x>EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agwicy
Office of Water
Regulations and Standards
Criteria and Standards Division
Washington DC 20460
EPA 440/5-86-004
September 1986
Water
Ambient
Water Quality
Criteria
for
Nickel - 1986
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AMBIENT AQUATIC LIFE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR
NICKEL
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORIES
DULUTH, MINNESOTA
NARRAGANSETT, RHODE ISLAND
0 S. t I. v ,'<';>.'f
Region 0. i K-,:'\
77 West J.fKv q ;-;., ,
Chic ^o. ;L C •>:? ,.,
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NOTICES
This document has been reviewed by the Criteria and Standards Division,
Office of Water Regulations and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, and approved for publication.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) , 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
11
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FOREWORD
Section 304UK1) of the Clean Water Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-217)
The term "water quality criteria" is used in two sections of the
Clean Water Act section 304UM1) and section 303(c)(2). The term has a
Criteria presented in this document are such scientific assessments
If water quality criteria associated with specific stream uses are adopted
Jv Tstate as water quality standards under section 303, they become
enfor a e maxtmum acceptable pollutant concentrations in ambient waters
that State. Water quality criteria adopted in State water quality
rlis
in o water quality standards. It is not until their adoption as part of
State water quality standards that criteria become regulatory.
Guidelines to assist States in the modification of criteria
in this document, in the development of water quality ^ards and in
other water-related programs of this Agency, have been developed by 6PA.
William A. Whittington
Director
Office of Water Regulations and Standards
111
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Loren J. Larson
Judy L. Crane
(freshwater authors)
University of Wisconsin-Superior
Superior, Wisconsin
Jeffrey L. Hyland
Robert E. Hillman
(saltwater authors)
Battelle New England Laboratory
Duxbury, Massachusetts
Charles E. Stephan
(document coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota
David J. Hansen
(saltwater coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Narragansett, Rhode Island
Clerical Support:
Terry L. Highland
Shelley A. Heintz
Diane L. Spehar
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CONTENTS
Page
, ........ iii
Foreword ....................
Acknowledgments ..........................
Tables ............................... VL
Introduction ............................
Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals .................
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals ................ 8
Toxicity to Aquatic Plants ..................... 10
Bioaccumulat ion ..........................
12
Other Data .............................
14
Unused Data ............................
Summary ........................... '
National Criteria . . .......................
References
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TABLES
1. Acute Toxicity of Nickel to Aquatic Animals 20
2. Chronic Toxicity of Nickel To Aquatic Animals 30
3. Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic
Ratios 33
4. Toxicity of Nickel to Aquatic Plants 38
5. Bioaccumulation of Nickel by Aquatic Organisms 40
6. Other Data on Effects of Nickel on Aquatic Organisms 42
VI
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Introduction*
Nickel is one of the most common of the metals occurring in surface
waters (Forstner 1984; Hutchinson et al. 1975; Kopp and Kroner 1967;
Martin and Knauer 1972; Mathis and Cummings 1973; McCabe et al. 1970; Portman
1972; Solbe 1973; Trollope and Evans 1976; Young 1982). Although nickel
can exist in oxidation states of -1, 0, +1, +2, +3, and +4, under usual
conditions in surface waters the divalent cation greatly predominates
and is generally considered the most toxic. Alkalinity, hardness, salinity,
pH, temperature, and such complexing agents as humic acids influence the
oxidation state, toxicity, and availability of the nickel in aquatic
ecosystems.
Natural sources of the nickel in surface waters include weathering
of rocks, inflow of particulate matter, and precipitation. Anthropogenic
sources of nickel include the burning of coal and other fossil fuels and
discharges from such industries as electroplating and smelting. Although
fly ash can contain as much as 960 ^g/g (Swaine 1980), lake restoration
projects have experimented with the use of fly ash to remove nutrients.
Mechanisms of nickel toxicity are varied and complex (Mustiak 1980),
and, as with other heavy metals, significant effects occur at cell membranes
and membranous tissues, such as gills. In fish, hematological effects
such as hyperglycemia, lymphopenia, and erythrocytosis have been reported
in association with nickel intoxication (Agrawal et al. 1979; Chaudhry
1984; Chaudhry and Nath 1985; Chaudry and Nath 1985; Gill and Pant 1981).
* An understanding of the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water
Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses
(Stephan et al. 1985), hereafter referred to as the Guidelines, and the
response to public comment (U.S. EPA 1985a) is necessary in order to
understand the following text, tables, and calculations.
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Because of the variety of forms of nickel (Callahan et al. 1979;
Nriagu 1980) and lack of definitive information about their relative
toxicities, no available analytical measurement is known to be ideal for
expressing aquatic life criteria for nickel. Previous aquatic life
criteria for nickel (U.S. EPA 1980) were expressed in terras of total
recoverable nickel (U.S. EPA 1983a), but this measurement is probably too
rigorous in some situations. Acid-soluble nickel (operationally defined
as the nickel that passes through a 0.45 pro membrane filter after the
sample is acidified to pH = 1.5 to 2.0 with nitric acid) is probably the
best measurement at present for the following reasons:
1. This measurement is compatible with nearly all available data
concerning toxicity of nickel to, and bioaccumulation of nickel by,
aquatic organisms. No test results were rejected just because it was
likely that they would have been substantially different if they had
been reported in terms of acid-soluble nickel. For example, results
reported in terms of dissolved nickel would not have been used if the
concentration of precipitated nickel had been substantial.
2. On samples of ambient water, measurement of acid-soluble nickel will
probably measure all forms of nickel that are toxic to aquatic life or
can be readily converted to toxic forms under natural conditions. In
addition, this measurement probably will not measure several forms, such
as nickel that is occluded in minerals, clays, and sand or is strongly
sorbed to particulate matter, that are not toxic and are not likely
to become toxic under natural conditions. Although this measurement
(and many others) will measure soluble complexed forms of nickel,
such as the EDTA complex of nickel, that probably have low toxicities
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to aquatic life, concentrations of these forms probably are negligible
in most ambient water.
3. Although water quality criteria apply to ambient water, the measurement
used to express criteria is likely to be used to measure nickel in aqueous
effluents. Measurement of acid-soluble nickel probably will be applicable
to effluents because it will measure precipitates, such as carbonate
and hydroxide precipitates of nickel, that might exist in an effluent
and dissolve when the effluent is diluted with receiving water. If
desired, dilution of effluent with receiving water before measurement
of acid-soluble nickel might be used to determine whether the receiving
water can decrease the concentration of acid-soluble nickel because
of sorption.
4. The acid-soluble measurement is probably useful for most metals, thus
minimizing the number of samples and procedures that are necessary.
5. The acid-soluble measurement does not require filtration at the time
of collection, as does the dissolved measurement.
6. The only treatment required at the time of collection is preservation
by acidification to pH = 1.5 to 2.0, similar to that required for the
total recoverable measurement.
7. Durations of 10 minutes to 24 hours between acidification and filtration
of most samples of ambient water probably will not affect the result
substantially.
8. The carbonate system has a much higher buffer capacity from pH = 1.5 to
2.0 than it does from pH = 4 to 9 (Weber and Stumm 1963).
9. Differences in pH within the range of 1.5 to 2.0 probably will not
affect the result substantially.
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10. The acid-soluble measurement does not require a digestion step, as does
the total recoverable measurement.
11. After acidification and filtration of the sample to isolate the acid-
soluble nickel, the analysis can be performed using either atomic
absorption spectrophotometric or ICP-atomic emission spectrometric
analysis (U.S. EPA 1983a), as with the total recoverable measurement.
Thus, expressing aquatic life criteria for nickel in terms of the acid-
soluble measurement has both toxicological and practical advantages. On
the other hand, because no measurement is known to be ideal for expressing
aquatic life criteria for nickel or for measuring nickel in ambient water
or aqueous effluents, measurement of both acid-soluble nickel and total
recoverable nickel in ambient water or effluent or both might be useful.
For example, there might be cause for concern if total recoverable nickel
is much above an applicable limit, even though acid-soluble nickel is
below the limit.
Unless otherwise noted, all concentrations reported herein are expected
to be essentially equivalent to acid-soluble nickel concentrations. All
concentrations are expressed as nickel, not as the chemical tested. The
criteria presented herein supersede previous national aquatic life-water
quality criteria for nickel (U.S. EPA 1976,1980) because these new
criteria were derived using improved procedures and additional information.
Whenever adequately justified, a national criterion may be replaced by a
site-specific criterion (U.S. EPA 1983b), which may include not only
site-specific criterion concentrations (U.S. EPA 1983c), but also site-specific
durations of averaging periods and site-specific frequencies of allowed
excursions (U.S. EPA 1985b) . The latest comprehensive literature search
for information for this document was conducted in July, 1986; some more recent:
information might have been included.
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Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animal^
Lind et al. (Manuscript) conducted studies on the effects of both
hardness and TOG on the acute toxicity of nickel to both Daphnia pulicaria
and the fathead minnow (Table 6). With both species, hardness was the
only significantly correlated parameter. Nebeker et al. (1985) reported
that rainbow trout were more sensitive when 12-raonths old than when 3-months
old. Rehwoldt et al. (1973) observed that embryos were more sensitive
than adult snails.
Many factors might affect the results of tests of the toxicity of
nickel to aquatic organisms (Sprague 1985), but water quality criteria
can quantitatively take into account such factors only if enough data
are available to show that the factor similarly affects the results of
tests with a variety of species. Hardness is often thought of "as having
a major effect on the toxicity of nickel in fresh water, although the
observed effect is probably due to one or more of a number ot usually
interrelated ions, such as hydroxide, carbonate, calcium, and magnesium.
Hardness (expressed as mg CaC03/L) is used here as a surrogate for the
ions that affect the results of toxicity tests on nickel. An -analysis
of covariance (Dixon and Brown 1979; Neter and Wasserman 1974) was performed
using the natural logarithm of the acute value as the dependent variable,
species as the treatment or grouping variable, and the natural logarithm
of hardness as the covariate or independent variable. This analysis of
covariance model was fit to the data in Table 1 for the four species for
which acute values are available over a range of hardness such that the
highest hardness is at least three times the lowest and the highest is
also at least 100 mg/L higher than the lowest. The four slopes are
between 0.69 and 1.19 (see end of Table 1) and are close to the slope
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of 1.0 that is expected on the basis that nickel, calcium, magnesium, and
carbonate all have a charge of two. An F-test showed that, under the
assumption of equality of slopes, the probability of obtaining four slopes
as dissimilar as these is P = 0.26. This was interpreted as indicating
that it is not unreasonable to assume that the slopes for these four species
are the same.
Where possible, the pooled slope of 0.8460 was used to adjust the
acute values in Table 1 to hardness = 50 mg/L. Species Mean Acute Values
were calculated as geometric means of the adjusted acute values. Genus Mean
Acute Values at hardness = 50 mg/L were then calculated as geometric
means of the available freshwater Species Mean Acute Values (Table 3).
Of the eighteen genera for which freshwater acute values are available,
the most sensitive genus, Daphnia, was 29 times more sensitive than the
most resistant, Fundulus. .The freshwater Final Acute Value for nickel at
hardness = 50 mg/L was calculated to be 1,578 gg/L using the procedure
described in the Guidelines and the Genus Mean Acute Values in Table 3.
Thus, the freshwater Criterion Maximum Concentration (in rig/L) =
(0.8460(ln(hardness)]+3.3612)
e
The acute toxicity of nickel to saltwater organisms has been determined
with 18 species of invertebrates and 4 species of fish (Table 1). The
LC50s and EC50s for invertebrates range from 151.7 ,jg/L for juveniles of
the raysid, Heteromysis formosa (Gentile et al. 1982) to 1,100,000 ;Jg/L for
late juvenile to adult stages of the clam, Macoma balthica (Bryant et al.
1985). Fish are not as sensitive or as resistant to nickel. The 96-hr
LC50s range from 7,958 ,jg/L for larval stages of the Atlantic silverside,
Menidia men id i a (Cardin 1985) to 350,000 ;jg/L for adult stages of the
muramichog, Fundulus heteroclitus (Eisler and Hennekey 1977).
6
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Although data are Limited, relationships might exist between both
salinity and temperature and the toxicity of nickel to some saltwater species.
For example, the LC50 for the mummichog is 55,000 ^Jg/L at a salinity of
6.9 g/kg, and 175,000 ng/L at a salinity of 21.6 g/kg (Dorfman 1977). In
a series of tests with the amphipod, Corophium volutator (Bryant et al.
1985), the LC50 increased with salinity at 5°C, 10°C, and 15°C. At
salinities of 5, 10, and 15 g/kg, temperature did not seem to affect the
LC50, but at salinities of 25 and 35 g/kg, the LC50 decreased as temperature
increased. Bryant et al. (1985) found similar effects of salinity and
temperature on nickel toxicity with the clam, Macoma balthica (Table 6).
Regressions of toxicity on salinity for the above data show strong correlations
However, analysis of covariance reveals that the slopes for the individual
species are too dissimilar (P < 0.05) to justify expressing nickel toxicity
as a function of salinity.
Of the twenty saltwater genera for which acute values are available,
the most sensitive genus, Heteromysis, was over 2,000 times more sensitive
than the most resistant, My_a (Table 3). Acute values are available for
more than one species in each of three genera, and the range of Species
Mean Acute Values within each genus is less than a factor of 4.8. Genus
Mean Acute Values for the four most sensitive genera, Heteromysis,
Mercenaria, Mysidopsis, and Crassostrea, were within a factor of 7.8 even
though the acute tests were conducted with juveniles of the crustaceans
and with embryos of the bivalves. The saltwater Final Acute Value was
calculated to be 149.2 ^g/L, which is very close to the acute value for the
most sensitive tested saltwater species.
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Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
Data are available on the freshwater chronic toxicity of nickel to
a cladoceran, a caddisfly, and two species of fish (Table 2). Nebeker
et al. (1985) conducted two early life-stage tests beginning with rainbow
trout embryos 4 hours after fertilization and one early life-stage test
beginning with trout embryos 25 days after fertilization. In the first
test, weight was significantly reduced by all tested concentrations
including the lowest of 35 Mg/L- In the second test, weight was significantly
reduced by 62 and 431 tJg/L, but not by 35, 134, and 238 ,Jg/L, whereas
survival was reduced only at nickel concentrations of 134 ^Jg/L and higher.
In the third test, weight was significantly reduced at 431 ^Jg/L and
higher, but the reduction in survival was significant only at 1,680 >Jg/L
and higher.
Lazareva (1985) conducted a life-cycle test over successive generations
with Daphnia magna and observed little change in sensitivity. Although survival.
time was the most sensitive parameter in one test, growth was consistently
affected at a concentration of 10 nig/L. Lazareva predicted that 5 >jg/L
would affect the productivity of populations of Daphnia magna.
The influence of hardness on chronic toxicity of nickel was investigated
by Chapman et al. (Manuscript). In life-cycle tests with Daphnia magna,
they observed an increase in chronic value with increased hardness.
Least squares regression of ln[chronic value] on ln[hardness] produced a
slope of 2.3007 with wide confidence limits (Table 2). A similar
regression with data for the fathead minnow produced a slope of 0.5706,
but confidence limits could not be calculated because only two points were
available for use in the regression. An F-test showed that, under the
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assumption of equality of slopes, the probability of obtaining two
slopes as dissimilar as these is P - 0.19. This was interpreted as
indicating that it is not unreasonable to assume that the two slopes are
the same. The pooled slope is 1.3418 with 95% confidence limits of
-1.3922 and 4.0760. The confidence limits on the pooled acute slope are
well within the confidence limits on the pooled chronic slope.
The mysid, Mysidopsis bahia, is the only saltwater species with which
an acceptable chronic test has been conducted on nickel (Table 2).
Chronic exposure to nickel reduced survival and number of young at 141
^g/L and above but not at 61 Mg/L and lower (Lussier et al. 1985). Thus
the chronic value for nickel with this species is 92.74 ^g/L and the
acute-chronic ratio is 5.478.
The three available species mean acute-chronic ratios range- from 5.478 to
35.55 and were all determined with species that are acutely sensitive to
nickel (Table 3). The Final Acute-Chronic Ratio of 17.99 was calculated
as the geometric mean of the three ratios. Division of the freshwater
Final Acute Value by the Final Acute-Chronic Ratio results in a freshwater
Final Chronic Value of 87.72 ug/L at hardness = 50 mg/L. Some data
(Tables 2 and 6) concerning the chronic toxicity of nickel to rainbow
trout indicate that embryos and larvae of this species might be affected
at this concentration, whereas other data (Table 2) indicate that embryos
and larvae of the species might not be adversely affected. Use of an
acute-chronic ratio that is independent of hardness is equivalent to
assuming that the chronic slope is equal to the acute slope. Thus the
,. /T -> _ (0.8460[ln(hardness)]+1.645)
freshwater Final Chronic Value (in ^g/I.; - e
This value might not protect DaghnU maj,na in soft water.
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Division of the saltwater Final Acute Value by 17.99 results in a
saltwater Final Chronic Value of 8.293 pg/L, which is about a factor of eleven
lower than the only chronic value that has been determined with a saltwater
species. Three of the four acutely most sensitive saltwater species are
in the same family as the species with which the saltwater acute-chronic
ratio was determined. In addition, two other sensitive species are bivalve
molluscs for which the acute values were obtained from tests on embryos
and larvae.
Toxicity to Aquatic Plants
Data on the toxicity of nickel to aquatic plants are found in Table 4.
Nickel concentrations resulting in a 40-60% reduction in growth of fresh-
water algae range from 50 ^g/L for the green alga, Scenedesmus acuminatz,
to 5,000 ug/L for the green algae, Ankistrodesmus falcatus and Chlorococcum
sp. Wang and Wood (1984) indicate that toxicity of nickel to plants is
pH dependent. Although lack of hardness values makes comparisons difficult,
general comparison of data in Table 4 with chronic toxicity data in Table 2
suggests that nickel concentrations high enough to produce chronic effects
•
on freshwater animals will also have deteriorative effects on freshwater
algal populations.
Patrick et al. (1975) found that nickel decreased diatom diversity
and caused a shift to green and blue-green algae. In their field study,
Spencer and Greene (1981) also found an increase in blue-green algae.
Using EDTA to manipulate Ni+2 concentrations, Spencer and Nichols
(1983) reported algal growth to be inversely related to free divalent
nickel and independent of total nickel concentrations.
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Brown and Rattigan (1979) studied nickel toxicity to two freshwater
vascular plants, duckweed and Elodea (Anacharis). Despite the presence
of a thick cuticle, which protects it from many pollutants (e.g., herbicides),
duckweed was much more susceptible to nickel than was Elodea. A similar
EC50 was reported for duckweed by Wang (1986). Muramoto and Oki (1984)
observed that the water hyacinth is quite resistant, with about a 30%
reduction in growth at 4,000 and 8,000 Mg/L-
Data on the toxicity of nickel to saltwater plants and algae are
found in Tables 4 and 6. The test with the giant kelp, Macrocystis
pyrL£era, lasted four days and resulted in a 50% reduction in photosynthesis
at 2,000 ^g/L (Clendenning and North 1959). The lowest concentrations
affecting growth of phytoplankton ranged from 17 to 1,800 ,Jg/L and were
salinity and temperature dependent (Wilson and Freeberg 1980). "Concentrations
that affect most saltwater plants apparently are higher than those that are
chronically toxic to saltwater animals.
Bioaccumulat ion
Data are available on bioaccumulation of nickel by a freshwater alga,
a cladoceran, and two species of fish (Table 5). The lowest factor, 0.8,
was obtained for muscle of rainbow trout. All other studies where conducted
on whole body samples and the factors ranged from 9.3 for the alga to 193
for the cladoceran. In studies with the fathead minnow, Lind et al.
(Manuscript) found that the BCF decreased as the concentration of nickel
in water increased. This same trend was observed by Hall (1982), who
studied the accumulation of nickel in various tissues of Daphnia magn_a_
and used a model to describe uptake at different exposure concentrations.
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Watras et al. (1985) reported a BCF with Daphnia magna or 11.6. Their study
indicated that uptake of nickel directly from the water was much greater
than uptake from food. They also suggested that little biomagnification
occurs within the association of the cladoceran and algae. Jennett et
al. (1982) examined physical and biological variables affecting uptake by
algae. Although their study did not demonstrate that steady-state was
attained, Taylor and Crowder (1983,1984) studied differential uptake of
nickel by various portions of an emergent aquatic plant, the cattail.
A field study with measured nickel concentrations in a stream produced
average BCF of 803 for wild rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) (Dallinger
and Kautzky 1985).
Data on bioaccumulation of nickel by saltwater organisms are available
for two species of algae and two species of bivalves (Table 5).' BCFs for
algae collected from the field are 675 for the rookweed, Fucus vejsiculosis,
and 458.3 for Ascophyllum nodosum (Foster 1976). BCFs for bivalves
exposed for 9 days in the laboratory were 472.7 and 328.6 for the blue mussel
and 458.1 and 261.8 for the Eastern oyster (Zaroogian and Johnson 1984).
No U.S. FDA action level or other maximum acceptable concentration in
tissue is available for nickel, and, therefore, no Final Residue Value
can be calculated.
Other Data
Data in Table 6 suggest a high toxicity to nickel in the single-celled
organisms. Bringmann and Kuhn (1959a,b;1977a;1979;1980a,b;1981)
reported that concentrations of 2.5 to 1,500 Mg/L resulted in incipient
inhibition of algae, bacteria, and protozoans. Babich and Stotzky (1983)
observed delayed effects after a 24-hr exposure.
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Willford (1966) reported 48-hr LC50s for six fishes tested in the
same water. Although the fish differed in size, neither this nor taxonotiuc
differences produced a clear trend in relative toxicity. Blayloc* and
Frank (1979) observed LC50s for carp larva at 3 and 10.5 days to be 8,460
and 750 ^g/L, respectively. Birge and coworkers obtained 28-day EC50s of
50, 60, and 90 ^g/L with embyros and larvae of rainbow trout and a 7-
day EC50 of 50 ^g/L with embryos and larvae of the narrow-mouthed toad.
Shaw and Brown (1971) studied the effect of nickel on laboratory
fertilization of rainbow trout eggs. They did not find a statistically
significant effect at 1000 ^g/L (hardness = 260 to 280 mg/L) and noted a
stimulation in development after fertilization compared to controls.
Whitley and Sikora (1970) and Brkovic-Popovic and Popovic (1977b)
studied effects on respiration in tubificid worms. Influence of nickel
on thermal resistance of salmonids was examined by Becker and Wolford
(1980). The effect of complexing agents on toxicity of nickel to carp
was studied by Muramoto (1983). Smith-Sonneborn et al. (1983) studied
the toxicity of nickel dust particles ingested by Paramecium. Anderson
(1973) and Anderson and Weber (1975) derived an expression relating body
size to sensitivity of the guppy.
In a field study, Havas and Hutchinson (1982) worked with acidified
and control ponds and suggested that the lowered PH increased the concen-
trations of heavy metals such as nickel and stressed resident aquatic
invertebrates. Keller and Pitblado (19«4) and Yan et al. (1985) compared
ambient nickel concentrations to aquatic community dynamics.
Available data that were not used directly in the derivation of
saltwater criterion for nickel (Table 6) do not indicate a need to lower
the criterion. In addition to affecting survival of saltwater animals,
13
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nickel affects growth, development, reproduction, and biochemical responses.
A 19% reduction in growth of juvenile Pacific oysters, Crassost rea £ig_as_,
exposed to 10 ng/L for 14 days at a salinity of 34 g/kg was reported by
Watling (1983). The ecological significance of this reduction is unknown,
but after 14 days in clean water size was similar to that of the controls.
Petrich and Reish (1979) found that 100 to 500 ug/L suppressed reproduction
of a polychaete, Ctenodrilus serratus. Zaroogian et al. (1982) showed a
significant reduction in ATP activity in the adductor muscle of the blue
mussel, but not the Eastern oyster, after a 10-week exposure to 10 ,Jg/L.
Abnormal development of embryos of the sea urchins, Arbac ia punctulata and
Lvtechinus pictus, occurred at several concentrations of nickel (Timourian
and Watchmaker 1972; Waterman 1937), and concentrations as low as 58.69
Mg/L depressed sperm motility in gametes of the purple urchin, Strongylocentrotus
purpuratus (Timourian and Watchmaker 1977).
Unused Data
Some data on the effects of nickel on aquatic organisms were not used
because the studies were conducted with species that are not resident in North
America (e.g., Ahsanullah 1982; Ballester and Castellvi 1979; Baudouiri
and Scoopa 1974; Kanai and Wakabayashi 1984; Khangarot et al. 1982: McFeters
et al. 1983; Saxena and Parashari 1983; Srivastava et al. 1985: Van Hoof and
Nauwelaers 1984; Verma et al. 1981; Wilson 1983). Results (e.g., Kissa
et al. 1984) of tests conducted with brine shrimp, Ar_t_em_ia_ s_p_. , were not
used because these species are from a unique saltwater environment.
Data were also not used if nickel was a component of a mixture (e.g.,
Alman and Bager 1984; Anderson 1983; Besser 1985; Cowgill et ai. 1986,
Doudoroff 1956; Doudoroff et al. 1966: Eisler 1977b; Hutchinson and
14
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Sprague 1983,1986; Lopez-Avila et al. 1985; Markarian et al. 1980: Muska
1978; Muska and Weber 1977a,b; Phelps et al. 1981; Suloway et al. 1983;
Stratton and Corke 1979b; Vymazal 1984; Wei.nst.ein and Anderson 1978; Wong
and Beaver 1980; Wong et al. 1978,1982), an effluent (e.g., Abbe 1982;
Blaise and Couture 1984; Cherry et al. 1979; Jay and Muncy 1979; Lewis
1986) or sediments (e.g., Malueg et al. 1984; Seeleye et al. 1982).
Babich and Stotzky (1985), Biddinger and Gloss (1984), Birge and
Black (1980), Chapman et al. (1968), Doudoroff and Katz (1953), Eisler
(1981), Jenkins (1980), Kaiser (1980), LeBlanc (1984), McKim (1977),
Phillips and Russo (1978), Rai et al. (1981), Thompson et al. (1972),
and U.S. EPA (1975) only contain data that have been published elsewhere.
Christensen et al. (1985) reported computer simulated data only.
Data were not used if the organisms were exposed to nickel in rood (e.g.,
Cowgill et al. 1985; Mansouri-Aliabadi and Sharp 1985; Windom et al.
1982). Results were not used if the test procedures were not adequately
described (e.g., Bean and Harris 1977; Braginskiy and Shcherban 1978;
Brown 1968; Jones 1939; Petukhov and Ni.nonenko 1982; See et al. 1974,1975;
Shcherban 1977; Sirover and Loeb 1976; Soeder and Engelmann 1984; Wang et
al. 1984). The 96-hr values reported by Buikema et al. (1974a,b) were
subject to error because of possible reproductive interactions (Buikema
et al. 1977). Michnowicz and Weaks (1984) conducted tests at too low a
pH. Babich et al. (1986) only exposed cell cultures.
Results of some laboratory tests were not used because the tests were
conducted in distilled or deionized water without addition of appropriate
salts (e.g., Jones 1935; MacDonald et al. 1980; Shaw and Grushkin 1957)
or were conducted in chlorinated or "tap" water (e.g., Grande and Andersen
1983; Janauer 1985). Dilution waters in studies by Mann and Fyfe (1984)
15
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and Stratton and Corke (1979a) contained excessive amounts of EDTA. Stokes
(1975) and Whitton and Shehata (1982) used algae from waters containing
high concentrations of nickel. The data of Gerhards and Weller (1977) on
accumulation of nickel by algae were not used because the Lest concentrations
of nickel adversely affected the growth of the algae. Dugan (1975)
reported results in uptake studies only as counts of radio-labeled nickel.
Bringmann and Kuhn (1982) cultured Daphnia magna in one water and
conducted tests in another. Tests conducted with too few test organisms
(e.g., Applegate et al. 1957; Tarzwell and Henderson 1960) were not used.
Reports of the concentrations of nickel in wild aquatic organisms
(e.g., Abo-Rady 1979; Amemiya and Nakayama 1984; Bailey and Stokes 1985;
Bosserman 1985; Bradley and Morris 1986; Brezina and Arnold 1977; Bryan
et al. 1983; Chapman 1985; Chassard-Bouchard and Balvay 1978; Dunstan et
al. 1980; Eisler et al. 1978; Gordon et al. 1980; Guilizzoni 1980; Hall
et al. 1978; Heit and Klasek 1985; Jenkins 1980; Kawamata et al. 1983;
La Touche and Mix 1982; McDermott et al. 1976; McHardy and George 1985;
Martin 1979; Mathis and Cummings 1973; Mears and Eisler 1977; O'Conner
1976; Ozimek 1985; Parsons et al. 1972; Pennington et al. 1982; Pulich
1980; Reynolds 1979: Stokes et al. 1985; long et al. 1974; Trollope and
Evans 1976; Uthe and Bligh 1971; Van Coille and Rousseau 1974; Wachs 1982;
Wehr and Whitton 1983; Wren et al. 1983) were not used to calculate
bioaccumulation factors due to the absence or insufficient number of
measurements of nickel in water.
Summary
Acute values with twenty-one freshwater species in 18 genera range
from 1,101 ug/L for a cladoceran to 43,240 ;jg/L for a fish. Fishes and
16
-------
invertebrates are both spread throughout the range of sensitivity. Acute
values with four species are significantly correlated with hardness.
Data are available concerning the chronic toxicity of nickel to two
invertebrates and two fishes in fresh water. Data available for two
species indicate that chronic toxicity decreases as hardness increases.
The measured chronic values ranged from 14.77 ^g/L with Daphnia magna
in soft water to 526.7 Jg/L producing significant inhibition. Bioconcentrat ion
factors for nickel range from 0.8 for fish muscle to 193 for a cladoceran.
Acute values for twenty-three saltwater species in twenty genera range from
151.7 ug/L with juveniles of a mysid to 1,100,000 ,Jg./L with juveniles and adults
of a clam. The acute values for the four species of fish range from 7,598 to
350,000 ,Jg/l.. The acute toxicity of nickel appears to be related to salinity,
but. the form of the relationship appears to be species-dependent.
Mysidopsis bahia is the only saltwater species with which an acceptable
chronic test has been conducted on nickel. Chronic exposure to 141,^g/L
and greater resulted in reduced survival and reproduction. The measured
acute-chronic ratio was 5.478.
Bioconcentration factors in salt water range from 261.8 with a oyster
to 675 with a brown alga.
National Criteria
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms
17
-------
and Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important
species is very sensitive, freshwater aquatic organisms and their uses
should not be affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration
(in ;Jg/L) of nickel does not exceed the numerical value given by
(0.8460[ln(hardness)]+1.1645) more Lhan once every three years on cne
e
average and if the one-hour average concentration (in >Jg/L) does not
_, ,_ . , , • K (0.8460[ln(hardness)]+3.3612)
exceed the numerical value given by g more
than once every three years on the average. For example, at hardnesses
of 50, 100, and 200 tng/L as CaC03 the four-day average concentrations of
nickel are 88, 160, and 280 >Jg/L, respectively, and the one-hour average
concentrations are 790, 1400, and 2500 ^ig/L.
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms
and Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important
species is very sensitive, saltwater aquatic organisms and their uses
should not be affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration
of nickel does not exceed 8.3 (jg/L more than once every three years on the
average and if the one-hour average concentration does not exceed 75 ^Jg/L
more than once every three years on the average.
"Ac id-soluble" is probably the best measurement at present for expressing
criteria for metals and the criteria for nickel were developed on this
basis. However, at this time, no EPA approved method for such a measurement
is available to implement criteria for metals through the regulatory
programs of the Agency and the States. The Agency is considering development
and approval of a method for a measurement such as "acid-soluble." Until
one is approved, however, EPA recommends applying criteria for metals
using the total recoverable method. This has two impacts: (1) certain
18
-------
species of some metals cannot be measured because the total recoverable
method cannot distinguish between individual oxidation states, and (2) in
some cases these criteria might be overly protective when based on the
total recoverable method.
Three years is the Agency's best scientific judgment of the average
amount of time aquatic ecosystems should be provided between excursions
(U.S. EPA 1985b). The resiliencies of ecosystems and their abilities to
recover differ greatly, however, and site-specific allowed excursion
frequencies may be established if adequate justification is provided.
Use of criteria for developing water quality-based permit limits and
for designing waste treatment facilities requires selection of an appropriate
wasteload allocation model. Dynamic models are preferred for the application
of these criteria (U.S. EPA 1985b). Limited data or other considerations
might make their use impractical, in which case one must rely on a steady-state
model (U.S. EPA 1986).
19
-------
Table 1. Acute Toxlclty of Nickel to Aquatic Animals
C r* f*f I AC
J frlOV* 1 O J
Worm,
Nals sp.
Snai 1 (embryo) ,
Amnicola sp.
Snail (adult),
Amnicola sp.
Cladoceran,
Daphn la maqna
C ladoceran ,
Daphnla maqna
C ladocaran ,
Oaphnla maqna
C 1 adoceran,
Daphn 1 a magna
O
Cladoceran,
Daphn ia maqna
C 1 adoceran ,
Daphn i a magna
Cladoceran,
Oaphn la maqna
Cladocaran,
Daphnla pul icar ia
Cl adoceran,
Daphnla pul icaria
C 1 adoceran.
Daphnla pul icaria
Method*
SM
> m
S, M
S, M
S, U
S, U
S, M
S, M
S, M
S, M
S, M
S, M
S, M
S, M
Chemical
-
-
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
ch lor Ide
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel
chlor ide
Nickel
chlor ide
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sol fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaC03)
FRESHWATER
50
50
50
-
45.3
51.1
51
100
104
206
48
48
44
LC50
or EC50
(M9/L)»»
SPECIES
14, 100
11 ,400
14,300
<317
510
915
!,800
2,360
1,920
4,970
2,182
1,813
'1,836
Adjusted Species Mean
LC50 or EC50 Acute Value
(Mq/L)««» (wq/L)««"
14,100 14,100
11,400
14,300 12,770
-
554.4
898.3
1,770
1,313
1 ,033
1,500 1.102
2,259
1,877
2,046
Reference
Rehwoldt et at . 1973
Rehwoldt et al . 1975
Rehwoldt et al . 1973
Anderson 1948
Bleslnger and
Christensen 1972
Cal 1 et al . 1983
Chapman et al .
Manuscr ipt
Chapman et al .
Manuscr ipt
Chapman et al .
Manuscr Ipt
Chapman et al .
Manuscr ipt
Llnd et al .
Manuscr ipt
Llnd et al .
Manuscr ipt
Lind et al .
Manuscr ipt
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Spec 1 es
Cladoceran,
Oaphnia pul Icaria
Amph Ipod,
Gammarus sp.
Mayfly,
Ephemerella subvarla
Damsel fly,
Unidentified sp.
Stonef ly ,
Acroneuri a lycor las
Caddlsf ly.
Unidentified sp.
American eel ,
Anquilla rostrata
American eel ,
Anqul 1 la rostrata
Rainbow trout (2 mos) ,
Salmo qalrdner i
Rainbow trout (juvenile).
Salmo qairdner i
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo qalrdner i
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo qalrdner i
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
S a 1 mo qalrdner i
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
S a 1 mo gal rdner 1
Method*
S, M
S. M
S, U
S, M
S. U
S, M
S, M
S, M
F, M
F, M
f, M
F, M
F, M
F, M
Chemical
Nickel
sul fate
-
Nickel
sul fate
-
Nickel
sul fate
-
Nickel
n itrate
-
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel
su If ate
Nickel
sulf ata
Nickel
sulf ate
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sul fate
Hardness LC50 Adjusted Species Mean
(mg/L as or EC50 LC50 °«^£C50 Acute VaijJJ»
47 1.901 2,003 2,042
50 13,000 13,000 13,000
42 4,000 4,636 4,636
50 21.200 21,200 21,200
40 33,500 40,460 40,460
50 30,200 30,200 30,200
53 13,000* 12,370
55 13,000 11,990 12,180
35,500
20,100*
12,700*
28,000*
30,900*
•
16,900*
Reference
Llnd et al .
Manuscript
Rehwoldt et al. 1973
Warnlck and Bel 1
1969
Reh*oldt et al . 1973
Warnlck and Bel 1
1969
Rehwoldt et al .
1973
Rehwoldt et al .
1971
Rehwoldt et al .
1972
Hale 1977
Anderson 1981
Anderson 1981
Anderson 1981
Anderson 1981
Anderson 1981
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Spec les
Rainbow trout (juvenile).
Salmo qairdner 1
Rainbow trout (.juvenile),
Salmo qairdner i
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout (3 mos).
Salmo qairdner 1
Rainbow trout (i mos),
Salmo qairdner i
Rainbow trout (12 mos).
Salmo qa irdner i
Rainbow trout (12 mos).
Salmo qalrdneri
Goldfish ( 1-2 q) ,
Carasslus auratus
Common carp (<20 cm),
Cyprlnus carpio
Common carp.
Cypr inus carpi o
Fathead minnow (1-2 q) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 q) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 q) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 q) ,
P Imephales protnejjas^
Method*
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
s.
s.
s,
s.
s,
s,
s.
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
U
M
M
U
II
U
U
Chemical
Nickel
sul fata
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
su (fate
Nickel
chlor ide
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chlor ide
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
nitrate
-
Nickel
chlor ide
Nickel
chl or ide
Nickel
chlor ide
Nickel
chl or ide
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCOj)
_
-
-
27-
39
27-
39
27-
39
27-
39
20
53
55
20
20
360
360
LC50
or EC50
(M9/L)«»
15
It
11
10
10
8
a
9
10
10
5
4
42
44
,900f
,300t
, 100f
,000
,900
,900
,100
,820
,600f
,400
,180
,580
,400
,500
Adjusted
LC50 or EC50
(uq/L)*»»
-
-
-
14,210
15,490
12,650
11 ,510
21 ,320
10,090
9,594
11,250
9,943
7,981
8,376
Species Mean
Acute Value
(iig/L)"** Reference
Anderson 1981
Anderson 1981
Anderson 1981
Nebeker et al .
Nebeker et al .
Nebeker et al .
13,380 Nebeker et al .
21,320 Pickerinq and
Henderson 1966
Rehwoldt et al .
1
9,839 Rehwoldt et al ,
1972
Pickerinq and
Henderson 1966
Pickerinq and
Henderson 1966
Pickerinq and
Henderson 196o
Pickerinq and
Henderson 1966
1985
19«5
1985
19tJ5
i
-------
Table 1. (continued)
u>
Method*
Fathead minnow (immature), S, U
P Imephales promelas
Fathead minnow (immature), S, M
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (Immature), F, M
P Imephales promelas
Fathead minnow (immature), F, M
P Imepha les promelas
Fathead minnow, F, M
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow, F, M
Plmephales promelas
Banded killifish «20 cm), S, M
Fundulus d laphanus
Banded kl 1 1 if Ish, S, M
Fundulus d laphanus
Guppy (6 mo) , S, U
Poecl 1 la ret iculata
White perch (<20 cm), S, M
Morone amer Icana
White perch, S, M
Morone amer Icana
Striped bass ( f Inqer 1 inq) , S, M
Morone saxat 1 1 i s
Striped bass, S, M
Morone saxat Mis
Striped bass (63 day), S, U
t,tr~\r~ «-» n a c ;% v a~t" I 1 1 ^
Chemical
Nickel
chlor ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
n i trate
Nickel
n i trate
"~
Nickel
chlor ide
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaC03L
210
210
210
210
45
44
53
55
20
53
55
53
_
40
LC50
or EC50
27,000
32,200
28,000
25,000
5,209
5,163
46,200t
46, 100
4,450
13,600t
1 3 , 700
6,200f
6,300
3,900
Adjusted Species Mean
LC50 or EC50 Acute Value
8,019
9,563
8,316
7,425
5,695
5,753 8,027
43,980
42,530 43,250
9,661 9,661
12.950
12,640 12,790
5,902
5,812
4,710
Reference
Pickering 1974
Pickering 1974
Pickering 1974
Pickering 1974
Lind et al .
Manuscript
L 1 nd et a 1 .
Manuscript
Rehwoldt et al .
1971
Rehwoldt et al .
1972
Pickering and
Henderson 1966
Rehwo Idt et al .
1971
Rehwo Id1 ot a I .
1972
Rehwoldt et al .
1971
Rehwoldt et al .
1972
Pa lawski et al .
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Species Method*
Striped bass (63 day), S, U
Morone saxatI I is
Rock bass, F, M
Ambloplites rupestr Is
Pumpklnseed «20 cm), S, M
Lepomls q jbbgsu s
Pumpklnseed, S, M
Lepomis qIbbosus
BlueqlI I (1-2 q), S, U
LepomIs macrochirus
BlueqlII (1-2 q), S, U
LepomIs macrochirus
RlueqiI I (1-2 q), S, U
Lepomi s macroch i rus
Bluegill , F, M
Lepomis macrochirus
Chemical
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
n itrate
Nickel
chlor ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chlorIde
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaC03)
285
26
53
20
20
360
49
LC50
or EC50
(iig/L)**
33,000
2,480
8,100f
8,000
5,180
5,360
39.600
21.200
Adjusted
LC50 or EC50
7,569
4,312
7,710
7,380
11,250
1 I,640
7,454
21.570
Species Mean
Acute Value
(ug/L)««««
5,914
4,312
7,544
Reference
Palawskl et al. 1985
Llnd et al.
Manuscript
Rehwoldt et al
12,040
Rehwoldt et al.
1972
Pickerlnq and
Henderson 1966
Pickering and
Henderson 1966
Picker Inq and
Henderson 1966
Cairns et al. 1981
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Spec ies
Polychaete worm (adult)
Nereis arenaceodentata
Polychaete worm (adult)
Nerei s v irens '
Polychaete worm (adult)
Ctenodrl lus serratus
Polychaete worm (adult)
Capltel la capitata
Mud snai 1 (adult),
Nassarlus obsoletus
Eastern oyster (embryo)
Crassostrea vircjinlca
C 1 am ,
Macoma balthica
C 1 am ,
Macoma balthica
C 1 am ,
Macoma balthica
Clam,
Macoma balthica
Clam,
Macoma balthica
C 1 am ,
Macoma balthica
C 1 am ,
Mnrnmn halthlca
Method* Chemical
LC50
Salinity or EC50
(g/kq) **
Species Mean
Acute Value
(Ljg/L) Reference
SALTWATER SPECIES
, S, U Nickel
ch lor ide
, S, U Nickel
chlor ide
S, U Nickel
chlor ide
S, U Nickel
chlor ide
S, U Nickel
ch lor i de
S, U Nickel
chloride
S, L) Nickel
chloride
S, U Nickel
chloride
S, U Nickel
chlor ide
S, U Nickel
chlor Ide
S, U Nickel
chloride
S, U Nickel
chloride
S, U Nickel
chlor Ide
49,000
20 25,000
1 7 ,000
>50,OOG
20 72,000
25 1,180
15 100,000
(5°C>
25 380,000
(5°C)
35 700,000
(5°C)
15 95,000
(10°C)
25 560,000
(10°C)
35 1,100,000
(10"C)
15 110,000
( 1 5 °C ) >
49,000 Petrlch
25,000 Eisler
17,000 Petrlch
>50,000 Petrich
72,000 Eisler
and Reish 1979
and Hennekey 1977
and Relsh 1979
and Relsh 1979
and Hennekey 1977
1,180 Calabrese et al . 1973
Bryant
Bryant
Bryant
Bryant
Bryant
Bryant
Bryant
et al.
et al.
et al .
et al.
et al .
et at.
et al .
1985
1985
1985
1985
(985
1985
1985
-------
Table 1. (continued)
K>
Spec 1 es
Clam,
Macoma balthlca
Clam,
Macoma balthlca
Quahog clam (embryo),
Mercenar la mercenar la
Soft-shell clam (adult),
Mya arenarla
Soft-shell clam (adult),
Mya arenarla
Copepod (adult),
Eurytemora af fin's
Copepod (adult"),
Eurytemora affinis
Copepod (adult),
Acartia clausl
Copepod (adu 1 1") ,
Nltocra splnlpes
Mysid (juveni le) ,
Heteromysis formosa
Mysid (juvenile),
Mysidopsis bahia
Mysid (juveni le) ,
Mysidopsis bl gel owl
Amphipod,
Corophlum volutator
Amphipod,
rnrnnhlum volutator
Method*
S, U
S, U
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u
S, M
F, M
S, M
S, U
S, U
Chemical
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chlor ide
Nickel
chlor ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chlor ide
Nickel
ch lor 1 do
Nickel
chlor i de
Nickel
chlor ide
Nickol
chloride
Nickel
chlor 1 de
Nickul
ch lor ide
Nickel
ch lor ide
Nickel
ch lor Ide
Nickel
chloride
Salinity
(g/kg)
25
35
25
20
30
30
30
30
7
30
30
30
5
(5°C)
10
(5°C)
LC50
or EC50
(pg/L)»*
180,000
540,000
310
320,000
>50,000
13,180
9,593
3,466
5,000
151 .7
508
634
5,000
21,000
Species Mean
Acute Value
(M9/L)
294,500
310
320,000
11 ,240
3,466
6,000
151.7
508
634
Reference
Bryant et al. 1985
Bryant et al. 1985
Calabrese and Nelson
1974
Eisler and Hennekey 1977
Eisler 1977a
Lussier and Cardin 1985
Lussier and Cardin 1985
Lussier and Cardin 1 9d5
Bengtsson 1978
Gentile et al . 1982
Gentl le et al . 1982;
Lussier et al. 1985
Gentile et al. 1982
Bryant et al . 1985
Bryant et al . 1985
-------
Table 1. (continued)
ro
Species
Amph i pod,
Corophlum volutator
AmphI pod,
Corophlum volutator
Amphipod,
Corophlum volutator
Amphipod,
Corophlum votutator
Amph i pod,
Corophlum volutator
Amph i pod,
Corophlum volutator
Amph i pod,
Corophium volutator
Amph i pod,
Corophium volutator
AmphI pod,
Corophium volutator
AmphI pod,
Corophlum volutator
Amphipod,
Corophlum volutator
AmphI pod,
Corophlum volutator
Amphi pod,
Corophium volutator
Hermit crab (adult),
Pagurus longlcarpus
Method*
s. u
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u
s. u
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u ,
s, u
Chemical
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
ch lor 1 de
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chlor ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
ch lor ide
Nickel
chlor ide
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
ch lor ide
Nickel
chlor ide
Nickel
chlor Ido
Nickel
chloride
Salinity
(g/kg)
15
(5"C)
25
(5°C)
35
(5°C)
5
(10°C)
10
(10°C)
15
(10°C)
25
(10°C>
35
(10°C)
5
(I5°C)
10
(15°C)
15
( 1 5 °C )
25
(15°C)
35
( 1 5 "C )
20
LC50
or EC50
(pg/L>»"
18,000
36,000
54,000
3,000
15,000
22,000
24,000
52,000
5,600
16,000
18,000
22,000
34 ,000
47,000
Species Mean
Acute Value
(pg/L) Reference
Bryant at
Bryant et
Bryant et
Bryant et
Bryant et
Bryant et
Bryant et
Bryant et
Bryant et
Bryant et
Bryant et
Bryant et
18,950 Bryant et
47,000 Elsler an
-------
N)
CO
Table 1. (continued)
Species
Starfish (adult),
Aster las forbesll
Mummlchog (adult),
Fundulus heteroclltus
Mummlchog (adult),
Fundujus heteroclltus
Mummlchog (adult),
Fundulus heteroclltus
Atlantic sllverslde
(I arva) ,
Men Id la men Id la
Tidewater sllverslde
( juvenl le) ,
Men Id la penlnsulae
Striped bass (63 day),
Morone saxatlI Is
Spot ( juven lie) ,
Lelostomus xanthurus
Method* Chemical
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chlor Ide
NI c ke I
chlor Ide
Nickel
chlorIde
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chlor Ide
Salinity
(g/kg)
20
6.9
21.6
20
30
20
21
LC50
or EC50
(M9/L)««
150,000
55,000
175,000
350,000
7,958
38,000
21,000
70,000
Species Mean
Acute Value
(M9/L)
150,000
149,900
Reference
Elsler and Hennekey 1977
Dorfman 1977
Dorfman 1977
Elsler and Hennekey 1977
7,958 Card In 1985
38,000 Hansen 1983
21,000 PalawskI et al . 1985
70,000 Hansen 1983
* S = static; R = renewal; F = flow-through; M = measured; U = unmeasured.
** Results are expressed as nickel, not as the chemical.
**» Freshwater LC50s and ECSOs were adjusted to hardness = 50 mg/L (as CaCOj) using the pooled slope of 0.8460 (see text).
*#*» Freshwater Species Mean Acute Values are calculated at hardness = 50 mg/L (as Ca005>.
* In river water. ,
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Results of Covarlance Analysis of Freshwater Acute Toxlclty versus Hardness
Species
Daphnla magna
Fathead minnow
Striped bass
Blueqll 1
All of above
n
6
10
4
4
24
Slope
1.1810
0.8294
1.0459
0.6909
0.8460*
95* Confidence Limits
0.3187, 2.0433
0.6755. 0.9833
0.7874, 1.3045
-0.1654, 1.5472
0.7004, 0.9915
Degrees of Freedom
4
8
2
2
19
« P = 0.26 for equality of slopes with 16 degrees of freedom.
N)
-------
Table 2. Chronic Toxic I ty of Nickel to Aquatic AnlaaU
Species
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cl adccaran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran (1st generation),
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran (2nd generation),
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran (3rd generation),
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran (4th generation),
Daphnla magna
Caddlsfly,
C 1 1 storon 1 a magn If lea
Ra Inbow trout,
Salmo galrdner 1
Ra Inbow trout,
Salmo galrdner 1
Ra Inbow trout ,
Salmo galrdnerl
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
Plmenhales oromelas
Test"
LC
LC
LC
LC
LC
LC
LC
LC
ELS
ELS
ELS
LC
ELS
Chemical
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
sul fate
Hardness
(•g/L as
CaCO,)
FRESHWATER SPECIES
51
105
205
-
-
-
-
54
53
52
49
210
44-
45T
Units
10.2-
21.4
101-
150
220-
578
5-10
<5«.
5-10
5-10
66-
250
<35**»
62-
134
134-
431
380-
730
108.9-
433.5
Chronic Value
(na/L)
14.77
123.1
356.6
7.071
<5
7.071
7.071
128.4
<35
91.15
240.3
526.7
217.3
Reference
Chapman et at .
Manuscript
Chapman at al .
Manuscript
Chapman at al .
Manuscript
Lazareva 1985
Lazareva 1985
Lazareva 1985
Lazareva 1985
Nebeker et al .
Nebeker et al .
Nebeker et al .
Nebeker et al .
Pickering 1974
Llnd et al .
Manuscript
1984
1985
1985
1985
-------
Tabla 2. (Continued)
Spaclas
Mysld,
Mysldopsls bahla
last*
LC
Chwilcal
Nickel
chlor Ida
Salinity
(q/kg)
Ll*lts
SALTWATER SPECIES
30
61-
141
Chronic Valua
(•o/L)
92.74
Rafaranca
Gentile et al. 1982;
Lusslar et al. 1985
* LC = life-cycle or partial life-cycle; ELS = early life-stage.
** Results are based on measured concentrations of nickel.
*** Unacceptable effects occurred at all concentrations tested.
* Values from acute tests In Table 1.
Results of Ragras»lon AnalysU of Fra«h»atar Chronic Toxlclty vartus Hardnass
Spaclas JL Slop* 951 Confldanca Halts Dagraas of fraadc
Daphnla magna 3 2.3007 -2.6551, 7.2568 1
Fathead minnow 2 0.5706 * 0
All of above 5 1.3418*» -1.3922. 4.0760 2
* Cannot be calculated because degrees of freedom = 0.
** P = 0.19 for equality of slopes wltn 1 degree of freedom.
-------
Table 2. (Continued)
u>
to
Acute-Chronic Ratio
Secies
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow.
Plmephales promelas
Mysld,
Mysldopsls bah I a
Hardness
(mg/L •* Acute Value
51 1 ,800
104- 1,920
105
205- 4,970
206
210 27,930*
44- 5,186**
45
30»»» 508
Chronic Value
(Mg/L) Ratio
14.77 122.4
123.1 15.60
356.6 13.94
526.7 53.03
217.3 23.87
92.74 5.478
* Geometric mean of four values In Table 1.
** Geometric mean of two values In Table 1.
**« Sal Inlty (g/kg).
-------
Table 3. Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic Ratios
tank*
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
Genus Mean
Acute Value
(nfl/L)"*
43,250
40,460
30,200
21,320
21,200
14,100
13,380
13,000
12,770
12,180
9,839
9,661
8,697
<
1
Species
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Banded klltlflsh,
Fundulus dlaphanls
Stone f ly,
Acroneurla lycorlas
Caddlsfly,
Unidentified sp.
Goldfish,
Carasslus auratus
Damsel fly,
Unidentified sp.
Worm,
Nals sp.
Rainbow trout,
Salmo qalrdnerl
Am phi pod ,
Gammarus sp.
Snail ,
A mo 1 co la sp.
American eel ,
Angull la rostrata
Common carp,
Cyprlnus carplo
Guppy,
Poecllla retlculata •
White perch,
Morone amerlcana
Striped bass.
ipecles Mean Species Mean
tcute Value Acute-Chronic
(»g/L>*** Ratio****
43,250
40,460
30,200
21,320
21,200
14,100
13,380
13,000
12,770
12,180
9,839
9,661
12,790
5,914
Morone saxatlI Is
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
Rank"
5
4
3
2
1
20
19
18
17
16
15
Genus Mean
Acute Value
"» Ratio""
Pumpklnseed,
Lepomls glbbosus
Bluegltl,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Fathead minnow,
P 1 mepha 1 es protne 1 a s
Mayfly,
Ephemeral la subvarla
Rock bass,
Amblopl Ites rupestrls
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pullcarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
SALTWATER SPECIES
Soft-shell clam,
Mya arenaria
Clam,
Macoma balthlca
Starfish,
Aster las forbesll
Mummlchoq ,
Fundulus heteroci Itus
Mud snail ,
Nassarlus obsoletus
Spot,
7,544
12,040
8,027 35.58*
4,636
4,312
2,042
1,102 29.86ft
320,000
294 , 500
150,000
149,900
72,000
70,000
Lelostomus xanthurus
-------
TabU 3. (Continued)
U)
Ul
ank*
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
Grnus M*an
Acut* Value
50,000
47,000
35,000
21,000
17,390
17,000
18,950
11,240
6,000
3,466
1,180
Spec Us
Polychaeta worm.
Capital la capltata
Hermit crab,
Paqurus longlcarpus
Polychaete worm.
Nereis arenaceodentata
Polychaete worm.
Nereis vlrens
Striped bass,
Morone saxatl 1 Is
Atlantic sllverslde,
Menldla men Id la
Tidewater sllverslde.
Men Id la penlnsulae
Polychaete worm,
Ctenodrllus serratus
Am phi pod,
Corophlum volutator
Cope pod ,
Eurytemora afflnls
Cope pod ,
Nltocra splnlpes
Cope pod,
Acartla clausl
Eastern oyster,
Crassostrea vlrglnlca
Spec Us Mean
Acut* Valu*
(,q/L)«M
>50,000
47,000
49,000
25,000
21,000
7,958
38,000
17,000
18,950
11,240
6,000
3,466
1,180
Sp*cl*« MMR
Acut*-€hronlc
Ratio""
-
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
Rank*
3
2
1
Genus N»an
Acute Value
(»q/L)*"
567.5
310
151.7
Species
Mysld,
Mysldopsls bahla
Mys Id ,
Mysldopsls blgelowl
Quahog clam,
Mercenarla mercenarla
Mysld,
Heteromysls formosa
Species Mean
Acute Value
508
634
310
151.7
Species Mean
Acute-Chronic
Ratio****
5.478
-
Ranked fron most resistant to most sensitive based on Genus Mean Acute Va ue.
Inclusion of "greater than" values does not necessarily Imp y a true ranking.
but does allow use of all genera for which data are available so that the
Final Acute Value Is not unnecessarily lowered.
»» Freshwater Genus Mean Acute Values are at hardness = 50 mg/L.
*** From Table 1; freshwater values are at hardness = 50 mg/L.
»»»» From Table 2.
* Geometric mean of two values In Table 2.
ft Geometric mean of three values In Table 2.
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
Fresh water
Final Acute Value = 1,578 n9/L (at hardness = 50 mg/L)
Criterion Maximum Concentration = (1,578 Mg/L) /2 = 789.0 uQ/L (at hardness= 50 mg/L)
Pooled Slope = 0.8460 (see Table I)
ln(Crlterlon Maximum Intercept) = ln(789.0) - I slope x ln(50)l
= 6.6708 - (0.8460 x 3.9120) » 3.3612
Criterion Maximum Concentration = e(0.8460l ln( hardness) IO.361 2)
Final Acute-Chronic Ratio = 17.99 (see text)
Final Chronic Value = (1,578 M9/L) / 17.99 = 87.72 yg/L (at hardness = 50 mg/L)
Assumed Chronic Slope = 0.8460 (see text)
ln(Flnal Chronic Intercept) = ln(87.72) - (slope x ln(50)l
= 4.4741 - (0.8460 x 3.9120) = 1.1645
Final Chronic Value = e(0.8460lln(hardness)K1.1645)
Salt water
Final Acute Value = 149.2 n9/L
Criterion Maximum Concentration = 149.2 /2 = 74.60 n9/L
Final Acute-Chronic Ratio = 17.99 (see text)
Final Chronic Value = (149.2 pg/L) / 17.99 = 8.293 n9/L
-------
Table 4. Toxlclty of Hlckel to Aquatic Plants
Hardness
img/L as Duration
Concentration
(»g/L)* Reference^
CO
Species
Chemical uauu^i
lwaT»r »- • • —— •
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Blue- green alga,
Anabaena tlos-aquaa
Blue-green alga,
Mlcrocystls aeruqlnosa
Green alga,
Anklstrodesmus falcatus
Green alga,
Anklstrodesmus falcatus
Green alga,
Anklstrodesmus falcatus
var. aclcularls
Green alga,
Chlaroydomonas eugametos
Green alga,
Chlorel la vulgarls
Green alga,
Chlorococcum sp.
Green alga,
Haematococcus capens ls^
Green alga,
Pedlastrum tetras
Green alga.
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel
chlor Ida
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel ~
nitrate
Nickel nltrata or 47.5
Nickel sulfate
Nickel nitrate or 47.5
Nickel sulfate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel nitrate or 47.5
Nickel sulfate
Nickel ~
nltrata
Nickel nitrate or 47.5
Kllrkal ciil fate
14 84* reduction
In growth
8 Incipient
Inhloltlon
10 45< reduction
In growth
14 9&% reduction
In growth
14 42)1 reduction
In growth
12 91 % reduction
In growth
12 53* reduction
In growth
10 52< reduction
In growth
12 85< reduction
In growth
14 Increased
growth
' 12 54f reduction
In growth
600
5
5,000
100
100
700*»
300 ••
5,000
300 »*
100
50*»
Spencer and Greene
1981
Brlnqmann and Kuhn
1978a,b
Devi Prasad and
Devi Prasad 1982
Spencer and Greene
1981
Spencer and Greene
1981
Hutch Inson 1973;
Hutch Inson and
Stokes 1975
Hutchlnson 1973;
Hutch Inson and
Stokes 1975
Devi Prasad and
Devi Prasad 1982
Hutchlnson 1973;
Hutchlnson and
Stokes 1975
Spencer and Greene
1981
Hutchlnson 1973;
Hutchlnson and
c4-xxi*Ac tom
-------
Table 4. (Continued)
Species
Green alga, NI
Scenedesmus acumlnata N
Green alga,
Scenedesmus dlmorphus
Green alga,
Scanedesmus obi Iquus
Green alga,
Scenedesmus quadrlcauda
Green alga,
Scenedesmus quadrlcauda
Diatom,
Navlcula pelllculosa
Duckweed,
Lemna minor
Duckweed,
Lemna minor
Macrophyte,
Elodea (Anacharls) canadensls
Water hyacinth,
Elchhornla crasslpes
Water hyacinth,
Elchhornla crasslpes
Giant kelp (young fronds),
Macrocystls pyrlfera
Chemical
ckel nitrate or
Ickel sul fate
Nickel
n Itrate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel
n Itrate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Hardness
(mg/L as Duration
CaCO,) (days)
47.5 13
14
10
8
14
14.96 14
28
4
28
12 38
12 38
»
SALTWATER SPECIES
4
Concentration
Effect (na/D* R*f«r«nc«
Reduced
growth
30 % reduction
In growth
47$ reduction
In growth
Incipient
Inhibition
60% reduction
In growth
82$ reduction
In growth
EC50
EC50
(growth)
EC 50
30 % r Auction
In growth
29$ reduction
In growth
EC50 (reduc-
tion In
photosynthesis)
500
too
3,000
1,300
100
100
340
450
2,800
4,000
8,000
2,000
Stokes et al . 1973;
Hutch Inson and
Stokes 1975
Spencer and Greene
1981
Devi Prasad and
Devi Prasad 1982
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1977a; 1978a,b;
1979; 1980b
Spencer and Greene
1981
Fezy et al . 1979
Brown and Rattlgan
1979
Wang 1986
Brown and Rattlgan
1979
Muramoto and Ok I
1984
Muramoto and Okl
1984
Clendennlng and North
1959
* Results are expressed as nickel, not as the chemical.
-------
Table 5. B loaccumu I aton of Nickel by Aquatic Organisms
Chemical
Concentrat Ion
In Mater (,,9/L)*
Hardness
(mg/L as Duration
CaCOx) (days)
Tissue BCF or BAF** Reference
Green alqa,
Scenedesmus acumlnata
Water hyacinth,
Elchhornla crasslpes
Water hyacinth,
Elchhornla crasslpes
Water hyacinth,
Elchhornla crasslpes
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cl adoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Rainbow trout,
Salmo galrdner I
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Nickel nitrate or
Nickel sul fate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
63Nl In
0. 1M HCI
-
-
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
1,000
1,000
4,000
8,000
50
750
58.7
1,000
21
44.4
108.9
FRESHWATER SPECIES
6 Whole
body
38 1 2 Root
tops
38 1 2 Root
tops
38 1 2 Root
tops
Whole
body
20.1 3.75 Whole
body
20.1 3.75 Whole
body
13 Whole
body
320 180 Muscle
30 Whole
body
30 Whole
body
30 Whole
body
SALTWATER SPECIES
9.3
256.0
174.2
438.2
500.3
335.5
576.2
100
192»»*
123—
11.6
0.8
106
79
47
Hutch Inson and Stokes
1975
Muramoto and Okl 1984
Muramoto and Okl 1984
Muramoto and Okl 1984
Hall 1978
Hal 1 1982
Hal 1 1982
Watras et al
Cal amar 1 et
Llnd et al .
Llnd at al .
Llnd et al .
. 1985
al . 1982
Manuscript
Manuscript
Manuscript
Rockweed,
Fucus veslculosls
1.2
Field Whole
collections plant
675'
Foster 1976
-------
Table 5. (Continued)
Species
Brown macroalga,
Ascophyl lum nodosum
Blue mussel ,
Mytllus edul Is
Blue mussel ,
My 1 1 1 us edu 1 1 s
Eastern oyster,
Crassostrea vlrglnlca
Eastern oyster,
Crassostrea vlrglnlca
Concentration
Chemical In Water (»g/L>*
1.2
Nickel 4.4
sul fate
Nickel 10.0
sul fate
Nickel 4.2
sul fate
Nickel 9.9
sul fate
Hardness
(•Kj/L as Duration
CaCOj) (days) Tissue BCF or BAF"
Field Whole 458. 3f
collections plant
84 Soft 472.7
parts
84 Soft 328.6
parts
84 Soft 458.1
parts
84 Soft 261.8
parts
Reference
Foster 1976
Zaroog Ion and Johnson
1984
Zaroog Ian and Johnson
1984
Zaroog Ian and Johnson
1984
Zaroog Jan and Johnson
1984
* Measured concentration of nickel.
». Bloconcentratlon factors (BCFs) and bloaccumu.atlon factors (BAFs) are based on measured concentratJons of nickel In water and In tlssua.
*** Estimated fron graph.
f Factor was converted from dry weight to wet weight basis.
-------
Table 6. Other Data on Effects of Nickel on Aquatic Organ I SMS
Species
Alga,
Chloral la pyrenoldosa
Green alga,
Scenedasmus quadr Icauda
Green alga,
Scenedesmus quadr Icauda
Alga,
(mixed population)
Blue-green alga,
Anabaana cyllndrlca
Blue-green alga,
Anabaena cy 1 1 ndr 1 ca
Blue-green alga,
Anabaena cyllndrlca
Blue-green alga,
Anabaena cyllndrlca
Blue-green alga,
Nostoc 11 nek la
Blue-green alga,
Nostoc II nek la
Blue-green alga,
Nostoc muscorum
Bacterium,
Aeromonas sobrla
Chen leal
-
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
ammonium
sul fate
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Hardness
(mgA as
CaCO}) Ourat Ion
FRESHWATER SPECIES
24 hr
96 hr
96 hr
87- <53 days
99
5 days
5 days
30 hr
30 hr
24 hr
24 hr
21 days
40 24 hr*»
Concentrat Ion
Effect (pg/D*
Reduced 88
growth
Incipient 1,500
Inhibition
(river water)
Incipient 900
Inhibition
(river water)
Decrease In 2-
d laton diversity; 8.6
shift to green and
blue-green algae
No effect on 15.1
doubling time
( In light)
13$ reduction In 15.1
doubl Ing time
( In dark)
BCF = 680.5
(In light)
BCF = 375.0
( In dark)
EC50 (nitrate 1,885
reduction)
EC50 (ammonia 1,141
uptake)
EC50 235. 1
(survival )
Reduction In 5
abundance
Reference
Gerhard s and Wai ler
1977
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1959a,b
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1959a,b
Patrick at al . 1975
Daday at al . 1985
Dad ay at al . 1985
Campbell and Smith 1986
Campbell and Smith 1986
Kumar at al . 1985
Kumar at al . 1985
Ral and Ralzada 1985
Bablch and Stotzky
1983
-------
TobU 6. (continued)
UJ
Species
Bacterium,
Bacll lus brevls
Bacterium,
Bacl 1 lus cereus
Bacterium,
Escher Ichla col 1
Bacterium,
Escher Ichla coll
Bacterium,
Pseudomonas put I da
Bacterium,
Serratla marcescens
Bacterium,
Nltrosomonas europaea
Mixed heterotrophlc
bacter la
Protozoan,
Entoslphon sulcatum
Protozoan,
Mlcroregma heterostoma
Protozoan,
Mlcroregma heterostoma
Protozoan,
Chi lomonas parameclum
Protozoan,
(Iron etna parduezl
Hardness
(•g/L as
Cheiilcal CaCOj)
Nickel 40
chloride
Nickel 40
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
ammon 1 urn
sul fate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel 40
chlor Ide
9
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
ammon I urn
sul fate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Co
Duration Effect
24 hr** Reduction In
abundance
24 hr** Reduction In
abundance
Incipient
Inhibition
Incipient
Inhibition
16 hr Incipient
Inhibition
24 hr** Reduction In
abundance
No growth
0.5 hr EC50
(survival )
72 hr Incipient
Inhibition
28 hr Incipient
Inhibition
28 hr Incipient
Inhibition
48 hr Incipient
Inhibition
20 hr Incipient
Inhibition
mcentratU
5
5
100
100
2.5
(3.0)
10
400
42.9
140
50
70
820
42
Reference
Bablch and Stotzky
1983
Bablch and Stotzky
1983
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1959a
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1959a
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1977a; 1979; 1980b
Bablch and Stotzky
1983
Sato et al . 1986
Albright et al . 1972
Brlngmann 1978;
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1979; 19806; 1981
Br 1 ngmann and Kuhn
1959b
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1959b
Brlngmann et al . 1980;
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1981
Br1ngmann and Kuhn
1980a, 1981
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species
Tub I field worm,
Tublfex tublfex
Cl adoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cl adoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cl adoceran,
Daphn la magna
Cl adoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cl adoceran ,
Daphn la magna
Cl adoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cl adoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cl adoceran,
Daphnla pullcarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pullcarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pullcarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Hardness
(i«g/L as
Chemical CaCOj)
Nickel 34.2
sul fate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
ammonium
sul fate
Nickel 288
chlor Ide
Nickel 45.3
chloride
Nickel 45.3
chloride
Nickel 45.3
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel 25
sul fate
Nickel 28
sul fate
Nickel 28
sul fata
Nickel 29
sul fate
Concentration
Duration
48 hr
48 hr
48 hr
24 hr
48 hr
21 days
21 days
72 hr
48 hr
48 hr
48 hr
48 hr
jEffect
LC50
EC50 (river
water)
EC50 (river
wa ter )
EC 50
(swimming)
EC50 (Immobll-
zatlon) (fed)
EC50 (Immobll-
zatlon)
16$ reproduc-
tive Impairment
BCF = 0.823
BCF = 0.526
BCF = 1.83
BCF = 2.20
BCF = 1.17
LC50 (TOC =
39 mg/L)
LC50 (TOC =
15 mg/L)
LC50 (TOC =
13 mg/L)
LC50 (TOC =
13 mg/L)
(n9/L>*
8.70
7.00
6,000
6,000
11,000
1,120
130
30
1,855
1,115
185.5
58.70
18.50
2,171
1,140
1,034
697
Reference
Brkov Ic-Popov Ic and
Popov Ic 1977a
Brlngmann and Kuhn
I959a,b
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1959a,b
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1977b
Bleslnger and
Chrlstensen 1972
Bleslnger and
Chrlstensen 1972
Bleslnger and
Chrlstensen 1972
Watras et al . 1985
Llnd et al . Manuscript
Llnd et al. Manuscript
Llnd et al. Manuscript
Llnd et al. Manuscript
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Hardness
tmn/l as
Spec les
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Cl adoceran.
Daphnla pul Icarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Cl adoceran.
Oaphnla pul Icarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Midge,
Chi ronomus sp.
Coho salmon (yearling).
Oncorhynchus ktsutch
Rainbow trout (0.5-0.9 g) ,
Sal mo galrdner 1
Rainbow trout (1 yr).
Sal mo galrdner I
Chemical CaCO.)
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
-
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
73
74
84
86
89
89
100
114
120
50
90
42
240
Durat Ion
48 hr
48 hr
48 hr
48 hr
48 hr
48 hr
48 hr
48 hr
48 hr
96 hr
144 hr
48 hr
43 hr
Concentration
Effect
LC50 (TOC =
28 mg/L)
LC50 (TOC =
28 mg/L)
LC50 (TOC =
32 mg/L)
LC50 (TOC =
34 mg/L)
LC50 (TOC =
18 mg/L)
LC50 (TOC =
34 mg/L)
LC50 (TOC =
34 mg/L)
LC50 (TOC =
27 mg/L)
LC50 (TOC =
33 mg/L)
LC50
100$ survival
LC50
LC50
Ua/L)"
3,414
2,325
3,014
3,316
2,042
2,717
3,757
3,156
3,607
8,600
5,000
35,730
32,000
Reference
Llnd
Llnd
Llnd
Llnd
Llnd
Llnd
Llnd
Llnd
Llnd
et al. Manuscript
et al. Manuscript
et al. Manuscript
et al. Manuscript
et al. Manuscript
et al. Manuscript
et al. Manuscript
et al. Manuscript
et al. Manuscript
Rehwoldt et al . 1973
Lorz
Will
et al . 1978
ford 1966
Brown and Dal ton 1970
-------
Tabla 6. (Continued)
o^
Rainbow trout
(embryo, larva).
S a 1 mo qalrdnerl
Ra Inbow trout
(embryo, larva),
Salmo qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout
(embryo, larva).
Salmo gatrdnerl
Ra Inbow trout ,
Salmo galrdner 1
Rainbow trout (adult),
Salmo qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout (10 g) ,
S a 1 mo qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout.
Salmo qalrdnerl
Ra Inbow trout
(5 days post hatch) ,
Salmo qalrdnerl
Brown trout (0.8-1.2 g) ,
Salmo trutta
Brook trout (0.4-0.6 g) ,
Salvel Inus fontlnal Is
Lake trout (2.5-3.2 g) ,
Salvellnus namaycush
Chan leal
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Hardness
(•g/L as
CaCOj)
104
(92-110)
125
174
240
320
28.4
22.5
50
42
42
42
Concantrat Ion
n.u-.tion Effact <»fl/O* Rafaranca
28 days EC50 (death
and deformity)
28 days B350 (death
and deformity)
28 days K50 (death
and deformity)
3.5 days Decreased gill
diffusion
6 mo Increase In
1 Iver proteoly-
tlc actlv Ity of
males
20 mln Avoidance
threshold
48 hr LC50
38 days LC50
48 hr LC50
48 hr LC50
48 hr LC50
1
50
60
90
2,000
1,000
23.9
54,963
1,400
60,290
54,040
16,750
Blrge 1978; Blrge anc
Black 1980; Blrge et
1978,1979,1980,1981
Blrge et al . 1981
Blrge et al . 1981
Hughes et al . 1979
Arlllo et al . 1982
Glattlna et al . 1982
Bornatowlcz 1983
Nebeker et al . 1985
Ml II ford 1966
Wll Iford 1966
Wll Iford 1966
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species
Goldfish,
Carasslus auratus
Goldfish (embryo, larva),
Carasslus auratus
Goldfish (embryo, larva),
Carasslus auratus
Common carp (embryo),
Cyprlnus carpio
Common carp (larva),
Cyprlnus carpio
Common carp (embryo).
Cyprlnus carpio
Fathead minnow,
PImephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
PImephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
PImephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
PImephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
PImephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
PImephales promelas
Channel catfish (1.2-1.5 g) ,
1 eta 1 urus punctatus
Channel catfish,
Ictalurus punctatus
Chemical
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sul fata
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
su| fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
chlor Ide
naranv»
(Mg/L as
CaCOj)
Concentration
Duration Effect (»o,/l.>» Reference
19-50 hr LT 100,000
200-210 hr LT 10,000
195
93-
105
128
128
360
28
29
77
86
89
91
42
93-
105
7 days EC50 (death
and deformity)
7 days EC50 (death
and deformity)
72 hr LC50
72 hr LC50
257 hr
EC50 (hatch)
96 hr LC50 (TOC =
14 mg/L)
96 hr LC50 (TOC =
12 mg/L)
96 hr LC50 (TOC =
32 mg/L)
96 hr LC50 (TOC =
15 mg/L)
96 hr LC50 (TOC =
33 mg/L)
96 hr LC50 (TOC =
30 mg/L)
48 hr LC50
'
7 days EC50 (death
and deformity)
2,140
2,780
6,100
8,460
750
22,000
2,923
2,916
12,356
5,383
17,678
8,617
36,840
710
Ellis 1937
Blrga 1978
Blrge and Black I960;
Blrge at al . 1981
Bl ay lock and Frank
1979
Blaylock and Frank
1979
Kapur and Yadav 1982
Llnd at al . Manuscript
LInd at al . Manuscript
Llnd at al . Manuscript
Llnd et al . Manuscript
Llnd et al . Manuscript
Llnd et al . Manuscript
Will ford 1966
Blrge and Black 1960;
Blrge at al . 1981
-------
Tabta 6. (Continued)
00
Sp«cl»s Chaalcal
Guppy, Nickel
Poecllla retlculata sulfate
Guppy (184 mg). Nickel
Poecllla retlculata chloride
Blueglll (0.7-1.1 g), Nickel
Lepomls macrochlrus sulfate
Largemouth bass Nickel
(embryo, larva), chloride
Mlcropterus satrooldes
Narrow-mouthed toad Nickel
(embryo, larva), chloride
Gastrophryne carolInensls
Narrow-mouthed toad Nickel
(embryo, larva), chloride
Gastrophryne carolInensls
Fowler's toad. Nickel
Bufo fowlerl chloride
Marbled salamander Nickel
(embryo, larva), chloride
Ambystoma opacum
Hardnccs
f«g/L at
260
260
42
95-
105
195
95-
103
93-
105
93-
105
Duration
96 hr
48 hr
48 hr
8 days
7 days
7 days
7 days
8 days
OemcantratlcM
Effact (»q/O*
LC50 (high
solids)
LC50
LC50
K50 (death
and deformity)
ffiSO (death
and deformity)
EC50 (death
and deformity)
K50 (death
and deformity)
B350 (death
and deformity)
34,900
37,000
110,500
2,020
(2,060)
50
50
11,030
420
(410)
i
Rafaranca
Khangarot 1981
Khangarot et al . 1981
Will ford 1966
BIrge and Black 1980;
Blrge et al . 1978, 1981
Blrge 1978; Blrge et al
1979
Blrge and Black 1980
Blrge and Black 1980
Blrga and Black 1980;
Blrge et al . 1978
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species
Golden brown alga,
Isochrysls galbana
Golden brown alga,
Isochrysls galbana
Diatom,
Phaeodactylum trlcornutum
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Salinity
Chen leal (g/kg) Duration
SALTWATER SPECIES
28 2 days
28 9 days
Nickel 26 7 days
chloride
14 2 days
14 2 days
14 2 days
- 14 2 days
- 14 2 days
28 2 days
28 2 days '
Concentration
Effect (»g/L)*
Lowest concen-
tration reducing
chlorophyll _£
Lowest concen-
tration reducing
cell numbers
Reduced growth
Chi orophyl 1 a
reduced about
65$ at 12°C
Chlorophyll a
reduced abouT
65$ at 16 *C
Chlorophyll a_
reduced about
65$ at 20 "C
Chlorophyll a
reduced abouT
65$ at 24 °C
Chlorophyl 1 jJ_
reduced about
65$ at 28 °C
Chlorophyll *_
reduced about
65$ at 12*C
Chlorophyl 1 _a_
reduced about
65$ at 16 °C
500
80
1,000
100
31
28
17
80
72
140
Reference
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freebero 1980
Skaar et al . 1974
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Dlnof lagel late,
Glenodlnlum tval 1 1
Salinity
Chemical (g/kfl)
28
28
28
28
28
Durat Ion
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
5 days
Concentration
Effect (n9/L)»
Ch 1 orophy 1 1 a
reduced abouT
65* at 20"C
Chlorophyll _a_
reduced about
65 % at 24 "C
Chlorophyll a
reduced abouT
65 % at 28 "C
Lowest concen-
tration reducing
chlorophyl 1 _a
Reduced chloro-
phy 1 1 a and
30
21
18
too
50
Reference
Wilson and
M 1 1 son and
W 1 1 son and
Wilson and
Wll son and
Freeberg 1980
Freeberg 1980
Freeberg 1980
Freeberg 1980
Freeberg 1980
Dlnoflagellate,
Glenodlnlum ha 111
Dlnoflagellate,
Gymnodlnlum splendens
Dlnoflagellate,
Gymnodlnlum splendens
Dlnoflagellate,
Gymnodlnlum splendens
28
28
28
28
numbers In chemo-
stat cultures
2 days Lowest concen- 200
tratlon reducing
chlorophylI ^
2 days Chlorophyll j± 1,000
reduced about
65* at 16 °C
2 days Chlorophyll a 950
reduced abouF
65% at 20°C
2 days Chlorophyll a^ 560
reduced about
65$ at 24°C
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg I960
-------
TabU 6. (Continued)
Species
Dinof lagel late,
Gymnodlnlum splendens
Dinof lagel late,
Gymnodlnlum splendens
Dinof lagel late,
Gymnodlnlum splendens
Dinof lagel late,
Gymnodln lure splendens
Dinof lagel late,
Gymnodlnlum splendens
Polychaete worm (adult),
Ctenodrllus serratus
81 ue mussel ,
Mytllus edul Is
Pacific oyster (Juvenile),
Crassostrea glgas
Eastern oyster (larva),
Crassostrea virgin lea
Eastern oyster (larva),
Crassostrea virgin lea
Eastern oyster,
Crassostrea virgin lea
Clam (larva),
Mul Ina lateral Is
Chew leal
-
-
-
—
-
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chjorlde
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chl or Id a
Salinity
(g/kg)
28
28
14
14
28
29-
32
34
24_*_2
24+2
29-
32
35
Duration
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
28 days
10 weeks
14 days
12 days
12 days
10 weeks
48 hr
Concentration
Effect (»g/L>*
Chlorophy 1 1 a
reduced about
65* at 28 *C
Chlorophyll a
reduced abouT
65* at 30"C
Chlorophyll a
reduced abouT
65* at 16 *C
Chlorophyll a
reduced about
65* at 30 *C
Lowest concen-
tration reducing
chlorophyll _a_
Inhibited
reproduction
ATP reduced; no
effect on AEC
19* reduction
In growth
LC50
54.8* reduction
In growth
No effect on
AEC and
components
Reduced calcium
uptake
130
1,800
1,800
400
200
100-
500
10
20
1,200
1,200
10
2,000
Reference
Wilson and
Wilson anc
W 1 1 son am
WII son ant
W 1 1 son am
Petr Ich ai
Zarooglan
Wat ling 1<
Calabrese
Calabrese
Zaroog tan
tt> and Zul
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Ui
KJ
Spec let
Qua hog clam (larva),
Mercenarla mercenarla
Common Pacific llttleneck
(adult).
Protothaca stamlnea
Common Pacific llttlenack
(adult).
Protothaca stamlnea
Copepod (adult).
Pseudodlaptomus coronatus
Co pa pod (adult) ,
Acartla clausl
Copepod (adult).
Acartla tonsa
Pink shr Imp (adult) ,
Panda 1 us montagul
Green crab (adult) ,
Carctnus maenas
Sea urchin (embryo),
Arbacla punctulata
Sea irchln (embryo) ,
Arbacla punctulata
Sea urchin (embryo),
Lytechlnus plctus
Sea urchin (embryo),
i vtechlnus olctus
Salinity
Chew leal 50jJ mortal Ity
Total ly
arrested
development
Abnormal
development
DMcentratlot
(nfl/D*
5,700
5,700
-
-
14,570
6,006
747
56,880
170,600
7,562
7,562
586,900
586.9
i
Reference
Calabrese et al . 1977
Hardy and Roes 1J ad I
Hardy and Roes I j ad I
Lussler and Card In
Lussler and Card In
Lussler and Card In
portmann 1968
Portmann 1968
Waterman 1937
Waterman 1937
1982
1982
1985
1985
1985
Tlraourlan and Watchmaker
1972
Tlmourlan and Watchmaker
1972
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species Chemical
Sea urchin (gamete),
Strongy locentrotus purpuratus
Salinity
(q/kg)
-
Durat Ion
300 mln
Effect
Depressed
motlllty
Concentration
sperm 58.69
Reference
Tlmourlan and
1977
Matchmaker
* Results are expressed as nickel, not as the chemical.
** Incubated for 2 to 4 days after exposure.
-------
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