United States
                Environmental Protection
                Agency
Office of Water
Planning and Standards
Washington, D.C. 20460
                                                EPA-440/5-79-021
oEPA        Clean Lakes  and Us

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         CLEAN  LAKES  AND  US
             prepared  for th


 U. So   Environmental  Protection  Agency


                       by

     University of  Wisconsin-Extension

            Madison,  Wisconsin

                  March,   1979
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U ri (Jorernmr-nt Fruiting Office
             Washington, D C. 20102- Price 51.20

              Stock Number 055-001-01085-1

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This booklet was prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency by

          George Gibson                   Stanley Nichols

                   Klessig                  James  Peterson

                   Environmental  Resources  Unit
                 University of Wisconsin--Extension
The authors gratefully acknowledge the review and editorial comments of
Thomas Sinclair,  Thomas Pierce,  and Robert Johnson.


Graphic Designer: Susan McQuade              Typist:  Nan  Erickson
             This report has been reviewed by the clean
             lakes program staff, EPA, and approved for
             publication.  Approval does not signify that
             the contents necessarily reflect the views and
             policies of the U.S.  EPA, nor does mention
             of trade names or commercial products
             constitute endorsement or recommendation
             for use.  The statements contained herein
             are ascribed solely to  the author.

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Preface
     Public use and enjoyment of our
nation's lakes and waterways is a theme
that underlies the efforts by EPA to
achieve the Clean Water Act's mandate to
improve water quality.  Lakes are given
special consideration in the legislation
under Section 314, the Clean Lakes Pro-
gram, because of their importance in the
lives of most of the public.  Lakes mean
more than water and water chemistry.
Lakes and associated parks frequently
are popular places where large segments
of the urban population can enjoy out-
door recreation, visit with friends and
family, and relax and get away from the
pressures of everyday life.

     Lakes are vital to the ecosystem
because they are part of the valuable
water resource system so essential to
our life and because they provide
necessary habitat for many fish and
wildlife species.  This booklet explains
some of the processes, geological and
man-induced, that formed lakes and chem-
ical, physical and biological principles
that affect their quality.  It is also
about lake protection and cleanup and
the recreation potentials this brings
both to our lake waters and adjacent
lands.  It is about EPA programs and
other programs designed to revitalize
these potentials.  And above all, it is
about the public's interest and respon-
sibility to manage and protect our lake
resources.

     A  very  important message  in  this
booklet is how civic  groups working
with their local  government  can expand
their  community's  recreation and  open
space  opportunities by  incorporating
water  cleanup  programs  into  their plans.
     Comprehensive planning and management
of limited financial  resources to accom-
plish water conservation and pollution
control is the necessary first step in
achieving the nation's water quality ob-
jectives.  For example, many EPA-funded
wastewater treatment facilities are
located adjacent to,  or very near lakes.
Others are in lake watersheds.  In secur-
ing shorefront locations for recreation
and open space opportunities, a community's
recreation budget can accomplish more if
recreation functions  are integrated into
the design for an EPA-funded wastewater
treatment facility in the early steps of
a community's application.  This is termed
multiple use.  Similarly, future recrea-
tion opportunities in conjunction with
wastewater treatment plants or other water
resource management projects can be iden-
tified in the state and areawide water
quality plans and coordinated with a
state's comprehensive outdoor recreation
plan.  Other EPA programs, state and fed-
eral agency programs and similar local
efforts should be considered and inte-
grated to achieve the most comprehensive
lake management objective.
     The extent to which your community
obtains more for the time and money it
invests in lake recreation, water clean-
up, and shorefront protection measures
depends largely on your involvement in
coordinated programs.  Greater benefits
can be obtained if you work hand-in-hand
with local and state government on re-
source management, multiple use, joint
development, recycling, environmental
education, and greenway projects that
the Environmental Protection Agency and
the other agencies promote.

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I. Introduction
     The nation's inland lakes are an
important public resource to be pro-
tected, restored, and managed.

     A report by the Outdoor Recreation
Resources Review Commission determined
there are more than 1,586,000 lakes,
ponds and reservoirs in the United
States.

     Great Lakes (U.S.) 53,878,000 acres
     Alaskan Lakes       7,363,960 acres
     Other U.S. Lakes   19,493,000 acres

     Within the continental United States
the surface areas of natural and man-made
lakes are nearly equivalent, excluding
the Great Lakes.

     The central element of most lake
problems is "eutrophication" (or enrich-
ment) of the lake by plant nutrients  such
as phosphorus and nitrogen.  This is  a
natural process, but human use can
greatly accelerate it.  Common sources of
these man-introduced nutrients are deter-
gents, lawn and agricultural fertilizers,
and sewage.  Sewage discharges to water-
ways and lakes also may pose a threat to
public health by introducing disease-
causing bacteria or viruses (pathogens)
from human or animal intestinal tracts.

     Nutrients added to an otherwise
evenly-balanced lake system can cause
aquatic weeds or algae to intensify their
growth rate until much of the shoreline
and open water of some lakes is obstruc-
ted.  The appearance of the lake and  the
quality of swimming, fishing, and boat-
ing all decline.

     Storm water from city streets and
runoff from agricultural land or suburban
lawns can carry pathogens from livestock
and pet wastes.  This same runoff carries
pesticides, oil, gasoline, lead and
asbestos from cars and trucks.

     By applying the knowledge gained from
limnology (the study of lakes and other
inland bodies of water), lake managers can
now take steps to prevent or remedy the
damaging effects of human development.

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     Some examples of these remedial
approaches, which have been assisted by
the Clean Lakes Program are described
as follows:

Lafayette Reservoir

     The 125-acre Lafayette Reservoir was
constructed in 1929.  It functions as an
emergency standby domestic water supply
and recreational, fishing and boating
area for the Lafayette, California region.
The lake suffers from severe eutrophica-
tion.  Dense algal growths regularly occur,
depleting the  lake's oxygen levels and
threatening the fishery.  The problems ren-
der the water  unsuitable for both emergency
drinking water and recreation.

     To remedy this, plans are underway to
aerate the hypolimnion  (deep water portion)
of the reservoir  and to remove phosphorus
from the lake  by  chemical treatment  with
aluminum.

     Adding air to the  cool, deep waters
of the lake should restore  trout fishing
to the reservoir  without  stirring  up addi-
tional nutrients  on  the lake bottom.   At
the  same time, the phosphorus precipitation
with alum  should  break  the  cycle of  algae
 "blooms" that  have  thrived  on the  phosphorus
in the upper water.  The  project  is  expected
to cost  about  $100,000, 50  percent of which
is being funded  by  a grant  from the  EPA
Clean  Lakes Program.   When  the program is
completed, the reservoir  should support a
year-round trout  fishery  and, should its
waters be  needed, provide a much more pal-
 atible drinking water  supply.

 Vancouver Lake

      Vancouver Lake is a 2,600-acre lake
 that lies in  the floodplain of the  Colum-
 bia River in  Vancouver, Washington.    It
 is highly polluted by coliform bacteria,
 suspended sediments, and nutrients.   These
 problems are  compounded by the lake's
 shallowness.  Urbanization in the drainage
 basin has substantially increased storm
 water runoff  and associated sediment  loads
 in tributary  creeks which, in turn, de-
 posit sediments  and pollutants in Vancou-
ver Lake.   Runoff ,from agricultural  crop
lands is a seasonal  problem.

     The poor water quality of Vancouver
Lake becomes particularly severe during
late summer--the optimum period for
recreational use  of the lake.  The warm,
shallow, fertile water promotes excessive
algal growth.  This growth, in turn,
causes other water quality problems so
Vancouver Lake no longer meets state water
quality standards and is unacceptable for
drinking, swimming, boating, fish and
wildlife, or viewing.

     The Port of Vancouver proposes to
rehabilitate the lake with financial
assistance from the Washington Depart-
ment of Ecology's Lake Rehabilitation
Program and a grant from the EPA Clean
Lakes Program.  Accumulated sediment
will be dredged from the lake.  Then a
channel and culvert system will be con-
structed to allow Columbia River water  to
be  used for flushing the lake.  This will
dilute  and  remove pollutants before they
can accumulate  to problem  levels.

     A  comprehensive plan  is also
nearing completion  that proposes con-
trols for wastewater generated in the
principal lake  tributary watershed,
Burnt Bridge Creek.  Pollution con-
trols and best  management  practices
contained in the plan will be  imple-
mented  as part  of the EPA  grant
agreement.

Lake Temescal

     Lake Temescal  is a  10-acre man-made
urban lake  in  the Temescal Regional  Rec-
reation Area  in Oakland,  California.   It
is  less than  three  miles  from downtown
Oakland and is  used intensively  for swim-
ming, sun bathing  and  fishing.   Its
principal problems  are  sedimentation
from nearby residential  and  commercial
development,  particularly acute  during
winter  storms,  and pollution from non-
 point surface runoff in summer.   Two tri-
butary  streams  entering the  lake contri-
 bute bacterial  concentrations high enough
 to pose a health hazard to swimmers.

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      A Clean Lakes Act grant of $488,972
 from the Environmental Protection Agency
 will help restore the quality of this
 recreational lake.

      To relieve sedimentation and intense
 eutrophication, 57,000 cubic yards of
 sediments will  be dredged from Lake Temes-
 cal  to  provide  a maximum depth of 24 feet
 near the  dam and gradually decreasing
 depths  upstream.  A system of impoundments
 and  diversions  will  be constructed to re-
 duce the  coliform bacteria problem.   The
 series  of small  retention basins  (designed
 as natural  ponds)  along the tributary
 streams will  increase  the exposure time
 of coliform bacteria in the water and in-
 crease  their die-off rate.   In addition,
 when bacterial  concentrations  exceed the
 capacity  of the retention basins,  the flow
 from both  streams  can  be  diverted  around
 the  lake.   This  will be accomplished by
 installing  pump  stations  in the retention
 ponds at  the  mouth  of  each  stream.

      By making  these modifications  to the
 drainage  system,  EPA and  the  East  Bay Re-
 gional Park  District of Oakland intend to
 show that  urban  lakes  can  be  helped  so
 that the quality of  a  valuable recreation
 resource can  be  restored  to the people of
 Oakland.
were  added  to  the  lake  from  a storm  sewer
and by municipal snow and  leaf disposal
at the lakeside.   As the lake deteriorated,
water chestnut, curly-leafed pond weed and
algae invaded  its  waters.  The swimming
beach, which served a population of
100,000 within a five-mile radius, dimin-
ished as a  public  resource.

     •Cal Welch, a  local banker has en-
couraged the Village of Scotia to recog-
nize  the lake as a major public asset
worthy of management.  A full-scale man-
agement scheme has followed with local
enthusiasm and financial support from
the Clean Lakes Program.  The lakeside
dumping of leaves, other organic matter,
and snow was stopped; improved mainten-
ance of the tidal  gate to curtail inflow
of nutrient-rich flood waters from the
river has been achieved; a berm populated
with aquatic plants to filter and screen
the storm water is being developed; and
about 63,000 cubic yards of sediment have
been dredged out of the lake.

     A recent review of this  project (one
of the first sponsored under the federal
Clean Lakes Program) by a Union College
evaluation team found that the restoration
program is proceeding well.
 Collins Lake

     Collins Lake in Schenectady County,
New York was formed when the Mohawk River
eroded a short cut across one of its mean-
ders and left behind an oxbow lake.  The
river has  continued to affect the lake
through periodic flooding and the malfunc-
tioning of a tidal gate designed to keep
river flood water from backing up into
the lake.   Nutrients and sediments also
White Clay Lake

     White Clay Lake (named for its marl
deposits) is a 250-acre lake in a 3,000-
acre dairy-agricultural watershed in north-
eastern Wisconsin.  While the lake is con-
sidered to be of good quality now, recent
changes in agricultural practices—larger
dairy herds, concentrated feeding areas,
and greater emphasis on corn production--
pose a water-quality threat.

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     The EPA Clean Lakes Program has pro-
vided half  of the $214,000 being used
to protect White Clay Lake from further
degradation.  The project will demonstrate
the designs, costs, arrangements and water
quality results  of implementing a watershed
management plan  in a rural area.  Plans in-
clude lake district formation, streambank
stabilization, contour cropping, grass
waterways, clear-water diversions, stabil-
ized standing areas, manure storage, pro-
tective zoning codes and an effective
voluntary conservation program.

     Water quality monitoring of barnyard
effluents, streams, a littoral-zone marsh,
and the lake itself will provide an
assessment  of the benefits of the protec-
tive  plan.
Mirror and Shadow Lakes

     The  kettle  hole  lakes, Mirror  (10
acres) and Shadow (35 acres) received
stormwater runoff from a small central
Wisconsin city for several decades.
Once used as  a municipal drinking water
source, Mirror Lake decreased  in quality
to  the point  where it could no longer be
used even for block ice production.  Oxy-
gen depletion, fishkills,  algal blooms
and lake  weeds characterized the eutro-
phic state of the lakes.

     Renovation  plans were developed
based on  studies by Wisconsin's Inland
Lake Renewal  Demonstration Project  funded
by  the Upper  Great Lakes Regional Commis-
sion.  Implementation money from the EPA
Clean Lakes Program made the renewal
efforts possible.  Stormwater  diversion,
periodic  mixing/aeration and aluminum
.treatment to  hasten phosphorus removal
have renewed the lakes.
Little Pond

     Seventy-acre Little Pond in Damari-
scotta, Maine is a principal public water
supply for the towns of New Castle and
Damariscotta.  The pond has had problems
with a dense growth of Daphnia zooplank-
ton (water fleas) to the extent that the
communities complained of adverse tastes
in their drinking water.  These tiny
organisms were previously controlled by
treating the pond with copper sulfate,
but concern developed over  the use of
this chemical because high  concentrations
have killed the fish.
     A biological control technique was
developed which involved stocking the pond
with alewives, an anadromous fish which
feeds on zooplankton.  The alewife spawns
and develops in fresh water, but normally
lives as an adult in the Atlantic Ocean.
With the assistance of a $4,000 EPA grant,
the Maine Department of Environmental
Protection stocked the pond in the spring
of 1976 with spawning adult alewives.  They
and the developing young fed on and con-
trolled the Daphnia all summer.  In the
fall the fish were trapped and removed
from the pond at the discharge stream as
they began their migration.  Alewives that
didn't migrate and escaped trapping were
 unable  to  survive  the winter  in  the  pond.


     The stocking and removal process was
conducted  for two years and assessments of
the results are  now being completed by
researchers.  In the meantime, the people
in  Damariscotta  and New  Castle have noted
that their drinking water tastes better.

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                                               II.  Lake Processes
                                               What is a Lake?

                                                    Lakes are more  than  just  standing
                                               bodies of water.   They  have  physical  and
                                               chemical  characteristics  which make  them
                                               ideal  homes for an immense variety of
                                               organisms.  The lake ecosystem is a  com-
                                               munity composed of interating  animals and
                                               plants and the physical and  chemical
                                               environment in which they live.  The sun
                                               provides  the energy  for the  entire system.

                                                   A lake cannot be separated from  the
                                               drainage  area  that supplies  its water.
                                               The drainage area  consists of  the uplands,
                                               shorelands and wetlands adjacent to  the
                                               lake.   How the land  within the drainage
                                               area is used or abused  by society will
                                               greatly affect the quality and clarity of
                                               the lake.   For example, soil erosion
                                               caused by construction  activities during
                                               intensive development can result in  a
                                               loss of 100,000 tons of soil per square
                                               mile per  year.  (By comparison, natural
                                               soil erosion rates from a wooded water-
                                               shed are  only  about  100 tons per square
                                               mile per  year.)  Much of  this  soil ends
                                               up  as  silt in  the  bottom  of  lakes and
                                               streams.   This  sediment not  only "muddies"
                                               the water but  also makes  a lake shallow
                                               and adds  nutrients and  pollutants to the
                                               water.  Dredging projects such as the one
                                               proposed  for Vancouver  Lake, Washington
                                               remove these accumulated  sediments.
6

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How Lakes are Formed

     Lakes are formed in a variety of ways.
You may be more familiar with one type of
lake or another depending on which region
of the United States you come from.  Listed
below are some typical types of lakes:

     1.  Glacial  lakes—natural lakes
         common to New England, the
         northern lake states, high
         mountain areas and Alaska.

     2.  Earthquake lakes—lakes
         formed by crustal  movements
         of the earth.  Pyramid Lake,
    Nevada; Lake Tahoe, Cali-
    fornia; Reel Foot Lake,
    Tennessee; and Lake Okee-
    chobee, Florida are examples.

3.  Volcanic lakes—Crater Lake,
    Oregon is a spectacular exam-
    ple of a lake formed by vol-
    canic action.

4.  Solution lakes—many lakes,
    particularly in Florida,
    but also in Indiana, Kentucky
    and Tennessee are formed by
    water-carving basins in easily
    soluble bedrock.
8

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     5.   Sloughs  and  oxbow  lakes--
         these lakes  are  found  in
         the  floodplains  of old
         river systems  and  are  basins
         left behind  when the rivers
         changed  their  paths.   Examples
         are  Collins  and  Vancouver
         Lakes.

     6.   Lakes formed by  wind action--
         Moses Lake,  Washington and  the
         lakes behind the dunes of Lake
         Michigan are examples  of lake
         basins formed  by wind  action.

     7.   Lakes formed by  human  action--
         humans are prolific builders
         of reservoirs  and  ponds for
         recreation,  power, navigation,
         and  irrigation.  Central Park
         Pond in  New  York City  is one
         example  of not only a  man-made
         lake, but one  in an intensely
         developed area.  Such  urban
         lakes and reservoirs often
         have very high recreational
         value because  of their loca-
         tion and the scarcity  of
         natural  water  bodies  in the
         area.
     To understand the  ecology  and
develop management strategies  for  lakes
it is important to understand  how  they
are formed.  Some lakes are more suscep-
tible to human damage than  others  and
some are more easily  managed than  others.

Lake Aging

     A lake is nurtured by  its  watershed.
Sediment transported  from the  watershed
enters the lake.   Nutrients such as
nitrogen, phosphorus  and potassium are
adsorbed into the sediment  particles and
dissolved in the drainage water.  They
fertilize the lake so organisms, partic-
ularly algae and aquatic plants, can
grow.

     Under the traditional  scheme  of
things, nutrients from  the  watershed are
washed into the lake.  These nutrients
promote the growth of algae and other
aquatic plants.  When these plants die and
decompose, the nutrients within their
tissue recycles and supports further plant
growth.  As the nutrient levels increase,
greater plant growth occurs.  This builds
gradually to a point where there is more
plant growth in one year than can be de-
composed before the next year.  The sedi-
ment changes from a mineral sediment
which came from the watershed to an
organic sediment caused by dead algae atid
aquatic plants settling on the lake bot-
tom.  Much of the nutrients for further
plant growth can be supplied from the
decomposing organic matter.  The lake is
eutrophying.  Ultimately, the organic
matter will fill the lake and then develop
into a marsh, then a wet meadow and then
a dry meadow.


     There are other processes, too.  Some
basins are very high in calcium carbonate
(lime).  Calcium carbonate chemically ties
up phosphorus so it is unavailable for
plant growth.  Consequently, even though
nutrient inputs are high, plant producti-
vity in the lake is low and organic sedi-
ments do not build up.  These lakes are
called marl lakes.

     In other watersheds, inputs to the
lake consist chiefly of leaves, sticks or
other organic matter rather than mineral
nutrients.  This organic matter decomposes
very slowly so the nutrient supply to the
lake is poor.  The water in these lakes is
tea colored and they are called stained-
water or dystrophic lakes.  The acid water
limits plant growth and animal life so
organic matter doesn't build up rapidly.
Eventually a bog may form around the edge
and a mat will grow out across the water.
This contributes organic material to the
lake and may later fill it in.

     Human activity can greatly increase
the rate of lake aging, and nutrient  inputs
from different land uses varies tremen-
dously as  shown  in  the  following  table.
                                                                                       9

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                                             LAKES
                                         7      I      v
                                  'HIGH DISSOLVED OXYGEN
                                  'LOW  NITROGEN ^ PHOSPHORUS
                                  'FEW AQUATIC WEEDS OR ALGAE
                                  'COUP WATER. FISH-I.E. TROUT
INPUTS TO LAKE
ARE PRIMARILY
LEAVES, STICKS,
TWIGS. ETC. FROM
SHORELINE
                                                          \
                                         INPUT INVOLVES
                                         HIGH AMOUNTS
                                         OF CALCIUM SUCH
                                         AS DISSOLVED
                                         LIMESTONE
                  INPUTS TO LAKE
                  ARE PRIMARILY
                  MINERALS^
                  SEDIMENT
                  INCLUDING*
                  N ITRO&EN ^
                  PHOSPHORUS
                                                                   \
                             &OG-
                         PVSTROPHIC
                            LAKES
     MARL
    LAKES
                                     EOTROPHIC
                                       LAKES
                       •COLORED WATER
                       -LOW PISSOL.VEP
                         OXYGEN
                       •LOW NITROGEN
                         ^ PHOSPHORUS
                       •FEW PLANTS OR.
                         ANIMALS IN
                         LAKE ITSELF
•HARP WATER.
• VARIA&LE
  CONDITIONS
  OF NUTRIENTS^
  PLANTS i,
  ANIMAL LIFE
                                  -LOW •DISSOLVED
                                     OXYGEN
                                  -HIGH NITROGEN
                                     £ PHOSPHORUS
                                  -ABUNDANT WEEPS
                                     AND/OR ALGAE
                                  -WARM WATER.
                                     FISH-I.E. 0>ASS
                                           WETLAHD
                                        WET
                             DRV LAND WITH  INVASION OF TREES
10

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    I
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    r
V
                                               Aquatic  Life in  the  Lake

                                                    The type of lake  will  largley  deter-
                                               mine what types  of plants  and  animals  live
                                               within it.   Oligotrophic  lakes are  usually
                                               deep and cold, with  a  good oxygen supply
                                               distributed throughout the water.   Trout,
                                               salmon,  cisco, whitefish  and herring are
                                               common to these  lakes.  Overall, their
                                               productivity is  low.

                                                    On  the other hand, as lakes eutrophy,
                                               northern pike, largemouth  bass, walleye and
                                               a variety of panfish become more common.
                                               These lakes may  be shallower and warmer
                                               and may not have an  abundance  of oxygen
                                               in the water year-round.   Bloodworms and
                                               a variety of other organisms can live  in
                                               their organic sediments.   In lakes  that
                                               are highly eutrophic,  blue-green algae
                                               abounds.  Sludge worms live in the  bottom
                                               sediments and fish such as bullheads,  mud-
                                               minnows  and carp which are tolerant of ex-
                                               tremely low oxygen are found  in this area.

                                                    Dystrophic lakes .are both oxygen
                                               and nutrient  poor;  they have very low
                                               productivity  and little aquatic life
                                               exists  in them.
                                               Lake Communities

                                                    The lake is a complex community
                                               composed of many interacting habitats
                                               and populations.  Shallow, warm bays
                                               and marshes may support northern pike
                                               and bass, pond weeds and pond lilies,
                                               cattails and muskrats.  The deep water
                                               area supports algae, water fleas,
                                               yellow perch and walleye.  The bottom
                                               muds throughout support a unique com-
                                               munity of worms, insect larvae and
                                               bacteria.
                                                    These communities are not mutually
                                               exclusive.  A northern pike may move out
                                               to deep water to feed on a young walleye,
                                               or a perch may take a dragonfly nymph
                                               from the surrounding wetland.
                                                                                        11

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IS)

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  .  Lake Problems
Pollution and Contamination
     We have already discussed  some  of
the problems caused by nutrients  and sedi
ment in a lake.   Overfertile  lakes grow
blue-green algae, aquatic  weeds and  low
quality fish.  As stated before,  eutro-
phication or nutrient and  sediment en-
richment is a natural process,  but cul-
tural activities such as poor land use
can greatly increase the eutrophication
rate.
                               Nutrients and sediment contributed
                          by poor land use are not the only lake
                          problems.  Wastewaters discharged from
                          sewage treatment plants (and other
                          "point sources"*) are nutrient-rich
                          (including large amounts of phosphorus).
                          Turbidity alone  (suspended solids and
                          color) from sediment, trash, organisms
                          and  organic materials, is a form of
                          water pollution.  Not only is it unpleas-
                          ant  to look at,  but in high concentra-
                          tions it can also clog fish gills and
                          smother fish eggs and bottom organisms.
        CLEARING —
        OF FORESTS
             -> FAR/A^ TOWN
                   OROWTH
                                                               ORB Att IXATION
     I75O
1800
                                                                              2OOO
 *"Point" sources of pollution are those operations in which the pollutants can be
 identified as being from a discrete point such as a discharge pipe.   This is in
 contrast to "non-point" pollution from a broad,  ill-defined source  such  as the
 runoff from many acres of fields, or from a diffuse housing or commercial area.
                                                                                      13

-------
       Organic materials which naturally
  enter a  lake, such as leaves, exert a
  biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).   As they
  decompose, they remove oxygen from water.
  This  reduces the supply of dissolved oxy-
  gen available to fish and other life forms
  in the lake.  Organic matter such as pulp
  and canning wastes, or raw sewage added
  to the water also will deplete oxygen as
  will  certain forms of inorganic chemicals.
  Good  supplies of dissolved oxygen are
  needed for fish and other organisms to
  survive  and reproduce.
      Pesticides (like DDT),  heavy metals
 (mercury, lead, zinc, and  copper), arsenic,
oil, asbestos  and  a  wide  array of other
toxic and inhibitory substances are com-
monly present  in urban  and  rural runoff.
Metal processing wastes,  chemical and
paper processing effluents, cooling water
discharge and  rain water  itself contain
contaminants in polluted  areas.  Some in-
jure and kill  aquatic plants, fish and
other water life directly.  Others become
concentrated in aquatic food chains and
are passed on  from prey to  predator, in-
cluding man, with  potentially adverse
effects.  In the Great  Lakes area, for
instance, there is a ban  on the commercial
harvest of Lake Michigan  trout and salmon
because of high PCB  (polychlorinated bi-
phenols) levels.
            METAL LOADIMG FROM  ROAD SURFACE RUNOFF
                                RESIDENTIAL SECTOR
                                   75%
                                   LEAD   600
                               CADMIU/A      1.2.
                                 NICKEL     10   LBS
                                COPPER.     36   |_BS>
                                   Z.\MC   KO   l-BS
                                    IROH  7.9OO   UBS
                           AAAN&AHESE    I SO   l_BS
                             CHRO/AIU/A     &O
                                                          COMMERCIAL SECTOR.
                                                             5%
                 INDUSTRIAL SECTOR   2O%
                    O.I  INCH  OF  RAINFAUL UASTIM&  FOR. I  HO OR.
Adapted from:   Pit,  E.  E.  and  G. Amy, 19?"6.  Toxic Materials Analysis  of Street Surface
Contaminants,  Environmental Protection Series.  U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency,
Washington,  D.C.,  133 p.
 14

-------
     Another noteworthy problem, as indi-
cated in the figure, is the amount of
heavy metals that run off city streets.
Such runoff remains largely uncontrolled
and untreated.  In the illustration, the
loadings to water runoff are generated
by a "hypothetical city" of 100,000
people covering an area of 14,000 acres.
Such a metropolitan area may be expected
to have about 400 curb miles of streets
and to generate about 12,000,000 gallons
of sanitary sewage flow per day.

     Our increasing demand for energy can
cause lake problems.  Radioactive and/or
heated wastes enter surface waters from
nuclear power plants, research labs and
testing facilities, industrial cooling
waters and conventional power plants.
Radioactive wastes may be a health and
a genetic hazard.   Increased water tem-
perature may  result in undesirable
changes in aquatic communities.  Warm
water, for instance, holds less dissolved
oxygen and certain species of blue-green
algae grow much better in warm water than
in cold.

     Many of  the early water pollution
control laws were passed to protect public
health.  A wide variety of diseases such
as typhoid and paratyphoid fever, dysen-
tery, gastroenteritis, and hepatitis are
transmitted by contaminated water supplies.
Public  health is  also  important for rec-
reational  users of  water.  Body contact
with contaminated water can cause diseases
such as eye,  ear, nose and throat infec-
tions and skin rashes.  Most of these
diseases are  transmitted by bacteria,
viruses or other microorganisms which
enter the water via urban and agricultural
runoff, domestic wastes including sewage
and  septic tank discharges, and some in-
dustrial wastes such as those from  animal
processing plants.

     The standard test for determining
contamination of water is the fecal coli-
form test.  Although these organisms are
not  normally  a direct  threat to humans,
they do indicate  that water is  contamin-
ated from either  human or animal  sources
and there is a strong possibility it will
contain disease-producing organisms.  The
criterion set up by most municipal  health
departments for full body contact recrea-
tion (swimming) allows an average of only
200 fecal coliform organisms in five or
more 100 milliliter water samples.
If the average count exceeds this value,
recreational use of the water may be
restricted to boating and fishing.
                                                                                       15

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 Water Levels

      For some people, a lake problem  in-
 volves keeping a lake a lake.   As  has
 already been discussed, sedimentation  can
 cause serious infilling.   In some  lakes.,
 particularly those formed by dams  on  large
 watersheds with easily erodable soils,
 the sedimentation rate is so rapid that
 the lake fills in within  a few decades.
     Over the years, this can be very
bothersome to lakeshore property owners.
In wet years, they may have a swimming
pool in the basement.  In dry years,  a
longer pier may be needed to reach the
lake.  This problem may become seasonal
and can be particularly dramatic for  urban
lakes for which the main source of supply
is stormwater runoff.
      There are also problems  where  ground
 water supply influences  lake  levels.   Some
 lakes are located where  the topography is
 low enough to intercept  the ground  water.
 Ground water levels can  fluctuate from
 season to season and year to  year,  depend-
 ing on the amount of precipitation  and
 withdrawal.   During or after  very wet
 years, ground water levels are  high and
 lake levels  are up.  During or  after dry
 years, ground water levels are  low  and
 lake levels  drop.
     Another problem with ground water
fluctuation in lake communities having
extensive septic tank systems is flood
interference with drain fields when
ground water levels are high.  Contamin-
ation of ground water by the septic tanks
is also a potentially serious problem in
these communities.   Too many septic tank
systems in one area or in the wrong soils
could cause sewage  contamination of local
well  water and possibly of the lake with
both nutrients and  pathogens.
                                 OROUNPWATER. LEVEL
                                     I
              WET  YEAR,
               PRY  YEAK
16

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People Pressure

     How many people does it take to phys-
ically degrade the resource?  How many
different activities by fishermen, power
boaters, water skiers, sailors, canoeists,
or divers can a lake handle before it
begins to show signs of wear and tear?
How many people, in general, can a lake
accommodate before they start getting into
each other's way?  How many people can a
lake hold before they disrupt each other's
aesthetic experience with the lake?  These
questions are difficult if not impossible
to answer because they involve individual
perspectives.

     When we don't  know the answer,  it is
best to  keep our options open.  The  State
of Wisconsin, for instance, has a wilder-
ness lakes program  to set aside certain
lakes in their  relatively undeveloped
state and to keep them this way while
scientists study more about the effects
and controls of development.  This allows
some of  the  "how much is too much" ques-
tions to be  answered  and gives people a
diversity of options  for lake enjoyment.
                                                                   ,£**«••*
                                                                                       17

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 IV Protection,  Restoration,
    and Management
    The State of  the Art

     Degradation  of the quality of lakes
is the result of  lake-aging processes
. .  .  eutrophication and sedimentation
. .  .  speeded up  by cultural activities.
These  synergistic processes cause or
aggravate some  of the familiar lake qual-
ity problems:   algae "blooms," nuisance
rooted-plant growth, odors, diminished
usable water surface, changes in fisheries
and fishkills.
18
     Numerous  difficulties complicate lake
renewal  and  management efforts:   the state-
of-the-art is  still rather primitive;
lakes are  complex ecosystems.  In spite  of
many years of  study, prediction  of the
response of  a  lake system to a given treat-
ment program is tenuous.  Furthermore, the
tendency for each lake to be characterized
by its own "unique personality"  hinders
extrapolating  results obtained on one lake
to solve problems in other lakes with
apparently similar problems.

-------
     The complexities of lake rehabilita-
tion suggest that it is likely to be ex-
pensive and difficult.  No doubt the prob-
lem is best handled by its prevention
through wise planning and careful use.
Where lake rehabilitation is necessary,
the objective should be to restore "nor-
mal" aquatic balances to the lake eco-
system, not swimming pool conditions.
The restoration of normal balances should
also include the lake shoreland and water-
shed.  Understanding the interrelation-
ships of all parts of the lake system is
essential to its rehabilitation.  It may
be important to protect or restore the
original basin; make efficient use of
remaining open spaces and green areas;  or
reclaim critically important portions of
the watershed for nutrient and sediment
management.
     Secondly, the technology for lake
renewal is in an early stage of develop-
ment and some lake restoration schemes
become prohibitively expensive.  Costs
increase rapidly in moving from protection
schemes to more extensive rehabilitation
projects.  Doing nothing now ultimately
may lead to a prohibitively expensive
project later.

     A third  factor frustrating lake renew-
al efforts is that of time.  Considerable
data may be needed to define the problem
adequately, and remedial  programs may span
several years.  Public demands and expec-
tations are hard  to satisfy over such a
period of  time unless the public is well
informed.  Nonetheless,  the community does
have  several  options available for lake man-
agement depending  upon the  state of the lake.
           EXTENT OF  UAKE,  AAANAGEMENT
                       PROTECT 4
                                        LIMITED
                                        LAKE
                                        MAMA&fcMENT
                       AS IS
                                                        LAKK
                                                        MANAGEMENT
                           LAKE
                           RENEWAL
                           AFTER
                           SCRIOUS
                                                                                       19

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 Lake Protection

      Some  situations  call  for  better water
 quality  maintenance or protection  efforts,
 guided by  a  carefully developed, comprehen-
 sive land  and  water management plan to  pre-
 vent degradation  of lake quality.

      Protection measures display the high-
 est  levels of  foresight and commitment  to
 maintenance  of water  quality.   A goal has
 been defined;  a plan  has been  developed;
 the  letter and spirit of the tasks are
 supported; work has begun.  People care;
 the  program  proceeds.

      Resistance to implementation of protec-
 tion measures  may be  born of the "it won't
 happen here" attitude  about eutrophication:
 the  lake has been like  this for a hundred
 years  ...  can you prove that  there will
 be changes?  This is  a  difficult question
 to answer, in  view of  the infancy of docu-
 mented lake  restoration schemes and of the
 science of describing  the maturity proces-
 ses  in lakes.

     The same techniques apply to protec-
 tive plans as to restoration-maintenance
 ones:  stabilizing,  contouring, mulching,
 zoning, stacking,  diverting, prohibiting,
 chisel plowing, terracing,  riprapping,
       oxygenated
          cold vi
           rwturn
                         •anchor  fr. •';.•> :.".<•:.;
                   ..^^^-f^^^^; \
 fencing,  greening.   Why  not  do  it  in  ac-
 cord with a  plan  that  helps  solve  the
 most important  problems  first?


     In  addition  to  a  coordinated  plan,
 everyone can contribute  to  lake protection
 by  responsible, individual  actions to cur-
 tail the nutrients entering  the lake.
 Lake residents  should  avoid  the use of
 high phosphate  dish  detergents, laundry
 products, and household  cleansers.  Anythir
 that goes down  the drain should be phosphal
 free or  at least  low in  phosphorus.   When
 shopping  for detergents, read the  label anc
 buy reduced  or  non-phosphorus products.
 "Biodegradable" is nice  too, but the  phos-
 phorus content  of the  product is what count
 most.

     Another way  to  personally  reduce nutri
 ent loads  to your lake is by avoiding or
 curtailing your use  of garden and  lawn fer-
 tilizers.  Don't  use too much fertilizer tc
 often.  The  excess fertilizer is not  only
 wasted money, but is eventually washed into
 the lake  where  it fertilizes weeds and
 algae to  further  increase your  costs  in
 lake management later.   If you  feel com-
 pelled to fertilize your lake property lawn
 see your  County Extension Agent first.  He
 can recommend the best fertilizer  combina-
 tion and  the  best application practices for
your particular soil.

     Septic  tanks can also be a  problem.
 In  addition  to using low phosphorus house-
hold products, you should also  be  water
conservative  to avoid 'overloading  the
drain field.   The system should  be inspecte
about every  two or three years,  and the
tank pumped  regularly.    Because  a  faulty
septic tank  system may be dangerous to -
public health in addition to contributing
to  lake degradation,  any failures  should be
repaired  immediately.


Restoration or Renewal

     Where it is too  late for such before-
the-fact action  alone,  lake rehabilitation
projects may  stem or  reverse the aging
process.   A water quality maintenance pro-
gram can then provide a lasting solution.
20

-------
     Two general approaches for rehabili-
tating nutrient-rich lakes are (1) limi-
ting fertility, either by restricting
nutrient inputs or by direct in-lake
schemes aimed at reducing nutrient re-
cycling by accelerating nutrient out-
flows; and (2) treating or managing the
symptoms of over-fertilization (see table
on next page).
     Nutrient input can be significantly
reduced by (a) removing nutrients from
wastewaters through advanced treatment of
municipal and industrial effluents (Sha-
gawa Lake, Minnesota), (b) diverting
nutrient-rich wastewaters (Lake Washington,
Washington; Mirror Lake, Wisconsin), (c)
utilizing land-use management practices and
controls (White Clay Lake, Wisconsin), (d)
treating inflowing streams, and (e) modify-
ing products, e.g., phosphate-regulated
detergents (Connecticut, Indiana, Maine,
Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Vermont,
Wisconsin, Chicago and Akron).

     Direct in-lake schemes to remedy
eutrophic lake problems are varied and
include:  (a) dredging to remove nutrient-
rich sediments (Collins Lake, New York),
(b) using chemicals such as iron, fly ash
and aluminum  salts to inactivate or re-
move nutrients in a lake (Medical Lake,
Washington; Lafayette Reservoir, Cali-
fornia;  several Wisconsin lakes [Dunst,
1974]),  (c) dilution or flushing of
nutrient-rich waters  (Green Lake,
Washington; Snake Lake, Wisconsin; Moses
Lake,  Washington, Vancouver Lake,
Washington),  (d) aerating lakes suffering
from low dissolved oxygen conditions  (Penn
Lake,  Minnesota; Vancouver Lake, Washing-
ton; Lafayette Reservoir, California),  (e)
discharging or withdrawing nutrient-rich
waters of a lake (commonly the bottom
waters or hypolimnion,  as planned at  Lake
Ballinger, Washington),  (f) removing
nutrients by  harvesting  plants or fish
(Lake  Sallie, Minnesota; Little Pond,
Maine),  and  (g) manipulating  the lake
bottom,  including  sealing with sand blan-
kets,  plastic sheeting  and other materials
(Marion  Millpond,  Wisconsin).
Management

     Although nutrient limitation is most
desirable, other management schemes main-
tain a lake in a usable condition.  Aera-
tion, dredging, weed harvesting or chemi-
cal control, water level manipulation,
and similar techniques may be cosmetic in
nature and treat the symptoms rather than
the causes of the problem.  Nevertheless,
they provide short-term relief and can
yield widespread satisfaction to lake
users or be part of a larger-scale rehab-
ilitation project.

     Commonly, no single renewal technique
is sufficient.  Rather, a combination of
nutrient restrictions, in-lake modifica-
tions and symptom-management is prescribed
as noted in the lake restoration summaries
at the beginning of this booklet.

     Paralleling these scientific and tech-
nological approaches, public institutions
are being developed for undertaking such
programs and despite the problems, encour-
aging progress has been made in recent
years.
                                                                                       21

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                LAKE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
  I.  Limiting Fertility and Controlling Sedimentation

      A.  Curbing Nutrient Influx

          1.  Wastewater Treatment
          2.  Diversion
          3.  Land-Use Practices
          4.  Treatment of Inflow
          5.  Product Modification

      B.  In-Lake Schemes to Accelerate Nutrient
          Outflow or Prevent Recycling

          1.  Dredging for Nutrient Control
          2.  Nutrient Inactivation/Precipitation
          3.  Dilution/Flushing
          4.  Biotic Harvesting
          5.  Selective Discharge
          6.  Sediment Exposure and Desiccation
          7.  Lake Bottom Sealing
          8.  Lake Aeration

 II.  Managing the Consequences of Lake Aging

      A.  Aeration and/or Circulation

          1.   Hypolimnetic Aeration
          2.   Whole Lake Aeration
      B.   Lake Deepening

          1.   Dredging
          2.   Drawdown and Sediment Consolidation
      C.   Other Physical  Controls

          1.   Harvesting
          2.   Water Level  Fluctuation
          3.   Habitat Manipulation

      D.   Chemical  Controls

          1.   Algicides
          2.   Herbicides
          3.   Piscicides

      E.   Biological  Controls
          1.   Develop  Predator-Prey  Relationships
          2.   Inter-Species  Reactions
          3.   Plant Diseases
                                                        PRODUCT MODIFICATION
Florida manatee feeding
on water hyacinth
22

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TIME
                                 LAKE MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES
                                              PROTECT
                                              PRESERVE
                                                AS
          URBAN
            RUNOFF
          INDOSTRIA
          E.FFL.OENT
                                                           LIMITED
                                                             LAKE
                                                                      EXTENSfVE
                                                                         LAKE
                                                                     MAHA&EMEHT
                                                                             LAKE RCH6WAL
                                                                             AFTER,
                                                                              DEGRARATION
       HUMAN J/APACT
    ACCELERATED RATE OF
     LAKE EUTROPHI CATION
                                    DO NOTHING
                                                                                      23

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 V What  Our Lake Community
   Can Do
 Who Represents Us?

     Individual  property owners and rec-
 reationists are  responsible for managing
 their own property and controlling their
 own behavior. However, many problems re-
 quire collective concern and action.
   NATIONAL
    FOREST
                                                      EAST COUNTY
24

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An Informal Group of Neighbors

     Initial discussions about lake prob-
lems and potential solutions occur under
many different circumstances.  Fishermen
might discuss the issue at the boat land-
ing or the bait shop.  Neighbors might
discuss the lake across the fence or over
coffee.  It is important for property
owners to  recognize that others also are
concerned.  Informal groups can undertake
some small neighborhood projects, lobby,
and exert  some pressure on "insensitive"
neighbors  or recreationists.
 A Lake Association

      At  some  point, a community  leader
 will  invite interested  people  to get
 together to discuss alternative  courses
 of action and the  possibility  of crea-
 ting  a formal  organization.  A lake
 association often  results with voluntary
 membership and a modest fee.   Lake asso-
 ciations are  able  to  undertake social
 activities which bring  people  together,
 and then can  lobby for  the  entire commun-
 ity.   Many lake associations  incorporate
 as non-profit organizations and  sponsor
 certain  limited projects.
 A Special Purpose Unit of Government

      Since lake associations have limited
 financial and legal ability to manage a
lake system, some states such as Wisconsin
have given lake communities the option of
forming a unit of government for that
specific purpose.  The enabling legisla-
tion differs from state to state, but
these special purpose units typically
have defined legal authority to manage
the water and to raise money in certain
geographic areas.  For example, the far-
mers around White Clay Lake in Wisconsin
formed a special lake district to under-
take a lake protection project.
 A General  Purpose  Unit  of Government

      Other states  have  chosen  not  to  en-
 courage proliferation of special purpose
 units of government.  In these states,  the
 cities, villages,  towns and  counties  are
 expected to provide the essential  govern-
 mental  services.   In  some cases, a lake
 community may attempt to incorporate  and
 become a new village  or city.   In  most
 cases,  the lake community must convince
 the elected officials of existing  units
 that the lake can  be  managed and must be
 managed.  The general purpose units of
 government have the broadest array of man-
 agement, financing, and police powers
 available to them.  For instance,  the
 Village of Scotia, New  York organized the
 restoration effort at Collins Park Lake.
 However, lakes often  cross political  boun-
 daries and lake management is inhibited by
 multiple jurisdictions.
                                                                                       25

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What Kind of Lake Do We Uant?

     No lake will satisfy perfectly every-
one's desires.  A lake with ideal swimming
conditions is not likely to provide good
fishing.  A lake that is used primarily
for water supply may be drawn down in
summer and the bare mud flats may not be
aesthetically pleasing.

     Some uses are incompatible on the
same lake.  Other uses can be accommodated
on the same lake but must be separated by
time or zones.

     A community should decide what type
of activities are possible and what acti-
vities are preferred on the lake and then
attempt to manage the lake accordingly.
The compromise should reflect the inter-
ests of the various user groups and the
broader public as represented by state
agencies.
                  you can't swim
                  in  a weed bed
                 you can't fish
                  in  a swimming pool
Vl|l
                                                                   you can't build a home
                                                                   in a greenway
                                                                   you can't tax
                                                                   a cattail
                                                                   you can compromise
26

-------
What Do Me Need to Know About the Lake?

     Lake problems might be obvious, but
the solutions often are not.  Some members
of the community are likely to have strong
opinions about what to do, and these opin-
ions are likely to differ.  Before devel-
oping a management plan and undertaking
any project, certain basic information
is essential.
A Water and Nutrient Budget

     Lake water can originate from direct
rainfall, direct drainage, storm sewers,
stream flow, groundwater flow, and sewage
treatment plants.   The source of the water
often determines the amount and type of
nutrients, sediments and other pollutants
entering the lake.

     Similarly, the way water leaves
determines the impact of these materials.
In some lakes, most nutrients are flushed
through the lake by a flowing river before
algal blooms can occur.  In other lakes
most nutrients stay in the lake and accum-
ulate to feed more weeds.  A water budget
indicates where the water is coming from
and where it is going.  A nutrient budget
points out what sources need to be con-
trolled.


Hypothetical
and
Lake Water, Phosphorus
Nitrogen
Budget

Water


Rainfall /evaporation
Direct drainage
Sewage treatment plants
Streams

Groundwater
Total

IN
5
10
10
50
25
100%
OUT
20
0
0
20
60
100%

5
5
35
50
5
100%



Nutrients
IN
20
5
25
15
35
100%
OUT
0
0
0
20
30 -
50%

0
0
0
20
40
60%
                                                                                      27

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 Hydrographic and Vegetation  Maps

      The water depth  and  type  of  bottom
 material determine the  distribution  of
 aquatic vegetation in a lake.   In turn,
 the bottom contours of  the lake and  type
 of vegetation determine the  temperature
 and oxygen levels  which influence the
 array of fish and  other animals in the
 lake.   Depth contour  maps and  vegetation
 maps  show the areas and types  of  nuisance
 weeds  as well  as the  areas which  might be
 considered for dredging,  aeration or other
 management treatments.
                                              A Watershed Analysis

                                                   It is important to know the general
                                              land use in the watershed.  Certain land
                                              uses are more likely to contribute sedi-
                                              ments and nutrients and other pollutants
                                              that can't be traced to a particular
                                              source.  It is also critical to identify
                                              specific sources of pollution such as
                                              storm sewers, sewage treatment plants,
                                              certain industries, some barnyards, and
                                              areas of rapid erosion.


                                              In-Lake Water Analysis

                                                   Regular sampling and testing of the
                                              water in the lake throughout the year
                                              will help indicate particular problem
                                              areas and will monitor lake response to
                                              management changes in the watershed.
                                              Testing may involve bacteria, toxins,
                                              water depth, sediment depth and type,
                                              and vegetation changes as well as nutrient
                                              concentrations.
28

-------
          COURTHOUSE DIRECTORS
              COOHTV
              UNIVERSITY
              ZOHIN6
                 SAHVT
              PLAN
                66JST6R OF
                TRA1H1H6
Who Can Help Us?—Local

    The best place to start looking for
help is in your own conmunity.  A science
teacher at the local high school or com-
munity college might be able to conduct
some of the analyses as well as help resi-
dents understand the lake.  For instance,
professors and students from Union College
were heavily involved in the Collins Park
Lake, New York, project.  Retirees in the
community might also be able to volunteer
certain skills.
     Other professionals may be found
within a few miles of your community,
often in the county courthouse.  The
planning and zoning office can provide
information on present and future land
use around the lake and in the water-
shed.  The Soil and Water Conservation
District in cooperation with the U.S.
Soil Conservation Service can provide
soils maps and help in formulating
plans to reduce erosion. State and
federal cost-sharing programs for land
management are often administered at
the county or town level.  The Univer-
sity Extension Service can provide tech-
nical assistance, help organize educa-
tional meetings, and assist  in preparing
applications.
                                                                            29

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 Who  Can Help  Us?—State

     Some states have developed a complete
 lake management program.  Some offer lim-
 ited assistance as a part of other pro-
 grams.  In other states, very little assis-
 tance is available.  In such states, lake
 communities may wish to encourage their
 state legislature to provide assistance.
 Information Assistance

     No one has a monopoly on information
 and many institutions can provide a valu-
 able service with regard to understand-
 ing the lake, lake management techniques,
 and organizing for action.  The Extension
 branch of a state-supported university
 is usually willing and able to provide
 such information.  Other sources include
 federal, state, and county natural re-
 source agencies; community colleges;
 libraries; and high schools.
Technical Assistance

     Specialized information and services
might be obtained from limnologists,
aquatic biologists or fish managers who
are employed by a state conservation,
natural resources, or environmental
agency.  In other situations, it may be
necessary to hire a consulting firm to
gather and interpret data on the lake.
Financial Aid

     A few states have special grant pro-
grams for lake protection and rehabili-
tation projects.  The White Clay Lake
community received such a grant from the
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
to build manure storage facilities.  In
other states, various grant programs
might be utilized depending on the nature
of the project.  Parks might be purchased
and developed.  Protective vegetation
might be planted on roadsides and gullies.
Greenway areas provide open space and pro-
tect the fragile ecology of the shoreline.
30

-------
Who Can Help Us?—Federal

     The following programs can provide
financial assistance for a variety of
activities designed to enhance lakes as
public resources.  These programs are
typically combined with state and local
assistance.  In some cases, it is also
possible to enlist the support of more
than one federal program.  For instance,
Penn Lake in Bloomington, Minnesota re-
ceived assistance from both EPA and the
Department of Housing and Urban Develop-
ment.
AGRICULTURE—Soil and Water Conservation

     The Department of Agriculture has a
long history of helping farmers conserve
their  soil.  Born in the dust bowls of
the Great Depression, the Soil Conserva-
tion Service (SCS) has provided technical
assistance  to  landowners.  The Agricul-
tural  Stabilization and Conservation  Ser-
vice  (ASCS) has assisted with cost sharing
of certain  land management practices.  In
recent years,  emphasis has also been
placed on keeping soil and nutrients  out
of water; major new funds have become
available to assist with control  of  "non-
point" pollution, such as animal  wastes.
The  Farmers Home Administration provides
grants and  low-interest loans for construc-
tion  of  public sewers  in rural areas.  The
programs  are typically administered  at the
county level.
COMMERCE--Regional  Commissions

     Environmental  management and economic
development can be complementary.  In recog-
nition of that complementarity, the regional
commissions have provided grants to enhance
management of natural  resources, including
lakes.  For example, the White Clay Lake
project began under a  grant from the Upper
Great Lakes Regional Commission.
                                               DEFENSE—Army Corps of Engineers

                                                    The Corps has a long history of in-
                                               volvement in lakes and reservoirs regard-
                                               ing navigation and recreation.  Financial
                                               assistance is available for aquatic nui-
                                               sance control.
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 vvEPA
 EPA--Clean Water Act

      Since 1976, the U.S. Environmental
 Protection Agency has been awarding funds;
 under the "clean lakes" section (314) of
 the  Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C. section
 1251  et_ se£.).  Cost sharing grants have
 been  made to  rehabilitate or protect
 lakes in every part of the country.  See
 the  last page of this booklet for EPA
 regional offices.

      In addition to the "clean lakes"
 program, other parts of the Clean Water
 Act  provide funding for activities re-
 lated to lakes such as construction of
 sewage  treatment plants and alternative
 waste management systems (Sec. 201-205)
 and  area wide planning for wastewater
 management (See Sec. 208).
HUD—Block Grants

     Grants for either single  purpose  or
comprehensive community development  acti-
vities are available from the  Dept.  of
Housing and Urban Development.   Eligible
projects include construction  of sewer
lines, purchase of parkland, and construc-
tion of recreational facilities.  Prefer-
ence is given to communities with low  and
moderate income families.   Local  or  re-
gional planning and development  agencies
are likely to be familiar with this  pro-
gram.
                                              INTERIOR—Lawcon

                                                   The  Land and Water Conservation Fund
                                              provides  cost-sharing grants to local units
                                              of  government that have completed a com-
                                              prehensive outdoor recreation plan.  The
                                              grants can be used for either acquisition
                                              of  land or the development of basic out-
                                              door  recreation  facilities.  The grants
                                              are administered through the state natural
                                              resources agency,,
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                                         HARVEST, AERATE
What Are Qur Options?—Management
Alternatives

Understanding the Options

     With the assistance of private  consul-
tants and public agency  personnel, community
leaders can consider atlernative courses  of
action.  Typically there will  not  be a
single easy solution. The development of a
management plan requires public participa-
tion as well as professional expertise.   A
component of the public  participation effort
should be a systematic educational effort.
A Mix of Benefits

     Recreational benefits are the most
widely recognized benefits of lake protec-
tion and rehabilitation projects.  However,
potential benefits include:

     1.  Increases in property values
     2.   Aesthetic  enjoyment  (solitude
           and  beauty)
     3.   Growth in  tourism
     4.   Recreation (fi'shing, swimming,
           boating, etc.)
     5.   Community  self-image and pride
Recognizing the Risks

     The community should be aware  that
lake management is still  a young  science
with limited predictability.  For instance,
a program to eradicate rough fish may  im-
prove game fishing, but water skiing may be
hampered by the resultant growth  of rooted
vegetation.  Unless the source of plant
nutrients is controlled, attempts to poison
weeds may lead to more algae.  Caution is
advised and the risks should be discussed
by the entire community.  Certain risks
are acceptable in terms of the goals for
the lake; others are not.  Proceed  with
caution, but proceed.
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 How  Do Me  Implement Our Lake Management
 Projects?

 Management  Flowchart

     A plan for lake management often in-
 volves a sequence of events which unfold
 over a course of several years.  A sample
 outline follows:

     Year  1--Organizing
     Year  2--Studying
     Year  3--Deciding:  Management plan to:
             divert storm sewers from the
             lake, treat the lake to pre-
             cipitate out phosphorus from
             the water, and aerate to im-
             prove oxygen content.
     Year 4--Diverting Storm Sewers
     Year 5--Treating lake with alum to
             precipitate phosphorus
     Year 6--Aeration
     Year 7--Monitoring
     Once a decision on a project has  been
 reached, formal documents can be prepared
 to obtain the necessary services.  The
 administrative rules of granting agencies
 and general statutes are likely to require
 certain bidding and contracting procedures.
Raising Local Matching Funds

     A substantial community investment
may be necessary to match grants from
federal and state agencies.  The particu-
lar method of raising revenue will depend
on the statutes of each state and the
decisions of the community.

Project Management

     A project director will be necessary
for any major project.  At certain junc-
tures, an attorney's assistance may be
necessary.  Provision should also be made
for accounting services.

Publicity

     The local newspaper, radio, and TV
reporters are a critical link to public
education and project acceptance.  The
whole development of a project should be
fully chronicled.
                                              What Happens After the Project?

                                              Monitoring and Continued Lake Management

                                                   Lake management is not simply a one-
                                              shot project.  The impacts of human use
                                              on the lake and in the watershed continue,
                                              Management means continuing care and con-
                                              cern, the same as exercised on a home or
                                              a business.

                                                   Management means lake monitoring
                                              after the project is completed to:

                                                   1.  Determine the success of the
                                                       project.
                                                   2.  Detect any new sources of pol-
                                                       lutants at an early stage.
34

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future efforts.  A minimum of an annual
meeting and a mid-year newsletter are sug-
gested to keep the organization functioning.


Continued Citizen Involvement

     It is especially difficult to convince
citizens that lake management is a contin-
uing responsibility demanding their inter-
est and participation.  Unless the beach is
closed or weeds choke the channel again or
water levels change dramatically or toxic
chemicals are found in fish, most citizens
probably will not pay too much attention to
lake management efforts.  Nevertheless, it
is important that regular opportunities be
provided for education and  participation
between  the crises.  Some of those crises
can be avoided by diligent  preventive
efforts  and a  continuing  program of  lake
monitoring and management.
     Management means constant vigilance
regarding lake or land use changes in the
watershed and readiness to represent the
interest of the lake community at public
hearings and other meetings.

     Management also means the operation
of a dam or a weed harvester on a contin-
uing basis if necessary and the planning
and completion of subsequent projects as
suggested by the monitoring data.
Organizational Maintenance

     Once the project is completed, commun-
ity  leaders often sigh with relief and
bask in congratulations.  It is important
to reward dedicated leaders with community
recognition.  However, the right-to-pride
should complement a commitment to continue--
to maintain the  organizational structure for
                                         35

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For Further Information
          For information regarding the
Federal Clean Lakes Program, contact the
Clean Lakes Coordinator at the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency regional
office:

     Region 1 -- EPA
     John F. Kennedy Federal Building
     Boston, MA  02203

     Region 2 — EPA
     26 Federal  Plaza
     New York, NY  10007

     Region 3 — EPA
     Curtis Building
     6th & Walnut Street
     Philadelphia, PA  19106

     Region 4 — EPA
     345 Courtland Street, N.E.
     Atlanta, GA  30308

     Region 5 -- EPA
     230 S. Dearborn Street
     Chicago, IL  60604

     Region 6 — EPA
     First International  Bldg.
     1201  Elm Street
     Dallas, TX  75270

     Region 7 -- EPA
     1735  Baltimore Ave.
     Kansas City,  MO  64108

     Region 8 -- EPA
     1860  Lincoln  Street
     Denver, CO   80203

     Region 9 — EPA
     215 Fremont Street
     San Francisco, CA  94105

     Region 10 --  EPA
     1200  6th Avenue
     Seattle,  WA  98101
     For information on state programs,
contact your state agency with responsi-
bility for fish and game, water quality,
outdoor recreation, or natural  resources
management.

     For information on local,  state  and
federal programs,  many of which are ad-
ministered locally, contact your local
county agent in the University  Extension
Office or other agencies  with local
offi ces.
36

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Suggested References
Bouldin, D. R. et al., 1977.  Lakes and Phosphorus Inputs,  A focus
     on management.  Information Bulletin 127, Cooperative  Extension,
     Building 7, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

Deardorff, Howard, 1977.  The Public Benefits of Cleaned Water:
     Emerging Greenway Opportunities.  Booklet.  U.S.  EPA,  Office
     of Land Use Coordination (A-101), Washington, D.C.

Nichols, Stanley A., 1974.  Mechanical and Habitat Manipulation  for
     Aquatic Plant Management.  Technical Bulletin No.  77,  Department
     of Natural Resources, Madison, Wisconsin.

Dunst, Russell C. et al., 1974.  Survey of Lake Rehabilitation Tech-
     niques and Experiences.  Technical Bulletin No. 75, Department
     of Natural Resources, Madison, Wisconsin.

Ehrenfeld, David W., 1970.  Biological Conservation.  Holt, Rinehart
     and Winston,  Inc.,  New York, New York.  226 pp.

Klots, Elsie B., 1966.   The New Field Book of  Freshwater Life.  G.  P.
     Putnam's Sons, New  York, New York.  398 pp.

Lind, Owen T., 1974.   Handbook of Common Methods  in Limnology.  C.  V.
     Mosby Company, St.  Louis, Missouri.  154  pp.

Migel, J.  Michael,  Editor,  1974.  The Stream Conservation Handbook,
     Grown Publishers,  Inc.,  New York, New York.  242 pp.

Needham, James G.  and  J.  T. Lloyd,  1937.  The  Life of Inland Waters.
     Comstock Publishing Company,  New York,  New York.

Reid, George  K.,  1961.   Ecology of  Inland Waters  and Estuaries.
     VanNostrand  Reinhold Company,  New York,  New  York.  375 pp.

Ruttner,  Frantz,  1972.   Fundamentals  of  Limnology, 3rd  Edition.  Univer-
     sity  of  Toronto  Press,   295 pp.

Vallentyne, John  R.,  1974.  The Algal  Bowl,  Lakes and Man.  Misc.
     Special  Publication 22,  Canada Department of the Environment,
      Fisheries  and Marine Service,  Ottawa.   186 pp.

Wetzel,  Robert  G.,  1975.  Limnology,  W.  B.  Saunders Company,  Phila-
      delphia.   743 pp.
 *U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1979 O -260-173/6140

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