United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
Planning and Standards
Washington, D.C. 20460
EPA-440/5-79-021
oEPA Clean Lakes and Us
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CLEAN LAKES AND US
prepared for th
U. So Environmental Protection Agency
by
University of Wisconsin-Extension
Madison, Wisconsin
March, 1979
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U ri (Jorernmr-nt Fruiting Office
Washington, D C. 20102- Price 51.20
Stock Number 055-001-01085-1
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This booklet was prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency by
George Gibson Stanley Nichols
Klessig James Peterson
Environmental Resources Unit
University of Wisconsin--Extension
The authors gratefully acknowledge the review and editorial comments of
Thomas Sinclair, Thomas Pierce, and Robert Johnson.
Graphic Designer: Susan McQuade Typist: Nan Erickson
This report has been reviewed by the clean
lakes program staff, EPA, and approved for
publication. Approval does not signify that
the contents necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the U.S. EPA, nor does mention
of trade names or commercial products
constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use. The statements contained herein
are ascribed solely to the author.
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Preface
Public use and enjoyment of our
nation's lakes and waterways is a theme
that underlies the efforts by EPA to
achieve the Clean Water Act's mandate to
improve water quality. Lakes are given
special consideration in the legislation
under Section 314, the Clean Lakes Pro-
gram, because of their importance in the
lives of most of the public. Lakes mean
more than water and water chemistry.
Lakes and associated parks frequently
are popular places where large segments
of the urban population can enjoy out-
door recreation, visit with friends and
family, and relax and get away from the
pressures of everyday life.
Lakes are vital to the ecosystem
because they are part of the valuable
water resource system so essential to
our life and because they provide
necessary habitat for many fish and
wildlife species. This booklet explains
some of the processes, geological and
man-induced, that formed lakes and chem-
ical, physical and biological principles
that affect their quality. It is also
about lake protection and cleanup and
the recreation potentials this brings
both to our lake waters and adjacent
lands. It is about EPA programs and
other programs designed to revitalize
these potentials. And above all, it is
about the public's interest and respon-
sibility to manage and protect our lake
resources.
A very important message in this
booklet is how civic groups working
with their local government can expand
their community's recreation and open
space opportunities by incorporating
water cleanup programs into their plans.
Comprehensive planning and management
of limited financial resources to accom-
plish water conservation and pollution
control is the necessary first step in
achieving the nation's water quality ob-
jectives. For example, many EPA-funded
wastewater treatment facilities are
located adjacent to, or very near lakes.
Others are in lake watersheds. In secur-
ing shorefront locations for recreation
and open space opportunities, a community's
recreation budget can accomplish more if
recreation functions are integrated into
the design for an EPA-funded wastewater
treatment facility in the early steps of
a community's application. This is termed
multiple use. Similarly, future recrea-
tion opportunities in conjunction with
wastewater treatment plants or other water
resource management projects can be iden-
tified in the state and areawide water
quality plans and coordinated with a
state's comprehensive outdoor recreation
plan. Other EPA programs, state and fed-
eral agency programs and similar local
efforts should be considered and inte-
grated to achieve the most comprehensive
lake management objective.
The extent to which your community
obtains more for the time and money it
invests in lake recreation, water clean-
up, and shorefront protection measures
depends largely on your involvement in
coordinated programs. Greater benefits
can be obtained if you work hand-in-hand
with local and state government on re-
source management, multiple use, joint
development, recycling, environmental
education, and greenway projects that
the Environmental Protection Agency and
the other agencies promote.
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I. Introduction
The nation's inland lakes are an
important public resource to be pro-
tected, restored, and managed.
A report by the Outdoor Recreation
Resources Review Commission determined
there are more than 1,586,000 lakes,
ponds and reservoirs in the United
States.
Great Lakes (U.S.) 53,878,000 acres
Alaskan Lakes 7,363,960 acres
Other U.S. Lakes 19,493,000 acres
Within the continental United States
the surface areas of natural and man-made
lakes are nearly equivalent, excluding
the Great Lakes.
The central element of most lake
problems is "eutrophication" (or enrich-
ment) of the lake by plant nutrients such
as phosphorus and nitrogen. This is a
natural process, but human use can
greatly accelerate it. Common sources of
these man-introduced nutrients are deter-
gents, lawn and agricultural fertilizers,
and sewage. Sewage discharges to water-
ways and lakes also may pose a threat to
public health by introducing disease-
causing bacteria or viruses (pathogens)
from human or animal intestinal tracts.
Nutrients added to an otherwise
evenly-balanced lake system can cause
aquatic weeds or algae to intensify their
growth rate until much of the shoreline
and open water of some lakes is obstruc-
ted. The appearance of the lake and the
quality of swimming, fishing, and boat-
ing all decline.
Storm water from city streets and
runoff from agricultural land or suburban
lawns can carry pathogens from livestock
and pet wastes. This same runoff carries
pesticides, oil, gasoline, lead and
asbestos from cars and trucks.
By applying the knowledge gained from
limnology (the study of lakes and other
inland bodies of water), lake managers can
now take steps to prevent or remedy the
damaging effects of human development.
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Some examples of these remedial
approaches, which have been assisted by
the Clean Lakes Program are described
as follows:
Lafayette Reservoir
The 125-acre Lafayette Reservoir was
constructed in 1929. It functions as an
emergency standby domestic water supply
and recreational, fishing and boating
area for the Lafayette, California region.
The lake suffers from severe eutrophica-
tion. Dense algal growths regularly occur,
depleting the lake's oxygen levels and
threatening the fishery. The problems ren-
der the water unsuitable for both emergency
drinking water and recreation.
To remedy this, plans are underway to
aerate the hypolimnion (deep water portion)
of the reservoir and to remove phosphorus
from the lake by chemical treatment with
aluminum.
Adding air to the cool, deep waters
of the lake should restore trout fishing
to the reservoir without stirring up addi-
tional nutrients on the lake bottom. At
the same time, the phosphorus precipitation
with alum should break the cycle of algae
"blooms" that have thrived on the phosphorus
in the upper water. The project is expected
to cost about $100,000, 50 percent of which
is being funded by a grant from the EPA
Clean Lakes Program. When the program is
completed, the reservoir should support a
year-round trout fishery and, should its
waters be needed, provide a much more pal-
atible drinking water supply.
Vancouver Lake
Vancouver Lake is a 2,600-acre lake
that lies in the floodplain of the Colum-
bia River in Vancouver, Washington. It
is highly polluted by coliform bacteria,
suspended sediments, and nutrients. These
problems are compounded by the lake's
shallowness. Urbanization in the drainage
basin has substantially increased storm
water runoff and associated sediment loads
in tributary creeks which, in turn, de-
posit sediments and pollutants in Vancou-
ver Lake. Runoff ,from agricultural crop
lands is a seasonal problem.
The poor water quality of Vancouver
Lake becomes particularly severe during
late summer--the optimum period for
recreational use of the lake. The warm,
shallow, fertile water promotes excessive
algal growth. This growth, in turn,
causes other water quality problems so
Vancouver Lake no longer meets state water
quality standards and is unacceptable for
drinking, swimming, boating, fish and
wildlife, or viewing.
The Port of Vancouver proposes to
rehabilitate the lake with financial
assistance from the Washington Depart-
ment of Ecology's Lake Rehabilitation
Program and a grant from the EPA Clean
Lakes Program. Accumulated sediment
will be dredged from the lake. Then a
channel and culvert system will be con-
structed to allow Columbia River water to
be used for flushing the lake. This will
dilute and remove pollutants before they
can accumulate to problem levels.
A comprehensive plan is also
nearing completion that proposes con-
trols for wastewater generated in the
principal lake tributary watershed,
Burnt Bridge Creek. Pollution con-
trols and best management practices
contained in the plan will be imple-
mented as part of the EPA grant
agreement.
Lake Temescal
Lake Temescal is a 10-acre man-made
urban lake in the Temescal Regional Rec-
reation Area in Oakland, California. It
is less than three miles from downtown
Oakland and is used intensively for swim-
ming, sun bathing and fishing. Its
principal problems are sedimentation
from nearby residential and commercial
development, particularly acute during
winter storms, and pollution from non-
point surface runoff in summer. Two tri-
butary streams entering the lake contri-
bute bacterial concentrations high enough
to pose a health hazard to swimmers.
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A Clean Lakes Act grant of $488,972
from the Environmental Protection Agency
will help restore the quality of this
recreational lake.
To relieve sedimentation and intense
eutrophication, 57,000 cubic yards of
sediments will be dredged from Lake Temes-
cal to provide a maximum depth of 24 feet
near the dam and gradually decreasing
depths upstream. A system of impoundments
and diversions will be constructed to re-
duce the coliform bacteria problem. The
series of small retention basins (designed
as natural ponds) along the tributary
streams will increase the exposure time
of coliform bacteria in the water and in-
crease their die-off rate. In addition,
when bacterial concentrations exceed the
capacity of the retention basins, the flow
from both streams can be diverted around
the lake. This will be accomplished by
installing pump stations in the retention
ponds at the mouth of each stream.
By making these modifications to the
drainage system, EPA and the East Bay Re-
gional Park District of Oakland intend to
show that urban lakes can be helped so
that the quality of a valuable recreation
resource can be restored to the people of
Oakland.
were added to the lake from a storm sewer
and by municipal snow and leaf disposal
at the lakeside. As the lake deteriorated,
water chestnut, curly-leafed pond weed and
algae invaded its waters. The swimming
beach, which served a population of
100,000 within a five-mile radius, dimin-
ished as a public resource.
•Cal Welch, a local banker has en-
couraged the Village of Scotia to recog-
nize the lake as a major public asset
worthy of management. A full-scale man-
agement scheme has followed with local
enthusiasm and financial support from
the Clean Lakes Program. The lakeside
dumping of leaves, other organic matter,
and snow was stopped; improved mainten-
ance of the tidal gate to curtail inflow
of nutrient-rich flood waters from the
river has been achieved; a berm populated
with aquatic plants to filter and screen
the storm water is being developed; and
about 63,000 cubic yards of sediment have
been dredged out of the lake.
A recent review of this project (one
of the first sponsored under the federal
Clean Lakes Program) by a Union College
evaluation team found that the restoration
program is proceeding well.
Collins Lake
Collins Lake in Schenectady County,
New York was formed when the Mohawk River
eroded a short cut across one of its mean-
ders and left behind an oxbow lake. The
river has continued to affect the lake
through periodic flooding and the malfunc-
tioning of a tidal gate designed to keep
river flood water from backing up into
the lake. Nutrients and sediments also
White Clay Lake
White Clay Lake (named for its marl
deposits) is a 250-acre lake in a 3,000-
acre dairy-agricultural watershed in north-
eastern Wisconsin. While the lake is con-
sidered to be of good quality now, recent
changes in agricultural practices—larger
dairy herds, concentrated feeding areas,
and greater emphasis on corn production--
pose a water-quality threat.
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The EPA Clean Lakes Program has pro-
vided half of the $214,000 being used
to protect White Clay Lake from further
degradation. The project will demonstrate
the designs, costs, arrangements and water
quality results of implementing a watershed
management plan in a rural area. Plans in-
clude lake district formation, streambank
stabilization, contour cropping, grass
waterways, clear-water diversions, stabil-
ized standing areas, manure storage, pro-
tective zoning codes and an effective
voluntary conservation program.
Water quality monitoring of barnyard
effluents, streams, a littoral-zone marsh,
and the lake itself will provide an
assessment of the benefits of the protec-
tive plan.
Mirror and Shadow Lakes
The kettle hole lakes, Mirror (10
acres) and Shadow (35 acres) received
stormwater runoff from a small central
Wisconsin city for several decades.
Once used as a municipal drinking water
source, Mirror Lake decreased in quality
to the point where it could no longer be
used even for block ice production. Oxy-
gen depletion, fishkills, algal blooms
and lake weeds characterized the eutro-
phic state of the lakes.
Renovation plans were developed
based on studies by Wisconsin's Inland
Lake Renewal Demonstration Project funded
by the Upper Great Lakes Regional Commis-
sion. Implementation money from the EPA
Clean Lakes Program made the renewal
efforts possible. Stormwater diversion,
periodic mixing/aeration and aluminum
.treatment to hasten phosphorus removal
have renewed the lakes.
Little Pond
Seventy-acre Little Pond in Damari-
scotta, Maine is a principal public water
supply for the towns of New Castle and
Damariscotta. The pond has had problems
with a dense growth of Daphnia zooplank-
ton (water fleas) to the extent that the
communities complained of adverse tastes
in their drinking water. These tiny
organisms were previously controlled by
treating the pond with copper sulfate,
but concern developed over the use of
this chemical because high concentrations
have killed the fish.
A biological control technique was
developed which involved stocking the pond
with alewives, an anadromous fish which
feeds on zooplankton. The alewife spawns
and develops in fresh water, but normally
lives as an adult in the Atlantic Ocean.
With the assistance of a $4,000 EPA grant,
the Maine Department of Environmental
Protection stocked the pond in the spring
of 1976 with spawning adult alewives. They
and the developing young fed on and con-
trolled the Daphnia all summer. In the
fall the fish were trapped and removed
from the pond at the discharge stream as
they began their migration. Alewives that
didn't migrate and escaped trapping were
unable to survive the winter in the pond.
The stocking and removal process was
conducted for two years and assessments of
the results are now being completed by
researchers. In the meantime, the people
in Damariscotta and New Castle have noted
that their drinking water tastes better.
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II. Lake Processes
What is a Lake?
Lakes are more than just standing
bodies of water. They have physical and
chemical characteristics which make them
ideal homes for an immense variety of
organisms. The lake ecosystem is a com-
munity composed of interating animals and
plants and the physical and chemical
environment in which they live. The sun
provides the energy for the entire system.
A lake cannot be separated from the
drainage area that supplies its water.
The drainage area consists of the uplands,
shorelands and wetlands adjacent to the
lake. How the land within the drainage
area is used or abused by society will
greatly affect the quality and clarity of
the lake. For example, soil erosion
caused by construction activities during
intensive development can result in a
loss of 100,000 tons of soil per square
mile per year. (By comparison, natural
soil erosion rates from a wooded water-
shed are only about 100 tons per square
mile per year.) Much of this soil ends
up as silt in the bottom of lakes and
streams. This sediment not only "muddies"
the water but also makes a lake shallow
and adds nutrients and pollutants to the
water. Dredging projects such as the one
proposed for Vancouver Lake, Washington
remove these accumulated sediments.
6
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How Lakes are Formed
Lakes are formed in a variety of ways.
You may be more familiar with one type of
lake or another depending on which region
of the United States you come from. Listed
below are some typical types of lakes:
1. Glacial lakes—natural lakes
common to New England, the
northern lake states, high
mountain areas and Alaska.
2. Earthquake lakes—lakes
formed by crustal movements
of the earth. Pyramid Lake,
Nevada; Lake Tahoe, Cali-
fornia; Reel Foot Lake,
Tennessee; and Lake Okee-
chobee, Florida are examples.
3. Volcanic lakes—Crater Lake,
Oregon is a spectacular exam-
ple of a lake formed by vol-
canic action.
4. Solution lakes—many lakes,
particularly in Florida,
but also in Indiana, Kentucky
and Tennessee are formed by
water-carving basins in easily
soluble bedrock.
8
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5. Sloughs and oxbow lakes--
these lakes are found in
the floodplains of old
river systems and are basins
left behind when the rivers
changed their paths. Examples
are Collins and Vancouver
Lakes.
6. Lakes formed by wind action--
Moses Lake, Washington and the
lakes behind the dunes of Lake
Michigan are examples of lake
basins formed by wind action.
7. Lakes formed by human action--
humans are prolific builders
of reservoirs and ponds for
recreation, power, navigation,
and irrigation. Central Park
Pond in New York City is one
example of not only a man-made
lake, but one in an intensely
developed area. Such urban
lakes and reservoirs often
have very high recreational
value because of their loca-
tion and the scarcity of
natural water bodies in the
area.
To understand the ecology and
develop management strategies for lakes
it is important to understand how they
are formed. Some lakes are more suscep-
tible to human damage than others and
some are more easily managed than others.
Lake Aging
A lake is nurtured by its watershed.
Sediment transported from the watershed
enters the lake. Nutrients such as
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are
adsorbed into the sediment particles and
dissolved in the drainage water. They
fertilize the lake so organisms, partic-
ularly algae and aquatic plants, can
grow.
Under the traditional scheme of
things, nutrients from the watershed are
washed into the lake. These nutrients
promote the growth of algae and other
aquatic plants. When these plants die and
decompose, the nutrients within their
tissue recycles and supports further plant
growth. As the nutrient levels increase,
greater plant growth occurs. This builds
gradually to a point where there is more
plant growth in one year than can be de-
composed before the next year. The sedi-
ment changes from a mineral sediment
which came from the watershed to an
organic sediment caused by dead algae atid
aquatic plants settling on the lake bot-
tom. Much of the nutrients for further
plant growth can be supplied from the
decomposing organic matter. The lake is
eutrophying. Ultimately, the organic
matter will fill the lake and then develop
into a marsh, then a wet meadow and then
a dry meadow.
There are other processes, too. Some
basins are very high in calcium carbonate
(lime). Calcium carbonate chemically ties
up phosphorus so it is unavailable for
plant growth. Consequently, even though
nutrient inputs are high, plant producti-
vity in the lake is low and organic sedi-
ments do not build up. These lakes are
called marl lakes.
In other watersheds, inputs to the
lake consist chiefly of leaves, sticks or
other organic matter rather than mineral
nutrients. This organic matter decomposes
very slowly so the nutrient supply to the
lake is poor. The water in these lakes is
tea colored and they are called stained-
water or dystrophic lakes. The acid water
limits plant growth and animal life so
organic matter doesn't build up rapidly.
Eventually a bog may form around the edge
and a mat will grow out across the water.
This contributes organic material to the
lake and may later fill it in.
Human activity can greatly increase
the rate of lake aging, and nutrient inputs
from different land uses varies tremen-
dously as shown in the following table.
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LAKES
7 I v
'HIGH DISSOLVED OXYGEN
'LOW NITROGEN ^ PHOSPHORUS
'FEW AQUATIC WEEDS OR ALGAE
'COUP WATER. FISH-I.E. TROUT
INPUTS TO LAKE
ARE PRIMARILY
LEAVES, STICKS,
TWIGS. ETC. FROM
SHORELINE
\
INPUT INVOLVES
HIGH AMOUNTS
OF CALCIUM SUCH
AS DISSOLVED
LIMESTONE
INPUTS TO LAKE
ARE PRIMARILY
MINERALS^
SEDIMENT
INCLUDING*
N ITRO&EN ^
PHOSPHORUS
\
&OG-
PVSTROPHIC
LAKES
MARL
LAKES
EOTROPHIC
LAKES
•COLORED WATER
-LOW PISSOL.VEP
OXYGEN
•LOW NITROGEN
^ PHOSPHORUS
•FEW PLANTS OR.
ANIMALS IN
LAKE ITSELF
•HARP WATER.
• VARIA&LE
CONDITIONS
OF NUTRIENTS^
PLANTS i,
ANIMAL LIFE
-LOW •DISSOLVED
OXYGEN
-HIGH NITROGEN
£ PHOSPHORUS
-ABUNDANT WEEPS
AND/OR ALGAE
-WARM WATER.
FISH-I.E. 0>ASS
WETLAHD
WET
DRV LAND WITH INVASION OF TREES
10
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TIME
I
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r
V
Aquatic Life in the Lake
The type of lake will largley deter-
mine what types of plants and animals live
within it. Oligotrophic lakes are usually
deep and cold, with a good oxygen supply
distributed throughout the water. Trout,
salmon, cisco, whitefish and herring are
common to these lakes. Overall, their
productivity is low.
On the other hand, as lakes eutrophy,
northern pike, largemouth bass, walleye and
a variety of panfish become more common.
These lakes may be shallower and warmer
and may not have an abundance of oxygen
in the water year-round. Bloodworms and
a variety of other organisms can live in
their organic sediments. In lakes that
are highly eutrophic, blue-green algae
abounds. Sludge worms live in the bottom
sediments and fish such as bullheads, mud-
minnows and carp which are tolerant of ex-
tremely low oxygen are found in this area.
Dystrophic lakes .are both oxygen
and nutrient poor; they have very low
productivity and little aquatic life
exists in them.
Lake Communities
The lake is a complex community
composed of many interacting habitats
and populations. Shallow, warm bays
and marshes may support northern pike
and bass, pond weeds and pond lilies,
cattails and muskrats. The deep water
area supports algae, water fleas,
yellow perch and walleye. The bottom
muds throughout support a unique com-
munity of worms, insect larvae and
bacteria.
These communities are not mutually
exclusive. A northern pike may move out
to deep water to feed on a young walleye,
or a perch may take a dragonfly nymph
from the surrounding wetland.
11
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IS)
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. Lake Problems
Pollution and Contamination
We have already discussed some of
the problems caused by nutrients and sedi
ment in a lake. Overfertile lakes grow
blue-green algae, aquatic weeds and low
quality fish. As stated before, eutro-
phication or nutrient and sediment en-
richment is a natural process, but cul-
tural activities such as poor land use
can greatly increase the eutrophication
rate.
Nutrients and sediment contributed
by poor land use are not the only lake
problems. Wastewaters discharged from
sewage treatment plants (and other
"point sources"*) are nutrient-rich
(including large amounts of phosphorus).
Turbidity alone (suspended solids and
color) from sediment, trash, organisms
and organic materials, is a form of
water pollution. Not only is it unpleas-
ant to look at, but in high concentra-
tions it can also clog fish gills and
smother fish eggs and bottom organisms.
CLEARING —
OF FORESTS
-> FAR/A^ TOWN
OROWTH
ORB Att IXATION
I75O
1800
2OOO
*"Point" sources of pollution are those operations in which the pollutants can be
identified as being from a discrete point such as a discharge pipe. This is in
contrast to "non-point" pollution from a broad, ill-defined source such as the
runoff from many acres of fields, or from a diffuse housing or commercial area.
13
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Organic materials which naturally
enter a lake, such as leaves, exert a
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). As they
decompose, they remove oxygen from water.
This reduces the supply of dissolved oxy-
gen available to fish and other life forms
in the lake. Organic matter such as pulp
and canning wastes, or raw sewage added
to the water also will deplete oxygen as
will certain forms of inorganic chemicals.
Good supplies of dissolved oxygen are
needed for fish and other organisms to
survive and reproduce.
Pesticides (like DDT), heavy metals
(mercury, lead, zinc, and copper), arsenic,
oil, asbestos and a wide array of other
toxic and inhibitory substances are com-
monly present in urban and rural runoff.
Metal processing wastes, chemical and
paper processing effluents, cooling water
discharge and rain water itself contain
contaminants in polluted areas. Some in-
jure and kill aquatic plants, fish and
other water life directly. Others become
concentrated in aquatic food chains and
are passed on from prey to predator, in-
cluding man, with potentially adverse
effects. In the Great Lakes area, for
instance, there is a ban on the commercial
harvest of Lake Michigan trout and salmon
because of high PCB (polychlorinated bi-
phenols) levels.
METAL LOADIMG FROM ROAD SURFACE RUNOFF
RESIDENTIAL SECTOR
75%
LEAD 600
CADMIU/A 1.2.
NICKEL 10 LBS
COPPER. 36 |_BS>
Z.\MC KO l-BS
IROH 7.9OO UBS
AAAN&AHESE I SO l_BS
CHRO/AIU/A &O
COMMERCIAL SECTOR.
5%
INDUSTRIAL SECTOR 2O%
O.I INCH OF RAINFAUL UASTIM& FOR. I HO OR.
Adapted from: Pit, E. E. and G. Amy, 19?"6. Toxic Materials Analysis of Street Surface
Contaminants, Environmental Protection Series. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C., 133 p.
14
-------
Another noteworthy problem, as indi-
cated in the figure, is the amount of
heavy metals that run off city streets.
Such runoff remains largely uncontrolled
and untreated. In the illustration, the
loadings to water runoff are generated
by a "hypothetical city" of 100,000
people covering an area of 14,000 acres.
Such a metropolitan area may be expected
to have about 400 curb miles of streets
and to generate about 12,000,000 gallons
of sanitary sewage flow per day.
Our increasing demand for energy can
cause lake problems. Radioactive and/or
heated wastes enter surface waters from
nuclear power plants, research labs and
testing facilities, industrial cooling
waters and conventional power plants.
Radioactive wastes may be a health and
a genetic hazard. Increased water tem-
perature may result in undesirable
changes in aquatic communities. Warm
water, for instance, holds less dissolved
oxygen and certain species of blue-green
algae grow much better in warm water than
in cold.
Many of the early water pollution
control laws were passed to protect public
health. A wide variety of diseases such
as typhoid and paratyphoid fever, dysen-
tery, gastroenteritis, and hepatitis are
transmitted by contaminated water supplies.
Public health is also important for rec-
reational users of water. Body contact
with contaminated water can cause diseases
such as eye, ear, nose and throat infec-
tions and skin rashes. Most of these
diseases are transmitted by bacteria,
viruses or other microorganisms which
enter the water via urban and agricultural
runoff, domestic wastes including sewage
and septic tank discharges, and some in-
dustrial wastes such as those from animal
processing plants.
The standard test for determining
contamination of water is the fecal coli-
form test. Although these organisms are
not normally a direct threat to humans,
they do indicate that water is contamin-
ated from either human or animal sources
and there is a strong possibility it will
contain disease-producing organisms. The
criterion set up by most municipal health
departments for full body contact recrea-
tion (swimming) allows an average of only
200 fecal coliform organisms in five or
more 100 milliliter water samples.
If the average count exceeds this value,
recreational use of the water may be
restricted to boating and fishing.
15
-------
Water Levels
For some people, a lake problem in-
volves keeping a lake a lake. As has
already been discussed, sedimentation can
cause serious infilling. In some lakes.,
particularly those formed by dams on large
watersheds with easily erodable soils,
the sedimentation rate is so rapid that
the lake fills in within a few decades.
Over the years, this can be very
bothersome to lakeshore property owners.
In wet years, they may have a swimming
pool in the basement. In dry years, a
longer pier may be needed to reach the
lake. This problem may become seasonal
and can be particularly dramatic for urban
lakes for which the main source of supply
is stormwater runoff.
There are also problems where ground
water supply influences lake levels. Some
lakes are located where the topography is
low enough to intercept the ground water.
Ground water levels can fluctuate from
season to season and year to year, depend-
ing on the amount of precipitation and
withdrawal. During or after very wet
years, ground water levels are high and
lake levels are up. During or after dry
years, ground water levels are low and
lake levels drop.
Another problem with ground water
fluctuation in lake communities having
extensive septic tank systems is flood
interference with drain fields when
ground water levels are high. Contamin-
ation of ground water by the septic tanks
is also a potentially serious problem in
these communities. Too many septic tank
systems in one area or in the wrong soils
could cause sewage contamination of local
well water and possibly of the lake with
both nutrients and pathogens.
OROUNPWATER. LEVEL
I
WET YEAR,
PRY YEAK
16
-------
People Pressure
How many people does it take to phys-
ically degrade the resource? How many
different activities by fishermen, power
boaters, water skiers, sailors, canoeists,
or divers can a lake handle before it
begins to show signs of wear and tear?
How many people, in general, can a lake
accommodate before they start getting into
each other's way? How many people can a
lake hold before they disrupt each other's
aesthetic experience with the lake? These
questions are difficult if not impossible
to answer because they involve individual
perspectives.
When we don't know the answer, it is
best to keep our options open. The State
of Wisconsin, for instance, has a wilder-
ness lakes program to set aside certain
lakes in their relatively undeveloped
state and to keep them this way while
scientists study more about the effects
and controls of development. This allows
some of the "how much is too much" ques-
tions to be answered and gives people a
diversity of options for lake enjoyment.
,£**«••*
17
-------
IV Protection, Restoration,
and Management
The State of the Art
Degradation of the quality of lakes
is the result of lake-aging processes
. . . eutrophication and sedimentation
. . . speeded up by cultural activities.
These synergistic processes cause or
aggravate some of the familiar lake qual-
ity problems: algae "blooms," nuisance
rooted-plant growth, odors, diminished
usable water surface, changes in fisheries
and fishkills.
18
Numerous difficulties complicate lake
renewal and management efforts: the state-
of-the-art is still rather primitive;
lakes are complex ecosystems. In spite of
many years of study, prediction of the
response of a lake system to a given treat-
ment program is tenuous. Furthermore, the
tendency for each lake to be characterized
by its own "unique personality" hinders
extrapolating results obtained on one lake
to solve problems in other lakes with
apparently similar problems.
-------
The complexities of lake rehabilita-
tion suggest that it is likely to be ex-
pensive and difficult. No doubt the prob-
lem is best handled by its prevention
through wise planning and careful use.
Where lake rehabilitation is necessary,
the objective should be to restore "nor-
mal" aquatic balances to the lake eco-
system, not swimming pool conditions.
The restoration of normal balances should
also include the lake shoreland and water-
shed. Understanding the interrelation-
ships of all parts of the lake system is
essential to its rehabilitation. It may
be important to protect or restore the
original basin; make efficient use of
remaining open spaces and green areas; or
reclaim critically important portions of
the watershed for nutrient and sediment
management.
Secondly, the technology for lake
renewal is in an early stage of develop-
ment and some lake restoration schemes
become prohibitively expensive. Costs
increase rapidly in moving from protection
schemes to more extensive rehabilitation
projects. Doing nothing now ultimately
may lead to a prohibitively expensive
project later.
A third factor frustrating lake renew-
al efforts is that of time. Considerable
data may be needed to define the problem
adequately, and remedial programs may span
several years. Public demands and expec-
tations are hard to satisfy over such a
period of time unless the public is well
informed. Nonetheless, the community does
have several options available for lake man-
agement depending upon the state of the lake.
EXTENT OF UAKE, AAANAGEMENT
PROTECT 4
LIMITED
LAKE
MAMA&fcMENT
AS IS
LAKK
MANAGEMENT
LAKE
RENEWAL
AFTER
SCRIOUS
19
-------
Lake Protection
Some situations call for better water
quality maintenance or protection efforts,
guided by a carefully developed, comprehen-
sive land and water management plan to pre-
vent degradation of lake quality.
Protection measures display the high-
est levels of foresight and commitment to
maintenance of water quality. A goal has
been defined; a plan has been developed;
the letter and spirit of the tasks are
supported; work has begun. People care;
the program proceeds.
Resistance to implementation of protec-
tion measures may be born of the "it won't
happen here" attitude about eutrophication:
the lake has been like this for a hundred
years ... can you prove that there will
be changes? This is a difficult question
to answer, in view of the infancy of docu-
mented lake restoration schemes and of the
science of describing the maturity proces-
ses in lakes.
The same techniques apply to protec-
tive plans as to restoration-maintenance
ones: stabilizing, contouring, mulching,
zoning, stacking, diverting, prohibiting,
chisel plowing, terracing, riprapping,
oxygenated
cold vi
rwturn
•anchor fr. •';.•> :.".<•:.;
..^^^-f^^^^; \
fencing, greening. Why not do it in ac-
cord with a plan that helps solve the
most important problems first?
In addition to a coordinated plan,
everyone can contribute to lake protection
by responsible, individual actions to cur-
tail the nutrients entering the lake.
Lake residents should avoid the use of
high phosphate dish detergents, laundry
products, and household cleansers. Anythir
that goes down the drain should be phosphal
free or at least low in phosphorus. When
shopping for detergents, read the label anc
buy reduced or non-phosphorus products.
"Biodegradable" is nice too, but the phos-
phorus content of the product is what count
most.
Another way to personally reduce nutri
ent loads to your lake is by avoiding or
curtailing your use of garden and lawn fer-
tilizers. Don't use too much fertilizer tc
often. The excess fertilizer is not only
wasted money, but is eventually washed into
the lake where it fertilizes weeds and
algae to further increase your costs in
lake management later. If you feel com-
pelled to fertilize your lake property lawn
see your County Extension Agent first. He
can recommend the best fertilizer combina-
tion and the best application practices for
your particular soil.
Septic tanks can also be a problem.
In addition to using low phosphorus house-
hold products, you should also be water
conservative to avoid 'overloading the
drain field. The system should be inspecte
about every two or three years, and the
tank pumped regularly. Because a faulty
septic tank system may be dangerous to -
public health in addition to contributing
to lake degradation, any failures should be
repaired immediately.
Restoration or Renewal
Where it is too late for such before-
the-fact action alone, lake rehabilitation
projects may stem or reverse the aging
process. A water quality maintenance pro-
gram can then provide a lasting solution.
20
-------
Two general approaches for rehabili-
tating nutrient-rich lakes are (1) limi-
ting fertility, either by restricting
nutrient inputs or by direct in-lake
schemes aimed at reducing nutrient re-
cycling by accelerating nutrient out-
flows; and (2) treating or managing the
symptoms of over-fertilization (see table
on next page).
Nutrient input can be significantly
reduced by (a) removing nutrients from
wastewaters through advanced treatment of
municipal and industrial effluents (Sha-
gawa Lake, Minnesota), (b) diverting
nutrient-rich wastewaters (Lake Washington,
Washington; Mirror Lake, Wisconsin), (c)
utilizing land-use management practices and
controls (White Clay Lake, Wisconsin), (d)
treating inflowing streams, and (e) modify-
ing products, e.g., phosphate-regulated
detergents (Connecticut, Indiana, Maine,
Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Vermont,
Wisconsin, Chicago and Akron).
Direct in-lake schemes to remedy
eutrophic lake problems are varied and
include: (a) dredging to remove nutrient-
rich sediments (Collins Lake, New York),
(b) using chemicals such as iron, fly ash
and aluminum salts to inactivate or re-
move nutrients in a lake (Medical Lake,
Washington; Lafayette Reservoir, Cali-
fornia; several Wisconsin lakes [Dunst,
1974]), (c) dilution or flushing of
nutrient-rich waters (Green Lake,
Washington; Snake Lake, Wisconsin; Moses
Lake, Washington, Vancouver Lake,
Washington), (d) aerating lakes suffering
from low dissolved oxygen conditions (Penn
Lake, Minnesota; Vancouver Lake, Washing-
ton; Lafayette Reservoir, California), (e)
discharging or withdrawing nutrient-rich
waters of a lake (commonly the bottom
waters or hypolimnion, as planned at Lake
Ballinger, Washington), (f) removing
nutrients by harvesting plants or fish
(Lake Sallie, Minnesota; Little Pond,
Maine), and (g) manipulating the lake
bottom, including sealing with sand blan-
kets, plastic sheeting and other materials
(Marion Millpond, Wisconsin).
Management
Although nutrient limitation is most
desirable, other management schemes main-
tain a lake in a usable condition. Aera-
tion, dredging, weed harvesting or chemi-
cal control, water level manipulation,
and similar techniques may be cosmetic in
nature and treat the symptoms rather than
the causes of the problem. Nevertheless,
they provide short-term relief and can
yield widespread satisfaction to lake
users or be part of a larger-scale rehab-
ilitation project.
Commonly, no single renewal technique
is sufficient. Rather, a combination of
nutrient restrictions, in-lake modifica-
tions and symptom-management is prescribed
as noted in the lake restoration summaries
at the beginning of this booklet.
Paralleling these scientific and tech-
nological approaches, public institutions
are being developed for undertaking such
programs and despite the problems, encour-
aging progress has been made in recent
years.
21
-------
LAKE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
I. Limiting Fertility and Controlling Sedimentation
A. Curbing Nutrient Influx
1. Wastewater Treatment
2. Diversion
3. Land-Use Practices
4. Treatment of Inflow
5. Product Modification
B. In-Lake Schemes to Accelerate Nutrient
Outflow or Prevent Recycling
1. Dredging for Nutrient Control
2. Nutrient Inactivation/Precipitation
3. Dilution/Flushing
4. Biotic Harvesting
5. Selective Discharge
6. Sediment Exposure and Desiccation
7. Lake Bottom Sealing
8. Lake Aeration
II. Managing the Consequences of Lake Aging
A. Aeration and/or Circulation
1. Hypolimnetic Aeration
2. Whole Lake Aeration
B. Lake Deepening
1. Dredging
2. Drawdown and Sediment Consolidation
C. Other Physical Controls
1. Harvesting
2. Water Level Fluctuation
3. Habitat Manipulation
D. Chemical Controls
1. Algicides
2. Herbicides
3. Piscicides
E. Biological Controls
1. Develop Predator-Prey Relationships
2. Inter-Species Reactions
3. Plant Diseases
PRODUCT MODIFICATION
Florida manatee feeding
on water hyacinth
22
-------
TIME
LAKE MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES
PROTECT
PRESERVE
AS
URBAN
RUNOFF
INDOSTRIA
E.FFL.OENT
LIMITED
LAKE
EXTENSfVE
LAKE
MAHA&EMEHT
LAKE RCH6WAL
AFTER,
DEGRARATION
HUMAN J/APACT
ACCELERATED RATE OF
LAKE EUTROPHI CATION
DO NOTHING
23
-------
V What Our Lake Community
Can Do
Who Represents Us?
Individual property owners and rec-
reationists are responsible for managing
their own property and controlling their
own behavior. However, many problems re-
quire collective concern and action.
NATIONAL
FOREST
EAST COUNTY
24
-------
An Informal Group of Neighbors
Initial discussions about lake prob-
lems and potential solutions occur under
many different circumstances. Fishermen
might discuss the issue at the boat land-
ing or the bait shop. Neighbors might
discuss the lake across the fence or over
coffee. It is important for property
owners to recognize that others also are
concerned. Informal groups can undertake
some small neighborhood projects, lobby,
and exert some pressure on "insensitive"
neighbors or recreationists.
A Lake Association
At some point, a community leader
will invite interested people to get
together to discuss alternative courses
of action and the possibility of crea-
ting a formal organization. A lake
association often results with voluntary
membership and a modest fee. Lake asso-
ciations are able to undertake social
activities which bring people together,
and then can lobby for the entire commun-
ity. Many lake associations incorporate
as non-profit organizations and sponsor
certain limited projects.
A Special Purpose Unit of Government
Since lake associations have limited
financial and legal ability to manage a
lake system, some states such as Wisconsin
have given lake communities the option of
forming a unit of government for that
specific purpose. The enabling legisla-
tion differs from state to state, but
these special purpose units typically
have defined legal authority to manage
the water and to raise money in certain
geographic areas. For example, the far-
mers around White Clay Lake in Wisconsin
formed a special lake district to under-
take a lake protection project.
A General Purpose Unit of Government
Other states have chosen not to en-
courage proliferation of special purpose
units of government. In these states, the
cities, villages, towns and counties are
expected to provide the essential govern-
mental services. In some cases, a lake
community may attempt to incorporate and
become a new village or city. In most
cases, the lake community must convince
the elected officials of existing units
that the lake can be managed and must be
managed. The general purpose units of
government have the broadest array of man-
agement, financing, and police powers
available to them. For instance, the
Village of Scotia, New York organized the
restoration effort at Collins Park Lake.
However, lakes often cross political boun-
daries and lake management is inhibited by
multiple jurisdictions.
25
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What Kind of Lake Do We Uant?
No lake will satisfy perfectly every-
one's desires. A lake with ideal swimming
conditions is not likely to provide good
fishing. A lake that is used primarily
for water supply may be drawn down in
summer and the bare mud flats may not be
aesthetically pleasing.
Some uses are incompatible on the
same lake. Other uses can be accommodated
on the same lake but must be separated by
time or zones.
A community should decide what type
of activities are possible and what acti-
vities are preferred on the lake and then
attempt to manage the lake accordingly.
The compromise should reflect the inter-
ests of the various user groups and the
broader public as represented by state
agencies.
you can't swim
in a weed bed
you can't fish
in a swimming pool
Vl|l
you can't build a home
in a greenway
you can't tax
a cattail
you can compromise
26
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What Do Me Need to Know About the Lake?
Lake problems might be obvious, but
the solutions often are not. Some members
of the community are likely to have strong
opinions about what to do, and these opin-
ions are likely to differ. Before devel-
oping a management plan and undertaking
any project, certain basic information
is essential.
A Water and Nutrient Budget
Lake water can originate from direct
rainfall, direct drainage, storm sewers,
stream flow, groundwater flow, and sewage
treatment plants. The source of the water
often determines the amount and type of
nutrients, sediments and other pollutants
entering the lake.
Similarly, the way water leaves
determines the impact of these materials.
In some lakes, most nutrients are flushed
through the lake by a flowing river before
algal blooms can occur. In other lakes
most nutrients stay in the lake and accum-
ulate to feed more weeds. A water budget
indicates where the water is coming from
and where it is going. A nutrient budget
points out what sources need to be con-
trolled.
Hypothetical
and
Lake Water, Phosphorus
Nitrogen
Budget
Water
Rainfall /evaporation
Direct drainage
Sewage treatment plants
Streams
Groundwater
Total
IN
5
10
10
50
25
100%
OUT
20
0
0
20
60
100%
5
5
35
50
5
100%
Nutrients
IN
20
5
25
15
35
100%
OUT
0
0
0
20
30 -
50%
0
0
0
20
40
60%
27
-------
Hydrographic and Vegetation Maps
The water depth and type of bottom
material determine the distribution of
aquatic vegetation in a lake. In turn,
the bottom contours of the lake and type
of vegetation determine the temperature
and oxygen levels which influence the
array of fish and other animals in the
lake. Depth contour maps and vegetation
maps show the areas and types of nuisance
weeds as well as the areas which might be
considered for dredging, aeration or other
management treatments.
A Watershed Analysis
It is important to know the general
land use in the watershed. Certain land
uses are more likely to contribute sedi-
ments and nutrients and other pollutants
that can't be traced to a particular
source. It is also critical to identify
specific sources of pollution such as
storm sewers, sewage treatment plants,
certain industries, some barnyards, and
areas of rapid erosion.
In-Lake Water Analysis
Regular sampling and testing of the
water in the lake throughout the year
will help indicate particular problem
areas and will monitor lake response to
management changes in the watershed.
Testing may involve bacteria, toxins,
water depth, sediment depth and type,
and vegetation changes as well as nutrient
concentrations.
28
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COURTHOUSE DIRECTORS
COOHTV
UNIVERSITY
ZOHIN6
SAHVT
PLAN
66JST6R OF
TRA1H1H6
Who Can Help Us?—Local
The best place to start looking for
help is in your own conmunity. A science
teacher at the local high school or com-
munity college might be able to conduct
some of the analyses as well as help resi-
dents understand the lake. For instance,
professors and students from Union College
were heavily involved in the Collins Park
Lake, New York, project. Retirees in the
community might also be able to volunteer
certain skills.
Other professionals may be found
within a few miles of your community,
often in the county courthouse. The
planning and zoning office can provide
information on present and future land
use around the lake and in the water-
shed. The Soil and Water Conservation
District in cooperation with the U.S.
Soil Conservation Service can provide
soils maps and help in formulating
plans to reduce erosion. State and
federal cost-sharing programs for land
management are often administered at
the county or town level. The Univer-
sity Extension Service can provide tech-
nical assistance, help organize educa-
tional meetings, and assist in preparing
applications.
29
-------
Who Can Help Us?—State
Some states have developed a complete
lake management program. Some offer lim-
ited assistance as a part of other pro-
grams. In other states, very little assis-
tance is available. In such states, lake
communities may wish to encourage their
state legislature to provide assistance.
Information Assistance
No one has a monopoly on information
and many institutions can provide a valu-
able service with regard to understand-
ing the lake, lake management techniques,
and organizing for action. The Extension
branch of a state-supported university
is usually willing and able to provide
such information. Other sources include
federal, state, and county natural re-
source agencies; community colleges;
libraries; and high schools.
Technical Assistance
Specialized information and services
might be obtained from limnologists,
aquatic biologists or fish managers who
are employed by a state conservation,
natural resources, or environmental
agency. In other situations, it may be
necessary to hire a consulting firm to
gather and interpret data on the lake.
Financial Aid
A few states have special grant pro-
grams for lake protection and rehabili-
tation projects. The White Clay Lake
community received such a grant from the
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
to build manure storage facilities. In
other states, various grant programs
might be utilized depending on the nature
of the project. Parks might be purchased
and developed. Protective vegetation
might be planted on roadsides and gullies.
Greenway areas provide open space and pro-
tect the fragile ecology of the shoreline.
30
-------
Who Can Help Us?—Federal
The following programs can provide
financial assistance for a variety of
activities designed to enhance lakes as
public resources. These programs are
typically combined with state and local
assistance. In some cases, it is also
possible to enlist the support of more
than one federal program. For instance,
Penn Lake in Bloomington, Minnesota re-
ceived assistance from both EPA and the
Department of Housing and Urban Develop-
ment.
AGRICULTURE—Soil and Water Conservation
The Department of Agriculture has a
long history of helping farmers conserve
their soil. Born in the dust bowls of
the Great Depression, the Soil Conserva-
tion Service (SCS) has provided technical
assistance to landowners. The Agricul-
tural Stabilization and Conservation Ser-
vice (ASCS) has assisted with cost sharing
of certain land management practices. In
recent years, emphasis has also been
placed on keeping soil and nutrients out
of water; major new funds have become
available to assist with control of "non-
point" pollution, such as animal wastes.
The Farmers Home Administration provides
grants and low-interest loans for construc-
tion of public sewers in rural areas. The
programs are typically administered at the
county level.
COMMERCE--Regional Commissions
Environmental management and economic
development can be complementary. In recog-
nition of that complementarity, the regional
commissions have provided grants to enhance
management of natural resources, including
lakes. For example, the White Clay Lake
project began under a grant from the Upper
Great Lakes Regional Commission.
DEFENSE—Army Corps of Engineers
The Corps has a long history of in-
volvement in lakes and reservoirs regard-
ing navigation and recreation. Financial
assistance is available for aquatic nui-
sance control.
31
-------
vvEPA
EPA--Clean Water Act
Since 1976, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency has been awarding funds;
under the "clean lakes" section (314) of
the Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C. section
1251 et_ se£.). Cost sharing grants have
been made to rehabilitate or protect
lakes in every part of the country. See
the last page of this booklet for EPA
regional offices.
In addition to the "clean lakes"
program, other parts of the Clean Water
Act provide funding for activities re-
lated to lakes such as construction of
sewage treatment plants and alternative
waste management systems (Sec. 201-205)
and area wide planning for wastewater
management (See Sec. 208).
HUD—Block Grants
Grants for either single purpose or
comprehensive community development acti-
vities are available from the Dept. of
Housing and Urban Development. Eligible
projects include construction of sewer
lines, purchase of parkland, and construc-
tion of recreational facilities. Prefer-
ence is given to communities with low and
moderate income families. Local or re-
gional planning and development agencies
are likely to be familiar with this pro-
gram.
INTERIOR—Lawcon
The Land and Water Conservation Fund
provides cost-sharing grants to local units
of government that have completed a com-
prehensive outdoor recreation plan. The
grants can be used for either acquisition
of land or the development of basic out-
door recreation facilities. The grants
are administered through the state natural
resources agency,,
32
-------
HARVEST, AERATE
What Are Qur Options?—Management
Alternatives
Understanding the Options
With the assistance of private consul-
tants and public agency personnel, community
leaders can consider atlernative courses of
action. Typically there will not be a
single easy solution. The development of a
management plan requires public participa-
tion as well as professional expertise. A
component of the public participation effort
should be a systematic educational effort.
A Mix of Benefits
Recreational benefits are the most
widely recognized benefits of lake protec-
tion and rehabilitation projects. However,
potential benefits include:
1. Increases in property values
2. Aesthetic enjoyment (solitude
and beauty)
3. Growth in tourism
4. Recreation (fi'shing, swimming,
boating, etc.)
5. Community self-image and pride
Recognizing the Risks
The community should be aware that
lake management is still a young science
with limited predictability. For instance,
a program to eradicate rough fish may im-
prove game fishing, but water skiing may be
hampered by the resultant growth of rooted
vegetation. Unless the source of plant
nutrients is controlled, attempts to poison
weeds may lead to more algae. Caution is
advised and the risks should be discussed
by the entire community. Certain risks
are acceptable in terms of the goals for
the lake; others are not. Proceed with
caution, but proceed.
33
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How Do Me Implement Our Lake Management
Projects?
Management Flowchart
A plan for lake management often in-
volves a sequence of events which unfold
over a course of several years. A sample
outline follows:
Year 1--Organizing
Year 2--Studying
Year 3--Deciding: Management plan to:
divert storm sewers from the
lake, treat the lake to pre-
cipitate out phosphorus from
the water, and aerate to im-
prove oxygen content.
Year 4--Diverting Storm Sewers
Year 5--Treating lake with alum to
precipitate phosphorus
Year 6--Aeration
Year 7--Monitoring
Once a decision on a project has been
reached, formal documents can be prepared
to obtain the necessary services. The
administrative rules of granting agencies
and general statutes are likely to require
certain bidding and contracting procedures.
Raising Local Matching Funds
A substantial community investment
may be necessary to match grants from
federal and state agencies. The particu-
lar method of raising revenue will depend
on the statutes of each state and the
decisions of the community.
Project Management
A project director will be necessary
for any major project. At certain junc-
tures, an attorney's assistance may be
necessary. Provision should also be made
for accounting services.
Publicity
The local newspaper, radio, and TV
reporters are a critical link to public
education and project acceptance. The
whole development of a project should be
fully chronicled.
What Happens After the Project?
Monitoring and Continued Lake Management
Lake management is not simply a one-
shot project. The impacts of human use
on the lake and in the watershed continue,
Management means continuing care and con-
cern, the same as exercised on a home or
a business.
Management means lake monitoring
after the project is completed to:
1. Determine the success of the
project.
2. Detect any new sources of pol-
lutants at an early stage.
34
-------
future efforts. A minimum of an annual
meeting and a mid-year newsletter are sug-
gested to keep the organization functioning.
Continued Citizen Involvement
It is especially difficult to convince
citizens that lake management is a contin-
uing responsibility demanding their inter-
est and participation. Unless the beach is
closed or weeds choke the channel again or
water levels change dramatically or toxic
chemicals are found in fish, most citizens
probably will not pay too much attention to
lake management efforts. Nevertheless, it
is important that regular opportunities be
provided for education and participation
between the crises. Some of those crises
can be avoided by diligent preventive
efforts and a continuing program of lake
monitoring and management.
Management means constant vigilance
regarding lake or land use changes in the
watershed and readiness to represent the
interest of the lake community at public
hearings and other meetings.
Management also means the operation
of a dam or a weed harvester on a contin-
uing basis if necessary and the planning
and completion of subsequent projects as
suggested by the monitoring data.
Organizational Maintenance
Once the project is completed, commun-
ity leaders often sigh with relief and
bask in congratulations. It is important
to reward dedicated leaders with community
recognition. However, the right-to-pride
should complement a commitment to continue--
to maintain the organizational structure for
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For Further Information
For information regarding the
Federal Clean Lakes Program, contact the
Clean Lakes Coordinator at the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency regional
office:
Region 1 -- EPA
John F. Kennedy Federal Building
Boston, MA 02203
Region 2 — EPA
26 Federal Plaza
New York, NY 10007
Region 3 — EPA
Curtis Building
6th & Walnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19106
Region 4 — EPA
345 Courtland Street, N.E.
Atlanta, GA 30308
Region 5 -- EPA
230 S. Dearborn Street
Chicago, IL 60604
Region 6 — EPA
First International Bldg.
1201 Elm Street
Dallas, TX 75270
Region 7 -- EPA
1735 Baltimore Ave.
Kansas City, MO 64108
Region 8 -- EPA
1860 Lincoln Street
Denver, CO 80203
Region 9 — EPA
215 Fremont Street
San Francisco, CA 94105
Region 10 -- EPA
1200 6th Avenue
Seattle, WA 98101
For information on state programs,
contact your state agency with responsi-
bility for fish and game, water quality,
outdoor recreation, or natural resources
management.
For information on local, state and
federal programs, many of which are ad-
ministered locally, contact your local
county agent in the University Extension
Office or other agencies with local
offi ces.
36
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Suggested References
Bouldin, D. R. et al., 1977. Lakes and Phosphorus Inputs, A focus
on management. Information Bulletin 127, Cooperative Extension,
Building 7, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
Deardorff, Howard, 1977. The Public Benefits of Cleaned Water:
Emerging Greenway Opportunities. Booklet. U.S. EPA, Office
of Land Use Coordination (A-101), Washington, D.C.
Nichols, Stanley A., 1974. Mechanical and Habitat Manipulation for
Aquatic Plant Management. Technical Bulletin No. 77, Department
of Natural Resources, Madison, Wisconsin.
Dunst, Russell C. et al., 1974. Survey of Lake Rehabilitation Tech-
niques and Experiences. Technical Bulletin No. 75, Department
of Natural Resources, Madison, Wisconsin.
Ehrenfeld, David W., 1970. Biological Conservation. Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, Inc., New York, New York. 226 pp.
Klots, Elsie B., 1966. The New Field Book of Freshwater Life. G. P.
Putnam's Sons, New York, New York. 398 pp.
Lind, Owen T., 1974. Handbook of Common Methods in Limnology. C. V.
Mosby Company, St. Louis, Missouri. 154 pp.
Migel, J. Michael, Editor, 1974. The Stream Conservation Handbook,
Grown Publishers, Inc., New York, New York. 242 pp.
Needham, James G. and J. T. Lloyd, 1937. The Life of Inland Waters.
Comstock Publishing Company, New York, New York.
Reid, George K., 1961. Ecology of Inland Waters and Estuaries.
VanNostrand Reinhold Company, New York, New York. 375 pp.
Ruttner, Frantz, 1972. Fundamentals of Limnology, 3rd Edition. Univer-
sity of Toronto Press, 295 pp.
Vallentyne, John R., 1974. The Algal Bowl, Lakes and Man. Misc.
Special Publication 22, Canada Department of the Environment,
Fisheries and Marine Service, Ottawa. 186 pp.
Wetzel, Robert G., 1975. Limnology, W. B. Saunders Company, Phila-
delphia. 743 pp.
*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1979 O -260-173/6140
37
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