allows the
fish to inhabit the entire lake, but only warmwater species
are present. Hypolimnetic aeration allows a "two-story"
fishery with warmwater species in shallow water and cold-
water species in deep water.
Floating Fish Rearing System
Raceway Configuration
Fish Rearing
Section
Down-Flow
Variable Depth
Intake
o
limnetic zooplankton densities and the occurrence of
some larger forms, the changes were not dramatic
nor were they likely to have had much impact on
epilmnion algal densities. Consequently, there is not
enough information presently to establish when,
where, or if the invertebrates will respond signifi-
cantly to hypolimnetic aeration.
Hypolimnetic aeration has created suitable coldwa-
ter fish habitat in several lakes where none existed
prior to the aeration (Figure 1 1). Many lakes will not
support coldwater fish yearlong because of anaero-
bic bottom waters and shallow waters that exceed
the thermal tolerances of trout and other coldwater
fishes. During the summer, these fishes are forced
into shallow water and die. Hypolimnetic aeration
maintains the cold water and oxygenates it. Yearlong
trout fisheries were established by this technique in
Ottoville Quarry, Ohio (Overholtz, 1 975; Overholtz, et
al. 1977), Lake Waccabuc, N Y. (Fast, 1975; Garrell,
et al. 1978), and Spruce Knob, W. Va. (Hess, 1975).
These projects greatly expanded the fishery potenti-
als at the respective reservoirs.
Hypolimnetic aeration also can be used to prevent
winterkill (Fast, 1973b). Operation of the system dur-
ing the summer oxidizes organic matter and thus
reduces the wintertime oxygen demands. In addition,
the system can be operated during the winter without
creating large open water areas.
An Application to Aquacuiture
Various means are used to artificially aerate water
used in aquaculture. These include surface agitators,
pure oxygen injection through diffusers or by the SSP
method, and the injection of air through diffusers.
Most of these aerators are used in ponds, tanks, or
Figure 12.- A new floating fish rearing system. The system
floats on the lake's surface and water is upwelled from
selected depths. A wide range of temperatures is thus
possible. This system may strip nutrients through the con-
sumption of zooplankton and the harvest of the fish This is
the raceway configuration (Fast, 1977).
water-recirculation systems and are adapted from
wastewater treatment processes.
Fast (1977) has invented a new system of fish
rearing that can function also as a lake restoration
technique. It utilizes hypolimnetic aeration concepts
and may be used in conjunction with hypolimnetic
aeration or oxygenation. The system consists of ei-
ther a floating pen or raceway constructed of
low-cost plastic (Figures 12 and 13). Water is up-
welled, either by compressed air or mechanical
means, from some desired depth into the rearing area
of the system. The water flows through the rearing
area and is discharged either at the surface or re-
turned to some desired depth. Thermal stratification
can thus be maintained, because only a small temper-
ature increase will occur in the rearing area. Very
high water exchange rates are possible using this
system. This will allow high density fish rearing (e.g.,
in excess of 10 pounds of fish per cubic foot of
rearing volume), and at the same time circulate a
large number of forage organisms to the fish.
In some circumstances, part or all of the fish's food
requirements can be met by zooplankton organisms
that are upwelled into the rearing chambers. In these
cases, the amount of nutrients removed in harvested
fish flesh may exceed the amount fed to the fish.
Therefore, the system would cause a net loss of
nutrients from the lake. Natural stripping by this
means not only would restore the lake, but would
provide much sought after fish flesh at a low cost.
-------
128
LAKE RESTORATION
Pen Configuration
Figure 13.- A new floating fish rearing system; the pen
configuration (Fast, 1977).
Other attributes of the floating fish rearing system
include: (a) a wide range of water temperatures, re-
sulting from a variable depth intake; (b) minimal real
estate requirements; (c) low capital cost; (d) low main-
tenance; (e) low pollution; (f) unrestricted water sup-
ply because the water is recycled; (g) no geographical
limitations; (h) debris-free water; (i) versatile sizing;
and (j) mobility within a lake or between lakes.
The system would have its greatest potential use in
thermally stratified eutrophic lakes, reservoirs, or
quarries. However, it also could be used in marine
water and in isothermal conditions.
NITROGEN GAS CONSIDERATIONS
Air injection can cause nitrogen gas (N2) supersatu-
ration, which can cause substantial fish mortalities.
The mortality rate is largely a function of supersatura-
tion level, fish species, fish size and condition, and
water depth (Rucker, 1972). A safe and suitable N2
limit is difficult to define, but it is probably between
110 and 115 percent of saturation (Rulifson and
Pine, 1976). Concentrations of 1 20 percent N2 killed
50 percent of the rainbow trout tested by Blahm, et
al. (1976) within 6 days.
Few data in the literature relate nitrogen gas con-
centrations with lake aeration systems. I know of only
one set of data for the hypolimnetic aeration at Lake
Waccabuc, and none for destratification systems,
other than what i will present here. However, even
these limited data indicate that a serious potential
hazard exists under certain circumstances.
Hypolimnetic N2 concentrations at Lake Waccabuc
increased from near saturation to 150 percent of
saturation within 80 days of continuous hypolimnetic
aeration (Figure 14; Fast, et al. 1975). These satura-
tions are relative to surface pressures, and are actu-
ally undersaturated in situ due to hydrostatic pres-
sures. Hypolimnetic oxygen concentrations in-
creased from 0.0 mg/7 to 4 trig//, while tempera-
tures were not changed much during the 80 days of
aeration. A longer period of aeration and/or injection
at greater depths should cause even greater
supersaturations.
10
TEMPERATURE (°C)
15 20
25
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (mg/l)
2 4 6 8 10
7 i i j i I ill
DISSOLVED NITROGEN GAS (mg/l)
10 20 30 40
J 6'
x
^-
o.
UJ
Q
8
10
12
Figure 14.- Nitrogen gas (N2), oxygen, and temperature
values at Lake Waccabuc, N.Y. during hypolimnetic aeration
(Fast, et al. 1975). Nitrogen gas was 1 50 percent saturated
at the bottom, relative to surface pressure, after 80 days of
aeration.
Artificial destratification at Lake Casitas, Calif.
caused N2 supersaturations in excess of 140 percent
relative to surface pressures (Figure 15; Fast, unpubl-
ished data). The air was injected at the 46 m depth,
continuously since May 1977. The lake was not thor-
oughly mixed by the aeration system and two "ther-
moclines" were formed. One thermal gradient ex-
isted between 5 and 12 m depth, while the other was
-------
IN-LAKE TREATMENTS
129
OXYGEN (mg/l)
14
1.7
TEMPERATURE (°C)
. 2.0
2.3
NITROGEN + ARGON (% SATURATION)
100 120 140
60-
Figure 15.- Nitrogen gas (N2), oxygen, and temperature
values at Lake Casitas, Calif, during artificial destratification
(Fast, unpublished data). Nitrogen gas saturation exceeded
140 percent at the bottom due to the air injection. Continu-
ous aeration began during May, but the lake was not thor-
oughly mixed.
between 45 and 55 m. This corresponds to the
changes in N2 saturation. It is still not entirely clear
why water below 45 m had the highest N2 concentra-
tions because this water was not upwelled or mixed
with shallower waters by the aeration system. During
late summer, the air bubbles would "uncouple" from
the rising water plume in the 12 to 5 m depth. The air
would continue its rise to the surface, but the deeper
water would not. This undoubtedly retarded the mix-
ing rate and may have created higher N2 concentra-
tions in the 15 to 45 m depth interval than would
have existed with a thorough mix of the lake waters.
All of the primary factors affecting N2 concentra-
tions during destratification with compressed air are
not identified. However, they probably include de-
gree of mixing, air bubble densities and vertical
plume velocities, depth of air injection, the ratio of
total water volume to total air injected, and oxygen
content of the water. Further study must be con-
ducted before we can accurately predict the ex-
pected N2 saturation in a given situation.
There were no observed fish mortalities in either
Lake Waccabuc or Lake Casitas. In both cases, sur-
face waters were not greatly supersaturated and bot-
tom waters were not released downstream. If bottom
waters were released into a stream, then fish kills
most certainly would have occurred in both in-
stances. The conclusion is obvious—special care and
attention must be paid if you are contemplating the
aeration of any lake or reservoir that has bottom
withdrawals for tailwater replenishment.
THE DECISIONMAKING PROCESS
Any lake restoration project, if properly executed,
should follow a series of sequential, logical steps.
Such a sequence is shown in Figure 16. This is not
the only possible series, of course.
First and foremost, a list of desirable and possible
lake uses should be compiled. Who should compile
the list is also a consideration but I will assume that
has been established. There are some uses that a
given lake is incapable of, and there are some uses
that are incompatible with other uses. After a set of
desired uses is established, they should be compared
with actual uses to see if they are satisfactorily met. If
not, then it is time to consider possible lake restora-
tion techniques.
Because Figure 16 is fairly self-explanatory, I wiii
comment only on some of the steps. Step IV: My
experience is that most lakes, especially the small,
privately owned lakes, do not have sufficient data of
the correct kind to reasonably proceed with the deci-
sionmaking process. Data collection can be time con-
suming and expensive, possibly taking a minimum of
1 to 2 years before an adequate data base is estab-
lished. I visited one small lake in Maine, used for the
town's water supply, on which no information was
available, not even its depth or surface temperatures.
Step VIII: It is difficult at this time to establish the
most appropriate aeration system. Even after one has
decided on the type of aeration (i.e., destratification
or hypolimnetic aeration), there is a wide variety of
systems from which to choose. Because there are
few comparative studies most systems must be
custom-fitted to the given lake. There are some com-
mercially available lake aeration systems, but these
are not always the most appropriate or cost effective.
Also, there are very few firms at this time who are
knowledgeable enough to make the selection for a
given lake.
Step XVI: It is very important to evaluate the effects
of the system. Too often lake operators install a
system and then do not evaluate it. The evaluation
does not have to be exhaustive, but as a minimum it
should include semimonthly oxygen and temperature
depth profiles from a few places in the lake. Aeration
systems commonly are underdesigned but this will
not be apparent unless measurements are made. If
the system is overdesigned, then it does not have to
be operated continuously. A monitoring program will
establish the needed period of operation on an ov-
erdesigned system, and thus save energy and money.
-------
130
LAKE RESTORATION
Figure 16.- The decisionmaking process for consideration
of artificial aeration as a lake restoration technique.
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Confer, J L., et al. 1974. Hypolimnetic aeration without
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1971. The effects of artificial aeration on lake ecol-
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1973b. Summertime artificial aeration increases
winter oxygen levels in a Michigan lake. Prog. Fish-Cult.
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1975. Artificial aeration and oxygenation of lakes as
a restoration technique. Presented at the March 24-26,
1975 Symp.: Recovery of Damaged Ecosystems, Virginia
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1976. Hypolimnetic aeration as a fisheries manage-
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1977. Floating fish rearing system. U.S. Patent No.
4,044,720.
Fast, A. W., and M. W. Lorenzen. 1976. A synoptic survey of
hypolimnetic aeration. Jour. Am. Soc. Civil Eng.
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Fast, A. W., and L. W. Miller. 1974. Effects of artificial
destratification on rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri Rich-
ardson) depth distribution and growth in a northern Michi-
gan lake. Fish. Res. Rep. No. 1 814. Mich. Dep. Nat. Resour.
Fast, A. W., and J. A. St. Amant. 1971. Nighttime artificial
aeration of Puddingstone Reservoir, Los Angeles County,
Calif. Calif. Fish Game 57:213.
Fast, A. W., et al. 1975. A submerged hypolimnetic aerator.
Water Resour. Res. 1 1L2.-287.
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3,956,124.
1976b. A comparative study with costs of hypolim-
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-------
IN-LAKE TREATMENTS
131
1977. Hyperoxygen concentrations in the hypolimn-
lon produced by injection of liquid oxygen. Water Resour
Res. 13:474.
Garrell, M. H., et al. 1977. Effects of hypolimnetic aeration
on nitrogen and phosphorus in a eutrophic lake. Water
Resour. Res 13.343.
1978 Maintenance of a trout fishery by aeration in a
eutrophic lake. N.Y. Fish Game Jour. 25:79.
Carton, J., et al. 1976. Physicochemical and biological
conditions in two Oklahoma reservoirs undergoing artifi-
cial destratification. U S. Bur. Reclamation, Denver, Colo
(Mimeo.)
Gebhart, G. E , and R. C. Summerfelt. 1975a. Factors affect-
ing the vertical distribution of white crappie (Pomoxis
annularis) in Oklahoma reservoirs. Proc. SE Assoc Game
Fish Comm. Vol. 28. (In press.)
1975b. Effects of destratification on depth distribu-
tion of fish Presented at Symp. Reaeration Res., Am. Soc
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Halsey, T. G. 1968. Autumnal and over-winter limnology of
three small eutrophic lakes with particular reference to
experimental circulation and trout mortality Jour Fish
Res. Board Can. 25:81.
Halsey, T. G., and D. M. Galbraith. 1971. Evaluation of two
artificial circulation systems used to prevent trout winter-
kill in small lakes. Br. Columbia Fish Wildl. Branch Fish
Manage. Publ. No. 16.
Haynes, R. C. 1971. Some ecological effects of artificial
circulation on a small eutrophic New Hampshire lake
Ph.D. thesis. University of New Hampshire, Durham.
Hess, L 1975. The effects of artificial hypolimnetic aeration
on the depth distribution and catch rate of rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri Richardson). W. Va Dep. Nat. Resour
Elkins (Mimeo.)
Hooper, F. F., et al. 1952. An experiment in the artificial
circulation of a small Michigan lake. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.
82:222.
Johnson, R. C. 1966. The effects of artificial circulation on
production of a thermally stratified lake. Wash Dep Fish
Fish. Res. Pap. 2:5.
Lackey, R. T. 1973. Artificial reservoir destratification ef-
fects on phytoplankton. Water Pollut. Control Fed
45:668.
Lee, G. F. 1970. Factors affecting the transfer of materials
between the water and sediments. Lit. Rev. No. 1, Eutroph.
Inf. Prog. Water Resour. Center, University of Wisconsin
Madison.
Lorenzen, M. W., and A. W. Fast. 1977. A guide to
aeration/circulation techniques for lake management
Res. Ser. EPA-600/3-77-004. U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency.
Lorenzen, M. W., and R. Mitchell. 1975. An evaluation of
artificial destratification for control of algal blooms Jour
Am. Water Works Assoc. 67:372.
Malueg, K. W., et al. 1971. The effects of induced aeration
upon stratification and eutrophication processes in an
Oregon farm pond. Pap. presented at Int. Symp Manmade
Lakes, Knoxville, Tenn. May 3-7.
Miller, L. W., and A. W. Fast. The effects of artificial destrati-
fication on fish depth distributions in El Capitan Reservoir
Calif. (In prep.)
Mortimer, C. H. 1941. The exchange of dissolved sub-
stances between lake mud and water in lakes. Jour. Ecol
29:280.
1942 The exchange of dissolved substances be-
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Fish. Soc. 91:69.
Oskam, G. 197 1. A kinetic model of phytoplankton growth,
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presented at Int. Symp. Manmade Lakes, Knoxville, Tenn
May 3-7.
Overholtz, W. J. 1975 An ecological evaluation of hypolim-
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Ottoville Quarry, Ottoville, Ohio. M.S. thesis. Ohio State
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Overholtz, W. J., et al 1977. Hypolimnetic oxygenation and
its effects on the depth distribution of rainbow trout
(Sa/mo gairdneri) and gizzard shad (Dorosoma
cepedianum). Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 106:371.
Patnache, M. H. 1961. Air induced circulation of two shal-
low Michigan lakes. Jour. Wildl Manage 25:282
Quintero, J. E., and J. E. Carton. 1973. A low energy lake
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Pap. 58. Bur. Sport Fish. Wildl. U.S. Dep. Inter., Washinq-
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^ulifson, R. L, and R. Pine. 1976. Water quality standards.
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(Ref. DAS/CSI.68.27/Bibliography). Paris, France
-------
LAKE RESTORATION BY DILUTION
EUGENE B. WELCH
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Washington
Seattle, Washington
ABSTRACT
Dilution is frequently used synonomously with flushing as a restoration technique. In fact,
dilution reduces both the concentration of nutrients and algal cells, while flushing may cause
only the latter. For a reduction in nutrient concentration to occur, the inflow water must be
significantly lower in concentration than the lake. For washout of algal cells to occur, the water
exchange rate must approach the algal growth rate. If a supply of low nutrient water exists the
costs involved are the facilities to deliver the water and maintenance and operation. Even if a
supply of such water is not readily available, high-nutrient water may be useful if inhibitory to
growth. Two examples of the use of dilution water for lake restoration are in the State of
Washington—Green Lake in Seattle and Moses Lake in eastern Washington.
INTRODUCTION
The addition of large quantities of low-nutrient dilu-
tion water to eutrophic lakes has been demonstrated
to produce relatively quick and predictable improve-
ments in water quality (Oglesby, 1969; Welch and
Patmont, 1978). In one sense the mechanisms can be
explained by the dynamics of continuous algal cul-
ture. By reducing the inflow concentration of the
limiting nutrient, the maximum biomass possible in
the reactor vessel likewise is reduced and, at the
same time, nutrients and algal biomass are more
rapidly washed from the reactor vessel because the
water exchange rate would be increased. The con-
centrations of limiting nutrients and algal biomass
are the critical parameters in lakes as well as in
continuous culture reactor vessels. Therefore, the
controlling factors can be analogous in the two
environments.
In that sense there is a significant difference be-
tween the effect of "dilution" and "flushing." Flush-
ing emphasizes what goes out of the lake and can be
described without consideration of the concentration
of substances. Dilution, on the other hand, empha-
sizes what is left in the lake and implies a reduction in
substance concentration as well as washout of ma-
terial. There is an additional factor that greatly influ-
ences the lake concentration and that is sedimenta-
tion, which is not considered in continuous cultures.
Increased water exchange rate can decrease the
sedimentation loss and result in higher lake
concentrations.
While dilution has produced striking improvements
in the quality of two eutrophic Washington lakes and
has been proposed for a third (Entrance Engineers,
1978), it has not been widely applied as a restoration
technique. The main limitation is an availability of
large amounts of low-nutrient water. With further
study and additional modification, dilution could be-
come more popular. In some instances existing
sources of high-nutrient water could be replaced by
higher flows of water with moderate to even similar
nutrient content. Alga! biomass may be controllable
in such an instance by washout and/or inhibition of
blue-green algal growth by replacement of "old" with
"new" water.
In many instances cost may be attractive where
facilities exist or where the dilution water is plentiful
and relatively inexpensive to deliver. On the other
hand, cost may be great where piping needs are
extensive and water is expensive. Little generaliza-
tion can be made about dilution water in contrast to
other measures such as alum treatment, aeration,
and dredging.
PREDICTION OF RESPONSE
TO DILUTION
Short Term
Reduction of in-lake nutrient concentration by add-
ing dilution water in rather large quantities can be
predicted reasonably in the short term by a simple
continuity equation:
C, = C, + (C0-C,)e-Kt
where C, is the concentration at time t, C, is the
concentration'in the inflow water, C0 is the initial lake
concentration, and K is the water exchange rate. This
equation assumes that the lake is well mixed, that no
other sources of nutrients exist, and that the limiting
nutrient of "percent lake water" can be treated as
conservative. Because this equation does not include
a sedimentation term, it is really useful only in the
short term and with rather large water exchange
rates, that is, several percent per day or more.
With the aid of a functional relationship between
maximum growth rate (t/max) and limiting nutrient con-
centration (or percent lake water), one can estimate
the time necessary to reduce t/max to a point allowing a
significant biomass reduction due to cell washout.
That can be seen in Figures 1 and 2. The growth rate
of blue-green algae in in situ experiments in Moses
133
-------
134
LAKE RESTORATION
O
1.0 yr') a reduction in lake concentration
will result, but large quantities of water will be
necessary.
a +101
I—
«*"
OS
I +20-
O
t—>
5 -2Q -
2:
g -'10 -
*=c
t_)
fe -60 J
,01
0,1
1,0
10
100
FLUSHING RATE BEFORE DILUTION
/*!, IN YEARS"1
Figure 3.- Theoretical effect of dilution when P concentra-
tion in dilution water is 40 percent of normal in-flow concen-
tration. Combined flushing rate is indicated by P2 (after
Uttormark and Hutchins, 1 978).
EXAMPLES OF RESTORATION
BY DILUTION
Three cases from the State of Washington, where
dilution is in use or planned, will be discussed. Moses
Lake lies in eastern Washington, has an area of 2,753
ha, and a mean depth of 5.6 m. Dilution water from
the Columbia River has been added to the lake during
1977 and 1978. Green Lake in Seattle has an area of
104 ha and a mean depth of 3.8 m. It has received
dilution water from the city's domestic water supply
-------
|N-|_AKE TREATMENTS
135
more or less continuously since 1962. Wapato Lake
in Tacoma has an area of 12 ha and a mean depth of
2 m. Restoration plans for this lake call for, among
other things, dilution from the city's domestic water
supply during the spring-summer period.
The desirability of using dilution water to restore
these lakes can be seen in the considerable differ-
ence between lake concentration and inflow concen-
tration as a result of adding dilution water (Table 1).
Table 1 - Effectiveness of dilution water addition in two lakes
and proposed for a third in Washington State
Lake
Moses
Green
Wapato1
P0 -P.
180-30
65-62
100-202
Average
exchange
percent day-1
11 (29-10)
07
2
Average percent3
improvement
51
73
1 Proposed
2 Assumed values for Total P as twice the measured ortho-P level
3 Chi a and P,M
Rather large quantities of dilution water have been
-vailable at times for Moses Lake, which has
amounted to an average exchange rate of 11 percent
day"1 for the spring-summer periods in 1977-1978
combined. Normal exchange rate is about 1 percent
day"1. The improvement in chlorophyll a and Secchi
depth combined has been 51 percent. Green Lake
has improved markedly in quality (73 percent) from a
low rate addition (0.7 percent day"1 from 0.2 percent)
over several years. The prospects for restoring Wap-
ato Lake quality would also appear to be good be-
cause the phosphorus content of dilution water there
is nearly as low as that entering Green Lake and the
planned exchange rate is greater.
Moses Lake
Dilution water from the Columbia River has been
added to Parker Horn in Moses Lake through the U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation's East Low Canal and Rocky
Coulee Wasteway (Figure 4). The Bureau has cooper-
ated to make this water available for the demonstra-
tion project conducted by Brown and Caldwell Engi-
neers. To date, four periods of dilution have been
studied (Table 2). Because the phosphorus concen-
tration is so high (92 t/g//~1) in Crab Creek, relatively
large quantities of Columbia River water (30 wg/T1)
are necessary to significantly lower the composite
inflow concentration. This results in larger exchange
rates than would otherwise be necessary without the
Crab Creek inflow; however, diversion of Crab Creek
is economically infeasible. It may not be necessary to
reduce the inflow phosphorus concentration to such
an extent, however, to achieve adequate control of
algal biomass.
To illustrate the improvement in Moses Lake quality
as a result of the dilution. Table 3 shows phosphorus,
chlorophyll a, and Secchi depth values in Parker Horn
for the period April through July for 1969-70 and
1977-78. There has been more than a 50 percent
improvement in the three variables during both years.
The average water exchange rate for the entire
Figure 4- Map of Moses Lake
Table 2 - Dilution water inflow showing Crab Creek component
and exchange rate in Parker Horn of Moses Lake for four periods
in 1977 and 1978
M3 Sec-1
Water
exchange
rate, day-1
029
0 10
017
0 18
Table 3 - Comparison of restorative effect of dilution water
(Columbia River water) added to Moses Lake in 1977 and 1978
as judged by mean phosphorus, chlorophyll a,
and Secchi depth in April-July
3/20 -
5/22 -
8/14 -
4/20 -
5/7
6/4
9/18
6/18
Total
inflow
340
11 8
198
21 7
Crab Creek
base flow
1977
04
1 34
250
1978
1 7
I1
Tpt_P
No dilution 1969-70 142
014 day-1 exchange 1977 70(51)
009 day-1 exchange 1978 53(63)
Secchi, lower lake,
June =
Chl_a
55
21(67)
9(84)
3 0 meters
Secchi
05"
1 4(64)
1 1(55)
April-July period was 0.14 day"1 in 1977 and 0.09
day"1 in 1978. Note that the reduction of chlorophyll
a has been greater than that of phosphorus for both
years. The Secchi depth in Parker Horn was affected
by nonalgal particulate matter that entered with the
high water flows. Greater clarity exists in the lower
-------
136
LAKE RESTORATION
lake; during June 1978 Secchi depth averaged 3.0
m.
Improved quality has occurred in other areas of
Moses Lake besides Parker Horn. Figure 5 shows
May through August 1977 mean values of chloro-
phyll a compared to 1969-70 at seven sampling
stations. Clearly, the improvement was widespread.
In 1978 a station was established farther up the main
lake and conductance values indicated that dilution
water moved up the main arm and persisted for most
of the summer. Apparently the I-90 bridge restricts
water movement and together with a strong south-
erly wind, forces a significant amount of dilution
water into the main arm.
Figure 5.- Average spring-summer (May-August) chlorophyll
a (ug/ /•') in Moses Lake in 1969-70 and in 1977.
Figure 6 shows that dilution water reduced algal
content in April through mid-July well below the
1969-70 nondilution years. A similar improvement
occurred in clarity (Secchi depth). The long delay
between the second and third dilution periods al-
lowed a large buildup in algal biomass, composed
largely of blue-greens. Initiation of the third dilution
rapidly decreased the biomass of algae in the lake.
The mechanism that caused that rapid decline in
biomass can be investigated by comparing the ex-
pected concentration change with the observed,
based on the simple dilution equation. The case for
total phosphorus in Parker Horn will be considered
(Figure 7). Observed phosphorus agrees reasonably
well with predicted values during the first period for
which the dilution rate was high. For the next two
Figure 6. Chlorophyll a from horizontal transects and Secchi
disk measurements at station 7, Moses Lake, north of the I-
90 bridge during 1969-70 and 1977.
O O Observed concentrations at station 7, north of I-90
* * Predicted concentrations in Parker Horn from
a dilution equation
Figure 7.- Predicted and observed total phosphorus concen-
trations in Parker Horn, 1977.
dilution periods, when the exchange rate was lower,
phosphorus behaved rather independently of dilu-
tion. Resuspension of settled paniculate matter in
this open, shallow lake appears to influence greatly
the water concentration of phosphorus.
If, on the other hand, chlorophyll a is considered
(Figure 8), a quite different response is noted. Chloro-
phyll 3 remained higher than levels predicted by
dilution of a conservative property during the first
period. That probably indicates that algae grew at a
rate faster than the water exchange rate and thereby
maintained a greater-than-expected biomass. For the
two later periods, however, chlorophyll a declined at
a rate similar to that predicted for the washout of a
conservative property.
The crop of algae at the beginning of the August
dilution period was mostly a blue-green Aphanizome-
non. Previously discussed experiments indicated that
this organism grows poorly when more than 50 per-
cent dilution water is added to Moses Lake water. In
spite of no predictable decrease in phosphorus con-
tent, the blue-green algae did not grow in the pres-
ence of as little as 25 percent dilution water and were
thus washed from the lake at a rate consistent with
the water exchange rate. While blue-green algae de-
-------
|N-|_AKE TREATMENTS
137
Observed concentrations at station 7,
north of I-90
A Predicted concentrations in Parker Horn
from a dilution equation
Figure 8.- Predicted and observed chlorophyll a concentra-
tions in Parker Horn, 1977.
creased, diatoms increased from 2,000 to 55,000
cells m1~1 from August 10 to September 29, clearly
indicating a preference for diluted lake water in con-
trast to the blue-green algae.
The 2-month dilution period in 1978 controlled the
algal crop to surprisingly low levels through July.
Figure 9 shows that chlorophyll a remained low (usu-
ally below 15 ug//"1) during dilution, but biomass
remained higher than predicted, no doubt due to the
prevalence of diatoms and growth rates greater than
the exchange rate. Figure 10 shows that the change
H'SEC"1
HEAN K • 0.20 DAY
PREDICTED FROK DILUTION EQUATION
AVERAGE HATER COLUMN
CONCENTRATION (KEIGHTEB HEAN
IN PARKER HORN
11 15 8 22 6 20 3 17 1 15 29
MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY
Figure 9.- Predicted and observed chlorophyll a concentra-
tions in Parker Horn, 1978.
in conservative properties (conductance) was similar
to that predicted by simple dilution equation. Dilution
was slightly less effective than predicted, but conduc-
tance in other parts of the lake showed more exten-
sive distribution of dilution water than anticipated.
Thus, the effect is not felt to the maximum in Parker
Horn per se; as a result, water quality improvements
in the upper, main arm of the lake have remained
good.
The high quality in Parker Horn occurred with 20 to
30 percent of lake water remaining and at an ex-
change rate of 0.18 day"1. About 50 to 60 percent
lake water remained in the lower lake (south of 1-90)
Figure 10.- Predicted and observed specific conductance in
Parker Horn, 1978.
and the clarity (Secchi depth) throughout June aver-
aged 3.0 m. Because blue-green algae are relatively
intolerant of the dilution water and improvements
have been better than expected without phosphorus
control, lesser amounts of dilution water may be
required. If water could be available continuously,
dilution water flows of only two to three times Crab
Creek might adequately improve lake quality—that is,
prevent accumulation of large crops of blue-greens
and encourage high levels of diatom production in-
stead. Similar benefits may be possible elsewhere
even when nutrient content of dilution water is not
much less than lake water. More can be said of such
prospects when it is known why Columbia River
water antagonizes blue-green algae growth. In the
absence of that information experimental evidence
for the lake in question could be developed.
Green Lake
The dilution of Green Lake beginning in 1962 rep-
resents an excellent case for using this technique to
restore lakes. Sylvester and Anderson (1964) pro-
posed the manipulations and Oglesby (1969) re-
ported the water quality changes. The technique ap-
plied to Green Lake was one of long-term dilution at a
relatively low rate. The combined water exchange
rate was increased from an estimated 0.83 yr1 to 2.6
yr1 as a result of adding low-nutrient water from the
Seattle domestic supply.
Figure 11 illustrates the striking improvement in
chlorophyll a, phosphorus, and Secchi depth. Only
one predilution measurement existed and monitoring
was not begun until 1965 in spite of dilution starting
in 1962. Water clarity increased nearly fourfold and
chlorophyll a concentrations decreased over 90 per-
cent. Total phosphorus concentrations declined to
about 20 wg/T1.
These improvements appear to be greater than
expected. Using Vollenweider's (1976) equation for
steady-state phosphorus concentration, with (r= p~,
the expected phosphorus concentration in Green
Lake prior to dilution should have been about 80
ug/1~\ In fact, it was about 65 ug/J~\ Following
dilution, the steady-state concentration should have
been about 35 ug/r1, but as noted in Figure 11, it
-------
138
LAKE RESTORATION
had declined much lower, to about 20 ug//"1 by
1967. This relatively poor agreement may be a result
of an overestimated phosphorus input in 1959—
most sources were diffuse and difficult to estimate
(Sylvester and Anderson, 1964). In the case of Green
Lake, however, the reduction in phosphorus and chlo-
rophyll a concentrations occurred over several years,
and are closely associated. This contrasts with the
rapid, short-term effects in Moses Lake, which oc-
curred in spite of uncontrolled phosphorus loading.
The Moses Lake and Green Lake cases illustrate the
difference between short-term and long-term dilution
schemes. Both have attained greater than expected
results in lake quality.
CHL A
Figure 11.-Average summer values for chlorophyll a, total P,
and Secchi depth in Green Lake before and after the start of
dilution (Oglesby, 1969).
Wapato Lake
Based on results in Green Lake and Moses Lake,
Entrance Engineers (1978) have proposed a dilution
scheme for Wapato Lake at Tacoma, Wash, which
would divert relatively high-nutrient storm water from
the lake during spring-summer to reduce the quanti-
ties of low-nutrient water needed from the Tacoma
domestic water supply. The lake would be diluted
from May through August at a rate of about 2 percent
day"1, which according to some earlier experimental
work from Moses Lake (Welch, et al. 1972), would
reduce the maximum growth rate to one-half by July
15 and to zero by August 10. Based on those earlier
in situ experiments, a reduction in the fraction of lake
water to 20 to 30 percent would be required for such
an effect (Figure 1), which, as the full-scale test in
Moses Lake showed, was more than enough dilution
to curtail growth of blue-green algae and cause cell
washout. Also, the algae in Wapato Lake apparently
are growing more slowly than those in Moses Lake.
Thus, the dilution scheme for Wapato seems quite
adequate to obtain a significant improvement in
quality.
The cost of diluting Wapato Lake was estimated at
$70,000 to $75,000 including construction costs for
the dilution water and storm water diversion lines, as
well as 1 year's maintenance and operation (Entranco
Engineers, 1978). That maintenance and operation
cost ($20,000 to $25,000) is on a par with a swim-
ming pool. Costs will vary greatly, however, depend-
ing on the availability of water, whether low or high in
nutrient, and the existing delivery systems.
DISCUSSION
The addition of dilution water to both Moses Lake
and Green Lake produced greater than expected
results. It was previously thought that if phosphorus
could not be decreased to relatively low levels in
Moses Lake then chlorophyll a could not be reduced
significantly. In fact, total phosphorus concentrations
were not maintained at the predicted low levels
largely due to wind-driven recycling. In spite of that,
chlorophyll a was held at surprisingly low average
levels during both 1977 and 1978. The dilution
water may have an undefined inhibitory effect on
blue-green algal growth or the limitation may have
been due to nitrate-N, which reached levels of 5 to 10
t/g/T' during the August 1977 dilution. Nitrate limi-
tation does not seem reasonable, however, since
diatoms increased in abundance as blue-greens
declined.
Sylvester and Anderson (1967) originally proposed
twice the dilution rate for Green Lake than the lake
has received. They proposed a rate of about 1 per-
cent day "' of city water. The existing exchange rate
was about 0.2 percent day ~\ Surprisingly, total
phosphorus has been reduced to a bout 20 t/g//"1, 10
to 20 t/g/r1 less than predicted from a steady state
model, in spite of the dilution water being added at
only 0.5 percent day"1.
Thus, it appears that whether the input rate is low,
long term, or high, short term, the prospects for
quality improvement may be greater than expected.
This greater than expected improvement in case of a
short-term scheme (Moses Lake) resulted mainly from
increased benefit of cell washout of non-growing,
blue-green populations in favor of diatoms. While the
mechanism of this effect is not entirely clear, it ap-
pears that an increased exchange rate of new water
reverts the phytoplankton to an earlier successional
stage, i.e., diatoms. This effect is probably not limita-
tion of macronutrients since diatoms grow well in the
newly diluted water. Sustained high diatom
production in rich water, but without succession to
blue-green algae, has also been observed in main
stem river impoundments with short detention times
of weeks or months.
Similarly, blue-green algae rarely are dominant in
heavily loaded sewage lagoons where detention
times are short. In the case of a long-term scheme,
cell washout should not have a significant effect
since exchange rates are so low relative to growth
rates. The discrepancy there may be related to erro-
neous nutrient load estimates or lake peculiarities
that provide better than expected sedimentation. It
should be noted that if the pre-dilution lake concen-
tration had been predicted accurately (65 t/g//"1, so
also would the post-diversion concentration, since
both estimates were 15 ug/ /"' high.
The ideal dilution scheme would be to attain a
long-term reduction of the limiting nutrient through
low-rate input of low-nutrient water. Where there is
-------
|N-|_AKE TREATMENTS
139
an existing high-nutrient input, it should be diverted if
possible for the low dilution rate to be most effective.
If diversion is not possible one is faced with high-rate
inputs over the short term. If only moderate to high
nutrient water is available, short-term dilution may
work well because of an unknown cause for
blue-green inhibition and/or effective washout of
growth limited populations.
Costs will be highly variable depending upon the
presence of facilities to deliver the water and the
availability of water. If the lake is in an urban setting
and domestic water is available, then improvement
may be possible for less than $ 100,000 for construc-
tion and first year maintenance and operation.
The advantages for using dilution water are, primar-
ily: (1) relatively low cost if water is available: (2)
immediate and good record of effectiveness; and (3)
successful results even if only moderate to high nutri-
ent water is available. The principal disadvantage is
of course that the availability of low-nutrient dilution
water is probably poor in most areas.
REFERENCES
Buckley, J A. 1971. Effects of low nutrient dilution water
and mixing on the growth of nuisance algae. M S thesis.
University of Washington.
Entrance Engineers. 1978. Restoration analysis—Wapato
Lake. Proposal for Metropolitan Park District, Tacoma,
Wash.
Oglesby, R T. 1969. Effects of controlled nutrient dilution
on the eutrophication of a lake. In Eutrophication: causes,
consequences and correctives. Natl. Acad. Sci, Washing-
ton, D.C.
Sylvester, R. O., and G C. Anderson. 1964. A lake's re-
sponse to its environment. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. SED 90:1.
Uttormark, P. D., and M L. Hutchins. 1978. Input-output
models as decision criteria for lake restoration. Tech. Rep.
78-03. Wis. Water Hesour. Center.
Vollenweider, R. A. 1969. Possibilities and limits of elemen-
tary models concerning the budget of substances in lakes.
Arch. Hydrobiol 66:1.
1976 Advances in defining critical loading levels for
phosphorus in lake eutrophication. Mem. Inst. Idrobiol.
33:53.
Welch, E. B., and C. R. Patmont. 1978. Dilution effects in
Moses Lake. Environ. Res. Lab. U S. Environ. Prot. Agency,
Corvallis, Oie. (Manuscript.)
Welch, E. B. et al. 1972 Dilution as an algal bloom control.
Jour. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 44.2245.
-------
LAKE RESTORATION BY NUTRIENT INACTIVATION
WILLIAM H. FUNK
HARRY L GIBBONS
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Washington State University
Pullman, Washington
ABSTRACT
Nutrient inactivation by use of chemical precipitants such as aluminum, iron, or calcium has
been successfully practiced in the wastewater field for over 40 years. In comparison, the
treatment of standing bodies of water is a relatively new procedure beginning in the Nether-
lands in 1962 when ferric chloride was applied to the Dordrecht reservoirs. Aluminum sulfate
was used to inactivate phosphorus at Lake Langsjon, Sweden in 1968. Since 1970 most of the
larger treatments have occurred in the United States, primarily in Wisconsin, Washington, and
Ohio. Techniques, methodology, equipment, and costs of several lake treatments are discussed.
Advantages, disadvantages, and limitations of this method of lake restoration also are
discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Chemical coagulation and precipitation of undesir-
able suspended matter, dissolved substances, and
bacteria from drinking water have been standard
practice since the turn of the century. Aluminum and
ferric salts as well as lime have been the most widely
used precipitants. By the early thirties the concept
and initial technology for use of the same compounds
in improving sewage effluent had been developed
(Sawyer, 1944; Rohlich, 1969). However, it was not
until much later that nutrient removal from effluents
became a widespread practice. Ockershausen
(1975) observed that in 1972 the number of sewage
treatment plants in the United States utilizing precipi-
tants was fewer that 10 while by 1974 this number
had risen to nearly 300.
The success in the water and wastewater fields in
upgrading water quality has without question helped
stimulate the development of in-lake nutrient inacti-
vation methodology. One of the earliest experiments
at inactivation was made in the Netherlands in 1962
when 2 mg/liter ferric chloride was applied to the
Dordrecht reservoirs (Dunst, et al. 1974). The first
apparent lake-wide use of aluminum sulfate for nutri-
ent inactivation occurred in Sweden at Langsjon in
1968 (Jernelov, 1971; Peterson, et al. 1974). Two
years later Horseshoe Lake, Wis. also was treated
successfully with aluminum sulfate. In quick succes-
sion, Grangehergsviken, Sweden, Cline's Pond, Ore.,
and Fish Rearing Pond, Minn, were treated with alu-
minum compounds. During 1972-73 a series of Wis-
consin lakes including Powderhorn, Long, Snake,
and Pickerel were treated with aluminum sulfate or
sodium aluminate (Dunst, et al. 1974). Two Ohio
lakes, Dollar and Twin, received aluminum sulfate
treatments in 1974 and 1975, respectively (Cooke
and Kennedy, 1977a). Treatments mentioned to this
point had been confined to lakes less than 40 ha in
area.
Two larger lakes in Washington have received alu-
minum sulfate treatment. Liberty Lake (277 ha) in
1974 (Funk, et al. 1975), and Medical (63 ha) in 1977
(Soltero, et al. 1978). Hyrum reservoir (190 ha) in
Utah is scheduled for a 1978 summer treatment
(Medine, personal comm.)
Most of the lakes treated have shown reduced
phosphorus content and less nuisance algal growth
as well as higher hypolimnetic dissolved oxygen. Two
exceptions have been Powderhorn and Pickerel
Lakes where nuisances were not reduced. Cooke and
Kennedy (1977a) have also reported less success in
Dollar and Twin Lakes for reasons that will be dis-
cussed later.
It becomes evident from the literature to date that
for several reasons phosphorus is the major nutrient
targeted for inactivation. It has been shown to be a
critical nutrient for nuisance algal and plant growth
and is generally the most limiting nutrient in bodies
of water because of its scarcity in relation to other
major nutrients (Hutchinson, 1957; Vallentyne,
1968; Edmondson, 1972; Likens, 1972; and Miller,
etal. 1974).
Phosphorus binds readily with most common inac-
tivant cations such as calcium (II), iron (III), and alumi-
num (III), forming relatively insoluble compounds.
Calcium(ll) is of limited use in lake environments
because it is ineffective below pH 9. Anoxic condi-
tions in the hypolimnion of eutrophic lakes would
reduce iron (III) to the soluble (II) state. Its addition
might then aggravate rather than alleviate the prob-
lem. Zirconium and lanthanum rare earths have been
shown to be very effective in phosphorus removal;
however, more research into health aspects and di-
rect toxicity are required before they are introduced
into lakes on a large scale (Powers, et al. 1978).
Aluminum compounds have become the most
widely accepted and utilized lake nutrient inacti-
vants. As previously mentioned, this is largely be-
cause of these compounds' long association with
141
-------
142
LAKE RESTORATION
water repair, effectiveness under eutrophic condi-
tions, and relative innocuousness to most life forms.
Aluminum also is the most prevalent metal in the
earth's crust.
TREATMENT RATIONALE AND
METHODOLOGY
The lakes described in the introductory section
represent a good cross section of lake geomorphol-
ogy, nutrient sources, water and climatic conditions,
and usage. However, some have been documented
more fully than others, and so we have chosen from
those to review in this paper. Excellent summaries of
many of the earlier treatments can be found in publi-
cations by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(1973); Peterson, et al. (1 973, 1974); and Dunst, et al.
(1974).
Horseshoe Lake
Background setting
This 8.9 ha lake represents the first reported full
scale in-lake inactivation experiment in the United
States. The lake setting is in glacial drift with silt
loams and silt clay loamy soils developed on the
deposits. Yearly precipitation averages 76 cm. A wa-
tershed of approximately 700 ha funnels water to
Horseshoe Lake where retention time is estimated to
be between 0.3 and 0.7 years. It is a dimictic hardwa-
ter lake with well established stratification. Physico-
chemical characteristics are summarized in Table 1.
Residents had noted extensive blue-green algal
blooms beginning about 1962. Nuisance algal
growth had been controlled to some extent by cop-
per sulfate treatment since 1965. However, three
winter fish kills had been cataloged during the same
period of time.
Table 1 - Range of physicochemical data for Horseshoe Lake
(Wis Dep Nat Resour 1966-67, Peterson, et al 1973)
Parameter
Temp m'F
DO in mg//
pH
Total alkalinity
(mg CaC03/l)
Total hardness
(mg CaC03/l)
Nitrrte-N in mg//
Nitrate-N m mg//
Ammoma-N in mg//
Organic-N in mg//
Diss P m mg//
Total P in mg//
Epihmnion
32-78
<05-143
72-89
Hypohmmon
32-48
00-43
68-83
218-252
220-278
254-300
0 004-0 089
010-090
006-1 96
076-2 19
0.01-048
005-050
276-306
0002-0213
010-076
016-633
075-168
026-1 52
031-1 54
Pretreatment Procedures
Considerable pretreatment research and labora-
tory effort preceded treatment to determine levels of
aluminum sulfate needed to effectively remove the
maximum amounts of phosphorus without serious
ecological consequences. Jar tests indicated that
addition of 200 mg// (18 mg Al/7) would remove 88
percent of the dissolved and 30 percent of the total
phosphorus. A more intensive lake water testing pro-
gram had been initiated 6 months prior to treatment
to establish background limnological data. Fish toxic-
ity tests were run on rainbow trout fingerlings at
aluminum levels that bracketed treatment amounts.
Only at aluminum levels 50 percent higher than treat-
ment did mortality occur and these deaths were at-
tributed largely to high solids content.
The treatment was planned to inactivate phospho-
rus shortly after spring runoff and actually took place
in May 1970.
Treatment Devices and Methods
The lake was divided into nine plots of about 1.01
ha each as shown in Figure 1.
Previous tests with fluorescein dye and granular
alum had shown that the best application method
would be a slurry injected by manifold in the propel-
lor wash about 0.3 m below the water surface.
A unit distribution system consisted of slurry tanks,
a freshwater supply for filling the tanks, a mixer and
application pump, and a distribution manifold for
each vessel. The three units involved were a 4.9 m
aluminum workboat, a 3 by 6 m barge, and an am-
phibious truck (DUKW-353). Carrying capacity varied
with each system. Two individuals on the small boat
could dispense 317 kg/hour, three people on the
barge could apply 1,135 kg/hour, and three individu-
als on the DUKW could spread 1,360 kg/hour.
HORSESHOE LAKE
MANITOWOC COUNTY
WISCONSIN
TOWN OF MEEME
S20, TI7N, R22N
Maximum Depth - 55f1(l67rr
Shoreline = I I miles (I 77km)
Depth contours in feet
Figure 1.- Depth contours and treatment sections of Hor-
seshoe Lake (redrawn from Peterson, et al. 1973).
Twin and Dollar Lakes
Background
Twin Lakes are small (27-35 ha) dimictic lakes
located in semiforested, urban Ohio near Kent. They
are of glacial origin, the basins being formed in
partially sealed kettle (Kent Till) depressions. The
shorelines have been subject to septic tank drainage
that ultimately closed both lakes to contact recrea-
tion in 1970. In 1972, sewage was diverted but
extensive blue-green algae blooms and macrophyte
-------
IN-L.AKE TREATMENTS
143
growth continued. Dollar Lake is a small alkaline bog
lake (2.2 ha) in the same drainage. This latter lake was
utilized for development of techniques and pilot treat-
ment in preparation for treatment of West Twin Lake.
Table 2 gives general limnological characteristics.
The aluminum sulfate treatment at West Twin Lake
described by Cooke and Kennedy (1977a) was di-
rected primarily at covering the bottom sediments
with a layer of aluminum hydroxide to absorb phos-
phorus molecules released from the sediment. They
assumed thatthe anaerobic sediments were the chief
source of internal phosphorus loading. It also had
been observed in the preliminary studies that surface
application resulted in large floe particles, which
Cooke and Kennedy believed descended too slowly
for phosphorus removal in the hypolimnion. A final
stated reason was that a hypolimnetic treatment
would avoid any localized toxicity problem in the
epilimnion.
Table 2 - Limnological features of Twin Lakes and Dollar Lake
(Cooke and Kennedy, 1977)
Area (ha)
Volume (x!05M3
Mean depth (M)
Maximum depth (M)
Mean water residence (yrs, N=5)
Mean areal load (gm
Classification
, N=5)
M2/yr, N = 5)
West Twin
3402
1499
434
11 50
1 28
0311
Eutrophic
East Twin
2688
1350
503
1200
057
0649
Eutrophic
Dollar Lake
222
0864
389
750
Eutrophic
The treatments were carried out in July of 1974 at
Dollar Lake and in July 1975 at West Twin. East Twin
was not treated but was held as a control lake. Depth
contours are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 - Depth contours of Twin Lakes (redrawn from
Cooke and Kennedy, 1977).
Treatment Devices and Methods
Dosage rates were based upon alkalinity and alumi-
num sulfate added to the point where the pH began to
fall and dissolved aluminum began to increase.
Extensive testing by in situ columns, as well as the
pilot lake treatment of Dollar Lake, was made before
treatment of West Twin Lake.
Barges were constructed by welding five 208-liter
drums together to form pontoons. Each barge had
five pontoons floating it. The pontoons were tied
together and to a steel support frame by a 0.6 cm
diameter steel cable. The Dollar Lake barge had a
1.04 m3 holding tank. Two barges were constructed
for the West Twin Lake treatment and each had two
holding tanks. In both treatments a shore based hold-
ing tank (portable swimming pool) was utilized to
receive truck shipments of 15.1 m3 of liquid alumi-
num sulfate. A shore to barge pipeline was laid out
utilizing 6 cm inner diameter PVC pipe supported by
anchored barrel floats to a mid-lake supply station.
Gravity aided by a pump served the barges. Pumping
was actuated by radio.
The treatment area was defined by buoys anchored
around the depth contour of the top of the hypolimn-
ion. This area was subdivided into 10 x 50 m sections
and the volume under each was calculated so that
each would receive dosage in relation to its alkalinity.
The liquid aluminum sulfate was pumped out of the
barge holding tanks, mixed with water in the line, and
moved down to a 7 m long PVC manifold, 6 cm inner
diameter and perforated with 0.6 cm holes. Surface
markers 7 m apart assured proper distribution. At
Dollar Lake 9.3 metric tons of aluminum sulfate were
applied, 10 percent on the surface to give a dose of
20.9 mg Al/ / to the hypolimnion. At West Twin Lake
about 91 metric tons were applied in 3 days for a
dose of 27.6 mg AI/7 to the hypolimnion. One day
was required for the Dollar treatment, 3 days for the
West Twin Lake application.
Medical Lake
Medical Lake, Wash, is a 63 ha lake, a result of the
Great Spokane floods some 18 to 20,000 years ago
(U.S. Geol. Survey, 1973). Massive walls (km3) of
water moved through the Spokane Valley westward
and southward gouging out several hundred lake
basins of which 20 to 30 small (0.1 to 869 ha) lakes
remain today. Medical Lake is an extremely alkaline
seep lake and received sewage for a considerable
number of years. Sewage diversion has not restored
the lake. Both surface and hypolimnetic liquid alumi-
num sulfate treatments were made in late summer of
1977 and will be reported later in this conference
(Gasperinoand Soltero, 1978).
Cline's Pond
Background
Cline's Pond (0.4 ha) near Corvallis, Ore., is a man-
made, highly eutrophic farm pond with a mean depth
of 2.4 m. Source waters are mainly infiltration with
some slope wash from cultivated fields (Sanville, et
al. 1976; Powers, et al. 1978). It has a unique history
in restoration research in that it received aeration
treatment in 1969, a sodium aluminate treatment in
1971, and a zirconium treatment in 1974. In addi-
-------
144
LAKE RESTORATION
Table 3 - Summary of Chne's Pond limnologtcal data (mg/./ except where noted; Sanville, et al 1976)
P-total
P-ortho
N-ammonia
N-nitrate
N-nitnte
N-total Kjeldahl
Fe-soluble
Fe-total
Alkalinity (mg CaCOj /I)
D.O.
pH
Secchi disk (cm)
Temperature (°C)
Chlorophyll a (mg/m*)
*S = surface,
Depth*
S
B
S
B
S
B
SB
SB
SB
SB
SB
SB
S
8
S
B
S
M
B
SB
M = middle,
Apr
Avg.
29
.35
03
09
22
56
< 01
003
2,6
.92
184
46
84
8
88
72
90
217
18.7
154
187
B = bottom
1970
15 - Sept. 15
Mm
.13 -
18 -
< 01 -
< 01 -
< 01 -
< 01 -
< 01 -
< 002 -
.9
20 -
50 -
31
20
.2
67
64 -
12
17.0
155 -
117
80
Max
60
48
.09
28
84
140
04
.009
7.0
1 70
370
61
165
1.7
109
89
180
28.5
21 1
198
1682
Apr
Avg
.06
09
01
.01
03
03
< .01
< 002
1 1
06
.78
32
10
32
74
7.0
117
18.6
180
158
54
1971
15 - Sept 15
Min. -
01 -
02 -
< 01 -
< .01 -
< 01 -
< .01 -
< .01 -
< 002 -
5
.02 -
.30 -
22
7.0
0
6.5
6.5
50
11.0
11.0
10.0
20
Max
.11
33
02
02
.13
15
09
oo ;
25
63
3.50
47
13.4
97
95
7.5
200
25.8
248
215
179
tion, between the latter two treatments the pond was
drained and the surface sediments removed. The
inactivation experiments will be discussed in chrono-
logical order.
Aluminate Treatment Method
The pond was treated in April 1971 with 227 kg of
sodium aluminate by manifold injection behind an
outboard powered boat. The aluminate was neutral-
ized with hydrochloric acid prior to treatment to alle-
viate rapid pH shifts in the unbuffered waters. Se-
lected physicochemical conditions are shown in Ta-
ble 3. Five individuals completed the treatment in 1
day.
Zirconium Tetrachloride Treatment Method
The pond was divided into two approximately equal
areas and volumes in February 1974 with a sus-
pended, nylon reinforced, vinyl curtain. A portion of
the curtain was sealed to the bottom with sand bags.
This created an experimental side and a control side
for treatment purposes. Pond depth contours and
sampling stations are shown in Figure 3.
Limnological and water quality parameters includ-
ing plankton and macrobenthos were monitored
weekly prior to and after pond division. Treatment of
the experimental side occurred on March 26-27,
1974 with the addition of 63 kg of anhydrous zirco-
nium tetrachloride mixed with water and transported
to the pond as a concentrated solution. Laboratory jar
tests were made 2 days before treatment and the
necessary quantity to be added for inactivation and
precipitation calculated in relation to total phospho-
rus concentration. The amount of zirconium added
gave a concentration of 5 mg// in the pond waters.
Distribution was made through a manifold system
from an outboard boat. A second system applied
sodium hydroxide to counteract lowering of pH. Kam-
loops rainbow trout had been stocked (250 in each
side) 1 week prior to the zirconium treatment to test
for immediate adverse effects upon higher food
chain organisms and to reflect possible zirconium
uptake over a longer time period.
Figure 3.- Cline's Pond depth contours and sampling sta-
tions (from Powers, et al. 1978).
Liberty Lake
Background
Liberty Lake, Wash. (277 ha) is of glacial origin set
in a basin enclosed on three sides by small mountain
ranges that rise about 500 to 900 m above the
surface level of the lake. The watershed (3,446 ha) is
relatively undisturbed and the major tributary is very
low in major nutrients. Mean residence time of lake
water is 3 years. In quiescent summers the lake
becomes weakly stratified. Relatively shallow soils
(Spokane series) exist around much of the lake and
are underlain by bedrock. Residential areas occupy
83 percent of the shoreline. Resorts, a public park,
and a marsh at the southern end occupy the remain-
-------
!N-|_AKE TREATMENTS
145
der. Waste disposal has been mostly by septic tank or
less efficient means; an antiquated sewage collection
and treatment system built in 1910 has served about
40 percent of the residences. A new collection and
treatment system is scheduled for completion in
1979. Depth contours are shown in Figure 4.
Residents have complained since 1969 about
blue-green algal blooms in the lake and large depos-
its of algal and macrophyte debris along the shore-
line. Background data gathered since 1971 (Funk, et
al. 1975; Gibbons, 1976) indicated that the major
nutrients were at limiting levels throughout much of
the year, especially in early spring and summer. Algal
growth in the lake at these times was not prolific. It
was noted that 50 percent or more of the large
macrophyte populations (especially in the southern
end of the lake) senesce and decline during late
August-September (Funk, et al. 1975; Gibbons,
1976; Morency, 1978). This event signals the be-
ginnning of large G/oeotrichia, Anabaena, Coelos-
phaerium, and Aphanizomenon blooms. For these
reasons aluminum sulfate treatment was planned to
intercept the weed release of phosphorus.
Table 4 - Selected Liberty Lake constituents and physical characteristics,
1974-75
Outlet Structure
All Depths in Feet
(X 0.305 = m)
Figure 4.-Depth contours of Liberty Lake.
Treatment Procedures and Devices
Numerous jar tests and in situ tests (the latter with
208 liter vinyl liners) were made in the lake prior to
treatment application. It was decided to treat the lake
volume with less than 10 mg/7 aluminum sulfate
(less than 1 mg// Al) to avoid overwhelming the
alkalinity and buffering capacity of the lake (Table 4).
After considerable literature review and experimen-
tation (including observations of dry applications of
aluminum sulfate to the surface of large clear PVC
water columns 5 m long x 20 cm diameter tubes), an
apparatus was devised to partially dissolve the alum
granules before dispensing them to the lake (Figure
5). In addition, the device was mounted to dispense
the slurry to the water in front of the barge to take
advantage of the roiling effect of the pontoons and
then the mixing action of the propellers. Four systems
were built for placement on three rented barges and
the department barge. The water pump was placed
aft on each barge where the helmsman could operate
it and the outboard motor as well. Two crewmen
mixed the alum.
Parameter
Stream inflow &
residence time
Estimated phosphorus
in inflowing waters
Estimated nitrogen
in inflowing waters
Mean concentration
dissolved reactive
phosphorus in lake
water
(45 urn filtered)
Concentration of total
phosphorus in lake
water at time of
treatment
General lake
characteristics
Physical
characteristics
Total annual
63 -x 10«m3
Total annual
-263 kg
Total annual
2763 kg
Mid to late summer
001 to 004 mg//
Before alum treatment
026 mg//
Total alkalinity pH
14 - 26 mg// 66-93
Description
Mean lake residence time
3 years
Mean concentration
03 mg//
Mean concentration
27 mg//
Shoreline
configuration
127
Development
of volume
127
Volume Surface area
2023 x 10«m3 277 ha
Fall
02 to 04 mg//
After alum treatment
001 to 015 mg//
Hardness as CaCOj
15 to 37
Mean slope
19%
Mean depth
70 m
Figure 5.- Barge distribution system for aluminum sulfate
treatment at Liberty Lake.
The lake was divided into quadrants and further
divided into sections by shoreline markers and a
buoy flag system so the helmsman could see his
exact location (Figure 6). The volume under each
section had been calculated as well as the number of
sacks required for treatment. The lake was treated by
quadrant (one per day) to allow for possible biological
migration. About 12,000 kg alum could be distrib-
uted in 6 to 8 hours. Over 95 metric tons of alum (dry
weight) was distributed over a 4-day period. The
major limitation to treatment was the inability of the
chemical supply house to deliver the aluminum sul-
fate on time.
A laboratory boat and divers were present to test
and observe lake conditions. Physicochemical and
biological samples were taken throughout the treat-
ment and for 6 months following treatment; intermit-
tent samples were taken thereafter. In June 1977,
-------
146
LAKE RESTORATION
regular sampling was resumed to establish back-
ground data for additional restoration efforts and the
effect of sewering.
Bl
86,
FLAG COLOR
O GREEN
A RED
V YELLOW
D WHITE
Figure 6.- Delineation of treatment for Liberty Lake (Funk, et
al. 1975).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In general, the majority of the in-lake inactivation
projects have been very successful within their stated
objectives. In view of time and space constraints only
those salient features emphasized by the original
investigators are listed or discussed in this section.
The results of the Horseshoe Lake treatment as de-
scribed by Peterson, et al. (1973) include:
1. A decrease in total phosphorus in the lake fol-
lowing the summer after treatment. No large in-
creases in hypolimnetic total phosphorus for the next
2 years during stratification. Total phosphorus (pre-
and posttreatment) is shown in Figure 7.
040r-
L_ I I 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1
J FMAMJJASOND
2. Improvement in dissolved oxygen was reflected
in considerably higher levels during wintertime for 2
years.
3. Absence of the usual nuisance algal blooms was
noted and was accompanied by an increase in trans-
parency and a short-term decrease in color.
4. Aluminum concentration in surface waters re-
turned to pretreatment levels within 6 days and no
adverse ecological effects were recorded.
West Twin and Dollar Lakes
Concentration of total phosphorus in Dollar and
West Twin Lake hypolimnetic waters was much less
than before treatment. Seepage monitoring devices
also showed considerably less phosphorus release
from treated anaerobic sediments at Dollar Lake (Ta-
ble 5). Cooke and Kennedy (1977b) describe the
hypolimnion as being clear and lighted and the bot-
tom sediments covered with a white floe layer 1 to 2
cm in thickness. It was also reported that the longev-
ity of the floe layer was about 1 year. Alkalinity and
pH were initially lower than pretreatment levels but
then recovered within a few weeks.
Table 5 - Total phosphorus concentration in waters
trom treated and untreated anaerobic Dollar Lake
sediments (Coo*e and Kennedy, 1977)
Depth of half-barrels (seepage waters)
6 M Untreated
6 M Treated
4 M Untreated
4 M Treated
4 M Untreated
4 M Treated
1974
mg//
0701
0130
0315
0 198
0392
0033
1976
mg//
~ 1021
0224
1200
0705
3519
0600
The reduction in the phosphorus content of the two
treated lakes is shown in Figures 8, 9, and 1O. How-
ever, the investigators noted that epilimnetic filtrable
phosphorus fractions did not significantly decline
after treatment. Neither treated lake showed immedi-
ate decreases in algal cell volume or chlorophyll nor
did Secchi disk measurements increase. The rate of
carbon assimilation even in the treatment lake indica-
ted a phosphorus utilization three times greater than
the internal loading, based on budget analysis. These
events led Cooke and Kennedy to believe that the
summer internal loading is epilimnetic in origin and
comes from phosphorus held by littoral muds during
Figure 7.- Weighted average total phosphorus. Horseshoe
Lake (redrawn from Peterson, et al. 1973).
Figure 8.- Total phosphorus content of Dollar Lake before
and after treatment (redrawn from Cooke and Kennedy,
1977).
-------
IN-LAKE TREATMENTS
147
200-.
I 00-
0 —
200-
IOO-
<
rr
3
TOTAL PHOSPHORUS CONTENT
WEST TWIN LAKE
1972
I973
oh
100-
.1974
-i 1 iiii
!00
ALUM
1975
n
so
n
1 ( t 1 | 1 ! 1 | |
... ' .......'.... . . l976
i j. I | +— 1 4 1 — —J _| 1 j J
J F M A ' M J ' J ' AT S ' 0 ' N D
MONTHS
Figure 9- Total phosphorus content of West Twin before
and after treatment (from Cooke and Kennedy, 1977)
I WEEK BEFORE
— SOLUBLE REACTIVE PHOSPHORUS
FILTERABLE TOTAL PHOSPHORUS
iOO
I DAY AFTER
200
300
400
500
srf
I
21
i
4
I WEEK
10 1*
S
2
4
6
8
10 -
I YEAR AFTER
P/l
IOO
IOO
Figure 10.- Soluble reactive and filtrable total phosphorus of
West Twin Lake before and after hypolimnetic aluminum
sulfate treatment (redrawn from Cooke, et a\. 1978).
the spring. They have suggested that sources of this
phosphorus may be macrophytes and littoral fauna,
as well as ground water. Ground water has been
estimated at 30 to 50 percent of the inflow of West
Twin (Cooke and Kennedy, 1 977b). The investigators
have made a strong recommendation that careful
investigation of major internal sources of phosphorus
be made priorto aluminum sulfate treatment of small
lakes with large littoral areas.
Cline's Pond
The sodium aluminate treatment reduced total
phosphorus, ammonia, total Kjeldahl, nitrogen, and
iron during the summer and fall following treatment
(1971). The algal standing crop was reduced and a
shift from blue-green to green dominance was
recorded. Dissolved oxygen, transparency, and pH
indicated significant improvement with the change in
numbers and kinds of algae as previously indicated in
Table 3. No adverse impact on the pond's vertebrate
and invertebrate populations was recorded.
Treatment with zirconium in 1974 of the experi-
mental portion of Cline's Pond reduced total phos-
phorus. Phosphorus release from the bottom sedi-
ments and from the initially precipitated floe (during
treatment) was inhibited. Selected data are shown in
Table6.
Table 6 - Limnological conditions 1 day before, 1 day after,
and 1 week after zirconium /nactivation (Powers, et a! 1978)
March 25
Exp Corit
March 28
Exp Cont
April _3
Exp Cont
TP mg//
TIN mg//
Temp °C
DO mg//
Secchi disk m
pH
Turbidity NTU
0121 0131 0071 0134 0058
096 1 14 095 092 087
82-120 82-120 98-104 83-102 105
47-158 45-145 73-105 31-98 91-50
07 07 07 08 09
72-98 72-98 66-69 62-78 67-68
20 24 24 23 16
0104
087
102-107
85-89
10
69
23
Algal productivity and chlorophyll a were fivefold
less in the treated side than in the control portion.
Oxygen depletion to 1.0 mg/7 in the experimental
side was attributed to organic matter not previously
removed prior to testing. Some leakage from the
experimental to the control portion after the first year
may have helped to reduce the control's productivity
during the second year.
Figure 1 1 illustrates reduced total phosphorus and
chlorophyll. Figure 12 demonstrates the difference in
algal growth between the two portions of the pond.
Some fish appeared to be stressed during the first
day of treatment; however, there were no deaths. No
long-term toxic effects upon benthic macroinverteb-
rates were noted.
The investigators have recommended studies be
undertaken to determine any health hazards.
Medical Lake
The Medical Lake experiment has been reported to
be successful (Gasperino and Soltero, 1978), espe-
-------
148
LAKE RESTORATION
cially in reducing soluble reactive phosphorus by 90
percent, from 300 to 30 mg/7. Light penetration (1
percent of incident) has been increased from 3.7 to
6.1 m. Late summer and fall blue-green blooms have
been replaced by green algae, predominately Oocys-
tis sp. Keizur (1978) also reports development of
healthy zooplankton populations. This treatment will
be discussed elsewhere in this conference.
Mar Apr May Jun Jgl AuQ Sep Oct Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Od
Figure 11.- Total phosphorus and chlorophyll a in control
and experimental sections of Cline's Pond after zirconium
treatment (redrawn from Powers, etal. 1975).
Figure 12.- Photograph of Cline's Pond showing contrast
between zirconium treated side (dark) and control side
(photo courtesy of W. D. Sanville).
Liberty Lake
At the time of treatment soluble phosphorus had
increased from 0.004 to 0.04 mg/7 concomitant
with macrophyte decline. After application of the
aluminum sulfate, soluble phosphorus was reduced
to less than .005 while total phosphorus was reduced
from 0.026 to less than 0.015 mg/7.
The most striking manifestation of the treatment
was the rapid decline of the bloom and increased
clarity of the water as each quadrant was treated. In
some areas where previous visibility was less than
0.5 m, the bottom could now be seen (vertical extinc-
tion coefficients were reduced from greater than 2.0
to less than 0.6). Long forgotten boat tieups, anchors,
and discarded paraphernalia became visible. The re-
maining aquatic weeds appeared as if they had been
covered by a layer of snow (Figure 13). Even distribu-
tion of the floe 0.7 to 2 cm in thickness was verified
by sediment cores collected by scuba divers.
Figure 13.- Floe settling upon aquatic macrophytes at Lib-
erty Lake, Wash.
A short-term drop of 10 to 12 mg/1 in alkalinity and
a drop in pH of 0.7 to 1.1 units were measured in
areas receiving treatment. Within 24 to 48 hours
these measurements returned to pretreatment levels.
Plankton tows made a week previous to the alumi-
num sulfate treatment contained no zooplankton.
Tows made the day previous to treatment were filled
with Anabaena and Gloeotrichia cells but no zoo-
plankton. The lack of zooplankton was attributed to a
rotenone treatment. Three weeks after the alum treat-
ment, zooplankton collected by tow consisted of Eu-
cyclops prasinus and Cylops vernalis. Approximately
1 month later considerable numbers of Diaptomus
reighardiand Daphniapu/exwere also collected.
Benthic invertebrates collected prior to treatment
averaged about 600 organisms/m2. Organisms col-
lected in the spring following treatment varied from
110 to 1,675 organisms/m2(Morency, 1975). Recent
investigations by Stanford (1977) indicate that popu-
lations this past year ranged between 80 to 2,700
individuals/m2.
In sampling benthic populations, seasonal and
sampling variability are important facts to be consid-
ered but it appears that very little short or long-term
damage occurred with the treatment. In fact there
may even be a positive effect. Crayfish were ob-
served feeding in the floe several days after
treatment.
Posttreatment measurements showed that soluble
phosphorus remained below 0.01 mg/7 throughout
the fall, spring, and summer of 1974-75. Total phos-
phorus rose temporarily during heavy wind and wave
activity (Figures 14 and 15). Intermittent checks in
1975 and 1976 showed relatively low soluble phos-
phorus despite above average snowfall and runoff.
With disappearance of the floe layer in the later
summer of 1976 a moderate Anabaena flos aquae
bloom and Coelosphaerium naegelianum appeared
that fall. Heavy Gloeotrichia echinulata, Coelosphaer-
-------
IN-LAKE TREATMENTS
149
Mov Dec Jon F«b Mar Apr Moy Jun
Apr Jun
Aug
1974
Figure 14.- Southeast Liberty Lake station soluble reactive and total phosphorus (ug/1).
50-
2-
I
30
X
Apr Jun lu
Figure 15.- Northwest Liberty Lake station soluble reactive and total phosphorus (uQ
Moy Jun
turn, and Anabaena blooms equivalent to those of
pretreatment levels occurred in the fall of 1977.
TREATMENT COSTS
No attempt has been made to update expenses to
the 1978 level because local salaries, rentals, equip-
ment costs, and price of chemicals vary greatly from
location to location. Insight may be gained from the
listing of people and equipment as to project needs;
local chemical supply houses can provide latest
chemical costs. The following tables give costs for
most of the treatments previously described.
SUMMARY
The previously described lake treatments have suc-
ceeded in reducing phosphorus and in most in-
stances many of the algal nuisances plaguing the
particular lake under discussion. Usually there is an
immediate response such as reduction of turbidity
and clearing of the waters. This aspect has a certain
aesthetic and public appeal. Treatment has been
successful in forestalling or reducing algal blooms
over a variety of conditions by removal of phosphorus
from the water column at ice-out, neutralizing release
of phosphorus from weed senescence and from lake
sediments.
Treatment is relatively inexpensive in comparison
to many algicides but rapidly escalates when larger
lakes are treated. In most instances, symptomatic
treatment with algicides has been worked out and is
comparatively straightforward. On the other hand,
considerable information about a lake needs to be
gathered before inactivation can be carried out.
Enough inactivant must be applied to insure precipi-
tation of phosphorus but not so much that the alkalin-
ity buffering action is overcome, pH falls, and the
residual dissolved ion is above that amount, causing
injury to valuable food chain organisms or fishes. The
critical level for dissolved aluminum is greater than
0.05 mg/7 according to some researchers (Everhart
and Freeman, 1973). The authors believe, however,
that overemphasis has been placed upon the toxicity
aspect in view of the "matter of fact" treatment with
certain algicides and fish toxicants that not only kill
the target species but may eliminate or disrupt
aquatic food chains for several months to years. In
many instances aluminum toxicity bioassays have
been carried out without apparent consideration of
-------
150
LAKE RESTORATION
the effect of the counterfoil, pH, or alkalinity. Burrows
(1977) presents an excellent review on the subject.
In the forseeable future pretreatment jar tests and
in situ pilot tests along with laboratory surveillance
will still be necessary to insure that lakes are effec-
tively and safely treated.
It appears that most treatments are effective for a
2- to 3-year period so it must be concluded that
nutrient inactivation is an intermediate and not a
long-term solution but has considerable advantage
over symptomatic treatment. The effect of a success-
ful treatment is readily apparent.
Continued research is essential to improve treat-
ment techniques, optimal times of treatment, and
overall effects upon f> /d chain organisms.
Alummu
Pro
Samp.i,
Analyses
Staff
Chemicals
Labor for treatment
Equipment
of Horseshoe Lake (1970)*
Cost
trip @$300/day
,~ 530/sample
12 tons alum @$60/ton
Delivery to site
12 man days @$40
4- expenses
Workboats, barges, outboard motors,
18-25 hp, amphibious truck, DUKW-35
and associated pumps, mixers, etc
$ 4000
1920
360 00
13,00000
7,30000
72000
18000
48000
10000
Essent.ally
all equipTif-r.t
was on ioa-
$22,19900
Peterson, 1973
Table 8 - Aluminum sulfate treatment of West Twin Lake (1974)
Description
Procedure
Sampling
Construction
Application
Fquioment
Supplies
Rentals
Che meals
*Cooke, et al 1978
Not listed
2,000 hours
590 hours
Barges, lines, storage,
storage containers
Expendable
Not listed
Aluminum sulfate (91 metre tons)
Total
Cost
No: gven
Not show i
Not shown
64600
26200
6,30300
ill. 7790
Table 9 - Sodium alummate and zirconiurr treatment of Ciine's Pond
Description
Sampling
Sta'!
Chemicals
Sampling
Stall
Chemicals
Sodium_Alummate Treatment (1971)*
Not listed
Five professionals/ 1 day
Sodium alum.iate (227 kg)
Hydrochloric acd
Zirconium Treatment (1974)**
Not listed
Not listed
Zirconium tetrachlonde (63 ^g)
Not available
Not shown
Not srcw,i
Table 10 - Aluminum sulfate treatment of Liberty Lake C1974)*
Procedure Description Cost
Sampling
Pretreatment testing
Staff
(analyses & tieatment)
Per diem
Equipment rental
Treatment devices
Pumps
Chem rais
Fuel
Miscellaneous
Overhead (otf campus)
10 man hours/trip
10/hr x 31
212 miles/1 CWrri +$6/day
Column tests, jar tests, lake tests
4 professionals, 7 man months
15 gradjate students
$385/hr, 8 hour/4 days
Research assistant 6 man months
Four nignts/17 at $14
3 barges, 4 days with motors
Forklift, 4 days
Construction at $85 each
4 centrifugal self priming pumps
Aluminum sulfate (95 3 metric ton)
Gasoline
Flags, paint, line, pipe, hoses, screens,
filters, snovels, life jackets, strainers.
fluorescent dyes, analytical chemicals
6,000
Total
$ 3,100
916
1,100
14,209
1,848
5,000
952
700
233
340
546
13,781
65
$49,692
Sanville, et al 1976
Powers, et al 1978
* F'ink, et al 1975
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Acknowledgement is made to the principal investigators,
coinvestigators, and authors of research reports and papers
on nutrient inactivation from which we borrowed so much
data io present this aspect of lake restoration.
REFERENCES
BUTOWS, W. D. 1977. Aquatic aluminum: chemistry, toxicol-
ogy and environmental prevalence. CRC Critical Rev in
Environ Con 1 67,
Cooke, G D., and R H. Kennedy 1977a. The short-term
effectiveness of a hypolimnetic aluminum sulfate applica-
tion Presented at Conf. Mechanisms Lake Restoration,
Madison, Wis (Mimeo.)
1 977b. Internal loading of phosphorus. Presented at
Conf Mechanisms Lake Restoration, Madison, Wis.
(Mirneo.)
Cooke, G. D , et al. 1978 Effects of diversion and alum
application on two eutrophic lakes EPA-600/3-78-033.
Environ Res. Lab. U S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Corvallis
Ore.
Dunst, R C , et al. 1974. Survey of lake rehabilitation tech-
niques and experiences. Bull No. 75 Dep. Nat Resour
Madison, Wis
Edmondson, W. T. 1972. Nutrients and phytoplankton in
Lake Washington. In Nutrients and eutrophication Spec.
Symp. Vol I Am. Soc Limno!. Oceanogr. Allen Press,
Lawrence, Kans
Everhart, W. H., and R A. Freeman. 1973. Effects of chemi-
cal variations in aquatic environments. Vol. II Toxic ef-
fects of aqueous aluminum to rainbow trout. EPA-
R3-73-011b US Environ. Prot Agency, Washington,
DC
Funk, W H , et al 1975. Determination and nature of non-
point source enrichment of Liberty Lake and possible
treatment. Dep. Ecol Proj. No. 22. Rep. No. 23. State of
Washington Water Res. Center, Pullman
Gaspermo, A F., and R. A. Soltero 1978. Restoration of
Medical Lake. Presented at 41st Annu Meet Am. Soc.
Limnol. Oceanogr. Victoria, Canada. (Abstr.)
-------
|N-|_AKE TREATMENTS
151
Gibbons, H. L. 1976. The primary productivity and related
factors of Liberty, Newman, and Williams Lakes in eastern
Washington. M S thesis. Washington State University,
Pullman.
Hutchmson, G. E. 1957. A treatise on limnology Vol. I John
Wiley and Sons, New York
Jernelov, A. 1971. Phosphorus reduction by precipitation
with aluminum sulfate Fifth Int. Conf. Water Pollut. Res.
Pergammon Press.
Kaufmann, P. 1977. Littoral primary production and related
factors in Liberty Lake, Wash, with special reference to
periphyton. M.S. thesis. Washington State University,
Pullman.
Keizur, G. R. 1978 An investigation of the zooplankton
community of Medical Lake, Wash, before, during and
after the whole lake application of aluminum sulfate. M.S.
thesis. Eastern Washington State University, Cheney.
Likens, G E. 1972. Eutrophication and aquatic ecosystems
in nutrients and eutrophication. Spec. Symp. Vol. I. Am
Soc. Limnol Oceanogr Allen Press, Lawrence, Kans.
Medine, A Personal communication Utah State University,
Logan.
Miller, W E., et al. 1974. Algal productivity in 49 lake waters
as determined by algal assays. Water Res. 8:667.
Morency, D. A. 1975. Invertebrate survey of Liberty Lake
and inflowing streams. Unpublished data.
1978 The ecology and primary productivity of
aquatic macrophyte communities in Liberty Lake with
implications for lake restoration and management Un-
published thesis data Washington State University,
Pullman.
Ockershausen, R. W. 1975. Alum vs phosphate-wastewater
treatment. Sewage Water Works 122:80.
Peterson, J. 0., et al. 1973 Nutrient inactivation by chemi-
cal precipitation at Horseshoe Lake, Wis Bull. No. 62
Dep. Nat. Resour. Madison, Wis
Peterson, S. A , et al. 1974 Nutrient inactivation as a lake
restoration procedure. EPA-660/3-74-032. Environ. Res.
Lab. U S Environ. Prot. Agency, Corvallis, Ore
Powers, C. F., et al. 1978. Phosphorus inactivation by zirco-
nium in a eutrophic pond. (In review )
Rohlich, G. A. 1969. Engineering aspects of nutrient re-
moval Pages 371-382 in Eutrophication: causes, conse-
quences, correctives. Symp. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., Wash-
ington, D.C.
Sanville, W D., et al. 1976. Studies on lake restoration by
phosphorus inactivation. EPA-600/3-76-041. Environ.
Res Lab. U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Corvallis, Ore.
Sawyer, C. N. 1944. Biological engineering in sewage treat-
ment. Sewage Works Jour 16:925.
Soltero, R. A., et al. 1978. Proj. Completion Rep. (Agreement
#13-49803 BH) to Batelle, N W. Eastern Washington
State University, Cheney.
Stanford, A 1977. Invertebrate survey of Liberty Lake.
Unpublished thesis data.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1973. Methods for
the restoration and enhancement of quality of freshwater
lakes. Off. Air Water Prog, and Off. Res. Dev. EPA-
430-19-73-005. Washington, D.C.
U S. Geological Survey. 1973. The channeled scablands of
Eastern Washington—the geological story of the Spokane
flood. U S Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C .
Vallentyne, J. R. 1 970. Phosphorus and the control of eutro-
phication. Can Res. Dev. (May-June, 1970): 36.
-------
WETLANDS AND ORGANIC SOILS
FOR THE CONTROL OF URBAN STORMWATER
EUGENE A. HICKOK
E. A. Hickok and Associates
Wayzata, Minnesota
ABSTRACT
Protecting and improving lake water quality is a large and complex task, and stormwater runoff
is known to have a significant impact on this quality. To look at this problem, a comprehensive
wetland study was performed. This study included: quantitative evaluation of the effectiveness
of wetlands for the removal of various contaminants; identification of the mechanisms involved
in the process; and determination of the long-term removal capabilities of wetlands. Methods
developed during this study may be implemented for urban stormwater runoff control in many
sections of the country. Conclusions from the study are explored in this paper. Filtration through
organic soil has been implemented at a small lake and is being evaluated. Wetlands also are
being used to control both point source and nonpoint source nutrient removal. Other techniques
include sedimentation with oil retention and removal capability and filtration dikes.
INTRODUCTION
This paper will consist of two major areas of inter-
est. The first area is a review of a research project
performed during 1974 and 1975 to evaluate and
assess urban runoff treatment methods using non-
structural wetland treatment techniques. The second
area will be to show examples of the application of
the technology gained from the research. Five
projects that are either constructed or in the design
stage will be addressed.
REVIEW OF RESEARCH
The Minnehaha Creek Watershed District, orga-
nized in 1967, had as one of its primary objectives,
the preservation of the water quality and water re-
sources of the district.
The district is a natural watershed basin encom-
passing the area that drains into the Lake
Minnetonka-Minnehaha Creek system. The largest
and most prominent feature is Lake Minnetonka,
whose 19 square miles of water make it the 10th
largest lake in the State of Minnesota. From the lake's
eastern edge at Grays Bay, Minnehaha Creek
emerges to flow 22 miles in an easterly direction to
the Mississippi River. Overall, the district encompas-
ses 184 square miles on the western edge of the
Twin Cities metropolitan area. Its major dimensions
are 20 miles east-west by 15 miles north-south. There
are 35 separate units of government and dozens of
other public and private bodies within the watershed
district, with which the managers of the district main-
tain close working relationships.
Urban growth has generated water quality prob-
lems in many of the lakes and has caused the district
to look for methods to improve the water quality of
these lakes. A program of diverting effluent from the
seven treatment plants that discharge to Lake Minne-
tonka was encouraged by the district as one means of
improving water quality. Once the sewage was di-
verted stormwater runoff was identified as the major
pollutant source to the lake.
Several communities within the district felt that
wetlands played an important role in the lake ecosys-
tem and encouraged the development of hard data
with which to scientifically evaluate wetlands. It had
become apparent that wetlands could be a practical
method to control stormwater runoff from a variety of
developments and drainage areas. Indeed, wetlands
have been identified as having a certain capacity for
the renovation of polluted waters.
BACKGROUND
In 1971 the Minnehaha Creek Watershed District
applied for a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
grant to study the effectiveness of various methods of
treating stormwater. In 1974, the EPA offered a grant
to the district and authorized it to proceed with the
wetland studies. The district's consulting engineers
and hydrologists, E. A. Hickok and Associates of
Wayzata, Minn, were retained to provide the neces-
sary professional expertise for the project.
The site selection process for the wetland studies
began in the spring of 1974. The site chosen for the
study was a 7-acre wetland with a 70-acre watershed
(shown on Figure 1). This 10 to 1 ratio of land surface
to water surface is typical of many lakes and marshes
in this region.
Appropriate instrumentation was installed in the
wetland during the summer of 1974 and data collec-
tion started in November of 1974, continuing until
October 1975 (1 water year), ""le basic objectives of
the project were to seek definitive answers to the
following questions:
153
-------
154
LAKE RESTORATION
LAKE
MINNETONKA
Figure 1.- Location map: Wayzata wetland
1. What role do wetlands play in the watershed's
hydrologic cycle?
2. What is the character of runoff entering the
wetlands?
3. What impact does runoff have on the wetlands?
4. What impact do the wetlands have on the quality
of the runoff water?
5. Can wetlands be managed to enhance the quality
of discharge water?
The genera! plan of study was to monitor all of the
flows into and out of the wetland so as to develop a
hydrologic balance. The quality of all the influent and
effluent streams of the wetland was monitored and
nutrient balances were developed. In addition, the
internal transformations and biological activity in the
wetlands were monitored.
THE PROJECT
The hydrologic cycle of any site is a complex series
of interactions of water with plants, soil, and the
atmosphere. The hydrologic cycle of the wetland
study site is shown on Figure 2. The sources of water
to the wetland are direct precipitation, direct runoff,
and groundwater inflow. All of these influent sources
were monitored as well as the surface outflow from
the wetland.
The direct watershed of the wetland was subdi-
vided into five drainage groups, based upon similar
land use characteristics. A total of 13 subwatersheds
comprised the five groups. Drainage group I included
areas that were typically undeveloped or had single
family homes on large lots. Drainage group II con-
sisted of single family homes on small lots. Drainage
group III included areas occupied by small busi-
nesses located along a major traffic corridor. Drain-
age group IV included a major shopping center and
runoff from major traffic corridors. Drainage group V
included the wetland itself.
A wetland can be defined as land where the water
table is at, near, or above the land surface long
Figure 2 - Hydrologic cycle.
enough each year to promote the formation of hydric
soils and to support the growth of hydrophytes, as-
suming other environmental conditions are favor-
able. From this definition it can be seen that ground
water is the most important physical factor in a
wetland.
The groundwater regime for the Lake Minnetonka
area is very complex, in that the lake and surrounding
wetlands, including the test site, are hydraulically
connected to a glacial drift aquifer. The groundwater
gradient in the glacial drift of the wetland watershed
is toward the wetland, and consequently, the wetland
is a point of groundwater discharge. This aquifer also
serves as a source for limited groundwater recharge
for underlying artesian aquifers.
The wetlands instrumentation was oriented toward
quantitative data to establish the runoff characteris-
tics and to construct a detailed nutrient and hydro-
logic balance for the wetland. A schematic of the
instrumentation installed in the managed area is
shown in Figure 3. Four parshall flumes were in-
OIVIOER BOX
©OBSERVATION WELL
O SUMP
QcLIMATOLOQICAL STATION
BARRIER
— UNDER DRAIN
• OXIDATION REDUCTION PROBES
Figure 3.- Instrumentation of wetland.
-------
|N-|_AKE TREATMENTS
155
stalled in representative drainage areas that dis-
charged into the wetland and a fifth flume was in-
stalled at the outlet of the wetland. These flumes
were equipped with automatic starters and an auto-
matic water sampler.
Thirteen polyvinyl chloride observation wells were
installed in the wetland and eight in the upland areas.
A complete weather station was installed in the wet-
land to measure all climatological parameters includ-
ing temperature, humidity, precipitation, and evapo-
ration. In addition, wind speed was determined at
two elevations within the wetland
Approximately 1 acre of the wetland was desig-
nated as a management area. A pentagonal configu-
ration conforming to the natural geography of the
area was chosen for the study site. Half of this penta-
gon was designated a pilot zone, to be used in the
dewatering cycles, and the other half a control zone.
RESULTS
Water Balance
The water balance of the wetland included the
following parameters:
Water Inflow (Gains)
A, = Precipitation directly
on wetland
B, = Runoff from tributary
watershed
C, = Groundwater inflow
Water Outflow (Losses)
A0 = Evapotranspiration
(transpiration and
evaporation) from the wetland
B0 = Discharge at outlet of the wetland
C0 = Groundwater seepage
If the above terms are arranged in the following
equation, the change in storage (AS) of water in the
wetland can be described:
(A, + B, + C,) - (A0 + B0 + C0) = AS
During the study period 77 cm of precipitation fell
directly on the wetland resulting in 2.38 ha-m of
water from direct precipitation. The runoff coefficient
ranged from 0.07 from group I to 0.32 for group IV,
resulting in a total of 3.19 ha-m of water from surface
runoff. Groundwater contribution was found to be
1.2 ha-m during the study period. Losses from the
wetland included evapotranspiration, which was de-
termined to be 1.79 ha-m during the study, and
surface discharge, measured at 5.44 ha-m. The re-
sults of the water balance as tabulated in Table 1
show that 0.46 ha-m of water was taken out of the
wetland storage.
Table 1 - Water balance
Nutrient Balance
Gams
Direct precipitation
Surface runoff
Groundwater inflow
Evapotranspiration
Surface discharge
Removed from wetland storage
238 ha-m
3 19 ha-m
1 20 ha-m
1 79 ha-m '
544 ha-m
046 ha-m
The same basic equation utilized for the water
balance is also applicable for use in the nutrient
balance. The following factors are included in the
wetland nutrient balance.
Nutrient Inflow (Gains)
A, = Nutrients in the precipitation
directly on wetland
B, = Nutrients in the runoff
from tributary
watershed
C, = Nutrients in the groundwater
inflow
Nutrient Outflow (Losses)
A0 = Nutrients in the evapotranspiration
from the wetland
B0 = Nutrients in the discharge at the
outlet of the wetland
C0 = Nutrients in the groundwater
seepage
D0 = Nutrients in materials removed
from the wetland
Unlike the water balance, nutrient losses from
evapotranspiration and groundwater seepage are not
significant factors in the total nutrient budget.
Nutrients are not lost from a wetland as a result of
evapotranspiration and no materials were removed
from the study wetland. Because ground water
discharges into the wetland, there is no groundwater
seepage from the wetland. Consequently, the
nutrient balance would be as follows:
(A, + B,+ C,)-B0=AS
The phosphorus loading by drainage groups is
shown in Table 2. The phosphorus concentrations for
three seasons are shown in the first three columns
and the annual phosphorus loadings are shown in the
fourth column. It should be noted that the drainage
group with the lowest concentration has the highest
annual loading because of the greatertotal volume of
runoff. Table 3 shows the sources of inflow,
precipitation, surface runoff, and ground water. A
total of 61.1 kg/yr of phosphorus entered the
wetland and 47.2 kg of phosphorus were retained in
the wetland. Therefore, 77 percent of the
phosphorus that entered the wetland was retained.
Table 4 shows two sources of suspended solids,
precipitation and runoff, and one source of outflow. A
total of 1 6,000 kg of suspended solids was retained
in the wetland for a removal rate of 94 percent.
Table 2 - Phosphorus generation by land use
Drainage group
1
Single family
targe lots
Single family
small lots
Strip development
traffic corndors
IV
Shopping center
Spring
22
24
20
19
Phosphorus
concentration
mg//
Summer Fall
037 030
073 042
022 022
009 0.25
Annual
phosphorus
load
kg/ha/yr
Oil
0 17
013
039
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156
LAKE RESTORATION
Table 3 - Phosphorus balance
Source
Precipitation
Surface runoff
Groundwater
Discharge
Retained in wetland
Inflow
kg/yr
07
33.8
266
61 1
Outflow
kg/yr
139
472 kg or 77%
Table 4 - Suspended solids balance
Source
Precipitation
Surface runoff
Groundwater
Discharge
Retained in wetland
Inflow
kg/yr
24
17,010
0
17,034
Outflow
kg/yr
1,025
16,009 kg or 94%
DISCUSSION
Four apparent mechanisms are at work in the
wetland system. These are physical entrapment,
microbial utilization, plant uptake, and adsorption.
Physical entrapment is an apparent reality in that 94
percent of the total suspended solids discharged to
the wetland were retained. Following entrapment in
solution or by attachment to solids, nutrients are held
in fibrous organic soil until the microbial utilization
mechanism becomes operative.
An organic soil exists because the rate of
deposition of organic matter within it exceeds the
rate of decomposition. As plant materials are first
deposited, the readily usable substances they
contain are rapidly decomposed by microorganisms
to meet their demands for carbon and energy needed
for growth. When these compounds become
depleted, usually within a few days to weeks, the bulk
of the residues are degraded or partially degraded at
a slower rate. The organic matter that slowly
accumulates serves as a nutrient base as well as a
physical base for microorganisms.
Evaluation of the phosphorus adsorptive capacity
of the wetland soils indicated that the organic soils
presently contain between 5 and 17 times the
amount of phosphorus that would be expected. It is
apparent that the phosphorus is fixed in an organic
form, possibly as part of the vegetative fiber.
Data developed by this project may be used to
determine the pollutant loading generated by certain
land use types and to determine the approximate
wetland area required in a nonstructural mode to
renovate the stormwater runoff. Table 5 compares
the loading generated by the four drainage groups
studied in this project with that found in other studies
in the Twin Cities metropolitan area. Phosphorus and
total suspended solids loading are compared. The
drainage group data are mixtures of land use
categories because they are defined by existing
storm sewer systems. The ranges found in the various
drainage groups are comparable to those in the purer
land use categories.
Table 6 shows the ratio by land use categories of
developed area to the required treatment area. The
table is based on the loading of phosphorus and
suspended solids found during the project; however,
other constraints could be applied and the results
would be modified appropriately. Such constraints
include allowable effluent concentration of a given
parameter, the physical, microbiological, and
chemical characteristics of the treatment area, and
the hydrological setting of the system.
Table 5 - Pollutant generation by land use
Land Use
Open spaced)
Residential")
thin
Residential!"
average
Residential")
dense
Commercial")
Industrial
DG I Single family
large lots
DG II Single family«>
small lots
DG III Strip development")
DG IV Shopping center<2>
<» E A Hickok & Associates, 1973 Metropolitan Council Data
<2> E. A Hickok & Associates, 1975 EPA Data
Table 6 - Typical land requirements for non-structural
runoff treatment system
Phosphorus
kg/ha/yr
006
007
0.26
063
024
0 11
017
013
039
Total suspended
solids
kg/ha/yr
10
26
88
149
84
84
241
54
163
Land use of developed area
Residential
thin
Residential
average
Residential
dense
Commercial
Industrial
DG I Single family
DG II Single family
DG III Strip development
DG IV Shopping center
Ratio of Developed Area to Treatment Area
Nutrient limiting Solids limiting
phosphorus suspended solids
55
47
13
5
14
19
25
8
92
35
10
6
11
4
17
6
(1) Using allowable loading rate of 3 3 kg/ha/yr of phosphorus and
920 kg/ha/yr of total suspended solids
CONCLUSIONS
1. Wetlands are a complex hydrological, chemical,
and biological system with each factor having
impacts on the others.
2. The mechanism for the renovation of stormwater
by wetlands appears to be a combination of physical
entrapment, microbial transformation, and biological
utilization.
3. The annual runoff coefficients ranged from 0.07
for the open space and single family drainage group
to 0.32 for the shopping center and traffic corridor
drainage group.
4. The Wayzata wetland is an area of groundwater
discharge that provides 18 percent of the total water
input.
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IN-|_AKE TREATMENTS
157
5. The tributary phosphorus loading ranged from
0.1 1 kg/ha/yr (0.60 Ibs/ac/yr) to 0.39 kg/ha/yr (2.1
Ibs/ac/yr) from the undeveloped and single family
drainage groups, respectively.
6. Evaporation rates in the wetland are greatly
reduced during periods when the vegetation is
dense.
7. The Wayzata wetland retained 77 percent of all
total phosphorus and 94 percent of the total
suspended solids entering the site during the study
period.
8. There appears to be a net loss of ammonia from
the wetland that is caused by the transformation of
nitrogen compounds.
9. The water level management technique, where
effective, did appreciably increase the surface
microbial activity.
10. Microbial activity decreased dramatically when
wetland soils were submerged and became
anaerobic.
11. Microbial activity is most affected by soil
temperature with higher activity during warmer
temperatures.
12. Surface bacteria counts appear very responsive
to runoff events, possibly the phosphorus load, with
counts increasing in number after each event.
13. The populations of anaerobic organisms deep
in the organic soils (76 cm) illustrate a direct
relationship to phosphorus concentration.
14. The microbial activity in the wetland appears to
be the initial and most important mechanism for
removing phosphorus from the soil water solution.
15. Phosphorus appears to be the limiting nutrient
during the summer when microbial growth
conditions are optimum.
16. The biological assessments detected no
adverse environmental impacts on the wildlife or
vegetation within the wetland as a result of this
project.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. A general policy of wetland preservation for
phosphorus removal with nonstructural treatment
methods should be adopted.
2. The drainage from selected wetlands should be
managed and be aerated before discharge to
receiving waters.
3. Careful consideration must be given to the
distribution of stormwater to wetlands.
4. The Wayzata wetland study should be continued
to determine nutrient transformations, ammonia to
nitrate conversion, the phosphorus capture
mechanisms, and to further evaluate the hydrologic
balances.
5. Additional research and uniform procedures are
required in the following areas: (a) defining the
various factors of the hydrologic budget of wetlands
including evapotranspiration rates, evaporation
rates, and groundwater movement; (b) defining the
microbial activity during aerobic and anaerobic
conditions for typical wetlands; (c) defining the
importance of the plant growth cycle and water level
management techniques or changes in effluent water
quality.
APPLICATION OF WETLANDS
AND ORGANIC SOILS
TO CONTROL URBAN RUNOFF
Five projects will be discussed in the following
paragraphs, describing the application of the
techniques developed in the previously discussed
research.
During the initial planning phases of a new major
regional shopping center, the environmental factors
became a prime consideration. It was decided that
facilities must be incorporated within the design of
the facility to reduce and control the impact of
stormwater runoff. A report defining the hydrologic
conditions of the site before and after the
development was prepared and the required removal
rates were determined so as not to impact the
receiving waters. The drainage basin includes 112
acres of land, 88 acres of marsh, and 40 acres of
open water. The shopping center occupies 85 acres
of this land. The net effect of the development on the
site was to increase the total stormwater runoff from
150 acre-feet per year to 368 acre-feet per year. It
was estimated that over 70,000 pounds of
suspended solids and 9,000 pounds of oil must be
removed annually to maintain the present quality of
the lake water.
Two stormwater holding ponds were designed and
included in the original grading plan. These facilities
were used during construction to store and settle
stormwater runoff before discharge to the adjacent
marsh and lake. The settled water was discharged
through rock filter beds to remove suspended solids
and silt. The granular material on the parking area
was left a few inches above grade near the catch
basins to prevent rapid runoff and erosion before the
areas were paved.
The design objectives used to select a system and
facilities included: (1) minimize the impact of the
shopping center on the natural environment; (2)
contribute only minimal increase to offsite discharge
rate; (3) incorporate a water body with aesthetic
appeal; (4) stabilize stream flows; (5) reduce flooding
possibilities; (6) minimize erosion and siltation
problems; and (7) utilize on-site drainage and storage
capacity.
A baffled inlet control structure was utilized that
captured the floating debris and grit before
discharge to the holding pond. Belt type oil removal
units were used at the outlet structures to remove any
oil that had accumulated in the holding pond. One of
the treatment areas was an intermittent pond with
some peripheral wetland areas. Although the water
elevation has been increased somewhat and fluctu-
ates more widely than in the natural conditions, the
site is aesthetically pleasant and the water quality
meets the conditions of the National Pollutant Dis-
charge Elimination System.
The second project utilizing technology gained in
the research was the construction of a biologically
activated soil filtration unit to filter phosphorus from
the hypolimnion water of Wirth Lake in Minneapolis.
A 3,600 square foot filtration unit with organic soil
filter media was constructed. A filtration rate of 650
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158
LAKE RESTORATION
gallons per minute is being used to filter phosphorus
and suspended solids from the hypolimnetic water.
The unit was sized to be capable of filtering approxi-
mately one volume of the lake on an annual basis. The
filtration unit has been planted with natural vegeta-
tion to enhance the aesthetic value of the unit as well
as improve the nutrient renovative capacity of the
organic soils. This system was installed during the
summerof 1977.
A 225-acre watershed located at the Minneapolis-
St. Paul Airport drained uncontrolled to a lake within
the airport property. A facility was designed and
constructed that included a 50,000 gallon oil reten-
tion basin and a 6-acre wetland treatment area. A
filter dike permitting an unattended drawdown of the
treated stormwater was constructed on the outlet of
the wetland. This facility has been in operation since
the fall of 1977.
A 10-acre wetland is being utilized by the city of
Annandale, some 50 miles west of the Twin Cities, to
treat a combination of urban runoff and treated
wastewater. The city municipal sewage works in-
cludes a three-cell lagoon and an irrigation system
that is somewhat overloaded. The wetland was
equipped with a control structure that permits the
wetland to be filled with approximately 1 5 acre-feet
of combined stormwater and sewage effluent in a
batch process. The marsh is allowed to fill during a
1 1/2-day time period; the water is held for a period
of 4 days followed by a discharge time of approxi-
mately 1 1/2 days. The wetland is then rested for a
3-day cycle before the fill cycle is repeated.
The final application of the use of organic soils and
wetlands is for the Long Lake Restoration Project.
The upstream watershed consisting of over 6,500
acres, is distributed into three separate wetlands with
a total area of 128 acres. It is expected that both
sediment and phosphorus levels will be reduced in
this stormwater runoff to a level that will restore the
lake. Other restoration measures that are taking place
within the lake and watershed are sedimentation
basins, erosion control facilities, and finally, dredging
of the accumulated sediments from the lake itself.
It is apparent that both wetlands and organic soils
can be used to control the impact of urban stormwa-
ter runoff on surface water resources.
-------
STATE OF
THE ART
RESEARCH
-------
THE NEED FOR MORE BIOLOGY
IN LAKE RESTORATION
JOSEPH SHAPIRO
Limnological Research Center
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
ABSTRACT
During the last two decades our drive to combat cultural eutrophication has led to a restriction of
our view of lakes to the point where they are looked upon largely as phosphorus-driven
generators of algae. Although useful to a degree, this attitude is reaching the stage where it is
becoming counterproductive. There is ample evidence to show that although phosphorus does
set limits, within these limits algal abundance and type are mostly functions of nonphosphorus
water chemistry and aquatic community structure. Unless we broaden our viewpoint and once
more look upon lakes as ecosystems, we are in danger of stifling research and misleading
ourselves and the public.
INTRODUCTION
A few years ago we had a saying—"Lakes are
complex." This saying served several purposes. First,
it made us feel better if we did not understand some-
thing completely. Second, it helped hold the public at
arm's length. And third, we believed it
Then came Vollenweider (1968) and we forgot all
about the complexities of lakes. All at once lakes
were simple) Phosphorus loading was the answer!
The banner of phosphorus went up high, and, except
for a brief and slight dipping of the banner during the
notable carbon controversy, it has flown there since.
Now this is as it should be, of course. When the truth
is revealed it should endure, and I have no quarrel
with phosphorus, nor do I have any particular quarrel
with Vollenweider, or Dillon, or with any of those who
have brought a systematic approach to the subject of
lake response to nutrient input.
My quarrel is not with them, but with those, includ-
ing on occasion myself, who have come to rely on
Vollenweider and Dillon to the exclusion of all else,
i.e., with those of us who have come to look on lakes
not as ecosystems, as we used to, but as
phosphorus-fueled generators of algae. In other
words, I would quarrel with those among us who have
made a religion of phosphorus.
PHOSPHORUS NOT ALONE
Let me hasten to add that I believe that phosphorus
loading is a determinant of lake trophic condition—
however we define it. I am as impressed as anyone by
a correlation coefficient between phosphorus and
chlorophyll of 0.99 or 0.95 or even 0.90. If I were a
high government official in charge of overall lake
policy I would cry more, morel But I am not, and I do
not. I am a limnologist interested in lake restoration
and what I want to say here is that we need to pay
much more attention to the rest of the biology of
lakes—to factors other than phosphorus.
I believe that by ignoring lake biology we have been
making it harder to understand the phenomenon of
eutrophication, and more difficult to manage and
restore lakes. There is no question that phosphorus
generally imposes a limit to overall productivity in
lakes. One of my students, Val Smith (1978), has
recently been able to demonstrate this in a most
convincing way by showing that, on a volumetric
basis, primary production in lakes is linearly propor-
tional to total phosphorus. But there is also no ques-
tion that within the limits imposed by phosphorus,
algal abundance and type are functions of biological
factors other than phosphorus (Shapiro, et al. 1975;
Shapiro, 1977).
Even the phosphorus loading to a lake may be
greatly influenced by the organisms in that lake. As
most of you are aware, determining the phosphorus
budget of a lake is a time-consuming task, and in
many cases is almost impossible to do without con-
suming a good fraction of the national budget as well.
Therefore, in recent years we have come to rely more
and more on a rule of thumb approach in which land
use data are combined with runoff estimates to de-
velop the budget. Aerial inputs are taken into account
in a similar way, and internal loading is usually based
on literature release rates of phosphorus from oxi-
dized and reduced sediments.
You will note that the "thumb" used is thus com-
pletely nonbiological. This is a mistake because it has
been shown that aquatic organisms are capable of
putting nutrients from sediments back into circula-
tion. For example, Reimold (1972) and McRoy, et al.
(1972) showed that marine plants have the capacity
to act as nutrient pumps, and Lie (1978), working in
Shagawa Lake, and Gasith, et al. (1976), in Lake
Wingra, recently showed the same macrophytes in
lake waters. Furthermore, the rates of nutrient trans-
fer are not to be scoffed at. In Shagawa Lake Lie
showed that 5,000 kg of phosphorus are recycled
161
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162
LAKE RESTORATION
per year—about as much as the EPA phosphorus
removal plant is removing from the sewage influent!
Another example of significant nutrient input by
lake organisms comes from the work of Lamarra
(1975a, b). He showed that bottom-feeding fish are
capable of excreting phosphate and ammonia, and
what would be considered an average population of
carp for a Minnesota lake is capable of releasing to
the water enough of these nutrients to exceed Vollen-
weider's safe loading limits. In fact, enough nutrient
is released to result in massive growths of algae. An
example of Lamarra's results, which are based on a
very careful study of excretion rates of different sized
fish at different temperatures after feeding on differ-
ent substrates, is shown in Figure 1.
1000
250 500 750 4000
Fish density kg/ha
4250
Figure 1.- Release of phosphorus from sediments by carp as
a function of fish abundance (from Lamarra, 1975).
A current student of mine, Eric Smeltzer, is studying
a shallow 600-acre eutrophic Minnesota lake in
which most of the fish are bottom feeders. As the lake
is scheduled to be treated with rotenone we have an
excellent opportunity to determine the effect the fish
have been having on the phosphorus budget. We
expect it to be large. In addition to macrophytes and
fish, snails (Lamarra and Lie, 1975) and chironomid
larvae would excrete phosphorus, some of which
would otherwise remain in the sediments; it is likely
that other lake organisms are involved also. Before
you are tempted to say, "Yes, we know these things
but they are unlikely to be of quantitative impor-
tance," do the calculations. If I have learned one
thing, it is to not regard something as unimportant
without knowing for certain.
So, even when we speak of nutrient loading to
lakes we must consider the lake biota itself and
assess its contributions. But beyond this a knowledge
of lake biology is of great importance. Besides calcu-
lating nutrient loadings, another popular pastime, as I
indicated above, is the construction and refinement
of relationships such as that between chlorophyll and
phosphorus, e.g.. Figure 2 (Jones and Bachmann,
1976). According to Dillon and Rigler (1974) empiri-
cal models are easier to produce than "realistic"
•I 000
Figure 2.- Relationship between summer chlorophyll and
total phosphorus in a number of lakes. After Jones and
Bachmann, 1976. See text for explanation of the dotted
line.
ones, and this may be true. But it does not excuse the
misuse or misinterpretation of these models. They
are the means, not the end, and despite Jones and
Bachmann's( 1976) statement that "The phosphorus-
chlorophyll a relationship provides a means for un-
derstanding the difference in the algal densities of
lakes ..." the relationship explains nothing. It de-
scribes the situation.
There are in fact reasons why too great reliance on
these relationships may give us a false sense of
confidence and make us believe we know more than
we do. For instance, if the data in Figure 2 are plotted
on a linear scale, instead of a log-log scale, the scatter
of the data becomes very apparent (Figure 3). A lake
having a total P concentration of 125 ug/1 may have
a chlorophyll concentration as high as 215 ug/1 or as
low as 62 UQ/J, a range of about 350 percent.
Similarly, a lake having a concentration of total phos-
phorus of 105 ug/1 may have chlorophyll of from 55
to 210ug//—a range of 380 percent. If the phospho-
rus is lower, say 57 ug//, the range of chlorophyll
then is from 9 to 44 ug/1—a range of 500 percent.
Conversely, a lake having 28 ug/1 of chlorophyll
may have as little as 39 ug/1 of phosphorus or as
much as 120 ug/1. Thus it is evident that despite the
high correlation coefficients of the
phosphorus/chlorophyll relationships, and despite
the similarities of slopes and intercepts of the rela-
tionships constructed by various investigators, the
relationships are useful only on a global basis—not in
individual lakes. That is, we cannot guarantee to
anyone that if his lake has X phosphorus it will have Y
chlorophyll. It may in fact have 4 or 5 Y chlorophyll.
Furthermore, refinement of the regressions will not
-------
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
163
improve the situation. In fact, addition of more data
will increase the scatter.
The question thus becomes, why is there so much
scatter? I think we can dismiss immediately the likeli-
hood that it results to any significant degree from
incorrect data. The real reason for the scatter is
undoubtedly that phosphorus is only one of the fac-
tors affecting algal abundance. This is of course
recognized by many, and Dillon and Rigler (1974)
propose, for example, that their regression be used to
predict summer chlorophyll only if the N/P ratio ex-
ceeds 12. But there are many more factors than
nitrogen or even other nutrients.
ol
— (00
-C
&
_o
.c
o
0 50 (00 <50
Total P pa/1
Figure 3.- Replotting of part of the data from Figure 2 on
linear axes.
ORGANISMS PLAY A ROLE
One of the most important is the presence or ab-
sence of organisms other than algae. For example,
Hrbacek, etal. (1977) investigated the relationship of
fish population to goodness of fit to the Dillon and
Rigler regression in three reservoirs. Two of the reser-
voirs (Klicava and Vrchlice), which had "normal" Eu-
ropean fish stocks of stunted roach, perch, and small
cyprinids, fit the regression well. That is, their chloro-
phyll contents were predicted fairly closely by their
phosphorus concentrations. But the third reservoir,
Hubenov, having a population consisting largely of
brown and rainbow trout, had far less chlorophyll
than expected from its total phosphorus.
This is not to say that fish per se affect phosphorus-
chlorophyll relationships, but their activities do. In the
first two reservoirs, as a result of the large popula-
tions of planktivorous fish, the zooplankton was dom-
inated by small forms—Bosmina longirostris, Daph-
nia galeata, Daphnia cucullata. In Hubenov reservoir,
on the other hand, the large form Daphnia pulicaria
was abundant. The activities of the fish in size selec-
tive predation on the zooplankton resulted in a more
efficient population of herbivores in Hubenov, and
therefore a higher grazing rate on the algae.
This effect of zooplankton on algal abundance is
not by any means limited to Central European reser-
voirs. On the contrary, it is very widespread and one
only has to look to find it. For example, there is in the
heart of Minneapolis a chain of five lakes. One of
these, Lake Harriet, has consistently exhibited low
chlorophyll concentrations relative to its phosphorus
(Shapiro and Pfannkuch, 1973). For example, in
1971-1973, total phosphorus averaged 38 ug/1.
Chlorophyll, which according to the Dillon-Rigler re-
gression should have been about 14 ug/1, averaged
less than 3.5 UQ/ 1, about one-fourth of the predicted
value. In 1974 total phosphorus was somewhat
higher, 50 ug/1 instead of 38, but the chlorophyll
had risen to an average of 29 ug/1, about 1.4 times
that predicted from Dillon-Rigler.
Why in 1974 did the chlorophyll move above the
regression line while being well below it in the 3
previous years? The only explanation we have been
able to find involves the zooplankton. In 1974 the
Daphnia were much less abundant than in the previ-
ous period (Figure 4).
50r
40-
Total Daphnia,
thousonds/m2
Total Phosphorus
jjg/l
Chlorophyll 3.
pg/l
1977
Figure 4.-Total P,chlorophylls, and Daphnia in Lake Harriet,
from 1971-1977.
Another case where Daphnia have spontaneously
changed, with a reciprocal effect on algal abun-
dance, is in Lake Washington (Edmondson, 1978a).
Beginning in 1976, various species of Daphnia be-
came abundant and the transparency increased be-
yond any previously recorded values.
Although we do not know for certain, these
changes in Daphnia in Lake Harriet and Lake Wash-
ington may have resulted from changes in the popula-
tions of planktivorous fish. It is in fact common to find
great decreases in algal abundance following winter
kill of the fish in a lake, and in almost every case
where data are available it is also possible to demon-
strate an increase in abundance of large Daphnia
(e.g., Schindler and Comita, 1972; Summerfelt,
1978; Minnesota Dep. Nat. Resour. 1978).
-------
164
LAKE RESTORATION
Furthermore, it is becoming increasingly recog-
nized that the decline of algal abundance in lakes
from which fish have been chemically removed is
attributable in part to the increase of Daphnia in
these lakes, as well as to the decrease of bottom-
feeding nutrient-pumping fish (Bandow, 1978). An-
other local example is in Minneapolis where Wirth
Lake, which normally has a July transparency of 0.7
to 1.6 m had a transparency as high as 4.5 m in July
1978 as a result of its treatment with rotenone in the
fall of 1977 (Shapiro, 1978).
Finally, if more evidence of the importance of the
biota were needed it is easily obtained by experimen-
tal means. Figure 5 shows the results of an experi-
ment carried out by Michael Lynch (1975). Seven
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Number of Fish/Enclosure
Figure 5.- The effects of adding various numbers of zoo-
planktivorus fish to enclosures of lake water containing
Daphnia.
plastic enclosures, 1 m in diameter, 2 m deep, and
with closed bottoms were set out in a lake containing
Daphnia. Perch were added to five of the enclosures
as shown. Although total phosphorus was approxi-
mately the same in all enclosures, the presence of the
fish increased the algal abundance dramatically with
a concomitant decrease in transparency. The reason
was the fish consumed the Daphnia that had been
grazing on the phytoplankton. We have repeated this
sort of experiment numerous times, including divid-
ing whole ponds into two, and the results have al-
ways been the same. Note that the intensity of zoo-
plankton grazing in the absence of fish was such that
free orthophosphate persisted in the water.
Thus there is no question that zooplankton and,
through them, fish can have a dominant effect on
algal abundance. This being the case, it is surprising
that there is not even greater scatter in the
chlorophyll-phosphorus relationships.
Another aspect of the chlorophyll-phosphorus rela-
tionship that needs investigation is the variable yield
of chlorophyll per unit phosphorus at different phos-
phorus concentrations. This is shown in Figure 6
where the data of four groups of investigators is
plotted. Only the data of the Minnesota Pollution
Control Agency (1978) exhibit a constant ratio of
chlorophyll to phosphorus. The fact that the ratio
increases in the other three cases is very important
because it means that as a lake becomes richer in
phosphorus it becomes proportionately more effi-
cient at producing a standing crop of algae (assuming
that chlorophyll h a good indicator of biomass).
5 JO 50 *OO
Total P pg/l
Figure 6.- The chlorophyll/phosphorus ratio as a function of
total phosphorus, according to four authors.
Clearly, if we understood why this happened we
would be in a much better position to predict the
consequences of changing the phosphorus content
of a given lake. On the other hand, if the MPCA
relationship is valid, the question is, why are these
data different? In fact, it seems to me that this is one
of the most important aspects of the chlorophyll-
phosphorus relationships—not the fact that lakes do
respond to phosphorus—but the fact that they re-
spond differently at different levels of phosphorus.
Again the reasons must be biological. Is the effect
only apparent? That is, do the (blue-green) algae in
-------
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
165
more productive lakes contain more chlorophyll per
unit biomass, or is the effect real? Are the blue-greens
produced at the higher phosphorus levels less effi-
ciently grazed by Daphnia and other herbivores, re-
sulting in more of the total phosphorus being present
in the form of algae? Or, are there fewer large grazers
per unit algal biomass at the high phosphorus con-
centrations, because the phosphorus is high? As
productivity increases and hypolimnia become de-
pleted of oxygen, the Daphnia would have no refuge
from warm water fish and therefore be subject to
higher predation rates. This may even explain why
the slight increase in total P in Lake Harriet coincides
with the lowest Daphnia population (Figure 4).
Whatever the explanation, we should seek it, rather
than concentrating our efforts on refining the regres-
sions. In fact, I would venture that we have gone
about as far as we can, or even should, in trying to
predict chlorophyll from phosphorus alone. What we
need now are means to evaluate the modifiers of this
relationship—means to understand why the algal
abundance and type are what they are.
Because the scatter in the chlorophyll/phosphorus
relationship brought about by the innate biology of
the lake is so great, and because the effect of the
biota is generally to reduce the algal population per-
haps we should speak in ceilings, or maximal yields.
This at least would provide the public with a more
candid estimate of our ability to restore a lake solely
on the basis of phosphorus concentrations in the
water. Then as we learn to understand the biotic
factors in a given lake we can modify our estimate
from that base. I have drawn such a limit on the data
of Jones and Bachmann( 1976) shown in Figure 2.
USING THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
Now, having taken issue with what I consider the
reductionist view of lake eutrophication espoused by
Vollenweider and others, I would like to be construc-
tive and suggest that even now we know enough
about the biology of lakes to turn it to our advantage
in our attempts at restoration. Consider the typical
eutrophic lake. Frequently it will be shallow and, at
least in high latitudes, winter kill will result in a fish
population dominated by bottom feeders.
Knowing what we do about recycling of sediment
nutrients by fish such as carp and bullhead it is clear
that elimination of these fish by itself will frequently
result in a measurable improvement in the lake. At
present there are several possible approaches—trap
netting during spawning, rotenone or other general
fish toxicants, specific toxicants for bottom feeders.
But there are other approaches we can and should
consider. For example, it might be possible to find
specific diseases against these fish, or to foster se-
vere winter kills by covering the ice or even by adding
such substances as hydrogen sulfide or sodium cyan-
ide under the ice (Adelman and Smith, 1972; Leduc,
etal. 1973).
Similarly, where macrophytes are identified as nu-
trient sources to lakes and their removal presents no
problem in terms of spawning areas, removing them
by mechanical or even by biological means using
Amur carp can be beneficial. This approach of using
grass carp might appear to be antithetical to my
previous comments on carp, but the evidence to date
is that grass carp do not release soluble nutrients to
anywhere near the same extent as do the common
carp.
Probably the greatest benefit to lake restoration,
though, can be achieved by manipulating the plankti-
vorous fish population. Because eutrophic lakes do
provide a lot of food and allow for successful spawn-
ing, they frequently are inhabited by large popula-
tions of stunted planktivores. By reducing these pop-
ulations, great changes can be brought about in the
zooplankton community, particularly among the
larger herbivores. This phenomenon, which as I have
shown is widespread, also occurs in bodies of water
ranging from the smallest ponds to Lake Michigan,
the latter demonstrated by the study of Wells (1970).
The several approaches to increasing the larger
herbivorous zooplankters include such things as
chemical removal of all fish in the lake, selective
chemical removal of planktivorus fish such as perch
by antimycin, and introduction of predatory fish
(Gammon and Hasler, 1965; Schmitz and Hetfeld,
1965; Forsythe, 1977). Again the use of species
specific diseases should be investigated.
As I have indicated, one move that might increase
the herbivore populations is to prevent the hypolimn-
ion from becoming completely anoxic, thus eliminat-
ing the predation-free refuge for Daphnia. This could
be accomplished by artificial aeration of either the
hypolimnion or the whole lake. Alternatively, a small
reduction of overall productivity brought about
through nutrient diversion might be enough to tip the
balance in favorof the Daphnia.
Finally, we can even use our knowledge of the biota
to alter the algal populations directly. This has been
described at length in previous publications (Shapiro,
1973; Shapiro, et al. 1975) but a brief summary
might be useful. It had been noted in the 1960's by
Symons and his collaborators (Symons, 1969) that
artificial circulation of lakes sometimes resulted in a
shift of the algae from blue-greens to greens and
diatoms. Numerous investigations followed, some
successful and some unsuccessful. In 19731 showed
that adding carbon dioxide and/or lowering the pH
will cause the blue-green to green shift.
Since then we have done many successful algal
shifts in the laboratory and on a small scale in the
field and, although the mechanism is still not com-
pletely clear, it does appear to be related to the drop
in pH accompanying a fast enough rate of circulation.
Whether because providing carbon dioxide to the
greens allows them to compete successfully, or
whether the pH drop has some other effect such as
activating cyanophage (Lindmark, 1977) is unclear.
But the method works and might be employed to
alter the population of algae to forms edible to herbi-
vores. Figures 7 and 8 show some of the phenomena
that can occur during circulation. Note the biological
explanations that contrast with the commonly held
view that the chief function of circulation is to "seal
the sediment surface" or "oxidize organic sedi-
-------
166
LAKE RESTORATION
merits." Clearly there is far more to circulation than
redox chemistry.
Recruitment
or Stimulotion
if Myxobacter
Figure 7.- A diagrammatic representation of some of the
results of whole lake circulation and their role in causing a
shift from blue-green algae to greens.
Figure 8.- A diagrammatic representation of the manner in
which whole lake circulation may act to reduce algal
biomass.
CONCLUSIONS
It should be evident by now that biology is impor-
tant in lake restoration, and that relatively easy and
inexpensive biological manipulations can greatly
benefit lakes. To use a phrase coined by Edmondson
(1978b), most lake restoration procedures to date
involve brute force. That is, they involve the applica-
tion of engineering techniques. But lake restoration
actually involves the restoration of an ecosystem to a
former state of balance—and ecosystems involve a
lot of biology.
In presenting these ideas before I have often heard
the objection that I am proposing cosmetic measures
and not really getting at the underlying problems of
eutrophication. I beg to differ very strongly. When
macrophytes and bottom-feeding fish can cause sig-
nificantly high internal nutrient loading; when biolog-
ical phenomena within lakes can result in at least
fivefold variations in average chlorophyll concentra-
tions at the same phosphorus level; when small
changes in productivity can cause large changes in
herbivore populations; when changes in predatorfish
can effect changes in planktivorous fish and in herbi-
vores; and when algal speciation depends upon com-
petitive biological phenomena—then I find it hard to
understand the term "cosmetic." 1 would far rather
use the term "ecologic."
There is no question that if we can lower the phos-
phorus content of a lake enough it will have less
productivity and we will have "restored" it. But there
is also no question that the symptoms of eutrophica-
tion are frequently worsened by the biologic imbal-
ance that follows and that restoration in these cases
must involve biological reconstruction. There is also
the harsh reality that for many lakes, for political,
logistical, or financial reasons, there is no alternative
to the ecological approach.
Finally, two cautionary notes. First, biomanipulation
is not a panacea. It involves slippery relationships not
always under our control. For example, there is al-
ways the possibility that in a lake with populations of
large Daphnia, and consequently few algae, the nutri-
ents will be used by an alga such as Aphanizomenon
that is not readily eaten by Daphnia. This has hap-
pened. But it is not inevitable—witness Lake Harriet,
Lake Washington, and Hubenov reservoir. To let a
few such problems and a misunderstanding of cos-
meticity prevent us from using the biological forces
(Schuytema, 1977) inherent in lakes would be a
grievous error. If, as most of us believe, we are ecolo-
gists, it is time for us to think like ecologists. There is
more to a lake than phosphorus.
My second caution is directed not to scientists, but
to administrators and politicians. You have misinter-
preted our message. Lake restoration is not a science
yet. It still is in need of research. We are committing a
grievous error by providing millions for restoration
while eliminating research funds. If only 5 percent of
the moneys allocated for "doing" were to be diverted
to "understanding," the returns would be substantial.
-------
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
167
REFERENCES
Adelman, I. R., and L. L. Smith. 1972. Toxicity of hydrogen
suifide to goldfish (Carassius auratus) as influenced by
temperature, oxygen, and bioassay techniques. Jour. Fish.
Res. Board Can. 29:1309.
Bandow, F. 1978. Effects of chemical eradication of fish on
a lake ecosystem. Prog. Rep. Minn. Dep. Nat. Resour. Proj
No. F-26-R-6, Study No. 303.
Dillon, P. J., and F. H. Rigler. 1974. The phosphorus-
chlorophyll relationship in lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr.
19:767.
Edmondspn, W. T. 1978a. Lake Washington and the pre-
dictability of limnolpgical events. In G. Likens, et al. eds.
Symp. lake metabolism and lake management. University
of Uppsala. (In press.)
19786. Personal communication. University of
Washington, Seattle.
Forsythe, T. D. 1977. Predator-prey interactions among
crustacean plankton, young bluegill (Lepomis
macrochirus), and walleye (Stizostedion vitreum) in exper-
imental ecosystems. (Mimeo.)
Gammon, J. R., and A. D. Hasler. 1965. Predation by intro-
duced muskellunge on perch and bass. I. Year 1-5. Wis.
Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 54:249.
Gasith, A., et al. 1976. The role of littoral zones in lakes. I.
Land water interaction. Pap. presented at 39th annu.
meet. Am. Soc. Limnol. Oceanogr., Savannah, Ga. June.
Hrbacek, J., et al. 1977. The influence of the fishstock on
the phosphorus-chlorophyll ratio. (Mimeo.)
Jones, J. R., and R. W. Bachmann. 1976. Predication of
phosphorus and chlorophyll levels in lakes. Jour. Water
Pollut. Control Fed. 48:21 76.
Lamarra, V. A. 1975a. Digestive activities of carp as a major
contributor to the nutrient loading of lakes. Contrib. No.
138 from the Limnol. Res. Center, University of Minne-
sota. Verh. Int. Verein. Limnol. 19:2461.
1975b. Experimental studies of the effect of carp
(Cyprinus carpio L.) on the chemistry and biology of lakes.
Ph.D. dissertation. University of Minnesota.
Lamarra, V. A., and G. B. Lie. 1975. Unpublished results.
(Snails were found to release phosphorus to solution at a
rate comparable with bottom feeding fish.) Limnol. Res.
Center, University of Minnesota.
Leduc, G., et al. 1973. The use of sodium cyanide as a fish
eradicant in some Quebec lakes. Le Nat. Can. 100:1.
Lie, G. B. 1978. Phosphorus cycling by freshwater macro-
phytes. The case of Shagawa Lake. Contrib. No. 184 from
the Limnol. Res. Center, University of Minnesota. Submit-
ted to Limnol. Oceanogr.
Lindmark, G. 1977. Unpublished results. Limnol. Res. Cen-
ter, University of Minnesota.
Lynch, M. 1975. Unpublished results. Limnol. Res. Center,
University of Minnesota.
McRoy, C. P., et al. 1972. Phosphorus cycling in an eelgrass
(Zostera marina L) ecosystem. Limnol. Oceanogr. 17:58.
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. 1978. Data on
file.
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. 1978. Data provided
by J. Schilling.
Reimold, R. J. 1972. The movement of phosphorus through
the salt marsh cord grass, Spartina alterniflora. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 1 7:606.
Sakamoto, M. 1966. Primary production by phytoplankton
community in some Japanese lakes and its dependence
on lake depth. Arch. Hydrobiol. 62:1.
Schindler, D. W., and G. W. Comita. 1972. The dependence
of primary production upon physical and chemical factors
in a small senescing lake, including the effects of com-
plete winter oxygen depletion. Arch. Hydrobiol. 69:413.
Schmitz, W. R., and R E. Hetfeld. 1965. Predation by intro-
duced muskellunge on perch and bass. II. Years 8-9. Wis.
Acad. Sci Arts Lett. 54:273.
Schuytema, G. S. 1977. Biological control of aquatic nui-
sances—a review. EPA-600/3-77-084. Environ. Res. Lab.
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Corvallis, Ore.
Shapiro, J. 1973. Blue-green algae, why they become domi-
nant. Contrib. No. 118 from the Limnol. Res. Center,
University of Minnesota. Science 197:382
1977. Biomanipulation: a neglected approach? Ple-
nary address to 40th annu. meet. Am. Soc. Limnol. Ocean-
ogr. East Lansing, Mich. June 20-23.
1978. Unpublished results. Limnol. Res. Center,
University of Minnesota.
Shapiro, J., and H. 0. Pfannkuch. 1973. The Minneapolis
chain of lakes. A study of urban drainage and its effects.
Interim Rep. No. 9. Limnol. Res. Center, University of
Minnesota.
Shapiro, J., et al. 1975. Biomanipulation: an ecosystem
approach to lake restoration. Contrib. No. 143 from the
Limnol. Res. Center, University of Minnesota. Pages
35-96 in P. L. Brezonik and J. L. Fox, eds. Proc. symp. on
water quality management through biological control.
University of Florida and U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency,
Gainesville, Jan. 29-31.
Smith, V. H. 1978. Nutrient dependence of rates of primary
production in lakes and its relationship to lake trophic
state. Contrib. No. 192 from the Limnol. Res. Center,
University of Minnesota. Submitted to Limnol. Oceanogr.
Summerfelt, R. C. 1978. Personal communication. Iowa
State University, Ames.
Symons, J. W. 1969. In Water quality behavior in reservoirs.
Pub. Health Serv. Publ. 1930 Cincinnati, Ohio.
Wells, L. 1970. Effects of alewife predation of zooplankton
populations in Lake Michigan. Limnol. Oceanogr. 15:556.
Vollenweider, R. A. 1968. Scientific fundamentals of the
eutrophication of lakes and flowing waters, with particu-
lar reference to phosphorus and nitrogen as factors in
eutrophication. OECD Tech. Rep. DAS/CSI/68.27.
-------
PHOSPHORUS TRANSPORT ACROSS THE
SEDIMENT-WATER INTERFACE
DAVID E. ARMSTRONG
Water Chemistry Program and
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Wisconsin, Madison
ABSTRACT
Internal phosphorus loading in lakes through phosphate transport across the sediment-water
interface can play an important role in controlling the phosphorus status of lake surface waters
and the response of lakes to change in phosphorus input from external sources. The rate of
transport is controlled by the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the system.
The supply of phosphorus available for transport is controlled by the forms and amounts of
phosphorus in the bottom sediments. Lake morphometry influences the rate of phosphate
transport from the sediment-water interface. Internal loading is expected to be high in shallow
lakes where anoxic waters are in close proxifnity to the sediment-water interface, but may be
important even in relatively deep lakes with anoxic bottom waters. Phosphate transport can be
predicted based on lake phosphorus budgets or on rates of phosphate diffusion.
INTRODUCTION
The success of in-lake restoration by reducing
phosphorus input from external sources depends in
part on the role of the lake bottom sediments in
controlling the phosphorus status of the lake water.
Although recognition of the potentially important role
of the bottom sediments is not recent (Mortimer,
1941, 1942; Hutchinson, 1957), the need remains
for a general basis for predicting the rate of phospho-
rus transport from sediments based on readily mea-
surable parameters of the system (Golterman, 1977).
This paper discusses available information on the
importance of phosphorus transport from sediments
and the factors controlling transport. Because dis-
solved inorganic phosphate is the form of phospho-
rus directly available to aquatic plants and the main
form of dissolved phosphorus released from sedi-
ments, this paper focuses on the transport of dis-
solved inorganic phosphate from sediments. As mea-
sured by the conventional method of analysis (Mur-
phy and Riley, 1962), dissolved inorganic phosphate
is termed dissolved reactive phosphate in this paper.
The relationship of dissolved reactive phosphate to
other forms in the phosphorus cycle is discussed
elsewhere (Syers, etal. 1973;Rigler, 1973).
THE POTENTIAL FOR PHOSPHORUS
TRANSPORT FROM SEDIMENTS
The Chemical Nature of
Sediment Phosphorus
In a typical lake a 1-centimeter column of surface
sediment might contain more phosphorus than a
20-meter column of lake water of equal surface area.
However, more than 99 percent of the sediment
phosphorus is typically associated with the solid
phase, and interchange of phosphorus between the
solid and solution phases must occur if sediments are
to have a major'impact on the dissolved reactive
phosphate status of lake waters. Several lines of
evidence show that a substantial proportion of the
inorganic phosphorus in lake sediments participates
in rapid solid-solution interchange reactions and,
therefore, may play an important role in controlling
the phosphorus status of the lake water.
Measurements of sediment inorganic phosphorus
exchangeability using "P-labeled phosphate demon-
strate directly the solid-solution interchange of inor-
ganic phosphorus. By adding 32PO4~3 to the solution
phase and measuring the rate and extent of 32P incor-
poration into the solid phase, both the rate of ex-
change and amount of sediment inorganic phospho-
rus participating in exchange can be measured (Li, et
al. 1972). Examples showing the levels of sediment
inorganic phosphorus and the proportion in an ex-
changeable form are shown in Table 1. For a wide
range of sediments, exchangeable inorganic phos-
phorus represented 18 to 65 percent of the sediment
total inorganic phosphorus (Li, et al. 1973). More
than 50 percent of the exchange occurs within a few
hours (Li, et al. 1972). Consequently, changes in
phosphate concentration in solution due to physical
transport or biological immobilization should result in
rapid release of solid phase inorganic phosphorus
into solution.
Direct measurements of the uptake of sediment
phosphorus by algae (Sagher, 1974; Golterman,
1977) provide important evidence of the mobility of
sediment phosphorus. In experiments involving the
incubation of algae with sediments suspended in a
phosphorus-free nutrient medium, decreases in sedi-
ment inorganic phosphorus corresponded to in-
creases in algal organic phosphorus; a high propor-
tion (more than 50 percent) of the sediment inorganic
169
-------
170
LAKE RESTORATION
Table 1 - Chemical characteristics and availability of phosphorus in lake sediments1
Sediment
Mendota
Wmgra
Tomahawk
Minocqua
Total P
1765
650
2060
1850
Total Pi
I/a 1 a
1305
380
1660
1320
Exch Pi
35
25
30
50
Forms
Non-apatite
Calcareous
68
50
Non-calcareous
69
70
of Pi
Apatite
12
45
30
Availability of
Algae
53
56
64
Pi
Macrophyte
15
15
13
17
xData and calculations based on Sagher, et al (1975) Except data for Minocqua sediment,
Exch Pi and Availability to Macrophytes from Li, et al (1974)
phosphorus was found to be available to algae
(Sagher, 1974; Table 1). Apparently, as phosphate in
solution was immobilized by the algal population,
phosphate was released from the sediment to solu-
tion until the equilibrium solution concentration sup-
ported by the sediment corresponded to the mini-
mum phosphate concentration attainable by the al-
gae (probably less than 0.1 ug ?/ J).
The amount of sediment inorganic phosphorus
available to the algae corresponded closely to the
amount of phosphorus in the nonapatite inorganic
phosphorus fraction. Sediment analysis showed that
most of the inorganic phosphorus immobilized by the
algae was removed from the nonapatite fraction. In
contrast, little removal of inorganic phosphorus from
the apatite fraction was observed (Sagher, 1974).
The proportion of sediment phosphorus available to
macrophytes grown on sediments as the sole phos-
phorus source was lower than for algae (Li, et al.
1974; Table 1). It is uncertain whether the lower
degree of availability to macrophytes is due to differ-
ences in the minimum attainable phosphate leve!
between the two plants or to the limitations on con-
tact between the macrophyte roots and the sediment
surfaces. Uptake may be limited by the diffusion of
phosphate from sediment particles to the areas in
contact with plant roots.
The measurements of sediment inorganic phospho-
rus availability to algae support the concept of chemi-
cal fractionation of sediment inorganic phosphorus
into two fractions (Sagher, 1974, 1976; Williams, et
al. 1976) rather than the use of more complex frac-
tionation schemes (Syers, et al. 1973). The two frac-
tions have been termed nonapatite and apatite inor-
ganic phosphorus (Williams, et al. 1 976). Nonapatite
inorganic phosphorus is associated mainly with iron
and partly with aluminum sediment components
(Syers, et al. 1 973; Williams, et al. 1976). The data in
Table 1 were obtained using a two-step sequential
extraction scheme (0.1 N^NaOH for nonapatite inor-
ganic phosphorus followed by 1 N^HC1 for apatite
phosphorus.
The reagent for extraction of nonapatite inorganic
phosphorus is less exhaustive than the reagent used
by Williams, et al. (1976); this might result in an
underestimation of nonapatite inorganic phosphorus
and an overestimation of apatite inorganic phospho-
rus. However, the amount of sediment inorganic
phosphorus extracted by 0.1 N^NaOH increases as
the sediment: water ratio is decreased for ratios
greater than 1:1,000 (Sagher, 1976). For ratios less
than 1:1,000, the NaOH-extracted inorganic phos-
phorus may correspond closely to nonapatite inor-
ganic phosphorus measured as described by Wil-
liams, etal.( 197 6). Importantly, the measurements of
sediment inorganic phosphorus available to algae
confirm the mobility of the nonapatite inorganic
phosphorus fraction. This fraction corresponds to a
substantial proportion of the sediment phosphorus
for many recent sediments (Williams, etal. 1971 a, b).
The association of inorganic phosphorus with iron
in sediments results in a strong dependence of phos-
phate transport from sediments on the oxidation-
reduction status of the sediments. The accelerated
release of phosphate from lake sediments under an-
aerobic conditions was demonstrated by Mortimer
(1941, 1942) and attributed to the reduction of
Fe(OH)3 and associated complexes and the liberation
of phosphate. More recent evidence shows that close
relationships exist between amorphous iron hydrous
oxides in sediments and the levels of sediment inor-
ganic phosphorus (Williams, et al. 1971c) and the
ability of sediments to adsorb inorganic phosphorus
(Shukla,etal. 1971).
The association between iron and inorganic phos-
phorus in sediments has important implications for
phosphate release from sediments in eutrophic lakes.
The high productivity of eutrophic lakes results in a
high oxygen demand loading to the sediments. The
resulting anoxic conditions promote phosphate re-
lease and create a tendency for perpetuating eu-
trophic conditions through internal cycling of phos-
phorus between sediments and water (Mortimer,
1941, 1942; Syers, et al. 1973; Banoub, 1977; Lij-
klema, 1977).
Phosphate Concentrations in
Sediment Interstitial Waters
The dissolved reactive phosphate concentration
gradient across the sediment-water interface pro-
vides direct information on the tendency for dis-
solved reactive phosphate transport. Several investi-
gators have shown high concentrations of dissolved
reactive phosphate in the interstitial waters of sur-
face sediments (Table 2). In comparison with dis-
solved reactive phosphate concentrations in the over-
lying lake water, these values show the potential for a
high dissolved reactive phosphate flux from the bot-
tom sediments (Emerson, 1976; Holdren, et al.
1977). Based on the concentration gradient and ver-
tical eddy diffusion coefficients (Kz), the expected flux
can be calculated (Kamp-Nielson, 1974).
-------
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
171
Table 2 - Examples of dissolved inorganic phosphate
concentrations in sediment interstitial waters
Sediment
Depth Interstitial
Conditions interval inorganic P Reference
Mendota
Summer,
18 to 20 M hypolimnion 0-3
CM Mg//
2 to 6 Holdren, et al 1977
18 to 20 M Winter
Mendota
Summer,
5 to 6 M epihmnion
5 to 6 M Winter
Minocqua Summer,
hypohmnion
Ontario
Rochester Basin November 0-3
Mississauga
Basin June
0-3 — 1 to 2
Holdren, et al 1977
0-3 ~ 02 to 17 Holdren, et al 1977
0-3 — 002 Holdren, et al 1977
0-2 31 Holdre, 1977
0-3
Greifensee
Hypolimnion, 0-1
summer
Anoxic 1-125 2.6
10 Bannerman, et al 1974
10 Bannerman, etal 1974
36 Emerson, 1976
Emerson, 1976
However, difficulties exist in determining both the
phosphate gradient and Kz values at the interface.
Interstitial water concentrations are usually mea-
sured over sediment intervals of 1 to 2 cm, and
overlying water concentrations may represent the
average value for a water column extending several
centimeters above the interface. Because the gradi-
ent over this distance may not be linear, fluxes based
on a concentration difference between the surface
sediment and the overlying water may be inaccurate,
even if values of Kz are known. In spite of the difficul-
ties in predicting fluxes based on interstitial water
concentrations, the high concentrations of dissolved
reactive phosphate in the interstitial waters of sur-
face sediments indicate that frequently a substantial
flux of dissolved reactive phosphate from bottom
sediments is highly likely.
The concentrations of dissolved reactive phos-
phate in interstitial waters vary with temperature and
with depth both below the interface and depth of the
overlying water column (Holdren, et al. 1977; Emer-
son, 1976). Concentrations are typically lower in
shallow than in deep-water sediments. This appar-
ently reflects both the lower levels of nonapatite
inorganic phosphorus in shallow water sediments
and frequently, the presence of oxygen at the sedi-
ment water interface.
Shallow-water sediments also show a strong de-
pendence of interstitial water dissolved reactive
phosphate concentrations on temperature. Concen-
trations increase with a seasonal increase in temper-
ature, apparently reflecting a higher rate of oxygen
consumption and a correspondingly thinner oxidized
zone at higher temperatures (Holdren, et al. 1977).
Shallow-water sediments usually display increasing
interstitial water dissolved reactive phosphate con-
centrations with increasing depth below the inter-
face, apparently due to the presence of ferric iron
near the surface (Holdren, et al. 1977). However,
hypolimnetic sediments may display a decreasing
concentration with depth, possibly due to diagenesis
involving iron, sulphur, and phosphorus components
of the sediment (Emerson, 1976).
The importance of interstitial water dissolved reac-
tive phosphate concentrations to the flux of dissolved
reactive phosphate from bottom sediments has cre-
ated interest in the reactions controlling interstitial
water concentrations. Evidence based on ion activity
products indicates vivianite may control the dis-
solved reactive phosphate concentrations in anoxic
sediments (Bray, et al. 1973; Nriagu and Dell, 1974;
Emerson, 1976; Holdren, 1977). Although thermody-
namic considerations predict apatite should form
before other phosphate minerals, interstitial waters
are apparently supersaturated with respect to apatite
(Syers, et al. 1973; Emerson, 1976; Holdren, 1977),
and apatite appears to exert very little influence on
interstitial water chemistry (Emerson, 1976). In sur-
face sediments below aerobic waters, interstitial
water dissolved reactive phosphate concentrations
may be controlled by the adsorption of phosphate on
hydrous ferric iron oxides (Syers, et al. 1973) or by
the formation of basic ferric iron phosphates (Nriagu
and Dell, 1974).
The close relationship between iron and inorganic
phosphorus in sediments, suggesting iron controls
the accumulation of inorganic phosphorus in sedi-
ments (Williams, et al. 1971 c), and the high concen-
trations of dissolved reactive phosphate in interstitial
waters (Table 2), suggesting iron-associated inor-
ganic phosphorus migrates considerably in sedi-
ments, seem to be somewhat anomalous observa-
tions. However, even in sediments with high intersti-
tial water concentrations, the sediment inorganic
phosphorus remains associated predominantly with
the solid phase. For example, in a sediment with an
inorganic phosphorus concentration of 1,000 ug/g,
an interstitial water dissolved reactive phosphate
concentration of 5 mg/7, and a water content of 90
percent, more than 95 percent of the inorganic phos-
phorus would be associated with the solid phase.
Measurements of Phosphorus
Transport from Sediments
Both laboratory (Table 3) and field (Table 4) mea-
surements have been made of the rates of phosphate
release from sediments. Although a considerable di-
vergence exists among the rates shown, the general
agreement between laboratory and field measure-
ments for comparable systems suggests the rates
shown may indicate the general magnitude of phos-
phate release rates from sediments.
Laboratory measurements (Table 3) are usually
based on rates of release from intact sediment cores
incubated under various conditions. These systems
allow evaluation of s,ome of the factors controlling
release rates. Sediments incubated under anoxic or
low oxygen concentration waters display increased
release rates for reasons discussed previously. Re-
lease rates also have been related to dissolved reac-
tive phosphate gradients (Kamp-Nielson, 1974,
1976; DiGiano and Snow, 1977; Holdren, 1977),
temperature (Holdren, 1977), and bioturbation
(Neame, 1977; Holdren, 1977). The increasing re-
lease rates with increasing temperature may be rela-
ted to the associated higher rate of oxygen reduction
and the more complete development of anaerobic
conditions in the surface sediment (Holdren, 1977).
-------
172
LAKE RESTORATION
Table 3, - Examples of sediment phosphorus release rates
measured in the laboratory
Sediment
Dissolved phosphate
release rate Reference
Mendota
Mendota
Mendota
Mendota
Lake Esrom
St Gnbs
Lake Trummen
L Glamngin
Air. 23'C
H2, 23"C
Chironomid activity
Chironomid activity
+ Formalin
Aerobic. 7'C
Anaerobic, 7'C
Aerobic. 7'C
Anaerobic, 7°C
Not specified
Aerobic
Anaerobic
mg P m-2 d<
10
53
250
07
-1.4
12.3
02
12
25-30
20
180
ly -i
Holdren, 1977
Holdren, 1977
Holdren, 1977
Holdren, 1977
Kamp-Nielson, 1974
Kamp-Nielson, 1974
Kamp-Nielson, 1974
Kamp-Nielson, 1974
Biork, 1972
Rydmg & Forsberg,
1977
Rydmg & Forsberg,
1977
Table 4 - Estimates of phosphorus release from lake sediments
based on lake phosphorus budgets
Lake
Period
Release rate
Reference
Mendota
Erie
Shagawa
L Glamngen
L Ramsion
L, Ryssbysion
mg P
Summer, 1971-73 44
Hypolimmon
Summer 9
Annual
Annual
Annual
m-z day-'
to 8.9 Sonzogm, 1974
76 Burns & Ross 1972
to 20 Larsen et al 1978
38 Rydmg & Forsberg 1977
0,7 Rydmg & Forsberg 1977
45 Rydmg & Forsberg 1977
The importance of bioturbation is illustrated by the
data of Holdren (1977). Release rates of approxi-
mately 25 and 0.7 ug P m"2 day"1 were observed for
untreated and formalin treated aerobic cores, respec-
tively, displaying Chironomid activity (Table 3).
Because of the difficulty in extrapolating
laboratory-measured rates to field conditions, mea-
surements of phosphorus release from sediments
based on actual lake phosphorus budgets are particu-
larly important (Table 4). However, these rates are
subject to varying degrees of accuracy, depending
on the accuracy of measurements of phosphorus
input from other sources, the loss of phosphorus
through water discharge from the lake, and the
changes in the phosphorus content of the water
column. In spite of these uncertainties, the examples
of rates reported (Table 4) show that the internal
loading of phosphorus from sediments can be sub-
stantial. For example, a release rate of 5 mg rrr2 day"'
over a 90-day period would correspond to a concen-
tration increase of 45 ug P// in an overlying water
column 10 meters in depth, assuming zero loss of
phosphorus from the water column during this time
period.
Factors Controlling the Importance
of Phosphorus Internal Loading
Obviously, several lines of evidence show that the
internal loading of phosphorus from lake sediments
plays an important role in determining the phospho-
rus status of lake surface waters. However, problems
remain in attaining a general basis for predicting the
extent of internal loading and the impact of internal
loading on the rate of lake recovery following a reduc-
tion in external loading.
Attempts have been made to predict phosphorus
release rates from sediments based on concentration
gradients between sediment interstitial waters and
lake bottom waters (Kamp-Nielson, 1977). However,
several factors complicate the ability to predict re-
lease rates on this basis, including the problems in
determining coefficients of diffusion or eddy diffu-
sion in sediments as related to lake hydrodynamics
and sediment characteristics. Because of these fac-
tors, an alternative approach (Armstrong and Stauf-
fer, 1977) involves assessment of internal loading
rates based on phosphorus concentration gradients
and eddy diffusion coefficients in lake bottom
waters, including the benthic boundary layer.
Lake hypolimnetic waters, especially under anoxic
conditions, are frequently characterized by a decreas-
ing dissolved reactive phosphate concentration with
increasing distance from the sediment-water inter-
face (Figure 1; Imboden and Emerson, 1978). The
gradient usually increases as the sediment-water in-
terface is approached (not shown in Figure 1), as
expected from the generally high dissolved reactive
phosphate levels in interstitial waters (Table 2). While
the phosphorus in the hypolimnion results partly
from the sedimentation and decomposition of phyto-
plankton, the gradient demonstrates the upward
movement of dissolved reactive phosphate toward
the surface waters. The factors governing the magni-
tude and shape of the gradient are being investigated
by comparing representative lake types.
100 200 300
TOTAL P, uoA
100
500
Figure 1.- Total P concentrations in Lake Mendota,
August 6, 1972(Stauffer, 1974).
In addition, eddy diffusivity (Kz) values within the
hypolimnion are under evaluation using temperature
and/or 222Rn gradients. This work is being done by R.
E. Stauffer, research associate, and J. Colman, re-
search assistant, in the Water Chemistry Program of
the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Combining the
values for K2 and the concentration gradient should
provide accurate estimates of the phosphorus verti-
-------
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
173
cal flux. Stauffer is further exploring the values of Kz
as related to windpower, lake surface area and depth,
aYid density stabilization of the water column to pro-
vide a general basis for predicting K2 values.
Chemical as well as physical factors play an impor-
tant role in controlling the transport of phosphorus
from sediments into the lake water. Dissolved reac-
tive phosphate concentrations in sediment interstitial
waters are controlled in part by sediment composi-
tion (Holdren, et al. 1977). Concentrations of dis-
solved reactive phosphate above the interface will
vary, correspondingly, depending on the underlying
sediment characteristics. In addition, relationships
between phosphate and other ions in the interstitial
water can play an important role in determining the
transport of dissolved reactive phosphate within the
sediment-lake water system (Emerson, 1976; Hol-
dren, 1977).
Examination of available chemical data on hypolim-
netic waters led Stauffer (1976) to postulate that
differences existed between different lake types in
the relative migration rate of iron and dissolved reac-
tive phosphate across the sediment-water interface
(see examples in Table 5). In anoxic hypolimnetic
waters, both iron and dissolved reactive phosphate
accumulate in some lakes, while in others, dissolved
reactive phosphate accumulates without a corre-
sponding increase in iron concentration. Apparently,
dissolved reactive phosphate and iron migrate to-
gether across the sediment-water interface in some
lakes, but in others dissolved reactive phosphate
migrates in the absence of appreciable iron
migration.
Table 5 - Comparisons between calcareous and non-
calcareous sediment-type lakes of Fe and P
concentrations in anoxic hypolimnetic waters
Lake
Fe
Date Source
Mendota
2 August, 1967'
6 August, 19722
Greifensee
Esthwaite ~
Wmdenmere ~
032
05
008
015
Mg//
Calcareous
005 to 007
to 046
to 06 <007
Noncalcareous
~ 11
- 40
Delfmo (1968)
Stauffer (1974)
Imboden &
Emerson (1978)
Mortimer (1971)
Mortimer (1971)
'Station 486 near the east-center of the lake
2Statron 6 near the center of the lake
Hutchinson (1957) previously described conditions
where anoxic waters should contain high phosphate
and high iron concentrations or high phosphate and
low iron concentrations. However, these differences
were described for different stages in lake stagnation
rather than as characteristics of anoxic water in dif-
ferent types of lakes. Data such as the examples in
Table 4 suggested the relative iron and phosphorus
concentrations in anoxic waters may be related to
whether the lake sediments are calcareous or noncal-
careous (Stauffer, 1976). The relative dissolved iron
and dissolved reactive phosphate concentrations in
the interstitial waters of calcareous and noncalcare-
ous sediments (see examples in Table 6) also suggest
a difference in the relative mobilities of iron and
phosphorus between the two sediment types. The
chemical equilibria controlling the concentrations of
iron in anoxic waters of calcareous as compared to
noncalcareous lakes will be described in a separate
paper (Stauffer and Armstrong, 1977).
Regardless of the mechanisms controlling migra-
tion, the differences in iron concentrations in anoxic
bottom waters have important implications for the
phosphorus cycle in lakes and the response of lakes
to a reduction in phosphorus external loading. If the
suggested classification proves correct, in lakes with
noncalcareous sediments (e.g., Shagawa Lake), the
ferrous iron (Fe(ll)) in anoxic bottom waters will be
oxidized to ferric iron (Fe(lll)) during periods of mixing
between bottom and surface (oxygenated) waters.
The resulting hydrous ferric iron oxides will adsorb
dissolved reactive phosphorus (Lijklema, 1977; Mal-
otky, 1978) and remove phosphorus from the lake
water by settling, similar to the classical sequence
described by Mortimer (1941, 1942).
Table 6 - Concentrations of dissolved reactive
P and Fe m the sediment interstitial waters
of two Wisconsin lakes 1
Depth Interval
Fe
-5-0
0-2
2-4
4-6
-5-0
0-2
2-4
4-6
mg//
Mmocqua (noncalcareous)
065
21 2
297
304
Mendota (calcareous)
008
0.45
14
21
0.005
035
049
026
047
3 14
45
48
"Holdren (1977)
Because of the rapid rate of dissolved reactive
phosphorus uptake by algae (Brown, 1975) and the
ability of algae to remove iron-associated inorganic
phosphorus from sediment particles (Sagher, 1974,
1976), the ferric iron-phosphorus interaction will not
necessarily limit the productivity of eutrophic, non-
calcareous sediment-type lakes. However, at fall and
spring overturn when algal growth is not nutrient-
limited, dissolved reactive phosphorus will be re-
moved to the bottom sediments.
Consequently, this lake type should be highly effi-
cient in recycling phosphorus between sediments
and water and perpetuating a eutrophic condition.
Phosphorus concentrations in the lake water will be
minimal during periods of high hydraulic throughput
(fall and spring) and loss of phosphorus from the lake
by washout will be minimized. However, during the
period of high algal demand for phosphorus
(summer), anoxic conditions will promote dissolved
reactive phosphate release from the sediments and
transport to the photic zone.
This lake type is expected to depart substantially
from predictions based on input-output models of
lake response to changes in external loading. In con-
trast, in eutrophic lakes with calcareous sediments,
phosphorus return to the bottom sediments during
oxygenation of anoxic bottom waters will be minimal;
Lake Mendota is an example of this lake type (Stauf-
fer, 1974; Sonzogni, 1974). However, even though a
-------
174
LAKE RESTORATION
higher rate of phosphorus washout should occur in
this lake type than in lakes with noncalcareous sedi-
ments, the internal loading of phosphorus may be
substantial.
Consideration of these relationships and other fac-
tors suggests phosphorus internal loading will tend
to be high for moderate-depth lakes that develop
thermal stratification and anoxic conditions in bot-
tom waters. In these lakes, phosphorus-rich anoxic
waters will lie in close proximity to the photic zone,
and phosphorus transport during periods of wind-
induced thermocline migration (Stauffer, 1974) will
be higher. Furthermore, lakes of this type with non-
calcareous sediments will lag behind recovery rates
predicated by input-output models incorporating an
average annual phosphorus mean in the lake water.
Conversely, the importance of internal loading will
decrease as lake depth increases and lake surface
area decreases.
REFERENCES
Armstrong, D. E., and R. E. Stauffer. 1977. Phosphorus
internal loading in Shagawa Lake. Res. Grant No.
R805281010. U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency.
Bannerman, R. T., et al. 1974. Phosphorus mobility in Lake
Ontario sediments (IFYGL). Proc. 1 7th Conf. Great Lakes
Res.
Banoub, M. W. 1977. Experimental investigation on the
release of phosphorus in relation to iron in
freshwater/mud system. Pages 324-330 in H. L. Goiter-
man, ed. Interactions between sediments and fresh water.
Proc. Int. Symp. Amsterdam, Netherlands, Sept. 6-10,
1976.
Bray, J. T., et al. 1973. Phosphate in interstitial waters of
anoxic sediments: Oxidation effects during sampling pro-
cedure. Science 180:1362.
Brown, E. J. 1975. Kinetics of phosphate uptake by aquatic
microorganisms. Ph.D. thesis. University of Wisconsin,
Madison.
Delfino, J. J. 1968. Aqueous environmental chemistry of
manganese. Ph.D. thesis. University of Wisconsin,
Madison.
DiGiano, F. A., and P. D. Snow. 1977 Consideration of
phosphorus release from sediments in a model lake.
Pages 318-323 in H. L. Golterman, ed. Interactions be-
tween sediments and fresh water. Proc. Int. Symp. Am-
sterdam, Netherlands, Sept. 6-10, 1976.
Emerson, S. 1976. Early diagenesis in anaerobic lake sedi-
ments: chemical equilibria in interstitial waters. Geochim.
Cosmochim Acta 40:925.
Golterman, H. L. 1977. Sediments as a source of phosphate
for algal growth. Pages 286-293 in H. L. Golterman, ed.
Interactions between sediments and fresh water. Proc.
Int. Symp. Amsterdam, Netherlands, Sept. 6-10, 1976.
Golterman, H. L , ed 1977. Interactions between sediments
and fresh water. Proc. Int. Symp. Amsterdam, Nether-
lands, Sept 6-10, 1976. D.W. Junk B.V. Publishers.
Holdren, G. C. 1977. Factors affecting phosphorus release
from lake sediments. Ph.D. thesis. University of Wiscon-
sin, Madison.
Holdren, G. C., et al. 1977. Interstitial inorganic phosphorus
concentrations in Lakes Mendota and Wingra. Water Res.
1 1:1041.
Hutchinson, G. E. 1957. A treatise on limnology. Vol. 1.
Geography, physics, and chemistry. John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., New York.
Imboden, D M., and S. Emerson. 1978. Natural radon and
phosphorus as limnologic tracers: Horizontal and vertical
eddy diffusion in Greifensee. Limnol. Oceanogr. 23:77
Kamp-Nielson, L. 1974. Mud-water exchange of phosphate
in undisturbed sediment cores and factors affecting the
exchange rates. Arch. Hydrobiol. 73:2 18.
1977. Modeling the temporal variation in sedimen-
tary phosphorus fractions. Pages 277-285 in H. L. Golter-
man, ed Interactions between sediments and fresh water.
Proc. Int. Symp. Amsterdam, Netherlands, Sept 6-10
1976.
Larsen, D. P., et al. 1978. Summer internal phosphorus
supplies in Shagawa Lake, Minn. (Submitted.)
Li, W. C., et al. 1972. Rate and extent of inorganic phos-
phate exchange in lake sediments. Soil Sci. Soc. Am.
Proc, 36:279.
1973. Measurement of exchangeable phosphorus in
lake sediments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 7.454
1974. Biological availability of sediment phospho-
rus to macrophytes. Tech Rep. WIS WRC 74-09. Water
Resour. Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Lijklema, L. 1977. The role of iron in the exchange of
phosphate between water and sediments. Pages
313-323 in H. L. Golterman, ed. Interactions between
sediments and fresh water. Proc. Int. Symp. Amsterdam
Netherlands, Sept. 6-10, 1976.
Malotky, D, T. 1978. The adsorption of hydrolyzable ions on
hydrous metal oxides. Ph D. thesis. University of Wiscon-
sin, Madison
Mortimer, C. H. 1941. The exchange of dissolved sub-
stances between mud and water in lakes Jour Ecol
29:280.
_. 1942. The exchange of dissolved substances be-
tween mud and water in lakes. Jour. Ecol. 30:147.
1971. Chemical exchanges between sediments and
water in the Great Lakes—speculations on probable regu-
latory mechanisms. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1 6:387.
Murphy, J., and J. P. Riley 1962. A modified single solution
method for the determination of phosphate in natural
waters. Anal. Chim. Acta 27:31.
Neame, P. A. 1977. Phosphorus flux across the sediment-
water interface Pages 307-312 in H. L. Golterman, ed
Interactions between sediments and fresh water. Proc.
Int. Symp. Amsterdam, Netherlands, Sept. 6-10, 1976.
Nriagu, J. 0., and C. I. Dell. 1974. Diagenetic formation of
iron phosphates in recent lake sediments. Am. Mineral.
59:934.
Rigler, F. H. 1973. A dynamic view of the phosphorus cycle.
Pages 539-572 in E J. Griffith, et al eds. Environmental
phosphorus handbook. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
York.
Ryding, S. O., and C. Forsberg. 1977 Sediments as a nutri-
ent source in shallow polluted lakes. Pages 227-234 in H.
L. Golterman, ed. Interactions between sediments and
fresh water. Proc. Int. Symp. Amsterdam, Netherlands,
Sept. 6-10, 1976.
Sagher, A. 1974. Microbial availability of phosphorus in
lake sediments. M.S. thesis. University of Wisconsin,
Madison
_. 1976 Availability of soil runoff phosphorus to algae.
Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Sagher, A., et al. 1975. Availability of sediment phosphorus
to microorganisms. Tech. Rep. WIS WRC 75-01. Water
Resour. Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Shukla, S. S., et al. 1971. Sorption of inorganic phosphate
by lake sediments. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 35:244.
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STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
175
Sonzogni, W. C. 1974. Effect of nutrient input reduction on
the eutrophication of the Madison lakes. Ph.D. thesis.
University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Stauffer, R. E. 1974. Thermocline migration-algal bloom
relationships in stratified lakes. Ph.D. thesis. University of
Wisconsin, Madison.
1976. Personal communication. Water Chemistry
Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Stauffer, R. E., and D. E. Armstrong. 1978. Modeling the
stoichiometries of Fe, Mn, Si02, P, and S in the
metalimnia-hypolimnia of calcareous vs. noncalca-
reous lakes. Am. Soc. Limnol. Oceanogr. Winter
Meet. January 1979. (Abstracts.)
Syers, J. K., et al. 1973. Phosphate chemistry in lake sedi-
ments. Jour. Environ. Qual. 2:1.
Williams, J. D. H., et al. 1971 a. Fractionation of inorganic
phosphorus in calcareous lake sediments. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. Proc 35-250.
1971b. Characterization of inorganic phosphate in
noncalcareous lake sediments. Soil Sci. Soc Am Proc
35:556.
1971c. Levels of inorganic and total phosphorus in
lake sediments as related to other sediment parameters.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 5:1 113.
1976 Forms of phosphorus in the surficial sedi-
ments of Lake Erie. Jour. Fish. Res. Board Can. 33:413.
-------
AQUATIC PLANT HARVESTING AS A LAKE
RESTORATION TECHNIQUE
T. M. BURTON
D. L KING
J. L. ERVIN
Institute of Water Research
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
ABSTRACT
Plant harvesting as a lake restoration technique can work only where nutrient loading has been
reduced to low levels. A typical plant harvest of submerged macrophytes for eutrophic lakes in
the northern United States will range from 50 to 400 g dry wt/mVyr and will remove from 1.5 to
12 g of N/mVyr and from 0.15 to 1.2 g of P/mVyr. Harvest of submerged macrophytes from
lakes in the southern United States will fall in the range of 150 to 650 g dry wt/mvyr and will
remove from 4.5 to 19.5 g of N/mVyr and from 0.45 to 1.95 g of P/mVyr. Floating species such
as water hyacinths and emergent species such as Typha latifolia can produce more biomass and
remove greater amounts of N and P. Even the greatest potential harvest will not remove enough
N and P to offset moderate to heavy loading. Thus, unless net loading of P is less than about 1
g/mVyr and unless the majority of the lake supports dense stands of macrophytes, harvest is not
likely to lead to much improvement in the lake. Harvest can maintain recreational potential by
reducing problems with winter kill, keeping waterways open, etc. Costs of harvesting are usually
$200 to $300 per hectare. The advantages, disadvantages, ecological consequences, and costs
of harvesting are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Harvesting of plant biornass has been suggested as
a technique of nutrient removal that can lead to a
reversal of eutrophic conditions in lakes. Clearly,
such nutrient removal will have to exceed net input
rates if this reversal is to be accomplished. Realistic
estimates of maximum aquatic plant biomass and
nutrient removal potential based on actual harvest
data are needed for making such an assessment. The
data for such estimates are available in the literature,
at least to a limited degree.
In this paper, the following major questions will be
discussed:
1. How effective is plant harvesting for nutrient
removal?
2. Under what conditions can plant harvesting be
used as an integral part of a lake restoration
program?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
the technique?
4. What are the ecological consequences of aquatic
plant harvesting?
5. What are the costs and cost effectiveness of this
technique?
Data from the literature will be used extensively
and will be supplemented with our own experiences
in harvesting a series of municipal wastewater la-
goon systems in southern Michigan.
POTENTIAL OF AQUATIC PLANT
HARVEST FOR NUTRIENT REMOVAL
The potential for nutrient removal by plant harvest
has been estimated for a variety of systems. These
estimates vary by orders of magnitude. Thus, an
assessment of the real potential for nutrient removal
by plant harvesting has to be made. Most estimates
of the potential for nutrient removal by plant harvest-
ing are derived from either (1) observations of maxi-
mal biomass observed in dense macrophyte beds in
lakes; (2) observations of nutrient uptake and harvest
removal potential as a means of treating wastewater;
or (3) laboratory or field studies of macrophyte
growth over one growth cycle of only a few weeks'
duration with subsequent extrapolation of these data
to annual estimates.
All of these techniques present problems when
extrapolation on a lake-wide basis to more natural
waters is attempted. For example, the maximal re-
moval potential figures of McNabb and Tierney
(1972) have been widely cited (e.g., Nichols, 1974;
Dunst, et al. 1974). Their estimate of removal poten-
tial of 1,100 kg/ha/yr nitrogen and 200 kg/ha/yr of
phosphorus was based on growth of 700 g dry wt/m2
of Ceratophyllum demersum (coontail) in wastewater
lagoons over a 60- to 70-day period; their belief was
premised on the high nitrogen and phosphorus tissue
content of plants grown in wastewater and the fact
that three such crops would be possible in a 180-day
growing season. Such productivity probably would
not be realized, even in the wastewater lagoons in
which they were experimenting.
Wastewater lagoons typically have an excess of all
major nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and
potassium. In these lagoons, production of new biom-
ass is usually limited by interactions between light
and carbon (Craig, 1978; King and Hill, 1978). Thus,
177
-------
178
LAKE RESTORATION
after the carbon in the water column is used by the
plants, productivity is limited by inputs of new carbon
from incoming sewage, the recarbonation rate from
the atmosphere, and the recycling of carbon back
into new biomass from decomposing plant material.
The first macrophyte crop in the spring utilizes the
recycled carbon available from decomposition of
plant materials that died back over winter, but there-
after is limited by the recarbonation rate from the
atmosphere and by wastewater inputs. Harvesting of
plants removes the potential for recycling of plant
carbon back into new biomass. Regrowth after the
first harvest is limited by the recarbonation rate and
wastewater inputs.
Harvesting, in our experience, usually is followed
by a fairly dense bloom of algae that limits light
penetration and further reduces regrowth of sub-
merged aquatic macrophytes. Thus, production of
three crops of 700 g dry wt/m2 in 1 year is unlikely in
the northern United States. In fact, the best
production of biomass that we have yet been able to
achieve in the harvested wastewater lakes is about
600 g dry wt/mVyr (Ervin and King, in press). With
more efficient and better timed harvests, we might be
able to raise this biomass production somewhat, but
600 to 900 g dry wt/mVyr appears to be about the
maximum biomass that can be achieved.
Our analysis suggests that McNabb and Tierney's
(1972) estimates of plant removal are two to three
times too high for the northern United States. In fact,
McNabb (1976) later presented estimates, based on
early data from the wastewater recycling lakes at
Michigan State University, that yields of only about
400 g dry wt/mVyr were to be expected.
A second problem associated with extrapolation of
wastewater lagoon harvest data to eutrophic lakes is
that the nitrogen and phosphorus content of plants is
dependent upon the concentration of nitrogen and
phosphorus in the water (Gerloff, 1975). The nitrogen
and phosphorus content of plants is much higher in
wastewater lagoons than it would be in plants har-
vested from lakes and leads to further overestimation
of nutrient removal potential.
What, then, are more typical plant biomass values
expected in eutrophic lakes? Westlake (1965) lists a
range of net primary productivity of 400 to 2,000 g
dry wt/rn2/yr for submerged macrophytes, and a
range of 3,000 to 8,500 g dry wt/m Vyr for emergent
macrophytes on fertile sites. Boyd (1974) reviewed
standing crop data for a variety of aquatic plants and
listed a range of 80 to 1,280 g dry wt/mVyr depend-
ing on the species and locale. Gaudet (1974) re-
ported that the submerged macrophytes (normally
the species available for harvest over all but the
southern one-third of the United States) are among
the poorest primary producers and suggested that an
estimate of mean annual net productivity of 600 (^20
percent) g dry wt/mVyr was reasonable for temper-
ate submerged macrophytes, and that 1,700 f_25
percent) g dry wt/mVyr was a reasonable estimate
for tropical submerged macrophytes on fertile sites.
Gaudet (1974) also compiled standing crop data
from the literature; his estimates varied from 222 to
1,120 g dry wt/mVyr for submerged species, 1,280
g dry wt/mVyr for floating species (water hyacinths),
and from 1 50 to 2,458 g dry wt/mVyr for emergent
species. Wetzel (1975) also reviewed seasonal maxi-
mal biomass and annual productivity data and listed
biomass of 0.07 to 400 for submerged freshwater
species, 630 to 1,472 for floating species, and 0.4 to
10,760 for emergent forms with corresponding
productivities (fewer estimates) of 64 to 565, 1,500
to 4,400, and 180 to 2,500 g dry wt/mVyr.
The higher values for standing crop or net
productivity are not likely to be realized over the
entire littoral zone of most lakes. Nichols (1974), for
example, lists the highest observed standing crop for
Myriophyllum spicatum in Lake Wingra, Wis. as
1,146 g dry wt/mVyr, but his average growth curve
for Myriophyllum for the lake indicated that the larg-
est peak of about 360 g dry wt/mVyr occurred in late
August. Adams and McCracken (1974) state that the
average annual net macrophyte production for Lake
Wingra is 117 g C/mVyr, which is equivalent to 235
to 290 g dry wt/mVyr if the plants are 40 to 50
percent carbon (Westlake, 1965). Thus, the average
production is only 20 to 25 percent of Nichols' ob-
served maximum standing crop.
Crude estimates of actual biomass harvested have
been calculated from published cost per ton and cost
per acre estimates or derived from published yield
estimates for a variety of lakes and weed harvesting
programs (Table 1). These estimates are often based
on number of loads harvested and average weight
per load, so they represent only ballpark estimates.
Table 1 - Estimates of harvest of submerged macrophytes
Location
Amount Dominant plants
harvested harvested
g/mVyear
(dry weight)'
Reference
Lake Ma.tland, Fla
Lake Sallie, Minn
Lake Wabamum,
Alberta"
Alberta**
Berkeley, Calif"
Big Bear Lake. Calif.**
Lake Beulah, Wis"
Dane County, Wis"
Dane County. Wis
Six Lakes at
Winter Park, Fla
Caddo Lake, Tex & La
Caddo Lake, Tex & La
Muscoot Reservoir, N Y
S Chemung Lake,
Ontario
345
19
31
82
64-66
802-
811
61
23
28-
224*
159
112-
673"*
628
757
679##
Hydnlla
Myriophyllum,
Potamogeton
Elodea, Chara,
Myriophyllum,
Potamogeton,
Ceratophytlum
Unknown
Unknown
Elodea
Unknown
Myriophyllum,
filamentous algae
Mynophyilum,
filamentous algae
Unknown
Milfoil, Elodea,
and Coontail
Myriophyllum
Milfoil, Coontail,
and Elodea
Vallisnena,
Myriophyllum,
Chara
Bryant, 1970
Peterson, et al 1974
Neel, et al 1973
Nichols. 1974
see Gallup, et al
1975 for
species present
Bryant, 1974
Bryant, 1974
Nichols, 1974
Bryant, 1974
Nichols, 1974
Bryant, 1974
Nichols, 1974
Bryant, 1974
Nichols, 1974
Koegel, et al 1974
Blanchard, 1966
Lange, 1965
Bailey, 1965
LiverrpQre &
Wunderlich, 1969
Wile, 1975
* Wet weight converted to dry weight by assuming plants to be
90% water
** Harvest estimates calculated from costs per ton and costs per acre
*** Estimated plant densities—not actual harvest data
# Results of 1 5 times harvest trials
#•#• Higher than reported average peak biomass of 305 g dry
weight/m2 for whole area of aquatic plants, only 61% of total
macrophyte was harvested
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STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
179
They range from 1 9 to 8 1 1 y dry wt/mVyr and fall in
the low to midpoint of standing crop and productivity
values listed previously. Based on these published
harvest estimates and our own experience in waste-
water ponds, we suggest that maximum harvest in
the United States is about 600 to 900 g dry wt/mVyr
for very dense beds of submerged aquatic macro-
phytes. Most lake harvests over the entire macro-
phyte area of the littoral zone are likely to yield less
biomass, because the higher values are typical of the
denser macrophyte areas. Fifty to 400 g dry wt/mVyr
represent the more likely range of biomass that can
be harvested in the northern United States, while
150 to 650 g dry wt/mVyr represent more typical
harvests for submerged macrophytes for the south-
ern United States.
Floating species such as water hyacinths should be
able to produce more biomass than the submerged
macrophytes. These species are able to take carbon
directly from the air and are unlikely to be limited by
carbon the way that submerged forms are in very
nutrient-enriched lakes. In fact, harvest of floating
forms such as the water hyacinth, Eichhornia cras-
sipes, duckweed, Lemna sp., Spiradela sp., etc. and
other species have received a great deal of attention
as a possible way to remove and recycle nutrients
from wastewater(e.g., Miner, et al. 1971; Scarsbrook
and Davis, 1971; Rogers and Davis, 1972;Culley and
Epps, 1973; Harvey and Fox, 1973; Ornes and Sut-
ton, 1975; Sutton and Ornes, 1975; Wolverton and
McDonald, 1975, 1976; Wolverton, et al. 1976;
Cornwall, et al. 1977; Hillman and Culley, 1978) or
for nutrient removal from eutrophic or polluted
waters (e.g., Boyd, 1970; Steward, 1970; Yount and
Grossman, 1970; Dunigan, et al. 1 975). Estimates of
harvest potential from these sources for water hya-
cinth range from 1,400 to 32,000 g dry wt/mVyr.
The higher values represent extrapolations of daily
growth rates under ideal conditions to a 365-day
growth period. More realistic estimates for
wastewater-grown water hyacinths appear to be
3,000 to 5,000 g dry wt/mVyr for the southern
United States. In highly eutrophic waters, estimates
vary from 1,500 to 5,000 g dry wt/mVyr (Westlake,
1963; Boyd, 1970; Gaudet, 1974; Wetzel, 1975)
with typical standing crops of 630 to 1,470 g dry
wt/mVyr(Boyd, 1974; Gaudet, 1974; Wetzel, 1975).
Standing crops of 875 to 2,955 g dry wt/m2 were
achieved from April 5 to November 20, 1967, in
fertilized ponds in Alabama depending on rate of
fertilization (Walquist, 1972).
Even these various estimates appear to represent
the upper range of productivity and standing crops
for eutrophic lakes. For example, Rushing (1974)
reported productivities as high as 2,680 g dry
wt/mVyr in a river 1.5 km downstream from a source
of untreated or partially treated primary sewage in
Puerto Rico but reported productivities of only 220 g
dry wt/mVyr for a water supply reservoir. Productiv-
ity was intermediate in a lagoon in a bird sanctuary.
Thus, 200 to 3,000 g dry wt/mVyr appear to be
reasonable estimates of production by water hya-
cinths in lakes with values between 500 to 2,500
being the more typical values for eutrophic southern
waters.
Other floating species are capable of producing
similar amounts. Duckweed, for example, has been
shown to produce 1,100 to 3,600 g dry wt/mVyr
under ideal conditions (Culley and Epps, 1973; Har-
vey and Fox, 1 973; Sutton and Ornes, 1975; Hillman
and Culley, 1978). Such productivity is achieved only
with very short intervals between harvests (weekly or
less) and under higher nutrient loading conditions.
Harvesting this often probably would not be econom-
ically feasible for large lakes. Thus, water hyacinth
appears to be the floating species most likely to be
harvested in the southern United States.
.Emergent forms are capable of even greater
productivity, especially in the tropics. Westlake
(1965) lists net primary productivity values of 3,000
to 8,500 g dry wt/mVyr for emergent forms. Boyd
(1974) lists productivity values from a low range of
240 to 1,530 g dry wt/mVyr to a high value of
19,200 g dry wt/mVyr for Typha latifolia. Average
annual production can be as high as 7,500 f 15
percent) g dry wt/mVyr for tropical reed swarnps
(Gaudet, 1974). While emergent forms attain greater
productivities than submerged or floating forms, they
are normally found in swamps, marshes, and lake
margins in water less than 0.5 m deep and typically
are not significant components of most lakes. Most
commercial aquatic weed harvesters available in the
United States will not operate in such shallow water,
but there is at least one amphibious harvester capa-
ble of harvesting marsh and lake margin areas (A/S
Seiga Harvester imported into the United States by
Arundo, Ltd. of New York). Adjacent marsh and lake
margin emergent vegetation provides a "nutrient
trap" for waters entering lakes, and harvest of these
areas could be viewed as a significant component of
a eutrophication abatement program. In this paper,
we will emphasize the submerged and floating forms
typically harvested in lakes.
The concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus in
plant tissue varies with the concentration in the water
(Gerloff and Krombholz, 1966; Adams, et al. 1971;
McNabb and Tierney, 1972). Below the critical con-
centration of plant nutrients N and P, the amount of
plant produced increases proportionally to the
amount of nutrient supplied. Above the critical con-
centration, yield does not increase but "luxury con-
sumption" and storage in plant tissue result in in-
creased nutrient concentration (Gerloff and Krom-
bholz, 1966; Gerloff, 1 975; Hutchinson, 1975; Wet-
zel, 1975). This luxury uptake can result in rather
elevated concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen
in plant tissue with concentrations as high as 1.6
percent phosphorus (dry weight) and 5.3 percent
nitrogen being recorded from submerged macro-
phytes grown in wastewater ponds (McNabb and
Tierney, 1972).
However, concentrations in natural waters for sub-
merged, floating, and emergent species all vary be-
tween about 0.05 to 0.75 percent dry weight for
phosphorus and from 1.5 to 4.3 percent dry weight
for nitrogen (Reimer and Toth, 1968, for 37 species
in New Jersey; Gerloff, 1969, 1975, for a variety of
-------
180
LAKE RESTORATION
lakes and species in Wisconsin; Boyd, 1970, 1974,
for various southern species). Mean values fall in the
range of 0.2 to 0.4 percent phosphorus and 2.7 to
3.0 percent nitrogen on a dry weight basis. Thus, the
plant biomass that can be harvested as discussed can
be multiplied by 3.0 percent nitrogen and 0.3 per-
cent phosphorus to obtain approximate nutrient re-
moval potential.
Using our best estimates of harvest potential for
various types of aquatic plants and the phosphorus
and nitrogen content of plant tissue, we have calcu-
lated ranges of removal for each element by typical
harvest of the whole littoral zone of lakes (Table 2).
These removal potentials are for areas that support
macrophytes and will have to be adjusted on a whole
lake basis for the area of the lake that can be har-
vested. For example, about one-third of many shallow
lakes support macrophyte production. On a whole
lake basis, harvest of this entire macrophyte area
would result in removal of from 0.5 to 4.0 g of
N/mVyr and from 0.05 to 0.04 g of P/mVyr.
Clearly, removal of nutrients by plant harvest will
have to exceed net nutrient inputs if such harvest is to
result in lake restoration. This estimation can be
made as follows. First, nutrient loading to a lake
should be estimated from known point source load-
ing and from estimates of nonpoint source nutrient
loadings using (1) the techniques of Uttormark, et al.
(1974); (2) the general stream-land use loadings de-
rived by Omernik (1977); (3) one of the input/output
models (e.g., Dillon and Rigler, 1974, 1975; Vollen-
weider, 1975; Dillon, 1975; Kirchner and Dillon,
1975; Uttormark and Hutchins, 1978); or (4) the
modifications of these techniques described by
Schaffnerand Oglesby(1978).
Once nutrient loading is known, the second step is
to determine the areal extent and density of harvesta-
ble macrophytes. This determination can be made
with aerial photography and mapping of macrophyte
beds combined with limited ground truth data on
average plant biomass. Once one knows lake load-
ing, area of lake covered by harvestable plants, and
roughly the biomass of plants present, one can easily
predict whether or not harvest will remove more
phosphorus or nitrogen than is being added to the
lake by using the following equation:
(AP)(B)(PB)(100)
% Removal of P Loading =
(PN) (AT)
AP=Area of lake covered by macrophytes (m2)
B = Biomass of plants in areas covered by
plants (g dry wt/mVyr)
PB = Phosphorus concentration of plants
(g P/g dry wt of plants)
PN = Net annual phosphorus loading (g P/m2
of lake surface area/yr)
AT = Total area of the lake (m2)
Using this equation and assuming a phosphorus
tissue concentration of 0.3 percent dry weight, we
have constructed a nomograph to predict the amount
of plant biomass required to remove 100 percent of
net phosphorus input if various percentages of the
lake area are occupied by macrophytes (Figure 1). A
similar nomograph could be constructed for
nitrogen.
10"
UJ
£ 1C?
, ui 10 —
.01
( g P/NT/Yr )
NET PHOSPHORUS LOADING
10
Figure 1.- Plant harvest required to equal net phosphorus
loading as a function of lake area covered by harvestable
macrophytes.
The plants are assumed to be 0.3 percent P (dry weight)
It is clear from this graph. Table 2, and published
data on lake loading that most lakes that are eu-
trophic enough to be considered for lake restoration
have loadings in excess of the amount that can be
removed by plant harvest. Thus, harvest probably will
have to be accompanied by stringent efforts to con-
trol nutrient inputs and will not alleviate eutrophica-
tion if used by itself in most cases. It can be success-
ful by itself only if (1) macrophyte densities are high;
(2) phosphorus input is less than 1 g/m2/yr; (3) most
of the lake surface is covered by macrophytes; and (4)
harvest does not reduce production of macrophytes
in the year(s) following the first harvest.
Table 2 - Harvest removal potential for nitrogen and phosphorus
from eutrophtc lakes m the U S
Plant type Typical harvest Nittogen removal* Phosphorus removal*
g/m2/year g/m2year g/m2year
(dry weight)
Submerged macrophytes
Northern US 50 - 400 15-120 015-120
Southern US 150 - 650 45 - 195 045 - 195
Floating species
(water hyacinth)
Emergent species
500 - 2500 150 - 750
500 - 5000 150 - 1500
1 50 - 750
1 50 - 1500
* Based on nitrogen content of 3% and phosphorus content of 03%,
removal is for area harvested, not the entire lake
The last condition of no effect on regrowth in the
following years will probably not be met for many
submerged macrophytes. Both Nichols (1974) and
Neel, et al. (1973), found that macrophyte biomass
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STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
181
was significantly diminished the year after intensive
harvesting. Grinwald (1968) reported that a channel
harvested for 4 years did not require harvest the fifth
year. Because all of these investigators were harvest-
ing Myriophyllum, the effect of harvest on most other
submerged species is unknown. Phragmites and Ty-
pha also failed to grow back for 4 to 5 years following
experiments on reed mowing in Russia (Shekhov,
1974). In Lake Wabamum, Alberta, and Lake Wingra,
regrowth was similar to control plots in the year after
harvesting (Carpenter and Adams, 1977).
In those cases where harvest removal has been
expressed as a percentage of nutrient input, removal
by harvest has been only a small fraction of input. In
Lake Sallie, Minn, repeated harvest of the 32 percent
of the lake that supported macrophytes resulted in
removal of only 1.4 percent of input phosphorus and
3.9 percent of input nitrogen (Peterson, et al. 1974).
Biomass of macrophytes in this lake was sparse with
only 19 g dry wt/mVyr being harvested, while load-
ing at the time of the study was high. In Southern
Chemung Lake, Ontario, harvest of 31 percent of lake
area at a rate of 679 g dry wt/m2 removed 11.6
percent of input phosphorus and 20 percent of net
phosphorus retention in the lake (Wile, 1975). Har-
vest of 34 percent of the surface area of Lake Wingra
would result in removal of 16.7 percent of input
phosphorus and 37.4 percent of net phosphorus
retention (Carpenter and Adams, 1977).
Simple calculation of the amount of nutrient re-
moved by plant harvest also may be misleading when
the plant being harvested is a rooted macrophyte.
Recent research has shown that some species do
extract nutrients from sediments (McRoy and Bars-
date, 1970; Bristow and Whitcombe, 1971; McRoy,
et al. 1972; DeMarte and Hartman, 1974; Wetzel,
1975; Bole and Allan, 1978). Both Myriophyllum
spicatum and Hydrilla verticillata take up phosphorus
primarily from the sediment when the water contains
less than 0.5 UQ P/m/(0.015 ug P/m/for Hydrilla) but
take up most of their phosphorus from the water
when the water content is higher than this (Bole and
Allan, 1978). At least part of the phosphorus content
of rooted macrophytes is derived from sediments and
would not represent direct removal from the water
column.
Also, cut or damaged stems of such macrophytes
pump nutrients from the sediment into the overlying
water (DeMarte and Hartman, 1974; Carpenter and
Adams, 1977; Bole and Allan, 1978; Carpenter and
Gasith, 1978). Such pumping continues for only
about 18 hours and represents 4 to 20 ug phospho-
rus per plant (Bole and Allan, 1978) or about 5.5 ug
phosphorus per stump over a 2-day period (Carpenter
and Gasith, 1978). This pumping represented about
0.43 mg P/m2 for Lake Wingra, about 0.33 percent of
total removal (Carpenter and Gasith, 1978). As a
consequence of this stump exudation and the phos-
phorus content derived from the sediment, the net
nutrient removal from the water column may repre-
sent only a fraction of the amount removed by
harvest.
Based on the calculations and reported removals,
we suggest that plant harvest will restore very few
lakes. It does have significant positive impacts in
terms of recreation and maintenance of fish popula-
tions in lakes.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF
PLANT HARVEST
Carpenter and Adams (1977) reviewed the environ-
mental impacts of plant harvest. The following sum-
mary relies on their work, the work of others, and our
own comments. Harvesting can bring about a variety
of physical and chemical changes in the water col-
umn. These include such short-term changes (hours
or days) as resuspension of epibiota, marl in hardwa-
ter lakes, detritus, and surficial sediments; exudation
from macrophyte stems; leaching from floating se-
vered stems; increased light penetration; and de-
creased evapotranspiration.
Evapotranspiration can be increased two- or three-
fold by rapidly transpiring species such as water
hyacinths and other floating and emergent species
(Benton, et al. 1978). As a result of these changes,
particulate and dissolved nutrients and organic mat-
ter would be increased in the water. In Lake Wingra
these changes were not obvious. Most suspended
material settled out in less than 1 hour; and BOD,
dissolved organic carbon, dissolved reactive and un-
reactive phosphorus, and dissolved oxygen concen-
trations, all showed no significant difference when
compared to control plots (Carpenter and Gasith,
1978). Such changes could have occurred and could
have been masked by the small (0.2 ha) plot size.
These changes could show up in a full scale harvest-
ing program. If the harvester included a mechanical
chopper or dewatering device, some of the nutrients
potentially removed also would be returned to the
lake.
Longer term (weeks to months) physical and chemi-
cal changes may include increased erosion of the
littoral zone as a consequence of macrophyte re-
moval leading to increased resuspension of sedi-
ments, increased turbidity as a consequence of this
increased resuspension, and decreased pH as a con-
sequence of depressed community photosynthesis.
There also could be an initial decrease in dissolved
oxygen as high oxygen demanding plant fragments
left after harvest are rapidly decomposed (Jewell,
1971); but after this period of decomposition, oxygen
concentrations could rise due to better circulation of
water in the absence of macrophytes.
Decay of plant material not removed during harvest
also could regenerate nitrogen and phosphorus in
the water column (Jewell, 1971; Nichols, 1973). Re-
generation of nutrients from plant tissue and desorp-
tion of nutrients from nutrient-rich, resuspended bot-
tom sediments could lead to an increase in available
phosphorus and nitrogen. This increased or already
adequate nutrient supply, plus release from competi-
tion with macrophytes and increased available light,
often leads to phytoplankton blooms or to increase in
filamentous algae (Nichols, 1973; our own experi-
ence in wastewater ponds). If resuspended sedi-
ments are nutrient poor, they could sorb nutrients
from overlying water, but this condition is not likely to
occur in eutrophic lakes.
Harvest of vegetation also can affect sediment
chemistry in ways other than by desorption or sorp-
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182
LAKE RESTORATION
tion of nutrients from resuspended sediment. If the
harvested plants are rooted macrophytes, harvesting
can remove much of the available phosphorus from
the surface sediments. For example, Carpenter and
Adams (1977) calculated that the upper 12 cm of
sediment in Lake Wingra had 1.4 g of P/m2 available
for plant extraction, and that macrophyte harvest
would remove it all, resulting in depleted surface
sediments. Carpenter and Adams (1977) also calcu-
lated that complete removal of macrophytes would
decrease the rate of sediment accumulation by about
6 percent per year, because a fraction between 11
and 50 percent of dead macrophyte tissue does not
decompose and contributes directly to sediment
accumulation.
Harvest of vegetation also can affect nutrient sup-
ply to the pelagic zone of lakes, because littoral
vegetation is often a major source of nutrients there
(Wetzel, 1975). Littoral macrophytes may also trap
incoming nutrients and reduce the flow to the pelagic
zone (Carpenter and Adams, 1977). Thus, nutrient
supply to the pelagic zone can be affected by harvest
of the littoral zone.
Changes in biota as a consequence of harvesting
are to be expected. The makeup of the macrophyte
community could be changed. For example, plants
that vegetatively propagate from cut fractions could
be favored. This phenomenon has been suggested
for Hydrilla, Eurasian milfoil, and some other species.
Selective cutting also can influence community
makeup. Cutting could be high enough to remove
species in the upper water column but not disturb
low growing species or could be timed to favor one
species over another (Carpenter and Adams, 1977).
Long-term competition between species also may be
affected by harvest. This phenomenon has not been
well documented for aquatic communities but is well
known for terrestrial communities.
Obvious changes in the biotic community include
loss of substrate for the aufwuchs community, de-
creased detrital input and cover for the benthic com-
munity, decreased cover for fish, and so forth. All of
these changes could profoundly affect the composi-
tion of the biota. Some of these effects have been
documented for the benthic community (Gallup, et al.
1975) but have not been studied to any extent for
other communities (Carpenter and Adams, 1977).
Other biotic changes already have been alluded to.
These include increases in microbial populations
right after harvest to decompose the cut, unremoved
vegetation, and increases in phytoplankton and/or
filamentous algal populations after harvest. Zoo-
plankton also may increase after harvest as a re-
sponse to increased phytoplankton populations.
Many other biotic changes could occur, but these
changes cited indicate the complexity and unpredict-
ability of the biotic interactions that might occur as a
result of harvest.
HARVEST AND HARVEST COST
A wide variety of harvesters has been designed for
aquatic weed harvesting. Because the demand for
such harvesters is limited, companies often make a
few custom-made machines and then go out of busi-
ness. Often, organizations manufacture their own
machines for research purposes. The wide variety of
machinery that has been used for harvesting and the
fact that many of these machines are one of a kind
make generalization about harvesting techniques
difficult.
Some of the machinery available for aquatic plant
harvesting were reviewed by Livermore and Wunder-
lich (1969), Nichols (1974), and Robson (1974). Ni-
chols (1974) provides a table of harvesters with their
manufacturers and specifications. Generally, these
harvesters are of two types. Either they cut the vege-
tation, let it float freely, and then rake it to shore, or
they cut and remove the vegetation by conveyor at
the moment of harvest.
The first type of operation is very inefficient and
leads to many cut weeds sinking to the bottom before
they can be pushed to shore. Machines of this type
are presently manufactured by Air-Lee Industries of
Madison, Wis.; Carver Aquatics of Minden, La.; and
the Hockney Co. of Silver Lake, Wis. To our knowl-
edge, the only U.S. manufacturer of the type of ma-
chine that cuts and harvests in one pass is Aquama-
rine Corp. of Waukesha, Wis. Their machinery is
employed by most active harvesting operations in the
United States. A/S Seiga Co. of Denmark (imported
here by Arundo, Ltd. of New York) also has a series of
amphibious harvesters that cut and harvest sub-
merged, floating, or emergent weeds in one pass.
Special machinery has been designed for harvest-
ing water hyacinths; the Hyballer from Aquamarine
Corp. harvests and throws vegetation on shore, and
the water hyacinth harvester manufactured by Carver
Aquatics is shore-based.
Much work has been done to increase the effi-
ciency of harvesters by researchers from the Univer-
sity of Wisconsin (e.g., Bruhn, et al. 1970; Livermore,
etal. 1975;Koegel,etal. 1973, 1974, 1977). Koegel,
et al. (1977) compared costs and efficiency of the
Grinwald-Thomas harvester (no longer manufac-
tured) with the Aquamarine harvester and made
some modifications including the addition of a forage
chopper, to reduce bulk and increase transport effi-
ciency. This group has also worked with dewatering
devices. Thus, anyone designing equipment should
consult these individuals.
As one might expect, costs of harvesting vary
widely. Nichols (1974) surveyed many harvest opera-
tions in the upper midwest and compiled cost figures
for them. They varied from $7 to $371 per hectare
and did not always include all costs. Bryant (1974)
has also compiled cost data using Aquamarine har-
vesters. His typical budget sheet (also included in
Nichols, 1974) is updated and included here (Table
3). Costs vary from $103 to $411 per hectare de-
pending on rate of harvest. Based on our experience
in dense macrophyte areas with relatively short dis-
tances to shore, we suggest that 0.2 ha/hr is a rea-
sonable average rate and that costs will be about
$200/ha(Table3).
Koegel, et al. (1977) reports similar operational
costs ($230/ha) for Aquamarine equipment in Wis-
consin. Harvest costs were reduced to $158/ha by
using an attached barge system with the
Grinwald-Thomas harvester (Koegel, et al. 1977). A
-------
STATE OF THE
Table 3 - Typical budget sheet for harvesting aquatic plants*
I Capital investment for harvesting equipment
One H-650 Aquamarine Harvester
One S-650 Aquamarine Shore Conveyor
One M-650 Mobilizing assembly
Freight
Annual Depreciation (10%/yr)
II Leased truck and hauling expense
200 miles per day, 5-day week, 66-day season
Leasing fee — $400/month for 3 months
Mileage cost — 200 miles for 66 days
@020/mile
Gasoline — 20 gallons x 66 days x 065/gal
III Labor
8-hour day, 66 days, two men @ $6/hr/man
IV Harvesting operating and maintenance expense
V Contingencies (10%)
VI ANNUAL ESTIMATED OPERATING COST
VII Cost in relation to number of hectares harvested
$53,500
11,770
5,350
975
$70,620
$7,062
$1,200
2,640
858
$4,698
$6,336
$1,700
$1,980
$21,776
Hectare/Hr
04
02
01
Hectares/sea son
211
106
53
Cost/hectare
$103
$206
$411
Modified with updated costs from Bryant
(1974) based on 1972 harvest costs with
Aquamarine Corp Equipment, 7% per year
cost adjustment used where not specified
1977 price quote from Aquamarine Corp plus
7% adjustment
Harvesting done 66 days during season
transporter is available for use with the Aquamarine
system and, while it would increase capital invest-
ment by about $40,000, it would improve harvest
efficiency in large lakes.
Oakland County, Mich, purchased harvesters sev-
eral years ago and operates them at cost for users.
They presently charge $60/hr, which covers cost and
depreciation. At a 0.2 ha/hr rate, harvest costs about
$300 per ha. Reasonable estimates of harvest cost
for submerged macrophytes appear to be $200 to
$300 per hectare for relatively dense macrophyte
areas.
Harvested vegetation has potentially great use as a
protein supplement or animal feed (e.g., Lange,
1965; Boyd, 1968a, b, 1969, 1970, 1974; Bagnall,
1970; Truax, et al. 1972; Culley and Epps, 1973;
Bagnall, et al. 1974; Baldwin, et al. 1974; Easley and
Shirley, 1974; Natl. Acad. Sci. 1976; Bahr, et al.
1977; Rusoff, et al. 1977, 1978; Hillman and Culley,
1978) or as sources of pulp, paper, and fiber (Natl.
Acad. Sci. 1976), but such uses have not yet proven
economical in this country. As a consequence, most
harvested vegetation is dumped or is given to the
local populace for mulch or compost. Oakland
County has been able to get people to take much of
the harvested plant material at lakeside.
CONCLUSIONS
Aquatic plant harvesting can work as a lake restora-
tion technique only if nutrient loading to the lake is
low. Thus, the first step for restoration of most lakes
will be to reduce loading by controlling point and
nonpoint sources of pollution in their watersheds.
Harvesting can accelerate recovery rates once nutri-
ent loading is reduced.
ART RESEARCH 1 83
Harvesting is an excellent management tool for
reducing nuisance growths of weeds, reducing oxy-
gen stress and winter kills associated with decay of
macrophytes over winter, and for keeping water
open and attractive for recreational purposes. This
primarily cosmetic approach can help maintain the
recreational potential of a lake but in most cases does
not remove enough nutrients to control
eutrophication.
Also, EPA has not blessed this technique because
of reluctance to commit funds for the long period
required. Thus, other institutional arrangements will
be needed to fund plant harvest programs, or the EPA
will have to revise its present policy. In situations
where nutrient input has been controlled, harvesting
could reverse eutrophication over a period of several
years. Such an approach could have worked as an
alternative to dredging for Lake Lansing, Mich. Envi-
ronmental impact statement submitted on the Lake
Lansing Restoration Project by the Ingham County
Board of Works in 1977 was rejected because of the
unwillingness of EPA to fund such an approach.
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EPA's LAKE RESTORATION EVALUATION PROGRAM
SPENCER A. PETERSON
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon
ABSTRACT
A method is presented for grouping many different lake restoration techniques into a limited
number of similar types so that the entire set might be approached in the manner of an
experimental design. In addition, this paper describes overall objectives of the lake-restoration
evaluation program, and the rationale for developing the experimental design and for selecting
the individual lakes to be evaluated. Individual lake restoration projects are being evaluated
limnologically, sociologically, and economically through research grants. The overall success of
the restoration projects will consider all three of these aspects. Limnological changes will be
assessed on the basis of nutrient mass balance modeling and on changes in the Lake Evaluation
Index. The latter involves a concept for integrating changes in six key variables resulting from
lake manipulation. They are total phosphorus, total nitrogen, chlorophyll a, Secchi depth,
dissolved oxygen, and macrophytes.
INTRODUCTION
The Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) lake
restoration evaluation program is linked directly to
lake restoration projects being conducted under sec-
tion 314 of Public Law 92-500. The Office of Water
Planning and Standards (OWPS), which has overall
administrative responsibility for the clean lakes pro-
gram, initiated it as a demonstration grants program.
This was a rational and reasonable approach be-
cause full scale lake restoration is relatively new and
unproven in most instances.
We have learned a great deal from eutrophication
research over the past 10 to 15 years and can be
relatively certain that various lake restoration tech-
niques will have a positive effect on lakes when
properly applied. In other words, we have a pretty
good idea which direction water quality changes will
take as a result of applying a given technology.
What we do not know about any particular technol-
ogy, however, is the degree of change and how it will
affect general Liability of a lake. This is true for
individual restoration techniques as well as for com-
binations of techniques. Currently, there is no reliable
method for determining the optimum treatment for
specific lakes or groups of similar lakes. Beyond the
general lake usability itself, the impact of lake resto-
ration on the surrounding lake community and its
social structure is nearly impossible to predict.
These were some of the reasons why, in 1975, the
OWPS requested the assistance of EPA's Office of
Research and Development (ORD) to assess and eval-
uate the overall effectiveness of implementing vari-
ous lake restoration technologies. EPA's Corvallis En-
vironmental Research Laboratory (CERL) was as-
signed the task of planning and conducting an evalu-
ation program to answer some of the environmental
effects questions concerning lake restoration.
LAKE CLASSIFICATION AND
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
At the outset CERL envisioned two major objectives
for the clean lakes evaluation. These were: (1) to
determine the effectiveness of specific restoration
techniques or combination of techniques on specific
lakes; and (2) to compare the effectiveness of various
restoration processes on different lakes. Evaluations
were to include various aspects of the economic and
sociological impacts of lake restoration as well as the
more commonly measured limnological changes. Be-
cause all funds associated with the lake restoration
program were earmarked for extramural expenditure,
CERL elected to evaluate specific projects through
the research grant mechanism.
Grants awarded on specific projects were designed
to satisfy the requirements of our first objective,
"determination of the effectiveness of specific resto-
ration manipulations on specific lakes." These indi-
vidual grants, however, would not meet the require-
ments of the second objective, "to determine the
effectiveness of various restoration techniques on
different lakes." Therefore, CERL undertook a com-
plementary inhouse research effort directed toward
the second objective.
This work has two objectives: (1) to develop me-
thods that will improve our capabilities to predict the
response of lakes to restorative manipulations; and
(2) to develop a lake restoration guidance manual to
assist water resource managers with decisions con-
cerning the advisability of restoring a lake, the pros
and cons of various restoration techniques, and me-
thods for assessing the effectiveness of the restora-
tion in terms of limnology, sociology, and economics.
As of September 1975, nearly 60 lakes were being
restored under the clean lakes program. It was im-
practical to evaluate each of these projects, so a
strategy was devised to group the lakes by restora-
187
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188
LAKE RESTORATION
tion technique and select from the different tech-
niques a subset of projects for evaluation. Require-
ments for these projects were that they be represent-
ative of the entire set of projects in terms of treatment
technique, watershed type, lake area and volume,
socioeconomic setting, and geographic distribution.
From a research standpoint it would be most suit-
able to evaluate the effects of individual lake restora-
tion techniques. However, when the projects were
categorized according to their primary treatment
mode (Table 1), and secondary treatment techniques
were examined (Table 2), it became apparent that
few projects involved single treatment technology.
On the average 2.3 restoration techniques per
project were being applied and only 12 projects had
single manipulations. The single manipulation
projects did not include the proper mix of treatment
technologies to be representative of the entire set of
projects. It was obvious that multiple as well as single
treatment technologies would need to be evaluated.
The question then was which projects would best
meet the needs of the evaluation objectives?
Table 1 - Classification of lake restoration techniques
I Source Controls
A Treatment of inflows
B Diversion of inflows
C Watershed management (land use practices,
nonpomt source control, regulations
and/or treatments)
D. Lake riparian regulation or modification
E Product modification or regulation
II In-Lake Controls
A Dredging
B Volume changes other then by dredging
or compaction of sediments
C. Nutrient mactivation
D Dilution/flushing
E. Flow adjustment
F Sediment exposure and dessication
G Lake bottom sealing
H. In-lake sediment leaching
I. Shoreline modification
J. Riparian treatment of lake water
K Selective discharge
III Problem Treatment (directed at biological
consequences of lake condition)
A Physical techniques (harvesting,
water level fluctuations,
habitat manipulations)
B Chemical (aigicides, herbicides, pesticides)
C Biological (predator-prey manipulations,
pathological reactions)
D Mixing (aeration, mechanical pumps,
lake bottom modification)
E Aeration (add DO,
e g, hypolimnetic aeration)
By classifying all of the restoration projects accord-
ing to one of the three major "lake restoration tech-
niques" shown in Table 1 it was possible to orgpnize
the many different manipulations into a limited num-
ber of similar types and thereby approach the set of
lakes as an experimental design. The experimental
design depended on the assumptions that (1) treating
manipulations in terms of their effect was a valid
approach; (2) different lakes could be "standardized"
Through the use of Vollenweider (1975a) or Dillon
and Rigler( 1974) type nutrient mass balance models;
and (3) the relative quantitative impacts of the manip-
ulations could be determined.
PROJECT SELECTION
After the experimental design was determined, all
of the funded projects were ranked for their research
evaluation suitability according to the quality of the
baseline data presented in the implementation grant
application, the time frame and frequency of data
collection, the probability of measurable short-term
response of the lake to manipulation, the potential for
quantifying changes in phosphorus loadings, and the
number of restoration techniques being employed
(Porcella and Peterson, 1977). Eighteen projects
were eventually identified by this ranking system and
fit according to manipulation type into the boxes of
the factorial, experimental design (Table 3).
Funding constraints and/or delays in the imple-
mentation projects have forced some changes in the
projects initially identified as candidates for detailed
evaluation. Those projects currently being funded are
shown in Table 4.
EVALUATION TECHNIQUES
Mass Balance Modeling
Selection criteria for lakes to be evaluated under
the 314 program were directed primarily toward the
major plant nutrient phosphorus. The first reason for
this was that much data accumulated over the past
several years have shown a high correlation between
algal concentrations (measured as chlorophyll a) in
lakes and the phosphorus content of phosphorus
limited water (Nicholls and Dillon, in press). A second
reason was that despite the large variety of lake
restoration projects, almost all were oriented, either
directly or indirectly, toward limiting phosphorus sup-
plies. In other words, phosphorus supply limitation is
the most common theme among the diversity of
restoration projects. Therefore, it appeared reasona-
ble to concentrate on phosphorus mass balance mod-
eling as one means of measuring changes resulting
from in-lake and watershed management practices.
Because the phosphorus content of a lake is deter-
mined by a balance between supplies and losses,
accurate measurement of all fluxes would provide an
accurate description of changes in lake phosphorus.
Larsen (in press) has pointed out that currently it is
extremely difficult (if not impossible) to measure all of
these fluxes accurately, particularly those related to
internal nutrient dynamics. In the same paper he
describes some of the modeling techniques (Dillon
and Rigler, 1974; Sonzogni, et al. 1976; Vollen-
weider, 1975b) that could be used to estimate what
fraction of inflowing phosphorus is deposited over an
annual cycle, what the average phosphorus content
of a lake might be, considering certain morphometric
and hydrologic information, and the relative signifi-
cance of phosphorus release from deep water sedi-
ments and littoral macrophyte communities.
Conceptually, the modeling techniques described
by Larsen are similar to those used by Dillon and
Rigler (1974) for experimentally determining the an-
nual retention of phosphorus in lake sediments. The
major difference is the use of shorter time intervals,
which permits determining when internal fluxes oc-
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STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
189
Table 2 - Funded (awarded or pending award) demonstration projects have a wide variety of manipulation types
(as designated :n Table 1)
Project, State
Demanssocata, Me
Wellesley, Mass
Cochituate, Mass
Boston, Mass
Brocton, Mass
Scotia, N.Y
Islip, NY
Buffalo, NY
East Greenbush, N.Y
Albany, NY
Schenectady, N.Y
Charlottesville, Va
Baltimore, Md
Tallahassee, Fla
Albert Lea, Minn.
Chain of Lakes, Minn.
Wheatland, Wis
Eau Claire, Wis
Waupaca, Wis
Wheatland, Wis
Maple Run, Minn
Waseca, Minn
Fort Wayne, Ind
Marionette, Wis.
Arden Hills, Minn
Mmn-St Paul, Minn
Blair, Wis
Madison, Wis
Mason, Mich
Bloornmgton, Minn
Paul's Valley, Okla
Lenox, Iowa
Oelwem, Iowa
Brookings, S Dak.
Watertown, SDak
Brookings, SDak
Viborg, SDak
Lafayette, Calif
Oakland, Calif
Marion, Calif
Port Orchard, Wash
Vancouver, Wash
Beaverton, Ore
Spokane, Wash
Medical, Wash
Moses, Wash
Everett, Wash
Name of lake(s)
Little Pond
Morses Pond
Upper Pond
Middle Pond
Lower Pond
Charles River Basin
Ellis Brett Pond
30 Acre Pond
Collins Park
Ronkonkoma
Delaware
North Bay
Hampton Manor
Washington Park
Buckingham
Steinmetz
Rivanna
Loch Raven
Apopka
Jackson
Fountain Lake
Lake of the Isles
Harriett
Lilly
Hart Moon
Mirror
Shadow
Little Muskego
Hyland
Clear
Skinner
Naquebay
Long
Phalen
Henry
White Clay
Lansing
Penn
Paul's Valley
Lenox Lake
Oelwem
Cochrane
Kampeska
Oakwood Lake 1
Oakwood Lake 2
Swan
Lafayette
Temescal
Stafford
Long
Vancouver
Commonwealth
Liberty
Medical
Moses
Spada
Chaplain
Region (Number)
1 (1)
(2)
(3a)
(3t>)
(3c)
(4)
(5a)
(5b)
II (1)
(2)
(3a)
(3b)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
III (1)
(2)
IV (1)
(2)
V (1)
(2a)
(2b)
(3)
(4)
(5a)
<5b)
(6)
(?)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(H)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
VI (1)
VII (1)
(2)
VIII (1)
(2)
(3a)
(3b)
(4)
IX (1)
(2)
(3)
X (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7a)
(7b)
Manipulation type*
III C
IIC, HA, IIIA, 1C, ID
IA, IIIA
IA, IIIA
IA, IIIA
HID, IB
IA. IIA
IA, IIA
IIA, ll-l
IA (ID, ll-l)
IB, IID, IIF(IIB), 1C
IB, IID, IIF, IIA, 1C
IIF (IIA)
IIF (IIA)
IIF (IIA)
IIF (IIA), IB
HID, IA (ID), IB
HID, 1C
IIF, 1C
IA(IIIA)
IA, 1C
IB
1C
IIA, IIC
IB, HE, HID
IB, IIC, HID
IB, IIC
IIA
IID, IIF, IA, HID
IB. IIIA
IB, IIIA, IIC, 1C
IIA, IIIA, IB
IIA, IA(IIIA),IC
IB, HE
IIA, 1C, ID
1C
IIA, IIG
IIA, HE. ID, IIIC, HID
1C
IIA
IIA, IA
IA
ll-l
ll-l (1C)
ll-l (1C)
1C, ID, ll-l
IIC, HIE
IIA, IIF, IIG, HID, IIK,
IIB, IIC, IA
IIA, ll-l, 1C
1C, IA, IIIA, IIC, IIF
IIA, IID
IID, HA. ll-l IIC
IIF(IIA),
IIC
IID
1C, ll-l
1C
*Treatments in parentheses are an integral part of a major treatment
cur. Correlation of these relatively short-term fluxes
with other environmental variables will be used to
establish causes of the fluxes, thereby providing a
better understanding of the factors chiefly responsi-
ble for driving the system.
Lake Evaluation Index
Brezonik (1976), Shapiro (1978), and Uttormark
(1978), among others, have recently conducted ex-
tensive surveys of the literature on trophic state indi-
ces. All concluded that there was no universal, com-
pletely satisfactory index of lake water quality. The
indices surveyed used a numberof different variables
but those most commonly employed were Secchi
depth, dissolved oxygen, phosphorus, chlorophyll a,
and nitrogen compounds. The reasons for using
these variables are relatively straightforward if one
conceptualizes a sequence of cause and effect
events that would occur under conditions where
phosphorus was limiting. It can be seen from Figure 1
that an increase in lake phosphorus concentration
would cause an increase in primary productivity,
which in turn would cause decreases in Secchi depth
and hypolimnetic dissolved oxygen concentrations.
For this scenario, data on total phosphorus, chloro-
phyll a, Secchi depth, and dissolved oxygen could be
used to explain changes in the lake water quality.
This scheme would be satisfactory as long as phos-
phorus was limiting, but if the limiting factor was the
other most common one, that is, nitrogen, the above
rationale would not hold true. Therefore, nitrogen
must be considered also. In many instances, macro-
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190
LAKE RESTORATION
Table 3 - Experimental design of candidate lake
restoration evaluation projects
Source
In-fake
Other
Dredging
Nut Inact
Oil/Flush
Source
Fountain, Minn
Ronkonkoma, N Y
Clear, Minn
White Clay, Wis*
Loch Raven, Md**
In-lake
Dredging
Long, Minn*
Lansing, Mich *
Muskego, Wis
Collins
Park, NY*
Lenox, Iowa
Nut Inact
Mirror/
Shadow, Wis*
Liberty, Wash*
Lilly, Wis*
Medical, Wash
Lafayette,
Calif**
Oil/Flush
Vancouver,
Wash
Moses, Wash *
Other
Long (Kitsap
Co), Wash* (draw-
down, dredge,
nut Inact
NPS)
Funded
Aeration also
Table 4 - Currently active evaluation projects
Evaluation -type
Limno
Socio/econ
Source
Restoration type
In-lake
Principal investigator1
Other
Limno
Mirror/Shadow, Wis x
Liberty Lake, Wash x
Ronkonkoma, NY z
White Clay, Wis x
Long Lake, Minn x
Lansing, Mich x
Skinner Lake, Ind x
Collins Park, NY x
Lilly Lake, Wis x
Lafayette, Calif x
Moses Lake, Wash x
Long Lake, Wash x
x
X
x
X
x
Douglas Knauer
Bill Funk
Jim Peterson
Roger Blomquist
Cal McNabb
Cal McNabb
Carl George
Russel Dunst
Marc Lorenzen
Gene Welch
Gene Welch
x = A detailed evaluation of a major manipulation
z = A less comprehensive evaluation or a less significant manipulation
* = Limnological evaluation conducted as part of the demonstration grant
1 = See Appendix A
Socio/econ
Lowell Klessig
Tom Hogg
Bill Honey
Ken Gibbs
Ben Liu
Lowell Klessig
Ben Liu
phytes are an important segment of lake primary
production. Their importance is not measured by
chlorophyll a or most other methods commonly em-
ployed in lakes, yet they may significantly influence
the nutrient concentration, dissolved oxygen level,
Secchi depth, and other water quality variables.
This type of rationale led us toward a second me-
thod of assessing the effects of various lake restora-
tion techniques. It centered around the development
of a Lake Evaluation Index (LEI), which incorporates
the following six key variables: Secchi depth, total
phosphorus, total nitrogen, chlorophyll a, dissolved
oxygen, and macrophytes. The idea behind this index
is to develop scalar numerical values for each vari-
able and combine them in a manner that permits a
comparison of water quality changes effected by
various lake restoration techniques. The index will
require additional verification but it is essentially an
extension of the concepts that went into the develop-
ment of Carlson's (1977) trophic state index for lakes.
His approach was to take the greatest and least
expected values for Secchi depth and assign a rating
scale of 0 to 100. A trophic state index of 0 repre-
sented the cleanest water possible while 100 repre-
sented the other extreme.
Carlson regressed Secchi depth readings against
chlorophyll a and total phosphorus to obtain their
relationships and described them mathematically.
The Secchi depth, total phosphorus, and chlorophyll
a scalar values for the LEI were developed with minor
modifications of Carlson's equations. Scalar values
for total nitrogen, dissolved oxygen, and areal distri-
bution of macrophytes were developed with slightly
different techniques that are described in a paper by
Porcella and Peterson (1978).
Unlike Carlson's index, the LEI was not formulated
as a trophic state index per se, but rather to assess
the changes in a lake following restoration. Transfer-
-------
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
191
Total Phosphorus
icreased Turbidity
rom primary products
?duces Secchi Depth
Death and Decay
imary producers
es DO in Hypoli
Figure 1 - Conceptual sequence of cause and effect relation-
ships in lake eutrophication processes (modified from Cha-
praandTarapchak, 1976).
mation of data for each variable into scalar values
tends to normalize the variables so that lakes of
diverse morphometry and/or subjected to different
restoration techniques might be compared. An addi-
tional advantage of the LEI is that the scales are
absolute rather than relative, which means the index
is not limited to the set of lakes from which the
developmental data were extracted.
Use of LEI by lake managers will permit them to
assess water quality changes by monitoring shifts in
the index numbers of individual variables—from a
lower to a higher number or vice versa. The index
numbers for individual variables also could be com-
bined to give a single number index. However, there
is no general consensus at this time of how that
number should be derived. To be realistic, it will
depend on the development of proper weighting
coefficients for each of the variables. Until then, any
single number index will be a simple summation of
the six individual indices.
It should be possible to use the LEI as a predictive
total also. If mean nutrient concentrations can be
predicted with loading rate equations such as Vollen-
weider's, then a new LEI value could be calculated
and biological conditions estimated.
Social Assessments
It was stated earlier in this paper that the major
objectives of the evaluation program were to deter-
mine the effectiveness of individual and combined
restoration techniques on specific lakes and to com-
pare their relative efficiencies. All of the evaluation
strategy discussed to this point has addressed the
limnological setting. To accurately determine the
changes in water quality of a lake in terms of reduced
sediment/water phosphorus exchange rates, mean
annual phosphorus concentrations, or mg of chloro-
phyll a/m3 of water are not enough. Lake restoration
is a human concept and its costs and benefits should
be weighed against other public projects in the com-
munity for which the funds might be expended.
Therefore, it is important to be able to transform the
limnological results of lake restoration into meaning-
ful and useful social and economic information. In the
final analysis, the success of a lake restoration
project will depend on how it is perceived by the
public that uses and pays for improved facilities.
This facet of our research program focuses on the
entire process of human concern, action, and conse-
quences of lake restoration. It is directed toward such
questions as: What has been man's historical involve-
ment with the lake and what role does it play in
individual and community affairs? What factors led to
the current concern over the condition of the lake?
Who will benefit and who pays for lake restoration?
Are there disadvantages to lake restoration? What is
the relative importance of the different benefits and
costs and how will they be traded off one against the
other? These are but a few of the questions that must
be addressed by water quality managers and other
decisionmakers when considering lake restoration
projects. In attempting to answer these questions the
social research in the clean lakes program will be
helpful in making decisions about lake restoration
and water quality protection.
Many projects similar to the lake restoration
projects have been assessed in terms of their
benefit/cost ratios and either funded or not funded
on that basis alone. The advent of the environmental
impact statement changed that somewhat, but these
documents frequently are so voluminous that deci-
sionmakers have difficulty wading through them or
comprehending what is and what is not significant.
Therefore, what is needed is an analysis of the major
social impacts and their relative significance, with
clear statements on the salient points.
One approach to supplying this information is to
assess the attitude of people affected by the restora-
tion project: direct users of the lake; property owners
and businesses adjacent to the lake; and those who
are farther removed from the lake but nevertheless,
still are affected by the project. Cultural components
such as economy, resource use, institutional involve-
ments, and public attitudes will be observed and
analyzed. Projections both with and without the res-
toration will be made from the present social profile,
that is, the demographic-biographic, socioeconomic-
sociopolitical, aesthetic, recreational, and other atti-
tudes of the area. The rationale for this approach has
been described by Honey and Hogg (1978).
Another aspect of the social evaluation is to de-
velop assessment procedures or models that assist
the decisionmaker to understand the consequences
of alternatives being considered. This approach also
would permit prioritization of lakes by use activities
and restoration potential. Further, the technique
should produce information that would be applicable
to directing lake restoration in a manner that would
optimize recreational potential within the constraints
of the overall project, i.e., financial, political, etc.
These approaches will lead to a final statement that
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192
LAKE RESTORATION
contains both a financial analysis and considerable
description of the benefits and costs that are not
adequately represented by a financial analysis alone
(Christiansen, 1978).
One product of the lake restoration evaluation pro-
gram will be a water quality manager's handbook to
assist in determining if a lake restoration project
should be undertaken, and if so, how to optimize its
effectiveness and assess its outcome. This will re-
quire interfacing of changes in socioeconomic atti-
tudes and behaviors with limnologically determined
changes in water quality. The overall goal is to pro-
vide the decisionmaker with better tools to help make
his decisions.
SUMMARY
This paper addresses the evaluation phase of EPA's
clean lakes program being conducted under the aus-
pices of section 314 of Public Law 92-500. It de-
scribes an experimental design consisting essentially
of a 2 by 2 factorial matrix to include various lake
restoration techniques categorized according to
source controls, in-lake controls, and problem treat-
ment techniques. Limnological changes resulting
from restoration are being determined by means of
mass balance modeling and the use of a Lake Evalua-
tion Index, which incorporates total phosphorus, total
nitrogen, chlorophyll a, Secchi depth, net dissolved
oxygen, and macrophyte data. The socioeconomic
evaluations are assessing the attitudes of lake users
concerning lake restoration, and developing regional
models that will help managers optimize the recrea-
tional potential of lake restoration. This information
will be combined to produce a water quality manag-
er's handbook.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to acknowledge the role of Donald Porcella in
developing the experimental approach to evaluating various
types of lake restoration techniques and in formulating the
concepts involved in the Lake Evaluation Index. Information
in this paper draws extensively from those ideas. Apprecia-
tion also goes to Ron Glessner, who has worked toward
verification of the LEI during the past year, and to Phil
Larsen, who is responsible for the nutrient mass balance
modeling work on behalf of the evaluation program Neils
Christiansen, John Jaksch, and Eleanor MacDonald have
shaped the socioeconomic research portion of the program.
All of them, as well as others at CERL, have contributed in
some way to this paper.
REFERENCES
Brezonik, P L 1976. Trophic classifications and trophic
state indices; rationale, progress, prospects. Rep. No.
ENV-07-76-01. University of Florida, Gainesville
Carlson, R. E. 1977. A trophic state index for lakes. Limnol.
Oceanogr 22:361.
Chapra, S. C., and S. J. Tarapchak. 1976. A chlorophyll a
model and its relationship to phosphorus loading plots for
lakes Water Resour. Res. 12:1260.
Christiansen, N. 1978. Social evaluation of the clean lakes
program: a research strategy. Environ. Res. Lab. U.S. Envi-
ron. Prot. Agency, Corvallis, Ore. (Mimeo.)
Dillon, P. J.,and f. H. Rigler 1 974. A test of a simple nutrient
budget model predicting the phosphorus concentration in
lake water. Jour. Fish. Res. Board Can. 31.1771.
Honey, W. D., and T. C. Hogg. 1978. A research strategy for
social assessment of lake restoration programs
EPA-600/5-78-004. Environ. Res. Lab. U.S. Environ. Prot
Agency, Corvallis, Ore.
Larsen, D. P. Evaluation of clean lakes restoration using
phosphorus mass balance modeling. In Proc. workshop of
limnological and socioeconomic evaluations of lake resto-
ration projects: approaches and preliminary results. Ecol
Res. Ser. Rep. U.S Environ Prot. Agency. (In press.)
Nicholls, K. H., and P. J. Dillon. An evaluation of
phosphorus-chlorophyll-phytoplankton relationships in
lakes. Int. Rev Ges. Hydrobiol. (In press.)
Porcella, D. B., and S. A. Peterson. 1977 Evaluation of lake
restoration methods: project selection. CERL Publ. No.
034. Environ. Res. Lab. U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Corval-
lis, Ore
1978. Methods for evaluating the effects of restor-
ing lakes. (Manuscript.)
Shapiro, J. 1978. The current status of lake trophic indi-
ces—a review. Ecol Res Ser Rep. U.S. Environ. Prot
Agency. (Manuscript.)
Sonzogm, W. C., et al. 1976. A phosphorus residence time
model: theory and application WaterRes. 10:429.
Uttormark, P. D. 1978. TSI and LCI: a comparison of two
lake classification techniques. Ecol Res. Ser. Rep. U.S.
Environ. Prot. Agency. (Manuscript.)
Vollenweider, R. A. 1975a. Advances in defining critical
loading levels for phosphorus in lake eutrophication.
Memorie dell 'Intituto Italiano di Idrobiologia "Dott Marco
de Marchi " Palanza Mem. 1st. Ital. Idrobiol. 33:53.
. 1975b Input-output models. Schwiez. Z. Hydrologie
37:53.
APPENDIX A
Addresses and affiliations of principal investigators
identified in Table 4.
Name
Douglas Knauer
Russel Dunst
Tom Hogg
William Honey
William Funk
Address
Office of Inland Lake
Renewal
Box 450
Madison, Wis. 53701
Office of Inland Lake
Renewal
Box 450
Madison, Wis. 53701
Department of Anthropology
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Ore. 97330
Department of Anthropology
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Ore. 97330
Environmental Engineering
Section
Washington State University
Pullman, Wash. 99164
-------
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
193
Clarence McNabb Department of Fisheries
and Wildlife
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Mich. 48824
Roger Blomquist
James Peterson
Lowell Klessig
Ben Chieh Liu
National Biocentric, Inc.
2233 Hamline Avenue North
St. Paul, Minn. 55113
Department of Soil Science
1525 Observatory Drive
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wis. 53706
University Extension Division
of Economics and
Environmental Development
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wis. 53706
Midwest Research Institute
425 Volker Boulevard
Kansas City, Mo. 64110
Kenneth Gibbs
Carl George
Marc Lorenzen
Eugene Welch
Department of Resource
Recreation
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Ore. 97330
Department of Biological
Services
Union College
Schenectady, N. Y. 12308
Tetra Tech, Inc.
3700 Mt. Diablo Boulevard
Lafayette, Calif. 94549
Department of Civil
Engineering
College of Engineering
University of Washington
Seattle, Wash. 98195
-------
MONITORING OF HYDRAULIC DREDGING
FOR LAKE RESTORATION
PHILLIP D. SNOW
R. PAUL MASON
Department of Civil Engineering
CARL J. GEORGE
PETER L TOBIESSEN
Department of Biological Sciences
Union College
Schenectady, New York
ABSTRACT
Collins Lake, in Scotia, N. Y. is a man-modified, eutrophic, oxbow lake formed by the Mohawk
River. The lake is used intensely for swimming, boating, and fishing, serving an area with nearly
100,000 people. The main historical problems have been excessive growths of macrophytes
and algae, especially in the shallow two-thirds of the lake. Excessive nutrient transport (espec-
ially phosphate) from the organic sediments into the lake water has caused these problems
along with sporadic river flooding. The basic strategy for restoration was to remove the organic,
nutrient-rich sediments and also deepen part of the lake. For 2 years, 14 different chemical and
physical parameters have been monitored at four different stations on the lake. Observations
are also taken for phytoplankton and zooplankton species, aquatic macrophytes, and fishes.
Conclusions regarding the impact of the restoration process must await completion of the
project and a suitable adjustment period.
INTRODUCTION
On January 8, 1976, the New York State Depart-
ment of Environmental Conservation in cooperation
with the Village of Scotia, Schenectady County, N. Y.,
was awarded a matching grant (S804250010) in the
amount of $46,250 for dredging and other restora-
tive activities for Collins Lake in the Village of Scotia.
This award was made under the provisions of P.L.
92-500/Section 314 as administered by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Six months later,
the reporting investigators of Union College, Sche-
nectady, were awarded a grant (R804572010) under
the same law to monitor tfie restoration efforts at
Collins Lake.
On October 10, 1976, the Village was granted
permits (No. 447-04-007 and 447-76-1 26) for dredg-
ing in accord with Article 24 (Freshwater Wetlands)
of the New York State Environmental Conservation
Law. On December 15, 1976, the Village was as-
signed a work permit (No. 9953), following standard
public notification (No. 8643, September 17, 1976)
by the New York District of the Corps of Engineers
under provisions of several relevant Federal laws.
The dredging contract was finalized in the spring of
1977 by the Village in concert with regional offices
of the EPA and the New York State Department of
Conservation.
Collins Lake is an oxbow lake created by a north-
ward meander of the Mohawk River. The basin was
initially isolated along its southern border by natu-
rally placed river sediments but this barrier was
raised by a dike in 1804 which became a carriage
route the following year. Over a century later (in the
1940's) it was raised still further through the deposi-
tion of many thousands of cubic meters of diverse fill
and river dredgings. The resulting barrier greatly
reduced flooding, with two subsequent floods each
contributing about 1 m of turbid water to the lake.
The flood of 1976 eroded one section of the dike,
dispersing about 75 m3 of ashes over the southern
area of the lake shore and into the lake proper.
The eastern end of the lake was originally a swamp
and has also been altered by earthen fill. A 1799 map
by Claude Joseph Southier prominently shows a road
to the east of the lake in approximately the position of
the existing causeway, a feature that must have in-
creased the lake area to some extent. In 1805 a
bridge was built across the river and linked to the
same causeway. At this time the lake outlet was
restricted to a passage between bridge abutments,
raising the lake some additional amount.
In 1945 or 1946 the bridge was replaced with a
culvert, the river side of which was equipped with a
flapper value designed to prevent the movement of
river flood water into the lake. This also flooded the
existing swamp. The new installation raised the lake
to its current approximate level of 216 feet and an
aerial enlargement to its current extent of 22 ha (55
acres), a maximum depth of 10 meters, and an aver-
age depth of 2 meters.
The joint action of the southern or Schonowee dike
and the Washington Avenue causeway has thus been
to isolate the lake from the river and to accent the
influence of the various springs located at the foot of
a major sand aquifer on the western and northern
195
-------
196
LAKE RESTORATION
edges of the lake. These springs run actively through-
out the year. A few springs maintain circular open-
ings in the ice, while the other springs maintain a
zone of unfrozen water along the northern and west-
ern shores. Our divers have inspected one of these
in-lake springs in early March, noting, at a depth of 3
m, an opening in the bottom about 15 by 5 cm
surrounded by a circular sand boil area about 4 m in
diameter. An abundant spring flow thus appears to
constitute the major portion of the water entering the
lake, yielding a flow of 80 to 130 liters/sec.
The lake has long been a recreational asset to the
region. In the 1950's Collins Park, located between
the river and the southern shore of the lake, was
enlarged and a swimming area was developed along
the central part of the southern shore. A thousand or
more cubic meters of sand were brought in to form a
sand beach. The swimmimg facilities are intensely
used during the summer.
Concurrently, an adjacent storm sewer was closed
and another opened immediately north of the outlet
at the eastern edge of the lake. It is reported that the
storm sewer may become contaminated with house-
hold sewage at times of heavy storm runoff.
Minor sources of plant nutrients and pollutants
have been found in runoff contaminated by snow and
leaves dumped at lakeside. The spoils area with its
dikes is now designed to contain snow melt waters
and leaf breakdown products toward abatement of
the problem. The major nutrient source appears to be
the sediment, especially in the shallow flooded
swamp areas.
PROBLEMS REQUIRING RESTORATION
The deterioration of Collins Lake has been mani-
fested most conspicuously by the development of
overwhelming populations of two exotic macro-
phytes, the water chestnut, Trapa natans, and the
curly-leaved pondweed, Potamogeton crispus.
The water chestnut was apparently introduced to
Collins Lake (then known as Sanders Lake) in the
1880's by J. H. Wibbe (Wibbe, 1886; Winne, 1935)
resulting in the establishment of one of the first
populations of this aggressive plant in the United
States. In the following years, the population ex-
panded to completely cover much of the lake surface
and to spread to the nearby Mohawk River and Hud-
son River where it covered many hundreds of
hectares.
The rhomboidal leaves of the plant are buoyed by
bladders that form an attractive floating rosette. The
rosette is well anchored by a string-like stem, which
may reach 3 1/2 meters in length with the roots and
nut. The nut or caltrop is large, reaching 5 cm in
diameter and bearing four sharp spines, each
equipped with fine barbs. The orientation of the
spines is such that one is always vertical; thus the
seeds, which may float to shore, may prove exceed-
ingly troublesome to swimmers or those playing at
waterside. The viable fruits sink to the bottom where
they remain dormant until the following spring or, as
we have recently learned, much longer. Soft, mucky,
and anaerobic sediments seem especially appropri-
ate to the establishment of the new plant.
By early July the leaf rosettes have reached the
surface and some become so buoyant that they may
be moved from place to place by the wind, with or
without the root anchor. The population may thus
spread widely and rapidly in fluviatile environments.
Areas of extreme infestation are so thickly covered
that most submerged vegetation is thoroughly over-
shadowed, producing a monoculture.
In late July the rosettes produce up to a dozen
inconspicuous white flowers that ripen to produce
the fruits. In early fall the plants deteriorate, with
massive amounts of organic matter falling to the
bottom. The bulky fruits with their heavily sclerified
and decay-resistant tests contribute most signifi-
cantly to the volume of sediment and thus in Collins
Lake there are zones with an organic matter layer 1
meter in thickness comprised mostly of water chest-
nuts. (This also suggests a sedimentation rate of
about 1 cm peryearfor Collins Lake.)
In the 1940's a major program was instituted to
physically remove the floating plants from the lake
and truck them away. This program, continued by the
New York State Department of Environmental Con-
servation through 1976, has nearly solved the prob-
lem. For example, during the late summer of 1977,
less than 200 plants were removed from the entire
lake area and perimeter.
In the late spring of 1978, however, a great resur-
gence was evident, especially in the dredged area
and adjacent area to the east. Maximum densities of
about 20 plants per square meter were evident with a
total population numbering about 10,000. Some
event, apparently linked to dredging, had broken the
dormancy of many fruits present in the sediment. We
did not expect this growth and have spent much
effort in hand-collecting. We have learned that this
resurgence has followed a period of low-population
number in other local control efforts.
Currently, we are concerned about the floating ro-
settes escaping from the lake to exacerbate the
long-standing water chestnut problem in the Mo-
hawk River. If an outbreak does occur, however, and
one seems likely because the State control program
has ended, determining the source of the new plants
will be complicated by the fact that populations exist
in upstream riverside ponds in the vicinity of Canajo-
harie nearly 40 miles to the west and elsewhere.
Other water bodies in the region also carry large
populations. The Watervliet Reservoir, about 7 miles
to the south of Schenectady, supports an infestation
covering many hectares and demonstrates the poten-
tial of the water chestnut to dominate a lake
ecosystem.
Sometime after the control of the water chestnut in
Collins Lake the curly-leaved pondweed emerged as
a significant problem. This species, also introduced
from Europe or Eurasia in the 1800's, has a sub-
merged habit, except at the time of flowering and
fruiting when a system of gas-filled lacunae buoys the
plant to the surface. At such times the population
proliferates to the extent that it prevents swimming
and boating.
Although flowering and fruiting is vigorous, the
most successful mode of perennation is the
production of a sclerified stem apex called a turion.
-------
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
197
The turions are released in late June and early July
with the massive senescence, death, and breakdown
of the parent plants. The turions briefly float from
place to place, sink to the bottom, and then sprout in
late summer and early spring. Late summer sprouting
produces an extensive dominant population that ov-
erwinters under the ice, growing slowly in the proc-
ess. In early spring with the disappearance of the ice
and warming temperatures, the plants grow vigor-
ously to cover 60 percent of the lake surface in May.
In dredged depths of 3 or more meters a significant
number of plants were still able to reach the surface,
flower, fruit, and produce turions; thus we cannot
count on the present dredging method as a means of
eradication. But it does, apparently, significantly sup-
press the population because the deepened areas
remained quite passable to boats and much less
restrictive of water circulation.
The control of the curly-leaved pondweed has been
less successful. A barge equipped with cutting bars
has been used for a number of years but even after
removal of the growing tips, axillary growth, with
turion production, has continued and the cut materi-
als have floated to the downwind sectors of the lake
to reduce water depth and produce anaerobic
conditions.
Following the summer breakdown of the
curly-leaved pondweed, which reaches densities with
an oven-dry weight of 160 gm/m2 and a phosphorus
content of 0.2 percent, we have experienced intensi-
fied activity and cell densities of various phytoplank-
ters, but predominantly Pediastrum simplex. This
condition of the lake prevails for late July and much
of August. We have not yet encountered organisms
that harvest significant numbers of Pediastrum sim-
plex and thus the population may decline as a conse-
quence of nutrient depletion and sedimentation from
the water column.
Our divers, working under the ice, have noted a
golden-green sheet of skin on the bottom at depths
greater than several meters. On sampling the surficial
layers of the bottom and placing the mix in a transpar-
ent container, the skin has been reestablished and
determined to be comprised primarily of Pediastrum
simplex, along with several other forms. Most inter-
estingly, in the laboratory we noted the gas bubbles
produced in the sediment carried parts of the algal
skin to the surface. On inspecting the gas bubbles
frozen in the lake ice we commonly found small
gondolas of matter among which were apparently
viable specimens of Pediastrum simplex. A means for
the continual reinjection of this form into the water
column may thus exist.
The two discussed macrophytes may absorb plant
nutrients from the substrate and translocate them to
the foliar parts, which in turn may release them to the
water column. If this is indeed the case, the two
species may play a major role in keeping the lake in a
highly fertile condition.
Our experiments using radioactive phosphorus are
still in process and, although suggestive, cannot be
appropriately reported on at this time. The well devel-
oped roots of both species support the concept of
nutrient absorption; however, the role of the stem in
conducting absorbed materials remains controver-
sial (see Sculthorpe, 1967, for an earlier review on
the subject). More recent studies favor the idea that
upward transport is indeed present and important in
spite of the fact that histological evidence is not well
defined (e.g., Ogden, 1974).
RESTORATION METHODOLOGY
AND OBSERVATIONS
The major problem at Collins Lake is thus viewed as
excessive growth of the curly-leaved pondweed, Po-
tamogeton crispus during the spring and early sum-
mer. Associated problems are shoaling due to the
accumulation of organic matter and the development
of anoxic deeper waters. The main causes of these
problems are believed to be the inevitable processes
associated with lake aging as accelerated by sedi-
ment release of phosphorus and the introduction of
exotic plant species such as the pondweed and the
water chestnut.
The main attack on the problem was to reduce the
input of phosphorus to the lake through stopping the
lakeside dumping of leaves, other organic matter,
and snow; to improve maintenance of a flapper valve
at the outlet designed to exclude nutrient-rich flood
waters; and to remove from the lake proper about
100,000 m3 of the accumulated organic matter with
its associated plant nutrients, which are continually
released into the water and recycled by the pond-
weed. The means of removal has been a hydraulic
dredge developed by Mud Cat Division, National Car
Rental, Inc. The organic matter is hydraulically
dredged from the bottom causing little turbidity, and
pumped to a decanting or settling lagoon situated at
the southeast edge of the lake; the supernatant water
is returned to the lake. Dredging commenced in July
of 1977, and lakeside dumping has been discontin-
ued and an improved maintenance program for the
flapper valve at the outlet has been instituted.
The decanting lagoon with an area of 2.4 ha (6
acres) and an average holding depth of 2 m func-
tioned well with much of the initial water passing into
the ground or through the porous matter of the dike
before it reached the still level of the outfall pipe.
Water leaving the lagoon entered a swamp-marsh
area further decreasing nutrient and solids concen-
tration before the water returned to the lake.
Roughly 40,000 m3 have been removed thus far.
This has effectively reduced the volume of the lagoon
by approximately 60 percent. Some dewatering and
compaction of the in-place sediment expected under
the influence of freezing and thawing should renew
the capacity; however, if this does not occur sedi-
ment will have to be removed and additional decant-
ing space must be found, or the project will have to
pause until warm weather dehydrates and reduces
the volume of sediment in the lagoon.
Total solids entering the lagoon from the dredge
vary from 3.5 to 5.5 percent solids (35 to 55 g/ /). At
the outlet, after a theoretical settling time of 3 days,
the suspended solids concentration is between 25
and 50 mg/ 7. This yields an effective removal of 99.9
percent. Effluent values for nutrients were: 50 t/g/7-
total P, 25 wg//-ortho P, 0.16 mg/7 NH3-N, and 0.8
mg//NQ3-N.
-------
198
LAKE RESTORATION
The material used for the lagoon dike was derived
from the construction of a large storm sewer trench.
Many truck loads contained bricks, concrete, and old
pipes that were incorporated into the dike. The
slopes on the dike were at the angle of repose of the
material and were compacted with a small bulldozer.
Initially, numerous small leaks occurred but were
plugged by the incoming sediment. On Sunday,
July 26, 1978, due to an increase in the elevation of
water in the lagoon, an 8 m-long section of the dike
washed out releasing about 5 million liters water into
the swamp adjacent to the lake. The break occurred
where large pieces of concrete had been incorpo-
rated into the dike. Lake sampling 2 days later, how-
ever, revealed no significant change in water quality.
Leaks and breaks in the dike are not the only factors
that have slowed the dredging process. Occasional
breakdowns of the Mud Cat Dredge and its mainte-
nance have caused delays. Also, stumps, rocks, and
other debris have clogged or stopped the dredge and
recently, dredging had to be halted due to the discov-
ery of Indian artifacts. Another significant problem
appears to be slumping of the sediment from un-
dredged areas into areas already dredged. Cores of
the dredged southern part of the lake reveal 15 to 20
cm of highly organic sediment overlying the hard clay
bottom (the bottom exposed by previous dredging).
This material that has slumped onto the clean bottom
has apparently enhanced the growth of P. crispus in
this area. A solution to this problem would be to run
the Mud Cat Dredge over the area again to remove
this thin organic layer and again expose the clean
bottom.
To us, a growing problem concerns the controls of
the investigation. At the onset we greatly underesti-
mated the inherent variability of the lake system and
the diversity of the events linked to dredging. Early in
the project, the nearby Mohawk River underwent a
25-year flood, spilling some 300 acre feet of water
and about 75 cubic meters of ash fill into the lake
basin. At about the same time we encountered the
pranks of children blocking open the flapper valve
separating the lake from the river. The lake received a
large additional volume of sediment-laden river water
as a consequence. The character of snowfall has
differed significantly for the two winters involved.
The first snows of the 1977-1978 winters came
early, establishing a snow cover that remained intact
until spring. As a result the frost depth was reduced,
percolation of melt-water was enhanced, and runoff,
with its diverse pollutants and plant nutrients, was
greatly abated. This set of events was essentially the
reverse of those of the previous winter.
Another unexpected variable was lake level. Early
in the dredging program the depth controlling fea-
tures of the outlet were modified as part of a seriously
needed repair effort, causing the lake to be lowered
about 70 cm; this new level, plus or minus 15 cm, has
been maintained except for the aforementioned
flood episodes. As a consequence, the shore habitat
has changed greatly. Many plants of the fragrant
water lily, Nymphaea odorata, have died because of
exposure to freezing and drying of the rhizomes.
Several hundred bivalves, Margarita margaritifera,
were exposed and died. The conventional spawning
areas of bluegills, pumpkinseed sunfish, and small-
mouth and largemouth bass were exposed, along
with the trough-shaped runs of snapping turtles and
muskrats. The newly exposed mud surfaces have
been extensively colonized by the purple or spiked
loosestrife, Lythrum salicaria, the broad leaved cat-
tail, Typha latifolia, and one or more species of
beggars ticks, Bidens sp., resulting in the shading out
of former edge residents such as the arrow-leaved
arum, Pettandra virginica, and others.
With the advent of dredging still other potentially
influential events have occurred. The dike forming
the decanting lagoon has been breached (as de-
scribed earlier) on two occasions, abruptly releasing,
in one case, roughly 5 million liters of supernatant
water. The breaking of the dormancy for five to ten
thousand water chestnut fruits has already been
mentioned.
It thus must be clear that given this array of events
that have occurred concurrent with the dredging
activity, detected changes cannot be simply ascribed
to the removal of sediments, the deepening of the
lake, and the return of lagoon effluent water. We are
indeed now more or less in the position of recording
the various, and usually unexpected, events as they
occur while monitoring the standard parameters. We
also find ourselves wishing that the monitoring proc-
ess had begun more in advance of restoration efforts
and could continue for a longer period of time after
dredging so that the inherent variables of the system
could be evaluated, thus allowing a realistic consider-
ation of the impact of the restoration.
A public relations program centered on news re-
leases, a slide presentation, and public lectures has
informed the public of intentions and progress and
excellent public rapport has been maintained. Dredg-
ing proceeded concurrently with swimming, boating,
and fishing without any apparent negative response.
Numerous fruits of the water chestnut were floated
during the dredging process but a prevailing south-
westerly wind kept them away from the swimming
beach during the swimmming season. Odors,
sounds, and turbidity associated with dredging were
negligible and caused no public commentary or
criticism.
PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING OF
LAKE RESTORATION
Monitoring Parameters
Four stations have been established on the lake and
are visited twice a month to sample at several depths
the physical, chemical, and biological parameters,
i.e., conductivity, dissolved 02, soluble orthophosp-
hate, total phosphorus, NO"3, NH3, alkalinity, acidity,
pH, hardness, temperature, Secchi disk depth, num-
bers and kinds of phytoplankton and zooplankton,
and concentration of chlorophyll. Concurrent gill net-
ting at one site is directed toward the capture of
golden shiners, Notemigonus crysoleucas, and yel-
low perch, Perca flavescens, for routine morphome-
-------
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
199
try and histology of the liver, spleen, kidney, and
gonads. Two transects are examined quantitatively
for aquatic macrophytes with primary attention given
to the numbers and biomass per square meter of the
curly-leaved pondweed, Potamogeton crispus.
Numbers produced are applied to computer cards
for storage, analysis, and graphic printout as demon-
strated later in this report.
Monitoring Rationale
The objectives of the dredging and improved main-
tenance program focus on removing nutrient-rich
sediment, reducing weed growth, increasing lake
depth, and improving aeration of the deeper waters
while at the same time not causing untoward and
long-enduring consequences. From the outset our
monitoring program has included the macrophyte
assay, bathimetry and routine oxygen studies, and, in
that phosphorus is thought to be the key limiting
nutrient, special attention has been given to evaluat-
ing it.
In monitoring for dredging consequences, we have
followed a baseline approach whereby various pa-
rameters were defined for about 1 year before dredg-
ing with the fervent hope that other major variables
do not arise and dominate the situation. Unfortu-
nately, the floods and heavy snows experienced dur-
ing the spring months of the study may be influences
of this very significant kind. We expect, however, to
be able to sort them out.
Within the monitoring program several questions
have emerged as especially relevant. The first is the
interaction between planktonic and rooted primary
producers. Thus far we sense that rooted macro-
phytes such as Potamogeton crispus which are able
to grow at reduced light intensities and thus at
greater depths, may play an important role in the
absorption of key plant nutrients from the sediment
and their release to the water column. At the same
time they may effectively remove key nutrients from
the lake water thus suppressing planktonic primary
producers. The death and breakdown of these plants,
however, may foster a dramatic resurgence of plank-
tonic growth that might otherwise have been
impossible.
There is thus the possibility that dredging of
nutrient-rich sediments to depths greater than those
tolerated by P. crispus may greatly reduce nutrient
regeneration, reduce the primary productivity of
rooted forms, and also reduce nutrient flow into the
phytoplankton. If indeed the production of
oxygen-demanding organic matter and anaerobic
water can be reduced, the nutrient regeneration oc-
curring in the deeper, western basin of the lake may
further decrease the eutrophy of the system while at
the same time increasing the living space for benthic
invertebrates, fish, and with time, perennial macro-
phytes that are nutrient-conserving.
Physical and Chemical Parameters
Table 1 is a typical printout of the data collected on
July 6, 1977. Table 2 describes the printout, abbre-
viations used, and units of measurement.
Table 1. - Typical computer printout of physical-chemical data for July 6, 1977
JULIAN DATE 7187 DATE
Weather 68 degrees, cloudy
Lake level being lowered
Large amount o1 algae in lake
07 06 77
Flow out (CFS) = Unknown
Secchi reading 1 29
H25 = 1 04 mg// at 8 M west
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
s
s
s
s
E
E
E
N
N
N
G
Iron =
DEPTH
(m)
00
05
10
1 5
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
00
05
10
1 5
00
05
10
00
05
10
00
1 68 mg// at 8 M west
PH
80
68
8.0
77
78
73
ALK ACIDITY COND TOTAL CA
(mg//) (mg//) (mmmho hard hard
/Cm) (mg//) (mg//)
-10
157 00 400 172 54.5
-10
-1 0
-10
-10
134 70 333 160 545
-10
-10
-1.0
-10
-10
-1.0
-10
-10
-10
176 141 333 176 593
-10
-10
-10
-10
153 00 364. 164 593
-10
-10
-10
157 35 357 180 481
-10
-10
157 00 7 180. 481
-10
191 35 417 204 641
MG TEMP
hard (C)
(mg//)
223
87 225
225
220
210
196
58 17 1
151
135
120
12 1
119
110
101
95
82
68 80
78
78
75
221
39 222
222
219
220
146 225
225
220
146 222
222
10.7 80
DISOLV
02
(mg//)
89
89
88
69
61
34
3.2
08
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
89
92
102
92
70
67
7 1
68
67
62
86
ORTHO TOTAL
Phos Phos
mmg// mmg//
10 48
7 59
554 552
24 60
32. 105
25 65
1 18.
N03
(mg//)
02
03
02
02
01
02
10
NH3
(mg//)
07
09
60
08
07
08
04
CHLORO
(mg/fl
-1
192
-1
161
-1.
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1.
-1
-1
-1
184
-1
232
-1
12
-1
-1
107
-1
-1
-------
200
LAKE RESTORATION
Table 2 - Symbols, abbreviations, and units used in physical-
chemical computer data output (see Table 1)
Comments
1) Date, weather, visual observations,
flow (c(s), Secchi reading (meters),
and random chemical analysis
Data (-10 and -1 indicate no data taken)
1) STA - Sampling Station- W for west,
S for south, E for east, N for north,
and G for groundwater
2) DEPTH - Depth in meters
3) pH - pH of sample
4) ALn - Alkalinity m mg// as CaCO3
5) ACIDITY - Acidity in mg// as C02
6) COND - Conductivity in MMMHOS/CM
or uMHOS/CM
7) TOTAL HARD - Total hardness
in mg// as CaCO3
8) CA HARD - Calcium in mg//
9) MG HARD - Magnesium in mg//
10) TEMP - Temperature in 'C
11) DISOLV 02 - Dissolved oxygen
in mg//
12) ORTHO PHOS - Orthophosphate
in MMg// or ug//
13) TOTAL PHOS - Total Phosphorus
in MMg// or uglI
14) N03 - Nitrate in mg//
15) NH3 - Ammonia in mg//
16) CHLORO - Chlorophyll a
in ug/1 (not mg//)
composition of the dead macrophytes and algae and
stratification. Figure 2, for the same day, indicates the
temperature change with depth. Although not show-
ing a well developed thermocline, the zone between
1.5 m and 3 m does show a rapid drop in temperature
corresponding to the chemocline exhibited in Figure
1.
\
XS_,
Figure 2.- Vertical variation of temperature with depth, Au-
gust 3, 1977.
Once all of the data are in computer storage, a
series of software programs is used to manipulate
and graph the various parameters. One such program
plots any specific parameter versus depth. Figure 1 is
a plot of percent saturation of dissolved oxygen ver-
sus depth at the West Station on August 3, 1977. A
small subroutine calculates the values using tempera-
ture and the actual dissolved oxygen readings. Ex-
treme supersaturation occurs in the upper 1.5 meters
due to bloom proportions of algae. The rapid decline
in oxygen below 2 meters is due to the absence of
light (no photosynthesis), thermal stratification (see
Figure 2), and, most predominantly, a rapid uptake of
oxygen by bacteria in the water column and
sediment.
K 0 "-#• SAT UF5T 5TA AUG 3.1V77
v'b lit(- TH HDKIZQN I At
Figure 1.- Vertical variation of percent oxygen saturation
with depth, August 3, 1977.
The anoxic water below 5 meters contains ex-
tremely high concentrations of NH3, P04"3, H2S, and
C02, all directly associated with anoxic bacterial de-
Another useful computer subroutine is the plot of
any variable at any depth versus time. All of the
following six plots are for surface water (0.5 meters)
at the West Station between December 1, 1976 and
December 1, 1977. Figure 3 shows the temporal
variations in NH3-N at the surface (0.5 m) of West
Station. Period A corresponds to a buildup of NH3-N
under the ice and at the spring overturn. Period B
shows a decrease due to biological conversions of
NH3 to NO3~ and subsequent uptake by the macro-
phytes and some algae. Period C is interesting in that
it corresponds to the time when P. crispus, the domi-
nant macrophyte, dies and rapid bacterial action is
converting the organic nitrogen to ammonia. Period
D is the time when algal cells predominate and tem-
peratures are the highest. Rapid aerobic bacterial
conversion of NH3 to NO3" and its uptake by algae
appear to account for this rapid decrease in NH3-N.
Finally, Period E reflects death and decay of the algae
as well as the fall overturn.
Figure 4 depicts the variation in nitrate for the same
depth and time period as Figure 3. Zone A again
indicates buildup of nitrate under the ice and at the
spring overturn. Period B shows rapid uptake of ni-
trate by the macrophytes and some algae. Period C is
when a conspicuous algal bloom occurs and nitrate is
rapidly converted to organic nitrogen in the cells.
Finally, Period D shows the time period when algal
uptake decreases, aerobic conversion of ammonia to
nitrate increases, and lake overturn occurs.
Figure 5 describes the changes in total phosphorus.
The initial part of Period A shows low values asso-
ciated with ice cover on the lake. The latter part of
Period A is much higher due to lake overturn and
some river flooding. The rapid drop in Period B is
attributed to macrophyte (P. crispus) uptake of ortho-
phosphate and its conversion to organic -P in the
plants. Period C occurs when P. crispus dies, aerobic
-------
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
201
and anaerobic bacteria rapidly break down the or-
ganic -P in the plants, and soluble and/or orthophosp-
hate is released into the water column. Period D
reflects the period of an active algal bloom whereas
Period E, after lake overturn, shows a decrease in
total phosphorus as algal activity and the release of
phosphate from the sediment decrease.
Figure 6 shows changes in chlorophyll in the water
column only (i.e., only algae and not macrophytes).
Period A reveals very low values under the ice and
during the early spring. A diatom and algal bloom in
early April is briefly shown in Period B whereas, in
Period C, macrophyte dominance and nutrient up-
take appear to retard and stop algal growth. The large
bloom observed in Period D occurs after P. crispus
dies and nutrients are again available for the growth
of Pediastrum simplex and other species.
Figure 7 yields a composite of the effects of the
previous parameters in that it shows variations in the
percent of oxygen saturation over the same time
period. Period A, for the ice cover period and lake
overturn, shows dissolved oxygen deficits as bacte-
rial and chemical reactions consume high amounts of
oxygen, and atmospheric oxygen transfer is minimal.
Period B shows a slight supersaturation as some
algae and the macrophytes photosynthetically
produce oxygen. Period C is when macrophyte photo-
synthesis is dominant and Period D is the time when
the macrophytes die. At this time bacterial uptake of
the dissolved oxygen is greater than atmospheric
diffusion or algal photosynthesis. Period E shows the
obvious effect of an algal bloom with supersaturation
of the water by oxygen due to photosynthesis. Period
F finally indicates that time when bacterial decompo-
sition of the dead algae coupled with the fall lake
overturn dramatically reduces the amount of dis-
solved oxygen in the water.
Figure 8, a plot of alkalinity variations over the
same time period (in units of mg/ / as CaC03) reveals
several interesting changes due to chemical, physi-
cal, and biological changes in the lake. Interpreta-
tions of the data are based mainly on dissolution or
precipitation of CaC03 which varies with pH, temper-
ature, Ca+2, HCOa"1, CO3J, CO2, and photosynthetic
changes in pH and alkalinity. In Period A, the overall
trend is high concentrations of bicarbonate (and cal-
cium) during the winter and spring overturn due to a
lower pH, higher C02, lower temperatures, and little
photosynthetic activity. Any CaCO3 in the water col-
umn or sediment tends to dissolve.
Period B shows a drastic drop in alkalinity due to
the precipitation of CaC03 onto the leaves of P. cris-
pus. Period C is when large quantities of CaCO3 are
present on the leaves. Also, phosphate in the form of
a patite may be coprecipitated onto the leaves at this
time. Period D corresponds to the death and bacterial
decay of P. crispus. The evolution of C02 and the drop
in pH would tend to dissolve th'e CaC03 on the dead
leaves, thus raising the alkalinity.
Period E occurs during the algal bloom period;
CaC03 is believed to precipitate in the water column
at this time, thus lowering the alkalinity. During this
period the pH is often above 9 and temperatures are
between 23 and 27°C. Period F shows an increase in
alkalinity mainly due to a drop in pH and bacterial
evolution of CO2 that would, along with lake overturn,
tend to dissolve any CaC03 present in the water or at
the sediment-water interface.
\/\/
V
J
Figure 3.- Temporal variations in ammonia at the surface of
West Station from December 1, 1976 to December 1,
1977.
N03 u <),;:> VtlKTICAL VS. liflll. HtlMZUNIAL
JAN 5 HAK 7 Mftf B JUL Q SEP 8 NQV 9
77 77 77 77 77 77
Figure 4.- Temporal variations in nitrate at surface of West
Station from December 1, 1976 to December 1, 1977.
rHCS U O.'j VERTICAL US. HATE HOKJ/UNTAL
•"- J- i J-
MM 5 MAR 7 MAY B JUL fl bf I a NOW V
77 ?7 77 77 77 7/
Figure 5.- Temporal variations in total phosphorus at surface
of West Station from December 1, 1976 to December 1,
1977.
-------
202
LAKE RESTORATION
[.HI liKlt U O.'i YtkllCAl- yb. Ii.Mh MtlKI/nNTAL
JAN i MAR 7 MAY U JUI U hLP H NUY V
77 /' //• /; // 7?
Figure 6.- Temporal variations in chlorophyll at surface of
West Station from December 1, 1976 to October 30, 1977.
SCATTER PLOT-PER CENT SATURATION W STA Al uEHTH 1.0 YEHT1CAL
VS HATE HORIZONTAL
\ /
----
,/-
JAN 5 MAR 7 MAY ft JUL 8 SEP 8 NCIV
77 77 77 77 H n
Figure 7.- Temporal variations in percent oxygen saturation
at surface (1 m) of West Station from December 1, 1976 to
December 1, 1977.
ALM.TY U 0.5 VtMICAL VSi. Hftlt HUKl^UNTAL
JAN • 5 MAF< 7 MAY 0 .1(11. H iff S NOV V
/7 // /V />/ /7 77
Figure 8.- Temporal variations in alkalinity at surface of
West Station from December 1, 1976 to December 1,
1977.
Another interesting manipulation of the
physical-chemical data is to plot one variable versus
another to determine if any correlation exists. Figure
9 is a plot of orthophosphate versus total phosphorus
at the bottom (8 meters) of West Station. The lower
values are for time periods when the water was
aerobic or oxidizing whereas the higher values are for
the periods when the system is anaerobic or reduc-
ing. Most of the release of phosphorus from the
sediment, through out-gasing, diffusion, and the ac-
tivity of organisms, occurs when the system is anaer-
obic, and is in the form of orthophosphate. This is due
to the breakdown of ferric phosphate or adsorbed
P04"3 on ferric hydroxide and its hydrate complexes
(Snow, 1976). This is supported by a high concentra-
tion of Fe+s in the bottom waters and similar high
concentrations of orthophosphate, both of which
were released from sediment under anaerobic
conditions.
rfK KOr-G FHOS W 8.0 YtMJCAI.
1 t-HOS U 8.0 HOFUKINrAL
UM TiEC 1.1976 r(J LILI: J.IV/7
^ 140.^50
0,0 HO. 4 .':>O.B HI...' 441.6 Vp.'.O
Figure 9.- Correlation of orthophosphate and total phospho-
rus at the bottom <8 m) of West Station from December 1,
1976 to December 1, 1977.
Finally, Figure 10 shows the correlation of NH3-N
and total phosphorus for the same depth and dates as
Figure 9. Lower values are for aerobic periods and
high values are for anaerobic (no 02) periods. The rise
in NH3-N is faster than for phosphorus due to the
breakdown of organic -N and release of NH3-N when
bottom waters are still slightly aerobic (0.5 to 3 mg/ 7
02). The P04"3 is still retained in the sediment ad-
sorbed to Fe(OH)3 or iron complexes. When.the water
and sediment both are anaerobic, both NH3-N and
P04~3 are released from the sediment. There is no
bacterial conversion of NH3 to NO"2 or NCT3 during
this period of stratification and anoxic conditions.
Several chlorinated hydrocarbon and heavy metal
analyses of water and sediments have been run at
several places by the EPA Corvallis laboratories and
the New York State Department of Public Health.
These have not revealed critical levels at any site
including the outlet of the dredge pipe and the outfall
of the decanting lagoon. Scans of whole body sam-
ples of 20 white suckers for chlorinated hydrocar-
bons have also revealed no abnormal levels for any of
the potentially troublesome organics. These analyses
have been performed by the New York State Depart-
ment of Environmental Conservation.
The inputs and outputs of phosphorus for the lake
suggest that more phosphorus now leaves the lake
than enters it (Howie, 1977). This supports the prem-
ise that phosphate, especially in the summer, is being
released from the sediment.
In the future, a mathematical model (Snow, 1976)
will be applied to the lake. The model is based on a
-------
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
203
mass balance incorporating input of phosphorus,
sedimentation reactions, and a rate of release of
phosphorus from the sediment governed by the con-
centration of phosphorus in the interstitial water. All
parts of the system (input, sedimentation, release)
determine the ultimate concentration of phosphorus
in the lake water. From preliminary studies, the model
appears to be consistent with the results of Howie in
that release of phosphorus from the sediment, espe-
cially during the summer, appears to account for a
significant amount of phosphorus in the water col-
umn. This is evident when one looks at summer
groundwater inflow (at 8 ug/ J-P) and lake outflow (at
27 ug/J-P)(Howie, 1977).
I rt I FtK I I UI - NH i U H.O Yl K I 11 M
V'j I MIIIS U H.O HI1K I *'UN I Al
t MJrt Lit 1. I1,19/0 HI f'tt I.IV/G
0.0 J10.4 J20.ll Jjl,.' -HI.
Figure 10.- Correlation of ammonia and total phosphorus at
the bottom (8 m) of West Station from December 1, 1976 to
December 1, 1977.
Biological Parameters
Plankton samples are taken at the same times and
stations used to evaluate physical and chemical pa-
rameters. Prominent phytoplanktonic species repre-
sented in the early stages of monitoring were: Pe-
diastrum simplex, Oocystis pusilla, Scenedesmus
quadrata, Ankistodesmus falcata, Sphaerocystis
schroteri, Melosira granulata, Asterionella gracillima.
Ceratium hirundinella, Dinobryon bavaricum, and
Cryptomonas erosa. Important members of the zoo-
plankton are: Mesocyclops edax, Cyclops bicuspida-
tus, Diaptomus birgei, Ceriodaphnia reticulata, Eu-
bosmina coregoni, £ longispina, Daphnia galeata,
Daphnia parvula, Keratella cochlearis, Kellicotia lon-
gispina, K. bostoniensis, and others.
Printouts for the densities of these forms and others
are presented in Table 3 and explained in Table 4.
Fishes have also received considerable attention in
the monitoring program. The yellow perch, Perca
flavescens (carnivore), and the golden shiner, Notemi-
gonus crysoleucas (predominantly an omnivore),
have been sampled by gill net at one station concur-
rently with the testing for other parameters. Conven-
tional and gonad weight corrected condition, gona-
dosomal, hepatosomal indices, and ages have been
developed for most specimens collected toward re-
Table 4 - Abbreviations used in computer printouts (e g, Table 3}
for the plankton of Collins Lake, Scotia, N,Y
Phytoplankton-
FED
SCEN
OOCYST
CRUC
ASTER
MELO
SYNED
CRYPT
ANKIST
DINOB
CERAT
SCHRO
DICTYO
ANA
Zooplankton
DAPHGM
EBOSLN
DAPHPV
EBOSCG
DIAPBG
CYSBTH
MCYCED
NAUCYC
NAUCAL
KERTCC
KELLLN
KELLBS
POLYVG
ASPLPD
Pediastrum simple
Scenedesmus sp
Oocystis sp
Crucigenia quadrata
Astenonella formosa
Melosira granulata
Synedra sp
Cryptomonos pusilla
Ankistodesmus falcatus
Dinobryon bavaricum
Ceratium hirundmella
Schroederia setigera
Dictyosphaenum of pu/chellum
Anobaena sp
Daphnia galeata mendotae
Eubosmma longispina
Daphnia parvula
Eubosmma coregoni
Diaptomus birgei
Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi
Mesocyclops edax
naupln of cyclopoid copepods
nauplu of calanoid copepods
Keratella cochlearis
Kellicotia longispina
Kellicotia bostoniensis
Polyarthra remata
Asplanchna sp
Table 3 - Typical computer printout of phytoplankton and zooplankton data for July 6, 1977
JULIAN DATE 7187 DATE 07 06 77
Weather 68 degrees-cloudy Flow out (C + S)" Unknown Secchi reading 125
Lake level being lowered
large amount of algae in lake
H2S = 1 04 mg/; at 8 M West
Iron = 1 68 mg// at 8 M West
STA DEPTH PED SCEN DOCYST CROC ASTER MELO SYNED CRYPTP ANKIST DINOB CERAT SCHRO DICTYO
WP 05
WP 1 5
WP 30
WP 60
WP 80
18E5
43E5
78E4
13E4
15E4
11E4
14E4
43E3
9E3
18E3
65E4
99E4
13E4
56E3
9E3
5E3
93E3
5E3
0
0
2E3
15E4
78E3
0
06E3
0
1E5
56E3
0
0
0
0
01E3
02E3
0
12E5
64E4
37E3
0
0
19E3
19E3
6E3
11E3
1E3
59E3 13E4
15E4 64E3
57E3 04E3
0 02E3
0 0
0
22E3
56E3
02E3
0
0
0
0
0
0
ANA
0
0
0
0
0
!TA DEPTH DAPHGM
WZ 0 5 56
WZ 1 5 44 4
WZ 30 199
WZ 60 0
WZ 80 0
EBOSLN
0
0
0.
0
0
DAPHPV
0
0
0
0
0
EBOSCG
56
30.6
19.4
0
0.
DIAPBG
2.8
11 1
167
0
0
CYCBTH
0
0
0
0
0
MCYCED NAUCAL NAUCYC
28 56 56
111 0 83
56 83 278
000
000
KERTCC
175.
222
0
0
0.
KELLLN
5.6
194
25
28
0
KELLBS
0
0
0
0
0.
POLYVG
5.6
56
25
0
0
ASPLPD
0
0
2.8
0.
0
-------
204
LAKE RESTORATION
vealing changes that might be correlated with the
seasons and the events in the dredging program. In
addition, the density of macrophage centers in the
spleen, liver, and anterior kidney have been deter-
mined histologically for most specimens over the
course of the study. The underlying assumption here
is that environmental challenges resulting in cell mor-
bidity and death would be reflected in macrophage
activity and numbers, the macrophage being impor-
tant in the removal of both endogenous and exoge-
nous (e.g., bacteria) cells and cell debris. Most of the
parameters examined thus far have shown species,
sex, age, and seasonal differences; however, we
await the completion of the program for final
interpretation.
CONCLUSIONS
The foregoing observations on the eutrophic char-
acteristics of Collins Lake and the cause of this condi-
tion emphasize the sediment as a major source of
algal and plant nutrient. The temporal and spatial
variations in chemical, physical, and biological pa-
rameters all appear to be directly or indirectly linked
to the interactions of the sediment and lake water.
The use of a Mud Cat Dredge to remove the organic
and nutrient-rich layer of the sediment appears to be
the best method to alter these interactions toward a
less eutrophic level.
At the present time, no definitive conclusions can
be reached as to the success of this approach.
Changes that have occurred in the lake have been
noted and future monitoring hopefully will yield a
more fully integrated analysis of hydraulic dredging
as a method of lake restoration.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The four senior investigators have had the profound satis-
faction of working with a large number of exceedingly
talented and dedicated student participants. Most of these
workers have been juniors or seniors and they have com-
monly shouldered responsibilities and have demonstrated
initiative appropriate for graduate work. Most of the data
reported here is the product of their labors. We are very
proud of them. We also wish to thank several consultants
whose good guidance has been especially helpful, namely
Dr. Wolfgang Fuhs and Dr. Helen Birecka for some chemi-
cal analyses; Dr. Ed Mills and Ms. Susan Allen for some
plankton analyses; Dr. Eugene Ogden for macrophyte stud-
ies; Dr. Carl Schofield for ichthyological matters;
Drs. Willard Roth, Abraham Rajender, and George Smith for
histology; Dr. Jay Bloomfield and Mr. Frank Stay for admin-
istrative help; and finally, but most enthusiastically,
Mr. Calvin Welch, chairman of the Scotia Board of Park
Commissioners, the person who keeps things going.
REFERENCES
Howie, D. C. 1977. Phosphorus mass balance: Collins Lake,
Scotia, N.Y. Independent senior thesis. Civil Eng. Dep.
Union College, Schenectady, N. Y.
Ogden, G. C. 1974 Anatomical patterns of some aquatic
vascular plants of New York. New York State Museum and
Science Service, Bull. 424:133.
Sculthorpe, C. D. 1967. The biology of aquatic vascular
plants. Edw. Arnold, London.
Snow, P. D. 1976, Mathematical modeling of phosphorus
exchange between sediments and overlying water in shal-
low eutrophic lakes. Ph.D. dissertation. Civil Eng. Dep.
University of Massachusetts.
Wibbe, J. H. 1886. Notes from Schenectady, N. Y. Torrey
Bot. Club Bull. 13:39.
Winne, W. T. 1935. A study of the water chestnut, Trapa
natans, with a view to its control in the Mohawk River.
Master's thesis. Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
-------
LAKE COCHRANE PERIMETER ROAD-SEDIMENT
TRAPS RESTORATION PROJECT
JERRY L SIEGEL
East Dakota Conservancy Sub-District
Brookings, South Dakota
ABSTRACT
Lake Cochrane is one of the few deep high-quality prairie lakes in northeastern South Dakota.
For several years local interests tried unsuccessfully to reduce sediment inflow. The proposal to
develop sediment traps as a part of the lake's perimeter road system was selected for a grant
award under EPA's clean lakes program and subsequently utilized the technical and/or financial
resources of every level of government. Although it is difficult to evaluate the impact of the
project on the lake, preliminary evidence indicates good suspended solids removal in the
sediment traps A comprehensive evaluation program needs to be developed. The project
demonstrated a low-cost, effective technique for reducing sediment inflow into a lake, which
may have application in other areas
Lake Cochrane is a very pretty 366-acre lake lo-
cated close to the South Dakota-Minnesota border in
Deuel County, S. Dak. The lake has intermittent sur-
face water inflow, very infrequent surface outflow,
and moderate groundwater recharge. Although the
Prairie Coteau region in northeastern South Dakota
has about 250 natural lakes. Lake Cochrane is one of
a very few having a maximum depth greater than 20
feet. Our prairie lakes are shallow.
The lake was ranked into the first priority grouping
by the South Dakota State Lakes Preservation Com-
mittee (1977), meaning that it was ranked as one of
the top 10 lake resources of eastern South Dakota.
Figure 1 is a map showing Lake Cochrane, its drain-
age area, and the surrounding area. The total direct
drainage area of the lake is very small, about 765
acres.
The major watershed problem affecting the lake
has been the sediment-nutrient inflow from three
small drainage areas located on the southwest side
Figure 1.- Map showing Lake Cochrane, the lake watershed,
and surrounding area.
of the lake. Heavy shoreline and lake bottom sedi-
ments found in that area provide strong evidence that
these watershed inflows have been adversely affect-
ing the lake.
The lake is unique in this area in that it did not
experience a noticeable algal bloom until the sum-
mer of 1971. Prior to this bloom, most local people
felt that the lake would remain "crystal clear" forever.
This first major evidence that the lake was becom-
ing eutrophic emphasized the urgency for reducing
sediment and nutrient inflows. Further corroboration
came from study reports prepared by Dr. Lois Haertel
(1972), a biologist at South Dakota State University,
and by Douglas Hansen (1973), watershed biologist
for the South Dakota Department of Game, Fish, and
Parks. Both reports strongly recommended develop-
ment of sediment control measures for the lake.
Various local and State interests began searching
in earnest for methods and programs to accomplish
this goal. They explored the possibility of reconstruct-
ing an existing township road crossing the lake's
largest drainage course to make it function as a
sediment trap. At the same time strong interest devel-
oped in completing the perimeter road system
around the western side of the lake where the next
two largest drainage inlets are located. Unsuccessful
attempts were made to secure funds through the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, South Dakota's Water
Resources Institute, and other programs. The project
didn't fit any ongoing program.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, in re-
leasing the first $4 million of funds appropriated
under section 104(h) and 314 of P.L 92-500 in
1975, stressed that high priority would be given to
lake preservation and/or restoration proposals that:
(a) would demonstrate innovative new techniques; (b)
would attack sources of lake problems such as
sediment-nutrient inflows; and (c) would have wide
applicability.
205
-------
206
LAKE RESTORATION
The East Dakota Conservancy Sub-District, working
with other local interests, developed a project pro-
posal to construct three low-cost sediment traps: The
first by redesigning and reconstructing the existing
township road, the other two by altering the design of
the proposed new perimeter road where it crossed
the other main drainage inlets. The proposal was one
of 11 projects in six States initially funded under the
new Federal clean lakes program.
In this project, four major features were developed
and the technical and financial resources of all levels
of government were utilized even though the total
cost for all features was less than $35,000. The
multi-purpose project features were as follows:
1. Construction of 2,700 feet of gravel road, thus
completing the lake's perimeter road system.
2. Development of the three sediment traps, thus
reducing the sediment inflow from 66 percent of the
lake's total direct drainage area.
3. Development of a major new boat access area.
This access area was developed as a multi-purpose
use of a needed project borrow pit.
4. Multi-purpose use of two of the sediment traps
as fish rearing ponds by the South Dakota Depart-
ment of Game, Fish, and Parks.
The two sediment traps incorporated into the con-
struction of the new road, shown in Figure 2, were
designed with manually controlled drawdown open-
ings to allow permanent storage of water up to the
top of the riser pipes.
A schematic diagram of the sediment trap devel-
oped by reconstruction of the existing road is shown
in Figure 3. Water cannot be permanently im-
pounded because it has an uncontrolled drawdown
tube.
Table 1 contains summary design information for
all three sediment traps.
It is pertinent to review the participation of the six
main governmental entities involved in the develop-
ment of the overall project. At the local level, Deuel
County and Norden Township played a strong role by
financing the construction of the new road and secur-
ing easements for the entire project. The county also
handled the construction contracts for the project.
At the multi-county level, the East Dakota Conser-
vancy Sub-District provided a $ 10,000 grant toward
the additional cost of incorporating the sediment
Table 1 - Design summary for all three sediment traps
New Road Existing Roa
Design feature
Drainage area
Height of fill
Pool height at mam
overflow tube
Storage at main
overflow tube
Length - main
overflow tube
Diameter - mam
overflow tube
Diameter - riser
pipe
Diameter - drawdown
tube or opening
Controlled drawdown tube
(acres)
(feet)
(feet)
(ac-ft)
(feet)
(inches)
(inches)
(inches)
North
site
41
15
10
5.0
108
24
30
9
Yes
South
site
57
19
11
34
128
24
30
9
Yes
Cochrane
site
41
7
4
116
84
30
12
No
traps into the road system. The Sub-District also
applied for and administered the EPA clean lakes
grant and served as overall project coordinator.
At the State level, the Department of Game, Fish,
and Parks contributed $3,000 in cash and designed
and supervised the construction of the new road
portion of the project.
At the Federal level, the Soil Conservation Service,
assisting the Deuel County Conservation District, de-
signed and supervised the reconstruction of the exist-
ing road and EPA provided a $9,906 grant toward the
allocated cost of incorporating the sediment traps
into the road system.
The cost of developing the sediment traps was
reduced under this lake preservation technique be-
cause the road function financed a portion of the cost
of (1) the earth fill; (2) structures to carry water
through the roadway; and (3) needed land rights.
The full cost of reconstructing the existing road was
allocated to the lake project since the road already
was suitable for transportation purposes.
Due to these multi-function cost savings, the cost
allocated to the sediment traps was slightly less than
$ 20,000. What did the $ 20,000 allocated to the lake
preservation project cover? This money covered the
following items not required in a normal road
construction:
1. Flood easements for the sediment pool areas;
2. Rip-rap of the face of these areas;
3. Increased fill height and width;
4. Excavation and refilling of a core trench; and
5. Increased costs resulting from design changes
in the drainage structures; the added cost resulting
from the need for caulked, close-riveted seams, water
seepage collars, and secondary overflow tubes is
somewhat counterbalanced because when water can
be stored behind the road fill, the diameter of the
drain tubes can be reduced.
Whenever many groups are involved in the financ-
ing, design, construction and/or operation of a
project, problems are likely to develop. The five
non-Federal units sought to avoid such problems by
discussing in detail and arriving at clearcut agree-
ments on all aspects of project development. These
agreements were incorporated into a five-party mem-
orandum of agreement that all parties signed.
It is difficult at this point to draw definite conclu-
sions on the impact of the project on lake water
quality because very limited data have been collected
thus far and because of the concurrent impact of
construction activities around the lake. This construc-
tion has included a large number of lakeshore homes,
a new State park area on the north side of the lake,
and the road portion of this project.
Water quality samples collected during the spring
runoff of 1977 did indicate, however, about an 80
percent removal of suspended solids in the sediment
traps. A comprehensive monitoring program geared
to evaluating the efficiency of these sediment traps
and their specific impact on the lake needs to be
developed.
The project facilities offer an opportunity to re-
search the effectiveness of two different sediment
trap designs. Also, the sediment traps with controlled
-------
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
207
3:1 Side
slopes
Outflow to
'lake
2B ft. Gravel
Roadway
24" Overflow and
drawdown tube
Riprap to protect earthfill
when water level is high
Manual control
for drawdown
tube
30" Drop inlet
riser pipe
Watershed
inflow
-Riprap to reduce
onitlet erosion
.core trench
•9" Drawdown
opening
Figure 2.- Schematic design of two sediment traps incorporated into construction of the new road.
32' Gravelled Roadway
3:1 Side Slopes
0 " overflow tube
12 uncontrolled
Drawdown tube
Riprap to reduce
erosion/near outlets
ft. high
earthern bern
Figure 3.- Schematic design of the existing road as-redesigned to function as a sediment trap.
drawdown tubes could be used to research the im-
pact of temporary versus more permanent water stor-
age on nutrient removal efficiency. There are a num-
ber of questions in this area that need to be
answered.
In summary, this locally initiated and managed lake
preservation project has demonstrated a low-cost,
effective technique for reducing sediment inflow into
a lake which may have application in other areas.
REFERENCES
Haertel, L. 1972. Ecological factors influencing production
of algae in northern prairie lakes. South Dakota Water
Resour. Inst, Brookings.
Hansen, D. R. 1973. Watershed inventory of Lake Cochrane,
Deuel County, South Dakota, 1971-1972. S. Dak. Game
Fish Parks.
State Lakes Preservation Committee. 1977. A plan for the
classification-preservation-restoration of lakes in north-
eastern South Dakota. State of South Dakota and the Old
West Regional Commission.
-------
PRELIMINARY FINDINGS OF MEDICAL LAKE RESTORATION
A. F. GASPERINO
G. R. KEIZUR
Battelle , Pacific Northwest Laboratories
Richland , Washington
R. A. SOLTERO
Eastern Washington University
Cheny, Washington
ABSTRACT
Medical Lake, an alkaline lake in Eastern Washington, has historically exhibited large nuisance
algal blooms and excessive nutrient concentrations. Public opinion in the area favored an
attempt at restoring the lake to a more usable resource. An analysis of lake restoration
alternatives suggested that the most feasible method of treating the lake (in terms of
?™n3™t«me88 ^ t?ote"J1f'1 "»"'*)«« ™ application of aluminum sulfate (alum). A fluid
W«P HiS£r-ndtehS'9rid; bp^een Au9USt 3,and September 1 3, 1 977, 936 tonnes of alum
were distributed in the lake. Preliminary results suggest that the treatment has reduced
phosphorus concentrations and suspended algae concentrations in the water. Light penetration
has also increased Monitoring of the lake will continue until 1 980 to determine the long r
consequences of the application. v,,ai
INTRODUCTION
Medical Lake lies in a closed basin adjacent to the
town of Medical Lake approximately 32 km south-
west of Spokane, Wash. (Figure 1). For the past sev-
eral decades, the high phosphorus content of the lake
has contributed to recurrent algal blooms and buoy-
ant mats of algae throughout the lake.
Figure 1.- Map of the State of Washington with location of
Medical Lake. Figure 1.- Alum dispensing system.
The presence of this decaying plant matter often
has curtailed swimming and boating. Odors asso-
ciated with decaying algae and hydrogen sulfide-
laden bottom waters also have hindered use of the
lake.
This paper presents the preliminary findings of a
restoration project undertaken by Battelle, Pacific
Northwest Laboratories, and Eastern Washington
University. The purpose of this project was to reduce
phosphorus and algae levels, increase oxygen levels,
and improve water clarity, thus permitting recrea-
tional use of the lake. The process involved applica-
tion of aluminum sulfate (alum). Water quality moni-
toring is ongoing and will continue until 1980.
LAKE HISTORY
Medical Lake is an alkaline, eutrophic lake located
in the channeled scablands of Eastern Washington.
The morphometry of the lake is:
Area
Volume
Maximum depth
Mean depth
Maximum length
Maximum width
64 ha
6.2 x 106 m3
18 m
10 m
1.7 km
0.4 km
Examination of the lake during the past 4 years has
shown that the main factor contributing to the exces-
sive growth of algae is its high level of phosphorus.
This high level is not caused by external inputs be-
cause the lake has no surface inlets or outlets and
does not receive wastewater effluents or agricultural
runoff. Instead, internal phosphorus cycling supplies
the nutrient input for algal growth (Bauman and
Soltero, 1978). Phosphorus from cellular decomposi-
tion of algae produced during one growing season,
along with phosphorus released from the sediment
under reducing conditions is mixed into the epilimn-
ion during fall overturn. The following year's algal
blooms, then, are stimulated by nutrients released
from algae produced in previous years.
For the restoration project, analysis of the lake's
characteristics showed that to establish the lake as a
more usable resource this phosphorus cycle had to
be disrupted. Accordingly, hypolimnetic phosphorus
had to be prevented from mixing into the epilimnion
during the fall to alleviate excessive algal growth the
following year.'
209
-------
210
METHOD OF LAKE RESTORATION
LAKE RESTORATION
After analysis of several restoration techniques,
nutrient inactivation by chemical precipitation was
chosen as the most feasible method for reducing
algal growth.
Of the elements required for algal growth, phospho-
rus has been the primary target of previous in-lake
nutrient control schemes (Dunst, et al. 1974). The
agent most widely used to remove phosphorus from
water is aluminum sulfate (alum), a chemical that is
used in the tertiary treatment of sewage.
The most cost-effective way of disrupting the phos-
phorus cycle was determined to be a hypolimnetic
treatment with alum at the height of the summer
anoxia, when phosphorus levels are greatest in the
hypolimnion. The alum forms a dense, insoluble floe
(aluminum hydroxide complex) that chemically binds
a large amount of the phosphorus present in the
hypolimnion. Most important, the floe forms a chemi-
cal barrier on the sediment to further bind phospho-
rus released during succeeding summers.
Laboratory Analysis
Laboratory tests performed at Battelle indicated
that Medical Lake's water chemistry caused the alum
floe to react differently than initially anticipated.
Tests showed that (1) the lake's alkalinity increased
the amount of alum necessary to form a floe; (2) 150
mg/7 of alum were required to reduce soluble reac-
tive phosphorus by 80 to 90 percent in the lake after
fall mixing (a reduction necessary to substantially
reduce spring and summer algal growth); (3) vigorous
mixing of the alum in the water was necessary to
achieve an 80 to 90 percent phosphorus reduction;
(4) multiple alum doses were more effective than a
single dose in reducing phosphorus levels; and (5)
subsurface multiple doses (below the photic zone)
would reduce hypolimnetic phosphorus concentra-
tions more effectively than surface multiple doses.
These tests also showed that the lake required 936
tonnes of alum to remove enough phosphorus to
reduce algal growth.
The concentrated liquid form of alum was chosen
because it mixes immediately and is easier, safer, and
less expensive to use than the dry form. As a result, a
distribution system for application was required that:
(1) possessed a large capacity; (2) produced immedi-
ate turbulence; (3) controlled the distribution rate; (4)
operated at prescribed depths; and (5) utilized com-
mercial liquid alum.
Alum Dispensing System
The fluid transfer system (Figure 2) was designed to
meet the distribution criteria. Basic components in-
cluded alum storage tanks, a pump, and a diffuser
manifold.
Application
Two barges were used to apply the alum through-
out the lake. One barge, about 8.5 m in length, distrib-
uted alum to the nearshore areas. The large barge,
about 12 m long, treated the majority of the open
area of the lake.
Each barge was designed to carry as much liquid
alum as possible. The diffuser pipe mixed the alum
thoroughly with the lake water at different depths
while valves controlled the distribution rate. The en-
tire hypolimnion of the lake received seven applica-
tions, and the surface four applications, between
August 3 and September 13,1977.
SURFACE
APPLICATION
ALUM STORAGE TANK
SUBSURFACE
APPLICATION
Figure 2.-Alum dispensing system.
RESULTS
Water quality monitoring was conducted prior to,
during, and after the alum application. Results have
shown that the application was highly successful.
Table 1 compares values of certain water quality
parameters measured during periods before and af-
ter the application. Concentrations of the various
phosphorus fractions dropped dramatically; mean
concentrations of total phosphate and total soluble
phosphate decreased approximately sixfold, and
mean orthophosphate levels declined seventeenfold.
The largest reduction occurred after fall overturn
(Figure 3). The mechanisms causing this reduction
after overturn are not well known, but the iron cycle
may be implicated somehow.
The effect of the alum on the algal assay dry
weights for the control samples during and following
the application is shown in Table 2. Algal assay
theory and methodology are described by Miller, et
al. (in press). Results of the algal assays performed on
autoclaved and filtered euphotic zone samples are
presented in Table 3. The increase in algal dry
weights in the nitrogen plus EDTA (a chelating agent)
spiked samples from December 2, 1976 to June 21,
1977 demonstrated that Medical Lake waters were
nitrogen limiting to the growth of Selenastrum capri-
cornutum, the test algae. Through March 19, 1978,
phosphorus was limiting to Selenastrum growth. The
extent of phosphorus limitation after the alum appli-
cation was demonstrated by the substantial dry
weight increases in the phosphorus plus EDTA
spiked samples over their respective controls after
August 3. This increased growth to phosphorus addi-
tion suggests that the alum treatment reduced phos-
phorus availability to phytoplankton growth and did
not create adverse or toxic conditions within the lake.
The algal assay response of Selenastrum to the
post-treatment water samples indicates the use of
-------
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
211
Date
Before
After
% change
Table 1 -Comparison of selected water quality parameters measured before (12/2/76-4/14/77) and
after (12/13/77-4/19/78) a whole lake application of alum
Mean total
Mean total soluble
PO, (mg M) PO, (mg I-1)
1 45
025
-83
1 19
020
-83
Mean ortho-
P04 (mg l-i)
102
006
-94
Mean
phytoplankton
standing crop
(mm' I-1)
087
-93
Mean
chlorophyll a
concentration
(mg m-i)
3028
527
-83
Mean growth of
algal assay control
(mg dry wt l-i)
3318
072
-98
Mean
Dissolved extinction Mean secchi
Ammonia-NH3-N oxygen coefficient disk visibility
(mg I-') (mg l-i) (km -i) (m)
1 66
102
-39
861
638
-26
222
059
-73
1 18
528
-1-347
O 1 0 -
~
7y
'/.
'/
~ /
'/.
'/.
//
\
it.
^
/;
y
/
V
X
/
^
/
— |
^
X
/:
<-
^
^
1
-T1
^
^
/
V
V
y
1
DEC JAN FEB MAR APR
1976 1977
X
f*
',
/
I
MAY
ALUM
TREATMENT
T.
//
/
\
/
X
/i
'/
:
~i
1
7
V,
v/
//
v/
I
7
X
^
X
fj
/
X
f
1
(7771 TOTAL PHOSPHATE
m ORTHO-PHOSPHATE
FALL
OVERTURN
n
rn
/
//
//
/
\
\
,
JUNE JULY AUG SEPT
'x
x
;>
|
OC7
Figure 3.- Mean monthly total and orthophosphate
/
/
/
/
/
7
!alJnLLl_.
NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR
1978
concentrations (mg/O-
Table 2 - Maximum algal assay yields (mg/J-i dry weight) after 14 days of Selenastrum
capricornutum Pnntz m composited euphotic zone samples collected at the deep water
sampling station for the period 12/2/76 to 3/19/78
12/ 2/76
II 8/77
3/15/77
4/14/77
5/ 5/77
6/ 7/77
6/21/77
II 5/77
7/19/77
8/ 3/77
8/16/77
8/30/77
9/13/77
9/27/77
10/11/77
10/25/77
ll/ 8/77
12/13/77
1/17/78
2/14/78
3/71/78
Control
3526
2566
4465
27 13
2035
1969
1648
1550
1435
041
024
047
013
093
069
0 13
014
016
008
1 49
1 15
1.0 mg//-i EDTA (E)
10 mg.//-1 N + E
3609
3078
4651
28 10
2018
1 53
1815
1361
121
054
296
0.32
022
1 74
702
017
008
023
007
539
371
5563
4812
5970
4889
3844
4320
3854
2860
1756
034
323
056
048
1 51
6,82
018
006
012
009
559
398
3621
3151
4648
29 13
2092
2473
1690
2282
2301
1941
11 73
945
1132
1344
1809
1781
17.94
1853
587
1470
1196
N_+JL±_§
4728
4137
5585
4371
3411
2836
2600
28,10
2263
1876
1268
1008
551
583
3673
1977
2043
2063
413
1380
12.35
Table 3 - Ranges and means of selected water quality parameters for the period 6/23/78 to 7/24/78
Date
5/23
6/13
6/26
7/10
7/24
Total
phosphate
(mg_l-_^>
0 17-034
022
0 13-029
0 18
012-032
020
012-037
020
010-032
019
Total
nitrogen
(mg_l^)
1 70-3 00
216
1 49-2 90
2 16
1.42-320
2 16
136-343
2.16
131-352
2 16
Dissolved
oxygen
(mg l-i)
000-11 90
681
0 00-9 70
541
000-1002
499
0.30-8 60
452
0 30-9 40
4 14
Chlorophyll a
euphotic zone
(mg m-3)
029
207
2 10
1 87
350
Extinction
coeflicient
(kjirH)
052
048
049
048
0.5
Secchi
disk
depth
(m)
46
51
6.5
43
40
-------
212
LAKE RESTORATION
algal assays to predict the effects of nutrient inactiva-
tion upon algal growth in natural waters. The assay
results were an earlier indicator of low algal
productivity than that which was obtained by measur-
ing indigenous phytoplankton standing crop and
chlorophyll a concentrations during and after the
treatment.
Figure 4 illustrates phytoplankton cell volumes and
chlorophyll a concentrations before, during, and after
the treatment. After fall overturn, both parameters fell
markedly, and remained low through April. These
data compare favorably with data obtained from the
algal assays.
Mean total and ammonia nitrogen concentrations
did not decline greatly in the period following the
application (Figure 5). A 39 percent drop in ammonia
nitrogen concentrations was measured, but probably
was due to factors other than the treatment.
Dissolved oxygen concentrations had not re-
sponded to treatment as of April 1 978 (Figure 6). The
large volume of anoxic water present in the lake
during summer stratification may have exerted a buff-
l\t
r-
\
1 60
HI
s
o
> 50
Z
o
z
< 40
Q.
o
I
0- 30
E
O)
ro
^
CHLOROPH
o
~-
-
—
-
^m 1
;
DEC JAN
FEB
r-i
1
:.:}
3
2
1
|
V
f/
y
*/
rrr
X
X
!
;T
•X;
£.
3
•S
j;
v.;
Y77\ PHYTOPLANKTON VOLUME
iff/H CHLOROPHYLL a
ALUM FALL
TREATMENT OVERTURN
MAR APR MAY JUNE
i
JULY
1
SXSXXNX^SXI
i>
Fl
P3 pj $
AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR
1976 1977
1978
Figure 4.- Mean monthly phytoplankton cell volumes (mm3 /"') and chlorophyll a concentrations (mg m"3).
1U
9
8
7
*- 6
O)
,£
5 5
0
2
^ .
z
3
2
1
-
•-
7
/
/,
f
DEC
1976
"Z
•
-------
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
213
ering effect against any rapid change in oxygen
concentration.
Water clarity as measured by extinction coeffi-
cients and Secchi disk visibility increased dramati-
cally after the treatment (Figure 7). After fall overturn,
the effect was particularly apparent; Secchi disk val-
ues climbed to the highest of any measured during
the study, and extinction coefficients fell 73 percent.
More recent data indicate that the trends seen
through April 1978 are continuing (Table 3). Concen-
trations of soluble orthophosphate and chlorophyll a
have remained at very low levels through July 1978,
indicating that the alum floe on the sediment is reduc-
ing phosphorus availability for algal growth. Secchi
disk depths are generally greater and extinction coef-
ficients less than those measured in 1977. Mean
concentrations of dissolved oxygen are about equal
to those of 1977, but other measurements (not
shown in Table 3) indicate that the extent of anoxia in
the lake is not as great. (A more thorough presenta-
tion of these data will be given in reports due to be
completed in August 1978 and June 1980.)
12
o
Q
£ 10
_j
O
I» o
tn 8
2 —
ALUM
TREATMENT
FALL
OVERTURN
DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR
1976 1977 1978
Figure 6.- Mean monthly dissolved oxygen concentrations (mg/f1).
ALUM
TREATMENT
Y7Z\ SECCHI DISK
FALL 1&F3 EXTINCTION
OVERTURN ' '
ra
7
DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB
1976 1977 1978
-I 7
I5 I
CD
4 3)
MAR APR
Figure 7.- Mean monthly Secchi disk depth (m) and extinction coefficient (km"1).
-------
214
CONCLUSIONS
LAKE RESTORATION
REFERENCES
The alum applied to Medical Lake has substantially
reduced phosphorus and suspended algal concentra-
tions, and increased the depth of light penetration.
The phosphorus reductions are greater than had
been demonstrated in laboratory tests. Monitoring
will continue until spring 1980. This additional moni-
toring will enable a more thorough understanding of
the system and the ramifications of the treatment.
Bauman, L. R., and R. A Soltero. 1978. Limnological investi-
gation of eutrophic Medical Lake, Wash. Northwest Sci.
52:127.
Dunst, R. C., et al. 1974. Survey of lake rehabilitation tech-
niques and experience. Tech. Bull. 75. Dep. Nat. Resour.,
Madison, Wis.
Miller, W. E, et al. The Selenastrum capricornutum Printz
algal assay bottle test: experimental design, application,
data interpretation protocol. Environ. Res. Lab. U.S. Envi-
ron Prot. Agency, Corvallis, Ore. (In press.)
-------
THE WHITE CLAY LAKE MANAGEMENT PLAN
JAMES O. PETERSON
F. W. MADISON
ARTHUR E. PETERSON
University of Wisconsin-Extension
Madison, Wisconsin
ABSTRACT
The effect of agricultural operations on water quality is being studied in a field monitoring
project in the 3,500-acre White Clay watershed in Shawano County, Wis. Initiated in 1973 at
the request of residents of the watershed, the project was undertaken as a cooperative effort by
the University of Wisconsin and several other agencies Following collection of data, residents
formed a Lake Protection District and developed a management plan aimed at reducing nutrient
and sediment movement to the lake. The emphasis was on protecting the water quality, rather
than restoring it. Initial funding came from the Upper Great Lakes Regional Commission, with
implementation funds from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources. Under the direction of locally elected Lake District Commis-
sioners, specific management practices were designed by the U S. Department of Agriculture
Soil Conservation Service and constructed in 1976 and 1977.
INTRODUCTION
Enactment of the Amendments to the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 (P. L. 92-500)
changed the primary emphasis of the Nation's effort
to control the pollution of its waters. Instead of deal-
ing with levels of pollutants in receiving waters, Pub-
lic Law 92-500 directed that pollutants be controlled
at their source, whether that source is a treatment
plant outflow pipe, an urban storm drain, a farmer's
field, or a construction site. Particular attention was
focused on the agricultural community as questions
were raised concerning the amounts of nutrients and
sediments generated by agricultural operations and
the effects of those materials on water quality.
Generally, pollutants arising from agricultural oper-
ations are recognized as nonpoint sources, although
in one part of the rural scene there has been a good
deal of confusion. P. L. 92-500 defined animal feed-
lots, barnyards, and rest areas as point sources of
pollution and directed the U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency to develop guidelines for regulating the
discharge of pollutants from them. Although there
has been considerable controversy about how many
animals should be contained in a feedlot before a
discharge permit is required, it is apparent that out-
flows of nutrients from these areas will need to be
controlled whether they are considered to be point or
nonpoint sources.
Dairy farming dominates the 1,215 hectare White
Clay Lake watershed in eastern Shawano County,
Wis. Water quality in the 95-hectare lake is generally
good. Because there is almost no development along
the shore, this project provided an excellent opportu-
nity to study the effects of agricultural runoff on
water quality and thus to increase the understanding
of lakes and lake problems.
Concern for protection of the lake actually began in
1969 when Shawano County Agricultural Agent Nor-
man Sawyer, District Conservationist (Soil Conserva-
tion Service) Herbert Touchen, and most residents of
the watershed decided this was an excellent lake in
which to study agricultural contributions to lake eu-
trophication (Peterson, 1975). This eventually led to a
request for funds from the Upper Great Lakes Re-
gional Commission (UGLRC) in 1973. A grant was
subsequently awarded to the University of
Wisconsin-Extension in September of that year and
installation of the monitoring network commenced
immediately. Additional moneys were provided the
following year by the same agency to support contin-
ued monitoring activities.
It should be noted that in 1971 the U.S. Agricultural
Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS) recog-
nized some of the watershed's problems and made
special cost-share funds available to install animal
waste storage facilities. Actually, organized efforts
for lake protection began in this watershed in 1972
when it was accepted as a Resource Conservation
and Development project by the Shawano County
Soil and Water Conservation District. The Lumber-
jack Resource Conservation and Development board
of directors provided technical assistance for soil
surveys. The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) pro-
vided engineering and planning help for conserva-
tion and pollution control measures.
Under the provisions of Chapter 33 of the Wiscon-
sin Statutes, the Inland Lake Protection and Rehabili-
tation Act, the town of Washington, which includes
White Clay Lake, formed the White Clay Lake Protec-
tion and Rehabilitation District to ensure future pro-
tection of the lake. Project personnel, working with
215
-------
216
LAKE RESTOR/>TION
residents of the watershed and personnel of the SCS
and the County Extension Office, developed a com-
prehensive management plan for the watershed. The
plan included construction and installation of mea-
sures to control sediment and nutrient movement
from barnyards, feedlots, waterways, and cropped
areas.
Using data from the UGLRC-sponsored project to
meet feasibility requirements imposed by Chapter
33, the Lake District submitted an application for
funds to implement its management plans. Grants
totaling $214,500 were awarded for the project by
the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
(DNR) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA).
Of the lake protection projects submitted to EPA
from all States for funding in 1975, the White Clay
Lake proposal was the only one providing lake pro-
tection solely through intensive watershed manage-
ment. Construction of the land management prac-
tices began in the fall of 1976, and installations were
nearly completed by the end of 1977.
While White Clay Lake is considered to be of good
quality now, several recent changes in agricultural
practices threaten to produce adverse effects. The
increase in dairy animal units in the watershed is the
result of fewer, but larger herds (averaging about 75
to 100 cattle). Concurrently, more herds are being
held on feedlots than on pastures, and more empha-
sis is being placed on production of corn with less
emphasis on oats and hay in crop rotations. All of
these changes tend toward greater potential for nutri-
ent and sediment transport to the lake.
The White Clay watershed is on a gently rolling
glacial till plain of Valderan age. A relatively short
growing season with an average of 130 frost-free
days and fairly youthful soils (classified as Alfic Ha-
plorthods that have high carbonate content and mod-
est amounts of expansible clays) favor dairy farming
with crop rotations that include successive years of
corn and oats followed by a minimum of 4 years of
alfalfa.
Base maps have been prepared showing the SCS
detailed soil survey, land elevations at 1.2 m contour
intervals, the DNR bathymetric records of the lake,
land ownership, animal concentration areas, and
land uses and management information for the past
several years.
WATERSHED MONITORING
Flow monitoring devices were installed to isolate
three watersheds—the south watershed of about
195 hectares, the east watershed of 335 hectares,
and the Manthei watershed of 22.5 hectares (Figure
1). The larger two watersheds were selected to be
representative of the soils, topography, and land use
of the rest of the watershed as well as other areas of
northeastern Wisconsin. A monitoring station on the
lake's outlet stream measures output of surface water
from the entire watershed. Water samples taken
weekly and during runoff events at each station are
analyzed for residue, phosphorus, nitrogen, and chlo-
ride content. A summary of land uses in each of the
watersheds is shown in Table 1.
WHITE CLAY LAKE WATERSHED
Monitoring station
Sampler
Untreated barnyard/feedlot
Treated barnyard/feadlot
Boundary, ownership
Watershed outline
Sub-watershed
Figure 1.- White Clay Lake watershed and ownership map.
-------
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
217
Table 1 - Summary of land uses — White Clay Lake watershed
(1974-75), Shawano Co., Wis
Area (ha)
% of total
Wooded (%)
Littoral wetlands (%)
Lake surface (%)
Cropped (%)
Corn (%)
Oats and hay (%)
Entire
basin
1215.0
1000
230
67*
78
660
—
—
South
basin
195
16
20
—
_
80
35
45
East
basin
355.0
275
140
—
85.0
25.0
60.0
Manthei
basin
225
18
00
1000
950
5.0
*Some littoral wetfands are wooded
A survey of groundwater movement and quality in
the basin (Tolman, 1975) complemented the hydro-
logic and nutrient transport studies for the lake. Ob-
servations on a network of wells and seepage collec-
tors were used to estimate rates of water movement
into the lake. Water level recorders showed the rela-
tionship between lake level and water table fluctua-
tions. Samples from observation wells were analyzed
for chloride, nitrogen, and phosphorus content. Sam-,
pies from private water supplies were analyzed to
determine fhe water quality of the deeper aquifer.
Groundwater monitoring is continuing on a quarterly
basis.
Project weather stations within the watershed pro-
vide a continuous measurement of precipitation, tem-
perature, and relative humidity. Maximum and mini-
mum temperature readings are recorded weekly.
Frost depth is monitored using fluorescein tubes (Har-
ris, 1970) at several places in the watershed from
December through April.
Watershed Material Transport
Water volume input to White Clay Lake serves as a
base for determining nutrient input and hydraulic
residence time for the lake. Table 2 shows water
contributions from direct precipitation, surface water
flow, and direct groundwater flow for a 1-year period,
as well as related total nitrogen and phosphorus
inputs.
Comparing the relative magnitude of nitrogen com-
pound sources (Table 2) to water sources shows that
direct precipitation supplied about 10 percent of the
total N in 25 percent of the water input, surface water
supplied 64 percent of the N in 35 percent of the
water, and ground water supplied 26 percent of the N
in 40 percent of the water.
Table 2 shows estimated total phosphorus inputs to
the lake. With 35 percent of the water input via
surface flows carne 57 percent of the total phospho-
rus. The contributions from direct precipitation are
based on only six samples taken in the first 6 months
of the year and thereby represent a rough estimate.
Annual totals of water, phosphorus, nitrogen, and
total residue transport from the east and south water-
sheds for 1974-1977 are summarized in Table 3.
The water transport in 1977 was the lowest of the 4
years of observations. The outlet stream and the
south branch both dried up during July-November of
1977.
Annual residue losses in the two watersheds range
from about 45 kg/ha to 750 kg/ha for the 4 years
with a peak during the first year that is attributed to
site disturbances during construction of monitoring
stations. This range of residue transport is consid-
ered to be quite low for agricultural watersheds.
Phosphorus areal outputs show considerable
yearly range (kg P/ha):
East
South
1974
0.64
0.56
1975
0.50
0.83
1976
2.1
0.37
1977
0.25
0.01
While these outputs fit within the range of agricul-
tural land outputs listed by Uttormark, et al. (1974),
the rate for the east watershed in 1976 appears to be
a significant change from past years. Of particular
interest is that there was no large increase in output
rate from the south watershed, nor were there similar
increases in nitrogen losses. Further analysis of indi-
vidual runoff events and land management records
may help to explain the differences.
The low areal output of materials from both basins
in 1977 is related to decreased runoff during this dry
year (see Table 3).
Material losses from the Manthei watershed are
summarized in Table 4. The purpose of monitoring
this watershed was to estimate material losses from a
dairy barnyard. The lower watershed includes the
entire basin, terminating at the flow monitoring sta-
tion. The sampling station of the upper site monitors
runoff from about 18 of the 22.5 total ha. The differ-
ence in areas includes a dairy heifer operation.
Year to year variations in material output are
greater than for the large drainage basins, but the
influence of the barnyard area on ambient water
quality is readily apparent.
A marsh study including material transport in and
out of the littoral zone marsh where the main stream
enters the lake will be conducted during
1978-1979.
Cooperative research between the University of
Wisconsin-Madison and the USDA Sedimentation
Laboratory (Bubenzer, et al. 1974) was initiated to
investigate erosion and deposition processes on the
White Clay Lake watershed using Cesium-137 as the
tracer. Preliminary results indicate an overall erosion
from the cultivated areas with some deposition on
the upland watershed. Much of the deposition from
the watershed appears to be taking place in the
marsh fringe around the lake. Significant Cesium-
137 concentrations have been found at the 50-
centimeter depth within the marsh while depths of
10 centimeters or less have been observed in the
adjacent littoral zone of the lake. The results indicate
that Cesium-137 can be used to measure both the
erosion and deposition of sediments in agricultural
watersheds such as White Clay Lake.
SUMMARY
The development and implementation of the White
Clay Lake management plan is an example of effec-
tive cooperation between individual citizens, local
units of government, State and Federal agencies, and
-------
218
LAKE RESTORATION
Table 2 - Nitrogen and phosphorus transport toward
White Clay Lake, Shawano Co., Wis 1974
Nitrogen
Direct precipitation
Metered surface water
Unmetered surface water
Groundwater
Phosphorus
Direct precipitation
Metered surface water
Unmetered surface water
Ground water
Water volume1
0.542
0.702 1
0.086 J
0897
2227
0542
0702 \
0.086 J
0897
2227
%'
25
35
40
100%
25
35
40
100%
Mean
Concentration
mg//
1.0
4.25
150
025
0.45
0.45
0.15
Total
kg
542
2.983
425
1,346
5,237
136
316
39
134
625
Percent of
total nutrient
10
57
366
26
100
22
51
6
21
100
'in millions of cubic meters input to lake
^percent contribution to total water input to lake,
no net change in lake storage during period
Table 3 - Summary of water, nitrogen, phosphorus, and residue transport, White Clay Lake watershed, Shawano Co, Wis
East watershed
Water volume - cu m
Residue - total kg
mean (range) mg//
Phosphorus-total kg
mean (range)-mg//
Nitrogen-organic kg
mean (range)-mg//
Nitrogen-total kg
mean (range)-mg//
South watershed
Water volume - cu m
Residue - total kg
mean (range)-mg//
Phosphorus - total kg
mean (range)-mg//
Nitrogen-organic kg
mean (range)-mg//
Nitrogen-total kg
k mean (range)-mg//
1974
405,000
227,400
563(10-6210)
2146
053(002-61)
624
154(001-149)
1660
410(18-155)
292,000
145,400
498(10-6000)
109
0 36(0 05-7 0)
385
132(<001-46)
1323
4 53(1 4-8.2)
1975
616,000
184.000
299(60-164)
166.9
027(0.01-347)
974
158(<001-486)
2221
361(1 55-26.8)
359,000
125,700
350(50-4100)
1616
045(001-293)
1014
282«0.01-157)
1989
553(0.55-188)
1976
682,000
197,300
289(29-827)
703
103(001-785)
1190
1 74(001-558
2552
3.74(1 57-8.18)
194,000
78,940
408(259-727)
721
037(0.01-642)
348
1 80(005-693)
950
491(1,32-125)
1977
138,825
82,420
594(287-1100)
85.3
0.625(001-365)
319
785
565(151-16.3)
20,438
8,845
433(201-755)
405
0199(001-415)
25
122(16-595)
862
423(97-904)
Table 4. - Summary of nitrogen, phosphorus, and residue transfer, White Clay Lake watershed, Shawano County, Wis
1974'
1975
1976
1977
Upper Manthei watershed
, Water volume2
Residue-total kg
mean (range)-mg//
Phosphorus-total kg
mean (range)-mg//
Nitrogen-organic-kg
mean (range)-mg//
Nitrogen-total-kg
mean (range)-mg//
Lower Manthei watershed
Water volume - cu m
Residue-total-kg
mean (range)-mg//
Phosphorus-total-kg
mean (range)-mg//
Nitrogen-organic-kg
mean (range)-mg//
Nitrogen-total-kg
mean (range)-mg//
560
440(140-2,200)
036
0.283(016-22)
639
5.02(1,8-124)
1,274
3,121
2,450(160-34,000)
3.01
236(0.36-25)
135
106(59-79)
9.39C
181(10-630)
217
0.418(001-1 85)
163
3.14(1.33-835)
51,910
11.790
227(100-990)
282
0541(0.15-145)
504
440(183-980)
21,090
269(78-712)
118
0149(0.01-820)
213
271(077-6.67)
78,360
29,210
373(116-937)
140
1 78(0.01-715)
730
932(1 58-193)
"Records from 4/2/74-4/12/74
^Volume from Upper is taken as the same as measured at Lower station, consequently mass data
from the Upper station is over-estimated The area of the upper portion of the basin includes
only 18 of the total 225 ha area
30nly two samples from Upper station (versus 54 from Lower station) representing only 5% of
water flow.
0433
131(108-154)
00013
0556(0.30-075)
00163
5.01(4.01-6 12)
722
572
792(66-1980)
078
1 09(0,05-3 86)
14.8
20 5(2 33-44.7)
-------
STATE OF THE ART RESEARCH
219
the university system. The effort is providing valuable
insights into many of the questions being raised
about the implementation of rural nonpoint source
pollution control programs.
By its very nature, nonpoint source pollution is a
problem that requires the interaction of a variety of
agencies. The number of agencies involved results
from the historic separation between those that deal
with land resource problems and those that deal with
water resource problems. Partnership between these
diverse interests is critical if water quality problems
are to be solved through land management plans.
It would appear now that responsibility for the
implementation of rural nonpoint source pollution
programs will be vested in the traditional Federal
agencies, namely, the SCS and ASCS, working with
local Soil and Water Conservation Districts (SWCD).
Cost sharing money will be available both for non-
point control measures or best management prac-
tices and for traditional conservation measures. At
White Clay Lake the Shawano County SWCD has
co-sponsored the project since its inception, al-
though the Lake Protection District has, since its
formation, served as the focal point for identifying
nonpoint source problems and for allocating funds
for improvements designed to solve those problems.
From the experience at White Clay Lake, it would
appear that this mechanism—the creation of a Lake
Protection District—can be an effective means of
dealing with critical nonpoint source areas. In water-
sheds of reasonable size, it affords local residents the
opportunity to develop and implement land manage-
ment plans designed to improve water quality. Of
further importance is the power of the Lake Protec-
tion Districts to tax. The White Clay Lake District has
never levied a tax, but the authority is there and it
might be a way to raise money to supplement funds
available from other sources for nonpoint source
pollution control.
When Lake Protection money became available,
members of the White Clay Lake District agreed to
use it for their most critical nonpoint problems—
barnyards and feedlots—and to use moneys from the
Agricultural Conservation Program for cost sharing
the installation of conservation practices on crop-
lands. The reasons for this were eminently practi-
cal—there was not enough Lake Protection money to
do everything so investments of these funds were
directed toward the most critical problem areas. Ad-
ditionally, barnyard work is expensive and in all cases
the money required far exceeded the traditional
$2,500 per farm per year limitation of the ASCS
program. This innovative approach might well be
applied to the allocation of newly authorized Federal
nonpoint source control money.
Designers of nonpoint source pollution control pro-
grams are currently debating the question of manda-
tory vs. voluntary control programs. At White Clay
Lake the District was able to share 90 percent of the
cost of control structures, a figure somewhat higher
than that envisioned for new nonpoint programs. Of
the farms with livestock in the watershed, all but
three were improved using project funds. This is a
cooperation rate of about 83 percent. It should be
noted, however, that one of the noncooperating
farms is located directly on the shore of the lake and
has a large livestock operation for which protection
against sediment and nutrient movement is being
provided by improvements without cost sharing.
The University has played an important role in the
White Clay Lake effort since its inception. Respond-
ing to concern expressed by residents of the water-
shed about the water quality of the lake. University
personnel helped obtain grants, and design and in-
stall the monitoring network to quantify movement of
sediment and nutrients from agricultural operations
toward the lake. Data from this work served to meet
the feasibility requirements of Chapter 33, thus mak-
ing the Lake Protection District eligible to apply for
funds to implement a management program.
Research work showed that even though the water
quality of the lake itself was good, nutrients were
moving to the lake in amounts well in excess of those
considered to be safe for maintaining present lake
quality. Attention was focused on land activities, as
major changes in the in-lake systems were not ex-
pected during the course of the study. Excessive
nutrient loadings were the basis for the protection
program rather than changes in water quality.
Project activities are continuing. Now that protec-
tive measures have been installed in barnyards and
feedlots, on streambanks, and on cropped lands,
monitoring is being continued to assess the effective-
ness of these practices. The marsh area, through
which much of the water going into the lake moves, is
being studied to determine changes in lake water
quality and reductions in pollutant loadings.
The White Clay lake experience has been valuable
in many ways. It is a good research tool providing
insights into environmental problems resulting from
agricultural operations and the movement of sedi-
ments and nutrients into lakes and streams. It is an
excellent educational tool not only for the residents
of the watershed but also for the many students,
elected officials, and citizens who have toured the
project area. It is a fine demonstration of local people
working with a number of agencies and institutions
to solve specific problems.
REFERENCES
Bubenzer, G. D., et al. 1974. Sediment source area identifi-
cation using Cesium-137. Res. Proposal. Coll. Agric. Life
Sci., University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Harris, A. R. 1970. Direct reading frost gage is reliable,
inexpensive. Res. Note NC-89 (revised 9-15-70), U.S.
Forest Serv. U.S. Dep. Agric. St. Paul, Minn.
Peterson, A. E. 1975. Save White Clay Lake. Wis. Conserv.
Bull. Nov.-Dec. 10.
Tolman, A. L. 1975. The hydrogeology of the White Clay
Lake area, Shawano County, Wis. M.S. thesis. University
of Wisconsin, Madison.
Uttormark, P. D., et al. 1974. Estimating nutrient loadings of
lakes from nonpoint sources. Water Resour. Center, Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, Madison.
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APPENDIXES
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Appendix A
SUMMATION OF CLEAN LAKES PROGRAM
223
Under section 314 of the Clean Water Act (33
U.S.C. 1251 et seq.) each State is required to: (1)
identify and classify according to eutrophic condition
all publicly owned freshwater lakes in such States; (2)
prepare methods and procedures to control sources
of pollution in such lakes; and (3) prepare methods
and procedures to restore the quality of such lakes.
The clean lakes program, provided for under section
314 of the Act, has the authority to make Federal
assistance available to the States to carry out those
methods and procedures required for the restoration
of publicly owned freshwater lakes. The Clean Water
Act was amended in 1977 to include authority to
financially assist States with lake classification sur-
veys. On July 10, 1978, the U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency published a notice in the Federal
Register that financial assistance would be provided
to States for the identification and classification of
publicly owned freshwater lakes according to trophic
condition. EPA also announced it would provide fi-
nancial assistance for establishing a priority ranking
for lakes in need of restoration, or conducting diag-
nostic or feasibility studies to determine methods
and procedures to protect or restore the quality of the
priority lakes (43 FR 29617). Each State can use up to
$ 100,000 Federal funds for these studies. No award
can exceed 70 percent of the eligible costs of the
proposed project.
The Agency is in the process of developing a regu-
lation to define the future management of the clean
lakes program. EPA anticipates proposing the rule for
public comment in late 1978 with an expected pro-
mulgation date in early 1979. The proposed regula-
tion establishes policies and procedures for restora-
tion (including protection against degradation) of
publicly owned freshwater lakes. The revised clean
lakes program will provide for two types of grants: a
Phase 1 diagnostic or feasibility study grant that
would be used to define methods appropriate to
restore the quality of a particular lake, and a Phase 2
engineering design and implementation grant to sup-
port the implementation of pollution control or in-lake
restoration methods and procedures.
Congress first appropriated funds to implement
section 314 of the Act in 1975, and the Environmen-
tal Protection Agency awarded the first clean lakes
grant in January 1976. The clean lakes program has
grown from 17 funded projects in its first year to a
total of 73 projects in 23 States 3 years later. Approx-
imately one-third of all proposals received have not
been supported, primarily because adequate pollu-
tion control to the lake was not included or the
technology discussed in the proposal was not conclu-
sively demonstrated. Appropriations for fiscal years
1975 through 1979 total in excess of $50 million. A
tabular presentation of the awarded projects in each
State is provided in the following pages, along with a
brief description of the pollution problems affecting
the 73 projects and the corresponding restoration
techniques being implemented.
To date, five clean lakes projects have been com-
pleted with positive results reported for each: Buck-
ingham Lake, N.Y.; Washington Park Lake, N.Y.; Mo-
ses Lake, Wash.; Spada/Chaplain Lakes, Wash.; and
Little Pond, Maine.
Lake name: Albert Lea and Fountain
Lakes
Location: Freeborn County, Minn.
Surface area: Albert Lea - 2,500 acres;
Fountain - 55 acres
Depth (mean): Albert Lea - 4 feet;
Fountain - 6 feet
Problem: Albert Lea - agricultural drainage and
sewage effluent have caused nutrient buildup accom-
panied by algal blooms, scum, and odors. Fountain -
agricultural drainage with a possible minor compo-
nent of sewage effluent results in algal blooms.
Objective: Control or limit phosphorus entering the
lakes.
Restoration techniques: Albert Lea - drawdown to
allow bottom sediments to consolidate, followed by
dredging and eventual refilling of the lake. Fountain -
construct settling ponds to trap sediment and filter
beds to remove phosphorus by adsorption. Encour-
age improved land management practices in drain-
age area of both lakes to alleviate problems arising
from agricultural runoff.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Apopka
Location: Orange and Lake
Counties, Fla.
Surface area: 34,000 acres
Depth: 6 feet (mean)
Problem: Fish kills; algal blooms; water hyacinths;
and areas of unconsolidated bottom sediments.
Objective: Conduct a baseline study on the lake,
followed by restorative actions required for lake
rehabilitation.
Restoration techniques: Collect additional baseline
data, evaluate possible water quality impacts, deter-
mine engineering constraints, and conduct engineer-
-------
ing design work; reduction of point source wastes to
the lake; and drawdown of the lake so that a substan-
tial portion of lake bed sediments would be exposed
to draining and drying.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): A limnologi-
cal water quality monitoring study has been com-
pleted and an engineering design study is in
progress.
Lake name: Ballinger
Location: Snohomish County, Wash.
Surface area: 100 acres
Depth: 15 feet (mean)
Problem: High concentrations of phosphorus; algal
blooms; sedimentation; bacterial contamination; low
dissolved oxygen concentrations.
Objective: Restore overall water quality.
Restoration techniques: Control nutrient and seoi-
ment runoff from construction activities in the water-
shed by developing and implementing ordinances;
riprap unstable bank areas and plant vegetation
cover; construct sedimentation basins; direct inflow
from Hall Creek through the hypolimnion of the lake
to a proposed outlet, thereby preventing high nutri-
ent water from mixing with surface water.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Less than 5
percent of work has been completed; water supply,
nutrient reduction, and monitoring supplies are being
developed.
Lake name: Bomoseen
Location: Rutland County, Vt.
Surface area: 2,634 acres
Depth: 25 feet (maximum)
Problem: High nutrient concentrations have re-
sulted in heavy growth of aquatic macrophytes and
blue-green algae, which interfere with recreational
activities.
Objective: Since nutrient sources entering the lake
have been controlled, the goal is to remove the
in-lake nutrient source, which is recycling from exist-
ing aquatic vegetation.
Restoration techniques: Harvesting 180 acres of
the lake each year for 3 years will remove excessive
nutrient levels, thereby reducing aquatic plant
growth and increasing public access and use of the
lake.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): 1 year of
harvesting has been completed. To date, harvesting
has limited plant growth as indicated by the decrease
in pounds of aquatic macrophytes removed from
harvested areas.
Lake name: Big Alum
Location: Worcester County, Mass.
Surface area: 195 acres
Depth: 23 feet (mean)
Problem: Septic tank leachate from shoreline resi-
dences and erosion are causing high concentrations
of phosphorus in the lake, pointing to eventual eu-
trophic conditions.
Objective: Preserve the present water quality of the
lake.
Restoration techniques: Engineering study on the
use of sedimentation basins, composting toilets, and
modified septic systems; public participation and ed-
ucation program; watershed management; purchase
and management of wetlands areas.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Blue
Location: Monona County,
Surface area: 918 acres
Depth: 16 feet (maximum)
Iowa
Problem: Heavy siltation; low water levels; dense
growth of higher vegetation; and decreasing lake
usage.
Objective: Restore water quality of Blue Lake.
Restoration techniques: Dredge approximately 36
percent of lake to remove aquatic vegetation and
nutrient-enriched bottom sediment; and formation of
sanitary district to ensure proper construction and
operation of treatment facilities in the future.
Lake name: Broadway
Location: Richland County, S.C.
Surface area: 302 acres
Depth: 13 feet (mean)
Problem: Sedimentation and growth of weeds have
reduced the recreational and aesthetic value of the
lake.
Objective: Maintain suitable water quality after re-
moval of sediment and weeds by the Corps of
Engineers.
Restoration techniques: Stabilize critically eroding
roadbank areas; construct 19 sediment debris ba-
sins; initiate a public education program; and monitor
the lake.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Buckingham
Location: Albany County, N.Y.
Surface area: 4.5 acres
Depth: 5.4 feet (maximum)
Problem: Extensive aquatic plant growth; lake bot-
tom covered with organic debris and silt.
Objective: Improve overall lake water quality.
Restoration techniques: Drain lake and remove the
accumulated silt and muck by excavation.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Removal of
accumulated sediment did not substantially reduce
the eutrophic state of the lake.
224
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Lake name: Bugle
Location: Trempealeau County, Wis.
Surface area: 34 acres
Depth: 3.2 feet (mean)
Problem: Sedimentation has reduced lake depth to
the point where both emergent and submergent veg-
etation are dominating the lake's surface.
Objective: Improve overall quality of lake.
Restoration techniques: Stabilize streambank along
critical areas of Elk Creek; dredge; and monitor the
lake.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Chain of Lakes
Location: Hennepin County, Minn.
Surface area: Lake Harriet - 353 acres;
Lake of the Isles - 103 acres
Depth (mean): Lake Harriet - 29 feet;
Lake of the Isles - 9 feet
Problem: Sediment and nutrient inflow from storm
sewers are causing a buildup of bottom sediment and
an increase in aquatic weeds, thereby decreasing the
recreational usage of the lakes.
Objective: Restore overall water quality of the lakes.
Restoration techniques: Weekly vacuum sweeping
of all streets that drain into Lake Harriet during the
non-freezing season over a 2-year period; develop six
demonstration units for "first flush diversion" of
storm drainage from the Lake of the Isles to sanitary
sewers for treatment at the sewage treatment plant.
Results for status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Charles River Lower Basin
Location: Boston, Mass.
Surface area: 696 acres
Depth: 30 feet (maximum)
Problem: Saltwater stratification prevents vertical
mixing, and decomposition of organic materials re-
sults in complete oxygen depletion in the deeper
zones, resulting in odors from hydrogen sulfide
production.
Objective: Destratify the Lower Basin.
Restoration techniques: Destratification of the
Charles River Lower Basin by induced circulation
using compressed air.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Installation
of air piping and diffuser systems is in progress.
Lake name: City Lakes (five lakes)
Location: Baton Rouge Parish, La.
Surface area: City Park Lake -
59.5 acres;
University Lake - 206 acres;
Campus Lake - 10 acres;
College Lake - 4 acres;
Lake Erie - 3.3 acres
Depth (mean): City Park - 2.4 feet;
University Lake - 2.0 feet;
Campus Lake - 1.5 feet;
College Lake - 3.5 feet;
Lake Erie - 5.0 feet
Problem: Heavy algal blooms; poor fish population;
high bacteria count; occurrence of duck botulism;
excrement from duck and geese populations; and
leaching of livestock excrement from grazing
activities.
Objective: Improve overall water quality of the lake.
Restoration techniques: All lakes will be dredged
and deepened to encourage stratification and to re-
move nutrients; a series of sumps will be dredged at
points of major outfalls into the lakes and periodic
maintenance will handle much of the incoming nutri-
ents from surrounding lands; measures will be imple-
mented for the collection and proper disposal of
wastes resulting from animal wastes.
Results (or status of ongoing activities): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Clear
Location: Waseca County, Minn.
Surface area: 611 acres
Depth: 33 feet (maximum)
Problem: High influx of nutrients from surface ru-
noff; heavy algal blooms in summer associated with
murky waters, noxious odors, and low dissolved oxy-
gen; excessive sedimentation.
Objective: Upgrade quality of Clear Lake by reduc-
ing the inflow of nutrients from storm sewers and
other manmade drainage systems.
Restoration techniques: Diversion of storm water
and other inflows into a marsh holding area for sedi-
ment settling, nutrient infiltration, and subsequent
uptake by natural vegetation. Modify existing marsh
by construction of berms to ensure adequate capac-
ity and treatment of storm water runoff.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able atthis time.
Lake name: Cobbossee
Watershed District
Location: Kennebec County, Maine
Surface area: 7,709 acres
Depth: 100 feet (maximum)
Problem: Three lakes comprising the watershed
(Annabessacook, Cobbossee, and Pleasant Pond) are
eutrophic and suffer from excessive phosphorus en-
richment and dense algal blooms.
Objective: Reduce phosphorus loading in the lakes.
Restoration techniques: Hypolimnetic aeration to
control internal nutrient cycling; chemical addition
(alum) to bind or absorb soluble phosphorus; control
225
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of phosphorus runoff by construction of manure stor-
age facilities; diversion of runoff; and livestock exclu-
sion from streams.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Laboratory
tests to determine alum application rates; a literature
review on bioassay and jar test procedures for judg-
ing aluminum compounds for nutrient inactivation; a
public education program; and the design of manure
management facilities and management plans are
either in progress or completed.
storm sewer outfall are causing sediment buildup
and aquatic vegetation growths.
Objective: Reduce sediment and nutrient loadings
so lake might be used for recreational activities.
Restoration techniques- Dredging; planting of ma-
crophytes to act as a nutrient trap; and removal of
snow and cut vegetation (which were dumped in or
nearthe lake) from the lake drainage area.
Results (or status of ongoing projects). Dredging is
underway and dikes are in place.
Lake name: Cochituate
Location: Suffolk County, Mass.
Surface area: 614 acres
Depth: 43 feet (maximum)
Problem: Eutrophication is resulting in excessive
blue-green algal production, odor problems, oxygen
depletion, and possible loss of cold water fishery.
Objective: Reduce influx of nutrients from surface
water runoff and septic tank seepage
Restoration techniques: Purification of tributary
water by natural sand filter beds; dredging of three
settling ponds and installation of an automatic nutri-
ent inactivation system in first settling pond, public
awareness program; drawdown; and harvesting of
rough fish for nutrient removal.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Filter beds
have been evalauted; nutrient budgets have been
computed; and a technical memorandum on the
methodologies, costs, and impact of dredging has
been completed.
Lake name: Cochrane
Location: Duel County, S. Dak.
Surface area: 366 acres
Depth: 10 feet (mean)
Problem: Blue-green algal blooms caused by nutri-
ent influx from agricultural runoff.
Objective: Reduce or control nutrient input to Lake
Cochrane.
Restoration techniques: Construct three sediment
control dams to intercept runoff from approximately
66 percent of the watershed, and construct settling
basins behind the dams to catch sediments and
nutrients.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Sediment
traps have been developed and preliminary evidence
suggests that the influx of suspended solids has been
greatly reduced; nutrient input has not yet been
evaluated.
Lake name: Collins Park
Location: Schenectady County, IM.Y.
Surface area: 54 acres
Depth: 36 feet (maximum)
Problem: Sediment and nutrient loadings from a
Lake name: Commonwealth
Location: Washington County, Ore.
Surface area: 6.5 acres
Depth: 3 feet (mean)
Problem: High nutrient concentrations are promot-
ing macrophyte and algae growth; sedimentation is
reducing lake depth with corresponding warm water
temperatures.
Objective: Enhance quality of Commonwealth Lake.
Restoration techniques: Increase water flow to lake
by diversion of Johnson Creek, deepening of the lake
from 4 to 6 feet; stabilization of shoreline to reduce
turbidity; construction of a waterfall at inlet to im-
prove appearance; periodic chemical treatment.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Work has
been completed.
Lake name: Creve Coeur
Location: St. Louis County,
Surface area: 365 acres
Depth: 1.5 feet (mean)
Mo.
Problem: Sedimentation is resulting in decreasing
surface area and depth.
Objective: Increase surface area and depth of Creve
Coeur Lake.
Restoration techniques. Dredge 300 acres to a
depth of 10 feet; dredged spoils are to be deposited
in the area surrounding the lake and used for lake
development.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Delaware Park
Location: Erie County, N.Y.
Surface area: 29.5 acres
Depth: 3.5 feet (mean)
Problem: Floating debris, siltation, and sewage de-
posits from Scajaquada Creek resulted in the lake
being closed for public use
Objective: Reduce and/or remove pollution enter-
ing the lake from Scajaquada Creek.
Restoration techniques: Detour Scajaquada Creek
around the lake through a closed underground con-
duit, followed by dewatering and dredging the lake.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Engineering
plan has been completed.
226
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Lake name: Ellis Brett Pond
Location: Plymouth County, Mass.
Surface area: 5 acres
Depth: 10 feet (maximum)
Problem: Pond is eutrophic and nonpoint source
pollution including storm water runoff from a re-
gional shopping center has made the pond unsafe for
swimming.
Objective. Reduce impact of nonpoint source pollu-
tion and remove accumulated sediments and prob-
lem aquatic plants
Restoration techniques: Streetsweeping; installa-
tion of filters and oil traps on parking lot drains;
construction of catch basins; and dredging.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Ellis Lake
Location: Yuba County, Calif.
Surface area: 31 acres
Depth: 5 feet (mean)
Problem. Growth of aquatic weeds, Hydrilla verti-
cullata; sedimentation; nutrient loadings.
Objective: Control excessive weed growth, improve
overall water quality; increase recreational opportuni-
ties on the lake.
Restoration techniques: Chemical treatment of the
lake for weed control; seasonal drawdown; dredging;
divert all storm water inflows from the lake to the
Yuba River.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Dewatering
of the lake and erection of construction fencing has
been completed.
Lake Name: 59th Street Pond
Location: New York, N.Y.
Surface area: 4 acres
Depth: 6 inches (mean)
Problem: The pond is stagnant and turbid with
excessive growths of algae and grasses; substantial
reduction of water depth from siltation; high color
levels; and high coliform content.
Objective: Restore quality of pond to increase its
value as a passive recreational source fortourists and
local residents
Restoration techniques: The pond is to be drained
and dredged. The bottom of the pond will be made
impenetrable to prevent remaining bottom nutrients
from entering the water column. Pond bank riprap
will be repaired and clogged storm water drainage
pipes are to be cleaned.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Activities
have not yet started.
Lake name: Finger Lakes (12 lakes)
Location: Boone County, Mo.
Surface area: 18.5 acres
Depth: 5 feet (mean)
Problem: All of the lakes are acidic as a result of
acid mine drainage caused by exposed sulfurous
spoil areas.
Objective: Improve water quality of the lakes.
Restoration techniques: Connect 1 2 separate lakes
by construction of five small earthen dams and two
canals to form a single lake of 42 acres; divert to
project lakes the drainage of 1,000-acre rural water-
shed not disturbed by mining, thereby elevating the
pH of the lakes.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Frank Molten State Park
Location: St Clair County, III.
Surface area: Frank Holten Lake
1-53 acres;
Frank Holten Lake 2-41 acres;
Little Lake 2 - 4 acres
Depth: Frank Holten Lake
1-9 feet (maximum)
Frank Holten Lake 2-35 feet
(maximum)
Little Lake 2-17 feet (maximum)
Problem: A dredged canal (Harding Ditch) connects
the three lakes and carries excessive turbidity and
sedimentation into the lakes.
Objective: Reduce sediment deposition into the
lakes.
Restoration techniques: Relocate Harding Ditch;
construct an inverted siphon; dredge Lakes 1, 2, and
Little Lake 3.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Gibraltar Lake Reservoir
Location: Santa Barbara County, Calif.
Surface area: 300 acres
Depth: 44 feet (mean)
Problem: Sedimentation; turbidity; and reduction of
water depth.
Objective- Improve overall water quality.
Restoration techniques: Remove 1.8 million cubic
yards of bottom sediment by dredging.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Half Moon
Location: Eau Claire, Wis.
Surface area: 132 acres
Depth: 9 feet (maximum)
Problem: Nutrient loading from storm water runoff
results in algal bloom and macrophyte growth which
decreases the desirability of the municipally-owned
recreational facility.
Objective: Reduce nutrients from storm water ru-
227
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noff by diverting the storm drainage to the Chippewa
River.
Restoration techniques: Divert storm water runoff
to the Chippewa River; construct an outflow structure
to control lake discharge and level; and dredge in the
area of the municipal beach.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Hampton Manor
Location: Rensselaer County, N.Y.
Surface area: 7.95 acres
Depth: 7 feet (mean)
Problem: The lake has a eutrophic condition with
algal blooms in summer months, and the encroach-
ment of rooted macrophytes is threatening recrea-
tional activities.
Objective: Restore lake to a non-eutrophic state and
permit a 50 percent increase in recreational capacity.
Restoration techniques: Drawdown of lake; consoli-
dation and removal (dredging) of sediments.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Dredging of
4,500 m3 of bottom sediment, vegetation, and trash
with subsequent dewatering occurred in October
1977. At this time, no significant improvement in
water quality has occurred.
Lake name: Henry
Location: Trempealeau County, Wis.
Surface area: 43 acres
Depth: 3.5 feet (mean)
Problem: Accumulation of sediment, detritus, and
similar materials has reduced water growth to the
point where both emergent and submergent vegeta-
tion are choking all but a narrow channel during the
growing season.
Objective: Improve Lake Henry as a multiple-use
surface water resource.
Restoration techniques: Dredging; reduce sedi-
ment loading rate from •watershed by installation of
best land use practices; and initiate a streambank
protection and stabilization program.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Water qual-
ity monitoring and dredging and riprap activities
have begun.
Lake name: Hyde Park
Location: Niagara County, N.Y.
Surface area: 32 acres
Depth: 2 feet (mean)
Problem: Deteriorating quality due to increased pol-
lution loading from housing developments, a sanitary
landfill, accidental oil spills from a railroad yard, and
sedimentation from streambank erosion.
Objective: Improve overall quality of lake.
Restoration techniques: Drain and dredge lake;
augment flow to lake; plant native vegetation along
228
streambank to retard erosion; construct siltation
pond; install oil boom system downstream from silta-
tion pond; and carry out limnological monitoring
program.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Hyland
Location: Hennepin County, Minn.
Surface area: 90 acres
Depth: 6 feet (mean)
Problem: Development of surrounding areas has
resulted in high phosphorus concentrations entering
the lake, which experiences heavy blooms of
blue-green algae during the summer.
Objective: Improve water quality of Hyland Lake by
a combination of in-lake restoration control
measures.
Restoration techniques: Construct temporary outlet
to lower water level; remove topsoil to improve recir-
culation in the groundwater system; drawdown lake
for sediment consolidation; construct augmentation
well to increase flow to lake and lower the hydraulic
retention time; construct aeration system; construct
sedimentation ponds; and remove trees prior to rais-
ing the level of the lake.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able atthistime.
Lake name: Jackson
Location: Leon County, Fla.
Surface area: 3,968 acres
Depth: 10 feet (maximum)
Problem: Algal blooms; high turbidity following
rainfall; and thick bottom accumulations of sand and
silt containing high concentrations of lead and zinc.
Objective: Improve water quality by controlling ex-
isting nonpoint source pollution from the Megginnis
Arm watershed.
Restoration techniques: Construct 32 acres of
marsh detention ponds to intercept storm water ru-
noff. These ponds are to act as sediment and biologi-
cal filtration systems.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Land acquis-
ition required for the marsh detention ponds is in
progress.
Lake name: Kampeska
Location: Codington County, S. Dak.
Surface area: 4,818 acres
Depth: 11.5 feet (mean)
Problem: Increased nutrients from septic tanks;
pastureland runoff; and sedimentation from water-
shed erosion.
Objective: Reduce or control input of nutrients and
sediments to Lake Kampeska.
-------
Restoration techniques: Riprapping of eroding lake-
shore areas.
Results for status of ongoing projects): Riprapping
of critical areas has been completed. About 20 lake-
shore land owners expressed satisfaction with the
project, and people whose shorelines were not ri-
prapped would like to have another project include
their areas.
Lake name: Lafayette Reservoir
Location: Alameda and Contra Costa
Counties. Calif.
Surface area: 128 acres
Depth: 81 feet (maximum)
Problem: Excessive growth of blue-green and other
algal types creates taste and odor problems and
clogs the filter of the nearly completed water treat-
ment plant; low oxygen concentration in the
hypolimnion.
Objective: Restore the recreational, aesthetic, and
economic values of Lafayette Reservoir.
Restoration techniques: Hypolimnetic aeration; nu-
trient inactivation; and sediment layering.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Plans and
specifications are being prepared; project is going
outforbid.
Lake name: Lake Lansing
Location: Ingham County, Mich.
Surface area: 450 acres
Depth: 5 feet (mean)
Problem: Growth of aquatic weeds and algae, ac-
companied by sediment buildup, restricts the lake's
recreational capacity.
Objective: Restore lake to acceptable levels of
water quality and remove bottom materials.
Restoration techniques: Dredge and deepen the
lake; pump dredged material to marshland, retain by
dikes and return clarified water to lake; compact
deposits, fertilize lightly, and seed to help control
erosion.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Dredging
activities have begun.
Lake Name: Lenox Reservoir
Location: Taylor County, Iowa
Surface area: 3.3 acres
Depth: 3 feet (mean)
Problem: Eutrophic, highly turbid with odor and
taste problems; extensive siltation is decreasing the
reservoir capacity; increasing macrophyte growth.
Objective: Restore overall water quality of Lenox
Reservoir.
Restoration techniques: Dredging and some dike
construction to insure that dredged material does not
return to the lake.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Approxi-
mately 70 percent of the total project has been
completed.
Lake name: Liberty
Location: Spokane County, Wash.
Surface area: 781 acres
Depth: 23 feet (mean)
Problem: Heavy blooms of blue-green algae in late
summer; excessive influx of nutrients from tributary
streams and a combination of septic tank drainage,
urban runoff, and poor solid waste disposal.
Objective: Restore overall water quality of Liberty
Lake.
Restoration techniques: Dredging, drawdown, and
shoreline excavation for sediment reduction and
weed control; reduction of marsh influence by clean-
ing Liberty Creek channel so high volumes of runoff
can be carried without completely flooding the
marsh, and subsequent installation of flow diversion
gates to maintain adequate water for the marsh eco-
system while diverting most of creek flow down the
cleared channel to Liberty Lake; rebuilding present
dike; initiation of phosphorus precipitation program
following the dredging activities.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Environmen-
tal impact analysis has been performed; engineering
studies are underway.
Lake name: Lilly
Location: Kenosha County, Wis.
Surface area: 88 acres
Depth: 47 feet (mean)
Problem: Winter fish kills; accumulation of organic
detritus resulting in a buildup of bottom sediment-
loss of available water depth curtailing the useful-
ness of the lake for boating and other recreational
activity.
Objective: Improve overall water quality of Lilly
Lake.
Restoration techniques: Deepen lake by an average
of 5 feet by dredging; alum application to minimize
nutrient outflow from the bottom sediment.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Little Muskego
Location: Waukesha County, Wis.
Surface area: 506 acres
Depth: 14 feet (mean)
Problem: Nutrient-rich sediments contribute to a
continuing growth of macrophytes and decreasing
depths of the lake.
Objective: Improve overall water quality of Little
Muskego Lake.
Restoration techniques: Dredge 2.25 million cubic
yards to remove existing organic-rich bottom ma-
terial along with the macrophytes, and correspond-
ingly deepen the lake.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able atthis time.
229
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Lake name: Little Pond
Location: Lincoln County,
Surface area: 69 acres
Depth: 20 feet (mean)
Maine
Problem: Heavy growth of zooplankton was caus-
ing taste and odor problems in water distribution
lines.
Objective: Alleviate taste and odor problems.
Restoration techniques: Introduce alewives to con-
trol zooplankton population.
Results (or status of ongoing projects}: Zooplankton
populations were reduced and potability of Little
Pond water was increased.
Lake name: Loch Raven Reservoir
Location: Baltimore County, Md.
Surface area: 2,400 acres
Depth: 70 feet (maximum)
Problem: Blue-green algal blooms with accompany-
ing musty odor and taste in finished water; significant
amounts of manganese in sediment; low dissolved
oxygen; and high runoff to reservoir from surround-
ing areas.
Objective: Control algal and manganese problems,
and minimize nonpoint source contributions.
Restoration techniques: Install reservoir aeration
system to prevent stratification and thus control the
algal and manganese problems; initiate a 208 study
to study land use practices and nonpoint sources,
and a monitoring study to determine the effective-
ness of the aeration system.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time
Lake name: Long
Location: Ramsey County, Minn.
Surface area: 184 acres
Depth: 12 feet (mean)
Problem. Water quality degradation and algal
'blooms; flooding along lakeshore; and excessive
sedimentation.
Objective: Improve overall quality of Long Lake.
Restoration techniques: Use adjacent marshlands
as a natural filter to remove nutrients from the waters
of Rice Creek; construct sedimentation basin on Rice
Creek and implement erosion control measures; and
determine the feasibility of diverting the flow of Rice
Creek around the lake.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Long
Location: Kitsap County, Wash.
Surface area: 339 acres
Depth: 12 feet (maximum)
Problem; Aquatic vegetation; algal blooms; increas-
ing sedimentation; and bacterial problems.
Objective: Restore water quality by a series of in-
lake improvements and trapping of nutrient-bearing
sediments before they reach the lake.
Restoration techniques: In-lake measures include
harvesting of aquatic weeds, adsorption and precipi-
tation of phosphorus by application of potassium
aluminum sulfate, consolidation of bottom sediments
by application of alum, and clearing, dredging, and
restoring the outlet and outlet control structure; nutri-
ent control measures include construction of
settling/retention ponds, putting drainage from a
golf course through a pond containing water hya-
cinths, and conducting land use studies.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Project is
over 25 percent completed.
Lake name: Lower Mystic
Location: Suffolk County, Mass.
Surface area: 11 acres
Depth: 20 feet (mean)
Problem: Construction of a dam in 1 909 resulted in
the entrapment of 250 million gallons of saltwater in
two deep kettle holes in the lake. The anoxic zone has
generated high concentrations of sulfides, ammonia,
and phosphorus.
Objective' Remove salt water; aerate bottom
waters; and reduce sulfide concentrations.
Restoration techniques: Pump saline water from
the lake; remove hydrogen sulfide by precipitation
with ferric chloride; arid aerate bottom waters.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able atthistime.
Lake name: McQueeney
Location: Guadalupe County, Tex.
Surface area: 410 acres
Depth: 40 feet (maximum)
Problem: Sedimentation; heavy macrophyte
growth; algal blooms; and occasional anaerobic con-
ditions in the hypolimnion.
Objective: Restore water quality of McQueeney
Lake
Restoration techniques' Dredging to increase
depth of lake and prevent macrophyte growth.
Results (or status of ongoing project): Not available
atthistime.
Lake name: Medical
Location: Spokane County, Wash.
Surface area: 167 acres
Depth: 33 feet (mean)
Problem: Blue-green algal blooms and subsequent
decomposition produce severe anoxic conditions;
obnoxious odors; rooted macrophytes in public
beach area.
Objective: Improve water quality of lake by phos-
phorus inactivation.
Restoration techniques: Chemically treat water col-
umn with liquid aluminum suifate to inactivate and
precipitate to the bottom the dissolved phosphorus
and suspended particuiate matter including algae.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Restoration
230
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through application of liquid alum is completed; cur-
rently monitoring water quality.
Lake name: Mirror and Shadow Lakes
Location: Waupaca, Wis.
Surface area: Mirror Lake - 12.6 acres;
Shadow Lake - 42.5 acres
Depth (mean): Mirror Lake - 26 feet;
Shadow Lake - 17.4 feet
Problem: Growth of blue-green algae and anoxic
conditions of hypolimnia during summer months
have led to a decline of recreational facilities located
on the lakes.
Objective: Improve overall water quality of the
lakes.
Restoration techniques: Divert storm drainage from
the town of Waupaca to the Waupaca River; alum
application to hypolimnia to precipitate phosphorus
and minimize nutrient movement out of bottom sedi-
ments; and artificial circulation to facilitate spring
and fall turnover in Mirror Lake
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able atthistime.
Lake name: Morses Pond
Location: Norfolk County, Mass.
Surface area: 122 acres
Depth: 10 feet (mean)
Problem: High nutrient loading from urban runoff
and sediments has resulted in blue-green algal
blooms, and high organic loading from deciduous
leaves has resulted in color problems.
Objective: Control algae and nutrient and organic
loadings.
Restoration techniques: Chemical treatment for
iron and colloidal particle removal; harvesting; dredg-
ing; public education; and replacing deciduous trees
with evergreens.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Seminars
and newspaper articles have been conducted in com-
pliance with the educational program activities. One
of two wetland areas around the lake has been pur-
chased as a buffer zone Chemical treatment has
been applied to the lake. All dredging sites have been
selected.
Lake name: Moses
Location: Grant County, Wash.
Surface area: 6,800 acres
Depth: 38 feet (maximum)
Problem: Extensive growth of aquatic plants;
surface scum, odors from decomposition.
Objective: Restore overall quality of Moses Lake.
Restoration techniques: Dilute nutrient-rich lake
water with large volumes of high quality (low nutrient)
Columbia Riverwater.
Results (or status of ongoing projects):
Post-restoration monitoring of the pilot study has
shown improvements in water transparency and
algal growth, and reduction in nutrient concentration
in part of the lake.
Lake name: Mystic
Location: Rutherford County, N.C.
Surface area: 10 acres
Depth: 16 feet (maximum)
Problem: Use of the lake has been seriously im-
paired by aquatic weed growth and high turbidity,
both caused by increased sedimentation.
Objective: Renovation of the lake to provide recrea-
tional opportunities (swimming, boating, fishing, etc).
Restoration techniques: Dredge existing sediment
deposits and use dredged material for the construc-
tion of two sediment control dams. Construct spill-
ways and install riprap along the shore.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Construc-
tion has been completed, but final report has not yet
been received.
Lake name: Noquebay
Location: Marinette County, Wis.
Surface area: 2,152 acres
Depth: 36 feet (maximum)
Problem: Extensive and increasing growth of ma-
crophyte Myriophyllum heterophyllum due to buildup
of organic-rich sediments.
Objective: Reduce amount of organic matter in
Lake Noquebay, thereby improving the overall quality
of the lake.
Restoration techniques: Selective dredging of
300,000 yds3 of sediment from those areas where
sufficient organic sediment exists to promote growth
of M. heterophyllum: divert inflowing stream back to
original channel; herbicide application to control M.
heterophyllum and to favor more desirable species.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able atthistime.
Lake name: Nutting
Location: Middlesex County, Mass.
Surface area: 78 acres
Depth: 4.2 feet (mean)
Problem: High nutrient levels; blue-green algae; low
transparency; nuisance aquatic vegetation; high oxy-
gen demand of mucky sediments; color; and organic
sediment accumulation.
Objective: Improve overall quality of lake for recrea-
tional activities.
Restoration techniques: Dredging and post-
dredging flocculation; control of overland runoff in-
puts by street sweeping, sediment entrapment; es-
tablishment of buffer zones; public education; and
diversion of storm water around the lake.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Detailed
scope of work, including the identification of
dredged material disposal areas and program bud-
get, has been developed.
Lake name: Oakwood
Location: Brookings County, S. Dak.
Surface area: 2,184 acres
Depth: 8 feet (mean)
231
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Problem: Sedimentation and highly turbid condi-
tions mainly from runoff from surrounding areas.
Objective: Stabilize shoreline of Oakwood Lake.
Restoration techniques: Riprap 1,770 feet of lake
shoreline to reduce erosion and upgrade the quality
of the lakes by reducing turbidity, preventing contin-
ued shallowing of the lake, and enhancing the aes-
thetic qualities and beach areas for recreational
benefit.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Choice of
shoreline to be riprapped is being delayed due to
possible archaeological finds at certain sites.
Lake name: Oelwein
Location: Fayette County, Iowa
Surface area: 40 acres
Depth: 4.5 feet (mean)
Problem: Siltation has reduced the area and depth
of the lake.
Objective: Restore overall water quality of Lake
Oelwein.
Restoration techniques: Dredging of lake and re-
construction of a siltation basin in Otter Creek prior to
its entry into Lake Oelwein.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Pauls Valley
Location: Garvin County, Okla.
Surface area: 750 acres
Depth: 12 feet (mean)
Problem: Nonpoint runoff and erosion causing tur-
bidity and sediment accumulation; reduction of lake
capacity; and decreasing recreational usage.
Objective: Reduce amount of sediment being trans-
ported into the lake.
Restoration techniques: Construction of three flood
control structures, 20 sediment ponds and diversion
dikes for flood control and siltation reduction; soil
conservation and best management practices by
landowners to control nonpoint source runoff and
erosion; and a lake sampling program.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Approxi-
mately 10 percent of the scheduled work has been
completed; a draft work plan has been submitted.
Lake name: Penn
Location: Hennepin County, Minn.
Surface area: 36 acres
Depth: 3.5 feet (maximum)
Problem: Heavy algal blooms, low water transpar-
ency, and lake level fluctuations limit the recreational
use of the lake.
Objective: Improve water quality of Penn Lake as a
recreational facility.
Restoration techniques: Dredge bottom sediments;
aerate waters to promote a sport fishing environ-
ment; and construct sedimentation basins at lake
inlets.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Phalen
Location: Ramsey County, Minn.
Surface area: 188 acres
Depth: 25 feet (mean)
Problem: Eutrophication results in algal blooms,
murky water, and noxious odors; replacement of
game fish by less desirable species; and a reduction
in the recreational value of the lake.
Objective: Improve quality of lake by reducing nutri-
ent input.
Restoration techniques: Divert storm water to hold-
ing basins and recharge into ground via recharge
wells; augment lake level with pumped water; and
conduct a study to determine the feasibility of sealing
the lake bottom.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Reeds and Fish Lakes
Location: Kent County, Mich.
Surface area: Reeds Lake - 283 acres;
Fish Lake - 28 acres
Depth (mean): Reeds Lake - 30 feet;
Fish Lake - 27 feet
Problem: Excessive growth of macrophytes and
filamentous periphyton; phytoplankton levels in the
eutrophic range.
Objective: Restore overall water quality in Reeds
Lake and Fish Lake.
Restoration techniques: Diversion and treatment of
three major storm water outfalls from Reeds Lake
into a wetland ponding area; initiation of land use
planning; and public education to reduce surface
runoff impacts on the lakes.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): The monitor-
ing program and the soils, groundwater, and fertilizer
testing programs have been developed.
Lake name: Rivanna Reservoir
Location: Albermarle County, Va.
Surface area: 390 acres
Depth: 20 feet (mean)
Problem: Algal blooms; anoxic conditions; fish kills;
and taste and odor problems.
Objective: Evaluate the efficiency of various practi-
cal and cost effective lake restoration practices.
Restoration techniques: Installation of a reservoir
aeration system to provide mixing to reduce taste
and odor problems; phosphorus precipitation in se-
lect farm ponds to reduce sediment and nutrient
loadings to the reservoir from farm pond discharge;
development of a 25-foot grass buffer zone on each
side of stream to reduce nutrient and solids loadings;
and build a 2-acre sedimentation pond to remove
sediments and nutrients from urban storm water
runoff.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Aeration
equipment has been installed along with all sampling
equipment on the agricultural and urban runoff sites.
232
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Lake name: Ronkonkoma
Location: Suffolk County,
Surface area: 225 acres
Depth: 12 feet (mean)
N.Y.
Problem: Elevated coliform counts, apparently from
storm water runoff.
Objective: Reduce coliform densities from runoff
and bather load, and remove excess nutrients enter-
ing the lake from storm water runoff.
Restoration techniques: Diversion of storm water
runoff into a series of "biological treatment systems"
to trap those materials contaminated with coliform
organisms, heavy metals, and nutrients in treatment
ponds by physical sedimentation enhanced by slow
movement of the water through the heavily planted
ponds; treatment of bathing beach waters by circula-
tion through sand filters; and shoreline stabilization
and erosion control by vegetative stabilization of
eroded areas.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): All construc-
tion is completed and planting has begun. Prelimi-
nary results indicate an approximate 50 percent drop
in nutrients and heavy metals between influent and
effluent pipes of the treatment ponds. Data on coli-
form counts were not available.
Lake name: Rothwell
Location: Randolph County, Mo.
Surface area: 28 acres
Depth: 20 feet (maximum)
Problem: Rapid eutrophication due to siltation com-
bined with both point and nonpoint source pollution;
decreased water depth; poor oxygenation; and exces-
sive growth of aquatic plants.
Objective: Improve overall water quality of Rothwell
Lake.
Restoration techniques: Dredging to deepen lake
and remove mud and silt rich in organic, oxygen
demanding material; construct detention areas in
which to dispose of the dredged material; and allow
for the clarified effluent to be retained to the lake.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Scope of
work proposed has been submitted.
Lake name: Sacajawea
Location: Cowlitz County, Wash.
Surface area: 61 acres
Depth: 6 feet (mean)
Problem: Highly turbid; algal blooms; abundant
growth of aquatic macrophytes along the shoreline
with additional growth of floating plants and sub-
merged plants extending into the lake; odors from
bacterial decomposition of organic material.
Objective: Restore overall quality of Lake
Sacajawea.
Restoration techniques: Diversion of sediment and
nutrient-laden storm water from the lake; replace-
ment of flow into the lake with nutrient-poor Cowlitz
River water; dredging of bottom sediments.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Monitoring
program is now underway.
Lake name: Skinner
Location: Noble County, Ind.
Surface area: 122 acres
Depth: 15 feet (mean)
Problem: Advanced state of eutrophication due to
agricultural runoff and septic tanks, and possibly the
fertilizing of lawns.
Objective: Improve overall water quality of the lake.
Restoration techniques: Control septic tank efflu-
ent; control agricultural nutrients and sediments
through educational programs and incentives to local
farmers; diversion of drainage system from Skinner
Lake to Croft Drain; and construction of a pair of
desilting basins.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Spada and Chaplain
Location: Snohomish County, Wash.
Surface area: Spada - 1.5 square miles;
Chaplain - 1 square mile
Depth: Spada/Chaplain - 30 feet (mean)
Problem: Measurements of turbidity, coliform bac-
teria, iron, and manganese occasionally exceed
drinking water standards.
Objective: Improve overall lake water quality.
Restoration techniques: Revegetation; rip-rapping
along unstable banks; use of log booms; regulatory
programs; pollutant source identification.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Major turbid-
ity sources have been eliminated.
Lake name: Stafford
Location: Marin County, Calif.
Surface area: 200 acres
Depth: 35 feet (maximum)
Problem: Blue-green algal blooms; encroachment
of urban development; rapid erosion of adjacent land
due to overgrazing by horses.
Objective: Restore the quality of Stafford Lake.
Restoration techniques: Nutrient removal by dredg-
ing of sediments; purchase of 366 acres of land to be
used as a buffer zone; restoration of eroded soil
around the lake.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Buffer lands
have been purchased; remedial erosion work is
underway.
Lake name: Steinmetz
Location: Schenectady County, N.Y.
Surface area: 2.5 acres
Depth: 8 feet (mean)
Problem: A buildup of nutrient in the bottom sedi-
ment has allowed yearly increases in the growth of
pond weeds, filamentous green, and filamentous
blue-green algae.
233
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Objective: Enhance recreational usage (primarily
swimming) by the elimination and control of weed
growth, and removal of near-shore sediment
accumulations.
Restoration techniques: Pumping and gravity drain-
ing for overwinter drawdown will uncover 75 percent
of the lake's bottom to allow sediment exposure and
desiccation. Spring dredging and bulldozing to re-
move nutrient-rich bottom sediments. Coarse aggre-
gate sand will be replaced to act as a sealer inhibiting
future weed and algae growth.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Drainage
system has been completed and removal of organic
material from the bottom of the pond has begun.
Lake name: Swan
Location: Turner County, S. Dak.
Surface area: 184 acres
Depth: 5.5 feet (maximum)
Problem: Severe sedimentation resulting from
shoreline erosion.
Objective: Enhance quality of Swan Lake.
Restoration techniques: Riprap 5,500 feet of ex-
posed shorelines; acquire 25 acres of land to be used
for shoreline preservation; cost sharing program to
encourage terracing of the lake's direct watershed
and elimination of pit toilets; raise 1,500 feet of road
8 inches for flood control.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Two-thirds
of the riprapping is completed; a water quality moni-
toring program is underway.
Lake name: Temescal
Location: Alameda County,
Surface area: 10 acres
Depth: 10.5 feet (mean)
Calif.
Problem: Excessive algal blooms; sedimentation;
high bacterial counts in inflow water from nonpoint
sources; hydrogen sulfide odor in bathing beach area
from sediments.
Objective: Improve quality of water in Lake
Temescal.
Restoration techniques: Dredging and sealing the
lake bottom; installation of an aeration system; cre-
ation of a sedimentation basin.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Plans and
specifications are being finalized.
Lake name: Tivoli
Location: Albany County, N.Y.
Surface area: 4.75 acres
Depth: 4 feet (maximum)
Problem: Accumulated raw sewage sludge sedi-
ments; storm water runoff; siltation caused by soil
erosion; and pollutants from old, broken sewer lines.
Objective: Clean up water ecosystem; stabilize soil;
and develop associated ponds and wetlands.
Restoration techniques: Develop shallow water
areas and wetland areas upstream to retard storm
water runoff and reduce siltation; drain and excavate
main lake to a maximum depth of 8 to 10 feet;
regrade banks and vegetate to prevent erosion; rede-
sign and rebuild existing earthen dike and emer-
gency spillway.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Lake name: Vancouver
Location: Clark County, Wash.
Surface area: 2,600 acres
Depth: 1 to 4 feet
Problem: Highly eutrophic; sedimentation; non-
point source pollution.
Objective: Complement other programs currently
underway to achieve a total water quality land use
balance in the drainage basin of the lake.
Restoration techniques: Dredging to remove pol-
luted sediments, deepen the lake, and enhance recre-
ational use opportunities; construction of a flushing
channel to bring Columbia River water into the lake;
reduction of nonpoint source pollution.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Pilot dredg-
ing study has been completed.
Lake name: Vandalia Reservoir
Location: Pike County, Mo.
Surface area: 38 acres
Depth: 12.8 feet (mean)
Problem: Siltation from storm water runoff has re-
duced the storage capacity of Vandalia Reservoir by
50 percent.
Objective: Improvement of lake water quality and
restoration of the impoundment to its original
capacity.
Restoration techniques: Dredging of 150,000
yards3 of bottom sediment and construction of sedi-
ment catchment basins in the watershed.
Results (or status of onging projects): Contract for
dredging of 80,000 yards3 has been awarded.
Lake name: Washington Park
Location: Albany County, N.Y.
Surface area: 5.7 acres
Depth: 11.5 feet (maximum)
Problem: Increased lake nutrient levels; reduced
transparency and lake depth; excessive aquatic weed
growth.
Objective: Improve overall lake water quality.
Restoration techniques: Drain lake and remove bot-
tom sediment by dredging.
Results (or status of ongoing projects}:
Post-restoration monitoring shows an improvement
in lake transparency and an elimination of aquatic
weed growth along the shorelines.
Lake name: White Clay
Location: Shawano County, Wis.
Surface area: 240 acres
Depth: 14 feet (mean)
234
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Problem: Increasing oxygen depletion m bottom
waters; increasing input of nitrogen and phosphorus
to the lake.
Objective: Prevent further deterioration of water
quality of White Clay Lake.
Restoration techniques: Barnyard improvements on
10 farms with facilities for manure storage, clean
water collection and diversion, and feed lot/rest area
waste controls; fencing of stream banks and lake-
shore areas, and streambank stabilization.
Results (or status of ongoing projects): Not avail-
able at this time.
Table 1 - Clean lakes demonstration projects
Legend 1-Dredgmg, 2-Stream stabilization 3-Hypohmnetic destratification,
4-Hypolimnetic draw-off, 5-Drawdown, 6-BMP's for land use. 7-Bottom sealing,
8-Treatment of m-flow water, 9-Sediment ponds, 10-Filtration ponds, ll-Oil traps,
12-Storm water diversion, 13-Biofiltratton, 14-Public education, 15-Lake level manipulation,
16- Biological manipulation, 17-Chemical plant removal, 18-Mechamcal plant removal,
19-Chemical nutrient removal; 20-Street sweeping, 21-Flushing, 22-Program engineering
23-Sewage treatment
Restoration Techniques
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
STATE - LAKE
California
Ellis Lake
Gibraltar Lake
Lafayette Reservoir
Stafford Lake
Temesca! Lake
Florida
X • X
X X
X
XX X
x x x x x
X
X
X
x
Apopka Lake
Jackson Lake
'Imois
Frank Hoiton State Park
Indiana
Lake
Blue Lake
Lenox Lakes
Olwein Lake
Louisiana
X
X
X
X
X
Maine
Cobbossee
Little Pond
Maryland
Loch Raven Reservoir
Massachusetts
Big Alum
Charles River Lower
Cochituate Lake
Ellis Brett Pond
Lower Mystic Lake
Reeds Lake
Minnesota
Finger Lake
Rothwell Lake
Vandalia Reservoir
New York
Oklahoma
Pauls Valley Lake
Oregon
X X
Morses Pond
Nutting Lake
Michigan
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X
Albert Lea Lake
Clear Lake
Hyland Lake
Long Lake
Chain of Lakes
Penn Lake
Phalen Lake
Missouri
X X X X X X
XX XX XX
XX X X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Collins Park
Delaware Park
Hampton Manor Lake
Hyde Park
Ronkonkoma Lake
Stemmetz Lake
Tivoli Lake
Washington Park Lake
59th St Pond
North Carolina
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
x x
X
* x
X X
x
x x
X
235
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Table 1 - (Continued)
Restoration Techniques
1234 567 8" 9 10 11 12 1^ 14 15 16 17 18 19 ,£Q, »|. 22 23
South Carolina
Broadway
South Dakota
Cochrane Lake
Kampeska Lake X
Oakwood Lakes ' X
Swan Lake ' X
Texas
McQueeney Lake
Vermont
Bomoseen Lake
Virginia
Rivanna Reservoir
Washington
Ballmger Lake .. " _:X '- X " .. ' ,' T^
Liberty Lake 'X X i XX"" ' X ' " <; ;X
Long Lake X X X , X 'X
Medical Lake " - " " x ' *'-
Moses Lake X' '"' , ," ,. X
Sacaiawea Lake X " * • X
Spada/Chaplain Lakes X X "-• • "
Vancouver Lake X X . " •, ". '- . X
Wisconsin : - ~ ' '': \ - *'
Bugle Lake
Half Moon Lake
Henry Lake
X X .
X - • X
•X' - X
„.*%",' "'••-•
Lilly Lake K
Little Muskego 'X „• " :
Mirror/Shadow Lakes -X X
Noquebay Lake "'. XX X
White Clay Lake ,•..•' x X -.
GRAND TOTAL 42 17 11 0 14 24 2 5 21 6 2 11 15
236
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Appendix B
CONFERENCE PARTICIPANTS
237
Dr. David E. Armstrong
Water Chemistry Bldg.
660 North Park St.
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wis. 53706
Frans B. Bigelow
Westlake Lake Management Assoc.
32123 Lindero Canyon Rd.
Westlake Village, Calif. 91361
Thomas M. Burton
Institute of Water Research
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Mich. 48824
Swep T. Davis
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M St. SW
Washington, D.C. 20460
Arlo W. Fast
1024 Moreno Dr.
Ojai, Calif. 93023
Congressman Donald M. Fraser
Federal Courts Bldg.
110 South Fourth St.
Room 166
Minneapolis, Minn. 55401
William H. Funk
Environmental Engineering
Washington State University
141 Sloan Hall
Pullman, Wash. 99164
Sandra Gardebring
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
1935 West County Rd. B-2
Roseville, Minn. 55113
Anthony Gasperino
Battelle Northwest
Box 999
Richland, Wash. 99352
Leonard J. Guarraia
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M St. SW
Washington, D.C. 20460
Eugene A. Hickok
Hickok and Associates
545 Indian Mound
Wayzata, Minn. 55391
Darrell King
Institute of Water Research
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Mich. 48824
Lowell L. Klessig
Environmental Resources Unit
University of Wisconsin
1815 University Ave.
Madison, Wis. 53706
Joseph Krivak
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M St. SW
Washington, D.C. 20460
Kenneth M. Mackenthun
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M St. SW
Washington, D.C. 20460
James Morse II
Department of Water Resources
8 East State St.
Montpelier, Vt. 05602
Ray T. Oglesby
Department of Natural Resources
Cornell University
Ithaca, N.Y. 14853
Richard J. Otis
University of Wisconsin
3201 Engineering Bldg.
Madison, Wis. 53706
Arthur E. Peterson
Madison Department of Soil Science
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wis. 53706
Spencer Peterson
Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Ore. 97330
-------
Roger K. Rodiek
Argonne National Laboratory
EIS Division Building 1 1
Argonne, III. 60439
Wolfgang A. Scheider
Limnology and Toxicity Unit
Ontario Ministry of the Environment
Rexdale, Ontario,
Canada
Joel G. Schilling
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
1935 West County Rd. B-2
Roseville , Minn. 551 13
Matthew Scott
Maine Dep. of Environmental Protection
Ray Bldg. State House
Augusta, Maine 04333
James R. Seyfer
Department of Environmental Protection
Joe Foss Bldg.
Pierre, S. Dak. 57501
Joseph Shapiro
Limnological Research Center
University of Minnesota
220 Pillsbury Hall
Minneapolis, Minn. 55455
Jerry L. Siegel
East Dakota Conservancy Sub-District
524 Seventeenth Ave.
Brookings, S. Dak. 57006
Phillip D. Snow
Department of Biology
Union College
Schenectady, N.Y. 12308
Charles Sutfin
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
230 South Dearborn St.
Chicago, III. 60604
Thomas L. Theis
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Notre Dame
Notre Dame, Ind. 46556
A. Jean Tolman
Twin Towers Office Bldg.
2600 Blairstone Rd.
Tallahassee, Fla. 32301
Paul D. Uttormark
Environmental Studies Center
University of Maine
1 1 Coburn Hall
Orono, Maine 04473
Eugene B. Welch
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Washington
Seattle, Wash. 98195
Symposium coordinator:
Robert Johnson
Aquatic Protection Branch Staff
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M St. SW
Washington, D.C. 20460
238
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Appendix C
CONFERENCE ATTENDEES
Craig Affeidt
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
1935 West County Rd. B2
Roseville, Minn. 55113
Craig Altenhofen
Kansas Div. of Environ.
Bldg 740 Forbes Field
Topeka, Kans. 66620
Pedro Alvarez
Venezuelan Government
1 104 Me Intyre
Ann Arbor, Mich. 48105
Theodore J. Amman
Wisconsin Dep. of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 7921
Madison, Wis. 53707
Carl Anderson
Illinois Dep. of Conservation
620 William G. Stratton Bldg.
Springfield, III. 62706
Dale E. Anderson
URS Co.
Fourth & Vine Bldg.
Seattle, Wash. 98121
Lende Anderson
Golden Lake Associates
18 East Golden Lake Rd.
Circle Pines, Minn. 55014
Robert H. Anderson
Purcell Associates
P.O. Box 390
Caldwell, N.J. 07006
Phillip E. Antommaria
D'Appolonia Consulting Engineers
10 Duff Rd.
Pittsburgh, Pa. 15235
David Arbogast
American Statistics Index
7101 Wisconsin Ave.
Washington, D.C. 20014
Susan Armstrong
Battelle Columbus Labs
505 King Ave.
Columbus, Ohio 43201
Robert C. Averett
U.S. Geological Survey
Box 25046, Stop 406
Denver, Colo. 80225
Mark Ayers
U.S. Geological Survey-WRD
702 Post Office Bldg.
St. Paul, Minn. 55101
Roger W. Bachmann
Dep. of Animal Ecology
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa 50011
Loren L. Bahls
Water Quality Bureau
Montana Dep. of Health & Environmental Sciences
Helena, Mont. 59601
William A. Bailey
SCS Engineers
1180 Sunrise Valley Dr.
Reston, Va. 22091
Orville P. Ball
Orville P. Ball & Associates
8755 Vista del Verde
El Cajon, Calif. 92021
Farrell Bandow
Minnesota Dep. Natural Resources
Area Fisheries Hdqtrs.
P.O. Box 86
Waterville, Minn. 56096
John Barten
St. Cloud State University
R. R. 8
St. Cloud, Minn. 56301
Merritt Bartlett
Clearwater River Watershed District
Mill Pond Farm
South Haven, Minn. 55382
Paul Bartoo
Macalester College
1725 Lincoln Ave.
St. Paul, Minn. 55105
Mary Bauer
S.W. Illinois Metro & Reg. Planning Comm.
203 West Main St.
Collinsville, III. 62234
239
-------
Richard Baxter
Barr Engineering Co.
800 France Ave. South
Minneapolis, Minn. 55435
Richard J. Beatty
USA/CE
U.S. P.O. & Custom Office #1206
St. Paul, Minn. 55118
Thomas V. Belanger
Dep. of Environmental Science & Engineering
Florida Institute of Technology
Melbourne, Fla. 32901
William J. Bergstresser
Pennsylvania Power & Light Co.
R. R. 4
Honesdale, Pa. 18431
Arnold Blomquist
National Biocentric, Inc.
2233 Hamline Ave. North
St. Paul, Minn. 55113
Mary Blomquist
National Biocentric, Inc.
2233 Hamline Ave. North
St. Paul, Minn. 55113
Roger V. Blomquist
National Biocentric, Inc.
2233 Hamline Ave. North
St. Paul, Minn. 551 13
Jay Bloomfield
Div. of Pure Water
Room 519 50 Wolf Rd.
Albany, N.Y. 12233
Jeff Bode
Wisconsin Dep. of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 13248
Milwaukee, Wis. 53226
Edwin 0. Boebel
Wisconsin Dep. of Natural Resources
Box 7921
Madison, Wis. 53707
Harold L. Bonhomme
Stream Pollution Control Board
7210 Hatteras Lane
Indianapolis, Ind. 46224
Brian N. Borg
Barr Engineering Co.
6800 France Ave. South
Minneapolis, Minn. 55435
Clyde K. Brashier
Dakota State College
928 Maplewood Dr.
Madison, S. Dak. 57042
240
Philip Braswell
Snell Environmental Group
1120 May St.
Lansing, Mich. 48906
Ben Breedlove
Breedlove & Associates, Inc.
618 NW 13th Ave.
Gainesville, Fla. 32601
Randy Brich
South Dakota State University
722-A Medary Ave.
Brookings, S. Dak. 57006
Mary Bromel
Tri-College Center for Environmental Studies
North Dakota State University
Fargo, N. Dak. 58102
James L. Brown
Institute for Man & Environment
N.Y. State University
Pittsburgh, N.Y. 12901
Randall Brown
California Dep. Water Resources
P.O. Box 388
Sacramento, Calif. 95802
Frank Browne
Browne & Associates
P.O. Box 401
Lansdale, Pa. 19446
Lewis Brownson
Clean-Flo Labs, Inc.
4342 Shady Oak Rd.
Hopkins, Minn. 55343
C. Brate Bryant
Aquamarine Corp.
Box 616
Waukesha, Wis. 53187
Paul Bugbee
Koronis Lake Associates
R. R. 3 Lake Koronis
Paynesville, Minn. 56362
Meriam Burback
College of Natural Resources
University of Wisconsin
Stevens Point, Wis. 54481
Heather L. Burns
Booz, Allen, & Hamilton
4330 East West Highway
Bethesda, Md. 20014
Daniel Busch
Dep. of Transportation
DOT Bldg. Room .B-2
St. Paul, Minn. 55155
-------
Gordon L. Byers
Water Resource Research Center
University of New Hampshire
Durham, N.H. 03824
Daniel E. Canfield, Jr.
Dep. of Animal Ecology
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa 50010
Robert Carlson
Dep. of Biological Sciences
Kent State University
Kent, Ohio 44242
Scott Carlstrom
Minnesota Dep. of Transportation
St. Paul, Minn. 55155
Carlos Carranza
Dep. of Environmental Studies
Springfield College
Springfield, Mass. 01 109
Jim P. M. Chamie
South Dakota Cooperative Extension Service
Brookings, S. Dak. 57007
Steven Chapra
Great Lakes Environmental Research Lab
2300 Washtenaw Ave.
Ann Arbor, Mich. 48104
Milton Christensen
City of Minneapolis
280 North Grain Exchange Bldg.
301 Fourth Ave. South
Minneapolis, Minn. 53415
L. N. Christenson
Apple River Prob. & Rehab. Dist.
131 East Birch St.
Amery, Wis. 54001
Peter Colin
Minnesota Dep. of Natural Resources
444 Lafayette Rd.
St. Paul, Minn. 55101
G. Dennis Cooke
Biological Sciences
Kent State University
Kent, Ohio 44242
Thomas Cooley
Dep. of Biology
University of South Florida
Tampa, Fla. 33620
David Cowgill
U.S. Corps of Engineers
536 South Clark St.
Chicago, III. 60605
Dennis L. Curran
Southcentral Michigan Planning Council
Nazareth College
Kalamazoo, Mich. 49074
Duane Dahlberg
Tri-College Center for Environmental Studies
North Dakota State University
Fargo, N. Dak. 58102
Bennett M. Davis
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
1935 West County Rd. B2
Roseville, Minn. 55113
Fredrick E. Davis
South Florida Water Mgrnt. Dist.
P.O. Box V
West Palm Beach, Fla. 33402
Joanne Davis
Municipality of Metro Seattle
821 Second Ave.
Seattle, Wash. 98104
Norman S. Davis
Biological Sciences
Southern Illinois University
Edwardsville, III. 62026
Larry Dempsey
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Shirley Dilg
New England River Basins Comm.
53 State St.
Boston, Mass. 02109
Duane Dittburner
St. Cloud State University
R. R. 8
St. Cloud, Minn. 56301
Tom Dorenkamp
Auditor's Office
Fairmont, Minn. 56031
Merwin D. Dougal
Iowa State Water Resources Research Inst.
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa 50011
John Dowd
Yale University School of Forestry & Environ.
Studies
360 Prospect St.
New Haven, Conn. 06511
John A. Downing
McGill University
1205 McGregor Ave.
Montreal, Quebec, Canada
H3A 1B1
241
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William L. Downing
Metropolitan Council
1834 Simpson
St. Paul, Minn. 551 13
Thomas R. Doyle
Michigan Dep. Natural Resources
Box 30028
Lansing, Mich. 48909
David G. Durheim
Sunrae, Inc.
R. R. 6 Box 334
Spokane, Wash. 99207
Charles W. Durrett
Texas Instruments-Ecological Services
12052 Riverwood Circle
Burnsville, Minn. 55337
Ron Eddy
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
1860 Lincoln St.
Denver, Colo. 80295
Paul Eger
Minnesota Dep. of Natural Resources
2021 East Hennepin
Minneapolis, Minn. 55405
Dr. Steven J. Eisenreich
University of Minnesota
103 Exp. Eng. Bldg.
Minneapolis, Minn. 55455
W. E. Eldridge
EPA Region X
1200 Sixth Ave.
Seattle, Wash. 98101
Gordon Ellefsen
RDC-208
R. R. 1
Jackson, Minn. 56143
Peter D. Elliott
Southwestern Mich. Reg. Planning
2907 Division
St. Joseph, Mich. 49085
Brian Emerick
Connecticut Dep. of Environ. Protection
165 Capitol Ave.
Hartford, Conn. 06115
Katherine Enright
College of Natural Resources
University of Wisconsin
Stevens Point, Wis. 54431
John E. Erdmann
Hickok & Associates
545 Indian Mound
Wayzata, Minn. 55391
Gary Erickson
Illinois Dep. Conservation-Fisheries
110 James Rd.
Spring Grove, III. 60081
Robert Estabrook
New Hampshire Water Supply & Pollution
Control Comm.
105 Loudon Rd.
Concord, N.H. 03301
G. Winfield Fairchild
University of Michigan
Pellston, Mich. 49769
Saul Fidelman
Wehrman Chapman Associates
1415 Lilac Dr. North
Minneapolis, Minn. 55422
Perry Finney
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
1935 West County Rd. B2
Roseville, Minn. 55113
Richard Flanders
New Hampshire Water Supply & Pollution
Control Comm.
105 Loudon Rd.
Concord, N.H. 03301
Bruce Forsberg
Limnological Research Center
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minn. 55455
Ken Foss
Citizens for Big Stone Lake, Inc.
229 SE Second St.
Ortonville, Minn. 56278
W. Randolph Frykberg
Northeast Michigan Council of Governments
P.O. Box 457
Gaylord, Mich. 45735
Kent B. Fuller
EPA Region V
230 South Dearborn Ave.
Chicago, III. 60620
Thomas J. Gallagher
First Planning Dist.
401 First Ave. NE
Watertown, S. Dak. 57201
John E. Gannon
Research Center
State University of New York
Oswego, N.Y. 13126
Paul J. Garrison
Wisconsin Dep. of Natural Resources
3911 Fish Hatchery Rd.
Madison, Wis. 53711
242
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Mary H. Gaudet
Lake Lillinonah Authority
Whippoorwill Hill
Newtown, Conn. 06470
Patricia A. Gerdes
Lake Florence Restoration
City of Stewartville
417 South Main
Stewartville, Minn. 55976
Harry Gibbons
Washington State University
Sloan 141
Pullman, Wash. 99163
George Gibson
Environmental Resources
University of Wisconsin
1815 University Ave.
Madison, Wis. 53706
Ruth Anne Gibson
Battelle Columbus Labs
505 King Ave.
Columbus, Ohio 43201
Lee Gilbert
Wehrman Chapman Associates
1415 Lilac Dr. North
Minneapolis, Minn. 55422
David Givers
Tri-College Center for Environmental Studies
North Dakota State University
Fargo, N. Dak. 58102
Arthur J. Gold
U-M Biological Station
University of Michigan
Pellston, Mich. 49769
Warren Goodroad
Citizens for Big Stone Lake
229 SE Second St.
Ortonville, Minn. 56278
Thomas U. Gordon
Cobbossee Watershed Dist.
15 High St.
Winthrop, Maine 04364
Wayne Gorski
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
230 South Dearborn Ave.
Chicago, III. 60604
Wilbur L. Goyer
Rice Creek Watershed
1145 Mahtornedi Ave.
Mahtomedi, Minn. 55115
David B. Graham
Norman Chemical Co.
P.O. Box 4188
St. Paul, Minn. 55104
Steve Greb
College of Natural Resources
University of Wisconsin
Stevens Point, Wis. 54481
Richard Greenwood
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Serv.
1830 Second Ave.
Rock Island, III. 61201
Michael R. Gregg
Ingham Co. Drain Comm.
P.O. Box 220
Mason, Mich. 48854
Jean W. Gregory
Virginia State Water Control
P.O. Box 11143
Richmond, Va. 23228
Frank Guay
Flathead Drainage 208
723 Fifth Ave. East
Kalispell, Mont. 59901
Dr. Barbara Gudmundson
Gudmundson Ecology
5505 28th Ave. South
Minneapolis. Minn. 55417
William F. Gunther
St. Paul Health Dep.
555 Cedar St.
St. Paul, Minn. 55119
Robert Haarman
City Manager
City of Waseca
508 South State St.
Waseca, Minn. 56093
Gloria E. Habeck
Mateffy Engineering
842 Fifth Ave. NW
New Brighton, Minn. 55112
Joseph W. Habraken
Water Plant Operations
City of Akron
1570 Ravenna Rd.
Kent, Ohio 44240
Malcolm E. Hair
Town of Islip
Eco Impact Co.
278 Sunrise Ave.
Sayville, N.Y. 11782
"Doc" Hall
Mayor
City of Waseca
508 South State St.
Waseca, Minn. 56093
243
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Douglas Hall
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
1935 West County Rd. B2
Roseville, Minn. 55113
Robert Hamilton
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
1935 West County Rd. B2
Roseville, Minn. 55113
Sean J. Hancock
Wright County
Office of Planning & Zoning
Buffalo, Minn. 55313
Robert P. Hannah
State of Louisiana
Natl. Space Tech Labs
NSTL Station, Miss. 39529
Douglas R. Hansen
South Dakota Dep. of Wildlife, Parks and
Forestry
Box 637
W-abster, S. Dak. 57274
Leonard Hansmeyer
Region V RDC
611 Iowa Ave.
Staples, Minn. 56479
William J. Harmon
Bureau of State Parks
Third and Reily St.
Harrisburg, Pa. 17120
Jesse F. Harrold, Jr.
North Dakota Dep. of Health
1200 Missouri Ave.
Bismarck, N. Dak. 58501
Daniel A. Hartmann
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
1135 U.S. P.O. & Custom House
St. Paul, Minn. 55101
Roger Hartung
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
1201 Elm St.
Dallas, Tex. 75270
Mark R. Have
U.S. Geological Survey
702 Post Office Bldg.
St. Paul, Minn. 55101
Gordon Heitke
E. Central Reg. Dev. Comm.
18 North Vine St.
Mora, Minn. 55051
Bernard Herre
Pennsylvania Power & Light Co.
2 North Ninth St.
Allentown, Pa. 18052
Ron Hochreiter
City Water, Light and Power
3100 Stevenson Dr.
Springfield, III. 62707
Dennis Holme
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
1135 U.S. P.O. & Custom House
St. Paul, Minn. 55101
Brian R. Holt
Dep. of Animal Ecology
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa 50011
Robert G. Holt
Bear River Assoc. of Govts,
160 North Main
Logan, Utah 84321
Frank F. Hooper
School of Natural Resources
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Mich. 48109
Grace Hooper
Ann Arbor, Mich. 48109
Michael P. Hopkins
City of Santa Barbara
P.O. Box 33
Santa Barbara, Calif. 93102
Duane Houkom
Lake Florence Rest Project
City of Stewartville
417 South Main
Stewartville, Minn. 55976
June Hoveland
Maple Lake Associates
Mentor, Minn. 56736
Mike Howe
Planning & Zoning Admin.
Pope County Courthouse
Glenwood, Minn. 56334
Jocelyn Hukee
Mateffy Engineers
842 Fifth Ave. NW
New Brighton, Minn. 55112
Robert G. Humphrey
Mud Cat Division
Natl. Car Rental Systems
Box 451
East Longmeadow, Mass. 01028
Chris Hunter
Flathead Drainage 208
723 Fifth Ave. East
Kalispell, Mont. 59901
244
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A. Hanif Hussien
National Biocentric, Inc.
872 Raymond Ave.
St. Paul, Minn.551 14
Mark L. Hutchins
Environmental Studies Center
University of Maine
Orono, Maine 04469
Charles W. Huver
James Ford Bell Museum of Natural History
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minn. 55455
John E. Inadinet
South Carolina Dep. of Health & Environ. Control
2600 Bull St.
Columbia, S.C. 29201
Russell I. James
ECO
314 Church St.
Taylor, Pa. 18517
Steven F. Jensen
Salt Lake County 208
2033 South State St.
Salt Lake City, Utah 84115
Martin F. Johansen
City of Bloomington
2215 West Old Shakopee Rd.
Bloomington, Minn. 55431
Chuck Johnson
P.O. Box 1216
Bloomington Utilities
Bloomington, Ind. 47401
Frederick A. Johnson
Dep. of Ecology & Behavioral Biology
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minn. 55455
Mark R. Johnson
Dep. of Animal Ecology
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa 50010
Robert Johnson
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
401 M St. SW
Washington, D.C. 20460
Philip Kaufmann
Michael A. Kennedy Consulting Engineers
W. 1625 Fourth Ave.
Spokane, Wash. 99204
E. J. Kazmierccak
Stottler Stagg & Associates
19760D George Palmer Highway
Lanham, Md. 20801
Kathleen Irwin Keating
Dep. Environmental Science
Rutgers University
New Brunswick, N.J. 08903
Robert H. Kennedy
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Vicksburg, Miss. 39180
John Kenney
Koronis Lake Associates
5626 Blaisdell Ave. South
Minneapolis, Minn. 55419
Lowell E. Keup
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
401 M St. SW
Washington, D.C. 20460
Darrell L. King
Institute of Water Research
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Mich. 48824
Rand Kluegel
Region V RDC
611 Iowa Ave.
Staples, Minn. 56479
Peter N. Klose
Roy F. Weston, Inc.
Weston Way
West Chester, Pa. 19380
Allen Knutson
Dairyland Labs, Inc.
217 East Main
Arcadia, Wis. 54612
Keith M. Knutson
St. Cloud State University
R. R. 8
St. Cloud, Minn. 56301
Marcel Jouseau
Metropolitan Council
300 Metro Square Bldg.
St. Paul, Minn. 55101
Robert Koch
Northeast Michigan Council of Govts.
P.O. Box 457
Gaylord, Mich. 49735
James R. Jowett
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
401 M St. SW
Washington, D.C. 20460
Gary S. Kohler
Aqua Tech, Inc.
140 South Park St.
Port Washington, Wis. 53074
245
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Debbie Koehlinger
St. Cloud State University
R. R. 8
St. Cloud, Minn.
Kirk Kopitzke
Donahue & Associates, Inc.
4738 North 40th St.
Sheboygan, Wis. 53081
V. Kothandaraman
Illinois State Water Survey
P.O. Box 717
Peoria, III. 61604
R. Lynn Kring
Kansas Div. of Environment
Bldg. 740 Forbes Field
Topeka, Kans. 66620
Howard F. Krosch
Minnesota Dep. Natural Resources
Box 25 Centennial
St. Paul, Minn. 55155
Ernest Kurtz
Manitoba Environ. Dep.
139 Tuxedo Ave.
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
James W. LaBaugh
U.S. Geological Survey
WAD M.S. 413 DFC
Lakewood, Colo. 80225
Robert L. Laing
Clean-Flo Labs, Inc.
4342 Shady Oak Rd.
Hopkins, Minn. 55343
Jean Pierre Lamoureux
Dimension Environment
434 St. Francois Xavier
Montreal, Canada
Richard W. Leonard
Commissioner of the Apple River Prot.
and Rehab. Dist.
3701 Granada Ct.
Oakdale, Minn. 55109
Tony Lesauteur
Environmental Protection Service
2360 Stefoy
Quebec City, Canada
Charles A. Lesser
Div. of Fish & Wildlife
P.O. Box 1401
Dover, Del. 19901
Bill Leuckenhoff
Missouri Dep. of Conservation
Box 180
Jefferson City, Mo. 65102
G. B. Lie
Limnological Research Center
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minn. 55455
Jack Linder
Councilman
City of Waseca
508 South State St.
Waseca, Minn. 56093
Michael Linskens
College of Natural Resources
University of Wisconsin
Stevens Point, Wis. 54481
Larry A. Livesay
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
1935 West County Rd. B2
Roseville, Minn. 551 13
Robert A. Lohnes
Civil Engineering Dep.
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa 50011
Marc Lorenzen
Tetra Tech, Inc.
3700 Mt. Diablo Blvd.
Lafayette, Calif. 94549
F. Michael Lorz
Battelle Columbus Labs
505 King Ave.
Columbus, Ohio 43201
Michael W. Mac Mullen
EPA Region V
230 South Dearborn Ave.
Chicago, III. 60604
Ben L. Magee
Tennessee Div. of Water Quality Control
630 Cordell Hull Bldg.
Nashville, Tenn. 37219
A. Mark Mahowald
Cedar Lake Improvement Assoc.
R. R. 2 Box 284
New Prague, Minn. 56071
Gene E. Malott
Environment Report
St. Paul, Minn. 551 19
Ronald G. Manfredonia
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
JFK Federal Bldg.
Boxton, Mass. 02203
Mike Marano
College of Natural Resources
University of Wisconsin
Stevens Point, Wis. 54481
246
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Timothy I. Marr
Hennepin County Park Reserve Dist.
Box 296
Maple Plain, Minn. 55359
Kenneth Martens
KBM, Inc.
Box 376
Redwood Falls, Minn. 56283
Dan Martin
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
P.O. Box 139
Yankton, S. Dak. 57078
David E. Maschwitz
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
1935 West County Rd. B2
Roseville, Minn. 55113
Leslie H. Mateffy
Mateffy Engineering
842 50 Ave. NW
New Brighton, Minn. 55112
Donald E. Matschke
D. E. Matschke Co.
2 Salt Creek Lane
Hinsdale, III. 60521
Willis Mattison
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
116 East Front St.
Detroit Lakes, Minn. 56501
Tedd Mattke
University of Minnesota
39 West Golden Lake Rd.
Circle Pines, Minn. 55014
Tom Maugh
Science Magazine
1515 Massachusetts Ave. NW
Washington, D.C. 20005
Jack Mauntz
Hennepin Co. Park Reserve Dist.
P.O. Box 296
Maple Plain, Minn. 55359
Donald W. Meals
Vermont Water Resources Research Center
601 Main St.
Burlington, Vt. 05401
Christina Mechenich
College of Natural Resources
University of Wisconsin
Stevens Point, Wis. 54481
Arnold K. McAlexander
Dep. of Animal Ecology
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa 50011
Larry E. McCullough
South Carolina Dep. of Health &
Environ. Control
2600 Bull St.
Columbia, S.C. 29201
Pat McCullough
Entranco Engineers
100 116th Ave. SE
Bellevue, Wash. 98004
Greg McElroy
Ramsey Co.
905 Parkway Dr.
St. Paul, Minn. 55106
Robert McEwen
First Dist. Health
McLean County Courthouse
Washburn, N. Dak. 58577
R. F. McGhee
Dep. of Natural Resources and Comm. Dev.
P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, N.C. 27611
John F. McGuire
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
1935 West County Rd. B2
Roseville, Minn. 55113
Keith R. McLaughlin
U.S. Forest Service
1720 Peachtree Rd. NW
Atlanta, Ga. 30309
George McMahon
Ramsey Co.
905 Parkway Dr.
St. Paul, Minn. 55106
Dave Mechenich
College of Natural Resources
University of Wisconsin
Stevens Point, Wis. 54481
Robert Megard
University of Minnesota
108 Zoology Bldg.
318 Church St.
Minneapolis, Minn. 55455
Mirza Meghji
Harza Engineering Co.
150 South Wacker
Chicago, III. 60606
John Mesaros
Battelle Columbus Labs
505 King Ave.
Columbus, Ohio 43201
Jay Messer
Environ. Eng. Sciences
University of Florida
Gainesville, Fla. 32611
247
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William K. Meyer
Suburban Engineering, Inc.
6875 Highway #65 NE
Minneapolis, Minn. 55432
Anne Norton Miller
EPA Region II
26 Federal Plaza
New York, N.Y. 10007
Anthony Moe
Moose Lake Windemere Sanitary Dist.
604 West Rd.
Moose Lake, Minn. 55767
Terry A. Moe
Wisconsin Dep. of Natural Resources
1300 West Clairemont Ave.
Eau Claire, Wis. 54701
William 0. Moellmer
Bureau of Water Quality
State of Utah
Salt Lake City, Utah 84102
Robert E. Molde
Finley Engineering Co. Inc.
Box 147
Eau Claire, Wis. 54701
Bruce Monson
Limnological Research Center
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minn. 55455
Gunilla Montgomery
Minnesota Dep. of Health
717 SE Delaware St.
Minneapolis, Minn. 55440
Raymond L. Montgomery
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
P.O. Box 631
Vicksburg, Miss. 39180
David Morency
Entrance Engineers
100 116th Ave. SE
Bellevue, Wash. 98004
Kenneth J. Munro
Sioux Falls Parks and Recreation Dep.
600 East 7th St.
Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57102
James Murphy
Connecticut Dep. of Environ. Prot.
122 Washington St.
Hartford, Conn. 06115
Roger Mustalish
West Chester State College
West Chester, Pa. 19380
Thomas K. Nedved
Lake County Health Dep.
3010 Grand Ave.
Waukegan, III. 60085
Michael Jon Nelson
Coon Lake Research Comm.
2088 Cornell Dr.
New Brighton, Minn. 55112
Alexander Nikolson
Arundo Ltd. of Louisiana
783 Engineers Rd. #2
Belle Chasse, La. 70037
Terry Noonan
Dep. of Animal Ecology
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa 50010
William S. Word
National Biocentric, Inc.
2233 Hamline Ave. North
Roseville, Minn. 55113
Richard N. Nordin
Ministry of Environment
British Columbia
1106 Cook St.
Victoria, B.C.
Canada
Ralph V. Nordstrom
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
230 South Dearborn Ave.
Chicago, III. 60626
Gary Oberts
Metro Council
300 Metro Sq. Bldg.
St. Paul, Minn. 55101
Charles O'Brien
Mud Cat Division
Natl. Car Rental
P.O. Box 16247
Minneapolis, Minn. 55416
Stephen V. O'Brien
Reg. Planning Council of Clark County
P.O. Box 5000
Vancouver, Wash. 98663
G. Marvin O'Hara
Fourth Planning and Dev. Dist.
615 South Main St.
Aberdeen, S. Dak. 57401
Arthur P. O'Hayre
Yale School of Forestry and Environ. Studies
360 Prospect St.
New Haven, Conn. 06511
248
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John Ohnstad
Citizens for Big Stone Lake
229 SE Second St.
Ortonville, Minn. 56278
Steven Olson
City of Fridley
5431 University Ave. NE
Fridley, Minn. 55432
David W. Opitz
Aqua Tech, Inc.
140 South Park St.
Port Washington, Wis. 53074
Neal O'Reilly
Wisconsin Dep. of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 13248
Milwaukee, Wis. 53226
William L Organ
Aquatic Systems, Inc.
120 West Ludington Ave.
Ludington, Mich. 49431
Elizabeth P. O'Shea
Waterford School Dist.
1325 Crescent Lake Rd.
Pontiac, Mich. 48054
Thomas G. Osimitz
Energy Resources Co.
1701 K St. NW
Washington, D.C. 20006
Robert Overby
Upper Minnesota Valley RDC
323 West Schlieman Ave.
Appleton, Minn. 56208
Gary D. Palesh
St. Paul Dist. Corps of Engineers
1135 U.S. P.O. Custom House
St. Paul, Minn. 55101
Bruce Paterson
Suburban Engineering, Inc.
6875 Highway #65 NE
Minneapolis, Minn. 55432
Jim Paulman
Donohue & Associates, Inc.
4738 North 40th St.
Sheboygan, Wis. 53081
Cayce Scott Parrish
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
401 M St. SW
Washington, D.C. 20460
Gregory A. Payne
U.S. Geological Survey
702 Post Office Bldg.
St. Paul, Minn. 55101
Richard Peoples
Bloomington Utilities
P.O. Box 1216
Bloomington, Ind. 47401
Al Peroutka
Dep. of Nat Resources and Comm. Dev.
P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, N.C. 27611
Dick Petkoff
Anoka County Park Dep.
550 Bunker Lake Blvd.
Anoka, Minn. 55303
Dr. Olaf Pfannkuch
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minn.
John Piccininni
EPA Region V
230 South Dearborn Ave.
Chicago, III. 60604
Kathy C. Plunkert
Monsanto
800 North Lindbergh Blvd.
St. Louis, Mo. 63166
Edward J. Pollock
Serco Labs
P.O. Box 687
Ely, Minn. 55731
Boyd S. Possin
Roy F. Weston, Inc.
3330 Old Glenview Rd.
Wilmette, III. 60091
John W. Powers
Tighe & Bond Consulting Engrs.
50 Payson Ave.
Easthampton, Maine 01027
J.A. Preston
Virginia State Water Control Board
1 16 North Main St.
P.O. Box 268
Bridgewater, Va. 22812
Frederick M. Pryor
Columbia Association
5829 Banneker Rd.
Columbia, Md. 21044
Charlene Puchalski
Burlington, Wis. 53105
Don Puchalski
Lilly Lake Prot. & Rehab. Dist.
R. R. 5, Box 241
Burlington, Wis. 53105
249
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Mrs. Eddie Pulkrabek
Maple Lake Associates
Mentor, Minn. 56736
Eddie Pulkrabek
Maple Lake Associates
Mentor, Minn. 56736
Henry W. Quade
Mankato State University
Box 34
Mankato, Minn. 56001
M. L. Quinn
University of Nebraska
212 Agric. Eng. Bldg.
Lincoln, Neb. 68583
Todd A. Rathkamp
Aquamarine Corp.
Box 616
Waukesma, Wis. 53186
Margaret R. Rattei
3arr Engineering Co.
6800 France Ave. South
Minneapolis, Minn. 55435
David Read
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
821 Third Ave. SE
Rochester, Minn. 55901
Kenneth Reckhow
Dep. of Resource Dev.
Michigan State University
323 Natural Resources Bldg.
East Lansing, Mich. 48824
John Reed
Malcolm Pirnie Eng.
12368 Warwick Blvd.
Newport News, Va. 23602
Larry E. Rehfeid
Fourth Planning & Dev. Dist.
315 South Main St.
Aberdeen, S. Dak. 57401
Dan Reinartz
U.S. Army Corps
851 West Howard St.
St. Paul, Minn. 551 19
Gail J. Rengel
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
2599 Lexington Ave. North
Roseville, Minn. 55113
Sallie L. Rhodes
1115 Willow Dr. South
Wayzata, Minn. 55391
250
Lowell D. Richards
First Planning Dist,
401 First Ave. NE
Watertown, S. Dak. 57201
F. Brandt Richardson
Office of Water Resources
Planning
Minnesota Dep. of Natural Resources
Box 34
St. Paul, Minn. 55155
Jerry R. Rick
Brevard Co. Water Resources Dist.
2575 North Courtenay Pkwy.
Merritt Island, Fla. 32952
Clifford Risley
EPA Region V
230 South Dearborn Ave.
Chicago, III. 60604
Monique Robillard
Environ. Prot. Service
Province of Quebec
201 Cremazie East Local 220
Montreal, Canada H2MIL2
Michael F. Robinson
Minnesota Dep. of Natural Resources
Div. of Waters
444 Lafayette Rd.
St. Paul, Minn. 55101
Craig Roesler
South Dakota Dep. of Environ. Prot.
Joe Foss Bldg. Rm 413
Pierre, S. Dak. 57501
Amos Roos
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
1935 West County Rd. B2
Roseville, Minn. 55113
Joseph P. Rossillon
Freshwater Foundation
2500 Shadywood Rd.
P.O. Box 90
Navarre, Minn 55392
James C. Roth
Research Limnologist
3634 20th St.
San Francisco, Calif. 94110
Hal Runke
National Biocentric, Inc.
2233 Hamline Ave. North
St. Paul, Minn. 55113
Orlando R. Ruschmeyer
539 Space Science Center
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minn. 55455
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Harold T. Sansing
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Box 1070
Nashville, Tenn. 37202
Dennis Sasseville
Normandeau Associates, Inc.
Nashua Rd.
Bedford, N.H. 03102
Michael T. Sauer
North Central Planning Council
Box 651
Devils Lake, N. Dak. 58301
Karen M. Sauerwein
City of Berkeley
6140 N. Hanley
Berkeley, Mo. 63134
Al Scalzo
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
P.O. Box 59
Louisville, Ky. 40201
Daniel Schacht
Eng. Dep.
Ramsey Co.
3377 North Rice St.
Shoreview, Minn. 55112
Barry C. Schade
Div. of Water Quality
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
1935 West County Rd. B2
Roseville, Minn. 55113
Norman J Schem
Lake Marinuka Rehab. Dist
R. R. 3, Box 185
Galesville, Wis. 54630
Jerry Schnoor
University of Iowa
Iowa City, Iowa 52242
Joseph H Schnur
Mudcat Dredge Co.
P.O. Box 16247
St Louis Park, Minn. 55416
Mary Ellen Schraeder
City Water Light & Power
Seventh and Monroe St.
Springfield, III. 62701
Dorothy T. Schultz
Howard County Dep. Public Works
3430 Court House Dr.
Ellicott City, Md 21043
H Lee Schultz
Hittman Associates, Inc.
9190 Redbranch Rd.
Columbia, Md. 21045
Arthur J. Screpetis
Massachusetts Div. Water Pollution Control
P.O. Box 545
Westborough, Mass. 01581
Marion M. Secrest
Biological Station
University of Michigan
Pellston, Mich. 49769
Donna F. Sefton
Planning and Standards
Illinois EPA
220 Churchill Rd.
Springfield, III. 62704
W. Herbert Senft
Biology Dep
Ball State University
Muncie, Ind. 47306
Harry Seraydanan
EPA Region IX
215 Fremont
San Francisco, Calif. 94105
Joel C. Settles
University of Minnesota
318 Church St. SE
Minneapolis, Minn. 55455
Byron Shaw
College of Natural Resources
University of Wisconsin
Stevens Point, Wis. 54481
Ann Shields
USDA Soil Conserv. Service
316 North Robert
St. Paul, Minn. 55101
Larry W. Sisk
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Federal Bldg. Ft. Snelling
Twin Cities, Minn. 55111
Jack Skrypek
Section of Fisheries
Minnesota Div. Natural Resources
Box 12
St. Paul, Minn. 55155
Eric Smeltzer
Limnological Research Center
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minn. 55455
Robert J. Smith
Dep. of Engineering
University of Wisconsin
432 North Lake St.
Madison, Wis. 53706
251
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Theodore R. Smith
Wisconsin Div. Natural Resources
Box 309
Spooner, Wis. 54801
Val Smith
Limnological Research Center
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minn. 55455
Gerald E. Snow
Water Testing Lab
Andrews University
Berrien Springs, Mich. 49104
Michael Sobota
Southwest Regional Dev. Comm.
P.O. Box 265
Slayton, Minn. 56172
R. A. Soltero
Eastern Washington University
1008 Gary St.
Cheney, Wash. 99004
Ken Spence
Ocean Systems, Inc.
108 Los Agnajes Ave.
Box 1331
Santa Barbara, Calif. 93102
Raymond E. Spencer
Spencer Engineering, Inc.
314 East Carrillo St.
Santa Barbara, Calif. 93101
Ronald C. Spong
Environmental Services
City of Bloomington
2215 West Old Shakopee Rd.
Bloomington, Minn. 55431
Marc Spratt
Flathead Drainage 208 Project
723 Fifth Ave. East
Kalispell, Mont. 59901
Patricia Staine
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
P.O. Box 631
Vicksburg, Miss. 39180
Heinz G. Stefan
Dep. of Civil and Mineral Eng.
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minn. 55455
Jerry Steinberg
Water and Air Research,
Box 1121
Gainesville, Fla. 32602
Inc.
Richard Stephens
College of Natural Resources
University of Wisconsin
Stevens Point, Wis. 54481
John B. Stewart
National Biocentric, Inc.
2233 Hamline Ave. North
St. Paul, Minn. 55113
Mark St. Lawrence
City of Chisholm
City Hall
Chisholm, Minn. 55719
Roxanne M. Sullivan
Office of Environ. Affairs
Dep. of Transportation
Room 807, Highway Dep. Bldg.
St. Paul, Minn. 55155
Edward Swain
Limnological Research Center
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minn. 55455
James P. Swigert
Dep. of Biology
Tennessee Tech University
Cookeville, Tenn. 38501
Alfred Teien
Clean-Flo Labs, Inc.
4342 Shady Oak Rd.
Hopkins, Minn. 55343
Eugene P. Theios
Div. of Environ Health
Lake County Health Dep.
3010 Grand Ave.
Waukegan, III. 60085
Lew Theoharous
Tech. Govt. Relations
Procter and Gamble Co.
ITC Bldg. Rm 2N50
Cincinnati, Ohio 45217
Daryle A. Thingvold
Reg. Copper-Nickel Study
Minnesota Environ. Quality Board
2021 East Hennepin Ave.
Minneapolis, Minn. 55413
Fred H. Tholen
City Manager
City of East Grand Rapids
750 Lakeside Dr. SE
Grand Rapids, Mich. 49506
Craig Thomas
Bear Lake Reg. Comm.
On 89 at Stateline
Fish Haven, Ind. 83261
252
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Dave Thompson
Thompson Labs
P.O. Box 2526
La Crosse, Wis. 54601
Tammy Thompson
Cook Lake Research Comm.
2237 225th Ave.
E. Bethel, Minn. 55011
Evelyn Thornton
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
401 M St. SW
Washington, D.C. 20460
Gregg Tichacek
Illinois Dep. of Conservation
400 South Spring St.
Springfield, III. 62706
Robert D. Tolpa
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
230 South Dearborn Ave.
Chicago, III. 60604
Byron G. Torke
Biology Dep.
Ball State University
Muncie, Ind. 47306
Dell Tredinnick
Economic Dev. Council of NE Pa.
Box 777
Avoca, Pa. 18641
Nicole Trepanier
Environ. Prot. Service
2360 Stefoy
Quebec City, Canada
Bill Turner
Missouri Dep. of Conservation
Box 180
Jefferson City, Mo. 65102
Patrick J. Tyson
Regional Dev. Comm.
500 Hackley Bank Bldg.
Muskegon, Mich. 49440
Paul Vachen
New England River Basins Comm.
177 Battery Ice House
Burlington, Vt. 05401
Jerry Valcik
Div. of Water Operations
Montebello Treatment Plant
3901 Hillen Rd.
Baltimore, Md. 21218
Daniel Vallero
EPA Region VII
1735 Baltimore St.
Kansas City, Mo. 64108
Allan Van Arsdale
Massachusetts Dep. Environ. Quality
100 Cambridge St.
Boston, Mass. 02202
John R. Velin
Legis. Comm. on Mineral Resources
B 46 State Capitol Bldg.
St. Paul, Minn. 55155
Michael Vennewitz
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
1935 West County Rd. B2
Roseville, Minn. 55113
Darlene Vobejda
Townships (Arrow) (Region 3)
9015 River Rd.
Grand Rapids, Minn. 55744
Hank Waggy
Hydrocomp, Inc.
2 North Riverside Plaza
Chicago, III. 60606
Bob Wagner
NE Michigan Council of Govts.
P.O. Box 457
Gaylord, Mich. 49735
John Wagner
State of Wyoming
Hathaway Office Bldg.
Cheyenne, Wyo. 82002
Mark Weisberg
Minnesota Water Resources Board
1902 Carroll Ave.
St. Paul, Minn. 55104
Terry A. Wakeman
Windham Reg. Planning Agency
21 Church St.
Willimantic, Conn. 06226
Suzanne Walker
Dep. of Environmental Regulation
7601 Highway 301 North
Tampa, Fla. 33610
Donald A. Wallgren
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
536 South Clark St.
Chicago, III. 60605
James Walsh
Dep. of Environ. Studies
Springfield College
Springfield, Mass. 01109
Howard Wandell
Land Resource Programs Div.
Michigan Dep. of Natural Resources
Box 30028
Lansing, Mich. 48909
253
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David Weaver
Hennepin County Park Reserve Dist.
P.O. Box 296
Maple Plain, Minn. 55359
Richard Wedepohl
Wisconsin Dep. Natural Resources
P.O. Box 7921
Madison, Wis. 53707
William D. Weidenbacher
E. A. Hickok & Associates, Inc.
545 Indian Mound
Wayzata, Minn. 55391
Larry Weires
Sioux Falls Parks Dep.
600 East Seventh St.
Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57102
Herbert Weisend
Malcolm Pirnie Engineers
12368 Warwick Blvd.
Newport News.Va. 23602
Norman C. Wenck
E. A. Hickok & Associates, Inc.
545 Indian Mound
Wayzata, Minn. 55391
Jack Wendler
College of Natural Resources
University of Wisconsin
Stevens Point, Wis. 54481
Harold Westholm
Moose Lake Windemere Sanitary Dist.
604 West Rd.
Moose Lake, Minn. 55767
William Westphal
Lake Onalaska Rehab. & Prot. Dist.
UWEX Room 112 Courthouse
La Crosse, Wis. 54601
Ray J. White
Dep. of Fisheries/Wildlife
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Mich. 48864
Harold J. Wiegner
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
1935 West County Road B2
Roseville, Minn. 55113
Dan Wilcox
NUS Corp.
P.O. Box 73
Bayport, Minn. 55003
Jerry Wilhm
School of Biological Sciences
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Okla. 74074
254
Doug Williams
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Oliver D. Williams
Wisconsin Dep. of Natural Resources
7203 Shirley Ct.
Middleton, Wis. 53562
Brian L. Wilson
Aqua Tek Corp.
3256 F St.
San Diego, Calif. 92102
Donald R. Winter
Wisconsin Dep. of Natural Resources
1300 West Clairemont
Eau Claire, Wis. 54701
Tom Winter
U.S. Geological Survey
Denver Federal Center
Lakewood, Colo. 80225
Robert Wiza
College of Natural Resources
University of Wisconsin
Stevens Point, Wis. 54481
William S. Wolinski
Water Quality Management Office
City of Baltimore
305 Municipal Bldg.
Baltimore, Md. 21202
Gerald Yamada
U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
401 M St. SW
Washington, D.C. 20460
Doug Yanagen
Environ. Resources Unit
University of Wisconsin
1815 University Ave.
Madison, Wis. 53706
Sanford N. Young
Biological Research Associates
504 South Brevard Ave.
Tampa, Fla. 33606
Yousef A. Yousef
College of Engineering
Florida Technological University
P.O. Box 25000
Orlando, Fla. 32816
Hans E. Zuern
Allied Chemical Corp.
P.O. Box 6
Solvay, N.Y. 13209
*USGPO: 1979 —6S7-146/5461
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