EPA-450/2-78-014
March 1978
(OAQPS No. 1.2-094)
                       GUIDELINE SERIES
                           SPRAYED
          ASBESTOS-CONTAINING
      MATERIALS IN BUILDINGS:
              A Guidance Document
          PLEASE HA..
  U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
       Office of Air and Waste Management
    Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
   Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711

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                                       EPA-450/2-78-014
                                     (OAQPS No. 1.2-094)
SPRAYED ASBESTOS-CONTAINING
     MATERIALS IN BUILDINGS:
           A Guidance Document
                          by

                   Robert N. Sawyer, M.D.

               Preventive and Occupational Medicine
                    Yale Health Service
                      Yale University
                   New Haven, Connecticut

                         and

                   Charles M. Spooner, Ph.D.

                   GCA/Technology Division
                     GCA Corporation
                   Bedford, Massachusetts
                   Contract No. 68-02-2607
                   Work Assignment No. 4
                EPA Task Officer: Carroll Specht
                      Prepared for

           U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
               Office of Air and Waste Management
             Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
             Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711

                       March 1978

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                      OAQPS GUIDELINE SERIES

The guideline series of reports is being issued by the Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards (OAQPS) to provide information to state and local
air pollution control agencies; for example, to provide guidance on the
acquisition and processing of air quality data and on the planning and
analysis requisite for the maintenance of air quality.  Reports published in
this series will be available - as supplies permit - from the Library Services
Office (MD-35) , U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina 27711; or, for a nominal fee, from the National
Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia.
22161.
This Guidance Document was furnished to the Environmental Protection
Agency by the GCA Corporation, GCA/Technology Division,  Bedford,
Massachusetts 01730, in fulfillment of Contract No.  68-02-2607, Work
Assignment No.  4.  The opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed
are those of the  authors and not necessarily those of the Environmental
Protection  Agency or the cooperating agencies.  Mention of company
or product names is not to be considered as an endorsement by the
Environmental Protection Agency.
                    Publication No. EPA-450/2-78-014
                      (OAQPS Guideline No. 1.2-094)
                                    11

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                                ABSTRACT







     The recognition of the potential health hazards from exposure to




asbestos fiber and the increasing use of this mineral in many products




over the past several decades has prompted the U.S.  Environmental Pro-




tection Agency and other federal agencies to enact regulations for its




safe handling to protect the public, the environment and the worker.   This




document is prepared for those involved in the use,  removal, and disposal




of asbestos materials in the building trades.




    Asbestos in all its forms is considered a serious respiratory hazard.




Individual fibers are invisible to  the naked eye and their small size gives




them prolonged buoyancy even in still air.  Unlike most chemical carcino-




gens, the mineral fibers persist in the environment almost indefinitely




and, when present in a building space open to its occupants, represent a




continuous source of exposure.  From a toxicological perspective, the




latency period before onset  of clinical signs is typically decades leading




to a difficulty in  linking cause and effect.  Since the beginning of  the




century, asbestos has been used as  a major constituent or an important




additive to many  consumer products  so that there are many sources of  expo-




sure to the general public.  In the past  few  tens of years  several asbestos




products have been  sprayed on structural  steel for  fireproofing  or have been




sprayed as decorative coatings on ceilings.
                                111

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     With a view toward controlling exposures to the public,  guidelines are




presented for the detection and monitoring,  removal or encapsulation,  and




disposal of asbestos-containing building materials.  Measures available




to protect workers and building occupants are presented based on field




measurements and theoretical considerations.  Sampling procedures are




discussed so that the user of this document  can take an active role in




determining whether protective action is needed and, if so, how best to




protect himself, the public, and the environment.
                                 IV

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                                CONTENTS


                                                                    Page

Abstract                                                            *-**-

List of Figures                                                     viii

List of Tables                                                      ix

                                 PART I

         ASBESTOS:  BACKGROUND, ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION,
                       STANDARDS, AND ANALYSIS

Sections

1       Introduction                                                 1-1-1

        1.1  Nature of Asbestos                                      1-1-1

        1.2  Spray Application of Asbestos                           1-1-2

        1.3  Potential for Environmental Contamination               1-1-4

2       Asbestos Contamination of the Environment                    1-2-1

        2.1  Asbestos Fiber  Size and Ambient  Community  Contamination 1-2-1

        2.2  Asbestos Fiber  Aerodynamics                             1-2-3

        2.3  Asbestos Contamination in Buildings                     1-2-5

        2.4  Asbestos-Related Diseases                               1-2-11

3       Existing  Standards                                           1-3-1

4       Analytical  Techniques                                        1-4-1

        4.1   Bulk Samples Asbestos Analysis                         1-4-2

        4.2   Airborne  Asbestos  Analysis                              1-4-3

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                           CONTENTS (continued)







Sections                                                            Page




                                PART II




              THE CONTROL OF EXPOSURES TO SPRAYED ASBESTOS




1      Determining Asbestos Exposure Levels                         II-l-l




       1.1  Introduction                                            II-l-l




       1.2  Factors to Consider                                     II-1-2




       1.3  Asbestos Analysis                                       II-1-4




2      Asbestos Control Measures                                    II-2-1




       2.1  Temporary Control Measures                              II-2-1




       2.2  Long-Term Control Measures                              II-2-2




       2.3  Asbestos Emission Control and Personnel Protection      II-2-4




3      Asbestos Containment                                         II-3-1




       3.1  Enclosure Systems                                       II-3-1




       3.2  Encapsulation With Sealants                             II-3-2




4      Asbestos Removal                                        II-4 II-4-1




       4.1  Dry Removal                                             II-4-1




       4.2  Wet Removal                                             II-4-2




5      Regulations and Compliance by Contractors                    II-5-1




Appendixes




A      References                                                   A-l




B      Aerodynamic Behavior of Airborne Fibers                      B-l




C      Asbestos Sample Collection                                   C-l




D      Recommended Decontamination Procedure                        D-l




E      Stripping Sequence for Wet and Amended Water Methods         E-l
                                VI

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                          CONTENTS (continued)


Appendixes                                                          Page

F      Suggested Specifications for Asbestos Removal                F-l

G      U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Regulations
       Pertaining to Asbestos                                       G-l

H      Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations
       Pertaining to Asbestos                                       H-l

I      U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Occupational
       Safety and Health Administration — Regional Offices          1-1

J      Commercial Sources of Materials, and Equipment for
       Asbestos Removal Operations                                  J-l
                                Vll

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                                FIGURES


No.                                                                 Page

1-1-1    Friable Asbestos-Containing Material Hanging From
         Damaged Ceilings                                           1-1-5

1-2-1    Asbestos Size Comparison With Other Particles and
         Measurement Techniques                                     1-2-2

1-2-2    Theoretical Settling Velocities of Fibers                  1-2-4

1-2-3    Modes and Rates of Fiber Dispersal                         1-2-6

1-4-1    Commercially Available Aerosol Monitoring Kit              1-4-4

B-l      Fiber Settling Velocities as a Function of Fiber Length    B-5

E-l      Removal of Asbestos-Containing Ceiling Material.  Note
         Use of Headgear, Coveralls and Respiratory Protection      E-3

E-2      Drums With 6-mil Plastic Liner to Contain Removed
         Debris                                                     E-4

F-l      Sequence of Steps in an Asbestos Removal Operation         F-8
                               Vlll

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                                 TABLES


No.                                                                 Page

1-2-1    Airborne Asbestos in Buildings                             1-2-9

1-4-1    A Comparison of Asbestos Analysis Techniques Available     1-4-9

II-2-1   Custodial Asbestos Exposures and Effect of Wet Methods     II-2-2

II-2-2   Alternatives for Reduction/Elimination of Contamination
         From Sprayed Asbestos                                      II-2-3

II-4-1   Commercially Available Wetting Agents for Wet Removal of
         Asbestos in Buildings                                      H-4-4
                                IX

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                       PART I

ASBESTOS:  BACKGROUND, ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION,
              STANDARDS, AND ANALYSIS

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                           1.   INTRODUCTION







1.1  NATURE OF ASBESTOS



     In recent years, there has been an increasing awareness of the impor-




tance of environmental factors in carcinogenesis.  Asbestos has become a




widespread environmental contaminant for large segments of our society, and




has caused fibrosis and malignancies of the lung and other organs.




The mineral fibers resist degradation, and persist in the environ-




ment.  Because of fibrous form and small size they possess the aerodynamic




capability of prolonged suspension in air and repeated cycles of reentrain-




ment.  Asbestos fibers, even in low concentration, may have carcinogenic




potential, and a biologic activity that may persist for the lifetime of an





exposed host.




     Asbestos  is a generic  term applied to a wide  chemical variety of




naturally  occurring mineral silicates which are  separable  into fibers.  The




six major  recognized  species of asbestos minerals  are chrysotile  of the




 serpentine group  ("white  asbestos");  and  cummingtonite-grunerite  asbestos




 (also  amosite or  "brown asbestos"),  crocidolite  ("blue"),  anthophyllite




 asbestos,  tretuolite  asbestos,  and actinolite  asbestos  of  the amphibole




 group.  Specific  attributes and characteristics  vary with the different




 types, but the commercially valuable asbestos minerals,  in general,  form




 fibers which are  incombustible, possess high  tensile strength, good
                                 1-1-1

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 thermal and electrical insulating properties, and moderate to good




 chemical resistance.  They may be packed, woven, or sprayed.   These char-




 acteristics of durability, flexibility, strength, and resistance to wear




 make asbestos well-suited for an estimated 3,000 separate commercial,




 public, and industrial applications.1  These include roofing and flooring




 products; fireproofing textiles; friction products; reinforcing material




 in cement, pipes, sheets, and coating materials; and thermal and acoustical




 insulations.   Asbestos has widespread application in all industrial so-




 cieties and is a nearly indispensable and ubiquitous material.2-lf




     Historically, asbestos remained a curiosity for centuries,  with negli-




 gible production until the beginning of the 20th century when it was used




 as thermal insulation for steam engines.  Worldwide production of the




mineral now approaches 5 million tons annually,  with chrysotile  the prin-




 cipal fiber type.5  Annual United States consumption is approximately




900,000 tons,  with more than 70 percent used in the construction industry.




     It has been estimated that a majority (85 to 92 percent) of end-product




uses have effectively immobilized the asbestos fibers by mixing  them into




 a strong binding material; e.g., cement.6  Fibers are still liberated,




however, during fabricating operations such as grinding, milling or cutting.




The remaining 8 to 15 percent is in  a form that will more readily permit




 fiber dissemination, such as friable insulation material or bagged fibers




 for mixing.





 1.2  SPRAY APPLICATION OF ASBESTOS




     Of the many uses of asbestos,  the technique of spraying  fibers onto




structural surfaces has been perhaps the most significant in  causing asbes-




tos exposure  to construction workers during application and to the general
                              1-1-2

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population thereafter.  Such material, in loosely bonded friable form, has


been applied extensively to steelwork to retard structural collapse during


fire, and to overhead surfaces for purposes of acoustic and thermal insu-


lation, decoration, and condensation control.


     Spray application of asbestos fireproofing and insulating material


began in England in 1932.  Spray application offered the advantage of


rapidly covering large or irregular surfaces evenly and efficiently with-


out  the use of mechanical support or extensive surface preparation.  Early


spray applications in the U.S. were mainly  for decorative use and acoustical


insulation in ceiling material in clubs  and restaurants.  In 1950 more  than


half of all multistory buildings constructed in  the U.S. used some form of


sprayed mineral  fiber fireproofing.7   In 1968  fireproofing  alone accounted

                                    Q
for  40,000 tons  of sprayed material.


     The  health  hazards  of  spray application of  asbestos  to spray  operators,


other  construction workers,  and  the general public in  the vicinity of such


operations were  recognized  and  documented.9 Because of  these hazards,  the


New York  City Council banned spray  application in 1972.10   Other  cities


and states  followed  suit,  and in 1973 the U.S.  Environmental Protection


Agency (EPA)  banned  spray application of insulating or fireproofing  material


 containing more  than 1  percent asbestos by weight.11   Decorative  materials


were not  included in the ban, and this omission permitted some  continuing


 application.   One example involved all overhead surfaces in the large


 (1200 unit)  condominium complex using a friable mixture of 30 percent


 asbestos.

      On March 2, 1977,  EPA proposed an  amendment  to the national emission


 standard for asbestos.13  These amendments would  extend the spraying
                                1-1-3

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 restrictions  to  all  materials which  contain  more  than 1  percent asbestos



 by weight.




      Numerous  substitutes  for sprayed  asbestos materials are  currently




 available.1<+   Most spray materials currently in use  contain  fibrous  glass




 or nonasbestos mineral  fibers along  with  cement,  gypsum,  or  other binders




 similar  to  those  used for  asbestos.  These materials  can be  used for fire-




 proofing,  thermal and acoustical  insulation,  and  decoration.




      The possible carcinogenicity of replacement  materials, especially




 fibrous glass, is under investigation.  The  physical  dimensions  of glass




 fibers are much larger  than asbestos fibers,  and  currently there is  no




 epidemiologic  study  demonstrating carcinogenicity of  this product.   Recent




 experimental work has indicated carcinogenic  potential of fibrous glass




 with  dimensions reduced to approximately  the  size of  asbestos fiber,15




 and similar findings with other minerals may  occur in the future.





 1.3  POTENTIAL FOR ENVIRONMENTAL  CONTAMINATION




      Environmental contamination  from asbestos-containing surfaces can




 occur not only during construction and demolition, but also throughout the




 life  of the structure.  Frequently these surfaces are exposed or accessible




 (see  Figure 1-1-1).  They can include open and visible sprayed  ceilings,




 walls, or structural members, or  surfaces hidden  by suspended ceiling sys-




 tems  accessible to maintenance personnel.




     The proportion by weight of  asbestos in  asbestos-containing material




 found in sprayed  ceilings or overhead surfaces is generally in the 10 to




 30  percent range but may vary from essentially none to nearly 100 percent.16




 The remainder may be fibrous glass,  various other fibers, and adhesives.




As  in other uses,  chrysotile asbestos is the most common fiber type.





                               1-1-4

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     Although the spraying of friable asbestos-containing materials in




construction has all but ceased, sprayed material within existing structures




remains a potential widespread source of asbestos fiber exposure.  Although




exact figures are not available, if it is assumed that spray application was




a common practice from 1958 to 1973, and that fireproofing was the major




use of this material, a conservative order-of-magnitude estimate of the total




amount of asbestos sprayed over this period would be 500,000 tons.  It is




indeed possible, therefore that sprayed asbestos material within buildings




may become the most significant source of environmental asbestos contami-




nation in the future.




     Considering the large number of people that may be exposed, their




range in age and habits, such as smoking, etc., and the lack of feasible




means of personal protection, this potential source of asbestos exposure




could be significant.  It is the purpose of this document to describe the




potential hazards to the public from this source and present rational




alternatives for its control.
                               1-1-6

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             2.   ASBESTOS CONTAMINATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT


2.1  ASBESTOS FIBER SIZE AND AMBIENT COMMUNITY CONTAMINATION

     During mining, milling, bagging, or spraying, the processing and dis-

turbance of asbestiform minerals can result in the release of fibers and

fiber bundles into the environment.  Asbestos fibers, resistant to degrada-

tion by thermal or chemical means, also remain available for release into

the environment from any source, especially from  loosely-bound asbestos-

containing materials.  As shown  in Figure  1-2-1,  dispersed  asbestos  fibers

have a length range from less than 0.1 micrometers (urn) to  some tens of

micrometers.  This size range of asbestos  fibers  points out  two significant

attributes:  aerodynamic capability  and respirability.  The  fibers can

become suspended  in air, and thus  are  available  for  respiration,  and re-

tention in  the  lung.   The fibers may also  enter  the  gastrointestinal tract

directly  and via  the  lung clearance  mechanism.

     Studies of urban  ambient air  using electron microscopy have  shown

that asbestos  concentration levels  are generally below  10  ng/m3,  and rarely

exceed  100  ng/m3.* Mean  asbestos  levels  in 49 United States cities  were
 *In this document,  asbestos concentrations are expressed as a specific weight;
 (i.e.,  nanograms  per cubic meter)  when determined by electron microscopy;  and
 as'the  number of  fibers per cubic  centimeter (f/cm3) when measured by phase
 contrast microscopy.  Depending upon the laboratory, results of asbestos anal-
 yses by electron  microscopy may be reported on a weight basis, as the number
 of fibers present,  or both (see footnote on page 1-4-7).
                                1-2-1

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found to be 4.3 ng/m3 in 1969,  and 2.1 ng/m3 in 1970.   Higher urban read-



ings occurred in communities with asbestos emission sources such as fac-



tories and near construction sites where asbestos spraying was in progress.



A level of 0.1 ng/m3 was found in a single nonurban sample. »




2.2  ASBESTOS FIBER AERODYNAMICS



     An asbestos fiber, once released into the air by any means, will



enter a phase of downward settling determined in general by its mass, form,



and  axis attitude.   The range of  these  fiber characteristics  strongly af-



fects settling velocities and hazard  potential since  those  fibers  able  to



remain  aloft  for many hours  have  a higher  exposure probability  than  rapidly-



settling  fibers.   Settling  velocity  is  strongly  dependent  upon  fiber diam-



eter and  to  a lesser extent upon  fiber  length.   Figure  1-2-2  shows the



theoretical  settling velocities  in  still  air  for fibers of varying size,



alignment, and aspect  ratio. Note  the  tendency  for  a roughly twofold  set-



 tling between horizontal  and vertical fibers.  The mathematical derivation



 of this graph is  presented  in Appendix B.



     The theoretical settling curve  data presented in Figure 1-2-2 are  in


                                                                      •  " •     20
 close agreement with actual settling data obtained under working conditions.



 By way of example, fibers 1 to  5  ym in length with an aspect ratio (length



 divided by width)  of roughly 5:1 would be common in  material dispersed



 from overhead insulation in buildings.   The settling velocities for fibers



 5, 2, and 1 ym in length with a 5:1 aspect ratio and with an axis attitude



 varying between vertical and horizontal,  would be 2 x 10~2 , 4 x 10~3,  and



 10~3, respectively.  The theoretical times needed for such fibers to set-



 tle  from  a 3 meter  (9 ft) ceiling are 4, 20, and 80 hours  in still  air.



 Turbulence will prolong the settling and also cause reentrainment of fal-



 len  fibers.

                               1-2-3

-------An error occurred while trying to OCR this image.

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     During the time that the fiber remains airborne, it is able to




move laterally with air currents and contaminate spaces distant from the




point of release.  Significant levels of contamination have been documented




hundreds of meters from a point source of asbestos fibers,9 and fibers




may also move across contamination barrier systems with the passage of




workers during removal of material.





2.3  ASBESTOS CONTAMINATION  IN BUILDINGS




2.3.1  Basic Concepts




     Asbestos  fiber  contamination  of  a building  interior  occurs by  three




general modes:   fallout,  contact or impact,  and  reentrainment.  Considera-




tion of each mode  of contaminant entry  and  fiber aerodynamics  is  useful  in




exposure  risk  evaluation and the selection  of solutions.   Fiber fallout




is  in  great part a consequence  of  the characteristics of  the  ceiling  ma-




 terial itself,  while contact (impact) and reentrainment (secondary  disper-




 sal)  result from activity within the structure.   As outlined  in Fig-




 ure 1-2-3, each of the three distinct modes has a characteristic rate of





 fiber dispersal.




      Fallout




      The rate of fiber dispersal in fallout is continuous, low level  and




 long lived.  Fallout may occur without actual physical disruption of the




 fiber-bearing material and may simply be a function  of degradation of the




 adhesive.  Variations in the fallout rate (Rf) are due to structure vi-




 bration, humidity variations, air movement from heating  and ventilating




 equipment, and  air  turbulence and vibration  caused by human activity.  This




 rate may  also gradually increase  due to aging of  the adhesive  component




 of the materials  ranging from nearly zero  for cementitious mixes in  good




 repair to  roughly 100 ng/m3  for deteriorating dry mix applications.






                                1-2-5

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     Contact




     Friable sprayed asbestos surfaces have low impact  resistance  and  are




easily damaged.   Even minor physical contact can result in  fiber release




into the environment.  Such contact may be intentional  and  unavoidable




during maintenance activities, accidental during routine activity, or  de-




liberate through vandalism.  Contact contamination depends  rather  simply




upon accessibility and the probability of contact, the  function of the




structure, and the activities of the users.




     The contact mode of fiber dispersal produces the highest release




rates  (R ).  The fiber contamination level during even routine maintenance




and  repair activities may  exceed 20 f/cm3, and removal of dry sprayed as-




bestos material can  yield  fiber contaminations of over 100 f/cm3.20





     Reentra inment




     The reentrainment of  fibers that  have  already fallen onto interior




surfaces repeatedly  causes contamination  of  the  environment, as disturbance




of  these settled  fibers  causes resuspension in the atmosphere  (Rr).  A




fiber  released  from an overhead  sprayed  surface  may  participate in repeated




cycles of  resuspension and settling.




      It is possible to have fiber  counts as high as  5.0 f/cm3  in  activi-




 ties such  as custodial work.  These custodial activities may result  in




 significant levels of contamination and give rise to significant  ex-




 posures.   In a university library  with a deteriorating sprayed asbestos




 ceiling,  custodians were continuously dusting over a mile  of shelving




 and generating an average of 4.0 f/cm3 contamination level for themselves




 and 0.3 f/cm3 for nearby  library users.20
                                1-2-7

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 2.3.2  Airborne Asbestos Concentrations




      Table 1-2-1  presents  data  from  studies  on  asbestos contamination  in




 buildings.   Consistent with the basic concepts  outlined above, under




 quiet  conditions  contamination levels are low; under conditions of general




 activity an  increase is seen; and contact and reentrainment create rela-




 tively high  contamination  levels.  If friable sprayed surfaces are dis-




 turbed or damaged for any  reason, fibers are released into the environ-




 ment.  Even  the machining  or cutting of cementitious asbestos, for exam-




 ple, can release  fibers in excess of the OSHA ceiling limit of 10 f/cm3.16




     Exposure probabilities for both workers and building users can be




 estimated to some degree by consideration of the three modes of contami-




 nation and the general activity within the building.  Quiet activity refers




 to background conditions within a structure or it may represent the usual




 activity level in an area with low probability of either contact or reen-




 trainment of asbestos.   Under these conditions contamination levels may




 approach the fallout rate and be negligible.  For buildings with deterio-




 rating asbestos material,  however, quiet activity contamination levels




may be significantly higher than outdoor ambient air levels.   Studies that:




 have included quiet activity condition testing have found  levels from




 near the ambient background to approximately 100 ng/m3  by  electron micro-




 scopy,18 and 0.02 f/cm3 by optical microscopy.20  Determination of asbestos




 contamination levels during periods of quiet activity conditions are ex-




 tremely misleading in the estimation of  actual exposure since only fallout




 or similarly low rates  are seen.20




     Routine activities in a structure containing sprayed  asbestos sur-




 faces will usually result  in elevated fiber  levels.   Although statistically
                               1-2-8

-------An error occurred while trying to OCR this image.

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significant, fiber levels may only be a few orders of magnitude above




background levels in the hundreds of ng/m3 range by electron microscopy,18




and 0.2 f/cm3 optically. °  Routine activity may also, however, result in




significant and intense contamination.  A school population in a building




with accessible sprayed asbestos surfaces may experience significant en-




vironmental contamination with exposures in the 10 to 50 f/cm3 range.20




Increased fallout, occasional contact, and reentrainment may all contribute




to the highly variable fiber levels found under these activity conditions.




     Custodial work will result in the disturbance and reentrainment of




accumulations of asbestos fibers released from sprayed surfaces by fallout




and contact.  Exposure from reentrainment is high during custodial activity




with variation depending upon both cleaning methods and proximity to the




respiratory zone of the worker.  Resulting levels may exceed OSHA occupa-




tional exposure limits.20




     Maintenance work such as replacement of light bulbs may involve direct




contact with sprayed asbestos surfaces and result in significant fiber dis-




semination.  Such activities may also result in exposures that exceed regu-




latory limits established by OSHA.  One study, for example, showed main-




tenance worker exposure above 20 f/cm3 in a university building with ex-




posed sprayed asbestos ceilings.20




    Removal of sprayed asbestos surfaces during renovation not only causes




high contamination levels for the duration of the work but also increases




the released fiber burden within the structure that is available for sub-




sequent reentrainment.  In such cases, exposures involve the renovation




worker and the routine building user as well.  Both contact and reentrainment




release mechanisms are involved with very high levels occurring during actual




contact.  Fiber concentrations can exceed 100 f/cm3.20'21



                               1-2-10

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     Razing of a structure can result not only in high level local conta-




mination, but can cause fiber contamination of the surrounding community




due to the aerodynamic capability of the asbestos fiber.  This type of




activity is of great significance, but is beyond the scope of this report




and is not considered further.  The potential for continued exposure re-




mains following a demolition operation if proper housekeeping or clean-up




procedures are not followed.  The operation cannot be considered complete




unless the material removed is adequately sealed in bags and is disposed




of in an approved sanitary landfill as required by EPA regulation.






2.4  ASBESTOS-RELATED DISEASES




     Asbestos fibers find entry into the body by inhalation and ingestion.




The retained mineral  fibers  are found  in  tissues throughout  the life-




time of  the host, even long after cessation of exposure.22'23  Such asbestos




fibers  found  in human  tissues  are generally undetected  by  optical micros-




copy, and  require an  electron  microscope .22~21t  Fibers  may migrate  to  other




organs  following retention in  the lung.25  Asbestosis and  certain malignancies




are related to exposure to fibers of the asbestos minerals.  Asbestosis is




a  progressive restrictive pulmonary fibrosis associated with inhalation of




asbestos fibers, and  is a classic occupational disease.




    Malignancies related  to  the  inhalation  and  possibly ingestion of  as-




bestos  fibers by epidemiologic studies include  carcinomas  of the  lung,




mesotheliomas of the  pleura  and  peritoneum,  and neoplasms  of other




 sites.35"37   Asbestos has  a  potent  cocarcinogen effect  with  cigarette




 smoking in carcinoma  of  the  lung.   Asbestos  workers who are  smokers have




 over  90 times the  risk of nonexposed nonsmokers.38  k
                               1-2-11

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      Both  the  presence  of  asbestosis  and  occupational asbestos  exposures




have  been  linked with the  incidence of malignancy.41"1*9  However, studies




of the incidence of excess malignancies and the epidemiologic markers of




pleural calcification and mesotheliomas have shown a much wider scope of




asbestos-related malignancy.50"53  The population at risk includes not




only  those engaged in the manufacture and use of asbestos products, but




also  bystanders and others limited to neighborhood and familial exposures.54"59




      Definition of the relationship of low levels of asbestos exposure and




carcinogenesis remains uncertain and difficult.  The extended latency period,




lack  of adequate past exposure data, effect of other carcinogens, and




variability of human response makes the quantification of risk approximate




only.  Asbestos-related malignancies exhibit latency periods of 20 to 40




years and may follow exposures of much less duration and magnitude as seen




with  asbestosis.53'59s61




     Excess malignancies have been found in proximity to emission sources




and in households of asbestos workers.52*54'59  In these cases the expo-




sures seem to have been variable and generally low (about 100 nanograms/




m3).18  Asbestos fiber contamination levels within or exceeding these




ranges have been documented near building sites using sprayed asbestos^ >^^




within a university building with sprayed asbestos ceilings,20 in offices,




schools, and apartment buildings with exposed friable asbestos ceilings,




with use of materials such as spackling compound,62 and near roads and other




areas covered with asbestos-containing crushed rock.63  This indicates con-




tinuing environmental contamination and exposure to asbestos at levels con-




sidered carconogenic.  An expanding population at risk has been identified




by these findings of widespread exposure.  The impressive annual asbestos





                                1-2-12

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production and evidence of urban environmental contamination has  led ob-




servers to conclude that the incidence of asbestos-induced malignancies




has only begun to be def ined.9 »23 »24 >6lt-66
                                1-2-13

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                         3.   EXISTING STANDARDS







     Government regulations  pertaining to sprayed  asbestos materials  have




been issued at the federal level by the U.S.  Environmental Protection




Agency and the Occupational  Safety and Health Administration,  U.S.  De-




partment of Labor.  Some state and local government units have also de-




veloped regulations pertaining to these materials.  The OSHA Standard for




Exposure to Asbestos Dust was published in the Federal Register,67




Vol. 37, No. 110, on June 7, 1972 (29 CFR 1910.93a).  This  standard was




recodified to  §1910.1001 in the Federal Register dated May  28, 1975.68




The regulations apply to handling asbestos fibers or material containing




asbestos fibers, including removal procedures.  This standard for occupa-




tional exposure defines permissible exposure limits, methods of compliance




with regulations, personal protective equipment including clothing and




respiratory protection, methods of measurement of airborne asbestos fibers,




signs and  labels warning of asbestos hazard, housekeeping methods for fiber




control and waste disposal, recordkeeping for monitoring and exposures,




and medical examinations.




     The regulations originally stipulated a maximum exposure of 5.0 fibers/




cm3 greater than  5  ym in length over an  8-hour period on a time weighted




average  (TWA)  basis.  A maximum of 10.0  fibers/cm3  for a 15-minute sampling




period was the allowed any-time excursion.  On October 9, 1975 OSHA
                               1-3-1

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 proposed  a  limit  of  0.5  f/cm3 TWA  and  5.0  f/cm3 maximum excursion over  a




 15-minute period  and on  July 1,  1976 the original requirement  in the  regu-




 lation was  reduced to 2.0  f/cm3 with the maximum excursion permitted  re-




 maining at  10.0 f/cm3.69   Most recently, the National Institute of Occupa-




 tional Safety and Health proposed  to. OSHA  a further lowering of the TWA




 limit to  0.1 f/cm3 TWA with 0.5  f/cm3  as the maximum permissible any-time




 excursion.70  These  numerical limits are based partly on limited studies




 o£  asbestos carcinogenesis and it  is possible that lower exposures may  be




 significant.71'72




     Regulations  promulgated by  the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency




 on  April  6, 1973, apply  to the renovation  or demolition of structures con-




 taining asbestos  and to  the spraying of asbestos materials.73  The national




 emission  standard for asbestos11 specifies procedures for removal and




 stripping of friable sprayed asbestos  fireproofing and insulation materials




 and requires EPA  notification that such removal is to take place.  The




 required  work- practices  include wetting, containment, container labeling




 and disposal of the  removed material in an approved sanitary landfill.




;Fiber levels are  not specified but the regulations require that there be




 no  visible  emissions exterior to the structure.




     The  spray application of asbestos material for fireproofing and  in-




 sulation  is prohibited where the material  contains more than one weight




 percent asbestos.  Decorative materials were not included in the ban, how-




 ever, and this omission  has permitted  some continued application.  One




 example includes  all overhead surfaces in  a large (1200 unit)  condominium




 complex using a friable  mixture  of 30  percent asbestos.12
                                 1-3-2

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     EPA has recently taken action to halt the spray application of as-




bestos containing materials for decorative and other purposes.  On March 2,




1977, EPA proposed amendments, to the national emission standard for as-




bestos.74  These amendments would extend the spraying restrictions to all




materials which contain more than 1 percent asbestos by weight.




     Most state and local governments adhere to current EPA and OSHA regu-




lations; however, in instances where the problem is acute or has received




public attention, special bylaws or ordinances have been passed which are




more stringent than federal regulations.  For example, the State of New




Mexico has a 10 ng/m3 ambient air regulation,75 and Connecticut has an




ambient  air limitation proposal of 30 ng/m3.76  The State Department of




Environmental Protection for New Jersey issued a guidance document on this




subject  in May 1977 and California, Florida, Massachusetts, and Wisconsin




have formed executive and legislative committees to assess the problem.




     The New York City Council banned spray application in 1972.10  Other




cities and  states have followed suit.  The City of New Haven has a local




ordinance prohibiting existing exposed friable ceilings of any asbestos




content  in  dwelling.77  This was enacted  in  1977 and  is presently being




enforced in the  case of an apartment building.




     Since  regulations affecting nearly all  aspects of potential exposure




 to asbestos are  changing rapidly,  any questions concerning current EPA  regu-




 lations  should be referred to  the  regional office  of  the Environmental  Pro-




 tection  Agency.   Information on current OSHA regulations may  be obtained




 from the U.S. Department of Labor  -  OSHA  Regional  Offices.  A listing of




 the EPA  and OSHA Regional  Offices  is  given in Appendix I.  State Departments




 of Health,  Labor, and Environmental  Protection will provide additional






                                1-3-3

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guidance in the event that more stringent state regulations are in effect,




or if difficulty is experienced in locating an approved disposal site for




the asbestos-containing debris.
                               1-3-4

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                       4.   ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES







     Two general areas of  analysis are discussed within the scope of this




document.  The first, asbestos identification, is concerned with determin-




ing the presence, type and amount of asbestos within a bulk sample such as




insulation or ceiling material.  The second involves estimation of the




amount of asbestos suspended in the ambient air.  This airborne fiber con-




centration level can be used to estimate exposure risk.  The techniques for




examination of bulk samples are relatively straightforward and give an




unambiguous result in most cases; however, the identification, and especially




quantification of asbestos, in ambient air is very much "state-of-the art"




— the methods used are somewhat controversial and the results ambiguous.




     These two distinct types of fiber analysis may not be within the capa-




bility of the same commercial testing laboratory.  It is emphasized that




bulk sa'mple analysis  services to determine whether asbestos is present in




the material are difficult to obtain.  Moreover, the analysis must be per-




formed in a competent manner otherwise it could lead to an expensive and




needless removal task.  Failure to  identify asbestos fibers, on  the other




hand, would allow an  existing hazard  to continue.




     Airborne asbestos fiber analysis is used for evaluating exposure and




the effectiveness of  fiber control  during renovation, demolition, or




removal.  Here  too,  the number of commercial  laboratories  suitably equipped




and staffed is  limited.





                               1-4-1

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4.1  BULK SAMPLES ASBESTOS ANALYSIS




     There are three methods of asbestos fiber identification which are




reliable and are in common use for bulk sample analysis:   petrographic




microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and electron microscopy.




4.1.1  Petrographic Microscopy




     The petrographic microscope is a transmitted polarized light instru-




ment, widely used in the geological and chemical sciences for identifica-




tion and characterization of crystalline substances based upon their optical




and crystallographic properties.  The techniques are well established and




the equipment is relatively low in cost.  It is an effective method for




identification of the particular mineral species present.  A possible




drawback in the use of petrographic microscopy is the high level of skill




and experience required of the microscopist.  Bulk sample optical microscopy




involves the ability to adequately search a sample and successfully recognize




and identify the suspect material.  An experienced microscopist, however,




should be able to locate and identify even small amounts of asbestos in




bulk samples.78'79




4.1.2  X-Ray Diffraction



     In this technique X-rays are diffracted by a small sample of the sus-




pect material and a pattern uniquely characteristic of any crystalline




materials present is produced.  With some instruments a permanent diffrac-




tion tracing is produced.  This method requires a significant investment




in equipment, references, mineral  standards, and technical expertise.   In




routine examination procedures, X-ray diffraction of bulk samples may




fail to detect small concentrations of asbestos, and other silicates or




cyrstalline phases may significantly interfere with accurate identification.
                                 1-4-2

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However, the technique usually yields information with a high degree of




diagnostic reliability, and a printed record.  It is usually used as a con-




firmation of petrographic microscopy impressions and not as a screening




procedure.80




4.1.3  Electron Microscopy




     Specific and accurate fiber identification can be achieved by examina-




tion of the structure of individual fibers or fibrils, especially if used




in conjunction with electron diffraction or energy dispersive X-ray analy-




sis.  The extrapolation of precise electron microscope data, however, to




significant bulk sample information is inefficient and costly.  Its use in




identification is usually confined to resolving ambiguities raised by




petrographic microscopy and X-ray diffraction.  The main use of the electron




microscopy technique is in the examination of air samples.




4.2  AIRBORNE ASBESTOS ANALYSIS            • '




     Estimation of the amount of asbestos suspended in air is presently




performed by two techniques:




     1.   Fiber counting by optical or light microscopy using the




          phase contrast technique.




     2.   Asbestos mass or fiber population estimation by electron




          microscopy.




     For either method, a pump is used to draw a volume of air  through




a membrane filter at a known rate.  An example of a unit specifically




designed for this purpose is shown in Figure  1-4-1.  This'sampling pump




and filter are usually stationary, but other designs may be carried by the




worker with the sampling orifice near the respiratory zone.  Common sampling




rates are 2.0 liters per minute (&/min) in low volume sampling, and 10 2,/min
                                 1-4-3

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in high volume sampling.   The low volume rate is usual for personnel monitor-




ing, and high volume for general environmental sampling.   Sampling times are




on the order of 30 minutes to 1 hour or more, depending upon anticipated




fiber concentrations.  The filter may be retained within its container and




stored indefinitely.  Also, each filter may be repeatedly counted since




only a small segment is removed for each examination.  The same filter may




thus be examined by various methods of asbestos quantification and by sev-




eral laboratories for comparison or verification.  Care must be taken in




transporting samples to avoid loss of fibers from the filter surface by




mechanical agitation.




4.2.1  Fiber Counting by Phase Contrast Microscopy




     Phase contrast microscopy is routinely performed following the optical




method specified by Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)




regulations for determination of airborne asbestos in occupational settings.81




A pump draws air through a filter having an 0.8 ym effective pore size.  A




segment of the filter is then mounted, treated chemically to make the filter




membrane transparent, and examined using a special microscope reticle and




counting procedure with phase contrast illumination at 400 to 500 magnifica-




tion.81"83  Particles are observed for shape and size.  Any particle having




a length to width (or aspect) ratio greater than 3:1, and a length of 5 mi-




crometers or greater, is counted as a fiber.  Results are presented as the




number of fibers per cubic centimeter of air (f/cm3).




     Phase contrast microscopy is an optical technique for viewing small




particles rather than a method for measuring specific properties of a sub-




stance.  It is a technique based entirely on the shape of the particle rather
                               1-4-5

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than a method for measuring specific properties of a substance.   It is not




inherently specific for asbestos.   Consequently,  all particles satisfying




a 3:1 length to width ratio are counted as asbestos fiber.   Also, both the




resolution limit of optical microscopy (see Figure 1-2-1) and the 5 \im




lower cut-off for fiber length precludes identification of a much larger




fiber population which may be present and which is of biologic significance.




In some cases fibers and fibrils uncounted because of the 5 um limitation




of the standard may be greater in number than those counted by one or more




orders of magnitude.16'84  Some studies have indicated that fibers smaller




than 5 ym possess potential for biological activity,85 and that fibers of




diameter less than 0.5 ym and length greater than 3.0 ym may be highly




significant in carcinogenesis,86>87




4.2.2  Fiber Counting by Electron Microscopy




     The electron microscopy (EM) permits detailed examination and identifi-




cation of asbestos fibers of all sizes.  Both scanning electron microscope




(SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) are used.  The magnifi-




cation necessary to identify asbestos in its smallest dimension is within




the range of these instruments.  The actual counting is usually carried out




at 15,000 to 20,000 magnification.  Electron microscopy is presently  the




definitive method for fiber counting and exposure estimation.  Following




sample preparation, a large number  of fields are examined  for fibers.  Each




field is a  few hundred micrometers  square  in area such that many  fields




must be examined to make  the determination statistically valid.   Each fiber




observed is  counted and  its length  (a)  and width  (w) measured.  The  fiber




volume can  be calculated  by assuming it  to be  either a right  cylinder or




tubular in  shape.   (The  assumption  of a  cylinder gives a volume  about







                                1-4-6

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20 percent smaller.)  The mass of fibers is estimated by multiplying the

calculated volume by the mineral density, usually taken as 2.6 g/cm3.

The accuracy of the calculated fiber mass is primarily dependent upon the

representativeness of the fiber population actually measured.

     At this time, laboratories vary in sample preparation, instrument

selection, and in results.  There is presently no standard electron mi-

croscopy technique.  A provisional optimum procedure is under development
                                      *
by the Environmental Protection Agency  and is intended to increase uni-

formity and enhance interlaboratory agreement.88

     There has been great concern and some misunderstanding over inter- and

intra-laboratory variability in fiber counting results.  Apart from the

errors to be anticipated from variation in laboratory procedures, high

errors are intrinsic when extrapolating a count of possibly a few tens of

fibers from a relatively miniscule fraction of a large sample to a total

fiber count.   The multiplying factors used to scale-up the count for a

specific volume of air may be as high as 106 or more.

     The time required for sample preparation for EM techniques is lengthy,

the equipment a major investment, and highly trained and qualified personnel

a necessity.
 This and other EPA documents are available through the National Technical
Information Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Rd., Springfield, Virginia 22161.

 It will be noted that determinations by optical (phase contrast) microscopy
are expressed in numbers of fibers per unit volume of air whereas results by
electron microscopy may be expressed either as number of fibers or mass of
fibers per unit volume of air.  The high resolution of the electron micros-
copy permits the analyst to measure the length and width of each fiber.  Know-
ing the fiber's dimensions, its volume can be  calculated (i.e., H * w2).
Assuming a mineral density of 2.6 g/cm3, the mineral's weight is obtained.
                               1-4-7

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4.2.3  Conversion Between Optical and Electron Microscopy




     The conversion of data obtained by one method to units of the other is




not generally considered appropriate in the case of airborne asbestos




measurement.  The optical technique counts not only asbestos but all fibers




generallyj while EM is mineral specific.  Fiber size range visible by EM is




essentially complete, while that seen optically is truncated both physically




land by regulation.  In some cases the fiber size distribution will fall




below 5 vim, producing a zero count optically, but will still have a signif-




icant count when examined by electron microscope.16'20  Given the size dis-




tribution of a specific fiber population that extends above and below 5 ym




such conversion is possible.  However, in the general situation it is quite




unreliable.




     Table  1-4-1 lists some advantages and disadvantages of analytical




techniques  available.
                                1-4-8

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                  PART II




THE CONTROL OF EXPOSURES TO SPRAYED ASBESTOS

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                 1.   DETERMINING ASBESTOS EXPOSURE LEVELS






 1.1  INTRODUCTION




      As discussed in Part I,  exposure to asbestos fibers is a recognized




 health hazard.   Following long latency periods,  asbestosis and malignancies




 of varying type  and site may  follow both occupational and nonoccupational




 exposures.   Although the mechanism and epidemiology of asbestos carcino-




 genesis is  not yet  well  defined,  accumulating evidence suggests the signifi-




 cance of exposures  at even very low fiber concentrations.




      The specific source of asbestos  exposure covered in this document  is




 fiber release from  sprayed, friable asbestos-containing material.   For




 approximately 20  years,  sprayed asbestos was  extensively used in  the  con-




 struction industry.   The sprayed,  friable material  can release  fibers into




 the environment at  rates dependent  upon  both  deterioration and  the  dis-




 turbance  of  the material.   The  released  fibers are  durable, possess aero-




 dynamic  capability,  and  are potentially  carcinogenic  without  documented  safe




 threshold levels.




      The  combination  of  the factors of widespread use,  a  large  potentially-




 exposed population, and  carcinogenicity  has created a  potential health




 hazard of significant proportion.




      Part II presents recommendations for techniques of material analysis,




 procedures for hazard estimation, and alternative solutions to potentially




hazardous situations.  Regulations of the Environmental Protection Agency





                                II-l-l

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and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration are discussed in




greater detail, and specific removal procedures and specifications are




presented.







1.2  FACTORS TO CONSIDER




     The applications, mixtures, and locations of sprayed asbestos material




have been highly variable.  The estimation of exposure hazard or risk from




such material must involve consideration of a number of factors.  There is




no simple formula for all situations.  The primary consideration should be




to  minimize exposure to asbestos.  The following factors should be consid-




ered in assessing the risk of asbestos exposure and establishing priorities





for corrective action:




     1.  Analysis of material.  Establish the presence of asbestos




         in the sprayed material by competent examination.  This is




         the first, and essential step in hazard estimation.  The




         higher the proportion or percentage by weight of asbestos




         in the material, the greater the number of fibers released




         for a given event.  However slight the damages, there will




         be a  release of  some fibers, and even friable material con-




         taining only 1 or 2 percent asbestos can disperse a signifi-




         cant  number of fibers if it is extensively damaged.




     2.  Age and deterioration of the material.  Cohesiveness of most




         materials will decline with age, and the rate of fiber loss





         will  increase.




     3.  Location  and accessibility  of the material.  With  ceilings,




          for example, a height of approximately  10  ft  (3 meters)  is  a




          reasonable  limit for direct contact.  Possibility  of contact







                                II-1-2

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    for any other reason must be considered, however.   This
    will include gymnasiums and classrooms where objects can
    be hurled against the fiber surface.  The 3-meter rule
    would not apply in such circumstances.
4.  Function of the space with respect to both the intended
    and actual use of the area.  Population using space.
    This is a significant consideration.  An active popula-
    tion, such as that of an urban senior high school may
    result in more contact fiber dispersal to a significant
    extent.  High frequency of use and activity usually
    means high fiber levels in the space.
5.  Necessity to penetrate or disturb the material for main-
    tenance, cleaning, or any other reason.  This includes
    penetrations for heating and ventilation, lighting, and
    plumbing.
6.  Presence of high humidity or water damage.  Although used
    for condensation control in some applications, sprayed
    asbestos-containing materials tend to deteriorate rapidly
    in humid environments and are susceptible to fragmentation
    from leaking water.
7.  Accumulated epidemiologic evidence indicates that asbestos
    levels exceeding as little as 100 nanograms per cubic meter
    should be suspect in causing adverse health effects and thus
    some action to reduce exposure is warranted. 8  It may be
    advisable to determine levels elsewhere  in the building and
    outside to ascertain that the fiber  levels are due to the
    sprayed material rather than some other  source.
                          II-1-3

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     8.   OSHA,  EPA,  and  state  and  local  regulations will  influence




         the  selection of  any  action  to  reduce  asbestos exposure




         levels.   Until  permanent  action can  be taken  to  reduce as-




         bestos fiber release,  temporary measures  may  be  used.  These




         include  the alteration of various  custodial and  maintenance




         activities  which  can  result  in  asbestos emissions  by contact




         or by  resuspension.   Permanent  actions include enclosure,




         encapsulation,  or removal of the asbestos material.







1.3  ASBESTOS ANALYSIS




     The methods  of  asbestos  determination are  listed  in  order of the




simplest and least expensive  (record  review)  to the more  technical  and




costly (airborne  fiber monitoring).




     1.   Record revJew:   Architectural or contractor  specifications




         and records are available for most large structures.  In




         many instances  these will identify the sprayed material




         and may include the type and proportion of  asbestos contained.




         Instances where records erroneously report  either the presence




         or absence of asbestos have occurred,  and reliance on building




         records alone is not recommended.




     2.   Visual inspection:  The surface of sprayed asbestos materials




         generally have an appearance that may vary from a loose, fluffy,




         or sponge-like composition to that of a dense, nearly solid




         surface.   If the material is friable,   it will crush with hand




         pressure.  The thickness  of most sprayed asbestos material com-




         monly varies from 0.25 cm (1/8  inch)  to over 5.0  cm  (2  inches).




         Uncoated material may be  slightly gray, brown,  or blue  in







                               II-1-4

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         coloration  depending upon  the  proportion  and  type  of




         asbestos used.   Such surfaces  readily  collect  dust, and




         will  acquire  a  dark gray tinge with  time.  The presence




         or  absence  of asbestos, however,  cannot be determined




         reliably by texture, color,  or general appearance.




     3.   Bulk  material analysis:  The identification and quantifi-




         cation of asbestos  in  a bulk material  sample  is a  procedure




         requiring appropriate  equipment,  technique, and expertise.




         In  view of  both the health and economic  implications,  compe-




         tent  analysis to determine the presence  and proportion of




         asbestos  is a necessity.







     Laboratory analysis of  the material  should be performed by:




     a.   Petrographic microscopy  as performed by  a laboratory  of




         recognized  competence  in  optical crystallography.




     b.   X-ray diffraction as necessary as a  supplement to  petro-




         graphic microscopy.




     c.   Electron  microscopy only  if ambiguity exists  following




         analysis  by petrographic microscopy  and  X-ray diffraction.







     It  is again emphasized that  the identification of asbestos in  bulk




samples  involves expertise in optical crystallography  and is not a  routine




laboratory procedure. A laboratory certified and proficient  in NIOSH




asbestos fiber counting  methodology may lack  both the  equipment and com-




petence  for identification of asbestos in bulk samples.  The use of polar-




ized light microscopy (petrographic) and  various  refractive index liquids




for dispersion staining  is usually sufficient to allow identification of
                               II-1-5

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the individual forms of asbestos and estimation of the amount present.79'87




An experienced microscopist using petrographic techniques is able to rapidly




detect small quantities of asbestos in a bulk sample.




     X-ray diffraction supplements optical microscopy by "fingerprinting"




any crystalline phases present, though the presence of many of these phases




in addition to asbestos may make interpretation difficult.  X-ray diffrac-




tion provides a permanent tracing of the analysis, but is more expensive




than petrographic microscopy, requires expertise, so does petrographic,




and low quantities of asbestos fibers may not be detected.  Depending




on the laboratory, an amount less than 2 to 4 percent may be missed.




     A recommended technique for obtaining a bulk sample from a sprayed




asbestos material is outlined in Appendix C, along with cost and reference




laboratory information.




     4.  Arrborne asbestos jriber counting:  Sampling and analysis for




         airborne asbestos may establish the existence of asbestos




         contamination.12'2^'21  An adequate study of airborne con-




         tamination requires sampling during various indoor activities




         and sampling of outside or community ambient levels, with




         inclusion of control samples.  Sampling within a structure




         under only quiet conditions may be particularly misleading




         because asbestos fibers become airborne usually as a result




         of disturbance through human activity.20  The direct moni-




         toring of persons engaged in these activities will best de-




         fine potential exposures.16  These activities include usual




         behavior of building users, maintenance, custodial and house-




         keeping work.
                               II-1-6

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If exposure levels are sufficiently elevated, examination of




the samples by optical microscopy will probably determine the




presence of asbestos.  In cases of lower contamination levels




or a predominantly small size population of fibers, electron




microscopy will be necessary for complete asbestos




quantification.




The lack of standards for airborne asbestos in nonoccupational




environments and expense of sampling and analysis have dis-




couraged airborne asbestos testing.  An exposed and friable




surface, the identification of asbestos within the material, and




documentation of air contamination from such surfaces surely




provide an impetus to reduce potential carcinogen exposure to




as low a level as is possible.
                      11-1-7

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                     2.   ASBESTOS CONTROL MEASURES







2.1  TEMPORARY CONTROL MEASURES




     During the interval between identification and resolution of an as-




bestos exposure problem it may be possible to significantly reduce exposure




by control of maintenance, custodial, and repair activities.  Temporary




measures may include alteration of various work procedures such as main-




tenance or renovation that could potentially cause asbestos contamination.




Wet cleaning methods for example, could be used in place of dry dusting




and sweeping in any essential custodial work.  In addition, maintenance




and custodial workers should be protected by approved filtered respirators.




     Building user and bystander exposure could be reduced substantially




by appropriate rescheduling of necessary custodial and maintenance work.




Table II-2-1 shows the reduction in  fiber counts  that was obtained in one




case using we"t cleaning methods and  specific scheduling.    Custodial




activities were categorized as above and below waist level.   Air sampling




was carried out at the respiratory zone of a worker wearing respiratory




protection.  While significant reductions were achieved, exposures were




not eliminated and the use of  such techniques should be  temporary.
                                II-2-1

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 Table II-2-1.   CUSTODIAL ASBESTOS EXPOSURES AND EFFECT OF WET METHODS
Custodial
activity
Above waist
Below waist
Bystander
Fiber count means :
f/cm3 (number)
Before
control
4.0 (6)
1.6 (5)
0.3 (6)
Following
control
0.3 (4)
0.2 (4)
b
                      NIOSH method,  phase contrast
                     microscopy.

                      Elimination of exposure to by-
                     stander by rescheduling should
                     not be regarded as a permanent
                     solution.   The  long settling
                     times for  fibers (see Figure 1-2-2)
                     and the possibility of resuspension
                     should be  considered before per-
                     mitting normal  traffic to resume
                     in the area.
2.2  LONG-TERM CONTROL MEASURES

     The long-term alternatives to reduce or eliminate asbestos exposure

from sprayed friable asbestos material are outlined in Table II-2-2.

Anticipated fiber concentrations,  and comments on working conditions  are

included.  These methods of resolution fall within two general categories:

     1.  Asbestos containment through use of a sealant (encapsu-

         lation) or barrier (enclosure) system.

     2.  Complete removal of the asbestos material from the structure.


     Selection of the appropriate method or combination of methods will

depend upon a number of factors including characteristics of the asbestos

material, structure use and configuration, user activity, and cost.
                               II-2-2

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     Asbestos removal provides a final solution by elimination of the




contaminant source.  It requires, however, renovation involving friable




asbestos material, with significant problems of worker protection, pre-




vention of environmental contamination, and considerable interruption of




activities in the building.




     Containment by sealing, encapsulation, or barrier systems usually re-




sults in much lower levels of asbestos contamination during alteration,




takes less time, and may be less expensive, especially if replacement is




avoided.  The asbestos source remains, however, and damage, deterioration,




or failure of the protective system will result in recurrence of asbestos




contamination.  Consequently, if asbestos containment Is selected as the




long-term solution, then some form of continuous or seinicontinuous ambient




monitoring program is necessary to assure that the protective system main-




tains its integrity over time.  Maintaining low fiber levels may require




strictly controlled maintenance and custodial activities for the life of the




building.  Also, the problem of asbestos exposure and environmental con-




tamination will present itself again at the time the building is demolished.






2.3  ASBESTOS EMISSION CONTROL AND PERSONNEL PROTECTION




     The work associated with asbestos containment or removal involves




disturbance of the fiber matrix by contact, with dispersal of fibers into




the environment.  The dispersal is massive in dry removal of loose friable




material; localized, but high, in installation of hangers or lath for a




barrier system and can be significant even in spraying a sealant onto a




friable asbestos surface.  Whatever course of action is selected for as-




bestos containment or removal, asbestos contamination or emission control




and personnel protection are required by EPA and OSHA regulations to







                               II-2-4

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prevent exposure of workers, bystanders, building users,  and the community.




Asbestos contamination control minimizes fiber dispersal  in the removal




area, fiber emissions to the outside environment, and residual asbestos




contamination.  The basic steps are:




     1.  Fiber containment:  Barriers will prevent movement of fibers




         to other building  spaces and into the community.  Barrier




         systems should be  used to  enclose any work area and may be




         used to isolate a  room or  an entire building.  Ventilation




         and heating  systems must be shut down and all openings and




         vents  sealed,  and  any building  equipment or  furniture enclosed




         in a protective cocoon.  Any object, duct, window, or passage-




         way  that  could be  contaminated  should be isolated.   Special




         care should  be taken  to  locate  and  seal all  possible openings.




      2.  Fiber  control: Wetting  the asbestos-containing material  will




         reduce friability  and  change  the  aerodynamics of  the released




          fibers.   The addition of a wetting  agent will enhance penetra-




          tion,  reduce the  amount  of water  needed,  and generally increase




          the  control effectiveness.






      Since fiber dispersal probability and concentrations  are potentially




 high, protection of working personnel  is necessary and includes instruction,




 respiratory protection supervision, and decontamination.  The following




 list is considered appropriate to both provide  and document worker pro-




 tection.  This protection  should also apply to  any other person entering





 a removal job site.
                                II-2-5

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1.  Instruction:  OSHA regulations specify the use of certain




    equipment, decontamination procedures, and work sequences.




    Adequate instruction of the work force is absolutely




    essential.




2.  Respiratory protection:  Each worker should be afforded




    respiratory protection as appropriate to anticipated fiber




    levels according to OSHA regulations 29 CFR 1910.1001.




3.  Supervision:  Adequate supervision is necessary to maintain




    the performance required for safety.  Adequate instruction




    will help to a great extent, but continuously effective




    respirator use and decontamination will depend upon con-




    tinuous and effective supervision.




4.  P e rsonne1 dec on t amina t i on:   Following each day's activities,




    decontamination is necessary to prevent exposure of family




    and personnel contacts.  A decontamination facility should




    be provided and include a changing room, shower room,  and




    equipment storage area.  An outline of a decontamination




    procedure is given in Appendix D.
                          II-2-6

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                        3.   ASBESTOS CONTAINMENT







3.1  ENCLOSURE SYSTEMS




     Enclosure of a sprayed asbestos surface places a barrier between the




asbestos-containing material and the area of activity.  Either a suspended




barrier or an attached lath system is usually used.  Depending upon the




integrity and type of barrier system, a dissemination of fibers by fallout




will take place behind the barrier only, and exposures below the barrier




will be greatly reduced.  Contamination from contact will theoretically




be prevented by the barrier.  A barrier system must not connect with an




air plenum system, and the enclosed  space should not  communicate in any




way with portions of  the occupied building.




     Installation of  hangers or lath necessitates  contact and  penetration




and will result in asbestos  fiber dissemination, frequently  in excess  of




existing OSHA regulations.   Consequently, worker exposure protection in




accordance with OSHA  should  be  required during  this work.  Furthermore,




fiber  dissemination by  fallout  will  continue with  accumulation of  fibers




behind the barrier  system.   Consequently,  entry into  these areas will  re-




quire  protection  and  fiber  containment  precautions.




     The uncertainties  in  its  long-term effectiveness,  the need for  con-




 tinued air monitoring,  and  the  remaining  problem at  the time of demolition




 or renovation make this method  unattractive.
                                II-3-1

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 3.2   ENCAPSULATION WITH SEALANTS




      Encapsulation with sealants may make replacement of sprayed asbestos




 materials unnecessary.  The use of a sealant means retention of the as-




 bestos material and recurrence of the problem if the sealant is damaged




 or penetrated.  In addition, this postpones asbestos control to the time




 of major renovation or building demolition.  The use of sealants may be




 restricted by characteristics of the sprayed asbestos surface itself.  The




 integrity of an encapsulated surface depends upon bonding between the




 sprayed asbestos material and supporting structural members.  A sprayed




 asbestos ceiling for example, with initially poor adhesion to a smooth




hard  structural ceiling surface will result in shearing and failure of the




 full  thickness of sprayed material and the applied sealant.  Accessibility




 and user behavior should also be carefully considered.   Sealant used on




 asbestos surfaces within reach of children in a school  will probably be




damaged eventually leading to continued asbestos exposure.




     The sealing of sprayed asbestos surfaces involves  applying material




 that will envelop or coat the fiber matrix and eliminate fallout and pro-




 tect against contact damage.   Sealants are usually applied  to asbestos




surfaces by spraying and consist of polymers with an agent  added to en-




hance penetration into the fiber matrix.   Sealants which are currently




available include water-based latex polymers,  water soluble epoxy resins




and organic solvent-based polymers of various types.




     Nearly any sealant or encapsulation method will reduce fallout con-




tamination.  The more effective sealants, however, will have resistance




to impact and will reduce asbestos release due to contact.   In one study,




latex paint sprayed over a friable asbestos surface was effective in
                               II-3-2

-------
reducing background fiber levels in the building from fallout.  This coat




ing failed, however, to significantly reduce building asbestos exposure




levels during routine activity due to contact or reentrainment.20  Even




in the case of a fairly resistant sealant, suitable protection should be




used against heavy physical damage.  A system of routine inspection and




repair should insure the integrity of a sealant system.




     Application of a sealant by spraying will cause dissemination of small




fibers by  contact.  A sealant should be applied with as much  caution and




at as  low  a nozzle  pressure as  possible to reduce  contact disturbance.




The potentially high concentration of small  asbestos fibers could cause




significant worker  exposure and thus, workers require  protection with




respiratory devices and  decontamination.   Such  asbestos  fiber contamination




from  application of sealants  is usually not  detectable by the NIOSH method




of optical microscopy,  and may  require  electron microscopic examination





for definition.12>62




      An effective  sealant  should possess  the following characteristics:




      1.   The  sealant  should  eliminate fiber dispersal  by adhering




          to  the fibrous substrate with sufficient penetration to




          prevent  separation  of  the sealant from the sprayed asbestos




          material.




      2.  It should withstand most impact and penetration and  still




          protect the enclosed sprayed asbestos material.




      3.  It should possess enough flexibility to accommodate atmo-




          spheric changes and settling of the structure over  time.




      4.  It should have high flame retardant characteristics and a low




           toxic fume and smoke  emission rating.  This  is, of  course,







                                 II-3-3

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          essential if the enclosed sprayed asbestos material was used




          initially for fire retardation and protection of structural




          members.




      5.  It must be easily applied by nonspecialized personnel, with




          relative insensitivity to errors in preparation or application.




          Ease of repair by routine maintenance personnel is desirable.




      6.  The sealant must be neither noxious nor toxic to application




          workers and structure users thereafter.  Since spraying




          creates fiber dissemination and exposure, fiber containment




          by barriers is desirable during application even though this




          may be incompatible with ventilation necessary for toxic vapor




          removal.




      7.  It should have some permeability to water vapor to prevent




          condensation accumulation, and resistance to solution by common




          cleaning agents.




      8.  It should have suitable stability to weathering and aging.




      9.  It should be acceptable by architectural and esthetic standards.




     Sealant selection and application should be made with consideration




given to the configuration, dimensions, use and characteristics of the




structure involved.  The listed characteristics above may assume differing




levels of importance in consideration of the specific application.




Additional considerations in selecting a sealant are:




      1.  The coated structural member should be inspected.  Bonding




          between the sprayed asbestos material and structural member must




          be adequate to accommodate the added weight and cohesive mass




          of the encapsulated asbestos material.
                               II-3-4

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    2.  Sealants are not generally recommended when surfaces are




        accessible to physical damage, such as low ceilings in school




        corridors or stairwells.




    3.  The cost of asbestos stripping versus encapsulation should




        be estimated.  A complex or relatively inaccessible surface




        may defy economical asbestos  removal, and present an ideal




        situation for encapsulation.




    4.  Replacement material needs  for fireproofing and  thermal  or




        acoustical  insulation must  be met  after removal.  Such replace-




        ment  may be avoided by  encapsulation.




    5.  The moving  of  furniture,  equipment,  or partitions necessary




         in asbestos removal may be  significantly  reduced if  encapsu-





         lation is used.




     Sealants  for  asbestos  material  are  presently  being evaluated by  the




Environmental  Protection Agency, Power Technology  and  Conservation Branch,




Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268.
                                II-3-5

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                          4.   ASBESTOS REMOVAL







     Building characteristics, the inability to eliminate exposure,  and




the uncertainties of asbestos disease epidemiology may be the crucial




factors in the decision to remove the sprayed friable asbestos materials.




Both EPA and OSHA regulations influence the manner in which asbestos




stripping or removal is accomplished.  Work practices during asbestos




stripping and disposal operations are covered by EPA regulation 40 CFR 61,




subpart B:  National Emission Standard for Asbestos.90  Landfill disposal




and site requirements are covered by  40 CFR 61.25, waste disposal sites.




Worker protection during removal  or  stripping operations is covered by




OSHA regulations 29 CFR 1910.1001, occupational exposure to asbestos.




These  regulations are discussed  in detail  in  Appendices G  and H.







4.1  DRY REMOVAL




     Dry removal of untreated friable asbestos material  is definitely  not




recommended,  but may  be necessary in instances  of  unavoidable  damage




 through  the use of  wet  removal techniques.  Dry removal  requires  specific




EPA approval.  As  shown in Table II-2-2,  dry removal results  in heavy




 airborne  asbestos  contamination with fiber counts  that can exceed




 100 f/cm3.   The potential for worker, structure,  and community contamina-




 tion is  high, and  complete fiber containment by a series of barriers is




 necessary,  along with an elaborate system for debris removal and  worker







                                II-4-1

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decontamination.  Studies have shown that significant contamination can




occur across a double barrier entrance under working conditions during




dry removal.  Considering existing data on dry removal and fiber behavior




in settling and movement, contamination spread and heavy exposure appear




unavoidable.




     Dry vacuum methods for rapid removal of debris from demolition areas




rely upon evacuation of all fallen visible asbestos material through




vacuum lines that penetrate the barrier system.  The material is drawn




through the lines to a point usually outside the structure, deposited in




sealed containers, and the accumulated material removed to a disposal site,




The vacuum system exhaust is filtered to prevent contamination of the




external environment.  A vacuum system using an extraction air velocity




1 meter/second (200 ft/min) and an HEPA (high efficiency particulate)




filtered exhaust is in use in Great Britain.9*  Evaluation of both in-




ternal containment and external exhaust cannot be considered complete




because of a lack of appropriate air sampling data.







4.2  WET REMOVAL




     Wet removal is based upon the ability of water to lower both the




friability of the sprayed material and the aerodynamic capabilities of the




released fibers.  Water will render the material less friable and more




cohesive, and greatly reduce the release of fibers, thus reducing airborne




asbestos levels.  Fibers that are released will fall rapidly if wet.  A




suggested work sequence for wet removal is listed in Appendix E.




     Table II-2-2 lists anticipated fiber contamination levels using




water.  As shown, asbestos exposure levels may be reduced by as much as




75 percent using wet removal rather than dry removal.  The use of plain





                               II-4-2

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water, however, is not entirely satisfactory because of slow penetration,




incomplete wetting, and bothersome runoff.  Even with extensive soaking,




areas of dry material will remain.  The runoff not only is a safety and




cleanup problem, but the resulting slurry will carry fibers to other areas




where they will reentrain following evaporation.




     Water penetration into  a hydrophobic fiber matrix is significantly




increased with a wetting agent  or surfactant.  "Wet" water is a common




item  in use by fire departments,  industry,  and agriculture.92  This tech-




nique greatly  reduces  the amount  of water needed  for saturation,  increases




the cohesiveness  of the  fiber matrix,  and increases  the probability of




individual  fiber  wetting.   This effect,  as  shown  in  Table  II-2-2,  results




 in a  significant  improvement in working  conditions  and  significantly  re-




duced environmental  contamination.  Use  of  amended water  can  reduce fiber




 counts  by more than  90 percent  as compared  to dry removal.  This  reduction




 of fiber  contamination within the work area not  only reduces  potential




 worker exposure  but  relieves much of  the dependence upon  containment  barrier




 systems for isolation of fibers within removal areas.   Table  II-4-1  lists




 some wetting agents  available commercially.
                                 II-4-3

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Table II-4-1.  COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE WETTING AGENTS FOR WET REMOVAL OF
               ASBESTOS IN BUILDINGS3
        Aquatrols Corp. of America
        1400 Suckle Highway
        Pennsauken, NJ  08110

        Occidental Chemical Co.
        Institutional Division
        Box 198
        Lathrop, Calif.  95330

        Target Chemical Co.
        1280 N. 10th St.
        San Jose, Calif.  95112

        Vineland Chemical Co.
        Box 745
        Vineland, NJ  08360
Leffingwell Chemical Co.
Box 188
Brea, Calif.  92921

Rohm and Haas Co.
Ag. Chemical Dept.
Independence Mall
W. Philadelphia, Pa.  19105

Thompson-Hayward Chemical Co.
Box 2383
Kansas City, Kans.  66110
        f\
         The inclusion of this information should not be construed
        as a product endorsement by the EPA or the authors.
                              II-4-4

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             5.   REGULATIONS AND COMPLIANCE BY CONTRACTORS







     Fiber control,  containment and worker protection are necessary in




asbestos abatement work since there will be environmental contamination




regardless of the work method used.  A considerable potential will exist




not only for worker exposure, but also contamination of the structure,





the community, and worker homes.




     In most operations there has been an effort by the contractor to




minimize asbestos contamination by compliance with OSHA and EPA regula-




tions and by additional control procedures as appropriate.16'20  However,




in  some operations violations  of both regulations  and common  sense have




occurred.   Some  contractors  have removed  asbestos  absolutely  dry  instead




of  wet  as  agreed, removed  asbestos without respirators,  dropped asbestos-




loaded  bags down laundry  chutes where  they have  ruptured,  served  coffee  in




removal areas,  and  allowed heavily contaminated  workers  to leave  the  job





site.15'21



      A number of factors  will influence contractor work  practices:




      1.  Attitude of purchaser of  services:   The purchaser of service




          will be motivated to control asbestos exposure  for various




          reasons.  These may include concern for well-being of build-




          ing users, fear of future legal involvement and claims by




          users or their survivors, or fear of employee or union
                                II-5-1

-------
    action.  Asbestos exposure situations have, on occasion,




    become political issues, a cause of panic and overraction,




    and a sensationalistic subject for the press.  The climate




    created by these pressures has caused careless and mis-




    informed actions that can lead to increased exposures




    rather than decreased exposures.  The harassed school




    principal, apartment building owner,  or corporation




    executive often seeking the quickest  and cheapest con-




    tractor services may create a potential for significant




    exposures and contamination.




    Once a contractor leaves the  job site, there are currently




    no regulations protecting building users.  Poor clean-up




    of the removal area can lead  to continual reentrainment




    and resuspension.  To ensure  proper clean-up by the con-




    tractor,  the purchaser of contract services should provide




    the contractor with definitive job specifications for as-




    bestos removal.  An example is included in Appendix F.




2.  OSHA regulations:  In general, the OSHA regulations are




    effective in routine occupational asbestos exposure situa-




    tions at  a fixed location.  However,  application to tran-




    sient demolition workers who  have no  fixed place of em-




    ployment  is difficult.  Demolition and removal operations




    are mobile, often brief, quite variable in conditions.




    Exposures, however, may be extremely  high.  Present regula-




    tions do  not require worker instruction regarding the




    hazards of asbestos exposure  and the  use of respirators.







                          II-5-2

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   Also,  there  are  ambiguous  requirements  for  decontamination




   since  the  place  of  employment  is  not  fixed.   Showering  is




   not  presently required.   (Proposed OSHA regulations  address




   these  points with specific regulations  requiring instruction,




   respiratory protection,  reporting, and  decontamination  by




    showering  for any regulated area where  exposure occurs.)




3. EPA regulations:  The EPA regulations cover emissions into




    the outside environment, and disposal of material from job




    sites.  Regulatory coverage does not apply to the building




    environment apart from the prohibition of many initial uses




    of asbestos materials.




4.  Contractor  economics:  Protection of workers, building users,




    and the general  community, means  time, effort, and cost to




    a contractor.  The contractor who is both aware and  concerned




    about these problems  faces economic  pressure  from those who




    are not.  This  is not only discouraging, but  in a low bid




    competition may  mean the  difference  in the awarding  of  the




    contract.   Consequently,  safety  precautions may be  compromised,




    As  yet, there is no  generally applicable equalizing  force




    such  as enforced regulations  or  licensing  of  qualified  con-




    tractors.   Consequently,  as recommended above,  the  purchaser




    must  write  definitive job specifications  to  ensure  the  use




    of  adequate safety measures by  contractors.




 5.  Contractor  and  worker attitudes:  Asbestos is a material




     that  has  been used in construction for some  time,  and  its




     carcinogenic potential has only recently gained recognition.







                           II-5-3

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         Many workers have become accustomed to handling asbestos




         without precaution, and retraining is difficult.  Compound-




         ing this is the fact that the latency period of asbestos-




         related disease is frequently quite long.  This has not




         only blurred the vision of professional observers, but has




         blinded that of many workers and contractors to the conse-




         quences of asbestos exposure.  Unconcerned or uninformed




         removal workers incur exposures for themselves, fellow




         workers, and their families.




     Contract specifications written for asbestos work should effectively




complement OSHA, EPA, and local regulations and may include specific




requirements for exposure and contamination prevention.,   The informed




purchaser, or one who must satisfy an informed building user and community,




will be motivated to define contractor performance in asbestos work.  Such




specifications may include requirements for contractor competence in as-




bestos removal, OSHA and EPA compliance,  special contamination control,




and air sampling.  Such specifications essentially restrict bidding con-




tractors to those who know the work and regulations.   This will encourage




and protect the competent contractor's investment in equipment and train-




ing.  Definitive job specifications for asbestos removal similar to those




presented in Appendix F, therefore, are recommended.
                               II-5-4

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                                APPENDIX A




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39.    Hammond, E. C. and I. J. Selikoff.  Relation of Cigarette Smoking to




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      J. C. Gilson, V. Timbrell and J. C. Wagner  (eds.)).  IARC Scientific




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      Lyon, France.
                                   A-5

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40.   Selikoff, I. J. and E. C. Hammond.  Multiple Risk Factors in Environ-




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41.   Lynch, K. M. and W. A. Smith.  Pulmonary Asbestosis II:  Carcinoma of




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42.   Doll, R.  Mortality From Lung Cancer in Asbestos Workers.  Brit. J.




      Industr. Med. 12, 31-36.  1955.






43.   Mancuso, T. F. and E. D. Coulter.  Methodology in Industrial Health




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44.   Enticknap, J. B. and W. J. Smither.  Peritoneal tumors in Asbestosis.




      Brit. J. Industr.  Med. 21, 20.  1964.






45.   Borow, M., A. Conston, L. Livornese, S. E.  Moalten and N. Schalet.




      Mesothelioma Associated With Asbestosis.  JAMA 201, 587-591.  1967.






46.   Selikoff, I. J., R. A. Bader and M. E0  Bader.  Asbestosis and Neo-




      plasia.  Amer. J. Med. 42, 487-496.  1967.






47.   Elmes, P. C. and M. J. Simpson.  Industrial Workers in Belfast.  Ill,




      Mortality 1940-1946, Brit. J. Ind. Med. 28:226.  1971.






48.   Wagoner, J. K., W. M. Johnson and R. Lemen.  Malignant and Non-Malignant




      Respiratory Disease Mortality Patterns Among Asbestos Production




      Workers.  Congressional Record.  Senate.  S-4660-2.  March 14, 1973.
                                  A-6

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49.   Enterline, P. E. and V. Henderson.  Type of Asbestos and Respiratory

      Cancer in the Asbestos Industry.  Arch. Environ. Health.  27:312-317.

      1973.


50.   Jacob, G. and H. Bohlig.  Roentgenological Complications in Pulmonary

      Asbestosis.  Fortschr.  Roentgenstr.  83, 515-525.  1955.


51.   Kiviluoto, R.  Pleural Calcification as a Roentgenologic Sign of Non-

      Occupational Endemic Anthophyllite-Asbestosis.  Acta. Radiol. Suppl.

      194, 1-77.  1960.


52.   Wagner, J. C., C. A. Sleggs and P. Marchand.  Diffuse Pleural Meso-

      theliona and Asbestos Exposure in North Western Cape Province.

      Brit. J. Ind. Med. 17, 250-271.  1960.


53.   Selikoff, I. J., J. Churg and E. C. Hammond.  Relation Between Exposure

      to Asbestos and Mesothelioma.  NEJM 272, 560-565.  1965.


54.   Newhouse, M. L. and H. Thompson.  Mesothelioma of Pleura and Peritoenum

      Following Exposure to Asbestos in the London Area.  Brit. J. Industr.

      Med. 22, 261-269.  1965.


55.   Lieben, J. and H. Pistawka.  Mesothelioma and Asbestos Exposures.

      Arch. Environ. Health.  14, 599.  1967.


56.   Harries, H. M.  Asbestos Hazards in Naval Dockyards.  Ann. Occup. Hyg.

      11, 135-145.  1968.


57.   Dalquen, P., et al.  Epidemiologie der Pleuramesothelioma Vorlaufiger

      Bericht uber 119 Paell aus dem Hamburger Raum, Prax.  Preumol.

      23:547, 1969.
                                   A-7

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58.    South African Medical Research Council.   1971 Annual Report of the




      National Institute for Occupational Diseases.  Johannesburg, S.A.




      1972.






59.    Anderson, H., R. Lillis, S. Daum, A. Fischbein and I. J.  Selikoff.




      Household Contact Asbestos Neoplastic Risk.   Annals N.Y.  Acad. Sci.




      271, 311-323.  1976.






60.    Selikoff, I. J., E. C. Hammond and J. Churg.  Carcinogenicity of




      Amosite Asbestos.  Arch. Environ. Health. 25, 183.  1972.






61.    Wagner, J. C., G. Berry and V. Timbrell.  The Effects of the Inhalation




      in Rats.  Brit. J. Cancer. 29, 252-269.   1974.






62.    Rohl, A. N., A. M. Langer, I. J. Selikoff and W. J. Nicholson.




      Exposure to Asbestos in the Use of Consumer Spackling, patching,




      and taping compounds.  Science, 189, 551-553.  1975.






63.    Rohl, A. N., A. M. Langer and I. J. Selikoff.  Environmental Asbestos




      Pollution Related to Use of Quarried Serpentine Rock.  Science.  Vol.




      196:1319-1322.   1977.






64.    Thompson, J. G. , R. 0. C. Kaschula and R. R. MacDonald.  Asbestos  as




      a Modern Urban Hazard.  South African Med.  J. 27, 77.  1963.






65.   Wagler, F., H. Muller and M. Anspach.  Gibt  es Eine  Endemische




      Asbestos.   Z.  Ges.  Hyg. 8, 246.  1962.






66.   Selikoff,  I. J.  Widening  Perspectives of Occupational Lung Disease.




      Prev. Med.  2,  412-437.  1973






                                   A-8

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67.   U.S. Department of Labor.  Occupational Safety and Health Administra-




      tion.  29 CFR 1910.93a.  Fed. Reg. 37(110).  June 7, 1972.





68.   U.S. Department of Labor.  Occupational Safety and Health Administra-




      tion.  29 CFR 1910.1001 Standard for Exposure to Asbestos Dust.




      Fed. Reg., 40(103).  May 28, 1975.





69.   U.S. Department of Labor.  Occupational Safety and Health Administra-




      tion.  29 CFR 1910 Occupational Exposure to Asbestos.  Fed. Reg.,




      40(197).  October 9, 1975.





70.   National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (1977).  Revised




      recommended asbestos standard.  Department H.E.W.,  (NIOSH) 77-169.





71.   Timbrell, V.  Criteria for Environmental Data and Bases of Threshold




      Limit Values.  In:  Biological Effects of Asbestos:   (Bogovski, P.,




      J.  C. Gilson, V. Timbrell and J. C. Wagner (eds.)).   IARC  Scientific




      Publication No. 8.  International Agency for Research on  Cancer.




      Lyon, France.





72.   Gillam,  J. D., J. M. Dement, R. A. Lemen, J. K. Wagoner,  V. E. Archer




      and H. P. Beliger.  Mortality Patterns Among Hard Rock Gold Miners




      Exposed  to an Asbestiform Mineral.  Ann. N.Y. Acad.  Sci.,  271:336-44.




      1976.





73.   U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,  National Emission  Standards  for




      Hazardous Air Pollutants.   Fed. Reg.,  38(8820).  April 6,  1973.





74.   U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,  National Emission  Standards




      for Hazardous Air  Pollutants.  Fed. Reg. 42(41).  March  2,  1977.
                                   A-9

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75.   New Mexico, State of.  Sect. 201 Ambient Air Quality Standards, Air




      Quality Control Regulations.  Adopted by the New Mexico Health and




      Social Services Board on January 23, 1970.  Amended on June 26, 1971




      and June 16, 1973.






76.   Bruckman, L. and R. A. Rubino.  Rational Behind a Proposed Asbestos




      Air Quality Standard.  J. Air Poll. Control Assoc.  25:1207-1212.




      1975.





77.   New Haven.   An Ordinance prohibiting the use of sprayed-on asbestos




      on exposed surfaces in residences and the requiring of its removal.




      City of New Haven, Conn.   Ordinance Section 16:60 - 16:68.  1977.







78.   Julian, Y.  and W.  C. McCrone.  Identification of Asbestos Fibers by




      Microscopal Dispersion Staining.   Microscope 18:1-10.   1970.







79.   McCrone, W. C.   Detection and Identification of Asbestos Fibers.




      Environ. Health Pers. 9:57.   1974.






80.   McCrone, W. C.  and I. M.  Stewart.  Asbestos.  American Laboratory.




      April 1974.






81.   Bayer, S.  G.,  R. D. Zumwalde and T. A.  Brown.  Equipment and Procedures




      for Mounting Millipore Filters and Counting Asbestos Fibers by Phase




      Contrast Microscopy.  Available From U.S.  Department of Health, •




      Education and Welfare, National Institute for Occupational Safety and




      Health, 1014 Broadway, Cincinnati,  Ohio 45202.   1969.
                                 A-10

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  82.    U.S.  National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.   Criteria




        for a Recommended Standard Occupational Exposure to Asbestos.




        Department H.E.W., Washington, D.C.   1972.







  83.    Millipore Corp.   Monitoring Airborne Asbestos With the Millipore




        Membrane Filter.   Application Procedure 501.   Bedford, Massachusetts.




        1972.







 84.    Dement,  J.  M., R.  D.  Zumwalde and  K.  M.  Wallingford.   Discussion




        Paper:   Asbestos  Fiber  Exposures in  a Hard  Rock Gold Mine.  Ann.  N.Y.




        Acad.  Sci.  271:345-352.   1976.







 85.   Natush, D. F.  S.  and J.  R. Wallace.  Urban Aerosol Toxicity:   The




       Influence of Particle Size.  Science  186:4165.  695-699.  1974.







 86.   Stanton,  M.  F., R.  Blackwell and E. Miller.   Experimental Pulmonary




       Carcinogenesis With Asbestos.   Am.  Ind.  Hyg.  Assoc.  J.  30:236-244.   1969






 87.    Pott,  F.,  F. Huth  and  K.  H.  Friedrichs.   Tumorigenic Effect of Fibrous




       Dusts  in  Experimental  Animals.   Environ.  Health  Perspect.  9, 313-315.




       1974.







 88.    U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency.  Electron Microscopy Measurement




       of Airborne Asbestos Concentrations.   EPA-600/2-77-178.  1977.






89.    Stewart, I.  W. C. McCrone Assoc. Inc., Chicago, 111.  Personal




      Communication.   1977.







90.   U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency.   Amendment to 40 CFR Part 61,




      Chapter 1.  1975.
                                 A-ll

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91.   Envirocor Ltd.   "Code of Practice for the Safe Handling and Disposal




      of Asbestos."  Litchfield,  Staffordshire, U.K.  1976.






92.   Valoras, N., J. Letey and J.  F.  Osborn.   Absorption of Non-Ionic




      Surfactants by Soil Materials.  Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.  Proc.  33,




      345-348.  1969.






93.   Dahneke, B. E.   Slip Correction Factors  for Nonspherical Bodies.




      J. Aerosol Sci.  4:139, 147,  163.  1973.







94.   Bragg, G. M., L. Van Zuiden and C. E. Hermance.  The Free Fall of




      Cylinders at Intermediate Reynold's Numbers.  Atmos.  Environ.




      8:755.  1974.






95.   Fuchs, N. A.  Mechanics of Aerosols.  Pergamon Press, New York.  1964.







96.   Harris, R. K., Jr. and D. A.  Fraser.  A Model for Deposition of




      Fibers in the Human Respiratory System.   Am.  Ind. Hyg. J.




      37:73.  1976.






97.   Davies, C. M.  The Sedimentation of Small Suspended Particles.




      Symposium on Particle  Size Analysis.  P. 25,  London.   1947.







98.   Happel, J. and H. Brenner.  The Motion  of a Rigid Particle  of




      Arbitrary  Shape in an  Unbounded Fluid.   Low Reynolds Number Hydro-




      dynamics,  p.  222,  Prentice-Hall, Englewood  Cliffs, N.J.   1965.
                                 A-12

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99.   Leidel, N. A., S. G. Bayer and R. D. Zumwalde.  USPHA/NIOSH Membrane




      Filter Method for Evaluating Airborne Asbestos Fibers.  U.S. Depart-




      ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service Center




      for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and




      Health.  Cincinnati, Ohio 45202.  1975.







100.  U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.  Revised




      Recommended Asbestos Standard.  Department of Health, Education,




      and Welfare,  (NIOSH) 77-169.  1977.
                                 A-13

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                              APPENDIX B




               AERODYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF AIRBORNE FIBERS







     The aerodynamic behavior of fibrous-shaped aerosol particles is go-




verned by the interaction of opposing forces:  a driving force such as




is caused by gravitational acceleration, and the viscous resistance of




the gaseous medium within which the particles move.  In this context, a




useful characterizing parameter is the aerodynamic equivalent diameter,




defined as that diameter of a sphere of unit density whose settling velo-




city equals that of the particle under consideration.  Although this




equivalence applies to particles of any size, this approach is usually




limited to motion in the Stokes regime; i.e., where viscous drag predo-




minates.  The theoretical modeling of fiber aerodynamics becomes rather




complex when slip corrections are required;93 i.e., when the aerodynamic




dimensions of the particle approach the molecular mean free path of the




gas matrix.   At the other extreme, when the fiber Reynolds number (referred




to its diameter) exceeds the range from about 0.1 to 1, drag coefficient




corrections  become significant .9tt





     In practice, most particles of biological interest, including those




of fibrous shape, fall well within the range covered by the Stokes model.




The generally accepted theoretical model for the calculation of the equiv-




alent aerodynamic diameter of the fibers is based on the assumption that
                                 B-l

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the fibers can be approximated by ellipsoids of revolution.  This concept


has also been used to predict the deposition of fibers in the human


respiratory system.95*96



     Two extreme cases can be recognized:  (1) motion of the ellipsoid


(or fiber) along its axis of revolution, and (2) motion perpendicular to


the axis of revolution.  It should be considered that the gravitational


settling motion of any particle with three mutually perpendicular planes


of symmetry (such as an ellipsoid of revolution) will be invariant during


its descent, maintaining its initial orientation through its fall tra-



jectory.  In practice, however, asbestos fibers, for example, may not


always be perfectly straight and the above-mentioned rule may not hold.



     As noted above, acicular particles can be approximated by ellipsoids


of revolution falling under the action of gravity in either of two atti-


tudes described under  (1) and (2), or any intermediate angle with respect


to the direction of motion.  In general, an acicular particle falling with


its axis vertical will have a higher terminal velocity than the  case when


its axis is normal to  the direction of motion.  Intermediate angles will


exhibit  intermediate velocities.



     Two equations represent the two extreme axis-to-motion angles defined



above;97
            For case  (1) :  D   --  _ -           (1)

                              — 2g  "1.   arc  cosh  (g)  - -& —

                               (32-l)3/2                B2-l
     and  for  case  (2) :  DO = 	r	-	           (2)

                               7  "\oT                     1
                            —=-=2	j- arc cosh  (&)  +	T
                             (1-0-2)3/2                 l-g-2


                                 B-2

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where  D  is  the diameter  of  the  sphere  having  the  same  settling  velocity.

       L  is  the ellipsoid major  axis  length  (or  fiber length)

       d  is  the ellipsoid minor  axis  length  (or  fiber diameter)

       3  is  the length-to-diamter  ratio, L/d or  aspect  ratio.


     Equations  (1) and  (2) have  also  been  expressed  as:98


              n  - 8 A  F  ~2g  ^    2B2-1   „  /3  +  /B^lfl"1
              Dl ~ 1" d    	~ + 	7   £n(	/              (3)
               1   J    L  62-l    (B2-D3/2    \B  -  /32-l/J
          and
                                  2B2-3
                         82-l     (B2-l)3/2



which for the case B > > 1 can be approximated by:
                                                  f32-l)
-1
              (4)
                          D, -     2 d B
                      and

                                   4 d B
                             =
                          D2

             respectively


     Once the value of D has been determined for a given particle, and


provided that the particles fall vertically (no lateral glide) and do not


change their orientation during their vertical motion, D can be replaced


in the classical Stokes equation for a spherical particle, in order to


calculate its settling velocity:



                                 (M  - M )g
                            V  = _ 2 _ S _                           (7)
                             s     3u nD                              V ;


where V  is the settling velocity
       s
      M  and M  are the masses of the particle and the displaced gas,
              ° respectively

     (M  is usually negligible)
       o



                                  B-3

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        g is the acceleration of gravity
        n is the coefficient of gas viscosity.
     The rigorous equations presented above were solved for the typical
density of asbestos fibers of 2.6 g/cm3 and for air at standard condi-
tions.  The results are shown in Figure B-l, which is a plot of fiber
settling velocity as a function of fiber length and diameter for the two
axis-to-motion orientations mentioned above.  These curves show that the
settling velocity of fibers is only weakly dependent on fiber length but
strongly dependent on fiber diameter, and that in the limit (B ->• °°) the
settling velocity for a vertical fiber is twice that of a horizontally
falling fiber.
      In practice, for straight fibers the settling velocity will probably
fall between the two extreme orientation values, because the fiber axis
will be changed randomly as a result of Brovmian molecular bombardment
and in the case of nonstagnant air conditions, by large-scale turbulence.
It is of interest to note that for fibers whose diameter is of the order
of 0.1 vim, gravitational sedimentation occurs at the rate of only a few
centimeters per hour, even though their length may be as much as 100 urn.
                                 B-4

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                              APPENDIX C




                      ASBESTOS SAMPLE COLLECTION






C.I  BULK ASBESTOS SAMPLE COLLECTION




              A bulk sample is collected to determine whether the




              ceiling or other construction material contains any




              asbestos mineral.  Use a small scalable glass or plastic-




              capped container.  Holding the container as far as




              possible from the face, obtain a full thickness core




              sample of the sprayed material by penetrating the sur-




              face with the container using a twisting motion.  Any




              surface coating such as paint on a cement material must




              be penetrated.  The container is then capped, wiped,




              and sealed with tape.  Labeling should include building




              identification, address, building type, sample source




              location, and date.  Disturbance of the material other




              than at the sampling point should be kept to a minimum.




              A respirator approved for asbestos dust will insure pro-




              tection while performing this work.




              Repeat the procedure at several adjacent sites.
                                  C-l

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            Approximate sample analysis costs for bulk material sample:

                            Method             Approximate cost
                   Petrographic microscopy     $25.00 - $100.00a
                   with dispersion staining

                   X-ray diffraction           $75.00 - $150.00

            aCost per sample generally varies with total number of
             samples submitted.

C.2  AIR SAMPLING FOR ASBESTOS FIBER

              This procedure is followed to estimate concentration

              levels of airborne fiber before, during and after a removal

              or encapsulation operation.  The source method also serves

              long-term ambient-air monitoring requirements following a

              sealing operation or installation of a barrier system.

              The general procedure calls for drawing a known volume of

              air through a membrane filter using a calibrated sampling

              pump.  Procedural details suggesting sampling times and

              other parameters, and sources of equipment are available

              in the literature.82,83,88,89

              Analysis of the membrane filters can be carried out by

              either phase contrast Optical Microscopy or by Scanning

              or Transmission Electron Microscopy.  While the former

              technique is less costly, the latter gives a more complete

              estimate of number and size of fibers present.  The latter

              technique (EM) is especially valuable in distinguishing

              mineral fiber from cellulose, glass fiber or other fibers

              which may be present in the material being removed.
                                  C-2

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            Price range for asbestos fiber analysis in air samples.

                           Method            Approximate cost

                 Phase contrast optical      $35.00 - $50.00
                 microscopy (NIOSH Method)

                 Electron Microscopy         $300.00 - $500.00
                 (SEM, TEM)

     A list of laboratories accredited for phase contrast microscopy as-

bestos counting (NIOSH) may be obtained from the American Industrial

Hygiene Association, 66 South Miller Road, Akron, Ohio 44313.
                                  C-3

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                             APPENDIX D




                RECOMMENDED DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURE






     An adequate decontamination area consists of a serial arrangement of




connected rooms or spaces.  All persons without exception should pass




through this decontamination area for entry into and exit from the work




area for any purpose.  Parallel routes for entry or exit are not recom-




mended; if such routes exist they will eventually be used.







D.I  DECONTAMINATION AREAS




     1.  Outside room (clean area):  In this room the worker leaves




         all street clothes and dresses in clean working clothes




         (usually disposable coveralls).  Respiratory protection




         equipment is also picked up in this area.  No asbestos con-




         taminated items should enter this room.  Workers enter this




         room either from outside the structure dressed in street




         clothes, or naked from the showers.




     2.  Shower room:  This is a separate room used for transit by




         cleanly dressed workers entering the job from the outside




         room, or by workers headed for the showers after undressing




         in the equipment room.
                                  D-l

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      3>   Equipment  room  (contaminated  area):  Work equipment,  foot-




          wear, additional contaminated work clothing are left here.




          This is a  change and transit area for workers.




      4.   Work area:  The work area should be separated by polyethylene




          barriers from the equipment room.  If the airborne asbestos




          level in the work area is expected to be high, as in dry re-




         moval, an  additional intermediate cleaning space may be added




         between the equipment room and the work area.






D.2  DECONTAMINATION SEQUENCE






     1.  Worker enters outside room and removes  clothing,  puts on




         clean coveralls  and respirator,  and  passes  through into




         the equipment room.





     2.  Any additional clothing and  equipment  left  in dirty  room




         required  by the  worker  is  put  on,,   (When the  work  area is




         too cold  for coveralls  only,  the  worker  will  usually provide




         himself with additional warm garments.   These  must be treated




         as  contaminated  clothing and left  in the decontamination



         unit.)




     3.   Worker proceeds  to work area.




     4.   Before leaving the work area,  the worker should remove  all




         gross contamination  and debris from the  overalls.  In prac-




         tice  this is usually carried out by one  worker assisting




         another.
                               D-2

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5.  The worker proceeds to equipment room and removes all




    clothing except respiratory protection equipment.  Extra




    work clothing may be stored in contaminated end of the unit,




    Disposable coveralls are placed in a bag for disposal with




    other material.  The worker then proceeds rapidly into the




    shower room.  Respiratory protection equipment should be




    removed last to prevent inhalation of fibers during removal




    of contaminated clothing.




6.  After showering, the worker moves to the clean room and




    dresses in either new coveralls for another entry or street




    clothes if leaving.




7.  Respirators are picked up,  cleaned and wrapped by protected




    workers in a separate area  by washing.   The respirators are




    then brought to the clean room by an outside worker.   The




    cleaners then exit through  the shower units as usual.
                          D-3

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                              APPENDIX E




         STRIPPING SEQUENCE FOR WET AND AMENDED WATER METHODS







PREPARATION




     1.  Isolation of the work area heating and ventilation system is




         carried out first to prevent contamination and fiber dispersal




         to other areas of the structure during stripping.




     2.  The work area is prepared by removing as much furniture,




         equipment, and miscellaneous items as possible.  Anything re-




         maining should be sealed with polyethylene sheeting.  It




         should be noted that in situations of deteriorating asbestos




         surfaces such activity may result in contact and reentrainment




         contamination to significant levels, and personnel protection




         should be used.




     3.  The removal area is isolated, restricting access according to




         OSHA regulations.  This is done by sealing corridors and




         entry ways with polyethylene barriers.  The decontamination




         area should be set up at this time.




     4.  Removal of ceiling mounted objects such as lights, partitions,




         and other fixtures should precede the actual asbestos removal




         operation.  This will usually result in contact with the




         ceiling with potential significant exposure.  Localized water




         spraying during fixture removal will reduce fiber dispersal.





                                 E-l

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 5.  Asbestos removal:  Water spraying with resprayirig as required




     if dust occurs during removal of the material by dislodgement




     and scraping.  (See Figure E-l).




 6.  Removal of debris:  Collection of the material and labelling




     according to OSHA regulations using six mil or heavier plastic




     bags.  The use of 55-gallon drums is strongly recommended as




     a secondary containment system for the bags.   (See Figure E-2).




 7.  Gross clean up:  All debris must be placed in bags and drummed




     for disposal.  Spraying of fallen material may be required since




     higher counts are possible during this operation.  Continued




     spraying of the fallen material is recommended.  It should be




     noted that water-soaked fall material left overnight can lose




     much of its water content due to evaporation.




 8.  Repeated cycles of cleaning at intervals is suggested to collect




     settled fibers.  A minimum of two such cycles is recommended




     with 24 hours intervals between.




 9.  Disposal:  Disposal should be in accordance with EPA guidelines.




     Special high cost hazardous waste material disposal services




     are usually not necessary if the sanitary landfill disposal




     area and procedures are performed within the EPA regulations.




10.  Stringent visual inspection of the removal site should be per-




     formed to insure adequacy and completeness of the removal




     procedure.




11.  Air sampling:  Airborne asbestos sampling should be performed




     both during and following asbestos stripping operations.




     During stripping sampling in the removal work area, outside






                              E-2

-------An error occurred while trying to OCR this image.

-------An error occurred while trying to OCR this image.

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containment barriers and within the decontamination area




should adequately determine the adequacy of contamination




control.  Air sampling will supplement post-removal visual




inspections and establish the completeness of the removal




process.  Post-removal sampling during custodial activity




is most likely to reveal residual contamination from




settled fibers.
                          E-5

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                             APPENDIX F




            SUGGESTED SPECIFICATIONS FOR ASBESTOS  REMOVAL






     The following are suggested specifications which should be presented




to a prospective contractor to determine whether a renovation or asbestos




removal job can be accomplished in a safe and satisfactory manner.




     1.  Documentation of Performance in Asbestos Removal




         a.  The contractor shall furnish documentation of successful




             performance in asbestos removal.  This will include name




             and address of purchaser of service, location of work




             performed, and a record or air monitoring for asbestos as




             required by OSHA  1910.1001.




         b.  The contractor will have at all times in his possession




             at his  office  (one copy) and in view at the job site




              (one  copy), OSHA regulation 1910.1001, Asbestos,  and




             Environmental  Protection Agency 40 CFR Part 61, subpart B:




             National Emission  standard for  asbestos, asbestos stripping




             work  practices,  and  disposal of asbestos waste.




      2.   Scope of  Work



          a.   The  contractor shall furnish all  labor, materials, services,




              insurance and equipment necessary for  the  complete removal




              of all asbestos located at the  site in accordance with the
                                  F-l

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        guidelines or regulations of the responsible state




        agency, EPA and OSHA.




    b.  The contractor shall furnish proof that employees




        have had instruction on the dangers of asbestos ex-




        posure, on respirator use, decontamination, and OSHA




        regulations.




3.  Worker's Dress and Equipment for Asbestos Removal




    a.  Work clothes will consist of full body coveralls,




        disposable head covers, boots,  or sneakers, and respi-




        ratory protective equipment as  required by OSHA regu-




        lations.  Eye protection and hard hats should be avail-




        able as appropriate.




    b.  Coveralls should  be of a paper  disposable type.




    c.  Respiratory protection for workers  shall be provided




        by the contractor as required by current OSHA regulation.




3.  Decontamination




    All workers, without  exception:




    a.  Will change work  clothes at  designated areas prior to




        start  of day's work.  Lockers or acceptable substitutes




        will be provided  by the  contractor  for street and  work




        clothes.




    b.  All  work clothes  will  be removed in the work area




        prior  to departure  from  this  area.   Workers would  then




        proceed to  showers.  Workers will shower before lunch




        and  at  the  end of each day's work.   Hot water,  towers,




        soap,  and hygienic  conditions are the  responsibility of




        the  contractor.




                           F-2

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3.  No smoking, eating or drinking is to take place once beyond




    the clean room at the job site.  Prior to smoking,  eating or




    drinking, workers will fully decontaminate by showering.




    Each worker will then dress into a new clean disposable




    coverall to east, smoke or drink.  This new coverall can then




    be used to reenter the work area.




4.  Work footwear will remain inside work area until completion





    of the job.




5.  Pre-Asbestos Removal Preparation




    a.  The  contractor will  thoroughly  seal  all openings and




        fixtures  including,  but not  limited  to, heating and ven-




        tilating  ducts,  sky  lights,  doors, windows, and lighting




        with polyethylene  taped securely  in  place.




    b.  Polyethylene sheets  (6 mil minimum)  will  be used  to




        cover the entire floor  and wall surfaces.




     c.  The  contractor will  set up a decontamination  facility in




         a predesignated area which will house the changing room,




         shower area, and equipment area.




     d.  Adequate toilet facilities should exist in the work area  to




         avoid decontamination for this purpose.  Where such faci-




         lities do not exist, the  contractor will provide portable





         service.




     e.  Procedures will be written for evacuation of injured





         workers.  Aid for a seriously injured worker will not




         be delayed  for reasons of decontamination.
                            F-3

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6.  Methods of Asbestos Removal




    a.  The asbestos material will be sprayed with water




        containing an additive to enhance penetration.   The




        additive,  or wetting agent,  will be 50 percent  poly-




        ethylene ester and 50 percent polyoxyethylene ether




        at a concentration of 1 ounce per 5 gallons of  water.




        A fine spray of this solution must be applied to pre-




        vent fiber disturbance preceding the removal of the




        asbestos material.   The asbestos will be  sufficiently




        saturated  to prevent emission of airborne fibers in




        excess of  the exposure limits prescribed  in the OSHA




        standards  referenced in these specifications.




    b.  Removal of the asbestos material will be  done in small




        sections with two-person teams,  on staging platforms,




        if needed.   The material will be packed into labeled




        6-mil plastic bags  held within 55-gal drums prior  to




        starting the next  section to  prevent the  material  from




        drying.




    c.   Packed and  sealed drums,  with the  required  labeling,




        will be delivered  to a predesignated disposal site for




        burial.  Labels and  all necessary  signs shall be in




        accordance  with EPA and OSHA  standards.




    d.   Following  removal,  the entire area will be  wet  cleaned.




        After a 24-hour period to allow  for dust  settling, the




        entire area will be wet cleaned  again.  During  this




        settling period, no entry, activity,  or ventilation will
                          F-4

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       be allowed.  Twenty-four hours after the second cleaning




       all surfaces in the entire work area will be thoroughly




       vacuumed and wet mopped.




   e.  All polyethylene material, tape, cleaning material, and




       clothing will be placed  in plastic-lined drums, sealed and




       labeled as  described  above for the  asbestos waste material.




   f.  All equipment will  be cleaned of asbestos material prior




       to  leaving  the  work area.




7. Air Monitoring




   a.  Throughout the  removal and  cleaning operations, air  sample




       monitoring will be  conducted to  ensure that  the Contractor




        is complying with all codes, regulations and ordinances.




        The method to be used is described in OSHA standards,




        1910.93a.   The air monitoring technician and his  equipment




        will be subject to approval of the purchaser's represen-




        tative.  Prior to the start of any work, the technician's




        method of measurement and proof that his method is approved




        by the Secretary of Labor of the United States will be




        submitted  to the purchasers representatives for his approval




    b.  Air monitoring will  be  performed to provide the following




        samples during the period of asbestos removal:
                            F-5

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          Area to be          Number of  Minimum sample volume
           sampled             samples   	in liters
  Work area                      4                 50

  Outside work area barriers     2                120

  Outside building               2                240

        Samples will be taken after the actual removal

        operation has begun.



8.  Clean-up and Guarantee

    a.  After the second cleaning operation the following test

        should be performed:  A complete visual inspection should

        be made to insure dust free conditions, and two air

        samples within 48 hours after completion of all cleaning

        work should be taken.   (Minimum volume of air sample

        240 liters).

    b.  If noncompliance occurs,  repeat cleaning and measurement

        until space is in compliance.  Refer to 29 CFR 1910.1001, 7a,

9.  Disposal of Asbestos Material and Related Debris

    a.  All asbestos  materials and miscellaneous debris in

        sealed drums  will be transported to the predesignated

        disposal site in accordance with the guidelines of the

        U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency.

    b.  Workers unloading the  sealed drums  and machinery operators

        will  wear respirators  when handling material at the

        disposal  site.
                            F-6

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         c.  The bags may be dumped from the drums into the burial site.




             The drums may be reused.  However, if a bag is broken




             or damaged, the entire drum should be buried.




         10.  If, at any time, the purchaser's representative decides




             that work practice are violating pertinent regulations or




             endangering workers, he  will  immediately  notify  in writ-




             ing  the  on-site  contractor  representative that operations




             will  cease  until corrective action is  taken.




     Figure F-l shows  the general  sequence  which should be  followed  in an





asbestos removal operation.
                                   F-7

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                             APPENDIX G
          U.S.  ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY REGULATIONS
                       PERTAINING TO ASBESTOS

     The U.S. EPA Regulations contained in Title 40,  Code of Federal
Regulations, Part 61, as amended, applicable to asbestos removal oper-
ations are summarized below:
     Subpart A - General Provisions
         This subpart contains definitions (61.02), regional EPA office
addresses (61.04), waiver information (61.10), (61.11) and other pertinent
information.
     Subpart B - National Emission Standard for Asbestos
          Section                              Content
 §61.21  Definitions         Terms relating to asbestos material, visible
                             emissions, demolition, friable asbestos
                             material, renovation, wetting, removal,
                             stripping, and waste material are defined in
                             this section.
 §61.22  Emission standard,  Contains information on application of stan-
         work practice re-   dards, notification requirements, stripping
         quirements          of  friable asbestos material, wetting, exhaust
                             ventilation systems, restriction of spraying
                             of  asbestos containing material, waste
                                  G-l

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Section                              Content
                   material  handling  and  labelling, and dis-




                   posal  regulations  including  site requirements.




                   Specifies the  applicability  of standard to




                   stripping or removal of asbestos materials of




                   more than 80 meters (260 feet) of covered pipe,




                   or 15  square meters (160 square feet) of




                   friable asbestos materials used to cover a




                   structural member.




                   Written notification to Regional EPA Admin-




                   istrator  is required 10 days prior to begin-




                   ning of renovation (information to be pro-




                   vided is  listed).




                   Procedure to prevent emissions are described:




                   adequate wetting,  local exhaust ventilation




                   systems, proper movement and handling,  and




                  exceptions to wetting  requirements.




                  Spraying of over 1 percent  asbestos  material




                  on structural members  is prohibited.




                  Waste disposal methods  in renovation shall




                  not produce visible emissions:  waste ma-




                  terial  will be  placed  in locktight container




                  while wet, and  disposed of  in sites  in




                  accordance with provisions  of §61.25
                      G-2

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          Section                              Content




 §61.25  Waste disposal sites   This section contains regulations on




                                emissions access restrictions, sign




                                posting, and operating methods for




                                asbestos waste disposal sites.




     Amendments to 40 CFR, Part 61 have been proposed and are found in the




Federal Register of Wednesday, March 2, 1977.  The proposed amendment will




resolve certain ambiguities and omissions in the present standard.




     The applicability of regulations on renovations, removing and strip-




ping asbestos is broadened by deletion of phrases which limit application




of the regulation to asbestos sprayed for insulation and fireproofing




only.  The proposed changes would enable the terms to cover all sprayed




friable asbestos material, for whatever the intended purpose.




     The amendment also clarifies the definition of structural member,




and specifically includes nonload-supporting members such as ceilings and




walls in the scope of the regulation.
                                 G-3

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                              APPENDIX H
       OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION REGULATIONS
                         PERTAINING TO ASBESTOS

     Applicable regulations of the Occupational Safety and Health Admin-
istration U.S. Department of Labor are contained in Title 29, Code of
Federal Regulations, Part 1910.  Regulations specific to asbestos removal
or stripping are contained in Section 1910.1001 et seg. and are summarized
below:
            Section 1910.1001
     (a)  Lists definitions.
                                              Content
                                  Definitions of asbestos and asbes-
                                  tos fibers, size limitation of
                                  5 micrometers or longer.
(b)   Sets limits for permissible  Eight-hour time-weighted average
     exposure to airborne con-    TWA:  two fibers, longer than 5
                                  micrometers, per cubic centimeter
                                  of air (f/cnr3).   Maximum concen-
                                  trations:  10 f/cm3.
                                  (1)  Engineering methods:  isolation,
                                  enclosure, ventilation, dust col-
                                  lection should be used to meet the
                                  exposure limits.
          centrations of asbestos
          fibers.


     (c)  Methods of compliance
          recommend methods to
          meet limits for exposure
                                 H-l

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       Section 1910.1001
            Content
(d)   Personal protective  equip-




     ment  is  specified  for




     various  conditions.
 (2)  Worker protection:  Wet methods




will be used, insofar as practicable,




to prevent the emission of fibers




in excess of the limits.




(2)(iii)  This section lists speci-




fic requirements for both respira-




tory protection and special clothing




for removal workers.




Respiratory protective equipment




and special clothing are required




whenever the exposure limits can




reasonably be expected to be ex-




ceeded.  Equipment approved by the




agency is referenced.




Respiratory protection:




(d)(2)(i)  Concentrations up to




10 times the allowable limit




(20 f/cm3 TWA,  or 100 f/cm3 ceiling




limit):  air purifying respirator.




(d)(2)(ii)   Concentrations up to




100 times the limit (200 f/cm3  TWA,




or 1000 f/cm3  ceiling limits) re-




quire powered air purifying respirator,




(d)(2)(iii)   Concentrations above




100 times the limit require type "C"
                            H-2

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       Section 1910.1001
            Content
(e)  Method of measurement of




     fiber concentrations is




     defined.
(f)  Specific procedures of




     measurement and monitoring,









(g)  Caution signs and labels




     are defined.
(h)   Housekeeping to reduce




     exposure and waste dis-




     posal methods are




     described.
supplied air respirator, continuous




flow or pressure demand class.




(d)(3)  Special clothing shall be




provided if limits are exceeded.




Includes coveralls, head coverings,




foot coverings.




When clothing requirement is met,




laundering service or disposal




should be provided.




Determinations of airborne concen-




trations of asbestos fibers shall




be made by the membrane filter col-




lection method with phase contrast




microscopy.




Personnel monitoring, environmental




monitoring and frequency of moni-




toring are covered.




Specifications and use of signs are




outlined.   Posting of work sites




and use of caution labels on asbestos




material are described.




Cleaning of all objects of accumu-




lated asbestos debris, and sealing in




impermeable, sealed containers.
                            H-3

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            Section 1910.1001                      Content




     (i)  Specifies recordkeeping and  Employer records on exposure.   Time




          requirements for main-       requirements and record disposition




          tenance and retention of     are covered.  Records of monitoring




          records.                     should be retained for 3 years.




     (j)  Lists medical examination    Applicability, specific requirements,




          requirements.                frequency of medical evaluations.




                                       Annual and termination examination




                                       requirements are listed.




     A notice of proposed of rule-making for occupational exposure to as-




bestos (29 DFT Part 1910) is found in the Federal Register, Thursday,




October 9, 1975.  The major issues relevant to removal and stripping oper-




ations contained in this proposal are:




     1.   Lowering of the exposure limits to 0.5 f/cm3 TWA and lowering




          of the ceiling limit to 5 f/cm3.  Ceiling concentration sampling




          time is defined as a period up to 15 minutes.




     2.   The applicability of the standards to transient work forces,




          such as those found in demolition and removal is discussed.




          This reflects a concern for exposures in work places of a non-




          fixed nature, and resolves the ambiguities in this area.




     3.   No one type of respiratory protection is required in removal




          or stripping activities, but is in proportion to anticipated




          concentrations of asbestos.




     4.   The regulated area concept is introduced as any work area where




          a person may be exposed to airborne concentrations of asbestos




          fibers in excess of the limits imposed.






                                 H-4

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     5.   Decontamination by showering is required.




     6.   An employee information and training program is required.




     A revised recommended asbestos standard was promulgated by NIOSH in




December 1976.  The recommended exposure level in this document is 0.1 f/cm




8-hour TWA with ceiling concentrations not to exceed 0/5 f/cm3 based on




a 15-minute sample.  The essential purpose of this reduction is to ma-




terially reduce the risk of asbestos-induced cancer.  The analytical tech-




nique of phase contrast microscopy is retained in this recommended standard.
                                 H-5

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                               APPENDIX I

                U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY AND
             OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION

                          EPA REGIONAL OFFICES
Region I
Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts,
New Hampshire, Rhode Island and
Vermont
John F. Kennedy Federal Building
Room 2303
Boston, Massachusetts 02203
(617) 223-7210

Region II
New York, New Jersey, Puerto Rico,
Virgin Islands, and Canal Zone
Federal Office Building
26 Federal Plaza
New York, New York 10007
(212) 264-2525

Region III
Delaware, District of Columbia,
Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia,
and West Virginia
Curtis Building
Sixth and Walnut Streets
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania  19106
(215) 597-9814

Region IV
Alabama, Florida,  Georgia,  Kentucky,
Mississippi,  North Carolina,  South
Carolina, and Tennessee
345 Courtland St., NE
Atlanta, Georgia 30308
(404) 881-4727
Region V
Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, Michi-
gan, Ohio, and Wisconsin
230 South Dearborn
Chicago, Illinois 60604
(312) 353-2000

Region VI
Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico,
Oklahoma, and Texas
First International Building
1201 Elm Street
Dallas, Texas 75270
(214) 749-1962

Region VII
Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska
1735 Baltimore Avenue
Kansas City, Missouri 64108
(816) 374-5493

Region VIII
Colorado, Montana, North Dakota,
South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming
1860 Lincoln Street
Denver, Colorado  80295
(303) 837-3895

Region  IX
Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada,
Guam, American Samoa, Trust Territory
of  the  Pacific
100 California Street
San Francisco, California 94111
(415) 556-2320
                                 1-1

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Region X
Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, Washington
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle, Washington 98101
(206) 442-1220
                          DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
             OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
                             REGIONAL OFFICES3
Region I
Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Vermont
John F. Kennedy Federal Building
Government Center
Room 1804
Boston, Massachusetts 02203
(617) 223-6712/3

Region II
New York, New Jersey, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, and Canal Zone
1515 Broadway
(1 Astor Plaza)
Room 3445
New York, New York 10036
(212) 399-5941

Region III
Delaware, District of Columbia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and
West Virginia
Suite 2100
Gateway Building
3535 Market Street
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
(215) 596-1201

Region IV
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, South
Carolina, and Tennessee
Suite 587
1375 Peachtree St., NE
Atlanta, Georgia 30309
(404) 881-3573
aThe regional offices should be contacted to find the area office nearest
you.
                                1-2

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Region V
Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin
Room 3263
230 S. Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
(312) 353-4716/7

Region VI
Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas
Room 602
555 Griffin Square Building
Dallas, Texas 75202
(214) 749-2477

Region VII
Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska
Room 3000
911 Walnut Street
Kansas City, Mo. 64106
(816) 374-5861

Region VIII
Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming
Room  15010
Federal Building
1961  Stout Street
Denver, Colorado 80294
(303) 387-3883

Region  IX
Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, Guam, American  Samoa, and
Trust Territory of the Pacific
P.O.  Box 36017
9470  Federal Building
450 Golden Gate Ave.
San Francisco, California  94102
(415) 556-6586

Region  X
Alaska,  Idaho, Oregon, and Washington
Room  6048
Federal Office Building
909 First Avenue
Seattle, Washington  98174
(206) 442-5930
                                 1-3

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                                APPENDIX J

              COMMERCIAL SOURCES OF MATERIALS,  AND EQUIPMENT

                     FOR ASBESTOS REMOVAL OPERATIONS
 AIR SAMPLING PUMPS
 1.    Bendix
      Environmental  Science  Division
      1400  Taylor Avenue
      Baltimore, Maryland  21204

 2.    Millipore Corporation
      Bedford, Massachusetts 01730

 3.    Mine  Safety Appliance  Company
      201 North Braddock Avenue
      Pittsburg, Pennsylvania  15208

 4.    National Environmental Instruments,  Inc,
      P.O.  Box 590
      Warwick, Rhode Island 02888

 5.    Willson Products Division
      ESB Incorporated
      P.O.  Box 622
      Reading, Pennsylvania 19603
VACUUMS:  INDUSTRIAL HEPA FILTERED
1.   American Cleaning Equipment Corporation
     111 South Route 53
     Addison, Illinois 60101

2.   NILFISK of America, Inc.
     P.O. Box 713
     201 King Manor Drive
     King of Prussia, Pennsylvania 19406

Note:  It is recognized that equipment and services other than those cited
       in this report may be available.  Mention of company or product names
       is not to be considered an endorsement by the authors.

                                J-l

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                                   TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                            (Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
      EPA-450/2-78-014
                                                            3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
  Sprayed Asbestos-Containing Materials  in Buildings:
  A Guidance Document
               5. REPORT DATE
                 .Tannery 1 Q78
               6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
  Robert N. Sawyer, M.D.,  Yale University
  Charles M. Spooner,  Ph.D., GCA/Technology Division
               8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.

                 OAQPS  No.  1.2-094
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
  Office of Air Quality Planning and  Standards
  Environmental Protection Agency
  Research Triangle  Park, North Carolina  27711
                                                            10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
                11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.

                   68-02-2607
12. SPONSORING AGENCV NAME AND ADDRESS
   DAA for Office  of  Air Quality Planning and Standards
   Office of Air and  Waste Management
   U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency
   Research Triangle  Park, North Carolina  27711	
                13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
                  Final
                14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
                  EPA/200/04
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT

   This guidance  document summarizes  the available  information on  sprayed
   asbestos-containing materials  in buildings.   It  describes actions  that
   may be taken when a building owner knows or  suspects that friable  asbestos
   materials are  present.  Application of sealant coats and removal  of asbestos
   materials are  discussed.
17.
                                KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                  DESCRIPTORS
                                               b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
                              c. COSATI Field/Group
   Air pollution
   Pollution control
   Hazardous pollutants
   Guidelines
   Asbestos
   Sealants
   Removal Procedures
    Air pollution control
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
   Unlimited
   19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
    .Unr.1a.ssi f i p.d
                                                                           21. NO. OF PAGES
  20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
                              22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
K-l
                                                                       P.O. 1978 — 74O-201 /4I0S. REGION NO. *

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