O...IBU states
Environmental Protection
Agency
Utrice ot Water
Regulations and Standards
Criteria and Standards Division
Washington DC 20460
EPA 440/5-86-007
September 1986
Water
Ambient
Water Quality
Criteria
for
-1986
-------
AMBIENT AQUATIC LIFE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR
PARATHION
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORIES
DULUTH, MINNESOTA
NARRAGANSETT, RHODE ISLAND
-------
NOTICES
This document has been reviewed by the Criteria and Standards Division,
Office of Water Regulations and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, and approved for publication.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical
Information Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
-------
FOREWORD
Section 304UX1) of the Clean Water Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-217)
requires the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency to
publish water quality criteria that accurately reflect the latest
scientific knowledge on the kind and extent of all identifiable effects
on health and welfare that might be expected from the presence of pollutants
in any body of water, including ground water. This document is a revision
of proposed criteria based upon consideration of comments received from
other Federal agencies, State agencies, special interest groups, and
individual scientists. Criteria contained in this document replace
any previously published EPA aquatic life criteria for the same pollutant(s)
The term "water quality criteria" is used in two sections of the
Clean Water Act, section 304(a)(l) and section 303(c)(2). The term has a
different program impact in each section. In section 304, the term
represents a non-regulatory, scientific assessment of ecological effects.
Criteria presented in this document are such scientific assessments. If
water quality criteria associated with specific stream uses are adopted
by a State as water quality standards under section 303, they become
enforceable maximum acceptable pollutant concentrations in ambient waters
within that State. Water quality criteria adopted in State water quality
standards could have the same numerical values as criteria developed
under section 304. However, in many situations States might want to adjust
water quality criteria developed under section 304 to reflect local
environmental conditions and human exposure patterns before incorporation
into water quality standards. " It is not until their adoption as part of
State water quality standards that criteria become regulatory.
Guidelines to assist States in the modification of criteria presented
in this document, in the development of water quality standards, and in
other water-related programs of this Agency, have been developed by EPA.
William A. Whittington
Director
Office of Water Regulations and Standards
111
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Loren J. Larson
(freshwater author)
University of Wisconsin-Superior
Superior, Wisconsin
Jeffrey L. Hyland
Sam R. Petrocelli
(saltwater authors)
Battelle New England Laboratory
Duxbury, Massachusetts
Charles E. Stephan
(document coordinator)
"Environmental Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota
David J. Hansen
(saltwater coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Narragansett, Rhode Island
Clerical Support
Shelley A. Heintz
Terry L. Highland
Diane L. Spehar
Nancy J. Jordan
Delcena R. Nisius
IV
-------
CONTENTS
Page
, ILL
Foreword
iv
Acknowledgments
vi
Tables
Introduction
Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals ...
Toxicity to Aquatic Plants
Bioaccumulation
6
Other Data
8
Unused Data ......
...... 11
Summary
12
National Criteria • • • ......
36
References •
-------
TABLES
Page
1. Acute Toxicity of Parathion to Aquatic Animals • 14
2. Chronic Toxicity of Parathion To Aquatic Animals 21
3. Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic
22
Ratios
4. Toxicity of Parathion to Aquatic Plants ... 26
5. Bioaccumulation of Parathion by Aquatic Organisms . 27
6. Other Data on Effects of Parathion on Aquatic Organisms 28
VI
-------
Introduction*
Parathion (0,0-diethyl 0-4-nitrophenyl phosphorothioate, sometimes
called ethyl parathion or parathion-ethyl) is one of several organophosphorus
pesticides developed to replace the more persistent organochlorine pesticides.
It is now a restricted-use pesticide that is effective against a wide-range
of insect pests on many fruit, nut, vegetable, and field crops. It is
usually formulated as an emulsifiable concentrate, but is also available in
granules, dusts, aerosols, oil sprays, and wettable powders. These formulations
often contain large percentages of unspecified ingredients, which are often
considered inert. Although no studies have compared the relative toxicities
of technical-grade parathion and its various formulations, other organo-
phosphorus insecticides (e.g., chlorpyrifos) have been shown to differ
substantially in this regard. Although some data obtained from studies
on formulations are discussed, data from such studies are not used in the
derivation of the criteria.
The toxicity of parathion is the result of metabolic conversion
to its oxygen analogue, parathion-oxon (paraoxon) and its subsequent binding
to and inhibition of various enzyme systems (e.g., cholinesterases, car-
boxylases, acetylcholinesterases, and mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylases).
Its inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is generally accepted to be
its most critical toxic effect. Inhibition of AChE results in accumulation
of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in synapes, disrupting normal
neural transmission. Although even substantial reductions in brain AChE
* An understanding of the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water
Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses"
(Stephan et al. 1985), hereafter referred to as the Guidelines, and the
response to public comment (U.S. EPA 1985a) is necessary in order to
understand the following text, tables, and calculations.
-------
activity in fish have not always been fatal, the effect of this condition on
normal activities (e.g., feeding, reproduction, predator-prey relationships,
etc.) in nature is not known. Parathion has also been demonstrated to
produce teratogenic effects in fish embryos (Solomon 1977; Solomon and
Weis 1979; Tomita and Matsuda 1961).
Parathion is less persistent than organochlorine pesticides and
has such a great affinity for organic material that it is quickly sorbed to
sediments and suspended particulate matter. Miller et al. (1967) attributed
the rapid loss of parathion after application to irrigation water to
degradation, although sorption probably contributed greatly to the decrease.
The persistence of oarathion in water is dependent on chemical hydrolysis
and biodegradation (Ahmed and Casida 1958; Eichelberger and Lichxenberg 1971;
Faust 1975; Faust and Gomaa 1972; Gomaa and Faust 1972; Ludemann and
Herzel 1973; Mackiewicz et al. 1969; Mulla 1963; Sethunathan et al. 1977;
Van Middelem 1966; Zuckerman et al. 1970). Graetz et al. (1970) reported
that the portion of parathion degradation attributable to abiological processes
in natural lake sediments was negligible. The movement and persistence
of parathion has been described in a natural pond (Mulla et al. 1966;
Nicholson et al. 1962), a model stream (Laplanche et al. 1981), and a
model ecosystem (Dortland 1980). Several studies have reported concentrations
of parathion in water (Braun and Frank 1980; Dick 1982; Greve et al. 1972;
Harris and Miles 1975; Kannan and Job 1979; Sethunathan et al. 1977) and
in biota (Chovelon et al. 1984; Haddadin and Alawi 1974; Hesselberg and
Johnson 1972; Perry et al. 1983). U.S. EPA (1975) and vom Rumker et al.
(1974) reviewed the use, distribution, fate, and effects of parathion.
Unless otherwise noted, all concentrations reported herein are
expressed as parathion, not as the material tested. The criteria presented
2
-------
herein supersede previous aquatic life water quality criteria for parathion
(U.S. EPA 1976) because these new criteria were derived using improved
procedures and additional information. Whenever adequately justified, a
national criterion may be replaced by a site-specific criterion (U.S. EPA
1983a), which may include not only site-specific criterion concentrations
(U.S. EPA 1983b), but also site-specific durations of averaging periods
and site-specific frequencies of allowed excursions (U.S. EPA 1985b).
The latest comprehensive literature search for information for this
document was conducted in July, 1986; some more recent information might have
been included.
Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
The results of acute tests that were considered useful for deriving
water quality criteria for parathion are listed in Table 1. The most
striking disparity of values within a species is for the crayfish, Orconectes
nais. An early instar was 375 times more sensitive to parathion than
adults. The LC50 of 0.04 pg/L for this early instar of Orconectes nais
is the lowest available acute value.
Freshwater Species Mean Acute Values (Table 1) were calculated as
geometric means of the available acute values, and then Genus Mean Acute
Values (Table 3) were calculated as geometric means of the available
freshwater Species Mean Acute Values. Of the 31 genera for which acute
values are available, the most sensitive genus, Orconectes, is over
130,000 times more sensitive than the most resistant, Tubifex and
Limnodrilus. Although nine of the 31 freshwater genera are fishes, the
fifteen most sensitive genera are all invertebrates. However, the two
most resistant genera are also invertebrates. Acute values are available
-------
for more than one species in each of five genera, and the range of Species
Mean Acute Values within four of the genera is less than a factor of 1.9.
In the fifth genus, Gammarus, acute values for mature individuals of
the two species are similar, but acute values are available for younger
individuals, which are apparently more sensitive, for only one of the species
The freshwater Final Acute Value for parathion was calculated to be 0.1298
ug/L using the procedure described in the Guidelines and the Genus Mean
Acute Values in Table 3. The acute value for the crayfish, Orconectes
nais, is about one-third the Final Acute Value.
Data on the acute toxicity of parathion are only available for two
saltwater species (Table 1). The 96-hr LC50 for the Korean shrimp,
Palaemon macrodactylus, was 11.5 ug/L in a static test and 17.8 ug/L in a
flow-through test (Earnest 1970). Korn and Earnest (1974) reported that
the 96-hr LC50 for the striped bass, Morone saxatilis, was 17.8 ug/L.
Acute values are not available for enough species to allow calculation of
a saltwater Final Acute Value.
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
Chronic tests that are considered useful for deriving water quality
criteria have been conducted on parathion with Daphnia magna, the fathead
minnow, and the bluegill (Table 2). In the life-cycle test with !>• magna,
the 21-day LC50 was 0.14 ug/L, and the number of young produced was
reduced by 0.12 ug/L, but not by 0.0817 ug/L. Fathead minnows were
significantly affected by exposure to parathion at 9.0 ug/L, but not at
4.4 ug/L. In the life-cycle test with bluegills, 0.34 ug/L caused tumors
and deformities in the adults, but did not affect survival of any life
stage or reproduction. No effects were observed at 0.17'ug/L.
-------
The three Acute-Chronic Ratios available for parathion are 10.10
for Daphnia magna, 79.45 for the fathead minnow, and 2,121 for the bluegill.
Of the three species, £. magna is the most acutely sensitive, and produced
the lowest chronic value and the lowest acute-chronic ratio. Thus it
seems reasonable to use 10.10 as the Final Acute-Chronic Ratio. Division
of the freshwater Final Acute Value of 0.1298 ^g/L by the Final Acute-Chronic
Ratio of 10.10 results in a Final Chronic Value of 0.01285 ug/L (Table 3).
No data are available on the chronic toxicity of parathion to
saltwater animals.
Toxicity to Aquatic Plants
Data are available on the toxicity of parathion to two freshwater
algae (Table 4). The blue-green alga, Microcystis aeruginosa, was affected
at 30 Mg/Li whereas the green alga, Scenedesmus quadricauda was not
affected by concentrations below 390 Mg/L.
No data are available concerning the toxicity of parathion to saltwater
plants.
Bioaccumulation
Spacie (1976) and Spacie et al. (1981) reported long-term bioconcentration
factors (BCFs) for the brook trout, fathead minnow, and bluegill (Table 5),
and short-term BCFs are available for the brown trout, brook trout, and
bluegill (Table 6). The BCFs determined with brook trout did not show a
consistent relationship with either concentration in water or duration of
exposure (Tables 5 and 6); the 260-day BCFs ranged from 31 to 232 for
muscle tissue. The 260-day BCFs based on whole-body measurements with
fathead minnows ranged from 32.9 to 201.4. The short-term BCFs measured
-------
with bluegills increased steadily with duration of exposure from 80.5 at
12 hr to 462 at 72 hr, but the BCF at 540 days was only 27.
No data that can be used in the drivation of water quality criteria
are available on the bioaccumulation of parathion by saltwater species.
No U.S. FDA action level or other maximum acceptable concentration
in tissue is available for parathion, and, therefore, no Final Residue
Value can be calculated.
Other Data
Additional data on the effects of parathion on aquatic organisms are
given in Table 6. The majority of the data are LC50s for durations
other than 96 hours. Ahmed (1977) observed a range in 24-hr LCSOs from
1.8 pg/L to 40 Mg/L with six freshwater coleopteran species. Because of
its wide use as a mosquito larvicide, many data are available on acute toxicity
to mosquito larva. However, standard methods for testing effectiveness of
larvicides prescribe a 24-hr test duration. The 24-hr LC50s for seven
species of mosquitos in three genera range from 0.47 to 68 Mg/L. Gutierrez
et al. (1977) reported LC50s from 1.8 to 70 Mg/L for larvae ot resistant
populations of Culex pipiens.
Kynard (1974) observed avoidance of parathion by mosquitofish, and
Weiss (1961) found inhibition of AChE in brains of several freshwater
fishes. Effects on locomotor behavior of goldfish, bluegills, and largemouth
bass were reported by Rand (1977a,b) and Rand et al. (1975). Sun and
Taylor (1983) studied effects of parathion on acquisition and retention
of a conditioned response by goldfish.
Various studies have examined the effect of a detergent (Solon and
Nair 1970; Solon et al. 1969), herbicides (Lichtenstein et al. 1975), and
an N-alkyl compound, SKF-525A (Gibson and Ludke 1973) on the toxicity of
-------
parathion. Banas and Sprague (1981) reported that prior exposure of rainbow
trout did not affect the LC50.
Several studies evaluated the effectiveness of using trout for
detecting parathion and other pollutants (Jung 1973; Morgan 1975,1976,1977;
Van Hoof 1980). Mount and Boyle (1969) examined the use of the
concentration of parathion in fish blood to diagnose causes of fish
kills. Ghetti and Gorbi (1985) studied the effects of a simulated
parathion spin'on a stream. Albright et al. (1983), Gasith and Perry
(1980,1983,1985), Gasith et al. (1983a,b), and Grzenda et al. (1962)
reported community effects of parathion on a pond. Warnick et al. (1966)
found that increases in the concentrations of organochlorine compounds in
water correlated with application of parathion to a pond. They postulated
that these compounds were released from decomposing tissues of intoxified
organisms.
At a concentration of 1,000 ,jg/L, parathion reduced the rate of
growth of natural saltwater plankton communities by 9.9% in 4 hr (Butler
1964). Juvenile pink shrimp, Penaeus duorum, had a 48-hr EC50 of 0.24
Ug/L, whereas the EC50s for other penaeid and palaemonid shrimp ranged
from 1.0 to 5.5 ^g/L (Butler 1964; Lowe et al. 1970; U.S. Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries 1966,1967). Grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pu&io..
exposed to 0.1 or 0.5 tJg/L were more susceptible to predation by gulf
killifish, Fundulus grandis (Farr 1977). Limb regeneration and time to
molting of the fiddler crab, Uca pugilator, were apparently unaffected by
exposure to parathion for 2 to 3 weeks, but all crabs exposed to 100 Jg/L
died (Weis and Mantel 1976). The 96-hr EC50 based on shell deposition
was 850 sJg/L or higher for the eastern oyster, Crassostrea vir^inica
(Butler 1963,1964; Lowe et al. 1970; U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
7
-------
1966). Lowe et al. (1971) found that growth of juvenile oysters was not
reduced by exposure to 0.8 Mg/L for 252 days. Davis and Hidu (1969)
reported a 78% reduction in length of oyster larvae after a 12-day
exposure to 1,000 ug/L.
The sensitivity of saltwater fishes to parathion did not differ
greatly. The 48-hr LC50s were 15 pg/L for longnose killifish, Fundulus
9imilja; 18 Mg/L for spot, Leiostomus xanthurus; 36 Mg/L for sheepshead
minnows, Cyprinodon variegatus; and 100 ug/L for striped mullet, Mugil.
cephalus (Butler 1964; Lowe et al. 1970; and U.S. Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries 1966,1967). Regeneration of fins by adult mummichogs,
Fundulus heteroclitus, was reduced by exposure to 10 Mg/L for 10 weeks
(Weis and Weis 1975) and this species had a 50% incidence of circulatory
failure when exposed to 10,000 Mg/L for three days (Weis and Weis 1974).
Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in saltwater fishes is a
function of degree and duration of acute exposure and appears associated
with death. Regardless of concentration and duration of exposure, when
40 to 60% of the sheepshead minnows, pinfish, and spot died, survivors
had AChE reductions of _> 82.3% (Coppage and Mathews 1974).
White et al. (1979) reported 57 to 90% inhibition of brain cholinesterase
activity in dead laughing gulls, Larus artricilla, contaminated with
parathion applied to crops. Death of chicks was suspected to be a result
of parathion in their food.
Unused Data
Some data on the effects of parathion on aquatic organisms were not
used because the studies were conducted with species that are not resident
in North American (e.g., Basak and Konar 1976a,b; Bellavere and Gorbi 1984;
-------
Bowman et al. 1981; Butler 1964; Dortland 1980; Fleming 1981; Gregory et
al. 1969; Gupta et al. 1979; Hashiomoto and Nishiuchi 1981; Hudson et al.
1979; Juhnke and Ludemann (1978); Nishiuchi and Hashimoto 1967; Nishiuchi
and Yoshida 1972; Panwar et al. 1976; Price 1976,1978; Rattner 1982; Shah
et al. 1983; Siva Prasada Rao et al. 1983; Weiss 1959) or because the test
species was not obtained in North America and was not identified well
enough to determine if it is resident in North America (e.g., Lahav and
Sarig 1969). Results (e.g., Tarpley 1958) of tests conducted with brine
shrimp, Artemia sp., were not used because these species are from a unique
saltwater environment. Data were not used if parathion was a component
of a mixture (e.g., Macek 1975) or an effluent (e.g., Lewis 1986) or if
the test chamber contained sediment (D'Asaro and Wilkes 1982; Farr 1977).
Cole and Plapp (1974) did not verify that the parathion was dissolved off
the test tubes by the test solution.
Anderson (I960), Chiou et al. (1977), Henderson et al. (1960),
LeBlanc (1984), Ramke (1969), Sato and Kubo (1965), Surber (1948),
Tarzwell (1959a,b), and Yoshioka et al. (1986) only contain data that
have been published elsewhere. Some studies were not used because test
procedures or materials were not adequately described (e.g., Gillies et
al. 1974; Hart and Womeldorf 1977; Kleerekoper 1974; Konar and Basak
1973; Lahav and Sarig 1969; Lewallen and Wilder 1962; Micks and Rougeau
1977; Moore 1970; Mulla 1980; Wilder and Schaefer 1969; Zboray and
Gutierrez 1979).
Data were not used if the organisms were exposed to parathion by
injection or gavage or in food (e.g., Benke et al. 1974; Carlson 1973;
Hashimoto and Fukami 1969; King et al. 1984; Loeb and Kelly 1963;
Murphy et al. 1968).
9
-------
Bradbury (1973a,b), Chambers (1976), Dortland (1978), Dortland et
aL. (1976), Estenik and Collins (1979), Goldsmith et al. (1976), Hiltibran
(1974,1982), Hitchcock and Murphy (1971), Huddart (1978), Ludke et al.
(1972), McDonald and Fingerman (1979), Murphy et al. (1968), Nollenberger
(1982), Nollenberger et al. (1981), Weiss (1959), Weiss and Gakstatter
(1964,1965), Whitmore and Hodges (1978), and Yahalomi and Perry (1981)
only exposed enzymes, excised tissues, or cell cultures or conducted
other biochemical or histological studies. Garnas and Crosby (1979) and
Lewis et al. (1984) only studied the metabolism of parathion.
Results of some laboratory tests were not used because the tests were
conducted in distilled or deionized water without addition of appropriate
salts (e.g., Burchfield and Storrs 1954; Goldsmith 1978; Goldsmith and
Carlson 1979; Lewallen 1959,1962: Lichtenstein et al. 1966; Yas-uno et al.
1965) or if too few test organisms were exposed (e.g., Carlson 1973;
Ludemann and Neumann 1961). Mulla et al. (1967) conducted tests in plastic
test chambers.
Hughes (1970,1973) did not acclimate the test organisms to the
dilution water for a long enough period of time. Laboratory studies
using formulations of parathion were not used (e.g., Alexander et al.
1982; Basak and Konar 1976a,b; Chang and Lange 1967; Davey et al. 1976;
Gaufin et al. 1961,1965; Hilsenhoff 1959; Labrecque et al. 1956; Mohamed
and Gupta 1984; Panwar et al. 1982; Singh and Singh 1981, Sreenivasan and
Swaninathan 1967; Srivastava et al. 1977; Verma et al. 1981). Field
studies in which the concentration of parathion was not measured were not
used (e.g., Ahmed 1977; Benge and Fronk 1970; Chang and Lange 1967; Davey
and Meisch 1977; Davey et al. 1976; Gahan 1957; Grigarick and Way 1982;
10
-------
Labrecque 1956; Mulla and Isaak 1961; Mulla et al. 1963,1964,1978; Myers
et al. 1969; Stewart 1977).
High control mortalities occurred in tests reported by Fleming et
al. (1982) and in tests with Gammarus fasciatus reported by Spacie et al.
(1976). High pesticide residues were found in field collected worms
by Naqvi (1973), and the concentration of solvent was too high in studies by
Poorman (1973).
Microcosm studies were not used (e.g., Dortland 1980; Francis et al.
1980; Miller et al. 1966; Yu and Sanborn 1975).
Results of laboratory bioconcentration tests were not used if the
test was not flow-through or renewal (e.g., Verma and Gupta 1976) or the
concentration in water was not measured (e.g., Kortus et al. 197.1). A
bioconcentration study by Schmidt and Weidaas (1961) was not used because
radio-labeled parathion was not adequately identified as the radioactive
compound in the organisms. Reports of concentrations of parathion in wild
aquatic organisms (e.g., Bradbury 1973a,b; Butler and Schutzmann 1978)
were not used to calculate bioaccumulation factors if the number of
measurements of the concentration was too small or if the range of the
measured concentrations was too great.
Summary
The acute values for thirty-seven freshwater species in thirty-one
genera range from 0.04 pig/L for an early instar of a crayfish, Orconectes
nais, to 5,230 Mg/L f°r two species of tubifid worms. For Daphnia magna,
the chronic value and acute-chronic ratio are 0.0990 Mg/L and 10.10 (Jg/L,
respectively. Chronic toxicity values are available for two freshwater
fish species, the bluegill and the fathead minnow, with chronic values of
11
-------
0.24 ug/L and 6.3 ug/L, and acute-chronic ratios of 2,121 and 79.45,
respectively. Two freshwater algae were affected by toxaphene concentrations
of 30 and 390 ug/L, respectively. Bioconcentration factors determined
with three fish species ranged from 27 to 573.
The acute values that are available for saltwater species are 11.5
and 17.8 ug/L for the Korean shrimp, Palaemon macrodactylus, and 17.8 Mg/L
for the striped bass, Morone saxatilis. No data are available concerning
the chronic toxicity of parathion to saltwater species, toxicity to
saltwater plants, or bioaccumulation by saltwater species. Some data
indicate that parathion is acutely lethal to commercially important
saltwater shrimp at concentrations as low as 0.24 ug/L. Measurement of
AChE might be useful for diagnosing fish kills caused by parathion.
National Criteria
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms
and Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important
species is very sensitive, freshwater aquatic organisms and their uses
should not be affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration
of parathion does not exceed 0.013 ug/L more than once every three years
on the average and if the one-hour average concentration does not exceed
0.065 ug/L more than once every three years on the average.
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms
and Their Uses" require the availability of specified data for the derivation
of a criterion. A saltwater criterion for parathion cannot be derived
because very few of the required data are available.
12
-------
Three years is the Agency's best scientific judgment of the average
amount of time aquatic ecosystems should be provided between excursions
(U.S. EPA 1985b). The resiliencies of ecosystems and their abilities to
recover differ greatly, however, and site-specific allowed excursion
frequencies may be established if adequate justification is provided.
Use of criteria for developing water quality-based permit limits and
for designing waste treatment facilities requires selection of an appropriate
wasteload allocation model. Dynamic models are preferred for the application
of these criteria (U.S. EPA 1985b). Limited data or other considerations
might make their use impractical, in which case one must rely on a steady-state
model (U.S. EPA 1986).
13
-------
Table 1. Acute Toxic I ty of Perathlon 1e Aquatic
LC50 Specie*
or BC50 Acute Value
Method* Cheatcal** (»g/U*** (»g/L)
Reference
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Tub 1 field worm,
Llmnodrllus sp.
Tubltlcld worm.
Tub If ex sp.
Cladoceran,
Oaphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran (<24 hr) ,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran, (<24 hr) ,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran (<24 hr) ,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran (1st Instar) ,
Daphnla pulex
Cladoceran (1st Instar),
Slmocephalus serrulatus
Isopod,
Asellus brevlcaudus
Isopod a (mature) ,
Asellus brevlcaudus
Am phi pod (mature),
Gammarus fasclatus
Amphlpod (mature) ,
Gammarus fasclatus
Am ph 1 pod ( matur e) ,
ftammarus fasclatus
S, U
s, u
S. U
S, U
S, M
S, U
F, M
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
F, U
S, U
Analytical
(99.6*)
Analytical
(99. 6*)
-
-
Reagent
(99%) .
Analytical
(99* )
Reagent
(99%)
Techn leal
(98.7*)
Technical
(98.1%)
Techn leal
(98.7*)
Techn leal
(98.7*)
Techn leal
(98.7*)
Techn leal
(98.7*)
Techn leal
(98.7*)
5,230«»««
5.230»»»«
0.8
1.8
1.27
1.3
1.0
0.60
0.47
600
2,130
2.1*
t
4.5*
1.3*
5,230 Mhltten and Goodnlgh
1966
5,230 Whit ten and Goodnlgt
1 f\£.£L
1966
Boyd 1957
Brlngmann and Kuhn 1
Spacle 1976; Spacle
et al. 1981
Dortland 1980
1.0 Spacle 1976; Spacle
et al. 1981
0.60 Johnson and Flnley
1980
0.47 Johnson and Flnley
1980
Sanders 1972
I 130 Johnson and Flnley
1980
Sanders 1972
Sanders 1972
Johnson and Flnley
1980; Sanders 1972
-------
TabU 1. (continued)
LC50 Sp«cUs
or EC90 Acwt* Vein*
Species
Amph 1 pod ( Immature) ,
Gammarus fasclatus
Amph 1 pod ( Immature) ,
Gammarus fasclatus
Amph 1 pod ( Immature) ,
Gammarus fasclatus
Amph 1 pod ( Immature) ,
Gammarus fasclatus
Amph > pod (mature),
Gammarus lacustrls
Prawn
Palaemonetes kadlakensls
Prawn (mature) ,
Palaemonetes kadlakensls
Crayfish (mature) ,
Orconectes nals
Crayfish (early Instar) ,
Orconectes nals
Crayfish (mature) ,
Procambarus sp.
Phantom midge.
Chaoborus sp.
Phantom midge.
Chaoborus sp.
Phantom midge.
Chaoborus sp.
Method*
F, M
F. M
F, M
F, M
S, U
F, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
Che*lc«l** I
Reagent
(99*)
Reagent
(99*)
Reagent
(99*)
Reagent
(99*)
Techn leal
(98.7*)
Technical
(98.7*)
Techn leal
(98.7*)
Techn leal
(98.7*)
Techn leal
(98.7*)
Techn leal
(98.7*)
~
-
t»g/L)*** Ufl/Ll
0.43
0.62
0.26
0.25 0.3628
3.5 3.5
5.0
. 1.5 2.739
15*
0.04 0.04
<250 <250
48 ft
•to
0 8m -
\J • V
1.0ttf 0.8944
Reference
Spacle 1976; Spacle
et al. 1981
Spacle 1976; Spacle
et al. 1981
Spacle 1976; Spacle
et al. 1981
Spacle 1976; Spacle
et al. 1981
Johnson and Flnley
1980; Sanders 1969
Sanders 1972
Johnson and Flnley
1980; Sanders 1972
Sanders 1972
Sanders 1972; Johnson
and Flnley 1980
Johnson and Flnley
1980
Col 1 Ins and Shank 1983
Col 1 Ins and Shank 1983
Collins and Shank 1983
-------
Table 1. (continued)
LCM Specie*
or EC50 Acute Value
Specie*
Mayfly,
Cloeon dlpterum
Mayfly,
Cloeon dlpterum
Mayfly,
Cloeon dlpterum
Mayfly (juvenile),
Hexagenta blllneata
Damsel fly (juvenile),
1 schnura vent lea Ms
Damsel fly,
Lestes congener
Stonef ly,
Pteronarcella bad la
Stonef ly (naiad).
Pteronarcys callfornlca
Stonef ly (2nd year class),
Pteronarcys callfornlca
Stonef ly (naiad).
Acroneurla paclflca
Stonef ly (2nd year class),
Claassenla sabulosa
Method*
S, U
S, U
R, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u
Che»Icel»« (
Analytical
(99$)
Analytical
(99$)
Analytical
(99$)
Techn leal
(98.7$)
Technical
(98.7$)
Technical.
(>94$)
Technical
(98.7$)
Technical
(95$)
Techn leal
(98.7$)
Techn leal
(95$)
Technical
(98.7$)
i.oA)M*
2.5
2.6
1.7
15
0.64
3.0
4.2
32*
5.4
2.9
1.5
(•9/L) Reference
Dortland 1980
Portland 1980
2.227 Dortland 1980
15 Johnson and Flnley
1980
0.64 Johnson and Flnley
1980
3.0 Federle and Collins
1976
4.2 Johnson and Flnley 1980;
Sanders and Cope 1968
Jensen and Gauftn 1964
5.4 Johnson and Ftnley 1980;
Sanders and Cope 1968
2.9 Jensen and Gaufln 1964
1.5 Johnson and Flnley 1930;
Sanders and Cope 1968
-------
TabU I. (continued)
LC50 Specie* NMH
or EC90 Aeiit* Vain*
Species
Crawl Ing water beetle
(adult).
Peltodytes sp.
Midge,
Chlronofflus rlparlus
Midge,
Chlronomus rlparlus
Midge,
Chlronomus riparlus
Chlronomld (4th Instar) ,
Chlronomus tentans
Cutthroat trout (0.3 g) ,
Salmo clarkl
Rainbow trout (1.0 g) ,
Salmo galrdnerl
Ra Inbow trout
(embryo, 0 hr).
Salmo galrdnerl
Ra Inbow trout
(embryo, 24 hr).
Salmo galrdnerl
Ra Inbow trout
(embryo, 14 day).
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout
(embryo, 28 day).
Salmo galrdnerl
Ra Inbow trout
Method*
^^•^••••••••B
S, U
s, u
s, u
s, u
F, M
S, U
S, U
R, U
R, U
6
R, U
R, U
R, U
Chenlcal** Ufl/L)*"* (mi/L)
Technical 7.0 7.0
(>94<)
8.4"
1.6tft
1.8ttf 1.697
Reagent 31.0 31.0
(99 %)
Technical 1,560 1,560
(98. 7 K)
Technical 1,430
(98.7Jt>
(99*) 10,000f
(99%} 10,000"*
(99* ) 10,000"*
(99* ) 10,000"*
1
(99$) 10,000*
Reference
Federle and Collins 1976
Col 1 Ins and Shank 1983
Col 1 Ins and Shank 1983
Col 1 Ins and Shank 1983
Spacle 1976; Spacle
et al. 1981
Johnson and Flnley 1980
Johnson and Flnley 1980
Van Leeuwen et al . 1985
Van Leeuwen et al . 1985
Van Leeuwen et al . 1985
Van Leeuwen et al . 1985
Van Leeuwen et al . 1985
(fry, 42 day),
Salmo galrdnerl
-------
TabU 1. (continued)
oo
Spaclas Mathod*
Rainbow trout
(fry, 77 day),
Salmo galrdnerl
Brown trout (16-19 cm),
Salmo trutta
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Lake trout (0.7 g) ,
Salvellnus namaycush
Goldfish (juvenile).
Carasslus auratus
Goldfish (0.9 g).
Carasslus auratus
Fathead minnow (1-1.5 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-1.5 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-1.5 g),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-1.5 g) ,
P 1 mepha 1 es prome 1 as
Fathead minnow (juvenile),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (adult),
PI mepha les promelas
•«•••••••••
R, U
F, M
F, M
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
s, u
S, M
CjMMlcaJL"
(99*)
Reagent
(99*)
Reagent
(99*)
Technical
(98.7*)
Techn leal
(99*)
Technical
(98.7*)
Techn leal
(96.5*)
Technical
(96.5*)
Techn tea 1
(96.5*)
Technical
(96.5*)
Techn leal
(99*)
Reagent
(99*)
LC50 Spacla* Naan
or EC50 Aciita Valua
1,400 1,415
1,510 1,510
1,760 1,760
1,920 1,920
2,700
1,830 2,223
1,400
1,600
2,800
3,700
1,300
1,600
Refer enca
Van Leeuwen at al . 1985
Spacle 1976; Spacle
at al. 1981
Spacle 1976; Spacle
at al. 1981
Johnson and FInley 1980
Pickering et al . 1962
Johnson and FInley 1980
Henderson and Pickering
1958
Henderson and Pickering
1958
Henderson and Pickering
1958
Henderson and Pickering
1958
Pickering et al . 1962
Spacle 1976; Spacle
et al. 1981
-------
TabU I. (continued)
LC50 Species
or EC50 Acute Vel
(noA)*** UaA)
Reference
Fathead minnow (0.8 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1.8-4.0 cm),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (adult),
P 1 mepha 1 es prome 1 as
Channel catfish (1.4 g) ,
Ictalurus punctatus
Mosquito fish (1.1 g),
Gambusla af finis
Guppy (6 mo) ,
Poectlla retlculata
Green sun fish (1.1 g) ,
Lepomls cyanel (us
Blueglll (1.5 g) .
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (juvenile).
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (1.0 g) ,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (juvenile),
Lepomls macrochlrus
Largamouth bass (0.7 g) ,
Mlcropterus sal mo Ides
Western chorus frog (1 wk) ,
Psaudacrls trtserlata
nvinww
S, U
F, M
F, M
S. U
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
s, u
F, M
s, u
S, U
^••Ml • WB •
Techn leal
(98.7*)
Analytical
(98.7*)
Reagent
(99*)
Technical
(98.7*)
Technical-
(98.7*)
Techn leal
(99*)
Technical
(98.7*)
Techn leal
(96.5*)
Technical
(99*)
Technical
(98.7*)
Reagent
(99*)
Technical
(98.7*)
Technical
(98.7*)
2,350
1,410
500
2,650
320
56
930
710
95
400
510
620
1,000
'
Johnson and Flnley 1980
Solon et al. 1969;
Solon and Nalr 1970
839.6 Spacle 1976; Spacte
et al. 1981
2,650 Johnson and Flnley 1980
320 Johnson and Flnley 1980
56 Pickering et al . 1962
930 Johnson and Flnley 1980
Henderson and Pickering
1958
Pickering et al . 1962
Johnson and Flnley 1980
510 Spacle 1976; Spacle
et al. 1981
620 Johnson and Flnley 1980
1,000 Sanders 1970
-------
TabU 1. (continued)
NJ
O
LC50
or EC50
S2S£Ut
Korean shrimp (adult),
Palaemon macrodactylus
Korean shr Imp ( adul t) ,
Palaemon macrodactylus
Striped bass (Juvenile),
Moron e saxatl Us
Method* ChMlcal** 1
SALTWATER
F, U (99*)
S, U (991)
F, U <99<)
[yaA)*M
SPECIES
17.8
11.5
17.8
Sp«clM NMR
Acut* Valu*
(•a/L) Reference
Earnest 1970
14.31 Earnest 1970
17.8 Korn and Earnest 1974
• S = static; R » renewal; F = flovr-through; U - unmeasured; M - measured.
** Percent purity Is given In parentheses when available.
»»» ,f the concentrations were not measured and the published results were not reported to be adjusted
for purity, the published results were multiplied by the purity If It was reported to be less than
97*.
*»*» Llmnodrllls sp. and Tub I fax sp. were tested together, but appeared to be equally resistant.
t Not used In calculation of Species Mean Acute Value because data are available for a more
sensitive life stage.
** 4*C; not used In calculations.
22-c.
-------
Spacla*
Tab I a 2. Chronic Toxlclty of Parathlon to Aquatic Anlaals
Units Chronic Valua
last* Chaalcal** (iia/D*** Ufl/ll
* LC = life-cycle or partial life-cycle.
** Percent purity Is given In parentheses when available.
*"* Results are based on measured concentrations of parathlon.
Rafaranca
Cladoceran, ' LC
Daphnla magna
Fathead minnow, LC
P 1 mepha 1 es prome 1 as
Blueglll, LC
Lepomls macrochlrus
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Reagent 0.0817-0.12 0.0990
(99|)
Reagent 4.4-9.0 6.293
(99*)
Reagent 0.17-0.34 0.2404
199%}
Spacle 1976;
et al. 1981
Spacle 1976;
et al. 1981
Spacle 1976;
et al. 1981
Spacle
Spacle
Spacle
Acute-Chronic Ratio
Acute Valua Chronic Valua
Spec Us
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Fathead minnow.
Plmephales prome las
B 1 ueg 1 1 1 ,
(nQ/L)
1.00
500
510
(iia/L)
0.0990
6.293
0.2404
Ratio
10.10
79.45
2,121
Lepomls macrochlrus
-------
Tabla 3. Raakad Ganus Naaa Acuta Valuas with Spaclas Naaa Acuta-Chronlc Ratios
lank*
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
Ganus Naan
Acuta Valua
(»gA) Sjjaclas
FRESHWATER SPECIES
5,230 Tub 1 field worm.
Tub! fax sp.
5.230 Tub 1 field worm.
Llmnodrl lus sp.
2,650 Channel catfish,
Ictalurus punctatus
2,223 Goldfish,
Carasslus auratus
1,838 Brook trout,
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Laka trout,
Salvellnus namaycush
1,494 Cutthroat trout,
Salmo clarkl
Brown trout,
Salmo trutta
Rainbow trout,
Salmo qalrdnerl
1,130 Isopod,
Asellus brevlcaudus
1,000 Western chorus frog,
Pseudacrls trlserlnta
839.6 Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
688.7 Green sun fish,
Lepomls cyanellus
B 1 ueg III,
Spaclas Maan
Acuta Valua
5,230
5,230
2,650
2,223
1,760
1,920
1,560
1,510
1,415
1,130
1,000
839.6
930
510
Spaclas Naan
Acuta-Chronlc
Ratio""
79.45
2,121
Lepomls macrochlrus
-------
TabU 3. (contlniMd)
t-O
U)
Rank*
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
Genus Newi
Acute Value
(,oA)
620
320
<250
56
31.0
15
7.0
5.4
4.2
3.0
2.9
2.739
2.227
SpacU*
Largemouth bass,
Hlcropterus sal mo Ides
Mosquttoflsh,
6 ambus la afflnls
Crayfish,
Procambarus sp.
Guppy,
Poecllla retlculata
Midge,
Chtronomus tentans
Mayfly,
Hexaqenta blllneata
Beetle,
Peltodytes spp.
Stonefly,
Pteronarcys call torn lea
Stone fly,
Pteronarcel la bad la
Damsel fly,
Lestes congener
Stonefly,
Acroneurla pad flea
Prawn,
Palaemonetes kadlakensls
Mayfly,
Spacl** NaM SpacUs NaM
Acuta Vain* AcHta-Chrwilc
lua/D" Rat1o«»»
620
320
<250
56
31.0
15
7.0
5.4
4.2
3.0
2.9
2.739
2.227
-
Cloeon dlpterum
-------
Table 3. (continued)
to
RMk*
B
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Genus Mean
Acute Value
(•0A)
1.697
1.5
1.127
0.8944
0.7746
0.64
0.47
0.04
Species
Midge,
Chlronomus rlparlus
Stone f ly,
C 1 aassen [a sabulosa
Amphlpod,
Gammarus fasclatug
Amph 1 pod ,
Gammarus 1 acusjfr Is
Phantom midge,
Chaoborus sp.
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pulex
Damsel fly,
Ischnura vent lea HA
Cladoceran,
Slmocephalus serru latus
Crayfish,
Orconectes nals
Species Mean
Acute Value
1.697
1.5
0.3628
3.5
0.8944
1.0
0.60
0.64
0.47
0.04
Species Mean
Acute-Chronic
Ratio"*
-
—
—
mm
™
10.10
—
-
* Ranked from most resistant to most sensitive based on Genus Mean Acute Value
''
Value Is not unnecessarily lowered.
•
*» From Table 1.
»«• From Table 2.
-------
TabU 3. (continued)
Fresh water
Final Acute Value = 0.1298 ug/L
Criterion Maximum Concentration - (0.1298 ng/L) /2 -0.0649 ng/L
Final Acute-Chronic Ratio- 10.10 (see text)
Final Chronic Value = (0.1298 ng/L) / 10.10 - 0.01285 Mg/L
ro
ui
-------
Tab!* 4. Toxiclty of Parathloa to Aquatic Plants
apacias
Blue- green alga,
Mlcrocystls aeruglnosa
Green alga,
Scenedesmus quadrlcauda
Ourat Ion
ChaMlcal* (days)
FRESHWATER
8
a
Effact
SPEC]!!
Incipient
Inhibition
Incipient
Inhibition
Concaatrattoa
-------
Table 5. BloaccwMilatloa of Paratnloa by Aquatic Organ IM
Specie*
Brook trout,
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Cnealcal*
Reagent
199%}
Concentration
IB Matar
Duration
Idavfl
BCf or BAP*** Reference
N3
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Blueglll,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Reagent
(99%}
Reagent
(99%}
0.6
0.6
1.4
2.6
4.0
6.7
0.44
0.53
1.26
1.45
2.76
2.86
4.24
5.53
8.30
8.72
0.15
4.2
9.0
15.5
21.7
49.0
4.00
FRESHWATER SPECIES
180
260
Muscle
260
540
Whole
body
Muse Ie
258
312
299
439
471
573
124
86
31
43
99
91
86
88
232
179
93.3
169.4
104.6
32.9
66.8
201.4
27
Spacle 1976; Spacle
et al. 1981
Spacle 1976; Spacla
et al. 1981
Spacle 1976; Spacle
et al. 1981
* Percent purity Is given In parentheses when available.
** Measured concentration of parathlon.
»»* Bloconcentratlon factors (BCFs) and bloaccumulatlon factors (BAFs) are based on measured concentrations of parathlon In water
and In tissue. >
-------
Tab I a 6. Other Data oa the Ef facts of Parathloa oa Aquatic Orgaal
Concentration
Chemical* Duration Effect
Reference
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Bacter 1 urn,
Pseudomonas put Ida
Clllate,
Colpldlum campylum
Worm,
Tubtfex tublfex
Cl adoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cl adoceran «24 hr old),
Daphnla magna
Cl adoceran,
Daphnla magna
to
oo
Cl adoceran (adult),
Daphnla pulex
Cl adoceran (adult),
Molna macrocopa
Prawn,
Palaemonetes kadlakensis
Mayfly,
Stenonema femoratum
Mayfly,
Stenonema vlcarlum
Mayfly, ( larva) ,
16 hr
43 hr
18 hr
18-36 hr
- 24 hr
26 hr
Reagent 7 days
(99*) 14 days
21 days
Technical 3 hr
Technical 3 hr
Technical 24 hr
48 hr
48 nr
65 mln
Incipient
Inhibition
Change In
growth rate
Onset of symptoms
Onset of death
LC50
LC50
EC 50
LC50
LC50
LC50
EC50
(40C)
(22 *C)
EC50
LT50
*
10,000
10,000
100,000
4
0.8
0.39
0.31
0.16
0.8
8.1
ii!af
7.4J
6.6*
30.0
1.7
29.0
1,000
Brlngmann and Kuhn 1977
Dive et al. 1980
Ludenann and Neumann 1960b
Ghettt and Gorbl 1985
Frear and Boyd 1967
Spacle 1976; Spacle et al .
1981
Ntshlucht and Hashimoto
1967,1969
Nlshtuch! and Hashimoto
1967,1969
Naqvl and Ferguson 1970
Col 1 Ins and Shank 1983
Col 1 Ins and Shank 1983
Ghettl and Gorbl 1985
Baetls rhodanl
-------
TabI* 6. (continued)
Co*c«itrattoii
Species
Stonef ly,
Al locapnla sp.
Beetle ( larva),
Hvdrophllus triangular Is
Beetle (adult),
Hyqrotus sp.
Beetle (adult),
LaccophlMs dec Ip lens
Beetle (adult),
T hermonectus baslllarls
Beetle (adult),
Troplsternus lateral Is
Beetle ( larva) ,
Troplsternus lateral Is
Mater bug (adult),
Belostoma sp.
Caddlsfly,
C heumatopsyche sp.
Caddlsfly (larva),
Hydropsyche pellucldula
Caddtsfly,
Hydropsyche sp.
Mosquito (4th Instar)-
Aedes aegyptl
Mosaulto ( larva) ,
Chemical* Duration
48 hr
Technical 24 hr
Technical 24 hr
Technical 24 hr
Technical 24 hr
Technical 24 hr
Technical 24 hr
Technical 24 hr
48 hr
110 mln
48 hr
32-P labeled 24 hr
Technical 24 hr
Effect
BC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
l£50
LC50
EC50
(4*C)
(22*C)
LT50
EC 50
(4*C)
(22M)
LC50
LC50
Ua/L>"»
2.2
17
28
12
1.8
32
40
60
21.0
2.5
1,000
36.0
1.3
4.8
40
Reference
Collins and
Ahmed 1977
Ahmed 1977
Ahmed 1977
Ahmed 1977
Ahmed 1977
Ahmed 1977
Ahmed 1977
Col 1 Ins and
Ghettl and
Col 1 Ins and
Schmidt and
Mul la et al
Shank 1983
Shank 1983
Gorbl 1985
Shank 1983
Weldaas 19
. 1970
Aedes nlqromacul Is
-------
Table 6. (coatlMuad)
Coacafttrattoa
Spec las
Mosquito (4th Instar),
Aedes nlgromaculls
Mosquito (4th Instar),
Aedes taenlorhynchus
Mosquito (4th Instar),
Anopheles freebornl
Mosquito ( larva) ,
Anopheles freebornl
Mosquito (4th Instar),
Anopheles quadr Imaculatus
Mosquito (4th Instar),
Culex plplens
Mosquito (4th Instar),
Culex plplens
Mosquito (3rd-4th Instar),
C u 1 ex plplens
Mosquito ( larva) ,
Culex tarsal Is
Midge ( larva) ,
Chlronomus plumosus.
Midge (4th Instar),
Chlronomus rlparlus
Midge (2nd and 4th Instar),
Chlronomus tentans
Chaalcal*
Techn leal
32-P labeled
Techn leal
Technical
32-P labeled
Technical
Technical
Technical
Techn leal
-
Technical
Reagent
(99%)
Duration
24 hr
24 hr
24 hr
24 hr
24 hr
24 hr
24 hr
24 hr
24 hr
24 hr
24 hr
1 day
2 day
5 day
3 day
14 day
Effact
L£50
UC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
UC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
U50
I
UoA)**
27
£O
68
3.6
2.2-15.0
(24 values)
0.7
6.0
4.5
4.5
0.45
5n
.U
5.8
39
2.5
660
135
7T
. J
2.2
2.6
Rafaraaca
Mulla et al. 1978
Schmidt and Weldaas 1961
Womeldorf et al . 1970
Ahmed 1977
Schmidt and Weldaas 1961
Mulla et al. 1962
Mulla et al. 1964
Chen et al . 1971
Ahmed 1977
Ludemann and Neumann 1960c
Estenlk and Collins 1979
Spacle 1976; Spacle et al .
1981
-------
TabU 6. (continued)
Concentration
Species
Rainbow trout.
Salmo qalrdnerl
Brown trout,
Salmo trutta
Brook trout.
Salvellnus fonttnalls
Brook trout,
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout,
Salveltnus fontlnalls
Goldfish (1.0 g).
Cvprlnus auratuA
Common carp (3.9 g) ,
Cvprlnus carplo
Common carp (1.1 g) ,
Cyprlnus carplo
Golden shiner,
(ODT-susceptlble),
Notemlqonus crvsoleucas
Golden shiner
(DOT- resistant).
Notemlqonus crvsoleucas
Golden shiner.
Notemlqonus crvsoleucas
Chemical*
-
Reagent
(99%)
Reagent
(99%)
Reagent
(99%)
Reagent
(99*)
Technical
-
Technical
Technical
Technical
-
Duration
72 hr
64 hr
-
-
8 hr
114 nr
t A A b**>
140 nr
144 hr
48 hr
48 hr
48 hr
48 hr
48 hr
24 hr
Effect
UC50
BCF - 61
71
1 I
LC50
Reduced
percent hatch
BCF - 88.5
102.5
301 5
192^5
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
IC50
LC50
(HQ/L) Reference
920 Lei and 1968
Spacle 1976;
1981
75 Spacle 1976;
1981
10 Spacle 1976;
1981
Spacle 1976;
1981
-
Spacle et al .
Spac te et al .
Spacle et al .
Spacle et al .
1 700 Nlshluchl and Hashimoto
1967,1969
3,500 Ludemann and
Neumann 1%0a
3 200 Nlshluchl and Hashimoto
' 1967,1969
1,895 Mlnchew and
2,800 Mlnchew and
931 Gibson 1971
Ferguson 1970
Ferguson 1970
-------
Tabla 6. (contlniMd)
N)
Spacta*
Fathead minnow
(DOT-susceptlble),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow
(DDT-reslstant),
Plmephales promelas
Mosquitofish,
Gambusla affIn 15
Mosqultoflsh (15-30 mg),
Gambusla affInls
Mosqultoflsh (adult)
(DDT-reslstant),
Gambusla afflnls
Mosqultoflsh (adult)
(DOT-susceptlble),
Gambusla afflnls
Guppy,
Poecllla retlculata
Guppy (7 wk old),
Poec11 IA ret leu Iata
Green sun fish
(DDT-susceptlble),
Lepomls cvane11 us
Green sun fish
(DDT-reslstant),
Lepomls cyanelI us
Green sun fish,
Lepomls cyanellus
Bluagll I,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Chaalcal*
Techn leal
Techn leal
Techn leal
Analytical
Analytical
(99%)
Analytical
(99 J)
-
Techn leal
Techn leal
Duration
48 hr
48 hr
24 hr
24 hr
48 hr
48 hr
72 hr
24 hr
48 hr
Effact
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LJC50
LC50
Techn leal
48 hr
24 hr
48 hr
24 hr
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
Concwitratloa
(•a/L)** Rafaranca
48 Culley and Ferguson 1969
199 Culley and Ferguson 1969
140
1,400
390
950
350
610
29
80
45
207
Ahmed 1977
Kr lager and Lee 1973
Chambers and Yarbrough 1974
Chambers and Yarbrough 1974
Nagasawa et al. 1968
Chen et al . 1971
Mlnchew and Ferguson 1970
275 Mlnchew and Ferguson 1970
155 Gibson 1971
90 La I and 1968
141
Gibson 1971
-------
TabI* 6. (continued)
Effect
Concentration
Refer
U)
species
Blueglll,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Reagent
(99* )
12 hr
18 hr
24 hr
29 hr
46 hr
70 hr
72 hr
BCF - 80.5
145
173
175.3
253.0
311
462
Spacle 19'
1981
Largemouth bass,
Mlcropterus salmo Ides
Frog (tadpole),
Rana catesbetana
Natural phytopl ankton
commun(ties
Eastern oyster (juvenile),
Crassostrea vlrglnlca
(99.6*)
24 hr Change In opercular
rhythm
96 hr BCF » 50.1
SALTXMER SPECIES
4 hr
% hr
Eastern oyster (juvenile),
Crassostrea vlrglnlca
Eastern oyster (Juvenile
to adult) ,
Crassostrea virgin lea
Eastern oyster (larva),
Crassostrea vlrglnlca
Grass shrimp (juvenile),
Palaemonetes puglo
Grass shrimp,
Palaemonetes puglo
(99.6%)
(99.6%)
(99.6%)
(99.6%)
96 hr
336 days
12 days
48 hr
24-72 hr
9.9% decrease In
population growth
EC50
(she! I deposition)
22% reduction In
she) I deposition
No significant
effects on growth
78$ reduction In
average length
EC50 (mortal Ity and
loss of equll Ibrlum)
Increased predatlon
by gulf,kllllflsh,
Fundulus grand Is
160 Morgan 1976
Hall and Kolbe 1980
1,000 Butler 1964
850 Butler 1963
1,000 Butler 1964; Lowe et al .
1970; U.S. Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries 1966
0.8 Lowe et al. 1971
1,000 Davis and Hldu 1969
2.8 U.S. Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries 1967
0.1-0.5 Farr 1977
-------
TabU 6. (continued)
Concentration
Sp«cU« Chemical*
Brown shrimp (adult), (99.6*)
Penaeus aztecus
Pink shrimp (Juvenile), (99.6*)
Penaeus duorarum
Fiddler crab, (95*)
Uca puql later
Fiddler crab, (95*)
Uca pug 1 1 ator
Sheepshead minnow (Juvenile), (99.6*)
Cvprlnodon varlegatus
Sheepshead minnow (Juvenile), (99.6*)
Cyprlnodon varlegatus
Sheepshead minnow (adult),
Cvprlnodon varlegatus
Sheepshead minnow (adult),
Cyprlnodon varlegatus
Sheepshead minnow (adult),
Cvprlnodon varlegatus
Sheepshead minnow (adult),
Cvprlnodon varlegatus
Sheepshead minnow (adult),
Cvprlnodon varlegatus
Duration
48 hr
48 hr
2-3 wk
2-3 wk
48 hr
48 hr
2 hr
24 hr
48 hr
72 hr
120 hr
Effect tuO/L)"
BC50 (mortal Ity and 1
loss of equll Ibrlum)
EC50 (mortality and 0.24
loss of equll Ibrlum)
No effect on 1 1mb 10
regeneration or time
to molt
100* mortality 100
LC50 60
LC50 36
40-60* mortal Ity; 5,000
brain AChE activity
40-60* mortality; 2,000
brain AChE activity
reduced >82(
40-60* mortality; 100
brain AChE activity
reduced >62%
40-60* mortality; 10
brain AChE activity
reduced >82*
Greatest reduction 5
(78-82*) In normal
brain AChE activity
Reference
Butler 1964; U.S. Bureau
of Commercial Fisheries
1966
Lowe et al. 1970; U.S.
Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries 1967
Me Is and Mantel 1976
Mels and Mantel 1976
Butler 1964
U.S. Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries 1966
Coppage 1972
Coppage 1972
Coppage 1972
Coppage 1972
Coppage 1972
obtained without
causing death
-------
Table 6. (continued)
u>
Cn
Specie*
Mummlchog (adult),
Fundulus heteroclltus
Mumm Ic hog (am bryo),
Fundulus heteroclltus
Effect
Concentration
(.PA)**
(95*)
Longhose kllllftsh (juvenile), (99.6%)
Fundulus s 1ml Ms
Pin fish (65-125 mm). Technical
Lagodon rhomboldes
Spot (Juvenile), (99.6%}
Lelostomus xanthurus
Spot (65-150 mm), Technical
Lelostomus xanthurus
Striped mullet (Juvenile) (99.6$)
Mug II cephalus
Laughing gull (chick),
Larus artrlcllla
Laughing gull (adult),
Larus artrlclI la
Duration
2 wk Significant reduction 10
In fin regeneration
3 days 50* Incidence of 10,000
circulatory failure
48 hr LC50 15
24 hr 40-601 mortal Ity; 10
brain AChE activity
reduced 90*
48 hr LC50 18
24 hr 40-60)1 mortality; 10
brain AChE activity
reduced 88*
48 hr LC50 100
Field 75-90* Inhibition of
collections brain ChE In dead
chicks contaminated
with parathlon
Field 57-89* Inhibition of
collections brain ChE In dead
adults contaminated
with parathlon
Refer
Me Is and Mels 1975
Wets and Wets 1974
Lowe et al . 1970
Coppage and Matthews 1974
U.S. Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries 1966
Coppage and Matthews 1974
U.S. Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries 1967
White et al. 1979
White et al. 1979
Percent purity Is given In parentheses when available.
•
If the concentrations were not measured and the published results were not reported 1o be adjusted for purity, the
published results were multiplied by the purity If It was reported to be less than 91%.
Organisms collected at sites potentially contaminated by pesticides.
-------
REFERENCES
Ahmed, M.K. and J.E. Casida. 1958. Metabolism of some organophosphorus
insecticides by microorganisms. J. Econ. Entomol. 51:59-63.
Ahmed, W. 1977. The effectiveness of predators of rice field mosquitos
in relation to pesticide use in rice culture. Ph.D. thesis, University of
California-Davis, Davis, CA. Available from: University Microfilms, Ann
Arbor, MI. Order No. 77-6323.
Albright, L.J., A. Gasith, G.H. Green, Y. Mozel and A.S. Perry. 1983.
The influence of organophosphorous insecticides acephate and parathion upon
the heterotrophic bacteria of two freshwater ecosystems. In: Agrochemical-
biota interactions in soil and water using nuclear techniques. Technical
Document 283. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria, pp. 33-44,
Alexander, T.C., M.V. Meisch, W.B. Kottkamp and A.L. Anderson. 1982.
Effect of notonectids on mosquito larvae and preliminary observations of
insecticide toxicity. Arkansas Farm Res. 31:5.
Anderson, B.C. 1960. The toxicity of organic insecticides to Daphnia. In:
Biological problems in water pollution. Tarzwell, C.M. (Ed.). Technical
Report W60-3. U.S. Public Health Service, Robert A. Taft Sanitary
Engineering Center, Cincinnati, OH. pp. 94-95.
Banas, W.P. and J.P. Sprague. 1981. Absence of acclimation to parathion
by rainbow trout. In: Proceedings of the eighth annual aquatic toxicity
workshop. Kaushik, N.K. and K.R. Solomon (Eds.). Canadian Technical
Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 1151. Department of Fisheries
and Oceans, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, p. 170.
36
-------
Basak, P.K. and S.K. Konar. 1976a. Toxicity of six insecticides to fish.
Geobios 3:209-210.
Basak, P.K. and S.K. Konar. 1976b. Pollution of water by pesticides and
protection of fishes: Parathion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., India 46(B):382-
392.
Bellavere, C. and G. Gorbi. 1984. Biological variability and acute toxicity
of parathion, dichlorbenil and TPBS to Biompharia glabrata and Brachydanio
rerio. Environ. Technol. Lett. 5:389-396.
Benge, M.K. and L.E. Fronk. 1970. Effects of pesticides on non-target
aquatic organisms on the Ogden Bay Waterfowl Management Area, Utah. Proc.
Annu. Meet. Utah Mosq. Abatement Assoc. 23:34-40.
Benke, G.M., K.L. Cheever, F.E. Mirer and S.D. Murphy. 1974. Comparative
toxicity, anticholinesterase action and metabolism of methyl parathion
and parathion in sunfish and mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 28:97-109.
Boyd, J. 1957. Use of Daphnia magna in the microbioassay of insecticides.
Thesis. Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA. Available
from: University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI. Order No. 25072.
Bowman, M.C., W.L. Oiler, T. Cairns, A.B. Gosnell and K.H. Oliver. 1981.
Stressed bioassay systems for rapid screening of pesticide residues. Part
I: Evaluation of bioassay systems. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 10:9-24.
Bradbury, S.J. 1973a. The effect of parathion on crustacean skeletal
muscle - I. The mechanical threshold and dependence on Ca^"*" ions. Comp.
Biochem. Physiol. 44A:1021-1032.
37
-------
Bradbury, S.J. 1973b. The effect of parathion on crustacean skeletal
muscle - II. Disruption of excitation-contraction coupling. Comp. Biochem.
Physiol. 44A:1033-1046.
Braun, H.E. and R. Frank. 1980. Organochlorine and organophosphorus
insecticides: Their use in eleven agricultural watersheds and their loss
to stream waters in southern Ontario, Canada, 1975-1977. Sci. Total.
Environ. 15:169-192.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1960. The water-toxicological detection of
insecticides. Gesund.-Ing. 8:243-244.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1977. Limiting values for the damaging action of
water pollutants to bacteria (Pseudomonus putida) and green algae
(Scenedesmus quadricauda) in the cell multiplication inhibition test. Z.
Wasser Abwasser Forsch. 10:87-98.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1978a. Limiting values for rhe noxious
effects of water pollutant material to blue algae (Microcystis aeruginosa)
•
and green algae (Scenedesmus quadricauda) in cell propagation inhibition tests
Vom Wasser 50:45-60.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1978b. Testing of substances for their toxicity
threshold: Model organisms Microcystis (Diplocystis) aeruginosa and
Scenedesmus quadricauda. Mitt. Int. Ver. Theor. Angew. Limnol. 21:275-284.
Burchfield, H.P. and E.E. Storrs. 1954. Kinetics of insecticidal action based
on the photomigration of larvae of Aedes aegypti. Contrib. Boyce Thompson
Inst. 17:439-452.
38
-------
Butler, P.A. 1963. Commercial fishery investigations. In: Pesticide-
wildlife studies. A review of Fish and Wildlife Service investigations
during 1961 and 1962. Circular 167. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Gulf Breeze, FL. pp. 11-25.
Butler, P.A. 1964. Commercial fishery investigations. In: Pesticide-wildlife
studies, 1963: A review of Fish and Wildlife Service investigations during
the calendar year. Circular 199. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Gulf
Breeze, FL. pp. 5-28.
Butler, P.A. and R.L. Schutzmann. 1978. Residues of pesticides and PCBs in
estuarine fish, 1972-76. National Pesticide Monitoring Program. Pestic.
Monit. J. 12:51-59.
Carlson, G.P. 1973. Comparison of the metabolism of parathion by lobsters
and rats. Bull. Environ." Contara. Toxicol. 9:296-300.
Chambers, J.E. 1976. The relationship of esterases to organophosphorus
insecticide tolerance to mosquitofish. Pestic. Biochem. Physiol. 6:517-522.
Chambers J.E. and J.D. Yarbrough. 1974. Parathion and methyl parathion
toxicity to insecticide-resistant and susceptible raosquitofish (Gambusia
affinis). Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 11:315-320.
Chang, V.C. and W.H. Lange. 1967. Laboratory and field evaluation of
selected pesticides for control of the red crayfish in California rice
fields. J. Econ. Entomol. 60:473-477.
39
-------
Chen, P.S., Y.N. Lin and C.L. Chung. 1971. Laboratory studies on the
susceptibility of mosquito-eating fish, Lebistes reticulatus and the
larvae of Culex pipiens fatigans to insecticides. Tai Wan I-Hsueh-Hui Tsa-
Chih 70:28-35.
Chiou, C.T., V.H. Freed, D.W. Schmedding and R.L. Kohnert. 1977. Partition
coefficient and bioaccumulation of selected organic chemicals. Environ.
Sci. Technol. 11:475-478.
Chovelon, A., L. George, C. Gulayets, Y. Hoyano, E. McGuinness, J. Moore,
S. Ramamoorthy, P. Singer, K. Smiley and A. Wheatley. 1984. Pesticide and
PCB levels in fish from Alberta. Chemosphere 13:19-32.
Cole, D.R. and F.W. Plapp. 1974. Inhibition of growth and photo-synthesis
in Chlorella pyrenoidosa by a polychlorinated biphenyl and several
insecticides. Environ. Entomol. 3:217-220.
Collins, W.J. and R. Shank. 1983. Surface water contamination by
insecticides. Data from aquatic insect tests that pertain to water quality
criteria. PB84-105378. National Technical Information Service, Springfield,
VA.
Coppage, D.L. 1972. Organophosphate pesticides: Specific level of brain
AChE inhibition related to death in sheepshead minnow. Trans. Am. Fish.
Soc. 101:534-536.
Coppage, D.L. and E. Matthews. 1974. Short-term effects of organophosphate
pesticides on cholinesterases of estuarine fishes and pink shrimp. Bull.
Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 11:483-487.
40
-------
Culley, D.D., Jr. and D.E. Ferguson. 1969. Patterns of insecticide
resistance in the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis. J. Fish. Res. Board
Can. 26:2395-2401.
D'Asaro, C.N. and F.G. Wilkes. 1982. Cycling of xenobiotics through
marine and estuarine sediments. EPA-600/3-82-074 or PB82-239252. National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Davey, R.B. and M.V. Meisch. 1977. Dispersal of mosquitofish, Gambusia
affinis, in Arkansas rice field. Mosq. News 37:777-778.
Davey, R.B., M.V. Meisch and F.L. Carter. 1976. Toxicity of five rice
field pesticides to mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, and green sunfish,
Lepomis cyanellus > under laboratory and field conditions in Arkansas.
Environ. Entomol. 5:1053-1056.
Davis, H.C. and H. Hidu. 1969. Effects of pesticides on embryonic
development of clams and oysters and on survival and growth of the larvae.
Fish. Bull. 67:393-404.
Dick, M. 1982. Pesticide and PCB concentrations in Texas water, sediment
and fish tissue. Report 264. Texas Department of Water Resources, Austin, TX.
Dive, D., H. Leclerc and G. Perscone. 1980. Pesticide toxicity on the
ciliate protozoan Colpidium campylum: Possible consequences of the effect
of pesticides in the aquatic environment. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety
4:129-133.
Dortland, R.J. 1978. Aliesterase-(ALI-E) activity in Daphnia magna as a
parameter for exposure to parathion. Hydrobiologia 59:141-144.
41
-------
Dortland, R.J. 1980. Toxicological evaluation of parathion and azinphosmethyl
in freshwater model ecosystems. Versl. Landbouwkd. Onderz. (Agric. Res. Rep.)
898:1-112.
Dortland, R.J., H.R. Smissaert, J. Hamoen and M. Scholte. 1976. In vitro
and in vivo inhibition of ali-esterases and cholinesterases by paraoxon
and parathion in Daphnia magna. Meded. Fac. Landbouwet. Rijksuniv. Gent.
41:1477-1482.
Earnest, R. 1970. Effects of pesticides on aquatic animals in the
estuarine and marine environment. In: Progress in sport fishery research.
1970. Publication 106. U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife,
Washington, DC. pp. 10-13.
Eichelberger, J.W. and J.J. Lichtenberg. 1971. Persistence of pesticides
in river water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 5:541-544.
Estenik, J.F. and W.J. Collins. 1979. In vivo and in vitro studies of
mixed-function oxidase in an aquatic insect. Chironomus riparius. Am.
Chem. Soc. Symp. Ser. 99:349-370.
Farr, J.A. 1977. Impairment of antipredator behavior in Palaemonetes pugio
by exposure to sublethal doses of parathion. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 106:287-290,
Faust, S.D. 1975. Nonbiological degradation and transformations of organic
pesticides in aqueous systems. In: Marine chemistry in the coastal
environment. Church, T.M. (Ed.). ACS Symposium Series 18. American Chemical
Society, Washington, DC. pp. 572-595.
42
-------
Faust, S.D. and H.M. Gomaa. 1972. Chemical hydrolysis of some organic
phosphorus and carbamate pesticides in aquatic environments. Environ.
Lett. 3:171-201.
Federle, P.P. and W.J. Collins. 1976. Insecticide toxicity to three
insects from Ohio ponds. Ohio J. Sci. 76:19-24.
Fleming, W.J. 1981. Recovery of cholinesterase activity in mallard
ducklings administered organophosphorus pesticides. J. Toxicol. Environ.
Health 8:885-897.
Fleming, W.J., H. deChacin, O.H. Pattee and T.G. Lamont. 1982. Parathion
accumulation in cricket frogs and its effect on American kestrels. J.
Toxicol. Environ. Health 10:921-927.
Francis, B.H., L.G. Hansen, T.R. Fukuto, P. Lu and R.L. Metcalf. 1980.
Ecotoxicology of phenylphosphonothioates. Environ. Health Perspect. 36:187-
196.
Frear, D.E. and J.E. Boyd. 1967. Use of Daphnia magna for the microbioassay
of pesticides. I. Development of standardized techniques for rearing
Daphnia and preparation of dosage-mortality curves for pesticides. J.
Econ. Entomol. 60:1228-1236.
Gahan, J.B. 1957. Further studies with water-soluble insecticides for the
control of mosquito larvae in irrigation water. Mosq. News 17:198-201.
Garnas, R.L. and D.G. Crosby. 1979. Comparative metabolism of parathion by
intertidal invertebrates. In: Marine pollution: Functional responses.
Vernberg, W.B., P.P. Thurberg, A. Calabrese and F.J. Vernberg (Eds.).
Academic Press, New York, NY. pp. 291-306.
43
-------
Gasith, A. and A.S. Perry. 1980. Fate of parathion in a fish pond ecosystem
and its impact on food chain organisms. In: Agrochemical residue-biota
interactions in soil and aquatic ecosystems. International Atomic Energy
Agency, Vienna, Austria, pp. 125-151.
Gasith, A. and A.S. Perry. 1983. Effect of containment, presence of fish
and repetitive exposure to parathion on the composition and dynamics of
the natural fish pond zooplankton community. Isr. J. Zool. 32:165-166.
Gasith, A. and A.S. Perry. 1985. Use of limnocorrals for pesticide toxicity
studies: Effect on zooplankton composition and dynamics. Verh. Int. Ver.
Limnol. 22:2432-2436.
Gasith, A., A.S. Perry and A. Halevy. 1983a. The effect of repeated
exposures to sublethal levels of parathion on the survival, growth, re-
production, and biomass production of three species of fish in a eutrophic
fish pond ecosystem. In: Environmental quality and ecology: Proceedings
of the 2nd international conference on ecology and environmental quality.
Shuval, H.I. (Ed.). Balaban, Philadelphia, PA. pp. 399-407.
Gasith, A., J.L. Albright, A.S. Perry and Y. Mozel. 1983b. Effects of
parathion on the ecology of a eutrophic aquatic ecosystem: Limnocorral
experiment. In: Agrochemical-biota interactions in soil and water using
nuclear techniques. Technical Document 283. International Atomic Energy
Agency, Vienna, Austria, pp. 19-32.
Gaufin, A.R., L. Jensen and T. Nelson. 1961. Bioassays determine pesticide
toxicity to aquatic invertebrates. Water Sewage Works 108:355-359.
44
-------
Gaufin, A.R., L.D. Jensen, A.V. Nebeker, T. Nelson and R.W. Teel. 1965.
The toxicity of ten organic insecticides to various aquatic invertebrates.
Water Sewage Works 12:276-279.
Ghetti, P.F. and G. Gorbi. 1985. Effects of acute parathion pollution on
macroinvertebrates in a stream. Verb. Int. Ver. Limnol. 22:2426-2431.
Gibson, J.R. 1971. Comparative biochemistry of parathion metabolism in
three species of fishes. Ph.D. dissertation. Mississippi State University.
Available from: University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI. Order No. 71-27,040.
Gibson, J.R. and J.L. Ludke. 1973. Effect of SKF-525A on brain
acetylcholinesterase inhibition by parathion in fishes. Bull. Environ.
Contam. Toxicol. 9:140-142.
Gillies, P.A., D.J. Womeldorf, E.P. Zboray and K.E. White. 1974. Insecticide
susceptibility of mosquitoes in California: Status of organophosphorus
resistance in larval Aedes nigromaculis and Culex tarsalis through 1973.
Proc. Pap. Annu. Conf. Calif. Mosq. Control Asspc. 42:107-112.
Goldsmith, L.A. 1978. The toxicity of parathion to Orconectes rustiyus
and Viviparus malleatus. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Rhode Island,
Kingston, RI. Available from: University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI. Order
No. 7915457.
Goldsmith, L.A. and G.P. Carlson. 1979. Divergent toxicity of parathion
in two freshwater invertebrates, Orconectes rusticus and Viviparus
malleatus. J. Environ. Sci. Health 814:579-588.
45
-------
Goldsmith, L.A., G.P. Carlson and G.C. Fuller. 1976. Toxicity and
identification of parathion metabolites in freshwater crayfish (Cambarus)
and snail (Viviparus). Pharmacologist 18:170.
Gomaa, H.M. and S.D. Faust. 1972. Chemical hydrolysis and oxidation of
parathion and paraoxon in aquatic environments. In: Fate of organic
pesticides in the aquatic environment. Faust, S.D. (Ed.). Advances in
Chemistry Series No. 111. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC. pp.
189-201.
Graetz, D.A., G. Chesters, T.C. Daniel, L.W. Newland and G.B. Lee. 1970.
Parathion degradation in lake sediments. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed.
42:R76-R94.
Gregory, W.W., Jr., J.K. Reed and L.E. Priester, Jr. 1969. Accumulation of
parathion and DDT by some algae and protozoa. J. Protozool. 16:69-71.
Greve, P.A., J. Freudenthal and S.L. Wit. 1972. Potentially hazardous
substances in surface waters. II. Cholinesterase inhibitors in Dutch
surface waters. Sci. Total. Environ. 1:253-265.
Grigarick, A.A. and M.O. Way. 1982. Role of crayfish (Decapoda: Astacidae)
as pests of rice in California and their control. Entomol. Soc. Am. 75:
633-636.
Grzenda, A.R., G.J. Lauer and H.P. Nicholson. 1962. Insecticide
contamination in a farm pond. Part II. Biological effects. Trans. Am.
Fish. Soc. 91:213-222.
Gupta, S.P., S.R. Verraa and R.C. Dalela. 1979. Studies on the toxicity of
a few pesticides on Colisa fasciatus and Notopterus notopterus with
46
-------
reference to histopathy and histochemistry. Part 1: Bioassay studies.
Acta Hydrochim. Hydrobiol. 78:223-238.
Gutierrez, M.C., E.P. Zboray and K.E. White. 1977. Insecticide susceptibility
of mosquitoes in California: Status of organophosphorus resistance in larval
Culex pipiens subspp. Proc. Pap. Annu. Conf. Calif. Mosq. Vector Control
Assoc. 45:124-131.
Haddadin, M.J. and A.A. Alawi. 1974. Dead populations of fish in the
rivers Jordan and Zarga. Biol. Conserv. 6:215-216.
Hall, R.J. and E. Kolbe. 1980. Bioconcentration of organophosphorus
pesticides to hazardous levels by amphibians. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health
6:853-860.
Harris, C.R. and J.R.W. Miles. 1975. Pesticide residues in the Great
Lakes region of Canada. Residue Rev. 57:27-79.
Hart, N.R. and D.J. Womeldorf. 1977. Insecticide susceptibility of
mosquitoes in Utah. Status of organophosphorus larvicide resistance
through 1976. Proc! Annu. Meet. Utah Mosq. Abatement Assoc. 29:23-28.
Hashimoto, Y. and J. Fukami. 1969. Toxicity of orally and topically
applied pesticide ingredients to carp, Cvprinus carpio. Botyukagaku
34:63-66.
Hashimoto, Y. and Y. Nishiuchi. 1981. Establishment of bioassay methods
for the evaluation of acute toxicity of pesticides to aquatic organisms.
J. Pestic. Sci. 6:257-264.
Henderson, C. and Q.H. Pickering. 1958. Toxicity of organic phosphorus
insecticides to fish. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 87:39-51.
47
-------
Henderson, C., Q.H. Pickering and C.M. Tarzell. I960. The toxicity of
organic phosphorus and chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides to fish. In:
Biological problems in water pollution. Tarzwell, C.M. (Ed.). Technical
Report W60-3. U.S. Public Health Service, Robert A. Taft Sanitary
Engineering Center, Cincinnati, OH. pp. 76-88.
Hesselberg, R.J. and J.L. Johnson. 1972. Column extraction of pesticides
from fish, fish food and mud. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 7:115-120.
Hilsenhoff, W.L. 1959. The evaluation of insecticides for the control of
Tendipes plumosus. J. Econ. Entomol. 52:331-332.
Hiltibran, R.C. 1974. Oxygen and phosphate metabolism of bluegill liver
mitochondria in the presence of some insecticides. Trans. 111. State Acad.
Sci. 67:228-237.
Hiltibran, R.C. 1982. Effects of insecticides on the metal-activated
hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate by bluegill liver mitochondria.
Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 11:709-717.
Hitchcock., M. and S.D. Murphy. 1971. Activation of parathion and guthion
by mammalian, avian, and piscine liver homogenates and cell fractions.
Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 19:37-45.
Huddart, H. 1978. Parathion- and DDT-induced effects on tension and
calcium transport in molluscan visceral muscle. Comp. Biochem. Physiol.
61C:l-6.
Hudson, R.H., M.A. Haegele and R.K. Tucker. 1979. Acute oral and percutaneous
toxicity of pesticides to mallards: Correlations with mammalian toxicity
data. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 47:451-460.
48
-------
Hughes, J.S. 1970. Tolerance of striped bass, Morone saxatilis, larvae
and fingerlings to nine chemicals used in pond culture. Proc. Annu. Conf.
Southeast. Assoc. Game Fish Comm. 24:431-438.
Hughes, J.S. 1973. Acute toxicity of thirty chemicals to striped bass
(Morone saxatilis). Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Fish and
Game Division, Monroe, LA.
Jensen, L.D. and A.R. Gaufin. 1964. Effects of ten organic insecticides
on two species of stonefly naiads. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 93:27-34.
Johnson, W.W. and M.T. Finley. 1980. Handbook of acute toxicity of chemicals
to fish and aquatic invertebrates. Resource Publication 137. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. pp. 56-57.
Juhnke, I. and D. Ludemann. 1978. Results of the investigation of 200
chemical compounds for acute fish toxicity with the golden orfe test.
Z. Wasser Abwasser Forsch. 11:161-164.
Jung, K.D. 1973. Substances extremely toxic to fish and their importance
for a fish test warning system. Gas-Wasserfach, Wasser-Abwasser 114:232-233.
Kannan, V. and S.V. Job. 1979. Studies on the residual levels of pesticide
pollution in the Sathiar reservoir. J. Radioanal. Chera. 53:247-253.
King, K.A., D.H. White and C.A. Mitchell. 1984. Nest defense behavior and
reproductive success of laughing gulls sublethally dosed with parathion.
Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 33:499-504.
49
-------
Kleerekoper, H. 1974. Effects of exposure to a sublethal concentration of
parathion on the interaction between chemoreception and water flow in
fish. In: Pollution and physiology of marine organisms. Vernberg, F.J.
and W.B. Vernberg (Eds.). Academic Press, New York, NY. pp. 237-245.
Konar, S.K. and P.K. Basak. 1973. Some effects of mechanical and
chemical injuries on catfish. Proc. Indian Sci. Congr. Assoc.
60:551-552.
Korn, S. and R. Earnest. 1974. Acute toxicity of twenty insecticides to
striped bass, Morone saxatilis. Calif. Fish Game. 60:128-131.
Kortus, J., P. Macuch, J. Mayer, K. Durcek and V. Krcmery. 1971. Uptake
of 32-P parathion and 32-P imidam by Euglena gracilis. J. Hyg.-Epidemiol.
Microbiol. Immunol. (Prague) 15:101-103.
Krieger, R.I. and P.W. Lee. 1973. Inhibition of in vivo and in vitro
epoxidation of aldrin and potentiation of toxicity of various insecticide
chemicals by diquat in two species of fish. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol
•
1:112-121.
Kynard, B. 1974. Avoidance behavior of insecticide susceptible and
resistant populations of mosquitofish to four insecticides. Trans. Am.
Fish. Soc. 103:557-561.
Labrecque, G.C., J.R. Noe and J.B. Gahan. 1956. Effectiveness of
insecticides on granular clay carriers against mosquito larvae. Mosq.
News 16:1-3.
50
-------
Lahav, M. and S. Sarig. 1969. Sensitivity of pond fish to cotnion
(azinphosmethyl) and parathion. Bamidgeh 21:67-74.
Laplanche, A., M. Bouvet, F. Venien, G. Martin and A. Chabrolles. 1981.
Modeling parathion changes in the natural environment laboratory experiment
Water Res. 15:599-607.
LeBlanc, G.A. 1984. Interspecies relationships in acute toxicity of
chemicals to aquatic organisms. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 3:47-60.
Leland, H.V. 1968. Biochemical factors affecting toxicity of parathion
and selected analogs to fishes. Ph.D. thesis. University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, MI. Available from: University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI. Order No.
69-12,165.
Lewallen, L.L. 1959. Toxicity of several organophosphorus insecticides to
Gambu'sia affinis^ in laboratory tests. Mosq. News 19:1-2.
Lewallen, L.L. 1962. Toxicity of certain insecticides to hydrophilid
larvae. Mosq. News 22:112-113.
Lewallen, L.L. and W.H. Wilder. 1962. Toxicity of certain organophosphorus
and carbamate insecticides to rainbow trout. Mosq. News 22:369-372.
Lewis, D.L., R.E. Hodson and L.F. Freeman III. 1984. Effects of microbial
community interactions on transformation rates of xenobiotic chemicals.
Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 48:561-565.
Lewis, M.A. 1986. Impact of a municipal wastewater effluent on water
quality, periphyton and invertebrates in the Little Miami River near
Xenia, Ohio. Ohio Acad. Sci. 86:2-8.
51
-------
Lichtenstein, E.P., K.R. Schulz, R.F. Skrentny and Y. Tsukano. 1966.
Toxicity and fate of insecticide residues in water. Arch. Environ. Health
12:199-212.
Lichtenstein, E.P., T.T. Liang and B.N. Anderegg. 1975. Synergisra of
insecticides by herbicides under various environmental conditions. Environ.
Conserv. 2:148
Loeb, H.A. and W.H. Kelly. 1963. Acute oral toxicity of 1,496 chemicals
force-fed to carp. Special Report No. 471. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Washington, DC.
Lowe, J.I., P.O. Wilson and R.B. Davison. 1970. Laboratory bioassays. In:
Progress report for fiscal year 1969. Circular 335. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Gulf Breeze, FL.
Lowe, J.I., P.O. Wilson, A.J. Rick and A.J. Wilson, Jr. 1971. Chronic
exposure of oysters to DDT, toxaphene and parathion. Proc. Natl. Shellfish
Assoc. 61:71-79.
Ludemann, D. and F. Herzel. 1973. Toxicity and concentration changes
with time of the insecticide parathion in water. Z. Angew. Zool. 60:177-181.
Ludemann, D. and H. Neumann. 1960a. Studies on the acute toxicological
action of modern contact insecticides to carp (Cyprinus carpio). Z.
Angew. Zool. 47:11-33.
Ludemann, D. and H. Neumann. 1960b. Studies on the acute toxicity of modern
contact insecticides in fresh water. Z. Angew. Zool. 47:303-321.
52
-------
Ludemann, D. and H. Neumann. 1960c. Studies on the acute toxi.ci.ty of
modern contact insecticides in fresh water. III. Chironomid larvae. Z.
Angew. Zool. 47:493-505.
Ludemann, D. and H. Neumann. 1961. Study of the acute toxicity of modern
contact insecticides for freshwater animals. Z. Angew. Zool. 48:87-96.
Ludke, J.L., J.R. Gibson and C.I. Lusk. 1972. Mixed function oxidase
activity in freshwater fishes. Aldrin epoxidation and parathion activation.
Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 21:89-97.
/
Macek, K.J. 1975. Acute toxicity of pesticide mixtures to bluegills.
Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 14:648-652.
Mackiewicz, M., K.H. Deubert, H.B. Gunner and B.M. Zuckerman. 1969. Study
of parathion biodegradation using gnotobiotic techniques. J. Agric. Food
Chem. 17:129-130.
McDonald, T.O. and M. Fingerman. 1979. Effects of DDT and parathion on
goldfish retina/pigment epithelium/choroid concentrations of serotonin,
dopamine, and norepinephrine. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 48:A199.
Micks, D.W. and D. Rougeau. 1977. Organophosphorus tolerance in Culex
quinquefasciatus in Texas. Mosq. News 37:233-239.
Miller, C.W., B.M. Zuckerman and A.J. Charig. 1966. Water translocation
of diazinon-14C and parathion-35S off a model cranberry bog and subsequent
occurrence in fish and mussels. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 95:345-349.
Miller, C.W., W.E. Tomlinson and R.L. Norgen. 1967. Persistence and movement
of parathion in irrigation waters. Pestic. Monit. J. 1:47-48.
53
-------
Minchew, C.D. and D.E. Ferguson. 1970. Toxicities of six insecticides to
resistant and susceptible green sunfish and golden shiners in static
bioassays. Miss. Acad. Sci. J. 15:29-32.
Mohamed, M.P. and R.A. Gupta. 1984. Effects of sublethal concentration
of ethyl parathion on oxygen consumption and random swimming activity of
Cirrhinus mrigala. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 22:42-44.
Moore, R.B. 1970. Effects of pesticides on growth and survival of Euglena
gracilis Z. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 5:226-230.
Morgan, W.S. 1975. Monitoring pesticides by means of changes in electric
potential caused by fish opercular rhythms. Prog. Water Technol. 7:33-40.
Morgan, W.S. 1976. Fishing for toxicity: Biological automonitor for
continuous water quality control. Effluent Water Treat. J. 16:471-472,
474-475.
Morgan, W.S. 1977. Biomonitoring with fish: An aid to industrial effluent
and surface water quality control. Prog. Water Technol. 9:703-711.
Mount, D.I. and H.W. Boyle. 1969. Parathion-use of blood concentration to
diagnose mortality of fish. Environ. Sci. Technol. 3:1183-1185.
Mulla, M.S. 1963. Persistence of mosquito larvicides in water. Mosq.
News 23:234-237.
Mulla, M.S. 1980. New synthetic pyrethroids - effective mosquito larvicides.
Proc. Pap. Annu. Conf. Calif. Mosq. Vector Control Assoc. 48:92-93.
Mulla, M.S. and L.W. Isaak. 1961. Field studies on the toxicity of insecticides
to the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis. J. Econ. Entomol. 54:1237-1242.
54
-------
Mulla, M.S., R.L. Metcalf and L.W. Isaak. 1962. Some new and highly
effective mosquito larvicides. Mosq. News 22:231-238.
Mulla, M.S., L.W. Isaak and H. Axelrod. 1963. Field studies on the effects
of insecticides on some aquatic wildlife species. J. Econ. Entomol. 56:ISA-
IBS.
Mulla, M.S., R.L. Metcalf and G. Kats. 1964. Evaluation of new mosquito
larvicides with notes on resistant stains. Mosq. News 24:312-319.
Mulla, M.S., J.O. Keith and F.A. Gunther. 1966. Persistence and biological
effects of parathion residues in waterfowl habitats. J. Econ. Entomol.
59:1085-1090.
Mulla, M.S., J. St. Amant and L.D. Anderson. 1967. Evaluation of organic
pesticides for possible use as fish toxicants. Prog. Fish-Cult. 29:36-42.
Mulla, M.S., H.A. Darwazeh and P.A. Gillies. 1970. Evaluation of aliphatic
amines against larvae and pupae of mosquitoes. J. Econ. Entomol. 63:1472-1475,
Mulla, M.S., H. Navvab-Gojrati and H.A. Darwazeh. 19.78. Biological activity
and longevity of new synthetic pyrethroids against mosquitoes and some
non-target insects. Mosq. News 38:90-96.
Murphy, S.D., R.R. Lauwerys and K.L. Cheever. 1968. Comparative
anticholinesterase action of organophosphorus insecticides in vertebrates.
Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 12:22-35.
Myers, C.M., P.A. Gillies and R.F. Frolli. 1969. Field test of Abate and
parathion granules in catch basins. Proc. Pap. Annu. Conf. Calif. Mosq.
Control Assoc. 37:61-63.
55
-------
Nagasawa, K., E. Koshimura and H. Fukuda. 1968. LD50 and ED50 of parathion
and potassium cyanide and their bioassay using guppies (Lebistes reticulatus).
Bull. Natl. Inst. Hyg. Sci. (Tokyo) 86:32-36.
Naqvi, S.M. 1973. Toxicity of twenty-three insecticides to a tubificid worm
Branchiura sowerbyi from the Mississippi delta. J. Econ. Entomol. 66:70-74.
Naqvi, S.M. and D.E. Ferguson. 1970. Levels of insecticide resistance in
freshwater shrimp, Palaemonetes kadiakensis. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 99:696-699
Nicholson, H.P., H.J. Webb, G.J. Lauer, R.E. O'Brien, A.R. Grzenda and
D.W. Shanklin. 1962. Insecticide contamination in a farm pond. Part I,
Origin and duration. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 91:213-222.
Niahiuchi, Y. and Y. Hashimoto. 1967. Toxicity of pesticide ingredients
to some freshwater organisms. Botyu-Kagaku (Sci. Pest. Control) 32:5-11.
Nishiuchi, Y. and Y. Hashimoto. 1969. Toxicity of pesticides to some
freshwater organisms. Rev. Plant Prot. Res. 2:137-139.
Nishiuchi, Y. and K. Yoshida. 1972. Toxicities of pesticides to some
freshwater snails. Bull. Agr. Chem. Insp. -Stn. 12:d6-92.
Nollenberger, E.L. 1982. Toxicant-induced changes in brain, gill, liver
and kidney of brook trout exposed to carbaryl, atrazine, 2,4-D, and
parathion: A cytochemical study. Thesis. Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA. Available from: University Microfilms, Ann Arbor,
MI. Order No. 82-05954.
Nollenberger, E.L., W. Neff and A. Anthony. 1981. Cytochemical analysis
of brain nucleic acid changes in brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)
exposed to carbaryl and parathion toxication. Proc. Pa. Acad. Sci. 55:97.
56
-------
Panwar, R.S., D. Kapoor, H.C. Joshi and R.A. Gupta. 1976. Toxicity of
some insecticides to the weed fish, Trichogaster fasciatus. J. Inl. Fish.
Soc. India 8:129-130.
Panwar, R.S., R.A. Gupta, H.C. Joshi and D. Kapoor. 1982. Toxicity of
some chlorinated hydrocarbon and organophosphorus insecticides to gastropod,
Viviparus bengalensis. J. Environ. Biol. 3:31-36.
Perry, A.S., A. Gasith and Y. Mozel. 1983. Pesticide residues in fish and
aquatic invertebrates. Arch. Toxicol. Suppl. 5:199-204.
Pickering, Q.H., C. Henderson and A.E. Lemke. 1962. The toxicity of
organic phosphorus insecticides to different species of warrawater fishes.
Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 91:175-184.
Poorman, A.E. 1973. Effects of pesticides on Euglena gracilis. I. Growth
studies. Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 10:25-28.
Price, N.R. 1976. The effects of two insecticides on the Ca+2 + Mg+2
activated ATPase of the sarcoplasmic reticulum of the flounder, Placichthys
flesug. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 55C:91-94.
Price, N.R. 1978. Disruption of excitation-contraction coupling by organic
insecticides. Mode of action in the muscle of the flounder, Platichthys
flesus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 59C:127-133.
Ramke, D. 1969. Development of organophosphorus resistant Aedes nigromaculis
in the Tulane Mosquito Abatement District. Proc. Pap. Annu. Conf. Calif.
Mosq. Control Assoc. 37:63.
57
-------
Rand, G.M. 1977a. The effect of subacute parathion exposure on the
locomotor behavior of the bluegill sunfish and largemouth bass. In:
Aquatic toxicology and hazard evaluation. Mayer, F.L. and J.L. Hamelink
(Eds.). ASTM STP 634. American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, PA. pp. 253-268.
Rand, G.M. 1977b. The effect of exposure to a subacute concentration of
parathion on the general locomotor behavior of the goldfish. Bull. Environ.
Contain. Toxicol. 18:259-266.
Rand, G., H. Kleerekoper and J. Matis. 1975. Interaction of odor and
flow perception and the effects of parathion in the locomotor orientation
of the goldfish Carassius auratus. J. Fish Biol. 7:497-504.
Rattner, B.A. 1982. Diagnosis of anticholinesterase poisoning in birds:
Effects of environmental temperature and underfeeding on cholinesterase
activity. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 1:329-335.
Sanders, H.O. 1969. Toxicity of pesticides to the crustacean Gammarus
lacustris. Technical Paper No. 25. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Columbia, MO.
Sanders, H.O. 1970. Pesticide toxicities to tadpoles of the western chorus
frog, Pseudaeris triseriata, and Fowler's toad, Buf£ woodhousii jowleri.
Copeia 2:246-251.
Sanders, H.O. 1972. Toxicity of some insecticides to four species of
malacostracan crustaceans. Technical Paper No. 66. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Washington, DC.
58
-------
Sanders, H.O. and O.B. Cope. 1968. The relative toxicities of several
pesticides to naiads of three species of stoneflies. Limnol. Oceanogr.
13:112-117.
Sato, R. and H. Kubo. 1965. The water pollution caused by organophosphorus
insecticides in Japan. In: Advances in water pollution research. Jaag, 0.
(Ed.), Pergamon Press, London, pp. 95-99.
Schmidt, C.H. and D.E. Weidaas. 1961. The toxicological action of three
organophosphorus insecticides with three species of mosquito larvae. J.
Econ. Entomol. 54:583-586.
Sethunathan, N., R. Siddaramappa, K.P. Rajaram, S. Barik and P.A. Wahid.
1977. Parathion: Residues in soil and water. Residue Rev. 68:92-122.
Shah, P.V., R.J. Monroe and F.E. Guthrie. 1983. Comparative penetration of
insecticides in target and non-target species. Drug Chem. Toxicol. 6:155-179.
Singh, H. and T.P. Singh. 1981. Effect of parathion and aldrin on survival,
ovarian 32-P uptake and gonadotrophic potency in a freshwater catfish,
Heteropneustes fossilis. Endokrinologie 77:173-178.
Siva Prasada Rao, K., K.R. Sambasiva and K.V. Ramana. 1983. Effect of
parathion on tissue ionic changes in fish, Channa punctatus. Geobios
10:60-62.
Solomon, H.M. 1977. The teratogenic effects of the insecticides DDT,
carbaryl, malathion, and parathion on developing medaka eggs (Oryzias
latipes). Thesis. Rutgers University, Newark, NJ. Available from:
University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI. Order No. 78-18117.
59
-------
Solomon, H.M. and J.S. Weis. 1979. Abnormal circulatory development in
medaka caused by the insecticides carbaryl, malathion and parathion.
Teratology 19:51-61.
Solon, J.M. and J.H. Nair, III. 1970. The effect of a sublethal concentra-
tion of LAS on the acute toxicity of various phosphate pesticides to the
fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas Rafinesque). Bull. Environ. Contain.
Toxicol. 5:408-413.
Solon, J.M., J.L. Lincer and J.H. Nair. 1969. The effect of sublethal
concentrations of LAS on the acute toxicity of various insecticides to
the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas). Water Res. 3:767-775.
Spacie, A. 1976. Acute and chronic parathion toxicity to fish and
invertebrates. PB257800. National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA.
Spacie, A., A.G. Vilkas, G.F. Doebbler, W.J. Kuc and G.R. Iwan. 1981. Acute
and chronic parathion toxicity to fish and invertebrates. PB81-245862 or
EPA-600/3-81-047. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Sreenivasan, A. and G.K. Swaminathan. 1967. Toxicity of six organophosphorus
insecticides to fish. Curr. Sci. 36:397-398.
Srivastava, G.N., R.A. Gupta, M.P. Mohamed and D. Nath. 1977. Effect of
sub-lethal ethyl parathion on the metabolism and activity of Colisa
fasciata. Indian J. Environ. Health 19:63-66.
60
-------
Stephan, C.E., D.I. Mount, D.J. Hansen, J.H. Gentile, G.A. Chapman and
W.A. Brungs. 1985. Guidelines for deriving numerical national water
quality criteria for the protection of aquatic organisms and their uses.
PB85-227049. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Stewart, J.P. 1977. Synergism of chlorpyrifos by DEF in the control of
organophosphorus resistant Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus larvae, with
notes on synergism of parathion and fenthion. Proc. Pap. Annu. Conf. Calif,
Mosq. Vector Control Assoc. 45:132-133.
Sun, T.J. and D.H. Taylor. 1983. The effects of parathion on acquisition
and retention of shuttlebox avoidance - conditioning in the goldfish
Carassius auratus. Environ. Pollut. (Series A) 31:119-131.
Surber, E.W. 1948. Chemical control agents and their effects on fish.
Prog. Fish-Cult. 10:125-131.
Tarpley, W.A. 1958. Studies on the use of the brine shrimp, Artemia
salina, as a test organism for bioassay. J. Econ. Entomol. 51:780-783.
Tarzwell, C.M. 1959a. Some effects of mosquito larviciding and the new
pesticides on fishes. Proceedings of the Symposium on Coordination of
Mosquito Control and Wildlife Management, Washington, DC. April 1-2, 1959.
Tarzwell, C.M. 1959b. Pollutional effects of organic insecticides.
Transactions of the 24th North American Wildlife Conference. Wildlife
Management Institute, Washington, DC. pp. 132-142.
Tomita, H. and N. Matsuda. 1961. Deformity of vertebrae induced by
lathyrogenic agents and phenyl-thiourea in medaka (Oryzias latipes).
Embryologia 5:413-422.
61
-------
U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. 1966. Unpublished laboratory dajta.
Gulf Breeze, FL.
U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. 1967. Unpublished laboratory data.
Gulf Breeze, FL.
U.S. EPA. 1975. Substitute chemical program: Initial scientific and
rainieconomic review of parathion. EPA-540/1-75-001. National Technical
Information Service, Springfield, VA.
U.S. EPA. 1976. Quality criteria for water. EPA-440/9-76-023. National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
U.S. EPA. 1983a. Water quality standards regulation. Fed. Regist. 48:51400-
51413. November 8.
U.S. EPA. 1983b. Water quality staadards handbook. Office of Water
Regulations and Standards, Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 1985a. Appendix B - Response to public comments on "Guidelines
for deriving numerical national water quality criteria for the protection
of aquatic organisms and their uses." Fed. Regist. 50:30793-30796. July 29.
U.S. EPA. 1985b. Technical support document for water-quality based toxic
controls. Office of Water, Washington, DC. September.
U.S. EPA. 1986. Chapter 1 - Stream design flow for steady-state modeling. In:
Book VI - Design conditions. In: Technical guidance manual for performing
waste load allocations. Office of Water, Washington, DC.
62
-------
Van Hoof, F. 1980. Evaluation of an automatic system for detection of
toxic substances in surface water using trout. Bull. Environ. Contam.
Toxicol. 25:221-225.
Van Leeuwen, C.J., P.S. Griffioen, W.H. Vergouw and J.L. Maas-Diepeveen.
1985. Differences in susceptibility of early life stages of rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri) to environmental pollutants. Aquat. Toxicol. 7:59-78.
Van Middelem. C.H. 1966. Fate and persistence of organic pesticides in
the environment. In: Organic pesticides in the environment. Rosen, A.A.
and H.F. Kraybill (Eds.). Advances in Chemistry Series No. 60. American
Chemical Society, Washington, DC. pp. 228-242.
Venna, S.R. and S.P. Gupta. 1976. Pesticides in relation to water pollution.
Accumulation of aldrin and ethyl parathion in the tissues of Colisa
fasciatus and Notopterus notopterus. Indian J. Environ. Health 18:10-14.
Verma, S.R., V. Kumar and R.C. Dalela. 1981. Studies on the accumulation
and elimination of three pesticides in the gonads of Notopterus notopterus
and Colisa fasciatus. Indian J. Environ. Health 23:275-281.
von Rumker, R., E.W. Lawless, A.F. Meiners, K.A. Lawrence, G.L. Kelso and
F. Horay. 1974. Production, distribution, use and environmental impact
potential of selected pesticides. EPA-540/1-74-001 or PB-238795. National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA. pp. 189-195.
Warnick, S.L., R.F. Gaufin and A.R. Gaufin. 1966. Concentrations and effects
of pesticides in aquatic environments. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 58:601-608.
Weis, J.S. and L.H. Mantel. 1976. DDT as an accelerator of limb regeneration
and molting in fiddler crabs. Estuarine Coastal Mar. Sci. 4:461-466.
63
-------
Weis, J.S. and P. Weis. 1975. Retardation of fin regeneration in Fundulus
by several insecticides. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 104:135-137.
Weis, P. and J.S. Weis. 1974. Cardiac malformations and other effects due
to insecticides in embryos of the killifish, Fundulus heteroclitus.
Teratology 10:263-268.
Weiss, C.M. 1959. Response of fish to sub-lethal exposures of organic
phosphorus insecticides. Sewage Ind. Wastes 31:580-593.
Weiss, C.M. 1961. Physiological effect of organic phosphorus insecticides
on several species of fish. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 90:143-152.
Weiss, C.M. and J.H. Gakstatter. 1964. Detection of pesticides in water
by biochemical assay. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 36:240-253."
Weiss, C.M. and J.H. Gakstatter. 1965. The decay of anticholinesterase
activity of organic phosphorus insecticides on storage in waters of
different pH. In: Advances in water pollution research. Jaag, 0. (Ed.).,
Pergamon Press, London, pp. 83-95.
White, D.H., K.A. King, C.A. Mitchell, E.F. Hill and T.G. Lament. 1979.
Parathion causes secondary poisoning in a laughing gull breeding colony.
Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 23:281-284.
Whitmore, D.H. and D.H. Hodges. 1978. In vitro pesticide inhibition of
muscle esterases of the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis. Comp. Biochem.
Physiol. 59C:145-149.
Whitten, B.K. and C.J. Goodnight. 1966. Toxicity of some common insecticides
to tubificids. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 38:227-235.
64
-------
Wilder, W.H. and C.S. Schaefer. 1969. Organophosphorus resistance levels in
adults and larvae of the pasture mosquito, Aedes nigromaculis, in the San
Joaquin Valley of California. Proc. Pap. Annu. Conf. Calif. Mosq. Control
Assoc. 37:64-67.
Womeldorf, D.J., R.K. Washino, K.E. White and P.A. Gieke. 1970. Insecticide
susceptibility of mosquitoes in California: Response of Anopheles freeborni
Aitken larvae to organophosphorus compounds. Mosq. News 30:374-382.
Yahalomi, Z. and A.S. Perry. 1981. Microsomal mixed-function oxidases in
fish in relation to environmental contamination by organochlorine
insecticides. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 70C:97-102.
Yasuno, M., S. Hirakoso, M. Sasa and M. Uchida. 1965. Inactiviation of
some organophosphorus insecticides by bacteria in polluted water. Jpn.
J. Exp. Med. 35:545-563.
Yoshioka, Y., T. Mizuno, Y. Ose and T. Sato. 1986. The estimate for
toxicity of chemicals on fish by physio-chemical properties. Chemosphere
15:195-203.
Yu, C.C. and J.R. Sanborn. 1975. The fate of parathion in a model ecosystem.
Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 13:543-550.
Zboray, E.P. and M.C. Gutierrez. 1979. Insecticide susceptibility of
mosquitoes in California: Status of organophosphorus resistance in larval
Culex tarsalis through 1978, with notes on mitigating the problem. Proc.
Pap. Annu. Conf. Calif. Mosq. Vector Control Assoc. 47:26-28.
Zuckerman, B.M., K. Deubert, M. Mackiewicz and H. Gunner. 1970. Studies
on the biodegradation of parathion. Plant Soil 33:273-281.
65
------- |