United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park NC 2771 1
EPA-450/4-80-007^3
April 1980
X
Air
Engineering Reference
Manual for Coding NEDS
and EIS/P&R Forms
Volume III: Compendia
of Processes
-------
EPA-450/4-80-007
Engineering Reference Manual for
Coding NEDS and EIS/P&R Forms
Volume III: Compendia of Processes
National Air Data Branch
Monitoring and Data Analysis Division
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
April 1980
-------
This report is issued by the Environmental Protection Agency to report technical data of
interest to a limited number of readers. Copies are available - in limited quantities - from
the Library Services Office (MD-35), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711; or, for a fee, from the National Technical Infor-
mation Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
Publication No. EPA-450/4-80-007
11
-------
ENGINEERING REFERENCE MANUAL FOR
CODING NEDS AND EIS/P&R FORMS
Volume III: Compendia of Processes
National Air Data Branch
Monitoring and Data Analysis Division
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
April 1980
-------
CONTENTS
7. METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY ,
7.6 PRIMARY LEAD SMELTING ;•?"
7.7 PRIMARY ZINC SMELTING '•l'\
7.8 SECONDARY ALUMINUM OPERATIONS . . ... . • • '•«-'
7.9 SECONDARY COPPER SMELTING AND ALLOYING . . . 7.9-1
7.10 GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES '•'""{
7.11 SECONDARY LEAD SMELTING '• ''
7.13 STEEL FOUNDRIES /'IJ"'
8. MINERAL PRODUCTS INDUSTRY . .
8.1 ASPHALTIC CONCRETE PLANTS °-'~
8.3 BRICK MANUFACTURING °-;f
8.6 PORTLAND CEMENT MANUFACTURING 8.6-1
8.9 COAL CLEANING B:;rJ
8.15 LIME MANUFACTURING ; • •• • • J-Jj"'
8.19 SAND AND GRAVEL QUARRYING AND PROCESSING . . 8.19-1
8.20 STONE QUARRYING AND PROCESSING b./JU-i
10 WOOD PRODUCTS INDUSTRY , 7 ,
10.1.2 SULFATE (KRAFT) WOOD PULPING In Ml
-------
7.6 PRIMARY LEAD SMELTING
1-4
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Much of the lead produced in the United States is used in
lead batteri^o and in gasoline additives. Vvith stricter restric-
tions on lead emissions, however, its use in lead additives is
declining. Primary lead smelting is the process of separating
lead metal from ores, the most common of which is the sulfide
galena (PbS). Lead ores are commonly found with zinc ores,
together with smaller amounts of other metals such as iron,
copper, gold, silver, arsenic, and antimony. Except for Missouri
deposits, which contain 75 percent PbS, lead content of most ores
averages 3 to 8 percent. Figure 7.6-1 is a flow diagram of the
smelting process.
Most lead smelters are located near the mines, from which
ore or ore concentrates are transported by truck or rail. More
than 80 percent of the lead produced in the United States is from
the rich Missouri deposits, which do not require beneficiation
before smelting. Other ores must be concentrated. This is
accomplished at the mines by first crushing and pulverizing the
ores and then utilizing a beneficiation step such as flotation,
magnetic separation, or a similar physical operation. Flotation
involves slurrying with chemicals that float lead-bearing mate-
rials and allow waste to sink. The floating froth is skimmed and
7.6-1
-------
RAW MATERIAL
TRANSFER^ J
RECYCLE
OUST S
, SINTER
A T r^
f PART (^-_f
^V
3-OymMZ
RAH MATERIAL
PILES
0
VART T> TPART./T H?sofl PLANT *
" N 043 (95) S0?
>' "' , 1 CONTROL
3-03-010-04 3-03-010-14 BAGHOUSE 017 (99) CONTROL
ORE CRUSHING MIXING ESP 01° (991' i 1
\PART- 5 ' PART/- , REC
J ^ S^
?
i
CONTROL BAGHOUSE 017 (99) ^pAR1 "
^XS. SO-, . i 3-03-OiQ- 1^
( ) sas!.f C 3 " s«
3-03-010-05
MATERIALS HANDLING
III POUTO5 Kl SCC IMIT
Figure 7.6-1. Primary Lead Smelting
7.6-2
-------
dried to about 60 percent moisture, at which point it contains 45
to 60 percent lead and 10 to 30 percent sulfur and often enough
zinc to make its recovery economical.
The three major steps at a lead smelter are sintering,
reduction, and refining. The purposes of sintering are to con-
vert metal sulfides to oxides by driving off sulfur, to drive off
part of the volatile impurity metals such as arsenic and anti-
mony, and to produce a material physically strong enough to be
treated in the blast furnace. The blast furnace reduces lead
oxide to molten lead; refining removes impurities trapped in the
lead during reduction.
Charges of raw materials to the blast furnace include ore
concentrates, coke, and fluxing agents such as limestone, silica
sand, and iron ore. Proportioned amounts of concentrates, coke
breeze (fines), and fluxing agents are first ground in a hammer
mill, mixed, and then rolled into pellets, which are fed to a
sinter machine. Sintering is performed on a moving conveyor of
perforated metal plates. Two types of machine are used, downdraft
and updraft. In the former, a layer of pellets about 5 in. deep
is spread on the moving belt, and the top is ignited by an oil or
gas burner. Air is drawn down through the bed and the burning
zone deepens as the bed travels on the conveyor. In an updraft
machine, a 1-in. layer of pellets is spread and ignited and
another 10- to 14-in. layer is added to it. Air is forced up
through the bed, and the burning zone rises. Coke and sulfur
provide the necessary heat, and no extra fuel is needed. The
sulfur content of the discharged sinter is about 1 to 2 percent.
7.6-3
-------
Essentially all updraft sinter machines have two separate
exhaust collection systems, one at the feed (ignition) end and
one at the discharge (tail) end. This separation enables collec-
tion of a high-SO_, low-volume gas flow at the feed end and a
low-SO , high-volume gas flow at the discharge end, where oxida-
tion has generally ceased. The concentrated S02 flow is usually
used for sulfuric acid manufacture.
The sintered cake falls into a breaker (crusher), which is
followed by an additional crusher and a screen. Oversize mate-
rial from screening is conveyed to blast furnace charge bins,
whereas undersize, unsuitable for charging, is crushed and cooled
and returned to the sinter feed bins. Sinter, coke, and addi-
tional fluxing agents are charged into the top of a blast furnace,
a water-cooled column about 5 ft wide, 12 to 20 ft long, and 16
to 24 ft high. Dust from particulate collection systems may be
added. Air is blown into the bottom of the furnace, oxidizing
the coke to carbon monoxide. As the charge moves downward
through the furnace, contact with coke and carbon monoxide
reduces the lead oxide in the sinter to molten lead. A slag of
zinc, iron, and calcium silicates, which also contains copper,
some lead, and other metals, floats on the molten lead. Slag and
lead are either tapped (withdrawn) separately or the molten
material from the furnace is first discharged into an adjacent
box-shaped settler, from which the slag overflows into a slag
granulator. Zinc is often recovered from the slag in a slag-
fuming furnace.
7.6-4
-------
The first step in refining the molten lead, called bullion,
is dressing. The molten metal is agitated in a cast-iron kettle;
sodium carbonate, ammonium sulfate, and sulfur are often added.
The metal is cooled to about 700°F, and copper and other impur-
ities that are not soluble in the lead at that temperature rise
to the surface and are skimmed off. The dross is processed in a
reverberatory furnace to recover any lead or copper.
The drossed bullion still contains impurities; these are
removed by several refining steps, not all of which may be
carried out at a lead smelter. About 1 to 2 percent of the
bullion is composed of zinc, arsenic, antimony, tin, gold, and
silver.
The next step in refining is softening, which is carried out
in a kettle or reverberatory furnace. Arsenic, antimony, and tin
(which harden lead) are removed as an oxide scum by agitation and
air blowing. Caustic soda and sodium nitrate are added in kettle
softening. In the third step, enough zinc is added to the
bullion in a kettle to float up the gold in a crust, which is
skimmed off. More zinc is added, and a second crust containing
silver is also skimmed off. Some copper and other metals also
accumulate in the crusts. The zinc remaining in the molten lead
is now recovered, usually by vacuum distillation. Because it has
a lower boiling point than lead, it can be withdrawn in a vacuum
and condensed. The dezinced lead may be treated with caustic
soda before being cast into pigs (about 100 Ib) or ingots (about
2000 Ib).
7.6-5
-------
EMISSIONS1'5'6
Particulate and SO2 are the major pollutants from lead
smelters. The S02 is emitted mainly from the sintering operation
and a relatively small amount comes from the blast furnace.
Emission sources are identified in Figure 7.6-1. Emission factors,
listed on the process flow diagram, are given in AP-42. Average
emission rates for other sources were obtained from other docu-
ments and are mentioned in the following source descriptions:
Raw material handling operations cause fugitive particulate
emissions. Emissions from unloading of limestone, silica, lead
ore concentrate, and iron ore range from 0.03 to 0.4 Ib/ton of
material, whereas those from coke unloading amount to about 0.4
Ib/ton of coke. Emissions from loading these materials onto
piles, from vehicular traffic, loading out, and wind erosion are
estimated to be 0.3 Ib/ton of material. Emissions from handling/
conveying and transfer of these materials are as follows: lime-
stone, 0.2 Ib/ton; silica, 0.3 Ib/ton; ore concentrate, 1.64 to
5.0 Ib/ton; iron ore, 2.0 Ib/ton; and coke, 0.13 to 3.4 Ib/ton.
Raw material crushing/pulverizing and mixing operations are
also sources of fugitive emissions, which are controlled at some
plants. Similarly, emissions from discharge of sinter onto the
breaker are also fugitive unless confined and vented. Reference
6 estimates particulate emissions of 0.55 to 2.45 Ib/ton of
sinter from sinter machine discharge and sinter crushing and
screening. Emissions from subsequent sinter transfer operations
are estimated to be 0.25 to 0.75 Ib/ton of sinter. Sinter that
7.6-6
-------
is not suitable for charging to the blast furnace is returned to
sinter feed bins; emissions from sinter return handling are
estimated to be 4.5 to 13.5 Ib/ton of sinter.
The sintering operation results in emissions of particulates
and sulfur dioxide. The exhaust from a single-stream sintering
machine, whether upflow or downflow, contains about 2 percent
sulfur dioxide and has an emission factor of 423 Ib/ton of con-
centrated ore. The single-stream sintering emission factor for
particulates is 164 Ib/ton of concentrated ore. In a dual-stream
sintering machine, the strong stream (feed end) contains about 4
to 7 percent SO and the weak stream (discharge end), approxi-
mately 0.5 percent SO . Particulate emissions from leakage
around the sinter machine range from 0.25 to 1.1 Ib/ton of
sinter.
The blast furnace is another major source of particulate and
SO emissions. Fugitive particulate emissions from charging and
tapping of the blast furnace are 0.08 to 0.23 Ib/ton of lead
product. Particulate emissions from the pouring of lead into
the dross kettle are about 0.93 Ib/ton of lead product, and those
from slag pouring and cooling are 0.47 Ib/ton of lead.
Slag fuming furnaces are usually hooded to capture partic-
ulate emissions. They range from 2.3 to 6.9 Ib/ton of lead
produced. Emissions from the dressing kettle amount to 0.24 to
0.72 Ib/ton of lead product and are often vented to the blast
furnace control system.
7.6-7
-------
Emissions from the dross reverberatory furnace are vented
through a control device. Fugitive particulate emissions due to
leakage around the furnace range from 1.5 to 4.5 Ib/ton of lead
produced.
The softening kettle is generally hooded and vented. Par-
ticulate emissions from the gold and silver recovery kettles and
additional refining are fugitive. Reference 6 reports emissions
of 0.9 to 2.7 Ib/ton of lead product from a building that houses
lead refining operations. No data are available on emissions
from individual operations. Particulate emissions from lead
casting are reported to be 0.43 to 1.30 Ib/ton of lead produced.
CONTROL PRACTICES3'5'6
Raw material handling operations are usually uncontrolled,
although some plants use water sprays to reduce emissions.
High-SO concentration streams from dual-stream sinter
machines are usually cleaned of particulate by a baghouse or
electrostatic precipitator (ESP) and conducted to a single-stage
sulfuric acid plant. Low-concentration streams are usually
combined with the off-gas from the blast furnace, cleaned of
particulate by a baghouse or ESP, and discharged to the atmos-
phere without SO control. Emissions from single-stream sinter
machines are usually cleaned of particulate as described above,
but SO is not controlled.
Emissions from sinter handling operations are usually not
controlled. Sometimes they are vented through the sinter machine
control system or through a separate baghouse.
7.6-8
-------
The blast furnace is vented through a baghouse or ESP. Some
plants vent emissions from charging and tapping through the
furnace control system. Others either do not control them, or
they vent them through a separate baghouse.
Exhaust gases from reverberatory furnaces and dressing
kettles are often combined with those from the blast furnace and
vented through a baghouse. Emissions from other refining oper-
ations including vacuum dezincing are generally not controlled.
Some plants vent lead casting emissions through a baghouse.
CODING NEDS FORMS7"9
The emissions sources and the pollutants
Source
Raw material unloading
Raw material piles
Raw material transfer
Materials handling
Ore crushing
Mixing
Sintering, single stream
Sintering, feed end
Sintering, discharge end
SCC
3-03-010-11
3-03-010-12
3-03-010-13
3-03-010-05
3-03-010-04
3-03-010-14
3-03-010-01
3-03-010-06
3-03-010-07
they emit are:
Pollutant(s)
Sinter discharge, crushing, 3-03-010-15
screening
Sinter transfer
Sinter return handling
Blast furnace, off-gas
Blast furnace, charging
3-03-010-16
3-03-010-17
3-03-010-02
3-03-010-18
7.6-9
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates, SO?
Particulates, SO?
Particulates, SO_
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates, SO
Particulates
-------
Source
Blast furnace, tapping
Lead pouring
Slag pouring
Slag fuming furnace
(In-process fuel-coal)
Dressing
Dross reverberatory furnace 3-03-010-03
SCC
3-03-010-19
3-03-010-20
3-03-010-21
3-03-070-08
(3-90-002-99)
(3-03-010-09)
Pollutant(s)
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates,
combustion products
Particulates
Particulates,
combustion products
(In-process fuel)
Distillate oil
Natural gas
Softening
Lead refining
Lead casting
(3-90-005-99)
(3-90-006-99)
3-03-010-24
3-03-010-22
3-03-010-23
Particulates
Particulates
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures 7.6-2
through 7.6-24, show entries for the SCC's and other codes.
Entries in the data fields give information common to lead smelt-
ing plants. Information pertinent to coding the source is
entered on the margins of the forms and above or below applicable
data fields. Entries for control equipment codes, other optional
codes, emission factors, and required comments minimize the need
to refer to the code lists.
Typical data values for operating parameters, control equip-
ment efficiencies, and other source information are shown on the
form (or in the text) only to aid in rapid, approximate checks of
data submitted by the plant in a permit application or similar
7.6-10
-------
report. Data entered in EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual values
specific to and reported by the plant, rather than typical values
Contact the plant to validate or correct questionable data and to
obtain unreported information. See Part 1 of this manual for
general coding instructions.
For fugitive particulate emission sources, where there is no
control device or where liquid sprays are used, enter zeros in
the stack heighL and diameter fields, 77 in the temperature
field, and zeros in the common stack field. Where liquid sprays
are used, enter 061 or 062 as a control equipment code. In the
comments field on Card 6 identify other equipment used to reduce
emissions.
Figures 7.6-2 through 7.6-4 show standard NEDS forms for raw
material unloading, stockpiling, and transfer operations. The
emission source labeled "raw material piles" includes loading
onto piles, wind effects while the materials are stored, and
retrieval activities. Raw material transfer operations not
included under unloading, storage piles, crushing and pulver-
izing, and mixing are grouped under the emissions source labeled
"raw material transfer."
Emissions data on these sources are scarce. When a plant
furnishes emissions data for these sources, code the values
given. Where detailed emissions data for each of the raw mate-
rials are available, code a form for each and identify the
material in the comments field. Enter "Emission Estimates Given
by Plant" in the comments field on Card 7. Where emission rates
7.6-11
-------
for individual operations are unavailable, code these sources on
one form under Materials Handling, as shown in Figure 7.6-5.
This source covers all the operations associated with raw mate-
rial handling, including the mixing operation but excluding
crushing/pulverizing operations.
Emissions from crushing/pulverizing are usually not con-
trolled. Code these operations on one form as shown in Figure
7.6-6. Figure 7.6-7 shows a standard NEDS form for the mixing
operation.
Combustion gases from the sinter machine are captured by one
or two exhaust systems. Where there are two systems, code a form
for each. When dual-stream capture systems are used, the feed-
end exhaust gases are first vented to particulate controls and
then to a sulfuric acid plant for S02 control. Since the gases
are vented to a sulfuric acid plant, the associated emissions will
be accounted for on the NEDS forms for the acid plant. Therefore,
on the feed-end NEDS form, enter zeros for emission estimates and
allowable emissions, and fives for the estimation method. The
five denotes a special emission factor, in this case, emissions
are vented to another plant. Leave the stack data fields blank.
Code the sulfuric acid plant as described in the compendium on
sulfuric acid manufacturing. Three standard NEDS forms for a
sinter machine are shown in Figures 7.6-8, 9, and 10. When
coding a form, enter the appropriate SCC in the SCC field.
Some plants vent emissions from sinter machine discharge,
crushing, and screening through a baghouse. Unless confined,
these emissions are fugitive. Emissions from sinter transfer
7.6-12
-------
operations are usually not controlled. Figures 7.6-11 and
7.6-12 show standard NEDS forms for these two sources. Sinter
that is unsuitable for changing is returned to the raw material
mixing operation. Sinter return operations could cause signif-
icant fugitive particulate emissions. Figure 7.6-13 shows a
standard NEDS form for sinter return handling.
Exhaust gases from the blast furnace are vented through a
particulate control device, but usually not through an SO
&
control system. Figure 7.6-14 shows a standard NEDS form for the
blast furnace. The sintering discharge end, the blast furnace,
the slag fuming furnace, and the dressing kettles are usually
vented to a common control system. Where this is so, the sources
must be assigned consecutive point ID numbers and Columns 56
through 59 of Card 2 filled with the lowest and highest point ID
numbers for the four sources.
Some plants vent emissions from blast furnace charging and
tapping through a baghouse. At other plants, these emissions are
not controlled. Figures 7.6-15 and 7.6-16 show standard NEDS
forms for these two sources.
Emissions that occur when molten lead is poured from the
kettle into the dross kettle are sometimes partially controlled
by venting them through a baghouse. Similarly, some plants
control emissions from slag pouring. Figures 7.6-17 and 7.6-18
show standard NEDS forms for these two sources.
Emissions from the slag fuming furnace are usually vented
through a baghouse often through the blast furnace control
system, as are emissions from the dressing kettle and the dross
7.6-13
-------
reverberatory furnace. Standard NEDS forms for these three
sources are shown in Figures 7.6-19 through 7.6-21.
A standard NEDS form for softening is shown in Figure 7.6-
22. Desilverizing, degolding, and additional lead refining
treatment operations are grouped here under "lead refining."
Figure 7.6-23 shows a standard NEDS form for lead refining. In
coding these operations, identify the operations grouped in the
comments field on Cards 6 and 7. Where one of these operations
is controlled, code that operation separately and identify the
operation in the comments field. Enter the emission data furnished
by the plant.
Some plants vent emissions from the lead casting building
through a baghouse. Figure 7.6-23 shows a standard NEDS form for
lead casting.
CODING EIS/P&L FORMS
The EEC's for use in EIS/P&R forms are:
Source BEC
Raw material unloading 700
Raw material piles 700
Raw material transfer 700
Materials handling 700
Ore crushing 650
Mixing 804
Sintering (all) 226
Sinter discharge, crushing, screening 660
Sinter transfer 700
Sinter return handling 700
7.6-14
-------
Source
Blast furnace (all)
Lead pouring
Slag pouring
Slag fuming furnace
Drossing
Dross reverberatory furnace
Lead refining
Lead casting
BEG
No code*
No code*
No code*
No code*
No code*
9f 9
No code*
No code*
*As of September 1978.
7.6-15
-------
Figure 7.6-2. Standard NEDS form for primary lead smelting - raw material unloading.
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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S3
63
64
64
ss
ss
ot>
66
67
67
S8
63
M
69
r'O
70
'1
S
v
Y
72 7
V
72
ff
z
o
7J
ON
3 74
3 74
5~
ST
75
c
9
•t
ACK ;
76 77 7
76 77 7
ATIONS
Reg 3
3 74
75
76 77
3 74
3J74
;s
76 77
76l_77
--
c.l
P 1
c(n
8 79 i]
p T)
r
1
• ji-rt!
~~7t5]
~~| P f 4 1
! L
! 79JW
pl *
:
5 cd
8 79 80
P 6
P 6
P 6
P 6
P 6
§
5 C
-------
Figure 7.6-3. Standard NEDS form for lead smelting - raw material piles.
I
M
~J
Pljni 10
Si t. County -»OCR N...,,l.,.
1 23451 7 1 9 10 11 12 13
- -o
Utm % S
City Zone >cr
"5 "0 5 UTMCC
P,,,,M ? u || Honiont.il
II) ?(C SIC i km
3332
O "? Boiler Owiqn c "
5 S Capacity Primary S<£
^ £ 106 BTU/hf Pan £
16 7 16 19 2C ? '2 2 '4 2S 26 2
1 1 1 1 1 Toi 1 1 lolol
°i ANNUAL THHUPUT NO
o* °>E
^ 3 Dec- Mar. June Scot- S
> tc feb May Au>| Nov
o|
;l Pan.cuaie
16 £7 18 9 20 2 22 2 24 25 6 2?
-,-> scc
i 3 5
>I 1 II III IV Oc
16 17 18 19 20 2 22 23 21 25 26 27
RAW MATERIAL __ 3 0 1 0.1 .0 H __
PTI FS
o : SCC
Point 3 5
ID ^ I 1 II III IV C
U 15 16 17 IS 19 20 21 22 23 2» 25 26 I
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
Establishment Name and Address
'8|29|30|3l|32l33l34|35|36l37|3S|39|<0|4l|l2|43|44|4S|46|47|4S|49|SO|51|52|53|S4|55
OHOINATES STACK DATA
Vertical , f »™ H"9hl
km Heigh 111) Oum III Templ"FI Flo.. R.ile [l|J/min> III no stack ll
28 21 10 31 3? 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4 42 43 44 45 46 4 4) 19 50|S1 52 53 54 5'
CONTROL > EQUIPMENT ^ >
I~ I. I.j |0 EST1
Pum.ry §8 Prim,-, |° P,,m.,., 5 i! Pnr-a- , |S
SOT *- NO, £ HC y, CO $ Pa'i
28 29 30 31 3: 33 34 35 36 3; 38 39 40 7 12 43 44 45 4S 4 4H 1} 50 SI 52 53 54 55
olololoiolololololololololololololololololololoiol 1 1
,'aT*Ujc EMISSION ESTIMATES nons.yeatl
| ? Paniculate SO, NO, HC
2: 2' i: 31 :2 33 4 :5 36 ! 3! 39 40 41 42 4: 11 15 46 : 15 41 50 5! 52 S3 54 55
M 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 II 1 |ol 1 1 it 1 lol II I
ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS llonsiyearl -""scHT
a
O? NO, HC CO £ Voai
28 25 30 31 3' 33 4 )5 31 3! 3! :9 4 41 42 4 41 45 4S 17 K 11 50 5 52 53 54 5
0 0 0 _,_ 0
An™* SCC UNIT - TONS OF RAW MATERIAL
uel Process Hou'l. =r - 3 "• ^ Fui;l
UI..HVIM.- Vj.imurr Oesn" ^^H *" := »' •< Con'ent
.-. P.>" R.I- u U lt>>:' =Tu '"-
" 29 '0 31 K 33|34 35 3i '.'• :i 39 1C 4 12 43 41 ti 15 ;; Ij ;1 50 51 52 S3 54 5
DMMENTS
23 21 30 31 K 33 34 35 36 3: 38 39 10 41 12 13 4; J5 :» 1 :i ;9 50 51 52 V3_ 51 _
POINT SOURCE FORM APPROVED
Input Fotm OMH NO IMH009S
Name of Perion
4
Contact • Pe-sonal C
56 57 5! 59 60J.I 62 S3 64 65 S6 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 7
P«;"" ^-0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
"TaTk0^ xxxx POINT ID'S IF COMM0'
56|5)|5al59 (0|6l|62|63|64|65|6S|67|68|S9|70|7l|7r|73|
MATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY (M
SOi NO, HC CO
56 5! 58 59 50 61 62 63 64 55 55 67 68 69 70 71 2 73
.0. 0 _£ ^jO
ESTIMATION
METHOD
5 C? O u O *• Space
; CO S ° ° I u H.j,
56 5~ Tj 1? 6C 61 62 63 64 5 66 67163 69 70 71 72 73
0 00000 _, 0
LIANCE COViPLIANCC
OULE STATUS CONTROL REGULA
UPDATE a.
56 jY S8J59 6CJ61 62(63 6-U5J66 s7J68 69 70 71 72 73
Comments tsi C
5 56 57 53 59 iO j K S3 64 S5 66 67 51 S9 70 71 72 73
~T~ P
~ 56 57 5i 59 £0 6! 62 63 6! 55 66 67 63 69 70 71 2 73
C
4 75 76 77 78l79J«>
« STACK | LI
1 ,
" H
4 75 76 77 78 79 «0j
P T]
! u
74 75 76 17 ?3 *3 JQJ
. p M
*tO 3 < c.i
c
< cd
74 75 76 77 78 79 30
P 6
P 6
P 6
P 6
P 6
4|7S|76|77 78 7? M
P 7
_ _ -. — -
-------
Figure 7.6-4. Standard NEDS form for primary lead smelting - raw material transfer.
i
M
CO
1
County
4
5
6
AOCR
7
1
9
Plant ID
Niimlnr
10
11
Pi)
IU
14
12
1]
C
1*
Mt
15
RAW MATER I
TRANSFER
PI
i
4
IS
AL
n
15
ty
rj7
17
11
16
17
° 5
> rr
16
|_
II
O'S
25
V CC
16
17
Si
16
17
'o;
5 8
> X
16
17
o;
3?
> x
16
II
Jtm
one
I 19
Yaar of
Record
20
21
SIC
t 19
i 3
20
3
21
'f
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS) 'OINT s
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY "*""
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS Nameol Person
Completing Form
Establishment Name and Address
22
23
if
O.
22
Boiler Design
Capacity
106 8TU/hr
6 19
Dec-
Feb
8 19
2C
21
JNOAl
Mar-
May
20
21
22
0
23
24
25
26
21
UTM CO
Horizontal
24
Prima
Pan
23
THH
June
Au't
22
21
24
25J26
|
n
28 29
|
30
31
32
OROINATES
Verncal
28
29
10
11
32
33
34
35
36
He.rjht It
33
34
1
35
36
37
38
39
D.am It
37
38
39
40
41
42
13
STACK DA
Temp(°FI
40
41
42
43
44
4i
46
47
43
49
SO
A
Flow Rare (It3/mml
44
45
46
47
4!
19
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
1 . I rv | . 1
c - co co c-J
25
JPUT
Sept
Nov
24
Paniculate
8 19
20
11
8 19
1 0
20
3
n
S 19
7P
21
22
23
sec
lit
iTT
U
.'2
1
23
0
sec
in
71
77
71
24
25
£
26
0
21
0
NO
OPEF
24
21
28
0
AT
i
Q
29
SO;
29
0
30
0
AL
ING
29
30
31
0
J!
32
0
33
0
34
0
NO,
35
0
36
0
3;
0
Paniculate
31
ALLOV-
SOj
25
IV
24
1
25
3
IV
7t
n
2(
2!
28
An
Fuel
Solu
00.., 1
26
11
21
23
30
31
U
3:
33
34
35
36
11
r
38
0
39
0
40
0
HC
41
0
42
0
43
0
X
44
0
EMISS
S02
33
ABLE EMISSIONS to
NO,
32
nua SCC U
,., P .-,.-
Ti"
10
31
32
33
34
35
!6
31
38
U
39
40
41
42
43
44
o
45
0
4S
0
CO
41
0
44
0
4-)
0
50
51
52
53
54
'lume Height
1 no stack It
51
S
S
50
0
SI
0
ON ESTIMATES lions
NO.
15
is. year
31
NIT - TONS OFf
R.,.- *
3l|34
35
35
jfi
39
40
41
42
IAU MAT
40
4>
42
0
43
44
45
U
ERIAL
SJi
o
43
44
ID
U
46
J7
4i
11
50
i!
Q
52
52
0
S3
54
55
55
ESTIK
Pan
S3
54
SS
56
57
58
59
1
Pornls
vutiri
56
5/
53
'ATEDC
SO?
56
s;
58
,0
year!
HC
S2
CO
46
4.'
43
19
Fuel
MjSsitUv,.
14
41
:j
11
50
50
U
51
52
0
53
JC
a
53
54
55
OMPL
5CHF.C
Vear
54
55
56
57
ANCE
JULE
Vo
56
57
SS
0
59
60
OURCE FOR*
Form OMB
Date
A APPROVED
NO IM ROOTS
Contact • Pe-sonal
61 62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
2
6
74
75
76
77
-. 0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
•^ XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
60
61
DNTROL
NO,
59
50
61
0
62
63
64
EFFICIEN
HC
62
63
64
0
65
66
67
CV (M
CO
SS
CO
59
COM
S
U
veai
58
59
60
(I
PL Ar>
TATU
POAT
Mo
6=
61
62
63
CE
Day
62
63
64
0.
64
65
0
66
E!
a.
66
67
kP_
68
69
70
71
;:
73
74
75
't
77
68
69
70
TIMATION
METHOD
S § ¥ 8
67
0
63
0
CON
Reg 1
65
66
57
61
59
.0
70
U
71
72
73
V Space
71
77
TROLREGU
Re.|2
69
70
c_
^T
52
S3
54
55
%
s:
58
59
4>3
61
62
63
64
55
66
(7
68
69
70
71
i/i
;i
P
72
-
72
73
JJ
74
75
76
77
74
75
,'6
LATIONS
Ret) 3
73
74
75
76
7!
77
73
74
75
76
77
COMMENTS
7fi
71
7it
71
i;
11
32
13
34
35
:e
1;
31
11
10
41
12
4]
44
4S
:;
47
4i
41
M
51
57
S3
44
5;
4f
47
Si
41
CO
61
67
63
t:
45
66
67
6!
69
70
71
72
7J
74
IS
76
71
_
e
5
7E
C
5
It
1
71
C
9
.'!
c
78
S
I!
J
<8
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79) «e
p) i
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79)10]
jj '1
79
e
J
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r,
'
1
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7980
p|5
79
p
t
f
r
e
n
f
p
p
p
CO
10
E
6
S
6
6
cd
1C
7
f
T
T
-------
Figure 7.6-5. Standard NEDS form for primary lead smelting - materials handling.
mils c
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT JURCE
Input cotm
Name o( Perton
Completmg Fo"n
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO 158 R009S
Dai.
f X
I6JI7
MATERIALS HANDLING
20 21
u 20 21
3l3l3l2|o
t Name and Add-cji
11 21 21 25 28 11 .'8 21 30 ]l 32 33 34 35 3S 3? 3J 39 1 43 »\>i >t » >i 49
oiler Dmqn
Cdcaott
10^ BTU'hr
S 19 2C 21 22 2) 24 ?i
UTM COOHDINAfES
2t 25 2S 27
28 29 10 31 32
38 39
STACK DATA
50 51 52 53 M
4) 45 46 41 4) 49
r'vme tieiqht
1 "ryci"i
50| 51 52 S3 54
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
> ANNUAL THHUPUT
Dec Mo- Jur^ Seoi
u!] Nov
ololololo
lOMM'.l
OPERATING
§5
*
NO,
lo
ololoToioioioioioioioioioioioioioro o
go
o u
2
50 51 52
olo
56 57 51159 CO (I
Contact Pe-sonal
a H (4 85 « 47 U
75 76 l][lt
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
co^oni^- xxxx poINT ID,S IF COMMON STACK ;
ESTIMATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY (M
53 5«I55
Si 5)l5»
59 SO 61
HC
CO
62 53|64 S5 66 67 68 69 70 71 72|73 74 75| 76 77
5 LB/TON
3I 3: '-3 14 35 5} !
S02
I! 39 40 J] 4; 11 ;i
ALLOV\AoLb E
19 20 21 22 23 24
19 20
24 25
26 21 28 29 30|!1
32 33 34 15 >.S 31 U
39 40 41 42 43 44 45
An,,UJ,SCC UNIT - TONS LEAD PRODUCED
Fuel Pfxr,.^ Mou'1,
Sol.,10 INC.-
53 54 55 % 57
56 5!
59 60 61 62 63
COMPLIANCE
STATUS
UPDATE
58 59
62 61
ESTIMATION
METHOD
(7 63 69 70
0 0000
711 Kl
CONTROL REGULATIONS
Rc^ I R«>i 2 I Reg 3
65 66 67 6i
69170 71 72|73|74|75|76
m
33 34 35 ii : i
i; :.' !i 41
69
73 M 75
25 27 23 21 30 31 32 33 34 35 ;s
!9 40 41 42 43 4
50 51 52 S3 54 5: 5c 5! 5j 59 SO 61 62 6! 6:
-------
Figure 7.6-6. Standard NEDS form for primary lead smelting - ore crushing.
PljMI 10
S,,,, Count, -"OCR Nu.nl.,
7 2 3 4 5 ( : 1 9 10 11 I?
n
L_ - *>
• *
City Zo"« > cc:
P >...,
uj,,
CTv
1
to
O
o B
,. o
> £ SIC
3 3 3
"5 1? Ba.if De
j 5 .* ,06 BT
n 3 L.ec M
^ = P«'t
r i. ' "
is i? IB n :c
ORE CRUSHING 303
ID 'Z i '"
u ss i& i; s 19 :
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS) -
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
En b .sumfi Name jnd Add c«
T zT 2! M" IT -s n '« "> " Ji « » ]< " !i " " " IC ' " ' " '"' " " " " 50 s " "
~^" UTMCOOHDNAfS STACK DA A K me He
S: S HO,. on,, V,M,. I' ^ ^ | i (0f ,,„„„,„ ,,3,m,n f,'"™,.e
~ 27 21 '1 'b 'S 27 7» 21 5C 11 12 15 '-> IS 1, '.' 11 11 « • '2 « " « " «' « " »L S2 U
2 __. 1 1 I 1 1 II 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 I M M 1 1 M 1
0 00 OlOlQ OOOOOOOOOOOUUUUUuOOOiO_
y MO , N<>. ; -3 1 (1|'"r J * f , — ; -. — | , — | — i — j — | — i r—
j Q [Ot 1
^ JC,J ' «„.„ SCC UNIT - TONS ORE CRUSHED. ;
- >--,-. c -j T7 -, . i j; : .: ;b ^ .c 1-j ic 11 » *) *v ;' '•> • '-i •' -IJ ^ i-
sec
in v COMVE JTS
POINT SOURCE OMSNO IM B0095
Input Fo""
1 \\ I
Contact P.'ionjl o r xxxx POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK s r
TsT 5S btlsTTsms Uol6l|62J63U 1 Wl69l ?0 .* 7? /3| 74j S 76 77 78 79 W
_ • T 6
o
< cd
^.ll^^-Al — — — — . P7
, . 1 — | P 7
-------
Figure 7.6-7. Standard NEDS form for primary lead smelting - mixing,
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to
SM,.
! 2
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3
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5
6
AC.™
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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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33
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Rf. ^
63 70 71 72
Vt
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70
H
n
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71
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73
73
cr
73
6
71
DN
74
74
71
SI
75
0
LATIONS
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n
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7fi
76
76
;K
77
77
77
77
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n
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h
R
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7
7
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to
N)
Figure Y.6-8. Standard NEDS form for primary lead smelting - sintering, single-strean.
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM INEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
Ndme (jl Person
ComplPI-ng Forrr
FORM APPROVED
OMR NO ISH R0095
Out
ffl
DOWNDRAFT 01
UPDRAFT 02
PARTICULATE CONTROL
DEVISE
BAGHOUSE
ESP
CODE
017
010
EFF,. %
99
99.5
SINTERING
SH:
H2S04 PLANT,
043
ST ACK DATA
- o
3 —I
s
Contact Pt-ional
S5 Si (I U
til 70 71 7?J73
SiliTTM
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK 1 =
95.0
ESTIMATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY (M
164 LB/TON
423 LB/TON"
LOMPl IANCE
STATUS
UPDATE
SI '0
;: 73 74
n 79
ESTIMATION
METHOD
olo
72 71 ;«
CONTROL REGULATIONS
R*.|2
A.,,U SCC UNIT - TONS CONCENTRATED ORE
U '5
;t
i?
16
19
?c
sec
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14
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GLOSSARY
Beneficiation - The processing of ores for smelting by flotation
or magnetic separation to remove waste rock.
Bullion - A semirefined alloy containing sufficient precious
metal to make recovery profitable.
Dross - An oxide-sulfide scum of impurities on molten lead.
Dressing - The process of forming and removing dross.
Gangue - A waste rock or slag material remaining after most of
the metal values have been removed.
Matte - A floating layer, mostly of copper and iron sulfide.
Reverberatory furnace - A furnace in which a flame reflects
(reverberates) from the furnace roof onto the charge.
Sintering - A process that agglomerates fine ore particles into
large pieces and removes most of the sulfur.
Slag - Waste material from blast and reverberatory furnaces,
mostly silicates.
Smelting - A reduction of the lead oxide in the ore to produce
elemental lead.
Softening - A refining step usually performed after dressing to
remove antimony, arsenic, and tin (which cause lead to
harden) .
Speiss - A mixture of arsenides and antimonides produced as a
floating waste layer during smelting.
7.6-38
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.6
1. Background information for New Source Performance Standards:
Primary Copper, Zinc, and Lead Smelters. Volume 1: Pro-
posed Standards. EPA-450/2-74-002a. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. October 1974. pp. 3.170-3.200, 5.28-
5.40.
2. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Vol. 12,
2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 1967. pp. 208-238.
3. Control of Sulfur Oxide Emission in Copper, Lead, and Zinc
Smelting. Information Circular 8527. U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Washington, D.C. 1971.
4. Thomas, R., ed. Operating Handbook of Mineral Processing.
McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York. 1977. pp. 299-303.
5. Complication of Air Pollution Emission Factors. 2nd ed.
Publication AP-42, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
February 1976. pp. 8.6-1, 8.6-4, C16.
6. Technical Guidance for Control of Industrial Process Fugi-
tive Particulate Emissions. EPA-450/3-77-010. U.S. Envir-
onmental Protection Agency. March 1977.
7. Aeros Manual Series, Volume II: Aeros User's Manual. EPA-
450/2-76-029 (OAQPSNo. 1.2-039). U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. December 1976.
8. Aeros Manual Series, Volumn V: Aeros Manual of Codes. EPA-
450/2-76-005 (OAQPS No. 1.2-042). U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency. April 1976.
9. Standard Industrial Classification Manual. Office of Man-
agement and Budget. Available from Superintendent of
Documents, Washington, D.C.
10. Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual of
Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Public Health Service Publication No. 1956. 1968.
7.6-39
-------
7.7 PRIMARY ZINC SMELTING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION1"3
The largest use of zinc is as an anticorrosion agent in the
form of zinc coatings for the protection of steel and iron. It
is also used as an anode in batteries and fuel cells, in many
types of castings, in brass products, as rolled zinc in the
construction industry, and as zinc oxide in paints.
Primary zinc smelting is the process by which zinc retal is
recovered from its ores. The primary ore is sphalerite or ~inc
sulfide, which is commonly found with lead minerals and usually
contains some iron, cadmium, and other metals.
Zinc ore must be concentrated, before smelting. This con-
centration, called beneficiation, is usually carried out at the
mine and is not discussed here. The zinc ore, in the form of a
relatively dry and fine concentrate, is transported to the
smelters by rail, barge, or truck. The concentrate is usually
unloaded and stored in a covered building or silos at the plant
to protect it from moisture and from losses due to wind. When
needed it is removed from storage by clamshell. The steps of
zinc smelting are shown in Figure 7.7-1.
Several types of roasters are used to remove lead and
sulfur from the zinc concentrate. This is followed by either
7.7-1
-------
Figure 7.7-1. Primary zinc smelting.
I
to
LE6EMD:
O EMISSION FACTOR*
©EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66 0) DENOTES COHTROL EQUIP
CODE WITH EST EFF SHOWN
IN ( )
9
COHTROL i
j I H;S04 PLANT (SINGLE) M3 (95]
n2so4 PLAKT (DOUBLE) 044 (»:
I BAGHOUSE 017 (95-99+)
CONTROL HET 5CRUBB£B 002 (90-95)
DEVICE | xl (95.99+)
1-OJ-03Q-05
VERTICAL RETORT
1-90-006-99-NAT GAS
-------
acid leaching (electrolytic recovery) or thermal reduction
(pyrometallurgical production).
Multiple hearth roasters are used ahead of fluid-bed
roasters to remove lead from the ore concentrate. In the past,
these roasters were commonly used for desulfurization; and this
application may still be found in a few plants. During desul-
furization, a large amount of air is introduced into the multiple
hearth, and large amounts of S02 are emitted. In current practice,
the multiple hearth is most often used for deleading. The ore
concentrate enters the top center of the roaster where it is
heated to 1750° or 1800°F in a low oxygen atmosphere. As the
material moves in a zigzag path to the bottom of the roaster,
between 90 and 95 percent of the lead sulfide (PbS) is sublimed
and carried in the exhaust gases as particulate, with minimal
amounts of SO- emissions from oxidation. The deleaded material
may require crushing and screening to break up lumps prior to
entering the fluid-bed roaster.
The fluid-bed roaster is used to remove sulfur. The feed is
either ore concentrate or deleaded ore concentrate from the
multiple hearth roaster. Concentrate is suspended and oxidized
in a stream of upflowing air; part of the calcine is withdrawn
from the floating bed in the bottom of the roaster. The re-
mainder is carried with the gas stream to air pollution control
equipment where it is recovered and returned to the process.
The flash roaster is also used to remove sulfur from ore
concentrate. The material is fed to the bottom, where drying
7.7-3 '
-------
place. It is conducted to the top and then falls down
through an ascending stream of hot air that oxidizes the con-
centrate converting zinc sulfide to zinc oxide and releasing
sulfur in the exhaust gases. Both the fluid bed and the flash
roaster are self-sustaining and need no extra fuel once ignited.
The product of both roasters is referred to as calcine.
Electrolytic recovery is the most common method of obtaining
the zinc metal from the calcine. The roasted ore is leached in
sulfuric acid to form a zinc sulfate solution. Electrolysis
takes place after the iron, cadmium, and other impurities are
precipitated out. The zinc sheets (cathodes) that are formed
during electrolysis are stripped and melted in a reverberatory or
electric furnace. Alloying agents are added to the matte zinc,
and it is alloyed in pot furnaces and cast into slabs or plates.
Pyrometallurgical recovery is the other method for extract-
ing the zinc. Before thermal reduction takes place, sintering is
done to agglomerate the small calcine particles into a feed of
the desired physical properties. A mixture of calcine, coke, and
sometimes sand is ignited on a strand (travelling metal con-
veyor) ; sand is added to provide strength to the sinter that will
be used in an electrothermal furnace. Air is pulled down through
the bed of material, which burns from top to bottom as it moves
along the strand. In the breaking and cooling phase, sinter
falls onto a slab, where it is crushed by hammers, and usually is
formed into briquettes.
7.7-4
-------
Two types of thermal reduction furnaces are used to produce
high-purity zinc from zinc oxide; they are the vertical retort
and the electrothermal furnace. The vertical retort furnace is
an upright rectangle measuring about 1 ft wide by 7 ft long and
35 ft tall.2 Sinter (which usually has been formed into bri-
quettes) and coke are intermittently fed into the top of the
furnace. The charge is heated to 2400°F by firing natural gas in
chambers that surround the furnace. Zinc oxide is reduced to
zinc metal as the charge settles in the furnace; an upflow of gas
carries zinc vapor to a condenser, which condenses the vapor to
molten zinc. The noncondensable gases are discharged to the
atmosphere through a particulate control device. Residue is
withdrawn from the bottom of the furnace for further treatment.
The molten zinc is cast into slabs or plates.
The electrothermal furnace is similar to the vertical re-
tort, except that heat is provided by current flowing between
electrodes placed at the top and bottom of the furnace, rather
than by natural gas. Hard sinter, with silica sand added, must
be used in it. Zinc vapor is swept out and condensed as in the
vertical retort, followed by casting.
Various kinds of heat exchangers are used in the smelter to
cool exhaust gases and to preheat combustion air for the roasters
Particulate from collection devices on roaster off-gas is
sent to calcine storage; at other smelters it is combined with
the calcine on the sinter strand.
7.7-5
-------
EMISSIONS1"3'5'6
Emissions from zinc smelters include particulates and
sulfur dioxide. Emission sources are identified in Figure 7.7-1.
For some of the sources, AP-42 provides emission factors, which
are listed on the process flow diagram. For other sources of
emissions, average emission rates obtained from other documents
are mentioned in the following source descriptions.
Raw material unloading creates fugitive particulate emis-
sions of 0.03 to 0.4 Ib/ton of zinc ore concentrate, 0.03 to 0.4
Ib/ton of sand, and 0.4 Ib/ton of coke unloaded.
Because the ore concentrate is often stored in silos or
buildings to protect it from weather, emissions are usually
minimal from this source. Minor fugitive emissions occur from
the open storage of sand, coke, coal, and sometimes partial
concentrate storage. Handling of the raw materials, including
concentrate, sand, coke, and coal, does create fugitive particu-
late emissions. When uncontrolled, these emissions are 2.1 to
5.5 Ib/ton of material handled.
The exhaust gas from the multiple hearth roaster contains
3
particulates, and may contain small amounts of SO2- AP-42
provides emissions factors for the multiple hearth furnace when
it is used for desulfurization. Almost all multiple hearths are
now used for deleading under different operating conditions, and
the emission factors in AP-42 do not apply in this circumstance.
7.7-6
-------
Crushing and screening of the deleaded material generate
particulate emissions.
Off-gas from flash and fluid-bed roasters contains 50 to 85
2
percent of the feed as particulate and 5.5 to 12 percent sulfur
dioxide by volume. Most of the particulate is, however, re-
covered from the gas stream in cyclones and directly recycled to
the process. The cyclones are part of the process equipment.
Remaining particulate is captured in downstream control equipment
and is partially recycled to the process. The cleaned gas,
containing SO_, is sent to a sulfuric acid plant for sulfur
recovery.
Electrolytic processing generates minor amounts of fugitive
particulate emissions including release of acid mists. The zinc
melting and alloying processes that follow electrolysis also
generate particulate emissions.
The sintering process has several sources of emissions.
Some fugitive emissions are liberated from the feed end of the
sinter machine during the transfer of material onto the conveyor
strand. Exhaust from the sinter machine includes small amounts
of SO from combustion of sulfur in the calcine. The sulfur
content is usually 2 to 3 percent sulfur. Particulates carried
in the stream are usually recycled. One of the largest sources
of particulates at a smelter is the sinter breaking and cooling
section, where sinter leaving the machine is crushed. Uncon-
trolled emissions from sinter breaking are 0.55 to 2.45 Ib/ton of
sinter.
7.7-7
-------
Reduction furnaces, both vertical retort and electrothermal,
produce a significant amount of particulate emissions. They also
produce carbon monoxide, which is usually returned to the furnace
as fuel and is not released to the atmosphere.
Casting of the molten zinc both from electrolytic recovery
and pyrometallurgical processes emits 2.52 pounds of fugitive
particulate per ton of zinc produced.
CONTROL PRACTICES ' '
Emissions from raw material unloading and handling and
transfer are generally not controlled; however, water sprays or
enclosures can be used to reduce fugitive emissions.
The exhaust gases from the multiple hearth are vented to
particulate control devices, usually to an electrostatic pre-
cipitator (ESP). The particulates from the crushing and screening
operation are controlled by passage through a cyclone or bag-
house.
Off-gas from flash and fluid-bed roasters is exhausted
through particulate and SO2 controls. The SO2 is removed at
sulfuric acid plants; however, the gas entering a sulfuric acid
plant must be essentially free of particulates to avoid damage to
catalysts and to prevent impurities in the acid. Particulate is
therefore removed at the smelter by a combination of cyclones and
wet ESP's. Overall efficiencies of greater than 99 percent can
be attained. The preconditioned gas stream then enters the
sulfuric acid plant, where wet scrubbing towers and drying towers
clean the incoming gas of all remaining particulates and water
7.7-8
-------
vapor. The scrubbing liquid is sulfuric acid. Single-contact
plants, which are the most common, have S02 removal efficiencies
of 95 to 98 percent.
Electrolytic recovery results in a relatively minor release
of acid mist in the cell room from oxygen and hydrogen liberation
at the anode and cathode. These emissions are not controlled
with air pollution devices, but the cell room is usually venti-
lated to minimize corrosion of equipment. Various electrolyte
covers and additives are used to reduce misting.
Particulate emissions from zinc melting and alloying are
controlled with baghouses or scrubbers.
Emissions from the charging of the sinter strand are not
controlled.
Exhaust gases from the sinter machine contain particulates
and small amounts of S02. ' Particulate is removed by baghouses
or ESP's, with efficiencies of 98 percent and 90 to 96 percent,
respectively. The SO,, is not controlled, but the hot gases are
often vented to the same stack as the gases from the sulfuric
acid plant to add buoyancy.
Particulates from the sinter breaking and cooling operation
are controlled at all smelters with baghouses with an efficiency
of 99 percent.
Gases from vertical retort and electrothermal furnaces
contain metallic vapor and carbon monoxide. The gases pass
through the zinc condenser and then through a venturi scrubber,
which removes entrained particulates, and the carbon monoxide gas
7.7-9
-------
is used as part of the fuel for heating the retorts. Blue pow-
der, a mixture of metallic zinc and zinc oxide, is recovered from
the scrubbing system and is recycled or sold as a byproduct.
Emissions from casting of the molten metal are usually not
controlled.
CODING NEDS FORMS8"11
The emission sources associated with primary zinc smelting
are:
Source
Raw material unloading
Raw material handling and
transfer
Multiple hearth roaster
Crushing/screening
Fluid-bed roaster
Flash roaster
Electrolytic processing
Zinc melting
Alloying
Sintering
SCC
3-03-030-12
3-03-030-09
3-03-030-02
3-03-030-14
3-03-030-08
3-03-030-07
3-03-030-06
3-03-030-15
3-03-030-16
3-03-030-03
Sinter breaking and cooling 3-03-030-10
Reduction furnace
Zinc casting
3-03-030-05
3-03-030-11
Pollutant(s)
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate, SO,
A
Particulate, SO,
^
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate, SO,
^
Particulate
Particulate, CO
Particulate
Standard NEDS forms, Figures 7.7-2 through 7.7-13, show
entries for the SCC's and other codes. Entries in the data field
give information common to primary zinc smelting. Information
7.7-10
-------
pertinent to coding the source is entered on the margins of the
forms and above or below applicable data fields. Entries for
control equipment codes, other optional codes, emission factors,
and required comments minimize the need to refer to the code
lists. Typical data values for operating parameters, control
equipment efficiencies, and other source information are shown on
the form (or in the text) only to aid in rapid, approximate
checks of data submitted by the plant in a permit application or
similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual
values specific to, and reported by, the plant rather than typical
values. Contact the plant to validate or correct questionable
data and to obtain unreported information. See Part 1 of this
manual for general coding instructions.
Emissions from unloading the ore concentrate, sand, and coke
are not controlled, and an emission factor has not been developed.
Figure 7.7-2 illustrates the standard NEDS form for this source.
The emission source labeled "raw material handling and
transfer" includes all pollutants from the handling of ore, sand,
coke, and coal prior to the sintering operation or the electro-
lytic processing. An emission factor for this source has not yet
been developed. When a plant furnishes emissions data, code the
value given and enter "Emission estimate given by plant" in the
comments field on Card 7. When there is no control device (as is
most common) or when water sprays are used to reduce emissions,
enter zeros in the stack height and diameter fields, 77 in the
temperature field, and zeros in the common stack field. Enter
7.7-11
-------
appropriate height in the plume height field. When water sprays
are used, enter 061 or 062 as a control equipment code. Identify
other emission reduction practices, such as use of enclosures, in
the comments field on Card 6. Figure 7.7-3 illustrates the
standard NEDS form for this source.
When a multiple hearth roaster is used for deleading, it is
coded as shown in Figure 7.7-4. There is another SCC number that
refers to multiple hearth roasters as a desulfurization method;
however, this is no longer widely practiced, and the emissions
factors associated with it do not apply to deleading.
The standard NEDS form for crushing/screening is shown in
Figure 7.7-5.
When a cyclone on a flash or fluid-bed roaster returns its
catch directly to the roaster, it is considered process equipment
and not a control device. The ESP's are the most common control
devices used at zinc smelters. Figure 7.7-6 illustrates the
standard NEDS form for flash and fluid-bed roasters.
Since the gases from the sinter machine are often vented to
a sulfuric acid plant, the associated emissions are accounted for
on the NEDS forms for the acid plant. On the NEDS form for the
zinc smelter, enter zeros for emission estimates and allowable
emissions and fives for the estimation method. The five denotes
a special emission factor; in this case, that the emissions are
vented to another process. Code zeros in the stack data field.
Code the sulfuric acid plant as described in the compendium on
sulfuric acid manufacturing.
7.7-12
-------
Emissions from electrolytic processing and casting are not
usually controlled. Figures 7.7-7 and 7.7-13 show the appro-
priate NEDS forms for these sources.
Figure 7.7-8 shows entries on the standard NEDS form for
zinc melting. The in-process fuel may be either oil or natural
gas. In newer plants that use electric furnaces, no in-process
fuel is needed.
Figure 7.7-9 is a standard NEDS form for alloying.
Sinter machine exhaust gases are commonly vented through the
same stack (after control) as the roasting emissions (after
control in the sulfuric acid plant). In this case enter the
appropriate point ID's in the points with common stack field, and
enter identical values for stack height and diameter for each
source on the two NEDS forms. Figures 7.7-10 and 7.7-11 show the
standard NEDS forms for sintering and sinter breaking and cool-
ing.
Vertical retorts and electrothermal reduction furnaces have
the same emission factors and the same SCC, 3-03-030-05. Note
that only the vertical retort uses in-process fuel (natural gas),
SCC 3-90-006-05. Enter a comment telling which type of fuel is
being reported. The standard NEDS form for the reduction furnace
(vertical retort or electrothermal furnace) is shown in Figure
7.7-12.
Most smelters have more than one roaster, sinter strand, and
reduction furnace. Some have three types of roasters. Code
each unit separately to ensure that all emissions are recorded.
7.7-13
-------
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS12
The EEC's of the equipment in a zinc smelter are:
Source EEC
Raw material unloading 700
Raw material handling and transfer 700
Multiple hearth roaster 287
Crushing/screening 650
Fluid-bed roaster 287
Flash roaster 287
Electrolytic processing No code*
Zinc melting 978
Alloying No code*
Sintering 979
Sinter breaking and cooling 664
Reduction furnace 977
Zinc casting No code*
*As of October 1978.
7.7-14
-------
Figure 7.7-2. Standard NEDS form for primary zinc smelting - raw material unloading.
I
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U"i
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEUS)
ENVIRONMENT Al PROTECTION AGEMCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
Input form
FORM APf'HOV E.O
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Date
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RAW MATERIAL UNLOADING^
SCC UNIT - TONS PROCESSED
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METHOD
oioi I ioi M
CONTROL REGULATIONS
-.-.-,-I-.1, \^-h
i^i-riilitiillfit:
±].t±r±il
J_L_LJ
-------
Figure 7.7-3. Standard NEDS form for primary zinc smelting - raw material handling and transfer
POINT SOURCE
FORM APPROVED
I
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEOS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
u
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ALTHHl
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^
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1 11 K
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r ca
P 7
P 7
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-------
Figure 7.7-4. Standard NEDS form for primary zinc smelting - multiple hearth roaster.
SI4IC.
1 2
C.um.
T
i
s
6
AOCR
i
i
5
Pljnt 10
NumlM-i
10
11
i; 13
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Off ICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
Input Form
I
Njm* ol Pe,ion
Complfling Fcwm_
FORM APPROVED
cue NO
Oil*.
Conuct Prr
^iLiMZ™^^^^
LiJ^LLi_j_l_L.i_L_Lj_L_L.J_L LjJJ.i ij_ J_iJ_L±JJLU.lJJTj^{j7LlT_L^
!l>».n,l |S SJ I|J H0,"0n^°'OBOw*';,,' j i ^lACKOATA ^ j Po-H QOOO 1F NO COMMON STACK f,
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.iij--,1 j-XLj^iL+i^j—L_!|_ilj_''.|j,':|iiL-:i-^_jJ£^l.;.- _jjl|_ij_ljj"il:J21,j!|l?jiiiiii!2jisiiiiiLji'[lljJll^iiliilllliiL^i ^TinX jii^IIili^IlJilL'ii^^iiilM.'0!HL!;'Ml!I -':i^pM'I^'si M
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o t' I Bo,I,, rif- ar. t-'10 f; • f-^' ?_|. |^ 1^, ; rSTIMATtO CONTROL 6FFPCI«N':v l\l J
rSTIMATtO CONTROL 6FFPCI«N':v l\l
nf' OP,
^0, NO. MC CO
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;4^|i'4^U4^r31i^^I!^P^
U J. iXniQlli; oLoMoJoJ oOUSM_oJlIoMTOldMott^^
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EMISSION £Sf'VA7ES (ion* vaad
j >0i k
-------
Figure 7.7-5. Standard NEDS form for primary zinc smelting - crushing/screening.
Slat
TT;
3 4 5 6
71 9
10 II 12 IJ
I
M
00
Point
11^
llllb
li
JE_
16 17
II
irrr?
16 II
16 17
CRUSHING/SCREENING
20 21
I 19 20 21
ITTJ
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
EitabMthment Name and Addieit
POINT SOURCE
Inpul Fotm
Nam* of Person
Complftmg Form.
FORM APPROVED
QMS NO IMB0095
Dai.
22l?3l24|2>l26l27l28|23|30|3l|32|33|34|3S|36|37|3i » 40 S 46 47T48 49 50 S[ S2 53 S4 SS 56 £ SI » 60 61_
22 23
106 BTU/nr
20 21
UTM Cl
Horttontat
km
OINATES
Vertical
2! 29 » 31 32
33 34 3S 3(
37 38 19 40 41 12 43
STACK DATA
Temp(°FI Flow Rate (It3/m
23 24
ANNUAL THRUPUT
20 21
27 21
OTO 0 0
Pntnary
SO?
29 30 31
NORMAL
OPERATING
29 30
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
ft
"o
u»m Mctghi
Kk ft
41 4S 46 47 41 49 S0| 51 52 S3 54
NO,
3b id 3)
Pi.mar, 03
3 HC Jj
38 39 40
41 42 43
Primary
CO
lo
Contact • Pertonal
62m 6t Us 66 67 6169 70 71 72|73
,0000 If NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
6116? 63|64 6S 66|67 68 63 70 71 7: 73 74|75 76 77
ESTIMATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY IXI
Part SO? NO* HC CO
Si 57 51
59 (0 (I
6? 63 «4
6S 66 67
31 32 33 X 35 16 37
EMISSION ESTIMATES Uoni/year)
SO2 NO,
38 39 40 11 I2l<3 44
46 17 U 4? SO SI
52 S3 S4 SS S6 S7 SI
Particulm
8 U 20 21 22121124
ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS llor«/v*arl
SO; NO,
21 22 23
26 27 2112) 30 31
32 33 34)3sl3t 17 31
31 10 41 I? UlM IS
26 27 21 29 » 31 32
33 34 3S 36 31 31 39
1
m
SCC UNIT - TONS PROCESSED _
Fuel PioctSt* Houdy ?r t 5 - «
Soi-a Wane lVa«imum O»>v" "-^1 "• |
Opetannq Baie ** -•- • - -
«, «! U n SO SI S2
^COMPLIANCE
« SCHEDULE
S9 60 61 62 63 64 6V
COMPLIANCE
STATUS
UPDATE
61 69 70 71 72 73 74 75| 76 7)
ESTIMATION
METHOD
67 8! 17 48 49 SO
Si S2 S3 S4 SS Si S7
60 11
8
1 1
29 30 31 32 33
37|3Bh9l40|ilh2|»|»|lS|4«|4l|)8|49|solSl|s;|S3|S4|irfT6 5' 58 S9 60 61 62 63 64 6S 66 67_ it 69 70 71^ 11 73 74 75 76
-------
-------
Figure 7.7-7. Standard NEDS form for primary zinc smelting - electrolytic processing,
1 2
I
NJ
O
3 4|S
14 IS IS II
PoilM
ID
ffl
U II
tt
ie|i;
ELECTROLYTIC
PROCESSING
>M
20 21
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
EiMblnhinm Njrnr and Artd,en
POINT SOURCE
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO 158 R009S
5: 3
U1M COORDINATES
31 32
STACK DATA
Tsmp!nFI F!
, nitf (M/minf |M
CONTROL EO'J'P''
Pi,I I SOj I NO, HC | CO
It 19 29 21 22 2! 24
ALLOWABLE EWISS'ONC li-m/ytir)
S02 "O,
5 21 ?S 29 30 31
sec
.'1 27 23
UNITAnn JONS PROCESSED
Furl Piyceis
Solid W«|*
Op*,fti,'in Rale
££
> I
itTi;
21 22 23
3? 33 35 Ji jfcjl ;S
:9!4D
-------
Figure 7.7.8. Standard NEDS form for primary zinc smelting - zinc melting in-process fuel
i
NJ
I—1
Numtef
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
Input Fofm
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO 1&6-R009S
Name of Ptrton
Compltting Form
Hl;7|ll|19|2
nimii
it Name and Addiesi
u. cr cr>
TTIIE"
Wj3Q
UTM COORDINATES
STACK. DA
CONTROL eCHJiPMtNT
II no slack
so.
jri_^ Tumji»iiT t NORMAL !
! O^EHA^NG i
Fo
Contact Pertonal
^oooo IF NO amw STACK
POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
6! 63
ESTIMATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY W
!
NO, MC
79|io|
68169 70
f,...e^,f s-, ,
^_:,I^TTni?T^7feiin^^
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'
i b°2 j NO. I •^_^^_\_^^^-^£4±^^J±L^S^.^,.^
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_
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stii62 ^i|i^ii55liil^»nsI3KJi332pspi npp]
-4—,-
, -r^-,-. |-^_-,- . -t--|^T ' 1 ^-~","'^
_L_i_j-_L -—i. i.— i i—L- 1 — i- -—i—-—'
rfis:
_ ,-_ (
-------
Figure 7.7-9. Standard NEDS form for primary zinc smelting - alloying.
i
NJ
to
8
s
OV I
ot at
+ i i
1/1 ot at
*+ r—
5§8
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Of F1CE OF AIR PROGRAMS
Establishment Name and Address
POINT SOURCE
Input Form
Name of Person
Completing Fotm_
FORM APPROVED
O*»8 NO 158R009S
Daw.
Capacity
IQo BTU'hr
UTM COORDINATES
Dum (III
e He.ght
nl III no stack I
% ANNUAL THHUPUT
NOHM
OPERATING
I i
COMROL EQUIPMENT
S
T3 «
P. 9
NO,
HC
llU.'ll!
OJQ
sold
Contact Pe-sonal
62 63
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II I
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0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
"™1°>fx" UU POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
ESTIMATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY [%l
EMISSION ESTIMATES l[om>vedrl
ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS llon*,veaf)
ALLOYING
^COMPLIANCE
jt SCHEDULE
CO
6Z[63
STATUS
, SCO UNIT - TONS PROCESJfD
7«l79
ESTIMATION
METHOD
73 74l
75176!
CONTROL REGULATIONS
Reg 3
'3|7«|75|
Sul.OrtAI.
Op. F-,
55 56 57 5J
-------
Figure 7.7-10. Standard NEDS form for primary zinc smelting - sintering.
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL. PROTECTION ACtNCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
P'JIMT SOURCE
FOPM APPROVED
OMB NO i$8ncx>95
.
1 -111 -LJ-I_Ll_i_Lll_: _L
-
i , "T x 0000 IF NO CCJW3N STACK
•
}44-T-V-r4V-l-rkv-i- -r-r^-^ -'"-"• - J ' -I' i ""' ' r;ir"' '••"' ;'" 1' "" J 1 '"•'-'" xf XXXX POINT ID'S !F COMMON STACK I Ll
il;!?iMLSSi:STrilTITi t?l"!jj-'I1"i"1 -H:I:] ^ rfifetei^
-------
Figure 7.7-11. Standard NEDS form for primary zinc smelting -
sinter breaking and cooling.
i
to
State] Counrv
i Hi
t_
4 i -
|
6
'
AOCR
7
1
9
Plant ID
Numbei
10
11
Po
1C
14
12
13
C
fP
n
11
SINTER BREAKING
AND COOLING
PC
.
ty
7?
17
j. 5
> c
16
17
"c "B
£ £1
16
17
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17
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=
;
16
°
17
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17
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c
n
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Zone
IS
15
"- "O
20
21
S C
IE
3
IS
3
2C
3
21
3
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS) POINT
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY '"'""
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS NameoiPe.son
Compiling Form
Establ shment Name and Address
221
23
5 0
-A
22
00 ler Design
Cacac iy
106 3TU/h,
16
Q
s> AT
Dec
Fed
16 19
70
21
4NUA
Mav
70
71
;;
?3
24
25
26
27
UTM CC
Hoiiiomai
24
25
Pi.ma'v
Par,
71
THR
June
Aug
22|23
74
25
JPUT
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NOv
;4
• Fa.i.cuiaie
IF,
1
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1
70
1
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n
21
•}
71
77
71
sec
in
21
n
22
^
23
n
sec
24
T,
26
76
27
28
29
30
31
32
ORDINATES
Vertical
28
29
30
31
32
33
31
35
36
Heiani lit
33
34
35
36
3}
3!
39
Dam III
3"
3E
39
!C
41
42
>3
STACK DAI
Tfmo (°FI
4(1
41
42
43
44
S5
46
4)
t-
19
50
51
52
53
5»
A
bourne Height
Flow Rate Itt3/m.nl [ll no stack^
44
45
46
41
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
:,
77
NO
OPEf
7S
29
RN
*A1
1
n
7' 1 78
SO"
29
0
30
0
AL
ING
1
79
ir
31
0
i,
37
0
33
0
34
NO,
35
olo
36
n
3-
0
Paii.cu ate
31
ALLOW
so-.
71
IV
?•
1
71
n
76
77
Ft
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?t
77
n
79
in
11
n
17
V;
34
11
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-,;
X
36
0
11
0
40
0
HC
41
0
4?
0
43
0
1
44
0
EMISS
S02
3J
ABLE EMISSIONS Its
NO.
Annua SCC U
el Process
7',
com
n
EK
w
TS
31
ill
3?
11
1(
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47
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44
0
45
o
46
47
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43
49
CO
41
0
49
0
so| si
52
Is
1
50
0
51
0
ON ESTIMATES (tons
NO,
4C,
HC
"i
IS PRO
it
35
40
4!
4?
CE_SStD
40
41
4;
n
43
44
45
II
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43
44
4;
n
46
47
U
49
10
i!
0
52
,0
53
5<
55
55
ESTI
Pan
53
54
51
56
SI
5t
59
with
56
57
53
U1ATED C
SO,
56
57
58
0
year)
HC
S7li3
CO
46
4/
U
4]
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;7
4;
4;
a
50
53
1)
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51
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1)
51-
c
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5J
54
55
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5CHE
Ve-r
54
55
56
5J
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3ULE
MCI
56
57
i!
0
59
60
tl
SOURCE FORM APPROVED
Form OMB NO 158.R0095
Date .
Contact • Personal
62 IM
t»
65
6t
(7
6S
69
70
71
72
73
|
71
75
76
77
.-0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
•""^ XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
(0
61
DNTROL
NO,
19
60
61
0
62 63
1
(4
EFFICIEN
HC
67
63
64
ku
65
66
67
CY (%)
CO
65
CO
59
COM
s
U
55
5S
U
61
PLIA^
TATU
PDAT
Mo
bO
61
ti
63
JCE
S
E
Dav
62
63
fci
0.
U
kl
65
0
65
E
66
67
L"
(8
59
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
68
69
70
TIMATION
METHOD
Si" 8
67
0
6S
0
CON
Reg 1
65
bo
kl
63
69
U
/a
71
72
73
* Space
71
"1
11
THOLREGU
6?
10
5i
SI
52
s;
53
Si
J4
S!
55
S'
%
57
56
•
y,
60
Ml
61
M
62
63
M
6t
M
65
k5
66
db
67
5S
y
65
bi
7C
70
n
c
71
P
Ti
n
C
72
72
'IS
(^
74
75
76
77
74
/i
/'k
LATIONS
Reg 3
73
L-
74
7S
76
11
77
73
74
75
•
75
H
76
77
1
71
c
1
7e
I
78
[Action
.'8
i
7E
c
a
>8
\m \ Action
L
79»
p),
79] 80
p|2
H
79 >0
cd
71 K
P 4
led
79 80
p|s
cd
J9 80
6
6
1 6
6
E
cd
79 SO
-------
Figure 7.7-12. Standard NEDS form for primary zinc smelting -
reduction furnace (vertical retort and electrothermal furnaces).
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS) .
ENVIRONMENT! PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
FOPM APPROVED
OMB NO 158 R0095
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK c
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
PROCESSED; FORFD
S '.« (C <•• ,: fi «: Si 6(. 57 65 09 70 71 'J ,'J )» 75 76 77
REDUCTION FUPJiACE
INPROCESS FUEL (RETORT ONLY),
-------
Fxgure 7.7-13. Standard NEDS form for primary zinc smelting - zinc casting.
1
to
State.
1
j
Counlv
3
J
t
6
AOCR
1
8
9
ZINC
Plant ID
Number
10
C
11
Po
It
12
nt
)
13
AST ING
1C
"o
ra
TD
0
o|
5 S
1:
re
"o
"o
O
O
1
17
Dim
B 13
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11
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GLOSSARY
Calcine - The predominantly zinc oxide product of a roaster.
Retort - A furnace used to reduce zinc oxide to zinc metal.
Sinter - An agglomerated product produced by heating the material
to the point of fusion.
Strand - A travelling metal grate or conveyor belt.
7.7-27
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.7
1. Background information for New Source Performance Standards:
Primary Copper, Zinc, and Lead Smelters. Volume 1: Pro-
posed Standards. EPA-450/2-74-002a, October 1974. pp.
3.125-3.169, 5.18-5.27.
2. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Volume 22.
2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1970. pp. 563-589.
3. Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors. 2nd edition.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. AP-42, February 1976.
p. 7.7-1.
4. Control of Sulfur Oxide Emissions in Copper, Lead, and Zinc
Smelting. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Washington, B.C. Informa-
tion Circular 8527, 1971.
5. Development Document for Interim Final Effluent Limitations
Guidelines and Proposed New Source Performance Standards for
the Zinc Segment of the Nonferrous Metals Manufacturing
Point Source Category. EPA-440/1-75/032, February 1975.
6 Technical Guidance for Control of Industrial Process Fugi-
tive Particulate Emissions. EPA-450/3-77-010, March 1977.
pp. 2-150-163.
7. Cotterill, C.H. and J.M. Cigan, ed. Extractive Metallurgy
of Lead and Zinc: AIME world symposium on mining and metal-
lurgy of lead and zinc. Volume II. New York. The Metal-
lurgical Society of AIME, 1970. 1090 pp.
8 Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual. EPA-
450/2-76-029 (OAQPS No. 1.2-039), December 1976.
9. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes. EPA-
45/2-76-005 (OAQPS No. 1.2-042), April 1976.
10 Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 Edition.
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available from
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, B.C.
7.7-28
-------
11. Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual of
Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Public Health Service Publication No. 1956. 1968.
12. Vatavuk, W.M. National Emission Data System (NEDS) Control
Device Workbook. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
APTD-1570, July 1973.
7.7-29
-------
7.8 SECONDARY ALUMINUM OPERATIONS
PROCESS DESCRIPTION1"4
In secondary aluminum operations, aluminum scrap is melted
and mixed with other metals to produce lightweight alloys for
industrial castings. Copper, magnesium, and silicon are the most
common alloying constituents.
The raw materials for secondary aluminum plants come from
three main sources:
1. Aluminum pigs. These may be primary metal or may be
secondary aluminum produced by a large secondary smelter to meet
standard alloy specifications.
2. Foundry returns. These include rejected castings and
mold components such as gates, risers, runners, and sprues.
3. Miscellaneous scrap. This category includes aluminum
borings and turnings; other items contaminated with oil, grease,
paint, rubber, and plastics; and aluminum mixed with metals such
as iron, magnesium, zinc, and brass.
Figure 7.8-1 is a process flow diagram of secondary aluminum
operations. The raw materials are sometimes pretreated to prepare
them for smelting, the process of melting and removing impurities
such as oxides. Used castings and other foundry returns may need
to be crushed or screened to bring about the mechanical or
magnetic removal of iron, and the mechanical separation of dirt
7.8-1
-------
9
RAW
MATERIAL
STORAGE
1
SECONDARY
CONTROL
DEVICE
t
1
PRIMARY
CONTROL
DEVICE
FABRIC FILTER 016
ESP 01°
AFTERBURNER 021
WATER SPRAY 003
i PART^U.^)
B
3-04-001-01
SWEATING FURNACE
3-90-OOX-99
O *-°
^-r 6_w
t 0 PW
CONTROL
^ PAR"
CRUSH IN
SCREENI
L
mjRAL
FABRIC
rO
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NG
GAS
FILTER 018
3-04-001-08
CRUSHING/SCREENING
CONTROL
DEVICE
AFTERBURNER 021
|i HC O
ROTARY
DRYER
.^
t FABRIC FILTER 016 /~\
! ESP 010 Vj
SECONDARY 1
CONTROL }
1 1 StlUNUAKT l-ABKlb riLiuiv uiv
f AFTERBURNER 021 CONTROL ESP °>°
1 HIGH FNFBC-v "FT nni BE^ICE
3-04-001-09
BURNING/DRYING
PRIMARY SCKUBBEk t
Cr0J!™L FABRIC FILTER 017
_KYiCE J i PRIORY " HIGH ENERGY WET 001 _
4 * O CONTROL SCRUBBER /^~N fj
| MMRUSTION /T\ DEVICE _ HET CYCLOfK 009 \J ^S
, PROOUOS ^ i CHLORINATION 4 .-, ^, ,OT /-^
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FURNACE INUOI
j -1 L. ' CAST!
^W1 5 I SSaATORY ^L*^
.a^oox^ tSSSSSSlS
IN-PROCESS I-UEL ' '
4-OIL
6-NATURAL GAS
|
CONTROL FABRIC FILTER 016 i rerun-
DEVICE WET SCRUBBER 002 Llbtnu.
' 1 r' Q EMISSION FACTOR*
t PART <^> EMISSION FACTOR HOT DEVELOPED
•* ' — \-/ FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EQUIP.
l ' f.ODE WITH EST. EFF. SHOWN
3^04-001-07 1 IN ( }
HOT r DROSS V DENOTES FUGIT,VE
PROCESSIRG > EMISSIONS
Q DENOTES A STACK
* IN POUNDS PER SCC UH1T
IN-PROCESS FUEL
4-OIL
6-NATURAL GAS
Figure 7.8-1
Secendary Aluminum Operations
7.8-2
-------
and loose aluminum oxide. Borings and turnings are burned and
dried in direct-fired rotary kilns to remove cutting oils,
grease, and moisture.
Another form of pretreatment is sweating, which is used to
recover aluminum from scrap having a high iron content. Open-
flame reverberatory furnaces with sloping hearths are generally
used, although grate-type furnaces also may be used. The alu-
minum scrap is charged into the furnace where the aluminum melts
and is collected while the higher melting iron, brass, and other
materials remain. Aluminum recovered by this process is referred
to as sweated pig.
Smelting of pretreated and raw aluminum scrap is done in
either crucible or reverberatory furnaces. The crucible or pot-
type furnace is used for melting small quantities of aluminum (up
to 1000 pounds) and is usually charged (loaded) by hand with pigs
and foundry returns. The reverberatory furnace, with mechanical
charging, is used for medium and large capacity batches. Both
gas- and oil-fired units are used.
After a batch is completely melted, alloying ingredients are
added to adjust the composition of the product. The melt is then
treated to remove trapped gases and metals, such as magnesium.
This treatment is referred to here as fluxing, with chlorine gas
or other materials used as fluxing agents. This process is
carried out either in the smelting furnace, in a separate well in
the furnace, or in a different unit. Often the fluxing process
is referred to as degassing or demagging, depending upon its
7.8-3
-------
purpose: degassing reduces dissolved gases; demagging reduces
the magnesium content of the melt. These operations can overlap;
chlorine, for instance, can function as a fluxing agent to demag
and also to degas molten aluminum, depending on the state of
chlorine and the amount added.
Chlorine and fluoride fluxing are accomplished by introducing
chlorine or fluoride through the molten metal to float the mag-
nesium to the surface where it is removed with the dross. The
melt can also be degassed by bubbling chlorine through the
molten metal bath.
Degassing can be accomplished by other methods, such as
bubbling dry nitrogen through the melt; by mechanical vibration;
or by application of a vacuum.
After these operations the metal is poured either into ingot
molds for shipping or into preheated crucibles for product manufac-
turing and shipping.
The dross from the smelting furnace contains enough aluminum
metal to justify its recovery. The two methods for recovering
the metal are wet or dry milling (mechanical); or hot dross
processing (pyrometallurgical). In wet milling, the cooled dross
is ground, screened, and magnetically separated. In dry milling
the cooled dross is separated by air classification after grind-
ing and screening. In hot dross processing, materials that
solubilize impurities are added to the molten dross. The insoluble
aluminum metal is tapped off the bottom and returned to the
smelting furnace.
7.8-4
-------
A typical plant will have four or five furnaces and produce
100,000 to 1,000,000 pounds of aluminum per day. Stack heights
for a typical secondary aluminum smelting operation range from 15
to 75 feet, with an average of 40 feet.
EMISSIONS1"6
Emissions from secondary aluminum operations include fine
particulate matter, some hydrocarbons, and gaseous chlorine or
fluoride. Emission sources are identified in Figure 7.8-1.
For some of the sources AP-42 provides emission factors, which
are listed on the process flow diagram. For other sources of
emissions, average emission rates obtained from other documents
are mentioned in the following source descriptions.
The storage and handling of the scrap raw materials release
insignificant amounts of particulates.
Pretreatment causes various amounts of emissions. Crushing
and screening can generate either minor or significant quantities
4 5
of particulates, depending largely on the grade of the scrap. '
The burning/drying process is a major source of emissions.
Very little excess air is used, in order to minimize oxidation of
the aluminum. A dense black smoke of partially burned oils, fine
aluminum, and aluminum oxide particulates is formed. Other
contaminants, such as chlorides, fluorides, and SO,,, might also
be present.
The sweating furnace is a major contributor of particulates
because of the contaminated scrap it processes. Small amounts of
magnesium in the scrap can release large quantities of fumes.
7.8-5
-------
Although the majority are captured, some particulates become
fugitive during charging and residue removal; Reference 6 reports
a fugitive emissions rate of 0.72 Ib/ton of metal processed. The
sweating furnace can also be a source of hydrocarbon emissions
when the scrap is contaminated with oil, grease, or tar.
Most of the emissions from a secondary aluminum plant are
generated by the smelting process. These emissions are particu-
lates and some combustion products from the fuel. Hydrocarbons
are sometimes released from dirty scrap, although most of the
hydrocarbons escape during sweating.
When chlorine is used for fluxing it is added so rapidly
that large quantities of aluminum chloride and magnesium chloride
particulates are emitted. Particulate emissions during chlorina-
tion are 1000 pounds per ton of chlorine used, or 14.5 pounds per
ton of product.1 The emissions also include excess chlorine and
some hydrogen chloride (HC1). At melt temperatures the aluminum
chloride is a vapor; it cools in the atmosphere to form fumes
(submicron particulates), which absorb moisture from the air and
form hydrogen chloride. These emissions are toxic, corrosive,
and irritating. Data on emissions from fluoride fluxing are not
available.
When smelting and fluxing are performed sequentially in the
smelting furnace, all emissions are vented to one control system.
At some plants, the smelting and fluxing are performed in two
separate wells in the furnace; or smelting is done in the furnace
followed by fluxing in a separate unit. In these cases, the
7.8-6
-------
emissions from smelting and from fluxing are collected and con-
trolled separately.
Wet milling emits minor fugitive particulates in the course
of feeding the cooled dross into a ball mill. Dry milling may
emit some fugitive particulates during the handling of the cooled
dross and during grinding and screening. Uncontrolled fugitive
emissions from hot dross handling and processing are estimated at
0.22 Ib/ton of metal processed.
Other sources of emissions from secondary aluminum pro-
cessing include raw material storage and handling, and pouring of
the molten aluminum. Emission rates for these sources are
considered to be minor and values have not been reported.6
CONTROL PRACTICES1"7
Where crushing and screening cause significant emissions,
they are usually controlled by fabric filters.
The combustible portions of the emissions from the burning/
drying process are controlled by afterburners that convert hydro-
carbons and the carbonaceous matter into carbon dioxide and
water. Afterburners do not, however, reduce the metallic parti-
culates entrained in the exhaust.
Emissions released during the charging of the sweating
furnace are usually vented through the main furnace control
system. Hydrocarbons from the melting of the aluminum scrap in
the sweating furnace may be controlled by an afterburner.
Particulates are controlled by passage through a fabric filter,
7.8-7
-------
after the exhaust has been cooled by a water spray. An electro-
static precipitator may also be used to control particulates.
The smelting furnace, like the sweating furnace, is equipped
with a combination of controls: an afterburner plus a fabric
filter or electrostatic precipitator. The afterburner reduces
particulates, which tend to blind the fabric filter. When hydro-
carbons are emitted they are also reduced by the afterburner.
Instead of an afterburner, a high-efficiency wet scrubber may be
used with or without a secondary control.
When smelting and fluxing are carried out sequentially in
the furnace, emissions are usually vented to one control system.
Since emissions from fluxing contain corrosive gases, the control
system must include a device to remove the gases, as when fluxing
is done separately.
A combination of controls is used when the fluxing operation
is separate from the smelting. Gaseous pollutants, such as
chlorine and HC1, and most of the particulates are removed by
high-efficiency wet scrubbers that use a caustic solution.
Scrubbing is followed by heating and passage through fabric
filters to remove the remaining particulates. Coated baghouses
that are efficient in removing both the acidic gases and particu-
lates appear to be gaining popularity. The coating, which
neutralizes acidic gases, must be replaced periodically. A wet
cyclone is sometimes used for this application, followed by a
fabric filter or electrostatic precipitator. The precipitator,
however, encounters operational and maintenance problems from
corrosion by the acidic gases.
7.8-8
-------
Data are not available on control devices used to control
emissions from degassing by nitrogen, application of a vacuum, or
mechanical vibration. Degassing with chlorine or fluoride is a
part of the fluxing operation.
The small amounts of emissions from handling of the dross
during wet and dry milling are not usually controlled. The
grinding/screening equipment used in dry milling is entirely
enclosed, and air for classification is recycled to prevent par-
ticulate emissions. Fumes and particulates from hot dross proc-
essing are sometimes controlled by hooding and venting through a
fabric filter or scrubber.
Emissions from the pouring operations are minor and are not
controlled.
CODING NEDS FORMS7"10
The major sources of emissions from a secondary aluminum
plant are:
7.8-9
-------
Source
Crushing/screening
Burning/drying
In-process fuel
Sweating furnace
In-process fuel
Smelting furnace
crucible
reverberatory
In-process fuel
Fluxing, chlorination
fluoridation
SCC
3-04-001-08
3-04-001-09
3-90-OOX-99
3-04-001-01
3-90-OOX-99
3-04-001-02
3-04-001-03
3-90-OOX-99
3-04-001-04
3-04-001-05
Pollutant(s)
Particulates
Particulates,
hydrocarbons
Particulates,
hydrocarbons
Particulates,
hydrocarbons,
combustion prod-
ucts
Particulates
Degassing
Hot dross processing
Particulates
Particulates
3-04-001-06
3-04-001-07
The units for the SCC's are expressed in tons of metal pro-
duced.
Figures 7.8-2 through 7.8-8 illustrate the standard NEDS
forms for these sources. Entries in the data fields give infor-
mation common to secondary aluminum plants. Information per-
tinent to coding the source is entered on the margins of the
forms and above or below applicable data fields. Entries for
control equipment codes, other optional codes, emission factors,
and required comments minimize the need to refer to the code
lists. Typical data values for operating parameters, control
equipment efficiencies, and other source information are shown on
the form (or in the text) only to aid in rapid, approximate
checks of data submitted by the plant in a permit application or
7.8-10
-------
similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual
values specific to and reported by the plant, rather than typical
values. Contact the plant to validate or correct questionable
data and to obtain unreported information. See Part 1 of this
manual for general coding instructions.
Standard NEDS forms for crushing/screening and burning/dry-
ing are shown in Figures 7.8-2 and 7.8-3. The codes for controls
generally used are entered to minimize the need to refer to
coding manuals; however, the coder must verify the controls that
are actually used.
Figure 7.8-4 is a standard NEDS form for the sweating fur-
nace. A combination of controls is used to reduce emissions.
The afterburner reduces hydrocarbons, and the fabric filter and
ESP reduce particulates. Enter the code for afterburner under
primary control for hydrocarbons, where used; enter the code for
fabric filter or ESP under control for particulates, where used.
Figure 7.8-5 is a standard NEDS form for the smelting
operation. The two SCC codes possible are for the crucible or
reverberatory furnace. The standard NEDS form for fluxing is
shown in figure 7.8-6. There are two codes possible, depending
on whether chlorination or fluoridation is practiced. At some
plants the smelting and fluxing are combined (carried out sequen-
tially in the furnace) and the exhaust is vented to a common
stack. When this is the case, code two NEDS forms, one for
smelting and one for fluxing, using the same data for stack
height and diameter. In most cases the emissions from both
operations are vented to the same control equipment; however, it
7.8-11
-------
is possible to have different control equipment and one common
stack. The coder must determine the actual situation.
Degassing is coded separately when it is accomplished by use
of nitrogen gas, by applying a vacuum, or by mechanical vibra-
tion. Enter a comment stating which method is used. Degassing
by use of chlorine or fluoride is considered part of fluxing.
Figure 7.8-7 illustrates a standards NEDS form for degassing.
A standard NEDS form for hot dross processing is given in
Figure 7.8-8. When emissions from this source are controlled, a
fabric filter or wet scrubber is used.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The Basic Equipment Codes (EEC's) for each of the emission
sources are as follows:
Source BEC
Crushing/screening 654, 575
Burning/drying 231
Sweating furnace 942
Smelting furnace 940, 941
Fluxing (chlorination and
fluoridation) 982
Degassing NO code*
Hot dross processing No code*
As of September 1978.
7.8-12
-------
Figure 7.8-2. Standard NEDS form for secondary aluminum - crushing/screening.
00
I
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00
State! Cot.ntv
Point
10
CRUSHING/SCREENING
Boiler Design
Capacity
I0« BTU/nr
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
Establishment Name and Address
POINT SOURCE
Input Form
Name of Person
Completing Fo»m_
FORM APPROVE!*
OMB NO 158-ROJ95
Dai.
Height (HI
Temp (°FI
018 it
II
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Primary
SO
OPERATING
.2|U|MliS «|67
7273
,0000 IF NO COMMON STACK 5
POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK "
ESTIMATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY (M
EMISSION ESTIMATES I
ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS Itons/vearl
SO; NO,
Pom,
ID > rr
SCC
I 1 H Ml IV
'1 21 !} !4 1
Operation RAIF
IF
UNIT - TONS
Vaxirrtum Oesiyi>
^COMPLIANCE
COMPLIANCE
STATUS
UPDATE
(01(1
ESTIMATION
METHOD
CONTROL REGULATIONS
67163
Mej; Content
!t 11 !i 23 JO 31 3',
34 3S 36 3i 38 39 (0 il
61 67 63 63 70 71 72 73 7< 75 76 77
-------
Figure 7.8-3. Standard NEDS form for secondary aluminum - burning/drying.
00
I
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
Input Form
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO 1S8-R009S
D.I.,
0000 IF HO COmON STACK
UXX raiHT ID'S IF COMOH STACK
A*™. SCC WIT - TOUS PROOUCJ3
fut\. Pioc*«, Houfl* *r ;.
Soltd Wjilf Ma».mum O«i«r> ^*-w E
BURNING/DRYING
IN-PROCESS FUEL
4-RESIOUAL OIL, 6-NATURAL GAS
-------
"igure 7.8-4. Standard NEDS form for secondary aluminum - sweating furnace.
oo
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§
S t2
O OO
<0
o
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s
SJ
Plant ID
Number
lOlll 12 13
°S
Zone > 1! 20 11 22 23 24
ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS lloni/yearl
SOj NO,
19 20'
25 21121 29 30 31
32 33 34 35 36 37 38
39)40 tl 42 43 44 45
SCC/UN4T - TONS METAL PRODUCED^
Fl Prcess •
46 47 41 49 50 51 52
5COMPLIANCE
M SCHEDULE
59 60 61 62 63 64 65
COMPLIANCE
STATUS
UPDATE
HlSJ
62163
Hi ?0|?l'7? 73T74 7S|76l
61 69 70 7l|72 73 74J7S 76 77
ESTIMATION
METHOD
67 6S 69 70
74 75 78 77
CONTROL REGULATIONS
Heq i Reg 2 R«« 3
64 65 86 67lU
73|74 75 76 77
79|SO
Fuel Procesi
Solid
Operaii
26 27 28 21 30
Maximum Design
Rut
33 34 3S 36 3; 38 39 J.O 41 42
43 44 4i
Mwi Content
J6 :,' il 49 50
Comments
SI S2|S3|S4|5S|56Ts7r5« Sslsohl 'o 64 6S|66|67 Sl|69|70
!
73 74 75 76 77,
-4-RESIDUAL OIL, 6-NATURAL GAS
3ll32l33|34l35|36|37|38h9|40hl|Kh3|«|i5|
-------
Figure 7.8-5. Standard NEDS forms for secondary aluminum - smelting furnace.
00
wit-
ss
CONTROL
EFFIC. X
Ul
* > 1 1 1
** 0
58
ouj
Is
00
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-------
GLOSSARY
Degassing - A process used to reduce or eliminate dissolved or
trapped gases.
Demagging - A process used to reduce the magnesium content of the
alloy.
Dross - The scum that forms on the surface of molten metals
largely because of oxidation, but sometimes because of the rising
of impurities to the surface.
Fluxing - Adding substances that absorb impurities or prevent the
formation of oxides in molten metal baths.
Pigs - Crude metal casted into blocks for storage, transporta-
tion, or remelting.
Smelting - Any metallurgical operation in which metal is separ-
ated by fusion from those impurities with which it may be chem-
ically combined or physically mixed.
7.8-20
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.8
1 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. 2nd edition.
U.sT Environmental Protection Agency, AP-42, February 1976.
2. Air Pollution Engineering Manual. 2nd edition. U.S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency. AP-41, May 1973.
3 Midwest Research Institute. Particulate Pollutant System
Study, Volume III: Handbook of Emission Properties. EPA-
22-69-104, May 1971.
4 PEDCo Environmental, Inc. Environmental Assessment of the
Domestic Secondary Aluminum Industry. (Working Paper) EPA
Contract No. 68-03-2477, July 1978.
5 Technical Guidance for Control of Industrial Process Fugi-
tive Particulate Emissions. EPA-450/3-77-010, March 1977.
6. Billings, C.D. (ed.). Fabric Filter Manual. Chapter IX.
The Mcllvaine Company, Northbrook, Illinois, July 1978.
7. Vatavuk, W.M. National Emission Data System (NEDS) Control
Device Workbook. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Publication No. APTD-1570, July 1973.
8. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual. EPA-
450/2-76-029 (OAQPS No. 1.2-039), December 1976.
9. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes. EPA-
45/2-76-005 (OAQPS No. 1.2-042), April 1976.
10. Standard Industrial Classification Manual. 1972 edition.
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available from
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
11. Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual of
Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Public Health Service Publication No. 1956. 1968.
7.8-21
-------
7.9 SECONDARY COPPER SMELTING AND ALLOYING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
In the secondary copper industry, copper is recovered from
scrap metal, which includes both copper and copper alloys. The
processes used are determined by the type and quality of the feed
material. Low-grade copper scrap, which contains less than 30-
percent recoverable metal, is usually utilized in secondary smel-
ting, whereas clean, selected scrap including brass and bronze
may be melted (without smelting) to produce alloys. Generally,
a secondary copper facility processes the less metal-rich feed
and produces a more refined product. Alloy processors perform
fewer refining operations.
Secondary Copper Smelting
Processes involved in copper recovery may be classified as
pretreatment, smelting, and refining. Figure 7.9.1 presents a flow-
sheet depicting the major processes typically employed in a
secondary copper smelter, producing refined copper from low-grade
scrap.
Copper-bearing scrap, for industry purposes, has been classi-
fied as either new or old. New scrap is that produced in fabri-
cating finished products; for example, turnings, borings, and
other waste from machining copper, brass, and bronze. Old scrap
consists mainly of obsolete, wornout, or salvaged articles such
as wire, plumbing fixtures, parts from electrical machinery,
automobiles, and domestic applicances. Other materials with
copper values include slags, drosses, foundry ashes, and sweepings
from smelters and copper processing industries. A detailed classi-
fication of copper-bearing scrap materials has been published
by the National Association of Secondary Materials Industries.
7.9-1
-------
LOW«RADE _
SCRAP
IO
ro
1
?
t
SCRAP DR
3-04-O02-I
SCRAP DR>
3-04-O02
SCRAP OR
FUGITIVE EM
3-90-OOX
INPROCESS
0
BAGHOUSE 017 (991
VENTURI SCRUBBER 053 (651 * BA
CYCLONES 009 165) )
SCRAP FLU>< _
FUEL *•
07 n j4\. 3-04-002-WW
ER PAHT<27^> CUPOLA
31 XS. 340-OOX-99
YER PART
-------
Specifications for the various classes have also been defined.
Copper wire and tubing constitute almost half of the scrap used
in the industry.
Scrap Metal Pretreatment
Feed scrap may contain a great deal of nonmetallic material
including oil, grease, paint, insulation, rubber, and even
chemical? such as antifreeze. The scrap is segregated for further
treatment by a variety of processes adapted to the considerable
number of input materials. Generally, it is sorted according to
its copper content and cleanliness; clean scrap may be manually
sorted for charging directly to a melting and alloying furnace.
It is not unusual for this segregation to be performed prior to
shipment to the smelter, but a complete facility provides for
this operation.
In general, pretreatment processes may be classified as
mechanical, pyrometallurgical (involving heat), or hydrometallur-
gical (involving water). Their purpose is to concentrate the
valuable metals prior to smelting, refining, and alloying.
Mechanical methods are as follows:
1. Hand sorting - Individuals sort the scrap as it is
unloaded before being routed to storage.
2. Stripping - Any process involving the mechanical
removal of insulation from copper cable.
3« Shredding - Insulated wire is reduced 1n size in a
hammermi11, and conveyed pneumatically to a cyclone
where the metal and insulation are gravity-separated.
4. Magnets - Magnetic pulleys convey brass and bronze
scrap and trap loose iron particles.
5. Briquetting - A powerful hydraulic press is used to
reduce bulky scrap to small bales (briquettes).
Pyrometallurgical methods are as follows:
7.9-3
-------
1. Sweating - The separation of low-melting point
metals, such as lead, solder, and babbitt metal
from the desired materials by heating.
2. Burning - The removal by incineration of insula-
tion from wire scrap which, for some reason,
cannot be mechanically separated.
3. Drying - A process employing a rotary kiln to
vaporize excess cutting fluids from machine
shop chips or borings.
Hydrometallurgical methods include gravity separation by
flotation, leaching with ammonium carbonate or sulfuric acid,
and recovery of copper from the leachate by chemical processing.
Smelting
Pretreated scrap containing between 10- and 30-percent copper
is normally smelted in a cupola furnace (Figure 7.9-2). A cupola
furnace is essentially a vertical, refractory-lined cylinder open
at the top and equipped with airports at the bottom. Air is
supplied by a forced-draft blower. Alternate charges of scrap,
coke, and limestone are placed on top of a burning bed of coke;
the metal melts and is drawn off through a tap-hole and spout
at the bottom of the furnace. Oxides of copper and heavy metals
are chemically reduced. Various impurities, such as iron, combine
to form a slag, which collects on top of the molten metal and can
be drawn off separately. A typical cupola furnace has a capacity
of about 55 to 65 metric tons per day, producing so-called
"black" copper of about 70- to 80-percent purity. The impurities
may be sulfides of copper and iron, as well as other metals and
their oxides: tin, zinc, lead, and others.
In the typical system of Figure 7.9-1, further smelting and
refining are accomplished using a reverberatory "holding" furnace,
a converter, and a reverberatory or rotary refining furnace.
These operations are similar to those used in primary copper
smelting (q.v.). The contents of reverberatory furnaces are furnaces
7.9-4
-------
SPARK
ARRESTER
TAPPING SPOU)
BOTTOM PLATE
S1ND BOTTOM
Figure 7.9-2 A Cupola Furnace
7.9-5
-------
by radiation heat from burner flames, refractory walls and roofs.
The function of the holding furnace is to retain the melt until
a sufficient batch is accumulated as a charge to the converter
and to allow for tapping the slag. (An electric-arc furnace can
also be used for this purpose.)
The converter consists of a cylindrical steel shell which
can be rotated about its longtudinal axis. An opening in one
side admits the molten charge and vents gases. Air is blown
through the melt by means of a horizontal row of pipes, with
openings (called "tuyeres") which are below the liquid metal
when the furnace is rotated. A silica flux is added to remove
iron from the metal, while zinc and any sulfur are converted to
their respective oxides by the air which is blown in.
The product from the converter is "blister" copper, usually
90- to 99-percent pure. This material may be poured and cast,
or it may be transferred in the molten state to another furnace
for a final pyrometallurgical process known as "fire refining."
Feed containing low-copper values can also be smelted in
electric crucible furnaces, using oxygen in place of air for
oxidation.
Refining
Blister copper is,typically, further purified by fire
refining, to about the level of 99.9-percent purity. Electroly-
tic refining may be done as an additional step to produce elec-
trolytic copper. These processes are essentially the same in
secondary smelting as in primary smelting of copper.
Fire-refining furnaces are, typically, reverberatory fur-
naces, often of a rotary type. Capacities usually range from
about 100 to 35C metric tons. In the furnace, air is blown
through the molten metal to oxidize impurities which, as oxides,
7.9-6
-------
are removed in the slag which is skimmed or poured off. Copper
oxide, formed to the extent of less than 1 percent of copper, is
reduced by "poling" (submerging wooden poles in the molten metal)
or by supplying a reducing atmosphere of gas (by fuel-rich combus-
tion). The usual sequence of events in fire refining is (1)
charging; (2) melting; (3) skimming; (4) blowing; (5) adding
fluxes; (6) reducing; (7) reskimming; and (8) pouring.
Electrolytic refining separates impurities from the copper
by electrolysis in a solution bath containing copper sulfate and
sulfuric acid. Metallic impurities form a sludge ("slime") which
is removed and may be treated for recovery of precious metals.
Melting and Alloying
To produce bronze or brass rather than copper, an alloying
operation is required. Where high-grade scrap is used, smelting
may be unnecessary. Figure 7.9-3 presents a flow diagram for a
typical operation of this kind.
In the case illustrated, scrap as received is manually and
mechanically sorted to segregate pure copper, especially copper
wire, from copper alloys. Insulated wire is fed to a wire-burner,
an incinerator in which combustible insulation is removed. Brass
and bronze scrap is sweated to remove low-melting metals such as
solder, lead, and babbitt metal. The cleaned copper and alloys
are then melted in an alloying furnace. Zinc and other metals
may be added to bring the resulting mixture to the desired final
composition. Fluxes are added to the mixture to remove impuri-
ties and to protect the melt against oxidation. Air or oxygen may
be blown through the melt to adjust the composition by oxidizing
excess zinc. With zinc-rich feed, the zinc oxide particulate
loading in the exhaust is often recovered in a process baghouse.
7.9-7
-------
LEGEND
EMISSION FACTOR"
O EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EQUIP. CODE
4 WITH EST EFF. SHOWN IN ( I
X DENOTES FUGITIVE EMISSIONS
f^\ DENOTES A STACK
BAGHOUSE 016 (991
VENTURI SCRUBBER 053 165)
IO
CD
* IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
HIGH GRADE SCRAP -
SCRAP METAL
PRETREATMENT
LEAD, SOLDER.
BABBITT METAL
FUEL
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BRASS
AND
BRONZE
SCRAP
3-04-O02-09 ..
SWEATING FURNACE PART O»
3-04402-33
SWEATING-FUGITIVE EMISSIONS PART
3-90-OOX-99
INPROCESS FUEL
COPPER SCRAP
FUEL-
3-04-002-30
SCRAP METAL
PRETREATMENT
AFTERBURNER 021 (90)
SCRUBBER 003
ww
14
15
35
19
37
20
21
23
24
38
MELTING AND ALLOYING FURNACES
REVEHBERATORY-COPPER CHARGE
REVERBERATORY-BRASS/BRONZE CHARGE
REVERBERATORY-FUGITIVE EMISSIONS
CRUCIBLE/POT-BRASS/BRONZE CHARGE
CRUCIBLE/POT-FUGITIVE EMISSIONS
ELECTRIC ARC -COPPER CHARGE
ELECTRIC ARC-BRASS/BRONZE CHARGE
ELECTRIC INDUCTION-COPPER CHARGE
ELECTRIC INDUCTION-BRASS/BRONZE CHARGE
ELECTRIC INDUCTION-FUGITIVE EMISSIONS
PARTICULATE
EMISSIONS FACTOR
5.10
36.00
6.27
21.00
0.49
5.00
11 00
7.00
20.00
0.14
FUEL-
FLUX-
UNDESIRED SCRAP
3-04-002418
WIRE BURNER PART
3-04-002-32
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FUGITIVE EMISSIONS PART<137^
3-90-OOX-99
INPROCESS FUEL
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MELTING AND ALLOYING
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CASTING OPEKATIONS PART £015
SLAG TO DUMP
Figure 7 9-3. High Grade Brass and Bronze Alloying
79-8
-------
Brass and bronze shapes for working, such as slabs and
billets, are usually produced in large reverberatory furnaces,
of the type also used for secondary smelting and copper recovery.
In smaller operations and to make commercial castings, the metals
are melted in crucible furnaces, pot furnaces, or electric fur-
naces, both arc and induction types.
Casting
The final step is always casting of the metal into desired
form. Blister copper is sometimes poured into water for quenching
to produce copper shot, but is usually either transferred in the
molten state to a refining furnace or cast into ingots. Fire-
refined copper is cast into wirebar, anodes, and cathodes as
well as ingots.
Brass and bronze are more often cast into special shapes.
The mold, made of cast iron or similar material, is dusted with
charcoal before filling, to facilitate removal of the solid
casting. After the mold is filled, exposed metal surfaces are
sometimes dusted with charcoal, to reduce skin oxidation due to
oxygen from the air.
Furnace Types
Furnaces of many types are used in secondary copper operations
and in brass and bronze melting and alloying. In recovery of copper
from scrap having relatively low copper content, the charge is
commonly treated in a blast furnace or cupola, where heavy-metal
oxides and sulfides are reduced. Reverberatory furnaces are used
as holding furnaces for the cupola melt, and sometimes in fire
refining. Converters are used to oxidize sulfides, zinc, and base
metals by blowing air through the melt. These and various other
types of furnaces, frequently encountered in the secondary copper,
brass, and bronze industries, are described in the following para-
graphs.
7.9-9
-------
Blast Furnace or Cupola
Although these names are sometimes used interchangeably,
the cupola is generally considered to be a smaller variety of
blast furnace. The principles of operation are essentially the
same, but the larger furnaces are more common in primary smelting,
where metal is recovered by reducing oxide or sulfide ores. The
cupolas, commonly used in the secondary copper industry, recover
metal from skimmings, slags, and scrap metal in a reducing atmos-
phere provided by the combustion of coke.
Blast furnaces and cupolas consist essentially of vertical,
refractory-lined cylindrical shells (also known as "shafts," from
which these furnaces are sometimes called "shaft furnaces") open
at the top and equipped with air blowers at the bottom. The scrap
is intermingled or layered with coke and limestone and heated by
combustion. Molten metal and slag may be tapped separately from
the base of the furnace, but more commonly both are continuously
tapped into a "holding" furnace where they are separated. This is
usually a stationary reverberatory furnace.
Reverberatory Furnaces
A reverberatory furnace operates by radiating heat from its
burner flame, roof, and walls onto the material being heated.
Combustion of fuel occurs directly above the molten bath; transfer
of heat is accomplished almost entirely by radiation.
Reverberatory furnaces are available in many types and
designs. Their use will depend on specific job requirements,
such as the nature and quantity of the charge to be handled.
The largest such units are open-hearth furnaces, which range in
7.9-10
-------
capacity from about 40 to about 500 metric tons. In the
secondary copper, bronze, and brass industry, such units are often
used as holding furnaces to accumulate and separate the molten
metal ("black" copper) and slag tapped from the cupola furnace.
They may also be used in fire refining.
Large open-hearth furnaces are built with heat regenerators,
consisting of brick checkerwork, which absorb heat from the
effluent gases and transfer it to incoming air. The fuel is oil
or gas. The charge is introduced through refractory-lined doors
in the front wall; molten metal and slag arc removed through tap-
holes in the rear.
For melting and holding smaller amounts of copper, brass,
and bronze, cylindrical reverberatory furnaces are common. (See
Figure 7.9-4.) These are fired.through tangential nozzles and charged
through end doors on top openings. They usually utilize rotary
tilting mechanisms to facilitate pouring of the molten contents.
Rotary Furnaces
A more elaborate type of reverberatory furnace, commonly
called a "rotary" furnace, not only tilts for charging and pouring,
but also rotates during the melting period to improve heat
transfer. (Figure 7.9-5.) Two types are common. One is charged
through the furnace, opposite the burner. The other has a side
charge door at the center through which charging, skimming, and
pouring operations are conducted.
Converters
A converter is basically a cylindrical reverberatory furnace,
mounted to tilt about its longitudinal axis and modified to permit
blowing air through the melt. Illustrations of the copper conver-
ter and copper converter operation are shown in Figures 7.9-6 and 7.9-7
respectively. A side charge door is used for charging, skimming,
and pouring. Air is supplied through a header along the back of
the cylinder (opposite the charge door) from which a horizontal
row of tuyere pipes extend into the interior of the vessel.
7,9-11
-------
Figure 7.9-4. Gas-Fired Cyclindrical Reverberatory Furnace
7.9-12
-------
Figure 7.9-5. Rotary-Tilting-Type Reverberatory Furnace
Venting to Canopy Hood and Stack Vent
7.9-13
-------
OFF-GAS
TUYERE
PIPES
SILICEOUS
FLUX
PNEUMATIC
PUNCHERS
Figure 7.9-6. Copper Converter
7.9-14
-------
Exhaust Hood
CHARGING
BLOWING
SKINNING
Figure 7-9-7 Copper Converter Operation
7.9-15
-------
Crucible Furnaces
Crucible furnaces are indirect-fired furnaces having capaci-
ties of about 10 to 1,000 kilograms. They are used to melt metals
having melting points not above 1,400°C (2,500'F). The covers
of the crucible furnaces are constructed of materials similar to
the inner shell lining and have a small hole over the crucible
for charging metal and exhausting the products of combustion. The
crucible rests on a pedestal in the center of the furnace and is
commonly constructed of a refractory material such as a clay-graphite
mixture or silicon carbide.
Crucible furnaces are classified as tilting, pit, or stationary
furnaces. All types are provided with one or more gas or oil
burners mounted near the bottom of the unit. Flames are directed
tangentially around the inside of the furnace. The crucible is
heated both by radiation and by contact with the hot gases.
Pot Furnaces
Pot furnaces are indirect-fired furnaces used to melt metals
having melting points not above 800°C (1,400°F). These furnaces
may be cylindrical or rectangular and consist of an outer shell
lined with refractory material, a combustion chamber, and a pot.
The pots are made of pressed steel, cast steel, or cast iron with
flanged tops. The flange rests on the furnace wall, holds the
pot above the furnace floor, and seals the contents of the pot
from the products of combustion of the fuel used. The shape of
the pot depends upon the operation to be conducted.
Electric Furnaces
Most pyrometallurgical operations can be conducted with the
use of electricity rather than fuel for heating. Major advan-
tages of the electric furnace over fuel-fired furnaces are furnace
7.9-16
-------
atmosphere control and high-temperature operation. Temperatures
as high as 6,000°F are possible for special processes.
Resistance furnaces are used mainly for ferroalloys. The
other three types of electric furnaces are described in following
paragraphs.
Direct-Arc Furnaces
In the direct-arc furnaces, many and varied arrangements are
used to heat the metal charge, but radiation between arc and the
metal batr, is the principal method. Here, the heat is generated
by radiation from the arc as well as from the resistance heat
effect with the bath, as shown in Figure 7.9-8. Graphite and carbon
electrodes are usually used and are spaced just below the surface
of the slag cover. The current passes from one electrode through
the slag, the metal charge, the slag, and back to the other elec-
trode. In some arrangements, the current is carried from the
metal charge to the earth. The slag serves a protective function
by shielding the metal charge from vaporized carbon and the
extremely high temperatures at the arc.
Indirect-Arc Furnaces
In the indirect-arc furnaces, the metal charge is placed
below the electrodes, and the arc is formed between the electrodes
and above the charge (Figure 7.9*8). Indirect-arc furnaces are used.
mainly in the steel industry. One of the common smaller furnaces
is the indirect-arc rocking furnace, in which an automatic
rocking action of the furnace is employed to ensure a homogeneous
melt. This is done by mounting the refractory-lined steel shell
on cog bearings so that the furnace may be rocked through a 200°
range. Radiated heat from the indirect arc and conduction from
the preheated refractory lining initially melt small scrap,
forming a pool of molten metal at the bottom of the furnace. Then
7.,9-17
-------
ELECTRODES
DIRECT
INDIRECT
Figure 7.9-8. Principles of Operation of Direct-Arc and
Indirect Arc Furnaces
7.9-18
-------
the rocking action is initiated, and the molten metal washes
against the refractory, picking up additional heat, which is trans-
ferred by convection and radiation to the larger pieces of metal.
During the heat, the rocking action is advanced gradually to
avoid a sudden tumbling of cold metal, which could fracture the
graphite electrodes.
Induction Furnace
The induction furnace consists of a crucible within a water-
cooled copper coil (Figure 7.9-9). An alternating current in the coil
around the crucible induces eddy currents in the metal charge and
thus develops heat within the mass of the charge. Heating is
rapid and uniform and temperature can be accurately controlled.
High-frequency induction furnaces are well adapted to copper-rich
alloys (bronzes), but low-frequency induction furnaces are more
suitable for zinc-rich alloys (brass).
EMISSIONS
The principal air contaminants emitted in secondary copper
smelting and recovery are various forms of particulate matter.
These include organics from the pretreatment and metal oxides from
the pyrometal.urgical processes. Some gases, including hydrogen
chloride and sulfur dioxide, may be released by burning of insula-
tion. Carbon monoxide is emitted in the operation of cupola fur-
naces.
Scrap Metal Pretreatment
Copper reclamation from insulated wire is commonly accomplished
in single-chamber incinerators such as tepee burners, which may be
portable to cover piled scrap. A great variety of materials com-
poses the combustible insulation: rubber, paper, cotton, silk,
plastics, paint and varnish, and others. During combustion, in the
7.9-19
-------
Figure 7.9-9. Low-Frequency Induction Furnace With Fixed Hood
7.9-20
-------
absence of control equipment, black smoke is not uncommon, accom-
panied by disagreeable odors, inorganic materials, and oxygenated
hydrocarbons. If the insulation contains polyvinyl chloride,
hydrogen chloride is emitted. Sulfur dioxide is one product of
the burning of rubber insulation and of some synthetic rubbers.
In published results of one test, particulates recovered from
wire-burning in a single-chamber incinerator amounted to 178 kilo-
grams per metric ton (356 pounds per ton) of combustibles. The
combustibles constituted 35 percent of the charge.
Scrap driers consisting of rotary kilns are often used to
burn off oil and volatiles from turnings, borings, and other waste
from machining. This process can cause discharge of dense smoke
accompanied by volatile hydrocarbons and oxygenated materials.
Mechanical pretreatment, such as stripping, shearing, crushing,
shredding, and briquetting, is likely to be a source of fugitive
dust in copper recovery operations, both for secondary smelters
and for alloying operations. Such emissions have not been quanti-
tatively evaluated.
Cupola Furnaces
Air contaminants emitted from cupola furnaces are (1) gases,
(2) dust and fumes, and (3) smoke and oil vapor. Typically, the
gases may contain 10 percent or more of carbon monoxide. Dust in
the discharge gases arises from dirt in the feed material and from
fines in the coke and limestone charge. Smoke and oil vapor arise
primarily from, the partial combustion and distillation of oil
from greasy scrap charged to the furnace.
Reverberatory Furnaces
Reverberatory furnaces are used both for holding the melt
from the cupola furnace preparatory to loading the converter
with molten copper, and for melting and alloying in the production
of brass or bronze.
7.9-21
-------
Air contaminants from reverberatory furnaces include gases,
smoke, fumes, and dusts. The particulate matter varies according
to the fuel, alloy composition, melting temperature, type of fur-
nace, and various operating procedures. In addition to fly ash, carbon,
and mechanically produced dust, the emissions generally contain
fumes resulting from condensation and oxidation of the more vola-
tile elements, including zinc and lead.
Converter Emissions
Emissions of air contaminants from converter operations occur
predominantly during the air-blowing process, in which zinc and
sulfur are oxidized. In secondary smelting, sulfur is usually
a rather minor constituent of the melt, in contrast to the major
fraction encountered in primary smelting of sulfide ores. Fuel
use in this operation is also relatively minor, as the oxidation
of zinc, iron, and sulfur provides most of the necessary heat;
fuel-associated contaminants are therefore minimal. However, if
the material charged to the converter is not in the molten state,
fuel combustion is required in order to melt it and typical fuel-
combustion contaminants (i.e., sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
carbon monoxide, fly ash) are emitted during melting.
During charging and pouring, significant fugitive emissions
are likely to occur. These emissions have not been quantitatively
evaluated.
Emissions in Fire-Refining
Fire-refining generates relatively little sulfur dioxide or
metallic oxide particulates, since the blister copper charged is
at least 90-percent pure. Poling, however, often produces black
soot, which may be of concern.
7.9-22
-------
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Due to the wide variety of participates emitted, many
different control strategies are used.
Wire burning generates large amounts of particulate matter
in the form of unburned combustibles. These emissions are most
effectively controlled by a direct flame afterburner. If the
afterburner combustion temperature is maintained at a minimum of
1,000°C (1,800°F)5 an efficiency of 90 percent can be expected.
If the insulation contains polyvinyl chlori ie, hydrogen chloride
gas will be a contaminant. An afterburner will not control this
contaminant, but it can be reduced by a water scrubber.
Particulate emissions associated with the drying process
are controlled by a variety of control devices. Drying tempera-
tures of 70° to 150°C (150° to 300°F) are low enough to allow a
baghouse to operate without preceding of inert gases. Baghouse
efficiencies of 99 percent and above can be anticipated. Other
means of control used include cyclones (60- to 75-percent
efficiencies) and wet (venturi) scrubbers with efficiencies of
approximately 65 percent.
Emissions associated with the charging of scrap to melting
furnaces can be reduced by turning off the burners during charging.
The technique has several effects. It reduces the volume of
escaping air which can entrain contaminants. If the furnace
operates in conjunction with a baghouse, the operation of the
baghouse blower with the burner off actually produces a negative
pressure in the furnace, further reducing emissions. The escaping
fumes from charging and pouring are commonly captured by being
drawn upward through ducts to the same control equipment which
services the furnace exhaust gases.
There are many possible systems for the control of the metal
oxide fumes escaping from the furnace during melting. Baghouses,
7.9-23
-------
electrostatic precipitators, and wet scrubbers are most common.
Due to the small size of the metal oxide particles to be captured
(0.3 to 0.5 microns), the baghouse is the most effective device,
reaching efficiencies well in excess of 99 percent.
The temperature of the exit gas from the melting furnace is
approximately 1,200°C, which would destroy a baghouse. Several
practices are used to cool the gases to temperatures the baghouse
can handle (below 260°C). Figure 7, 9-10 shows a two-stage cooling
system consisting of water-jacketed coolers followed by radiant
cooling which reduces the baghouse outlet temperature to 180°C
(350°F).
Although electrostatic precipitators are reputed to be
extremely effective for collecting particles in the size range
exhibited by these metal oxides, experience has shown that collec-
tion efficiency for lead and zinc oxides is low, perhaps due to
unusual resistivity in these systems. Electrostatic precipitators
have been little used in control of furnace emissions, as their
optimum application appears to be for larger gas flow rates.
Wet scrubber installations must be restricted to applications
where the particle size range is above 1 micron and even then
collection efficiencies are only in the 50- to 65-percent range.
7.9-24
-------
CODING NEDS FORMS
The emissions sources in a secondary copper smelter and in
brass or bronze alloying are:
Source
Scrap Dryer
Wire Burning (Incinerator)
Sweating Furnace
Blast Furnace/Cupola
Charge w/Scrap Copper
Charge w/Wire
Charge w/Copper Brass
Reverberatory Furnace
Charae w/Cooper
Charge w/Brass/Bronze
Rotary Furnace
Crucible/Pot Furnace
Electric Arc Furnace
Charge w/Copper
Charge w/Brass/Bronze
Electric Induction Furnace
Charge w/Copper
Charge w/Brass/Bronze
Fugitive Emissions
Scrap Pretreatment
Scrap Dryer
Wire Incinerator
Sweating Furnace
Cupola Furnace
Reverberatory Furnace
Rotary Furnace
Crucible Furnace
Electric Induction Furnace
Casting Operations
SCC
3-04-002-07
3-04-002-08
3-04-002-09
3-04-002-10
3-04-002-11
3-04-002-12
3-04-002-14
3-04-002-15
3-04-002-17
3-04-002-19
3-04-002-20
3-04-002-21
3-04-002-23
3-04-002-24
3-04-
3-04-
3-04-
3-04-
3-04-
3-04-
3-04-
3-04-
3-04-
3-04-
002-30
002-31
002-32
002-33
002-34
002-35
002-36
002-37
002-38
002-39
Pollutants
Particulates, S09, NO, HC, CO
£ A
Particulates, S09, NO. HC, CO
L. X
Particulates, S02, NOX, HC, CO
Particulates, S02
Particulates, S02,
NO
NO
x'
HC,
HC,
Parti culates, S02,
Particulates, S02,
Particulates
Particulates,
Particulates,
Particulates,
Particulates,
Particulates,
Particulates,
Particulates,
Particulates,
Particulates
S09,
so;,
so;,
SOp,
so;,
so?,
SO,,
V
NO.
NO;,
NO;,
NO;,
N°y'
N0x'
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CO
CO
Particulates, SO;, NO*, HC, CO
L- X
Particulates, S0?, NO , HC, CO
Particulates, SOp, NO* HC, CO
Li A
Particulates, SOp, NO. HC, CO
C. A
Particulates, S09, NOV, HC, CO
£ X
Particulates, S09, NO , HC, CO
Particulates, S02, NO*, HC, CO
NO , HC, CO
NO* HC, CO
HC, CO
HC, CO
HC, CO
HC, CO
HC, CO
HC, CO
HC, CO
HC, CO
7.9-25
-------
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The EEC's for use in EIS/P&R forms are shown herein:
Source^ BEC
Blast furnace H2
Crucible furnace 102
Cupola furnace 112
Electric induction furnace 132
Reverberatory furnace 162
Rotary furnace 172
Electric arc furnace 122
Scrap dryer 192
Wire burner
7.9-26
-------
Exhaust Manifold 177°C;350°F)
Exnzust Sta
5'jctiori Fan
Figure 7.9-10. Systems Cooling Exhaust Gas Prior to Baghouse Entry
-------
I
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Figure 7.9-11 Scrap Metal Pretreatment
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SI
20
21
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS) POINT
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY npul
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS NomeolPer.on
Completing Form
Establishment Name and Add ess
22
23
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sic 1 _£
18
A
19
J
20
4
21 22
l|
Boiler Deiign
Capacity
10G BTU/hr
18
19
% Af
Dec
Feb
18
19
20
21
JNUA
Mat
May
20
21
22
0
23
24
25
26
27
UTM CC
Horizontal
km
24
25
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Primary
Pan
23
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June
Aug
22
23
24
25
JPUT
Sept
Nov
24
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18
1
18
3
J
1
18
-
19
2(1
I
19
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y
X
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19
20
21
22
23
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21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
O1DINATES
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km
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27
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28
29
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29
30
31
32
33
34
35
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33
34
35
36
37
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39
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37
38
39
40
41
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43
STACK DA
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40
41
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1
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
A
Flow Rate f|3/min
(1
<5
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
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51
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
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31
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25
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24
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y
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y
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21
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
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11
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEOS) P°'NT s
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OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS ccTpiei 'ir^m
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17
23
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18
19
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18
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20
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7(1
21
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70
71
22
71
74
75
n
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74
75
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73
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7fi
26
77
78
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77
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33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
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56
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46
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52
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54
55
56
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56
57
58
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60
61
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Form °*
Da
RM APPROVED
IB NO. 158-R0095
Contact Persona
62
63
64
65
66
67
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70
71
72
73
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74
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0000 IF NO COMMON STACK |
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60
61
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60
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67
63
64
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67
63
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61
66
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18
59
60
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61
62
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62
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64
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68
69
70
71
72
73
74
71
76
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68
69
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67
68
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65
66
67
68
61
70
71
72
li
% Space
71
72
TROLREGU
Reg 2
69
70
INS OF CHARGE
Comments
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
19
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
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71
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72
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73
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74
75
76
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74
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UATIONS
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73
74
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n
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73
74
75
76
77 7
tESID. OIL-4; DIST.OIL-5: NAT. GAS-6
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28
23
30
31
32
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34
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24
n t
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
Establishment Name jnd Addifs,
i 21
UTM CO
Momenta
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) 24
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74
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67
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69
70
71
71
72
72
73
73
74
74
75
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76
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77
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71
12173174
lul
TROLREGU
Reg 2
(9 in n 1 n
NS OF CHARGE
Comments
51
U
5J
PER CHARGE; 2-WIRE CHARGE; 3-SCRAP BRASS CH
RESID.OIL-4; DIST.OIL-5; NAT.GAS-6; COKE-8
32
33
34
35
36
3)
38
-
33
40
41
42
43
4)
45
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46
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51
52
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73
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-
56
51
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58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
...
66
67
—
63
69
_
70
71 72
-1
73
74
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75
76
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78
1
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71
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ptant ID NATIONAL EMISSIONS
<;i»!* County AQCR Number CNV/i RftNMFlMTAl PF
1 l 3 4 5 6 7 t 9 10 11 12 13 OFFICE OF AIP
0?
V'm -1 E.tablnhmrotNam
CitV Zor\t > DC _ - -
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ID ? £ SIC _ A. *m___ km H .ghtJM Q.am Ml _J>
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L_J — J 1— -1 — CONTROL ^OU
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f L D_ ^ "PI1 fj fj 0 0 0 OlOlOlO 0 0 c
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w ,°I I ill 5 15-36 LB/TON
ID SS D'C- M" >""' Sepv ? - i Pv,,cu'».e S
i 1 > rr Feb May Aug Nov x 1 ° 1 » — . . r— , — r-
~" liT 11 ii 10 in ?l ?? 1\ 74l?S 26 21128129 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
ff ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS Itoni/yearl
re "5|
S" |l Pa,,,cu,»,e S02 NO,
S 16 7 18 19 20]2l|22|23 24 25 26 21 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 18 J1 «u
•< scc Annual
^o Fuel. Pincr-ss Hou'ly '
C 5 y Sol" W.isIP M,T» injm [jes qn
-J vrr 1 II '" 1V Openhnrj l.itr- rijie
<" 16 17 18 19 2C 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
3 9 0~OCA_9~^
3-0 scc 4 - COPPER CHARGE: 5- BRASS/B
Pomt JS ' 1 rnMMfNTS ' PF^TH nil 4- HTST
ID >ir 1 u MI IV . -co, , . , ^LVU,'Ui l" l' ill
11 15 16 17 18 19 2C 2 22 23 21 25 26 2) 28 20 30 31 3: 33 34 35 36 3) 38 33 .0
r _.|_.l_j_| |_|__L|-_|_j_|_-L-U-|— j— j— |— j— H H~
1 y ZJllJjJ J-TJ.J-1 . IJ- L-
3ATA SYSTEM (NEDS) TL^rm" OMB NO. .58.R0095
IOTECTION AGENCY D>" •
-.__„_.... NameolPerio
POnr.RAMS ComplcungForm ~
Contact • Personal
" 42~ IT 44" 45 46 47 46 45 50 5 5? 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 61 69 70 71 72 J
CKDAA r™" x 0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
fclume He.qht commor/' vvvx POINT ID'S IF COMMON
iTTTTo 4(|l5|46|47|48| 49)50 51J52|S3|54 5S 5 — * — *- — * — ^ -~ — — — —
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% ANNUAL THRUPUT
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11 . .. I
ll
£* 1 III IV
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
3 3 0 3 3 A '
o -5 SCC '
> 16 17 18 19 2C 21 22 23 24
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
Esta ihshment N.inip .inrl Arid e«
" 26 21 28 23 30 31J3Z 33h4J35h6l3! 3S 39 40 41 4? 43 44 45 46 47 4! 43 50
JTMCOO1DINATES
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m km Height Mtl n am
26 27 28 29 30 31 ^ 2 33 34 35 36 3! 31
CONTF1OL
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NOMMAL
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£ § J P.VI.CU 3lf
5 26 21 28 29 30 3l|32|l3[34 35 36 37 .
ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS lu
SOj NO,
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Annua
Fuel Proceit Hourly
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62
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69
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18
3
11
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71
1
Boiler Desig
Capacity
106 BTU/f
II
19
% Af>
Dec-
Feb
18
11
70
71
4NUAI
Mar
May
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GLOSSARY
Alloy - Any substance having metallic properties and consisting
of two or more elements; with few exceptions the components
are usually metallic elements.
Anode - The positive terminal of an electrolytic cell; cast in
copper for use in electroplating or for electrolysis.
Arc Furnace - A furnace used to heat materials by the discharge
of electricity from electrodes.
Black Copper - The more or less impure metallic copper (70- to
99-percent copper) produced in blast furnaces.
Blister Copper - Impure copper (98.5 to 99.5 percent) product
of converters, having a blistered appearance.
Crucible - A refractory vessel or pot used in a furnace for
melting or calcining.
Cupola - A vertical cylindrical furnace for foundry use; the
metal, coke, and flux are put into the top of the furnace
onto a bed of coke through which air is blown.
Dross - An impurity, usually an oxide, formed on the surface of
a molten metal.
Flotation - A process used to separate particulate solids by
causing one group of particles to float; utilizes differences
in surface chemical properties of the particles, some of
which are entirely wetted by water while others are not.
Flux - A substance used to promote the fusing of minerals or
metals, and certain chemical reactions.
Hydrometallurgical - Treatment of ore to recover pure metal by
wet processes.
Indirect-fired furnace - A fuel-fired furnace in which melt is
contained in a heated vessel and is not contacted by the
flame.
Induction Furnace - An electric furnace in which heat is produced
in a metal charge by electromagnetic induction.
Ingot - A solid metal casting suitable for remelting or working.
7.9-40
-------
Leachate - The material removed from a mixture by leaching.
Leaching - Dissolving soluble minerals out of an ore by use of
percolating solutions such as acids.
Poling - Insertion of wood poles into a molten metal bath,
producing a reducing atmosphere by destructive
distillation.
Pyrolysis - The breaking apart of complex molecules into simpler
units by the use of heat, as in the pyrolysis of heavy oil
to make gasoline.
Pyrometallurgical - Treatment of ore to recover pure metal by
high-temperature processes.
Refining - Any process used to improve the purity of a metal to
meet product specifications.
Reverberatory Furnace - A furnace in which the charge is heated
by direct contact with flame and by radiation from furnace
walls.
Rotary Furnace - A cylindrical furnace which can be rotated about
its (horizontal) cylindrical axis.
Shaft Furnace - A vertical, refractory-lined cylinder in which a
fixed bed (or descending column) of solids is maintained
and through which an ascending stream of hot gas is forced.
Shot - Product made by pouring metal in finely divided streams;
particles solidifying during descent and are cooled in a
tank of water.
Slag - A nonmetallic product resulting from the interaction of
flux and impurities in the smelting and refining of metals.
Smelting - The heating of ore or scrap metal mixtures accompanied
by a chemical change resulting in the formation of liquid
metal matte.
Tuyeres - An opening in the shell and refractory lining of a
furnace through which air is forced into the melt.
Wirebar - Cast copper ingots used for the manufacture of wire.
7.9-41
-------
REFERENCES
Air Pollution Aspects of Brass and Bronze Smelting and Refining
Industry. Brass and Bronze Ingot Institute and National Air
Pollution Control Administration. PB 190295. November 1969.
Air Pollution Engineering Manual, Second Edition. EPA Publication
No. AP-40. May 1973.
Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines
and New Source Performance Standards for the Secondary Copper Sub-
category of the Copper Segment of the Nonferrous Metals Manufacturing
Point Source Category. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Water and Hazardous Materials, Effluent Guidelines Division,
Washington, D.C. November 1974.
Lauber, D.W. Conley, and D. Barshield, Air Pollution Control of
Aluminum and Copper Recycling Processes. Pollution Engineering.
p. 23-26. December 1973.
Multimedia Environmental Assessment of the Secondary Nonferrous,
Metal Industry, Volume II. Industry Profile. Final Draft. Radian
Corporation, Austin, Texas. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Industrial and Environmental Research Laboratory,
Cincinnati, Ohio under Contract No. 68-02-1319. June 21, 1976.
Parti oil ate Pollutant System Study, Volume III: Handbook of
Emission Properties. Midwest Research Institute, Kansas City,
Missouri Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Air Pollution Control Office, Durham, North Carolina under Contract
No. CPA 22-69-104. May 1, 1971.
7.9-42
-------
7.10 GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Foundries produce castings for automotive parts, light
and heavy machinery, pipe, and a wide range of miscellaneous
products. The process involves melting scrap metal and/or
pig iron (crude iron in the form of blocks weighing about
100 pounds) and pouring the molten metal into prepared
molds. The two major categories are "gray iron" foundries
and "steel" foundries. Both gray iron and steel consist
mostly of elemental iron, but the carbon contents differ.
Gray iron contains 2 to 4 percent carbon, and steel contains
1 percent or less. Gray iron contains various amounts of
other elements, generally less than 1 percent. Steel may
also contain alloying elements. The term "cast iron" is
sometimes used in referring to both "gray iron" and "steel"
castings. Such terms as "malleable," "white," and "nodular"
iron are used to describe gray iron castings with specific
properties.
Figure 7.10-1 illustrates the process flow in a typical
gray iron foundry. More than 80 percent of the U.S. instal-
lations use a cupola furnace to melt the raw materials.
Cupola capacities range from 1 to 50 tons of melted metal
7.10-1
-------
Figure 7.10-1. Gray iron foundry.
9
WET CAP 003(53)
VENTURI SCRUBBER 051(99)
MED. ENERGY SCRUBBER 002(91)
HI TEMP FABRIC FILTER 016(99)
MEO EfFlC. ESP Oil (93)
AFTERBURNER 021(94)
HI EFFIC. GRAVITY COLL 004(75)
HED. EFFIC. CfUWm COLL OOS(50)_
HI EFFIC. CENT COLL 007 (95)
LO TEMP. FABRIC FILTER 018(99)
PART.JLJ
co (Tit;
PART.O
INPROCESS
FUEL-
COKE
COKE
PART. O ^_.
FROM CHARGING AND TAPPING
SCMT NETAL
o
N3
PART 0 •+-
FROM CHARGING AND TAPPING
PART. O <-
FROM CHARGING AND TAPPING
jt ' *—>
FROM CHARGING AND TAPPING
MED. ENERGY WET SCRUBBER 002
LO. TEMP. FABRIC FILTER 018
9 P/WT.0
KC 0 FROM SURFACE
COATING
POURING LADLE
POURING
FABRIC FILTER 017 (95)
ESP 011(95)
VENTURI SCRUBBER
Or>«99>
FABRIC FILTER 017'95)
ESP 011(95)
VENTURI SCRUBBER
053(99)
3-90-004- 99 RESD OIL
3-90-005-99 DIST. OIL
3-90-006-99 NAT. GAS
INPROCESS FUEL
CYCLONE 005
FABRIC FILTER 018
! PART. (2)
3-90-004- "RESD. OIL
3-90-005- 99DIST. OIL
3-90-005- 99RAT. GAS
IOCESS FUEL
3-90-Qi
INPROC
SANO GRINOING/HANDLINS
IN MOLD AND CORE MAKING
LEGEND
Q EMISSION FACTOR*
0 EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL tOUIP.
. CODE WITH EST. EFF. SHOWN
f IN ( )
O
DENOTES FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS
DENOTES A STACK
IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
3-04-003-02
REVERBERATORY
3-90-004-99 RESD. OIL
3-90-005-99 DIST. OIL
3-90-006-99 NAT 6AS^
INPROCESS FUEL
-------
per hour; over 60 percent operate in the range of 3 to 11
tons per hour.3 The other types of furnaces used in on*;
iron foundries are electric arc, electric induct.! on, ,».;d
reverberatory.
Raw materials are placed in the cupola through a door
in the top of the furnace. This process is called charging.
The raw materials consist of iron scrap, pig iron, fluxes,
and coke. Fluxes are limestone or similar minerals, which
absorb impurities after the charge has melted. Coke is
essentially pure carbon in lump form. The burning of the
coke provides the heat to melt the raw materials. As the
charge melts, it descends to the bottom of the furnace where
the molten metal product is drained out periodically. Fresh
raw materials are added to keep the furnace full. Operation
of the cupola furnace is a continuous process.
The charge for electric arc, electric induction, and
reverberatory furnaces consists mainly of iron scrap, pig
iron, and limestone. The reverberatory furnace is heated by
firing gas or oil. These furnaces are operated on a batch
basis.
The molten metal is drained from the furnace at a
temperature of about 2900°F into a ladle. The ladle is used
to pour the molten metal into prepared molds, which confine
the iron in the form desired until it solidifies. In pro-
7.10-3
-------
duction of high-strength ("ductile iron") castings, mag-
nesium is added to the molten iron; the process is called
inoculation. After solidification the castings are shaken
out of the molds or the molds are broken away from the
castings. When they have cooled enough to permit handling,
the castings are cleaned by shot blasting and surface defects
are removed by grinding; these processes are generally
contained in an enclosure.
Castings intended for certain uses may be annealed
(heat treated) for several hours at temperatures of 1000 to
1600°F. Heat treating furnaces, fired by gas or oil, are
referred to by many different names, including "annealing,"
"hardening," "car-bottom," and "traveling hearth" furnaces.
Castings that have been annealed are often referred to as
malleable iron castings. Finishing operations such as
additional shot blasting and grinding, sand blasting, and
surface coating may follow the heat treatment. These are
separate operations shown as one box in flow diagram for
simplicity.
Production of molds and cores is an integral part of
the foundry operation. A mold is made of sand mixed with
water and binders such as clay, pitch or resins. A core is
a separable part of the mold used to form a cavity in the
casting. Cores are also made of sand and binders. After
7.10-4
-------
the cores are formed in the desired shape, they are cured
either in a baking oven (core oven) at 300-500°F or at room
temperature. Curing evaporates moisture and hardens the
sand mixture. Core ovens are fired with gas or oil.
EMISSION?1"7
Operation of a gray iron foundry generates particulate
and gaseous pollutants. Emission sources are identified in
Figure 7.10-1. For some of the sources AP-42 provides
emission factors, which are listed on the process flow
diagram. For other sources, average emission rates obtained
from other documents are mentioned in the following source
descriptions.
Fugitive particulate emissions occur from unloading,
storage, and transfer of raw materials, such as sand, flux
materials, and scrap metal.
The cupola is the largest source of emissions in a gray
iron foundry. Cupola emissions include particulate matter
such as coke particles, ash, metallic fumes, smoke, and oil
vapor. Although fugitive particulate emissions are gener-
ated from charging and tapping of the cupola, these emis-
sions are minor compared with those from the furnace.
Gaseous emissions from a cupola include carbon monoxide from
incomplete coke combustion, nitrogen oxides, and small
amounts of sulfur dioxide and fluoride compounds. Uncon-
7.10-5
-------
trolled emissions of nitrogen oxides from cupolas have been
4
reported to be 0.1 Ib/ton of metal produced.
Particulate and gaseous emissions from electric induc-
tion and reverberatory furnaces are very low compared to
those from cupolas. Emissions data for the electric arc
furnace in a gray iron foundry are not available, but the
particulate emission factor for an electric arc furnace in
a steel foundry is 13 pounds per ton of steel produced.
Particulates are emitted in the pouring operation. Two
studies indicate that these emissions range from 0.6 to 4.1
Ib/ton of metal produced.6' Particulate emissions from
inoculation are reported to be 3.3 Ib/ton of metal produced.
Shakeout of castings, an enclosed mechanical operation,
also generates particulate emissions which are reported to
7
be about 12.8 Ib/ton of metal produced.
Particulates are also emitted from cleaning and finish-
ing of castings.
Combustion of fuel in annealing generates combustion
products, which include particulate and gaseous pollutants.
Quantities depend on the type of fuel, the combustion effi-
ciency, and the temperature of the annealing furnace.
Mold and core making processes generate primarily
particulates, which result from sand screening, sand pre-
paration, mixing of core sand and binder, mold making, and
7.10-6
-------
core making. One source reports that fugitive emissions
from core sand and binder mixing are 8.2 Ib/ton of metal
produced. Quantitative data for emissions from all other
sources are not reported. Core ovens, which are usually
fired with gas or oil, emit mainly combustion products and
hydrocarbons from the binder.
CONTROL PRACTICES2'8'9
Points of storage and transfer of raw materials are
rarely controlled except with simple enclosures to protect
the materials from weathering.
Various devices are used to control particulate emis-
sions from the cupola furnace. Venturi scrubbers can be 99
percent effective in particulate removal and also can remove
2
small amounts of gaseous pollutants. Fabric filters can be
99.5 percent effective in controlling particulate emissions
2
from a cupola but do not remove gaseous pollutants. After-
burners, fired with gas or oil, are usually installed to
reduce carbon monoxide emissions.
At older installations with reverberatory furnaces,
particulate emissions are exhausted directly to the atmo-
sphere through a stack. At newer installations, parti-
culates are controlled with electrostatic precipitators,
baghouses, or venturi scrubbers. Emissions from the induc-
tion furnaces are usually not controlled. Emissions from
7.10-7
-------
the charging and tapping of these furnaces are not con-
trolled.
Either a hood or an enclosed exhaust system (referred
to as direct evacuation system) is used to capture emissions
from the electric arc furnace, which are then vented to a
baghouse, venturi scrubber, or electrostatic precipitator.
Where a hood is used, it also captures emissions from the
charging and tapping operations.
In older gray iron foundries, emissions from pouring
operations generally are not controlled. In some of the
newer facilities, a hood is installed over the pouring area
to capture the emissions, which are then vented to a fabric
filter. Emissions from the inoculation operation are vented
to a wet scrubber or a fabric filter.
Particulate emissions from shakeout operations are con-
trolled by hooding the area and venting it to a wet scrubber
or low-temperature fabric filter. Particulates from grinding
4 " and other cleaning operations are controlled by a dry
mechanical collector, medium-energy wet scrubber, or bag-
house. Finishing operations such as grinding are provided
with local exhaust hoods connected to high-efficiency
centrifugal collectors or fabric filters. Efficiencies of
these control systems are not reported in the literature.
Almost all heat treating furnaces are vented directly to the
atmosphere.
7.10-8
-------
Dry cyclones and fabric filters are used to control
emissions from mold making and core making. Most core ovens
are vented directly to the atmosphere through a stack. A
few foundries are equipped with afterburners to control
hydrocarbon emissions.
CODING NEDS FORMS5'10" 2
The major emission sources in a cray iron foundry are:
Source
Cupola
(In-process fuel)
Reverberatory
furnace
(In-process fuel)
Electric induction
furnace
Electric arc
furnace
Pouring/casting
Casting shakeout
Grinding/cleaning
Annealing
(In-process fuel)
Finishing
Sand handling
in mold and core
making
Core ovens
(In-process fuel)
SCC
3-04-003-01
(3-90-008-99)
3-04-003-02
(3-90-OOX-99')
3-04-003-03
3-04-003-04
3-04-003-20
3-04-003-31
3-04-003-40
3-04-003-05
(3-90-OOX-99 )
3-04-003-60
3-04-003-50
3-04-003-51
(3-90-OOX-99)
Pollutants
Particulates, CO, NO
Particulates, CO, NO
Particulates
Particulates, NO
x
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Products of
combustion
Particulates
HC, products of
combustion
x
The codes for X in the SCC's for in-process fuel are: 4 for
residual oil; 5 for distillate oil; 6 for natural gas.
7.10-9
-------
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures
7.10-2 through 7.10-12, show entries for the SCC's and other
codes. Entries in the data fields give information common
to gray iron foundries. Information pertinent to coding the
source is entered on the margins of the forms and above or
below applicable data fields. Entries for control equipment
codes, other optional codes, emission factors, and required
comments minimize the need to refer to the code lists.
Typical data values for operating parameters, control
equipment efficiencies, and other source information are
shown on the form (or in the text) only to serve as quick,
approximate checks of data submitted by the plant in a
permit application or similar report. Data entered in
EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual values specific to and
reported by the plant, rather than typical values. Contact
the plant to validate or correct questionable data and to
obtain unreported information. See Part 1 of this manual
for general coding instructions.
Select the appropriate SIC code, 3321 or 3322, using
the Standard Industrial Classification Manual (Ref. 12).
The cupola is the largest source of emissions in a gray
iron foundry. Emissions from the cupola are normally vented
through a stack, and the stack data should be entered.
Figure 7.10-2 illustrates the standard NEDS form for this
source. If the foundry uses an electric induction or a
7.10-10
-------
reverberatory furnace, code this source as shown in Figure
7.10-3. Where there is no hood over the induction furnace,
code the height of the building vent(s) in the plume height
field. Code zeros in the stack height and diameter fields,
77 in the temperature field, and zeros in the common stack
field. Frter "No Hood, Bldg. Vent" in the comments field on
card 6. Figure 7.10-4 shows the standard NEDS form for the
electric arc furnace. Note that each of the furnaces has
its own IPP code.
Other sources of emissions are inoculation, pouring,
shakeout, and cleaning operations. Code these operations as
shown in Figures 7.10-5 through 7.10-8. Where emissions
from inoculation and pouring operations are not captured
with a hood, code the height of the building vent(s) in the
plume height field. Code zeros in the stack height and
diameter fields, 77 in the temperature field, and zeros in
the common stack field. Enter "No Hood, Bldg. Vent" in the
comments field on card 6. Where the castings are cleaned by
more than one operation, identify the operation(s) being
coded in the comments field on card 6. For example, a
foundry may clean the castings by shot blasting and grind-
ing, and each operation may have its own control device. In
this case, fill out two NEDS forms each with SCC 3-04-003-40.
On one form enter "Shot Blasting" in the comments field, and
on the other, "grinding." Where the castings are annealed,
7.10-11
-------
code this operation separately using SCC 3-04-003-05, as
shown in Figure 7.10-9. Figure 7.10-10 shows standard NEDS
form for finishing operations. In coding the finishirg
operations, follow the example given for cleaning operations.
Emissions from sand handling operations associated with
raold and core making are very often vented into a common
particulate control device. In this case, fill out only one
NEDS form as shown in Figure 7.10-11. Enter "Mold and Core
Making" in the comments field on card 6. Where these operations
are controlled by several control systems, code each group
of operations that vent to a common control system as an
emission point with SCC 3-04-003-50. Identify the group of
sources controlled by the system in the comments field on
card 7. For example, where a foundry has separate control
systems for core making and mold making, fill out two NEDS
forms, each with SCC 3-04-003-50. On one form enter "Mold
Making" in the comments field, and on the other, enter "Core
Making." Where cores are cured in an oven, code the core
oven as shown in Figure 7.10-12.
7.10-12
-------
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS13
The EEC's for use in EIS/P&R forms are:
Source
Cupola
Reverberatory furnace
Electric induction furnace
Inoculation
Pouring/casting
Casting shakeout
Grinding/cleaning
Annealing
F inishing
Sand handling
Core ovens
EEC
914
918
916
No code*
124
No code*
No code*
223
220 to 223
260
264
This is status as of December 1977.
7.10-13
-------
CONTROL DEVICE
•"ARTICULATES:
VENT13I SCR'.SBER
IPPI'.SE'-LIT SCR^:3£R
WET CAP
ESP
HI. TP-P. FABRIC FILTER
CARSO* MONOXIDE.
AFTERBURNER
DEVICE
CODE
053
00?
003
on
016
OZ1
COHTROt
EFFIC.. t
99
91
53
90 to 97
99
94
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Figure 7.10-3. Standard NEDS form for gray iron foundry - reverberatory
or electric induction furnace.
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i
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (ME OS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PRunr.TinN' AGET.'CY
OFFICE OF ftlFt PROGRAMS
I"II'.T SO..XCF
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TYPE
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CODE
017
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Figure 7.10-4. Standard NEDS form for gray iron foundry - electric arc furnace.
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CTv
CONTROL
DEVICE
FABRIC
FILTER
ESP
VENTURI
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DEVICE
CODE
017
on
053
CONTROL
EFFIC., %
98 TO 99
92 TO 98
11
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EfA'ini).,"(;rji AL punncnuN ACINCY
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Figure 7.10-5. Standard NEDS form for gray iron foundry - inoculation.
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NATIONAL [MISSIONS DATASYS1EM (NEDS)
EfJVIRIKJMrNlAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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Figure 7.10-6. Standard NEDS form for gray iron foundry - pouring/casting.
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CO
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYS1 EM (NEDS)
nfjMrm AI PROTECTION AGENCY
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Figure 7.10-7. Standard NEDS form for gray iron foundry - casting shakeout.
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NATIONAL IMlVilDNS UATA SYS1 LM (MfOSI
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Figure 7.10-8. Standard NEDS form for gray iron fourndry - grinding/cleaning.
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NATIONAL rMISSIONS DAT A SV SUM CJftJS)
EMVinm.f'r M M pnimnioN AGENCY
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Figure 7.10-9. Standard NEDS form for gray iron foundry - annealing.
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r_\viBor:rFNTAi pnoTF.rnoN1 AGENCY
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Figure 7.10-10. Standard NEDS form for gray iron foundry - finishing.
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to A i iiiVit. t Vir, 'tUHi UM J A 1>Y j I LiV n"«E 3Si
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Figure 7.10-11. Standard NEDS form for gray iron foundry - sand handling.
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NATIONAL FMISVONS DATA SYSTCV i«,'FO$t
r.irNrMi PROTECTION AGENCY
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DEVICE
LP TEW. r*B»IC
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UNIT TONS SAND HANDLED^
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.EXAMPLE COMMENT
! M i i FT ! i i~"i
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Figure 7.10-12. Standard NEDS form for gray iron foundry - core ovens,
o
NATIONAL EMISSIHMS DATA SYSTEM I'.'EOS)
ENV!Ror:-v.r:;i AI pRcmrTio"; ARfr.'CY
OFFICE or AIR PROGHAVS
r., ;-.,fj,'£ ,, ., ._..., .,,...,,<,,, : 0, „ ri..r.,. j;
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INPROCESS FUEL
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lil'TT^i^ ;;|:-|;3 :c
-------
GLOSSARY14
Casting - A metal object produced by pouring molten metal
into a mold and allowing it to solidify.
Core - A separable portion of the mold that creates a
cavity in the casting.
Ductile iron - Gray iron containing magnesium, which gives
high strength and resistance to wear. Used in machine
parts.
Flux - Any of several minerals used to absorb impurities
from molten metal.
Foundry - An operation where molten metal is poured into
prepared molds to make various shapes.
Gray iron - A mixture of iron and carbon, with carbon
content generally between 2 and 4 percent. Often
called "cast iron."
Ladle - A container for transporting and pouring molten
metal.
Malleable iron - Gray iron that has been heat treated to
make the casting readily machinable and corrosion
resistant.
Mold - A form or matrix for containing a liquid until it
solidifies in the shape of the mold.
Pig iron - A special type of gray iron casting in the shape
of a rectangular block weighing about 100 pounds.
Steel - A mixture of iron and carbon, with the carbon content
generally less than 1 percent.
7.10-25
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.10
1. Background Information for Establishment of National
Standards of Performance for New Sources (Draft).
Prepared by PEDCo Environmental, Inc., and Environ-
mental Engineering, Inc., for the U.S. EPA, under
Contract No. CPA 70-142. March 1971.
2. Report on Systems Analysis of Emissions and Emissions
Control in the Iron Foundry Industry in the U.S.A.
Prepared by A.T. Kearney & Co., Inc. for U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Publication No. PB 198348.
February 1971.
3. Exhaust Gases from Combustion and Industrial Processes.
Prepared by Engineering Science, Inc., for the U.S.
EPA, Washington, D.C. Publication No. PB-204-861.
October 1971.
4. Control Techniques for Nitrogen Oxides from Stationary
Sources. Prepared by U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, Environmental Health Services.
Washington, D.C. NAPCA Publication No. AP-67. March
1970. p. 7-35.
5. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. AP-42. February
1976.
6. A Study of Fugitive Emissions from Metallurgical
Processes. Prepared by Midwest Research Institute,
Kansas City, Missouri for Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina under
Contract No. 68-02-2120. Report No. 5. November 1975.
p. 29.
7. A Study of Fugitive Emissions from Metallurgical
Processes. Prepared by Midwest Research Institute,
Kansas City, Missouri for Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina under
Contract No. 68-02-2120. Report No. 11. May 1976.
p. 19.
7.10-26
-------
10.
8 Particulate Pollutant System Study, Vol. III. Handbook
of Emission Properties. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
APTD-0745. May 1971.
9. Air Pollution Engineering Manual, Second Edition.
Danielson, J.A. (ed.). U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Pub-
lication No. AP-40. May 1973.
Areos Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/2-76-005
(OAQPS No. 1.2-042). April 1976.
Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/2-76-029
(OAQPS No. 1.2-039). December 1976.
Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 Edition.
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available
from Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
Loquercio, P. and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual
of Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare. Public Health Service Publication No. 1756.
1968.
14. McGannon, H.E. (ed.). The Making, Shaping and Treating
of Stee_l, 9th edition. United States Steel Corporation,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 1971.
11.
12.
13.
7.10-27
7.10-27
-------
7.11 SECONDARY LEAD SMELTING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION ~7
Secondary lead operations reclaim lead from items such as
used storage batteries, pipe, type metal, machining and casting
scrap, and oxides, slags, and drosses from copper and lead
refining. These materials, plus coke and limestone, are delivered
to the plant by rail or truck, where they are unloaded and stored
in piles until ne&ded.
The three types of furnaces used in secondary lead produc-
tion are: blast, reverberatory, and pot furnaces. Pot furnaces
are generally used for refining and alloying the lead produced in
the other two furnaces. Lead oxide production by the Barton
process is widely practiced at secondary lead plants. Figure
7.11-1 diagrams these operations.
The lead is reclaimed by either sweating or smelting. In
sweating, only lead and other lower melting metals are selectively
melted, and the higher melting metals that remain are removed
periodically. In smelting, the furnace charge (batch) is com-
pletely melted and the melt treated to remove impurities such as
oxides.
Some of the scrap material must be pretreated by breaking
or crushing before it is charged to the furnace. Batteries are
broken with a saw or guillotine to separate the lead from the
7.11-1
-------
9
SO,CONTR01
DEVICEl
VENTURI SCRUBBER
053 (99)
PARTICIPATE
CD°EVICE
SETTLING CHAMBER 006
BAGHOUSE oie (>95)
-PART0 ,;PART0
RAW MATERIAL RAW MATERIAL
UNLOADING STORAGE
LEGEND:
Q> EMISSION FACTOR3
O EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EQUIP.
i CODE WITH EST. EFF. SHOWN
* IN ( )
\ DENOTES FUGITIVE
BAGHOUSE
017 (99)
PART0
HOOD
LJU
3-04-OQ4-09
CASTING
LEAD
INGOTS
' OR
CASTINGS
DENOTES A STACK
3-04-004-05
SWEATING
3-90-OOX-99
5 - DIST OIL
6 - NAT GAS
IN-PROCESS FUEL
3-04-004-Q2
REVERBERATORY
FURNACE
3-04-004-04
TO POT ROTARY REVERBERATORY
FURNACE FURNACE
OR TO 3-90-OOX-99
BARTON 5 - DIST OIL
PROCESS 6 - NAT GAS
IN-PROCESS FUEL
COMBUSTION!
PRODUCTS 01
3-04-Q04-01
POT FURNACE
3-04-OQ4-OX
6 - DIST OIL
7 - NAT GAS
POT FURNACE
HEATER
* IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
Figure 7.11-1.
Secondary lead smelting.
7.11-2
-------
nonmetallic portions of the battery. Jaw crushers reduce large
pieces of scrap to smaller sizes suitable for further processing.
The blast furnace (cupola) is used to produce hard lead by
smelting lead oxides, such as the slags and drosses from rever-
beratory and pot furnaces. Wastes from the smelting are recycled
through the blast furnace, together with the pretreated raw
materials. Typical charge ratios are 4.5 percent rerun slag, 4.5
percent scrap iron, 3 percent limestone, 5.5 percent coke, and
82.5 percent drosses, oxides, and reverberatory slags. By blow-
ing air for combustion through the bottom, the charge is heated
to a temperature of 1200° to 1350°F. The coke reduces the lead
oxides to lead metal, which is tapped almost continuously. The
iron and limestone form a slag that keeps the molten lead from
oxidizing. Slag is tapped intermittently, and about 5 percent is
returned to the furnace. The hard lead product contains 5 to 12
percent antimony and 0.5 to 1.0 percent other metals (e.g.,
arsenic, tin, copper, and nickel).
The reverberatory furnace is generally used for producing
semisoft lead by sweating or smelting. When used for sweating,
only lead scrap and drosses are charged and the furnace temper-
ature is lower, about 700°F. In smelting, the furnace tempera-
ture is about 2300°F. An oil or gas flame supplies the heat for
melting, and scrap is added at a rate sufficient to keep a small
pile of solid material on top of the molten bath. The reverbera-
tory furnace may be either stationary or rotating; the former is
-more common. Molten lead containing 0.3 to 0.4 percent antimony
7.11-3
-------
and 0.05 percent copper is tapped continuously. It may be cast
into molds for later processing, or conveyed directly to the pot
furnace for refining. In sweating, the unmelted charge is re-
moved periodically and charged to the blast furnace. In smelting,
the slag is tapped intermittently and charged into the blast
furnace.
Pot furnaces are used after the initial smelting or sweating
to produce soft, highly refined lead. A smelter often has
several pot furnaces, which are indirectly fired to 1400°F by
heaters using oil or natural gas. The charge materials are the
molten metal or ingots from the blast and reverberatory furnaces
and dressing agents that combine with impurities to form a
floating layer. Various agents such as sulfur, aluminum, sodium
nitrate, and sawdust are used. Other metals are added to produce
alloys of a desired composition. Lead having a purity greater
than 99.9 percent can be produced in pot furnaces. Drosses are
recycled to the blast furnace. The molten lead is cast into
ingots for shipment.
A portion (about 10 percent) of the lead from the blast and
reverberatory furnaces is converted to lead oxide instead of
being refined in a pot furnace. The lead oxide, which is used in
storage batteries, is manufactured by the Barton process.
Molten lead at a temperature of 800°F is agitated with paddles,
and air is blown through it. The formed lead oxide (which con-
tains about 20 percent metallic lead) is captured from the
airstream by baghouses.
7.11-4
-------
EMISSIONS
The emissions from secondary lead smelters are particulates,
sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons. Emission
sources are identified in Figure 7.11-1. For some of the sources,
AP-422 provides emission factors, which are listed on the process
flow diagram. For other sources of emissions, average emission
rates obtained from other documents are mentioned in the follow-
ing source descriptions.
The unloading and storage of scrap materials release negli-
gible emissions, because most of the material is in large pieces.
The unloading of coke and limestone releases fugitive particulate
emissions of 0.4 Ib/ton unloaded and 0.03 to 0.4 Ib/ton unloaded,
O
respectively. Total emissions from raw material unloading are
small.
Breaking and crushing lead to minor amounts of particulate
emissions.
Particulates and sulfur oxides, along with other combustion
products, are emitted during sweating.
Particulate emissions from blast furnaces consist of par-
ticles of lead oxide, coke, and other charge materials. As much
as 7 percent of the charge may become entrained. Gaseous emis-
sions are sulfur oxides, from the combustion of sulfur in the
charge, and carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, from the combustion
of coke.
Most of the particulate emissions from reverberatory fur-
naces are lead oxides. Sulfur oxides arise from the combustion
7.11-5
-------
of sulfur impurities in the charge, and carbon monoxide and other
combustion products are emitted. Particulates from pot furnaces
consist mostly of metallic fumes and oxides. Small amounts of
combustion products are emitted from the pot furnace heater.
Particulates are emitted during casting of the molten lead.
During lead oxide manufacturing (the Barton process), oxide
particulates may escape from the baghouse.
1-9
CONTROL PRACTICES
Because the emissions from raw material unloading, storage,
and breaking and crushing are minor, these operations are usually
not controlled.
Particulate emissions from the sweating operation are con-
trolled by baghouses, wet scrubbers, or both. Sometimes a wet
scrubber is used to reduce sulfur oxide emissions.
The blast furnace is often controlled by several devices
that are used in series. An afterburner burns the carbon mon-
oxide and hydrocarbons, a settling chamber and baghouse remove
particulates, and a wet scrubber (usually a venturi type) removes
sulfur dioxide. The afterburner is needed to prevent the carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons from igniting in the baghouse. Some
smelters have only the afterburner and baghouse. An ESP is
occasionally used after the baghouse to remove more particulates.
The particulate emissions from reverberatory furnaces
(stationary or rotary) are controlled with baghouses, wet scrub-
bers, or both. A wet scrubber is sometimes used to control
9
sulfur oxide emissions.
7.11-6
-------
Particulate emissions from pot furnaces are captured by
hoods over the pots or kettles, and are vented to baghouses. The
captured particulates are recycled to the blast furnace. Combus-
tion products from the pot furnace heater do not come into con-
tact with the molten metal. They are usually not vented through
a control device. Particulates emitted during casting are
captured by hoods and vented to a baghouse.
During lead oxide manufacturing, the baghouse that collects
particulates is considered part of the process, rather than
control, equipment. Efficiencies of greater than 98 percent have
been reported for similar baghouses used on blast and reverbera-
1
tory furnaces.
CODING NEDS FORMS10"1
The emission sources associated with secondary lead smelters
are:
Source
Sweating
In-process fuel
Blast/cupola furnace
Reverberatory furnace
In-process fuel
Rotary reverb, furnace
In-process fuel
Pot furnace
Pot-furnace heater
Barton process
Casting
SCC
3-04-004-05
3-90-OOX-99
3-04-004-03
3-04-004-02
3-90-OOX-99
3-04-004-04
3-90-OOX-99
3-04-004-01
3-04-004-Ox
3-04-004-08
3-04-004-09
7.11-7
Pollutant(s)
Particulates S02,
combustion products
Particulates, SO2,
CO, HC
Particulates, SO2, CO,
combustion products
Particulates, SO2, CO,
combustion products
Particulates
Combustion products
Particulates
Particulates
-------
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures 7.11-2
through 7.11-9, show entries for the SCO's and other codes.
Entries in the data fields give information common to secondary
lead smelters. Information pertinent to coding the source is
entered on the margins of the forms and above or below applicable
data fields. Entries for control equipment codes, other optional
codes, emission factors, and required comments minimize the need
to refer to the code lists. Typical data values for operating
parameters, control equipment efficiencies, and other source in-
formation are shown on the form (or in the text) only to aid in
quick, approximate checks of data submitted by the plant in a
permit application or similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R
and NEDS must be actual values specific to and reported by the
plant, rather than typical values. Contact the plant to validate
or correct questionable data and to obtain unreported informa-
tion. See Part 1 of this manual for general coding instructions.
Figure 7.11-2 is a standard NEDS form for sweating. When
wet scrubbers are used to control particulates, the control code
is 002. A venturi scrubber is occasionally used to control sul-
fur oxides; in this case the control code is 053. The coder must
determine what pollutant is being controlled when wet scrubbers
are used.
Figure 7.11-3 is a standard NEDS form for the blast/cupola
furnace. The several control devices used in series on blast
furnace exhaust must be coded according to the pollutant that
they control (see Control Practices). When a settling chamber
7.11-8
-------
and a baghouse control participates, code the settling chamber as
the primary particulate control device and the baghouse as the
secondary control device. The venturi scrubber can be a particu-
late control device as well as an S02 control device. At a par-
ticular plant, the coder must determine what devices are used for
which pollutants and enter the equipment codes that are appro-
priate .
Baghouses are the primary particulate control device for
emissions from the reverberatory furnace, the rotary reverbera-
tory furnace, and the pot furnace. When a settling chamber
precedes the baghouse, code the settling chamber as the primary
control device and the baghouse as the secondary control device.
Figures 7.11-4, 7.11-5, and 7.11-6 are standard NEDS forms for
these three furnaces.
Combustion products from pot furnace heaters are usually
vented to a stack with no controls; often, the emissions from the
furnace and heater are vented through a common stack. When a
control device is used, enter the appropriate code. A standard
NEDS form is shown in Figure 7.11-7.
The baghouse on the airstream from the lead oxide manu-
facturing is process equipment, not a control device. Figure
7.11-8 is a standard NEDS form for this source.
The standard NEDS form for casting is given in Figure 7.11-9.
The units for the SCC's, in all cases except lead oxide
manufacturing, are expressed in tons of metal charged; lead oxide
manufacturing is expressed in tons of metal processed.
7.11-9
-------
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The EEC's of the equipment in a secondary lead smelter are:
Equipment EEC
Blast/cupola furnace 967
Reverberatory furnace 969
Rotary reverb, furnace 969
Pot furnace 970
Pot-furnace heater 283
Barton process 292
Casting No code*
As of October 1978.
7.11-10
-------
Figure 7.11-2. Standard NEDS form for secondary lead smelting - sweating
POINT SOURCE
FORM APPROVED
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COKTKOt PRICES
DEVICE
(PART)
SETTLE CHAMBER
BA6HOUSE
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AFTERBURNER
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016
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EFF., %
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reverberatory furnace.
i
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
EMVIRONMCNI AL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOUHCE
Input f ctm
FORM APPROVED
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CONTROL REGULATIONS
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sec UNIT' - TONS HETAL CHARGED; FOR FUEL - ooo GALLONS FOR oa. MILLION CUBIC FEET FOR HAT. GAS
fl" ' '"" ' "-" ! -s '-"
REVERB
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-------
Figure 7.11-5. Standard NEDS form for secondary lead smelting -
rotary reverberatory furnace.
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GLOSSARY
Alloy - A mixture of metals, or nonmetals with metals, that has
metallic properties.
Dross - Floating waste materials containing copper sulfide,
antimony, and other unwanted materials from a pot furnace.
Dross is usually recycled to the blast furnace.
Hard lead - Lead containing 0.5 to 12 percent antimony.
Semisoft lead - Lead containing 0.3 to 0.4 percent antimony.
Slag - Floating waste material composed of calcium and iron
compounds.
Soft lead - Very pure lead, containing less than 0.1 percent
antimony, copper, and other metals.
Type metal - A series of alloys containing 54 to 95 percent lead,
2 to 28 percent antimony, and 2 to 20 percent tin, which is
used to make printing type.
Barton process - A process to manufacture lead oxide by inducing
a draft of air over agitated molten lead.
7.11-19
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.11
1. Danielson, J.A. Air Pollution Engineering Manual. 2nd
edition. Environmental Protection Agency. AP-40, May 1963.
pp. 299-304.
2. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. 2nd edition.
Environmental Protection Agency. AP-42, February 1976. pp.
8.6-1, 8.6-4, C16.
3. Background Information for Proposed New Source Performance
Standards: Secondary Lead Smelters and Refineries. Volume
1. Environmental Protection 'Agency. APTD 1352a, June 1973.
pp. 37-43.
4. Spity, A.W. Control of Emissions from Secondary Metals
Recovery and Asphalt Paving Plants. A.W. Spity and Assoc.
Presented at the 68th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution
Control Association, Boston, June 15 to 20, 1975. pp. 4-5.
5. The Economics of Clean Air. Annual Report of the Admini-
strator of the Environmental Protection Agency to the
Congress of the United States. February 1972. pp. 4-141,
4-143.
6 Zada, F.K., T. Briggs, and T.W. Devitt. Technical Guide for
Review and Evaluation of Compliance Schedules for Air Pollu-
tion Sources. EPA-340/l-73-001-a, July 1973. pp. 3-135 to
3-138.
7. PEDCo Environmental, Inc. A Method for Characterization and
Quantification of Fugitive Lead Emissions from Secondary
Lead Smelters, Ferroalloy Plants, and Gray Iron Foundries.
EPA Contract No. 68-02-2515, Task 7, January 1978.
8 Technical Guidance for Control of Industrial Process Fugi-
tive Particulate Emissions. EPA-450/3-77-010, March 1977.
9 Radian Corporation. Pollution Control and Heat Recovery in
Non-Ferrous Smelters (Draft). EPA Contract No. 68-02-1319,
Task 40/41. February 28, 1977.
10. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual. EPA-
450/2-76-029 (OAQPS No. 1.2-039), December 1976.
7.11-20
-------
11. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes. EPA-
450/2-76-005 (OAQPS No. 1.2-042), April 1976.
12. Standard Industrial Classification Manual. 1972 edition.
Office of Management and Budget. Available from Superin-
tendent of Documents, Washington, B.C.
13. Loquercio. P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual of
Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Public Health Service Publication No. 1956. 1968.
7.11-21
-------
7.13 STEEL FOUNDRIES
1-4
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Foundries produce castings for automotive parts, light
and heavy machinery, pipe, and a wide range of miscellaneous
products. The process involves melting scrap metal and
pouring the molten metal into prepared molds. The two major
categories are "gray-iron" foundries and "steel" foundries.
Both gray iron and steel consist mostly of elemental iron,
but the carbon contents differ. Gray iron contains 2 to 4
percent carbon, and steel contains 1 percent or less. Steel
may also contain alloying metals.
Figure 7.13-1 illustrates the process flow in a typical
steel foundry. The raw materials are placed in the furnace
through a side door or through the top. This process is
called charging. The raw materials consist of steel scrap,
pig iron, and fluxes. Pig iron is gray iron in blocks
weighing about 100 pounds each. Fluxes are limestone,
fluorspar, and similar minerals, which absorb impurities
after the charge has melted. Three types of furnaces are
used for melting: the electric arc furnace, the electric
induction furnace, and the open hearth furnace. All three
types operate on a batch basis, each batch being called a
7.13-1
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oil. In the open hearth furnace oxygen is sometimes blown
directly onto the molten metal to accelerate '.he melting
process, a procedure called oxygen lancing.
When the temperature of the charge reaches about 3000°F
the molten metal is drained from the furnace into a ladle.
The ladle is used to pour the molten steel into prepared
molds, which confine the steel in the form desired until it
solidifies. After solidification the castings are shaken
out of the molds or the molds are broken from the castings.
When they have cooled enough to permit handling, the castings
are cleaned by shot blasting and surface defects are removed
by grinding; these processes are generally contained in an
enclosure.
Castings intended for certain uses may be heat treated
(annealed) for several hours at temperatures ranging from
1000 to 1600°F. Heat treating furnaces, fired by either gas
or oil, are referred to by many different names, including
"annealing," "hardening," "car-bottom," and "traveling
hearth" furnaces. Finishing operations such as additional
shot-blasting and grinding, sand blasting, and surface
coating may follow the heat treatment. These are separate
operations shown as one block in the process flow diagram
4.or simplicity.
7.13-3
-------
Production of molds and cores is an integral part of
the steel foundry operation. A mold is made of sand mixed
with water and binders such as clay, pitch, or resins. A
core, also made of sand and binders, is a separable part of
the mold used to form a cavity in the casting. After the
core is formed in the desired shape, it is cured either in a
baking oven (called "core oven") at 300 to 500°F or at room
temperature. Curing evaporates moisture and hardens the
sand mixture. Core ovens are heated by direct firing with
gas or oil.
Large steel foundries operate 24 hours a day and 7 days
a week, while smaller ones operate 8 hours a day. Typical
stack heights of the furnaces range from 55 to 85 feet.
Capacities of foundries range from 5 to 240 tons of metal
produced per day.
1 ? S-Q
EMISSIONS ''
Operation of a steel foundry generates both particulate
and gaseous pollutants. Emission sources are identified in
Figure 7.13-1. For some of the sources AP-42 provides
emission factors which are listed on the process flow
diagram. For other sources of emissions, average emission
rates obtained from other documents are mentioned in the
following source descriptions.
Fugitive dust emissions occur in unloading, storage,
7.13-4
-------
and transfer of raw materials such as sand, flux materials,
and scrap metal.
The melting furnace is the largest source of emissions,
which are both particulate and gaseous. The particulates
include oxide fumes, graphite, and metal; the gases include
hydrocarbons from oily scrap and fuel, carbon monoxide,
sulfur oxides, and oxides of nitrogen.
Charging and tapping of the furnace generate fugitive
particulate emissions.
The pouring operation generates particulate emissions.
Two studies indicate that these emissions range from 0.6 to
4.1 Ib/ton of metal produced. '
Shakeout of castings generates particulate emissions,
as do the various cleaning and finishing operations. Par-
ticulate emissions from the shakeout operation are reported
to be 12.8 Ib/ton of metal produced. Combustion of fuel in
heat treating generates combustion products, which include
particulate and gaseous pollutants. Quantities depend on
the fuel, the temperature, and the combustion efficiency of
the heat treating furnace.
Mold and core making generate particulates in sand
screening, sand preparation, mixing of sand and binder, mold
making, and core making. One source reports that fugitive
omissions from sand and binder mixing are 8.2 Ib/ton of
7.13-5
-------
metal produced. Quantitative data for emissions from all
other sources are not reported. Core oven emissions include
combustion products of the fuel (usually gas or No. 2 oil)
used to fire the ovens and some hydrocarbons from the
binder.
CONTROL PRACTICES1"3'7'8
Points of storage and transfer of raw materials are
rarely controlled except with simple enclosures to protect
the material from weathering.
Various devices are used to control particulate emis-
sions from furnace operations. Table 7.13-1 lists the types
of control devices and their efficiencies.
Table 7.13-1. EQUIPMENT USED TO CONTROL PARTICULATE
EMISSIONS FROM MELTING FURNACES
Type
of furnace
Electric arc
Open hearth
Open hearth,
oxygen lanced
Electric induction
Control
equipment
ESP
Fabric filter
Venturi scrubber
ESP
Fabric filter
Venturi scrubber
ESP
Fabric filter
Venturi scrubber
None
Control
efficiency, %
92 to 98
98 to 99
99
95 to 98.5
99.9
99
95 to 98
99
99
Either a hood or an enclosed exhaust system (referred
7.13-6
-------
to as direct evacuation system) is used to capture emissions
from the electric arc furnace, which are then vented to a
particulate control device. Where a hood is used, it also
captures emissions from the charging and tapping operations.
Combustion (flue) gases from the open hearth furnace are
vented to a device for the control of pa -ticulate emissions.
Emissions from charging and tapping of open hearth furnaces
are not controlled.
Emissions from pouring operations usually are not
captured, although in some newer facilities a hood is
installed over the pouring area and is vented to a control
device. Emissions from shakeout operations are usually
controlled by hooding the area and venting the emissions to
a scrubber or baghouse. Particulates from cleaning opera-
tions are controlled by venting the exhaust hoods to a dry
mechanical collector, fabric filter, or medium-energy wet
scrubber. Finishing operations such as grinding are nor-
mally provided with an exhaust hood connected to a high-
efficiency centrifugal collector or a fabric filter. Almost
all heat treating ovens are vented directly to the atmosphere.
Emissions from mold making and core making operations
are controlled with dry cyclones and fabric filters. Most
core ovens are vented directly to the atmosphere through a
stack. A few foundries are equipped with afterburners to
control hydrocarbon emissions from the core ovens.
7.13-7
-------
CODING NEDS FORMS10 12
The major emission sources in a steel foundry are:
Source
Electric arc furnace
Open hearth furnace
(in-process fuel)
Open hearth furnace,
with oxygen lance
(in-process fuel)
Electric induction
furnace
Pouring/casting
Casting shakeout
Clean ing
Heat-treat furnace
(in-process fuel)
Finishing
SCC
3-04-007-01
3-04-007-02
(3-90-OOX-99)
3-04-007-03
(3-90-OOX-99)
3-04-007-05
3-04-007-08
3-04-007-09
3-04-007-11
3-04-007-04
(3-90-OOX-99)
3-04-007-15
Pollutants
Particulates, i;o
Particulates, NO
x
Sand grinding/handling 3-04-007-06
in mold and core making
Core ovens
(in-process fuel)
3-04-007-07
(3-90-OOX-99)
Particulates, l."0
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Products of
combust ion
Particulates
HC, Products of
combustion
The codes for X in the SCC's for in-process fuel are: 4 for
residual oil; 5 for distillate oil; 6 for natural gas.
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures
7.13-2 through 7.13-11, show entries for the SCC's and other
codes. Entries in the data fields give information common
to steel foundries. Information pertinent to coding the
source is entered on the margins of the forms and above or
7.13-!
-------
below applicable data fields. Entries for control equipment
codes, other optional codes, emission factors, and required
comments minimize the need to refer to the code lists.
Typical data values for operating parameters, control
equipment efficiencies, and other source information are
shown on t*o form (or in the text) only tc serve as quick,
approximate checks of data submitted by the plant in a
permit application or similar report. Data entered in EIS/
P&R and NEDS must be actual values specific to and reported
by the plant, rather than typical values. Contact the plant
to validate or correct questionable data and to obtain
unreported information. See Part 1 of this manual for
general coding instructions.
The major sources of emission from steel foundries are
the melting furnaces (Figures 7.13-2 through 7.13-4). An
electric induction furnace usually is not controlled because
emissions are very low. Where there is no hood over the
induction furnace, code the height of the building vent(s)
in the plume height field. Code zeros in the stack height
and diameter fields, 77 in the temperature field, and zeros
in the common stack field. Enter "No Hood, Bldg. Vent" in
the comments field on card 6. Note that each furnace has
its own IPP code.
Other sources of emissions are pouring, shakeout, and
7.13-9
-------
cleaning operations. Code these operations as shown in
Figures 7.13-5 through 7.13-7. Where emissions from pouring
operations are not captured with a hood, code the height of
the building vent(s) in the plume height field. Code zeros
in the stack height and diameter fields, 77 in the tempera-
ture field, and zeros in the common stack field. Enter "No
Hood, Bldg. Vent" in the comments field on card 6. Where
the castings are cleaned by more than one operation, identify
the operation(s) being coded in the comments field on card
6. For example, a foundry may clean the castings by shot
blasting and grinding, and each operation may have its own
control device. In this case, fill out two NEDS forms, each
with SCC 3-04-007-11. On one form enter "Shot Blasting" in
the comments field, and on the other, enter "Grinding".
Where the castings are heat treated, code this operation
separately using SCC 3-04-007-04, as shown in Figure 7.13-8.
Figure 7.13-9 shows a standard NEDS form for finishing
operations. In coding the finishing operations, follow the
example given for cleaning operations.
Emissions from sand grinding/handling operations
associated with mold and core making are very often vented
through a common control system. In this case, fill out
only one NEDS form as shown in Figure 7.13-10. Enter "Mold
and Core Making" in the comments field on Card 6. Where
7.13-10
-------
these operations are controlled by several control systems,
code each group of operations that vent to a common control
system as an emission point with SCC 3-04-007-06. Identify
the group of sources controlled by the system in the com-
ments field on Card 7. For example, where a foundry has
separate control systems for core making and mold making,
fill out --wo NEDS forms, each with SCC 3-04-OC7-06. On one
form enter "Mold Making" in the comments field, and on the
other, enter "Core Making." Where cores are cured in an
oven, code the core oven as shown in Figure 7 13-11.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS13
The EEC's for use in the EIS/P&R forms are:
Source EEC
Electric arc furnace 923 to 925
Open hearth furnace ')21
Open hearth with oxygen lancing )22
Electric induction furnace 326 to 928
Pouring/casting 124
Casting shakeout "to code*
Cleaning ^o code*
Heat treating 220 to 223
Finishing 113
Sand grinding/handling 260
Core ovens 264
* Status as of December 1977.
7.13-11
-------
Figure 7.13-2. Standard NEDS form for steel foundry - electric arc furnace.
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Figure 7.13-9. Standard NEDS form for steel foundry - finishing.
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14
GLOSSARY
Casting - A metal object produced by pouring molten metal
into a mold and allowing it to solidify.
Core - A separable portion of the mold that creates a cavity
in the casting.
Flux - Any of several minerals used to absorb the impurities
from molten metal.
Foundry - An operation where molten metal is poured into
prepared molds to make various shapes.
Gray iron - A mixture of iron and carbon, with carbon con-
tent generally between 2 and 4 percent. Often called
"cast iron."
Ladle - A container for transporting and pouring molten
metal.
Mold - A form or matrix for containing a liquid until it
solidifies in the shape of the mold.
Pig iron - A special type of gray iron casting in the shape
of a rectangular block weighing about 100 pounds.
Steel - A mixture of iron and carbon, with carbon content
generally less than 1 percent.
7.13-22
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 7.13
1. Danielson, J.A. (ed.). Air Pollution Engineering
Manual, Second Edition. Environmental Protection
Agency- Research Triangle Park, Nort 4 Carolina.
AP-40. May 1973.
2. Report on Systems Analysis of Emissions and Emissions
Control in the Iron Foundry Industry in the U.S.A.
Prepared by A.T. Kearney and Company, Inc., for Environ-
mental Protection Agency. PB 198 348. 1971.
3. Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors, second
edition with Supplements 1-7. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina. AP-42. February 1976 through April 1977.
4. Exhaust Gases from Combustion and Industrial Processes.
Prepared by Engineering Science, Inc., Washington,
D.C. for Environmental Protection Agency. PB-204-861.
October 1971.
5. A Study of Fugitive Emissions from Metallurgical Pro-
cesses. Prepared by Midwest Research Institute, Kansas
City, Missouri for Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina under Contract
No. 68-02-2120. November 1975. Report No. 5.
6. A Study of Fugitive Emissions from Metallurgical Pro-
cesses. Prepared by Midwest Research Institute, Kansas
City, Missouri for Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina under Contract
No. 68-02-2120. May 1976. Report No. 11.
7. Background Information for Establishment of National
Standards of Performance for New Sources (Draft).
Prepared by PEDCo Environmental, Inc., and Environ-
mental Engineering, Inc. for Environmental Protection
Agency, Durham, North Carolina under Contract No. CPA
70-142, Task 2. March 1971.
7.13-23
-------
8. Particulate Pollutant Systems Study, Vol. III. Hand-
book of Emission Properties. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. APTD-0745. May
1971.
9. Background Information for Standards of Performance:
Electric Arc Furnaces in the Steel Industry. U.S. EPA
Office of Air and Waste Management. Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards. Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina 27711. EPA-450/2-74-017a. 1974.
10. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/2-76-005
(OAQPS No. 1.2-042). April 1976.
11. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/2-76-029
(OAQPS No. 1.2-039). December 1976.
12. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 Edition,
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available
from Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
13. Loquercio, P. and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual
of Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare. Public Health Service Publication No. 1956.
1968.
14. McGannon, H.E. (ed.). The Making, Shaping, and Treating
of Steel, 9th edition. United States Steel Corpora-
tion, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 1971.
7.13-24
-------
8.1 ASPHALTIC CONCRETE PLANTS
123
PROCESS DESCRIPTION ' '
Asphaltic concrete is a paving material produced by
mixing coarse and fine aggregates with hot asphalt. The
aggregate materials consist mainly of crushed stone and
gravel, sand, and some waste materials, such as slag from
steel mills and crushed glass. These materials are propor-
tioned to produce a specific paving mix of uniform composi-
tion. After mixing, the hot paving material is loaded into
trucks and transported to the paving site.
Plants that produce hot-mix asphaltic concrete operate
either by batch production or continuous-mix production.
These operations are identical up to the point of final
mixing. Batch plants currently account for over 90 percent
of the production capacity in the United States. Figure
8.1-1 depicts a typical batch plant and Figure 8.1-2, a
continuous-mix plant. Asphalt plants may be stationary or
portable; portable plants can be readily dismantled and
transported on trailers from one job site to another. These
portable plants account for 20 percent of the production.
.1-1
-------
Figure 8.1-1. Batch hot-mix asphaltic concrete plant.
lECfNO
,""^1 1'llSStOM Mll'Jti"
efMissio'i FACT?': 'ior
OL,[LO^fO fOR THIS PPOC
ESS
9
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0.1
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0 M
0 1
CO
H1
3-OS-uOJ-Ob C.AS
3-01-002-0; KlllUl'AL Oil.
3-05-002-OB DIMIL1J1TE OIL
ASPHALT HKAUH
-------
Figure 8.1-2. Continuous hot-mix asphaltic concrete plant.
00
I-1
U)
l£G£M> f
Q [HiSSlOK FttTOf
--v CHISS10II FACTO* WT
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l-qn-evw
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-------
Different applications for asphaltic concrete require
different aggregate size distributions. The aggregate
usually comprises 94 to 95 percent by weight of the total
asphalt and aggregate mix. The raw aggregates are crushed
and screened at the quarries, then brought to the plant site
and stored in open piles or occasionally in silos.
In both batch and continuous-mix operations, the coarse
and fine aggregates are hauled separately from the storage
piles and placed in hoppers of the cold-feed unit. The
materials are then discharged onto a conveyor belt and fed
into a rotary dryer fired directly with gas or oil. The hot
aggregates from the dryer drop into a bucket elevator and
are transferred to a set of vibrating screens that separate
the aggregate into as many as four size classifications.
Screening is required for production of specified concrete
mixtures of different-sized aggregates. The sized materials
are then stored in hot bins, so called because they store
the aggregates that have been heated by drying. To this
point, the operations of batch and continuous-mix plants are
the same; the differences occur in subsequent process steps.
In a batch plant, the classified aggregate is stored by
size range in four large hot bins. The operator opens
individual bins and allows the classified aggregates to drop
8.1-4
-------
into a weighing hopper until the desired weight of a spec-
ified size mixture is obtained. The sized aggregates are
then dropped into a mixer and mixed dry for a short period.
Hot asphalt is pumped from heated storace tanks, weighed,
and then injected into the mixer. Total mixing time in-
cluding dry mixing is 25 to 60 seconds. The hot, mixed
batch is then dropped into a truck and hauled to the job
site.
In a continuous-mix plant, the classified hot aggregate
drops into a set of small hot bins, which are smaller than
those at a batch plant because less storage capacity is
needed. From the hot bins, the aggregate is continuously
metered through a set of feeder conveyors and a bucket
elevator into the mixer. Asphalt is also continuously
metered into the inlet end of the mixer, where retention is
controlled by an adjustable dam. The mix flows out of the
mixer into a hopper, from which the trucks are loaded.
Production capacities of both batch and continuous-mix
asphalt plants range from 50 to 1000 TPH, with an average of
about 160 TPH. Total exhaust requirements for the rotary
dryer and the other dust sources (hot elevators, hot screens,
hot bins, and mixer) vary according to the size of plant.
For a 150-TPH plant, either batch or continuous-mix, a
8.1-5
-------
typical air flow requirement is 22,000 SCFM, of which about
3,000 SCFM is required for the other sources.
Figure 8.1-3 shows the relationship of total exhaust
gas flow rate from the dryer and the other sources to the
asphaltic concrete production rate. This graph, based on
data from numerous source tests, may be used to check data
submitted by the plant.
EMISSIONS
Operation of an asphalt plant generates both particu-
late and gaseous pollutants. Emission sources are identi-
fied in Figures 8.1-1 and 8.1-2. Since emissions from the
final mixing operation are negligible, there is little
difference in the emissions from a batch mix and a con-
tinuous-mix plant. Much more significant are the differ-
ences in emissions at individual plants; these differences
depend on such factors as particle size distribution of the
aggregate, dryer gas velocity, and control equipment.
Fugitive emissions of particulate occur from unloading,
storage, and handling of aggregates. The following empiri-
cal expression is given in AP-42 for estimating emissions
2
from aggregate storage piles:
0.33
/PE ,2
(TOO}
8.1-6
-------
00
M
I
50,000
40,000 -
30,000 -
1
x
20,000 -
10,000-
100 200 ' 300. 400
ASPHALTIC CONCRETE PRODUCTS, TONS/HR
Figure 8.1-3. Total exhaust rate for asphaltic concrete pla.
-------
where: E = Emission rate, Ib/ton placed in storage
PE = Thornthwaite1s precipitation-evaporation index
The source activities that contribute to the fugitive emis-
sions and their approximate percentages are as follows:
Approximate percentage
Source activity of total emissions
Loading onto piles 12
Vehicular traffic around 40
storage piles
Wind erosion 33
Loadout from piles 15
Total 100
Although no quantitative data are available on fugitive
emissions attributable to loading of cold storage bins,
these emissions are considered to be negligible. Usually,
other fugitive emission sources - the elevators, hot screens,
hot bins, and mixer - are well-enclosed and vented by in-
duced draft through a common header. They are commonly
vented with the dryer exhaust into a single collector and
fan system, as shown in Figures 8.1-1 and 8.1-2.
The rotary dryer is the largest source of particulate
emissions. The quantities of particulate and the particle-
size distributions vary widely from plant to plant. Dryer
8.1-8
-------
design and operation, particle size distribution of feed
materials, and the specific grade of asphaltic concrete
product exert a marked effect on the quantity of emissions.
Gaseous emissions occur mainly from the combustion of
fuel for the dryer. Since asphalt is a heavy distillate
from refinery operations, emissions of hydrocarbon vapors
from heated asphalt and from mixing operations are very
small. ^ ference 6 reports polynuclear hydrocarbon emission
rates of I.0 x 10 Ib/ton of product without control and
0.8 x 10~6 Ib/ton of product after a wet scrubber control
system on the mixing operation.
CONTROL PRACTICES ' '
All plants use a primary dust collection system, such
as a large-diameter cyclone or settling chamber, to control
emissions from the dryer and return the fines to the product
flow. Since emissions after this primary control device are
still considerable, secondary and even tertiary pollutant
control devices are commonly used. The applicable control
equipment includes mechanical collectors (e.g., multiclones),
wet scrubbers, and fabric filters; attempts to apply elec-
trostatic precipitators to dryer exhausts have met with
little success. The exhaust from the other sources (i.e.,
elevators, hot screens, hot bins, mixer) is often combined
with the exhaust from the dryer to control the particulates
in both with the single collector system. A scrubber in the
8.1-9
-------
control system provides some reduction of hydrocarbon emis-
sions from the mixer.
Many plants use a device called a "wet fan" after the
prinuiry device. A wet fan is a type of scrubber, such as a
Type R Rotoclone, which wets the exhaust gases and then
separates the particulate matter by centrifugal force.
Hydrocarbon vapors from heated asphalt storage tanks
can be adequately controlled by condensing the vapors with
air-cooled vent pipes. Hydrocarbon emissions from truck-
loading of asphaltic concrete can be controlled by combus-
tion by venting them into the dryer. More development work
is required on methods of introducing the hydrocarbons into
the dryer.
CODING NEDS FORMS
The emissions sources in an asphalt concrete plant are:
Source
Rotary dryer
(in-process fuel)
SCC
Pollutants
3-05-002-01 Particulate/ SO-,
(3-90-OOX-99) NO , HC, CO
Hot elevators, screens, 3-05-002-02
bins, and mixer
Storage piles
Cold aggregate
handling
Asphalt heater
3-05-002-03
3-05-002-04
3-05-002-OX
Particulate, HC
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate, SO ,
NO , HC, CO
Includes emissions from loading onto piles, vehicular
traffic around piles, wind erosion, and load out from
piles.
8.1-10
-------
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures 8.1-4
through 8.1-9, show entries for the SCC's and other codes.
Entries in the data fields give information common to
asphalt plants. Information pertinent to coding the source
is entered on the margins of the forms and above or below
applicable data fields. Entries for control equipment
codes, oliier optional codes, emission factors, and required
comments minimize the need to refer to the code lists.
Typical data values for operating parameters, control equip-
ment efficiencies, and other source information are shown on
the form (or in the text) only to serve as quick, approxi-
mate checks of data submitted by the plant in a permit
application or similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R and
NEDS must be actual values specific to and reported by the
plant, rather than typical values. Contact the plant to
validate or correct questionable data and to obtain unre-
ported information. See Part 1 of this manual for general
coding instructions.
The asphaltic concrete plant mainly emits particulates,
and the dryer is the largest emission source. The hot
elevators, hot screens, hot bins, and mixer as a group are
treated as a single source because their emissions are
relatively low and their exhausts are usually vented into a
common header; the group is called "other sources," desig-
8.1-11
-------
nated by the SCC 305-002-02. Figures 8.1-4 and 8.1-5 illus-
trate the standard NEDS forms for the two sources, dryer and
other. When the two sources are vented through a common
stack, their point ID numbers must be sequential and these
ID's must be entered in the "points with common stack" field
of both forms.
For asphalt plants that combine the exhausts from the
dryer and the "other sources" to control emissions with a
single control system, it is acceptable to combine the two
sources as a single emission point, coded on one NEDS form.
The point would be defined by the three SCC's, 3-05-002-01,
3-90-OOX-99, and 3-05-002-02. The standard NEDS form,
Figure 8.1-6, illustrates this alternative coding.
Required comments about an asphalt plant include
whether it is batch or continuous, stationary or portable.
Name the specific control device when device code 001 is
entered in a control equipment field. Where particulates
are controlled by primary, secondary, and tertiary devices,
enter codes for the secondary and tertiary control equipment
in the code fields of the form; enter the name and device
code of the primary (precleaner) control equipment as com-
ments. Where a wet fan is used as a control device, enter
code number 001 in the applicable field and enter the re-
ported efficiency.
8.1-12
-------
The plant should report information about the aggregate
stockpiles, aggregate handling, and asphalt heater. These
sources are to be coded. Figures 8.1-7, 8.1-8, and 8.1-9
illustrate the standard NEDS forms for these operations.
The units for the SCC's are tons of asphaltic concrete
produced.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The EEC's for use in EIS/P&R forms are shown below:
Source BEG
Rotary dryer 450
Hot elevators, screens, 700
bins, and mixers
Storage piles (No code)
Cold aggregate handling 700
Asphalt heater 283
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Aggregate - The solid mineral load-bearing constituents of
asphalt paving materials, such as sand and fragments of
stone and gravel.
Asphalt - A black material having some of the properties of
cemont, but capable of softening when heated and of
hardening again when cooled. Asphalt is derived from
the refining of crude petroleum. The final asphaltic
concrete product is often referred to as 'asphalt.'
8.1-13
-------
ROTA
PROC
TYPE OF CONTROL
UNCONTROLLED
PRECLEANER8
HIGH-EFFICIENCY CYCLONE
SPRAY TO'./ERb h
MULTIPLE CENTRIFUGAL SCRUBBER0
BAFFLE SPRAY TOWER0
ORIFICE-TYPE SCRUBBER0
BAGHOUSE
CONTROL
EQUIP.
CODE
000
009
007
001
001
001
001
017
PARTICULATE
EMISSIONS
LB/TON
35.0
11.7
1.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.03
0.08
THE CODE 009 IS FOR LOW EFFICIENCY
h CENTRIFUGAL COLLECTOR.
IDENTIFY THE SPECIFIC COLLECTOR
DEVICE IN COMMENTS.
C
(D
CD
i
I-1
I
g.
0>
n
QJ
a
en
W
n
o
o
o
n
ro
rt
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8
rt
&>
h
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ST-T'8
TYPE OF CONTROL
UNCONTROLLED
PRECLEANER*
HIGH-EFFICIENCY CYCLONE
SPRAY IOWERb b
MULTIPLE CENTRIFUGAL SCRUBBER
BAFFLE SPRAY TOWER&
o ORIFICE-TYPE SCRUBBER0
3: 3AGHOUSE
CONTROL 'PARTICULATE
EQUIP. ' EMISSIONS
CODE
000
009
007
001
001
001
001
017
LB/TON
« a THE CODE 009 IS FOR LOW EFFICIENCY
i h CENTRIFUGAL COLLECTOR.
o IDENTIFY THE SPECIFIC COLLECTOR
K DEVICE IN COMMENTS.
r~;H
-,..., ,4.£U2U H
o,M m I (i! '
-o —<_—*
-
!T
is
s|
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OWN
H-
d
00
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en
rt
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cn
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H
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en
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rt
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rt
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rt
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cn
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o
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-------
91-1*8
O -o 50
-< 30 O
2E O —I
53 o j>
" m 23
l/l -C
TYPE OF CONTROL .
UNCONTROLLED
PRECLEANER*
HIGH-EFFICIENCY CYCLONE
SPRAY TOWERb h
MULTIPLE CNETRIFUGAL SCRUBBER
BAFFLE SPRAY TOWERb
ORIFICE-TYPE SCRUBBER6
BAGHOUSE
CONTROL
EQUIP.
CODE
000
009
007
001
001
001
001
017
PARTICULATE
EMISSIONS
LC/TUN
45.0
15.0
1.7
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.04
0.1
t/1
DRYER
S FUEL
THE CODE 009 IS FOR LOW EFFICIENCY
CENTRIFUGAL COLLECTOR.
IDENTIFY THE SPECIFIC COLLECTOR
DEVICE IN COMMENTS.
r-i
O
rt
s-
><
DJ
H
^
(D
H
0)
3
O
rt
(D
H
(0
O
£
H
O
fl>
cn
C
i-i
(D
oo
-6
Standard NEDS
O
H
3
l-ri
0)
cn
'd
tf
cu
H1
rt
H-
n
o
o
3
o
n
CD
rt
(D
-------
Figure 8.1-7. Standard NEDS form for asphaltic concrete - storage piles.
00
M
i
Suit
1 ?
Counlv
3
(
S
b
AOCH
)
8
9
PUm 10
ID
11
11 13
C
Illh
1
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DAT A SYSTEM (NtDSt
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTLCIU1N ACbNCY
QFMCE OF AIR PROGRAMS
f ur-W AH^HG« ED
Of.*b NO 1I>8 H0095
LLaiaiili
j_LLn_LLUa]
LU-N : HOI
... I! IILN
KT:7n7ni[io]bi1b?|s3TiiMti|c!|t[r^iT;ir^"^;it7ira|;;l)tl5|Ea
:ti±ii±j±±tl±j±i±ti±LjTiz
jR'l^-.R^i;l="-]^
oioMo1oroTo!Ql'6|ol !'1
STORAGE
PILES
3lQ|5
. J_
Q .0 ZJO"
UNIT - TONS PRODUCE
0101010
COM ROL HtGLH AT l
iiL-itnsni
jfi
._
1
±
T
.-.fl.
rraTT.;
-t-Kb-
bl|uUj|
-------
Figure 8.1-8. Standard NEDS form for asphaltic concrete - cold aggregate handling.
00
•
t-1
I
I-1
00
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYbl EM (NEDSI
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIH PROGRAMS
PO:NT sou
input F-oi
FGHM API-HOVEL)
OMB NO Iba HJ09b
Daw __
'-
j»T17r4:iT• 1
i
Si
4-
driy
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'.1 '-
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T 'iJ
',)•
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V
b! ATI1S
UPDATE
\ , ..fj r/i , li .
r.Td^Ri"pnr
1
St
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i
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.«
i
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1
Tu
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a
ti
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.«
W
fi(
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'•:
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ts
Ti
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6"
t>'J
F.'J
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/o
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2
71
?
P
?t
-
c
/?
-?
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73
no
Iri,
n
NS
3
»
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4|L
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71
76
;;
_1
c
c
73
7S Sit
6
6
6
fa
cd
J'» 80
P 7
P 7
P 7
P 7
-------
Figure 8.1-9. Standard NEDS form for asphaltic concrete - asphalt heater.
CO
M
I
M
VD
NATIONAL FMISSIONS t)A]A SYSTEM (NEDS)
FNVIRONWNT/U PROTECTION Af.U'CV
OFFICF OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO 158 ROOTS
•
6lo to | (HOjolQ[pToto.!QiOjo 1 o]o
ASPHALT HEATER
r_
ciffiffi
ire
: s
" SCC UNIT-MILLION "CUBIC FEET FOR NG; 1000 GALLONS FOR OIL
' • -- I
f±i±
If- V..
1
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NG -6; RESII). OH -7; DIST. OIL -E
LIE
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 8.1
1. Particulate Pollutant System Study, Volume III -
Handbook of Emission Properties. Midwest Research
Institute. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency under Contract No. CPA 22-69-104. May
1971. p. 339-359.
2. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. U.S.
EPA. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publica-
tion No. AP-42. February 1976. Section 8.1.
3. Process Flow Sheets and Air Pollution Controls.
American Conference of Governmental and Industrial
Hygienists. 1961.
4. Asphaltic Concrete Plants Atmospheric Emissions Study.
Valentine, Fisher, and Tomlinson, Consulting Engineers,
Seattle, Washington. Prepared for U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C., under
Contract Number 68-02-0076. November 1971.
5. Danielson, J.A. and R.S. Brown. Hot-Mix Asphalt
Paving Batch Plants. In: Air Pollution Engineering
Manual, Danielson, J.A. (ed.). Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. Publication
No. AP-40. May 1973.
6. Von Lehmden, D.J., R.P. Hangebranck, and J.E. Meeker.
Polynuclear Hydrocarbon Emissions from selected Indus-
trial Processes. Journal of Air Pollution Control
Association. 15, No. 7:66-68.
7. Asphalt Concrete Plants. In: Background Information
for Proposed New Source Performance Standards. En-
vironmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park,
N.C. Publication No. 1352 A, B, and C. Volumes I and
II, June 1973. Vol. III. February 1974.
8.1-20
-------
8.3 BRICK MANUFACTURING
1-4
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Brick manufacturing includes the production of heavy clay
products 'hricks, clay pipe, pottery) and some types of refrac-
tories. The raw materials, which are mined in open pits or
underground, consist of clay, feldspar, and sand. Clays are
basically hydrates of alumino-silicates with impurities of feld-
spar, quartz, and other minerals. Various salts and minerals are
added to the raw materials, such as borax, soda ash, cryolite,
alumina, chromite, and magnesite. Figure 8.3-1 is a process flow
diagram of brick manufacturing.
The manufacture of clay products involves the grinding,
screening, and blending of the raw materials. The ware is then
formed and fired (maintained at a high temperature) to bring
about the drying and bonding of the materials. Firing is fol-
lowed by the final cutting or shaping of the ware. Although
there are many variations depending on the product being made,
these steps are common to all brick manufacturing. In this
discussion the word "brick" refers to all products of this manu-
facturing, although many different wares are produced.
When it is mined, the raw material is crushed to remove
stones, ground, and then screened. During these operations the
separation and recycling of the minerals allow them to be sorted
8.3-1
-------
Figure 8.3-1. Brick manufacturing plant.
FABRIC FILTER 017
ESP Oil
WET SCRUBBER 002 (80-95)
GRAVITY COLLECTOR 006 (<80
CENTRIFUGAL COLLECTOR 009 (<80)
WET SCRUBBER 002 80-95
FABRIC FILTER Oil (80-95)
PART<2}
CO
I
S3
GRAVITY COLLECTOR 006 (<80
CENTRIFUGAL COLLECTOR 009 (<80)
WET SCRUBBER 002 (80-95
FABRIC FILTER Oil (80-95
CYCLONE 008
MULTICYCLONE 007
J-P5-003-03
RAW MATERIAL
STORAGE
(<80)
<80)
80-95)
(80-95)
GRAVITY COLLECTOR 006
CENTRIFUGAL COLLECTOR 009
WET SCRUBBER 002
FABRIC FILTER Oil
COMBUSTION PRODUCTS\
PART
SOX
CO
HC
"°v
TUNNEL KILN
GAS
0.04
Keg.
0.04
0.02
0.15
OIL
0.6
4. OS
Neg.
0.1
1.1
COAL
l.OA
7.2S
1.9
0.6
0.9
PER ODIC KILN
GAS
0.11
Neg.
0.11
0.04
0.42
OIL
0.9
5.95
Neg.
0.1
1.7
COAL
1.6A
12. OS
3.2
0.9
1.4
-SHIPPING
LEGEND:
Q EMISSION FACTOR*
/-\ EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EQUIP.
1 ' CODE WITH EST. EFF. SHOWN
o
IN ( )
DENOTES FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS
DENOTES A STACK
3-05-003-01
DRYING-RAW
MATERIAL
11 TUNNEL KILNS - GAS-FIRED
12 TUNNEL KILNS - OIL-FIBED
13 TUNNEL KILNS - COAL-FIRED
14 PERIODIC KILNS - GAS-FIRED
15 PERIODIC KILNS - OIL-FIRED
16 PERIODIC KILNS - COAL-FIRED
3-9Q-QOX-99
IN-PROCESS FUEL
2 - BITUMINOUS COAL
4 - RESIDUAL OIL
5 - DISTILLATE OIL
6 - NATURAL GAS
• IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
-------
into the desired particle sizes and composition. The material
may then undergo calcining, a heat treatment used to drive off
volatile components; or it may be dried to reduce the moisture
content prior to mixing and blending. The material is then
shipped by rail or truck to the brick manufacturing plant if this
is at another location. Most clay mining and raw material pre-
paration are located in rural areas. Brick manufacturing may be
located in metropolitan areas.
At the plant the various types of clay are combined to
produce a uniform raw material and to allow control of color and
batch composition. During the mixing operation, bonding agents
such as alkali silicates or organic binders may be added.
The mixed clay is then molded or formed by one of three
processes: stiff-mud, soft-mud, or dry-press. In the stiff-mud
process, clay is mixed with water in a pug mill, which is a
mixing chamber containing two or more revolving blades. When the
moisture content reaches 12 to 15 percent, the clay is just wet
enough to be plastic. The clay is forced out through a die in a
screw or auger machine onto a cutting table, where it is cut by
wires to desired lengths. Most brick and all structural tile are
formed by the stiff-mud process.
In the soft-mud process, used when the clay is wet and in
making firebrick, water is added to the clay to reach 20 to 30
percent moisture; the mixture is formed in molds that are coated
with a thin layer of sand or water to prevent sticking.
8.3-3
-------
In the dry-press method, clay is formed in steel molds under
500 to 1500 psi pressure. The water content is 4 to 7 percent,
which makes the clay nonplastic. High-pressure forming first
requires de-airing, which can be accomplished in one of four
ways: control of the rate of application of pressure; applica-
tion of a vacuum; double pressing; or use of a gas. De-airing is
performed as part of the molding operation.
The wet clay forms are then placed in dryer kilns at 100°F
to 400°F for 24 to 48 hours. Heat is usually supplied by exhaust
gases from the firing kilns. Stiff-mud and soft-mud forms must
be dried before firing; the dry-press forms may be dried, de-
pending on the final product and the moisture content of the
forms.
Firing (also called burning) is the most crucial step in
brickmaking. The clay forms are maintained at temperatures up to
2400°F for 40 to 150 hours in tunnel or periodic kilns that are
fueled with gas, oil, or coal.
In tunnel kilns the bricks are loaded onto cars, which
travel down the kiln corridor at a rate of one 6-foot car per
hour through various temperature zones. Drying occurs in the
first section at 100° to 400°F, followed by firing at 1400° to
2400°F, and, finally, cooling for 48 to 72 hours. Because drying
takes place in the tunnel kiln, no separate dryers are required
where kilns are used. In periodic kilns the dried forms are
placed in furnaces having fireholes into which the fuel is fired.
The hot gases from the combustion circulating around the bricks
provide a uniform temperature distribution.
8.3-4
-------
Several changes occur during the firing of the ware. Any
free water not previously removed during drying is evaporated.
Stable mineral forms are developed through the liberation of
chemically combined water (water of hydration), followed by
calcination of carbonates and oxidation of ferrous materials.
Combustible matter is removed and some of the impurities undergo
decomposition. Vitrification, a partial fusion of the silica,
alumina, and some impurities, produces a molten glassy material
that upon cooling permanently bonds the solid particles into a
tough hard product. Flashing (color development) is also ac-
complished in the kiln.
The output of tunnel kilns is from 100 to 250 tons per day,
with an air flow of 15,000 to 37,000 acfm. The temperature of
the flue gases ranges from 300° to 550°F.
After firing, the cooled product may be subject to a final
cutting or shaping depending on its final use. The product is
then ready for shipping.
EMISSIONS1"5
The main air pollution problem associated with the brick
industry is the release of particulates, which range in size from
submicron particles to visible pieces of material. Emission
sources are identified in Figure 8.3-1. For some of the sources,
AP-42 provides emission factors, which are listed on the process
flow diagram.
8.3-5
-------
During raw material storage and handling, particulate emis-
sions arise from unloading, wind, and retrieval activities.
Crushing and grinding the clay in preparation for forming the
ware also generate particulate emissions. The quantity of par-
ticulate emissions from calcining and drying of raw materials
depends upon the materials charged, dryer types, and final mois-
ture content.
Particulates are emitted during the mixing and blending
operation until the material is sufficiently wet. No emissions
occur during forming and molding of the wet material.
The exhaust gas from the kiln contains particulates and
small amounts of SO , NO , HC, and CO. Pollutants other than
X X
particulates are a result of impurities in the ware. The pres-
ence of fluorite and fluoapetite components, for example, leads
to fluoride emissions; sulfur oxides are released at high tem-
peratures from iron pyrites or other sulfur-containing materials.
The final cutting or shaping may cause minor amounts of
fugitive particulate emissions.
CONTROL PRACTICES1"3
Emissions from raw material storage are not controlled.
Particulates emitted during crushing/grinding and screening are
controlled by gravity or centrifugal collectors, wet scrubbers,
or fabric filters. The same devices can be used to control
particulates from raw material drying and calcining. Emissions
from blending and mixing are not usually controlled, although
8.3-6
-------
good plant design and proper hooding are necessary to keep fugi-
tive emissions to a minimum. When controls are used on these
sources they are the same types used on the crushing/grinding,
screening, drying, and calcining of raw materials.
Particulates emitted during the drying and firing of the
product are controlled by fabric filters or electrostatic pre-
cipitators. Wet scrubbers may also be usod for controlling
particulates, gaseous fluorides, and some S02 emissions. Any of
these devices may be preceded by a settling chamber or a cyclone
or multicyclone.
Emissions from final cutting or shaping are not controlled.
CODING NEDS FORMS5"
The emission sources in a brick manufacturing plant are:
Source SCC Pollutant(s)
Storage, raw material 3-05-003-03 Particulates
Crushing/grinding 3-05-003-02 Particulates
Screening 3-05-003-08 Particulates
Calcining 3-05-003-07 Particulates
Drying, raw material 3-05-003-01 Particulates
Blending and mixing 3-05-003-09 Particulates
Firing (kiln) 3-05-003-OX Particulates,
SO. NO , HC,
COK X
In-process fuel 3-90-OOX-99
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures 8.3-2
through 8.3-8, show entries for the SCC's and other codes.
Entries in the data fields give information common to brickmaking
8.3-7
-------
operations. Information pertinent to coding the source is
entered on the margins of the forms and above or below applicable
data fields. Entries for control equipment codes, other optional
codes, emission factors, and required comments minimize the need
to refer to the code lists. Typical data values for operating
parameters, control equipment efficiencies, and other source
information are shown on the form (or in the text) only to aid in
rapid, approximate checks of data submitted by the plant in a
permit application or similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R
and NEDS must be actual values specific to and reported by the
plant, rather than typical values. Contact the plant to validate
or correct questionable data and to obtain unreported informa-
tion. See Part 1 of this manual for general coding instructions.
The emission source labeled "raw material storage" includes
loading onto piles, wind effects while the material is stored,
and retrieval activities.
Crushing/grinding and screening are often vented to the same
control device, in which case identical values for stack height
and diameter are coded on the NEDS form for each operation;
consecutive point ID'S are entered under points with a common
stack (Card 2, columns 56-59). Figures 8.3-3 and 8.3-4 show
entries for these operations. When crushing/grinding and screen-
ing are hooded, code the stack data; otherwise, enter a zero in
the stack height and diameter fields, 77 in the temperature
field, and appropriate plume height.
8.3-8
-------
Raw material drying and calcining are not practiced at all
plants. Figures 8.3-5 and 8.3-6 show the appropriate NEDS
forms.
Emissions from mixing and blending are usually not controlled,
A standard NEDS form for this operation is shown in Figure 8.3-7.
Since drying is accomplished with combustion gases from the
kiln, no separate SCC is assigned to the drying operation.
Exhaust gases from firing (and drying) are often vented through a
control device before discharge to the atmosphere. Where scrub-
bers are used, they may be used primarily to control gaseous
fluoride emissions. Code the scrubber as a primary particulate
control device, however, unless it is preceded by another par-
ticulate control device, in which case code the scrubber as a
secondary device. Figure 8.3-8 shows a standard NEDS form for
firing.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS6
The Basic Equipment Codes (EEC's) for use in EIS/P&R forms
are:
Source EEC
Raw material storage 712
Crushing/grinding 650, 653
Screening 575, 579
Calciner 231
Blending and mixing 485
Firing (kiln) 231
8.3-9
-------
Figure 8.3-2. Standard NEDS form for brick manufacturing - storage, raw material.
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2
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ffd 0 0
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Figure 8.3-7. Standard NEDS form for brick manufacturing - blending and mixing.
00
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS) POINTS
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22
23
a. £
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13
20
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20
21
22
23
24
25
26
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11
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19
20
21
22
23
sec
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21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
23
30
31
32
OROINATES
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33
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41
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43
44
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46
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49
50
51
52
53
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44
45
46
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33
34
35
36
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42
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ns/year
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Maximum Design
Rate
33
34
35
36
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31
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40
41
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62
63
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65
66
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69
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73
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74
75
76
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60
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59
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62
63
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65
66
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51
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73
74
75
76
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COMMENTS
11
27
21
25
30
31
32
33
34
35
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36
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
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47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
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60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
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-------
Figure 8.3-8. Standard NEDS form for brick manufacturing - curing and firing (kiln).
State,
1
7
County
3
4
5
(
00
w
^ 09 TUNNEL KILN,
11 TUNNEL KILN,
12 TUNNEL KILN,
13 PERIODIC KIU
14 PERIODIC KIU
15 PERIODIC KIU
IN-
2 - COAL
4 - RESI
5 - DIST
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m
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Number
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CAS FIRED
OIL FIRED
COAL FIREI
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
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35 36 37
:E TABLE 8.
Particulate
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GLOSSARY
Burning - See Firing.
Calcining - The heat treatment to which raw refractory materials
are subjected preparatory to further proc :ssing or use, for the
purpose oi eliminating volatile chemically combined constituents
and producing volume changes.
Curing - See Firing.
Firing - The controlled heat treatment of ceramic ware in a kiln
or furnace during the process of manufacture to develop the
desired properties.
Flashing - Firing a kiln under reducing conditions to obtain
certain desired colors on clayware.
Plasticity - The property of a material that permits it to be
deformed under stress without rupturing and to retain the shape
produced after the stress is removed.
Refractories - Materials used to withstand the thermal, chemical,
and physical effects in furnaces. Refractory materials include
firebrick, silica brick, magnesite brick, and chromite brick.
Vitrification - The progressive partial fusion of a clay as a
result of a firing process. As vitrification proceeds, the pro-
portion of glassy bond increases and the apparent porosity of the
fired product becomes increasingly lower.
8.3-17
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 8.3
Particulate Pollutant System Study. Vol. Ill - Handbook of
Emission Properties. EPA-22-69-104, May 1971.
Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors. 2nd edition,
Environmental Protection Agency, Publication AP-42. February
1976.
Shreve, N.R. Chemical Process Industries. 2nd edition.
McGraw-Hill Book Co, New York, 1956.
industrial Process Profiles for Environmental Use, Chapter
19: The Clay Industry. EPA-600/2-77-023s, February 1977.
Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes. EPA-
450/2-76-005 (OAQPS No. 1.2-042), April 1976.
Loquercio, P. and W. J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual of
Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
Public Health Service Publication No. 1956. 1968.
Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual. EPA-
450/2-76-029 (OAQPS No. 1.2-039), December 1976.
Vatavuk, W.M. National Emission Data System (NEDS) Control
Device Workbook. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Publication No. APTD-1570, July 1973.
Standard Industrial Classification Manual. 1972 edition.
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available from
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
8.3-18
-------
8.6 PORTLAND CEMENT MANUFACTURING
1-4
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The major use of Portland cement IF in making concrete,
which is a mixture of cement, aggregates consisting of sand
and gravel or crushed rock, and water. The product is used
in construction of highways, dams, buildings, and other
structures. Cement is produced by heating to the point of
fusion a finely ground combination of limestone, cement
rock, marl or oyster shells, and shale, clay, sand, or iron
ore. The fused product, called cement clinker, is ground to
a fine powder and shipped in bags or by bulk carrier.
Raw materials are received by truck, barge, or rail and
unloaded by a clamshell or discharged into a receiving pit
or hopper. Many cement plants are located near stone quar-
ries, which supply crushed stone of specified size. Quarry-
ing operations are described elsewhere. Other plants use
primary and secondary crushers and screens to produce stone
of specified size. The stone usually is unloaded directly
into a crusher hopper, crushed and screened, and then trans-
ferred to raw material piles or feed silos. The other raw
materials may be conveyed to open piles or directly to feed
silos. These materials may or may not be crushed.
8.6-1
-------
Raw materials from the silos are proportioned and fed
to a grinding mill. Depending on the type of grinding, the
cement production process is called dry or wet. In the dry
process, the raw materials may be dried separately before
grinding, but more commonly, grinding and drying are done
simultaneously. Some plants grind the raw materials sepa-
rately and then blend them in specified proportion. Exhaust
from the rotary kiln that follows this step supplies hot
gases for drying. Figure 8.6-1 is a flow diagram of a
typical dry process plant.
In the wet process, the slurry leaving the grinding
mill is 30 to 40 percent water; 70 to 90 percent of the
solids are smaller than 200 mesh. The raw materials may be
proportioned and blended before grinding or the slurries may
be blended after grinding. The blend may be vacuum-filtered
to about 20 percent water. Except for the difference in
grinding, the dry and wet processes are identical. Figure
8.6-2 is a flow diagram of a typical wet process plant.
The dry or wet mix is fed into the raised end of a
gently sloping rotary kiln, the far end of which is fired
with oil, gas, or coal. As the feed travels slowly down the
kiln, which may be as much as 350 feet long, it is exposed
to increasingly higher temperatures from the hot gases
traveling up the kiln. The feed is dried, calcined, and
8.6-2
-------
V WWT Q
1 PART O » PART. Q
RAH MATERIAL TRANSFER
.PART
C3
i
00
LEGEND
O EMISSION FACTOR3
©EMISSION F«CTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66 0! DENOTES CON'RCL EOUIP
l CODE WITH ESI EFF SHOWN
* IN ( )
\ DENOTES FUGITIVE
I EMISSIONS
O DENOTES A STACK
ESP 010 (96)
BAGHOUSE 016(99 8)
IN POUNDS PER SCC UNI
CEMENT LOADOU
Figure 8.6-1. Dry process Portland cenont plant.
-------
t PWT.O
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DENOTES FUGITIVE FKESJO PA«lt>, SSSl M, SEPARATE «_^
Q OFNOTFI A STACK * fwi Q [' | | \\ Cll*Kt T«A«SF « | 1
1 IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT CMirr SILOS *'" \A S = 5
LOAOIK ^l^^i^^ | | \$\ o d u
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'"*>'° F[«AL PWOOCT CsSfBT KIL|. CL1™
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R COOLER
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Figure 8.6-2. Wet process Portland cement plant.
-------
eventually partly fused at a temperature of about 2900°F.
Residence time in the kiln is 1 to 4 hours.
The clinker is discharged from the kiln into a clinker
cooler and is cooled by a stream of air. At least part of
the clinker-heated air is used as combustion air for the
kiln. The cooled clinker is transferred to storage piles or
silos.
Clinker is withdrawn from storage, mixed with about 5
percent gypsum (which regulates the setting time of the
cement), then ground and mixed in a grinding mill. Milled
cement is classified by a cyclone separator, and the over-
size material is returned to the mill. Proper sized cement,
about 90 to 100 percent smaller than 325 mesh, is conveyed
to storage silos. From there the product cement is bagged
or shipped in bulk by truck, rail, or barge.
EMISSIONS4"6
Particulate is the major pollutant from cement plants.
Emission sources are identified in Figures 8.6-1 and 8.6-2.
4
For some of the sources, AP-42 provides emission factors,
which are listed on the process flow diagram. For other
sources of emissions, average emission rates obtained from
other documents are mentioned in the following source
descriptions.
8.6-5
-------
Particulate emissions occur from raw material unload-
ing, storage piles, crushing, screening, and conveying and
transfer operations. Unless confined, all of these are
fugitive emission sources. Emissions from raw material
unloading range from 0.03 to 0.4 Ib/ton; from storage, 3.0
to 5.0 Ib/ton; from primary crushing, about 0.5 Ib/ton; from
secondary crushing and screening, about 1.5 Ib/ton; and from
conveying and transfer operations, 0.2 to 0.4 Ib/ton.
In the wet process, no emissions occur from raw mate-
rial grinding and subsequent transfer into the kiln. In
the dry process, emissions occur from grinding and from
feeding the kiln.
The kiln and the cooler are the major sources of
particulate emissions. Burning of fuel in the kiln also
emits combustion products.
Particulate emissions from discharge of clinker onto
piles, wind effects, and retrieval activities range from 5.0
to 10.0 Ib/ton. Clinker grinding, transferring the cement
into silos, and subsequent bulk loadout or packaging all
generate particulates.
CONTROL PRACTICES
Options for reducing or controlling emissions from
unloading include the use of water sprays and enclosures,
with or without venting to a baghouse. The raw materials
8.0-6
-------
are stored in stockpiles or in silos. Although emissions
from conveying are minimal, conveyors are sometimes par-
tially covered to reduce the emissions. Emissions caused by
transfer of materials from one conveyor belt to another are
sometimes controlled by venting the transfer point to a
baghouse. Telescoping chutes, adjustable stacking con-
veyors, and stone ladders are the options available for
reducing emissions from discharging onto t1 e stockpiles.
All of these reduce the free-fall distance and, hence, the
fugitive emissions. Water spraying of the material before
discharge onto the pile reduces the emission potential.
Stone is commonly unloaded (dumped) directly into a crusher
hopper.
Primary and secondary crushers and screens are often
located below grade; this reduces the potential for fugitive
emissions. Suppression of dusts by water sprays at the feed
points of both primary and secondary crushing and screening
operations is common. Some plants vent the discharge
points to a baghouse.
Raw materials are usually retrieved from stockpiles
with a clamshell, front-end loader, or bulldozer and fed to
a belt system, which transfers them to the feed silos.
Emissions from retrieval and subsequent transfer to the belt
system usually are not controlled.
8.6-7
-------
In the dry process, emissions from the grinding circuit
are usually vented to a baghouse. Cyclones are an integral
part of the grinding circuit. In the wet process, the
grinding circuit generates no emissions.
The rotary kiln is equipped with a cyclone followed by
an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) or baghouse to control
particulate emissions. A large part of the sulfur oxides
(SO-) from burning of fuel is retained in the cement clinker
by the lime. In addition, about 50 percent of the S02 that
enters the baghouse is removed by reaction with the cement
dust cake on the bags. Oxides of nitrogen are not con-
trolled. The cooler usually is equipped with a cyclone
followed by a baghouse or electrostatic precipitator.
Emissions from discharge of clinkers onto a storage
pile or into a storage pit are sometimes reduced by use of
telescoping chutes, which reduce the free-fall distance. At
least one plant discharges the clinker into an enclosed
structure vented to a baghouse. Some plants use open-ended
structures with sidewalls for storage of clinker; usually,
however, these partial enclosures are not sufficiently
confining to prevent fugitive emissions from windage and
loading onto the pile. A clamshell or front-end loader
retrieves the clinkers from the pile, or an elevator lifts
the clinker from the pit, and transfers it onto a belt
8.6-8
-------
system, which conveys the clinkers to the storage or feed
silos for the grinder. Emissions from clinker retrieval and
subsequent transfer to the belt system usually are not
controlled. Some plants vent the silo loading points to a
baghouse.
Emissions from clinker grinding are usually controlled
by a baghouse. Conveying and transfer of the cement is
accomplished by belt or pneumatic conveyoi and is usually
well confined and controlled both for prevention of product
loss and for particulate control. Air from the the pneu-
matic transport system is typically exhausted to fabric
filters.
Cement storage silo vents (for the discharge of dis-
placement air as cement is fed to the silos) are either
uncontrolled, covered by fabric "socks," or exhausted to
fabric filters, which are part of the pneumatic conveying
systems. The trend is toward exhausting to fabric filters.
Cement loading for bulk truck, rail, and ship/barge
transport is typically by gravity feed systems, which are
partially enclosed (in truck and rail loading) or unconfined
(in ship/barge loading). Some plants exhaust the cement
dust, which is emitted with displaced air during loading and
packaging, to fabric filters,- others use no controls. Load-
ing or packaging aspiration systems, which consist of a
8.6-9
-------
filling spout with an outer concentric aspiration duct
vented to a fabric filter, are being used increasingly.
CODING NEDS FORMS
7-9
The emission sources associated with cement production
are :
Source
Raw material unloading
Raw material p^'les
Primary crushing
Secondary crushing
Screening
Raw material transfer
Raw material grinding
Kilns
(Inprocess fuel)
Residual oil
Distillate oil
Natural gas
Coal
Clinker cooler
SCC
3-05-OOX-07
3-05-OOX-08
3-05-OOX-09
3-05-OOX-10
3-05-OOX-ll
3-05-OOX-12
3-05-006-13
3-05-OOX-06
(3-90-004-02)
(3-90-005-02)
(3-90-006-02)
(3-90-002-01)
3-05-OOX-1A
Pollutants
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Part iculates
Particulates
Particulates
Part iculates,
combustion products
Particulates
8.6-10
-------
Source SCC Pollutants
Clinker piles 3-05-OOX-15 Particulates
Clinker transfer 3-05-OOX-16 Particulates
Clinker grinding 3-05-OOX-17 Particulates
Cement silos 3-05-OOX-18 Particulates
Cement loadout - 3-05-OOX-19 Particulates
The codes for X in the SCC's are: 6 for the dry
process and 7 for the wet process.
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures
8.6-3 through 8.6-16, show entries for the SCC's and other
codes. Entries in the data fields give information common
to cement plants. Information pertinent to coding the
source is entered on the margins of the forms and above or
below applicable data fields. Entries for control equipment
codes, other optional codes, emission factors, and required
comments minimize the need to refer to the code lists.
Typical data values for operating parameters, control equip-
ment efficiencies, and other source information are shown on
the form (or in the text) only to aid in rapid, approximate
checks of data submitted by the plant in a permit applica-
tion or similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R and NEDS
must be actual values specific to and reported by the
plant, rather than typical values. Contact the plant to
validate or correct questionable data and to obtain unre-
8.6-11
-------
ported information. See Part 1 of this manual for general
coding instructions.
The emission source labeled "raw material piles"
includes loading onto piles, wind effects while the materi-
als are stored, and retrieval activities. Raw material
transfer operations that are not included under unloading,
storage piles, primary and secondary crushing, and screening
are grouped under the emission source labeled "raw material
transfer." Figures 8.6-3 through 8.6-8 illustrate the
standard NEDS forms for these six sources. Emission factors
for these sources have not yet been developed. When a plant
furnishes emissions data for these sources, code the values
given. Enter "Emission Estimates Given by Plant" in the
comments field on Card 7. Where there is no control device
or where water sprays are used, enter zeros in the stack
height and diameter fields, 77 in the temperature field, and
zeros in the common stack field. Enter appropriate height
in the plume height field. Where water sprays are used,
enter 061 or 062 as a control equipment code. In the com-
ments field on Card 6 identify other equipment used to
reduce emissions. For example, enter "stone ladders" where
these are used for transfer onto storage piles.
Figure 8.6-9 shows the standard NEDS form for the
grinding mill in a dry process plant. Rotary kilns and
8.6-12
-------
clinker coolers are the major sources of particulate emis-
sions in both dry and wet processes. Coal is the fuel used
most commonly for firing the kilns. Figures 8.6-10 and
8.6-11 show standard NEDS forms for these two sources.
The emission source labeled "clinker piles" includes
discharge (loading) onto piles, wind effects while the
clinkers are stored, and retrieval activities. The source
labeled "clinker transfer" includes the operations involved
in transferring the retrieved clinkers to the silos. Figures
8.6-12 and 8.6-13 show standard NEDS forms for these two
sources.
Figures 8.6-14 through -16 show standard NEDS forms for
clinker grinding, cement silos, and cement loadout opera-
tions.
8.6-13
-------
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS10
The EEC's for use in EIS/P&R forms are:
Source
Raw material unloading
Raw material piles
Primary crushing
Secondary crushing
Screening
Raw material transfer
Raw material grinding
Kiln
Clinker cooler
Clinker piles
Clinker transfer
Clinker grinding
Cement silos
Cement loadout
As of April 1978.
BEG
700
700
650
650
575, 577
700
653, 654
230
no code*
700
700
653, 654
no code*
700
8.6-14
-------
Figure 8.6-3. Standard NEDS form for Portland Cement Manufacturing - raw material unloading.
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS OAf A SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
FORM I
own NO i so m»«s
E,loh'.(hrr.rn. Njmt »nd Ad.1-f«
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¥
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MATERIAL HANOLfD .
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TRANSFER
6 FOR DRY PROCESS; 7 FOR WET PROCESS
-------
Figure 8.6-9. Standard NEDS form for portland cement manufacturing - raw material grinding,
dry process.
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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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POINT souncf
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OWP NO IM*«CV»«.
D«t«
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COOHl'IflAT ES
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT 5OUHCF.
'npul Form
FOF1M APITIOVrD
OWB NO ISBHIW9S
KILN-10.2 LB/TON
IN-PROCESS FUEL
CQAL-26S LB/TON ,
R.OIL-108S LB/10J GAL
D.OIL- 98S
GAS- 0
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7 - WET PROCESS]
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00
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I
t\3
00
NATIONAL EMISSIONS OAt A SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT souncf
Input fntm
OMB NO !••*(
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
"*"M
FSTIM'.Tri) I ONItlOL FfCKJFNCV (M
«l:'l?iln ho hi h- Ji|3«hlL!il"U!
S CEMENT PRODUC^q 4_'-
•
CLINKER COOLER
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10
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ir
-------
Figure 8.6-12. Standard NEDS form for Portland Cement Manufacturing - clinker piles.
CO
ro
n»*i ID
NumlM"
NATIONAL EMISSIONS OAtA SYSTEM (NEOS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOUOCE
Input Fo'Tt
FORM API-noVEO
OMB NO 1 "*8 RCV9S
Htrrtf of P*rlO"
Complftinq Form.
Eujh'i
_LJ
6 FOR DRY PROCESS; 7 FOR WET PROCESS
^e
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POINT SOUHCE
FORM AP*f*OV€0
CO
*
en
i
ro
ui
i ;
OH-tV
3
4
S
i
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m > a. Sic «; '"'" .
|t]n U TT 't H JO H 7! 73 74 75 7S 77 7S T>
_J 3241 __
J
"3 ? Boilpf Dwqn c ^
; I innn'Tkri" «•«.." 3*
* II II 11 7C 71 .'! .'! '4 75 K •'' " *n
0 0
\ ANNUAL TIIHUPUT NH"N'>'
OT'1/.T"
S 3 0« M». I Ju"' Sf 01 ^ S
v * f,t, M>. 1 Aui N.I. f D
** fVl.cul.lf S°'>
sec SCC UN
"5 £ Fypl P.
; | I ir Ml IV do
U 17 |! 1? ?0 n 1! 73 71 ft It '1 71 71
CLINKER TRANSFER 3050016
t -3
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14 :r. i' n is rj_ 7c 71 ,•? 7i n .". 7?|;;'"' '
'TV.-- .Ii
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
lo 31 37 33 31 !i IS 17 31 3? <0 41 >! <1 " >i "> " " !1 -"P'l1- M S< —
IAIES STACK I:AI ••
_. _L_. -. _ --i-
I ON ll'?V I- t I ' " N I
srj!"?_pr F|-"| I' 1-1 -
o o oloio oooo ololo LoiQlojojQJ QJMS lMP_ I L
E vr/ I'l'i ' ', r i VA Tf j nor* /- >' '
' 1 1
i »,,i,ruijilf 50; NO. "
rolT 3? 35 1« 3' K '' 31 39 '0 TTTrT -111 J«Ji, I/JU n]M vL' 5!]M. '.
ffrftmTrttlt lot .1 jimottti
NO. '" C° ' '"
~fo Jo I LJo L LI Li o
IT - TONS CEMENT PRODUCED _-_
".Hf HJI-* 'j C* "• '" L
00 0
J . _,^ „ .. - ..
i 11 31 i: r v v. w '.! " Ji '« " '• " " '•• '•" ' '' '-'.J " ,s >i.V
t-^l '. I.Hf 1 llr-
inpul Fo-m
T . . 8, . Olt| -^T-
,3
;<|sj
. 'J ,' XXXX POI
[";;«."'/ oooo IF
stj^t" M L « u M "
flZl 1 11 1
1 .„. N,. H, |
TCF *^R-. <;lMUihl
Hiol^li
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o _L
. ,,%-^ . > ^'-' (.'i '
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NT I
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Z
i
•10n»l C
U S? 70 71 7? 71 7(
D'S IF COMMON
DMMON STACK
t! S' 70 71 7: 7! 7
" ' ~J ""'ip 1
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41 ii ;0 ! 77 7]
P
LLLL^LLJ.
O 1
75 % 77 -! 'H*1
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1 75 "6 7; « •']
-------
Figure 8.6-14. Standard NEDS form for Portland Cement Manufacturing - clinker grinding.
00
•
01
ro
fistic
AOC« Numt^_
NATIONAL EMISSIONS OAt A SYSTEM (NEOS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT sounct
Input fo*f"
I PPMO"
FO*T> —
FORM '
OMB NO 1Sf< '
11
14
. DRY PROCESS |
- WET PROCESS
Euah'i^hmfnt Njm* andArtrf"**
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
fSTII.'»nOi:0'linOL EF'ICIfNCV 111
j^no iin:uni'i»iK|i-
CEMENT PRODUCED ./,
v.i.-mu»i O'4-y'1
6 FOR DRY PROCESS; 7 FOR WET PROCESS
CLINKER GRINDING
-------
Figure 8.6-15. Standard NEDS form for Portland Cement Manufacturing - cement silos.
O3
i
ro
W»nt ID
tin
NATIONAL EMISSIONS OAtfl SYSTEM INEOS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Of F1CE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
Input FO*TI
OMB NO 1SBROO9S
N*mr o' Perion
Co"->p(fttfH) form_
nw
J..
STACK (;*' -
Mnqht 1M)
O.amlM
T.rT,Dl°n
flo~".,if Ili3/i
fc.,,rr.f H».nh'
'mini IIJTO *'y ^ "
nh1! fit h^lyBi
C*o«"v
mr> RTU'h-
018 :
CEMENT SILOS
\ ANNUAL TMRUpUT
Qpf HA rifJ'
olo
Kii
otg
Co A i act PtMO"*i
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK |
/ 0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
99+
i;riMnr(t>i v< IHOL Ef1'Of NCY I
NO,
I'Li'^li'UL
_M.XiP-
_L
^pZpt
ojoJoiQLL
~( ' ,'j-Pl -AN-
TA
1"
F
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,
u
t
t?l
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a
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C
, t
''
0-
M
Ron I
ilMl'TS
i_l — ^i_
L»
n
TIL
"xi
;t
3
A
'k
i!.
c
C
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JJ
crt
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T
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6 FOR DRY PROCESS; 7 FOR WET PROCESS
fl
-------
Figure 8.6-16. Standard NEDS form for Portland Cement Manufacturing - cement load out.
CO
•
en
I
ro
oo
AOCR
NATIONAL EMISSIONS OAf A SYSTEM INEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK I
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
CEMENT
LOADOUT
SCC UNIT -TONS' CEMENT PRODUCED
Fu*< •t"K«l» Miju'ty -,~- i
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6
T
6 FOR DRY PROCESS; 7 FOR WET PROCESS
-------
GLOSSARY
Barrel - One barrel of cement weights 376 Ib; there are 5.32
barrels per ton of cement.
Clamshell - A crane with a bucket having two hinged jaws.
Clinker - The fused product of the kiln, cement chunks.
Stacking cr" veyor - A belt conveyor that discharges at the
storage pile. Use of conveyors that rise and fall with
the storage pile reduces the distance that the material
must drop.
Stone ladder - A fixed column containing a series of steps
that allow the falling material to cascade in short
drops. As the storage pile increases, the material
discharges through ports in the sides of the column and
emissions are reduced.
Telescoping chute - A column that can be raised or lowered
to maintain a constant distance between the coal being
discharged and the top of the storage pile.
8.6-29
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 8.6
1. Kreichelt, T.E., D.A. Kemnitz, and S.T. Cuffe. Atmos-
pheric Emissions from the Manufacture of Portland
Cement. U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Cincinnati, Ohio. PHS Publication No. 999-AP-17.
1967.
2. Process Flow Diagrams and Air Pollution Emission
Estimates. Cincinnati, American Conference of Govern-
mental Industrial Hygienists. Committee on Air Pollu-
tion. 1973. pp. 52-54.
3. Considine, D.M. (ed). Chemical and Process Technology
Encyclopedia. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1974.
pp. 237-240.
4. Complication of Air Pollution Emission Factors. 2nd
edition, 3rd Printing. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. Publication AP-
42. February 1976. pp. 8.6-1 8.6-4, C16.
5- Inspection Manual for the Enforcement of New Source
Performance Standards: Portland Cement Plants.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. EPA 340/1-75-001. January ly75
6. Technical Guidance for Control of Industrial Process
Fugitive Particulate Emissions. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
EPA-450/3-77-010. March 1977.
7. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/2-76-029
(OAQPS No. 1.2-039). December 1976.
8.6-30
-------
8. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/2-76-005
(OAQPS No. 1.2-042). April 1976.
9. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 Editxon,
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available
from Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
10. Loquercio, P. and W.J. Stanley. Air ?ollution Manual
of Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare. Public Health Service Publication No. 1956.
1968.
8.6-31
-------
8.9 COAL CLEANING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Coal IF Cleaned to remove impurities s ch as dirt,
clay, rock, shale, iron, wood, and some sulfur. These
.mpurities are present in coal in its natural state or are
added accidentally when the coal is mined. Their removal
increases the heating value of the coal and reduces emissions
of sulfur oxides when the coal is burned.
Coal cleaning plants are usually located at the mine.
Their capacities range up to 2000 tons per hour, with an
average of about 500 tons per hour. There are three basic
types of coal preparation plants: (1) complete preparation
plants, which clean both coarse and fine coal; (2) partial
preparation plants, which clean only coarse coal; and (3)
coal crushing plants, which crush the coal to specified
sizes. The complete preparation plant is discussed here,
since its operations include those of the other two types.
Figure 8.9-1 shows a typical coal cleaning plant. Coal
is usually carried by belt conveyors to the crusher where it
is prepared for the cleaning plant or for shipment. The
crusher is designed to discharge the slate and rock to a
.9-1
-------
WET CLEANING
PROCESS
o
CHKMON TnOM THERMAL DRYERC
TYPE OF
; DRYER
FLUID BED
FLASH
MULTILOUVERED
V
EMISSIONS
LB/TON
CONTROL .,,.,
DEVICE °01
«
20 |
16 ^_
' 3 ;
-*-
CYCLONE
1-FLU ID!ZED BED
2-FLASH
3-MULTI LOWERED
4-ROTARY
5-CASCADE
6-CONTINUOUS
CARRIER
7-SCREEN
PART.
LEGEND.
Q EMISSION FACTOR'
0EB!5S!ON FKTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EOUIP
. CODE WITH EST. EFF SHOWN
O
IN ( )
DENOTES FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS
DENOTES • STACK
IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
Figure 8.9-1. Coal cleaning plant.
8.9-2
-------
refuse pile. A bar screen following the crusher separates
the oversize fraction and returns it to the crusher. The
crushed coal is conveyed to storage silos. Coal to be
cleaned is conveyed to vibrating screens, which separate the
coal into several size fractions. The large and small sizes
of screened coal are moved by conveyors to separate cleaning
circuits.
Impurities are separated by wet and dry processes. In
the United States, approximately 93 percent of the coal
produced is cleaned by the wet process, in which water or a
mixture of water and hematite is the medium and separation
is effected by gravity, centrifugal force, air, or a pulsa-
tion column. In the dry process, air is the medium and
separation is done on "air tables." In both processes
separation is based on differences in specific gravities of
the various materials.
Wet separation is followed by recovery of the medium
(hematite) and by mechanical dewatering of the coal, after
which the smaller coal particles are sometimes dried ther-
mally, depending on product specifications. The dried coal
is usually mixed with a larger coal fraction, and the
mixture is conveyed to storage piles or silos or is loaded
directly into railroad cars, trucks, or barges.
The fluidized-bed dryer (sometimes called "fluid-bed")
is commonly used for drying the fine coal. In this device
8.9-3
-------
the coal is suspended in a fluid state above a perforated
plate on a rising column of hot combustion gases. The
entrained coal is separated from the hot gases by cyclones.
Other types of dryers used for coal drying are flash, multi-
louver, rotary, cascade, continuous carrier, and screen
dryers. The three most common are the fluidized bed, flash,
and multilouver.
EMISSIONS3'4
Although combustion products are emitted from the
dryer, coal particulate is the major pollutant in coal
cleaning operations. Emission sources are identified in
4
Figure 8.9-1. For some of the sources, AP-42 provides
emission factors, which are listed on the process flow
diagram. For other sources, average emission rates obtained
from other documents are mentioned in the following source
descriptions.
Most coal cleaning plants are located near the mouth of
the coal mines. Coal is conveyed from the mine to the
cleaning plant by semi-covered belt conveyors or by elevator,
Emissions from conveying are minimal. When coal is dis-
charged (transferred) onto a storage pile or into a breaker
or crusher hopper, fugitive emissions occur because these
transfer operations usually are not enclosed and vented.
Where coal is received in barges or rail cars, emissions
8.9-4
-------
occur during unloading. Fugitive emissions that occur in
raw coal storage and retrieval, crushing, screening, and
transfer activities are in inverse proportion to the surface
moisture of the coal. Emissions from storage are caused
primarily by wind.
The separation and mechanical dewateri^g operations of
wet cleaning plants do not emit air pollutants. Substantial
amounts of coal particles are entrained in gases leaving the
thermal dryer. Combustion of fuel (usually coal) for the
dryer generates sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon
monoxide, and hydrocarbons.
In dry process plants, dust particles are emitted in
the air table exhaust. An air table designed to handle 70
tons of coal per hour may emit up to 50 pounds per hour of
particulates.
Fugitive particulates are also emitted from storage and
loading of cleaned coal. Since a wet process plant produces
coal with a relatively high surface moisture content, emis-
sions are lower than those from a dry process plant.
3 4
CONTROL PRACTICES '
Emissions from unloading, storage, and transfer of raw
coal are usually not controlled. Most plants, however, use
stone ladders, telescoping chutes, or adjustable stacking
conveyors for loading onto the storage piles. All of these
8.9-5
-------
reduce the free fall distance and, hence, the fugitive emis-
sions. Control options for transfer operations include
spraying the material before the transfer or the use of an
enclosure or hood vented to a particulate control device.
Increasing use of water within coal mines to implement new
health and safety regulations produces coal with relatively
higher surface moisture content and thus reduces fugitive
emissions.
Emissions attributed to crushing do not occur from the
crushing operation, but from the feed and discharge points,
which are transfer sources. Sometimes the crusher is
housed in a building but not vented. In these cases the
degree to which emissions are reduced by baffle effects and
internal settling is not known; it is possible that all of
the dust generated in crushing is eventually emitted to the
atmosphere.
Although emissions from conveying are minimal, con-
veyors from the crushers to the screens are usually partially
covered to protect the coal from wind. The screens are
usually equipped with water sprays to wash some of the fines
from the larger coal and to reduce the emission potential.
Use of sprays at this point also reduces emissions from
subsequent transfer and conveying operations, which are not
controlled.
8.9-6
-------
Where a fluidized-bed dryer is used, a cyclone is an
integral part of the system. Particulate emissions from the
dryer are controlled also by several types of scrubbers,
most commonly a venturi scrubber. Particulate removal
efficiencies for venturi scrubbers are reported to be 99
percent.
Cyclones also are an integral part of the air table in
a dry process plant. Particulate emissions are typically
controlled also by fabric filters, which are reported to
reduce emissions to less than 0.01 grain per dry standard
cubic foot.
Emissions from the discharge of cleaned coal onto
storage piles, and from storage, retrieving of coal, and
loading for shipment are usually not controlled. In the
transfer of raw coal, however, stone ladders or telescoping
chutes are sometimes used to reduce emissions.
CODING NEDS FORMS
The emission sources in a coal cleaning plant are:
Source SCC Pollutants
Unloading 3-05-010-08 Particulates
Raw coal storage 3-05-010-09 Particulates
Crushing 3-05-010-10 Particulates
Coal transfer 3-05-010-11 Particulates
Screening 3-05-010-12 Particulates
Air tables 3-05-010-13 Particulates
8.9-7
-------
Source
Thermal dryer
Fluidized bed
Flash
Multilouvered
Rotary
Cascade
SCC
3-05-010-01
3-05-010-02
3-05-010-03
3-05-010-04
3-05-010-05
Continuous carrier 3-05-010-06
Screen 3-05-010-07
(Inprocess fuel
for all dryers)
Coal
Residual oil
Cleaned coal
storage
(3-90-002-99)
(3-90-004-99)
Pollutants
Particulates, products
of combustion
Particulates, products
of combustion
Particulates, products
of combustion
Particulates, products
of combustion
Particulates, products
of combustion
Particulates, products
of combustion
Particulates, products
of combustion
Particulates
Particulates
3-05-010-14
Loading 3-05-010-15
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures
8.9-2 through 8.9-10, show entries for the SCC's and other
codes. Entries in the data fields give information common
to coal cleaning plants. Information pertinent to coding
the source is entered on the margins of the forms and above
or below applicable data fields. Entries for control
equipment codes, other optional codes, emission factors, and
8.9-8
-------
required comments minimize the need to refer to the code
lists. Typical data values for operating parameters,
control equipment efficiencies, and other source information
are shown on the form (or in the text) only to serve as
quick, approximate checks of data submitted by the plant in
a permit application or similar report. Da :a entered in
EIA/P&R and NEDS must be acutal values specific to and
reported by the plant, rather than typical values. Contact
the plant to validate or correct questionable data and to
obtain unreported information. See Part 1 of this manual
for general coding instructions.
The emission source labeled "storage" includes loading
on to piles, wind effects while the coal is stored, and
retrieval activities. Transfer operations that are not
included under unloading, storage, crushing, screening, and
loading are grouped under the emission source labeled "coal
transfer".
Emissions from coal unloading, raw coal storage,
crushing, coal transfer, and screening are usually not
controlled. Figures 8.9-2 through 8.9-6 illustrate the
standard NEDS forms for these five sources. Emission
factors for these sources have not yet been developed. When
a plant furnishes emissions data for these sources, code the
values given. Enter "Emission Estimates Given by Plant" in
the comments field on card 7. Where there is no control
8.9-9
-------
device or where water sprays are used, enter zeros in the
stack height and diameter fields, 77 in the temperature
field, and zeros in the common stack field. Enter appropriate
height in the plume height field. Where water sprays are
used, enter 061 or 062 as control equipment code. Identify
other equipment used to reduce emissions in the comments
field on card 6. For example, enter "stone ladders" where
these are used for transfer onto storage piles.
Thermal dryers are major sources of particulate emis-
sions in the wet process, and air tables in the dry process.
Figures 8.9-7 and 8.9-8 illustrate standard NEDS forms for
these sources. Note that a fluidized-bed dryer includes
primary cyclones as part of the equipment. Coal is the most
common fuel used for drying; oil is used rarely.
Emissions from the handling of cleaned coal are minimal
in the wet process because of relatively high surface
moisture content. Figures 8.9-9 and 8.9-10 illustrate the
standard NEDS forms for cleaned coal storage and loading,
respectively. The emission source labeled "cleaned coal
storage" includes loading on to piles, wind effects, and
retrieval activities.
8.9-10
-------
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The BEC's for use in EIS/P&R forms are:
Source Ul£
Unloading 70°
Raw coal storage no code*
Crushing rD°
Transfer 70°
Screening 575,577
Air tables 582
Thermal dryer
Fluidizcd bed 464
Flash 464
Multilouvered 464
Rotary 452
Cascade 464
Continuous carrier 464
Af.A
Screen ^D4
Cleaned coal storage no code*
Loading 70°
* As of .3 -nuary 1978.
8.9-11
-------
Figure 8.9-2. Standard NEDS form for coal cleaning - unloading.
oo
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Sffi
NAlliAAl I MISSIONS OAF A SYSHM IKE OS)
[NU'.O ."INTAt PHimCT(0*i
Of MCE IH AIR PROGRAMS
FORM AfPRGVf D
O»8 NO IbSRIX
ftffl
JITTTITI
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2-BITUMINOUS
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Figure 8.9-3. Standard NEDS form for coal cleaning - raw coal storage.
CD
NAIIDNAl l MISSIONS OA1 A SYSUMlrUDS)
uMSNIAL PHOTfCMON AGtNCY
UiHCE (H AIR PROGRAMS
FOHM APPfiO^ f ':
OM6 NO IW RQO1S
1-ANTHRACITE
2-BITlimNOUS
11
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-------
Figure 8.9-4. Standard NEDS form for coal cleaning - crushing.
00
vo
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NA1IUNAI EMISSIONS DATA SVSTEM (NEDS)
ENVinOiMMlNTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
1-ANTHRACITE
2-BITUMINOUS
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT I.D.'S IF COMMON STACK
CRUSHING
TJT
SCC,UNIT - TOHS COAL SHIPPED
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Figure 8.9-5. Standard NEDS form for col cleaning - coal transfer.
oo
VD
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LTI
NATIONAL I MISSIONS DATA SYSftH (NCOS)
PROTECTION AGINCY
Of MCE Or AIR PROGRAMS
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT I.D.'S IF COMMON STACK
i4Uun:;^M.J44-Ti^^
so'UNIT -"TONS COAL SHIPPD,
TRANSFER MSMSOiro
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Figure 8.9-6. Standard NEDS form for coal cleaning - screening.
00
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ft
MA1IUMAL EMISSIONS DAT A StSU* Wf OS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACINCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
ffi
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ffi
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iI-6'8
TV,E Of om«
FLUID BED
FLASH
"UlTI-
LOUVEHED
CONTINUOUS
CARPIEP
ftOTAUr
CASCADE
IPP i UMOHTIlOLlEO PA«T
COOC EKISSItWS l»/TO«
04 1 20
OS 1 16
06 2S
07 NOT AVAILABLE
OB < NOT AVAILABLE
09 j HOT AVAILABLE
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Figure 8.9-8. Standard NEDS form for coal cleaning - air tables
CO
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NATIONAL EMISQIQSS DATA SYSTEM (MOS)
ENVIRON.V.FNTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRA.VS
POrV -.-Prc^ ED
'.>•<> NO 1 SB P',035
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2 - BITUMINOUS
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AIR TABLES
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Ficiure 8.9-3. Standard -.IEDS form for coal cleaning - cleaned coal storage.
if
MftllDNAl I MISSIONS OATASYSTlMINf OS)
CNvmUhiMlNIAl PROTf CTION AGENCY
OFFICt Of AIR PROGRAMS
KJIWT ioum:c
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FORM APPWOVt o
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00
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NCOS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTE CriON ACENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
SCC,UNIT - TONS COAL SHIPPED
LOAD1K6 .. II
315
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GLOSSARY
Air table - A device that uses a pulsating air column to
separate coal from reject material.
Cleaning circuit - The equipment that separates impurities
from coal.
Coal cleaning - All operations involved in removing impuri-
ties from coal.
Dry coal cleaning - Use of air to separate impurities from
coal.
Grizzly - A device used to remove large fragments of rock
and other materials from coal. This is a form of a
scalping screen, except, that it consists of a series
of heavy steel bars spaced parallel to each other.
Hematite - A mineral Fe203 constituting an important iron
ore and occuring in crystals or in a red earthy form.
Hematite is mixed with water to produce mixtures having
different specific gravities for use in a wet washing
plant.
Scalping screen - Used to remove large rock, slate, timbers,
etc. , from coal; the scalper consists of heavy wire
screen with large openings that permit the coal pieces
to drop to another series of screens for segregation.
Stacking conveyor - A belt conveyor that discharges at the
storage pile. Use of conveyors that use and fall with
the storage pile reduces the distance that the coal
must drop.
Stone ladder - A fixed, rectangular column with a series of
steps inside that allow the falling material to cascade
in short drops. As the storage pile increases, the
coal discharges through ports in the sides of the
column and emissions are reduced.
Telescoping chute - A column that can be raised or lowered
to maintain a constant distance between the coal being
discharged and the top of the storage pile.
Wet coal cleaning - Use of liquids of varying specific
densities to separate impurities from coal.
8.9-21
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 8.9
1. Keystone Coal Industry Manual. New York. McGraw -
Hill, Inc. 1975.
2. Coal Preparation. Leonard, J.W., and D.R. Mitchell.
(ed.). New York. The American Institute of Mining,
Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc. 1968.
3. Background Information for Standards of Performance:
Coal Preparation Plants. Vol. 1: Proposed Standards.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Research Triangle Park, EPA
450/2-74-0219. October 1974.
4. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Second
Edition. Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina. AP-42. February 1976.
5. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/2-76-029
(OAQPS No. 1.2-039). December 1976.
6. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication No. EPA-450/2-76-005
9OAQPS No. 1.2-042). April 1976.
7. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 Edition.
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available
from Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
8. Loquercio, P. and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual
of Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare. Public Health Service Publication No. 1956.
1968.
8.9-22
-------
8.15 LIME MANUFACTURING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION1"4
The manufacture of lime involves the calcining of limestone
(CaCO-. or CaCO 'MgCO_) to release carbon die
-------
UGEHD:
£} OHSSIOH FACTOR*
eEMISSIOII FACTOR HOT DEVaOPED
FOR THIS PROCES.
009 (66.0) DENOTES COKTROl EQUIP.
I CODE WITH EST. EFF. SHOWN
f IM)
\ DENOTES FUGITIVE
/ EMISSIONS
o
DENOTES A STACK
PHOOBCT TWWSFER
(WO CONVEYING
COimOL FWRIC
DEVICE
f PART0
FILTER 018 (99)
* IK POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
3-05-016-07
RAW MATERIAL
TRANSFER AND
CONVEYING
PART0
3-05-016-03
CALCINING-
VERTICAL KILN
RAH
MATERIAL.
3-05-016-02
SECONDARY
CRUSHING/
SCREENING
9
MET SCRUBBER 001 (95-99)
FABRIC FILTER 017 (99)
ESP 010 (95)
GRAVITY COLLECTOR 000 (<80)
CENTRIFUGAL COLLECTOR 009 (<80)
FABRIC FILTER
018 (99)
jPAJtrQ 4 PARj Q
FABRIC FILTER
018 (99)
CaO
'PART
3-90-OOX-99
IN-PROCESS FUEL
4-OIL
6-NATURAL GAS
VERTICAL
ROTARY
3-05-016-10
RAW MATERIAL
STORAGE PILES
. QUICKL
FABRIC FILTER 017 (99)
CYCLONE 008 (90-95)
WET SCRUBBER 002 (80-95)
CALCININ6-
ROTARY KILN
3-90-OOX-99
IN-PROCESS FUEL
2-COAl
4-01L
6-NATURAL GAS
3-05-016-14
PACKING/
SHIPPING
FABRIC
FILTER 018 (99
DOLOm
PRESSU
HYDRAT
LIME
9 9
FABRIC
9
HIGH CALCIUM QUICKLIME
MO DOLOWTIC QUICKLIME
Figure 8.15-1. Lime Manufacture
SPRAYS
WET SCRUBBERS
FABRIC
FILTER 018 (99)
HIGH C
AND 00
HYDRAT
-------
secondary crushers and screens reduce the stone to the desired
feed size for the calcining kilns.
In the United States, limestone is calcined in either verti-
cal or rotary kilns. The limestone feed size for most vertical
kilns is 6 to 8 inches; consequently, only primary crushing is
required. However, some vertical kilns need a smaller feed size
of 3 to 5 inches. Material for these kilns must undergo second-
ary crushing Rotary kilns, which are the most prevalent kilns
in use, also need the smaller feed size.
Vertical kilns, which are fueled by oil or natural gas, have
four distinct zones from top to bottom: stone storage zone,
preheating zone, calcining zone, and cooling and discharge zone.
The flow of stone in the kiln is countercurrent to the flow of
cooling air and combustion gases. The stone is charged at the
top and preheated by the hot exhaust gases from the calcining
zone. Air blown into the bottom of the kiln cools the lime
before it is discharged. This air is heated sufficiently by the
time it reaches the calcining zone to be used as secondary com-
bustion air. The lime is discharged to cars on tracks or to
conveyor belts, and either prepared for shipping or further
processed by hydration.
The rotary kiln, which is supported by rollers, is a long
inclined horizontal steel cylinder lined with refractory brick.
Most rotary kilns rotate at a speed of about 1 rpm. The lime-
stone flows countercurrent to the heat, the pebble-size limestone
entering at one end and the hot gases entering at the other.
8.15-3
-------
Rotary kilns have three distinct zones: the feed and drying
zone, the central or preheating zone, and the calcining zone.
Rotary kilns are fueled with coal, oil, or natural gas. Product
coolers are commonly used after the kiln to recover heat from the
calcined lime.
In both vertical and rotary kilns, the temperature in the
feed end is kept below 1000°F, and the temperatures in the pre-
heating and calcining zones are between 2000° and 2400°F; higher
temperatures are found in shorter kilns. At these temperatures,
limestone dissociates to quicklime and carbon dioxide.
CaC03 + CaO + C02
Most of the calcined lime or quicklime is screened, milled,
and transferred pneumatically or by conveyor to storage silos,
where it is kept until it is shipped. Fines from calcination can
be briquetted, fed to a hydrator, or pulverized, as the market
demands.
About 10 percent of all the lime produced is converted to
hydrated (slaked) lime.
CaO + H20 + Ca(OH)2
In the hydration process, water is added to crushed or ground
quicklime in a mixing chamber (hydrator). The slaked lime is
dried by the heat of the hydration reaction, and is conveyed to
an air separator in preparation for final shipment. Dolomitic
pressure-hydrated lime has an additional milling step prior to
shipment. Atmospheric hydrators are operated continuously;
pressure hydrators are operated in a batch mode.
8.15-4
-------
For shipping, the quicklime and hydrated lime products are
packaged in bags and handled in bulk by truck, rail, ship, or
barge.
Lime manufacturing plants have capacities between 50 and 650
tons per day. Plants usually operate 24 hours per day for 6 or 7
days a week. Stack heights for lime plants range from 250 to 400
feet.
EMISSIONS1""3'5
Particulate is the major pollutant from lime plants, espe-
cially from the calcining kiln. Emission sources are identified
in Figure 8.15-1. For some of the sources, AP-42 provides emis-
sion factors, which are listed on the process flow diagram. For
other sources, average emission rates obtained from other docu-
ments are mentioned in the discussion that follows.
Particulate emissions arise during raw material unloading,
open storage piles, crushing, screening, and conveying and
transfer operations. All of these operations, unless confined,
are fugitive emission sources. Emissions from raw material un-
loading range from 0.03 to 0.4 Ib/ton; from raw material storage
piles, 3.0 to 5.0 Ib/ton (includes loading onto pile, vehicular
traffic, loading out, and wind erosion); from primary crushing,
about 0.5 Ib/ton; from secondary crushing and screening, about
1.5 Ib/ton; from raw material conveying and transfer operations,
0.8 Ib/ton; and from packaging and shipping of quicklime and hy-
drated lime products by truck, rail, ship, or barge, 0.25 lb/
ton.
8.15-5
-------
The major source of particulate emissions in lime manu-
facture is the calcining kiln. Emissions vary with kiln type and
composition of limestone burned. Rotary kilns emit considerably
more particulates than do vertical kilns because the charge
material is smaller, the rate of fuel consumption is higher, and
air velocity through the kiln chamber is greater. The in-process
fuel also emits sulfur oxides and small amounts of nitrogen
oxides and carbon monoxide.
Product coolers following the rotary kiln are emission
sources only when some of their exhaust gases are not recycled
through the kiln as combustion air. Current practice is against
the venting of product cooler exhaust, however, because recycling
makes better use of the fuel. Cyclones, baghouses, and wet
scrubbers have been used to control particulates from coolers.
Emissions from milling and screening the calcined material are
minor because the operations are enclosed.
Few particulates are emitted during hydration, because water
sprays or wet scrubbers are usually installed to prevent the loss
of product in the exhaust gases. Emissions from pressure hy-
drators may be greater than from the more common atmospheric
type; control is more difficult in pressure hydrators because the
exhaust gases are released intermittently over short time inter-
vals. Particulate emissions from pressure hydrators after wet
scrubbers are about 2 Ib/ton of hydrate produced. Emissions
froir atmospheric hydrators after wet scrubbers are about 0.1
Ib/ton of hydrate produced.
8.15-6
-------
Minor amounts of particulates are emitted from the air
separator following the hydrator and the milling operation fol-
lowing the pressure hydrator because the processes are enclosed.
Some particulates are entrained in the lime silo ventilation.
Additional particulate emissions are generated during the packing
and shipping operations, and product transfer and conveying.
CONTROL PRACTICES
Emissions from unloading are generally not controlled.
Building enclosures may be used to reduce emissions. Liquid
sprays are also sometimes used to suppress emissions during un-
loading. Occasionally, the unloading area is vented to a bag-
house.
The limestone is nearly always stored in stockpiles, a
source of fugitive particulate emissions, but in some cases it
may be stored in silos. Liquid spraying of the material before
discharge onto the storage pile is often practiced to reduce the
emission potential. Telescoping chutes, adjustable stacker con-
veyors, and stone ladders are possible ways to reduce emissions
from loading onto the raw material storage piles. All of these
devices reduce the free-fall distance and, hence, the fugitive
emissions.
Emissions from conveying are minimal, but the belts are
sometimes partly covered to reduce any emissions that occur.
Emissions caused by transfer of materials from one conveyor belt
to another are most often controlled by enclosures or water
.15-7
-------
sprays, with an increasing trend toward control by venting the
transfer point to a baghouse.
Primary crushers and secondary crushers and screens are
often located below grade; this reduces the impact of the emis-
sions. Suppression of dusts by water sprays at the feed points
of these operations is very common. Emissions from primary
crushers are sometimes controlled by wet scrubbers or fabric
filters. An increasing number of plants are venting the dis-
charge points of secondary crushing and screening to a fabric
filter.
Emissions from kilns are controlled in most plants by pri-
mary collectors, consisting of centrifugal or gravity collectors,
which have,efficiencies between 25 and 80 percent (70 percent
average). These collectors are usually followed by secondary
collectors, such as wet scrubbers (95 to 99 percent efficient);
electrostatic precipitators (95 percent efficient); or fabric
filters (99 percent efficient).
Nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and sulfur oxides are all
formed in the kilns, but the last is the only gaseous pollutant
emitted in significant quantities. Not all of the sulfur in the
kiln fuel is emitted as sulfur oxides because some fraction
reacts with the materials in the kiln. Sulfur oxide emissions
may be incidentally reduced by the various equipment used for
secondary particulate control; otherwise, gaseous emissions are
uncontrolled.
8.15-8
-------
Some or all of the exhaust from the product cooler is re-
cycled to the kiln as combustion air. The portion that is not
recycled is typically controlled by a fabric filter, cyclone, or
wet scrubber.
Emissions from the atmospheric or pressure hydrator are re-
duced by water sprays or wet scrubbers. The emission rates after
control are 2 Ib/ton and 0.1 Ib/ton of lime produced, respec-
tively.
Particulates entrained in the air displaced during loading
of the silos are retained by fabric socks on the vents. In
pneumatic systems the lime silo transport air is often exhausted
through a fabric filter.
During packaging and processing for bulk shipment, the
emissions that arise are frequently controlled by aspiration
through fabric filters. Many lime plants are using a gravity-
feed fill spout mechanism that has outer concentric aspiration
ducts to vent the dust to a fabric filter. This device has been
markedly successful in reducing emissions during packing and
shipping.
Transfer and conveying of the finished quicklime and slaked
lime can be a considerable fugitive emission problem if these
sources are not properly enclosed and exhausted. Nearly all
plants completely enclose the conveyor systems, which are most
often belt-type, and many of them also enclose transfer points
and exhaust the emissions to fabric filters.
8.15-9
-------
CODING NEDS FORMS1'8"10
The emissions sources associated with lime manufacturing
are:
Source
Raw material unloading
Raw material storage piles
Primary crushing
Primary screening
SCC
3-05-016-08
3-05-016-10
3-05-016-01
3-05-016-16
Secondary crushing/screening 3-05-016-02
3-05-016-07
Raw material transfer and
conveying
Calcining, vertical kiln
In-process fuel
Calcining, rotary kiln
In-process fuel
Product cooler
Hydrator (atmospheric)
Pressure hydrator
Lime silos
Packing/shipping
Product transfer and
conveying
3-05-016-03
3-90-OOX-99
3-05-016-04
3-90-OOX-99
3-05-016-11
3-05-016-09
3-05-016-12
3-05-016-13
3-05-016-14
3-05-016-15
Pollutant(s)
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates, com-
bustion products
Particulates, com-
bustion products
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures 8.15-2
through 8.15-15, show entries for the SCC's and other codes.
Entries in the data fields give information common to lime manu-
factaring plants. Information pertinent to coding the source is
entered on the margins of the forms and above or below applicable
8.15-10
-------
data fields. Entries for control equipment codes, other optional
codes, emission factors, and required comments minimize the need
to refer to the code lists.
Typical data values for operating parameters, control equip-
ment efficiencies, and other source information are shown on the
form (or in the text) only to aid in quick, approximate checks of
data submitted by the plant in a permit application or similar
report. Data -ntered in EIS/P&R and NEDS muc. c be actual values
specific to and reported by the plant, rather than typical values.
Contact the plant to validate or correct questionable data and to
obtain unreported information. See Part 1 of this manual for
general coding instructions.
The emission source labeled "raw material unloading" in-
cludes emissions released when raw materials that have been
previously sized are received from truck, ship, barge, or rail.
Raw materials that must be crushed and screened are unloaded
directly into primary crusher hoppers; emissions from unloading
this unsized material are included in primary crusher emissions.
There is no emission factor developed for primary screening.
The emission factor assigned to secondary crushing/screening
includes emissions from both operations.
The emission source labeled "raw material storage piles"
includes loading onto piles, wind effects while the materials are
stored, and retrieval activities. Raw material transfer opera-
tions that are not included under unloading, storage piles,
primary crushing, primary screening, and secondary crushing and
8.15-11
-------
screening are grouped under the emission source labeled "raw
material transfer and conveying." Figures 8.15-2 through 8.15-7
illustrate the standard NEDS forms for these six sources. When
a plant furnishes emissions data for these sources, code the
values given. Enter "Emission estimates given by plant" in the
comments field on Card 7. Where there is no control device or
where water sprays are used, enter zeros in the stack height and
diameter fields, 77 in the temperature field, and zeros in the
common stack field. Enter appropriate height in the plume height
field. Where water sprays are used, enter 061 or 062 as a con-
trol equipment code. In the comments field on Card 6 identify
other equipment used to reduce emissions. For example, enter
"stone ladders" where these are used during loading onto raw
material storage piles.
Figure 8.15-8 shows the standard NEDS form for calcining
with the vertical kiln. The in-process fuel is either oil or
natural gas.
Figure 8.15-9 shows the standard NEDS form for calcining
with the rotary kiln. The in-process fuel may be coal, oil, or
natural gas. AP-421 provides emission factors for control for
primary, and for secondary particulate control. These numbers
serve as guides; actual plant values must be entered. Secondary
particulate controls such as venturi scrubbers may reduce sulfur
oxides as well. When this is the case, also enter the scrubber
as a secondary S02 control device using 053 as the control device
code.
8.15-12
-------
The standard NEDS form for the product cooler used after the
rotary kiln is shown in Figure 8.15-10. The emission factor from
AP-42 and the control device apply only when the cooler gas is
not completely recycled back to the rotary kiln. The coder must
determine whether or not this is the case.
Atmospheric and pressure hydrator emissions are reduced by
water sprays or wet scrubbers; Figures 8.15-11 and 8.15-12 show
standard NELo forms for these sources.
Particulate emissions from lime silo ventilation air and
packing/shipping are generally vented to fabric filters. Product
transfer and conveying include all emissions from pneumatic or
mechanical (conveyor) transport of the lime from the kiln through
the packing/shipping operation. These emissions are also usually
controlled by venting to a fabric filter. See Figures 8.15-13,
8.15-14, and 8.15-15 for standard NEDS forms for these sources.
8.15-13
-------
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The BEC's for use in the EIS/P&R forms are:
Source BEC
Raw material unloading 712
Raw material storage piles 700
Primary crushing 650
Primary screening 575
Secondary crushing/screening 650, 575
Raw material transfer and conveying 700
Calcining, vertical kiln 229
Calcining, rotary kiln 229
Product cooler 330
Hydrator (atmospheric) No code*
Pressure hydrator No code*
Lime silos 730
Packing/shipping 711, 712
Product transfer and conveying 700
As of November 1978.
8.15-14
-------
Figure 8.15-2. Standard NEDS form for lime manufacturing - raw material unloading.
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-------
Figure 8.15-3. Standard NEDS form for lime manufacturing - raw material storage piles.
Ti; irrrvrr vi > i > i«i_i.
f MISSIONS DATA SYS I EM (Nf US)
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OFFICE OF AlBPnOGRAMS
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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
PRIMARY CRUSHING
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
POINT ID'S
i : i ! i , I ' i *~^~"~7"'
-------
Figure 8.15-5. Standard NEDS form for lime manufacturing - primary screening.
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0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
UTM COORDINATES
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-------
Figure 3.15-6. Standard NEDS form for lime manufacturing - secondary crushing/screening.
CD
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Figure 8.15-8. Standard NEDS form for lime manufacturing -
calcining, vertical kiln in-process fuel.
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ENVIROHMLN1AL PHOTfCTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIRPnOCRAMS
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Figure 8.15-11. Standard NEDS form for lime manufacturing - hydrator (atmospheric).
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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
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Figure 8.15-12. Standard NEDS form for lime manufacturing - pressure hydrator.
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product transfer and conveying.
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATASYSHM (Nf OS)
ENVIRONMENlAt PROTfCTION AGENCY
Of AIR PnOGflAMS
FOMM AWM(/, I'D
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GLOSSARY
Clamshell - A crane with a bucket having two hinged jaws.
Density:
Densities,
Product Ib/ft3
Lime, hydrated - 200 mesh 20-25
Lime, quick, lump,
1-1/2 in. x 0 in. 70-80
Lime, quick, lump, 1/2 in. x 0 in. 70
Lime, quick, ground 60-65
Stacker conveyor - A belt conveyor that discharges at the storage
pile. Use of conveyors that rise and fall with the storage
pile reduces the distance that the material must drop.
Stone ladder - A fixed column containing a series of steps that
allow the falling material to cascade in short drops. As
the storage pile increases, the material discharges through
ports progressively higher in the sides of the column so
that emissions are reduced.
Telescoping chute - A column that can be raised or lowered to
maintain a constant distance between the coal being dis-
charged and the top of the storage pile.
8.15-29
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 8.15
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. 2nd edition.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, AP-42, February 1976.
2. Engineering Science, Inc. Exhaust Gases from Combustion and
Industrial Processes. PB-204-861, Washington, B.C., October
1971.
3. Midwest Research Institute. Particulate Pollutant System
Study, Volume III. Handbook of Emission Properties. Con-
tract No. CPA 22-69-104, May 1971.
4. Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute, Inc. Air Pollution
Control Technology and Costs in Seven Selected Areas.
Stamford. PB-231-757, December 1973.
5. Technical Guidance for Control of Industrial Process Fugi-
tive Particulate Emissions. EPA-450/3-77-010, March 1977.
6. Minnick, L.J. Control of Particulate Emissions from Lime
Plants. In: 63rd Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution
Control Association, St. Louis, June 1970.
7. Vatavuk, W.M. National Emission Data System (NEDS) Control
Device Workbook. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
APTD-1570, July 1973.
8. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual. EPA-
450/2-76-029 (OAQPS No. 1.2-039), December 1976.
9. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes. EPA-
450/2-76-005 (OAQPS No. 1.2-042), April 1976.
10. Standard Industrial Classification Manual. Office of
Management and Budget. Available from Superintendent of
Documents, Washington, D.C., 1972.
11. Loquercio, P. and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual of
Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Public Health Service Publication No. 1956. 1968.
8.15-30
-------
8.19 SAND AND GRAVEL QUARRYING AND PROCESSING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION1"5
Sand and gravel have many uses in landscaping and construc-
tion, and are also used in concrete aggregate, road base materi-
als, and blacktop. Figure 8.19-1 shows a typical sand and gravel
operation.
Sand and gravel deposits are found in banks, pits, and
subterranean beds. The three methods of excavation are: (1) dry
pit, in which sand and gravel are removed from above the water
table; (2) wet pit, in which raw material above or below the
water table is extracted by means of a dragline or by barge-
mounted dredging equipment; and (3) dredging, in which sand and
gravel are recovered from public waterways, including lakes,
rivers, and estuaries. Dry pit extraction accounts for 50 per-
cent of the total that is produced; wet pit, for 30 to 40 per-
4
cent; and dredging, for 10 to 20 percent. Light-charge blasting
is sometimes needed to loosen the deposit. Before blasting,
holes must be drilled for the explosives.
The loosened deposit is transported to the plant by earth-
movers, or it is shoveled and loaded into a truck or barge and
transported to the processing plant. In a wet pit, the material
may be transported by suction pumps. The processing plant is
usually close to the excavation area. The material is unloaded
8.19-1
-------
PART
' PART
G
PART
0
PART
Q
3-05-025-03
MATERIAL TRANSFER AND CONVEYING
f f f
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EXCAVATING
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DRILLING AND
BLASTING
f
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3-05-025-04
HAULING
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3-05-025-02 _— — ' L- — "7.DrrM
AGGREGATE r— ' <-^ ^oLKLLH
STORAGE f ~~ —.•'I
LEGEND:
EMISSION FACTOR3
/-\
\-J
EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EQUIP.
CODE WITH EST. EFF. SHOWN
IN ( )
-
O
DENOTES FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS
DENOTES A STACK
IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
OVERSIZE
PARTICULATES(0.1)
PRIMARY CRUSHER 3-05^-025-0!
CRUSHING AND
SCREENING
SCREEN
SECONDARY CRUSHER
RECYCLE
3-05-025-02
AGGREGATE STORAGE
FINE SAND
FINES
TO
DISPOSAL
Figure 8.19-1.
8.
gravel processing.
-------
directly onto the primary screen (scalping screen), or it is
stockpiled and later transferred to the screen by a front-ena
loader.
At the plant, the sand and gravel are crushed and screened
to reduce and segregate the material by size, then it is stored
and loaded. The sand and gravel are reduced and classified by a
wet or a dry process, many plants use both.
In the wet process, sand and gravel are washed and screened
for use as concrete aggregate. The material is first screened
(scalping), and the material passing through the screen is
crushed in a jaw crusher (primary crushing). Oversize material
from the first screen is removed, reduced in size, and recycled
to the screen. The output (gravel) from the primary crusher is
again screened (secondary screening). The oversize material goes
to a secondary crusher (gyratory or roll crusher) where it is
reduced to a size of 3/4 to 1 inch and recycled to the screen.
The material passing through the screen goes to a washer or
rotary scrubber and is screened a third time to remove unwanted
soil. Additional screens and classifiers are used to separate
the material further into specified fractions.
Dry processing prepares sand and gravel that are to be used
for road base, blacktop (bituminous aggregate), or similar pur-
poses. The dry process is the same as the wet process, with the
exception of the washing steps. After processing and classifica-
tion are complete, the material is loaded for shipment or is
stockpiled in storage areas until it is loaded onto trucks for
shipment.
8.19-3
-------
Material is transferred throughout the plant by conveyors
and bucket elevators.
Individual sand and gravel operations range in size from
less than 1000 tons produced annually to more than 3.5 million
tons. Plants usually operate 8 hours a day, 5 or 6 days a week.
Many sand and gravel plants operate on a part-time or seasonal
basis to meet fluctuating demands. During periods of high de-
mand, which is caused by intense construction activity, plants
may operate for longer hours. The exhaust flow ranges from 500
to 750 scfm per ton/h of aggregate produced at those plants that
have control devices.
EMISSIONS1"3/6
Sand and gravel quarrying and processing generate particu-
late emissions, but since these materials are usually moist when
handled, the emissions are much lower than in crushed stone
plants that use similar operations. Emission sources are identi-
fied in Figure 8.19-1. For crushing and screening, AP-421
provides an emission factor that is listed on the process flow
diagram. For other sources of emissions, average emission rates
obtained from other documents are mentioned in the following
source descriptions.
Particulates are emitted during excavating, drilling,
blasting, and hauling. When wet pit and dredging methods are
used, the emissions from excavation are minimal. When the dry
pit method is used, emissions are slightly greater only when the
material is relatively dry. Drilling and blasting have little
8.19-4
-------
impact on overall emissions because they are performed infre-
quently. Significant amounts of particulate emissions are gen-
erated during hauling when the trucks or earthmovers travel cver
unpaved or dirt-covered paved roads. The dusts that arise come
mainly from the roads, although the material in the vehicles also
contributes to the emissions, which range from 1.7 to 4.5 lb/
vehicle mile.7 The level of the emissions is affected by the
composition or the road surface, the wetness of the road, and the
volume and speed of the traffic.
A state agency has estimated that sand and gravel processing
releases overall emissions of 0.06 lb of dust/ton of material.
The primary dust sources listed in the report are the discharge
of the secondary crushers, the transfer of dry material, and the
final screening of dry material. As much as 75 percent of the
dust was estimated to come from the crushers. Based on this
information, AP-42 lists an emission factor of 0.1 lb of dust/ton
of product for crushing and screening operations. Emission rates
may vary, because they are affected by the moisture content of
materials processed, amount of size reduction, and type of equip-
ment used.
Fugitive emissions arise from outdoor storage. Most storage
piles are left uncovered, but silos and bins may be used. Dust
emissions occur at several points in the storage cycle: during
loading of material onto the pile, during movement of trucks and
loading equipment in the storage area, during disturbance by
strong wind currents (wind erosion), and during loading of
8.19-5
-------
material from the pile. An overall emission factor of 0.33/
2
(P-E/100) Ib/ton placed in storage has been reported in AP-42
(Section 11.2), where P-E is Thornthwaite's precipitation-evapora-
tion ratio. Although such factors as age of the pile, moisture
content, and proportion of aggregate fines influence emission
rates, the precipitation-evaporation index is the best guide to
the variability of total emissions from aggregate storage piles.
Fugitive emissions are generated during material transfer
and conveying, particularly when the material is dry. The emis-
sions are small when the sand and gravel are moist.
Particulates are also emitted during loading of the product
for shipment. Front-end loaders usually transfer the material
into trucks.
CONTROL PRACTICES1"5
Particulates generated during excavation and drilling are
not controlled. Emissions from blasting are not amenable to
capture by a hood or similar device and are, therefore, fugitive.
Emissions from hauling, when controlled, are most commonly
reduced by wet suppression. Water or water plus chemicals are
applied by trucks to the roads during dry weather. The frequency
and extent of wet suppression determines its effectiveness.
Emissions from haul roads can also be reduced by lowering vehicle
speeds, stabilizing the soil, and paving the roads. The material
being hauled need not be controlled because it is usually too wet
to generate significant amounts of particulate emissions.
8.19-6
-------
Emissions from crushing and screening, aggregate storage,
and material transfer and conveying are not commonly controlled
because the material is usually wet and emissions are minor.
When the material is dry, emissions can be controlled by wet
suppression. Initial applications of water are made at the truck
dump and at the outlets of crushers where new surfaces are ex-
posed. Emissions from dry material processi ig could also be
controlled with low- to medium-efficiency cyclones, wet scrubbers,
and fabric filters; but these devices are seldom used.
Emissions from aggregate storage can be reduced by wet sup-
pression and by using stone ladders, telescopic chutes, and
hinged-boom stacker conveyors. A stone ladder is a vertical pipe
with steps inside that reduce the free-fall distance of the sand
and gravel. The enclosure also protects the material from wind.
A telescopic chute is a retractable chute that is raised or
lowered according to the height of the stockpile. A stacker
conveyor is equipped with a hinged boom that adjusts the conveyor
height as the level of the stockpile changes.
CODING NEDS FORMS
The major sources of emissions and their SCC's are:
Source SCC Pollutant(s)
Hauling 3-05-025-04 Particulates
Crushing and screening 3-05-025-01 Particulates
Aggregate storage 3-05-025-02 Particulates
Material transfer and
conveying 3-05-025-03 Particulates
8.19-7
-------
Standard NEDS forms for the sources, Figures 8.19-2 through
8.19-5, show entries for the SCC's and other codes. Entries in
the data fields give information common to sand and gravel pro-
cessing. Information pertinent to coding the source is entered
on the margins of the forms and above or below applicable data
fields. Entries for control equipment codes, other optional
codes, emission factors, and required comments minimize the need
to refer to the code lists. Typical data values for operating
parameters, control equipment efficiencies, and other source in-
formation are shown on the form (or in the text) only to aid in
rapid, approximate checks of data submitted by the plant in a
permit application or similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R
and NEDS must be actual values specific to and reported by the
plant, rather than typical values. Contact the plant to validate
or correct questionable data and to obtain unreported informa-
tion. See Part 1 of this manual for general coding information.
In general, for emission sources that do not discharge
through a stack or vent and are not housed in a building, enter
zeros in the stack height, diameter, and common stack fields, and
77 in the temperature field, unless temperature data are fur-
nished. Enter appropriate plume height. Where liquid sprays are
used to reduce particulate emissions, enter 061 or 062 as a con-
trol equipment code. In the comments field on Card 6, identify
other equipment used to reduce emissions. For example, enter
"stone ladders" where they are used. For sources that do not
discharge directly through a stack and are not hooded but are
8.19-8
-------
housed in a building, enter the roof vent data in the stack da<
fields. Enter "roof vents" in the comments field.
Figure 8.19-2 is a standard NEDS form for hauling. Wet
suppression by water or water plus chemicals is sometimes used to
reduce emissions. The SCC unit for this source is expressed in
vehicle miles.
Crushing and screening are the major sources of particulates
from sand and gravel processing. The emission factor associated
with all crushing and screening is 0.1 Ib per ton of product. A
standard NEDS form for crushing and screening is shown in Figure
8.19-3.
Emissions from aggregate storage include loading onto
piles, wind effects while the materials are stored, and retrieval
activities from raw material storage piles and sized product
piles. A standard NEDS form is shown in Figure 8.19-4.
Particulate emissions generated during material transfer and
conveying operations throughout the process are reported under
the source labelled "material transfer and conveying." The
emissions are usually not controlled. A standard NEDS form is
shown in Figure 8.19-5.
Emission factors for aggregate storage and for material
transfer have not yet been developed. When a plant furnishes
emissions data for these sources, code the values given. Enter
"Emission estimates given by plant", in the comments field on Card
7.
8.19-9
-------
The emission factors assigned to the SCC numbers for sources
other than hauling are expressed as pounds emitted per ton
product.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The Basic Equipment Codes (EEC's) for use in EIS/P&R forms
are:
Source BEC
Hauling No code*
Crushing and screening 650
Aggregate storage 700
Material transfer and conveying 700
*
As of November 1978.
8.19-10
-------
Figure 8.19-2. Standard NEDS form for sand and gravel processing - hauling.
00
; i s
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMfNTAI PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
InfMft fotm
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO IU ROMS
lilt; 20
HAULING
zi :s 10
w "I"
061 or 062
\i
i,
Dec M*> Junr S*oi
fro M-v Au«
00000
3) =
«t X
II
JUIi'lioh:
ALLOWAbLt EMISSIONS (lorn
IS H ?0 .'I !? 21
2) IS 25 ]0 II
;; 33 is Ji H ;: n
!' 40
-------
Figure 8.19-3. Standard NEDS form for sand and gravel processing -
crushing and screening.
00
ACCf I Numn*"
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM INEOS)
ENV RONMENTAI PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
IftfMil Form
I Pnion
linO, ftU*l
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO 1SI ROOK
0...
IB 19
CRUSHING AND
SCREENING
5
Zo«->* > M (I S? U M (i H » Ji 6» .-0
1
N C
I N
-------
Figure 8.19-4. Standard NEDS form for sand and gravel processing -
aggregate storage.
GO
•
M
I
CO
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAl PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
Input fotm
FORM APPROVED
OMB NO IMROOtt
N«m« of Pe-s
Completing f
n/mnt Njmt and A Jrt. «
n \n
HOHMAi
TT|T
Contact P«
ESTIMATED CONTROL EFFICIENCY t\\
EMISSION ESTIMATES l
nlu
AGGREGATE STORAGE
ALLOWAtLt EMISblONS tllrf.. y«».l
NO.
Uil
40 41
COMPLIANCE
SIATLJS
UPDATE
XSo+cef
y*- I
LLU
CONTROL REGULATIONS
a 2 B« 3
SCC UNIT - TONS PRODUCT
MOo", i~ r
..mumO**.^
N C
ElR
-------
Figure 8.19-5. Standard NEDS form for sand and gravel processing -
material transfer and conveying
CO
>£>
I
NATIONAL EMISSIONS OATA SYSTEM INEOS)
ENVIRONMENTAI PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
POINT SOURCE
Input fotm
OMb KG 1S8 ROO9b
i I! 20 1\ '>
MATERIAL TRANSFER
AND CONVEYING
1:4
= 0
Cxuc.i.
10*. BTuf"
UTM COOHOiNA T
13 Jl J? » I! 3! 3f
S * 3" II 39 40 *1 »? U «
r ;i » in In 12 ii
44 15 44 i; 4! w it 51 i7 U S4 SS 54li7 M :i
TTIsV
77 II
0 0 0 OTO
OPERATING
II 4.' 1)141 <', U|«I II !•)
ololo|o|olololololololo|o|o|o|oiolo|ololo'to
• 0000 IF NO COmON STACK S,
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COWON STACK
ESTIMATED CONTROL If f IOEMCV IM
NO. MC CO
i4 5) illil 58 41
.01 1 10
t.'lll (I ii U ('
EMISSION ESTIMATES
Pj'lrt.,1
i: :i n
SO;
U H 70 !l 72 7) Ii
ALLOWA«Lt EMISSIONS lion* i
NO.
!0 Jl
3.' ]J J« Jl it !' It
!' 40111 1? 4] 44
it :.' a\ii so 41 i:
J, SCHEDULE
COMPLIANCE
S1-TU5
UPDATE
(2 U
M VI n
ESTIMATION
METHOD
75 JO
ij 771
I loi 1 i i
CONTROL REGULATIONS
R*q
«7 U,
$9 70 M 72
SCC UNIT - TONS
U) (I
N C
-------
GLOSSARY
Gravel - Loose, rounded fragments of rock that are larger and
coarser than sand. Also called pebbles.
Sand - Separate grains or particles of rock material, easily
distinguishable by the unaided eye but too small to be
classified as pebbles or gravel.
Scalping - The removal, by screen or grizzly, of undesirable fine
material from broken ore, stone, or gravel.
Stacker conveyor - A belt conveyor with a hi-ided boom that dis-
chrrges at the storage pile. Use of conveyors that
rise and fall with the storage pile reduces the dis-
tance that the stone must drop.
Stone Ladder - A fixed, rectangular column with a series of steps
inside that allow the falling material to cascade in
short drops. As the height of storage piles increases,
the stone discharges through ports in the sides of the
column and emissions are reduced.
Telescoping chute - A column that can be raised or lowered to
maintain a constant distance between the stone being
discharged and the top of the storage pile.
Thornthwaite's precipitation-evaporation ratio - An approximate
measure of average surface moisture used in estimating
fugitive emissions from outdoor storage.
8.19-15
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 8.19
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. 2nd edition.
Environmental Protection Agency. AP-42, February 1976.
2. Midwest Research Institute. Particulate Pollutant System
Study. Volume III. Handbook of Emission Properties. EPA
Contract No. CPA 22-69-104. Kansas City, Mo., May 1971.
3. PEDCo Environmental, Inc. Background Information for the
Nonmetallic Minerals Industry. Draft. EPA Contract No. 68-
01-1321, Task No. 44. Cincinnati, June 1976.
4. Newport, B.D., and J.E. Moyer. State of the Art: Sand and
Gravel Industry. EPA-660/2-74-066, June 1974.
5. Engineering Science, Inc. Exhaust Gases from Combustion and
Industrial Processes. PB-204-861. Washington, D.C., October
1971.
6. Midwest Research Institute. Particulate Pollutant System
Study. Volume I. Mass Emissions. EPA Contract No. CPA
22-69-104. Kansas City, Mo., May 1971.
7. Technical Guidance for Control of Industrial Process Fugitive
Particulate Emissions. EPA 450/3- 77-010, March 1977.
8. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual. EPA
450/2-76-029 (OAQPS No. 1.2-039), December 1976.
9. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes. EPA
450/2-76-005 (OAQPS No. 1.2-042), April 1976.
10. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 edition.
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available from
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
11. Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual of
Coding. Public Health Service Publication No. 1956. U.S.
Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1968.
8.19-16
-------
8.20 STONE QUARRYING AND PROCESSING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION1"
Crushed and broken stone have many applications, including
uses in road base, concrete aggregate, bituminous aggregate, and
in cement and lime manufacture. Total production in 1977 was 914
million tons.
Natural rock deposits are converted into crushed and broken
stone through a series of physical operations. Drilling and
blasting are quarrying operations; crushing and screening are
among the plant operations. Figure 8.20-1 gives a process flow
diagram for stone quarrying and processing.
Stone processing plants are of two types: stationary and
portable. Stationary plants are usually located at or very near
the quarry, and the broken rock is hauled to the processing units
by truck. A portable plant, which is designed to be moved from
one quarry site to another, consists of one or several chassis
upon which processing units are mounted. The processing steps
are the same at stationary and portable plants; but in the latter,
the units are squeezed into a restricted space.
The removal of overburden by earthmoving equipment leaves a
large denuded area that is worked into benches or ledges to form
an open quarry (pit). Blastholes are drilled into the exposed
8.20-1
-------
PART ( 2
-\
I
3-05-QZO-06
SCREENING/ CONVEYING/ HANDLING
PART
3-S5-02Q-10
DRILLING
BLASTING
HAULING
3-05-020-01
PRIMARY CRUSHING
* TYPICAL SPRAY LOCATIONS
* CAPTURE POINTS
LEGEND:
(3 EMISSION FACTOR8
0 EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EQUIP.
, CODE WITH EST. EFF. SHOWN
O
IN ( )
DENOTES FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS
DENOTES A STACK
A PART
a IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
FINISHING (TERTIARY)
SCREENS
SECONDARY
SCREEN
TERTIARY
CRUSHERS
3-05-020-03
SECONDARY CRUSHING/
SCREENING
COMBUST ION I/
PRODUCTS
TO STORAGE
OR SHIPMENT
TO STORAG-
OR SHIPMENT
Figure 8.20-1. Stone quarrying and processing operations.
TO STORAGE
OR SHIPMENT
3-05-020-12
DRYING
3-90-006-99 NATURAL GAS
3-90-004-99 RESIDUAL OIL
3-90-005-99 DISTILLATE OIL
IN-PROCESS FUEL
8.20-2
-------
rock face, and the rock is blasted out of its deposit with ex-
plosives. When the fragmentation is insufficient, the rock is
broken a second time, often with drop-ball cranes. The broken
rock is loaded by loaders or shovelers into trucks (20- to 75-ton
capacity) and hauled to the processing plant. The haul roads are
usually unpaved. In portable plants, the rock is fed directly
into a primary-crusher hopper.
Primary crushing is the first stage in stone processing.
The crusher (commonly a jaw or cone type) reduces the rock to a
size of 3 to 12 inches. This material is discharged onto a belt
conveyor that carries it to a surge pile for temporary storage.
A series of vibrating feeders located under the surge pile
reclaims the stone by placing it on a belt for conveyance to a
scalping screen. This unit consists of two screens that separate
the material into three fractions before secondary crushing:
oversizes, which are retained on the top screen; undersizes,
which are retained between the screens; and throughs, which pass
through both the screens. The oversize is discharged to a sec-
ondary crusher for further reduction. The undersize, which
requires no further reduction at this stage, bypasses the sec-
ondary crushers and thus reduces its load. The throughs, which
contain unwanted fines and screenings, are removed from the
process flow and stockpiled for sale as a product or disposal as
landfill. Secondary crushers are usually cone type, but impact
crushers are used at some plants.
8.20-3
-------
After secondary crushing, the product, which is 1 inch or
less in size, is transported to a secondary screen for further
sizing. Sized material from this screen is conveyed or dis-
charged directly to a tertiary crusher, usually of the cone or
hammer-mill type. The product from the tertiary crusher is
shuttled back to the secondary screen, the two units forming a
closed circuit with a fixed maximum size, until the material has
been sufficiently reduced to pass through the secondary screen.
The throughs from this screen are discharged to a conveyor and
carried to a screen house or tower containing finishing screens
for final sizing. Occasionally, fines mills are used to produce
a finer consistency. After final sizing, end products of the
desired grade are dumped directly into finished-product bins, or
are moved by conveyor or truck to open areas for stockpiling.
The product is usually loaded into open trucks by front-end
loaders.
Sometimes the stone must be washed to meet particular end-
product specifications, as for concrete aggregate. The material
falls onto fine mesh screens in washing units, where it is sprayed
heavily with water. Unwanted fines are discharged to a settling
pond. Normally dryers are not used, but for some stones, such as
dolomite, drying may be necessary. The dryers are usually direct-
fired, rotary units.
Plant capacities range from less than a hundred to several
thcasand tons per hour.
8.20-4
-------
EMISSIONS ~5
Virtually every operation in stone quarrying and processing
is a particulate emission source. The emission sources are
identified in Figure 8.20-1. Emission factors, listed on the
process flow diagram, are given in AP-42. Average emission
rates for other sources were obtained from other documents and .
are mentioned in the following source descr ptions.
Unlike emissions from boilers and incinerators, emissions in
this industry have not traditionally been confined and discharged
through stacks or similar outlets. It is possible for emissions
from drilling, crushing, screening, and conveying to be captured
with enclosures and hoods and collected in a control device.
Emissions from blasting, stockpiling, and hauling, however, are
not amenable to capture by a hood or similar device and are,
therefore, fugitive.
Emissions at stone quarries and processing operations are
affected by the moisture content of the rock, type of rock
processed, type of equipment, and operating practices. Little
information is available on the quantities of these emissions.
During drilling operations, emissions arise when cuttings
and dust are removed from the bottom of the hole. An estimate
4
for this source for granite is 0.0008 Ib/ton of stone produced.
Blasting occurs between once a week and several times a day, de-
pending on the plant capacity and the size of individual shots.
Emissions during blasting are affected by the size of shot, type
of rock, and wetness. Estimated emissions from this source (for
8.20-5
-------
4
granite) are 0.16 Ib/ton of stone produced. Emissions from
secondary breakage, usually done by drop-ball cranes, have been
2
judged by visual observation to be insignificant. Emissions
from loading are also considered to be minor.
At most quarries the haul roads are unpaved. Traffic on
these roads generates a large portion of the fugitive particulate
emissions from quarrying and processing operations. The amount
2
ranges from 1.7 to 4.5 Ib/vehicle mile. The level of these
emissions is affected by the composition of the road surface, the
wetness of the road, and the volume and speed of the traffic.
During crushing, emissions come from the crusher feed and
discharge points. Sometimes the crusher is housed in an unvented
building, but the degree to which internal settling (baffling)
reduces the emissions in these cases is not known. The emission
factors are based on the feed rate to the primary crushers.
Emissions are affected by the moisture content of the rock, the
type of rock processed, and the type of crusher. Primary crush-
ing releases fewer emissions than secondary, tertiary, or fines
mills processing, because the material itself is less fine.
Emissions from screening depend on the sizes of the material
screened, the amount of agitation, and the type and moisture
content of the rock. The emission factors for secondary and
tertiary crushing include the emissions from secondary and fin-
ishing screens, respectively. Emissions from the scalping screen
are included in the emission factor for screening/conveying/han-
dling. Most of the emissions from material handling occur at
8.20-6
-------
transfer points, because transport of material on the conveyor
creates little disturbance of air, and emissions due to wind are
judged to be minimal. The transfer points include transfers
from one conveyor to another, into a hopper, and onto a storage
pile. Only those transfer points that are not accounted for
elsewhere are included in screening/conveying/handling. The
amount of uncontrolled emissions depends on the sizes of the
material handled, the belt speed, and the free-fall distance (the
vertical distance between the belt and the top of the pile or
belt to which the material is transferred).
Washing generates no emissions. Particulate emissions from
a dolomite dryer are reported to range from 2 to 50 Ib/ton of
product after a cyclone-type collector.
Emissions from open storage occur during loading onto the
piles, action of the wind, and retrieval activities. No data on
emissions during product loading are available.
CONTROL PRACTICES2"4
Emissions from drilling have not commonly been controlled.
Two methods are available: liquid injection, and collection by
aspiration to a particulate control device.
Liquid injection is a wet-control technique in which water,
sometimes with a wetting agent (liquid detergent), is forced into
the compressed air stream that flushes the drill cuttings from
the hole. The injection of fluid into the air stream produces a
8.20-7
-------
mist that dampens the stone particles and causes them to ag-
glomerate. As particles are blown from the hole, most of them
drop as damp pellets at the drill collar instead of becoming
airborne.
In the collection systems, a shroud or hood encircles the
drill rod at the collar; and a vacuum pulls the emissions through
a flexible duct into a control device for collection. Control
2
devices most commonly used are cyclones or fabric filters.
No effective method is available for controlling particulate
emissions from blasting. Good blasting practices can minimize
noise, vibration, and air shock. Scheduling blasting to occur
during conditions of low wind and low inversion potential can
substantially reduce the local impact of the emissions. Emis-
sions from the loading of broken rock by loaders or shovels are
difficult to control. Using water trucks equipped with hoses to
wet down the rock is a potential control technique.
Watering of the haul roads during dry weather is the most
common method for reducing emissions from hauling. Water is
applied to the road by water trucks that are equipped with either
gravity-fed spray bars or pressure sprays. The amount of water
required, frequency of application, and effectiveness of this
method depend on the weather and the conditions of the roadbed.
Other methods for reducing emissions from the roads include soil
stabilization, paving, and lower vehicle speeds. Paving is
probably the most effective way to reduce emissions, but it is
very costly.
8.20-8
-------
The plant processes either have water sprays to reduce emis-
sions or, less frequently, hoods to capture and direct them
through a control device. Combinations of the two methods are
often used at different stages throughout the process.
Wet suppression is an attempt to prevent fine particles from
becoming airborne. At critical points, the material is sprayed
with water or water plus wetting agents. The initial application
is usually made at the truck dump into the primary crusher.
Spray bars are located either on the periphery of the dump hopper
or above it. Applications of water are also made at the outlet
from the primary crusher and from all subsequent crushers, where
new dry surfaces are exposed by the fracturing of the stone.
Water treatment may also be required at the feeders located under
surge piles. If the material is properly treated at these points,
further applications of water at screens, conveyor transfer
points, conveyor and screen discharges to bins, and conveyor
discharges to storage piles may not be necessary; sprayed stone
exhibits a carryover effect that permits it to be handled through
a number of operations without significant emissions. No data on
the effectiveness of wet suppression have been developed, but a
well designed system can eliminate visible emissions.
Collection systems consist of enclosures and hoods that
confine and direct the emissions to a control device. Good
systems enclose the process equipment as completely as practi-
cable, yet allow access for routine maintenance and inspection.
8.20-9
-------
The fabric filter is the most commonly used control device,
although cyclones and scrubbers are sometimes used. Depending on
the layout of the plant, emission sources may be vented to one
central control device or to units at strategic points. The
fabric filter is more than 99 percent effective, but the degree
of control depends on the efficiency of the enclosures and hoods.
Fines mills are usually vented to a fabric filter.
In combination systems, wet suppression is used on the pri-
mary crusher inlet and outlet, screens, and other transfer points,
whereas the outlets of secondary and subsequent crushers are
vented to a control device.
During conveying, emissions are reduced by the carryover
effect from wet suppression at transfer points. Conveyor covers
are the most effective measure for controlling these emissions,
but they are not common because of high cost.
The carryover effect from spraying after final crushing or
screening reduces emissions during loading onto open storage
piles. Emissions are also reduced by such equipment as stone
ladders, telescopic chutes, and hinged-boom stacker conveyors. A
stone ladder is a section of vertical pipe with steps inside to
check the fall of the stone. This ladder reduces the free-fall
distance of the stone and protects it from wind. The telescopic
chute is a retractable device that receives material from the
conveyor or truck and allows it to fall freely to the top of the
pile. As the level of the stockpile goes up or down, the chute
8.20-10
-------
is gradually raised or lowered. Similarly, the stacker conveyor
is equipped with an adjustable hinged boom that raises or lowers
the conveyor according to the height of the stockpile.
Watering is the most effective technique for reducing wind-
blown emissions from storage piles. A water truck equipped with
a hose or other spray device is sometimes used. One plant uses
spray towers around the stockpiles. Emissions from washing are
minimal. Dryers are usually equipped with cyclones.
Moving the materials from stockpiles into open dump trucks
may generate significant fugitive emissions. Controls are not
currently used, except for some attempts to wet the material
before loading and to empty the loaded buckets as close to the
2
truck beds as possible. Some plants spray the loaded truck to
reduce emissions during transport.
CODING OF NEDS FORMS3'
The emission sources associated with stone quarrying and
processing are:
Source SCC Pollutant(s)
Drilling 3-05-020-10 Particulate
Blasting 3-05-020-09 Particulate
Hauling 3-05-020-11 Particulate
Primary 3-05-020-01 Particulate
crushing
Secondary 3-05-020-02 Particulate
crushing and screening
Tertiary 3-05-020-03 Particulate
crushing and screening
8.20-11
-------
Source SCC Pollutant(s)
Fines mill 3-05-020-05 Particulate
Screening/conveying/handling 3-05-020-06 Particulate
Open storage 3-05-020-07 Particulate
Drying 3-05-020-12 Particulate,
combustion
products
(In-process fuel)
Natural gas 3-90-006-99
Residual oil 3-90-004-99
Distillate oil 3-90-005-99
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures 8.20-2
through 8.20-11, show entries for the SCC's and other codes.
Entries in the data fields give information common to stone
quarrying and processing. Information pertinent to coding the
source is entered on the margins of the forms and above or below
applicable data fields. Entries for control equipment codes,
other optional codes, emission factors, and required comments
minimize the need to refer to the code lists. Typical data
values for operating parameters, control equipment efficiencies,
and other source information are shown on the form (or in the
text) only to aid in rapid, approximate checks of data submitted
by the plant in a permit application or similar report. Data
entered in EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual values specific to and
reported by the plant, rather than typical values. Contact the
plant to validate or correct questionable data and to obtain
unraported information. See Part 1 of this manual for general
coding instructions.
8.20-12
-------
Use appropriate SIC and IPP codes. SIC Code 1400, which has
been used in the standard NEDS forms included here, is for mining
in general. The SIC codes are: 1411 for dimension stone (build-
ing stone); 1422 for limestone; and 1429 for all others.
Except for a few items, coding of portable plants is simi-
lar. Follow the special procedures described in Section 3.1.2 of
the Aeros Manual.
In general, for emission sources that do not discharge
through a stack or vent and are not housed in a building, enter
zeros in the stack height, diameter, and common stack fields, and
77 in the temperature field, unless temperature data are fur-
nished. Enter appropriate plume height. Where liquid sprays are
used to reduce particulate emissions, enter 061 or 062 as a
control equipment code. In the comments field on Card 6, identi-
fy other equipment used to reduce emissions. For example, enter
"stone ladders" where they are used. For sources that do not
directly discharge through a stack and are not hooded but are
housed in a building, enter the roof vent data in the stack data
fields. Enter "roof vents" in the comments field.
Emissions from drilling are sometimes controlled. Code the
operation when it is controlled or when emission data are avail-
able. Use 061 or 062 as a control equipment code for liquid
injection systems and the appropriate codes for cyclones and
fabric filters. Emissions from blasting are not controlled.
Code the source when emission data are available. Standard NEDS
forms for drilling and blasting are shown in Figures 8.20-2 and
8.20-3, respectively.
8.20-13
-------
Haul roads are usually watered to reduce the emissions.
Note that the SCC unit for this source is vehicle miles. A
standard NEDS form is shown in Figure 8.20-4.
Emission factors for secondary and tertiary crushing include
emissions from associated screening operations. Other screening
operations are included in the source labeled "screening/con-
veying/handling," which also includes transfer operations not
accounted for in other sources. Code the primary, secondary, and
tertiary crushing operations as shown in Figures 8.20-5, 8.20-6,
and 8.20-7. Where combination systems are used, for those units
(usually secondary and subsequent crushers) that use fabric
filters, code the fabric filter as a primary control device and
enter "wet suppression" in the comments field. For emission
sources equipped only with wet sprays, code 061 or 062 as a
primary control device. Efficiencies of wet suppression can only
be estimated by plant inspection (observation) during dry weather.
Where fines mills are used, code them as shown in Figure 8.20-8.
Wet suppression affords some reduction in emissions from
screening/conveying/handling where the material is sprayed before
these operations. Assign 061 or 062 as a primary control device
code to wet suppression or combination systems that are designed
to reduce emissions from screening/conveying/handling. Figure
8.20-9 shows a standard NEDS form.
8.20-14
-------
A standard NEDS form for open storage is shown in Figure
8.20-10. In the comments field, identify the equipment that is
used to reduce emissions during loading onto the piles. Where
the piles are regularly sprayed to reduce emissions from the wind
and during retrieval activities, assign 061 or 062 as the primary
control device code. Where dryers are used, code them as shown
in Figure 8.20-11.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS9
The EEC's for use in EIS/P&R forms are:
Source
Drilling
Blasting
Hauling
Primary crushing
Secondary crushing/screening
Tertiary crushing/screening
Fines mill
Screening/conveying/handling
Open storage
Drying
EEC
No code*
No code*
No code*
650
650
650
651, 654
575, 577
700
452
* As of October 1978.
8.20-15
-------
Figure 8.20-2. Standard NEDS form for stone quarrying and processing - drilling.
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tertiary crushing/screening.
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UNAl tMISSIONS DAIASYSUMINtDS)
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NAMUNAl I MISSIONS DATA SYSItM INI US)
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IHHCE OF AIR PROGRAMS
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drying in-process fuel.
I 2
SEE
NA11UNAL tMISSIONS DATA SYSUMWtDS)
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OIL; 5-DISTILLATE OIL; 6-NATURAL GAS
_L
-------
GLOSSARY
Grizzly - A device used to remove large fragments of rock. This
is a form of a scalping screen, except that it has a series
of heavy steel bars spaced parallel to each other.
Stacker conveyor - A belt conveyor with a hinged boom that dis-
charges at the storage pile. Use of conveyors that rise and
fall with the storage pile reduces the distance that the
stone must drop.
Stone ladder - A fixed, rectangular column with a series of steps
inside that allow the falling material to cascade in short
drops. As the height of storage pile increases, the stone
discharges through ports in the sides of the column and
emissions are reduced.
Telescoping chute - A column that can be raised or lowered to
maintain a constant distance between the stone being dis-
charged and the top of the storage pile.
8.20-26
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 8.20
1. Pit and Quarry Publications, Inc. Pit and Quarry Handbook
and Purchasing Guide. 63rd edition. Chicago, 1970.
2. PEDCo Environmental, Inc. Control Tech iques for the
Crushed -.ad Broken Stone Industry (Drafu). EPA Contract
Nos. 68-01-4147 and 68-02-2603, Cincinnati, May 1978.
3. Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors. 2nd edition.
Environmental Protection Agency, AP-42, February 1976. pp.
8.6-1 to 8.6-4, C16.
4. Technical Guidance for Control of Industrial Process Fugi-
tive Particulate Emissions. EPA-450/3-77-010, March 1977.
5. Air Pollutant Emission Factors. U.S. Department of Health,
Education and Welfare. APTD-0923, PB-206924, April 1970.
6. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual. EPA-
450/2-76-029 (OAQPS No. 1.2-039), December 1976.
7. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes. EPA-
450/2-76-005 (OAQPS No. 1.2-042), April 1976.
8. Standard Industrial Classification Manual. 1972 edition.
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available from
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
9. Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual of
Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare.
Public Health Service Publication No. 1956. 1968.
8.20-27
-------
10.1.2 SULFATE (KRAFT) WOOD PULPING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION1'2
Wood is the most important source of fiber for paper pulp.
The pulp, or cellulose fibers, are extracted from the wood by
dissolving the lignin that binds the cellulose fibers together.
The pulp is used as raw material in the manufacture of paper,
cardboard, tissue, toweling, and related products.
The kraft process accounts for about 65 percent of all pulp
produced in the United States. This process, also known as the
sulfate process, is shown in Figure 10.1.2-1. Wood chips are
cooked (digested) in an aqueous cooking liquor at high tempera-
ture and pressure. Regeneration or recovery of the cooking
chemicals is also part of the kraft process.
The wood that is used as raw material may be purchased as
chips from other forest product manufacturers, or it may be
produced directly from logs or wood at the pulp mill. "White
wood," from debarked logs, is the preferred material. The logs
are cut at a 45-degree angle to the grain in a high-speed chipper,
producing a chip that measures about 1 inch by 1 inch by 3/16 inch,
The chips are screened for size and sent to a storage area.
When they are needed, the chips are conveyed from storage
and placed in a digester. Cooking liquor, containing sodium
sulfide and sodium hydroxide also known as "white liquor, is
10.1.2-1
-------
I UQlwl
OXIDATION
i-07-OOI-M I I(M« J
iiquo> oiim
TOUCH
3-90-00«-"9
4 - RESIWMM OH
5 - OISIIUHIE OH
6 - HATIIRM GAS
LCGfMI:
Q EMISSION FACTOK*
0 EMISSION FACTOR NOT OEVELOPEO
F0« THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTKH. EQUIP.
COK KITH EST. EFF. SHOWN
IN ( )
-
O
MNOTES FUGITIVE
EHISSIONS
OEIIOTES A STACK
IK POUNDS PEK SCC UNIT
Figure 10.1.2-1. Sulfate (kraft) wood pulping.
10.1.2-2
-------
added. The cooking time varies from 2 to 5 hours, at a tempera-
ture of about 350°F and a pressure of 100 to 125 psig. When cook-
ing is completed, the contents of the digester are forced into
the blow tank, where the gases are relieved and the pulp and liquor
are separated. Flash steam and gases released from the digester
are vented through a turpentine condenser, where heat is recovered
and the condensable vapors, in the form of t .rpentine, are removed.
Gases from the blow tank are also sent to a separate condenser.
The noncondensable gases, which are a source of malodors, are
primarily reduced sulfur compounds. They are either confined and
treated or released directly to the atmosphere. The ususal
treatment, where one is applied, is to carry the gases to the
lime kiln and introduce them with the air for combustion.
The pulp from the blow tank is separated from the spent
cooking liquor, which is known as black liquor, by screening and
washing. If the pulp is to be bleached, that operation is done
at this time. The pulp is sent to the paper machine for futher
processing, or it is stored until needed.
The black liquor that is removed during washing contains
about 96 percent of the alkali from the chemical solution that
was originally charged to the digester. In some older kraft
pulping plants, this weak black liquor is conveyed to a liquor
oxidation tower where it is pumped against the flow of flue gas
from the recovery furnace. This step is designed to oxidize the
reduced sulfur compounds that are a source of malodors. In newer
plants, the oxidation tower is eliminated, and oxidation is per-
formed at a later stage in the recovery process.
10.1.2-3
-------
The liquor is then pumped to a multiple-effect evaporator,
which uses steam to bring the liquor from a solids concentration
of 15 percent to one of 50 percent. Using the heat from the
recovery furnace flue gas, the liquor is further concentrated to
between 55 and 70 percent solids in either a direct-contact or a
cascade (closed) evaporator. The direct-contact evaporator may
include a cyclonic scrubber in older plants, or an ESP in newer
ones. The concentrated black liquor is then burned in the re-
covery boiler furnace, and the heat from the combustion of the
organic constituents is used to generate steam. The inorganic
compounds that remain after burning are removed from the recovery
furnace and dissolved in water in a smelt dissolving tank. The
green liquor that is formed is then passed to a causticizer tank
and treated with slaked lime, to convert the sodium carbonate to
sodium hydroxide that can be recycled back to the digester. The
lime slurry from the causticizer, after passage through a vacuum
filter, is dewatered and calcined in a lime kiln and stored for
reuse.
Kraft mills operate continuously for about 350 days a year,
with downtime only for routine maintenance. Their production
capacities range between 150 and 2700 tons of pulp per day.
EMISSIONS
Both particulate and gaseous pollutants are emitted from
kraft pulp mills. The emission sources are identified in Figure
2
10.1.2-1. For some of the sources, AP-42 provides emission
factors, which are listed on the process flow diagram.
10.1.2-4
-------
Emissions from debarking, chipping, screening, and storage
are minor.
The emissions from the digester and blow tank contain re-
duced sulfur compounds that pass through the condensers.
Small amounts of sulfur dioxide are emitted during the
washing and screening of the digested pulp. Section 10.1.2 of
AP-422 lists an emission factor of 0.1 Ib per ton of air-dried,
unbleached pulp.
Liquor oxidation towers, when used, are sources of sulfur
dioxide and small amounts of reduced sulfur compounds. The
multiple-effect evaporator emits small amounts of sulfur dioxide
and reduced sulfur compounds.
The direct-contact or cascade evaporator receives flue gas
from the recovery furnace; therefore these two units are con-
sidered one emission source. This is the major emission source
in kraft pulping mills from which particulates, sulfur dioxide,
carbon monoixde, and reduced sulfur compounds are released. The
particulates are generally less than 1 ym in diameter. Sulfur
dixoide emissions result mostly from the oxidation of reduced
sulfur compounds in the recovery furnace. Carbon monoxide emis-
sions are considerable. Sodium sulfide in the black liquor
reacts with carbon dioxide in the flue gas to produce hydrogen
sulfide, which along with several other organic sulfur compounds,
is responsible for the characteristic odor of sulfate pulping
mills.
10.1.2-5
-------
The smelt dissolving tank and lime kiln are sources of
particulate emissions. The lime kiln also emits CO and SO-.
The causticizer tank and vacuum filter are not emission sources.
Some nitrogen oxides are emitted from the recovery furnace
and lime kiln, but the amounts are relatively small. Nitrogen
oxide emissions from each of these sources are about 1 Ib per
2
air-dried ton (ADT) of pulp produced.
CONTROL PRACTICES1'2
The minor emissions from debarking, chipping, screening, and
storage are not controlled.
In most cases, the gases released from the digester are
vented to a condenser for recovery of the crude turpentine. The
emissions from the blow tank are also sent to a condenser.
Noncondensable, odorous gases from the digester and the blow tank
may be vented to a stack, but are most often sent to the lime
kiln where the reduced sulfur compounds are destroyed by thermal
oxidation.
The multiple-effect evaporator, which is a source of small
amounts of SO- and reduced sulfur compounds, is usually uncon-
trolled.
The few emissions from the liquor oxidation tower are
either vented without treatment to a stack, or sent to the
multiple-effect evaporator.
The reduced sulfur compound and SO- emissions from the
washing and screening operations are not controlled.
10.1.2-6
-------
Several new mills have adopted recovery systems that eliminate
the conventional direct-contact evaporators. In one system,
preheated combustion air, rather than flue gas, is used for the
evaporation. In another, the multiple-effect evaporator system
is extended to replace the direct-contact evaporator altogether.
Both systems can reportedly decrease the reduced sulfur emissions
from the recovery furnace by more than 95 percent when compared
2
with uncontrolled systems using direct-contact evaporators .
In conventional systems, flue gas emissions from the re-
covery furnace are vented to the direct-contact or cascade evapo-
rator, and particulates are controlled by the evaporator control
devices. Particulates are controlled in a variety of ways.
Control is especially important in mills where either a cyclonic
scrubber or a cascade evaporator serves as the final liquor
concentrator, because these devices are only 20 to 50 percent
efficient for particulates. An electrostatic precipitator is
most often used after the evaporator to provide an overall parti-
culate control efficiency of 96 to >_99 percent. In a few mills,
however, a venturi scrubber is used after a direct-contact
evaporator to provide 80 to 90 percent particulate control. In
either case, auxiliary scrubbers with an average efficiency of 90
percent may be included after the precipitator or the venturi
scrubber to provide additional control of particulates. Carbon
monoxide and sulfur dioxide emissions are not controlled, al-
though the SO2 is incidentally reduced by the particulate control
devices.
10.1.2-7
-------
Particulate emissions from the lime kiln are controlled by
venturi scrubbers having an efficiency of 99 percent. Smelt
dissolving tanks use a mesh pad, together with a scrubber, if
needed to remove mists. The efficiencies of these systems have
been reported as 75 and 80 percent, respectively.
Although odor control devices are not generally used in kraft
mills, control of the reduced sulfur compounds that produce the
odors can be accomplished by process modifications and by improved
operating conditions. For example, black liquor oxidation systems
can considerably reduce odorous sulfur emissions from the direct-
contact evaporator.
CODING NEDS FORMS
5-8
The sources of criteria pollutants associated with sulfate
(kraft) pulping are:
Source
Washers/screens
Liquor oxidation tower
Multiple effect
evaporator
sec
3-07-001-02
3-07-001-09
3-07-001-03
Recovery furnace/direct- 3-07-001-04
contact evaporator
Smelt dissolving tank
Lime kiln
In-process fuel
3-07-001-05
3-07-001-06
3-90-OOX-99
Pollutants
SO,
SO,
so2
Particulates,
S02, CO
Particulates,
O \J •-)
Particulates,
S02, CO
10.1.2-8
-------
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures
10.1.2-2 through 10.1.2-7, show entries for the SCO's and other
codes. Entries in the data fields give information common to
sulfate (kraft) pulping. Information pertinent to coding the
source is entered on the margins of the forms and above or below
applicable data fields. Entries for control equipment codes,
other optional codes, emission factors, and required comments
minimize the need to refer to the code lists. Typical data
values for operating parameters, control equipment efficiencies,
and other source information are shown on the form (or in the
text) only to aid in rapid, approximate checks of data submitted
by the plant in a permit application or similar report. Data
entered in EIS/P&R and NEDS must be actual values specific to and
reported by the plant, rather than typical values. Contact the
plant to validate or correct questionable data and to obtain
unreported information. See Part 1 of this manual for general
coding instructions.
The digester and blow tank are sources of reduced sulfur
compounds, but a NEDS form is not required for these sources
because no significant amounts of the criteria pollutants are
emitted.
Emissions from washing and screening and from the liquor
oxidation tower, when used, are usually uncontrolled. Figures
10.1.2-2 and 10.1.2-3 are standard NEDS forms for these sources.
The multiple-effect evaporator is a source of SO,, emissions.
These are usually vented through a stack with no control devices.
Figure 10.1.2-4 is a standard NEDS form for this source.
10.1.2-9
-------
The major sources of particulate emissions are the recovery
furnace/direct-contact evaporator, lime kiln, and smelt dis-
solving tank. In some mills, a cyclonic or a venturi scrubber or
a cascade evaporator serves as the direct-contact evaporator,
with no further controls. When this is the case, the process is
considered to have no control equipment. An electrostatic
precipitator, however, is sometimes used after the direct-contact
evaporator, and would be coded as the primary control equipment
for particulates from the furnace. If an auxiliary scrubber is
used with the ESP, the scrubber would be coded as a secondary
control equipment for particulates.
The wet scrubber reduces S02 emissions by about 40 percent,
and when it is used it is coded as a secondary control device for
S02 because it is designed to control particulates and only inci-
dentally controls S02. The CO that is emitted from the furnace
and the evaporator is not controlled, and is unaffected by the
ESP or scrubber control devices. Figure 10.1.2-5 is a standard
NEDS form for the recovery furnace and direct-contact evaporator.
A mesh pad or mist eliminator is used on the smelt dissolv-
ing tank as a primary control device for particulates. This may
be followed by a wet scrubber as a secondary control device.
Figure 10.1.2-6 is a standard NEDS form for this source.
A standard NEDS form for the lime kiln is shown in Figure
10.1.2-7. A venturi scrubber is used to reduce particulates from
the kiln. Emissions of SO^ and CO are not controlled. When
10.1.2-10
-------
emissions from other sources are vented to the kiln, enter a
comment in the comments field stating this.
The SCC units are expressed as air-dried tons of unbleached
pulp.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS9
The EEC's of the process equipment in a kraft mill are:
Device EEC
Washers/screens 450
Liquor oxidation tower 292
Multiple-effect evaporator 308
Recovery furnace and direct- 206/303
contact evaporator
Smelt dissolving tank 287
Lime kiln 231
10.1.2-11
-------
Figure 10.1.2-2. Standard NEDS form for sulfate (kraft) wood pulping - washers/screens.
to
I
to
NATIONAL [MISSIONS OAIA SYSUM IfcCOS)
iMFNTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFHCt OF
Njmv ol (V .on
Ct «npVu»y Fo.rr
FOUV Af'PnovEO
OV& NO 108 KOG05
D.*ie „
MM
! :
1 Lt
«M
_LLL
BHS
_oiioloo1^IoloioooioTo ooloroolo oooolooloio
i'. 'X 47 iJ «l It
JZL
,0000 IF NO COmON STACK
POINT ID'S IF COHCN STACK
CS71«.'.AT£D cyjlPOL if FICI£«CV (-.1
r .ir-tip -::pi:>
ffiimr
0.01
so-.
. ESTiV.ATES Horti v*»l
^W-Jrn:
frmr
HASHERS/SCREENS
IP 3
i.nslrcT.'i
cm
1 >l
. -1.,
3 517
iiLU-
1
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61
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63
64
(S
it
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65
JC
71
1
71
P
7?
;
c
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73
74
75
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77
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74
75
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J7
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71J7SJ80
|?| 5
5
/'!
ca
T: K
f 6
~ 6
» 6
f 6
P 6
-
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r
«
",
-
if,
!J
-
V<
;c
!]
j-
!'.
j:
-
45
-
^
j-
-
:i
M
5:
',?
U
54
*^
V
V
V
SI
to
(1
J?
It
f.
-
K
it
6'
k?
H
(0
71
;<
73
'«
?i
!l
''
i
;E
cd
fe »
P 7
P 7
P 7
-------
Figure 10.1.2-3. Standard NEDS form for sulfate (kraft) wood pulping - liquor oxidation tower
APPHOvrO
OMB NO (rjH R0095
0.1!
to
I
M
U)
POINT ;,ouncE
NATIONAL EMISSIONS OAT A SYSTEM (NEOS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFIICt OF AIR PROGRAMS
,0000 IF NO COtfON STACK
/XXXX POINT ID'S IF COHON STACK
LIQUOR OXIDATION TOWER '___
M*^
^ ,
3: 3i
"V
,
j(
:&
i)
!C
-'
t;
0
t.
i'
uel
1 ^
"1
^
iO
0
it
i.'
u
'4
«
«.
51
•i
ii
0"
63
(I
it
t:
a
u
f>
d:
(1
i«
M
70
?
i-
71
P
5
»
?(
'5
't
;;
8
<
It
ed
'S K
"• €
* G
• f,
ul 6
P 6
-------
Figure 10.1.2-4. Standard~NEDS form for sulfate (kraft) wood pulping - multiple-effect evapprator,
lir
n:
intifrHii
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NCOS)
ENVIRIHiMrNiAl PHOrFCTION AGENCY
QFFICl OF AIH PROGRAMS
FOH.V, APPROVED
OVfc NO 1M K009S
ZUilLUJLL-LJ
SSI3L
.iltipflii
J± u
010
ril
OjO
;-|.irn
T±j
iiR
olmo
0[Q|0
_
wjsi .a \iih
TTTT
.0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
COMPOL EFFICIENCY I
--t-i-S
Et.tlS'llON fSTl
0.01
I II 10
ESTIMATION
METHOD
63!
U
I
I-1
MULTIPLE-EFFECT EVAPORATOR
cSCC UNJT-AI*-WY TONS UNBLEACHED PULP,':
STATUS
CONTROL REGULATIONS
Hf^i 1 I fl^q 2
H, .,F^.B«, |
H1^ fal L- -,tc t
T, rrrj^nkl
-------
Figure 10.1.2-5. Standard NEDS form for sulfate (kraft) wood pulping -
recovery furnace/direct-contact evaporator.
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
OVf ',0 • ?" F-C09S
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
XXXX POINT ID'S IF COWON STACK
ESP SCRUBBER.
Oil 1-002
CS7.MAT6D CO'iTPOL EFTlC'Er-'CV (M
EMISSION ESTIVATE5
ALLOWABLE EMISSIONS llcni/y
•§
*!
ji
is"
is
5
333
fM ISI CSI
3
rf* «
? » " 2
' 5 8
i \r\ —
0 °
«i
l^j o
s
8
at
_J M
I
s.g s
is ,;
sec SCC UNIT-AfrR-ORY TONS UNBLEACHED PULP-C
I I Furl P.^ri,
S. lirt Wji
^l^'PsRilsofiilv
-rrrrrr
ffi
- ^^-4^ '"'- I ,r"';
^ "
.L
I S. l.rt Wj-.ir
IV I OP-..'..V, B,ir
ziiiTin0iu»i«i5i«
3Trm»
-RECOVERY FURNACE/DIRECT-CONTACT EVAP.
CCKWLNIS
UJ_J_
-I-
-------
9T-Z'T*OT
UNCONTROLLED
H MESH PAD
t/>
WET SCRUBBER
n
ro
NJ
I
ft
(V
0)
h|
a
w
o
en
l-h
o
»-!
3
HI
O
M
Cfl
C
H-
Hi
0)
ft
(D
Hi
ft
O
o
Ul
3
(D
H-
cn
01
o
h-1
-------
Z.T-2'TOT
CONTROL
UNCONTROLLED
SCRUBBER
DEVICE
CODE
001
EFF. ,
X
93
PART.,
LB/TON
45
3
S02.
LB/TON
0.3
0.2
CO.
LB/TON
10
10
p-
H
(D
ro
I
co
rt
W
Hi
O
M
3
HI
O
0")
rt
(D
HI
rt
O
O
P-
3
05
I
p-
(T)
p-
M
3
-------
GLOSSARY
Sulfate or kraft process - A chemical process used to convert
wood to papermaking fibers by using an aqueous solution of
sodium sulfide and sodium hydroxide as the cooking liquor.
Digester - A device in which wood chips react with chemicals, at a
specified pressure and temperature, to separate the wood
fibers by dissolving the lignin.
White liquor - An aqueous solution of sodium sulfide and sodium
hydroxide, used for cooking wood chips in the digester.
Black liquor - Spent or used solution from the digester. It
contains about 15 percent solids as it leaves the digester.
Green liquor - The solution of inorganic compounds generated from
the recovery furnace.
10.1.2-18
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 10.1.2
1. Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute. Air Pollution Control
Technology and Costs: Seven Selected Emission Sources.
PB-245-065. Stamford, Conn., December 1974.
2. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, 3rd edition.
Environmental Protection Agency. AP-42, August 1977.
3. Lund, H.F., (ed). McGraw-Hill Book Company, Industrial
Pollution Control Handbook. New York, 1971. pp. 18.17-
18.27.
4. Standards of Performance For New Stationary Sources. I^raft
Pulp Mills. Federal Register, Volume 43, No. 37, February
23, 1978.
5. Vatavuk, W.M. National Emission Data System (NEDS) Control
Device Workbook; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
APTD-1570, July 1973.
6. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual. KPA
450/2-76-029 (OAQPS No. 1.2-039), December 1976.
7. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes. EPA
450/2-76-005 (OAQPS No. 1.2-042), April 1976.
8. Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1972 edition.
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available from
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
9. Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual of
Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Public Health Service Publication No. 1956. 1968.
10.1.2-19
-------
10.1.3 ACID SULFITE PULPING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION1"3
About 15 percent of the 35 million tons of paper pulp pro-
duced annual"y in the United States j r manufactured by the sul-
fite pulping process. The lignin that binds the cellulose fibers
of the wood together is dissolved by an acid sulfite digestion
liquor composed of sulfurous acid and bisulfite salts. The pulp
(extracted cellulose fibers) is then used as the raw material for
the manufacture of such products as paper, cardboard, tissue, and
toweling. The sulfurous digestion or cooking liquor is in solu-
tion with various bisulfites that act as buffers: calcium,
especially in older mills; ammonium; sodium; or, increasingly,
magnesium. The lignin is removed from the cellulose as soluble
lignosulfonotes. Figure 10.1.3-1 is a flow diagram of a sulfite
pulping process using magnesium.
Wood for raw material may be purchased as chips from other
forest product manufacturers, or may be formed from logs or wood
at tho pulp.ng mill. "White wood," from debarked logs, is the
prefeired material. Wood is transported to the mill by rail,
barge, trucl , or ship, and is stored in piles or in water. Logs
are washed io remove dirt and are then debarked in drum or hy-
draulic bari ers. The debarked logs are reduced to chips to
10.1.3-1
-------
3-U/-002-XX
RECOVERT SYSTEM
BASE
«g 0
HH3
Na
XX
21
22
23
1 ®
| S02 (9)
1 FLl
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
T
*
1
CONTROL
DEVKF
E GAS f«
WATER/
MAGNESIUM |
"bULFITE '
1
1
1
1
1 SCRUBBER Ut>3
DIRECT
— -p*- ^503 CONTAC
SO^W EVAPORAl
(^ "1 STRONG RED
L. — —1 i iramo
S02
ABSORBER
ACID
FORTIFIER
MULTIPLE-
EFFECT
EVAPORATOR
3-07-002-VV
DIGESTER AND PULP
BLOW PIT OR OUHP TANK
PULP
BASE
HH3
Ra
Ca
tw
31
32
33
HOT t
T
t
IATER )
t
WASHING AND
SCREENING
SULFUR
BURNER
AIR
MAKEUP
SULFUR
WEAK RED LIQUOR
Hg(OH)2
RED LIQUOR CONCEN1PATE
WATER
PROCESS (DIGESTER & BLOW PIT OR DUMP TANK)
ALL BASES EXCEPT Ca
C« BASE
MgO WITH RECOVERY SYSTEM
MgO W/PROCESS CHANGE it SCRUBBER
Nf»3 H/PROCESS CHA06E t SCRUBBER
Na W/PROCESS CHANGE & SCRUBBER
VV
03
12
13
14
15
3-07-002-34
WASHING AND
SCREENING
UNBLEACHED
PULP
*THESE LINES MAY
GO DIRECTLY TO
THE SO? ABSORBER
LEGEND:
(3 EMISSION FACTOR3
0 EMISSION FACTOP NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EQUIP.
» CODE HI Til FST. EFF. SHOWN
I "I ( )
x, DENOTE'.. Flit,! TIV'
.-' EMISSION
Q DENOTES A STACK
III POUNDS PFP Sfr UNIT
Figure 10.1.3-1. Magnesium - Based Sulfite Pulping Process
1.3-2
-------
achieve a uniform size and to allow proper penetration of the
cooking liquor. The chips are screened, washed, and stored in
piles.
Sulfurous acid for the digestion liquor is made by burning
sulfur and dissolving the resulting SO.-, in water. Some of the
acid is converted to bisulfite (by adding calcium, ammonium,
sodium, or magnesium) to bring the mixture to the desired pH.
The liquor and the wood chips are mixed together in a digester at
high temperature and pressure. When cooking is complete, the
mixture is discharged into either a blow pit or dump tank, de-
pending on how pressure is released. The spent sulfite liquor
(red liquor) is separated out and the pulp is washed free of the
remaining liquor with hot water. The pulp may be bleached during
subsequent papermaking operations.
Treatment of the spent liquor depends on the base that is
used. Figure 10.1.3-1 shows a magnesium system. Other systems
are similar although some older mills do not practice any chem-
ical recovery. In a magnesium system, after being separated from
the pulp, the liquor is partially concentrated in multiple-effect
evaporators. It is then further concentrated in a direct-contact
evaporator using hot flue gas from the recovery furnace. The
concentrated liquor, at 55 to 60 percent solids, is burned in the
recovery furnace (without extra fuel), where the magnesium is
converted to magnesium oxide (MgO) and the sulfur species is oxi-
dized to S02.
10.1.3-3
-------
The magnesium oxide is a solid, occurring in the form of
fine particulates. It is separated from the flue gas by a me-
chanical collector, usually a cyclone that is part of the process
equipment, and slurried in water to become magnesium hydroxide
[Mg(OH)2l. It is then sent to the S02 absorber. The hot flue
gas is also sent to the S02 absorber, after traveling through the
direct-contact evaporator and picking up water vapor. In the
absorber the gas stream is dissolved in the Mg(OH)_ solution,
regenerating the sulfurous acid and magnesium bisulfite liquor.
Makeup acid, which passes through a sulfur burner and an acid
fortifier, is added as needed.
In calcium-based systems, the furnace is used for heat
recovery to produce steam. The solids leaving the furnace are
calcium oxide and calcium sulfate; some SO,, is present in the
flue gas. The solids are discarded after collection by an ESP or
a cyclone control device, and the cleaned flue gas enters the
atmosphere. In some cases, the flue gas is sent to the S0~
absorber, which may be a limestone-packed tower or a series of
three or four venturi scrubbers.
In ammonium-based systems, the products of the liquor com-
bustion in the recovery furnace are SO0 water, and nitrogen.
~ i
Very few solids are present; they are collected by a mechanical
dust collector and discarded. The S0« is absorbed from the flue
gas by an ammonia solution to make the digestion liquor.
10.1.3-4
-------
Sodium-based systems are often operated next to a kraft
plant, and the spent liquor is burned with the black liquor from
the kraft pulping. In other cases, it is burned alone in a
kraft-type furnace and the sodium that is recovered as a sulfide
smelt is reused after chemical treatment- or it is shipped to a
1-4
nearby kraft mill and used there. The SO2 is absorbed from
the flue gas by sodium carbonate that is recrvered from the
smelt. Makeup sulfur dioxide is added to produce sodium bisul-
fite liquor for digestion.
EMISSIONS1"4
Particulates and SO2 are the major pollutants from sulfite
pulping. Emission sources are identified in Figure 10.1.3-1.
4
For some of the sources, AP-42 provides emission factors, which
are listed on the process flow diagram. For other sources of
emissions, average emission rates obtained from other documents
are mentioned in the following source descriptions.
No significant emissions are generated by debarking, chip-
ping, screening, and storage. The digester and blow pit or dump
tank are a source of S02 emissions as well as acid mists and
water vapor. The pH of the digestion process affects the SO~
emissions from these operations and from subsequent washing
operations. Sulfurous acid, which has a high vapor pressure, is
present in a greater proportion at low pH. The high vapor pres-
sure causes S02 to be released from the solution, resulting in
more emissions. Solutions with higher pH levels have less poten-
tial for S02 emissions.
10.1.3-5
-------
The digester relief and discharge techniques also affect
emissions. When contents are blown out under high pressure,
large amounts of SO,,, which are difficult to capture and treat
efficiently in scrubbers, are released. When the pressure in the
digester is relieved and the contents are pumped into a dump tank
the volume of emissions is much less and is more easily captured
and controlled.
Some sulfur dioxide is emitted from the washing and screen-
ing operations. When the other emission sources are well con-
trolled, this can be a large percentage of the total S0? emis-
sions from sulfite pulping.
The multiple-effect evaporator is a source of S02 emissions,
and the recovery furnace is a source of both S02 and particu-
lates. Particulate emissions are minimal where ammonia is used,
although some gaseous ammonia may be emitted. Where magnesium is
used, magnesium oxide particulates are released from the recovery
furnace. Where calcium is used, particulates composed of calcium
oxide and calcium sulfate are released. The calcium is not
reused. Where sodium is used, some particulates in the form of
sodium carbonate and sodium sulfide are emitted from the recovery
furnace; however, most of the material is retained in the smelt.
Particulates and S02 from the recovery furnace pass through the
direct-contact evaporator, picking up additional reduced sulfur
compounds in the evaporator. These may be released as emissions
or pent to the S02 absorber.
10.1.3-6
-------
Where chemical and heat recovery are practiced, the sulfur
oxide is scrubbed from the flue gas in the S02 absorber. The
emissions from the absorber are particulates and SO2.
The sulfur burner and acid fortifier, which provide makeup
acid for the digester, generate SO2; however, the exhaust is sent
to the SO« absorber and is not considered an emission source.
Estimates of S02 emissions from dif ferer c. process equipment,
without controls, are given below:
Equipment SO,., emissions, Ib/ton of pulp
(dry weight)
Blow pit 100-500
Dump tank 10-25
Multiple-effect evaporator 5-10
S02 absorber 10-25
Recovery furnace (NH3 base) 250-500
Small amounts of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide may be
emitted with the flue gas from the recovery furnace. The gas is
generally sent to the S02 absorber before being vented to the
atmosphere.
CONTROL PRACTICES1"
Emission factors from various sources, with and without
4
controls, are listed in Table 10,1.3-1.
Emissions from the digester and blow pit or dump tank are
either sent to a scrubber or to the SO,, absorber for recovery of
SO- to be used as digestion acid.
Sulfur dioxide generated during washing and screening of the
digested pulp is not controlled.
10.1.3-7
-------
TABLE 10.1.3-1. EMISSION FACTORS FOR SULFITE PULPING'
Source
Digester blow pit
or dump tankc
Recovery system'
Acid plant?
Other sources1"-
Base
All
MgO
MgO
MgO
MgO
NH..
NH3
Na
Ca
MgO
NH3
Na
NH,
Na
Ca
All
Control
None
Process change6
Scrubber
Process change and scrubber
All exhaust vented through re-
covery system
Process change
Process change and scrubber
Process change and scrubber
Unknown
Multiclone and venturi scrubbers
Ammonia absorption and mist
eliminator
Sodium carbonate scrubber
Scrubber
Unknown*1
Jenssen scrubber
None
Emission factor
Particulates,
Ib/ADUT
Negd
Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
2
0.7
4
Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
Sulfur dioxide,
Ib/ADUT
10-70
2-6
1
0.2
0
25
0.4
2
67
9
7
2
0.3
0.2
8
12
a Data taken from Reference 4. All emission factors represent long-term average
emissions.
b Factors expressed in terms of Ib of pollutant per air dried unbleached ton of pulp (ADUT)
c These factors represent emissions that occur after the cook is completed and when the
digester contents are discharged into the blow pit or dump tank. Some relief gases
are vented from the digester during the cook cycle, but these are usually trans-
ferred to pressure a'ccumulators, and the SO2 therein is reabsorbed for use in the
cooking liquor. These factors represent long-term emissions; in some mills, the
actual emissions will be intermittent and for short time periods.
Negligible emissions.
e Process changes may include such measures as raising the pH of the cooking liquor,
thereby lowering the free S02; relieving the pressure in the digester before the
contents are discharged; and pumping out the digester contents instead of blowing
them out.
f The recovery system at most mills is a closed system that includes the recovery
furnace, direct-contact evaporator, multiple-effect evaporator, acid fortifier,
and SO, absorption. Generally, there will only be one emission point for the
entire recovery system. These factors are long-term averages and include the high
S02 emissions during the periodic purging of the recovery system.
9 Acid plants are necessary in mills that have no or insufficient recovery systems.
h Control is practiced, but type of control is unknown.
1 includes miscellaneous pulping operations such as debarking, chipping, washing,
and screening.
10.1.3-8
-------
Sulfur dioxide emissions from the multiple-effect evaporator
are controlled by a scrubber or are vented to the SO2 absorber
for reuse in digester acid.
Particulates generated in the recovery furnace are con-
trolled by an ESP or by mechanical dust collectors, such as
cyclones. Sometimes these devices are used together. When the
captured particulates are recycled to the process, as in magne-
sium-based pulping, the cyclone is considered process equipment;
ESP's or scrubbers that follow the cyclone are control devices.
Calcium oxide, calcium sulfate, and whatever particulates
result from ammonium-based combustion are discarded. Most of the
particulates in a kraft furnace (which is used for sodium-based
liquor), are removed as molten smelt from the bottom of the
furnace. Particulates entrained in the flue gas are partly
removed by mechanical means (usually cyclones), and sometimes
also by an ESP or scrubber. In processes using ammonia, sodium,
and calcium, the cyclone, ESP, and scrubber are considered
control equipment.
After the particulates have been removed, the exhaust gas
(containing S02) may be sent directly to a stack, or vented to
the direct-contact evaporator for heat recovery and then ex-
hausted through a stack. The latter is practiced in some older
plants. Usually, however, the recovery furnace gas is sent
through the direct-contact evaporator to provide heat for
evaporation and is then sent to the S02 absorber to recover SO,,.
10.1.3-9
-------
These absorbers remove most of the SC^. Efficiencies of more
than 95 to 98 percent are reported for Mg(OH)2 venturi-type
absorber s.
CODING NEDS FORMS
The sources of emissions in a sulfite pulping mill are:
Source SCO Pollutant(s)
Digester and blow pit or 3_07_002_vv so
dump tank L
Washing and screening 3-07-002-34 S02
Recovery System 3-07-002-XX S02> particulate
The numbers assigned to the letters in the SCC's vary ac-
cording to the buffering agent used. The specific codes are
shown in Figure 10.1.3-1.
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources, Figures 10.1.3-
2 through 10.1.3-5, show entries for the SCC's and other codes.
Entries in the data fields give information common to sulfite
pulping. Information pertinent to coding the source is entered
on the margins of the forms and above or below applicable data
fields. Entries for control equipment codes, other optional
codes, emission factors, and required comments minimize the need
to refer to the code lists. Typical data values for operating
parameters, control equipment efficiencies, and other source
information are shown on the form (or in the text) only to aid in
10.1.3-10
-------
rapid, approximate checks of data submitted by the plant in a
permit application or similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R
and NEDS must be actual values specific to and reported by the
plant, rather than typical values. Contact the plant to validate
or correct questionable data and to obtain unreported informa-
tion. See Part 1 of this manual for general coding instructions.
Figure 10.13-2 is a standard NEDs form for the digester and
blow pit or dump tank. A different SCC -lumber is assigned to the
blow pit or dump tank according to the base that is used. The
scrubber on the digester and dump tank or blow pit, which is a
primary control device for S02, is coded as 053. If the emis-
sions are sent to the S02 absorber, it is the control device and
is coded as 050 or 051.
Emissions of SO 2 from washing and screening are fugitive.
A standard NEDs form for this source is shown in Figure 10.1.3-3.
The recovery system employed by sulfite pulp mills involves
multiple pieces of process equipment including a multiple-effect
evaporator, recovery furnace, direct-contact evaporator, and S02
absorber. The controls applied to and procedures for venting
exhaust gases from each piece of equipment may vary from one mill
to another. In many mills the recovery system is a closed system
that includes all of the process equipment noted above. As such,
there may be only one emission point for the entire system. Figure
10.1.3-4 is a standard NEDS form which treats the entire recovery
system as only one emission point. The emission factors in
Table 10.1.3-1 are also expressed on this basis.
Alternatively, if each piece of equipment is separately vented
to the. atmosphere, to a specific control device or to some other
process it may be nore appropriate to treat each piece of
10.1.3-11
-------
equipment as a separate emission point. In these cases, separate
point ID's should be assigned and a. NEDS form coded for each piece
of equipment as necessary. The SCC for the recovery system,
reflecting the appropriate chemical base, should be used in each
case. Indicate in a card 6 or card 7 SCC comment, the process
equipment that is represented by the emission point. If no
common stack is shared with some other piece of equipment in the
recovery system, enter (jxtxfxfr in points with common stack field.
If a common stack exists, indicate appropriate point ID's in
this field instead. Code control equipment codes as appropriate.
Specific information for each process is given below.
The multiple-effect evaporator is coded according to the
base used, either Mg, NH-j, or Na. The wet scrubber control
device is coded as 053. When the emissions are instead sent to
the S02 absorber, code 050 or 051 as the control device. No
NEDS form for the multiple-effect evaporator need be coded in
this case. Include a comment with the SC^ absorber point, that
it includes multiple-effect evaporator off-gases.
The recovery furnace generates SC^ and particulate emissions.
Particulates are generally removed from the gas stream by a
mechanical dust collector, usually a cyclone. For processes
using Ca, NH , and Na, this cyclone is a control device; for
processes using Mg, the cyclone is considered process equipment.
10.1.3-12
-------
An ESP, where used, is a control device. Where the ESP follows a
cyclone in Ca, NH^, and Na processes, the ESP is a secondary
particulate control device. After particulate removal the gases
may be vented to a stack, to the direct-contact evaporator, cr to
both the evaporator and the SCU absorber. In the last two cases,
the emissions are included on the NEDS forms for the direct-
contact evaporator or the 862 absorber. The coder need not include
a point for the recovery furnace in this case. Indicate by a
comment ^n the direct-contact evaporator or SC>2 absorber emission
point, that off-gases from the recovery furnace are included.
The direct-contact evaporator receives flue gas from the
recovery furnace. In some older plants, the gas is vented to a
stack after passing through the evaporator. In most plants, the
gas is sent to the 862 absorber for SC>2 recovery. Where this is
the case, the emissions from the direct-contact evaporator are in-
cluded on the NEDS form for the S02 absorber. The coder should
include a comment on the SO^ absorber emission point that direct-
contact evaporator emissions are included. No emission point for
the evaporator needs to be defined in this case.
For the SC>2 absorber, the SCC number is assigned according to
the base used, either Mg, NHo , or Na . No add-on SC>2 controls are
used on the S02 absorber. A comment should be included indicating
any other processes that are vented to the S02 absorber.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS
The BEG numbers for use. in EIS/P&R forms are:
Device B_EC
Digester and blow pit or dump tank 287
Washing and screening 575
Multiple-effect evaporator 308
S02 absorber 350
Recovery furnace 206
Direct-contact evaporator 303
10,1.3-13
-------
Figure 10.1.3-2. Standard NEDS form for sulfite pulping - digester and blow pit or dump tank.
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AIL BASKS EXCEPT CM
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NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
Eitjt.Mhmenl Nome and Aifrtren
POINT SOURCE
Input Form
FORM APPROVED
O«B N
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ESTIMATION
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R'92
-------
Figure 10.1.3-4. Standard NEDS form for sulfite pulping - recovery system.
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-------
GLOSSARY
Lignin - A group of polymeric molecules which holds the cellulose
fibers together.
Red liquor - Spent sulfite digestion liquor.
Smelt - Molten sodium salts obtained from the sodium based
recovery furnace.
10-1.3-18
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 10.1.3
1. Hendrikson, E.R., J.E. Roberson, and J.B. Koogler. Control
of Atmospheric Emissions in the Wood Pulping Industry. Vol.
1. Environmental Engineering, Inc., and J.E. Surine Co.
Contract No. CPA 22-69-18, U.S. Dept. of Health, Education,
• an£ Welfare. March 15, 1970. pp. 3.62-3.71.
2. Babcock & Wilcox. Steam-Its Generation and Use. 38th
edition. New York, 1972. pp. 26.11- 26.14.
3. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Volume 16.
2nd edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1963. pp. 712-
721.
4. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. 3rd edition.
Environmental Protection Agency. AP-42, August 1977.
5. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual. EPA
450/2-76-029 (OAQPS No. 1.2-039), December 1976.
6. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes. EPA
45/2-76-005 (OAQPS No. 1.2-042), April 1976.
7. Standard Industrial Classification Manual. 1972 edition.
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available from
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
8. Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual of
Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Public Health Service Publication No. 1956. 1968.
10.1.3-19
-------
10.1.4 NEUTRAL SULFITE SEMICHEMICAL (NSSC) PULPING
PROCESS DESCRIPTION1'3
Wood pulping extracts cellulose from wood chips by dissolving
the lignin that binds the fibers together. The pulp is then used
as the raw material for the manufacture of paper, cardboard,
tissue, and towel products. Neutral sulfite semichemical (NSSC)
pulp is the variety that is produced by the partial chemical
dissolution of the lignin followed by mechanical disintegration.
About 10 percent of the 35 million tons of pulp produced in the
United States annually is made by the NSSC process.
Figure 10.1.4-1 shows the process flow in an NSSC pulping
mill. The wood chips used in pulping are purchased from forest
product manufacturing firms and delivered to the mill by truck or
rail, or they may be produced from logs at the pulp mill. In
this case, the logs are transported to the mill by rail, barge,
truck, or ship, and are stored in piles or in water until needed.
The logs are washed to remove dirt and debarked in drum or hydraulic
barkers. The debarked logs are then reduced to chips to provide
a size that is uniform, easy to handle, and allows even penetration
of cooking liquor during pulping. The chips are screened to
remove oversized pieces (which are recycled) and slivers; then
the chips are washed to remove dirt and sawdust. The chips are
then conveyed to storage piles until needed for pulping.
10.1.4-1
-------
9
1 } ' Na SO, r ~ , !
CHIPPING -^ SCREENING/ ^ \ ^ ? "^ ^^ ™) ™T°
J • / i f rnMRUvnnH .n.
(^ ^Y^ 3-07-003-04 r-U INTEGRAL 3-07-003-03
U S02 ABSORPTION TOWER 1 HcYCLONE FLUID-BED
DIGESTER T SOLID \S REACTOR
'SO- O Na,SO., [
i 2 ^^ , £ 4 ^C~T • ~^
3-07-003-01 1 °53 (99-5> 2 r\ 1^
— ' • x SCRUBBER \^y
DIGESTER AND DUMP TANK f } VENTURI SULFUR * <-n ^ CONCENTRATED
OR BLOW PIT /^r-"' BURNER •" SUL1-UK iu2 v^i LIQUOR
| PRESSURE i ! f
DUMP TANK RELIEF*
OR BLOW PIT 3-07-003-02
LJ EVAPORATOR
HOT WATER
— ^
* PRESSURE RELIEF MAY BE 1 | Tn ,FUFR
VENTED DIRECTLY TO SO- I lu itwtl<
ABSORPTION TOWER '
PULP TO
MECHANICAL
DISINTEGRATION
LEGEND:
(^) EMISSION FACTOR3
O EMISSION FACTOR NOT DEVELOPED
FOR THIS PROCESS
009 (66.0) DENOTES CONTROL EQUIP.
CODE WITH EST, EFF. SHOWN
4 IN ( )
N DENOTES FUGITIVE
-' EMISSIONS
O DENOTES A STACK
3 IN POUNDS PER SCC UNIT
Figure 10.1.14-1. Process flow diagram for NSSC pulping.
10.1.4-2
-------
In the first part of the pulping process, the wood chips are
cooked under pressure in either a batch or a continuous digester
to partially delignify the wood. The cooking liquor is sodium
sulfite (Na2SO.,) , mixed with either sodium carbonate (Na^CO ) or
bicarbonate (NaHCCK). The sulfite ion reacts with the lignin in
the wood while the sodium carbonate or bicarbonate acts as a
buffer to maintain a neutral solution (pH near 7). The sodium
sulfite may be purchased, or it may be produc ad at the mill by
burning sulfur and dissolving the flue gas in a sodium carbonate
solution in an S02 absorption tower for the reaction.
Following digestion, the mixture is discharged into a dump
tank or blow pit to bring it to £itmospheric pressure. A dump
tank is used to receive the mixture when the pressure in the
digester is partially relieved by a pressure relief system; a
blow pit receives the mixture when the pressure is relieved as
the material discharges from the digester.
The material must be washed to remove the liquor from the
pulp. The cooling liquor is drained and the pulp is washed with
water, usually on a multistage drum filter. The washed pulp may
then be further disintegrated mechanically by grinders before
bleaching or manufacture into paper. Some mechanical disinte-
gration of the pulp is done in the blow pit by blowing the
material onto a plate to break up the fibers. This combination
of chemical delignification and mechanical disintegration can
yield as much as 60 to 80 percent pulp. For coarser products,
such as cardboard, the mechanical disintegration is not necessary.
10.1.4-3
-------
The spent liquor from the washers is sometimes discarded to
the sewer system. At mills that adjoin kraft pupling mills, the
spent liquor may be combined with the liquor from kraft processing
for chemical recovery. (See the section on kraft pulping for a
complete description of this chemical recovery process.) A third
way to dispose of the spent liquor is to concentrate it in an
evaporator and send it to a fluid-bed reactor for combustion.
This particular concentration and combustion process is unique to
NSSC pulp production. In the fluid-bed reactor, the inorganic
solids are converted to sodium carbonate and sodium sulfate,
which are withdrawn as pellets. An integral cyclone collects the
entrained solids and returns them to the bed, where any remaining
organic fraction undergoes further combustion. The solids cannot
be reused in the NSSC process, but they are often sold to a kraft
mill -as process chemicals.
EMISSIONS1"3
The major pollutants from NSSC pulping are sulfur oxides
(SCO , hydrogen sulfide (H2S) , and particulates. The digester
and dump tank or blow pit, evaporator, fluid-bed reactor, and S02
absorption tower are the four emission sources. The fluid-bed
reactor also emits combustion products including CO and NOx/ but
2
these are considered to be negligible.
Emissions from the production of wood chips (debarking,
chipping, screening, and storage) are insignificant. Pressure is
periodically relieved in the digester during the cooking cycle to
maintain the desired pressure in the vessel, resulting in
10.1.4-4
-------
intermittent gas release. Intermittent gases released from the
digester contain SO2 and H2S; however, their quantities are
insignificant compared to those from the dump tank or blow pit.
The main emissions from the digester and dump tank are released
mainly from the digester when the digester and dump tank are
used. When the digester and blow pit are used, these emissions
are released from the blow pit as shown in Figure 10.1.4-1.
Emissions from the pulp washer and mechanical disintegration are
considered insignificant.
Mills that purchase sodium sulfite for the digestion liquor
have no SO,, absorber, and therefore no emissions from that
point. Emissions of S02 and H2S from the SC>2 absorption tower
vary according to the operating conditions and efficiency of the
absorber.
Mills that send the spent liquor to a sewer have no evap-
orator or fluid-bed reactor exhausts. Liquor sent to a kraft
mill recovery system contributes to the emissions of that system.
The quantities of these emissions are not known, since they
depend on the operating and process variables at the kraft mill.
It is known that the NSSC effluent lowers the pH of the kraft
black liquor and, as a consequence, can cause generation of
H Q 1'2
ri~ o.
Because of the scarcity of data on the many variations in
NSSC mills, no emission factors are currently available.
10.1.4-5
-------
CONTROL PRACTICES1 3
Intermittent emissions from the digester are not controlled.
Emissions from the pressure relief system of the dump tank or
blow pit are usually controlled by a scrubber, usually a venturi
scrubber; or the pressure relief may be vented directly to the
2
sulfur absorption tower at the mill when it is in use.
Emissions from the evaporator are relatively small and are
usually uncontrolled.
A wet scrubber is commonly used to control both the partic-
ulate and gaseous emissions from the fluid-bed reactor. The
integral cyclone is considered process equipment rather than a
control device because it is a part of the reactor. Efficiencies
as high as 99 percent can be expected for both the particulate
and S0~ control. The CO and NO emissions from the reactor are
2. X
negligible and are not controlled.
Emissions from the S0_ absorption tower are usually uncon-
trolled.
4-6
CODING NEDS FORMS
The emission sources associated with NSSC pulping are:
Source SCC Pollutant(s)
Digester and dump
tank or blow pit 3-07-003-01 SO2
Evaporator 3-07-003-02 S02
Fluid-bed reactor 3-07-003-03 Particulates, S02/
combustion
products
S02 absorption tower
3-07-003-04 SO.
10.1.4-6
-------
Standard NEDS forms for each of the sources (Figures 10.1.4-
2 through 10.1.4-5) show entries for the SCC's and other codes.
Entries in the data fields give information common to NSSC
pulping. Information pertinent to coding the source is entered
in the margins of the forms and above or below applicable data
fields. Entries for emission factors, required comments, control
equipment codes, and other optional codes minimize the need to
refer to the code lists. Typical data values for operating
parameters, control equipment efficiencies, and other source
information are shown on the form (or in the text) to aid in
rapid, approximate checks of data submitted by the plant in a
permit application or similar report. Data entered in EIS/P&R
and NEDS must be actual values specific to and reported by the
plant, rather than typical values. Contact the plant to obtain
unreported information and to validate or correct questionable
data. See Part 1 of this manual for general coding instructions.
Emissions from the digester and dump tank or blow pit are
usually vented to a venturi scrubber. Code this operation as
shown in Figure 10.1.4-2. When there is a different type of
scrubber, enter the appropriate code. When the gases are vented
to the SO,, absorption tower, code the tower as a control device
using code 050 or 051.
Emissions from the evaporator are not controlled. Code the
evaporator as shown in Figure 10.1.4-3. The integral cyclone on
a fluid-bed reactor is part of the reactor and not a control
device. Emissions from the reactor are usually controlled with a
10.1.4-7
-------
scrubber, which controls both particulates and S02. Figure
10.1.4-4 shows a standard NEDS form for the fluid-bed reactor
Code 001 in the particulate and S02 primary control device
fields.
The S09 absorption tower is not controlled. Code this
source as shown in Figure 10.1.4-5.
CODING EIS/P&R FORMS7
The EEC's for use in EIS/P&R forms are:
Source BEG
Digester and dump tank or blow pit 287
Evaporator 302
Fluid-bed reactor 206
S0~ absorption tower 351
10.1.4-8
-------
Figure 10.1.4-2. Standard NEDS form for NSSC pulping -
digester and dump tank or blow pit.
>,_ \_ TTi lisTa ji_i]ij
NATIONAL IMISSIONS DATA SYSItM (NtOSI
ENVIMfiNMCNIM PIlOTf CIION AGENCY
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Figure 10.1.4-3. Standard NEDS form for NSSC pulping - evaporator,
H1
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I
h-1
o
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M"l
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NATION/H EMISSIONS OftTA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVinONMlNTM PROTECTION AGENCY
OfflCt Of AIR PflOGRAMS
WO !!,« TOWS
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-------
Figure 10.1.4-4. Standard NEDS form for NSSC pulping - fluid-bed reactor,
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
f~ NT SOURCE
form
f O«M APPROVED
owe NO
Om
FLIUD-BED REACTOR
-------
Figure 10.1.4-5. Standard NEDS form for NSSC pulping - SO2 absorption tower,
i
M
NJ
NATIONAL EMISSIONS DATA SYSTEM (NEDS)
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR PROGRAMS
m
isse
010!
0|0
OToTo
00
1
IPI
0000 IF NO COMMON STACK
"XXXX POINT ID'S IF COMMON STACK
l £FF(CIEVCV l\l
•.O,
ALt-O-VABLE EMISSIONS
-------
GLOSSARY
Black liquor - Spent (used) kraft digestion liquor.
Blow pit - The receiving pit for digested pulp released under
pressure.
Dump tank - The receiving pit for digested pulp released from the
digester after the pressure in the digestion vessel has been
reduced by the pressure relief system.
NSSC pulp - Neutral sulfite semichemical pulp.
10.1.4-13
-------
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 10.1.4
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. 2nd edition.
Environmental Protection Agency, AP-42, February 1976. pp.
8.6-1 to 8.6-4, C16.
2. Hendrikson, E.R., J.E. Roberson, and J.B. Koogler. Control
of Atmospheric Emissions in the Wood Pulping Industry.
Volume 1. Environmental Engineering, Inc., and J.E. Sirrine
Co. Contract No. CPA 22-69-18, U.S. Dept. of Health,
Education, and Welfare, March 15, 1970. pp 3.54-3.61.
3. Environmental Pollution Control—Pulp and Paper Industry,
Part 1: Air. EPA/625/7-76-001, October 1976.
4. Aeros Manual Series Volume II: Aeros User's Manual. EPA-
450/2-76-029 (OAQPS No. 1.2-039), December 1976.
5. Aeros Manual Series Volume V: Aeros Manual of Codes. EPA-
450/2-76-005 (OAQPS No. 1.2-042), April 1976.
6. Standard Industrial Classification Manual. 1972 edition.
Prepared by Office of Management and Budget. Available from
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
7. Loquercio, P., and W.J. Stanley. Air Pollution Manual of
Coding. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Public Health Service Publication No. 1956. 1968.
10.1.4-14
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1 R'IPCRT NO
EPA-450/4-80-007
J
LE AND SUBTITLE
ineering Reference Manual for Coding NEDS and
TTs/P&R Forms: Volume III
5. REPORT DATE
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODF
7 Al'"HOR(S)
National Air Data Branch
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9 PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Monitoring and Data Analysis Division
Research Triangle Park. NC 27711
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Fiotection Agency
Office of Air, Noise and Radiation
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park. NC 27711
:. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION" NO.
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13. YPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
14 SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Associated Volume I is a general
additional process compendiums.
introduction to the manual. Volume II presents
16. ABSTRACT
This manual provides specific engineering guidance and background information
for the evaluation and reporting of source/emissions data in NEDS or EIS/P&R format.
The manual is designed to assist coders of NEDS and EIS/P&R data who may not be
imiliar with a wide variety of industrial processes.
Volume III consists of compendiums of information about specific industrial
processes. Each compendium presents a process description and process flow diagram
which identifies the points in the process at which pollutants are emitted, describes
common control measures and presents codes necessary for preparation of NEDS and
EIS/P&R forms. Specific guidance for the coding of process information is given,
with example preceded NEDS forms. Each compendium also includes a glossary of
technical terms and a list of pertinent technical literature.
Volume II consists of process compendiums for additional industries.
17.
a.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
NEDS
CDHS
EIS/P&R
Point Sources
Air Pollutants
Emissions
Cod-ng forms
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
COSATI Field/Group
fl
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lease Unlimited
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