EPA-450/4-74-011
(OAQPS NO. 1.2-029)
GUIDELINES FOR AIR QUALITY
MAINTENANCE PLANNING AND ANALYSIS
VOLUME 10 :
REVIEWING NEW STATIONARY SOURCES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Waste Management
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
September 1974
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OAQPS GUIDELINE SERIES
The guideline series of reports is being issued by the Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards (OAQPS) to provide information to state and local
air pollution control agencies; for example, to provide guidance on the
acquisition and processing of air quality data and on the planning and
analysis requisite for the maintenance of air quality. Reports published in
this series will be available - as supplies permit - from the Air Pollution
Technical Information Center, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
27711; or, for a nominal fee, from the National Technical Information
Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22151.
This report was furnished to the Environmental Protection Agency by
Geomet, Inc. , Rockville, Maryland, in fulfillment of Task Order No. 2,
Contract No. 68-02-1094. Prior to final preparation, the report under-
went extensive review and editing by the Environmental Protection
Agency and other concerned orgemizations. The contents reflect
current Agency thinking and are subject to clarification, procedural
change, and other minor modification prior to condensation for inclusion
in Requirements for Preparation, Adoption, and Submittal of Implementa-
tion Plans (40 CFR Part 51) .
Publication No. EPA-450/4-74-011
(OAQPS Guideline No. 1.2-029)
11
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FOREWORD
This document is the tenth in a series comprising Guidelines for Air
Quality Maintenance Planning and Analysis. The intent of the series is to
provide State and local agencies with information and guidance for the prepa-
ration of Air Quality Maintenance Plans required under 40 CFR 51. The volumes
in this series are:
Volume 1: Designation of Air Quality Maintenance Areas
Volume 27 Plan Preparation
Volume 3: Control Strategies
Volume 4: Land Use and Transportation Consideration
Volume 5: Case Studies in Plan Development
Volume 6j_ Overview of Air Quality Maintenance Area Analysis
Volume 7j_ Projecting County Emissions
Volume 8? Computer-Assisted Area Source Emissions Gridding
Procedure
Volume 9: Evaluating Indirect Sources
Volume 10: Reviewing New Stationary Sources
Volume \\\_ Air Quality Monitoring and Data Analysis
Volume 12: Applying Atmospheric Simulation Models to Air Quality
Maintenance Areas
Additional volumes may be issued.
All references to 40 CFR Part 51 in this document are to the regulations
as amended through July 1974.
NOTE
This guideline is being released in its present form in order to
allow its immediate use by State and local agencies. This guideline
may be reissued in the near future in order to incorporate comments
and suggested improvements offered by the EPA Regional Offices and by
State and local agencies and other concerned groups.
Ill
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PREFACE
Volumes 7, 8 and 13 present procedures which can be used to
project and allocate emissions within a county. Volume 12 discusses
how projected emission inventories incorporating various levels of
detail may be used in atmospheric simulation models (which have been
calibrated with valid air quality data) to project air quality levels
within a county. It is apparent from Volumes 7, 8 and 13 that it may
frequently be extremely difficult to project emissions from new point
sources of pollution. The difficulties are threefold:
(1) Uncertainty about the process and control devices to be
used, resulting in uncertainty about the quantity and type of emissions.
(2) Uncertainty about the location of the new source.
(3) Uncertainty about the stack design parameters of the
new source.
Lack of precise knowledge about any of the above three variables
greatly decreases the reliability with which the analyst can (a)
estimate the adequacy of emission density limitations for maintaining
ambient air quality standards, and (b) estimate whether an individual
point source is likely to result in localized violations of ambient
air quality standards.
The foregoing discussion strongly suggests that an air quality
maintenance plan require the analysis of proposed new point sources
to be a two-tiered procedure. The first step would require an analysis
iv
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in which county emissions are projected and allocated using procedures
similar to those outlined in Volumes 7, 8 and 13. This information
would then be used in one or more calibrated atmospheric simulation
models, similar to those outlined in Volume 12, to estimate whether
ambient air quality standards would be met under the projected scenario.
Use of the atmospheric simulation models can be extended to prescribe
emission limitations for the industrial, residential and commercial
zones designated within the county. The projected distribution of
air quality levels obtained by using projected distributions of
emissions as input to calibrated atmospheric simulation models would
serve to estimate urban background concentrations.
The second step in the analysis of a proposed point source should
be implemented after a concrete proposal, specifying the source's
location, stack design parameters and net emissions after the application
of control devices, has been received. The emissions estimated for
the source would be allocated to it from the remaining available allowable
emissions estimated in the first step of the analysis. Assuming there
are sufficient available emissions to perform this allocation, the
second step should proceed. The purpose of the second step is to insure
'that the design, location and emission control devices to be used by
the proposed source are sufficient to avoid the threat of localized
violations of ambient air quality standards. This assurance could be
gained by performing an analysis of the source's impact and superimposing
it on the projected urban background concentration at appropriate
locations. The purpose of Volume 10 is to suggest methods which may
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be used in estimating the impact of an individual point source of
pollution on ambient air quality. These methods may be used to provide
assurance that a new source will not violate standards and provide
insight into strategies which might be effective in reducing the impact
of an individual source on air quality.
VI
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
1 INTRODUCTION 1
Background 1
Purpose of the Review 1
How to Use This Document 2
2 EMISSION DATA 5
Emissions and Effectiveness of Controls of Point Sources 5
Stack Characteristics 7
Location and Topography 8
Merged Parameters for Multiple Stacks 9
3 METEOROLOGICAL DATA 10
4 METHODS OF ANALYSIS 18
Maximum Short-Term Concentrations 18
Annual Mean Concentrations From a Point Source 38
Maximum Short-Term Concentrations at Critical Locations 45
5 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF STATIONARY SOURCE EMISSION INFORMATION 62
REFERENCES 76
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL DATA SHEET 78
Note: A final copy of this document, to be made available about
October, 1974, will contain additional material on estimated
concentrations due to limited mixing (plume trapping) conditions.
Limited mixing is generally acknowledged to be the condition
most often producing the highest short-term concentrations
from sources with tall stacks.'*2
1. Carpenter, S. B., et. al., 1971, "Principle Plume Dispersion
Models: TVA Power Plants," Journal of the Air Pollution
Control Association, Vol. 21, No. 8, August 1971.
2. Pooler, Francis, Jr. Potential Dispersion of Plumes from Large
Power Plants. Publication No. 999-AP-16, 1965.
vn
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LIST OF FICiURES
Figure Page
4-1 Distance of Maximum Concentration and Maximum xu/Q as
a Function of Stability Class and Effective Height
(Meters) of Emission Over Rural Terrain 21
4-2 Distance of Maximum Concentration and Maximum xu/Q as
a Function of Stability Class and Effective Height
(Meters) of Emission Over Urban Terrain 22
4-3 Maximum xu/Q as a Function of Downwind Distance and
Stability Class Over Rural Terrain 33
4-4 Maximum xu/Q as a Function of Downwind Distance and
Stability Class Over Urban Terrain 34
4-5 Horizontal Diffusion Parameter (ay) as a Function of
Downwind Distance and Stability Class Over Rural Terrain 36
4-6 Vertical Diffusion Parameter (az) as a Function of
Downwind Distance and Stability Class Over Rural Terrain 37
4-7 Isopleths (100's of meters) of Mean Annual- Afternoon
Mixing Heights 43
4-8 Isopleths (100's of meters) of Mean Annual Morning
Mixing Heights 44
4-9 xu/Q with Distance for Various Heights of Emission (H)
and Limits to Vertical Dispersion (L), A Stability
and Rural Terrain 48
4-10 xu/Q with Distance for Various Heights of Emission (H)
and Limits to Vertical Dispersion (L), B Stability and
Rural Terrain 49
t-'i xu/Q with Distance for Various Heights of Emission (H)
and Limits to Vertical Dispersion (L), C Stability and
Rural Terrain 50
-12 xu/Q with Distance for Various Heights of Emission (H)
and Limits to Vertic:.: Dispersion (L), D Stability and
Rural Terrain 51
(Continued)
vm
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LIST OF FIGURES (Concluded)
Figure Page
4-13 xu/Q with Distance for Various Heights of Emission (H)
and Limits to Vertical Dispersion (L), E Stability and
Rural Terrain 52
4-14 xu/Q with Distance for Various Heights of Emission (H)
and Limits to Vertical Dispersion (L), F Stability and
Rural Terrain 53
4-15 xu/Q with Distance for Various Heights of Emission (H)
and Limits to Vertical Dispersion (L), A and B Stability
for Urban Terrain 54
4-16 xu/Q with Distance for Various Heights of Emission (H)
and Limits to Vertical Dispersion (L), C Stability for
Urban Terrain 55
4-17 xu/Q with Distance for Various Heights of Emission (H)
and Limits to Vertical Dispersion (L), D Stability for
Urban Terrain 56
4-18 xu/Q with Distance for Various Heights of Emission (H)
and Limits to Vertical Dispersion (L), E Stability for
Urban Terrain 57
IX
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TABLES
No.
Page
1-1 Photochemical Reactivity and Periods for Which
National Air Quality Standards Exist for Six Pollutants 3
3-1 Sources of Temperature Data 11
3-2 Net Radiation Index Values 13
3-3 Meteorological Stability Classification for Character-
izing Diffusion 13
3-4 Wind Profile Parameters as a Function of Atmospheric
Stability 16
4-1 Key to Stability Categories 23
4-2 Values of Diffusion Parameters by Stability Class and
Terrain 24
4-3 Plume Rise Parameters by Type of Stack and Stability
Class 25
4-4 Maximum Duration of Stability Classes for Selected
Latitudes and Dates 29
4-5 Correction Factors for Extending Maximum 1-Hour Concen-
trations to Longer Averaging Periods 30
4-6 Wind Speed Classes Used by NCC for Joint Frequency Dis-
tribution of Wind Speed, Wind Direction, and Stability 40
4-7 Parametric Values for Vertical Diffusion (a ). and
Height of the Mixing Layer (L.) z 1
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
In response to the requirements imposed by 40 CFR part 51 (which estab-
lishes requirements for preparation, adoption, and submittal of state
implementation plans for attaining and maintaining national standards of
air quality), each state must adopt a procedure for the review of new
sources and modifications of sources of air pollution. The adopted pro-
cedure will enable a state or local agency to determine whether the new
source or modification will interfere with the attainment or maintenance
of national standards. The review will consider emissions directly from
the source and indirectly from mobile source activities associated with
the stationary source. Thus, the review will extend to facilities such
»
as airports, amusement parks, highways, and shopping centers. This
document is concerned primarily with the review of stationary sources.
For help in reviewing sources with significant mobile source activity,
consult "Guidelines for Review of Complex Sources" (in preparation, 1974).
This document discusses analytical methods which will be helpful in for-
mulating review procedures and discusses information requirements for
using the methods. The intent of this document is to provide sufficient
guidelines to state and local control agencies that the need for niajor
revisions to state implementation plans based on these guidelines will be
greatly decreased.
PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW
The review procedures to be adopted by state and local air pollution con-
trol agencies I
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o To provide assurance that a now source will not cause ambient
air quality standards to be violated.
o To bring to light procedures, source designs and siting alter-
natives which would further reduce the impact of air pollutants,
..especially on the more susceptible individuals and crops.
e To provide sufficient knowledge of potential air pollution
problems resulting from the new source's existence or subsequent
growth that such problems can be adequately dealt with.
HOW TO USE THIS DOCUMENT
The techniques presented in this document are Useful in estimating air
quality levels which result from emissions by a single new or modified
source. It is presumed that the present and future air quality in areas
affected by the new or modified source is known or can be estimated from
other information. This includes consideration of the extent to which air
quality levels from present sources will be reduced in the future by the
application of control strategies. Sjch strategies are designed to meet
national air quality standards and to allow for future development. By
adding the air pollutant concentrations calculated for the new source to
both the present and the projected future concentrations, one can determine
whether the new source will likely result in concentrations which exceed
national standards. The result will also provide guidance as to whether
the new source conforms to applicable control strategies in view of addi-
tional sources which may be expected within the projected degree of future
growth and development.
Selection of Techniques
he methods and techniques presented herein are suggestions and not rigid
"k 'Uirements. There are many situations in which the techniques may be
a^ lied with a reasonably high degree of confidence. Their validity is based
on ,-esults averaged over a large number of individual receptor locations.
Hov.jver, even under the most fworablo conditions, e.g., situations with
.eii defined air flow in terrain without irregular topographical features
such as valley l^r^" l.-{'-«; in terms
of ground le^cl .-,,.. .',..;'o.. it a single receptor location rr.y vary frc::i
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f
r
observed values by a factor of three. When irregular topographical fea-
tures are present, the results are less certain, and the services of an
experienced air pollution meteorologist should be sought in estimating
air quality levels. The methods presented in this document provide some
limited guidance for estimating the effects of irregular topographical 'r.
features. " '
Whether an emitted pollutant is photochemically reactive or not will affect
the technique selected. However, while references are given to methods for
treating photochemical reactions, suitable techniques are not included in
this document.
Another consideration which affects the selection of a technique is the
averaging period which must be considered. The national air quality stan-
dards are defined for different periods for each pollutant. These are
listed in Table 1-1.
I
v
Table 1-1. PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIVITY AND PERIODS FOR WHICH NATIONAL
AIR QUALITY STANDARDS EXIST FOR SIX POLLUTANTS
Pollutant
Sulfur Dioxide
Particulate
Carbon Monoxide
Nitrogen Dioxide
Hydrocarbons
Photochemical
Oxidants
Photochemical
Reactivity
Stable
Stable
Stable
Reactive
Reactive
Reactive
Periods with National Standards
Annual
X
X
X
Max(a)
24-hr
X
X
Max
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Degree of
For sources located in flat terrain, in which the emissions affect
relatively clean areas, and with continuous emission rates, a few simple
calculations are adequate. When nearby lakes or mountains, highly vari-
able emission rates, possible downwash problems or other localized
effects are present, detailed study is required. .
j)ata Requirements
.The data required to carry out the techniques presented here include
emission data, meteorological data, arid topographical maps. The emission
data is described in Chapter 2. The meteorological data is described in
Chapter 3. Topographical maps may be obtained from the U.S. Geological
Survey.
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Chapter 2
EMISSION DATA
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CHAPTER 2 . . .. . '
EMISSION DATA
EMISSIONS AND EFFECTIVENESS OF CONTROLS OF POINT SOURCES
An important part of the review process must include a determination of
how much of what pollutants are emitted where and when. If the pollutants
are not emitted at a constant rate (most are not), information should be
obtained on how the emissions may vary with season, day of the week, and
hour of the day. In most cases the emissions will vary with the source's
production rate, which can be specified in terms of output units, e.g.,
for each kilowatt-hour of electricity produced by a fossil-fuel power
plant, a known amount of fuel will be consumed and a known amount of each
pollutant will be emitted. The source operator should be able to deter-
mine appropriate emission factors, giving the amount of each pollutant
emitted per unit of the source's related production process.
Four possible bases for determining emission factors, in decreasing
order of confidence are:
Stack-test results or other emission measurements from an
identical or equivalent source
Material balance calculations based on engineering knowledge
of the process
o Emission factors derived for similar sources or taken from a
.compilation by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1973a)
o Engineering judgment.
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For pollutants which are emitted in direct proportion to production
process rates, variations in emission rates can be determined from vari-
ation in production rates. Th.e source operator should be requested to
define his planned hours of operation for each day of the week. If his
production rate varies with hour of the day, day of the week, or month
of the year, the expected production rate should be defined for all 'Y'
periods as a percentage of the maximum production rate. With this infor-
mation, the maximum production rate and the emission factor for each
pollutant, the emissions can be determined for any hour, three-hour,
eight-hour, or 24-hour period.
Some emissions are best related to factors other than production rates.
Examples of emissions not directly related to production rates are
emissions from fuel burned for spacg heat, evaporation of stored volatile
materials, and fugitive dust from stored powders or from dirt roads. .The
following equation relates emissions from space heating fuel consumption
for a given day to average temperature for that day, for temperatures below
18.3°C (65°F):
Q = EF (65-T) (2_1}
where Q = emission rate
E = emission factor
T = average temperature, CF
F = space heat fuel factor, (unit fuel)/(deg. day)
and (65-T), if positive, is the number of degree days
accumulated that day.
For more detailed treatment of emissions related to space heating refer
o analyses by Turner (1968), Roberts (1970), and Koch and Thayer (1971).
65°F (18.3°C) less the average of the daily maximum and minimum
temperatures is the number of daily degree days.
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For stored volatile materials EPA has developed convenient methods of
estimating evaporation emissions from the storage and transportation of
petroleum products, dry cleaning, and surface coating operations (U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency 1973a including Supplement No. 1).
For fugitive sources methods of estimating emissions are necessarily sub-
jective. However, emission factors have been developed for some sources,
e.g., gravel stored in outside piles (U.S. EPA 1973a). Also, guidelines
are available for estimating amounts of material burned per acre by for-
est fires, slash burning, and agricultural burning (U.S. EPA 1973b).
These estimates combined with available emission factors for fires (U.S.
EPA 1973a) may be used to determine annual and short-term emission rates.
Unfortunately, little or no information is available to estimate emissions
from traffic over dirt roads and other types of fugitive' sources of emis-
sions.
Where emissions are reduced by control equipment, the effectiveness of
such controls must be included in the emission estimates. The source
operator will be able to estimate what the effectiveness is and what con-
ditions alter its effectiveness and to what degree.. A survey of the types
of controls and the control efficiencies which have been reported in the
National Emissions Data System (NEDS) for various types of sources is
available from EPA (Vatavuk 1973). A number of other references are also
available which provide more detailed guidelines about emission controls
(e.g., Danielson 1973, Lund 1971, Stern 1968, U.S. Dept. of HEW 1969a,b
and 1970a,b,c; U.S. EPA 1971 and 1973c).
STACK CHARACTERISTICS
The height of emission, buoyancy, momentum and relation to surrounding
topography of emitted pollutants are all important considerations.
As a general rule.the point of emission is a stack. The following
characteristics of the stack and its effluents should be provided by
the source operator:
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« Height
t Exit diameter (may be approximated by 1.13 times the
square root of the cross-sectional area for non-cir-
cular flues)
- « Exit velocity
Exit temperature (buoyant [hot] plumes only).
With the above information, the plume rise can be calculated for the
stack effluents. A recommended method for estimating plume rise is
given in Chapter 4.
If there is no stack so that the emissions are released from vents on
the top or side of a building, the emissions will be subjected to mixing
in the turbulent cavity immediately downwind of the building. In this
case the dimensions of the building, including height, length, and width,
and its orientation should be specified. These will be used to determine
the minimum crosswind area of the building. In addition, an estimate is
required as to how much the cross-sectional area of the downwind cavity
is altered by the building shape.
If the temperature and velocity of the stack gas effluent are not avail-
able from the source operator, some guideline estimates are available
(Engineering-Science, Inc. 1971).
LOCATION AND TOPOGRAPHY
The location of the source should be determined as accurately as possible
(e.g., within ±0.1 km) in terms of convenient coordinates. Universal
Transverse Mercator Coordinates are recommended since these are the coor-
dinates most commonly used in air pollution reporting systems.
Any significant topographical feature in the vicinity of the source should
2 noted. U.S. Geological Survey Haps are convenient for this purpose.
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"T* '
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Important features to note are large lakes or seashore, nearby hills and
mountains, valley configurations, and general terrain roughness. These
characteristics influence diffusion modeling considerations.
MERGED PARAMETERS FOR MULTIPLE STACKS
Sources which emit the same pollutant from several stacks in close prox- '
imity may often be analyzed by treating the emissions as coming from a single
representative stack. The following rule which is recommended for com-
bining emissions from similar boilers for NEDS may be used to select
stack characteristics to represent the combined emissions (U.S. EPA 1973b).
For each stack compute parameter K as follows:
where h = stack height
V = 2j- d v$ = stack gas volume flow rate
d = stack exit diameter
vs = stack gas exit velocity
Ts = stack gas exit temperature
Q = stack emission rate.
Use the height, diameter, exit velocity and exit temperature of the stack
with the lowest value of K. Use the sum of emissions for all stacks as
the emission rate.
If the stacks are widely dispersed, use of a single representative stack
for the combined emissions will greatly overestimate the concentrations
from the plant. In the case of a very large complex industrial plant,
several representative combined stacks may be used.
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I*.
ff
Chapter 3
METEOROLOGICAL DATA
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CHAPTER 3
METEOROLOGICAL DATA
The methods of estimation presented 'in Chapter 4 require the use of the
follovn'ng meteorological parameters: . -,-.'.-
o Temperature
o Incoming solar radiation
o Cloud cover and ceiling height
o Wind direction and speed
e Mixing layer height
In some Air Quality Control Regions (AC.CR) these parameters are routinely
measured and recorded in a data bank along with air quality measurements.
More generally, however, these parameters must be obtained from the
National Climatic Center in Asheville, North Carolina. Limited data may
also be obtained directly from local National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) observing stations.
A discussion of common measurements of each of the above parameters and
of their relation to the values required for the methods of Chapter 4
follows.
Temperature
Estimates of temperature are required to estimate the emission rate of
pollutants associated with the combustion of fuel for space heat and to
estimate the plume rise of buoyant exhaust gases. In addition to standard
hourly and three-hourly records of temperature, a number of useful clima-
t^logical summaries are available (see Table 3-1). In some cases it will
be , ecessary to convert reported temperatures to other units. The following
relationships may be useful:
C - (F-32)(5/9)
K = C + 273
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Table 3-1. SOURCES OF TEMPERATURE DATA
Temperature
Characteristic
Sources*
Hourly Observation
Three-Hourly Observation
Monthly and Annual
Dally Max.
Daily Min.
Mean
Std. Deviation
Degree Days
Extreme Max.
Extreme Min.
Monthly and Annual Freq. Dist.
Daily Max.
Daily Min.
Daily Mean
Three-Hourly
NCC .
NCC
LCD, ACB, WWAS
LCD, ACB, WWAS
LCD, SMOS-E
SMOS-E
LCD
LCD, ACB, WWAS
LCD, ACB, WWAS
AFSUM-A
SMOS-E, AFSUM-A
SMOS-E, AFSUM-A
SSMO-13, 17; SMOS-E; AFSUM-A
*NCC - National Climatic Center, Federal Building, Asheville, N. C. 28801
LCD -"Local Climatological Data", NCC
ACB -"AWS Climatic Brief", NCC
WWAS - "World-Wide Airfield Summaries", NCC
SMOS-E - "Summary of Meteorological Observations, Surface, Part E", NCC
AFSUM-A - "Summary of Surface Weather Observations - A Sunniary", NCC
SSMO-13, 17 - "Sun-nary of Synoptic Meteorological Observations"
Tables 13 and 17, NCC
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where C = temperature, °C
F = temperature, °F
K = absolute temperature, °K
Incoming Solar Radiation , ., .
The intensity of incoming solar radiation is required to estimate atino-
spheric stability. Although it is not routinely measured at most loca-
tions, it may be estimated from the solar elevation angle and the amount
of cloud cover.
For the purpose of estimating stability, incoming radiation may be quali-
tatively classified as strong, moderate or slight. "Strong" incoming solar
radiation corresponds to a solar altitude greater than 60° with clear
skies; "moderate" insolation corresponds to a solar altitude between 35°
and 60° with clear skies; "slight" insolation corresponds to a solar
altitude from 15° to 35° with clear skies. Table 170, Solar Altitude
and Azimuth, in the Smithsonian Meteorological Tables (List, 1951) can
be used in determining the solar altitjde. Cloudiness will decrease
incoming solar radiation and should be considered along with solar alti-
tude in determining solar radiation. Incoming radiation that would be
strong with clear skies can be expected to be reduced to moderate with
broken (5/8 to 7/8 cloud cover) middle clouds and to slight with broken
low clouds. An objective system of classifying stability from hourly
meteorological observations based on the above method has been suggested
(Turner, 1961).
jrner's objective method is presented in Tables 3-2 and 3-3. Total
loud amount and cloud ceiling height are discussed in the following
si tion. The solar altitude angle may be obtained from List (1951) or
iron, the following equation.
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Table 3-2. N£T RADIATIOfl IHUtX VALUES.
y
Time
of
Day*
Night
Night
Night
Night
Day**
Day
Day
Day
Day
Day
Total
Cloud
Amount (N)
N<0.4
0.4N<1.0
N=1.0
N=1.0
N=1.0
Ceiling Height
(c), (ft)
- -
-
c<7,000
<>7,000
. c>.16,000
c<7,000
16,000>c<7,000
c<7,000
16,000>Q>7,000
C>16,000
Not Radiation Index for
Indicated Solar Altitude (n)
a60°
"._ -
_
4
2
3
0
2
3
*Night refers to time from 1 hour before sunset to 1 hour past sunrise.
**This line includes conditions of clear or scattered clouds with no
cloud ceiling.
Table 3-3. METEOROLOGICAL STABILITY CLASSIFICATIONS FOR
CHARACTERIZING DIFFUSION
Wind
Speed
(Knots)
0, 1
2, 3
4, 5
6
7
8, 9
10
11
±12
Stability Class for
4
A
A
A
B
B
B
C
C
C
3
A
B
B
B
B
C
C
C
D
2
B
B
C
C
C
C
D
D
D
Indicated Net. Radiation Index*
1
C
C
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
0
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
*Net Radiation Index Values are Uiven in I able 3-2.
-1
F
F
E
E
D
D
D
D
D
-2
G
G
F
F
E
E
E
D
D
-1JU
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a = arcsiiwsin 4> sin 6 + cos 4. cos 6 cos
where
a - solar altitude
6 = solar declination
m = month of year
d = day of month
h = hour of day (local standard time)
<}> - latitude.
Another method of estimating the intensity of incoming solar radiation
suggested by Ludwig, et al (1970) is the following:
Slight 5 1^ 0.33
Moderate = 0.33^1 ^ 0.67
Strong = 0.67-^1
where I - (1-0.5N) sin a
N = cloud cover (fraction of sky obscured)
a = solar altitude angle
jCovcr and Ceiling Height
Hoi rly or three-hourly observations of surface weather observations, which
may be ordered from NCC, include total cloud amount arid cloud ceiling
height. These observations are used to determine atmospheric stability
classes as indicated in a preceding section.
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Wind Speed and Direction
Wind speed and direction are available as part of hourly or three-hourly
weather records from NCC. Surface wind direction and speed are also
commonly measured as a part of Air Quality Control Region Monitoring systems,
Climatological values of vrind speed and direction may also be useful. ''"' '
For example, in addition to the joint frequency distribution of v/ind
speed, v/ind direction and stability, distributions of wind speed or
direction are avaialble as a function of hour of the day on both an
annual and a monthly basis.
Since January 1964, wind directions have been generally reported to the
nearest 10 degrees azimuth. However, climatological summaries of wind
directions may be in terms of 8 or 16 compass points instead of 10 degrees
azimuth.
Wind speeds are usually measured at a height near 6 meters (20 feet).
It is desirable to get an average wind speed over the layer affected by
the plume. The following equation may be used to estimate an average
layer wind speed.
where u = average wind speed for the plume
z, = anemometer height
u^ = observed wind speed
L =.height to top of plume (use height of the mixing layer
or the effective source height plus 2a2, whichever is less)
p = wind profile parameter (see Table 3-4).
-15-
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Table 3-4. HIND PROFILF. PAKAKETCRS AS A FUNCTION OF
ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
Stability Category . Exponent of Wind Speed Profile
A
B
C
D
E
F
0.1
0.. 1 5
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35, 0.5*
Joint Frequency Distribution of Hind Direction, Hind Speed and Stability
Climatological joint frequencies of occurrence of wind direction, wind
speed and stability by annual, seasonal or monthly periods may be
requested directly from the National Climatic Center (NCC), Asheville,
li r- loom
n.c.
Mixing Layer Height
Climatological summaries of mixing layer heights are available from EPA
(Holzworth 1972). Two relevant summaries are presented in Figures 4-7
and 4-8. In addition, the mixing layer height may be estimated from
radiosonde observations available from NCC. If radiosonde observations
are not available from a nearby station, spatial interpolation may be
necessary between two or more stations. During daytime hours, the mixing
layer height may be estimated by projecting the ground level temperature
diabatically (along a line of constant potential temperature) on a thermo-
dyanric chart until it intersects the temperature height graph from the
mo~;- recent radiosonde observation. The height of the intersection will
be .he height of the mixing layer. During nocturnal hours, a stable layer
wi11 likely form over rural terrain, in which case there is no mixing
*A value of 0.35 is appropriate for stacks in excess of 100m. A value of
0.5 may be used when the plume height does not exceed 100m. These values
are designed to represent the very sharp shear in wind speeds which exists
in a shallow surface layer during very stable conditions.
-16-
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layer. Over urban terrain, a new mixing layer will form bcncatli the late
afternoon mixing layer. The height of the urban mixing layer can be
determined directly from a radiosonde sounding if one is available for
the urban area. If, as is more common'! y the case, only a rural sounding
is available, the urban morning mixing layer height can be estimated by
adding 5°C to the minimum morning temperature and projecting this ground
level temperature adiabatically until it intersects the temperature sound-
ing as is done for afternoon mixing heights. It is recommended that the
late afternoon mixing layer height be continued until midnignt and that
the mixing height determined for the morning sounding of the next day be
used after midnight.
-17-
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-------
c
G
Chapter 4
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
-------
CHAPTER 4
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
Methods of..estimating concentrations of pollutants emitted by a new (or
modified) source are presented for the following types of considerations:
c Maximum short-term concentration (this page)
o Annual mean concentrations (page 38)
o Short-term concentrations at critical locations, (page 45)
In order to perform the analyses and calculations suggested here, it is
necessary to obtain meteorological data for the area affected by the new
source. It may also be necessary to supplement or verify the validity
of the emission and stack data supplied by the new source owners and
operators. Chapter 2 discusses sources of emission, emission control
and stack information. The types of meteorological data needed and sug-
gested sources for this data are discussed in Chapter 3.
MAXIMUM SHORT-TERM CONCENTRATIONS
One-hour ground-level concentrations from emissions by a single source
can best be estimated by means of the Gaussian plume equation. For a
discussion of this equation, including its various uses and limitations
the reader should consult the Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates
(Turner 1970). The one-hour concentrations may be used to estimate con-
r itrations for longer averaging periods using empirical conversion fac-
"s which are presented in the methodologies which follow. A method is
~>rc nited for estimating maximum short-term concentrations from sources
v.ith each of the following types of emission situations:
o Stack with significant plume rise (jet or buoyant plume)
o Stack with little or no plume rise
-------
Ground-level source with little or no plume rise
0 Emissions from a rooftop or side of a building with
little or no plume rise
0 Fumigation from an elevated source.
Most sources will fit the first two categories, i.e., they are well defined
stacks with or without plume rise. For these sources, fumigation effects
should also be evaluated. Sources (e.g., dumps or open burning areas)
whose emissions undergo some plume rise, but which are not emitted from
a well defined stack, may be treated by the elevated source methodology
by using a low but common plume rise as the source height. Fugitive
emissions from sources without well defined emission points may be treated
either as ground level sources or as emissions from a building.
The following guide outlines the methods recommended for estimating max-
imum short-term concentrations:
1. Determine critical wind speed (Equation 4-1) for emissions
released 10 m or more above ground level. If the critical
wind speed equals or exceeds 1 m/sec, use the methodology
for stacks with significant plume rise - see page 26. Also
evaluate fumigation effects - se^ page 32.
2. If the critical wind speed is less than 1 m/sec and the
release height is 10 m or more (including sources such as
outside burning with an estimated effective plume height
in excess of 10 m), use the methodology for stacks with
little or no plume rise - see page 30. Also evaluate
fumigation effects is appropriate - see page 32.
3. Treat all other sources by using the ground source meth-
odology - see page 32.
4. If the emissions are released from a building (through a
short stack or vent) such that the release point is less
than or equal to 1.5 times the building height, use the
building methodology in addition to one of the three above
- see page 31.
-19-
-------
Cr'tica ! '..'uici bpccd
For a given set of stack characteristics, the Gaussian plume- equation can
be used to determine the meteorological conditions which will be associ-
ated with the maximum ground-level concentrations and where the maximum
will occur. . The ratio of maximum grcund level concentration times wind
speed to source emission rate (xu/Q)()iax is given as a function of down-.
wind distance (x|ngx) for various categories of atmospheric stability 'in '
Figures 4-1 and 4-2. The values in Figure 4-1 are for a smooth, level
(rural) terrain; Figure 4-2, for level, urban terrain. The categories
of atmospheric stability used on the graphs are associated with the mete-
orological conditions listed in Table 4-1. An alternate method of deter-
mining these stability categories is given in Table 3-2 and 3-3. Each
point on the graphs corresponds to a unique effective source height,
i.e., physical stack height plus the plume rise due to the buoyancy or
momentum of the exiting stack gases. Under neutral and unstable atmo-
spheric conditions (stability 'classes A through D) there are a critical
wind speed ucri-t and a critical plume height Hcrit which result in the
maximum ground level concentration.
P
Hcr1t ' h +u- .
cnt
here h = stack height
K = plume rise parameter (see Table 4-3)
Tf the value for ucrit is outside the range of allowable wind speeds for
stability class (see Table 4-1, P. 23), then use the nearest allowable
i> ed for tcn-t, and recompute Hcrit for that stability.
-20-
-------
r
c
B
*V
E
I
I
pf~T"'TTTTrrpTT:!
'' "' '
.., ..[_,/.,/ r,/t., .^/- :.0 :/.,-. ^-.^_:
.:r .r . ^..^/.:.OA':. . : .j-;t---i(-.-/--- ''/
.-'; ^/V0"/*'- /- '- /' -:/: --:--;-- <.'<-{-
: 1 - 1^ ; jnp
«ow
Figure 4-1. Distance of Maximum Concentration and Maxii
XU/Q as a Function of Stability Class and Effective liciyht
(Meters) of Emission Over Rural Terrain (Turner 1970)
-21-
-------
100
10
X
0.1
3 4 5 6 7 I- ) I
1 _ « J « s b / r 1 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 P
f P~\.' ' I 1~ 1 r , 1 1 1-_..-..,-,.
i -. f >y 200: I ! I-;j - --J '; -Til!
---!-- I- IXien'::!.-!- -r ! ' 1- j
( 3 "_!_« 7 FO I
--
'i::
L
t ' '
; it
i~
i
;
4
i
i
i
t
:
i -
-
i
-.
i
__
"
i
.
~
r
r-
I
i
i
i
i
i
i
1 i
10
. -
.
, j 1
0
.
-.
'
--
\
7
- -
i
i
i
I
10
-6
10
,-5
<*u/Q)max' m
10
-2
-4
10
-3
Figure 4-2. Distance of Maximum Concentration and Maximum
as a Function of Stability Class and Effective Height (Meters)
of Emission Over Urban Terrain
Note: For larger effective heights of emissions, use Figure 4-1.
-22-
-------
Table 4-1. KEY TO STABILITY CATEGORIES
Surface .Wind
Speed (at 10 m),
m sec-1
< 2
2-3
3-5
5-6
> 6
Day
Incoming Solar Radiation
Strong
A
A-B
B
C
C
Moderate
A-B
B
B-C
C-D
D
Slight
B
C
C
D
D
Night
Thinly Overcast
or
>_4/8 Low Cloud
F
E
D
D
D
< 3/8
Cloud
F
F
E
D
D
The natural class, D, should be assumed for overcast conditions during day
or night. Uhere two classes are indicated for the same conditions (e.g.,
A-B), an interpolation between the two classes is appropriate.
The variables p and q are related to the diffusion parameters o and GZ
respectively, in the Gaussian plume equation when they are expressed as
power functions of downwind distance (x) from the source in the form:
°y = ax
(4-3)
(4-4)
where a,b = empirical parameters.
Values of p and q depend on terrain roughness and atmospheric stability.
Suggested values are listed in Table 4-2. Values of the plume rise
parameter (K) depend on the characteristics of the stack. Equations for
computing this parameter are listed in Table 4-3.
-23-
-------
Table 4-2. VALUES OF DIFFUSION PARAMETERS BY
STABILITY CLASS AND TERRAIN
Stability
Class -
A
B
C
D
E
F
Downwind
Distance (m)
< 250
250-500
> 500
<: 1 ,000
> 1 ,000
All distances
< 1,000
1,000-10,000
> 10,000
< 1,000
1,000-10,000
> 10,000
< 1 ,000
1,000-10,000
> 10,000
.Rural Terrain
P
0.903
0.903
0.903
0.903
0.903
0.903
0.903
0.903
0.903
0.903
0.903
0.903
0.903
0.903
0.903
q
1,03
1,51
2,. 10
0,986
1,09
0..911
0,827
0..636
0..540
0..778
0,587
0,366
0,791
0.510
0,315
q/p
1.14
1.67
2.32
1.09
1.20
1.01
0.916
0.704
0.598
0.862
0.650
0.405
0.876
0.565
0.349
Urban Terra.in
P
0..745
0..745
0..730
0,710
0,71-0
0,710
0,650
0,650
0,650
0,650
" 0..650
0..650
q
1.14
1.14
0.97
0.77
0.77
0.77
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
i
q/p
1.53
1.53
1.33
1.08
1.08
1.08
0.785
0.785
0.785
0.785
0.785
0.785
-24-
-------
Table 4-3. PLUML' RISE PARAMLTL'RS BY TYPE OF
STACK AND STABILITY CLASS
Type of
Stack Exhaust*
Jet
Plume
Buoyant
PI ume
Jet
Plume
Buoyant
PI ume
Stability
Class
A
through
D
A
through
D
E
and
F
E
and
F
Plume Rise Equation
K = u(AH) = 3 vs d . ..".'
K = u(AH) = 42 A , A <_ 24 m /sec
= 66.4 A3/s, A > 24 mVsec
[T3 v*. d14 I1/6
AHi - 0 945
mil U.J'O o T Fn
T*- *- 1 OU \
LTS U 9(6"zi
r 2 2 2~\l/it
u _ , T vs d (use lower of AH]
2 4T ,60x " and AH2. AH2 rep-
L s 9^6z'J resents the limiting
case for calm or near
calm conditions.)
AH, = 2 4 r FT i i/3
tin j - t *t i - -
i/i» fa /(sen-3/8
AH2 = 5F |- (^ ) ' (use lower of
L J AHj and AH2)
* If uncertain whether exhaust is a jet or buoyant plume, compute both ways
and use classification which gives the highest values.
(Continued)
-25-
-------
Table /I-3. PLUME RISE PARAMETERS BY TYPE OF
STACK AND STABILITY CLASS (Concluded)
2
K = plume rise parameter, m /sec
2/T-T\ 3
A = v d ( -4 ) - buoyancy parameter, m /sec
s
ra-
aH = plume rise, m
u = wind speed, m/sec ' "
v = stack exit velocity, m/sec
d = stack exit diameter, m
T = stack exit temperature, °K
s
T = ambient air temperature, °K. 2
g = 9.8 = acceleration due to gravity, m/sec
= vertical gradient of potential temperature, °K/m
(representative values are: 0.02 and 0.035 for stability
classes E and F, respectively)
2 XT T \ 4
F = 2.45 v d / s 1= buoyancy flux, m /sec
5
XT T \
/ s 1
rr/
Stack With Significant Plume Rise
The following procedures may be used to estimate the maximum ground-level
concentration from a point source with known emission rate (Q) when the
critical effective source height (Hcrjt) exceeds 10 m:
A. For stability classes A, B, C, and D:
1. Using Hcrit, find (xu/Q)max and xmax from Figure 4-1 or 4-2. If
x does not lie within the downwind distance range which cor-
max
responds to the selected q/p value, recompute ucrit and Hcrit
(see page 20, Equations 4-1 and 4-2) using a new q/p value for
another distance range, tiien repeat this step.
2. Compute x
max
xmax
= /.M
\Q I
-26-
-------
B. For stability classes E and F, plot x , as a function of wind speed
max
to identify the peak xmax. For each of several wind speeds (u):
1. Compute AH from Table 4-3. .
2. Compute H = h + AM.
3. Find (xu/Q)m,v from Figure 4-1 or 4-2.
II let /\
4. Compute x ,,v = (xu/Q)n.v Q/u for several values of u.
nic* x I ri3 x
5. Plot \ as a function of u.
I lie* X
As a result of following procedures A and B above, a value of x will
max
be obtained for each stability class. For the highest xm,Y there will be
M id /\
a corresponding wind speed, stability class and (xu/Q)n, . The distance
max
downwind (x ) at which this highest x occurs can be read from
nictx fflcix
Figure 4-1 or 4-2, whichever is appropriate.
If the stack height is less than about 2.5 times the height of any adjacent
buildings, aerodynamic downwash is likely, especially with strong winds.
Under such conditions the plume will be washed downward toward the ground,
resulting in excessively high short term ground level concentrations.
However, this situation can and should be avoided by providing a stack
sufficiently high to prevent its occurrence.
-27-
-------
The emission rate (Q) used in procedures A and B above should be the
maximum which is likely to occur with each stability class. Since
.stability classes A, B, and C only occur during daylight hours and stability
classes E and F only occur during nighttime hours, the maximum emission.
rate for each stability class will depend on the plant operating schedule.
Plants which only operate during the day or auxiliary power plants which
only operate during periods of peak load are examples of sources which
have emission rates of zero for some stability classes. The maximum
number of hours that ea-ch stability class may occur is dependent on the
solar altitude, which varies with season, latitude and time of day. The
maximum number of hours for various latitudes are shown in Table 4-4.
The maximum number of hours for which stability classes A, B, and C occur
will'be centered on noon (or 1 p.m. for daylight saving time) during
June. For stability classes E and F the maximum will be centered on
midnight (or 1 a.m. daylight saving time) during December. Corrections
to these values for other times of the year may be made by interpolation or
by consulting references which.treat solar altitude (e.g., List 1951).
Where several non-reactive pollutants are emitted from the same stack,
the maximum short-term concentration (x-j) of one is related to the
-27a-
-------
other (>;2) in direct proportion to the ratio of their emission rates
(Qp Q2):
Q2
X2 = >:-, ^ (4-6)
For averaging periods greater than one hour, the maximum concentration at
any one point will be reduced from the maximum one-hour concentration,
even under steady meteorological conditions, due to the natural meander
of the wind direction with time. The: maximum concentration for longer
periods occur when the meteorological conditions and emission rates
persist relatively unchanged for the length of the period of interest
(e.g., 3, 8, or 24 hours). When this is a reasonable assumption, the
correction factors shown in Table 4-5 will enable one to make a rough
estimate of the maximum concentrations applicable for periods longer than
one hour from the maximum one-hour concentration. These factors reflect
normally observed diurnal variations in meteorological conditions and
are most applicable to the ratio of the average concentration for a
specific period to the maximum one-hour concentration during that period
The correction factors for 3- and 8-hour averaging times should be
applied to the highest one-hour concentration estimated above. The
correction factor for the 24-hour averaging time should be applied to
C or D stabilities, since A and B stabilities do not generally persist
ong enough to account for the highest 24-hour concentrations. The
following technique is suggested for estimating maximum 24-hour concentra-
tion:
1. Determine the maximum 1-hour concentration for C stability at
he critical wind speed (u .,)(see page 20).
2. Calculate a 1-hour limited mixing concentration. This can be
apt -oximated as follows. Compute the maximum C stability concentration
for a wind speed of 2.5 m/sec using Figure 4-1 or Figure 4-2, and multiply
by 2 to account for the restriction to vertical mixing.
3. Take the larger of the concentrations estimated above, and multiply
by .25 to get an estimate of the maximum 24-hour concentration.
-2:8-
-------
Table 4-4. MAXIMUM
DURATION OF STABILITY CLASSES FOR SELECTED
LATITUDES AND DATES
Latitude
30° N
40°N
50°N
Date
Dec 22
Feb 9, Hov 3
Mar 8, Oct 6
Apr 3, Sept 10
May 1 , Aug 12
Jun 22
Dec 22
Feb 9, Nov 3
May 8, Oct 6
Apr 3, Sept 10
May 1 , Aug 12
Jun 22
Dec 22
Feb 9, Nov 3
Mar 8, Oct 6
Apr 3, Sept 10
May 8, Oct 6
Jun 22
Maximum Duration of
Stability Class (Hours)*
A
0
0
0
2
4
4
0
0
0
0
2
4
0
0
0
0
2
4
B
2
4
6
7
8
8
0
1
5
6
7
8
0
0
1
5
7
8 .
C
7
8
9
10
11
12
6
7
9
' 10
11
12
2
6
8
10
11
12
E, F .-, ,
16
15
14
14
13
12
17
16
14
13
12
11
18
17
15
13
11
10
* Based on duration of solar angle above or below following limits:
Class A - above 60°, Class B - above 35°, Class C - above 15°,
Class E and F - below 0° plus two-hours.
-29-
-------
A more accurate approach would-be to compute concentrations, hour-by-hour,
at several receptor locations for a number of days with meteorology
conducive to high concentrations. Since a realistic worst day's meteorology
is difficult or impossible to define, computations for a large number of
days must-be madea job which may require the use of a computer.
Table 4-5. CORRECTION FACTORS FOR EXTENDING MAXIMUM
1-HOUR CONCENTRATIONS TO LONGER AVERAGING PERIODS
Averaging Period (Hours) Correction Factor
3 .80
8 .66
24 .25*
* Apply only to stability class C or D. See text for a
suggested method.
Stack with Little or No Plume Rise
The following steps may be followed to estimate the maximum concentration
from an elevated source with little or no plume rise due to momentum or
buoyancy effects.
A. For each stability class:
1. Using the source emission height, read the (xu/Q) value from
Figure 4-1 or 4-2. max
2 Using the appropriate maximum emission rate and the minimum wind
speed (umin) for the times of day that the stability class occurs,
estimate the maximum concentration as follows:
. _ ' xy_ max
x " Q u~T~
x max mm
If calm winds can be expected to occur with the stability class,
u . may be approximated as 1 rn/sec.
-30-
-------
B. If an averaging period longer than one hour, but no greater than
8-hours, is of interest, the maximum one-hour concentration from Step 2
may be multiplied by the appropriate correction factor from Table 4-5
to estimate the maximum for a longer term period. For the 24-hour
averaging -time, use the approach outlined in the previous section
(pages 28 and 30).
Mechanical tubulence around the stack can significantly alter the effective
stack height by creating a downwash in the wake of the stack. This effect
is especially pronounced when the stack gas exit velocity is low and when
the wind speed is high. A method of estimating the effect when the down-
wash is created by a building is given in the methodology for emissions
from a roof or the side of a building. As a general rule whenever the
stack height is less than 2.5 times the height of the highest building
adjacent to the stack, aerodynamic downwash effects will be present to
some degree.
Emissions from a Rooftop or Side of a Building
When emissions are released from a vent, short stack or other type of portal
on top or on the side of a building, the emissions will become trapped in
the turbulent cavity immediately downwind of the building. The maximum
concentration is given by the following simple volume approximation
(Smith 1968).
IA ,.
(4'7)
where x = maximum concentration downwind of the building, yg/m3
Qmax = maximum emission rate, yg/sec
C = shape factor
A = minimum crosswind area of the building, m
umin = mi"nimum W1'nd sPeed (n°t less than 1), m/sec.
-31-
-------
is the minimum wind speed likely to persist for the averaging time
being considered, with a reasonably consistent direction. In the absence
of the necessary wind data, a value of 1.0 m/sec may be used.
Ground Level Source
The maximum concentration from ground level sources will occur in the
immediate vicinity of the source and will be very high. Exposure to these '
concentrations can be avoided by preventing access to areas within critical
distances of the source. For a specified minimum approach distance
(e.g., distance to the edge of the property on which the source is located)
the maximum relative concentration (x^/Q) for each stability class is given
in Figure 4-3 for rural terrain and in Figure 4-4 for urban terrain. Using
these values, the appropriate maximum emission rate (Q ) and the minimum
max
wind speed (umin) for the times of the day that each stability class occurs,
estimate the maximum concentration as follows:
i
_ /x"\ max
Llmi n
If calm winds occur with a stability class, u . may be approximated as
1 m/sec.
If an averaging period longer than one-hour, but no more than eight hours,
is of interest, the maximum one-hour concentration may be multiplied by
the appropriate correction factor from Table 4-5 to estimate the maximum
for the longer term period. Maximum 24-hour concentrations can be
estimated conservatively by multiplying the maximum 1-hour concentration
by .25.
fumigation from Stacks with Significant Plume Rise
Th preceding methods of analysis have dealt with the dispersion of pol-
lutants into a layer with a well-defined stability which extends from well
above the effective stack height to ground level. In addition, consideration
must be given to the high ground level concentrations which exist due to
a phenomenon known as fumigation. Fumigation occurs as a result of a plume
in stable air entering a region of instability which extends to the ground..
-32-
-------
C\J
I
o-
X
10
-2 ._.,._
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
-7
0.1
1
10
100
Distance, km
Figure 4-3. Maximum xu/Q as a Function of Downwind
Distance and Stability Class Over Rural Terrain for a
Ground Level Source.
33
-------
10
-2 K
10
-3
10
-4
CM
I
cr
10
-5
10
-6
\ ** /
Figure 4-4. t-':ar.i:rjn ;,i.'/Q as a functicr, of Do',.';r.;-;nd
Distance and Stability Class Over Urban Terrain
for a Ground Level Source
-34-
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A plume enterine unstable air is mixed vertically by thermal eddies resulting
in higher than normal ground level concentrations. Typical situations in
which fumigation occurs are:
"Burning off" of the nocturnal radiation inversion by solar
- warming of the ground surface (inversion breakup fumigation)
Advection of pollutants from a stable rural environment to a .
turbulent urban environment
Advection of pollutants from a stable environment on or near
water to an unstable inland environment.
'The maximum fumigation concentration may be approximated by the following
equation (Turner 1970):
XF = 2 - (4_8)
STv u(a + H/8) (H + 2a2)
where Xp - fumigation concentration
Q = emission rate
u = wind speed in stable layer
o = horizontal diffusion parameter for stable conditions
y (see Figure 4-5)
o = vertical diffusion parameter for stable conditions
(see Figure 4-6)
H = h + AH = effective source height
h = stack height
AH = plume rise for stable conditions (see Table 4-3).
The maximum fumigation concentrations occur shortly after the plume enters
the unstable air. For the inversion breakup case, this occurs at a distance
x. = t u downwind from the source, where u is the wind speed and t is the
i m K m
time required to estimate the inversion from the top of the stack to the top
of the plume. Pooler has derived an expression for t :
r m
P,C h + h.
4. _ a p ou /L
'm - R 67 (hi "
-35-
-------
o
where P = ambient air density (1200 g/m at 20°C)
a
C = specific heat of air at constant pressure (.24 cal/g°K)
R = net rate of sensible heating of an air column by solar
radiation (about 67 cal/nr sec is suggested)
4^- = vertical potential temperature gradient
<5Z .
h- = height of the top of the plume ..
h = physical stack height.
Using typical values for several terms, the above equation can be
simplified to:
«-3
If i§. -js not known for the region between the top of the stack and the
oZ
top of the plume, .01 can be sued for E stability, and .02 for F stability.
For short stacks (less than 100m high), values of .02 and .035, respectively,
would be more appropriate.
-35a-
-------
3,000 I TTiTni!.!"*;
1,000
100
10
TTT'
i-'. i '
i
i I
' 1 [rf!];Ti'pi:!TTT' nTi"n''T]TFF!l;]]lE!!;!i"I"'T'"iiii'|.'
: !! ! !!i!h::!.':--H.-' Li't:.'! ! ! j \\}nl\\\ \\M'l\\-:\. '.!>:'!..!
! ! : : !:':::: i ! '!!: i i i ', I I I I i !l! I!!!:-': i .: ' ! ' ' ''" ;
I i :;!;'. 1.1 ! i ' ' j ! ' | ! i i ! '<' i|';!'i ,-'' '["f '' i.- '' ''
:-r
rr
:. . i . i i i . i ! . ! .' '.' ' .', ' .: : ,
i:.. ; ...i . , j.._; i : ' ; : : r.-'.i . ,.'..:.' .1' !:::.; ./
r..1- i .: : i l !!']::' 'i'.:'''.',.-*:'." \ ,' :'i :l.-
iii.'i ij i ! f i-j j j^Xjj Vjj;!;:j:>;i:r: '.''; \'\?-\\- '
l^^lpii-i:.^!^!--
>-" '.--.'... i ,- !::.)..
;xt "!!'.! ;;;./..'. !;_>'.'
!' : ' '*-i',- I'XI'jj ,r ' ,. i , ' '
. i . ;
! !
.!-.-. .i..;-: ,::.;:; '/ \ /,: iXi::l'*-n '':X': ;:;>"r' : J" :|
t : t..', '-r * : i ! x : _! '- I- ,'i."i' ; -
' "'--*', ;' i. -.
":- ' i;":i"..-."'"""' :":"":"'
i~:-."' :":!:'.::r:-' =: " " -. '
:. :_: : :;.-Jj-U;:-.:.:. .j .'.-- -..-. --
. .!;;i'H::
::;' : j '. ' ; ' i i' }'. !:':' '
.!" i'-i j;': |.:i.-! i;!;
"1*1.1; .. '"}' .' ."J"
Klt'>^:!i- I,:';
X
i;.iOMii;.':.!:;uLLi:£!;iik.i.;
]f-
H;
r
iil4iH!:ii
; : i : : '
>.' i ! i i . i. . i
1-Uij-. ..-.:
'!! i j :!.'
... ,_
i
i-MaJ ti.uLil ::::: -L -t i:ii-un.i: : I i < i .! i i 1 i i ; ? I . ? .i''vi .MJ\ I...... -ir^:!
0.1 1 10
Distance, km
Figure 4-5. Horizontal Diffusion Parameter (oy) as a Function
of Downwind Distance and Stability Class Over Rural Terrain
100
-36-
-------
i;i,r;:; ,,,-
1,000
0)
100
10
i -I -I !
j.l
I I
i : I/'!!!;;;'
.! .i ii'ij^:"1
!'!'!; '-i ;T:
' i i ! -" I ' ' 1 I . ::
;EJ:;I;::;
^liMHN Lii!-fe:
riY:''MM:TT!>yi.r!i
:-v--l/ MM K lit;
"'/I I-' I ! I'' /': I n \ \
&'
i ;
.:'': : i
/r.i ; 1.
. i ,| I.:,.
! -\ .i-';- ! '
:.,.,....(... .,.-
:n>Pii^^i;i4-w:!iji"
::.;::;:;::-:.!-:-v..j:
i;;;;^; ,;: ; -:::|:'. \S.. '. : .:;.:«!:::
'x.;;::.! .- i;::!-'.!..1. .! ;.-:_ . it
^ .:..:. . x i i.,.:,..; | i. . -, ,ti- . M,
'-'
:.! L
it!
~\~:~~. : . I : . -
i
'T!
r:r.Tt:j:i
::;...! j
/. ,
' I ' ' I - 1 I 1
:-:i--!- ':! i:..i.]..;.jij-ljji:::
' I;" I ! i .. ! ! ! ' j - j ! ;T : :.
:;:' I .-: ! ' !:-:.:i 'I i '[ i": :'i i":: '.
^jli jjiii!!;:!;-:!"-] ^H^ldlMliiifiltp
i!;!i::::|:';-i':.'!:4'.:.i.i U-li^
I:::!;:::,-::::.-:.- r^!:"!-! " "-l-Ti
'i-t'i ) ' !" '!)' I"!
IllU-l-J 1 1 UU.J..UL.-L.
' T "
0.1
1
10
100
Distance, km
Figure 4-6. Vertical Diffusion Parameter (oz) as a Function
of Downwind Distance and Stability Class Over Rural Terrain
-37-
-------
Solutions to this equation may be obtained by graphical solution by
9 2
plotting h + 12x/u and (H + 2oz) as functions of x. The solution is
given by the.intersection .of the two lines.
When the pollutants are advected from a stable environment to a turbulent
one, the distance (x) will be the distance from the source to the place . .
where the turbulent effects are likely to begin.
ANNUAL MEAN CONCENTRATIONS FROM A POINT SOURCE
Two methods are presented here for estimating annual mean concentrations
from a point source. The first method is applicable to a source that
emits at a nearly constant emission rate from hour to hour and day to
day. The second method requires many more calculations and is applicable
to a source with varying emission rates. Both methods require a-large
number of calculations to get a desirable degree of spatial resoultion
of the annual mean concentrations and are appropriately executed by means
of a computer program. However, in addition to the methodology for a
complete set of calculations, suggestions are included for estimating by
hand: (1) the location and value of the highest annual mean concentration,
and (2) the contribution of the sourca to the annual mean concentration
in critical areas.
Constant Emission Rate
ror sources which operate more or less continuously 24 hours a day with
relatively constant emissions, the following equations provide an estimate
of the annual mean concentration x(*,e) at a distance x from the source
along an azimuth 0, whore 0 is one of 16 possible wind directions. If
Ni N1 (a)
j _, 2.03Q f. .( '
' f-1 r~^ \ ~ n ^
x(x,o) = E E (0 ).TT:V" exp
(4-10)
-38-
-------
\
i
j
u
If (<,z). > 0.8L.,
N. N,
2.55Q f, M
3
\/here x = concentration in g/m
Q = emission rate, g/sec
(o ). = vertical diffusion parameter for stabili'y class i
z 1 and distance x, m
u. = mean wind speed for class j, m/sec
J
f. .(a) = relative frequency of occurrence of stability class i
1 »J and wind speed class j with wind direction blowing
from a and toward o (i.e., e = a ± 180°)
H. . * effective source height (including stack height plus
1>J plume rise) for stability class i and wind speed
class j, m
L. = height of the mixing layer for stability class i, m.
Equations 4-10 and 4-11 may be usefully applied when the joint frequency
distribution of wind direction, wind speed and atmospheric stability
(stability wind rose data) are known. It ,\
may be noted in the above equation that the sum (FO) of the fij
values will be the frequency that the wind direction a is expected to
occur, which must be a fraction between zero and one. By repeating equa-
tions 4-10 and 4-11 for a sufficient number of values of'x and for all
values of e, one can obtain the spatial distribution of annual mean con-
ccntrations from the source.
-
A standard joint frequency distribution of wind direction, wind speed
and atmospheric stability classes may be obtained from the National
Climatic Center (HOC) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
tion, Asheville, North Carolina. Compilations are already available for
many locations or can be generated using specified years of meteorological
*
* <
-39-
-------
data by means ot the NCC STAR computer program. The standard joint fre-
quency distributions available from NCC consist of 576 entries, including
16 wind directions, .the six Pasquill stability classes, (A-F) and the six wind
speed classes shown in Table 4-6. There are two other options available
for the stability classes: 5 stability classes (E and F combined);
6 stability classes, including A, B, C, D (day only), D (night only) and,
E (combined with F).
Table 4-6. WIND SPEED CLASSES USED BY NCC FOR JOINT FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION OF WIND SPEED, WIND DIRECTION AND STAB:LlTY
Class
1
2
3
4
5
6
Speed Interval ,
0 to 1.8
1.8 to 3.3
3.3 to 5.4
5.4 to 8.5
8.5 to 10.8
>10.8
m/sec (Knots)
(0 to 3)
(4 to 6)
(7 to 10)
(11 to 16)
(17 to 21)
(>21)
Class Mean, m/sec
1.50
2.46
4.47
6.93
9.61
12.52
The effective source height H. . may be adjusted to account for irregular-
>J
ities of terrain as well as to reflect the effects of the stack height
and the plume rise.
where h = stack height
AH. . = plume rise (see Table 4-3; note that AH. . = K/u. for
1 » J I IJ J
stability classes A, B, and D)
Z = elevation of source (base of stack)
Z = elevation of point with coordinates (x,e).
Ex .ept where major terrain variations are present due to valleys and hills,
Z and Z should be taken to be equal. Negative values and small positive
values are not meaningful for H. . when these result from large values of
>J
I . It is recormiencicd that a minimum value of H = 10 m be used.
r
-40-
-------
Values of (o ). for various travel distances (x), stability classes i
and two types of terrain (rural and urban) may be obtained from the
following equation or from Figure 4-6 for rural terrain.
(oz)i = b. x j - (4-12)
Values of the parameters b. and q. are listed in Table 4-2. Values of .
the height of the mixing layer L. may be estimated using Figures 4-7 and
4-8. Annual mean afternoon mixing heights (L ) as estimated by Holzworth
a
(1972) are shown in Figure 4-7 for the contiguous United States. Annual
.mean morning mixing heights are shown in Figure 4-8. These were determined
as the height of the intersection of the dry adiabatic temperature correspond-
ing to the morning minimum surface temperature plus 5°C (to account for
the urban heat island) with the vertical temperature profile observed at
1200 Greenwich Median Time. This may be used as the nocturnal urban mixing
layer height (L ) if other information is not available. The effective
source height H.,. may be calculated using the equations in Table 4-3, the
stack characteristics, a representative mean ambient air temperature (the
plume rise equations are not very sensitive to the normal range of ambient
air temperatures), and an estimate of the vertical temperature gradient.
If other information is not available for the vertical temperature gradient,
use 0.02°K/m for class E and 0.035°K/m for class F. For stacks less than
100m high, or .01°K/m for class E and .02°K/m for stacks greater than 100m.
The methodology represented by Equations 4-10 and 4-11 includes the limited
mixing effects which result from the presence of a finite, ground-based
mixing layer. The methodology is most applicable when the effective stack
height (H^,-) is less than about one-fourth of the height of the mixing
layer (L^)- To cover cases where the effective stack height is signif-
icantly greater than this, a more complex expression is applicable in
place of Equation 4-10 (e.g., Turner 1970, p. 36).
-41-
-------
1
-e»
u>
Figure 4-7. Isopleths (100's of meters) of Mean Annual Afternoon Mixing Heights^ (Hoizworth 1972}
-------
Figure 4-8. Isopleths (100's of meters) of Mean Annual Morning Mixing Heights (H.clzworth 1972)
-------
Frequently the concentrations from a nev/ source which are most critical
in evaluating its impact, are those which occur at locations which are
already exposed to high concentrations from other sources. These loca-
tions will be known to air quality control agencies on the basis of air
monitoring and simulation modeling activities. The contribution of a
new source-to the annual moan concentration at critical locations a
distance x in direction 0 from the new source can be estimated using ' '
Equations 4-10 and 4-11. It may be noted that both Equations 4-10 and
4-11 may be required to estimate the annual mean concentration for the
location of interest. In applying Equation 4-10, the criterion
(o ) ^0.8L. may not be satisfied for some of the N^ stability classes.
In this case the terms for this stability class would be eliminated
in the summation designated by Equation 4-10. These terms would occur
in the summation designated by Equation 4-11. When both Equations 4-10
and 4-11 are used the resultant annual mean concentration is the sum
of the concentration from Equations 4-10 and 4-11.
MAXIMUM SHORT-TERM CONCENTRATIONS AT CRITICAL LOCATIONS
In order to evaluate the effect of the new source on critical short-term
concentrations of pollutants, one needs to determine the meteorological
conditions associated with the occurrence of critical short-term concen-
trations. If the associated wind directions conduct pollutants from the
new source away from the critical locations, then contributions from the
new source will be negligible. The associated wind directions may be
determined by obtaining wind direction observations for all periods with
measured critical short-term concentrations. Multiple-source diffusion
models for simulating regional air quality levels may also be used to
identi "y wind directions associated with uhigh air quality levels. If
a well defined pattern of associated wind directions cannot be determined
from the available data, an air pollution meteorologist should be con-
sulted in determining what wind directions may be associated with critical
-45-
-------
short-term concentrations. Although wind direction is generally the most
significant associated meteorological condition, other associated condi-
tions should be determined, including wind speeds, stability classes, times
of day and times of the year.
The following information should be determined for locations with critical
short-term concentrations:
e Coordinates of a representative exposure location in a
critical area
e Range of critical short-term concentrations for this
location (averaged over a tine period which corresponds
to an air quality standard for the pollutant of concern)
e Range of associated wind directions
» Range of associated wind speeds
t> Range of associated stability classes
o Range of associated times of year
o Range of associated times of day.
Four methods follow for estimating the contribution of a new source to
critical locations which are identified as having high short-term concen-
trations, when the azimuth from the critical location to the new source
is within the range of associated wind directions. All four methods
require the use of the following two items:
e Distance from new source to critical location
x = [(X,. - XR)2 + (Y, - Y )2]]/2 (4-13)
L o K o K j
-46-
-------
where X<. = East-West coordinate of source location
YS = North-South coordinate of source location
XR = East-West coordinate of critical location
YR = North-South coordinate of critical location
o Maximum emission rate (Qnnv) for associated times of day
and times of year nax ' ,-,
Short-Term Concentration at Critical Locations, No Plume Rise
The following steps should be followed.
1. Using the distance given by Equation 4-13, the effective emission
height, and the appropriate type of terrain (urban or rural),
. determine xu/Q for all stability classes associated with critical
concentrations from Figures 4-9 through 4-18. If rough terrain
. is present, major differences in the height of the source and
the height of the critical location may be accounted for by modifying
the effective plume height as follows:
H = h + Zs - ZR - (4-H)
where H = height of source plume above critical location
h = effective emission height
Zs = elevation of source
ZR = elevation of critical location
The above correction procedure should only be used where major
terrain variations due to hills and valleys are present.' It must
be noted that negative values and small positive values are not
meaningful for H as a result of Equation 4-14. In situations
leading to such results, the whole plume will be displaced
vertically upward. It is recommended that a minimum value of
H = 10 meters be used. An appropriate mixing height (L) can
be determined using the suggestions in Table 4-7 and the values
shown in Figure 4-7 and 4-8.
-47-
-------
pup /^i
puc (H) uo isc 11113 jo s}i)!uoH
not
001
01
tU))
vioj ooiiujsiQ M;LM t)/n\ '6-^ on6ij
ro
,-01
I.''-. i-i;i
I/!!?'Sir
ii L-
01
:9-
^^^^^'r^
'a ,:'<^j : ./.IL:;;'/.:! !;! QL
iyi;{S
rV! :\ -'""';-y:;
ill'; i .1 .i i.\... :
:: i' ' M i' ' ,
ro
il -.01
-------
'3DUE}Sl(]
/:/;; //vi
/ f i-; r.
/ !..;.:!i.
...
; / ;':'i
« -' ' 1 . :
"
'.I'l!' ' 4 ' '
'' '! l IJ'; ( I * t i ; . 2 I , ...i
;! :--.\x-J-/!!;!i
-------
-05-
pile
ini |p.in>| pur .Cv.
1!OIS'JI!U_1 ^U
SliOL.lB/\
., i i > L.i
::r.VV !/::!!
. . 1 . , . \ ^. S i
X
c
XD
I
CO
-------
o
O
^
'I^II\:.:.^L'^yi'^.^I^^~\'1 ^' "/'/ /.' ''.{^
'/:
j:..V-_ .....
:.: ./...-."/ .X-
^! /!_?'"- : :V:r::.^
s-
o>
O I
-: rs
LJ cc.
G) "-
n: &
O)
o
c
01
r-
o
Q
C " i-
" , O
r- >
I .,_
csj
i
O
Ul '
-------
o
o
. . _..: ..; X.::.;. . <
"-.:..''-. .,~/'l\:''?/.-
..;.-./.':.." ' -S'.L y.
"
" , ', /.. '.J.;:;:. :.:.-'.~
c -
3
to
J- >,
c. -t-
co
^
Q
)
i
L 1
j
o
t^-
2-
-------
-es-
put? (H) uoissuuj J
HOUBA JDJ. aouejsia MI.IM fc/nx '
001
OL
ro
,'!,!'!'''
( > I i i | t i , i i . :.,.,)., i ,
(LI I | i 'I ,,:::....:
, i i!: i : i i : : i i i : i i. . >
; --: i:!!f- f : ,,: i ! i ..:!::; -i :
' !. :'!:! i'il !
, I 'I
! I
\!v'i
\:i ,|!
.01
-------
If
Distance, km
Hgure 4-15. xu/Q with Distance for Various Heights of Emission (H) and
Limits to Vertical Dispersion (L), A end B Stability for Urban Terrain
-54-
-------
xu/Q, m
-2
01
en
r- c
"3
to I
<-» Gl
O
O) X
-5 C
--O
O
w o
X) -
ro c/>
-5 ri-
cu
-* 3
O O
3 n>
o
-5
O CU
CO _i.
r*- O
n> c
cr i/>
_j«
:r
O
-5
& 3
V)
-H d
(0 ->
~i O
~i 3
Cu
O
n
o>
_^..i_: J_.i_ _ _ i
-------
o
o
c s-
O i-
- O)
«/l 1
01
«- C
E fQ
LiJ -Q
o
S-
U) O
en
OJ
2C r
CO .
O -
s_.
o
LO
I
in
i
o
CO
o
z-
Ul
o c
o o
c: -r-
fO ->
r
GJ e
S- -r-
3 _I
Cf>
f
u.
-------
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
cr
x
10
-6
10
-7
Distance, km
Figure 4^18. xu/Q with Distance for Various Heights of Emission (H) and
Limits to Vertical Dispersion (L), E Stability for Urban Terrain
-57-
-------
2. Using the maximum y.u/Q from step 1, the minimum wind speed (u . )
associated with critical concentration's and the appropriate
maximum emission rate (C
nev/ sources is given by
maximum emission rate (Qm,v), the maximum contribution from the
max
X" 0 u ' "<4-15>
\y/ mln
§.tl°JltL~J.^Lnl Concentration at Critical Locations With Plume Rise. Neutral
and Unstable Condi Lions
For each neutral and unstable class of conditions associated with critical
concentrations the following steps should be used to identify which class
results in the maximum contribution from the new source.
1. Estimate the critical wind speed.
Values of q/p are listed in Table 4-2 for various combinations
of terrain, travel distance and stability class. The travel
distance of interest is given by Equation 4-13. If the u ..
value calculated using Equation 4-16 is outside the range of
wind speeds associated with high concentrations at that distance, u ..
C i 11
should be redefined as the value within this range which is
closest to the value given by Equation 4-16.
2. Using the new source stack height (h), estimate the effective
source height (H).
(4-17)
This estimate may be further Modified to account for the effects
of rough terrain' by adding the source elevation and subtracting
the critical location elevaticn. See the discussion following
Equation 4-14.
-58-
-------
Using the source to receptor travel distance from Equation 4-13,
the effective source height from step 1 and mixing height from
Table 4-7 and Figures 4-7 and 4-8, read xu/Q from Figures 4-9
through 4-18.
Compute the plume rise parameter (K) using the equations in -,-,
Table 4-3. If both buoyancy and momentum (jet) effects are'
significant, compute the plume rise for each, and select the
higher of the two.
Using the appropriate maximum emission rate (Q ) and results
from preceding steps, compute the maximum contribution from the
new source
v = ,._ max
X I n
Ucrit ' (4-18)
Short-Term Concentration at Critical Locations With Plume Rise, Stable
Conditions
For each stability class estimate the concentration contribution from the
new source using the following steps.
1. Determine the concentration versus wind speed relationship by
the following substeps for selected wind speeds in the wind
speed range associated with critical concentrations.
(a) Calculate plume rise (AH) from the appropriate equation
in Table 4-3. Use the maximum of the jet and buoyant
plume rises if both are applicable.
(b) Estimate the height of the plume above the critical
location
H = h + AH (normal, level terrain)
H - h + AH + Z<. - ZR (rough terrain, see comments
following Equation 4-14)
(c) For the appropriate travel distance (from Equation 4-13),
stability class, mixing layer height (see Table 4-7 and
Figures 4-7 and 4-8) and type of terrain (urban or rural),
read xu/Q from Figures 4-13, 4-14 or 4-18.
-59-
-------
(d) Using the appropriate maximum emission rate, (Q ),
selected v/ind speed (u) and xu/Q from step 3, '"
v
x
(e) Plot the point (x, u).. .
2. Selected the maximum concentration from the relationship plotted
in step 1 . '',.
3. Correct for averaging times other than 1 hour using factors in
Table 4-5.
Short-Term Concentration at Critical Locations, Fumigation Conditions
Under certain conditions, emissions from the source will be released into
a stable layer (stability class E or F), but part or all of the plums of
pollutants being transported downwind will enter an unstable layer which lies
over the critical location of interest. This is known as a fumigation
situation and may result in abnormally high concentrations at ground
level. Three common fumigation situations are the following:
"Burning off" of the nocturral radiation inversion by solar
warming of the ground surface (inversion breakup fumigation)
Advection of pollutants from a stable environment on or near
water to an unstable inland environment
Advection of pollutants frorr a stable rural environment to a
turbulent urban environment.
A*.er entering the unstable air, concentrations from the fumigated plume
tend to approach the limited mixing (trapping) situation associated with
Equation 4-11 farther downwind.
-60-
-------
The following method may be used to estimate the maximum ground level
concentration encountered in a fumigation situation. This occurs just
after the plume enters the unstable air.
1. "For the stable condition, estimate the plume rise (AH) from
the equations in Table 4-3. If there is no plume rise,
AH = 0.
2. For the stable condition and travel distance of interest
(Equation 4-13), read a and o values from Figures 4-5 and 4-6.
In no case should calculations be made for distances (x)
less than that given by the equation X^ = t y (see page 35).
3. Estimate the height (H) of the plume above the critical
location.
H = h + AH (normal, level terrain)
H = h + AH + Z<~ - ZR (rough terrain, see comments
following equation 4-14)
4. Estimate the concentration contribution from the new source
at the point of interest using the lowest wind speed associated
with critical conditions, the appropriate maximum emission rate
and the results from the preceding steps in the following
equation.
Q,
x =
max (4-19)
(ay + H/8) (H
-61-
-------
-------
CHAPTER 5
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF STATIONARY SOURCE EMISSION INFORMATION
-------
CHAPTER 5
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF STATIONARY SOURCE EMISSION INFORMATION
A bibliography of significant documents dealing with emissions, stack
characteristics and effectiveness of controls of various types of
stationary sources follows.
'Plant7;.' ^V
The Public_Health Service and the Bureau of Mines conducted a
study of air pollutant emissions from the six main types of
coal-burning power plants. The components tested include
sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, polynuclear hydrocarbons
total _gaseous hydrocarbons, solid particulates, formaldehyde
organic acids, arsenic, trace metals, and carbon monoxide. '
This report relates the effects of variables such as method
of operation, type of boiler furnace and auxiliaries, reinjection
of fly ash and type of coal burned to the concentrations of
gaseous and particulate pollutants in the products of combustion.
J?C".19?3' ll^^uryernance and Enforcement
This manual covers a step-wise enforcement procedure intended
for use by state and local air pollution control agencies
This manual focuses on the primary metallurgical industry'and
includes a process description, a discussion of emission sources,
typical control devices, stack gas and process monitorinq
instrumentation, and Inspectors Worksheets for operations in the
Ton and steel, aluminum, copper, lead, and zinc industries All
jor operations in each of those industries were analyzed includ-
- an enforcement procedure for the storage and handling of raw
nr.enals. Upset conditions and abnormal operating circumstances
wre examined in relation to their role in air pollution.
A 1 major pollutants from these five industrial categories were
e. jmnned. Generally the pollutant of most concern was particulate
.-.atter. Sulfur oxides and fluorides are unique to specific metals
operations and were discussed accord- ngly. The manual includes
section* on c.u. inspection o. ^rtincmt air pollution control unices
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3. Engineering Sciences, Inc., 1971. Exhaust Gases from Combustion
and Industrial Sources. APTD-0805. ETEPffTlft'T'lC, Research
Triangle Park, N. C.
A report is presented of a project which proposed to assemble
information on exhaust gas flow rates from selected air pollution
sources. The objectives of the project were to determine the
extent to which operating variables and process through put rates
affect exhaust gas conditions and emission rates, and to recommend
exhaust gas conversion factors to be used in the development of
implementation plans for air quality control regions. The scope
of the project required conversion factors to be developed for
75 major combustion and industrial processes. For each source
category, four parameters were evaluated; gas flow rate, gas
temperature, gas velocity, and stack height. The source categories
are as follows: stationary fuel combusion; refuse incineration;
chemical process industry; food and agricultural industry; metal-
lurgical industry; mineral products industry; mineral products;
petroleum refinery; pulp and paper industry; and solvent evaporation
and gasoline marketing.
4. Hemsath, K. H., and A.C. Thekdi, 1974. "Air Pollution in the Carbon
Baking Process," Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association.
Vol. 24: 60-63. ' ''
Carbon baking process involves evolution of fumes containing hydro-
carbons and soot particles which cannot be discharged directly
into the atmosphere. An incinerator can be used to clean these
fumes. However, length of the baking cycle, nature of the fumes
and variations in fume volume and temperature may result in excessive
auxiliary fuel usage and inefficient incineration, if the incinerator
is not designed properly. This paper describes the application of
fundamental knowledge of aerodynamics, reaction kinetics and com-
bustion, together with clear understanding of the process, in design
of a highly efficient, fully automated incinerator. The design
incorporates a unique but simple control system which results in
reduction of auxiliary fuel usage without endangering the safety
and efficiency of the incineration process. Operations and economics
of the incinerator are described by illustrating a typical baking
cycle and comparing actual fuel usage with the thermal ratings of
the incinerator. Operating experience from a number of installations
in the U.S. and Canada is also noted.
\
5. Kreichelt, T. E., D. A. Kemnitz, and S. T. Cuffe, 1967. Atmospheric
Emissions from the Manufacture of Portland Cement. AP-17. U.STTPO".
This report summarizes published and unpublished information on
actual and potential atmospheric emissions resulting from the manu-
facture UIL cci.ujiii,. Rcuv n.ulcriais, process equipu.nl, and p»\,uuccion
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processes are described, as well as tie location of plants, and
process trends. Emission and.related operating data are presented,
along with methods normally employed to limit or control emissions
from the dry, semi-dry, and wet processes.
6. Lee, W. L., and A. C. Stern, 1973. Stack Height Requirements
Implicit in the Federal Standards of Performance for flew Stationary
Sources," Journal of the Air Polluti01 Control Association, Vol. 23:
505-513.
The promulgation of Federal standards of performance for certain
classes of now stationary sources requires tiut such sources have
minimum stack heights to meet the requirements of national air
quality standards. The determination of minimum stack height
is complicated by the fact that the performance and air quality
standards are stated on different averaging time bases; that the
extent of preemption of the assimilative capacity of Lhe air by
any individual source will vary among jurisdictions and, in some
cases, among different geographic areas of a single jurisdiction;
and that some new sources will be designed to emit appreciably less
than the performance standard requirement. However, these com-
plications can be resolved and equations and charts prepared from
which minimum stack height can be selected.
7. McGowin, C. R. , 1973. Stationary Internal Combustion Engines in
the United States. EPA-R2-73-210. Shell Dev'cH"6pniehTCoTr Houston,
Texas.
A survey of stationary reciprocating engines in the U.S. v/as con-
ducted to compile the following information: (1) types and applica-
tions of engines, (2) typical pollutant emissions factors for dicsel ,
dual fuel, and natural gas engines, (3) differences between engines
that cause emissions to vary, (4) total horsepower and emissions
from engines, (5) pollution potential of stationary engines in
densely populated regions, and (6) potential emissions control tech-
niques. Where appropriate, gas turbines were included in the survey.
In 1971, an estimated 34.8 million horsepower of reciprocating
engines and 35.5 million horsepower of gas turbines were operating
in the U.S. The principal functions of engines are oil and gas pipe-
lines (35".;), agriculture (22%), and electric power generation (16'J).
Total NOx emissions from engines are 2.2 million tons annually, of
1 wn ch 42 percent are generated by pipeline engines. Carbon monoxide
and hydrocarbon emissions are an order of magnitude "lower. Emissions
control techniques having potential as short to intermediate term
solutions include precoinbustion chambers for diesel engines and
water injection and valve timing modifications for gas and diesel
engines. Over the longer term, catalytic reduction of NOx appears
to have the greatest potenticil.
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8. Smith, W. S. , and C. U. Gruber, 196G. Atmospheric ["missions from
Coal Coiiibustlon - An Inventory Guide. "AP-24," Uo'CPO".
Information concerning atmospheric emissions arising from the
combustion of coal was collected from the published literature
and other sources. The data were abstracted, assembled, and con- -,-,
verted to con::rion units of expression to facilitate comparison and
understanding. From these data, emission factors were established
that can be applied to coal combustion processes to determine the
magnitude of air pollutant emissions. Also discussed are the com-
position of coal, theory of coal combustion, emission rates, gaps
in emission data, and future research needs.
9. Turner, D. B., 1968. "The Diurnal and Day-to-Day Variations of Fuel
Usage for Space Heating in St. Louis, Missouri," Atmospheric Environ-
ment. Vol. 2: 339-351.
Data on the wintertime emissions of SO;? from residential and
commercial space-heating sources by 2-hour periods were needed for
use in a diagnostic dispersion model. Analyses were made of hourly
steam-output c!?,ta from a centralized heating plant and hourly gas-
sendout data for December 1964 at St. Louis, Mo., to determine
dependence upon temperature and other factors. Methods were then
developed to determine the rate of fuel use from residential and
commercial space-heating sources for each hour of the day from
values for the hourly temperature, the hour of the day, and the
day of the week. Relations developed from December 1964 data were
tested on data for January and February 1965.
10. National Air Pollution Control Administration, January 1969. Control
Techniques for Partirulate Air Pollutants. U.S. Dept. of HEW. NAPCA
FuV. No. AP-bl, USGPU.
Particulate matter in the air originates from both stationary and
mobile sources. Although particulate emissions from internal com-
bustion engines are estimated to contribute only 4 percent of. trie
total particulate emissions on a nationwide basis, they do contribute
as much as 38 percent in certain urban areas. Industrial sources are
the largest single source producing more than 50 percent of the total
particulate pollution. Other sources include stationary combustion,
construction and demolition, and solid waste disposal. Control tech-
niques are varied and include gas cleaning, source relocation, fuel
substitution, process change, good operating practices, source shut-
down, and dispersion. Sources vary, but the major methods of control
depend on the type and size of particulate emissions. Particles
larger than 50 microns may be removed satisfactorily in inertia!
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and cyclone separators and simple low-energy wet scrubbers. Par-
ticles Dialler than one micron con be arrested effectively by
electrostatic precipitators, high energy scrubbers, and fabric
filters. For fuel combustion sources, gas cleaning devices are
currently being used with the newer systems controlling both
participate matter and sulfur oxides. For construction and
demolition, control can be effectec by various means which include '''"''
loading and ventinq to air pollution control equipment, wetting down'
working surfaces with water or oil and using sanitary land fill.
Control of local solid waste disposal needs includes sanitary
landfill composting, shredding and grinding, and haul in'; to another
locale. Also discussed are emission factors, economic .actors,
disposal of collected participate emissions, and current research
in control of particulates.
11. National Air Pollution Control Administration, January 1969. Control
Technique_s_for Sulfur Oxide Air Pollutants. U.S. Department ofl'ltwT"
WCA~ Pub. No rift1-52", USGPO.
The burning of sulfur-bearing fuels produce approximately 75 percent
of all sulfur oxides, largely SC^i emitted into the atmosphere. Of
this coal combustion contributes the largest part. These sulfur
oxide emissions can be controlled by one or more of the following
five major methods. (1) change of fuel or energy source, (2) dcsulfur-
ize the fuel, (3) increase combustion efficiency, (4) removal of sulfur
oxides from flue gas, or (5) dispersion of that-gas by tall stacks.
(1) Changing the fuel or energy source can include either switching
to a lower sulfur content fuel or switching to a nuclear energy
source.
(2) Desulfurizing processes vary with fuels. For coal, cleaning
techniques include crushing and flotation. Here sulfur reduction
depends on the pyrite content and type of coal. Generally this
method produces approximately a 30 percent reduction. For
residual oil desulfurizing is accomplished by catalytically
treating it with hydrogen. This method reduces the sulfur con-
tent by 60 percent.
(3) Increasing combustion efficiency using heat recovery, high
pressure co,,ibustion, two-step combustion, magnctohydrodynaruics,
or eU-ctrogasdynamics produce varing results.
Cleaning the flue gas can be accomplished by wet or dry limestone-
dolomite injection. The former has an 80-90 percent efficiency,
and the latter has a 40-60 percent efficiency. Alkalized alumni a
sorption may remove 90 percent of the sulfur oxides while the
sulfur produced by the regeneration of the metal oxide can
partially offset operating costs. Catalytic oxidation recovers
and condenses sulfuric acid removing about 90 percent of the
sulfur oxides. Caustic scrubbing works, with varying operating
effic;.. ... , ! .». '.HO Liuii ' iv jci -.:.i.
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(5) Dispersion by tall stakes has limited value depending on local
conditions and the presence of other sources.
The report contains a discussion of various process sources, dis-
persion, and evaluation of sulfur oxide emissions.
12. National Air Pollution Control Administration, March 1970. Control.
Techniques for Carbon Monoxido Emissions from Stationary Sources.
U.S. Department of HEW. NAPCA Pub. No. AP-65, USGPO".
Stationary sources contribute 56.2 percent of all man-made CO.
This is the sum of: 10.7 percent prescribed agricultural and forest
burning, 9.7 percent industrial processes, 7.8 percent solid waste
burning, 5.0 percent non-prescribed forest and structural fires,
1.8 percent fuel combustion in a stationary source, and 1.2 percent
from coal refuse fires. Alternatives to agricultural and forest
burning include utilization, transport and disposal in remote areas,
and abandonment or onsite burial. Control of process sources can
be effected by using the CO generated as a fuel or burning it as
waste but may be prevented by proper design, scheduling, operation,
and maintenance. Solid waste disposal could rely on sanitary land-
fill to replace open-burning or incineration. Prevention is the
only available method to reduce CO emissions from non-prescribed
forest and structural fires. CO emitted from fuel combustion in a
stationary source can be controlled by one or more of the following:
properly regulated air supply, long enough residence time, high
temperature (up to 2,800°F), good mixing, and elimination of flame
contact with cold surfaces. Other methods could include a change
of fuel or energy source or switching from small installations to a
more efficient central installation. Also included are carbon
monoxide emission factors.
13. National.Air Pollution Control Administration, March 1970. Control
Techniques for Nitrogen O/.ider. from Stationary Sources. U.S. Depart-
ment of~HEW. NAPCA Pub. No.~AP-6X, USGPO.
Stationary sources comprise 60 percent of all man-made MOx. This
is emitted by various sources of fuel combustion, incineration,
other burning, industrial processes, and chemical processes.' Of
this about 40 percent is attributed to electric generating power
plants, using fossel fuels as the source of energy. About 1 per-
cent of the total man-made NOx emitted to the ambient air is formed
by chemical sources, mainly related to the manufacture end use of
nitric acid. "Concentrations from these sources are, however, usually
much greater. Comnerically demonstrated control techniques for the
above vary; for a boiler, a decrease of 30-50 percent NOx can be
effected by using a two stage combustion system, 30-60 percent for
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using a low excess air in a gas or oil operation, and 30-40 percent
when firing is changed from front-wall or opposed to tangential
firing. An other means by which the NOx emissions can be decreased,
is to change fuel or energy sources,. Control techniques with varied
commercial success include: (a) the use of electricity to generate
hcat;"(b) relocation to reduce exposure in a densely populated area;
(c) catalytic abatement yielding elemental nitrogen, but having short
catalyst life and high temperature problems; (d) caustic scrubbing
using suspensions of caustic, or Cclcium hydroxide forming solutions
of nitrate and nitrite; (e) incineration using 10 percent more gaseous
fuel than required for reaction with oxygen and NOx to produce 75-90
percent reduction in fJOx, but because of the fuel rich conditions
employed, CO and HC may be present in the exit gas, requiring a second
reactor; (f) where strong nitric acid solutions are used urea will
inhibit or prevent release of NOx. Speculative control techniques
include: (1) lowering boiler peak flame temperature and diluting the
combusion by steam and water injection in internal combustion engines,
(2) flue-gas recircutation, (3) stack-gas treatments such as those for
removal of sulfur oxides from flue-gases, (4) selective catalytic
reduction of NOx using ammonia in the presence of oxygen to reduce
NOx, (5) absorption on molecular sieves of dry gas low in NOx concen-
tration. Other items covered include nitrogen oxides emission factors
and a look at possible new technology in this area.
14. National Air Pollution Control Administration, March 1970. Cojvtrol_
Techniques for Hydrocarbon and Hl£anic__Sc)l_vejrt Emissions from Stationary
Sources. U.S. Department of HEW. NAPCA Pub. No. AP-68, USGPO.
Stationary sources of hydrocarbons and organic solvent emissions
account for approximately 50 percent of the organic vapors emitted
in the United States. Sources for hydrocarbon emissions include
petroleum refining, gasoline distribution and marketing, chemical
manufacturing, coal coking, fuel burning, waste disposal, and food
processing. Sources of organic solvent emissions include manufacture
and application of protective coatings, manufacture of rubber and
plastic products, decreasing and cleaning of metal parts, dry cleaning
operations, printing, and manufacture of chemicals. Methods used to
control these emissions are operational or process changes, substitution
-------
(3) Absorption uses a nonvolatile liquid absorbent to absorb the
soluble component of a gas phase. Contact between the gas
and liquid is provided bubble-plate columns, packed towers,
jet scrubbers, spray towers, and venturi scrubbers.
(4) Condonation and collection of organic emissions rely on lower-
ing the temperature of the gaseous stream until the organic
material condenses. Condensers are of two types, contact and -,
surface. In contact condensers, the gaseous stream is brought '
into direct contact with the cooling liquid while in a surface
condenser, the vapor and codent are separated by a metal wall.
Absorption and condensation cannot achieve high removal
efficiencies at low concentrations.
Discussed topics include specific control systems for many
industrial process, emission factors, economics and current
research.
15. Environmental Protection Agency, February 1973. Control Techniques
for Asbestos Air Pollutants. Pub. No. AP-117, USGPO"
Asbestos is the generic name for a group of hydrated mineral silicates
that occur naturally in a fibrous form. The technological utility
of asbestos derives from its physical strength, resistance to thermal
degradation, resistance to chemcial attack, and ability to be subdivided
into fine fibers.
The subdivision of asbestos into fine fibers produces participate matter
that is readily dispersed into the atmosphere. -Adverse affects of air-
borne asbestos on human health have been associated primarily with
direct and indirect occupational exposures, but a level of asbestos
exposure below which there is no detectable risk of adverse health
effects to the general population has not yet been identified. Because
of the lack of a practical technique of adequate sensitivity for measur-
ing small concentrations of airborne asbestos, neither accurate emission
factors nor emission-effect relationships are available.
Engineering appraisals, based on limited data, indicate that the milling
and basic processing of asbestos ore (crushing and screening the ore
and aspirating the fiber to cyclones for grading) and the manufacture
: of asbestos-containing friction materials, asbestos-cement products,
vinly-asbestos tile, asbestos textiles, and asbestos paper account
for over 85 percent of total asbestos emissions. Other sources
such as paints, coatings, adhesives, plastics, rubber materials, and
molded insulating materials, (2) the use of spray-on asbestos products
such as those used for fireproofing or insulating, (3) the demolition
of buildings or structures containing asbestos fireproofing or insulating
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materials, and (4) the sawing, grinding, or machining of materials
that contain asbcstor., such as brake linings and molded pipe insulation.
In most of the manufacturing operations, the major emissions of asbestos
occur when the dry asbestos is being handled, mixed with other dry
materials, or dumped into the wet product mix, but the weaving of
asbestos fibers into textiles and '.he machining or sanding of hard
asbestos products also produce major emissions. -;,
Emissions are controlled in several ways: (1) by careful handling of
dry materials to avoid generating dust, (2) by enclosing dusty oper-
ations, (3) by substituting wet processes for dry processes, (4) by
wetting dry materials before handling, sawing, or grinding, (5) by
cleaning the dust-laden air by drawing it into ducts that lead to
filters; and (6) by reducing the amount of asbestos added to products
the use of which leads to the generation of emissions. The last tech-
nique is particularly applicable to situations where the control of
emissions by other methods is very difficult, as with spray application
of insulation or demolition of structures. The costs of needed emission
control techniques can be estimated from those associated with existing
practices.
16. Environmental Protection Agency, February 1973. Control Techniques
for Beryllium Air Pollutants,. Pub. No. AP-116, USGPO.
Beryllium in almost all forms is known to have adverse effects upon
human health. Concentrations as large as 0.01 microgram per cubic
meter of air over a 30-day period have been determined to be safe
for nonoccupational exposures. Properties of beryllium such as high
strength-to-weight ratio, high modulus of elasticity, and low coefficient
of thermal expansion make it ideally suited for many aerospace and
precision instrument applications. It is also utilized as an alloying
constituent in other metals, most extensively with copper, to induce
improvements in physical properties. The oxide of beryllium is used
as a high-tcinperature ceramic. Domestically, approximately 300 facilities
either extract beryllium or manufacture beryllium-containing products.
Beryllium extraction processes generate atmospheric emissions that
include beryllium salts, acids, beryllium oxide, and other beryllium
compounds in the form of dust, fume, or mist. Facilities engaged in
processing beryllium-containing materials into finished products generate
< more restricted range of emissions, including beryllium dust from
machine shops, beryllium oxide dust from ceramic production, and
beryllium-containing dust and fume from beryllium-copper foundry operations.
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Beryllium emissions can bo controlled by the following classes of
gas-cleaning equipment: prefiltcrs, dry mechanical collectors,
v/et collectors, fabirc filters, and high-efficiency parti cul ate
air filters (IIF.PA filters). The choice of- specific control equip-
ment is governed by process variables, effluent properties, and
economics. In most cases, emission control costs, including capital
investment, operating and maintenance costs, and capital charges, ,-. -
do not exceed 10 to 15 percent of the cost of manufacturing equip-
ment. Beryllium-contaminated waste can be buried at controlled
disposal sites unless it presents on explosion hazard. Beryllium
propel!ant and other hazardous beryllium-contaminated wastes can
be disposed of by controlled incineration or detonation .iiploying
appropriate emission control devices. An appendix to tin's document
presents descriptions of geometrical configurations and performance
characteristics of filters and presents examples of specific design
parameters and operational features of filters in use in beryllium
machine shops and foundries.
17. Environmental Protection Agency, February 1973. Control Techniques
for_jjGrcury__r.r.iissipns. from Extraction and Chlor-ATkalTTfaTTt's.
Pub. No. AP-118, USGPO.
The loxicity of mercury, combined with its high volatility, creates
a potential health hazard. This publication deals with two sources
of mercury emissions, the primary mercury processing industry and
the mercury-cell chlor-alkali industry. An effort is made (1) to
identify the process steps that may produce atmospheric mercury
emissions, (2) to summarize the emission control techniques and low
mercury emission processes used or applicable to these industries,
and (3) to evaluate these techniques in terms, of cost and effectiveness,
The condenser gas stream is the major source of mercury emissions
from a primary mercury processing plant. The amount of emissions
can be reduced by converting to processes that inherently produce
fewer emissions or by treating effluent gases to remove mercury.
Process changes that inherently produce fewer emissions include
benefication of ore, retort processing, and hydrometallurgical
processing. Appropriate control techniques include cooling and
mist elimination, wet scrubbing, or adsorption beds.
Major emissions of mercury from a chlor-alkali plant using mercury
cells are from the hydrogen gas stream, the end-box ventilation
stream, and the cell room ventilation air. The emissions from all
sources can be. eliminated by converting to the diaphragm-cell process.
The cost of converting a 100-ton-por-day plant is estimated to range
from $3,700,000 to $8,000,000.
Mercury emissions can also be reduced by the installation of control
systems and the use of good housekeeping practices. The hydrogen
gas ami t.V ; ? t -;.-,,-, -,-;r -.4 ,,~~r.r - ,n , n tt.A,4 ,. , v; r,-o-j^ni
and mist oiT.-n. .- .](->! scru'^nno, or ciHsni-pt-.ion l'n/is. 'jo
technique a.^. p,^.,...,..,, uvuilablu to treat the coll room venu lation
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air; therefore, the control of mercury emissions from this source
is dependent on good housekeeping practices;
A control system for a primary mercury facility using cooling (down
to 45° to G5°F) and mist elimination would cost between $86,000 and
$108,000 depending upon the type of mist elimination device used.
The cost of a similar control system for a chlor-alkalt plant is
estimated at $202,000. Chemical scrubbing, which is too expensive'-'-
for existing primary mercury facilities, can be applied to the chlor-
al kali process at a cost from $160,000 to $350,000 for a 100-ton-of-
chlorine-per-day plant.
The cost of a carbon bed adsorption system for a primary mercury
facility is estimated at $66,000. The capital investment for an
adsorption bed system for a chlor-alkali plant of 100-tons-per-day
capacity would range from $279,000 to $349,000.
18. Environmental Protection Agency, March 1973. Guide for Compiling A
Comprehensive Emission Inventory (Revised). Pub. No. ~APTD-Tl35.
Detailed procedures are given for obtaining and codifying information
about air pollutant emissions from stationary and mobile sources.
The system has been developed specifically for use by state and local
air pollution control agencies, [iecause of the large amount of infor-
mation that must he collected, the data must be handled by ADP means.
A uniform coding system for the data is encouraged in order that the
information from one region may bo compared with that from another.
Detailed procedures are given concerning the information to be gathered
from each source, the methods to be used to gather the information,
the codes to be used to simplify the information on standard coding
forms, the geographical and population information needed about the
area of interest, the apportionment techniques and emission factors
needed, and the methods of displaying the data. The relation of
state and local emission inventory systems to the EPA NEDS system is
also explained.
, Environmental Protection Agency, June 1973. Background Information
for Proposed [Jew Source Performance Standards: Pub. No. APTD.-1352a.
This document provides background information on the derivation of the
>ropcr>cd second group of new source performance standards and their
^conomic impact on the construction and operation of asphalt concrete
t ants, petroleum refineries, storage vessels, secondary lead smelters
and refineries, brass or bronze ingot production plants, iron and
steel plants, and sewage treatment plants. Information is also pro-
vided on the environmental impact of imposing the standards on new
installations.
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The standards developed require control at a level typical of well
controlled existing plants and attainable with existing technology
To determine these levels, extensive on-site investigations were
conducted, and design factors, maintenance practices, available test
data, and the character of stack emissions were considered. Economic
analyses of the effects of the proposed standards indicate that they
will not cause undue reductions of profit margins or reductions in
growth rates in the affected industries.
20. Environmental Protection Agency, April 1973. Compilation of Air
Pollutant Emission Factors (Second Edition). Pub. No. AP-42, USGPO.
Emission data obtained from source tests, material balance studies,
engineering estimates, etc., have been compiled for use by individuals
and groups responsible for conducting air pollution emission inventories.
Emission factors given in this document, the result of the expansion
and continuation of earlier work, cover most of the common emission
categories: fuel combustion by stationary and mobile sources; combustion
of solid wastes; evaporation of fuels, solvents, and other volatile
substances; various industrial processes; and miscellaneous sources.
When no source-test data are available, these factros can be used to
estimate the quantities of primary pollutants (particulates, CO, S02,
NOX, and hydrocarbons) being released from a source or source group.
21. Environmental Protection Agency, September 1973. Atmospheric Emissions
from the Pulp and Paper Manufacturing Industry^ Pub. No. EPA-450/1-73-002,
This report contains information on the nature and quantities of the
atmospheric emissions from chemical pulping operations, principally
the kraft process. The information was gathered in a cooperative
study by the 'National Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream
Inprovement, Inc. (NCASI), and the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA). Principal sources of information were a comprehensive
questionnaire sent to all the pulp mills, special NCASI studies
reported in Technical Bulletins, other literature sources, and a
field sampling program conducted by EPA. Control techniques are
described and emission ranges reported for each of the operations
involved in the chemical pulping processes.
2J. Environmental Protection Agency, July 1973. National Emissions Data
System Control Device Workbook (NEDS). Pub. No".' APt'D-1570.
Information is presented on the pollutant control devices and methods
most commonly used by the majority of the industries, processes, and
facilities grouped under the Source Classification Categories as
dcfin:J by Inc* :,\-.tiunJ Ddc:, iO,,s Data Systcir; of tf;o rrvi: crv-n4- ^1
Protection Agency. Data for each category include the name of the
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source classification category; the source classification code; the
control equipment identification number; the mean control device
efficiency for participates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons; the range of observed control
efficiencies; and the data source from which the information1was
obtained. These data are intended to be used in the preparation of
emission inventories or other similar studies and do not necessarily
reflect the extent of pollutant control at any single facility. This
workbook supplements information presented in the Guide for Compiling
a_Coiii])rehcnsive emission Inventory (APTD-1135). '
23, Slade, D.H., ed. 1968. Mete^£oj£g^_jjTd^t^mi_c_D]^rT)y_1968. U.S.
Atomic Energy Coiunision. [Available as TIU-2419CI from'NTTS,
Springfield, Va.)
This report will serve as a guide to the reader requiring general
knowledge of the factors relating the atmosphere and the nuclear
industry. It will introduce him to the concepts and terminology
of the meteorologist and health physicist. Since it contains
equations, graphical aids and an extensive bibliography, the report
will serve as a handbook to professional workers in various fields.
It contains an outline of subject material which will serve as a
text to students which can be used with a variety of other publica-
tions in the same and allied fields. The report also serves as a
research report containing the results of recent work, the implica-
tions of which are not yet fully evaluated. The topics treated
include the following:
e Meteorological fundamentals for atmospheric transport and
diffusion studies
o Theories of diffusion in the lower Tayers of the atmosphere
e Diffusion and transport experiments
o The effects of momentum and buoyancy, deposition, pre-
cipitation scavenging, and buildings on effluent concentra-
tions
e Meteorological instruments
o Radioactive cloud-dose calculations
c Environmental safety.
e report presents quantitative techniques for treating practical
s.tuations along with a broad variety of assumptions engendered
by the imperfect knowledge of the atmosphere and the pollutant
producing device, rather than hard and fast rules.
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24. Turner, U.B., 1970. V.'orkbook_of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Off fee of Air Programs,
Pub. No. AP-26, USGPO.
This v.-orkbook presents methods of practical application of the
binormal continuous plume dispersion model to estimate concentrations
of air pollutants. Estimates of dispersion are those of Pasquill as
restated by Gifford. Emphasis is on the estimation of concentrations
from continuous sources for sampling times of 10 minutes. Some
of the topics discussed are determination of effective height of
emission, extension of concentration estimates to longer sampling
intervals, inversion break-up fumigation concentrations, and con-
centrations from area, line, and multiple sources. Twenty-six
example problems and their solutions are given. Some graphical aids
to computation are included.
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REFERENCES
Daniel son, J.A., Editor, 1973. Air Pollution Engineering Manual. Second
Edition. AP-40. U.S. Environmental F'rotection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, llor.lh Carol in?. 27711.
Engineering-Science, Inc., 1971. Exhaust Gases from Combustion and '''"' .
Industrial Sources, APTD-0805. Pub. Mo. PB204-C61, NTIS, Springfield, '
Virginia 22151.
- Hev/son, E. W., 1945. The Meteorological Control of Atmospheric Pollution by
Heavv Industry. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 71.
266-282 J~
Holzworth, G. C., 1972. Mixing Heights, Wind Speeds, and Potential for
Urban Air Pollution Throughout the Cortiguous Unites States. Office of
Air Programs Publication No. AP-101, L'.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. Government Printing Office (USGPC).
Koch, R. C., and S. D. Thayer, 1971. Validation and Sensitivity Analysis
of the Gaussian Plume Multiple-Source Urban Diffusion Model, Report
No. EF-60. GEOMET, Incorporated, Rockville, Maryland.
List, R. J., 1951. SmUhsonja_n_Mjvtprplogical Tables. Sixth Revised
Edition. Smithsonian "instrtution, Washington, D.C.
Lund, H. F., Editor-in-Chief, 1971. Industrial Pollution Control Handbook.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, N.Y.
Roberts, J.J., et al., 1970. Chicago Air Pollution Systems Analysis
Programs: A Multiple-Source Urban Atmospheric Dispersion Model. ANL/ES-
i -007. Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois.
"lade, D.H., Editor, 1968. Meteorology and Atomic Energy 1968. U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission. (Available as TID-24190 from NTIS, Springfield,
virginia.)
nth, M., Editor, 1968. Recommended Guide for the Prediction of the
i< r, D.B., 1961. Relationships Between 24-Hour Mean Air Quality
fvasuremerits and Meteorological Factors in Nashville, Tennessee. J. Air
f jll. Contr. Assoc., 11, 483-489.
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__, 19G8. "Tho Diurnal and Day-to-Day Variations of Fuel
Usage for Space Heating in St. Louis, Missouri," Atmospheric Environment,
Vol. 2, pp. 334-351.
J , 1970. Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates.
Revised, "Sixth printing, Jan. 1973. Office of Air Programs Publication
No. AP-26. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (USGPO). v,
U.S. PHEW, March, 1970a. Control Techniques for Carbon Monoxide Emissions
from Stationary Sources. AP-65; U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20402.
U.S. DHF.W, March 1970b. Control Techniques for Nitrogen Oxide Emissions
from Stationary Sources. AP-67; U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20404.
U.S. DHEW, March 1970c. Control Techniques for Hydrocarbon and Organic
Solvent Emissions from Stationary Sources. AP-68, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.
U.S. DHf.W, January 19G9a. Control Techniques for Particle Air Pollutants.
AP-51, -U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.
U.S. DHFW, January 1969b. Control Techniques for Sulfur Oxido Air
20402 antS' AP"52; U'S' 6overnrfient Dinting Office, Washington, D.C.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973a. Compilation of Air Pollution
Emission Factors. Second Edition, Publication No. AP-42, Research Triangle
r ark, N. L .
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973b. Guide for Compiling a
Comprehensive Emission Inventory. Revised. Publication No. APTD-1135
Research Triangle Park, N.C.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973c. Background Information for
Proposed New Source Performance Standards: Asphalt Concrete Plants
Petroleum Refineries, Storage Vessels, Secondary Fuel Smelters and
Refineries, Brass or Bronze Ingot Production Plants, Iron and Steel Plants
Sewage Treatment Plants. Volume 1, Main Text. Publication No. APTD-1352a!
Research Triangle Park, N.C.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1971. Background for Proposed
New-Source Performance Standards: Steam Generators, Incinerators
Portland Cement Plants, Nitric Plants, Sulfuric Acid Plants; APTD-0711
Research Park, North Carolina.
Vatavuk, W. M., July 1973; National Emissions Data System Control Device
Workbook; Pub. No. APTD-1570; Research Triangle Pork, North Carolina
f- / / I I
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'ERpEA°450/4-74-011
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(flease read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Guidelines for Air Quality Maintenance Planning
and Analysis
Volume 10: Reviewing New Stationary Sources
7. AUTHOR(S)
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
GEOMET, Inc.
50 Monroe Street
Rockville, Maryland 20850
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
EF-326
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Source Receptor Analysis Branch
Monitoring and Data Analysis Division, OAQPS,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
EPA
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOI*NO.
5. REPORT DATE
September 1974
i. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO
2AC129
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-1094
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Task #2 1-74 to 8-74
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
16. ABSTRACT . '
Methods for assessing the impact of proposed point sources of pollution on maximum
short term ambient concentrations and on annual mean ambient concentrations are
presented. The importance of control devices, stack characteristics, meteorological
ana topographical influences in determining a source's impact on ambient air quality
is also discussed. Information contained in these guidelines may be used to assist
air pollution control agencies in determining whether a proposed point source would
be consistent with the need to maintain air quality within prescribed air quality
levels. J
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
V:
'lution
^c 5 Wastes
.21. 'ogy
c, i ,;orology
r >F eric Diffusion
msp .eric Models
ION F~ ATEMENT
Jnlimited
r A ' ortn 2220-1 (9-73)
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
Air Quality Maintenance
Point Sources
Emissions
Stack Design
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
None
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
None
c. COSATI Field/Group
13/02
21. NO. OF PAGES
80
22. PRICE
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