United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
EPA/451/K-98-001
February 1998
http://www.epa.gov
&EPA
Taking Toxics Out of the Air
Progress in Setting "Maximum Achievable
Control Technology" Standards Under
the Clean Air Act
JX Printed on paper that contains at
r' least 20 percent postconsumer fiber.
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Photos (pages 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, and 18) by S.C. Delaney/EPA
Photos (pages 17 and 21) Copyright © 1997 PhotoDisc, Inc.
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Table of Contents
What Are Toxic Air Pollutants? 2
Where Do Air Toxics Come From? 3
Where Do Air Toxics Go? 4
How Are People Exposed to Air Toxics? 5
Health Effects 5
How Do Air Toxics Affect the Environment? 5
What Has EPA Done to Reduce Air Toxics? 6
The Pre-1990 "Risk-Only" Approach
The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments: A "Technology First, Then Risk" Approach
What Progress Has Been Made in Reducing Toxic Air Pollution? 7
Looking Ahead 8
The Next Steps
For Further Information 9
Summaries of EPA's Final Air Toxics MACT Rules 10
Summaries of Related Solid Waste Incineration Rules 22
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The air we breathe can be contami-
lated with pollutants from factories,
/ehicles, power plants, and many
)ther sources. These pollutants
have long been a major concern because
of the harmful effects they have on peoples'
health and the environment. Their impact
depends on many factors, including the
quantity of air pollution to which people are
exposed, the duration of the exposures, and
the potency of the pollutants. The effects of
air pollutants can be minor and reversible
(such as eye irritation) or debilitating (such
as aggravation of asthma) and even fatal
(such as cancer).
Since 1970, the Clean Air Act has provided
the primary framework for protecting people
and the environment from the harmful effects
of air pollution. A key component of the Clean
Air Act is a requirement that the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA) significantly
reduce daily, so-called "routine" emissions of
the most potent air pollutants: those that are
known or suspected to cause serious health
problems such as cancer or birth defects. The
Clean Air Act refers to these pollutants as
"hazardous air pollutants," but they are also
commonly known as toxic air pollutants or,
simply, air toxics.
Prior to 1990, the Clean Air Act required EPA
to set standards for each toxic air pollutant
individually,
based on its
particular The technology- and performance-
health risks.
This approach
proved difficult
and minimally
effective at
reducing emis-
sions. As a
result, when
amending the
Clean Air Act
in 1990, Con-
gress directed
based standards issued by EPA
over the past 6 years have proven
extremely successful. Once fully
implemented, these standards
will cut emissions of toxic air
pollutants by nearly 1 million tons
per year—almost 10 times greater
reductions than EPA was able
to achieve in 20 years under the
pre-1990 approach.
EPA to use a
"technology-based" and performance-based
approach to significantly reduce emissions of
air toxics from major sources of air pollution,
followed by a risk-based approach to address
any remaining, or residual, risks.
Sources of Air Toxics
%
i, 1W t
Routine Emissions From
Stationary Sources
Mobile Sources
Each year, millions of
tons of toxic pollutants
are released into the
air from both natural
and manmade sources.
Volcanoes
Accidental
Forest Fires
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Mobile Sources and Accidental Releases
While this document focuses on EPA's efforts to reduce routine emissions from stationary
sources, EPA also is working to reduce toxic emissions from:
• Mobile sources, such as cars and trucks. For example, EPA and state governments
(e.g., California) have reduced emissions of benzene, toluene, and other toxic pollut-
ants from mobile sources by requiring the use of reformulated gasoline and placing
limits on tailpipe emissions. For more information, contact EPA's Office of Mobile
Sources at www.epa.gov/OMSWWW/toxics.htm or call (202) 260-7400.
• Accidental releases, including leaks and spills. For example, EPA has established
regulations under the Clean Air Act requiring certain facilities to implement risk
management programs that will help prevent accidental releases of toxic chemicals.
For more information, contact EPA's Office of Chemical Emergency Preparedness
and Prevention at www.epa.gov/swercepp or call (800) 424-9346.
Under the "technology-based" approach, EPA
develops standards for controlling the "rou-
tine" emissions of air toxics from each major
type of facility within an industry group (or
"source category"). These standards—known
as "maximum achievable control technology
(MACT) standards"—are based on emissions
levels that are already being achieved by the
better-controlled and lower-emitting sources
in an industry. This approach assures citizens
nationwide that each major source of toxic air
pollution will be required to employ effective
measures to limit its emissions. Also, this ap-
proach provides a level economic playing field
by ensuring that facilities that employ cleaner
processes and good emission controls are not
disadvantaged relative to competitors with
poorer controls.
In setting MACT standards, EPA does not
generally prescribe a specific control technol-
ogy. Instead, whenever feasible, the Agency
sets a performance level based on technology
or other practices already used by the indus-
try. Facilities are free to achieve these perfor-
mance levels in whatever way is most
cost-effective for them. The MACT standards
issued by EPA over the past 6 years have
proven extremely successful. Once fully imple-
mented, these standards will cut emissions of
toxic air pollutants by nearly 1 million tons
per year.
Eight years after each MACT standard is is-
sued, EPA must assess the remaining health
risks from source categories. If necessary,
EPA may implement additional standards
that address any significant remaining risk.
This document describes what air toxics are,
where they come from, and how they can
impact people and the environment. It also
describes the individual standards EPA has
issued to reduce emissions of air toxics from
industries such as chemical manufacturing,
petroleum refining, and steel manufacturing.
Additional information on air toxics and
EPA's air toxics programs can be found on the
Internet at www.epa.gov/ttn/uatw.
What Are Toxic Air
Pollutants?
Toxic (also called hazardous) air pollutants are
those pollutants that are known or suspected
to cause cancer or other serious health effects,
such as reproductive effects or birth defects, or
to cause adverse environmental effects. The
degree to which a toxic air pollutant affects
a person's health depends on many factors,
including the quantity of pollutant the person
is exposed to, the duration and frequency of
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exposures, the toxicity of the chemical, and the
person's state of health and susceptibility.
The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments list 188
toxic air pollutants that EPA is required to
control.1 Examples of toxic air pollutants in-
clude benzene, which is found in gasoline;
perchloroethylene, which is emitted from
some dry cleaning facilities; and methylene
chloride, which is used as a solvent and paint
stripper by a number of industries. Examples
of other listed air toxics include dioxin, asbes-
tos, toluene, and metals such as cadmium,
mercury, chromium, and lead compounds.
Where Do Air Toxics
Come From?
Scientists estimate that millions of tons of
toxic pollutants are released into the air
each year. Some air toxics are released from
natural sources such as volcanic eruptions
and forest fires. Most, however, originate
from manmade sources, including both
mobile sources (e.g., cars, buses, trucks) and
stationary sources (e.g., factories, refineries,
power plants). This document focuses on
EPA's efforts, as of January 1998, to reduce
routine (as opposed to accidental) emissions of
toxic air pollutants from stationary sources.
Routine emissions from stationary sources
constitute almost two-thirds of all manmade
air toxics emissions.
There are two types of stationary sources that
generate routine emissions of air toxics:
• "Major" sources are defined as sources
that emit 10 tons per year of any of the
listed toxic air
pollutants, or
25 tons per year
of a mixture of air
toxics. Examples
include chemical
plants, steel mills,
Major
Source
24%
Based on 1993 emission inventory data, major sources
account for about 24 percent of air toxics emissions, area
sources for 35 percent, and mobile sources for 41 percent.
Accidental releases and natural sources, which also
contribute air toxics to the atmosphere, are not included
in these estimates.
oil refineries, and hazardous waste incin-
erators. These sources may release air
toxics from equipment leaks, when materi-
als are transferred from one location to
another, or during discharge through
emissions stacks or vents. One key public
health concern regarding major sources is
the health effects on populations located
downwind from them.
• "Area" sources consist of smaller sources,
each releasing smaller amounts of toxic
pollutants into the air. Area sources are
defined as sources that emit less than
10 tons per year of a single air toxic,
or less than 25 tons
per year of a com- V' '' ' • I ','% --' ' * ,''
^ ^ '* * , *J^ > V(>
bination of air ',* '• • ' .'•/'< *,' '*''
toxics. Examples ,' -V-'_^U •'*''?. ;
include neighbor- \ \
hood dry cleaners \,
and gas stations. ^,,
Though emissions ' f
from individual „/,-•.. ' '..*'' '-' •.
• ' / r J \ ,», . i ,
area sources are
often relatively small, collectively their
emissions can be of concern—particularly
where large numbers of sources are located
in heavily populated areas.
1 The list originally included 189 chemicals. Based on new scientific information, EPA removed caprolactam from the list in 1996;
thus, the current list includes 188 pollutants.
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EPA's published list now contains 175 catego-
ries of industrial and commercial sources that
emit one or more toxic air pollutants. For
each of these "source categories," EPA indi-
cated whether the sources are considered to
be "major" sources or "area" sources. The
1990 Clean Air Act Amendments direct EPA
to set standards requiring all major sources of
air toxics (and some area sources that are of
particular concern) to significantly reduce
their air toxics emissions.
Where Do Air Toxics Go?
Once released, toxic pollutants can be carried
by the wind, away from their sources, to other
locations. Factors such as weather, the terrain
(i.e., mountains, plains, valleys), and the
chemical and physical properties of a pollut-
ant determine how far it is transported, its
concentration at various distances from the
source, what kind of physical and chemical
changes it undergoes, and whether it will
degrade, remain airborne, or deposit to land
or water.
Some pollutants remain airborne and contrib-
ute to air pollution problems far from the pol-
lution source. Other pollutants released into
the air can be deposited to land and water
bodies through precipitation, or by settling
directly out of the air onto land or water.
Eventually, a large portion of those pollutants
deposited near water bodies or small tributar-
ies will reach the water bodies via stormwater
runoff or inflow from the tributary streams.
Some toxic air pollutants are of particular con-
cern because they degrade very slowly or not
at all, as in the case of metals such as mercury
or lead. These persistent air toxics (as they are
called) can remain in the environment for
a long time (or forever, in the case of metals)
and can be transported great distances.
Toxic
Pollutants
/ Wet
Deposition
Evaporation
of Deposited
Pollutants
Toxic air pollutants can be deposited to land and water bodies through precipitation (wet deposition) or by settling directly
out of the air (dry deposition). Repeated cycles of transport, deposition, and evaporation can move toxic air pollutants very
long distances.
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Often, persistent air toxics reach the ground,
evaporate back into the atmosphere, and
are then transported further until they are
deposited on the ground again. Repeated
cycles of transport, deposition, and evapora-
tion can move toxic air pollutants very long
distances. For example, toxic pollutants such
as toxaphene, a pesticide used primarily in the
cotton belt, have been found in the Antarctic,
thousands of miles from their likely emissions
sources.
How Are People
Exposed to Air Toxics?
People are exposed to toxic air pollutants in
many ways that can pose health risks, such
as by:
• Breathing contaminated air.
• Ingesting contaminated food products—
such as fish from contaminated waters;
meat, milk, or eggs from animals that fed
on contaminated plants; and fruits and
vegetables grown in contaminated soil on
which air toxics have been deposited.
• Ingesting contaminated water. Some people
may be exposed to toxic air pollutants by
drinking contaminated water.
• Ingesting contaminated soil. Young children
also may be exposed by ingesting contami-
nated soil from their hands, food, or objects
they place in their mouths.
• Touching (skin contact) contaminated soil,
dust, or water (for example, during recre-
ational use of contaminated water bodies).
Once ingested, some of the more persistent
toxic air pollutants accumulate in body
tissues. Also, through a phenomenon called
biomagnification, predators typically accumu-
late even greater pollutant concentrations than
their contaminated prey. As a result, people
and other animals at the "top" of the food
chain who eat contaminated fish or meat are
exposed to concentrations that are much higher
than the concentrations in the water, air, or soil.
Fish consumption advisories have been issued
for thousands of water bodies nationwide,
including the Great Lakes, Lake Champlain,
the Potomac River, and Chesapeake Bay.
Thirty-nine states currently have consumption
advisories for specific water bodies, warning
consumers about mercury-contaminated fish
and shellfish. Ten of those states have adviso-
ries on every inland water body. Many of
these advisories have been issued for water
bodies that were once thought to be relatively
pristine, where deposition from the atmo-
sphere is thought to be a major source of
the pollution.
Health Effects
People who are exposed to toxic air pollut-
ants at sufficient concentrations and for suffi-
cient durations may increase their chances of
getting cancer or experiencing other serious
health effects. Depending on which air toxics
an individual is exposed to, these health ef-
fects can include damage to the immune sys-
tem, as well as neurological, reproductive
(e.g., reduced fertility), developmental, and
respiratory problems. A growing body of evi-
dence indicates that some air toxics (e.g., DDT,
dioxins, and mercury) may disturb hormonal
(or endocrine) systems. In some cases this hap-
pens by pollutants either mimicking or block-
ing hormones. Health effects associated with
endocrine disruption include reduced fertility,
birth defects, and breast cancer.
How Do Air Toxics Affect
the Environment?
Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on
soils or surface waters, can have a number of
environmental impacts. Like humans, ani-
mals can experience health problems if they
are exposed to sufficient concentrations of air
toxics over time. Numerous studies conclude
that deposited air toxics are contributing to
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birth defects, reproductive failure, and dis-
ease in animals. Persistent toxic air pollutants
are of particular concern in aquatic ecosys-
tems because the pollutants accumulate in
sediments and may biomagnify in tissues of
animals at the top of the food chain to con-
centrations many times higher than in the
water or air.
Toxic pollutants that mimic hormones also
pose a threat to the environment. In some
wildlife (e.g., birds, shellfish, fish, and mam-
mals), exposures to pollutants such as DDT,
dioxins, and mercury have been associated
with decreased fertility, decreased hatching
success, damaged reproductive organs, and
altered immune systems.
What Has EPA Done to
Reduce Air Toxics?
The Pre-1990 "Risk-Only" Approach
Prior to 1990, the Clean Air Act directed EPA
to regulate toxic air pollutants based on the
risks each pollutant posed to human health.
Specifically, the Act directed EPA to:
• Identify all pollutants that caused "serious
and irreversible illness or death."
• Develop standards to reduce emissions of
these pollutants to levels that provided an
"ample margin of safety" for the public.
While attempting to control air toxics during
the 1970s and 1980s, EPA became involved in
many legal, scientific, and policy debates over
which pollutants to regulate and how strin-
gently to regulate them. Debates focused on
risk assessment methods and assumptions,
the amount of health risk data needed to jus-
tify regulation, analyses of the costs to indus-
try and benefits to human health and the
environment, and decisions about "how safe
is safe."
During this time, EPA lacked adequate meth-
ods to assess risk and lacked adequate health
and environmental criteria to establish a solid
foundation for risk-based decision-making on
the multitude of air toxics emitted throughout
the United States. Many regulators, as well as
many members of the communities to be
regulated, were reluctant to accept risk as-
sessment as a legitimate policy tool. During
this period, EPA and the scientific community
gained valuable knowledge about risk assess-
ment methods. However, the chemical-by-
chemical regulatory approach—an approach
based solely on risk—proved difficult, and in
20 years EPA regulated only seven pollutants
(asbestos, benzene, beryllium, inorganic
arsenic, mercury, radionuclides, and vinyl
chloride). Collectively, these standards only
cut annual air toxics emissions by an esti-
mated 125,000 tons.
The 1990 Clean Air Act
Amendments: A "Technology
First, Then Risk" Approach
Realizing the limitations of a chemical-by-
chemical decision framework based solely on
risk, and acknowledging the gaps in scientific
and analytical information, Congress adopted
a new strategy in 1990, when the Clean Air
Act was amended. Specifically, Congress re-
vised Section 112 of the Clean Air Act to
mandate a more practical approach to reduc-
ing emissions of toxic air pollutants.
This approach has two components. In the
first phase, EPA develops regulations—
MACT standards—requiring sources to meet
specific emissions limits that are based on
emissions levels already being achieved by
many similar sources in the country. Even
in its earliest stages, this new "technology-
based" approach has clearly produced real,
measurable reductions. In the second phase,
EPA applies a risk-based approach to assess
how these technology-based emissions limits
are reducing health and environmental risks.
Based on this assessment, EPA may imple-
ment additional standards to address any
significant remaining, or residual, health or
environmental risks. EPA is currently devel-
oping a strategy for addressing residual risks
from air toxics.
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Maximum Achievable
Control Technology—MACT
EPA's MACT standards are based on the emissions levels already achieved by the best-
performing similar facilities. This straight-forward, performance-based approach yields
standards that are both reasonable and effective in reducing toxic emissions. This approach
also provides a level economic playing field by ensuring that facilities with good controls
are not disadvantaged relative to competitors with poorer controls.
When developing a MACT standard for a particular source category, EPA looks at the level
of emissions currently being achieved by the best-performing similar sources through clean
processes, control devices, work practices, or other methods. These emissions levels set a
baseline (often referred to as the "MACT floor") for the new standard. At a minimum, a
MACT standard must achieve, throughout the industry, a level of emissions control that is
at least equivalent to the MACT floor. EPA can establish a more stringent standard when
this makes economic, environmental, and public health sense.
The MACT floor is established differently for existing sources and new sources:
• For existing sources, the MACT floor must equal the average emissions limitations cur-
rently achieved by the best-performing 12 percent of sources in that source category, if
there are 30 or more existing sources. If there are fewer than 30 existing sources, then the
MACT floor must equal the average emissions limitation achieved by the best-perform-
ing five sources in the category.
• For new sources, the MACT floor must equal the level of emissions control currently
achieved by the best-controlled similar source.
Wherever feasible, EPA writes the final MACT standard as an emissions limit (i.e., as a
percent reduction in emissions or a concentration limit that regulated sources must
achieve). Emissions limits provide flexibility for industry to determine the most effective
way to comply with the standard.
What Progress Has Been
Made in Reducing Toxic
Air Pollution?
As of January 1998, EPA has issued 23 air
toxics MACT standards under Section 112 of
the Clean Air Act Amendments. These stan-
dards affect 48 categories of major industrial
sources, such as chemical plants, oil refiner-
ies, aerospace manufacturers, and steel mills,
as well as eight categories of smaller sources,
such as dry cleaners, commercial sterilizers,
secondary lead smelters, and chromium elec-
troplating facilities. EPA has also issued two
standards under Section 129 of the Clean Air
Act to control emissions, including certain
toxic pollutants, from solid waste combustion
facilities (one standard for municipal waste
combustors and the other for medical waste
incinerators). Together, these standards
reduce emissions of over 100 different air
toxics. When fully implemented, these stan-
dards will reduce air toxics emissions by
about 1 million tons per year—almost 10 times
greater reductions than were achieved under
all the pre-1990 standards. Each of the
final rules developed since 1990 is summa-
rized as an appendix to this document
(pages 10 to 22). These summaries describe
the sources for which final rules have been
issued, the types of pollutants the sources
emit, and how EPA's rules are reducing
their emissions.
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Some of these air toxics rules have the added
benefit of reducing ground-level ozone (urban
smog) and particulate matter. This occurs be-
cause some air toxics are also smog-causing
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) (e.g., tolu-
ene) or particulate matter (e.g., chromium).
In addition, some of the technologies and prac-
tices designed to control air toxics also reduce
VOCs or types of particulate matter that are
not currently among the 188 listed air toxics.
Reductions of smog-causing pollutants and
particulate matter are important because of
the health and environmental problems they
can cause. Most notably, urban smog can
cause respiratory problems and can damage
vegetation, and particulate matter can cause
many detrimental impacts on human health,
such as bronchitis, lung damage, increased
infection, aggravation of asthma, and prema-
ture death. In addition many of these pollut-
ants can contribute significantly to impaired
visibility in places, such as national parks,
that are valued for their scenic views and
recreational opportunities.
EPA has consistently worked to develop air
toxics standards that achieve the required re-
ductions in air pollution while providing regu-
lated communities with as much flexibility as
possible in deciding how to comply with the
standards. For example, under a flexible regu-
lation, industries may reduce their emissions
by redesigning their processes, capturing and
recycling emissions, changing work practices,
or installing any of a variety of control tech-
nologies. Flexibility helps industries minimize
the cost of compliance and encourages pollu-
tion prevention. To provide flexibility, EPA
makes every effort to develop standards that
are based on performance measures rather
than specific control devices, and that allow
for equivalent alternative control measures.
Looking Ahead
EPA has focused most of its initial air toxics
control efforts under the 1990 Clean Air Act
Amendments on reducing emissions by
setting technology-based standards. In addi-
tion to the 23 final air toxics MACT stan-
dards, EPA has also proposed a number
of other rules covering 22 source categories,
such as polyurethane foam production,
wool fiberglass operations, and phosphoric
acid/phosphate fertilizer production.
Over the next several years, EPA will con-
tinue to work with industry and others to
develop standards for all remaining source
categories to reduce air toxics emissions even
further. The Agency expects to complete a
number of standards—such as agricultural
chemical production and pharmaceuticals
manufacturing—by the end of 1998, and
dozens of other standards by the year 2000.
Under the Clean Air Act Amendments, exist-
ing regulated facilities generally have up to
3 years from the date a MACT standard is
finalized to come into compliance with that
standard's requirements. New sources must
be in compliance upon start-up. Within the
next 10 years, as these additional standards
are implemented, emissions of toxic air pollut-
ants are expected to be reduced by about
75 percent from 1990 levels.
The Next Steps
EPA anticipates that its technology-based
approach will continue to prove extremely
successful at reducing air toxics. Other
air toxics reductions are also expected to
continue as a result of mobile and other sta-
tionary source control programs (e.g., imple-
mentation of new particulate and ozone
national ambient air quality standards) that
indirectly reduce toxics. At the same time,
however, the Agency recognizes the need for
continued research into the dangers posed by
air toxics.
The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments call for
EPA to supplement its technology-based ap-
proach by assessing the effectiveness of the
MACT standards at reducing the health and
environmental risks posed by air toxics. Based
on this assessment, the Agency may imple-
ment additional standards that address any
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significant remaining, or residual, risk. After
setting a MACT standard, EPA has 8 years
(9 years for the earliest standards) to examine
the risk posed by continued emissions from
regulated facilities and to issue requirements
for additional controls if they are necessary
to reduce an unacceptable residual risk. Cur-
rently, EPA is working with industry repre-
sentatives, states, and others to develop a
residual risk program, and is collecting the
necessary data to conduct the first risk assess-
ments, beginning in 1998.
In addition to the residual risk assessments of
MACT standards, the Clean Air Act Amend-
ments also require EPA to conduct special
studies to assess whether certain air toxics
problems may not be fully addressed by the
MACT and residual risk programs. Since
1990, EPA has published two reports on
deposition of air toxics and their detrimental
effects on the Great Lakes, Chesapeake Bay,
Lake Champlain, and coastal waters. In these
reports, EPA listed 15 pollutants of greatest
concern that have a tendency to persist in the
environment and accumulate. The pollutants
of concern are: metals (mercury, cadmium,
lead), dioxins, furans, polycyclic organic
matter, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
pesticides (such as chlordane and DDT/
DDE), and nitrogen compounds. EPA is
continuing to develop and implement strate-
gies under the Clean Air Act Amendments
to reduce releases of these pollutants. The
Agency is expected to issue subsequent
reports every 2 years, outlining any control
measures needed to achieve further reduc-
tions in toxic pollutants that are being
deposited in water bodies.
EPA is also studying air toxics emitted from
coal-, oil-, and gas-fired electric utility power
generation plants and the health hazards
associated with these emissions. Preliminary
information indicates that emissions of toxic
pollutants from coal-fired power plants are
expected to increase by 30 percent over the
next 2 decades, while emissions from oil-
fired power plants are expected to decline by
50 percent. Utility plants (primarily coal-fired
plants) emit approximately 51 tons per year
of mercury nationwide, which is roughly
32 percent of the manmade mercury emis-
sions in the United States. This study is in-
tended to determine if emissions of toxic air
pollutants from power plants should be con-
trolled under Section 112 of the Clean Air Act
because of health risk concerns. EPA plans to
publish a final report in 1998.
The Clean Air Act Amendments also require
EPA to develop an urban strategy that will
reduce air toxic emissions from area sources
to address the associated health risk problems
posed by the most highly toxic pollutants (at
least 30 of them). In addition, the Amend-
ments require that EPA study the need for
and feasibility of controlling emissions of toxic
pollutants from motor vehicles and fuels. EPA
is looking at an integrated approach that ad-
dresses the urban air toxic emissions from
both stationary sources and mobile sources.
EPA is currently analyzing data to determine
which air toxics sources will be included in
the urban air toxics program, which is ex-
pected to be completed by the end of 1998.
For Further Information
For further information on EPA's air
toxics program and other activities
under the Clean Air Act Amendments,
contact the following Web sites and
EPA offices:
Unified Air Toxics Website
Internet: www.epa.gov/ttn/uatw
EPA Office of Air and Radiation
Internet: www.epa.gov/oar/
(202) 260-7400
EPA Office of Mobile Sources
Internet: www.epa.gov/OMSWWW/
omshome.htm
EPA Office of Chemical Emergency
Preparedness and Prevention
Internet: www.epa.gov/swercepp
(800) 424-9346
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ol Air
The following summaries describe 23 air toxics rules EPA. lias issued since 1990 under Section 112
of the Clean Air Act.
Dry cleaning facilities are the largest source
of perchioroethyiene (also called perc) emis-
sions in the United States, Because dry
cleaners are located in many communities
across the country, perc emissions from dry
cleaners are often released in close proxim-
ity to large numbers of people,
Perc can cause dizziness, nausea, and
headaches and is suspected to cause cancer
in humans,
EPA's rule requires all dry cleaners that
use perc to implement pollution prevention
measures. It also contains specific control
requirements that vary depending on the
type of machinery and the amount of perc
a facility uses.
The rule affects approximately 30,000 dry
cleaners and will reduce perc emissions at
these facilities by about 7,300 tons per year.
Coke oven batteries (a group of ovens con-
nected by common walls) are used to con-
vert coal into coke, which is then used in
blast furnaces to convert iron ore to iron.
Coke oven emissions contain benzene (a
known carcinogen) and other chemicals that
can cause cancer of the respiratory tract, kid-
ney, and prostate. Long-term exposure to
coke oven emissions can also cause conjunc-
tivitis, severe dermatitis, and lesions of the
respiratory and digestive systems.
EPA's rule provides guidelines for day-to-
day operations and sets emissions limits for
existing sources and even tighter limits for
new sources. The rule was developed
through a formal regulatory negotiation
process that involved extensive industry
participation. It provides industry with
a menu of compliance options—this
flexibility should significantly reduce
compliance costs.
The coke oven rule affects 29 existing
facilities and will reduce air toxics by
approximately 1,500 tons per year.
Air
Pre-rule
Post-rule
1760 tons
260 tons
-------
EPA's rule reduces emissions of 131 or-
ganic air toxics from chemical manufactur-
ing processes in the Synthetic Organic
Chemical Manufacturing Industry and
from several other chemical production
processes. The rule applies to production
of about 385 chemicals.
The rule requires reductions in toxic organic
air pollutants emitted from process vents,
storage vessels, transfer racks, equipment
leaks, and wastewater treatment systems.
Emissions averaging Is allowed in the rule
as a compliance option to give industry
flexibility in meeting the emissions
reduction limits.
The rule affects an estimated 310 facilities
and will reduce air toxics emissions by
510,000 tons per year—a 90 percent reduc-
tion from the preregulated levels emitted
by these facilities. The rule will also reduce
VOCs by about 1 million tons per year—
an 80 percent reduction from the preregu-
lated levels emitted by these facilities,
and equivalent to taking approximately
38 million cars off the road.
Industrial process cooling towers are used
to remove heat from Industrial processes. In
the past, chromium was added to cooling
tower waters to prevent equipment corro-
sion and control algae growth.
Chromium (Chromium VI, the most toxic
form, is known to cause lung cancer) Is ulti-
mately released from the cooling towers
into the air. Most Individual Industrial pro-
cess cooling towers do not qualify as major
sources of air toxics; however, almost all
cooling towers are part of large production
facilities (e.g., petroleum refineries,
chemical manufacturing plants, and
primary metal producers) that do qualify.
EPA's rule prohibits the use of chromium-
based water treatment chemicals and
suggests that facilities substitute phosphate-
based chemicals.
The rule affects an estimated 800 cooling
towers at about 400 major sources nation-
wide and will reduce chromium emissions
by 25 tons per year—a 100 percent reduction
from the preregulated levels emitted by
these facilities.
ff
-------
Final rule 2, 1994
Halogenated solvent cleaning machines
(also known as degreasers) are used to clean
oil and residues in the manufacturing and
assembly of metal parts. Halogenated sol-
vent cleaning is not a distinct industry, but
it is an integral part of many industries,
such as the aerospace and motor vehicle
manufacturing industries. There are three
basic types of solvent cleaning equipment:
- Batch vapor cleaners, which heat the sol-
vent to create a solvent vapor zone within
which the parts are cleaned.
- In-line cleaners, which are enclosed de-
vices distinguished by a conveyor system
used to supply a continuous stream of
parts for cleaning.
- Batch cold cleaners, which use liquid sol-
vent to remove soils from part surfaces.
Numerous air toxics contained in these sol-
vent mixtures are released during the clean-
ing process.
The rule applies to cleaning machines that
use methylene chloride, perchloroethylene,
trichloroethylene, 1,1,1 -trichloroethane,
carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, or any
combination of these solvents in a total
concentration that is greater than 5 percent
by weight.
EPA's rule combines equipment and work
practice standards that emphasize pollution
prevention. As an alternative to complying
with the equipment standards option, facili-
ties using batch vapor or in-line cleaning
machines may demonstrate that each sol-
vent cleaning machine emits less than an
overall solvent emissions limit.
The rule affects an estimated 9,000 facilities
that use solvent cleaning machines and will
reduce air toxics emissions at these facilities
by 85,300 tons per year and VOC emissions
by 81,700 tons per year.
Final rule 6, 1994
A number of industries (including medical
equipment suppliers; pharmaceutical com-
panies; cosmetics manufacturers; spice
manufacturers; libraries, museums, and
archives; and contact sterilizers) use ethyl-
ene oxide as a sterilant for heat- or
moisture-sensitive materials or as a fumi-
gant to control microorganisms or insects.
Ethylene oxide (a probable human carcino-
gen that also can cause adverse reproduc-
tive and developmental effects) is released
during these operations.
EPA's rule sets ethylene oxide emissions
limits for sterilization chamber vents, cham-
ber exhaust vents, and aeration rooms.
The rule affects an estimated 114 sources
and will reduce ethylene oxide emissions
by about 1,000 tons per year—a 94 percent
reduction from the preregulated levels
emitted by these sources.
12
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The gasoline distribution, standard regu-
lates bulk terminals and pipeline breakout
stations, which transfer and store gasoline
as it goes from petroleum refineries to ser-
vice stations and gasoline bulk plants.
Approximately 10 toxic air pollutants, in-
cluding benzene and toluene, are present in
gasoline vapor. These pollutants are re-
leased from gasoline distribution facilities
during tank truck and rail car loading op-
erations, gasoline storage, and equipment
leaks.
EPA's rule requires the use of pollution pre-
vention methods (such as improving seals
on storage tanks and inspecting equipment
for leaks) and the use of controls (such as
vapor processors to collect and treat gas
vapors displaced during cargo tank loading
operations).
The rule affects an estimated 240 gasoline
bulk terminals and 20 pipeline breakout
stations. It will reduce air toxics emissions
from these facilities by 2,300 tons per year
and VOC emissions by over 38,000 tons per
year. In addition, the collection and/or
prevention of gasoline evaporation under
the final rule is expected to result in energy
savings of an estimated 10 million gallons
of gasoline per year.
Magnetic tape manufacturers make prod-
ucts such as audio and video cassettes and
computer diskettes.
Toxic air pollutants are released when sol-
vent mixtures are used during coating and
equipment cleaning operations. In addition,
particu late air toxics may be released when
magnetic particles are transferred to the
coating mixture.
EPA's rule requires 95 percent control for
most types of emission points, including the
coating operations. For many of these emis-
sion points, EPA has developed alternative
emissions standards, such as one that allows
facilities the flexibility to commit to more
stringent control of their coating operations
in lieu of controlling certain storage tanks.
The rule affects an estimated 14 of the
25 facilities that manufacture magnetic tape.
It will reduce emissions of air toxics, most of
which are VOCs, by 2,300 tons per year.
13
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Chromium electroplating and anodizing
operations coat metal parts and tools with a
thin layer of chromium to protect them from
corrosion and wear. Examples of electro-
plated parts include appliances, automotive
parts, and large cylinders used in construc-
tion equipment printing presses.
Anodized parts include miscellaneous
aircraft components such as wings
landing gears,
Chromium VI (known to cause lung cancer1)
is released during the electroplating and
anodizing processes.
EPA's rule sets specific emissions for
new and existing chromium electroplating
anodizing operations that fall into spe-
cific size categories. The rule requires facili-
ties to meet emissions through the use
of pollution prevention practices and controls.
The rule affects an estimated 1,500 hard
chromium electroplating facilities. 2.800
decorative chromium electroplating facili-
ties, and 700 chromium anodizing facilities.
It will reduce chromium emissions by
173 tons per year—a 99 percent reduction
from the preregulated levels emitted by
these facilities.
Basic liquid epoxy resins are used in the
production of glues, adhesives. plastic parts.
surface coatings. Non-nylon polyamide
or wet strength resins are used to improve
the strength of paper1.
Epichlorohydrin (strongly suspected of
causing cancer1 and known to cause respira-
tory problems) is released during the resin
11facturing process.
EPA's rule is on an epichlorohydrin
emissions limit, which provides facilities
with the flexibility to meet the regulation's
requirements with a variety of compliance
options. The rule also requires facilities
to implement leak detection and repair
programs.
The rule affects all three basic liquid epoxy
resins manufacturing facilities all nine
non-nylon polyamide manufacturing facili-
ties. It will reduce epichlorohydrin emis-
sions bv 110 tons per year.
-------
Secondary lead smelters produce lead from
scrap and provide the primary means for
recycling lead-acid automotive batteries.
The basic operations performed at these
facilities include battery breaking, smelting,
refining and alloying.
Secondary lead smelter facilities emit a
number of toxic air pollutants, including
1,3-butadiene (a known human carcinogen)
and lead compounds,
EPA's rule requires facilities to reduce emis-
sions from a number of sources, including
smelting furnaces, kettles, dryers, and fugi-
tive sources such as material handling.
The rule affects all 23 secondary lead smelt-
ers in the United States. It will reduce emis-
sions of air toxics from these facilities by
1,400 tons per year—a 72 percent reduc-
tion from the preregulated levels emitted by
these facilities. In addition, the rule is ex-
pected to reduce emissions of particulate
matter (which can cause serious respiratory
problems) from these facilities by 150 tons
per year, and carbon monoxide (which can
cause adverse health effects, including fa-
tigue, nausea, and respiratory problems) by
88,000 tons per year.
Air Toxics
Pre-rule
Post-ruL
1,934 tons
534
Petroleum refineries process crude oil
to produce automotive gasoline, diesel
fuel, lubricants, and other petroleum-
based products.
Toxic air pollutants, including benzene
(a known human carcinogen) and toluene
(known to affect the central nervous system
and cause developmental problems), are
released from storage tanks, equipment
leaks, process vents, and wastewater
collection and treatment systems at
these facilities.
EPA's rule requires facilities to control emis-
sions from these sources. The rule allows
emissions averaging within the petroleum
refining facility, and provides additional
flexibility by permitting the use of emissions
averaging among emission points at petro-
leum refineries, marine terminal loading
operations, and gasoline distribution facili-
ties located at the same site.
The rule affects all 192 petroleum refin-
eries in the United States and will reduce
emissions of 11 air toxics by 53,000 tons per
year—a 59 percent reduction from the pre-
regulated levels
emitted by these
facilities. In addi-
tion, the rule is
expected to reduce
VOC emissions by
over 277,000 tons
per year—a 60 per-
cent reduction from
preregulated levels
emitted by these
facilities.
15
-------
7,
Aerospace manufacturing and rework fa-
cilities produce and/or repair aerospace
vehicles and vehicle parts, such as air-
planes, helicopters, space vehicles, and
missiles.
Toxic air pollutants such as methylene
chloride (strongly suspected of causing
cancer) and chromium (Chromium VI, the
most toxic form, is known to cause lung
cancer) are released from these facilities
during paint stripping, cleaning, priming,
top
coat application, and chemical milling
maskant operations.
EPA's rule requires facilities to eliminate
most emissions of toxic air pollutants (par-
ticularly methylene chloride) from paint
stripping operations and to implement con-
trols that will reduce emissions of air toxics
resulting from other operations. The final
rule provides a variety of options for meet-
ing these requirements.
The rule is likely to yield substantial cost
savings for industry sources by providing
industry the flexibility to meet the reduc-
tions in the most cost-effective way. For
example, the rule contains a market-based
emissions averaging provision, which al-
lows facilities to overcontrol some emission
points while undercontrolling others.
The rule affects an estimated 2,800 aero-
space manufacturing facilities and will
reduce emissions of air toxics and VOCs
by 123,000 tons per year—a 60 percent
reduction from the preregulated levels
emitted by these facilities.
Air Toxics and VOC Emissions
Pre-rule
Post-rule
82,000 tons
19,
Marine tank vessels are used to transport
crude oil, gasoline, and toxic chemicals
among refineries, bulk terminals, chemical
plants, and pipeline terminals.
These vessels release toxic air pollutants
(including benzene, toluene, hexane, xylene,
and ethyl benzene) into the air during load-
ing and unloading operations.
EPA's rule sets limits for both air toxic pol-
lutants and VOCs. It requires large marine
loading terminals (i.e., terminals that load
either 200 million barrels per year of crude
oil, or 10 million barrels per year of gaso-
line) to reduce emissions of VOCs by
95 percent. It also requires all other major
sources to reduce air toxic emissions by
97 percent.
The rule affects an estimated 30 marine
tank vessel loading facilities. It will reduce
emissions of air toxics from these facilities
by approximately 4,500 tons per year
and VOC emissions by approximately
43,000 tons per year.
16
-------
rina,
7,
The wood furniture manufacturing indus-
try includes cabinet shops and facilities
that make residential and industrial furni-
ture.
Toxic air pollutants, including toluene,
xylene, methanol, and formaldehyde, are
released from these facilities during finish-
ing, gluing, and cleaning operations. These
air toxics can cause eye, nose, throat, and
skin irritation; damage to the heart, liver,
and kidneys; and reproductive effects.
EPA's rule limits the amount of hazardous
air pollutants that can be contained in the
coatings used for finishing, gluing, and
cleaning operations (substitutes are avail-
able that contain lower quantities of hazard-
ous air pollutants). In addition, the rule
contains work practice standards such as
keeping containers closed, training workers,
and periodically inspecting equipment to
locate and repair leaks.
The rule affects an estimated 750 wood
furniture manufacturing facilities and will
reduce air toxics emissions by 33,000 tons
per year—a 60 percent reduction from
preregulated levels—and VOC emissions
by an additional 8,400 tons per year.
Air Toxics Emissions
Pre-rule
Post-rule
^ 22,000 tons
The shipbuilding and repair industry in-
cludes shipyards that construct and/or re-
pair commercial or military vessels, such as
barges and tankers.
Toxic air pollutants such as xylene and tolu-
ene are released during painting and associ-
ated cleaning operations.
EPA's rule, which is based on pollution pre-
vention measures, requires that containers
of paint and cleansers be kept closed, and
that facilities use low-VOC coatings for
painting and coating operations and handle
solvent and paint wastes in a manner that
minimizes spills and evaporation. The rule
does not apply to major source shipyards
that use less than 1,000 liters (approximately
264 gallons) of coatings per year, or to
boatyards that only build or repair recre-
ational vessels (marine or freshwater) less
than 20 meters (about 66 feet) long.
The rule affects an estimated 35 shipbuild-
ing and repair facilities and will reduce
emissions of air toxics from these facilities
by 350 tons per year—a 24 percent reduction
from the preregulated levels emitted by
these facilities.
17
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EPA's rule covers two distinct of
the printing and publishing Industry:
- Publication rotogravure printers, which
produce paper products such as cata-
logues, magazines, newspaper inserts,
and telephone directories,
- Package-product rotogravure wide-
web flexographic facilities that print on
paper, plastic film, metal foil, and vinyl
for use in products such as flexible pack-
aging, labels, gift wrap.
Toxic air pollutants (including toluene,
xylene, methanol, and hexane) are released
from the ink systems used by both types
of printers,
For publication rotogravure facilities, EPA's
rule limits air toxics emissions to 8 percent
of the total amount used (for example, facili-
ties that use only hazardous-air-pollutant-
based solvents would be required to recover
92 percent of the air toxics). For package-
product rotogravure wide-web
flexographic facilities, the rule requires
95 percent overall control of all organic
hazardous air pollutant emissions from
their presses.
EPA's rule incorporates flexible compliance
options Into Its emissions control require-
ments. Facilities may use pollution preven-
tion methods (which allow printers to
eliminate the use of toxic chemicals or to
substitute nontoxic chemicals for toxic
ones), traditional emissions capture and
control equipment, or a combination of
the two,
The rule affects an estimated 27 publication
rotogravure facilities 100 package-prod-
uct rotogravure wide-web flexographic
facilities. It will reduce air toxics emissions
from publication rotogravure printers by
about 5,500 tons per year, those from
package-product rotogravure wide-web
flexographic printers by about 2,100 tons
per year.
Off-site waste facilities include hazardous
waste treatment, storage, disposal fa-
cilities; industrial wastewater treatment
facilities; solvent recycling facilities;
used-oil recovery facilities that
hazardous air pollutant-containing materi-
als generated at other facilities,
A number of toxic air pollutants (including
chloroform, toluene, formaldehyde, and
xylene) are released from tanks, process
vents, equipment leaks, containers, surface
impoundments, and transfer systems
at these facilities,
EPA's rule combines equipment, opera-
tions, and work practice standards. For ex-
ample, the rule requires that containers be
covered that process vents meet 95 per-
cent organic emission controls.
The rule affects an estimated 250 off-site
waste operation facilities. It will reduce air
toxics emissions by 43,000 tons per year
VOC emissions by 52,000 tons per year.
18
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rule 5,
Elastomers are used in the production of
many synthetic rubber products, including
tires, hoses, footwear, adhesives, wire insu-
lation, floor tiles, and latexes.
A number of toxic air pollutants (such as
styrene, hexane, and toluene) are released
during the initial stages of the elastomer
manufacturing process.
EPA's rule requires that facilities use a pol-
lution prevention technique to reduce the
amount of air toxics released during elas-
tomer production. The rule sets emissions
limits for several specific emission points—
storage tanks, process vents, equipment
leaks, and wastewater systems. It also
contains a market-based emissions aver-
aging provision that allows facilities to
overcontrol some emissions points while
undercontrolling others, thus achieving
the required reductions in the most cost-
effective manner possible.
The rule affects 36 facilities nationwide and
will reduce air toxics emissions by approxi-
mately 6,400 tons annually—a 50 percent
reduction from current levels.
Air Toxics Emissions
Pre-rule
Post-rule
12,
Polyethylene terephthalate polymers and
styrene-based thermoplastics are used in the
manufacture of such products as polyester
fibers, soft drink bottles, plastic automotive
parts, packing materials, and plastic toys.
A number of toxic pollutants (including sty-
rene, butadiene, and methanoi) are released
into the air during polymer production.
To reduce the amount of air toxics released
from polymer production facilities, EPA's
rule sets emissions limits for several emis-
sions points: storage vessels, process vents,
equipment leaks, and wastewater opera-
tions. The rule also limits releases from pro-
cess contact cooling towers at some existing
and new facilities.
EPA developed the rule in partnership with
industry representatives and other major
stakeholders. The Agency estimates that
new facilities will experience annual cost
savings of about $5 million under the rule,
due to pollution prevention measures.
The rule affects 66 facilities nationwide
and will reduce emissions by approxi-
mately 3,880 tons annually—a 20 percent
reduction from current levels.
Air Toxics Emissions
Pre-rule
Post-rule
19
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rule 7,
Primary aluminum reduction plants pro-
duce molten aluminum metal (virgin alumi-
num) from alumina ore. Typically, primary
aluminum plants are components of larger
facilities that prepare a variety of finished
products. These larger facilities also typi-
cally include secondary aluminum plant
operations, which use aluminum metal
to make products such as cans, aircraft
and automotive products, and construction
materials. Standards for secondary alumi-
num production are under development
by EPA and are not addressed in this
final rule.
Air toxics released during the production
of molten aluminum metal include hydro-
gen fluoride (which can cause serious res-
piratory damage) and polycyclic organic
matter (which is strongly suspected of
causing cancer and other serious health
effects).
Developed in partnership with state regu-
lators, industry stakeholders, and tribal
governments, EPA's final rule contains an
emissions averaging provision that allows
facilities to overcontrol some emissions
points while undercontrolling others, thus
achieving the required reductions in the
most cost-effective manner possible. As a
further cost-saving incentive, facilities that
consistently perform below the levels set in
the standard will be allowed to reduce the
frequency of sampling or emissions testing.
To achieve the required reductions, the final
rule relies on a combination of pollution
prevention measures, including work prac-
tices, equipment modifications, operating
practices, housekeeping measures, and in-
process recycling.
The rule affects 24 facilities nationwide.
It will reduce fluoride emissions by about
3,700 tons per year, polycyclic organic mat-
ter emissions by about 2,000 tons per year,
and particulate matter emissions by 16,000
tons per year. These emission levels repre-
sent a reduction of approximately 50 per-
cent from preregulated levels.
Fluoride Emissions
Pre-rule
Post-rule
Paniculate Matter Emissions
Pre-rule
Post-rule
Polycyclic Organic Matter Emissions
Pre-rule
Post-rule
20
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Two
>S 14, 1997
Wood and non-wood fiber sources such as
cotton, linen, and straw are turned into pulp
either though cooking via chemicals (known
as digestion), mechanical grinding, or a
combination of both. Following digestion
or grinding, the resulting fibrous mass is
washed, screened, and (depending on the
final product) sometimes bleached.
A number of toxic air pollutants (including
chloroform, chlorine, formaldehyde, metha-
nol, acetaldehyde, methyl ethyl ketone, and
metals) are released during cooking, wash-
ing, bleaching, and chemical recovery
processes at these facilities.
Vj j ^ PM-«.*
V>
iH F-W* M .* '. . - ti
EPA's air toxics rules are part of an inte-
grated, multimedia regulation designed to
control pollutant releases to the water and
air. The integrated rules allow the pulp and
paper industry to consider all regulatory
requirements at one time in order to select
the most effective pollution prevention and
control technologies.
EPA has issued two final air toxics stan-
dards for the pulp and paper industry that
cover emissions from pulping and bleach-
ing processes at mills that chemically pulp
wood; papermaking processes at all mills;
and pulping and bleaching at non-wood,
mechanical, and secondary fiber mills. EPA
has also proposed requirements for emis-
sions from the chemical recovery area of
chemical wood pulping mills.
The two final rules will affect approxi-
mately 155 mills. These final rules will re-
duce air toxics emissions by 153,000 tons
per year (a 67 percent reduction from
preregulated levels at these facilities);
VOC emissions by 450,000 tons per year;
and total reduced sulfur emissions by
86,000 tons per year. The proposed rule
would reduce air toxics emissions by an
additional 2,900 tons per year; VOC
emissions by 36,000 tons per year; and
particulate matter emissions by 26,000 tons
per year.
Air Toxics Emissions (Final Rules)
Pre-rule
Post-rule
77,000 tons
21
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Summaries of Related Solid Waste Incineration Rules
EPA has also issued final rules to control emissions of certain air toxics from solid waste combustion
facilities. These rules set emissions limits for new solid waste combustion facilities and provide emis-
sions guidelines for existing solid waste combustion facilities under Section 129 of the Clean Air Act.
Final rule published December 19, 1995; amended August 25, 1997
Municipal waste combustors include incin-
erators that burn waste and waste-to-energy
plants that generate energy from garbage.
EPA's final rule applies to all municipal
waste combustion units with the capacity to
burn more than 250 tons of garbage per day
(known as large municipal waste combus-
tion units; EPA has initiated development
of rules for small municipal waste combus-
tion units).
Municipal waste combustors release a num-
ber of pollutants, including cadmium, lead,
mercury, dioxin, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen
chloride, nitrogen dioxide, and particulate
matter. Dioxin and mercury are of particular
concern because they are toxic, persist in the
environment, and bioaccumulate.
EPA's rule contains strict standards for new
incinerators and sets MACT-based emis-
sions limits for existing incinerators.
The rule affects an estimated 164 municipal
waste combustion units and will signifi-
cantly reduce air toxics emissions (dioxins,
lead, cadmium, and mercury). The rule will
reduce dioxin emissions by 99 percent and
mercury emissions by 90 percent, compared
with 1990 emissions levels from these
sources. Overall emissions of other air pol-
lutants (including sulfur dioxide, particulate
matter, nitrogen oxides, and hydrogen chlo-
ride) will be reduced by more than 90,000
tons per year.
HOSPITAL/MEDICAL/INFECTIOUS
15, 1997
Hospital, medical, and infectious waste is
solid waste produced in the diagnosis, treat-
ment, or immunization of humans or ani-
mals; it includes needles, gauzes, boxes, and
packaging materials. Fewer than half of all
hospitals and a small number of nursing
homes, pharmaceutical research laborato-
ries, and veterinary clinics use incinerators
to dispose of their waste.
A number of toxic air pollutants, including
dioxins, mercury, lead, and cadmium, are
released into the air during the incineration
process.
EPA's rule contains emissions limits
for new incinerators and emissions guide-
lines for existing incinerators. The rule
establishes emissions limits for nine pollut-
ants (including dioxin, lead, cadmium, and
mercury). It requires training of incinerator
operators and establishes requirements for
appropriate siting of new incinerators.
The rule affects an estimated 2,400 existing
incinerators and will reduce air toxics emis-
sions (dioxins, lead, cadmium, and mer-
cury) by more than 25 tons per year.
Dioxins will be reduced by over 90 percent
from the current levels emitted by these
incinerators. The rule will also reduce other
air pollutant emissions (particulate matter,
carbon monoxide, and hydrogen chloride)
by over 7,000 tons per year.
22
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