vvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
EPA-450/4-80-007/}-
April 1980
Air
Engineering Reference
Manual for Coding NEDS
and EIS/P&R Forms
Volume II: Compendia
of Processes
-------
EPA-450/4-80-007
Engineering Reference Manual for
Coding NEDS and EIS/P&R Forms
Volume II: Compendia of Processes
National Air Data Branch
Monitoring and Data Analysis Division
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
April 1980
-------
This report is issued by the Environmental Protection Agency to report technical data of
interest to a limited number of readers. Copies are available - in limited quantities - from
the Library Services Office (MD-35), U.S. Environmental Pr Section Agency, Research
Triangle Park, Nort1^ Carolina 27711; or, for a fee, from the National Technical Infor-
mation Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
Publication No. EPA-450/4-80-007
-------
ENGINEERING REFERENCE MANUAL FOR
CODING NEDS AND EIS/P&R FORMS
Volume II: Compendia of Processes
National Air Data Branch
Monitoring and Data Analysis Division
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
April 1980
-------
CONTENTS
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
2.1 REFUSE INCINERATION 2.1-1
EVAPORATION LOSS SOURCES
4.1 DRYCLEANIN6 AND DECREASING
4.2 SURFACE COATING
CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRY
5.3 CARBON BLACK
5.9 NITRIC ACID
5.17 SULFURIC ACID MANUFACTURE, CONTACT PROCESS
FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY
6.1 A 1 PAL FA DEHYDRATING
6.4.1 TERMINAL GRAIN ELEVATORS
METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY
7.1 PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
7.2 METALLURGICAL COKE MANUFACTURING
7.3 PRIMARY COPPER SMELTING
7.4 FERROALLOY PRODUCTION
7.5 IRON AND STEELMAKING-OVERVIEW
7.5.1 SINTERING
7.5.2 IRON BLAST FURNACE
7.5.3.1 OPEN HEARTH FURNACE STEELMAKING
7.5.3.2 BASIC OXYGEN FURNACE STEELMAKING
7.5.3.3 ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE STEELMAKING
7.5.3.4 STEEL POURING
7.5.4 SLAG HANDLING AND PROCESSING
7.5.5 ROLLING AND FINISHING OPERATIONS
. . . 4.1-1
. . . 4.2-1
. . . 5.3-1
. . . 5.9-1
. . . 5.17-1
. . . 6.1-1
. . . 6.4.1-1
. . . 7.1-1
. . . 7.2-1
. . . 7.3-1
. . . 7.4-1
. . . 7.5-1
. . . 7.5.1-1
. . . 7.5.2-1
. . . 7.5.3.1-1
. . . 7.5.3.2-1
. . . 7.5.3.3-1
. . . 7.5.3.4-1
. . . 7.5.4-1
. . . 7.5.5-1
-------
2.1 REFUSE INCINERATION
PROCESS DESCRIPTION1"4'6'7
The incineration of wastes greatly reduces their
volume and facilitates ultimate disposal. Incineration is a
common practice of municipalities, industries, and commer-
cial/institutional facilities. Most incinerators consist of
a refractory-lined chamber in which waste is burned on a
grate. Some incinerators incorporate a secondary chamber
designed to achieve more complete combustion.
Wastes are often identified by type according to com-
position, as shown in Table 2.1-1. As described in AP-42,
incinerators are often categorized on the basis of their
physical characteristics and the type of waste they burn.
In this discussion, the incineration process is exemplified
by a municipal refuse incinerator.
Capacities of municipal refuse incinerators typically
range from 50 to 1000 tons per day. In large cities, the
incinerators often operate on continuous 24-hour schedules,
5 or 6 days per week. These generally are multiple-chamber
units, equipped with automatic charging mechanisms, tempera-
ture controls, and movable grate systems. In some newer
facilities the heat content of the exhaust gases is recov-
ered to generate steam.
2.1-1
-------
Table 2.1-1. CLASSIFICATION OF WASTES
Type
Description
Principal components
ro
I
ro
2
3
Trash
Rubbish
Refuse
Garbage
Animal solids and
organic wastes
Gaseous, liquid,
or semiliquid
wastes
Semisolid and
solid wastes
Highly combustible waste, paper, wood, cardboard cartons,
including up to 10% treated papers, plastic or rubber
scraps (from commercial and industrial sources).
Combustible waste, paper, cartons, rags, wood scraps,
combustible floor sweepings (from domestic, commercial,
and industrial sources).
Rubbish and garbage (from residential sources).
Animal and vegetable wastes (from restaurants, hotels,
markets, clubs, institutions, and commercial sources).
Carcasses, organs, solid organic wastes (from hospitals,
laboratories, abattoirs, animal pounds, and similar sources)
Process wastes (from industrial sources).
Combustibles requiring hearth, retort, or grate burning
equipment.
Source: Reference 6.
-------
At a typical municipal refuse incinerator facility
(Figure 2.1-1), refuse is delivered in trucks, which usually
pass over a scale so that the total weight of refuse charged
to the incinerator can be measured. The trucks then dump
the refuse into a storage pit. An elevated crane with a
clamshell bucket lifts the refuse from the storage pit into
a charging hopper and gravity chute, which continuously
feeds the incinerator. Typically the crane handles 1 to 2
tons of refuse per bucket.
The furnace grate (or a series of grates) allows pas-
sage of underfire air up through the bed of refuse. The
grates may be horizontal or inclined, stationary or movable,
and manually or automatically operated. To promote com-
bustion, the refuse is agitated either by gently turning it
as it is moved to successive grate sections or by tumbling
it from one grate on to another. Auxiliary fuel is usually
required only during start-up. Drying, ignition, and burn-
ing of the refuse occur mostly in the primary combustion
chamber, in which the grates are located. Gases from the
primary chamber then pass through a secondary chamber for
further combustion of any combustible gases and entrained
particulate wastes. Temperatures in the primary chamber
range from 1800 to 2000°F. Flue gases usually exit the
secondary chamber at 1400 to 1800°F. The residue, which
2.1-3
-------
CONTROL
DEVICE
SETTLING CHAMBER
<;FTTI TNC CHAMBER
(LOW FFF WFT SCRl'BRFJO
WETTED BAFFLES
HECHANICAL COLLECTOR
SCRUBBER
ESP
FABRIC FILTER
CONTROL
DEVICE
CODE
006
003
006
009
002
OH
016
PARTFCULAIE CONTROt
EFF1C
I
0 to 30
30 i-o 60
60
30 to 80
80 to 95
90 to 96
97 to 99
HUNICIPIE
INCINERATOR
MUUIPU CHAMBER
IJHCOWROUEO
WITH SETTLING
CHAMBER AND
WATER SPRAT
EMISSIONS L8/TON
PART
30
14
SO,
2.5
2.5
CO
35
35
HC
1.5
1 5
"°y
2
2
O
PART.O
SEE SOxO
TABLE ABOVE CO Q
HC O
SEE TABLE
AT LEFT
STORAGE PIT
5-01-001-01'-'
MULTIPLE CHAMBER
MUNICIPAL INCINERATOR
SETTLING CHAMBER
TO HAUL AWAY AS LANDFILL
RESIDUE SCREW CONVEYOR
5-01-900-05 DIST. OIL
5-01-900-06 NAT. GAS
5-01-900-10 LPG
AUXILIARY FUEL
LEGEND
O EMISSION FACTOR*
0 EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVEI OPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66 0) DENOTES CONTROL EOIIIP
, COPE WITH EST FFF SHOWN
I IN ( )
O
DENOTES FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS
DENOTES A STACK
' IN FOUNDS PER Src UNIT
Figure 2.1-1. Municipal refuse incinerator,
2.1-4
-------
includes noncombustibles and any other unburned refuse,
typically falls from the end of the grate into a quench tank
and is continuously removed from the incinerator by a screw
conveyor. The screw conveyor usually discharges the residue
directly into a dump truck for delivery to a sanitary land-
fill. The siftings (residue that has fallen through the
grates during combustion) are usually removed from beneath
the grates manually through cleanout doors. The siftings
and the fly ash captured in particulate control devices may
be combined with the residue or disposed of separately.
EMISSIONS2'3'5
Incineration causes particulate and gaseous emissions.
The major source of particulate emissions at an incinerator
facility is the combustion chamber. Fugitive particulate
emissions occur mostly from the unloading and transfer of
the refuse within the incinerator facility and from handling
and disposing of residue, siftings, and fly ash. Emissions
from these sources are low relative to the flue gas emis-
sions.
Gaseous pollutants generated from incineration typi-
cally include gaseous chlorides, SO , CO, HC, and NO .
5C 5C
Both particulate and gaseous emissions are strongly affected
by operating conditions, refuse composition, and basic
incinerator design. Trace emissions of a variety of heavy
2.1-5
-------
metals, such as mercury, lead, and cadmium, are also pres-
ent. Odors can be a serious problem if rigorous house-
keeping procedures are not strictly followed.
CONTROL PRACTICES3'5
Most municipal refuse incinerators incorporate a set-
tling chamber or multiple cyclones as prec] >aners to remove
particulate matter from combustion gases and thus reduce the
load on the secondary control device. The particulate
removal efficiency of these precleaners ranges from 30 to 80
percent. Wet scrubbing systems and electrostatic precipi-
tators are the most favored devices for controlling particu-
late emissions from incineration. Both can achieve particu-
late collection efficiencies as high as 99 percent. Fabric
filters are used on some new and modified incinerators and
are gaining in popularity. Their operating efficiencies
typically reach or exceed 99 percent, and they are effective
in removal of very fine particulate matter.
Gaseous pollutants are normally uncontrolled. The con-
trol devices mentioned above have little effect on gaseous
emissions, except chlorides, which are removed by wet scrub-
bers in amounts up to 90 percent.
2.1-6
-------
CODING NEDS FORMS8 10
The emission sources in an incinerator facility are:
Source
Multiple-chamber 5-01-001-01 Par t iculat e s , SOX,
municipal NOX, HC , CO
inc iner at or
(Auxiliary fuel) (5-01-900-XX)
The codes for XX in the SCC's for auxiliary fuel are:
05 for distillate oil; 06 for natural gas; 10 for liquified
petroleum gas (LPG).
A standard NEDS form for the municipal refuse incin-
erator, Figure 2.1-2, shows entries for the SCC's and other
codes. Entries in the data fields give information common to
incinerator facilities. Information pertinent to coding
the source is entered on the margins of the form and above
or below applicable data fields. Entries for control equip-
ment codes, other optional codes, emission factors, and re-
quired comments minimize the need to refer to the code lists.
Typical data values for operating parameters, control equipment
efficiencies, and other source information are shown on the
form (or in the text) only to serve as quick, approximate checks
of data submitted by the facility in a permit application or
similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R and NEDS must be
actual values specific to and reported by the facility, rather
than typical values.
2. 1-7
-------
Contact the facility to validate or correct questionable
data and to obtain unreported information. See Part 1 of
this manual for general coding instructions.
For coding purposes incinerators are classified as
Government, Commercial/Institutional, and Industrial. These
are further classified according to the type of incinerator
or the type of material burned. Therefore, the coder should
select from the SCC table the proper SCC code for the
incinerator facility being coded.
Precleaners are to be considered as primary control
devices. Enter 006 in the primary particulate control
device field for a settling chamber or baffles without
water sprays and enter 003 for a settling chamber with
water sprays.
The coding procedure for classification of other types
of incinerator is similar to that for a multiple-chamber
municipal refuse incinerator.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The BEG for use in EIS/P&R forms is:
Source BE_C
Multiple-chamber 210
municipal incinerator
2.1-1
-------
Figure 2.1-2. Standard NEDS form for refuse incineration
municipal refuse incinerator.
Mills
NATIONAL [MISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
NMl PfVAt. PROTfr.TIOM AfiLPJCY
OFFICE (II AIR PROGRAMS
POINT lounr.f
l^oot fn-m
FOR'/! AFTHOVED
Ovp NO 158 (50035
Pi"
t
. ., .- _.- - -
L.LI4L?]5j3 0
CCTTP.3L DEVICE CODE EFFIC. I
SETTII^G C>-r'.vSER OGf 0 TO 30
SETTLIf.C CHAKBER K/ 003 30 10 60
WATER SPRAY (LOW
EFF VET SCRUBBER)
WETTED BAFFLES 006 60
MECHANICAL COLLECTOR 009 30 TO 80
SCRUBBER 002 80 TO 95
ESP Oil 90 TO 96
FAP'TC FILTIP 016 97 TO 9?
...fflf1
'-''.. ! ' V.''.„.!
ffiffiffi
:r±ii±tt
000
ooo|ojOlg
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT 1.0.'S IF COMMON STACK
i'/IS'lON FSTI'JSATf SCC UNIT - TONS BURNED^ FUEL^MILLION CUBIC FEET FOR NG 1000 GALLONS FOR OIL AND LPG
1 "'•< "" ^'5' H,,u, y 5-f I-;? Fc.l » -c
•.. l."^.'.lf >. ,1,„.„.,. LV..un .TIE L-'-'H ,„..,, c.\,,-.,ai ; i
•i- . . . . - c .., ,-. ' o r ,.t-. , . _ - C
:trt
ffl
05-DISTILLATE OIL; 06-N.G.; 10-LPG
s;
i?
5S
70
•J
n
S
c
V
"c
;?
;i
7«
,'5
7{
?;
<
75
75
?
p
p
p
"
rd
33
6
6
G
S
C
-------
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Grate - A surface, with suitable openings, that supports
the burning refuse bed and permits passage of air through
the refuse. Grates are located in the primary combustion
chamber and are designed to permit the removal of unburned
residue.
Refractory - A material capable of enduring high temperature,
usually a heat-resistant ceramic, utilized to line
various types of furnaces.
Underfire air - Air introduced to the combustion chamber
from underneath (and through) the grates.
2.1-10
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 2.1
1. Cheremisihoff, P.N. Incineration of Solid Wastes.
Pollution Engineering. June 1975.
2. Axetell, K., T.W. Devitt, and N.J. Kulujian. Inspec-
tion Manual for the Enforcement of New Source Perfor-
mance Standards - Municipal Incinerators. Prepared by
PEDCo Environmental, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio, for
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,
under Contract No. 68-02-1073. January 1975.
3. Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors, Second
Edition. Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publication No. AP-42.
February 1976.
4. Exhaust Gases from Combustion and Industrial Processes.
Prepared by Engineering Science, Inc., for Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Publication No. PB 204-861.
October 1971.
5. Technical Guide for Review and Evaluation of Compliance
Schedules for Air Pollution Sources. Prepared by PEDCo
Environmental, Inc., for Environmental Protection
Agency. Publication No. EPA-340/l-73-001-a. July
1973.
6. Air Pollution Control Field Operations Manual. Vol. II.
Prepared by Pacific Environmental Services, Inc., for
Environmental Protection Agency under Contract No.
CPA 70-122. February 1972.
7. Air Pollution Engineering Manual, Second Edition.
Danielson, J.A. (ed.). U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
Publication No. AP-40. May 1973. p. 437-531.
8. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/2-76-029
(OAQPS No. 1.2-039). December 1976.
2.1-11
-------
9. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/2-76-005
(OAQPS No. 1.2-042). April 1976.
10. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 Edition.
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available
from Superintendent of Documents, Washington, B.C.
11. Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Ai: Pollution Manual
of CoJing. U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare. Public Health Service Publication No. 1756.
1968.
2.1-12
-------
4.1 DRY CLEANING AND DECREASING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Dry cleaning and degreasing operations use organic solvents
for cleaning purposes. Dry cleaning is the cleaning of garments;
refer to Figure 4.1-1 for a flow chart of this process. Degreasing
is the cleaning of metal parts to remove the lubricants (oil)
that were used during fabrication. It is a necessary step
before the part can be painted, plated, or similarly treated.
Refer to Figure 4.1-2 for a flow chart of this process. Dry
cleaning takes place in a plant that has been set up for that
purpose, but degreasing is one segment of a larger process within
a manufacturing facility.
The solvents that are commonly used for degreasing and dry
cleaning are of two types: petroleum and synthetic. Petroleum
solvents are derived directly from the distillation of crude oil,
and synthetic solvents are manufactured by chemical synthesis.
Both solvents are shipped to dry cleaning and degreasing operations
in sealed containers.
The cleaning process is basically the same during dry cleaning
and degreasing: the garments or parts are suspended in a solvent
for a set time, after which the solvent, along with the dirt and
oils, is removed, and the garments or parts are dried. Solvent
evaporation (emissions) occur throughout the process, and all the
4.1-1
-------
94-pi-ooi-ox
TOTAL PLANT
• ~ i ...
X
3
4
5
Solvent
Perchloroethylene
Stoddard
Tr1 chl orotri f i uoroethane( Freon )
N
)
CARBON ADSORPTION
048 (98)
SOLVENT TO |
STORAGE I
SOILED
GARMENTS -
WASHER/
DRYER
SOLVENT
CLEANED
GARMENTS
SOLVENT
MUCK
SOLVENT
HC0
Figure 4.1-1. Dry Cleaning
t.1-2
o
LEGEND:
EMISSION FACTOR3
EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EQUIP.
CODE WITH EST. EFF. SHOWN
I IN ( )
N DENOTES FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS
o
DENOTES A STACK
a IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
-------
9
CARBON ADSORPTION
048 (20-60)
CONTROL
DEVICE
CONTROL
DEVICE
REFRIGERATED
FREEBOARD CHILLER 047 (40-60)
HIGH FREEBOARD
AND COVER 054 (50)
\
\
HC0
YHC0
DRAIN BOARD OR
I
U>
SOLVENT
STORAGE
SOLVENT
1
1
DECREASING TANK
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
99
A m no? ny
- STODDARD
- TRICHLOROETHA
SOLVENT
STORAGE
ME
SOLVENT
RECLAMATION
1
- PERCHLOROETHYLENE s,,|nRF Tn , AN
- METHYLENE CHLORIDE
- TRICHLOROETHYLENE
- TOLUENE
- TRICHLOROTRIFLOROETHANE
- OTHER SOLVENTS
DECREASING
Figure 4.1-2. Degreasing.
-------
solvent will eventually evaporate to the atmosphere unless
afterburners are used. Good design and operating practices can
reduce solvent evaporation, however, and vapor recovery systems
are often economically feasible.
Dry Cleaning
Dry cleaning is similar to home laundering with water and
detergents, except that organic solvents are used in the washing
and rinsing cycles, and instead of being discarded, the solvents
are collected, cleaned, and reused. The petroleum solvents most
commonly used in dry cleaning are Stoddard and 140-F; the synthetic
solvents are perchloroethylene and trichlorotrifluoroethane
(fluorocarbon).
Three operations are involved in dry cleaning: washing,
extracting, and drying or reclaiming. Washing consists of agitat-
ing the fabric in solvent, to which detergent and a very small
amount of water have been added. The garment are loaded into
large tumble washers with capacities of 8 to 500 Ib. During the
wash cycle, the garment are agitated with solvents that dissolve
and suspend the oils, greases, and soils on the geirments.
During extraction, the dirty solvent is separated from the garments;
clean solvent is introduced as a rinse, and is itself extracted.
During drying, the garments are tumbled through warm air to
remove the remaining solvent. This step is referred to as drying
in plants that use petroleum solvents, and drying or reclaiming
in plants that use synthetic solvents.
4.1-4
-------
In older plants, especially those using petroleum solvents,
three separate pieces of equipment are used for washing, extracting,
and drying. Because the garments are hand transferred between
machines, a large amount of solvent is lost through evaporation
between the washing and extraction phases if the garments have
not been allowed to drain sufficiently. Two machines—one for
washing and extracting, one for drying—are used in synthetic
solvent and modern petroleum solvent plants. Dry cleaning units
in which washing and drying are done separately are called
transfer machines; they are used at most plants using petroleum
solvents and at some using synthetic solvents. The new synthetic
solvent equipment combines all three operations into one unit,
referred to as a dry-to-dry machine.
After the used solvent is extracted from the washed garments,
it is filtered and some of it is returned directly to solvent
storage for reuse. The filter, which is usually changed daily,
is stored on the plant premises until sent to disposal. In
petroleum dry cleaning plants, the collected filter solids,
called muck, are drained and removed for disposal; the muck is
usually pressed or centrifuged to recover additional solvent. In
perchloroethylene plants, additional solvent is recovered in a
muck cooker, a unit that heats the muck to evaporate the solvent,
and the vapors are condensed. The cooked muck is stored on the
premises until sent to disposal. In fluorocarbon plants, a
special cartridge filter is drained and disposed of after several
hundred cycles.
4.1-5
-------
The portion of the filtered solvent (about 20 percent) that
is not sent to solvent storage is sent to a still to separate the
impurities. The distilled vapors are condensed and collected,
and are then returned to solvent storage for reuse. Residue from
the still is stored on the premises until it is sent to disposal.
Degreasing
Most degreasing operations use organic solvents, although an
alkaline solution (detergent) is occasionally used. The water
that is used with detergents makes drying more difficult.
Solvent degreasing operations range from a small tank of cold
solvent, in which oily parts are hand cleaned, to room-sized,
conveyorized operations using boiling solvent and vapors. Toluene,
xylene, heavy aromatics, acetone, and methyl ethyl ketone (MEK)
are the petroleum solvents used; trichloroethylene, 1,1,1,-
trichloroethane, perchloroethylene, methylene chloride, and
trichlorotrifluoroethane (fluorocarbon) are the synthetic solvents
used.
The three basic types of degreasers are cold tanks, open-top
vapor degreasers, and conveyorized degreasers (See Figure 4.1-3).
Cold tanks are rectangular containers that hold petroleum or
synthetic solvents. The solvents are occasionally heated but are
not brought to a boil. The parts to be cleaned are hand loaded
and either submerged or sprayed with a solvent that dissolves oil
and grease; they may also be scrubbed with a brush. The solvent
may be agitated ultrasonically or by air. A drain board is
often used to collect dripping solvent from the cleaned parts.
4.1-6
-------
Figure 4.1-3a. COLD CLEANER =
(batch loaded, nonboiling
solvent degreaser)
LIQUID SOLVENT
Figure 4.1-3b. OPEN-TOP
VAPOR DEGREASER =
(batch loaded, boiling
solvent degreaser)
AIR
VAPOR
BOILING SOLVENT
Figure 4.1-3c. CONVEYORIZED
DEGREASER (boiling type) =
(continuously loaded, solvent
degreaser, boiling or non-
boiling)
Figure 4.1-3. Types of degreasers.
4.1-7
-------
When the solvent gets dirty, it is replaced with clean solvent.
The tanks have covers that can be closed when the tank is not in
use, and they are only partly filled, to prevent the loss of
solvent from splashing and drafts.
An open-top vapor degreaser is a more sophisticated device.
It is a tank that holds boiling, nonflammable synthetic solvent
and is lined near the top with water-cooled condensing coils
(Figure 4.1-4;. The coils reduce solvent loss by condensing a
large part of the vapors at the top of the tank. The dirty metal
parts are often loaded with an overhead hoist into the vapor
zone. As the vapors condense on the cold parts, the dirt, oils,
and grease are dissolved and flushed away. This action is often
supplemented by solvent spray, ultrasonic agitation, or dip tanks
of boiling solvent. The tank is normally equipped with a cover
that can be closed during idle periods. The area above the
condensers, called the freeboard area, has a minimum height of 50
percent of the width of the machine. It is designed to allow
solvent vapors to dry or drip off the parts as they come out of
the degreaser, and thereby reduce vapor concentrations in the
working area. As dirt, grease, and soils collect, the solvent
gets too dirty to use and must be replaced. It is boiled down
(distilled) and the sludge is either disposed of or sent to
another still for further reclamation.
Conveyorized degreasers are either cold tank or open-top
vapor degreasers that have a conveyor for parts handling. The
parts are loaded onto a conveyor and are carried through a solvent
4.1-8
-------
SAFETY THERMOSTAT
CONDENSING COILS
TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR
CLEANOUT DOOR
SOLVENT LEVEL SIGHT GLASS
FREEBOARD
WATER
JACKET
CONDENSATE
TROUGH
WATER
SEPARATOR
HEATING ELEMENTS
WORK REST AND PROTECTIVE GRATE
Figure 4.1-4. Open-top vapor degreaser,
4. 1-9
-------
vapor zone and a dripping (drying tunnel) zone; these zones are
all enclosed in one unit (Figure 4.1-5). A drip pan or drying
tunnel returns the solvent from its area back to the solvent
tank. This mechanized procedure helps to conserve solvent by
eliminating operator error, as does the enclosure of the solvent
within a single unit.
When hot solvents are needed, a small so .vent heater, usually
one fired with natural gas, is used for heating. A typical open-
top vapor degreaser with a 3- by 5-feet nominal working space
requires about 240 ft of natural gas per hour to keep the
solvent heated.
EMISSIONS
The emissions from dry cleaning and degreasing are hydrocarbon
solvents. Emisison sources are identified in Figures 4.1-1 and
4.1-2. For some of the sources, AP-42 provides emission factors,
which are listed on the process flow diagram. For other sources
of emissions, average emission rates obtained from other documents
are mentioned in the following source descriptions.
Dry Cleaning
The primary source of emissions from a dry cleaning plant is
the washer/dryer. These hydrocarbons are exhausted through a
stack that is generally 20 to 50 feet high.
The quantity of emissions from washing and drying varies for
each plant. In a plant using petroleum, the solvent used during
washing is returned to solvent storage tanks. During the drying
cycle, fresh air heated by steam or electricity to 140°F is
4.1-10
-------
DRIP PAN OR
DRYING TUNNEL
Figure 4.1-5. Conveyorized degreaser,
-------
blown through the clothes to remove the remaining solvent.
Heated air is constantly added to the dryer so that solvent vapor
concentrations and temperatures do not reach a level high enough
to create a fire hazard. The heated air that goes through the
dryer and picks up solvent vapors is vented directly to a stack.
Petroleum solvent vapors is vented directly to a stack. Petroleum
solvent vapors are not sent to a condenser because this would
also create a fire hazard.
In a plant using perchloroethylene, the hot air from the
washer/dryer is recirculated through a condenser until low con-
centrations are reached; heated fresh air is then added to the
dryer, and the exhaust is blown through a carbon absorption unit
to remove most of the remaining solvent vapors before exhausting
to the atmosphere. Plants using fluorocarbon carry out the wash-
ing, extraction, and reclaiming (drying) in one unit. During the
reclaiming cycle, condensers are used to collect the solvent;
this is a closed system, and very little solvent is lost.
The solvents that are retained in the filters evaporate to
the atmosphere during changing and disposal. Plants using fluoro-
carbon lose some solvent when the filter cartridge is changed,
but the filter is always drained before disposal. There are no
other emissions from a fluorocarbon process because it is a
closed system. Heated exhaust from the dryer is sent to condensers
for solvent removal, and the exhaust is then heated and reused in
the dryer.
4.1-12
-------
The muck removed from the filter is a source of fugitive
hydrocarbon emissions. Solvent remaining in the solids after
being pressed or centrifuged is emitted during muck storage and
disposal. In plants using perchloroethylene, the muck cooker,
and muck storage and disposal are all sources of fugitive emissions
Still residues from all dry cleaning plants contain solvent
that is emitted during storage and disposal.
Solvent losses also occur from leaks in pumps, pipes, flanges,
and storage tanks; from spills; and from the opening and closing
of equipment doors. All the solvent purchased is eventually
released as hydrocarbon emissions.
Degreasing
Degreasing operations limit hydrocarbons from the open tank,
from solvent retained on the degreased metal parts, from sludge
storage and disposal, and from leaks and spills. In some plants,
a lip vent exhaust is installed on the degreaser to capture
solvent vapors from the work area; this collection system causes
higher emissions rates from the building roof vent.
For any type of degreaser, the total emission factor for
degreasing operations is 2000 Ib/ton of solvent consumed. When
solvent reclamation is practiced, the amount of solvent consumed
is calculated by subtracting the amount reclaimed from the
amount purchased. Emission rates are summarized in Table 4.1-1.
4.1-13
-------
TABLE 4.1-1. DECREASING EMISSIONS2'3'4
Degreaser
Cold tank
Open-top vapor
Conveyorized cold tank
Conveyor! zed vapor
lb/tona
7 to 29
6 to 24
Total Ib/ft2-hb
0.5
Tons/yr
0.33
10.00
50.00
23.00
Ib/ton of work throughput.
•i f\
Ib/ft of open tank area hour.
Small amounts of fugitive emissions are generated as the
cleaned parts are drained and the sludge from solvent reclamation
is discarded.
The combustion products that are emitted from the solvent
heater are exhausted through a small stack on the roof. These
emissions are considered minor.
CONTROL PRACTICES1"9
Dry Cleaning
Emissions from petroleum dry cleaning plants have not
generally been controlled due to the low cost of petroleum solvents
and the hazards of collecting the flammable vapors. Carbon
adsorption and incineration are technically feasible ways to
control solvent emissions. Incineration would not recover the
solvent, however, and may be less economical than carbon adsorption,
Emissions from the filter disposal, the still, storage and
disposal of still residue, the muck cooker, and storage and
disposal of muck are not controlled. Emissions from muck storage
and disposal could be reduced by centrifuging the muck to remove
excess solvent. Emissions from still residue disposal and other
4.1-14
-------
miscellaneous sources could be reduced 70 percent^ with good
maintenance and housekeeping procedures. A program using all the
available controls could control solvent losses by 86 percent.
Because perchloroethylene and trichlorotrifluoroethane cost
10 and 30 times more, respectively, than petroleum solvents,
solvent recovery is an economic necessity in synthetic plants.
Carbon adsorption is commonly accepted as the only way to
control emissions in a perchlorethylene plant. An efficiency of
93 percent has been reported for the vapors passing through the
bed, the comprising vapors from the washer/dryer, the still, and
the muck cooker.
Dry cleaning plants that use trichlorotrifluoroethane are
designed as closed systems, and no control systems are needed to
reduce the small hydrocarbon losses that occur.
Degreasing
Hydrocarbon emissions from degreasing solvents are controlled
by various vapor recovery systems. Good operation and maintenance
also reduce emissions.
Emissions from cold cleaning tanks using solvents of low
volatility (vapor pressure <0.3 psi at 100°F) are reduced by
covering the open tank during idle periods. Emissions from
highly volatile solvents (vapor pressure >0.6 psi at 100°F) are
occasionally controlled by refrigerated freeboard chillers, high
freeboards and covers, or carbon adsorption units. Refrigerated
freeboard chillers cool the air above the hot solvent vapors to
reduce solvent loss. One of the best ways to reduce emissions
from a cold tank is to recycle the used solvent by distillation.
4.1-15
-------
Emissions from open-top vapor degreasers are usually con-
trolled by high freeboards and covers, refrigerated freeboard
chillers, or carbon adsorption units vented to stacks. Increasing
the height of the freeboard 50 to 75 percent reduces emissions by
4
25 to 30 percent; increasing it 100 percent reduces solvent loss
by 50 percent. A cover can reduce emissions 20 to 40 percent,
depending on how much it is used. Refrigera+ed freeboard chillers
4
achieve a 43 to 62 percent reduction in emissions. Carbon ad-
sorption units control captured emissions by 95 percent or more;
however, the hydrocarbons that escape capture reduce the overall
control efficiency 40 to 65 percent. These control methods are
sometimes combined, but data are not available.
Conveyorized systems have controls similar to those used on
open-top vapor degreasers. Because the solvent in conveyorized
degreasers is protected from room drafts, emissions are less, and
fewer of them escape the control devices. Carbon adsorption and
refrigerated freeboard chillers are the most commonly used
controls, each with efficiencies of about 60 percent.
Emissions from solvent retained on the cleaned parts, from
sludge storage and disposal, and from leaks and spills are not
controlled.
CODING NEDS FORMS1'12"14
The emission sources associated with dry cleaning and de-
greasing are:
4.1-16
-------
Source _S_£C Pollutants
Dry Cleaning
Perchloroethylene 4-01-001-03 Hydrocarbons
Stoddard 4-01-001-04 Hydrocarbons
Trichlorotrifluoroethane 4-01-001-05 Hydrocarbons
Degreas ing
Stoddard 4-01-002-01 Hydrocarbons
Trichloroethane 4-01-002-02 Hydrocarbons
Perchloroethylene 4-01-002-03 Hydrocarbons
Methylene Chloride 4-01-002-04 Hydrocarbons
Trichlororoethylene 4-01-002-05 Hydrocarbons
Toluene 4-01-002-06 Hydrocarbons
Trichlorotrifluoroethane 4-01-002-07 Hydrocarbons
Other solvents 4-01-002-99 Hydrocarbons
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures 4.1-6
through 4.1-8, show entries for the SCC's and other codes.
Entries in the data fields give information common to cleaning
solvent operations. Information pertinent to coding the source
is entered in the margins of the forms and above or below appli-
cable data fields. Entries for control equipment codes, other
optional codes, emission factors, and required comments minimize
4.1-17
-------
the need to refer to the code lists. Typical data values for
operating parameters, control equipment efficiencies, and other
source information are shown on the form ( >r in the text) only to
aid in rapid, approximate checks of data submitted by the plant
in a permit application or similar report. Data entered in
EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual values specific to and reported
by the plant, rather than typical values. Contact the plant to
validate or correct questionable data and to obtain unreported
information. See Part 1 of this manual for general coding
inst ruct ions.
Dry Cleaning
The standard NEDS form for dry cleaning is shown in Figure
4.1-6. The emission factor for perchloroethylene solvent
includes emissions from the still and muck cooker, as well as the
washer/dryer. Carbon adsorption can be used as part of the
process equipment to recover trichlorotrifluoroethane solvent,
with a reported efficiency of 98 percent. The solvent in the
dryer exhaust is condensed and reused. Cleaned gases from carbon
4.1-18
-------
adsorption or condensers are recycled to the dryer after being
reheated.
Hydrocarbon emissions vary with the solvent used and are
generally not controlled.
The coder should try to obtain emissions data for the various
dry cleaning operations. Because all the solvent purchased is
eventually evaporated to the atmosphere, an emission factor
of 2000 Ib/ton of solvent consumed can be applied.^ Enter a
comment on card 7 specifying which solvent is used.
Degreas ing
The standard NEDS form for degreasing is shown in Figure
4.1-7. Emissions controlled by carbon adsorption units are
exhausted through a stack; enter stack parameters on card 2,
with a zero in column 54. When vapor recovery systems (refriger-
ated freeboard chiller, high freeboards, and covers) are used,
4.1-19
-------
the emissions that are not controlled escape through the roof
vents. Enter zeros in columns 56 through 59 (card 2); and enter
zeros for the stack height and flow rate columns, and 77 for
the temperature. The plume height field is the height from
the ground t <~> the place where the pollutants are discharged
through the roof vents.
Figure 4.1-8 is a standard NEDS form for degreasing that
uses solvents other than those for which SCC numbers have been
assigned. Enter a comment on card 7 specifying which solvent is
used .
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS15
The EEC's for use in EIS/P&R forms are:
Source EEC
Dry Cleaning Solvents
Washer/dryer 464
Filterdisposal No c ode*
Still residual disposal No code*
Muck disposal No code*
Solvent recovery No code*
Degreasing Solvents
Degreasing 375
As of December 1978.
4. 1-20
-------
Figure 4.1-6. Standard NEDS form for dry cleaning.
S,.J C— AOC*
I ; j i '. 5 i i t 10
"i»»i ID
U
,
'o
17 1]
1 |
C.iv Zoff
«i s S '
1 > « SIC
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0 ° 80. t,,
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j J S 0«£ >.
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. 0
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTA1 PROT ECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
.0. t UTM COOROINA r CS STACK DA A
0 71 7? 7] }l 7S a <•; ;j ; COMHOL > EOUIPMEN1 ^ ^
>„,.. | | r !,:• f • 048 |u *o
QUO uo 1 0000000000 ; 0|C 6 _j [n_n n |n n _QJ [
0»E»ATINC EMISSION ESTIMATES llO"l'»'»rl
>
J» Aua No. £ 5 ? P»M.cu'llf SOj NO,
j 711,71 n|«j?ij!5|7)|7!|.9|JO|]l| J.j.3|3«j J5J 3ojj;j)jj 39 i 10 1 III 17 1 Jjlu M;j 1.1 II j y 1 11 j 50! 51 1571 5j|'
J L_ 000
ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS lloni^vfl'l ^CC
Z S
1 ! ?
cuUlf SO; NO, HC CO ,'
71 77 7) 71 75 76 7) .'! It ]0 JI ): JJ X JS 36 ); U 19 (0 (1 1 J.1 U]'^ XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK ;-
5< 55 « 5» SJ 55 50 (1 t? « (1 55 55 i? Uj) io ;| ;- ;j i, •< :t - -, TV
ESTIMATED CONTROL Ef CICIENCV IV
i 98 f
*" SO-t NO, HC CO -
!ii 55 Si SI SI !• SOiSl ,: ,J ,1 55 SS !,: SI » 7S 71 r; 7' U ;< :c ;• -i ,-« r
ESTIMATION
METHOD e
= 25^,^-1 1 L
S« 55 55 51 SJ 5! ill (1 S7 5J H !S «< 5; li (! 7C 7|li; -i :t~~:- '. -| • • "*
II 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 IO|O|Q|O| joi i joj 1 | V| , [
)Mt'l,ANC[ COMPLIANCE
CHEDULE STJTUS
UPDA?F a. CONTROL REGULATIONS e
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Tl 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1^1
? | !i
55 54 SI !llj3 50 tl|t?ju « Si S5 (T <| J« .': 7 ?; ,•)!;« ;• -ir:- -7 j7*TJ
._ ' 6
— — "— _I_ i " 1 °_l
FLUOROETHANE c
E
il !«•!
v- If }i •* " >0|" '•' "'" " " " " " 'i> I '.' '' •' '> 'i •' M'1Ii^j
1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 | |T|Tl
-------
Figure 4.1-7. Standard NEDS form for degreasing - solvents with SCC numbers.
4>
I-1
NJ
u.
U.
UJ
LU
O
o
CONTROL DEVICE
Sim C
i : 3
ounlv
4 '. T1
Pl«nl 10
AOCR Numh*'
7
o o
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CARBON ADSORPTION
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FREEBOARD
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1
1 - STODPARD
2 - TRiniLOROFrilANE
1 - rKRDILPR'U. 'ilYI.ENE
4 - MT.TIIY! F.NF CHLORIDE
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h - TOLUENE
9 10 11 12 13
- -o
" S
C,tv Zone > a
14 IS 16 17 11 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 25 2 2! 29 30 31 32
•5-0 ; UTM COORDINATES
in > cc s c , jC ^m hm
14 IS 16 17 II 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 25 27 28 21 30 31 32
^
"5 'S Benin Omgo 1 - ]
16 1! II 19 2S 21 22 23 24 25 25 2'J2i|29 10 31 12
0 0 0[0 0 OjOiO 0_10 0
\ANNUALTHRUPUT NOW. « L
OPERATING
o' } * -i
5 3 D*c- M*- Jvjn* Seal 5 5 i
> cc Pfb MJY Autj Nov £ O v *
IS 17 18 19 20 21 22| 13 .'4 25 25 2! 23 29 10 31 32
ALLOWAB
«1
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 2S 29 30 31 32
0 0
0 - ' SCC F *TJ SCC L
-. 8 Sol.d iv.ui.
£ £ I II III 1 v/ Opera . 1.1 *4it
16 17 18 ! 20 21 22 23 24 25 25 2:|2!l29|lO 31 32
^ 0' 0 0 2 (V \
A ! 1
i
L 1. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 _L 1 1 1
o i si-i- |
ID >i 1 II 1 IV COMMENTS
U IS 16 17 16 19 2C 2 22 23 24 25 !5 2'bi 21! 30 31 32 3
|
7 - TRinn.OROTR! FI.UOROETHANE
_ -- |
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS) f°'^ SOUR
ENVIRONMENTAL1 PROTECTION AGENCY """" c°'m
OFFICE OF AIRPROGRAMS Njm' ol f"<°"
Eltjbliihmeni Njme and Addieii
33 34 35 36 37 11 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 4( 47 48 49 50^51 52 51 54 55 56 57 5S 59 50 SI 62 6
- - - 1
STACK DATA "o.ni. ^^
F umc Hf.Qhi common J^^^ vwvu
Hfrgnt (III O'Am fl! Terr-offl FlomRoe HtJ/fTMnl lit noi-irli II HJcJ.-^'^ XXXX
13 31 35 36 37 38 39 45 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 4) 49 50|51 52.53 54 55 X 57 53 59 60 61 62 t
CONTROL EGU PMENT
r* £ , 4 4 ESTIMATED CONTROL EFFIC
'JO, ,• .HC j; CO f P»M SOi NO, HC
31 V 35 36 3:,3i_ » iO 4! (2 43 44 45 4*147 48 49 SO iT|52| 53 5' 55 S&F^ 58 59 50 61 62 53
00000000 000000 10'0 10 0 0 .0
EMISSION EST MATES Itooi vfa>.
3'icu»lr SOj NO, HC CO
31 14 35 3« 3; 3J 39 40 41, !2 13 44 4i 4e i;|JJ]in|50 5! S2 SJ 54 5SJ55 57 5! 59 60 61 (2J63
000 _j
LE EMISSIONS Itons/veji ,COMPLIANCt CCMPL ANCE
Z SCHEDULE STATUS
a UPDATE
E 1
NO, HC CO " y,,, .j.0 v,,, MD Day
33 3* 35 36 37 U 39 40 4 i: 4) <4J)S 46 < « 19 50 51 5? 53 54 55 56 5; 53 55 iOJH 62 63
0 0 _j_
NIT - TONS SOLVENT USED
"'If 5 0 H'B3TUlcc Comn-fn-i
3 3( j5 j5 .7 3; 19 40 4 :2 43 44 1 4: 46 : 43 J9 50 5. 52 53 51 55 56 UiX 5i 60 61 (2 6J
r o .0 10
3 3J 35 '6 3; 3E '3 40 ; :: 11 4) ;; w i; ;s jijso siJ5: ulyls; st s; 53 ^-kcif cr fi
i t 1 [ 1
. . _. __ • rp-4- •
-
^xr:^
ES
Conlact - PerlOnJI
64 55 56 57 6» 53 7C 71 72 ''
|
74 -5)-: -
-1 •; t-
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IF NO COMMON STACK
POINT ID'S IF COWON STACK
54 65 K 67 58.59 7? • \- 'i
•4 :«
TTTT:
i U
-. -$7?
D -
'ENCY \
CO
64 55 55l 57 6J 59 70 71 " ;.'i-| 7*
ko i jo
EST VATIQN
METHOD
~ o O o O % SCMCC
0 0 0|0 0 0! |
CONTROL REGULATIONS
<
C
•:['5>!
o 3 j
c
C
P 41
C
= 1
64 55 Sc 57 M 50 70 7 ," 72 N 7< | '' T
-•• :- •:}
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-------
Figure
.!_,. Standard SEDS for. for deceasing - other solvent,.
I
N5
U>
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAl PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
PO'NT SOURCE
FORM
OMB NO 158 BOWS
D«it __
COMMON STACK
F COWON STACK
ALLOWABLE EMISStONS lior.»lv«»'l
*L* SCC UNIT - TONS SOLVENT US_ED.
Fufi P-tx*» Mou'lv 3^1 »f
-------
GLOSSARY
Alkaline wash:
Aromatic:
Centrifugal force:
Distillation -
Freeboard:
Muck:
Still bottom:
Tons of work
throughput:
A general term referring to cleaning methods
in the metals industry that use water as !he
main solvent.
Organic compound containing at least one
benzene ring in its chemical structure, such
as toluene, cumene, or biphenyl.
A force that tends to impel a thing or parts
of things outward from a center of rotation.
The action of separating two liquids or a
liquid from a solid by heating or boiling,
resulting in the purification of at least one
of the two.
The area between the cleaning zone and the
lip of the degreasing tank for synthetic
solvents. Its height is a minimum of 50
percent of the width of the machine; when
using methylene chloride or fluorocarbon
solvents, 75 percent of the width is required.
The collected filter solids from a dry clean-
ing solvent filter.
The grease and oils left over after the dry
cleaining solvent has been removed and
purified. They are generally found in the
boiling side rather than the condensing side
of the still.
The weight (in tons) of a material that goes
through a process. In degreasing, this is
the weight of the metal parts cleaned.
4.1-24
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 4.1
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, 2nd edition.
Environmental Protection Agency, AP-42, February 1976.
2. Bellinger, J.C. Control of Volatile Organic Emissions From
Solvent Metal Cleaning. EPA-450/2-77-022, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina, November 1977.
3. American Society for Testing and Materials. Handbook of
Vapor Degreasing. Publication 310A. Philadelphia, 1976.
4. Control of Volatile Organic Emissions From Solvent Metal
Cleaning. EPA-450/2-77-022, November 1977.
5. Danielson, J.A. ed. Air Pollution Engineering Manual, 2nd
edition. AP-40, May 1973.
6. Marn, P.J., et al. Solvent Evaporation - Degreasing.
Source Assessment Document, No. 16-1. EPA Contract No. 68-
02-1874. Monsanto Research Corporation, Dayton, January
1976.
7. Suprenant, K.S., and D.W. Richards. Study to Support New
Source Performance Standards for Solvent Metal Cleaning
Operations. EPA Contract No. 68-02-1329. The Dow Chemical
Company, Midland, Michigan, June 1976.
8. Engineering Science, Inc. Exhaust Gases from Combustion and
Industrial Processes. PB-204-861. Washington, D.C.,
October 1971.
9. JACA Corporation. Air Pollution Control of Hydrocarbon
Emissions - Solvent Metal Cleaning Operations. Fort Washington,
Pennsylvania, no date.
10. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Volume 7,
2nd edition. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965. Drycleaning,
pp. 307-325.
11. Baron Blakeslee - Company Literature, GHG 2M1177. 1620
South Laramie Ave., Chicago, Illinois, 60650.
4.1-25
-------
12. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual. EPA
450/2-76-029 (OAQPS No. 1.2-039), December 1976.
13. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes. EPA
450/2-76-005 (OAQPS No. 1.2-042), April 1976.
14. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 edition.
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available from
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
15. Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual of
Coding. Public Health Service Publication No. 1956. U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and We1fare, 1968.
Mitre Corporation. Solvent Metal Cleaning Background Informa-
tion: Proposed Standards (draft). EPA 450/2-78-045,
McLean, Virginia, November 1978.
4.1-26
-------
4.2 SURFACE COATING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Coatings such as paints and varnishes are applied to a
variety of objects for decoration and for protection of
materials. The basic ingredient in a coating is the binder
or resin, which forms a film over the surface of the coated
object. Pigments in the coating impart color and improve
the film properties. For ease in application, the mixture
of binders and pigments is thinned by dilution with liquids,
which evaporate after the coating is applied. Although
organic solvents are commonly used as thinners, the growing
interest in air quality has generated an emphasis on develop-
ment of water-borne coatings, powder coatings, and coatings
having low organic solvent content. The discussion that
follows deals mainly with coatings having an organic solvent
base.
Surface coating operations consist of applying a thin
layer of coating to an object, evaporating the solvent by
application of heat, and hardening the coated surface, often
by subjecting it to high temperatures. Figure 4.2-1 shows
a typical surface coating operation.
4.2-1
-------
TYPE OF COATING
PAINT GENERAL
VARNISH AND SHELLAC
GENERAL
LACQUER GENERAL
ENAMEL GENERAL
PRIMER GENERAL
ADHESIVE GENERAL
EMISSION \
LB/T
mo
1000
1540
840
1320
HCQ
UGEND-
(^) EMISSION rACTOR*
r\ EMISSION FACTOR NOT DFVEIOPED
v7 FOR [HIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CON1ROI EOI1IP
I CODE WI1H EST. EEI. SHOWN
* IN ( )
O
DENOTES FlinillVF
EMISSIONS
DENOTES A STACK
IN POUNDS PfR SCC UNIT
HYDROCARBONS
CONTROL
DEVICE
)
i
DIRE
AFTE
PARTICULATE ,
CONTROL DEVICE
FOR SPRAY BOOTHS
f PART.(
1 HCO
PRODUCT TO
BE COATED v
WE
BA
Ml
CT FLAME
RBURNER 021(99)
T SCRUBBER 002 (90)
FFLES 006
ST KI.IMINATOK 015
3
SEE TABLE ABOVE
COATING
APPLICATION
4-02-OOX-OY>
COATING
T PROD.
1
* FOR X AND Y REFER
TO SCC TABLE
OF COMB.(^>
OVEN HEATER
FOR INDIRECT FIRED
OVENS ONLY
1
1
DIRECT FLAME
DEVICE ftFTERBURNER 021 (99)
HC ( ^
PROD. OF COMB. Q>
COATED
PRODUCT
4-02-008- <>1
COATING OVEN
3-90-004 99 RESIDUAL OIL
3-90-005 yg DISTILLATE OIL
3-90-006- 99 NATURAL GAS
IN~-PROCESS FUEL
4-02-010-01 NATURAL GAS
4-02-010-02 DISTILLATE OIL
4 -02 -010-03 R ESI DUAL J> IL__ _
OVEN HEATER"
Figure 4.2-1. Surface coating plant,.
4.2-2
-------
Common methods of applying surface coatings include
conventional spraying, electrostatic spraying, flow coating,
dipping, roller-coating, and powder coating. These methods
are used in a variety of industries. Table 4.2-1 lists
examples of surface coating materials.
In a conventional spraying operation, a coating from a
supply tank is forced, usually by compressed air, through a
spray gun that directs the coating onto the article. Most
spraying operations are conducted in a booth or enclosure
that is vented by a fan to protect the health and safety of
the spray gun operator. The portion of coating that is not
deposited on an object during spraying is called overspray.
Although overspray may be as high as 90 percent of the
amount deposited, 60 percent is more coiranon.
Electrostatic spray coating is based on the attraction
between materials of opposite electrical charge (positive
versus negative). The method reduces overspray and there-
fore is more efficient than conventional spray coating,
since smaller amounts of solids and solvents are needed for
a given coating job. Electrostatic spray coating can be
used to apply solvent-borne, water-borne, or powder coat-
ings. Because of the repulsive electrical forces in corners
or concave areas of certain objects, such areas may escape
coating.
4.2-3
-------
Table 4.2-1. EXAMPLES OF SURFACE COATING MATERIALS
1
Surface
coating materials
Enamel, air dry
Enamel, baking
Enamel, dipping
Acrylic enamel
Alkyd enamel
Primer surfacer
Primer, epoxy
Primer, zinc chroma te
Primer, vinyl zinc chromate
Epoxy-polyamide
Varnish, baking
Lacquer, spraying
Lacquer, hot-spray
Lacquer, acrylic
Vinyl, roller-coat
Vinyl
Vinyl acrylic
Polyurethane
Stain
Glaze
Wash coat
Sealer
Toluene replacement thinner
Xylene replacement thinner
Density
Ib/gal.
7.6
9.1
9.9
8.9
8.0
9.4
10.5
10.3
8.4
10.5
6.6
7.9
8.4
8.4
7.7
8.9
7.5
9.2
7.3
7.8
7.1
7.0
6.7
6.5
Typical composition of
material, % volume
Nonvolatiles
39.6
42.8
59.0
30.3
47.2
49.0
57.2
37.8
34.0
34.7
35.3
26.1
16.5
38.2
12.0
22.0
15.2
31.7
21.6
40.9
12.4
11.7
0.0
0.0
Hydrocarbons
60.4
57.2
41.0
69.7
52.8
51.0
42.8
62.2
66.0
65.3
64.7
73.9
83.5
61.8
88.0
78.0
84.8
68.3
78.4
59.1
87.6
88.3
100.0
100.0
4.2-4
-------
In a flow-coating operation, a coating fed through
overhead nozzles flows in a steady stream over the article,
which is suspended from a conveyor line. Excess coating
drains from the article into a catch basin, from which it is
recirculated by a pump to the flow nozzles. Flow coating is
used on buoyant articles that cannot be dipped, such as
fuel-oil tanks and gas cylinders.
In dip coating, the object is immersed in a tank con-
taining a working supply of the coating material. When the
object is coated completely, it is removed from the tank.
A roller-coating machine, used to coat objects in sheet
form, is similar in principle to a printing press, usually
with three or more power-driven rollers. One roller, par-
tially immersed in the coating, transfers the coating to a
second, parallel roller. The strip or sheet to be coated is
fed between the second and third rollers, and coating is
transferred from the second roller.
After an object has been coated by one of these methods,
it is transferred to a baking oven. The term "paint baking"
commonly refers both to the process of drying and the proc-
ess of baking, curing, or polymerizing coatings. In both
cases the heat is used to evaporate solvents, but in baking,
curing, and polymerizing processes the heat also produces
chemical changes that harden and toughen the coating.
4.2-5
-------
Powder coating involves applying finely divided coating
solids to a surface, then melting them into a continuous
film. Because very little solvent is used (less than 1
percent), the process is almost pollution-free. Several
types of resins may be applied as a powder, but only certain
types of objects can be powder-coated.
4 5
EMISSIONS '
Emissions of hydrocarbons from the coating application
and from drying and baking are of primary concern, although
some particulate emissions also occur in overspray.
The type and quantity of hydrocarbon emissions vary
directly with the type and quantity of solvent in the coat-
ing. The solvent content often exceeds 50 percent of the
total weight of the coating material. Overall process
emissions can be estimated by material balance calculations,
as exemplified in Reference 1, since all of the solvent must
evaporate in some part of the process. Approximately 70
percent of the hydrocarbon emissions from surface coating
are from the application process; the rest is from the
baking ovens.
Dip tanks, flow coaters, and roller coaters are often
operated without local ventilation hoods, and the solvent
vapors are exhausted through building vents.
4.2-6
-------
145
CONTROL PRACTICES ' '
Particulate emissions from spray-booth operations are
controlled by baffle plates, filter pads, or water-cur-
tains. Efficiencies of baffle plates in removing coating
particulates range from 50 to 90 percent; efficiencies of
filter pads are up to 98 percent, and of water curtains, an
average of 90 percent.
Hydrocarbon emissions from surface coating operations
can be reduced by process modification and by installation
of control equipment. Examples of process modification are
changes to use of water-base coatings and to electrostatic
spraying. Equipment for control of hydrocarbons includes
direct-flame afterburners, catalytic afterburners, adsorp-
tion columns, and compression and refrigeration systems.
Complete combustion of hydrocarbons can be achieved with
afterburners; direct-flame units are the most common. The
most suitable adsorbent for recovering organic solvent
vapors is activated carbon, which gives control efficiencies
of 90 percent or greater.
4.2-7
-------
CODING NEDS FORMS7 9
The emission sources in a surface
Source SCC
Coating
Paint, general
Varnish/shellac,
general
Lacquer, general
Enamel, general
Primer, general
Adhesive, general
Thinning solvent added
to coating
General (Solvent not
specified)
Acetone
Butyl acetate
Butyl alcohol
Carbitol
Cellosolve
Cellosolve acetate
Dimethylformamide
Ethyl acetate
Ethyl alcohol
Gasoline
Isopropyl alcohol
Isopropyl acetate
Kerosene
Lactol spirits
4-02-001-01
4-02-003-01
4-02-004-01
4-02-005-01
4-02-006-01
4-02-007-01
coating operation are:
Pollutant
HC and particulates
from spraying
HC and particulates
from spraying
HC and particulates
from spraying
HC and particulates
from spraying
HC and particulates
from spraying
HC and particulates
from spraying
4-02-009-01
4-02-
4-02-
4-02-
4-02-
4-02-
4-02-
4-02-
4-02-
4-02-
4-02-
4-02-
4-02-
4-02
4-02
009-02
009-03
-009-04
-009-05
-009-06
-009-07
-009-08
-009-09
-009-10
-009-11
-009-12
-009-13
-009-14
-009-15
Hydrocarbons
4. 2-1
-------
Source
Pollutant
Methyl acetate
Methyl alcohol
MEK
MIBK
Mineral spirits
Naphtha
Toluene
Var sol
Xylene
Benzene
Turpentine
Coating oven
General
(In-process fuel)
4-02-009-16
4-02-009-17
4-02-009-18
4-02-009-19
4-02-009-20
4-02-009-21
4-02-009-22
4-02-009-23
4-02-009-24
4-02-009-25
4-02-009-26
4-02-008-01
(3-90-OOX-99)
Hydrocarbons
HC and products of
combus t ion
Oven heater
Natural gas
Distillate oil
Residual oil
Products of combustion
Products of combustion
Products of combustion
4-02-010-01
4-02-010-02
4-02-010-03
The codes for X in the SCO's for in-process fuel are:
4 for distillate oil; 5 for residual oil; 6 for natural gas.
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures 4.2-2
through 4.2-4, show entries for the SCC's and other codes. Entries
in the data fields give information common to surface coating plants
Information pertinent to coding the source is entered on the margins
of the forms and above or below applicable data fields. Entries for
control equipment codes, other optional codes, emission factors, and
required comments minimize the need to refer to the code lists.
Typical data values for operating parameters, control equipment
efficiencies, and other source information are shown on the form
4.2-9
-------
(or in the text) only to serve as quick, approximate checks
of data submitted by the plant in a permit application or
similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R and NEDS must be
actual values specific to and reported by the plant,
rather than typical values. Contact the plant to validate
or correct questionable data and to obtain unreported in-
formatio^. See Part 1 of this manual for general coding
instructions.
Select the appropriate SIC code using the Standard
Industrial Classification manual (Ref. 9).
Hydrocarbon emissions from coating operations are
related to the type of coating material and solvent. For
the application of a specific coating, HC remissions may be
estimated with emission factors that are based on typical
solvent concentrations in coatings. If the actual solvent
content of a specific coating is known, HC emissions may
be more accurately determined by manual material balance
calculations, with resulting emission estimates entered in
the HC emission estimates field on card 4. When additional
thinning solvents are added to the coating, emissions may be
accounted for by entering an additional 4-02-009 SCC with
the quantity of thinning solvent added. When the type of
solvent is not known, use the general SCC for the solvent
type as given in the list of emission sources. When the
type of solvent is known, use the SCC table to select a
specific SCC. Figures 4.2-2 and 4.2-3 illustrate
4.2-10
-------
the Standard NEDS forms for coating and baking operations.
Units of SCC for the coating categories are tons of coating,
and units for thinning solvents are tons of solvent added
to the coating .
Spray booths usually incorporate a particulate control
device. Among the variety of control devices available for
controlling hydrocarbon emissions, direct-flame afterburners
are most common. Where solvent vapors are recovered by
condensation or compression, enter 60 as the control device
code. Identify the control method in the comments field on
card 6 .
Where the coating operation is not enclosed or ex-
hausted through a local hood, code the height of the build-
ing vent(s) in the plume height field. Code zeros in the
stack height and diameter fields, 77 in the temperature
field, and zeros in the common stack field. Enter "No Hood,
Bldg. Vent" in the comments field on card 6.
The SCC for in-process fuel in Figure 4.2-3 applies
only to direct-fired ovens. For indirect-fired ovens, code
the source (heater) supplying the heat, as shown in Figure
4.2-4.
When sufficient data are available, values for emis-
sions from the coating process and the baking oven can be
calculated. Reference 1 provides two examples of the cal-
culations.
4.2-11
-------
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS10
The EEC's for use in the EIS/P&R forms are:
Source EEC
Coating
Spray booths 101
Electrostatic spraying 125
Flow coater 104
Dipping' 105
Roller coating 125
Oven 265
Oven heater 227
4 .2-12
-------
Figure 4.2-2. Standard NEDS form for surface coating - coating.
Sim
1 7
1
A
Plant ID
j County AQCR Number
3
CONTROL
4
1 EFFIC. %\
DEVICE CODE
a i
0
0 I CONTROL DEVICE
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
City
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16
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16
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20
21
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19
20
21
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS) POINT
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY '"""'
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS Nar" °' Pe"on
Completing Form
Establ shment Name and Add* ess
22
23
o. £
- 2
22
Boiler Oes gn
Capacity
106 BTU/hr
18
19
% At*
Dec
Feb
18
19
20
21
JNUA
Mar
May
20
21
22
0
23
24
25
26
27
UTMCC
Hor rontal
km
2<
25
26
Primary
Part
23
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June
Aug
22
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24
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Sept-
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km
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26
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32
33
34
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33
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36
37
38
39
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37
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28
29
30
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33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
STACK DA"
Temp I°F)
40
3L > EO
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<£
38
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33
n
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43
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Primary
HC
41
42
43
44
45
46
41
48
49
50
'A
Flow Rate (ft-Vmmt
44
45
46
Secondary
HC
44
n
EMISS
S02
38
• ABLE EMISSIONS do
NOX
32
SCC UNLT-- TON
Fuel, Process,
Solid Waste
Operating Rate
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
— 1- PAINT; 3-
COMMENTS
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
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40
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42
43
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47
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51
52
53
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If no stack-It
sT
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50
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S COATING F01
Hourly
Maximum Design
Rate
13
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
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40
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53
54
55
56
57
58
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Points
with
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56
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56
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47
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Heat Content
tO* BTU'scc
46
47
48
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0
51
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SOURCE F°RM APfHOVED
F0,m OMB NO 168-R0095
Contact • Personal
62
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66
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68
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70
71
72
73
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74
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0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT I.D.'S IF COMMON STACK
60
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NO,
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62
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65
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71
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TROLREGU
Reg 2
69
70
I FOR ADDED THINNING SOLVENT
Comments
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
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67
68
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VARNISH /SHELLAC; 4-LACQUER; 5-ENAMEL; 6-PRIMER; 7-ADHESIVE
01 GENERAL; SEE SCC TABLE FOR SPECIFIC SOLVENT
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
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47
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51
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-------
Figure 4.2-3. Standard NEDS form for surface coating - coating (baking) oven.
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MAMI1NAI IMISr.lUNS DAIft SYSHM imOS)
INlfll PHOTCCriON AGINCY
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11 1 ?
GLOSSARY '
Binder - A film-forming substance having glassy, plastic, or
rubbery properties in the dried state. Snythetic polyfners,
such as alhyds, vinyls, and epoxy, and natural polymers,
such as drying oils, are used as binders.
Drying oil - A liquid substance that is converted by the
action of the oxygen of air to a dry, hard, insoluble,
resinous material. The term "drying oil" is most frequently
applied to naturally occurring fatty oils, such as linseed,
tung, and siff lower .oils.
Enamel - In strict usage, a glasslike substance that is
fused to metal surfaces, such as kitchen appliances, making
them extremely durable and easy to clean. The word is often
used to designate pigmented paint products whose properties
are similar to those of vitreous enamels.
Lacquer - A coating that contains a substantial quantity of
cellulose derivative (mostly nitrocellulose), used to give
a glossy finish, especially on brass and other bright
metals.
Paint - A mixture made up of pigments (powders) blended
intimately with a binder and a liquid for thinning. On
drying, the liquid evaporates and the binder adheres to the
substrate, also acting as an adhesive between the pigment
particles. The binder and pigment together are called the
nonvolatiles or solids. The liquid portion of a paint is
referred to as the vehicle, which includes the nonvolatile
binder and the volatile liquid. Organic solvents are com-
monly used as paint thinners. Paints are often classified
by the type of binder, such as aldehyde, vinyl, and epoxy.
Pigments - Inorganic or organic powders of various colors
and hiding properties.
Primer — Paint intended as the first coat on a surface.
Thinner - Usually a volatile solvent. The viscosity of any
blend of binders and pigments can be reduced by dilution
with volatile thinners, which evaporate after the paint is
applied.
Varnish - A binder, with or without a thinner, but with no
pigment.
4.2-16
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 4.2
1. Danielson, J.A. (ed.) Air Pollution Engineering
Manual, Second Edition. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. AP-40.
May 1973.
2. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Second
Edition with Supplements 1-7. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. AP-42
February 1976 through April 1977.
3. Exhaust Gases from Combustion and Industrial Processes.
Prepared by Engineering Science, Inc., Washington, B.C.
for Environmental Protection Agency. PB-204-861.
October 1971.
4. Control of Volatile Organic Emissions from Existing
Stationary Sources - Volume I: Control Methods for
Surface Coating Operations. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publi-
cation No. EPA-450/2-76-028. November 1976.
5. Air Pollution Control Technology and Costs: Seven
Selected Emission Sources. Prepared by Industrial Gas
Cleaning Institute, Stamford, Connecticut for Environ-
mental Protection Agency. PB-245-065. December 1974.
6. Control of Volatile Organic Emissions from Existing
Stationary Sources - Volume II: Surface Coating of
Cans, Paper, Fabrics, Automobiles, and Light-Duty
Trucks. Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-
450/2-77-008. May. 1977.
-7. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/2-76-029
(OAQPS No. 1.2-039). December 1976.
4.2-17
-------
8. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Tr-iangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/2-76-005
(OAQPS No. 1.2-042). April 1976.
9. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 Edi-
tion. Prepared by Office of Management and Budget.
Available from Superintendent of Documents, Washington,
D.C.
10. Loquercio, P. and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual
of Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare. Public Health Service Publication No. 1956.
1968.
11. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Second
Edition. New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Volumes 5,
7, and 14. 1964, 1965, and 1967.
12. Considine, D.M. (ed.). Chemical and Process Technology
Encyclopedia. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
1974.
4.2-18
-------
5.3 CARBON BLACK
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Carbon black is finely divided carbon that is produced by
the partial combustion of hydrocarbons. About 94 percent of the
carbon black that is produced in the United States is used in
rubber production, and the rest is used as a pigment in printing
inks, coatings, plastics, cosmetics, and many other products.
Ninety percent of the carbon black is made by the furnace pro-
cess, which is practiced at 29 plants. The remainder is made by
the thermal process, practiced at 3 or 4 plants. For the furnace
process, the feed is residual oils, preferably having a high
aromatic content, and some natural gas. For the thermal process,
natural gas alone is used. The furnace process is favored
because of the versatility, availability of raw materials, and
cost-effectiveness. By varying the operating conditions, a large
number of grades of carbon black can be produced. Liquid feedstocks
are transported to the carbon black plant by rail, barge, or tank
truck, then pumped into storage tanks. Natural gas is delivered
by pipeline.
Figure 5.3-1 shows a typical process flow diagram. In a
typical furnace process operation, oil preheated to a temperature
of 400° to 500°F is injected around natural gas flames in the
furnace. The combustion of the natural gas provides heat that
5.3-1
-------
9
GASEOUS
THERMAL
PROCESS
HYDROCARBONS 3.01.005.02
THERMAL
PROCESS-FURNACE
WATER,
i
AIR
QUENCH
TOWER
FURNACE
PROCESS
3.01.005.ox
. FUPNACE
PROCESS-FURNACE
3 - GAS
CONTROL" HMtKBUHI'tK
"E?°L CO BOILER
u ,. „_ FLARE
,
CONTROL ^[^ Q16
DEVICE KLitK Uit>
f FURNACE PROCESS
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CYCLONE\ / | HC (o) SOX (°)
1 CO \C)3 NOX (o)
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1
FABRIC FILTER
EQUIPMENT)
CARBON BLACK IN PNEUMATIC CARRIER
U^l
022
023
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pv t ^ ' T0 PROCESS
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DRYER BAGGING/LOADING
3-09-COX-33
IN-PROCESS-FUEL
5 - DISTILLATE OIL
6 - NATURAL GAS
LEGEND:
Q EMISSION FACTOR3
/~\ EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
V_y FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EC'JIP.
CODE WITH EST. EFF. SHOWN
N DENOTES FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS
O DENOTES A STACK
Figure 5.3-1. Carbon black manufacturing.
5.3-2
IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
-------
vaporizes or atomizes the oil. As the vaporized oil is further
heated by the combustion gases of the flames, the feedstock
hydrocarbons decompose by thermal cracking and dehydrogenation,
forming active fragments that combine to form solid carbon parti-
cles. Furnaces operate at 2500°F, although the exact temperature
depends on the product. Because the air supply is limited,
the decomposition products are carbon and hydrogen, with lesser
amounts of carbon oxides, other gases, and water. The hot com-
bustion gases and suspended black are pneumatically conveyed to a
quench tower, where they are cooled by a water spray to about
400°F. After cooling, the carbon black is typically separated
from the gas stream in a series of cyclones that are followed by
fabric filters. Several reactors (usually three to five) are
manifolded together and served by a common product collection
system. The hydrogen gas is vented with the exhaust.
In the thermal process, a gas (usually natural gas) is fed
to the furnace. Thermal cracking occurs at 2400° to 2800°F, and
the feed decomposes (in the absence of air or flame) to yield
carbon and hydrogen. For this process, two cylindrical furnaces
lined with refractories are used. While decomposition is occurring
in one furnace, the other is being heated by burning the product
hydrogen recycled from the thermal cracking process (and addi-
tional fuel when necessary). This heating/decomposition cycle is
switched every 10 minutes. The product stream is cooled by
water sprays to a temperature of 250°F , and the carbon black is
separated from the hydrogen gas by process equipment cyclones and
5.3-3
-------
fabric filters. The hydrogen gas is recycled to the furnaces to
provide heat for the thermal cracking process or may be sent to
plant boilers for fuel.
Because the carbon black is a very fine powder at this
stage, it is usually pelletized for shipping. Pneumatic conveyors
transport the black from the collection system to a pelletizer;
it is usually a wet type, although dry pellrtizers are sometimes
used. Wet pellets are dried in rotary dryers, usually indirect-
fired units that are fueled by natural gas. Some of the hot
dryer combustion gases (35 to 70 percent) are passed directly
through the dryer to carry the moisture from the pellets. The
dryer temperature is 350° to 500°F. The dried pellets are
conducted, often by bucket elevator, to storage prior to bag or
bulk shipment.
Carbon black is produced in many sizes and grades, depending
upon variations in feedstock and air feed rates.
EMISSIONS1"8
Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and particulates are the
major pollutants from a carbon black plant using the furnace
process. Plants using the thermal process emit particulates from
some parts of the process. Emission sources are identified in
Figure 5.3-1. For some of the sources, AP-42 provides emission
factors which are listed on the process flow diagram.
In both the furnace and thermal processes, the furnace
exhausts are vented to the process equipment fabric filters and
then to control devices.
5.3-4
-------
Emissions from the furnace in the thermal process are
negligible, because the particulates (carbon black) are retained
by process cyclones and fabric filters, and the exhaust gas is
recycled.
Emissions from the furnace process are more substantial,
because the large cyclones and fabric filters that remove most of
the particulates do not affect the carbon monoxide and hydro-
carbons. Levels of CO vary according to the type of black pro-
duced and the related variations in air feed and reactor operat-
ing conditions. Hydrocarbon emissions also depend upon the
feedstock or raw materials used and their proportions. Small
amounts of nitrogen oxides and hydrogen sulfide are also some-
times emitted. Levels of hydrogen sulfide, which are proportion-
al to the sulfur content of the oil feed, tend to increase due to
demands by other users for low-sulfur petroleum products. Some
of the sulfur is retained in the carbon black. Emissions of
nitrogen oxide are small because of the small amount of air in
the furnace.
Pneumatic transport systems are used by nearly all plants and
have at least one air vent. Air vents emit particulates; however,
emissions from this source are small compared to those from the
furnace flue.
Dryers are another source of emissions. The hot combustion
gases (contact air) that are fed into the dryers to carry mois-
ture away, also pick up or entrain carbon black particulates.
The rest of the combustion gases (noncontact stream) do not
5.3-5
-------
entrain any particulates. The composition of the combustion
gases depends on the fuel used; natural gas is used most often
and distillate oil is also used. In at least one plant, the
furnace flue gas is mixed with the primary dryer fuel.
The loading and bagging area is the final source of particu-
lates. These operations are usually conducted indoors. Total
emissions are small compared to those from tlie furnace flue and
dryer; spillage is probably the largest contributor. Other
miscellaneous, small, and generally intermittent emissions come
during product line sampling, and while unplugging and cleaning
equipment. Broken bags in baghouses result in particulate emis-
sions, but maintenance is usually very strict to guard against
loss of product.
CONTROL PRACTICES
The large cyclones, ESP's (when used), and fabric filters in
the product line are considered to be process rather than control
equipment. The process fabric filter is commonly followed by a
smaller fabric filter that collects particulates from the flue
gas. Its collection efficiency can be as high as 99.95 percent;
however, finer grades of carbon black usually lessen collection
efficiency.1 Water scrubbers (90 to 95 percent efficient) are
used at some older plants, but they are gradually being replaced.
A few plants are trying to reduce the amounts of carbon monoxide
and hydrocarbons in the flue gas from the furnace process: at
least one uses a carbon monoxide boiler, and others use an after-
burner without heat recovery.1 Carbon monoxide boilers are often
5.3-6
-------
uneconomical because there is little onsite use for the steam
produced. Both CO boilers and afterburners need supplementary
fuel because of the low heat content of the flue gas. At least
1 2
one plant uses the flue gas as part of the dryer fuel. '
Transport air from pneumatic conveying is vented through a
fabric filter.
Contact air from the dryer is usually cleaned of particulates
with water scrubbers, although fabric filters are sometimes used.
Scrubbers are generally more economical to install and operate
than fabric filters, but they are less efficient; therefore, the
trend to finer grades of black may make the fabric filters more
attractive. In this application, fabric filters remove about
0.08 Ib of particulate per ton of product. Gaseous combustion
products in the dryer contact air are not controlled. The non-
contact stream is simply vented through a stack.
Spills in the bagging and loading building are vacuumed and
vented through the same control system as the rest of the bagging/
loading emissions.
CODING NEDS FORMS9"12
The emission sources associated with carbon black production
are:
Source
SCC
Furnace process-furnace 3-01-005-OX
Thermal process-furnace 3-01-005-02
Transport air vent 3-01-005-06
Pollutants
Particulates, HC, CO
Negligible
Particulates
-------
Dryer 3-01-005-07 Particulates, com-
bustion products
In-process fuel 3-90-OOX-99
Bagging/loading 3-01-005-08 Particulates
The X in the furnace process SCC is 3 for a gas-fired fur-
nace and 4 for an oil-fired furnace. The X in the SCC for dryer
in-process fuel is 4 when oil is used and 6 when natural gas is used.
Standard NEDS forms for each of the souices, Figures 5.3-2
through 5.3-6, show entries for the SCC's and other codes. Entries
in the data fields give information common to carbon black plants.
Information pertinent to coding the source is entered in the margins
of the forms and above or below applicable data fields. Entries
for control equipment codes, other optional codes, emission factors,
and required comments minimize the need to refer to the code lists.
Typical data values for operating parameters, control equipment
efficiencies, and other source information are shown on the form
(or in the text) to aid in approximate checks of data submitted by
the plant in a permit application or similar report. Data entered
in EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual specific values and reported by
the plant, rather than typical values. Contact the plant to validate
or correct questionable data and to obtain unreported information.
See Part 1 of this manual for general coding instructions.
5,3-8
-------
The standard NEDS form for the furnace process is shown in
Figure 5.3-2. The fabric filter controls particulates. Carbon
monoxide boilers, afterburners, flares, or plume burners are
sometimes used to control gaseous pollutants. These devices
combust most of the CO and some of the hydrocarbons. The industry
differentiates between flares and plume burners by the fact that
2
flares require fuel and plume burners do not; however, for con-
trol device coding purposes they are both assigned the same
number, 023. Afterburners are coded 021.
Figure 5.3-3 is a standard NEDS form for the thermal process.
Because the exhaust stream is recycled to the furnace to provide
fuel for cracking, there are no gaseous emissions from this
source. Particulates are well controlled by fabric filters.
Figure 5.3-4 is a standard NEDS form for transport air
vents. The controls that are given on the form and their associated
efficiencies are intended to serve as guides only; different
plants have a wide variation in emissions.
Figure 5.3-5 is a standard NEDS form for the dryer. Emissions
and controls refer only to the contact air. Code as in-process
fuel only the percentage of fuel that is combusted and sent
directly through the dryer (contact air). Noncontact air is
generally not controlled; it is simply vented to a stack.
Figure 5.3-6 is a standard NEDS form for the bagging/loading
operation, and includes spillage during these operations.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The EEC's for carbon black manufacture are:
5.3-9
-------
Source EEC
Furnace process-furnace 287
Thermal process-furnace 287
Transport air vent 707
Dryer 456
Bagging/loading 716
5.3-10
-------
EMISSION FACTORS
CONTROL DEVICES
FURNACE
FEED
GAS
OIL
PART,
-
HC
1800
200
CO
5300
2600
DEVICE
FABRIC FILTER
AFTERBURNER
FLARE
CO BOILER
CODE
016
021
023
022
POLLUTANTS
PART
CO, HC
CO, HC
CO, HC
TO
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Fgure 5.3-3. Standard NEDS form for carbon black - thermal process-furnace.
CO
I
NATIONAL [MISSIONS DATA SYSTEM INtOS)
ENVIRONMINIAL fROIECllON AGENCY
OfFIClOF AlHfROGHAWS
K>»> SOURCI
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IJTIUAUO CONTROL IMICIINCV l\l
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ALlOHAILf IMIiWONt ln<«/ftwl
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f*ii *.o*.it Hu«", \-t 5j ;
S«l^IW
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CO
Figure 5.3-4. Standard NEDS form for carbon black - transport air vent.
,
1 1
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TRANSPORT »IR VtMT
-------
Figure 5.3-5. Standard NEDS form for carbon black - dryer.
Stale
1
2
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3
4
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. - 1000 GAL. BURNED; GAS - MILLION CUBIC
Comments
51
52
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54
55
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61
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64
65
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69
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-
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56
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61
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61
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66
67
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( cJ
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79 80
p 5
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79 30
P 6
P G
P 5
P 6
P 6
cri
?9 80
P 7
P 7
P 7
P /
-------
Figure 5.3-6. Standard NEDS form for carbon black -
bagging/loading.
CO
i ,
en
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
Inpui Form
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO 1S8R0095
Omu
IIITf
BAGGING/LOADING
E 8
UTMCOOHDINATES
,?-"
•sSif?
018 :
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
I ,
V ANNUAL THRUPUT
D*c M»' June S«pi
OPERATING
? .* :
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
tt SI M|i»|60 II 12 O
ESTIMATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY l
99+
NO, HC CO
to ii t:
EMISSION ESTIMATES Uowv***!
1? !! 14 IS ]> )
il H 40 II
ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS liorti'vw
I; i; It 17
STATES
UPDATE
VCAI Mo Day
METHOD
4 S? " 8
olololoi
CONTROL REGULATIONS
Reg 2 R«« 3
SCC UNIT - TONS
73 M 75 »,
-------
GLOSSARY
Carbon black - Finely divided carbon particles produced by
thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons.
Pneumatic transport - Transport in a stream of air.
Thermal cracking - A process in which relatively heavy hydro-
carbons (such as fuel oils) are broken up into lighter products
by means of heat.
Unsaturated organics - Hydrocarbons containii g a low hydrogen-
to-carbon ratio due to double and triple carbon to carbon bonds,
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 5.3
1. PEDCo Environmental, Inc. Background Information: Best
Systems of Emission Reduction for Furnace Type Carbon Black
Plants. Cincinnati. EPA Contract No. 68-02-1321, Task 9,
December 1975.
2. Schwartz, W.A., F.B. Higgins, Jr., J.A. Lee, R. Newirth, and
J.W. Pervier. Engineering and Cost Study of Air Pollution
Control for the Petrochemical Industry. Volume 1: Carbon
Black Manufacture by the Furnace Process. EPA-450/3-73-006-a,
June 1974.
3. Gerstle, Richard W. Carbon Black Industry. EPA Contract
No. 68-02-1321, Task No. 21, May 1975.
4. Gerstle, R.W., J. Richards, and A. Kothari. Carbon Black—
Emissions and Controls. Presented at Air Pollution Control
Association Annual Meeting, Portland, Oregon, June 27 to
July 1, 1976.
5. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 2nd edition,
Volume 4. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1963. pp 258-262.
6. Shreve, R.N. The Chemical Process Industries. 2nd edition.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1956. pp 158-159.
7. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. 2nd edition.
Environmental Protection Agency. AP-42, February 1976. pp
5.3-1, 5.3-2, C-7, C-21.
8. Guide for Compiling a Comprehensive Emission Inventory
(Revised). Environmental Protection Agency. APTD-1135,
March 1973.
9. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual. EPA
450/2-76-029 (OAQPS No. 1.2-039), December 1976.
10. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes. EPA
45/2-76-005 (OAQPS No. 1.2-042), April 1976.
11. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 edition.
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available from
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
5.3-17
-------
12. Vatavuk, W.M. National Emission Data System (NEDS) Control
Device Workbook. Environmental Protection Agency. APTD-
1570, July 1973.
13. Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual of
Coding. Public Health Service Publication No. 1956, U.S.
Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1968.
5.3-18
-------
5.9 NITRIC ACID
PROCESS DESCRIPTION1"4
Nitric acid (HNO_) is a transparent, corrosive, highly
reactive liquid used in production of fertilizers, explo-
sives, and rocket fuels and in a wide variety of metallur-
gical processes. Most of the nitric acid made commercially
in the United States is produced by the high-temperature
oxidation of ammonia with air in a catalytic reactor (Figure
5.9-1). Typically, the production method consists of three
steps, each involving a distinct chemical reaction.
A mixture of ammonia and air (ratio of 1:9) is oxidized
at a high temperature (1650°F) and pressure (6.4 to 9.2
atmospheres) as it passes through a platinum-rhodium catalyst,
The following chemical reaction occurs:
4 NH3 + 5 02 -> 4NO + 6H20
The process stream is then cooled to 100°F or less by
passage through heat exchangers and a cooler-condenser; the
nitric oxide (NO) reacts with residual oxygen in the gas
stream and is oxidized to nitrogen dioxide (NO,,) :
2 NO + 02 -> 2 N02 t N204
The gases are then introduced into an absorption column,
where they contact a countercurrent stream of water. Gas-
liquid contact in the absorption column is facilitated by a
number of trays, arranged vertically. An aqueous solution
5.9-1
-------
LEC.ENO:
Q EMISSION FACTOR*
0 EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EQUIP.
. CODE HUH EST. EFF. SHOWN
* IN ( )
\ DENOTES FUGITIVE
) EMISSIONS
o
DEMOTES A STACK
a IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
9
AMMONIA
.AIR
^^
\ /
\ /
\/
A
/\
/ \
f \
\^ S
065 (78 TO 99.8)
WAJ
CATALYT1
REDUCTIO
;R t N
*iN
A
\ /
c STRONG HjSO
N i'
1
Dx (4. 5) NEW PLANT 1
3x€L|>OLO^a
1
HNO, 60%
HNO, 60%
4
0<
«
V
X
^
1
V
r
*^
CATALYTIC REACTOR
ABSORBER
PACKED COLUMN
ABSORBER
1
1
1
X
N0x
013 (91 TO 94)
{D OLD PLANT
/K2S NEW PLANT
HNO, (95 TO 99*)
CONDENSER
J
3-Q1-013-XX_-<- —
WEAK ACID
ABSORBER
3-Q1-Q13-YY.-»--
NI1RIC ACID
CONCENTRATOR
01-OLD PLANT
02-NEW PLANT
03-OLD PLANT
04-NEW PLANT
Figure 5.9-1 Nitric acid plant.
5.9-2
-------
of weak nitric acid (50 to 70%) is formed by the following
reaction:
3N02 + H20 -> 2HN03 + NO t
A secondary air stream is introduced into the column to
promote oxidation of the nitric oxide to nitrogen dioxide
and thereby perpetuate the absorption operation. Not all of
the NO can be absorbed, however, since it is a by-product of
the absorption reaction. Because the absorption of NO2 is
enhanced by low temperature, the absorption column is
equipped with cooling coils. The product acid is bleached
by passing air through it.
In production of higher-strength acid, the 50 to 70
percent acid produced by this conventional process is con-
centrated to 95 to 99 percent at approximately atmospheric
pressure. Concentration of weak acid is achieved by de-
hydrating the weak acid with strong sulfuric acid in a
packed column. The column is filled with packing of various
shapes that provide a large surface area for contact of the
vapor and liquid. The concentrated acid vapor that leaves
the column passes to a condenser system that condenses the
vapors and separates the small amounts of nitric oxide and
oxygen that form as dehydration by-products. These by-
products then flow to an absorption column, where the nitric
oxide mixes with auxiliary air to form nitrogen dioxide,
5.9-3
-------
which in turn is recovered as weak nitric acid. Production
of high-strength acid usually is not a continuation of the
production of weak acid; therefore, the weak acid is either
concentrated at the same facility as a separate process or
is shipped to another facility for concentration.
Nitric acid plants operate continuously after start-up,
but are shut down periodically for replacement of catalyst
and for maintenance.
EMISSIONS1'3'5
Major emissions from nitric acid plants are the tail
gases from the absorption tower. They contain nitric oxide,
nitrogen dioxide (which yields visible reddish brown
emissions), and trace amounts of nitric acid mist. The
concentrations of nitrogen oxides (NO ) in the tail gas
J*
depend on the efficiency of the absorber. At older plants,
usually those constructed before 1970, the NO emission
2t
factor is 52.5 Ib/ton of 100 percent acid produced. At
newer plants with more trays in the absorption column, the
NO emission factor is 4.5 Ib/ton of 100 percent acid
J\
produced. At old plants the absorption column usually in-
corporates 35 to 40 trays, whereas at new plants the column
has 70 to 100. The additional trays are included solely to
reduce nitrogen oxide emissions.
5.9-4
-------
Comparatively small amounts of nitrogen oxides are lost
from acid concentrating units. These losses (mostly NO~)
are from the condenser system. At older plants, the emis-
sion factor is 5.0 Ib/ton of pure acid produced. At newer
plants with more efficient condenser systems, the emission
factor is 0.2 Ib/ton of pure acid produced. Emissions of
acid mists normally do not occur at a properly operated
plant. Small amounts of nitrogen dioxide are also lost
during the filling of storage tanks and tank cars, especi-
ally in handling of strong acid.
CONTROL PRACTICES1'3'6
Equipment for control of nitrogen oxides includes
catalytic reduction systems, molecular sieve adsorption
systems, and scrubbers. The catalytic reduction process,
which is the most common, can reduce total emissions of
nitrogen oxides by 36 to 99 percent (80 percent average)
depending on design, fuel input, oxygen content of the vent
gas stream, and operating temperatures. Natural gas or
hydrogen-rich fuel is burned in the gas stream to raise the
temperature and to remove excess oxygen before catalytic
reduction of the nitrogen oxides, which is a stepwise pro-
cess. Initially, N02 is converted to NO, which is decom-
posed to nitrogen and oxygen. Some catalytic reduction
systems introduce ammonia, which reacts directly with the
5.9-5
-------
nitrogen oxides to produce nitrogen and steam. Some re-
duction systems simply reduce the N02 to NO, which is color-
less. Such systems do not effectively reduce the total
nitrogen oxides concentrations.
Molecular sieves are substances that selectively
adsorb molecules on the basis of certain characteristics
such as shape and polarity. The adsorption cycle is fol-
lowed by desorption with a stream of air or some other gas,
during which the molecular sieve is regenerated. Several
molecular sieves are commercially available for removal of
nitrogen oxides from tail gas. Molecular sieve systems
provide a removal efficiency of over 99 percent, but they
have been applied only recently to commercial-scale systems.
Scrubbers utilizing caustic or urea solutions are operated
where the recovered by-product can be marketed or the re-
sulting solutions can be recycled. Efficiencies of scrubber
systems are reported to range from 91 to 94 percent.
Nitrogen oxides emissions can also be reduced by opera-
ting the absorption tower at a lower temperature. This can
be achieved by reducing the temperature of the cooling water
or refrigeration sections or by installing additional cooling
coils.
Nitrogen oxides emissions from an acid concentrator
(condenser system) are usually controlled by a scrubber with
5.9-6
-------
weak HNO as a scrubbing medium. Newer plants with efficient
absorption columns and condenser systems can meet emission
limitations without additional controls.
7-9
CODING NEDS FORMS
The emission sources in a nitric acid plant are:
Source SCC Pollutants
Acid absorber
Old plant 3-01-013-01 N0x/ acid mists
New plant 3-01-013-02 N0x/ acid mists
Acid concentrator
Old plant 3-01-013-03 N0x, acid mists
New plant 3-01-013-04 N0x, acid mists
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures 5.9-2
and 5.9-3, show entries for the SCC's and other codes.
Entries in the data fields give information common to nitric
acid plants. Information pertinent to coding the source is
entered on the margins of the forms and above or below
applicable data fields. Entries for control equipment
codes, other optional codes, emission factors, and required
comments minimize the need to refer to the code lists.
Typical data values for operating parameters, control equip-
ment efficiencies, and other source information are shown on
the form (or in the text) only to serve as quick, approxi-
mate checks of data submitted by the plant in a permit
5.9-7
-------
application or similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R
and NEDS must be actual values specific to and reported by
the plant, rather than typical values. Contact the plant to
validate or correct questionable data and to obtain un-
reported information. See Part 1 of this manual for general
coding instructions.
Nitric acid plants emit mainly nitrogen oxides and acid
mists. The absorber is the largest source of NO emissions.
Vt
Since the emission factors for old and new plants are sub-
stantially different, a separate SCC code is used for each
category. When the permit application does not include an
estimate of emissions and the date of installation of the
absorber contact the plant to obtain this information. Also,
determine the number of trays in the absorber. Where the
absorber has 50 or fewer trays, use the SCC code for old
plants. For absorbers with more than 50 trays, use the SCC
code for new plants. Figure 5.9-2 shows the standard NEDS
form for an absorber. The unit for the SCC's is tons
pure acid produced; this value is obtained by multiplying
the fractional acid concentration by the total production of
weak acid. The standard NEDS form for an acid concentrator
is shown in Figure 5.9-3.
5.9-8
-------
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The EEC'S for each of the sources are:
Source BEC
Weak acid absorber 350
Acid concentrator, packed column 350
5.9-9
-------
Figure 5.9-2. Standard NEDS form for nitric acid - weak acid absorber.
I
M
O
Stated Cou
1
4i
4
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6
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1
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n
7
71
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS) POINTS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY npu
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS S^^To?™
'Establishment Name and Addieu
7?
71
l|
&
77
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Capacity
106 8TU/hr
in
11
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lU
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70
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77
n
73
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1
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sec
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71
77
71
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n i
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S 76
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11
1?
ORDINATES
Vcrlica
km
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tl
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) 0
77
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^
i
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77
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n
n
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%
31
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71
n
W
n
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ING
>
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g
71
10
11
0
32
U
34
35
Jfc
Height lit)
(33
34
Secondary
SO2
37
0
33
n
34
0
35
3S
»
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39
Diam (fl
37
CATAL1
Primary
NOX
35
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37
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11
ALLOV
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i n
77
n
73
JO
31
17
33
34
15
%
17
38
39
40
41
42
43
STACK DAI
Temp I°FI
40
fTIC Rl
•Q t
§!
38
0
39
0
40
0
41
42
43
n>ucTK
Primary
HC
41
0
47
0
43
1)
44
45
4b
47
48
49
50
A
Flow Rate It^/min)
44
45
4S
3N 065
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^
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I
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38
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49
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51
52
53
54
'lume Height
If no Itack-lt
51
52
Secondary
1 CO
50
0
51
0
!.5 LB/TON-OTD
4.5 LB /TON-NEW
NO,
4S
(ABLE EMISSIONS Itons/year
NO, HC
32
SCC UNITS TO!
i uei, not-Cil,
Sol.(J WAIII.
Operating Rate
5 ?S~1
27
78
79
30
31
32
JJ
34
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39
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Hourly
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Rate
33
34
35
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39
40
41
42
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53
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46
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-ttat.
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1U
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Reg 2
69
70
Comments
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
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62
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32
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34
35
16
37
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40
41
42
43
44
45
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48
49
50
51
b2
53
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S5
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57
58
59
60
SI
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K
67
Si
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71
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73
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-------
Figure 5.9-3. Standard NEDS form for nitric acid - concentrator
S.....
i ;
J
1
M<
5
1
AOCR
)
1
J
Plinl 10
10
11
Po
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12
14
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NITRIC ACID
CONCENTRATOR
13
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS) TOINT
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY tnoa
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS ?""*, "' '"'""
CompUl ntj Four
Eliab'iihmerM Namt »nd AtkJieif
22
23
-1
22
T
8o>iff Ottlgn
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106 BTU/h'
lit
13
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Feb
11
13
It
21
MNUA
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20
21
22
n
23
24
25
26
21
21 23
i
UTM CC
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km
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n
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Aug
22
21
24
0
25
26
27
30 31
32
)ORO:NATES
Vt-iictl
km
21
23
30
31
33
34
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GLOSSARY
Catalyst - A substance that modifies (usually accelerates)
a chemical reaction without being consumed in the pro-
cess.
Dehydration - Removal of water from a substance.
Oxidation - A chemical reaction that increases the oxygen
content of a compound.
Reduction - Removal of oxygen from a compound.
Strong nitric acid - Nitric acid at a concentration of
95 to 99 percent by weight.
Weak nitric acid - Nitric acid at a concentration of 50
to 70 percent by weight.
5.9-12
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 5.9
1. Spencer, E.F. Pollution Control in the Chemical
Industry. In: Industrial Pollution Control
Handbook. Lund, H.F. (ed.). New York. McGraw-
Hill Book Company. 1971.
2. Exhaust Gases from Industrial Processes. Prepared
by Engineering Science, Inc., Washington, D.C.,
for Environmental Protection Agency. PB-204-861.
October 1971.
3. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors.
Second Edition. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
Publication No. AP-42. February 1976.
4. Directory of Chemical Producers. Stanford Research
Institute, Menlo Park, California. 1976.
5. Background Information For Proposed New Source
Performance Standards: Nitric Acid Plants. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. PB-202-459. August 1971.
6. Technical Guide for Review and Evaluation of
Compliance Schedules for Air Pollution Sources.
Prepared by PEDCo Environmental, Inc., Cincinnati,
Ohio, for Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA-340/l-73-001-a. July 1973.
7. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's
Manual. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publi-
cation No. EPA-450/2-76-029 (OAQPSNo. 1.2-039).
December 1976.
8. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of
Codes. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publi-
cation No. EPA-450/2-76-005 (OAQPS No. 1.2-042).
April 1976.
5.9-13
-------
10,
Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972
Edition. Prepared by Office of Management and
Budget. Available from Superintendent of Docu-
ments, Washington, D.C.
Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution
Manual of Coding. U.S. Department of Health,
Education and Welfare. Public Health Service
Publication No. 1756. 1968.
5-9-14
-------
5.17 SULFURIC ACID MANUFACTURE, CONTACT PROCESS
PROCESS DESCRIPTION1' ' '
Sulfuric acid (H2S04, also called oil of vitrol) is a
heavy, oily, corrosive acid that is used commercially in the
manufacture of steel, petroleum, rayon, and pigments.
Sulfuric acid is made by either the contact process or lead
chamber process. The contact process accounts for more than
97 percent of the total sulfuric acid production in the
United States. Contact processes are classified according
to the raw material used to make the sulfuric acid: (1)
elemental sulfur, (2) spent acid and hydrogen sulfide, and
(3) smelter gas. This third type is used as a control
device for metallurgical processes and is not considered a
point source. Figure 5.17-1 shows a contact sulfuric acid
plant.
In all plants, an early step in the process is con-
version of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide in a catalytic
converter. The efficiency of this conversion, expressed in
percent, is a key factor in subsequent sulfur dioxide emis-
sions. From the converter the gas goes to an absorber,
where the sulfur trioxide is absorbed in a dilute sulfuric
acid solution to produce a stronger solution. Following are
5.17-1
-------
RAW MATERIAL SOURCE
NOTE: A GIVEN SULFURIC AC]
PLANT WILL USE FEED
FROM ONLY ONE OF THE
SOURCES LISTED BELOV
/-
S02 FROM COMBUSTION OF
ELEMENTAL SULFUR
S0p FROM COMBUSTION
OF SPENT ACID AND H^
302 FROM SULFIDE ORES
(METALLURGICAL PROCESS)
.-
O E":L;| '• F-;T:;'
f-\ ci.'isi •. FA_\-5 ^T
\~* DEVtLC ID FC3 > j F=CCESS
Cj9 (65 Oj ::soit :>*•:. :-J!P
COf . > EST It' l<-1
i '"'
\ ciM'f F, ;];!.:
/ [C.i'I NS
O t!sGH * STACl
' IN F:.-OS sis s : ^MT
aiXOVERED SULFUR 0 TO «3 0.35 TO 0 8 PARTICULATES
8B1SHT VIRGIN SULFU1 0 1.7 '(ACIDMISTS1
OA8K VIRGIN SULFUR 33 TO 100 0 32 TO 6 3 ,_.
5ULF IDE ORES 0 TO 25 1.2 TO 7. 4 O
SPENT ACID 0 TO 77 2.2 TO 2 7 ,-^
_ _ . __ • y
SCC C3OTER5IOK OF S0? EMISSIONS
3-01-023-XX SO, TO SO, LB/TON 1001
•V°4
18 93 96
D " »« 82 1 cn /~\
« ,o S02Q
10 97 40 _. ,_.
i S SS u OACIDMISTG
0« 99 5 7 *
ACID MIST0 °' ?^ o
s°20 A J
S°3® (' S030
3-01-023-22 — \ — ^— ||j^ ^ ^T°^SmH "^ H!G,| va- MlV^MT/
LEAKS IN PROCESS EQUIPMENT ATOR 014(88) ATOR 014(88)
l GAS SCRUBBER 013 "— | — 'HIGH EFF. WET SCKUB-
RFP nm
OLEUM j
•v / lOHTIONAL) ^
1 (^ A s^\
S°2 _ V S03 S03 H2S04 v-
/ \ /
1 \ .
^~~~^ T ABSORBER CnfJCrrJIPATrnP01-023-19
CATALYTIC CONCENTRATED CONCENTRATOR
CONVERTER ^ ^4 (OPTIONAL) 1
» ?ACID M;ST,-^
OLEUM ', ~~
10 ' ) /ACI2 VIST
b.URAUL --•* -
i ,
STORAGE A
TANK (\
CONTACT SULFUR ACID PLANT 3-01-023-21 3-01-023-20
STORAGE lANK VENTS TANK CAR AND TRUCK LOADING
Figure 5.17-1. Flow diagram for contact-process sulfuric acid plant.
5.17-2
-------
details of the three basic contact processes for manufac-
turing sulfuric acid.
At plants using elemental sulfur as the raw material,
the molten sulfur is filtered to remove ash and is then
burned in a combustion chamber, where the sulfur reacts with
oxygen to form sulfur dioxide. The gases from the combus-
tion chamber are cooled and then further oxidized to sulfur
trioxide in the converter, which has three to four beds of
solid catalyst. The converter exit gas enters an absorber,
where the sulfur trioxide is absorbed in a 98 percent sul-
furic acid solution. The sulfur trioxide combines with the
water in the solution to form a stronger sulfuric acid
solution. Some plants also produce oleum, a solution of
uncombined sulfur trioxide in sulfuric acid, by venting the
sulfur trioxide from the converter to an oleum tower, where
it is absorbed by a 98 percent acid solution. Since the
oleum tower cannot absorb all the sulfur trioxide, the vent
gases from the oleum tower are then sent to the absorber for
removal of the residual sulfur trioxide. The finished
product is then stored and shipped out in tank cars or
trucks.
Plants using spent acid and hydrogen sulfide as feed
produce sulfuric acid by one of two processes, dry or wet.
5.17-3
-------
In the dry process the spent acid and/or hydrogen sulfide
are burned in the combustion chamber with undried atmo-
spheric air. The sulfur dioxide and other combustion
products are passed through gas-cleaning and mist-removal
equipment and then through a drying towe: . A fan draws the
sulfur dioxide gas from the drying tower and discharges it
to the converter. In the other process variation, known as
the "wet-gas" process, the wet gases from the combustion
chamber are charged directly to the converter with no inter-
mediate treatment. The gas from the converter flows to the
absorber, through which 93 to 98 percent sulfuric acid
solution is circulated.
Plants using smelter gas as feed are essentially the
same as a spent acid plant. This type of plant, however,
functions also as a means of controlling sulfur dioxide
emissions from a metallurgical process, usually a smelter,
which provides the sulfur dioxide feed. The sulfur dioxide
in the smelter gas is contaminated with dust, acid mist, and
gaseous impurities. To remove these impurities, the gases
must be cooled and passed through purification equipment
consisting of scrubbers and wet electrostatic precipitators.
After the gases are cleaned, they are dried by scrubbing
with a 98 percent sulfuric acid solution in a drying tower.
After the drying tower stage, these plants are similar to
the elemental sulfur plants.
5.17-4
-------
Contact process sulfuric acid plants are further clas-
sified as single-contact or double-contact types. In a
single-contact plant the maximum efficiency for conversion
of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide is 98 percent. Higher
efficiencies can be achieved in the double-contact process,
in which unconverted sulfur dioxide from the primary ab-
sorber is vented to a second converter and then to a sec-
ondary absorber for final sulfur trioxide removal. The
double-contact process can also be accomplished with a
single converter and absorber by returning unconverted
sulfur dioxide from the absorber to the primary SO2 stream
for a second pass through the converter and absorber. This
form of double contact is called the two-stage process.
Conversion efficiencies of double-contact and two-stage-
contact processes are as high as 99.7 percent.
Some sulfuric acid plants incorporate a concentrator,
in which dilute sulfuric acid from the absorber is further
concentrated. Concentrators are of two types, vacuum and
drum. In the vacuum concentrator, acid from the absorber is
concentrated by vacuum-induced evaporation of water. The
water vapor, which contains some sulfuric acid, is liquified
in a condenser. The drum concentrator is the more popular
type for plants with large capacities and requiring high
acid concentrations; in these units the weak acid is con-
5.17-5
-------
tacted with a hot gas mixture to remove water from the
solution.
Production capacities of sulfuric acid plants range
from 25 to 2240 thousand tons annually; the average is 290
2
thousand to*is. Figures 5.17-2 and 5.17-., show approximate
exhaust gas flow rates for acid plants with and without mist
eliminators, respectively.
EMISSIONS1'5'6'7
Sources of emissions in a contact sulfuric acid plant
are the absorber, the concentrator, the loading and storage
operations, and leaks in process equipment. The major
source is the absorber exhaust, which contains unconverted
sulfur dioxide, unabsorbed sulfur trioxide, and acid mist.
Trace amounts of nitrogen oxides are also present when the
raw material contains nitrogen compounds. Concentrations of
sulfur dioxide in exhausts from the absorber of single-
contact plants range from 1000 to 5000 ppm; concentrations
in exhausts from a double-contact process are 500 ppm or
less.
At both single- and double-contact plants, the unab-
sorbed sulfur trioxide usually constitutes a small part of
the absorber exhaust. When discharged to the atmosphere,
the exhaust forms a visible white plume of acid mist. The
5.17-6
-------
200 400 600 800 1000
PRODUCTION RATE (TONS SULFUR ACID PRODUCED /DAY)
60
o
o
o
UJ
i 40
o
_i
u_
LO
g
I—
00
ct
20
_L
_L
200 400 600 800 1000
PRODUCTION RATE (TONS SULFURIC ACID PRODUCED /DAY)
Figure 5.17-2. Exhaust gas volume
from acid plant with a mist eliminator.
Figure 5.17-3. Exhaust gas volume from
acid plant without a mist eliminator.
-------
concentration of unabsorbed sulfur trioxide ranges from 0.5
to 48 mg/scf of gas; it is usually closer to the lower
figure.
Because the main function of a sulfuric acid concentra-
tor is to remove water from the weak solution, the con-
centrator exhaust contain large amounts of water vapor,
which condenses to form a visible fog. Emissions also
include acid mist and negligible quantities of sulfur
dioxide. A vacuum concentrator inhibits evaporation of acid
and therefore produces no significant emissions. Exhaust
from a drum concentrator contains significant amounts of
sulfuric acid mist. Table 5.17-1 lists emissions from a
drum concentrator at various operating rates.
Table 5.17-1. SULFURIC ACID MIST EMISSIONS FROM
ACID DRUM CONCENTRATOR
Operating rate, percent 55 73 100
of capacity
H2S04 concentration rate, 82 110 150
ton/day
Acid mist emission, 7034 2401 2334
At an elemental sulfur plant virtually no particulate
emissions occur in unloading, handling, and storing the
sulfur, since it is received in a molten state. Many plants
5.17-8
-------
using elemental sulfur as a raw material use the sulfur as
it is received. Plants that stockpile the sulfur normally
transfer it to the stockpile in molten state and allow it to
solidify. Wind losses from the solidified sulfur are nil.
Fugitive dust is generated when the stockpiles are broken up
for use in the process. This occurs infrequently, since the
stockpiles are for reserve use only. Fugitive emissions are
considered to be negligible, and an emission rate has not
been determined.
The other emissions in contact sulfuric acid production
are acid mist from loading operations and storage tank
vents, and acid mist and sulfur oxides from leaks in process
equipment. Data are not available on emissions from these
sources, but they are considered to be negligible.
1 c o q 1 n
CONTROL PRACTICES ''''
Many of the older contact sulfuric acid plants designed
for single-absorption processing apply no sulfur dioxide
emission controls. They utilize a tall stack to discharge
the absorber exhaust gases at levels well above the ground
for dispersion into the atmosphere.
Sulfur dioxide emissions may be reduced by passing the
absorber exhaust gases through a molecular sieve or by
scrubbing them with an ammonia solution, a soda ash solu-
5.17-9
-------
tion, water, or magnesium oxide. These control processes
are reported to reduce sulfur dioxide concentrations to less
9
than 100 ppm. Since double-contact plants can reduce the
uncontrolled emissions to 500 ppm, additional control
devices are not used.
Emissions of sulfuric acid mist from the absorber can
be reduced by the use of electrostatic precipitators and
mist eliminators, which are filters made of glaiss fiber,
wire mesh, or Teflon mesh. Acid mist removal efficiencies
of electrostatic precipitators and glass fiber filters range
from 88 to 99.9 percent. Efficiencies of two-stage wire
mesh mist eliminators range up to 92 percent. Efficiencies
g
of Teflon-mesh filters are 98.9 to 99.6 percent.
Control devices are not used for vacuum concentrators
because their emissions are negligible. Acid mist emissions
from drum concentrators are usually controlled with venturi
scrubbers; many older plants, however, use electrostatic
precipitators for this purpose.
No attempt is made to reduce emissions from other
sources in the plant.
CODING NEDS FORMS
The emission sources in a contact sulfuric acid plant
are:
5.17-10
-------
Source
Absorber
99.7%
99.5%
99.0%
98.0%
97.0%
96.0%
95.0%
94.0%
93.0%
conversion
conversion
conversion
conversion
conversion
conversion
conversion
conversion
conversion
Concentrator
Tank car and truck
loading
Storage tank vents
Leaks in process
equipment
SCC
3-01-023-01
3-01-023-04
3-01-023-06
3-01-023-08
3-01-023-10
3-01-023-12
3-01-023-14
3-01-023-16
3-01-023-18
3-01-023-19
3-01-023-20
3-01-023-21
3-01-023-22
Pollutants
S02,
S02,
S02,
S02,
S02,
S02/
S02,
S02f
S02,
S03/
S03,
so3/
so3,
S03,
S03,
so3,
so3/
S03,
acid
acid
acid
acid
acid
acid
acid
acid
acid
mist
mist
mist
mist
mist
mist
mist
mist
mist
Acid mist
Acid mist
Acid mist
S02/ S0_, acid mist
Standard NEDS forms of each of the sources, Figures 5.17-4
through 5.17-8, show entries for the SCC's and other codes.
Entries in the data fields give information common to sul-
furic acid plants. Information pertinent to coding the
source is given on the margins of the forms and above or
below applicable data fields. Entries for control equipment
codes, other optional codes, emission factors, and required
comments minimize the need to refer to the code lists.
Typical data values for operating parameters, control equip-
ment efficiencies, and other source information are shown on
the form (or in the text) only to serve as quick, approxi-
5.17-11
-------
mate checks of data submitted by the plant in a permit
application or similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R and
NEDS must be actual values specific to and reported by the
plant, rather than typical values. Contact the plant to
validate ^r correct questionable data and to obtain un-
reported information. See Part 1 of this manual for general
coding instructions.
Obtain the value for efficiency of conversion from
sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide from plant personnel and
enter the SCC corresponding to that value on card 6. A
plant using smelter gas as feed is considered a control
device for the metallurgical process and is not to be
entered into NEDS as a sulfuric acid plant.
When an electrostatic precipitator, mist eliminator, or
scrubber is used to control emissions of acid mist and
sulfur trioxide, this device must be considered the primary
control device. When a scrubber or a molecular sieve is
used to control sulfur dioxide emissions, this is coded as
the secondary device with control equipment identification
code 013. When a scrubber is designed to control sulfur
trioxide, acid mist, and sulfur dioxide, it is considered
primarily as a gas scrubber; use control equipment iden-
tification code 013. It is also considered secondarily as a
5.17-12
-------
particulate scrubber; for this entry, use control equipment
identification code 001, 002, or 003, depending on the
particulate collection efficiency of the scrubber.
Because of the many variations in contact sulfuric acid
processes, comments should show clearly how each plant
operates. State the kind of raw material; with spent acid/
hydrogen sulfide feed, indicate whether the process is dry
or wet; identify the process as single- or double-contact;
with double-contact, indicate use of a dual converter/ab-
sorber system or two-stage processing; identify specific
control devices.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The EEC's for use in EIS/P&R forms are shown below:
Source BEC
Absorber 350
Concentrator
Vacuum type 307
Drum type (no code)
Tank car and drum-loading (no code)
Storage tank vents 725
Leaks in process equipment (no code)
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Oleum - Also known as fuming sulfuric acid; consists of a
solution of sulfur trioxide in 100 percent sul-
furic acid.
5.17-13
-------
Figure 5.17-4. Standard NEDS form for sulfuric acid manufacturing - absorber.
1 Z
i
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7
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NOTE:
SEE TABLE 5.17-2 FOR
ADDITIONAL DATA REGARC
EMISSION FACTORS AND
CONTROL DEVICES
ABSO
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16 17 IB 19 K 21
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||
16 7 IS IS 20 21
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IS 17 IS 15 26 21
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS) Po"*r s
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY "*"'
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36
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0
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41
46
il
48
(9
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n
EMiSS
S02
3«
*ABL£ EMISSIONS lie
NO,
32
cc SCC UHU - T(»
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III IV Gpei-j.ir.j Iti e
,2!.2! ;! 25 2i1:' IS M
11
10 51
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33
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1'.
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61
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Si
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62
64
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ESIIMATION
METHOD
5 lo* O 0 O
- Iw Z X
-------
Table 5.17-2. EMISSION FACTORS AND CONTROL DEVICE
CODES FOR ABSORBER DATA FORM (FIGURE 5.17-4)
EMISSION FACTORS
Conversion of S02
to 803, %
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
99.5
99.7
100
S02 emissions,
Ib/t 100% H2S04
96
82
70
55
40
27
14
7
4
0
Particulate (acid
mist) , Ib/ton
100% H2S04a
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
Emission factors in AP-42 range from 0.32 to 7.4; emis-
sion factor in NEDS program is 2.5 regardless of type
of feed.
CONTROL EQUIPMENT FOR S02
Control device
Gas scrubber
Device
code
013
Control
efficiency, %
N.A.
CONTROL EQUIPMENT FOR ACID MISTS
8T " ' •• '
Control device
ESP
Mist eliminators
Wet scrubber-high
efficiency
Wet scrubber-medium
efficiency
Wet scrubber- low
efficiency
Device
code
010
014
001
002
003
Control
efficiency, %
97
88
97
N.A.
N.A.
5.17-15
-------
Figure 5.17-5. Sandard NEDS form for sulfuric acid manufacturing - concentrator.
i
h-1
CTi
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
CODE
g
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h-
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w
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ACK
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Establ.'.hmenl Name aiuj Anrt.eis
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7
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7
/
-------
Figure 5.17-6. Standard NEDS form for sulfuric acid manufacturing -
tank car and truck loading.
POINT SOURCE
Incut Font
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO IS! ROOK
I
I-1
-J
HATIOHAL EMISSIOMS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENT Al PROTECTION AGENCV
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
Euabliirinum Nvnc and
22l2J 21 R 2(l2;l?l|nl}0l3lj32 33134 35 X 3I(»S|3S|4(!|41 42 43 4<|4bl«
S3 54 55 lit 57|S8|M|iB (1
flat. Rate Ct^/mm) |ll
ESTIMATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY IH.)
SO? NO, I HC CO
KJ27 2! » » 31 3? 33 34 tt 36 J7
5) «0 EIIS2 63 (4 55 SS 67 62
ololQloloiololololo|olololololo|ololo|o
ESTIMATION
METHOD
ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS lltnl/yeail
CONTROL REGULATIONS
2 Rrg 3
Z5 26 27 M 29 SO ill3? 33 34 35 it 37 31
SCC UNIT - TONS PURE ACID
Fu«l rioce**. Houny *= |
MjNirr.um " ~
26 21 2i 11 30 31 32 33 34 15 X 37 38 35 40 41 42 43
TANK CAR AND
-------
Fiaure 5.17-7. Standard NEDS form for sulfuric acid manufacturing - storage tank vent,
I
I-1
00
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE Of AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO 1M-R009S
Dec I f-V
F*b M.v
o]o
0|0
QToToTo
o'ololo
tC>ENCTr '•>,)
;ToT i TTTTloi' I PITT
STORAGE TANK VENTi
SO 2
I
_t__J ^ II I I
EffiiiH
-^^ L_ J .-_.i._i ^ --t---- ' i—l l—J--^_-^—i—i—W—»•
SCC UNIT - TONS PURE ^CID STORES . "-
c. ~ . «.,, F ?: - ? -. -
±rr
COMPLIANCE
H H
ololo
TTotrrr
LPEGULATiCNS
.jjitiii
~r
Tl
RATE AT WHICH TANK CAN BE FILLED, TPH
m
-------
H1
-J
I
Figure 5.17-8. Standard NEDS form for sulfuric acid manufacturing -
leaks in process equipment.
? II
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEOS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE Of AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
FORM APPRCV to
- °
0.010
LEAKS IN PROCESS EQUIPMENT '_
A-.LOAA8LE EVISSi
SO,
OT
IIS
±tt
T
STATUS
UPDATE
J-l
CONTROL PEGULATiONS
- TONS PURE ACID PROQIJCEO_/-
- • ' - s~-r
HT1T
-------
REFERENCES
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emissioi Factors. Second
Edition. EPA. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
AP-42. February 1976.
2. Directory of Chemical Producers. Menlo Park. Stanford
Research Institute. 1976.
3. Exhaust Gases from Combustion and Industrial Processes.
Engineering Science, Inc. Washington, D.C. PB 204
861. October 1971.
4. Air Pollution. Second Edition. Stern, A.C. (ed).
New York. Academic Press. 1968.
5. Particulate Pollutant System Study, Volume III.
Handbook of Emission Properties. Midwest Research
Institute. Kansas City. Contract No. EPA 22-69-104.
May 1971.
6. Cuffe, S.T. and C.M. Dean. Atmospheric Emissions from
Sulfuric Acid Manufacturing Processes. U..S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health
Service. Cincinnati, Ohio. PHS No. 999-AP-13. 1965.
7. Background Information for Proposed New Source Per-
formance Standards. Sulfuric Acid Plants.. EPA.
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. APTD^-0711.
August 1971.
8. Industrial Pollution Control Handbook. Lund, M.F.
(ed). New York. McGraw Hill, Inc. 1971.
9. Missong, D.W. Molecular Sieve Control Process in
Sulfuric Acid Plants. Battelle-Columbus Laboratories.
Columbis, Ohio. EPA-660/2-75-066. October 1975.
10. Chemical Construction Corporation. Engineering Anal-
ysis of Emissions Control Technology for Sulfuric Acid
Manufacturing Processes. PB 190 393. New York. March
1970.
5.17-20
-------
6.1 ALFALFA DEHYDRATING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION1"4
Dehydrated alfalfa is an animal feed (meal) that has been
artificially dried under controlled conditions to preserve the
integrity of the nutrients. The product of the plant is alfalfa
pellets, which are sold to feed mills to be reground for formula
feeds, or sold locally in truckload quantities. The industry is
seasonal, with plants in the Midwest and Great Plains operating
from May through October. When alfalfa is being cut, the plants
may operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. The process flow for
an alfalfa dehydrating plant is shown in Figure 6.1-1.
Chopped green alfalfa (wet chops) is brought in from the
field by truck and transferred to an automatic feeder that meters
it into a direct-fired rotary dryer. The dryer may be either a
triple-pass or single-pass rotating drum. Lifting fliahts in the
drum continuously raise the chopped alfalfa and drop it into the
hot gas stream, which moves it rapidly through the dryer.
Typical combustion gas temperatures range from 1800° to 2000°F at
the inlet and 250° to 300°F at the outlet.
During dehydration, most of the moisture in the alfalfa is
re-.noved by being diffused to the surface of the particles as fast
as it is evaporated from the surface into the gas. After re-
maining in the drum for 2 to 10 minutes, the alfalfa (which
6.1-1
-------
FABRIC FILTER
018 (99+)
MULTIPLE CYCLONES
007 (95-99)
PELLET
COOLER
CYCLONE / 3-02-001-04
PELLET COOLER
CYCLONE
LEGENL
Q EMISSION FACTOR4
OEMlijblON FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66. C) DENOTES CONTROL EOUIP.
. CODE WITH EST. EFF. SHOW
• IN ( )
O
DENOTES FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS
DENOTES A STACK
IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
Figure 6.1-1. Process flow diagrams for alfalfa dehydrating.
6.1-2
-ALFAL-
PELLE
-------
is now quite dry) is separated from the moisture-laden gases by
means of a cyclone separator. This primary cyclone (also called
a primary collector) is an integral part of the process equip-
ment.
The alfalfa (dry chops) is then transferred directly to a
hammer mill for grinding. The ground material from the hammer
mill, called alfalfa meal, is lifted pneumatically to meal col-
lector cyclones; two cyclones in series are normally used at this
point. The meal from the cyclones is dropped into a meal bin,
and from there it is released to a pelletizer that forms it into
pellets in an extrusion process preceded by steam conditioning.
The pellets are conveyed to the cooler, by either pneumatic (in
a separate air flow system) or mechanical means. During pneumatic
conveyance, a primary pellet collector cyclone is occasionally
used ahead of the cooler to separate fines from the pellets.
Cooler exhaust is vented to a pellet cooler, where the fines are
separated out and recycled to the meal bin. Pellets leaving the
cooler are conveyed to a storage bin. The dehydrated alfalfa
pellets are bagged and loaded at the plant for shipment by rail
or truck.
Most alfalfa plants have made major equipment and process
modifications since 1975, primarily to control air pollution and
to conserve energy; there is no apparent need for new production
capacity in the industry. The most common equipment replacements
are dryers and hammer mills with a larger capacity than the old
6.1-3
-------
units. The process modifications are mostly airflow recircula-
tion systems, of which there are three types:
° Skimming - capture of part of the primeiry cyclone
exhaust from the outer surface of the cylindrical
section and return ahead of the cyclone; inlet.
0 Recycling - splitting of the primary cyclone exhaust,
with part returned to the dryer furnace; to incinerate
particulates and to save fuel; and the rest vented
through a control device.
0 Closed and semiclosed systems - returning the exhaust
from the meal collector cyclone and the? pellet cooler
cyclone to the primary cyclone, so that these air
systems have no direct vent to the atmosphere.
New air systems have caused problems in balancing airflows,
and have brought an increase in fires from the glowing embers
that sometimes pass through the complex network of pipes and
ignite dried material.
Recently the industry has begun the extensive use of field
drying of the alfalfa before mechanical dehydration. This
operational change saves fuel by reducing the losid on the dryers.
Field-dried alfalfa with a moisture content of 60 to 65 percent
takes about one-third less fuel to dry than alfalfa that is
freshly cut, which has a moisture content of 70 to 80 percent.
(Alfalfa meal has a moisture content of 8 to 14 percent.) This
change has had the effect of increasing the capacity of the
dryers, although it has not affected the capacity of the grinding
and pelletizing operations.
The alfalfa dehydrating industry has always been character-
ized by a highly variable raw material that must be processed
as soon as it arrives. As a consequence, the alfalfa cannot be
6.1-4
-------
blended to achieve uniformity in the input material. Field
drying appears to have increased the load-to-load variation of the
alfalfa and the resultant demands on the operator to maintain
good quality control.
EMISSIONS1"4
Particulates are the primary pollutants that are emitted
from alfalfa dehydrating plants, although some odors arise from
the organic volatiles that are driven off during drying.
Emission sources are identified in Figure 6.1-1. For some
2
of the sources, AP-42 provides emission factors, which are
listed on the process flow diagram. For other sources of emis-
sions, average emission rates obtained from other documents are
mentioned in the following source descriptions.
Emissions from unloading are negligible because the alfalfa
is wet. Even when the crop has been field dried, the chops have
enough moisture to prevent significant emissions.
There are three major emission sources at an alfalfa de-
hydrating plant: the primary cyclone and dryer, the meal col-
J.ector cyclones, and the pellet cooler cyclone. Emissions from
the primary cyclone and the dryer are considered jointly, because
the dryer exhaust (which contains the dried chops) passes
directly to the primary cyclone. Emission factors for these
sources are: primary cyclone and dryer, 10 Ib/ton product; meal
collector cyclone, 2.6 Ib/ton product; and pellet cooler cyclone,
2
3 Ib/ton product.
6.1-5
-------
In other extensive test data (not available at the time the
AP-42 emission factors were published), the average emission rate
from 81 tests of the primary cyclone and dryer was 8.4 Ib/ton of
pellets. Some of these tests were conducted on semiclosed or
closed systems, so they included emissions from the hammer mill
and pelletizing operations as well. To test this variable,
comparisons were made between plants that did and did not recir-
culate the exhaust from the meal collector and pellet cooler
4
cyclones; and the total plant emissions were about the same.
Emissions from the primary cyclone and dryer (according to
measurements of particle size distribution) are bimodal, with
mechanically generated dust particles in the 1 to 100 ym range
and heat-generated smoke particles in the 0.2 to 0.5 pm range.
Emissions from the hammer mill and pelletizing operations are
coarse in size and are carried in a relatively dry air stream,
although some fine particles can be generated when the alfalfa
has been overdried.
Field drying does not appear to reduce particulate emissions
from the dryer. Although the dryer can operate at a lower
temperature, there is a greater chance of scorching or flashoff
(volatilization of organics) at the front end.
The emission rate from the primary cyclone is strongly in-
fluenced by operating conditions, since add-on controls are
rarely used. These conditions include the feed rate as a per-
centage of production capacity; quality of the alfalfa (protein
6.1-6
-------
content, insect damage, age, foreign matter); anc? the moisture
content of the dry chops.
The hammer mill is not a source of emissions because all the
material from the grinding operation is pneumatically conveyed to
the meal collector cyclones. These cyclones are a source of
particulate emissions unless their exhaust stream is recycled to
the primary cyclone. Minor fugitive emissions may arise during
the dropping of material into the meal bin.
The pelletizer releases no significant emissions because the
alfalfa leaves this unit as moist pellets. In the few cases
where a primary pellet collector cyclone is used to separate out
the fines during pneumatic conveying of the pellets to the
cooler, only minor amounts of particulate emissions are generated
from the moist material.
The pellet cooler is not an emission source because it vents
to the pellet cooler cyclone. The latter unit is a source of
particulate emissions unless it is vented, in turn, to the pri-
mary cyclone. Minor fugitive emissions occur during bagging and
loading of the alfalfa pellets.
1-4
CONTROL PRACTICES
Modifications of equipment and operating procedures, rather
than add-on devices, are the common means for controlling air
pollution at alfalfa dehydrating plants. Fxhaust from the primary
cyclone and dryer is usually controlled by recycling, which is
the partial recirculation of the exhaust to the dryer furnace for
incineration. Recycling reduces the amount of exhaust gas to be
6.1-7
-------
treated where an add-on control device is used, but it may also
lead to such operating problems as condensation in the recycle
lines or unbalanced airflows. No reliable estimates of the
4
control efficiencies of recycle systems have yet been made.
Other common process modifications that can reduce emissions
are the installation of high efficiency, long-cone primary
cyclones; use of short-flame burners in the furnace to reduce
flame impingement on the incoming wet chops; replacement of the
hammer mill with a unit able to handle dry chops with a higher
moisture content of 10 to 16 percent; installation of a larger
dryer to eliminate overloading during peak drying periods; and
the use of water sprays in the feeder to prevent scorching at the
front end of the dryer.
Progressive operating procedures that can reduce emissions
are the frequent sharpening and adjustment of cutting knives to
produce consistently chopped alfalfa; running the feeder at a
uniform rate; maintaining temperature controls within acceptable
limits; and continuously monitoring the moisture content of dry
chops or meal to prevent overdrying.
Add-on controls have been used on primary cyclone exhausts
in only a few cases; medium energy scrubbers have been success-
ful for controlling this source. A pressure drop of 4 to 6
inches can reduce particulate emissions by at least 50 percent.
Scrubbers are far more effective in eliminating large particu-
lates than submicron smoke particles. Primary cyclone exhausts
have not been controlled by fabric filters because the gas
6.1-8
-------
coming from the dryer has a high moisture content. A second high
efficiency cyclone in series with the primary cyclone (similar to
the meal collector cyclones) has been proposed, but this method
4
has not been evaluated.
In contrast to the primary cyclone, add-on controls are
widely used on the exhausts from the meal collector and pellet
cooler cyclones. Fabric filtration is the best approach with a
efficiency of 99+ percent. Cyclones in series are also quite
common. Another way to control emissions from these two sources
is to discharge them back into the primary cyclone inlet, and
thus to eliminate one or both of them as direct sources. This
technique has not been shown, however, to be effective in re-
ducing overall plant emissions.
Emissions from other sources are minor and are not controlled.
CODING NEDS FORMS5"8
The emission sources associated with alfalfa dehydrating
are:
Source SCC Pollutant(s)
Primary cyclone and dryer 3-02-001-02 Particulates
In-process fuel 3-90-006-99 Particulates
Meal collector cyclone 3-02-001-03 Particulates
Pellet cooler cyclone 3-02-001-04 Particulates
Entries in the data fields give information common to
alfalfa dehydrating. Information pertinent to coding the source
is entered on the margins of the forms and above or below appli-
cable data fields. Entries for control equipment codes, other
6.1-9
-------
optional codes, emission factors, and required comments minimize
the need to refer to the code lists. Typical data values for
operating parameters, control equipment efficiencies, and other
source information are shown on the form (or in the test) only to
serve as quick, approximate checks of data submitted by the plant
in a permit application or similar report. Data entered in
EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual values specific to and reported
by the plant, rather than typical values. Contact the plant to
validate or correct questionable data and to obtain unreported
information. See Part 1 of this manual for general coding
instructions.
Figure 6.1-2 is a standard NEDS form for the primary cyclone
and dryer. A wet scrubber is most often used when this emissions
source is controlled. Where exhaust recyling is practiced, enter
a comment in the comments field stating where the flow is re-
cycled; and enter 046 in the primary control device field.
Figures 6.1-3 and 6.1-4 are standard NEDS forms for the meal
collector cyclone and the pellet cooler cyclone. Baghouses on
these sources generally achieve control efficiencies of 99 per-
cent or greater. Where complete recycling of the exhausts from
these sources is practiced, no emissions are released. However,
code a NEDS form for each with a comment stating where the flow
is recycled; and enter 046 in the primary control device field.
The particulate emissions are then zero for these sources, and
the estimation method for particulates is coded as a 3.
6.1-10
-------
The emission factors are expressed in pounds of pollutants
per ton of product.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS8
The EEC's for use in the EIS/P&R forms are:
Source BEG
Primary cyclone and dryer 452
Meal collector cyclone No code*
Pellet cooler cyclone Mo code*
As of November 1978.
6.1-11
-------
Figure 6.1-2. Standard NEDS form for alfalfa dehydrating - primary cyclone and dryer.
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meal collector cyclone.
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pellet cooler cyclone.
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GLOSSARY
Alfalfa meal - Alfalfa that has been dehydrated and ground. It
is an important component of animal feeds because of its
protein, growth and reproductive factors, pigment, and
vitamin content.
Dry chops - The intermediate form of alfalfa after drying but
before grinding; normal range of moisture is 8 to 16 per-
cent.
Flashoff - The volatilization of organic material in the alfalfa
as it enters the front end of the dryer and is exposed to
high temperatures. Flashoff is increased when the incoming
material has uneven moisture content or is of nonuniform
size, causing some parts to dry completely before the sur-
rounding gases have become cooled by the moisture in the
alfalfa.
Recycling - Recirculation of a portion of the primary cyclone ex-
haust to the dryer furnace to incinerate fine particulates
and to save energy.
Skimmer - A device attached to the outer wall of a cyclone that
separates the outermost air stream, which contains a dispro-
portionately large amount of the particulate matter, from
the remainder of the airflow. A skimmer can be used in con-
junction with a recycle system, although the term "skimming"
usually connotes returning the particulate-laden air ahead
of the primary cyclone rather than to the front end of the
dryer (furnace).
Wet chops - The freshly mowed and chopped green alfalfa as it
comes from the fields.
6.1-15
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 6.1
1 Lindle, G. J. An Energy Study of Alfalfa Drying in Rotary
Dryers. In: Energy and the Dehydration Process. American
Dehydrators Association, Mission, Kansas, April 1977.
2 Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors. 2nd edition,
Supplement No. 6. Environmental Protection Agency. AP-42,
April 1976. pp. 6.1-1 to 6.1-4.
3 Smith, K. D. Particulate Emissions from Alfalfa Dehydrating
Plants—Control Costs and Effectiveness. FPA-650/2-74-007,
January 1974.
4 PEDCo Environmental, Inc. Emission Control Feasibility
Study of Alfalfa Dehydrators in Nebraska. EPA Contract 68-
01-4147, Task No. 43. Kansas City, Missouri, February 1978.
5 Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual. EPA-
450/2-76-029 (OAQPS No. 1.2-039, December 1976.
6 Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes. EPA-
450/2-76-0005 (OAQPS No. 1.2-042), April 1976.
7 Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 edition
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available from
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C..
8. Loquercio, P., and W. J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual of
Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Public Health Service Publication No. 1956. 1968.
6.1-16
-------
6.4.1 TERMINAL GRAIN ELEVATORS
]_4 7_9
PROCESS DESCRIPTION '
Grain elevators are used for storage, treatment, and
transfer of agricultural grain crops as they are moved from
the farm to the market. The harvested grain is usually
trucked to local country elevators, then transferred by
truck, rail car, or barge to larger terminal elevators,
which have storage capacities of 2 million bushels or more.
At the terminal elevator the operators blend, condition
(dry, screen, and clean), and store the grain before ship-
ment to a grain processor, feed manufacturer, or other user.
Some terminal elevators simply receive grain from nearby
country elevators and ship it to other terminal elevators;
these facilities, sometimes called "subterminal" elevators,
may handle up to 20 times their storage capacity each year.
Most terminal elevators, however, handle annual quantities
that are only a few times their storage capacity. Figure
6.4.1-1 is a flow diagram of a typical grain elevator opera-
tion; Figure 6.4.1-2 shows a typical facility arrangement.
The initial operation at a terminal elevator is unload-
ing of the truck, box car, hopper car, or barge that delivers
6.4.1-1
-------
BAGHOUSE 018(99)
CYCLONE 008(90}
BAGHOUSE 018(99)
CYCLONE 008 (90)
Figure 6.4.1- . Terminal grain elevator.
6.4.1-2
LEGEND:
Q EMISSION FACTOR*
/-\ EMISSION FACTOR NOT OEVflOPEO
\T/ F0« THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) OENOUS CONTROL tOUIP.
CODE WITH EST. EFF. SHOWN
1M )
Q
DENOTES FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS
DENOTES A STACK
1 IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
-------
HEADHOUSE (HOUSES BUCKET ELEVATORS,
DISTRIBUTORS, GARNER
WEIGH SCALES, AND CLEANERS)
GALLERY BELT CONVEYOR
STORAGE
BINS
I
U>
CAR UNLOADING
CAR LOADING —'
TUNNEL BELT
CONVEYOR
Figure 6.4.1-2. Schematic arrangement diagram of an elevator.
-------
the grain. Although the method of unloading varies with the
type of carrier, the grain is discharged into a receiving
hopper, usually located below grade. The grain is then
conveyed by a weather-protected belt conveyor to the foot of
one of several bucket elevators, which are commonly called
"elevator legs" or simply "legs." The burket elevators,
together with distributors and processing equipment, are
housed in the major structure of the facility, called the
"headhouse."
The elevator carries the grain to the top level of the
headhouse (called the "gallery"), where it is discharged
into a distributor, usually a system of movable spouts,
which directs it into a collecting bin (called a "garner")
to be weighed. Alternatively, the distributor can route the
grain into cleaning equipment or onto a gallery conveyor
belt. The gallery belt carries the grain across the gallery
to a designated storage bin, where it is dischcirged into the
bin by a diverting device called a "tripper."
Because grain containing 14 weight percent moisture or
more will spoil in storage, moist grain is dried before
transfer to long-term storage bins. Rack or column dryers
are generally used at grain elevators. Figure 6.4.1-3
presents schematic diagrams of both types of units. The
dryer is located outside the headhouse.
6.4.1-4
-------
DRYER
SECTION
COOLER
SECTION
COLUMN DRYER
irM,r-0 A L 1-1.
diagram of col'umn and rack grain dryers.
-------
The temperature of grain stored in a bin for a long
period may increase because it begins to spoil or is in-
fested by molds or fungi. To prevent deterioration, the
grain may be cooled by an operation called "turning." In
turning, the grain is dropped from the storage bin onto a
belt conveyor system running beneath the b .ns (the "tunnel"
belt conveyor), then conveyed to a bucket elevator, lifted
to the top, and discharged via a gallery belt conveyor into
an empty bin. The tunnel belt conveyor system is usually
uncovered.
When dirty grain is received at the elevator, cleaners
are used to remove foreign materials such as dust, sticks,
stones, stalks, stems, and weed seeds. These materials are
called dockage because the seller is docked (his payment is
reduced) in proportion to their weight. Often the grain is
first transferred to a temporary storage bin, dropped onto
a tunnel conveyor, and lifted by a bucket elevator to the
grain cleaner and garner. Equipment used to clean grain
includes simple screening devices and aspiration (suction)
type cleaners. The screening devices remove large sticks,
tools, and other trash; and the aspirators remo've chaff and
similar lightweight impurities. The cleaned grain is ele-
vated to the gallery conveyor and routed to an empty bin.
6.4.1-6
-------
Grain to be shipped from the elevator facility is
dropped from the storage bins onto the tunnel belt conveyor.
The conveyor discharges to the foot of a bucket elevator,
which lifts it to a distributor, from which it passes to a
loadout scale. After weighing, the grain is discharged
through a loading spout into rail cars, trucks, or barges.
In every operation involving movement of the grain, it
must pass through the headhouse via one of several bucket
elevators. The headhouse is the focal point of grain handl-
ing and thus of emissions from a terminal grain elevator.
EMISSIONS1'3'6"9
Grain elevators emit mainly particulates. The emission
sources in a grain elevator are shown in Figure 6.4.1-1.
For some of the sources, AP-42 provides emission factors,
which are listed on the process flow diagram. For other
sources, average emission rates obtained from other docu-
ments are mentioned in the following source descriptions.
Emissions occur from grain handling, cleaning, and
drying. Emissions from grain handling occur mainly at
transfer points, since transport of grain on the conveyor
causes little disturbance of air. The transfer sources
include unloading, elevator legs, the tripper system, re-
moval from bins, and loading for shipment. The transfer of
grain from one belt conveyor onto another also generates
emissions. Emissions from the various sources vary with
6.4.1-7
-------
type of grain, cleanliness of the grain, and type of equip-
ment.
Often the bins are vented inside the gallery. Thus,
except for unloading, removal from bins, loading, and drying,
all other sources emit within the headhouse when uncon-
trolled. Although the degree to which dust settles inter-
nally is not known, it is probable that most of the dust
eventually reaches the atmosphere through the building
ventilation system.
Emissions from column dryers are lower than those from
rack dryers because some of the dust is trapped by the
column of grain. Also, the turning motion of a rack dryer
generates dust, and the dryer design facilitates its escape.
CONTROL PRACTICES4"9
The most frequently used devices for control of emis-
sions from terminal grain elevators are cyclone separators
and fabric filters. Since the removal efficiency of a
cyclone .separator is low (up to 85%) , a cyclone separator is
usually followed by a fabric filter, or a fabric filter is
used alone when a removal efficiency greater -than 5£—Bercent
is required. The major problem in controlling emissions from
many of the sources, especially transfer operations, is in de-
signing an enclosure or a hood to capture emissions within the
constraints of reasonable cost.
6.4.1-8
-------
Requirements for control of emissions from the receiv-
ing or unloading operation are variable. Where pollution
control regulations are not stringent, open receiving
facilities are simply protected from the weather by a roof
or a shed enclosure. Where regulations are more restric-
tive, as in urban areas, the receiving hopper area is
vented either to a cyclone separator or to cyclone/fabric
filter combination.
The elevator legs are usually enclosed and very often
are vented to control devices at the bottom and the top.
Emissions at the tripper, at other belt transfer points, and
at points of removal of grain from the bins are increasingly
often vented to a control device. Often several sources are
vented to a centrally located control device.
Grain cleaners are usually equipped with a cyclone.
Grain dryers present a difficult problem for control because
of the large volumes of gas exhausted from the dryer, the
large cross-sectional area of the exhaust stream, the low
specific gravity of the emitted dust, and the high moisture
content of the exhaust stream. Many dryers incorporate
screens to capture chaff and other particulate matter sepa-
rated from the grain. The screens are effective in cap-
turing only particles of large diameter (greater than about
0.01 inch). Dust collected on the screen is usually removed
by periodic vacuuming or scraping. The vacuum stream, which
6.4.1-9
-------
is about 10 percent of the total dryer discharge, is ex-
hausted through a high-efficiency cyclone or recycled
through the dryer.
Emissions from shipping or loading are rarely con-
trolled because of the difficulty of containing the dust.
Emissions from truck, hopper car, and ship loading are
minimized, however, by use of telescoping loading spouts or
by enclosing the loading area with a shed. Emissions from
loading of boxcars can be captured by a hood located beside
the track or can be controlled by loading the cars inside a
building or enclosure.
CODING NEDS FORMS10"12
The emission sources in a terminal grain elevator are:
Source SCC Pollutants
Unloading 3-02-005-05 Particulates
Loading 3-02-005-06 Particulates
Removal from bins 3-02-005-07 Particulates
Drying 3-02-005-04 Particulates, Pro-
ducts of combustion
Cleaning 3-02-005-03 Particulates
Elevator legs 3-02-005-08 Particulates
Tripper 3-02-005-09 Particulates
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures
6.4.1-4 through 6.4.1-10 show entries for the SCC's and
other codes. Entries in the data fields give information
6.4.1-10
-------
common to terminal grain elevators. Information pertinent to coding
the source is entered on the margins of the forms and above or below
applicable data fields. Entries for control equipment codes, other
optional codes, emissions factors, and required comments minimize
the need to refer to the code lists. Typical data values for opera-
ting parameters, control equipment efficiencies, and other source
information are shown on the form (or in the text) only to serve as
quick, approximate checks of data submitted by the plant in a permit
application or similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R and NEDS
must be actual values specific to and reported by the plant, rather
than typical values. Contact the plant to validate or correct
questionable data and to obtain unreported information. See Part 1
of this manual for general coding instructions.
The unit for the SCC's is tons of grain processed through that
operation; obtain the amount of grain processed in each operation
from the reporting organization. If only the total amount of grain
received or shipped is known, the amount of grain processed through
each operation may be estimated based on the following typical ratio
of tons processed to tons shipped or received. Emission factors in
the process flow diagram are based on the processing rate of the
particular operations.
Table 6.4.1-11
Typical Ratio Of Tons Processed To Tons Received Or Shipped
PROCESS TONS PROCESSED/TONS RECEIVED
Removal from bins 2.0
Drying 0>1
Cleaning °'2
Headhouse 3>0
Tripper
6.4.1-11
-------
Where the unloading operation is enclosed but not
vented to a control device, enter 054 as the control device
code. Where substantiated data on emissions and control
efficiencies are not provided, assign zero efficiency to
the enclosure. Estimate emissions by using the emission
factor. Enter appropriate plume height; enter zeros in the
stack height and diameter fields, 77 in the temperature
field, and zeros in the common stack field. An elevator may
receive grain by more than one type of carrier. Code each
type separately when the unloading operations are controlled
differently. Identify the type of unloading operation being
coded, for example, "Boxcar Dumping." Enter the yearly
amount of grain unloaded by boxcar as the process operating
rate. The emission factors for grain unloading and loading
apply to transportation by truck, hopper car, boxcar, or
barge. Figures 6.4.1-4 and 6.4.1-5 show the standard NEDS
forms for these operations.
Where emissions generated during removal of grain from
the bins are not controlled, enter appropriate plume height;
enter zeros in the stack height and diameter fields, 77 in
the temperature field, and zeros in the common stack field.
Figure 6.4.1-6 shows the standard NEDS form.
Screens used to collect large particles from the dryer
are to be entered as control equipment. Emissions from a
grain dryer are fugitive, even with screens, unless the
6.4.1-12
-------
exhaust gases are confined and discharged through a stack.
Natural gas is the most common fuel used for firing (direct-
fired) grain dryers. Grain cleaners are usually equipped
with a cyclone. Figures 6.4.1-7 and 6.4.1-8 show the stan-
dard NEDS forms for grain drying and cleaning, respectively.
Elevator legs are usually vented to a control device.
Figure 6.4.1-9 shows the standard NEDS form for elevator
legs. Emissions at the tripper are usually not controlled.
Where these emissions are vented inside the gallery, code
the height of the building vent(s) in the plume height
field. Code zeros in the stack height and diameter fields,
77 in the temperature field, and zeros in the common stack
field, as shown in Figure 6.4.1-10. Enter "Gallery Vent" in
the comments field on card 6.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The EEC's for use in EIS/P&R forms are:
Source BEG
Unloading 700
Loading 700
Removal from bins 731
Drying 456
Cleaning 582
Elevator legs 709
Tripper 740
6.4.1-13
-------
figure 6.4.1-4. Standard NEDS form for terminal grain elevator - unloading.
teifi
N/HII)«;/U tMISSIONS OAIA SYSUM (NCOS)
tNVIHII.r I
•Ttbi'TioV'fio'
;:ml MI
1 LB/TON
: I . ! I • ' , I , ., I ... | . .1
1 •'••-' i '...'"»• ' • . -Mf.,,.., , s[,.~; >
UNLOADING
•~] i : : ' irT:"iTTl>T:O3iiil'i|4-I:d'''Lil^iliLid£
ill nd-rllilTotmvttidnl-rrlo
SCC UNIT - TONS GRAIN SHIPPED ;
...J: •
tli-Hll-J
i' rl
i-i I
IliJ
1 ! i
1 1"
illl-ll.;
1 to
i i i
" i T L
.. i_ri_
I r
,iT«'
R I L
'
rr
l
l
<,!•.;
G F
1
l
•
I
x
Y
,
I
.1
N
...
l..
(i
r-
,.
VJ
"
,,
*•
a
,;
.
Si
M
f'
is
*)
;o
1
;i
P
i
,1
is
'4
*;
i-,
T
•4
'5
CJ
7} IS
*>
6
*>
0
6
~[~\ ,
"l~r
" rf
I
T
-,
"
"
Hi
t;
SI
..,
it,
~
._,
Si
M
c
n
;l
'4
n
!'.
-.-
.J
73
.rl
79 K
|T /
[T /
P 7
P 7
-------
>£>.
•
I-1
I
I—1
Ul
Figure 6.4.1-5. Standard NEDS form for terminal grain elevator - loading,
NA IIDN Al I MISSIONS ()A I A SVSI tM Ifll OS)
lNVIHI)..r.HNIftl PHOIFCIIUN AlilNCC
UM If t 01 rtW PMQCHAMS
FOHM ,.rPlll V t ['
OMB NO !•_* h'XH'
11
i_i-
i !"/'• . | i i ! ..'/I -' I'•.:••• I -'I'-'
! i-i i i i ; ! ; ,i f i M i : t-"n.; T •] t-T.W!n.'-i'I!«H-->I141'
1 L Lio. i ; ImoiqioiQlolQJoIoiqJloLQjojQlglololololQjolpIo
-I- -M-l i] .M^i^i H i^fflfjffl^ffl^
.1 _ . j i L- -I i i -i- J- t I - i_~L i- i~_I- i- i—J I ~1 *- ~ 1 il ;
33^
MM
U >4 Ui
0.3 LB/TOH
LOWING ! j ';3lei? o|q;stole
. I
IMIVJIi., 1
.'ETr,O:l
^
CO'. IHOL PE^j. i_- i:of ',
SCC UNIT - TONS GRAIN SHIPPED
"!!!iI "4HI, ,
- :1t i i • r r-fi-i . Hi
.1 ]]-!'!• M i i n i i
>.!„[.
t ;
r
r rrt r-rTr
i rr
:'1
[ ltiit.tl-rtJrnn±
;.[
±
t±tt
fl
err
Ltrr
;T^TV
-------
Figure 6.4.1-6. Standard NEDS form for terminal grain elevator - removal from bins.
-p-
H-1
REMOVAL I'
FROM BINS ;
FO"'' .•"•'
OVB NO \
Hiil .f.'l HTAL PMIITi CHUN rtl.l kC
01 lift HI /MIH'IHICHAU',
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
Bin
-.t-
l-r-' T.TR.J.i:]^ -,RA.T:|-l^febH'i:4-i±^
ioioio!otoio1oloioioiono]oioio}otQMoM;a j 1101 iM_Lioi L ion j i-iXnzLozi:
. T . . , r - -- . i i
j-!; • |-!;UJ'!j li
'
^-..U.iH
rrr} t.ro rri
" L sec UNIT'- TONS' GRAIN PROCES'SED/TONS-GRAIN SHIPPED
; ' ' I
i' i'i i i i I-1'. -; ' i ' ! i''!1' ! !:! ! r-J'-i-U'K'
!i3!eWo!5!o;i^::;|/|.|i|in-U4-0 |i°
... LL-l 4-i-i
\ \ 4-4 ! -
., . . . .
! . ; . • I .J_ i 1 I- i »-
"- i i i tl LJ-: i -4-
riilii:!
:i-i -
n±±
ill!
1
i i 1 L
jiili!
I
! i '
L 1. i I : i. L.
i~VT ' I
„ l-i_J_l-
' T '
Itttttlt
-------
Figure 6.4.1-7. Standard NEDS form for terminal grain elevator - drying.
Effiiffi;
-p-
h-1
I
NAinr;/M i vi:,r.nm niu ASYsm.1 "11 us)
IIMV.KMI..VI fii ft i PHOTir.nofJ AIIINC f
DM irt 01 AIH PHOLHAMS
:ti
-H. ^
u'
LLLLl.l-l
f j: v A
:d^ilj'li'FPT^lsi'3T'T^-i ' ^T-I^
!•'•• • i 1-1 LB/TON .•..••.>;• -••• j .y;11^ ^ ^ i-| ' i
.-• . . - I;' ., ••• DIM •'•• cu .IKOI "to. i.: i •• ' ;
i i . i i •- '-— ' '-=•.' ,;N,Vi.iT01NS WIN PROCESSED/TONS GRAIN SHIPPED
;• i ; i1-!
DRYING • '3 0:2
INPROCESS FUEL ! , i3
! i 1
T
• EXAMPLE COMMENT
-rprp-p
lilll-ti-tiiif-ffSHtH"'"
ifi
,,K i
rr
L__.
-—NG-6; RESID. OIL-4; DIST. OIL-5
il
_.LJ
4—t—f--*-
iTi i
-------
Figure 6.4.1-8. Standard NEDS form for terminal grain elevator -
screening and cleaning.
I
M
CO
co en 03
o o r—
o o o
Z • _; <->
o Ci 3 «
_j LU o ce
iii. ,fi Nifli fHniirnoM nci.'j
Of I ir.F 01 'MR FIHlGll.'iMS
[, ! ;' /I H-Ji
~
«T'rTJ1t'T'i-1'»
•0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
"
i5lu5j3[qt3
r
i A- i i l i : :
3 LB/TON
J^liO' tClQimO.l-I.-iOLli-'-a-iL_L'_LJ
! SCC UNiV- "TONS GRAIN PROCESSED/TONS GRAIN SHIPPED
CLEANING . j ;3.0t2;
1 .. l i-L.L
! _i 11 i i i i i i i i .1 i i i
1 i i I 1 U i I .1 L i
- t : I I ' ' * '
I ! I ' I . I I .
Lili.tliliHiJ
i L I l"l L I 1 1 ! i
-------
Figure 6.4.1-9. Standard NEDS form for terminal grain elevator - elevator legs.
fijffiffi
N/HID-JAI I VISr.lUNS DAI A SYS (I M I'K (IS)
lNVH
!
;:qyiti I'^ffl-i^hqi
li.^.liJ.i ! I.-L.I.IJ i.Li.13
008 Q18
["-! I ; i
iJoi I'rrj ;
"
nl t, 1'-' 1'.i ITiTv^tTTJ|i.i]r.il'^[!*l»lu|»l icTn
±r±u±LLI I 1 1 1 1 rt
. 0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
99+
'
•,[• ':;F-P3nv
^.H-hffii't
• i
iioiT
^ _
T^nTb-ir-i'iT:- i-irii.;^';]'^!.-^]'''']'''.!'^]^
iTiiol hi 'rmirin:
u_
UNIT - TONS GRAIN PROCESSED/TONS GRAIN"SHIPPED
ELEVATOR LEGS i !3.rOj/
.
4 -J-t
i 1 .1
.11..
I ! i I I ! ' I I i I
;; 1111 rrrmiixhrtd
.1.1
il
I
.1...
. ! I.
! i r r
I.TllIL
r. ;j
-------
Figure 6.4.1-10. Standard NEDS form for terminal grain elevator - tripper.
I
S3
O
r
"Vi
i>
U|«k
»
'•
n
"
I:
5i'''i '(•"
*
0000 IF NO COWON STACK
xxxx FCOMHON STACK
—*• i ' - n* ••!' ti ^
It"11*" •1IM'
il-i±Lt].T-:.t±i±Li±
-------
GLOSSARY
Boxcar - A rail car with doors on the sides for unloading.
Bucket Elevator - A bucket conveyor that operates on a
vertical path, also called "elevator leg" or "leg."
Chaff - The seed coverings or hulls that are separated from
the grain during handling and processing.
Distributor - The spoutlike, movable device used to route
the flow of grain to various processes within the
headhouse.
Elevator Leg - See Bucket Elevator.
Gallery - The enclosed access way above the storage bins
that contains grain conveying and distribution equip-
ment.
Garner - A collecting bin that precedes the weighing bin.
Grain elevator - A facility for receiving, storing, pro-
cessing, and discharging grain.
Headhouse - The building in a grain elevator that houses the
bucket elevators and the distribution and processing
equipment.
Hopper car - A rail car equipped with sloping bottoms with hinged
doors to provide for discharge from the bottom.
v
Tripper - A device on a belt conveyor that diverts the flow
of grain into a particular storage bin.
Tunnel belt conveyor - An open conveyor beneath the storage
bins that carries grain to bucket elevators for pro-
cessing or shipping.
6.4.1-21
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 6.4.1
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. Second
edition, with Supplements 1-7. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
AP-42. August 1977.
2. Exhaust Gases from Combustion and Industrial Processes.
Prepared by Engineering Science, Inc. Washington,
D.C., for Environmental Protection Agency. PB-204-861,
October 1971.
3. Background Information for Establishment of National
Standards of Performance for New Sources - Grain Han-
dling and Milling Industry (Draft). Prepared by
Environmental Engineering, Inc., and PEDCo Environ-
mental, Inc., for Environmental Protection Agency.
Contract No. CPA 70-142, Task No. 4. July 1971.
4. Danielson, J.A. (ed). Air Pollution Engineering Manual.
Second Edition. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, AP-40, May
1973.
5. Particulate Pollutant System Study, Vol. III. Handbook
of Emission Properties. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
APTD-0745. May 1971.
6. Technical Guide for Review and Evaluation of Compliance
Schedules for Air Pollution Sources. Prepared by PEDCo
Environmental, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio, for Environ-
mental Protection Agency. EPA-340/l-73-001-a. July
1973.
7. The Storage and Handling of Grain. Prepared by PEDCo
Environmental, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio, for Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Contract No. 68-02-1355,
T.O. No. 7. March 1974.
6.4.1-22
-------
8. Shannon, L.J. et al. Emissions Control in the Grain
and Feed Industry, Volume I - Engineering and Cost
Study. Prepared by Midwest Research Institute, Kansas
City, Missouri, for Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA-450/3-73-003a. December 1973.
9. Standard Support and Environmental Impact Statement:
Standards of Performance for the Grain Elevator In-
dustry. Environmental Protection Agency, Emission
Standards and Engineering Division, Research Traingle
Park, North Carolina. July 1976.
10. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/2-76-005
(OAQPS No. 1.2-042). April 1976.
11. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/2-76-029
(OAQPS No. 1.2-039). December 1976.
12. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 Edition,
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available
from Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
13. Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual
of Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare. Public Health Service Publication No. 1756.
1968.
6.4.1-23
-------
7.1 PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
,1-7
PROCESS DESCRIPTION'
Aluminum is used principally in domestic utensils and appli-
ances, chemical and food industry equipment, containers, electri-
cal components, mechanical construction and building materials,
and as an additive in powder and paint.
The major source of aluminum in the United States is bauxite,
a hydrated oxide of aluminum containing appreciable amounts of
the oxides of iron, silicon, and titanium. Primary aluminum
production from bauxite ore consists of refining the ore to
produce alumina (A1203), followed by reduction of alumina to
aluminum. This process is shown in Figure 7.1-1.
Bauxite Refining
Most bauxite ore is refined by the Bayer process. This
involves leaching with caustic at elevated temperature and pres-
sure, followed by separation of the solubilized aluminate and
precipitation as alumina. Bauxite ore containing more than 30
percent water is first dried in ovens. The ore is then ground in
a ball mill to approximately 100 mesh to provide a large surface
area. The dried ground bauxite is combined with sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) and digested at moderate temperature (290°F) and pressure
(60 psi) to produce soluble sodium aluminate (NaAl02). Other
materials in the ore are unaffected by the caustic solution and
remain as solids in suspension.
/ * J- ""** -*-
-------
BAUXITE
SPRAY TOWER 003 (70)
FLOATING BED SCRUBBER 003 (72)
QUENCH TOWER 002 (83)
ESP 010 (98)
CRUSHING/HANDLING
SODIUM
HYDROXIDE
DIGESTION
LIQUOR/MUD
SEPARATION
A1(OH)3
PRECIPITATION
ESP
010
I PART (200)
FABRIC FILTER 017
MULTICYCLONE
SPRAY TOWER
FLOATING BED SCRUBBER
ESP
QUENCH TOWER « SPRAY
SCREEN
007
003 (70)
003 (72)
010 (98)
002 (83)
ALUMINA
3-03-002-01
CALCINER
3-90-OOX--J
IN-PROCESS FUEL
4-OIL
6-N.G,
IN-PROCESS HJtL
9
SPRAY SCREEN 061
DENOTES EMISSIONS
FROM ROOF VENTS
3-03-001-07
ROOF VENTS
SPRAY TOWER
DRY ESP
SELF-INDUCED
SPRAY
LOMTftOL DEVICE
PREBAKED REDUCTION CELL
a«TlNS BCD SCRUBBER
FLUTING BCD SCRUBBER
QUENCH TOUR 1 SPRAY
SCREEN
DRY ESP
OTI AUHIM AOSOWTION
NULTIPU CrCUONE
FLUID-SCO OK SCRUBBER
COATED FILTER SCRUBBER
SMUT TONER
DEVICE CODE
003
OOZ
002
01!
048
007
071
001
002
VERTICAL FLQU, PACKED BED 002
CWUVER SCRUBBER 1 00?
HORI2IMTM. STUD SOOERBEK
SPRAT TOWER
FLOATING BED SCRUBBER
«T ESP
MY ALUMINA ADSORBTIOH
VERTICAL BED SOKWER6
FLOATING BED SCRUBBER
(WENCH TOMER I SPRAY
SCREEH
DRY ALUMINA ADSORPTION
DRY ESP
SPRAY TOMER
VENTURi SCRUBBER
MULTIPLE CYCLONE
MET ESP
FLUIO-flED DRY SCRU8&EB
AFTERBURNER
003
003
on
048
003
002
048
on
003
001
007
010
071
OZ1
CONTROL EFF1C {/)
n
80
83
93
96
77
96
96
80
85
as
71
78
90
98
72
S3
96
90
75
%
96
96
97
SPRAY TOWER
FLOATING BED SCRUBBER
ESP
QUENCH TOWER & SPRAY
SCREEN
WET SCRUBBERS
WET ESP
HIGH-ENERGY VENTURI
COATED BAGHOUSES
JCRUBBERS
003 (70)
003 (70)
010 (98)
002 (83)
MATERIAL HANDLING
(ANODE PREPARATION)
002
Oil
001
016
* !• POUNCE nt sec UNIT
Figure 7.1-1. Primary aluminum production.
-------
Separation of the solubilized aluminate liquor from the
residual ore impurities, or "red mud," is accomplished by a
variety of thickeners, mud washers, and clarifying filters. The
final separation is a continuous filter press, which removes all
insoluble solids from the sodium aluminate liquor.
Once the soluble alumina has been separated from the solid
impurities, the metal is recovered by precipitating it as alu-
mina. This is accomplished by hydrolysis according to the
following reaction:
NaA102 + 2H20 -»• Al (OH) 3 + NaOH
Controlled agitation of the cooled liquor in the presence of
recycled aluminum hydrate crystals precipitates about 50 percent
of the aluminum as hydroxide. This is followed by separation
using classifiers, thickeners, and filters.
The filtered alumina is fed into large rotary or fluid/flash
furnaces for calcination at 2190°F. The rotary kiln uses oil or
natural gas. Heating the solids (calcination) removes water and
converts the hydroxide to aluminum according to the reaction:
2AKOH) 3 -»• A12°3 + 3H2°
Aluminum Reduction
Most bauxite is imported into the United States, and it is
usually refined at plants in this country. The location of the
aluminum reduction plant is primarily dictated by the availabil-
ity of low-cost electricity. The two sites are frequently some
distance apart and the alumina must be shipped to the reduction
plant by rail or barge. The unloading of materials is accom-
plished pneumatically or by bucket elevator systems. Materials
7.1-3
-------
handling includes unloading, conveying, crushing, screening,
g
mixing, and green anode (paste) preparation.
At the primary reduction plant, alumina is electrolytically
reduced to metallic aluminum in a bath of molten cryolite (sodium
aluminum fluoride) by the Hall-Heroult process. Electrolytic
reduction takes place in shallow, carbon-lined, steel shells
(pots) arranged in series to form a "pot line." Cryolite serves
as both the electrolyte and the solvent for a.umina. Carbon
blocks (anodes) are suspended in the pots (cathodes) and the two
are connected electrically to accomplish the electrolytic reac-
tion. The carbon anodes are depleted by the reaction of oxygen
formed in the process (2A1O + 2A1 +203) on anode carbon
(2C + O •> CO + CO ) . Both the anodes and the cryolite-alumina
bath components are consumed in the process and must be replenished
periodically.
Although cryolite is its primary ingredient, the electrolyte
has four major components: cryolite, 80 to 85 percent; calcium
fluoride, 5 to 7 percent; aluminum fluoride, 5 to 7 percent, and
alumina, 2 to 8 percent. The melting point of cryolite is 1006°F.
Two main types of reduction cell are currently used for
electrolysis: prebaked (PB) and Soderberg. Soderberg cells are
designated according to the manner of mounting the anode (stud)
in the pot: horizontal-stud Soderberg (HSS) or vertical-stud
Soderberg (VSS). The prebake and Soderberg processes differ in
the preparation of the anodes.
In the United States, aluminum is produced in cells. The
term "prebake" stems from the fact that the anode block is formed
7.1-4
-------
from a carbon paste and baked in a furnace before use in the
reduction cell. These blocks are attached to metal rods (yokes);
they are gradually consumed in the pot reaction and are therefore
replaced periodically as a unit.
The HSS type is the second most commonly used pot. Soderberg
cells use a continuously supplied mixture of pitch and carbon
aggregate that is "baked" in place by pot heat. The mixture
moves into the pot as the cell anode is consumed. Electrode
connections, the "studs," are inserted into the anode paste
either horizontally or vertically. As the carbon anode is con-
sumed by conversion to carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide gas,
periodic adjustment of the position of the studs is required.
Most plants manufacture their own carbon anodes and cathodes.
In the case of prebake plants, the anode is made from petroleum
and pitch coke, recycled anode butts, and pitch binder. Anode
making at the "green mill," or paste preparation operation,
includes crushing, grinding, screening, and sizing the coke, then
blending the sized coke fractions with binder in heated mixers.
The paste for prebake anodes is molded by an anode press. The
anodes are then baked at 2200°F in a gas- or oil-fired furnace to
develop the required electrical conductivity, thermal stability,
and strength. The final step is to fit the baked anodes with a
metal rod yoke assembly that supports the anode in the reduction
cell and provides electrical conductivity.
When an electric current is applied, the alumina breaks down
and the heavier molten aluminum settles beneath the cryolite.
7.1-5
-------
Periodically, molten aluminum (99.5 percent pure) is siphoned
from cells into crucibles and transferred to gas-fired holding
furnaces, or cast into billets, slabs, or "T" shapes.
Casting involves pouring the molten aluminum into a mold and
cooling it with water. At some facilities the molten aluminum
undergoes a degassing process, in which a flux of chloride or
fluoride salts and chlorine or inert gas is added to the aluminum
to remove oxide and gaseous impurities and a jtive metals such as
sodium and magnesium. Chlorine reacts with impurities to form a
floating dross of HCl or metal chlorides, which is removed prior
to casting.
Degassing can also be performed by other methods that cause
less air pollution and are less corrosive. It can be partially
achieved by mechanical agitation. The Alcoa 181 process uses
argon or other inert gas to remove both inclusions and dissolved
hydrogen. The Alcoa 469 process utilizes two reactors in series,
in which the molten aluminum and a chlorine-inert gas mixture are
contacted in countercurrent flow through a filter bed.
The degassed aluminum is then cast for shipping.
The annual capacity of primary aluminum plants ranges from
35,000 to 1,500,000 tons; the average annual capacity is 235,000
tons.6 These plants operate continuously 24 hours a day, 7 days
a week.
Typical exhaust flow rates for VSS cells range from 300 to
600 scfm per pot. For prebaked and HSS cells, the range is
4
1800 to 3500 scfm per pot.
7.1-6
-------
EMISSIONS1 3'5"8
Primary aluminum plants mainly emit particulates and gaseous
pollutants from the reduction cells. Emission sources are iden-
tified in Figure 7.6-1. Emission factors for some of the sources,
are given in AP-42. These factors are listed on the process
flow diagram. For other sources of emissions, average emission
rates obtained from other documents are given in the following
source descriptions.
Bauxite Refining
Fugitive emissions can occur during bauxite unloading and
handling when the raw material is relatively dry; however, the
bauxite usually is damp at this stage and these emissions are
minor. Emissions from the dryers and bauxite grinding steps
contain particulates of the same composition as the bauxite ore.
Uncontrolled particulate emissions from drying have been reported
to be 1.2 Ib/ton of ore.
The bauxite grinding step also generates particulates with
the same composition as the ore. Approximately 6 Ib of particu-
late is emitted per ton of ore ground.
The digestion, liquor/mud separation, and precipitation
processes do not generate air pollutants.
The calcining of aluminum hydroxide is the main source of
air pollution in bauxite refining. For each ton of alumina
produced, nearly a ton of water is discharged through the stack.
This vapor carries with it approximately 200 Ib of particulates
per ton of aluminum produced.
7.1-7
-------
Aluminum Reduction Plant
The handling of materials (unloading, conveying, crushing,
screening, grinding, conveying, and mixing) in an anode paste
preparation plant leads to considerable dust formation. Materials
handling also includes other conveying and transfer operations
within the reduction plant, i.e., to and from the reduction cells
and degassing operations.
Anode baKe furnace emissions include hydrocarbons from the
pitch binder, sulfur oxides from the anode coke, gaseous fluorides
from recycled anode butts, and particulates. Gaseous emissions
from the baking furnace are currently under study but have not
yet been adequately quantified.
The prebaked reduction cell emissions contain particulates
[alumina, carbon, cryolite, aluminum fluoride, calcium fluoride,
chiolite (Na5Al3F.), and iron oxide]. A significant proportion
of these particulates is a fine dust of 1 ym or less. Gaseous
emissions include CO , SO , C09, and other compounds. The quan-
3> JC £*
tity of sulfur oxides depends on the sulfur content of the anode
carbon. Uncontrolled fugitive particulate emissions from a
o
prebaked reduction cell amount to 1.5 to 13.4 Ib/ton of aluminum.
Soderberg cell emissions are similar to those from the pre-
baked cell; however, because the anode paste is baked during the
reduction process, additional hydrocarbons and sulfur dioxide
emissions are produced. The hydrocarbons (tar fogs) have been
reported to be 3 percent of the total volume of gases released
from the anode. Uncontrolled fugitive particulate emissions
7.1-8
-------
from a VSS reduction cell amount to 26.2 Ib/ton of aluminum;
p
those from an HSS cell are 1.5 to 2.16 Ib/ton of aluminum.
Particulates are also generated in degassing operations;
however, the quantity of emissions is not known.
CONTROL PRACTICES1'3'6'7'8
Bauxite Refining
Emissions generated by the dryers are usually controlled by
fabric filters.
The particulates produced during grinding of the bauxite ore
are typically controlled by spray towers, floating-bed scrubbers,
quench towers and spray screens, or electrostatic precipitators
(ESP's). Efficiencies of these devices range from 70 to 98
percent.
Emissions from the calciner are controlled by spray towers,
floating-bed scrubbers, ESP's, or quench towers and spray screens,
whose efficiencies range from 70 to 98 percent. Alternatively,
various combinations of controls are employed, such as a multi-
cyclone precleaner followed by an ESP or fabric filter.
Aluminum Reduction Plant
Emissions from materials handling and anode preparation at
the aluminum reduction plant are also controlled by a spray
tower, floating-bed scrubber, ESP, or quench tower and spray
screen, whose efficiencies range from 70 to 98 percent.
Anode baking furnace emissions are controlled by a spray
tower, wet ESP, or self-induced spray. The efficiencies of
control range from 62 to 98 percent.
7.1-9
-------
Effective control of emissions from a reduction cell depends
largely on a highly efficient capture system that directs emis-
sions to the control device. Prebake and HSS cells are amenable
to complete hooding. The structure of VSS cells, however, is
such that part of the bath surface is outside the hood, and thus
the capture efficiency over the uncovered area is poor. Fugitive
emissions that escape the hood are discharged through roof vents.
Some plants vent these emissions through a 1 jw-efficiency scrubber.
Emission controls used on prebaked reduction cells include
dry methods such as chemisorption using alumina as the adsorbent,
in conjunction with fluid-bed, coated-filter scrubbers, dry
ESP's, or multiple cyclones. Wet capture methods include spray
towers, quench towers and spray screens, and vertical-flow,
packed-bed, or chamber scrubbers. These devices are used either
singly or in series to provide efficiencies ranging from 72 to 98
percent.
As with prebake cells, primary hood collection efficiency is
a key factor in control of HSS cells. Because of the structure
and operation of HSS cells, however, a large amount of cool air
is drawn into the hood. Tars from the anode paste are also
present in the exhaust stream, and this limits the control
devices that can be applied. In addition, wet control devices
may be rendered less effective because tars in the gas resist
wetting. Because of the large volume of exhaust gas involved,
incineration is also unfeasible.
Dry adsorption systems represent the best control technology,
since they allow capture of particulates, tars, and gaseous
7.1-10
-------
fluorides. Two of the seven operating HSS potlines in the United
States use dry alumina scrubbing systems. The others use wet
methods of control: wet ESP's, wet scrubbers, and spray towers.
One plant uses a combination of wet scrubbers and wet ESP's.
Currently, none of the HSS potlines in the United States controls
emissions that escape to the roof vents.
Hooded prebake and HSS cells with an exhaust rate of 2000 to
8000 acfm per cell generally achieve a capture efficiency of 97
to 99 percent.
Control of primary emissions from VSS cells involves appli-
cation of the same methods used in the HSS cells plus several
other methods. Because of the difficulty of completely enclosing
VSS cells, a hood capture efficiency of 70 to 95 percent of the
total cell emissions is achieved using exhaust flows of 400 to
600 acfm. The low air dilution of those gases captured allows
combustion of the relatively concentrated hydrocarbons in the
afterburners; this reduces the hydrocarbons by 97 percent and
also reduces CO emissions. Primary gas control techniques
include dry methods (e.g., dry alumina adsorption and use of
fluid-bed dry scrubbers) and wet capture methods (e.g., use of
ESP's followed by wet scrubbers and multiple cyclones coupled
with wet scrubbers or wet ESP's). Other controls used include
quench towers and spray screens, spray towers, and venturi
scrubbers. These controls, employed singly or in series, provide
efficiencies of 72 to 98 percent.
Control devices in use that reduce emissions from chlorine
degassing operations include wet scrubbers, wet ESP's high-energy
7.1-11
-------
venturi scrubbers, and coated baghouses. Emissions from casting
are generally not controlled.
CODING NEDS FORMS3'9"12
The major sources, their respective SCC's, and the pollutants
emitted from a primary aluminum production plant are
Source SCC Pollutant(s)
Bauxite Refining
Drying oven 3-03-000-02 Particulates
In-process fuel 3-90-006-99
Crushing/handling 3-03-000-01 Particulates
Calciner 3-03-002-01 Particulates
In-process fuel 3-90-OOX-99
Aluminum Reduction
Materials handling 3-03-001-04 Particulates
(anode preparation)
Anode baking furnace 3-03-001-05 Part., HC,
In-process fuel 3-90-OOX-99
Prebake reduction cell 3-03-001-01 Part., HC, SO
x
Soderberg reduction cell 3-03-001-OX Part., HC, SO ,
CO X
Roof vents 3-03-001-07 Particulates
Degassing 3-03-001-06 Particulates
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures 7.1-2
through 7.1-10, show entries for the SCC's and other codes. In-
formation pertinent to coding the source is entered on the
margin of the form and above or below applicable data fields.
Entries for control equipment codes, other optional codes,
emission factors, and required comments minimize the need to
7.1-12
-------
refer to the code lists. Typical data values for operating
parameters, control equipment efficiencies, and other source
information are shown on the form (or in the text) only to aid in
rapid, approximate checks of data submitted by the plant in a
permit application or similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R
and NEDS must be actual values specific to and reported by the
plant, rather than typical values. Contact the plant to validate
or correct questionable data and to obtain unreported infor-
mation. See Part 1 of this manual for general coding instruc-
tions.
Where emissions from the drying oven are controlled, code
the appropriate control device and its control efficiency. When
emissions from two or more sources (e.g., dryer, ball mill) are
controlled by a common control device, then the common stack
field for these sources should be filled on Card 2 (See Figure
7.1-2). A NEDS form for crushing/handling is shown in Figure
7.1-3. Control devices, codes, and efficiencies used to control
emissions are included.
Emission controls for particulates commonly applied to the
calciner are listed on the flow diagram. If two controls are
used in series, such as multicyclones followed by a fabric fil-
ter, enter the code for multicyclones (007) under primary parti-
culates (Card 3, Columns 23-25), and enter the code for fabric
filter under secondary particulates (Columns 26-28). Figure
7.1-4 shows a standard NEDS form for the calciner.
Figure 7.1-5 shows a standard NEDS form for materials hand-
ling (anode preparation). Enter a comment on Card 7 as shown,
7.1-13
-------
stating that the SCC includes emissions from conveying and transfer
points.
Figure 7.1-6 is a standard NEDS form for the anode baking
furnace. Particulate control devices and codes are also shown on
the form.
A NEDS form for the prebake reduction cell is shown in
Figure 7.1-7. The control devices are shown on the flow diagram,
Figure 7.1-1.
More than two control devices in series are rarely used for
controlling a single pollutant; however, where more than two are
used, code the last two devices and identify the first in the
series in the comments field. In other cases, carefully examine
the pollutants controlled. For example, consider a VSS cell
controlled by an afterburner followed by an ESP and a wet scrubber.
In this example the afterburner reduces hydrocarbons while the
other devices reduce mainly particulates. The code for the ESP
would be entered under primary control equipment for particulates,
and the wet scrubber would be entered under secondary control
equipment. The afterburner would be entered as the primary
control device for hydrocarbons. See Figure 7.1-8.
Emissions from the reduction cell roof vents are not always
controlled. If the particulates are simply vented to the atmos-
phere, enter zeros for particulate control equipment. If spray
screens are used, enter 061 in Columns 23 to 25. A standard NEDS
form for this source is shown in Figure 7.1-9.
Similarly, degassing is not always practiced at all plants.
When only pouring and casting follow the reduction cell, minor
7.1-14
-------
fugitive particulates will be emitted, in which case zeros are
entered for particulate control. See Figure 9.1-10.
The emission factors for the SCC's, in all cases except
materials handling, are expressed in tons of aluminum produced;
materials handling is expressed in tons of ore.
,13
CODING EIS/P&P FORMS'
The EEC's for use in EIS/P&R forms
Source
Bauxite Refining
Drying oven
Crushing/handling
Calciner
Aluminum Reduction
Materials handling (anode
preparation)
Anode baking furnace
Prebake reduction cell
Soderberg reduction cell
Roof vents
Degassing
are:
BEG
273
654
231
804
No code*
No code*
No code*
No code*
No code*
* As of September 1978,
7.1-15
-------
Figure 7.1-2. Standard NEDS form for primary aluminum production - drying oven.
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
Input
FOBV APPROVED
OW8 NO 15S RX95
Date _
-------
Figure 7.1-6. Standard NEDS form for primary aluminum production - anode baking furnace.
Scat*,
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Figure 7.1-7. Standard NEDS form for primary aluminum - prebake reduction cell.
Suit
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIH PROGRAMS
fOIHf SOURCE
Input Fwm
FORM APPROVED
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EMtSSION ESTIMATES Ilon,/»t4,|
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UNIT - TONS OF MOLTEN ALUMINUM PRODUCED
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
JOINT SOURCE
Input Form
FORM APPROVED
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D«tc.
EuahMhmeni Name and Add
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ESTIMATED CONTROL 6f FIClENCY (%]
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STACK DATA
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EMISSION ESTIMATES Mom. vf J'l
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j; I.CMECUI
a
NOX HC CO 3 Yi . V
IF
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75
30
31
32
33 34 35 56 3/1 it 35 10 41 4? 43 44 45 46 17 u If 50 5l|S2 53 It b5 561
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METHOD c
_„ ; o" o" u o v SDJC« i
CO <•
-------
GLOSSARY
Calcination - Heating of metals at high temperatures to decompose
carbonates, hydrates, or other compounds and convert them
into their oxides.
Cryolite - Sodium aluminum fluoride, Na
7.1-25
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.1
1. Background information for Standards of Performance: Primary
Aluminum Industry. Volume I: Proposed Standards. EPA-450/
2-74-020a, October 1974.
2. Katari, V., et. al. Trace Pollutant Emissions from the
Processing of Metallic Ores. EPA-650/2-74-115, October
1974.
3. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. 2nd. ed.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, AP-42, February 1976.
4. Exhaust Gases from Combustion and Industrial Processes.
Engineering Science, Inc. PB-204-861, Washington, D.C.,
October 1971.
5. Silting, Marshall. Environmental Sources and Emissions
Handbook. Noyes Data Corporation, Ridge Park, New Jersey,
1975.
6. Hollowell, G.A., et al. Environmental Assessment of Primary
Nonferrous Metals Industry Except Copper, Lead, Zinc, and
Related Byproduct Metals. (Draft) Battelle Columbus Labor-
atories, Columbus. Contract No. 68-02-1323, Task No. 45,
October 1976.
7. PEDCo Environmental, Inc. Environmental Assessment of the
Domestic Primary Aluminum Industry. (Draft) EPA Contract
Nos. 68-02-2535 and 68-03-2537, June 1978.
8. Technical Guidance for Control of Industrial Process Fugi-
tive Particulate Emissions. EPA-450/3-77-010, March 1977.
9. Vatavuk, W.M. National Emission Data System (NEDS) Control
Device Workbook. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Publication No. APTD-1570, July 1973.
10. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual. EPA-450/
2-76-029 (OOAQPS No. 1.2-039), December 1976.
11. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes.
EPA-45/2-76-005 (OAQPS No. 1.2-042), April 1976.
7.1-26
-------
12. Standard Industrial Classification Manual. 1972 edition.
Office of Management and Budget. Available from Superin-
tendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
13 Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual of
Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Public Health Service Publication No. 1956. 1968.
7.1-27
-------
7.2 METALLURGICAL COKE MANUFACTURING*
PROCESS DESCRIPTION1'2'3
Coke is a principal raw material in the smelting of
iron ores in a blast furnace to produce iron. Coke is
manufactured by heating coal to remove the volatile com-
ponents. Two processes are available for coke production:
the beehive process and the by-product process. Because
more than 98 percent of the total coke production is done by
the by-product process, only this process is discussed here.
In the by-product coking process, coal is heated in
ovens in the absence of air. The gases evolved in the
process are collected and treated in a recovery plant to
recover coal chemicals. Some of the gas leaving the re-
covery plant, called coke-oven gas, is used in the coking
plant as fuel for the ovens, and the remainder may be used
elsewhere in the steel plant. Figure 7.2-1 is a flow dia-
gram of a coking plant, and Table 7.2-1 lists emissions from
coke oven operations; a description of the coal-chemicals
recovery plant is not included in this compendium.
The coking plant is an integral part of an integrated
steel mill; see Reference 4 for an overall description
of an integrated mill.
7.2-1
-------
!-53-003-OS__
BCTM.OAOIW;
ana.
wcttY!".
SEE TW CflOIIlt «BS
IW« SECTIW in THE
TE»t ro« m FOUCWI*
SCC'S.
3-03-003-M COAL COmrtflUt
-io eo«i cnuSHlns
CMt SCKt«ll«
LE6EHO
Q EWSSIOII FACTOR
GEKISSIM rAClDR HOT
DUCLOPED TOR THIS PROCESS
00» (M.O) OtHOTES COHTROL EOUIP.
CODE WITH EST. EfE. SHOW!
Dt»0![S fUCITlVE
[BISSIONS
Q OlMTES A STACK
ns set urns
COARS
-COAL S
IOMCE
/ SEE T»HE 1. FOB EKISSIOHS \
V fROH COKE 0»EK OPERATIONS /
9
IAWI
CM
, CRUSHER T^T rv/ C0« (REISE TO
' (OPTIOHAL)fool / j -3/4 tn. sTiilER PIAIIT OH BOILERS
---___•_ DENOTES TRAVEL OF LARRT CAR OR QUEKHIHG CAR
Figure 7.2-1. Metallurgical coke manufacturing
7.2-2
-------
Table 7.2-1. EMISSIONS FROM COKE OVEN OPERATIONS
Operation
Charging
Coking oven
(leaks)
Underfiring
Pushing
Emissions, Ib/ton coal charged
sec
3-03-003-02
3-03-003-08
3-03-003-06
3-03-003-03
Part.
1.5
0.1
N.A.
0.60
so2
0.02
-
4.0
N.A.
NO
X
0.03
0.01
N.A.
N.A.
HC
2.5
1.5
N.A.
0.20
CO
0.6
0.6
N.A.
0.07
From AP-42 (February 1976), Reference 4.
-------
The feed to the coking process usually consists of two
or more coals that are blended to provide a coke product
suitable for blast furnace operations. The as-received coal
is first pulverized to sizes ranging from 0.125 to 0.006
inch. The pulverized coal is then mixed in blending bins,
from which it goes to a final blending operation where water
and oil are added to control bulk density. The coal is then
transported to the coal storage bunkers on the coke-oven
batteries. A coke-oven battery consists of 20 to 100 indi-
vidual coke ovens arranged in a row. A charging vehicle,
called a larry car, transports the prepared coal from the
storage bunker and discharges it directly into the ovens.
The coke oven is a rectangular, slot-type structure.
The sides are formed by two silica brick (refractory)
walls - 40 to 50 feet long, 12 to 20 feet high, and 12 to 20
inches apart. The ends consist of two removable doors. An
individual oven may receive a charge of up to 40 tons of
coal through three to five ports at the top. After charg-
ing, the oven-charging ports are sealed for the duration of
the coking cycle, which may range from 15 to 40 hours and is
usually about 20 hours.
The charged coal forms peaks directly under the charg-
ing ports. A levelling bar, operated through an opening in
one of the doors, levels the charged coal to provide a clear
7.2-4
-------
passage in the oven above the charge for gases that evolve
during the heating. The ovens are heated by firing of coke-
oven gas in burners beneath the ovens. Temperatures are
brought to 2000°F and are maintained at that level through-
out the coking cycle. The spaces between adjoining ovens
serve as heating flues. The exhausts from these flues,
called underfire exhausts, are ducted to a common underfire
stack.
Each oven has one or more exhaust flues, called stand-
pipes, to collect the gases evolved from the coal during the
heating process. These gases enter a collecting main from
the standpipes and are sent to the recovery plant where
chemicals such as tar, light aromatic compounds, and ammonia
are separated from the noncondensable gases (coke-oven gas).
The coke-oven gas leaving the recovery plant typically
contains about 1.5 percent sulfur as hydrogen sulfide, and
its heating value ranges from 500 to 550 Btu per cubic foot.
Upon completion of the coking cycle, both of the oven-
end doors are removed, and the incandescent coke is forced
into a quenching car at one end of the oven (the coke side)
by means of a large pusher ram at the opposite end (the push
side). The quenching car transports the coke to a quenching
tower, a chimney-like structure in which the coke is deluged
with water. The damp, quenched coke is then deposited in a
7.2-5
-------
sloping wharf, where it drains and cools. The coke is then
sent to a crushing and screening system to produce coke of a
size suitable for blast furnace operations. Most of the
undersize coke, called coke breeze, is sent to the sintering
plant.
Figure 7.2-2 illustrates the material balance in a
typical plant. From 35 to 40 percent of the coke-oven gas
is used in heating the ovens. In the United States an
average sulfur content of high-grade coking coals is about
0.8 percent by weight; sulfur contents of coke and coke-oven
gas are 0.7 and 1.5 percent, respectively. As the figure
shows, about 1.5 tons of coal is required to produce a ton
of coke. Coke requirements for producing a ton of pig iron
in the blast furnace depend on the type of blast furnace
feed and whether any auxiliary fuel is used, as shown in
Table 7.2-2. The average consumption of coke per ton of pig
iron produced is estimated to be 1200 pounds.
7.2-6
-------
CRUSHER"]
Sized Coke
2000 pounds
Undersize Coke
220 pounds
BLAST FURNACE
SINTER PLANT &
OTHER PLANT USE
Figure 7.2-2. Typical material-balance sheet for
a coke plant.
7.2-7
-------
Table 7.2-2. AVERAGE COKE REQUIREMENTS
FOR PRODUCTION OF PIG IRON
Feed type
and auxiliary fuel
100% unscreened ore
100% screened ore
Lump iron ore and sinter
Mainly sinter
100% pellets
100% pellets, with natural
gas as auxiliary fuel
Mainly sinter, with natural
gas as auxiliary fuel
Coke required per ton of
iron produced, pounds
3000
1570
1370
1445
1140
1110
1025
EMISSIONS1'2'3'4'5'6
Emission sources in a coke plant may be grouped into
three categories: coal preparation operations, coke manu-
facturing from prepared coal, and coke sizing operations.
Most of the emissions are from the second category - emis-
sions from charging, pushing, and quenching and to a lesser
extent, emissions during the coking cycle. The by-product
recovery plant is not considered in this compendium. The
following emission sources are described in this section:
1. Unloading, handling, stockpiling, and retrieving
the coal.
2. Handling, crushing, screening, and blending the
coal.
7.2-8
-------
3. Charging the coal into coke ovens.
4. Firing (heating) the coke ovens (underf iring) .
5. Leakage of gas and smoke from charging ports,
standpipes, and end doors.
6. Pushing from coke ovens.
7. Quenching the hot coke.
8. Handling, crushing, and screening the coke.
Fugitive coal-dust emissions occur from unloading,
handling, storing, and retrieving the coal. Formulas for
estimating fugitive emissions from coal and coke storage
piles around iron and steel plants have recently been
developed.6 The formulas incorporate activity factors for
various activities on and around storage piles, the silt
content of material stockpiled, and duration of storage.
Following is a list of these emission rate formulas, with
explanation of activity factors and their use.
EMISSION RATE FORMULAS
Operation Emissions, Ib/ton
Loading onto piles - EF^ (0.04) (1^) (S/1.5)
Vehicular traffic = EF2 (0.13) (K2) (S/1.5)
(around storage pile) (PE/100)
Loading out = EF 0). 05) (K3) (S/1.5)
(PE/100)2
Wind erosion = EF4 (0.11) (S/1.5) D
(PE/100)2 90
7.2-9
-------
where: EF, = emission rate per ton of material trans-
ferred
EF9 = emission rate per ton of material stored
EF^ = emission rate per ton of material trans-
ferred
EF. - emission rate per ton of material stored
K, 0 T = activity factor (see following discussion)
1,2,3
PE = Thornthwaite1s precipitation-evaporation
index
S = silt content (material less than 200 mesh)
of the aggregate material, percent
D = duration (average time) of material in
storage, days
The activity factors (^ 2 3) developed for these
formulas are all relative to operations performed with a
front-end loader. Thus if the device being used to load
onto piles, such as a stacker loader, appears to generate
less fugitive emissions than would be generated by a front-
end loader, an activity factor K^ of 0.75 would be appro-
priate. This (K-j^ = 0.75) indicates that a stacker loader
generates only 75 percent of the emissions that a front-end
loader would in performing the same function. The same is
true of the activity factors applicable to vehicular traffic
around storage piles and loadout of storage piles. For
example, if a clamshell being used to load out a storage
pile appears to generate only 50 percent of the fugitive
7.2-10
-------
emissions that a front-end loader would, then an activity
factor of 0.5 could be applied.
Examples of activity factors developed for two specific
iron and steel plants are presented below. These activity
factors are site-specific and thus will vary from plant to
plant depending on methods of loading, unloading, activity
around storage piles, silt contents of the coal, and dura-
tion of storage. These factors should not be interpreted as
typical values.
Material
Coal
Coke
Silt
con-
tent, %
2-4
1
Duration
of
storage
30 days
Surge
pile3
Kl
(loading)
0.75
0.85
K2
(traffic)
0.5
0.4
KS
(loadout)
0.75-0.8
1.0-0.85
Duration varies according to plant practice.
On the basis of limited emissions data, it is estimated
that total losses from crushing, screening, blending, and
handling of coals range from 0.01 to 0.1 percent, but only a
2
fraction of these losses become airborne.
Once in operation, a coke oven is almost never delib-
erately cooled because cooling causes the siliceous brick-
work (refractory) to degrade. Thus, a new batch of coal is
charged into an incandescent coke oven and is heated almost
7.2-11
-------
instantaneously, causing an evolution of steam, hot gases
and particulates. Because the exhaust gas far exceeds the
capacity of the aspirated standpipe, a portion is forced out
of the charging ports as smoke. These gases are? mostly
hydrocarbons, occurring both as gas and ae osols; the gases
also contain some nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
and hydrogen. As shown in Figure 7.2-3, the amount of coal
charged to an oven influences the particulate emission rate,
which is variable. AP-42 reports an emission factor of 1.5
Ib particulate per ton of coal charged; this value should be
used in estimating uncontrolled emissions when ssource-test
data are not available.
Coke-oven gas from the recovery plant contains about
1.5 percent sulfur as hydrogen sulfide. It is common prac-
tice to use this gas as the fuel for oven underfiring with-
out removing any sulfur; this practice results in substan-
tial sulfur oxide emissions. The other sources of emissions
during the coking cycle are leaks at the charging ports,
around the base of standpipes, and around the sealed end
doors.
Emissions from the pushing operation at the end of the
coking cycle include smoke from incompletely coked coals and
particulates generated by abrasion of the coke against the
oven walls. Incomplete coking may occur in the door-seal
7.2-12
-------
CO I
o o
CO
CO
UJ
O
o
-ZL
O
I—
a:
Q.
CO
Q
1.2
1.0
.8
.6
ce
Q. O
D_
.4
1 T
10
15
20 25 30 35
COAL CHARGE PER OVEN, TONS
Figure 7.2-3. Relationship between tons of coal charged
into a coke oven and particulate emissions
from the charging operation.
7.2-13
-------
areas and also may be caused by defective heating of the
charge or insufficient residence time to completely coke the
interior of the charge.
Hot coke from the coke oven is pushed into the quench-
ing car, which is moved over a track into the quench tower,
where the coke is immediately cooled with water to tempera-
tures low enough to prevent combustion. The quenching
operation generates a large volume of steam, which carries
fine coke particles into the atmosphere. In addition,
hydrocarbon emissions result from quenching with recycled
quench water and water from the spent-water pond. No data
on hydrocarbon emissions are available, but 130 to 170
gallons of water is evaporated per ton of coke.
Fugitive coke-dust emissions occur during the crushing,
screening, and storage operations. Although detailed coke-
dust emissions data are not available, coke-handling losses
2
are estimated to be less than 0.01 percent. The emission
formulas for storage operations, presented earlier, may be
>
applied. Since only a fraction of the losses from these
operations become airborne, the emissions are considered
negligible.
1 O "3 A R "7 Q
CONTROL PRACTICES ' ' ' ' ' '
Charging, pushing, and quenching operations are the
major emission sources in a coke plant. Several methods are
7.2-14
-------
under development for control of emissions from these and
the other emission sources in a coke manufacturing plant.
Coal Preparation
Emissions from coal preparation operations are con-
trolled by enclosing the conveyor systems, transfer points,
and various processing points. Exhausts from these en-
closures are usually controlled by one of several particu-
late collection devices, such as cyclones.
Charging
Methods under development for reduction or control of
charging emissions consist of ducting the evolved gases to
the recovery plant or to a control device, or charging the
ovens with preheated coal via a closed pipeline system.
Descriptions of these methods follow.
Stage Charging (Also Called Charging on the Main) -
This method consists of drawing the evolved gases into the
collector main and then into the recovery system by a steam
ejector located at the top of the oven standpipe. A par-
ticulate emission reduction of 90 percent has been reported
for this method.
Pipeline Charging - This system was developed not as a
pollution-control system, but as a means of charging pre-
heated coal into coke ovens to achieve greater productivity.
7.2-15
-------
Reductions in particulate emissions from the installed
pipeline feed systems are reported to be almost 100 percent.
Larry-Car-Mounted Scrubber - In this system a wet
scrubber is mounted directly on the larry car. The evolved
gases and smoke are collected by shrouded drop sleeves that
are lowered over the charging ports. It is reported that
this method reduces particulate emissions by 80 percent.
AISI/EPA Charging Car - This is basically a modifica-
tion of the staged charging method. No data on the effec-
tiveness of this method are available.
Underfiring
Because of the high hydrogen sulfide (H2S) content of
coke-oven gas, sulfur dioxide is emitted when this gas is
used as fuel. A number of methods are available for strip-
ping the hydrogen sulfide from the coke-oven gas. Few
plants practice E.,S removal, however, unless the coke-oven
gas is used in metallurgical operations sensitive to sulfur.
Unburned organics and particulates may also be emitted when
cracks develop in the oven walls. The pollutants leak from
the oven into the heating flues and are discharged from the
underfire stack; these emissions can be reduced by proper
oven maintenance. Exhaust gases from the heating system
(underfiring) are not vented through a control device.
7.2-16
-------
Coking (Door Leaks)
The problem of leaks during the coking cycle is best
solved by good door maintenance and replacement practices.
With proper maintenance, doors should not leak for more than
10 minutes after charging.
Pushing
Variations on three basic systems appear to control the
emissions from the pushing operation effectively.
Mobile Hood - This system involves a hood and duct
arrangement that collects emissions and routes them through
wet scrubbers. The hood is installed on a track so that it
can be moved to cover the oven from which the coke is being
pushed. The wet scrubbers are usually stationary. The
system appears to provide control in the range of 90 to 95
percent.
Coke-Side Shed Enclosures - Control is achieved by
installation of a shed that encloses the entire coke-dis-
charge side of a battery. The dust and smoke collected in
the shed are then exhausted through a particulate collection
device. The efficiency of this system depends upon the type
of collection device. An electrostatic precipitator would
be most effective, giving a collection efficiency of 99
percent or greater.
7.2-17
-------
Quenching Car Enclosure - This system consists of
completely hooding the quenching car, on which is mounted a
wet scrubber to treat the exhaust gases. Efficiencies
reported for this system cover a wide range, 50 to 100
percent.
Quenching
Several systems have been proposed to control quenching
emissions: baffles and sprays, closed quenching, and dry
quenching.
Baffles and Sprays - This system involves the installa-
tion of baffles with or without sprays in existing quench
towers. The system is reported to provide efficiencies of
60 to 76 percent.
Closed Quenching - This system is an integral part of
the enclosed quenching car system. Variations include a
traveling-grate system and a rotary-table system. In the
traveling-grate system, hot coke is fed at a controlled rate
onto a moving, linear grating in an enclosed system. As the
coke moves along the grating, water is sprayed on it, even-
tually cooling the coke below combustion temperatures. The
rotary-table system consists of one or more rotating tables,
on which the hot coke is continuously quenched. The coke is
7.2-18
-------
gradually moved to the edge of the table and onto a conveyor
system. The exhaust from all of these operations is routed
through a wet scrubber to eliminate particulate pollutants.
The system is 95 percent effective in controlling particu-
late emissions.
Dry Quenching - This system involves quenching the coke
with a recycled inert gas such as nitrogen, rather than with
water. The resulting hot gas may be used to produce steam
in a waste heat boiler. The system is completely enclosed
and eliminates virtually 100 percent of the emissions.
Coke Processing
Uncontrolled coke-dust emissions from crushing and
screening of the product coke are reported to be 0.0023 Ib
per ton of dry coal charged. These emissions can be con-
trolled with a control device. Operating efficiency of a
cyclone is estimated to be 85 percent; efficiency of a
baghouse or electrostatic precipitator is estimated to be 99
percent.
7.2-19
-------
CODING NEDS FORMS
The emissions sources in a coke plant are:
Source SCC
Unloading
Coal crushing/handling
Coal conveying
Coal crushing
Coal screening
Oven charging
Pollutants
3-03-003-05
3-03-003-07a
3-03-003-09
3-03-003-10
3-03-003-11
3-03-003-02
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates ,
3-03-003-08
Oven/door leaks
Underfiring 3-03-003-06
Oven pushing 3-03-003-03
Quenching 3-03-003-04
Coke crushing/screen- 3-03-003-12
ing/handling
carbons, carbon
monoxide
Particulates, hydro-
carbons
Products; of combustion
Particulates, hydro-
carbons
Particulates, hydro-
carbons
Particulates
Codes 3-03-003-09, -10, and -11 represent operations with-
in this source.
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures
7.2-4 through 7.2-14, show entries for the SCC's and other
codes. Entries in the data fields give information common
to coke plants. Information pertinent to coding the source
7.2-20
-------
is given on the margin of the forms and above or below
applicable data fields. Entries for control equipment
codes, other optional codes, emission factors, and required
comments minimize the need to refer to the code lists.
i
Typical data values for operating parameters, control equip-
ment efficiencies, and other source information are shown on
the form (or in the text) only to serve as quick, approxi-
mate checks of data submitted by the plant in a permit
application or similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R and
NEDS must be actual values specific to and reported by the
plant, rather than typical values. Contact the plant to
validate or correct questionable data and to obtain un-
reported information. See Part 1 of this manual for general
coding instructions.
Coal unloading includes receiving and storage. Figure
7.2-4 shows a standard NEDS form for this operation.
All of the coal crushing, screening, and conveying
operations involved in coal preparation are grouped under
one emission source: SCC 3-03-003-07, coal crushing/hand-
ling (Figure 7.2-5). When all these operations are con-
trolled by similar control devices, fill in the appropriate
control device code and control efficiency on this NEDS
form. An agency may require detailed reporting of emissions
and process data for each of the operations grouped under
7.2-21
-------
the 3-03-003-07 code. When these data are available, or
when controls are different for each operation, fill out a
NEDS form for each separate operation. The operations are
defined by SCC's 3-03-003-09, -10, and -11, coal conveying,
crushing, and screening; NEDS forms are shown in Figures
7.2-6, 7.2-7, and 7.2-8. When these separate forms are
used, do not complete a NEDS form for SCC 3-03-003-07.
The control methods listed in the margins on the
standard NEDS forms for oven charging, pushing, and quench-
ing operations (Figures 7.2-9, 7.2-12, and 7.2-13) are in
the developmental stage. Specific control methods used on
any of these operations should be reported in comments.
When the charging and pushing operations are not controlled,
these operations are fugitive emission sources.
Fugitive emissions occur during the coking cycle from
leaking standpipes, charging port lids, and oven doors.
Figure 7.2-10 illustrates the standard NEDS form for re-
porting these emissions. Figure 7.2-11 illustrates the
standard NEDS form for the underfiring operation. Particu-
late emissions from the coke crushing and screening opera-
tion are very low; Figure 7.2-12 illustrates the standard
NEDS form.
7.2-22
-------
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The EEC's for use in the EIS/P&R forms are shown below:
Source BEC
Unloading 700
Coal crushing/handling 650
Coal conveying "700
Coal crushing 650
Coal screening 577
Oven charging 263
Oven/door leaks 263
Underfiring 263
Oven pushing 263
Quenching 286
Coke crushing/screening/handling 650
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Charging - Feeding of coal to coke ovens.
Coke side - The side of the oven from which the coke
is removed after the coking cycle.
Coking cycle - The period in which the oven doors are sealed
and coal is converted to coke by heating.
Pushing - The process of removing coke from coke ovens
with a ram.
7.2-23
-------
Pusher side - The side of the oven from which coke is
pushed by the ram. This occurs at the end
of the coking cycle.
Underfiring - This term is derived from the arrangements
for heating a coke oven. Burners are located
at the base of flues. Underfire exhausts are
the products of combustion of the fuel used
to heat the ovens.
7.2-24
-------
Figure 7.2-4. Standard NEDS form for metallurgical coke manufacturing - coal unloading,
to
I
to
Ul
FORM Apt'UOV t'j
OMB NO l-jP H
D-i- .
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRHnlMtNTAl PROTECTION AGENCY
OtHCEOF AIR PROGRAMS
tTtmmrn
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
is. I I ! n !•-•
'R^FFl;: f"'(-iRifiMdlBi^^
fr^nimiiTontt
— — — ~
COAL UNLOADING
SCC UNIT- TONS COAL CHARGED,'. ^/;
iH.rIi.fi HrHijifflBiilI&i-h
r4;n;
IL
•:T7K
tffi:*-
-t
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::ff4
4;
tirn
:nr
--J U-
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trrp|_iHr
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H
~fl
^:T=:r>
--t-.-4-;-<
J 4-'^J
i^. ,i
.TT-
~rT^"
ti'
-------
Figure 7.2-5. Standard NEDS form for metallurgical coke manufacturing -
coal crushing/handling.
to
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NATIONAt. EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NtDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE Of AIR PROGRAMS
FORM API'HOVhU
OMB NO I3BRUU91.
COAL CRUSHING/HANDLING
3l3TT!2To
?S|M 30 )i 3?
ffffiE
'a\ seT'.; fy]i5J t oITiju
t,G'.T'-Gl ti-v-H"
mTolololo
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ooo
otoio'loloio
QTQlo.
r
IJw pTI sa] T'- [' if 'IE
zmTrm
si
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
Effi
sslw
F^i V« f i ,' • ,}.M"';{O
tMI .. y'j t J5 -VA"
tillS
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"JT,
U^v'.p:::] —4:UJ
TJTflBlTTT^'fBriiW ir^™
*, iSCC UNJT- TONS; COAL CHARGED
"' j I "-.'..''.'.' I .." ' . :.-. ! '<: ' • ."" • I VH !- ' !
- =;|,,
--?--•
JJLJJ-I.
1:
-------
Figure 7.2-6. Standard NEDS form for metallurgical coke manufacturing - coal conveying,
ro
i
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NtUS)
ENVIRONMENTAt PROTECIION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
FGMM AfCHOVLU
OMM ttO 1-38 HIJ09L
j
UTM COOHO J ^ T- S
•3l3tTi2Tol4tl
Hi
' _ Si-
si- |c -v| I- I'•-••• vj I'i
A..-4 ''v'-J-y_.-J \'-4.'".
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK l .
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STALK L L
•QIOIOI ..I
B«*nmgasElg^5|igEg^2
zj
i ^ i i M J ,,_
COAL CONVEYING t (Ia.
iSCC UNIT-TONS COAL CHARGED
1 .-; ; - i H ", ,
_.,, .^j^^H.. ...^ ,T_
i-l4t]qTT|rHr|-i
JitH
" i T
xhl±i
:T.
iTtili±riSH3±i:l:n:r iittcntr iib
'! c
T--
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Figure 7.2-7. Standard NEDS form for metallurgical coke manufacturing - coal crushing.
to
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ffiffiE
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSUM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
US HC£ OF AIR PRUUHAVIS
FOHV At*fJHOV b'j
OMi* NO lotiKOOS
HBHffi
1
xtn
ffi
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' •'
ooooioTo
.
010
mriTrmiTrr
1J.J.J
0000 If NO LOMMON bTACK
XXXX PQltrt ID'S If COMMON STACK
SCC UNIT-TONS COAL CHARGED
COAL CRUSHING /^^lfflJQj.l
i-H-t r1 i i'' rl"
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i^W!^4^
-rn • T j -- -H
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X!:T trliiii±l±lxixl:hLr iiizH
tnm.it
£
r i
±h-M-Ltttl±ri
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NJ
VD
Figure 7.2-8. Standard NEDS form for metallurgical coke manufacturing - coal screening,
3 It U I2|ll
NATIONAL EMISSION UftUVJY >TL". V '. .
ENVIRONMENTAL PR01EC1ION AL,bNi:v
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
114 14 Ib 17 IS!1
ffifflffiffi
OUUO IF NU CUMMUN bTACK.
POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
E; I"..-I 2- I t | ., ] ... | -.. _ T N_j
oliifetoisisjS
-!-^iv^T-'--r -^-y^p-j-^-TrT^Tp.t47rV"n€:i4Ti' '.'-\~ •
w• •' iMi^iill^iiixniMioioiQj ijoLLi.i..-:.ij
L-L1 [sec UNIT-TON'S'COAL CHARGED
'""' ! : '"•
COAL SCREENING ,3.iLi,k,ii,3..1t-l; -, , ; - i
-------
Figure 7.2-9. Standard NEDS form for metallurgical coke manufacturing - oven charging.
i
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSHM (NLUb)
ENVIIiOHMtNTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OfriCE OF A!f! PROCHAMS
N.totc -I rVn,
U..f.(.'«.t.iVjK
HHinTTraV
±i±J
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i ; | „-,. r ,,i | r,,, I ;% ,o- J ? - \ I J
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1.^1 .VA rr,j :o\ T-IOI f M li.tc.N^v i-1
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irn"liifirr rn"rjoloi^ifeio^ic:Liigigj.Qjijioi^Qio^ 11.1 _
1 50 LB/TON i 0.02 LB/TON ,0.03 LB/TOfl i 2.50 LB/TON i 0.60 LB/TON
iMikfflraifeii--Etelffi0^^
fflxffi
-f—
.11_
7LJ_IJ_
SCC UNIT-TONS COAL CHARGED e .^"-;
' : ; i '
CHARGINGr
i-H-
iii' - - ' ; -
:J-:hHii:.1-i±J-JiJiJJ
-H
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±1:
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1
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EXAMPLE COMMENT
T M"
B!E
L L
ElffiHiliH
xrEtn::
_:ri :-i -riLi'i
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Figure 7.2-10. Standard NEDS form for metallurgical coke manufacturing - oven/door leaks
NO
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it a i2li3i
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
FORM APPROVED
OM8 NO 158ROO95
D*i«
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isTTT
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uim |§
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Figure 7.2-11. Standard NEDS form for metallurgical coke manufacturing - underfiring.
to
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PUm (O
AOCB \ Nut •>•*•
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Of f ICt OF AIR PROGRAMS
FORM API'MJVEQ
OMB NO 1l3£HOu9!;
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REFERENCES
1. Varga, J. Jr., Screening Study on By-Products Coke-
Oven Plants. Draft report. Battelle Memorial Insti-
tute. Columbus, Ohio. Prepared for U.S. EPA, Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina under Contract No.
68-02-0611. September 1974.
2. Barnes, T.M., Hoffman, A.O., and Lownie, H.W., Jr.
Evaluation of Process Alternatives to Improve Control
of Air Pollution from Production of Coke. Battelle
Memorial Institute. Columbus, Ohio. Prepared for the
Dept. of HEW, Contract No. PH 22-68-65. January 1970.
3. Varga, J. Jr., and H.W. Lownie, Jr. A Systems Analysis
Study of the Integrated Iron and Steel Industry.
Battelle Memorial Institute. Columbus, Ohio. Prepared
for the Dept. of HEW under Contract No. 22-68-65. May
1969.
4. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. U.S.
EPA. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publica-
tion No. AP-42. February 1976. Section 7.2.
5. Background Information for Establishment of National
Standards of Performance for New Sources: Iron and
Steel Industry. Environmental Engineering, Inc.
Gainesville, Florida. Prepared for U.S. EPA. Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina under Contract No. CPA
70-142. March 1971.
6. Open Dust Sources Around Iron and Steel Plants. Draft.
Midwest Research Institute. Prepared for U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory. Contract No. 68-02-2120. Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina. November 2, 1976.
7. Control of Particulate Emissions from Particular
Steel-Making Processes - A Literature Search. PEDCo-
Environmental Specialists, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio.
Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Regional Office V under Contract No. 68-02-1355, Task
Order No. 10. Sept. 1974.
7.2-36
-------
8. Lownie, H.W., Jr., and A.O. Hoffman. Study of Concepts
for Minimizing Emissions from Coke-Oven Door Seals.
Battelle Columbus Laboratories. Columbus, Ohio. Pre-
pared for U.S. EPA, Washington, B.C. under Contract No.
68-02-439, ROAP No. 21 AQR-012. July 1975.
9. The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel. McGannon,
H.E. (ed.). United States Steel. Pittsburg, Penn-
sylvania. 1971. 1420 p.
7.2-37
-------
7.3 PRIMARY COPPER SMELTING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
PYROMETALLURGICAL SMELTING
Pyrometallurgical smelting is a process for recovering metal
from ore by techniques involving heating to very high temperatures.
As applied to the production of copper, pyrometallurgical tech-
niques are commonly employed in smelting sulfide ores which, when
oxidized by air, furnish much heat because of the conversion of
their component sulfur to sulfur dioxide.
The most common configuration for pyrometallurgical smelters
in the United States comprises four distinct high-temperature
techniques:(1) roasting, 1n which a concentrated ore is heated
with fluxes to eliminate some sulfur and produce a calcine suit-
able for smelting; (2) smelting proper, in which the calcine is
heated to produce a liquid matte containing sulfides of copper and
iron; (3) converting, in which the matte reacts with oxygen form-
ing iron oxide, sulfur dioxide, and a nearly pure product known
as blister copper; and (4) fire refining, in which blister copper
is melted, partially oxidized, then reduced, generating a still
purer product. Newer processes combine some of these steps. The
final purification, when required, is done by electrolytic
refining.
A composite illustration of the roasting, reverberatory or
electric furnace smelting, and converting configuration options
for pyrometallurgical smelting is shown in Figure 7.3-1.
Concentrated ore can be fed directly to a reverberatory
smelting furnace, or the smelting step may be preceded by
roasting. In some installations, the concentrate is dried
(without roasting) before being fed to the reverberatory furnace.
Green (undried, unroasted) concentrate may be fed to a reverbera-
tory smelter, but not to an electric smelting furnace.
7.3-1
-------
ESP 010 (99)
r
_ CONCENTRATE CONCENTRATE DR1
Q FUEL . DRYER
T A1R .
0
ART ^^ T
CONTACT H2SO4 PLANT 043 (96)
ER
DOUBLE CONTACT H2SO4 PLANT 044 (98)
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| yv ^v PART/\ f
MULTI-HEARTH MULTI-HEARTH ROASTER ^>C ^\/'O SCRUBBER 001
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FUEL r .NPROCESSFUEL ^ 1 .| (-JMATTE TAPS
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ROASTER-FUGITIVE EMISSIONS N^ CHARGING^ AR » FURNACE (^ SLAG TAPS AIR
LEGEND
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. CODE WITH EST EFF SHOWN
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t^ EMISSIONS
Q DENOTES A STACK
a IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
3-03-006-11
ELECTROLYTIC REFIN NG
nnoDcD /\ -_^\ ELECTROLYTIC
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CONTACT H2SO4 PLANT 043 (96)
ANODES
DOUBLE CONTACT H2SO4 PLANT 044 (98)
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CONVERTER \f CONVERTER
FUGITIVE EMISSIONS
3 9D-OOX 99
Figure 7 3 1 Primary Copper Smelting
73-2
-------
Raw Materials
The bulk of the world's copper ore reserves are found as
either copper sulfides, copper oxides, or native copper. The
most widely used ores in pyrometallurgical smelting are the sul-
fides such as chalcopyrite (CuFe$2) and bornite (CugFeS^). These
ores usually contain less than 1-percent copper when mined and
therefore must be concentrated before being transported to the
smelter. Concentration to 15- to 35rpercent copper is accomplished
by crushing, grinding, and flotation operations at the mine site.
Oxide ores also may contain less than 1-percent pure copper, but
can be processed in hydrometallurgical leaching operations and
are generally not concentrated. Table 7.3-1 shows thp sulfide and
oxide minerals from which copper is extracted.
Due to the availability of sulfide ores, pyrometallurgical
smelting has been utilized extensively in this country for many
years. To a certain extent, the choice of smelting equipment
used for the recovery of copper from ores is influenced by the
chemical composition of the concentrate feed. For example, a
high sulfur content in the concentrate usually dictates the use
of a roasting stage for partial sulfur removal prior to charging
to a smelting furnace. As mentioned previously, concentrate
material can vary over a wide range of copper contents. Sulfur
percentages can also vary between 25 to 35 percent for concentrate
materials. The remainder of the material is composed,for the
most part, of iron (-25 percent) and water (10 percent). Some
concentrates also contain significant quantities of arsenic,
cadmium, lead, boron, antimony, and other heavy metals.
Feed Preparation
Concentrate material arriving at the smelter is mixed with
a flux material in a bedding plant. The flux is usually made of
low-grade siliceous ore, sand, and gravel. The bedding plant
consists of several pads of concrete where an overhead crane is
used to deposit proper quantities of concentrate and flux. The
material is then mixed by a front-end loader to produce the
roaster charge.
7.3-3
-------
Table 7.3-1 COMMON COPPER-BEARING MINERALS
Mineral
Chalcopyrite
Chalcocite
Bornite
CovellHe
Malachite
Azurite
Cuprite
Chrysocolla
Theoretical formula
CuFeS2
Cu2S
CucFeS,
b 4
CuS
CuCOs - Cu(OH)2
2CuC03 - Cu(OH)2
Cu20
CuSiOo - 2H20
Cu(%)
34.5
79.8
63.6
66.5
57.3
55.1
88.8
36.2
S(%)
34.9
20.2
25.6
33.5
0
0
0
0
7.3-4
-------
Roasting
Roasting is the heating of concentrated ores to produce
partially oxidized calcines. In this process, the charge is
heated in air; sulfide sulfur combines with oxygen to form sul-
fur oxides; and some sulfide metals from metal oxides. In the
typical roaster-furnace-converter smelter, roasting eliminates
20 to 50 percent of the sulfur in the charge. Roasting can,
however, be used to eliminate all the sulfur ("dead" roasting)
or only a very small percentage of the sulfur. The amount re-
moved depends on the volume of air supplied to the process per
unit of charge and the roasting temperature. Roasting also
serves to dry and preheat the product (called "calcine") before
charging to the smelting furnace. During roasting, a portion of
the iron in the charge is converted to ferric oxide (Fe203), in
which form it will be removed in the slag from the smelting fur-
nace. Some of the iron will also be oxidized to magnetite (Fe304)
which can lead to problems in the smelting furnace, such as slags
of high copper content, reduced smelting rate, and furnace bottom
buildup. If any impurities such as arsenic, antimony, or bismuth
are present in the ore, they will be volatilized in the roasting
step. These factors, with the added costs of operating a roaster,
must be considered at each smelter when deciding whether to uti-
lize a roasting step or to feed a wet or "green" concentrate
directly to the smelting furnace.
The multiple-hearth furnace is commonly used for roasting.
This is a cylindrical, brick-lined vessel divided from top to
bottom by horizontal brick hearths. Feed is dropped into the top
drying hearth near the central shaft and is moved outward on the
hearth by rotating rabble arms until it is dropped to the hearths
below. Air and auxiliary fuel are added as needed at various
levels of the furnace. Temperatures range from 400°F in the top
hearths to 1,400°F at the bottom level where the hot calcine pro-
duct is removed (see Figure 7.3-2).
7.3-5
-------
OFF
GAS
FEED
wti-
RABBLE
ARM
RABBLE
BLADE
CALCINE
HOT AIR
TO EXHAUST
AIR
NATURAL
GAS
«= AIR
CALCINE
Fiqure 7.3-2. Multiole-Hearth Roaster
7.3-6
-------
A more recent development in roaster technology has produced
the fluidized-bed roaster. The fluidized-bed roasting process is
characterized by a gas-solid reaction in a dense suspension of
solids maintained in a turbulent mass by the upward flow of gases
that affect the reaction. The roaster is essentially a cylindri-
cal refractory lined steel shell used to contain the suspended
solids, Figure 7.3-3.
Air is forced into the roaster through tuyeres in a refrac-
tory lined steel constriction plate that is placed at the bottom
of the shell. The two best known types of fluidized-bed roasters,
the Lurgi and the Dorr-Oliver, are characterized by different tuyere
design.
Reaction rates in fluidized-bed roasting are rapid, and in-
dustrial copper smelters treat in the order of 15 to 50 tons of
concentrate per square meter of hearth area per day. An important
consequence of the high reaction rates is the high efficiency of
oxygen utilization by the roasting reactions. This leads to an
air requirement only slightly in excess of stoichometric and it
results in high S02 concentrations in the effluent roaster gases.
Roasting is not applicable to blast furnace, flash, or single-
step smelting, all of which incorporate the roasting reactions
(and their heats of oxidation) in the smelting step.
Smelting
Smelting in the furnace 1s the next process in a typical
pyrometallurgical facility. Smelting is the heating of calcines
accompanied by a chemical change resulting in the formation of
liquid metallic sulfides, termed matte. Most of the plants in
the United States use reverberatory furnaces for this step. Hot
calcine or raw unroasted concentrate 1s charged to hoppers with
siliceous or limestone flux and dropped into the furnace through
7.3-7
-------
OFF-GAS
SLURRY
FEED
TUYERE
HEADS
PRODUCT
Figure 7.3-3. Fluidized-Bed Processing
7.3-8
-------
staggered holes in the roof. Heat is supplied by combustion of
oil, gas, or pulverized coal and is reflected from the roof of
the furnace onto the charge. About 4-million Btu are required
per ton of hot calcine. Although reverberatory furnaces have
low thermal efficiencies, almost all are equipped with waste heat
boilers to recover approximately 50 percent of the heat as super-
heated steam.
The principal purpose of the smelting operation using the
reverberatory furnace is the separation of minerals such as iron,
aluminum, calcium, and magnesium from the copper to produce the
copper "matte." This is accomplished by combining the copper and
iron which are present in the charge with sulfur to form cuprous
sulfide (Cu2S) and ferrous sulfide (FeS). These two sulfides are
miscible in the molten state and make up 95 percent of the copper
matte which is produced. Heavy metals can also be present in the
matte layer. Gangue minerals are removed as complex ferrous sili-
cates. These silicates contain dissolved small amounts of the
basic oxides (A1203> CaO, MgO). A slag material is formed which
floats on top of the molten bath and is removed continuously into
slag pots. Copper matte is tapped intermittently from tap holes
near the bottom of the furnace and is conveyed in a molten con-
dition to the converters. Mattes containing 40- to 45-percent
copper are generally best for efficient converter operation.
Some plants use an electric-arc smelting technique as an
alternative to the reverberatory furnace. The feed to the elec-
tric furnace may or may not be roasted, but must at least be dried
to prevent explosions due to rapid expansion of steam. Heat is
generated in the furnace by an electric current passed through
carbon electrodes in the slag layer of the molten bath within the
furnace, smelting the new charge which covers the bath. As the
copper concentrates and fluxes are smelted, they settle into the
bath, form slag and matte layers, and are tapped.
7.3-9
-------
Converting
The final step in the production of blister copper is con-
verting. This process is normally performed in Peirce-Smith con-
verters. The converter consists of a cylindrical steel shell.
The shell is mounted on trunnions at either end and rotated about
its major axis. An opening in one side of the converter functions
as a mouth through which molten matte is charged and gaseous pro-
ducts arp vented. Blowing air is supplied thr ugh a header along
the back of the converter, from which a horizontal row of tuyere
pipes extend into the interior of the vessel. (See Figure 7.3-4.)
Typically, several of these vessels are maintained at a facility
with each converter running through a 9- to 12-hour cycle per
batch.
The copper converting cycle consists of two phases. In the
first phase, molten matte, highly siliceous ore flux, and scrap
copper are charged to the converter. The vessel is rotated until
the tuyeres are covered and a hood is lowered over the converter
opening. Air or oxygen-enriched air is blown through the tuyeres
into the metal. During the early stages of this first blowing
period, FeS is oxidized and combined with the siliceous flux. A
slag is formed which floats on the surface. Relatively pure
Cu2S (called "white metal") is collected in the bottom of the con-
verter. At intervals, the operator discontinues blowing and skims
slag from the unit. A series of "slag blows" may be performed
until sufficient white metal is accumulated so that the tuyeres
are covered when the converter is rotated into position for the
"copper blow." At that point, the air blast is again started
and the white metal is oxidized to blister copper. A typical
cycle for a Peirce-Smith converter showing the copper operation
is diagrammed in Figure 7.3-5.
7.3-10
-------
OFF-GAS
TUYERE
PIPES
SILICEOUS
FLUX
PNEUMATIC
PUNCHERS
Figure 7.3-4 Copper Converter
7.3-11
-------
CHARGING
BLOWING
SKIMMING
Figure 5. Copper Converter operation
7.3-12
-------
Hoboken converters have recently been installed at a U.S.
smelter to replace the standard Peirce-Smith converters. The
metallurgical operations of the Hoboken unit are the same as
those of the Peirce-Smith: copper matte is charged to the unit;
air is blown through matte; slag is removed; and blister copper
is produced. However, to prevent dilution air from entering
the exhaust gas stream, the Hoboken converter is fitted with a
stationary side flue and with rotating seals instead of a movable
hood.
Refining
Blister copper usually contains from 98.5- to 99.5-percent
copper. Impurities which may occur in blister copper include
gold, silver, antimony, arsenic, bismuth, iron, lead, nickel,
selenium, sulfur, tellurium, and zinc. To further purify the
blister copper, fire refining and electrolytic refining are used.
>
Fire Refining
A fire-refining furnace can be of the reverberatory or cylin-
drical converter type. In a cylindrical furnace, air is first
blown through the metal to oxidize all of the impurities and a
portion of the copper. When the copper oxide content reaches
about 1 percent, blowing is stopped, and a slag layer is skimmed
off the unit. The metal bath is then subjected to a reducing
atmosphere either by fuel-rich combustion of pulverized coal, oil
or gas, or by poling. In poling, green logs are forced into the
metal bath, and are destructively distilled. However, this pro-
cess is not common in modern smelters. The resulting atmosphere
in the furnace causes the reduction of the cuprous oxide to copper
The fire-refined copper still may contain small quantities
of gold, silver, and other impurities. These impurities may have
value, if recovered, and also reduce the strength, electrical
7.3-13
-------
conductivity, and ductility of the copper. For chemical manu-
facturing purposes, such as the production of copper sulfate for
agricultural use, fire-refined copper may be used without further
processing. However, for most applications, including metallur-
gical, the fire-refined copper is cast into anodes and is further
treated by electrolytic refining.
Electrolytic Refining
Electrolytic refining involves separation of copper from
impurities by electrolysis. Fire-refined anodes are immersed in
a solution bath containing copper sulfate and sulfuric acid.
Metallic impurities precipitate from the solution and form a
sludge which is removed and treated for recovery of precious
metals. Cathode copper (99.95- to 99.97-percent pure) is removed
from the remelted and made into bars, ingots, or slabs for
marketing purposes.
New Processes
Jhe sequence of operations described previously is utilized
in most copper smelting installations in the United States. In
part, because of air pollution control regulations, new processes
have been developed to be used in primary smelting. These areas
of new technology include flash smelting furnaces and continuous
smelting units.
Flash Smelting
Flash furnace smelting combines the operations of roasting
and smelting to produce a high-grade copper matte from concentrates
and flux. Charge material must be fine-grained and essentially
"bone-dry" to ensure an even and homogeneous distribution as it
is injected into the furnace and mixed with preheated (up to 930°F)
7.3-14
-------
air or oxygen. Oil is supplied to the furnace to sustain flash
combustion reactions, but most of the smelting heat is generated
autogenously by the oxidation of the sulfides in the concentrate.
This heat smelts the particles as they fall through the reaction
section into a settler section where molten matte is separated
from slag. Since high-grade mattes are normally produced (50-
to 60-percent Cu), flash smelter slag is also high in copper and
must be treated for metal recovery. This is normally accomplished
by flotation. Use of flash smelting furnaces also requires modi-
fications to the operations of the converters to accommodate the
higher grade matte. Figure 7.3-6 shows a typical flash smelting
furnace.
Continuous Smelting
Continuous pyrometallurgical smelting processes have been
developed and implemented at foreign smelters but have not as yet
been utilized in U.S. plants. Processes which have been developed
include Noranda, WORCRA, Mitsubishi, and TBRC (top-blown rotary
converter) smelting. Basically, these operations combine the
flash-smelting principal of autogenous smelting with an additional
step of injecting gas to oxidize the copper matte to blister copper
in the same vessel. The Noranda continuous smelting process is
illustrated in Figure 7.3-7.
HYDROMETALLURGICAL SMELTING
Hydrometallurgical processes have been successfully applied
to the recovery of copper from oxide ores. These involve leaching
of copper from ore into a solution which is then purified and
treated to recover the copper. Processes have also been developed
to recover copper from sulfide ores using hydrometallurgical
techniques, but their application in U.S. plants has been limited.
One such system, the Arbiter process, utilizes an anhydrous
ammonia leaching reaction, followed by organic solvent extraction
and electrowinning to produce high purity copper cathodes.
7.3-15
-------
CONCENTRATE
PREHEATED
AIR
, CONCENTRATE BURNER
UPTAKEr
SLAG
SLAG MATTE
SETTLER
Fiqure 7.3-6 Outokumpu Flash Smelting Furnace
7.3-16
-------
CONCENTRATE
•PELLETS AND FLUX
FEEDER
COPPER
SETTLING -3^SETTLING
SLAG
AIR TUYERE
COPPER
REDUCING GAS
TUYERE
Figure 7.3-7. Noranda Continuous Smelting
7.3-17
-------
EMISSIONS
PYROMETALLURGICAL SMELTING
The principal air contaminants emitted from primary smelters
are sulfur dioxide and particulates. Sulfur dioxide is a major
product inevitably generated in the pyrometallurgical process, as
previously explained. Particulates, on the other hand, are genera-
ted mainly in the manipulation of materials or in combustion of
fuel, and are not inherent products of the smelting process. A
significant fraction of the particulate emissions may be represen-
ted by fugitive emissions from crushing and grinding operations
and from charging and tapping of furnaces.
The following paragraphs describe emissions from processes
and equipment common in pyrometallurgical smelters which process
concentrates of sulfide ores.
Emissions From Bedding Plants
The preparation of the concentrate feed in the bedding plant
can be a source of fugitive particulate emissions. The extent
to which these emissions become a problem depends on the type of
cover or enclosure which is used in the bedding area and the
method of transporting the materials from the bedding plant to
the smelting or roasting furnace. Local wind conditions are a
factor in determining whether these emissions cause in-plant
housekeeping problems or affect areas outside of plant property.
Roaster Emissions
Multiple-hearth and fluidized-bed roasters are sources of
both particulates and sulfur oxides. Particulates consist of
oxides of the metals which are found 1n the concentrate. Copper
and iron oxides are the primary constituents, but other metals
7.3-18
-------
such as arsenic, antimony, cadmium, lead, mercury, and zinc may
also be present with metallic sulfates and sulfuric acid.
Combustion products from fuel burning also contribute to the
particulate emissions from multiple-hearth roasters. Fluidized-
bed roaster gases typically contain 10- to 15-percent S02 as
compared to 0.5 to 6 percent in multiple-hearth roaster gases.
Both types of roasters generate about the same amount of
sulfur oxides per unit of charge, but the concentrations of S02
in the effluent gases are quite different due to the excessive
leakage often associated with the multiple-hearths. Fluidized-
bed roasters are completely enclosed and operate at a positive
internal pressure (2 to 4 psig). Due to the positive internal
pressure, any openings 1n the roaster walls can be large sources
of fugitive emissions. Proper maintenance is effective in keeping
these emissions to a minimum.
Emissions From Smelting Furnaces
Reverberatory and electric smelting furnaces also emit sig-
nificant quantities of particulates and S02. A slight negative
pressure is usually maintained within a reverberatory smelting
furnace and infiltration air combines with combustion gases to
produce large gas flow rates out of the unit. Occasionally,
positive pressure surges, especially during charging, cause
large quantities of fugitive particulates and S02 to escape through
the furnace roof and walls. Electric smelting furnaces, on the
other hand, do not produce combustion gases and do not utilize
outside air leakage. Hence, effluent gas flow rates and fugitive
emissions are reduced, and S02 concentration in the effluent gas
is higher. Both furnace types produce fugitive emissions when
tapping and pouring matte or slag into launders and ladles.
7.3-19
-------
Converter Emissions
Emissions from converter operations follow a pattern genera-
ted by the air-blowing cycle, as shown in Figure 7.3-8. In the opera-
tion of a standard Peirce-Smith converter, the flue gases con-
taining particulates and S02 are captured during the blowing phase
by movable hooding which covers the converter mouth onenina. Most
hooding arrangements are fairly effective in ca^-Luring the effluent
gas stream, from the converter. To prevent free/ing of the hood to
the converter, caused by splashing of molten metal, there is a gap
between the hood and the vessel. Fairly sophisticated draft con-
trol devices have been developed to maintain a negative pressure
at the gap to draw air in for cooling and prevent excessive fugi-
tive emissions. During charging and pouring operations, the
hooding is removed to allow crane access, and significant fugitive
emissions occur. These fugitive emission problems should theoreti-
cally be eliminated when using Hoboken converters, since the
stationary side flues are in place during charging and pouring to
collect the exhaust gases. However, in the only U.S. application
of these converters, design problems have caused positive pressure
buildups at the opening between the converter vessel and the flue.
Therefore, it cannot at this time be said that the use of Hoboken
converters is completely effective in eliminating fugitive emissions.
Other Sources
Remaining smelter processes handle material which is over
98-percent copper and contains very little sulfur. Hence, S02
emissions from these processes are insignificant when compared to
roasters, smelting furnaces, and converters. Participate emissions
from fire-refining operations, however, may still be of concern.
Fire-refining furnaces do not vent to a stack but are open and
vent directly into the smelting building. If poling is used,
7.3-20
-------
S02
CONTENT,
VOLUME,
scfm
CONVERTER
AIR LOW,
scfm
10
2
0
40,000
35,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
UY-
Figure 7.3-8. Fluctuation of Converter Uffgas Volume and Sulfur Dioxide Concentrations
7.3-21
-------
black smoke can be generated, but in general, participate and
S02 emissions from this type of furnace are minimal. Electro-
lytic refining does not produce emissions unless sulfuric acid
tanks are open to the atmosphere.
Auxiliary functions at the smelter, such as slag processing,
may also contribute to fugitive dust problems through the opera-
tion of crushing and grinding systems.
HYDROMETALLURGICAL SMELTING
Emissions from hydrometallurgical smelting plants are
generally small in quantity and easily controlled. In the Arbiter
process, ammonia gases are generated by leach reactors, mixer-
settlers, thickeners, and tanks. All of these units are routinely
covered and vented to a packed-tower scrubber. The scrubber
removes the ammonia and recycles it into the system.
CONTROL PRACTICES
Control of particulate emissions from certain sources has
been practiced for many years because of the recovery value of
the copper contained in the dusts. Electrostatic precipitators
have been used for control of particulates from roasters, smelting
furnaces, and converters. Cyclones and scrubbers, however, are
more commonly applied to control of particulates from the con-
centrate dryers.
In a fluidized-bed roaster, 70 to 90 percent of the solids
are carried out through the top of the roaster with the effluent
gases. The offgases from the fluidized-bed roaster are passed
through a series of primary and secondary cyclones to collect the
particulate which is then fed to the smelting furnace. The
fraction of the particles carried out with the effluent gases
depends principally upon the velocity of the gases in the roaster
and the size range of the particles in the concentrate feed.
7.3-22
-------
In the control of participate emissions from smelting
furnaces, standard practice has been to employ balloon flues or
cyclones for pretreatments. These devices are used in conjunction
with waste heat boilers and water spray chambers not only to
recover large particles but also to cool the gases before further
treating. Cooling of the gases helps to condense volatilized
metals so that they can be collected by electrostatic precipi-
tators (ESP's). ESP's are ideally suited to this type of appli-
cation because of their ability to achieve high collection
efficiencies when handling gases with high-temperature, high-
volume, and low-grain-loading conditions. Overall collection
efficiencies of 90 to 95 percent for ESP systems are normal for
these applications. Efficiencies as high as 99.7 percent have
been reported. In special instances where arsenic oxides are
present in the effluent gases, additional cooling equipment,
followed by baghouses, are normally used to prevent the emission
of toxic substances.
Control of SOp emissions from smelters has been a more recent
development. The most common form of S02 treatment presently
utilized in U.S. smelters is the single-contact sulfuric acid
manufacturing plant. Use of a sulfuric acid plant on copper
smelter effluent gas streams requires that the gas be free from
particulate matter and sufficiently rich in S02- The first
consideration requires the installation of high-efficiency scrubbers
and mist-eliminators which handle the large gas flow rates genera-
ted by smelter processes. The requirement for a sufficient S02
concentration in the treated gas has, in the past, limited the
use of sulfuric acid manufacture to only converter offgases.
The offgases typically average about 4- to 7-percent S02 by
volume. Gases from reverberatory smelting furnaces and multiple-
hearth roasters have not been treated by themselves in sulfuric
acid plants because S02 concentrations are low (0.5- to 6-
percent S0£) and concentration procedures or preheating would
have to be used.
7.3-23
-------
Process and equipment substitutions offer opportunities
for improving control of S02 emissions. Thus, fluidi.zed-bed
roasters normally produce offgases containing 10- to 15-percent
S02, whereas multiple-hearth roaster gases contain much less
(0.5 to 6 percent). Again, electric smelting furnaces can
produce effluents containing 4- to 8-percent S02» in contrast
to reverberatory smelting furnaces, which usually yield 0.5 -
1.5-perce"vt S02- Effluents from multiple-heart.! roasters and
reverberatory smelting furnaces can be reduced in volume and,
thereby, enriched in S02 concentration, by careful control of
operating conditions. Reduction of infiltration air by closing
furnace wall holes, close monitoring of internal furnace pressure
conditions, and use of oxygen-enriched combustion air are
expedients which have been found to increase S02 concentration
by reducing the volume of effluent gas. Such S02~rich streams
can be treated individually or blended with low-S02 streams
prior to treatment in an acid plant.
Typically, single-contact acid plants can achieve 96.5- to
97-percent conversion of S02 to acid. Approximately 2,000 parts
per million (ppm) of S02 remains in the acid plant effluent gas.
Double-contact acid plants collect 98 percent of the S02 and
emit about 500 ppm S02- Absorption of the S02 in dimethylani-
line (DMA) solution has also been used in U.S. smelters for pro-
duction of liquid S02.
No control practices are currently utilized in U.S. smelters
for NOX, CO, or hydrocarbon emissions. NOX, CO, and hydrocarbons
are found in the offgas streams from units requiring fuel combus-
tion. Multiple-hearth roasters, reverberatory furnaces, conver-
ters, and refining furnaces are sources of air contaminants.
Data are available for assigning emission factors for NOX
emissions from reverberatory furnaces and converters in only one
smelter configuration. Data are unavailable for assigning
emission factors for CO and hydrocarbon.
7.3-24
-------
CODING NEDS FORMS
The sources of emissions in a primary copper smelter may include:
Source
Multiple-Hearth Roaster
Reverberatory Smelting
Furnace (with Roasting)
SCC
3-03-005-02
3-03-005-03
(without Roasting) 3-03-005-07
Converter Furnace
Fire-Refining Furnace
Concentrate Dryer
Finish Operations, General
Fluidized-Bed Roaster
Electric Smelting Furnace
Electrolytic Refining
Flash Smelting
Fugitive Emissions
Roasting
Reverberatory Furnace
Converter
3-03-005-04
3-03-005-05
3-03-005-06
3-03-005-08
3-03-005-09
3-03-005-10
3-03-005-11
3-03-005-12
3-03-005-13
3-03-005-14
3-03-005-15
Pollutants
Parti cul ate, S09, NO, HC, CO
£ X
Parti cul ate, SO,, NO , HC, CO
Parti cul ate, SO,, NO* HC, CO
C* A
NO. HC, CO
A
NO, HC, CO
Parti cul ate, SO
Parti cul ate, SO
Particulate, NO , HC, CO
A
Particulate
Particulate, SO,, NO, HC, CO
L. A
Particulate, SO,, NO, HC, CO
C* X
Particulate
Particulate, SO,, NO. HC, CO
£ X
Particulate, SO,, NO. HC, CO
Particulate, SO,, NO , HC, CO
Particulate, SO,, NO* HC, CO
c* x
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures 7.3-9 through 7.3-21 show
entries for the SCC's and other codes. Entries in the data fields give infor-
mation common to the designated equipment in primary copper smelters. Infor-
mation pertinent to coding the source is entered on the margins of the forms
and above or below applicable data fields. Entries for control equipment
codes, other optional codes, emission factors, and required comments minimize
the need to refer to code lists.
Data entered in EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual values specific to
and reported by the plant, rather than typical values.
7.3-25
-------
For smelters which combine exhausts from roasters and smelting
furnaces in a single stack or control system, it is acceptable to
combine the sources as a single emission point, coded on one NEDS
form. The point would be defined by the three SCO's, 3-03-005-02,
3-90-OOX-99, and 3-03-005-03.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The BBC's for use in EIS/P&R forms are shown herein:
Source BEG
Multiple-Hearth Roaster OMX (x=fuel)
Fluidized-Bed Roaster OMX (x=fuel)
Concentrate Dryer OMX (x=fuel)
Reverberatory Smelting Furnace 162
Electric Smelting Furnace 122
Converter Furnace 192
Fire-Refining (Anode) Furnace 192
Electrolytic Refining (no code)
Flash Smelting Furnace 192
Continuous Smelting Furnace 192
Finish Operations, General (no code)
In the above list, x refers to fuel according to the following
code:
x = 1 Natural gas
2 Liquid petroleum
4 Distillate oil
5 Residual oil
6 Wood
8 Coal
7.3-26
-------
Figure 7.3-9 Multi-hearth Roaster
I
ro
ill
12 13
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
Input Fo*m
ii
:l
Name of P«non
Cofnpleling Fo"
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO. 158 HOOTS
Data _^^^^_^^^__
Establishment Name and Addrt
ML
C«P»cilv
lOSBTU/hr
UTM COORDINATES
^tgh! Htt JDiam f<0
lllH
Flow Rate Ht3/m.nJ jit no mcfc <1
016
010 I-
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
i
% ANNUAL THRUPUT
Contact Pfional
SS tt
)9 »
kOOOO IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
u u
HlK
WATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY {%)
97.0
Pan
EMISSION ESTIMATES I
45 LB/TON
410
ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS ttom/ye»rl
MULTI-HEARTH ROASTER
INPROCESS FUEL
Annual
Fuel. Procpn
Solid Wasir
Operannq RSI
?E l*SCC E!T TONS CONC. ORE; FUEL-1000 GAL FOR OIL, MIU.IBN CU.FT FORjGSS
1/1 °
^COMPLIANCE
CO
H|«
COMPLIANCE
'«
ESTIMATION
METHOD
SO (J O
_ ziu
H-SMCI
HJJI
CONTROL REGULATIONS
RESID. OIL-4; DIST. OIL-5; NAT. GAS-6
COMMENTS
illclT
-------
7.3-10 Fluidized-bed Roaster
14 5 (
Plan! ID
Nurrit*'
10 11 1?|13
Point
J0_
tilis
is is i;
OJ _
ro
00
FLUIDIZED-BED ROASTER
16 1?
IE 17
1C 1!
o
U,n, |§
!on« -
20 21
20 21 22 23 21 25
31 31 IIP
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
Establishment Name and At
POINT SOURCE
Input Form
Name of Person
Completing Form
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO 158 R0095
Daw.
?2l?3|?4|B|K|27|M|n|30|3ll32|33|34|35l3t|37|3i|3i|lO II 42
Capacity
106 BTU/h*
8 13 20 21 U
UTMCi
Hori(Ont»l
>nDINATES
Vertical
28 25 30 31 32
Height (til Dism Ui)
El
STACK DATA
Temnl°FI Flow Bale Ih3/m.n1
44145 46 47 4»|l9 SO 51 52 S3 S4
001
23 24 K
ANNUALTHRUPUT
Oc Mar June Sept
Feb May Auq N
K 2? 28
23 30 31
NORMAL
OPERATING
I 1 I
K V
29 10
t
ll?
CONTROL FOUIPMENT
NO,
3S K 1)
X 3) 40
Pnrnafy
HC
II 12 43
oo
£
SI 52
Cont*cl Perional
83[64 SS K tJ U (9 70 71
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
y s> ssltom K u|n|ts|tt i; ci a 70 7i|7?|73 74 ;s ;« 77
97.0 96.0
ESTIMATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY (%>
Pan SO; NO, HC CO
S3 51 SS
59 SO (I
82 (3 (4
55 SS 67
EMISSION ESTIMATES Kunt/yra-l
55 LB/TON
3! 32 33 !» 3S|
540 LB/TON
S02
NO,
ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS llom/yearl
IB 1! 20 21 22 23 2(
so,
Po.nl
ID
11 IS
2 k!
> cc
K
17
, !
K 19
26 27 2! 29 30 31
32 33 34 35 )S !7 U
I 42 I! II 15
46 I) « 19 SO 51 52
SCOMPLIANC
Z SCHEDULE
COMPLIANCE
STATUS
UPDATE
62 63
Til 10
7|7
69 70 71 72 73 74 75 7« 77
ESTIMATION
METHOD
i o o u o
71 75 76 7
CONTROL REGULATIONS
69 70 71 72
Fuel, Pioceil
Snltd Waits
26 27 2! 29
Moully
Maximum Deng"
cjSCC UNIT-TONS CONC. ORE
Bi
Heat Conieni
"0" BTu ice
46 17 18 49 SO
SO 61
71 75 76 77
26l27|28|29|jO 31 32 13 34 35 K 37 3! 39 U II )2 I] 4! 59_ SO 6[ JZ. Sj
6S_ K J7. j£
l 11 1L 11 11 1L
•±
rlrd
-------
7.3-11 Concentrate Dryer
CO
ro
Pl»nt ID
Numtrt
11 12 13
NATIONAl EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEOS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
Input Form
Name of Petion
Completing Foim_
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO 1S8R0095
Dm
14 IS It 17
U 17
I I)
1.2 j i_a
22 23
i 0
Boilf DMign
Capacity
UI19 20 2l|ii
UTM COORDINATES
31 32
3113513.
UI33
Flo.. Rate tlt'/minl ll r
f Heigh
ittcVIt
44 tS|«l47 18 49 50lSll52 53 54
010
Primsfv
Ptn
June Sept
20 21
24 25
Pfima-i
S02
26 21 21 29 JO 31
NORMAL
OPERATING
I i
CONTROL F.OUIPMENT
S
S z
(1 (1 41
Contact Pefional
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
51 59 60 (I (2
ESTIMATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY (*)
NOX HC CO
54 5! SJ
59 CO 61
6216!
EMISSION ESTIMATES (tom'veail
H 17
CONCENTRATE DRYER
INPROCESS FUEL
ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS Itoni/yeerl
! » 20 21 22 23124
25 2S 27 2! ?9 30 31
19 20
21 22 23
14 15
16 17
19 2C
21 22 23
32 33 34 35I36I3I 18
]? 10 41 42 43 II I
S, SCHEDULE
a
I
STAIUJ
UPDATE
(0 (1
(2 13
6! S9 70 71 72 73 74 7i| 7i 77 71
METHOD
9 i ¥ 8
CONTROL REGULATIONS
Reg 1 Reg 2 Reg 3
67 U
89 !0
I
5 01
Fuel. Pfocen,
Solid Watte
26 2) 21 29 )0 31 32
Maiimum Design
-- . -SCC UNIT-TONS CONC. ORE;FUEL-1000 GAL FOR OIL, MILLION. CU.F
11 HI He/clen, | |
- '
(0 41 4?
SS 5{ 5? S! 59
60 61 62 63
RESID. OIL-4; DIST. OIL-5; NAT.GAS-6
COMMENTS
26l2?l28l2l|30l3l|32l33
42 43 4) 4i_ 4«
IS JS SO
54 55 56 57 58
d
-------
7.3-12 Reverberatory Smelting Furnace
OJ
I
OJ
o
03- W/0 ROASTER
03- W/ ROASTER
Po.nl
J5_.
REVERB. FURNACE
INPROCESS FUEL
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
Input Fofm
Name of Person
Completing Fotm
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO 158R0095
Dm
Boiler DMign
CXMCIIV
106 STU/hr
K\ll
UTMCOOTOINATES
X135116
33 3<
37 Ml 39
<3 «
STACK DATA
Flow Rat* (Il3/mm) at no nacfc It
CONTROL FOLHPMENT
004
Primary
% ANNUAL THRUPUT
IS 19
Q C
ConiKt - Perton*!
.0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
97.0
ESTIMATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY (*]
NO,
EMISSION ESTIMATES l
07-36 IB/TON °3-"50 LB/TON
07-3%,LB/TOl| NO,
ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS tloni/vMrl
S02
LIANCE COMPLIANC
£ SCHEDULE I STATUS
UPDATE
ESTIMATION
METHOD
CONTROL REGULATIONS
-i -SCC UNIT-IONS CONC. ORE; FUEL-1000 GAL FOR OIL, MILLJON CU.FT FOR GAS
~*2 - "i- £ Fue» u "5 o
^Jf '"? H«,Con,,n! _ | c 5
-WITH ROASTER, 7-WITHOUT ROASTER
. OIL-4; DIST.OIL-5; NAT.GAS-6
-------
7.3-13 Electric Smelting Furnace
CO
GO
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
Input Form
Name of Person
Completing Form_
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO I58R0095
Dtte
LHm
lone
IS lit
Pofnt
ID
ELECTRIC FURNACE
ISJ17
I
s]n
Ellablnriment Natne and Addie
Boiler Dmgn
Capacity
106 BTU/hr
UTM COORDINATES
1J|H[31
(Jill
STACK DATA
Flow Rale
Opeialing Ralp
CC UNIT-TONS CONC. ORE
Heji Con.enl
I06 BTU ice
-------
7.3-14 Converter
POINT SOURCE
FORM APPROVED
CO
I
CO
at*! Cou
7|3
|
I
ntY
5
(
AOCR
7
1
I
Plant ID
Nutrrbcr
10
11 1? 13
oS
Utn, j|
C or.
14 15 IS 17 18 H 20 21 23
Point I % I
ID ?£ SIC
^ "2 Boiler Deiifln
% S Cepac.tv
; I 10* BTU/nr
16 17 IB 19 20 21 2:
« ANNUAL!
S S Dec- Mw >
> J Feb May _<
IS 1 1! 15 20 21 2
0?
Ill P*.™,.
SC(
Is
>.
jne S«pt 5 ? i
U9 Nov £ p_ 5
23 ?4 25 ft 2? 78 23 30 31
ALLOW
SOj
23 2* 25 2& 27 28 29 30 31
Annual
Fuel Procen
Sot d W«IP
" 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
C *_2_2
RECID OIL
1 |v COMMENTS
2 ?! 21 2* 26 17 -1* 23 30 31
i ,.
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEOS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
3Fp3 34 K 36 37 3J 3? 40 <1 <2 1! 44 15 «S 41 41 49
1?
>
.»
u
42
32
U
43
ign
1<
«
If
35
1
U
On
1)
CONTRC
Pr unary
NO,
35 3S 3?
3 P |0|0|Q
LB/TON
33 3< 35 3S 37
11
it
M
--
)L
\t
31 39
T
4(1
EQ
10
AC
11
K C
3 1°
17
41
LIIPMENT
Pr inaly
11 12 (3
44
44
olololol ololol
EMISS
540 LB/TON
SO;
3j|]9llO](]l
1* I P,,™
S co
45l<*l47l48
49
41
50
SI
52
51
54
jPlum. He.i^t
5ofTl 52 S3|S4
^
SO
'ol d d c c c
ON ESTfMAT€S fr
5|46]47I(8|41J50|
45
:
3
<5
4«
11
He
Ik
47
y
ji
SB
47
"iT
NI
48
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7.3-15 Fire Refining Furnace
CO
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XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
ESTIMATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY (*)
SO 2 NOX HC CO
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EMISSION ESTIMATES HE
SO? NO,
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17 43 44
Paroeulate
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ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS llom/yea.l
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24 25
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32 33 34 35 36 37 31
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COMMENTS
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-------
7.3-16 Electrolytics Refining
CO
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Plant IO
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
Input Form
Name ol Person
FORM APfROVED
OMB NO IS8 ROO95
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EMISSION ESTIMATES Itom/veatl
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26 21 28 ?9 30 31
15 25
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HI
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Rf9 1 Reg 7 Rfg 3
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7.3-17 Fugitive Emission Sources
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PART. EMISSION FACTOR
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5.75 LB/TON
2.125 LB/TON
2.625 LB/TON
Ii 17
FUGITIVE SOURCES
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
Establishment Name and Addrejl
POINT SOURCE
Input Form
Name of Perion
Completing Form
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO. IM ROOK
Dm
it 23 win nm 2i|29 30 n v
Boiler Design
Caoacnv
IO6 BTU/hr
)1DINATES
VeMical
K !i]M 31
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SO; NO, HC CO
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SS S7 51
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S2 (3 U
(5 (6 C)
EMISSION ESTIMATES (lon./year)
31 32 33 34 35 K 37
S02
31 39)40
-------
GLOSSARY
Anode Copper - Slabs of blister copper used as anodes in electro-
lytic refining.
Autogenous Smelting - Smelting in which heat is self-generated
by the reactions of the ore sulfur (as sulfide) without use
of auxiliary fuel.
Balloon Flues - Low-velocity furnace exhaust venting which causes
heavy particulate matter to settle into hoppers at the bottom
of the flue.
Blister Copper - Impure copper (98.5 to 99.5 Hercent) product of
converters, having a blistered appearance.
Btu - British thermal unit.
Calcine - Partially oxidized copper material produced by roasting.
Concentrate - Input material to the smelter which has been con-
centrated from raw copper ore by flotation to reduce the
amount of material which must be transported from the mine
to the smelter.
Converter - A furnace in which impurities are oxidized out of
copper matte to produce blister copper by blowing air or
oxygen-enriched air through the material.
Copper Blow - The cycle of converter operation during which cuprous
sulfide is oxidized to blister copper.
Flux - A siliceous material added to smelting furnaces and con-
verters to combine with iron materials for removal as slag.
Furnace Bath - The molten metal which is collected in the bottom
of the furnace.
Gangue - Stony or earthy minerals found in metallic ore.
Green Charge - Unroasted, wet concentrate which is fed to the
reverberatory smelting furnace.
Hydrometallurgical - Treatment of ore to recover pure metal by
wet processes.
Launder - An inclined channel or trough for the conveyance of
molten metal or slag from a furnace to a ladle.
Leaching - Dissolving soluble minerals out of an ore by use of
percolating solutions such as acids.
Matte - An impure metallic sulfide produced by the smelting fur-
nace.
Polinq - A process of inserting into a molten metal bath wood
poles which by destructive distillation produce refining
gas.
7.3-36
-------
Py^metallurgical - Treatment of ore to recover pure metal by
high-temperature processes.
Reverts - Scrap brass, bronze, and copper material which is added
to converter charge.
Roasting - Heating of concentrate material to produce partially
oxidized calcine material.
Siliceous - Describing a material containing abundant silica.
Slag - A nonmetallic product resulting from the interaction of
flux and impurities in melting furnaces.
Slag Blow - The cycle of converter operation during which matte
is oxidized to pure cuprous sulfide and slag.
Smelting - The heating of ore mixtures accompanied by a chemical
change resulting in the formation of liquid metal matte.
Tapping - Opening the pouring hole of a melting furnace to remove
molten material.
Tuyere - An opening in the shell and refractory lining of a
furnace through which air is forced.
White Metal - Pure copper sulfide.
7.3-37
-------
REFERENCES
Air Pollution Control Field Operations Manual, Volume III. Final
Report for EPA Contract No. CPA 70-122. February 1972.
Atmospheric Emissions from Sulfuric Acid Manufacturing Processes.
Public Health Service Publication No. 999 - AP-13. April 1965.
Background Information for New Source Performance Standards: Primary
Copper, Zinc and Lead Smelters, Volume 1: Proposed Standards. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park. Publica-
tion No. EPA-450/2-74-002a. October 1974.
Billings, Carl H. First Annual Report on Arizona Copper Smelter
Pollution Control Technology. Arizona Department of Health
Services. April 1977.
Biswas, A.K. and W.G. Davenport. Extractive Metallurgy of Copper.
Pergamon Press, Oxford.1976.
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. Second Edition,
Third Printing. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park. Publication No. AP-42. February 1976.
Control of Sulfur Dioxide Emissions in Copper, Lead, and Zinc
Smelting. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.C. Information
Circular 8527. 1971.
Field Surveillance and Enforcement Guide for Primary Metallurgical
Industries. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park. Publication No. EPA-450/3-73-002. December 1973.
Guides for Compiling a Comprehensive Emission Inventory. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park. Publica-
tion No. APTD-1135. March 1973.
Oglesby, Sabert, Jr., et al. A Manual of Electrostatic Precipitator
Technology, Part II, Application Areas. Final Report for National
Air Pollution Control Administration Contract No. CPA 22-69-73.
Weisenberg, I.J. and G.E. Umlauf. Evaluation of the Controllability
of S02 Emissions from Copper Smelters in the State of Arizona.
Final report for EPA Contract No. 68-02-1354, Task Order No. 8.
June 1975.
Yannopoulos, J.C. and J.C. Agarwal (ed). Extractive Metallurgy
of Copper, Volume I: Pyrometallurgy and Electrolytic Refining, and
Volume II: Hydrometallurgy and Electrowinning. The Metallurgical
Society of AIME, New York, New York. 1976.
7.3-38
-------
7.4 FERROALLOY PRODUCTION
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
"Ferroalloy" is the generic term for mixtures of iron
and one or more other metals; it is sometimes applied to
alloys of very low iron content. The most widely used
elements are manganese and silicon, which may be alloyed
with each other as well as with iron. A ferroalloy is named
according to its constituents, as in ferrosilicon, silico-
manganese, ferromanganese, and ferrochromium. The prefix
"ferro" indicates the element iron. The ferroalloys are
used in steel manufacture to deoxidize molten metal and to
incorporate the specific alloying metal into the product
less expensively than by use of the pure metal. When
silicon is used for deoxidation, it combines with the dis-.
solved oxygen in the molten metal and forms silica, which
floats to the top of the molten metal as a slag. Figure
7.4-1 shows a process flow diagram of ferroalloy production.
Over 75 percent of the ferroalloys are produced in
electric arc furnaces, and the rest in blast furnaces. The
electric arc furnace may be semicovered or open hooded; the
open hood type is most common.
7.4-1
-------
PART.0
3-03-006-14
RAW MATERIALS TRANSFER
TO COMBUSTION
OPERATIONS
WET SCRUBBER
ESP
BAGHOUSE
001
010
017
(96)
PARTICULATE
EMISSION
X FACTOR
SCRUBBER 001
ESP 010
,' PART.0
1
^^, — n
3-03-006-13
RAW MATERIALS STORAGE
CONTROL CYCLONE C
DEVICE BAGHOUSE
1 PART.0 1 PART.0
N — i rnMRtKTinN
,' | PRODUCTS \J
— 1 SCREENING | nRYING
ORE SCREENING | QRE ORYER
FUEL 3-90-OOX-99
IN-PROCESS FUEL
WHERE X • 4 RESID. OIL
5 DIST. OIL
6 NAT. GAS
08
017 PAR
/ HOOD ^
*~t riELECTR
ELECTRIC
ARC
FURNACE
vm^
3-03-006-OX
WHERE X - 1 50% F
2 75% F
3 90% F
4 S1 Mi
5 SILK
3-03-007-01 FERROM/
3-03-007-03 FERROO
3-03-007-04 FERROC
ELECTRIC ARC
r. OSEE TABLE i 200
^ 2 315
>. 3 565
4 625
ODE 5 195
t=> »- SLAG
\ PART.0
"1 ! FERROALLOY
O
3-03-006-17
CAST HOUSE
eSi
eSi
eSi
.TAL
OMANGANESE
\NGANESE
WIUM
^ROMIUM SILICON
FURNACE
PRIMARY
COLLECTOR
A PAR
1 CO
pi ACT
*" FURNACE
CYCLON
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1
3-03-006-17
CAST HOUSE
PART . 0
FERROALLOY
3-03-006-15 FERROMANGANESE
3-03-006-16 FERROSILICON
BLAST FURNACE
LEGEND:
£) EMISSION FACTOR3
0 EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EOUIP.
, CODE WITH EST. EFF. SHOWN
• IN ( )
\ DENOTES FUGITIVE
) EMISSIONS
O DENOTES A STACK
Figure 7.4-1. Ferroalloy Production,
7.4-2
-------
Ferromanganese contains 80 percent or more manganese,
the balance being mainly iron. It is produced in both
types of furnace. Silicomanganese contains 65 to 70 percent
manganese and 15 to 20 percent silicon, the balance being
mainly iron. It is produced in electric arc furnaces.
In ferrosilicon (FeSi) the silicon content ranges from
6 to 90 percent. It is available in several grades. The
silicon alloy used most extensively is 50 percent silicon,
referred to as 50% FeSi. Silicon alloys containing up to 20
percent silicon are made in blast furnaces. Since the
production of silicon metal by the electric arc furnace
method is similar to production of ferrosilicons, it is
included in this discussion, although silicon metal is not a
ferroalloy in a strict sense.
In ferrochromium the chromium content ranges from 40 to
70 percent, the balance being mainly iron. Ferrochromium
silicon contains about 40 percent chromium, 42 to 45 percent
silicon, and the remainder iron. These alloys are produced
in electric arc furnaces.
The raw materials for ferroalloy production consist of
the alloy metal ores, iron ore or scrap, coke or coal, and
limestone. The ores are often screened and may require
drying.
7.4-3
-------
The ores and the coal or coke are fed to the furnace,
and a carbon electrode is immersed in the mix. The mix is
melted by electric current arcing from the electrode to the
ore. Additional heat comes from chemical reduction of the
iron, manganese, and silicon oxides and from oxidation of
the coke or coal. The temperature near the electrode is
4000° to 5000°F. Impurities rise as a floating slag, and
the molten alloy is drained periodically from the bottom of
the furnace. Slag is then drained and disposed of.
Except that they are smaller, blast furnaces for pro-
duction of ferromanganese and ferrosilicon are similar to
those that produce pig iron. The charge to the blast fur-
nace consists of the same components as in electric arc
furnace production. In the blast furnace the coke or coal
provides the heat and carbon for reduction of metal oxides
to metals. The furnace is charged continually, and the
molten alloy and slag are tapped periodically. The molten
alloy is cast into small slabs in a cast house,.
EMISSIONS
Operation of a ferroalloy plant generates both partic-
ulate and gaseous pollutants. Emission sources are iden-
tified in Figure 7.4-1. For some of the sources AP-42
provides emission factors which are listed on the process
flow diagram. For other sources of emissions, average
7.4-4
-------
emission rates obtained from other documents are mentioned
in the following source descriptions.
Fugitive particulate emissions occur from unloading,
storage, and transfer of raw materials. Particulate emis-
sions also occur from screening and drying of the ores.
Combustion products are emitted from burning of fuel in
dryers, where these are used.
The furnaces are the largest sources of emissions. The
electric arc furnace mostly emits particulates. Also, the
chemical reactions in the furnace produce carbon monoxide
gas (CO) and vapors of the alloy metals, which are emitted
into the air. The CO immediately burns to carbon dioxide
(C09) and condensation of the vapors results in formation of
fine particulates, i.e., fumes. The amount of fumes gen-
erated increases with the silicon content of the alloy being
made.
Particulates and carbon monoxide are the major pollut-
ants from the blast furnaces. No data on emissions from the
blast furnace and the cast house are available. Very small
amounts of fumes are generated during tapping and pouring of
the molten alloy. Because slag handling is done after
cooling with water sprays, the emissions are minimal.
7.4-5
-------
CONTROL PRACTICES
Raw materials and slag handling, screening, and drying
are usually uncontrolled.
Electric arc furnaces are hooded to draw off fumes.
Three types of particulate collection are Jn common use:
wet venturi scrubbers, baghouses, and electrostatic precip-
itators (ESP's).
Some type of mechanical collector, such as a cyclone,
usually precedes a baghouse to protect the bag fabric by
removing larger particles and sparks. The gas usually must
be cooled either by dilution or with a gas cooler before it
enters the baghouse.
ESP's are effective only at temperatures above 500°F
because the resistivity of the fumes is too great at lower
temperatures.2 Water spraying to reduce both temperature
and resistivity has been considered.
Efficiencies greater than 98 percent have been achieved
with wet scrubbers2 and greater than 99 percent with bag-
houses.4 No efficiency data for ESP's are available.
No CO control is required because it all burns above
the furnace.
Particulate control options for the blast furnaces
include cyclones, scrubbers, and electrostatic precipitators.
After particulates are removed, the blast furnace off-gas is
either burned as fuel or flared.
7.4-6
-------
Particulate emissions from the casting operation are
sometimes controlled by ventilation (evacuation) systems
that duct the gases to a baghouse.
CODING NEDS FORMS6"8
The emission sources associated with ferroalloys
production are:
SCC
Source
Raw materials
storage
Raw materials
transfer
Ore screening
Ore dryer
(Inprocess fuel)
Electric arc
furnace
50% FeSi
75% FeSi
90% FeSi
Silicon metal
Silicomanganese
Ferromanganese
Ferrochromium
Ferrochromium
silicon
Blast furnace
Ferromanganese
Ferrosilicon
Cast house
3-03-006-13
3-03-006-14
3-03-006-10
3-03-006-11
(3-90-OOX-65)
3-03-006-01
3-03-006-02
3-03-006-03
3-03-006-04
3-03-006-05
3-03-007-01
3-03-007-03
3-03-007-04
3-03-006-15
3-03-006-16
Pollutants
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate,
combustion products
Particulate, CO
Particulate, CO
Particulate, CO
Particulate, CO
Particulate, CO
Particulate, CO
Particulate, CO
Particulate, CO
Particulate, CO
Particulate, CO
3-03-006-17 Particulate
The codes for X in the SCC for improcess fuel are: 4 for
residual oil, 5 for distillate oil, and 6 for natural gas.
7.4-7
-------
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures
7.4-2 through 7.4-9, show entries for the SCC's and other
codes. Entries in the data fields give information common
to ferroalloy plants. Information pertinent to coding the
source is entered on the margins of the forms and above or
below applicable data fields. Entries for control equipment
codes, other optional codes, emission factors, and required
comments minimize the need to refer to the code lists.
Typical data values for operating parameters, control equip-
ment efficiencies, and other source information are shown on
the form (or in the text) only to serve as quick, approxi-
mate checks of data submitted by the plant in a permit
application or similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R and
NEDS must be actual values specific to and reported by the
plant, rather than typical values. Contact the plant to
validate or correct questionable data and to obtain unre-
ported information. See Part 1 of this manual for general
coding instructions.
The emission source labeled "storage" includes loading
onto piles, wind effects while the material is stored, and
retrieval activities. Transfer operations that are not
included under storage, screening, and drying are grouped
under the emission source labeled "transfer." Figures 7.4-
2 and 7.4-3 show standard NEDS forms for these two sources.
7.4-8
-------
The ore is usually screened and dried before charging
to an electric arc furnace. Figures 7.4-4 and 7.4-5 show
standard NEDS forms screening and drying. Ore for the blast
furnace may not be screened or dried.
There are eight SCC codes for the electric arc furnace,
depending on the type and grade of the alloy. Figure 7.4-6
shows the standard NEDS form for ferrosilicon and silico-
manganese alloys, and Figure 7.4-7, for ferromanganese and
ferrochromium alloys. For the blast furnace, there are two
SCC's; one for ferromanganese alloys and the other for
ferrosilicon. The standard NEDS form for a blast furnace is
shown in Figure 7.4-8.
The standard NEDS form for the cast house is shown in
Figure 7.4-9. Where particulate emissions are not con-
trolled, enter the building height in the plume height
field, 77 in the temperature field, and zeros in the stack
height, diameter, and common stack fields.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The EEC's for use in the EIS/P&R forms are:
Source BEC
Screening 575
Ore drying 450 to 470
Electric arc furnace No code*
Blast furnace No code*
Cast house 124
As of February 1978
7.4-9
-------
Figure 7.4-2. Standard NEDS form for ferroalloy production - raw materials storage.
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS) K "TS
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Sept-
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74
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19
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71
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71
77
71
74
71
76
77
78
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in
11
17
OROINATES
Vertical
km
71
29
w
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GLOSSARY
Ferroalloy - Strictly, an alloy of iron and other
metals, used in deoxidizing or alloying steel. The
term is often used to include silicomanganese and other
materials of low iron content.
See Section 7.5 for definition of metallurgical terms.
7.4-18
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.4
1. Vandegrift, A.E., and L.J. Shannon. Particulate Pollu-
tant System Study, Vol. Ill - Handbook of Emission
Properties. Prepared for Midwest Research Institute
for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under Contract
No. CPA 22-69-104. May 1971. pp. 361-380.
2. Katari, V., G. Isaacs, and T.W. Devitt. Trace Pollu-
tant Emissions from the Processing of Metallic Ores.
Prepared by PEDCo Environmental, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio,
for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Publication
EPA 650/2-74-115. October 1974. pp. 3-1 - 3-14.
3. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. 2nd
edition 3rd Printing. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. February 1976.
pp. 7.4-1, 7.4-2, C-12.
4. McGannon, H.E. (ed.). The Making, Shaping, and Treat-
ing of Steel. 9th edition. U.S. Steel Corp., Pitts-
burgh, Pennsylvania. 1971. pp. 356-58.
5. Silverman, L., and R.A. Davidson. Electric Furnace
Ferrosilicon Fume Collection. J. Air Poll. Cont. Assn.
6:21-28. 1956.
6. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 450/2-76-029
(OAQPS No. 1.2-039). December 1976.
7. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, N.C. Publication No. EPA 450/2-76-005 (OAQPS No.
1.2-042). April 1976.
7.4-19
-------
8. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 Edi-
tion, Prepared by Office of Management and Budget.
Available from Superintendent of Documents, Washington,
D.C.
9. Loquercio, P. and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual
of Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare. Public Health Service Publication Ho. 1956.
1968.
7.4-20
-------
7.5 IRON AND STEELMAKING - OVERVIEW
This section introduces the operations involved in the
manufacture of iron and steel products. The product mate-
rials are used in most of the world's major industries as
structural components (e.g., in buildings, motor vehicles,
railroad cars) and are further processed into containers,
appliances, tools, and innumerable other items, large and
small. Figure 7.5-1 shows a typical sequence of operations
in an iron and steel mill. The operations are described
briefly here and then are discussed in greater detail in
later sect ions.
Iron occurs in nature as iron oxides, which are com-
pounds of iron and oxygen. The first step in recovery of
iron from the ores is to bring them into contact with carbon
and carbon monoxide in a blast furnace, which reduces the iron
oxide to iron in crude form called pig iron. The charge to a
blast furnace includes coke and limestone. The coke, a product
derived from coal, provides carbon, which combines with the
oxygen in the ore; the coke also provides the heat required for
melting. The limestone facilitates the removal of non-iron-
oxide constituents of the ore by combining with them. The product
of this combination, called slag, floats on the top of
7.5-1
-------
COAL-
RECYCLED
PLANT DUSTS -
IRON ORE
FINES
COKE
Ul
I
t-o
STEEL
FINISHED
STEEL
PRODUCTS
0,P
Figure 7.5-1. Typical sequence of operations in an iron and steel mill,
-------
the molten iron and is removed separately. Section 7.5.2
describes blast furnace operations.
In the process of recovering iron from the ores, the
iron becomes contaminated with some of the carbon from the
coke. Iron from a blast furnace contains about 4 percent
carbon. Because too much carbon adversely affects the
structural properties of the product metal, the pig iron is
further processed to reduce the carbon content to a speci-
fied level, usually less than 1 percent. The product of
this process is steel, which is a refined form of iron
differing primarily in carbon content and physical pro-
perties. In addition to carbon, other impurities, such as
silicon and phosphorus, are removed during steelmaking.
Steel products may also contain small amounts of other
elements such as chromium and nickel. Steels that owe their
properties chiefly to an element other than carbon are
called alloy steels.
In a steelmaking furnace, the carbon combines with
oxygen to form carbon monoxide (CO) gas, which leaves the
molten metal. Any oxidized iron and impurities such as
silicon and phosphorus rise to the top of the molten metal and
become incorporated in the fluxing materials as a slag. The
charge to a steelmaking furnace can be molten iron from a
blast furnace (pig iron), iron and steel scrap, or both. The
three types of furnaces used in steel
7.5-3
-------
making are open hearth, basic oxygen, and electric arc
furnaces. These furnaces are discussed in Sections 7.5.3.1,
7.5.3.2, and 7.5.3.3.
Molten steel from the steelmaking furnace is tapped
into a ladle, which pours the steel into ingot molds or into
a continuous casting machine. Ingot molds are hollow metal
columns, generally 3 by 4 feet in cross section and 8 feet
high. The continuous casting machine produces solid slabs
or bars. Section 7.5.3.4 discusses the pouring of steel.
Slag from the blast furnace and steelmaking furnaces is
often processed into useful by-products, as discussed in
Section 7.5.4.
As shown in Figure 7.5-1, the conversion of ingots or
slabs into products involves rolling (shaping), heating, and
surface treatment operations. These are discussed in
Section 7.5.5.
Each of the blocks in Figure 7.5-1 is discussed briefly
below.
A. Coke is made by heating coal in the absence of air
to drive off the volatile matter. Coke is about
90 percent carbon and 10 percent metal oxides,
i.e., ash. The volatile matter driven off is
useful as by-products and fuel. The coal is
heated in a chamber called a coke oven. Many
chambers are arranged side by side and called a
coke oven battery. Section 7.2 describes coking.
7.5-4
-------
B. Sintering - Fines from the iron ore and iron-
bearing dust collected in the plant's particulate
control devices are not suitable for charging to
a blast furnace, but can be made so by agglomera-
tion into larger masses. Sintering is the process
of fusing the iron ore fines, iron dusts, and
fines from the limestone'and coke into a clinker.
A sinter machine consists of an ignition burner
and a 100-foot-long travelling grate. Sintering
is discussed in Section 7.5.1.
C. The blast furnace is a tall (100 feet), cone-
shaped reactor in which iron ores, sinter, line-
stone, and coke are charged at the top and preheated
combustion air is blown into the charge from the bottom.
The materials melt and react to produce molten iron,
slag, and exhaust gases.
D,E,F. Open hearth, basic oxygen, and electric arc
furnaces are used to refine iron into steel. More
impurities are removed as slag, and materials are
added to produce steel of a specified composition.
G. Degassing is the removal of dissolved gases from
the steel while it is still molten. It is done by
subjecting the molten steel to a vacuum.
7.5-5
-------
H. Teeming is the pouring of molten steel into ingots.
Continuous casting is the pouring of molten steel
into slabs or billets.
J. Soaking involves heating a solidified ingot to a
uniform temperature throughout, in preparation for
rolling or other shaping operations.
K. Rolling involves passing an ingot through a
series of rollers to form it into a slab, sheet,
I-beam, or other shape. Rolling may be done while
the steel is hot or cold, giving rise to the terms
"hot rolling" and "cold rolling."
L. Scarfing is burning away the surface of shaped or
semishaped steel objects to remove surface blem-
ishes. Further shaping usually follows scarfing.
M. Pickling is the use of baths of acid, either
hydrochloric or sulfuric, to remove iron oxide
from the surface of steel sheets. It is done
after hot rolling.
N. Heat treating is a series of heating arid cooling
steps that give the steel enough strength and
hardness for its intended use.
0. Tin plating is the coating of steel with tin to
protect it from corrosion.
P. Galvanizing is the coating of steel with zinc to
protect it from corrosion.
7.5-6
-------
Not all steel mills use all of these operations. Mills
that produce coke, iron, and steel are called integrated
mills. Some plants buy coke from an outside supplier.
Mills producing only structural steel and other heavy pro-
ducts do not use cold rolling, tin plating, galvanizing, or
any other surface treatment. All steel mills produce slag,
which is generally waste that must be disposed of.
7.5-7
-------
GLOSSARY
The following glossary includes terms applicable to all
compendium sections dealing with the iron and steelmaking
processes.
Addition agents - Materials added to the molten metal
(steel) to produce specific alloys. Generally metal
alloys are added instead of pure metals.
Agglomerating - The process of forming larger pieces of
material from fine materials. (Making a snow-ball is a
cold agglomeration process.)
Alloy - A substance composed of two or more metals.
Annealing - A form of heat treatment in which the steel is
heated to 1100°-1400°F and slowly cooled. This treat-
ment softens the steel and removes internal stresses.
Checker - A checkered arrangement of refractory brick used
as a heat exchanger.
Coke breeze - Undersized coke not suitable for use in the
blast furnace.
Deoxidants - Materials added to the molten steel to remove
dissolved gases (oxygen).
Electrolytic tinning - Application of a coating or plating
of tin to steel sheet by placing the sheet in a solu-
tion containing tin ions and applying an electrical
charge to the sheet so as to attract the tin ions.
Ferroalloy - The generic term for alloys consisting of iron
and one or more other metals, such as silicon and
manganese. Ferroalloys are used in steel production as
addition agents and deoxidants.
Flux - Limestone or dolomite added to sinter material, to a
blast furnace, or to steelmaking furnaces.
Galvanizing - Application of a coating of zinc to steel to
provide corrosion resistance. Galvanized steel is used
in automobile bodies, culverts, and a variety of objects
exposed to the atmosphere.
7.5-8
-------
Heat (noun) - A batch of steel or the sequence of events
that produce it. (A heat requires 2 hours.)
Heat treatment - The deliberate heating of steel to temper-
atures in the range 1000°-1800°F followed by rapid or
slow cooling to change the strength and/or hardness of
the steel.
Impurities - Undesired components in a furnace charge.
Ingot molds - Hollow cast iron blocks open at both ends
having typical dimensions of 3 by 4 by 8 feet with a
wall thickness of 6 inches. Ingot molds are set on a
stool, which serves as the base of the mold.
Pelletized ore - Fine ore particles formed into a spherical
shape, usually with water and a binder, and then har-
dened by heating.
Pickling - Removing an oxidation layer from the surface of
metals by dissolving it with an acid.
Prereduced iron - A charge material, usually in pellet or
briquette form, in which the iron oxide has been par-
tially reduced to metallic iron.
Recuperator - Equipment for transferring heat from gaseous
products of combustion to incoming air or fuel. The
incoming material passes through pipes surrounded by a
chamber through which the outgoing gases pass.
Reduction - May have two meanings, depending on the context.
In rolling and shaping operations, the term refers to
reduction of the cross sectional area of a piece of
steel by squeezing the steel between rolls to lengthen
it. In a blast furnace or in the atmosphere of a
heating furnace, reduction is the opposite of oxida-
tion.
Refractory brick - Brick that has a very high melting point
and will not react with off-gas or steel.
Regenerator - A heat exchanger that recovers heat from the
off-gas and heats combustion air.
Roll scale - Iron oxide (rust) formed on steel when it is
heated. This oxide coating falls off as flakes and
chips when the steel is rolled. Sometimes simply
called "scale."
7.5-9
-------
Scarfing - Removal of surface imperfections from, a semi-
finished steel object by melting away about 1/8 inch of
the surface with an oxygen jet (on hot steel) or an
oxygen-acetylene jet (on cold steel). This process is
equivalent to sanding operations in woodworking.
Seamless pipe - Pipe manufactured by piercing a hot rod and
driving a penetrating device through it.
Sintering - Fusing of fine iron-bearing particles with coke
or coal and flux to make larger pieces.
Slab, bloom, billet - The cross sectional - napes of inter-
mediate products rolled from steel ingots. Slabs are
typically 2 to 6 inches thick and 24 to 60 inches wide.
Blooms are greater than 8 inches square, and billets
are less than 8 inches square; the length of each
ranges from 6 to 12 feet.
Slag - A mixture of flux and impurities produced in iron and
steelmaking; slag consists of oxides of silicon,
manganese, iron, and other materials.
Soaking pit - A boxlike refractory-lined furnace used to
heat steel ingots and "soak" them until they are at a
uniformly high temperature for primary (initial) shaping,
Stool - A cast iron slab approximately 4 feet by 5 feet by
12 inches thick. Used for supporting ingot molds.
Strand - The moving grate upon which sintering occurs.
Superfluxed sinter - Sinter to which an excess of flux has
been added; the use of superfluxed sinter enables
greater iron production from a blast furnace.
Tapping - The process of withdrawing metal or slag by
removing a plug from the furnace or tilting the furnace
and pouring the metal through a hole in the side.
Teeming - The pouring of molten steel into a mold.
Terne - Steel sheet that has been coated with an alloy of
about 90 percent lead and 10 percent tin. Terne is
used to make caskets. Also xtsed as an adjective to
describe items associated with the process, as in terne
line, terne metal, terne pot.
7.5-10
-------
Welded pipe - Pipe manufactured by forming flat sheet (called
skelp) into the pipe shape and welding it together.
The skelp may be formed into the pipe shape directly
(butt-welded pipe) or along a spiral (spiral-welded
pipe).
Windbox - The plenum or chamber located beneath a sinter
strand through which the process air and combustion
products pass.
7.5-11
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.5
1. McGannon, H.E. (ed.) The Making, Shaping, and Treating
of Steel, 9th edition. United States Steel Corpora-
tion, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 1971.
7.5-12
-------
7.5.1 SINTERING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The sintering process converts iron-bearing fines into
an agglomerated product that is suitable for charging into
the blast furnace. Iron-bearing fines consist mostly of
finely crushed iron ore and the dust collected from the
plant's various air pollution control devices. The fines,
ranging in size from powder to 1/4-inch particles, cannot be
used without first agglomerating. Figure 7.5.1-1 depicts a
sinter plant, and Figure 7.5.1-2 is a process flow diagram.
The fines are mixed with equally fine limestone or
dolomite and with coal or coke. Water is added to the
mixture to provide cohesiveness. The proportions of the
mixture can be varied over a wide range, typically as fol-
lows :
iron-bearing fines, 60-80%
limestone or dolomite, 10-30%
coal or coke, 4-8%
water, 4-7%.
Mixtures with a high percentage of limestone or dolo-
mite produce what is called superfluxed sinter. In a sinter
machine, the mixture is placed on a sinter strand (a con-
tinuous moving grate). A burner hood covering about 1/3 of
7.5.1-1
-------
n
Figure 7.5.1-1. Sinter plant.
7.5.1-2
-------
3-03-008-1?
TRANSFER-SINTERING
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LEGEND:
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r-v EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
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Q DENOTES A STACK
3-03-008-19
SUITER PROCESSING
• IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
Figure 7.5.1-2. Sintering.
7.5.1-3
-------
the front of the strand contains burners that ignite the
coal or coke. Combustion air is drawn through the bed of
material from the top. Once the mix is ignited, combustion
is self-supporting and provides sufficient heat to cause
surface melting and agglomeration of the mix. The tempera-
ture at the combustion zone is 2100° to 2500°F. The speed
of the sinter strand is adjusted so that agglomeration (sin-
tering) is complete just before the bed of sinter falls off
the end of the strand. If the strand moves too rapidly,
unburned raw mix falls off the end as product. If it moves
too slowly, production capability is lost.
Typical heat input to the sintering furnace is about
150,000 Btu per ton of sinter produced. The underside of
the sinter machine is provided with a number of compartments
called windboxes that allow uniform distribution of the
combustion air. A fan pulls the air through the bed into
the windboxes and then into a common duct to the particulate
control device. The temperature of the exhaust gas in the
duct is typically 300° to 500°F.
After the sintered cake falls off the end of the strand,
it is often crushed and screened. The undersize portion is
recycled to the mix, and the balance is allowed to cool.
Newer plants are equipped with a mechanical cooler that
draws air through the sinter to cool it rapidly. Older
7.5.1-4
-------
plants may spray water on the sinter or allow it to cool in
the open air. The cooled sinter is usually screened before
transfer to blast furnace bins; the fines from cold screen-
ing are also recycled. Very little sinter is stored in open
piles because of degradation by rainfall.
EMISSIONS2"7
Sinter plants mainly emit particulates, although some
combustion products are emitted from the burning of fuel and
coke. Emission sources are identified in Figure 7.5.1-2.
2
For some of the sources, AP-42 provides emission factors,
which are listed on the process flow diagram. For other
sources of emissions, average emission rates obtained from
other documents are mentioned in the following source
descriptions.
Emission sources in a sinter plant may be grouped into
three categories: raw material stockpiles, mixing, mill,
and transfer operations; the sinter windbox; and the sinter
discharge end, crushing, hot screening, cooling, and cold
screening. Except for the sinter discharge end, operations
in the last group are often called sinter processing opera-
tions. Since usually only the gases from the sinter windbox
are completely confined, emissions from all the other
sources are fugitive.
Fugitive particulate emissions from the stockpiles and
transfer operations are highly dependent on the moisture
7.5.1-5
-------
content of the materials and their exposure to wind. Since
water is added in the mixing operation, emissions from
mixing and discharge into the strand feed hopper are mini-
mal.
Emissions from the windboxes include particulate, S02,
CO, NO , and hydrocarbons. Fluorides are sometimes present
JS.
in small amounts depending on the fluoride content of the
ore, which io generally low. The amount of hydrocarbons
emitted depends largely on the amount of oilv mill scale
included in the feed; however, most of the volatile hydro-
carbons are from the coke. Emissions of S02 depend on the
sulfur content of the raw materials. Emissions of NO and
j\.
hydrocarbons are estimated at 0.3 and 1.4 pounds, respec-
tively, per ton of sinter produced.
The sinter machine usually discharges the sinter
directly into a breaker (crusher) hopper. This discharge
point is generally hooded to capture the emissions. At most
plants, the hot screening operation consists of ssimply dis-
charging the breaker output onto a bar screen and recycling
the fines to the mixing mill. Thus, the emission potential
of hot screening is very low. Particulate emissions from
the sinter cooler are estimated to be 0.3 to 0.8 pound per
ton of sinter produced. Cold screening causes particulate
emissions. Emissions from sinter transfer operations and
storage are described with the blast furnace operation.
7.5.1-6
-------
CONTROLS
Fugitive emissions from outdoor stockpiles and handling
areas are normally uncontrolled. Transfer points, such as
the loading of raw materials into bins, into the mixing
mill, and into the sinter machine hopper, are often uncon-
trolled. Sometimes capture hoods vent the emissions to
baghouses. Emissions from the mixing mill or pug mill are
sometimes controlled, but are usually uncontrolled and
exhausted inside the building.
Particulate emissions from the windboxes are usually
controlled with a mechanical collector, such as a cyclone,
followed by an electrostatic precipitator (ESP), scrubber,
or baghouse. The efficiency of dry ESP's drops as the
limestone content of the sinter mix increases because of the
high resistivity of limestone dust. Dry ESP's are therefore
being used less often for control of sinter plant windboxes.
Wet ESP's, in which the collecting plates are continually
washed with water, are more effective. Oil mist emissions
from strands using oily mill scale may clog the bags in a
baghouse and cause buildup on fan blades.
Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulfur oxides, and
nitrogen oxides are usually uncontrolled. Systems that
recycle windbox air to the strand are being tested. This
7.5.1-7
-------
approach is designed to reduce carbon monoxide and hydro-
carbon emissions by secondary combustion and also to reduce
the total air requirement.
Use of water sprays to reduce particulate emissions
from sinter processing operations is undesirable because
water deteriorates the sinter. Most plants capture the
emissions ^rom the sinter discharge end a^d vent them to a
control system. Often emissions from the sinter processing
operations are captured with local hoods and vented to the
sinter discharge end control system, which usually is a
baghouse. Sometimes emissions from the sinter discharge end
and sinter processing operations are controlled by the same
control device used for the windboxes.
Particulate collected at all points is usually returned
to the mixing mill for recycling.
Reported efficiencies for particulate collection are
given in Table 7.5.1-1. Efficiencies shown on Figure
7.5.1-2 are from Reference 2.
7.5.1-8
-------
Table 7.5.1-1. CONTROL EFFICIENCIES FOR
,3
SINTER PLANT PARTICULATE COLLECTORS'
Windbox
Sinter processing
operations
Scrubber
Baghouse
98.8-99.9
99.3-99.9
80-98
99-99.9
CODING NEDS FORMS
The emission sources in a sinter plant are:
SCC Pollutants
Source 2±±
Stockpiles - sintering 3-03-008-11 Particulates
Transfer - sintering 3-03-008-12
Particulates
Windbox
Sinter discharge end
Breaker
Hot screening
Cooler
Cold screening
*
Sinter processing
3-03-008-13 Particulates, SO2,
3-03-008-14
3-03-008-15
3-03-008-16
3-03-008-17
3-03-008-18
3-03-008-19
NO . HC, CO
X
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
This consists of operations represented by Codes
3-03-008-15, -16, -17, and -18.
7.5.1-9
-------
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures
7.5.1-3 through 7.5.1-11, show entries for the SCC's and
other codes. Entries in the data fields give information
common to sinter plants. Information pertinent to coding
the source is entered on the margins of the forms and above
or below applicable data fields. Entries for control
equipment codes, other optional codes, emi ;sion factors, and
required comments minimize the need to refer to the code
lists. Typical data values for operating parameters, con-
trol equipment efficiencies, and other source information
are shown on the form (or in the text) only to serve as
quick, approximate checks of data submitted by the plant in
a permit application or similar report. Data entered in
EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual values specific to and
reported by the plant, rather than typical values. Contact
the plant to validate or correct questionable delta and to
obtain unreported information. See Part 1 of this manual
for general coding instructions.
Emissions from the source labeled "Stockpiles - sin-
tering" include emissions from loading onto piles, wind
effects, and retrieval activities. Figure 7.5.1-3 shows a
standard NEDS form for this source. Raw materials retrieved
from the stockpiles are first transferred to the feed bins,
then to the mixing mill, and finally to the sinter machine
7.5.1-10
-------
feed hopper. All operations associated with the transfer of
raw materials to the sinter machine feed hopper are included
in the source labeled "Transfer - sintering."
Figures 7.5.1-5 and 7.5.1-6 show standard NEDS forms
for the windbox and sinter discharge end. Almost all sinter
plants capture emissions from the sinter discharge end.
Standard NEDS forms for the four sinter processing
operations are shown in Figures 7.5.1-7 through 7.5.1-10.
Often emissions from these sources are vented to a common
control system. Where data for the individual operations
are not available, code only one NEDS form for these opera-
tions, as shown in Figure 7.5.1-11.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The EEC's for use in EIS/P&R forms are:
Source BEC
Stockpiles - sintering 700
Transfer - sintering 700
Windbox 226
Sinter discharge end 227
Breaker 664
Hot screening 575
Cooler No code*
Cold screening 577
Sinter processing 804
* As of January, 1978.
7.5.1-11
-------
Figure 7.5.1-3. Standard NEDS form for sintering - stockpiles - sintering.
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSUM (NEDS)
IRI),«MEN1AL PROTECTION AGINCY
Of HCE 0^ AIR PROGRAMS
FOBM APPROVED
OKI NO IMR009S
Ul
•
H-1
I
M
to
-------
Figure 7.5.1-4. Standard NEDS form for sintering - transfer - sintering.
I P,,,,'!. I
i 1C" J _*•_'_'"'_;." I
4-4-^-f^tM "!'"'
J_JL_LJ-L .iJ
NATION/1 EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFHCE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT v.'ijf':
Input f o/m
N.V.," ul »r-ti>n
C^rr ii'f tirtg POT
FORM APPROVED
OM8 NO IW R0095
Oaie_
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Figure 7,5.1-5. Standard NEDS form for sintering - windbox.
1 7
1
4
S
I
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Nu"H
APPRCVfO
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS QAFASYSUM (NEDS)
PROTtCTtON AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIRPROGRAMS
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XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACKI5
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-------
Figure 7.5.. 1-6. Standard NEDS form for sintering - sinter discharge end.
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSHM (NEOS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
N.»>..- ul Person
CoTiiitot.ny fluff
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iilttlu
99+
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DISCHARGE END'
.fll.0.
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-------
Figure 7.5.1-7, Standard NEDS form for sintering - breaker.
01
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM INEOS)
£NVIRU;JMEN1AI PROTECTION AGENCY
OfFICE OK AIR PROGRAMS
PO1'4T ',- UH'-
ltHM.1 Form
FORM APPROVFO
OMB NO Iba ROOK
Ota.
H •>: H'fcV
STA,.K DAT---
60 11
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
. EFHCiE^CY l*|
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,951 10 71
ESTIMATION
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Figure 7.5,1-8. Standard NEDS form for sintering - hot screening.
^j
•
U1
I
M
^J
NAIIUNftl I MISSIONS OAT A SYST tM IN( OS)
tNVini); ifi>[n'|i8lii|s.'|bi['.«
±j±JTnTl 11 11 I
BHffiSS
Hpi
iO H
-0000 IF NO COMMON STACK 6
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACKS
frtTisUiki
£3t.vA • il* ' )M f'OL EFf ICJENCV (M
?;iRM>
HOT SCREENING I- 3
S
.
i
L6.
nT'
Ji -j^MfUULC
ESTIMATION
METHOD
SCC^HIT - TONS SINTER PRODUCEA ,/:
i H
::m
Wtm
T
11 n
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01
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Figure 7.5.1-9. Standard NEDS form for sintering - cooler
! 1 4
Sf
NAIIONAt EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIROuMt NT At PROTECTION AGENCY
OHICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
i». r . \jl" c
FOHM APPROV.rO
OMB NO Ibfl WW95
N.m,' ul ^'VOrt
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ffl
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-------
Figure 7,5,1-lCU Standard NEDS form for sintering - cold screening
HAIIONAL EMISSIONS QAfASYSHM (NCOS)
lNlAL PROTECTION AGINCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
IIHM.I form
- i~
fi
il
IiTT«if"!'-^!"!''!'''!"!"!"!"!-*
-r+rH 111 I 11 I
Flume Hr.ytt
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tain
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COLD SCREENING:T_
I
ZEK[.s.rn^-
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iln
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Ul
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o
Figure 7.5.1-H- Standard NEDS form for sintering - sinter processing,
NATIONAL t MISSIONS DATA SYSUMINEDS)
ENVIRIJNMENIAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE Of AIRPROGRAMS
POI'J t •,• un.-.c
IfH*.! (<»<"
OIMNO IMflOOK
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
-------
GLOSSARY
See Section 7.5.
7.5.1-21
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.5.1
1. McGannon, H.E. (ed.). The Making, Shaping, and
Treating of Steel, 9th edition. U.S. Steel Corp.,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 1971.
2. Compile^ion of Air Pollutant Emission .'actors. 2nd
edition. 3rd Printing. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
Publication AP-42. February 1976.
3. Control of Particulate Emissions from Particular
Steel-Making Processes - A Literature Search. Prepared
by PEDCo Environmental, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio, for
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, under Contract
No. 68-02-1355, Task No. 10. September 1974.
4. Vatavuk, W.M. National Emission Data System (NEDS)
Control Device Workbook. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
Publication No. APTD-1570. July 1973.
5. Background Information: Best Systems of Emissions
Reduction for Sinter Plants in the Iron and Steel
Industry. Prepared by PEDCo Environmental, Inc.,
Cincinnati, Ohio, for U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Contract No. 68-02-1321. Task No. 10. 1975.
6. An Investigation of the Best Systems of Emission
Reduction for Sinter Plants (Preliminary Draft).
Emissions Standards and Engineering Division, Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina. May 1977.
7. Technical Guidance for Control of Industrial Process
Fugitive Particulate Emissions. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
EPA 450/3-77-010. March 1977.
8 Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 450/2-76-029
OOAQPS No. 1.2-039). December 1976.
7.5.1-22
-------
9. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 45/2-76-005
(OAQPS No. 1.2-042). April 1976.
10. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 Edition.
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available
from Superintendent of Documents, Washington, B.C.
11. Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual
of Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare. Public Health Service Publication No. 1956.
1968.
7.5.1-23
-------
7.5.2 IRON BLAST FURNACE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
A blast furnace is a large reactor vessel in which iron
oxide ore is reduced to molten iron by reaction with carbon
and carbon monoxide. The furnace is typically 20 to 30 feet
in diameter and 100 feet high. Typical amounts of feed
materials required to produce 1 ton of iron are 1.7 tons of
iron-bearing charge, 0.7 ton of coke, 0.2 ton of limestone
flux, and 50,000 ft3 of air. The major iron-bearing mate-
rials are pelletized ore and sinter; raw ore and scrap iron
are used in smaller amounts. The coke provides heat and
carbon, which create a reducing atmosphere. The limestone
flux melts to form a slag that holds sulfur, silica, and
other impurities of the iron ore for subsequent removal; slag
includes the coke ash. Figure 7.5.2-1 is a cutaway view of a
blast furnace. Figure 7.5.2-2 is a process flow diagram.
The solid raw materials are charged to the blast fur-
nace through an air-lock type of double hopper so that the
furnace need not be opened directly to the atmosphere.
Materials are typically charged from a bucket (called a skip
car) that rides on rails to the top of the furnaces. Some
7.5.2-1
-------
EXHAUST SASES CONTAINING
CO AND PARTICULATES
DUCTED TO POLLUTION
CONTROL DEVICE
IRON ORE,
LIMESTONE, .
COKE
INCOMING BLAST AIR
HEATED BY GAS BURNING
STOVES
LOWERING
OF BELL
CHARGES
FURNACE
r
SIMILAR TO
OPPOSITE DUCT
Figure 7.5.2-1. Typical blast furnace.
7.5.2-2
-------
4 PART.Q
t PART.O
3-03-008-01 PART <110)
3-03-008-02 "ART <40>
BLAST FURNACE ORE AND
AGGLOMERATES CHARGE
CO
SCRUBBER 002(90)
\
SCRUBBER 002(90)
ESP 011(90)
•
PRIMARY
PARTICULATE
CONTROL
•
i |
SECONDARY
FARTICULATE
CONTROL
FINES TO „ I
SINTERING
?!
CO CONTROL
METHODS FOR
BLAST FURNACE
OFF r,AS
COMBUSTION IN STOVES
OR OTHER PROCESSES
FLARE
CLEANED
OFF-GAS
CONTROL
CODF
022
023
TO SLAG SPEAKER
AND DUMP OR
CE»EST PLANT
o
O
AIR
HEATING
STOVES
FUEL
TO OTHER
PLANT
PROCESSES
COMBUSTION
PRODUCTS
3-0_3-308-24
AIP HEAT:V, ST'J,:
3-90-OGX-99
IN-PROCESS FUEL
EFFICIENT
99.9
99
Figure 7.5.2-2. Blast furnace plant.
7.5.2-3
-------
newer furnaces are charged by conveyor belts. Feed mate-
rials are charged in sequence, and the blast furnace is
operated continuously.
Heated air is introduced into the bottom of the blast
furnace to ignite the coke. Burning of the coke raises the
temperature to about 3500°F. The combustion gases flow
upward through the charge, heating the materials, reducing
and melting the iron oxides, and melting other constituents
(gangue) of the ore.
Exhaust gas is vented from the top of the blast furnace
through a series of particulate collection devices. After
it is cleaned, the gas is burned in stoves and boilers
associated with the blast furnace. Excess gas may be used
for coke oven heating or in other plant operations, or it
may be burned by a flare.
The blast furnace stoves are tall (60 to 80 feet) silo-
like structures containing a checkered arrangement of
refractory brick. They are heated to about 2000°F during
the gas burning cycle, which lasts 3 to 4 hours. During the
next 2 to 3 hours, atmospheric air is forced through the hot
stove, heated, and used as blast air for the fiarnace. This
sequence is repeated continually. Three stoves usually
serve each furnace, two being heated while the other is
heating blast air. About 35 percent of the blast furnace
7.5.2-4
-------
off-gas is used to heat the stoves. The remainder is often
used to raise steam to drive the turbo blowers that provide
the blast air pressure.
Several times a day molten iron is drained from the
furnace into ladles mounted on railroad cars, which trans-
port the molten iron to steelmaking furnaces. The draining
process is called tapping or casting. The molted slag is
drained either into water quenchers to form a granular
by-product or into ladles for transport to a dump, where it
is allowed to solidify. The solidified slag may be reclaimed
from the dump, crushed, screened, and sold as a by-product.
EMISSIONS ~7
Operation of a blast furnace generates both particulate
and gaseous pollutants. Emission sources are identified in
Figure 7.5.2-2. For some of the sources AP-42 provides
emission factors, which are listed on the process flow dia-
gram. For other sources, average emission rates obtained
from other documents are mentioned in the following source
descriptions.
Most plants receive iron ore in three forms: pellets,
ore, and ore fines or concentrates, which are sintered
before they are charged to the blast furnace. These ma-
terials are transported by barges or rail cars. Barges are
unloaded by clamshell buckets which lift the material from
7.5.2-5
-------
the barge and discharge it onto stockpiles. Rail cars are
either emptied directly onto stockpiles by a car dumper or
emptied onto a conveyor that moves the -material to a stock-
pile. The moisture content of the raw materials could be
up to 8 percent. The higher the moisture content, the lower
the fugitive particulate emissions. Wind effects on the
storage piles, and retrieval and transfer operations also
cause fugitive emissions. Unloading of coal is described in
Section 7.2, Coke Manufacturing. Since limestone is used in
much smaller amounts than ore and coal, emissions from the
handling of limestone are relatively insignificant.
The greatest source of emissions is the blast furnace
off-gas (top gas). The off-gas, produced continuously,
contains large amounts of particulate matter and carbon
monoxide. Particulate content depends upon the amount of
fines in the raw materials and on operating practices. The
particulate, mostly iron oxides, is recovered in the dust
collection system and usually is sintered before being
recharged to the blast furnace. The carbon monoxide content
gives the gas a heating value of about 85 Btu per cubic
foot. Typically, the off-gas is cleaned to reduce partic-
ulate levels enough that it is usable as fuel. Burning of
this gas generates combustion products.
Occasionally, the charge to the furnace becomes lodged
against the furnace walls and then breaks loose. This is
7.5.2-6
-------
called a "slip." When it occurs, the pressure in the fur-
nace rises to the point that relief valves open and release
particulate and carbon monoxide to the atmosphere. The
frequency of slips can be reduced considerably by limiting
the amount of fine material charged to the furnace.
Emissions occur when the furnace is drained of iron and
slag. They consist of iron oxides and slag fumes, sand and
coke breeze, graphite particles, and some carbon monoxide.
Since the emissions occur within the building that houses
the lower portion of the furnace, they are called "cast-
house" emissions. Particulate emissions are reported to be
g
0.2 to 0.6 Ib per ton of iron produced.
CONTROL PRACTICES
Emissions from raw materials unloading, loading onto
piles, storage, retrieval, and transfer usually are not
controlled.
Particulate is removed from the blast furnace gas by a
series of collectors. The first is usually a gravity
separator or dry cyclone, often called a dust catcher. The
second is most often a wet scrubber. The third is generally
a high-energy wet scrubber or an electrostatic precipitator
(ESP). The dust catcher is typically about 60 percent
efficient. The combined devices usually give an overall
collection efficiency of 99.6 percent. Many furnaces do not
7.5.2-7
-------
require the third collector, i.e., a second wet scrubber or
an ESP.
Combustion of carbon monoxide forms carbon dioxide in
the stoves or boilers in which off-gas is used as fuel. A
flare is usually provided to burn the excess blast furnace
gas.
Emissions from the tapping of molten iron and slag are
not controlled.
CODING NEDS FORMS5'9"11
The emission sources in a blast furnace plant are:
Source SCC Pollutant
Ore charge 3-03-008-01 Particulates, CO
Agglomerates charge 3-03-008-02 Particulates, CO
Ore unloading 3-03-008-21 Particulat.es
Stockpiles- 3-03-008-22 Particulat.es
blast furnace
Transfer- 3-03-008-23 Particulates
blast furnace
Air heating stoves 3-03-008-24 Particulates
Cast house 3-03-008-25 Particulates
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures
7.5.2-3 through 7.5.2-8, show entries for the SCC's and
other codes. Entries in the data fields give information
common to blast furnace plants. Information pertinent to
coding the source is entered on the margins of the forms and
above or below applicable data fields. Entries for control
equipment codes, other optional codes, emission factors, and
7.5.2-8
-------
required comments minimize the need to refer to the code
lists. Typical data values for operating parameters, con-
trol equipment efficiencies, and other source information
are shown on the form (or in the text) only to serve as a
quick, approximate check of data submitted by the plant in
a permit application or similar report. Data entered in
EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual values specific to and
reported by the plant, rather than typical values. Contact
the plant to validate or correct questionable data and to
obtain unreported information. See Part 1 of this manual
for general coding instructions.
Standard NEDS forms for raw materials unloading and
stockpiles are shown in Figures 7.5.2-3 and 7.5.2-4, respec-
tively. The "Stockpile-blast furnace" source includes
loading onto piles, wind effects, and retrieval activities.
Where iron ore is received in rail cars that are emptied
directly onto stockpiles, do not code a NEDS form for un-
loading. All the transfer operations involved in the charg-
ing of retrieved raw materials to the blast furnace are
grouped under the emission source labeled "Transfer-blast
furnace." A standard NEDS form for this source is shown in
Figure 7.5.2-5. Emission factors for these three sources
have not yet been developed. When a plant furnishes emis-
sions data for these sources, code the values given. Enter
"Emission estimates given by plant" in the comments field on
Card 7.
7.5.2-9
-------
Figure 7.5.2-6 shows a standard NEDS form for the blast
furnace. The dust catcher is considered part of the process
equipment. Code the control device following the dust
catcher as a primary control device. Where an additional
device is used in series, code it as a secondary device.
The blast furnace stoves are considered a CO control device
with the code 022. Where efficiency values are not avail-
able, assign 99.9 percent efficiency to the stoves.
A standard NEDS form for the cast house is shown in
Figure 7.5.2-7. Emissions from tapping of molten iron and
slag usually are not captured with a hood. The degree to
which the particulate settles internally is not known, but
it is probable that all the particulate eventucilly reaches
the atmosphere through openings in the building. In such
cases, enter the height of the building vent in the plume
height field, and enter zeros in the stack height and
diameter fields, 77 in the temperature field, and zeros in
the common stack field.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS12
The EEC's for use in EIS/P&R forms are:
Source BEC
Ore unloading 700
Stockpiles-blast furnace 700
Transfer-blast furnace 700
Blast furnace 901
Cast house N° code*
*
As of January 1978.
7.5.2-10
-------
Figure 7.5.2-3. Standard NEDS form for blast furnace plant - ore unloading.
NJ
I
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTtM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGtNCY
Of FICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
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Figure 7.5.2-4. Standard NEDS form for blast furnace plant T stockpiles.
E
NftllllNAl EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM INEOS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Of FICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
FORM AWEC\ FT
OMB NO
0.111
i L
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Figure 7.5.2-5. Standard NEDS form for blast furnace plant - transfer/handling.
ro
I
NAfWN/U IMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGINCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
1HHBS
...
-
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Figure 7.5.2-6. Standard NEDS form for blast furnace plant - blast furnace,
ro
I
FQHV AfPFIOVtO
OMB NO Ib8 R009S
DJI«
Nfllll)fJ/U (.MISSIONS OA1 A SYSUM (NCOS)
[NViniJ.NUCNTAL PROTECTION AGCNCY
OFHCE OK AIR PROGRAMS
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96+ 99-9
lVA : ill l.JNH'OL EFFICIENCY l"il
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BLAST FURNACE
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AGGLOMERATES CHARGE [ "H 3
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tit
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Figure 7.5.2-7. Standard NEDS form for blast furnace plant - cast house.
N>
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
lNIAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POI'H ':• lji
lf(»>l foi
FORM APPRCN.FD
OMB HO IS8B90M
5 11
>hv :ci-i .>;
ILHU
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0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
^ 53 6'
£St!VA'eUl.>Nlr'OL EFFICIENCY (M
fc Mil,'JON ftT
liiilr'UJ
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ESTIMATION
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Figure 7.5.2-8 Standard NEDS form for blast furnace air heating stoves
I
cr>
AOCR
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEOS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
Input Form
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO. 158-ROO9S
Date
XXXX POINT ID'S IF CDMMON STACK
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
ESTIMATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY (%)
AIR HEATING STOVES
IN-PROCESS FUEL
24U5
SCO
• A-ru'SCC 1) IIT-TONS PROCESS^ -. JFOR FyEL-GAS-MILLION CUBIC FEET: OIL-1000 GALLONS
Fuei Process. Hourly §- * 3^2 , r"e1
-..i.i .„ .. __ . r\ ™^ u^r u.^c Heal Lenient
Solid Waste
Operating Rate
Maximum Design
Hate
Heat Co
BTU
Cornments
-599-DIST.OIL; 699-NAT.GAS; 701-BLAST FURNACE GAS; 702-COKE OVEN GAS
COMMENTS
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.5.2
1. McGannon, H.E. (ed.). The Making, Shaping, and Treat-
ing of Steel, 9th Edition. U.S. Steel Corp. Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania. 1971. pp. 424-430.
2. Considine, D.M. (ed.). Chemical and Process Tech-
nology Encyclopedia. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,
1974. pp. 646-649.
3. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 2nd
Edition. Volume 12. John Wiley & Sons. New York,
1963. pp. 11-17.
4. Katari, V.S., and R.W. Gerstle. Iron and Steel Indus-
try. Prepared by PEDCo Environmental, Inc., for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Contract No. 68-02-1321, Task 26. December 1975.
pp. 43-51.
5. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, 2nd
Edition. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Re-
search Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publication
AP-42. February 1976. pp. 7.5-1, 7.5-4, C-13, C-21.
6. Mobley, C.E., et al. Blast Furnace Slips and Accom-
panying Emissions as an Air Pollution Source. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina. EPA 600/2-76-268. October 1976.
7. Particulate Pollutant Systems Study, Volume I. Pre-
pared by Midwest Research Institute, Kansas City,
Missouri, for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, under Contract
No. CPA 22-69-104. May 1971.
8. Blast Furnace Cast House Emission Control Study (Draft).
Prepared by Betz Environmental Engineers for Control
Systems Laboratory, Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. May 1977.
7.5.2-17
-------
9. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 450/2-76-029
(OAQPS No. 1.2-039). December 1976.
10. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 450/2-76-005
(OAQPS No. 1.2-042). April 1976.
11. Standard Industrial Classification Manial, 1972 Edition.
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available
from Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
12. Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual
of Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare. Public Health Service Publication No. 1756.
1968.
7.5.2-18
-------
7.5.3.1 OPEN HEARTH FURNACE STEELMAKING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The open hearth furnace, like the basic oxygen and
electric arc furnaces, is a means of removing excess carbon
and other impurities from pig iron to make steel. The
furnace is a shallow rectangular basin lined with refractory
brick. Figure 7.5.3.1-1 is a process flow diagram; Figure
7.5.3.1-2 shows a cutaway view of a typical open hearth
furnace. A steel mill usually has 4 to 20 furnaces arranged
1
in a line.
Each furnace has several doors on one side for charging
of materials, which are entered in this order: limestone,
iron ore, solid steel scrap, and molten pig iron. Not every
batch of steel (called a heat) uses all three sources of
iron. Sometimes the charge is all solid, i.e., it contains
no molten pig iron.
Burners are located at both ends of the furnace and
fired alternately. Flames from combustion of oil, natural
gas, or coke-oven gas sweep across the surface of the
charge, melting the solid materials. Impurities (carbon,
silicon, manganese, and phosphorus) are oxidized as the
7.5.3.1-1
-------
PART.Q
FROM CHARGING
CHARGE MATERIALS
MOLTEN
PIG IRON
SOLID
PIG IRON
SCRAP STEEL
LIMESTONE /
PART. O
FROM TAPPING
ADDITION
AGENTS
MOLTEN STEEL
TO TEEMING
SOLID SLAG
-TO SLAG
DUMP
PART
W/LANCE (17.4
W/0 LANCE
AIR
LEGEND:
O EMISSION FACTOR*
©EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EQUIP.
I CODE WITH EST. EFF. SHOWN
O
DENOTES FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS
DENOTES A STACK
' IN POUNDS PEA SCC UNIT
3-03-009-01 WITH OXYGEN LANCE
3-03-009-02 WITHOUT OXYGEN LANCE
OPEN HEARTH FURNACE
3-90-005-99 D1ST. Oil.
3-90-006-99 MAT. GAS
3_90-007-01 BLAST FURNACE GAS
3-90-007-02 COKE OVEN CAS
FUEL
VENTURI
ESP
BAGHOUSE
053
010
016
LANCE
(94.5)
(98)
(99)
NO LANCE
(99)
(98)
(99.5)
Figure 7.5.3.1-1. Open hearth furnace steelmaking.
7.5.3.1-2
-------
STAC
PORT ROOF
SLOPING
BiCKfALL
TAPPING
SPOUT
FLUES TO
STACK AND
WASTE HEAT
BOILER
HEARTH PORT VAIL
REMOVED
COVERED
FORCED »l?
INLET VtLV[
EM
REMOVED
CHECKER FLUE
REGEHERAJIVE CHAMBER
HJH ROOF AND SIDE
tALL REMOVED
Figure 7.5.3.1-2. Cutaway view of an open
hearth furnace.
7.5.3.1-3
-------
temperature rises. Oxygen is provided by the iron ore,
rusty scrap steel, or by direct injection (lancing) of
oxygen gas through the furnace roof. Eventually the lime-
stone floats upward through the charge and aids in forming a
slag consisting of the oxides of silicon, manganese, phos-
phorus, and calcium. Sulfur is removed in -. he slag as
calcium sulfide. A complete heat sequence requires 6 to 8
hours with oxygen lancing and about 10 hours without.
At the end of the heat, molten steel is drained from
the furnace into a ladle, to which alloying and deoxidizing
agents may be added. After all of the molten steel has
flowed into the ladle, the flow of slag begins. A thin
layer is usually allowed to collect on top of the molten
steel in the ladle, and the rest overflows into a slag pot.
When it hardens, it is broken and transported to a slag dump
or processing area. Slag handling is discussed in a later
section. The molten steel is poured into ingot molds in a
process called teeming, also discussed elsewhere.
Like the burners, heat regenerators (commonly called
checkers) are located at both ends of the furnace. They
consist of a checkered arrangement of refractory brick.
Off-gases leave the furnace through the checker at the end
opposite the burner being fired. When firing is switched
from one set of burners to the other, the adjoining hot
checker heats incoming combustion air.
7.5.3.1-4
-------
EMISSIONS
Emissions from an open hearth furnace consist almost
entirely of particulate. Exhaust gas flow rates range up to
2
60,000 scfm, and the gas readily entrains oxides of iron
and particles of slag. Dust loading can be as high as 0.6
gr/scf, corresponding to 7 to 12 pounds of dust and fume per
2
ton of steel produced. Particulate loading varies during
the heat, depending on what material is being oxidized.
Some carbon monoxide may be emitted during oxygen lancing,
but most of it burns before leaving the checkers. Lanced
furnaces tend to produce more particulate. The relatively
minor sulfur dioxide emissions depend on the sulfur content
of the fuel used for firing.
Emissions during charging and tapping are minimal
relative to those from the furnace during a heat. Some of
these emissions settle within the building, and the remainder
leave through building vents. No data on these emissions
are available.
CONTROL PRACTICES
The controls used most commonly on particulate emis-
sions from open hearth furnaces are electrostatic precip-
itators (ESP's), venturi scrubbers, and baghouses. Waste
heat boilers are sometimes used to recover heat from the
off-gas, which leaves the furnace at about 1600°F. Such
7.5.3.1-5
-------
boilers serve the dual purpose of reclaiming heat for other
plant uses and cooling the gas stream to a temperature that
will not damage control equipment, especially baghouses.
Emissions of carbon monoxide and sulfur oxides are not
controlled.
Reported efficiencies of particulate collection for
ESP's, venturi scrubbers, and baghouses are 98, 94.5, and
99 percent where furnaces are oxygen-lanced, and 98, 99,
4
and 99.5 percent where they are not. The differences are
probably attributable to differences in particle size caused
by lancing.
CODING NEDS FORMS7"9
The SCC's for an open hearth furnace are 3-03-009-01
when oxygen lancing is used and 3-03-009-02 when it is not.
The only significant pollutant is particulate.
A standard NEDS form for the furnace, Figure 7.5.3.1-3,
shows entries for the SCC's and other codes. Entries in the
data fields give information common to open hearth furnaces.
Information pertinent to coding the source is entered on the
margins of the forms and above or below applicable data
fields. Entries for control equipment codes, other optional
codes, emission factors, and required comments minimize the
need to refer to the code lists. Typical data values for
operating parameters, control equipment efficiencies, and
7.5.3.1-6
-------
other source information are shown on the form (or in the
text) only to serve as quick, approximate checks of data
submitted by the plant in a permit application of similar
report. Data entered in EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual
values specific to and reported by the plant, rather than
typical values. Contact the plant to validate or correct
questionable data and to obtain unreported information. See
Part 1 of this manual for general coding instructions.
Some furnaces have two stacks, one for each regener-
ator, which emit alternately. Use an average stack height
to account for all of the emissions from one furnace. Enter
"two stacks" in the comments field on Card G.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The BEC's for an open hearth are 921 without oxygen
lance, and 922 where oxygen lancing is used.
GLOSSARY
See Section 7.5.
7.5.3.1-7
-------
S
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010
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EFFICIENCY I
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98.0
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-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.5.3.1
1. Directory of Iron & Steel Works of the United States
and Canada. 33rd edition. American Iron and Steel
Institute, Washington. 1974.
2. Stern, A.C. (ed.). Air Pollution 2nd edition, Volume
III. Academic Press, New York. 1968. pp. 151-157.
3. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 2nd
edition, Volume 18. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
1963. pp. 727-733.
4. Vatavuk, W.M. National Emissions Data System Control
Device Workbook. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, N.C. Publication No. APTD-
1570. July 1973.
5. McGannon, H.E. (ed.). The Making, Shaping, and Treat-
ing of Steel. 9th edition. U.S. Steel Corp., Pittsburgh.
1971. pp. 498-527.
6. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factor, 2nd
edition, 3rd Printing. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. Publication No.
AP-42. February 1976.
7. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 450/2-76-029
(OAQPS No. 1.2-039). December 1976.
8. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 450/2-76-005
(OAQPS No. 1.2-042). April 1976.
7.5.3.1-9
-------
9. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 Edi-
tion, Prepared by Office of Management and Budget.
Available from Superintendent of Documents, Washington,
D.C.
10. Loquercio, P. and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual
of Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare. Public Health Service Publication No. 1956.
1968.
7.5.3.1-10
-------
7.5.3.2 BASIC OXYGEN FURNACE STEELMAKING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION1'2
The basic oxygen furnace (EOF), like the open hearth
and electric arc furnaces, is a means of removing impurities
from iron to make steel. Figure 7.5.3.2-1 is a schematic of
the entire process.
A batch of steel, called a heat, is prepared by the
following sequence. The basic oxygen furnace is rotated
towards the charging side, and steel scrap is dumped in.
Molten pig iron (hot metal) from the blast furnace is poured
into a ladle that can be carried by crane to the basic
oxygen furnace. The molten pig iron is then poured into the
furnace on top of the scrap. The proportions are typically
20 to 30 percent scrap and 70 to 80 percent molten pig iron.
The furnace is returned to an upright position. A water-
cooled lance is lowered into the furnace about 5 feet above
the surface of the iron, and a jet of oxygen is blown
through the lance. These steps take less than 5 minutes.
As soon as the oxygen lancing begins, slag-forming
materials such as lime and fluorspar are added. The oxygen
jet oxidizes a small amount of the iron and agitates the
7.5.3.2-1
-------
ORE. LIME,
SPAR, ETC.
HOPPERS
9
WATER
HUMIDIFIER
SCRUBBER
003 (70)
FURNACE
Off _GAS_
PART <51.0)
CO <139>
ADDITION
AGENTS
MOLTEN STEEL
TO TEEMING
OR CONTINUOUS
CASTING
HOT METAL TRANSFER
3-03-009-13
3-03-009-14
EOF FURNACE
OPEN HOOD
CLOSED HOOO
Figure 7.5.3.2-1. Basic oxygen furnace steelmaking.
9
FLARE 023
PARTICULATE
CONTROL
DEVICE
VENTURI 053 (99.0)
ESP 010 (99.0)
BAGHOUSE 016 (99.9)
LEGEND:
O EMISSION FACTOR*
0 EMISSION FACTO* NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EQUIP.
. CODE WITH EST. EFF. SHOMN
\
I
O
IN ( )
DENOTES FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS
DEMOTES * STACK
* IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
7.5.3.2-2
-------
furnace contents. During the violent mixing, the silicon,
manganese, and phosphorus in the iron are oxidized and enter
the slag. Carbon in the iron is oxidized to carbon monox-
ide. Dust and fumes are drawn off by a hood.
The heat usually takes less than an hour. When the
metal attains the specified composition, the furnace is
tipped in the position opposite to that in which it was
charged, and the molten steel is tapped through a hole in
the side of the furnace into a ladle, which is carried to
the teeming or casting area. Addition agents are dumped
into the ladle with the steel.
The furnace is tipped back to the charging side, and
the molten slag is poured into a slag pot for dumping or
processing as a by-product. When the furnace is returned to
the charging position, materials for another heat are charged.
2
A furnace may produce as many as 35 heats in a day.
In a new version of the process called the Q-BOF (or
Q-BOP, basic oxygen process), the oxygen is blown into the
bottom of the furnace through refractory nozzles. Other
t
features of the process are very similar to those of the
top-blown process.
EMISSIONS3"5
The major emission from a EOF is particulate. Oxygen
lancing produces turbulence and causes entrainment of large
7.5.3.2-3
-------
amounts of iron oxide and smaller amounts of the oxides of
other materials in the furnace gases. Dust content of the
off-gas may be as much as 3 percent of the steel produced.
Off-gas temperature is about 3000°F before the gas is
cooled.
Carbon monoxide leaving the furnace :s burned to
carbon dioxide at the mouth of the furnace or captured as
carbon monoxide, depending upon whether the hood is elevated
above the mouth of the furnace (open hood) or is positioned
immediately above the furnace (closed hood or suppressed
combustion system).
Emissions of particulate, mostly graphite and oxide
fumes, occur when the hot metal is transferred from the
ladle that transported it from the blast furnace into the
charging ladle.
Emissions from charging, tapping, and slag pouring are
low relative to those from the furnace during the heat.
CONTROL PRACTICES
In the open hood system, which is more prevalent, a
hood mounted several feet above the top of the furnace
captures the off-gas during the oxygen lancing period. The
off-gas, along with a large amount of atmospheric air, is
drawn through the hood system to a series of collection
devices. Venturi scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators
7.5.3.2-4
-------
(ESP's) are used most often. The gas stream must be cooled
before it enters either device. The moisture content of the
gas must be controlled for efficient operation of an ESP.
A quencher pretreats the off-gas before it enters a
venturi scrubber. A deluge of water cools the gas stream
from about 2800°F to about 180°F, removes much of the larger
particulate, and saturates the gas with water vapor.
Pretreatment for an ESP is similar, except that less
water is used. The gas temperature is reduced to 500° to
600°F, and the humidity is raised to 30 to 40 percent. Dust
collected by the ESP must usually be wetted and must always
be handled carefully to prevent reentrainment in the air.
Carbon monoxide is controlled with the open hood system
because it essentially burns in the hood. In the closed
hood system, a close-fitting hood is placed essentially
flush with the furnace opening to prevent aspiration of
outside air. This significantly reduces the volume of gas
to be treated by the control device. The carbon monoxide is
used in a heat recovery unit (boiler) or is flared after
cleaning.
At about 10 percent of the installations, emissions
during charging, tapping, and slag pouring are controlled by
hoods on each side of the furnace. The hoods are vented to
cyclones, baghouses, or to the same system that cleans the
7.5.3.2-5
-------
furnace off-gas. At one installation, an enclosure around
the entire furnace is vented to the furnace control system.
Emissions during hot metal transfer are usually collected by
a hood vented to a baghouse.
r p
CODING NEDS FORMS
The emission sources associated with hisic oxygen
furnace ste^lmaking are:
Source SCC Pollutant
Hot metal transfer - EOF 3-03-009-15 Particulate
Charging - EOF 3-03-009-16 Particulate
EOF Furnace
Open hood EOF 3-03-009-13 Particulate, CO
Closed hood EOF 3-03-009-14 Particulate, CO
Tapping - EOF 3-03-009-17 Particulate
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures
7.5.3.2-2 through 7.5.3.2-5, show entries for the SCC's and
other codes. Entries in the data fields give information
common to EOF furnace operation. Information pertinent to
coding the source is entered on the margins of the forms and
above or below applicable data fields. Entries for control
equipment codes, other optional codes, emission factors, and
required comments minimize the need to refer to the code
lists. Typical data values for operating parameters, con-
7.5.3.2-6
-------
trol equipment efficiencies, and other source information
are shown on the form (or in the text) only to serve as
quick, approximate checks of data submitted by the plant in
a permit application or similar report. Data entered in
EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual values specific to and
reported by the plant, rather than typical values. Contact
the plant to validate or correct questionable data and to
obtain unreported information. See Part 1 of this manual
for general coding instructions.
Emissions from hot metal transfer are usually controlled
by a baghouse. Figures 7.5.3.2-2 and 7.5.3.2-3 show standard
NEDS forms for hot metal transfer and charging.
Particulate and carbon monoxide are the major pollu-
tants from a BOP furnace. Carbon monoxide burns to carbon
dioxide in the open hood system. Although the closed hood
system was developed to recover the heat content of the
exhaust gas, most closed hood installations flare the gas
because the supply is intermittent. The gas cooler (condi-
tioner) is considered a primary particulate control device
with the code 003. The code for a flare is 023. Figure
7.5.3.2-4 shows the standard NEDS form for a EOF furnace.
Where emissions from tapping are controlled, they are
usually vented to the same system that controls emissions
from charging. Figure 7.5.3.2-5 shows the standard NEDS
form for tapping.
7.5.3.2-7
-------
9
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The EEC's for use in the EIS/P&R forms are
Source EEC
Hot metal transfer - EOF no code*
Charging - EOF no code*
EOF fvrnace
Open hood - EOF 929
Closed hood - EOF 929
Tapping no code*
GLOSSARY
See Section 7.5.
As of March 1978.
7.5.3.2-8
-------
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-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.5.3.2
1. McGannon, H.E. (ed). The Making, Shaping, and Treating
of Steel, 9th edition. U.S. Steel Company, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania. 1971. pp. 486-494.
2. Henschen, H.C. Wet vs. Dry Gas Cleaning in the Steel
Industry. J. Air Poll. Cont. Assn. May 1968. pp.
338-342.
3. Schueneman, J.J., M.D. High, and W.E. Bye. Air Pollu-
tion Aspects of the Iron and Steel Industry. U.S.
Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio. Publication
No. 99-AP-l. June 1973. pp. 67-69.
4. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, 2nd
edition, 3rd printing. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. Publication No.
AP-42. February 1976.
5. Nicola, A.G. Fugitive Emission Control in the Steel
Industry. Iron and Steel Engineer. July 1976.
6. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 450/2-76-029
(OAQPS No. 1.2-039). December 1976.
7. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 450/2-76-005
(OAQPS No. 1.2-042). April 1976.
8. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 Edi-
tion. Prepared by Office of Management and Budget.
Available from Superintendent of Documents, Washington,
D.C.
9. Loquercia, P. and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual
of Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare. Public Health Service Publication No. 1956.
1968.
7.5.3.2-13
-------
7.5.3.3 ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE STEELMAKING
DESCRIPTION1'2
Electric arc furnaces are used primarily to produce
special alloy steels, including stainless steel. The
electric arc furnace differs from the open hearth and basic
oxygen furnaces in that the charge usually consists only of
recycled steel scrap or prereduced iron instead of molten
pig iron. Several types of electric furnaces are in use;
they are exemplified here by discussion of the basic direct
arc furnace, which is used most often in integrated steel
mills. Figure 7.5.3.3-1 is a cutaway view of a direct arc
electric furnace. Figure 7.5.3.3-2 is a process flow
diagram.
The electric arc furnace is cylindrical with a rounded
bottom, as much as 30 feet in diameter. Graphite elec-
trodes project through its domed top into the furnace. The
furnace can be tilted about 15 degrees from the vertical on
2
one side and 45 degrees on the other.
Furnaces are charged either through doors in the side
or from the top with the cover removed. The cover may be
swivelled or lifted aside. The most common charge is steel
7.5.3.3-1
-------
CARBON ELECTRODES
K)
PORT FOR THIRD
ELECTRODE
SLAG SPOUT
TAPPING SPOUT
Figure 7.5.3.3-1. Cutaway view of an electric arc furnace,
-------
WATER
O
OFF
GAS
WITH LANCE- PART.
WITHOUT LANCE-
VENTURI 053
ESP 010
BAGHOUSE 016
LANCE
(98)
(94.5)
(99)
NO LANCE
(98)
(94.5)
(99)
TILTED . .^
s TO TAP f PART.Q
ADDITION
AGENTS
3-03-009-04 WITH LANCE-
3-03-009-05 WITHOUT LANCE
ELECTRIC ARC
FURNACE
MOLTEN STEEL
INTO LADLE
MOLTEN STEEL
TO TEEMING
OR CONTINUOUS
CASTING
LEGEND:
O EMISSION FACTOR*
0 EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EQUIP.
. CODE WITH EST. EFF. SHOWN
< IN ( )
O
DENOTES FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS
DENOTES A STACK
1 IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
Figure 7.5.3.3-2. Electric arc furnace steelmaking.
7.5.3.3-3
-------
scrap, which may be preheated before charging. Molten iron
is rarely used. Alloying agents, iron ore, lime, and coke
may also be added. After charging, the cover is replaced
(if it was removed), the electrodes are lowered to about an
inch above the charge, and the power is turned on.
Electric arcs travel from the electrodes to the charge,
creating heat. The charge melts below the electrodes, and
molten metal percolates down through the charge and forms a
pool in the bottom of the furnace. The rest of the charge
is melted by heat from the arcing process and by radiation
and conduction from the molten pool.
Oxygen is/ often blown into the furnace with an oxygen
lance to accelerate the melting process. A floating slag is
formed by oxidation of phosphorus, silicon, carbon, and
other elements during the melting period. The usual prac-
tice is to tilt the furnace slightly to drain the initial
slag, return the furnace to the vertical, and eidd fluxes
such as silica sand and lime to form a reducing slag. This
S
slag enables the operator to control the carbon content of
the heat, removes sulfur, and prevents oxidation of valuable
alloying metals.
When the heat has reached the specified temperature and
chemical composition, the furnace is tilted in the direc-
tion opposite that of the draining slag; and the steel flows
7.5.3.3-4
-------
through a tapping spout into a ladle. Addition agents may
be added to the ladle. The molten steel is then poured into
an ingot mold or into a continuous casting machine. Both of
these processes are described elsewhere. A furnace usually
produces 4 to 7 heats per day. Processing of special grades
of alloy steel may require 5 to 10 hours.
Slag may be drained before, during, or after the steel
is tapped. It is drained into ladles or directly onto the
floor, then cooled, broken, and removed.
EMISSIONS2"5
Emissions occur during the charging, slagging, and
tapping operations as well as directly from the furnace
during the melting period. Particulates and carbon monoxide
are the major pollutants; the particulates consist of oxides
of iron and the slag materials. They are emitted in great-
est quantity during the oxidizing stage, especially where
oxygen lancing is used. The electric arcs may generate
oxides of nitrogen.
Charging of oily or dirty scrap into a hot furnace
produces volatile pollutants, which include hydrocarbons.
Slagging and tapping produce relatively minor amounts of
particulate.
2 — 6
CONTROL PRACTICES
Furnace exhaust is collected by two methods: (1) a
ceiling-mounted hood collects emissions from charging,
7.5.3.3-5
-------
slagging, and tapping and from the furnace; (2) a duct
system is connected directly to the furnace. In a variation
of the first method, the furnace building is well enclosed
and exhausted through a baghouse. This procedure is called
building evacuation. The latter method, called direct
evacuation, collects only emissions from the furnace proper.
Exhaust gases drawn into a ceiling-mounted hood are
cooled by dilution with air. Since volume is greatly in-
creased, control devices must have large throughput capac-
ity. The hot gases leaving the furnace contain carbon
monoxide, most of which burns immediately to carbon dioxide
upon mixing with air. In the direct evacuation system, the
carbon monoxide is burned by aspirating air into the exhaust
duct. The hot, concentrated gases must be cooled before
entering the control device.
Particulate control devices include fabric filters,
electrostatic precipitators (ESP's), and venturi scrubbers.
With a fabric filter, the hot furnace gas is first cooled by
water sprays, radiant coolers, dilution air, or some combi-
nation of these to prevent degradation of the fabric. With
a precipitator, the gas is humidified to increase collection
efficiency. The scrubber requires no special treatment of
the exhaust gas. One plant reports an efficiency of 98.75
7.5.3.3-6
-------
4
percent for a high-energy wet scrubber. Fabric filter
efficiencies are 98 to 99 percent.
CODING NEDS FORMS7"9
The SCC's for an electric arc furnace are 3-03-009-04
when oxygen lancing is used and 3-03-009-05 when it is not.
Particulates and carbon monoxide are the major pollutants
generated. A large portion of the carbon monoxide burns to
carbon dioxide.
A standard NEDS forms for an electric arc furnace,
Figure 7.5.3.3-3, shows entries for the SCC's and other
codes. Entries in the data fields give information common
to electric arc furnaces. Information pertinent to coding
the source is entered on the margins of the forms and above
or below applicable data fields. Entries for control equip-
ment codes, other optional codes, emission factors, and
required comments minimize the need to refer to the code
lists. Typical data values for operating parameters, con-
trol equipment efficiencies, and other source information
are shown on the form (or in the text) only to serve as
quick, approximate checks of data submitted by the plant in
a permit application or similar report. Data entered in
EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual values specific to and
reported by the plant, rather than typical values. Contact
7.5.3.3-7
-------
the plant to validate or correct questionable data and to
obtain unreported information. See Part 1 of this manual
for general coding instructions.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The EEC for an electric arc furnace depends on the
capacity of the furnace:
Capacity EEC
5 ton 923
5-20 ton 924
20-50 ton no code*
50-75 ton 925
over 75 ton no code*
GLOSSARY
See Section 7.5.
* As of March 1978.
7.5.3.3-8
-------
Figure 7.5.3.3-3. Standard NEDS form for electric arc furnace steelmaking.
~J
•
t_n
U)
I
6 OXYGEN LANCE
7 NO OXYGEN LANCE
•— O U»
o •— •—
o o • o
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PRQTFCTIQTJ AGENCY
OFf ICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
OWE NO IBS r,G
±i±ri±rn:|
LJ
ffflrrfHiffp-
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3, T>,e I"1 m.-' I '.-..«•_' j j 11^--
H^FH^^PEla^M
i
ffi
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK i
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK |i
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-+- ! I 'I! "I 'I.
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ELECTRIC
ARC FURNACE
SCC UNIT - TONS STEEL PRODUCED-.C
V^< " JM O»,.y"
tziw
4 - OXYGEN LANCE,
5 - NO OXYGEN LANCE
15fI?|T?
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.5.3.3
1. McGannon, H.E. (ed). The Making, Shaping, and Treating
of Steel. 9th edition. U.S. Steel Company, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania. 1971. pp. 548-577.
2. Brough, J.R. and W. A. Carter. Air Pollution Control
of an Electric Furnace Steelmaking Shop. J. Air Poll.
Cont. Assn. March 1972. pp. 167-71.
3. Schueneman, J.J., M.D. High, and W.E. Bye. Air Pollu-
tion Aspects of the Iron and Steel Industry. U.S.
Public Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-l. June
1963. pp. 57-64.
4. Rankin, W.M. Electric Furnace Steel Production,
Houston Works, Armco Steel Corp. J. Metals. 20:104-
7. 1968.
5. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, 2nd
edition, 3rd printing. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. Publication No.
AP-42. February 1976.
6. Background Information for Standards of Performance:
Electric Arc Furnaces in the Steel Industry. U.S. EPA
Office of Air and Waste Management, Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina 27711. EPA 450/2-74-017a. 1974.
7. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 459/2-76-029
(OAQPS No. 1.2-039). December 1976.
8 Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 450/2-76-005
(OAQPS No. 1.2-042). April 1976.
7.5.3.3-10
-------
9. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 Edi-
tion, Prepared by Office of Management and Budget.
Available from Superintendent of Documents, Washington,
B.C.
10. Loquercio, P. and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual
of Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare. Public Health Service Publication No. 1956.
1968.
7.5.3.3-11
-------
7.5.3.4 STEEL POURING
In most plants molten steel is cast into rectangular
blocks (ingots) in a process called teeming. The ingots are
then rolled (shaped) into specified products. In about 15
percent of the plants the molten steel is formed directly
into slabs or bars in a continuous casting machine, a rela-
tively recent development. Figure 7.5.3.4-1 shows process
flow diagrams of conventional teeming and continuous casting,
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
In the teeming process the molten steel is poured into
ingot molds, which are hollow blocks of cast iron. The
steel is drained from the steelmaking furnace into a ladle
having a 2- to 3-inch hole in the bottom that is plugged by
a movable stopper rod. A crane positions the ladle above
the mold. The stopper rod is raised to allow the steel to
drain into the mold.
For the purpose of controlling the properties of the
steel, three variations of teeming are practiced: rimming,
killing, and hot-topping. In rimming, sodium fluoride is
added to the mold in controlled amounts as the steel is
poured. The reaction causes the steel to bubble and emit
7.5.3.4-1
-------
CONVENTIONAL TEEMING
k POURING LADLE
CONTINUOUS CASTING
PART. 0
SECTION OF POURING
NOZZLE AND REFRACTORY
LINED STOPPER ROD
WATER COOLE
JACKET
OO OO QQ QO
00 00
SECTION THROUGH MOLD
BASE OF INGOT MOLDS OR "STOOL"
INGOT CAR OR "BUGGY"
3-03-009-21
TEEMING
3-03-QQ9-22
CONTINUOUS CASTING
TUNDISH
WATER COOLED
GUIDE ROLLERS
D
U
SHEAR
SOLIDIFIED INGOT
Figure 7.5.3.4-1. Conventional teeming and continuous canting.
-------
showers of sparks until it solidifies. In killing, dis-
solved gases are removed from the steel by adding aluminum
or silicon or by vacuum degassing. In killing, the molten
steel is quiescent, i.e., it is not bubbling as in the
rimming process. In hot-topping, insulating boards are
placed around the top portion of the mold and granular
insulating material is placed on top of the steel after it
is poured. Hot-topped steel is also quiescent in the mold.
In the continuous casting process, the ladle is emptied
into a trough called a tundish, which serves as a holding
reservoir to feed the casting machine. The steel is usually
killed in the ladle before pouring into the tundish. The
tundish is equipped with shut-off gates to control the flow
of steel. The casting machine contains a water-cooled mold,
in which the steel solidifies rapidly. Water-cooled rollers
then pull the solidified shape through the machine, and a
1 2
continuous slab or bar of steel is formed. ' At the end of
the machine a shear cuts the bar into specified lengths.
In both teeming and continuous casting, the ladle is
overturned after pouring to allow drainage of the small
amount of residual slag. This operation is done in the
teeming aisle of the steelmaking building. The slag is
later removed with bulldozers or front-end loaders.
7.5.3.4-3
-------
When the steel cast by teeming has solidified, the mold
is slipped off and the steel ingot is placed in a soaking
pit, in which it is heated to a uniform temperature for
subsequent rolling operations. Steel formed by continuous
casting is ready for further processing and does not require
soaking.
Most ^teel mills buy ingot molds from independent
foundries. Where the mill makes its own ingot molds, the
foundry operations are similar to those described in Section
7.10, Gray Iron Foundries.
EMISSIONS
Both of the pouring processes generate mainly partic-
ulate emissions consisting of iron oxide fumes and slag
fumes.
Some steelmakers coat the inside of the mold with tar
or similar materials to provide a smooth surface. This
practice causes emission of some hydrocarbons and soot as
the molten steel burns the coating. Emissions are greatest
in rimming because the steel is bubbling in the: mold.
Emissions from killing and hot-topping occur only while the
steel is being poured. The insulating materials used in
hot-topping may generate minor amounts of particulate and
hydrocarbons. Finally, particulate is emitted when the
residual slag is dumped from the ladle.
7.5.3.4-4
-------
All teeming and continuous casting is done indoors.
Particulates that do not settle out within the building
leave through building vents. No emissions data are avail-
able.
CONTROL PRACTICES3"5
Emissions from teeming and continuous casting are
uncontrolled.
CODING NEDS FORMS
The emission sources associated with pouring are:
S£U£c_e SCC Pgj^lutont.
Teeming J-03-OOD-21 Particulate, EC
Continuous casting 3-03-009-22 Particulate
A standard NEDS form for pouring, Figure 7.5.3.4-2,
shows entries for the SCC's and other codes. Entries in the
data fields give information common to pouring operations.
Information pertinent to coding the source is entered on the
margins of the forms and above or be3.ow applicable data
fields. Entries for optional codes, emission factors, and
required comments minimize the need to refer to the code
lists. Typical, data, values for operating parameters and
other source information are shown on the form (or in the
text) only to serve as quick, approximate checks of data
submitted by the plant in a permit application or similar
report. Data entered in EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual
7.5.3.4-5
-------
values specific to and reported by the plant, rather than
typical values. Contact the plant to validate or correct
questionable data and to obtain unreported information. See
Part 1 of this manual for general coding instructions.
When coding teeming operations, indicate in the com-
ments field on Card 7 whether killing, rimming, or hot-
topping is practiced. When coding contir lous casting oper-
ations, state in the comments field whether the steel is
killed before pouring. Unless the emissions are discharged
through a stack, enter the height of building vents in the
plume height field, 77 in the temperature field, and zeros
in the stack and diameter fields.
Where the steel mill includes foundry operations, code
these operations according to the instructions in Section
7.2, Gray Iron Foundries. Use the SIC Code for steel mills.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The EEC's for use in the EIS/P&R forms are:
Source EEC
Teeming 124
Continuous casting 124
GLOSSARY
See Section 7.5.
7.5.3.4-6
-------
Figure 7.5.3.4-2. Standard NEDS form for steel pouring - teeming
and continuous casting.
Ul
•
LO
MAllli'JAL tMIGMOM' DATA SYSTEM i\£DS)
E\viro\'Vt MI ai DUCTFrun'. ,",r; vcv
Of 111 t 0! /UHfRObhAV.S
.
i il rrri i . i i IP:
oooo IF NO amm STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK ||l |.,
io I oiololo to ip'oioidloioio
10
I I !oTT^:l i'lo'i"! ! i i"! i'! jY/i'l ibj
I ioi i i i i t-u
•0
., 1 .
i ' ! i ! ioi i i i I i i
cc
J SCHf
^-i-r-i
i i i ioi i i
O
T..-US
PDATE
~\r
0.
. c
1
Or
TROL CEGL
1
~
LATIONS
~
~
c
L
SCC UNIT - TONS STEEL POURED',
POURING
~\ i """i
JO
TT
21 - TEEMING, 22 - CONTINUOUS CASTING
Tt
BiK
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.5.3.4
1. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 2nd
edition, Vol. 18. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 1963.
2. McGannon, H.E. (ed.). The Making, Sh .ping, and Treat-
ing of Steel. 9th edition. U.S. Steel Corp., Pitts-
burgh, Pennsylvania. 1971.
3. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 450/2-76-029
(OAQPS No. 1.2-039). December 1976.
4. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 450/2-76-005
(OAQPS No. 1.2-042). April 1976.
5. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 Edi-
tion, Prepared by Office of Management and Budget.
Available from Superintendent of Documents,, Washington,
D.C.
6. Loquercio, P. and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual
of Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare. Public Health Service Publication No. 1956.
1968.
7.5.3.4-8
-------
7.5.4 SLAG HANDLING AND PROCESSING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Slag is formed in several iron and steelmaking processes
as the raw materials melt. It is a fused mixture of the resi-
dues of the fluxing agents used in furnaces (lime, limestone
or dolomite) and the impurities found in iron ore (gangue).
It consists of a mixture of oxides of silicon, calcium, iron,
aluminum, magnesium, and other substances. Slag is often use-
ful as a by—product material.
Slag is produced in the blast furnaces, open hearth furnace,
electric arc furnace, and basic oxygen furnace. It is always
lighter than the molten metal and floats on top of the metal
in the furnace. Figure 7.5.4-1 illustrates typical procedures
for handling of blast furnace and steelmaking slags.
Blast furnace slag is drained from the furnace periodically
(every 2 to 4 hours) into a trough (runner). The slag flows from th<
trough either into a container (slag pot), onto the ground, or into ;
water quenching system. When containers are used, they are mounted
on rail cars or trucks, which transport the molten slag to a dump.
When the slag is drained directly on the ground or into a water
7.5.4-1
-------
9
STEELMAKING
FURNACE
v >. -V
r
MOLTEN WATER j^ S02 0
crr£ri ir \ ( ^mn
RUNNtR ^-* I -7 X_p^ *T r— *-
-fc~
DRY SLAG ^^xP^JL,
PIT U-Cr ""*" SLAG ^J^n i
•^____ — »- .x^.:^;^^ O- Cr
*~ -• n { J 1
r> — -i
oo oo
SLAG
CARRIER
3-03-008-09
BLAST FURNACE ^v
SLAG HANDLING \^/
1 .
* PART. Q CONTROL BAGHOUSE 018
r f PART. 0
I
I 1 SLAG SLAG %./ m » CRUSHING 1 ^ SHIPMEN
^-W-r CARRIER ^^nilMP ^^J-^T-ll— . ANn 1
I ^ 1 »— s 3^ *«A i^\^ -iTTnr i ^- PFrvcLE
^ SLAG OH^-P^ B-| t 3-03-009-24
^^^ "FLOOR" /^_r~vJ ' STEELMAKING FURNACE
^ : ."".-„ >s. \J~~^J SLAG PROCESSING
3-03-009-23
STEELMAKING FURNACE
SLAG HANDLING
Figure 7.5.4-1. Slag handling and processing.
CONTROL BAGH°USt °'8
DEVICE
^ PART. 0
CRUSHING
AND *~ SHIPMENT
SIZING
3-03-008-08
BLAST FURNACE
SLAG PROCESSING
T
TO BLAST FURNACE
LEGEND:
(3 EMISSION FACTOR*
0 EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EOUIP.
• CODE KITH EST. EFF. SHOWN
• I" ( )
\ DENOTES FUGITIVE
) EMISSIONS
Q DENOTES A STACK
7.5.4-2
• IN POUNDS Pf« SCC UNIT
-------
quench system, it is loaded with bulldozers or front-end
loaders into trucks and transported to a storage area or
processing plant. Sometimes, the quench system consists of
a granulator. Slag placed in storage may later be reclaimed
and transported to the processing plant, where it is crushed
and classified into specific size ranges. Where there is no
market for slag, it is trucked to a dump.
Open hearth furnaces produce slag throughout the
refining period; some slag usually is allowed to run onto
the floor. The remaining slag is removed when the heat of
steel is drained from the furnace and may be collected in
crucibles or run onto the floor.
Slags from electric arc and basic oxygen furnaces are
collected in crucibles. The crucibles of molten slag are
then dumped on the ground, where the slag solidifies. It is
then loaded onto trucks and transported to the storage area
or processing plant.
Slag from the blast furnace may be discarded or sold
for use in cinder blocks, concrete aggregate, and roadbed
ballast. Slag from the open hearth and basic oxygen fur-
naces may be sold, discarded, or recycled to the blast
1 2
furnace for reclamation of iron and limestone. ' Slag
from an electric arc furnace is generally discarded.
7.5.4-3
-------
EMISSIONS
Pouring of hot, molten slag onto the floor or into
containers produces particulate, mainly oxide fumes. Slag
pouring and subsequent loadout from blast furnaces usually
takes place outside. Slag pouring from steelmaking furnaces
takes place in the steelmaking building, as does the loadout
of slag that has been dumped on the floor. Crushing and
screening, usually done outdoors, cause particulate emis-
sions. Water quenching of blast furnace slag, also done
outdoors, produces large amounts of steam that carries fine
particulate into the air. Blast furnace slags release both
sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide when in the molten
state, but little is known about the mechanisms? and quan-
tities involved. Steelmaking slags produce no sulfurous
emissions because their sulfur content is very low (0.1%).
No data on emissions from slag handling and processing are
available.
When molten slag is discarded at a slag dump, fugitive
emissions are insignificant because the slag freezes with a
hard crust on the surface.
CONTROL PRACTICES
Emissions from slag handling and processing are gener-
ally uncontrolled. In some electric furnace shops the
building evacuation systems are vented to fabric filters
7.5.4-4
-------
primarily for the purpose of collecting furnace emissions.
In these shops the emissions from slag handling inside the
building are also captured. Collection by local hooding
vented to fabric filters is sometimes practiced at slag
4
crushing and screening stations. Dust suppression by water
spraying is also used.
CODING NEDS FORMS
The emission sources associated with slag handling and
processing are:
Source SCC Pollutants
Blast furnace 3-03-008-09 Particulate, SO~
slag handling
Blast furnace 3-03-008-10 Particulate
slag processing
Steelmaking furnace 3-03-009-23 Particulate
slag handling
Steelmaking furnace 3-03-009-24 Particulate
slag processing
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures 7.5.4-2
through 7.5.4-5, show entries for the SCC's and other codes.
Entries in the data fields give information common to slag
handling and processing plants. Information pertinent to
coding the source is entered on the margins of the forms and
above or below applicable data fields. Entries for control
equipment codes, other optional codes, emission factors, and
required comments minimize the need to refer to the code
lists. Typical data values for operating parameters, con-
7.5.4-5
-------
trol equipment efficiencies, and other source information
are shown on the form (or in the text) only to serve as
quick, approximate checks of data submitted by the plant in
a permit application or similar report. Data entered in
EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual values specific to and
reported by the plant, rather than typical values. Contact
the plant to validate or correct question ble data and to
obtain unreported information. See Part 1 of this manual
for general coding instructions.
The emission sources labeled "slag handling" include
all the operations associated with the transfer of slag from
the furnace to the processing plant or dump. Crushing and
sizing operations are grouped into one source labeled "slag
processing." No slag processing occurs at steel mills that
cannot sell the slag. Often the slag is handled by outside
contractors, who process it at their own plants.
Unless confined, all these operations are fugitive
emissions sources. Enter 77 in the temperature field and
zeros in the stack height, diameter, and flow rate fields.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The EEC's for use in EIS/P&R forms are:
Source BEG
Slag handling 712
Slag processing 650
GLOSSARY
See Section 7.5.
7.5.4-6
-------
Ul
I
-J
Figure 7.5.4-2. Standard NEDS form for slag handling and processing -
blast furnace slag handling.
Sii ."1M Al HHimnid')
01 I II I 01 ftlRCHUOHAMS
I !_: 1-1 -I "--L -- ' ' " TnMc ci .r HANDLED .
SCC UNIT - TUNb SLAG HANDLED
il-'ii1 '-'•'' -''I-! ' -:'fi l:'fHL
BLAST FURNACE1 ; \3\Si3\M.
SLAG HANDLING'. . * I 1 -L-i
• t '
-------
Figure 7.5.4-3. Standard NEDS form for slag handling and processing -
blast furnace slag processing.
i
00
NAIII)\,M t MISSIONS DAI A SYS II M {til IIS)
f NVIUDT.M1 fJl AL PHOUCriON AIJINCY
OMICt at AIR PHUUHAMb
fO'l'J APPKt Vf 0
owe NO iba fiooys
4-j'1ffi^ffifl''TJri-tfflffl4Tffl-
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ST.VI K I,'A I.'.
• •' 1 -i'-'-'!''''!'--!'-!^'
I . -j 4— i i- -4 1 --' J —i 4
I.i.O_l_l I I I Tin
018
so
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
'XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
S
Tj|4_iTH
J.M,-
olol'bToToTo] n~n
(•'.,,.'.-, I .!:•>. -I'. ,,,0, ,
--- --- --- -
lJ L.J LLl._l.L
,- -t-
HlfS
00
CO . t MOl. "t 01 LA t I
SCC UNIT - TONS SLAG PROCESSED ,
-JTTj.,],,
.11 J_.
U
i
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!
'.^
'^[-.,
\
!•
'•'T'! "
1 1
"
t:
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i
01
M,
-x,
1
c;
M
t J
?3
'!
/.'
;:
;i
'5
• t
;t
0
i
BLAST FURNACE H , ,_. _
SLAG PROCESSING | .|3 -I3!0-
ILL
J ll 1±
H : m-
!.! 1 J JJ.ll J J JJ
:L
T i
T~
cr
il- U]ii
.. {.L
T ! r
— i — i — i — ^
JUL
,j
i
t!
. i
oj
St
Si
»0
t;
4a
SO
;o
^
;i
P
c
;;
'j
'4
'S
.'i
r
••
^
6
-i
6
6
-------
Figure 7.5.4-4. Standard NEDS form for slag handling and
processing - steelmaking furnace slag handling.
i
vo
iffil
m_i
M/> i iil-AI ) V.IV.illNb DAI A SY'.M M Til HSi
I Minn ."! MAL PHimUWN AdlNC '
1)1 Ml I 1)1 AIH HHUliHftMS
fOWM ~»-l»»M V } '
O**» NO tS8 H(X)4S
111
i iL
ffiffiMS
M tl
Hl'J
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK [j
'JM'a
(''Mil 1 'L ill M I '•' ' Vi LI TiLM' r> ' »H-
! 1 ! 1 L :.l°i 1" L Iololoi0iololplpioio;plo ol bj olpj bI6\o]oio
i.::ti!:.[-i^i!L-i-,-Li;-= ::!l-;i-;ih-i
i :_i L : i i '!_.:: L : i J i !! IP
. , . . t - ..
" • 1 (/ •• I 1 ••• L"'lf!
'M'-L-IILi-1"'1 ^H.'1-.i.feFnffiF-I1
oIoloToloioi Jl'l i lo. i loi' I ioTTii
rr
m
STEELMAKING .',;_!!-'-
FURNACE SLAG . :3,0,3 O^C
HANDLING . . i 1 I_L
SCC UNIT - TONS SLAG HANDLED .
if
t r
HI
t; 11111 i~T-i-rm
t-t-f M- i T ' r t- '
r TT T T i i i ' • rr
\ LTiTirrnn
r
U
f
rim.
-------
Figure 7.5.4-5. Standard NEDS form for slag handling and processing -
steelmaking furnace slag processing.
I
t-1
o
Etffi
N,I ,,,!•/, i • vi,.,»;,-, i)/\ i A •jvJir.i
;j
s>
;i
P
i
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'a
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IT
;
la
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r, 80
6
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b
6
i • i n
i-;i i-
11
u' U 6< il in b'
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.5.4
1. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 2nd
edition Vol. 18. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 1963.
2. McGannon, H.E. (ed.). The Making, Shaping, and Treat-
ing of Steel. 9th edition. U.S. Steel Corp., Pitts-
burgh, Pennsylvania. 1971.
3. Stoehr, R.A., and J.P. Pezze. Effect of Oxidizing and
Reducing Conditions on the Reaction of Water with
Sulfur Bearing Blast Furnace Slags. Journal of the Air
Pollution Control Assoc. November 1975.
4. Schueneman, J.J., M.D. High, and W.E. Bye. Air Pollu-
tion Aspects of the Iron and Steel Industry. Publica-
tion No. 999-AP-l. U.S. Public Health Service, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio. June 1973.
5. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 450/2-76-029
(OAQPS No. 1.2-039). December 1976.
6. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 450/2-76-005
(OAQPS No. 1.2-042). April 1976.
7. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 edition,
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available
from Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
8. Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual
of Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare. Public Health Service Publication No. 1956.
1968.
7.5.4-11
-------
7.5.5 ROLLING AND FINISHING OPERATIONS
Rolling and finishing operations are defined here as
operations that occur in converting steel ingots, slabs, or
bars into a finished product.
In preparation for rolling, steel ingots are heated to
a uniform temperature in a soaking pit; slabs and bars are
heated in a reheating furnace. Rolling or shaping involves
passing a hot ingot or slab through a series of rollers to
form it into a slab, sheet, I-beam, or other shape. The
semishaped product may be reheated before any additional
rolling. A steel mill uses a variety of rolling (shaping)
machines.
Rolling of an ingot causes various defects, such as
cracks, scabs, and seams. These blemishes are removed by
burning the surface of the shaped or semishaped steel, an
operation called scarfing. Further rolling usually follows
scarfing. Grinding is another means of removing surface
defects.
Pickling is the immersion of steel into baths of
hydrochloric or sulfuric acid, to remove iron oxide from the
surface. It is done after hot rolling.
7.5.5-1
-------
Heat treating involves a series of heating and cooling
steps that give the steel the strength and hardness needed
for a specific use.
To protect the finished product from corrosion, its
surface is often coated with tin or zinc.
Not all steel mills perform all of these operations.
Although there are many variations, the processing sequence
can be grouped into five major operations: heating, rolling,
scarfing, pickling, and coating.
Figure 7.5.5-1 illustrates the relationship of these
operations to the overall steel mill. Descriptions of the
processes, emissions, and control practices involved in each
of the five operations are followed by instructions for
coding NEDS and EIS/P&R forms for all of them.
Heating Operations
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Heating operations involve the use of soaking pits,
reheat furnaces, heat-treating furnaces, and annealing
furnaces.
A soaking pit is a box-shaped refractory-lined furnace
with burners in the end wall or the bottom. The pit may be
equipped with a recuperator, which utilizes the waste heat
in the exhaust gases to heat incoming combustion air. The
roof of the furnace can be pulled open for charging. Steel
7.5.5-2
-------
to
c
o
•H
4-)
IB
t-i
0)
CX
O
eaj
tn
•H
T)
C
tfl
60
C
•H
3
60
•H
fn
o
u
~
8
0
4
v-
*Jt
32
_, 2
!!
0
a
53
7 .5.5-3
-------
ingots are placed in the furnace through the top and heated
at about 2200°F for 8 to 18 hours to bring them to uniform
temperature for subsequent rolling. The burner flame
impinges directly on the ingots during firing. A soaking
pit holds 8 to 18 ingots in one charge, depending on size of
the pit. Individual pits are arranged in a group called a
bank. Several pits may exhaust through one stack, in which
case the pits may be considered as one emission source.
Figure 7.5.5-2 illustates a typical soaking pit arrangement.
A reheat furnace is used to heat slabs, bars, and other
steel that have been previously heated and have cooled from
exposure. It is also used to heat steel shapes from primary
rolling operations after they have been conditioned and
inspected for surface defects. In the manufacture of butt-
welded pipe, the skelp used to form the pipe is "reheated"
prior to shaping and welding. Reheat furnaces are of many
designs, consisting basically of multiple burners that fire
directly on the steel being heated. Exhaust gases usually
are passed through a recuperator or a waste heat boiler to
recover a portion of the heat.
Reheat operations are both batch and continuous; con-
tinuous furnaces are the more modern and widely used.
Figure 7.5.5-3 illustrates a typical continuous reheat
furnace.
7.5.5-4
-------
OIL OR GAS
FIRED BOILER
EXHAUST
GAS
OUTLET
ESHAUST GAS TO
RECUPERATOR -*-
AND STACK
CRANE
LOADING PIT
WITH INGOTS
REFRACTORY LINED
STEEL COVER
MOUNTED ON CARRIAGE
SOAKING PIT
Figure 7.5.5-2. Simplified diagram of a soaking pit.
7.5.5-5
-------
OIL OR GAS FIRED BURNERS
Ul
I
CTi
DISCHARGE
DOOR
CHARGING DOOR
SOAKING ZONE
HEATING ZONE
r
PREHEAT ZONE
STEEL SLABS
/r
BURNER
J
TO RECUPERATOR AND STACK
WASTE GAS
FLUE
Figure 7.5.5-3. Simplified diagram of a continuous reheat furnace,
-------
In a continuous operation the steel pieces are loaded onto a
traveling grate or skid at the charging end; they travel
slowly through the furnace and reach the proper temperature
for rolling (2100°-2300°F) by the time they exit at the
discharge end. Batch furnaces are charged through a front
door with a charging machine.
A heat-treating furnace, generally operating in the
range of 800° to 1600°F, is used to impart strength and
hardness to the finished product. Heat treating can be a
batch or continuous operation. Most heat-treating furnaces
are direct-fired, i.e., the flame and products of combustion
contact the steel being heated. Numerous variations in
design of heat-treating furnaces are not significant with
respect to emissions. Combustion products are normally
vented into the building and escape through the roof openings,
An annealing furnace is a special type of heat-treating
furnace used to anneal (soften) steel that has been cold-
rolled. The annealing furnace is indirect-fired to prevent
formation of scale on the steel. A cylindrical cover is
placed over the charge, forming a chamber that is filled
with a reducing gas to keep products of combustion from
contacting the steel. Furnace temperatures range from 1100°
to 1400°F. In the annealing of strip steel, the facility
consists of a large number of batch furnaces (10 to 50). A
7.5.5-7
-------
continuous annealing furnace can supplant many batch fur-
naces; it is a tall structure in which the steel strip
traveling through the furnace is looped several times to
allow long enough exposure to the high temperature. Com-
bustion products from annealing are normally vented into the
building and escape through the roof openings. A batch and
a continuous annealing furnace are illustrated in Figures
7. 5.5-4 and 7.5.5-5.
EMISSIONS
Emissions from all of the heating operations consist of
products of combustion of the fuel. The emissions therefore
reflect the type, quantity, and quality of fuel, which can
be oil, natural gas, coke oven gas, or blast furnace gas.
Important characteristics of these fuels are shown in Table
7.5.5-1. Fuel consumption depends on the type of steel
being produced and the efficiency of the furnace. Represen-
tative values are shown in Table 7.5.5-2.
CONTROL PRACTICES
The only control used on heating operations is control
of the sulfur and particulate content of the fuel. The high
costs of energy are causing a growing trend toward control
of combustion to increase efficiency, with a resultant
reduction of combustion emissions. The two by-product fuels,
coke oven gas and blast furnace gas, are cleaned to low
7.5.5-8
-------
EXHAUSTS INTO BUILDING
EXHAUST
STACK
ONE ROW OF
BURNERS
OUTER COVER IS LIFTED OFF
TO PLACE COILS INSIDE
FURNACE BASE
INNER COVER IN PLACE OVER
A COIL STACK
Figure 7.5.5-4. Batch annealing furnace,
GAS OR ELECTRICALLY HEATED HEATING CHAMBERS
SUPPORTING
STRUCTURE
STEEL TRAVEL
RECOILING
Figure 7.5.5-5. Continuous annealing furnace.
7.5.5-9
-------
Table 7.5.5-1. CHARACTERISTICS OF FUELS USED IN HEATING OPERATIONS.
Fuel
Natural gas
Oil
Blast furnace gas
Coke oven gas
Sulfur content
See AP-42
See AP-42
0
10-450 gr
H2S/100 scf
Particulate
content
See AP-42
See AP-42
0.005-0.02 gr/scf
0.02 gr/scf
Exhaust flow,
scfm/106 Btu
17,000
17,000
26,000
17,000
Approximate flow at 50% excess air.
Table 7.5.5-2. TYPICAL FUEL CONSUMPTION IN HEATING OPERATIONS
Process
Soaking pit
Reheat furnace
Annealing furnace
Heat treatment
Fuel consumption,
106 Btu/ton of steel
1.35
2.80
1.00
Highly variable
7.5.5-10
-------
levels of particulate, 0.005 to 0.02 gr/scf, at the source.
Blast furnace gas is inherently free of sulfur because of
the reducing conditions inside the blast furnace. Coke oven
gas contains large quantities of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and
other sulfur compounds, which are generally removed before
it is burned. The H S content of raw coke oven gas is 300
to 500 gr/100 scf. In a modern desulfurization plant the
total sulfur content can be reduced to an equivalent H2S
content of 10 to 50 gr/100 scf.
Rolling Operations
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Rolling operations are hot or cold, depending on the
temperature of the steel. In hot rolling, the steel is
heated to 2100° to 2400°F before processing and typically
cools to about 1400° to 1700°F during processing. After
processing, the semifinished product may be allowed to air
cool or cooling may be accelerated by water spraying or
quenching. In cold rolling, the steel is initially at room
temperature. It may reach 300° to 400°F during processing
strictly from heat of friction.
Products of rolling are called flats, rounds, and
shapes. Flats include strip, plate, and sheet. Rounds
include bars, rods, pipes, and tubing. Shapes include
structurals, rails, and beams. The basic mills in which
7.5.5-11
-------
most steel is shaped are the blooming or slabbing mill,
billet mill, bar mill, hot strip mill, plate mill, struc-
tural mill, pipe mill, and cold rolling mill. All but the
latter are hot processes. Figure 7.5.5-6 is a simplified
schematic illustration of hot and cold rolling processing.
Figure 7.5.5-7 illustrates a typical primary reduction mill.
EMISSIONS
Emissions from hot rolling consist of fine iron oxide
and hydrocarbon vapors. The iron oxide particulate is
generated from the scale film on the surface of the steel,
which is broken into particles of various sizes by the force
of rolling. Large particles fall into a flume below the
mill, and extremely fine particles are lifted by the thermal
updraft around the hot piece. Hydrocarbon emissions are
generated by volatilization of the oils and greases used to
lubricate the mill; also, the hot steel strip is sometimes
lubricated with an oil mist to reduce friction. No emis-
sions data are available. On the basis of amounts of oil
and grease used in rolling and estimates of volatilization
at elevated temperature, a hydrocarbon emission rate of 0.2
pound per ton of steel processed is calculated. (2.5 Ib
oil/ton of steel produced and 10% volatilization).
In cold rolling the only emissions are hydrocarbon
vapors. An emission of 0.6 Ib/ton is estimated (6 Ib oil/ton
7.5.5-12
-------
-ROOL STAND
I
h-1
U)
HOT ROLLING
TO NEXT
PROCESSING
STEP
STOCK TO BE ROLLED
ROLLED PRODUCT
HOT ROLLING MILL
(SINGLE OR MULTIPLE STANDS)
COOLING
(AIR OR WATER)
SHEARING
COLD ROLLING
PICKLED COIL
RECOILING
COLD ROLLING MILL
SINGLE OR MULTIPLE STANDS
PREPARED TO SHIP-
Figure 7.5.5-6. Hot and cold rolling.
-------
MILL HOUSING
,, ROLLING PRESSURE
^ ^
r^^
MOTOR V y^
DRIVEN ^-^ J
/-*>
fe
x*->
/
I^O
L^3
^ ^<-
v ^r\
I ^^^ 1 '
./
\ ./
— *• STEEL TRAVEL
k
ROLLING PRESSURE
/X^ SINGLE STAND
DRIVE ^ XxT ^H
SHAFTS- /^>
x
i i^
^
O (
O (
^
^ o n
^y W w /^
' ) ( ) x
STEEL SLAB
IN
MULTIPLE STANDS
STEEL STRIP
OUT
Figure '.5.5-7. Simplified diagram of a rolling mill.
7.5.5-14
-------
of steel produced with 10% volatilization).
CONTROL PRACTICES
Emissions from rolling and shaping operations are
generally not controlled, although most modern hot strip
mills are equipped with hoods. Where no hoods are used, the
emissions escape through building openings.
Scarfing and Grinding
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Scarfing is the process of removing imperfections from
the surface of semifinished steel products by burning.
Rolling of an ingot produces various defects such as cracks,
scabs, and seams, which must be removed so that they do not
appear in the final steel product.
Cold steel is scarfed with hand-held torches; hot steel
is scarfed by machine immediately after rolling. Hot scarf-
ing is far more widely practiced. Hand scarfing is done
with an oxygen torch; a small spot on the steel surface is
heated with a gas flame for a few seconds and oxygen is
turned on. The oxygen stream melts and oxidizes the surface
of the steel to a depth of about 1/8 inch, leaving it
smooth.
Machine scarfing is an intermediate step in the hot
rolling of steel. Oxygen jets impinge on all surfaces (or
on only two sides, if desired) as the hot steel advances
7.5.5-15
-------
through the machine. The surface is melted and oxidized to
a depth of 1/32 to 3/16 inch, leaving it smooth and blemish-
free. Most of the metal removed becomes gremulated when
subjected to high-pressure water sprays. Because of the
high temperatures generated during the scarfing operation,
some of the steel is vaporized and subsequently oxidized.
Scarfing also generates a large quantity of steam. Both
hand scarfing and machine scarfing are done indoors. Figure
7.5.5-8 illustrates a scarfing machine.
Grinding is less widespread than scarfing and is used
to remove surface defects from stainless and other special
grades of steel that cannot be exposed to the high tempera-
tures associated with scarfing. In grinding, abrasive
wheels are applied to remove the surface defects.
EMISSIONS
Emissions from scarfing consist almost entirely of iron
oxide particulate. Amounts vary with the type of steel
scarfed. Dust loadings in exhaust from scarfing machines
have been reported as 0.016 to 0.122 gr/scf and 0.4 to 4.4
gr/scf.4 Not all of the steel produced at a mill requires
scarfing.
Grinding produces a local emission of fine particles
from the steel and the abrasion wheel. No emissions data
are available.
7.5.5-16
-------
HOT STEEL
IRON
OXIDE
FUMES
AND
STEAM
HOOD
WATER
OXYGEN JET
JETy
DIRECTION OF TRAVEL
Figure 7.5.5-8. Machine scarfing,
7.5.5-17
-------
CONTROL PRACTICES
Emissions from hand scarfing are usually uncontrolled.
Emissions that do not settle in the building escape through
building vents. Machine scarfers are usually vented to
collecting devices. Wet scrubbers and electrostatic pre-
cipitators are used most often, with reported efficiencies
of 98 and 94 percent, respectively. Grinding operations
usually are not controlled.
Pickling Operations
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The primary function of a pickling facility is chemical
removal of iron oxide scale from steel. The steel is im-
mersed in a bath of hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid at
about 200°F. Pickling may be done as a batch or continuous
process; most of the steel produced (tonnage) is processed
on a continuous pickle line. The essential features of a
continuous line are illustrated in Figure 7.5.5-9. Batch
pickling involves simply an open pickling tank of acid and
a rinsing tank.
EMISSIONS
Emissions from either batch or continuous pickling
consist of acid vapor arising from the pickling tanks. No
emissions data are available.
7.5.5-18
-------
EXHAUST TO CONTROL DEVICE
DRYER SHEAR
Ti>
RECOIL
ACID 0 200°F
Figure 7.5.5-9. Typical continuous pickling line,
-------
CONTROL PRACTICES
Because the acid fumes and mists are pungent and cor-
rosive, most pickling operations are controlled by venting
to a low-energy scrubber or spray tower to protect workers
and equipment. No reported efficiencies are available.
Because of the high solubility of the acids in water, it is
estimated that efficiencies are over 90 percent. Any
significantly lower efficiencies would allow serious cor-
rosion of materials in the vicinity of the pickling facility.
Coating Operations
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The three major coatings applied to steel strip and
sheet are tin, zinc, and lead containing about 10 percent
tin. The products produced by these coatings are known
respectively as tin plate, galvanized steel, and terne sheet
or plate. In each case, the coating is done by immersing
the steel sheet in a molten bath of the coating metal. The
bath is covered with a layer of flux to prevent oxidation.
Fresh coating metal is added to the bath and melted by gas
or oil burners or by electricity. After coating, the pro-
ducts are oiled and cleaned. Tin plating is sometimes done
by electrolytic coating, in which no molten tin is involved.
Temperatures of the molten baths for tin, zinc, and terne
7.5.5-20
-------
are about 600°, 800°, and 680°F, respectively. Figure
7.5.5-10 shows process flow for various coating operations.
EMISSIONS
No data are reported on particulate emissions from
these operations.
CONTROL PRACTICE
Emissions from these operations are not controlled.
CODING NEDS FORMS5"7
These instructions deal with all of the rolling and
finishing operations just discussed. The emission sources
associated with rolling and finishing operations are:
SOURCE
Soaking pits
(Inprocess fuel)
Residual oil
Natural gas
Blast furnace gas
Coke oven gas
Reheat furnaces
(Inprocess fuel)
Residual oil
Natural gas
Blast furnace gas
Coke oven gas
SCC
3-03-009-11
(3-90-004-99)
(3-90-006-99)
(3-90-007-01)
(3-90-007-02)
3-03-009-33
(3-90-004-99)
(3-90-006-99)
(3-90-007-01)
(3-90-007-02)
Pollutants
Products of combustion
Products of combustion
7.5.5-21
-------
-J
•
U1
I
to
NJ
STEEL
SHEET
X*
*
WELDER TO
BUTTWELD
COILS
SURFACE
CLEANING
O^Q^O
(o)
COATING CLEANING INSPECTION RECOIL
TANK UNIT SHEARING
LEVELING
TOGETHER UN11
Figure 7.5,5-10. Typical coating line,
-------
SOURCE
SCC
POLLUTANTS
Heat treating furnaces
(Inprocess fuel)
Residual oil
Natural gas
Blast Furnace gas
Coke oven gas
Hot rolling
Cold rolling
Scarfing
Grinding
Pickling
Coating
3-03-009-34
(3-90-004-99)
(3-90-006-99)
(3-90-007-01)
(3-90-007-02)
3-03-009-31
3-03-009-35
3-03-009-32
3-03-009-12
3-03-009-10
3-03-009-36
Products of combustion
Particulate, HC
HC
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate
Par t iculate
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures 7.5.5-11
through 7.5.5-19, show entries for the SCC's and other codes.
Entries in the data fields give information common to rolling
and finishing operations. Information pertinent to coding the
source is entered on the margins of the forms and above or below
applicable data fields. Entries for control equipment codes,
other optional codes, emission factors, and required comments
minimize the need to refer to the code lists. Typical data
values for operating parameters, control equipment efficiencies,
and other source information are shown on the form (or in the text)
only to serve as quick, approximate checks of data submitted by the
7.5.5-23
-------
plant in a permit application or similar report. Data
entered in EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual values specific
to and reported by the plant, rather than typical values.
Contact the plant to validate or correct questionable data
and to obtain unreported information. See Part 1 of this
manual for general coding instructions.
Figures 7.5.5-11 through 7.5.5-13 show standard
NEDS forms for soaking pits, reheat furnaces, and heat
treating furnaces. Annealing furnaces are considered as a
special class of heat-treating furnace, with the same SCC.
Where multiple soaking pits exhaust through one stack, code
only one NEDS form. Identify the number of pits in the
comments field on Card 6. Where exhaust gases from these
heating sources are not discharged through a stack, enter
the appropriate temperature and enter the height of building
vents in the plume height field. Enter zeros in the stack
height and diameter fields and also in the common stack
field.
Standard NEDS forms for hot and cold rolling operations
are shown in Figures 7.5.5-14 and 7.5.5-15. Where there are
no stacks, enter the height of the building vents in the
plume height field. Enter zeros in the stack height and
diameter fields, 77 in the temperature field,, and zeros in
the common stack field. Enter "No Hood, Bldg. Vent" in the
7.5.5-24
-------
comments field on Card 6. Where several rolling machines
are coded on one NEDS form, identify the number of machines
in the comments field.
Scarfing and grinding operations emit particulate.
Figures 7.5.5-16 and 7.5.5-17 show standard NEDS forms for
these two sources. Note the type of scarfing, hand or
machine, in the comments field.
Standard NEDS forms for pickling and coating are shown
in Figures 7.5.5-18 and 7.5.5-19.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS8
The EEC's for use in EIS/P&R forms are:
Source BEG
Soaking pits 228
Reheat furnaces No code*
Heat treating furnaces 220
Hot rolling No code*
Cold rolling No code*
Scarfing 663
Grinding No code*
Pickling 118
Coating
GLOSSARY
See Section 7.5.
* As of February 1978.
7.5.5-25
-------
Figure 7.5.5-11- Standard NEDS form for rolling and finishing - soaking pits,
•^1
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N.MII1NAL I MISSIONS OAfASVSTLM (NtllSI
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STACK DA I A
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Figure 7.5.5-12. Standard NEDS form for rolling and finishing - 43h3at furnaces.
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pftorrcnoN AUINCY
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¥
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INUUIUMIN1AL PHOUCTION AGINCY
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REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.5.5
1. McGannon, H.E. (ed). The Making, Shaping and Treating
of Steel. 9th edition. U.S. Steel Corp., Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania. 1971.
2. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. 2nd
edition, 3rd Printing. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. Publication No.
AP-42. February 1976.
3. Stern, A.C. (ed.). Air Pollution. 2nd edition Vol.
III. New York. Academic Press. 1968. pp 163-4.
4. Schueneman, J.J., M.D. High, and W.E. Bye. Air Pollu-
tion Aspects of the Iron and Steel Industry. Cin-
cinnati. U.S. Public Health Service. Publication No.
999-AP-l. June 1963. p 70.
5. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 450/2-76-029
(OAQPS No. 1.2-039). December 1976.
6. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA 450/2-76-005
(OAQPS No. 1.2-042). April 1976.
7. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 Edi-
tion. Prepared by Office of Management and Budget.
Available from Superintendent of Documents, Washington,
D.C.
8. Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual
of Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare. Public Health Service Publication No. 1956.
1968.
7.5.5-35
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the-reverse before ci
RLPORT NO
EPA-450/4-80-007
I 2.
3 RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOf>NO.
TITLE ANUSUBTITLE
Engineering Reference Manual for Coding NEDS and
EIS/P&R Forms: Volume II
5 REPORT DATE
_Agri1. 1980
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
AU I HOR(S)
National Air Data Branch
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Monitoring and Data Analysis Division
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
2. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air, Noise and Radiation
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
5. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Associated Volume I is a general
additional process compendiums.
introduction to the manual. Volume III presents
6. ABSTRACT
This manual provides specific engineering guidance and background information
for the evaluation and reporting of source/emissions data in NEDS or EIS/P&R format.
The manual is designed to assist coders of NEDS and EIS/P&R data who may not be
familiar with a wide variety of industrial processes.
Volume II consists of compendiums of information about specific industrial
processes Each compendium presents a process description and process flow diagram
which identifies the points in the process at which pollutants are_emitted describes
common control measures, and presents codes necessary for preparation of^NEDS and
EIS/P&R forms Specific guidance for the coding of process information is given,
with example preceded NEDS forms. Each compendium also includes a glossary of
technical terms and a list of pertinent technical literature.
Volume III consists of process compendiums for additional industries.
7.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
NEDS
CDHS
EIS/P&R
Point Sources
Air Pollutants
Emissions
Coding Forms
COSATI Field/Group
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release Unlimited
Unclassi
LAbb ,
fied
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
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