905R76101
00623-
7610
INTERNATIONAL JOINT COMMISSION
MENOMONBB RIVER
PILOT WATERSHED STUDY
SEMI-ANNUAL REPORT
COOPERATING AGENCIES
WISCONSIN DEPARTMENT OF
NATURAL RESOURCES
JOHN G. KONRAD
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN SYSTEM
WATER RESOURCES CENTER
GORDON CHESTERS
SOUTHEASTERN WISCONSIN REGIONAL
PLANNING COMMISSION
KURT W. BAUER
Sponsored by
'INTERNATIONAL JOINT COMMISSION
POLLUTION FROM LAND USE
ACTIVITIES REFERENCE GROUP
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY
OCTOBER 1976
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
GLNPO library Collection (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Boulevard,
Chicago, II 60604-3590
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No,
SUMMARY SEMI-ANNUAL REPORT 1
APPENDIX
A. River Monitoring Activities 8
B. Specific Land Use Studies. . , 32
C. Ground Water Study 59
D. Biological Studies 68
E. Atmospheric Monitoring Program. 85
F. Remote Sensing Program. . . ., 95
G. Land Use-Water Quality Modeling 97
Development and Calibration of the Land Use-
Water Quality Model 97
Empirical Modeling of Runoff Quality from Small
Watersheds 143
Channel Transport Modeling 154
H. Land Data Management System, 177
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SUMMARY - SEMIANNUAL REPORT
Introduction
The International Joint Commission, through the Great Lakes Water
Quality Board, established the International Reference Group on Great Lakes
Pollution from Land Use Activities (PLUARG) to study and report the effects
of land use on water quality and recommend remedial measures. The "Task C"
assignment requires the detailed investigation of six major watersheds in
Canada and the United States, which are representative of the full range
of urban and rural land use found in the Great Lakes basin. The objectives
of the Menomonee River Pilot Watershed Study are to investigate the extent
of pollutant contribution from urban and urbanizing land use activities and
to extrapolate these results to the entire Great Lakes basin. The report
will review the progress towards achieving the objectives of the study since
the April 1976 Semiannual Report.
Progress
The two principal approaches used to investigate the extent of pollu-
tant contribution to surface or ground waters from different land use
activities in the Menomonee River watershed were observing the levels of
pollutant loading in surface water runoff, ground water and the atmosphere
(the geohydrochemical cycle) and providing an inventory of land use activi-
ties. The quality of surface water runoff was investigated by the River
Monitoring Activities (Appendix A) and the Specific Land Use Studies
(Appendix B).
The river monitoring activities have generated pollutant loading values
for multiple use land areas and relatively homogeneous land use areas.
Runoff water was sampled during events 18 times between April 24 and
October 26, 1976 at various automatic monitoring stations on the Menomonee
River and its principal tributaries. Water quality samples were collected
routinely at the same stations under baseflow conditions. Water loading
during events was approximately 40 percent of the total water load in
1975 at most stations. If the 70th Street station (413005) is assumed to
represent the integrated loading from the entire watershed that could
potentially reach Lake Michigan, then the event loadings of suspended
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solids during the March M-, May 5, and May 15 events were about 4,000,000,
60,000 and 20,000 kg, respectively. The total loading (event and baseflow)
of suspended solids that could reach Lake Michigan for a 7-month period in
1975 was about 12,000,000 kg and about 50 percent of that occurred in March
1975. The total and event suspended solids loading data demonstrated a trend
toward higher suspended loadings for areas which had larger percentages of
residential land use. Loading values for all events are being calculated
and a method for estimating missing data is being evaluated. Completion
of this task will allow observation of long-term trends in pollutant
loadings from different land use areas. The results will be compared to
the relationships observed at the specific land use study sites.
The specific land use studies complement the pollutant loading data
from the river stations by following the extent of pollutant loading from
principal homogeneous land use activities in the watershed. The concen-
tration of pollutants during runoff events at the specific land use study
sites is also being used to calibrate the overland flow model, "LANDRUN."
The construction of nine sampling sites has been completed, and monitoring
of runoff events at most sites began in May 1976, The data have been sum-
marized from four events at the Brookfield Shopping Center sampling site.
Usually, the initial flush (beginning of event to peak flow) carried most
of the dissolved constituents. Concentrations of most metals increased
with increasing discharge. The high level of lead observed in each event
was equivalent to the lead in about 400 gallons of gasoline. In addition
to the specific land use studies, investigations of the dynamic relation-
ship between metals and suspended solids during sediment transport are being
conducted.
The biological program (Appendix D) was implemented to provide infor-
mation elucidating the relationship between pollution loadings from various
land use areas and the stream macroinvertebrate communities present in the
river. The data from the biological samplings indicated that the effects
of nonpoint urban and urbanizing land use activities were being masked by
pollution from such point sources as sewage treatment plants and creosol
waste. Future biological samplings will be conducted on tributaries to
the river where the biological communities are less affected by point source
pollution.
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Ground water (Appendix C) was investigated along with surface runoff
as an additional transport mechanism for pollutants. The ground water
study is used to assess: 1. the degree to which chemical contaminants
are discharged to the river from ground waters and 2. the possibility that
surface contaminants are moving to ground water by infiltration through the
stream bed. Thirty-eight observation wells have been drilled at 1M- sites
in the watershed. The observation wells were surveyed in August and ground-
water levels were measured. Generally, the August data indicated that con-
ductivity and pH were highest in the deeper portions of the aquifer, lower
in the shallower wells and lowest in the river. A river sediment survey
showed that much of the Menomonee River below the confluence with the
Little Menomonee River flows on bedrock while the remainder of the river
system largely flows over organic silty muck underlain by gray clay.
The atmosphere is a potentially important transport pathway for pollu-
tants in the overall geohydrochemical cycle. The atmospheric study (Appen-
dix E) is being used to establish the deposition and release of several
major and trace substances in the Menomonee River watershed. Since April
1976, the emphasis has been on wet deposition sampling. Installation of
four modified Wong rain samplers has been completed. Although no conclu-
sions can be obtained from the limited amount of rainwater collected, a
preliminary estimate was made of the atmospheric contributions of magnesium
and calcium to the entire watershed. The loading for magnesium and calcium
for a 2-week period was calculated to be 760 kg and 3,900 kg, respectively.
The constant flow controllers from the Hi-volume air samplers are presently
being calibrated and installed in the watershed. Filters for collection of
PCBs are also being tested for use in the air samplers.
In order to relate the pollutant levels observed in the surface runoff,
ground water and atmosphere to land use activities in the watershed, the
Land Data Management System (Land DMS) was devised to summarize the land
data for the watershed. The Land DMS (Appendix H) is a digital computer-
based system designed to store, retrieve, analyze and display land data for
the watershed. The Land DMS will also provide input data to the overland
flow-water quality model, "LANDRUN." Ten data types have been coded for
the entire watershed, and the coding of three data types is in progress.
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Since April 1976, the coding of 1970 land use data has been completed and
the coding of 1975 land use data has been initiated.
A remote sensing program (Appendix F) is developing a technique for
generating land cover maps. The technique involves converting aerial imagery
into digital representations which can be interpreted by a computer. Land
cover maps and data summaries of the watershed will be prepared using the
automatic data processing procedures. The technique is being tested for
three small subwatersheds within the Menomonee River watershed.
The results of investigating the extent of pollution from different
land use activities in the Menomonee River watershed will be used in the
extrapolation effort. The extrapolation process involves rating the urban
and urbanizing land uses for loading of various parameters and estimating
the total pollutant loading for other major urban areas in the Great Lakes
basin. The first step in the extrapolation process will be determining
which parameters from the Menomonee River watershed reach critical levels
of loading to Lake Michigan. The twelve areas tributary to the twelve
river monitoring stations will then be ranked as to their importance as
sources of the critical parameters. Since the twelve tributary areas
consist of varying percentages of different land use activities, relating
the pollutant loading to a single land use activity could require a more
detailed analysis. Thus, an analysis of variance will be used to correlate
the loading of the various parameters with single land use activities.
Information from the specific study sites and the model "LANDRUN" will also
assist in identifying critical land use activities. The number of parameters
needed to identify critical areas of pollution might be reduced by using a
cross-tabulation analysis to determine the degree of correlation between
various parameters.
A tabulated ranking of the critical land use activities for the
Menomonee River watershed will assist other urban areas in prioritizing
their remedial efforts, but will not permit the calculation of total pollu-
tant loadings from an urban watershed. Estimates of loading from an entire
urban watershed would be based on a regression equation using available
watershed characteristic information. The final number produced will be
an estimate of total loading of various parameters from all the major urban
areas in the Great Lakes basin. All the above statistical modeling will be
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verified by using two other models that are being developed to assist in
the interpretation of the observed pollutant loading data from the Menomonee
River watershed. One model is the more sophisticated model called "LANDRUN,"
and the other one involves simple empirical modeling of runoff quality from
small watersheds.
The "LANDRUN" model (Appendix G) represents a dynamic hydrological
transport model which transforms precipitation into quantity and quality of
surface runoff, interflow, and groundwater aquifer recharge. A manor
portion of the activities related to the development arid initial calibra-
tion of the model has been concluded. The model has been shown to be
capable of reproducing field data for medium and large storms with accept-
able accuracy. The model is capable of modeling many environmental
processes, including pollutant transformation and transport through the
soil column and over the soil surface. The model will assist in the
indentification of critical source areas of pollution and will predict the
effects on pollutant loading of changing land use in the Menomonee River
watershed. The model is also being evaluated as a means of filling in gaps
in the loading data. The "LANDRUN" model and the development of a simple
empirical model could provide insight into several of the phenomena
responsible for the differences in water quality between different land
uses in the Menomonee River watershed.
The objective of the Empirical Modeling of Runoff Quality from Small
Watersheds Study (Appendix G) is the development of a simple model for
runoff quality which uses a series of empirical curves to arrive at the end
product of mass loading hydrographs for various dissolved solids from small
watersheds. Mean concentration values of materials in runoff were shown
to have a definite relationship to land use, runoff quantity and types of
storms. During the development and testing of relative concentration
curves it was found that certain related dissolved solids show virtually
identical relative concentration distribution for a given watershed. It
may be possible to use relative concentration curves as a means of pre-
dicting mean concentration and flow values for estimating loading curves.
The empirical modeling technique has been developed using data from a
watershed outside the Menomonee River watershed and currently is being
evaluated using Menomonee River data to develop the curves.
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In summary, the Menomonee River Pilot Watershed Studies investigating
the impact of urban and urbanizing land use on water quality are pro-
ceeding on schedule. Much of the activity conducted since the last Semi-
annual Report (April 1976) has been related to preliminary evaluation of
the monitoring data. This report illustrates several of the techniques
which can be used for this data evaluation. Specific progress since April
1976 includes: 1) continued monitoring of runoff water quality and
calculation of pollutant loadings for the river monitoring and specific
land use sites, 2) drilling and surveying of ground water observation
wells for the ground water study, 3) measurement of rainfall water quality
at several sites in the watershed for the atmospheric study, 4) continued
coding of land types into the Land Data Management System, and 5) con-
tinued development of land cover maps using remote sensing.
A simple statistical modeling technique has been selected as the means
for extrapolating to other urban watersheds. The development of the land
use-water quality model "LANDRUN" and a simple empirical water quality
modeling technique continued as methods to assist in the interpretation of
pollutant loading data in the Menomonee River watershed and the verifica-
tion of the statistical extrapolation model. This extrapolation technique
will identify critical land use areas and will identify minimal data needs
from other urban watersheds in the Great Lakes basin. Following the
identification of these data needs, several urban watersheds will be
selected—as needed data is obtained—and an attempt made to extrapolate
Menomonee River watershed findings to broader-based urban settings in the
Great Lakes basin. This activity will be conducted in cooperation with
the basinwide extrapolation activities of PLUARG and will include an
estimate of the level and type of remedial programs which will be needed.
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APPENDIX A
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RIVER MONITORING ACTIVITIES
Introduction
The objective of the river monitoring program is to determine levels
and quantities of the important water quality parameters in the Menomonee
River and its principal tributaries. Parameters of concern are the core
list established by the Task C Technical Committee of PLUARG. The river
monitoring activities provide information about the hydrology, hydraulics,
and water quality of the watershed. The monitoring data are interpreted
and assessed by observation of trends of pollutant yields from various
land use areas in the watershed, development of land runoff-stream water
quality relationships, and the application of a land use-water quality
model, namely, "LANDRUN."
Progress
FieId Activities
The field activities include baseflow surveys and runoff event sampling.
Baseflow survey samples are collected biweekly from twelve automated river
stations and two grab sampling sites (Appendix A Fig. 1). The river base-
flow surveys were conducted on April 6, May 11, May 26, June 8, June 23,
July 7, July 21, August 4, August 19 and September 16, 1976. Quality
control samples were collected by hand at one of the automated river sta-
tions during each river baseflow survey. Baseflow samples also were col-
lected biweekly from three grab sites, namely, stations 413014, 413013, and
413012, at three depths in the estuary area on April 14, April 28, May 12,
May 26, June 9, June 24, July 14, August 3, September 2, and September 23,
1976. Parameters for the baseflow surveys are Group A of the core list,
dissolved oxygen (DO), conductivity, pH and temperature.
Continuous -In situ monitoring of temperature, conductivity, pH and DO
was undertaken at the same five automated river stations (673001, 683001,
413005, 413004, 413008). However, some interruption of the monitoring
occurred during periods of equipment repair.
Water quality was surveyed at the three waste water treatment plants in
the watershed. Composite 24 hr samples were obtained from the Germantown
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463001
413011
683001
413007
Scale
41300
miles
Appendix A Fig. 1. Location of monitoring stations.
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10
plant on July 13 and from the two Menomonee Falls plants on September 1
and 2. Microbiological and nutrient analyses were performed, and in
addition the Germantown samples were analyzed for toxic metals.
A macrobenthic survey was completed on samples collected between
mid-April and September, 1976 at five stations (413005, 683001, 413008,
673001, and 683002).
On April 23, 1976 river bottom sediments were collected near ten of
the river stations (413004, 673001, 463001, 413011, 413008, 683001, 413062,
413007, 413006, 413005) for total P, organic N, metals and particle size
distribution.
On a continuous basis, flow at eleven automated river stations was
monitored by the United States Geological Survey (USGS). Rainfall data were
collected at eight sites (673001, 683002, 683001, 463001, 413011, 413007,
413005, and at Greenfield High School in Greenfield). The USGS continued
to monitor suspended sediment concentrations at the twelve automated river
stations. Samples for particle size analyses were collected at all river
stations for runoff events on April 24, July 14, July 30, October 4 and
September 19, 1976. Runoff event samples were collected for 18 events at
the eight stations designated for event sampling and analyzed for parameters
in Group A of the core list. The samples also were analyzed for metals on
April 24 and June 14, 1976, and for microbiological and organic components
on July 28, 1976 (Appendix A Table 1).
Due either to equipment failure or to insufficient flow, samples were
not collected at all the designated event stations during some events.
Clogging of intake pipes continues to be a major cause of automated sampler
failure. Expansion of the event sampling to include all twelve automated
river stations will be undertaken for the duration of the study. Different
techniques were investigated for estimating missing event water quality
data and identifying areas of critical pollutant loading.
Water Quality Data
The objectives of PLUARG require that runoff event data from the
Menomonee River watershed be summarized to demonstrate the extent and
relative importance of pollutant loadings from land uses. Summarization
of the Menomonee River monitoring data has included calculations of 1)
parameter loadings for runoff events and 2) seasonal water loadings for
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11
Appendix A Table 1. Dates, stations and parameters for runoff events between
April 24 and October 26, 1976
Date
1976
4-24
5-5
5-15
5-28
6-14
6-18
7-28
7-30
8-5 (AM)
8-5 (PM)
8-25
8-28
9-1
9-9
9-19
10-5
10-24
10-26
Parameters* measured for following
683001
EF
N
DS
N
N,M
IF
N
N
IF
IF
IF
N
IF
DS
N
DS
IF
IF
463001
N,M
N
N
IF
N,M
IF
N,B,0
N
IF
IF
IF
IF
IF
DS
IF
N
IF
IF
413011
N,M
N
N
EF
EF
N
N
EF
N
EF
N
N
N
DS
N
N
N
EF
413007
N,M
EF
DS
DS
EF
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
EF
EF
413006
N,M
EF
N
N
N,M
EF
N
EF
N
N
N
N
N
DS
N
EF
N
N
413005
N,M
N
N
N
EF
N
N,B,0
N
N
N
EF
N
EF
N
EF
N
N
N
stations
413010
N,M
EF
N
EF
N,M
N
N
EF
IF
IF
EF
N
N
N
N
N
IF
IF
413009
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
N
N
N
DS
EF
EF
EF
EF
413004
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
DS
N
DS
DS
DS
DS
*The letters N (nutrients), M (metals), B (bacteriological), 0 (organics)
represent parameters from Group A, Group C (inorganic), Group B and Group C
(organic) respectively of the PLUARG core list. Insufficient flow during an
event is represented by IF, equipment failure by EF, and station not sampled
during the event by DS.
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12
1975. The loadings values for the individual events have been normalized
by land area, rainfall quantity, rainfall intensity, and water loading
to allow comparisons of the relative significance of contributions from
different land uses.
Runoff events on March 5, May 5 and May 15, 1976 were chosen to
determine the loadings of various parameters during these events. The
loadings were calculated using a program that integrated by parts across
the hydrograph after multiplying the concentration values by corresponding
flow values. For those parts of the hydrograph where the concentration
values were unavailable, concentration values were determined by linear
interpolation between two known concentration values. The loading values
have not been adjusted for baseflow contribution because of uncertainty in
choosing values. The loading values (kg) were determined for total solids,
suspended solids, total phosphorus (P), dissolved reactive P (DRP) and
(NOa + N02)-N and water (mVsec) (Appendix A Table 2).
If the loading value for the 70th Street station (413005) represents
the cumulative loading from all upstream stations , the values probably
represent a large portion of the loading from the entire watershed. The
land area represented by the area above 70th Street is 91 percent of the
entire watershed. The 70th Street values were considerably larger than the
contribution from the individual upstream stations. The portion of the
70th Street loading attributable to areas tributary to a single station
(i.e., having no station upstream, namely, Donges Bay Road, Schoonmaker,
Noyes and Honey Creeks) was 13 percent or less for all parameters for each
of the three events (Appendix A Table 3).
For the above-mentioned areas, the largest contributor to total
solids, total P and DRP found at the 70th Street station was Donges Bay Road
station (463001) for the March 4 and May 5 events; Donges Bay Road was the
largest contributor to (NOa + N02)-N for all three events. The suspended
solids loading at Noyes Creek (413011) was higher than at Donges Bay Road
on May 5 and lower on March 4. Loading values of dissolved species at the
124th Street station (683001) were approximately 50 percent of those at
70th Street on May 5, 1976. The particulate loadings at 124th Street were
a smaller portion of the 70th Street particulate loading (10 to 30 percent).
Loading values were low for all parameters at Schoonmaker Creek (413010).
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15
Pollutant loadings approximately parallel flow at each station relative to
the values determined at 70th Street. For the events evaluated, although
Donges Bay Road (463001) and Honey Creek (413006) contributed the largest
relative loadings, the significance of the findings from these stations
relative to the entire watershed cannot be fully assessed until the con-
tributions from all stations have been calculated. Furthermore, the total
loading values do not allow direct comparison between stations because
differences in land area between the stations are not accounted for.
The relative pollutant loadings from Noyes and Schoonmaker Creeks
increased for some parameters when the loadings were expressed in terms of
loading per unit area (Appendix A Table 4). The total solids and suspended
solids loadings were greater at Noyes Creek than at Donges Bay Road for
March 4 and May 5. The total solids value was highest for Donges Bay Road
on May 15, while the suspended solids value was highest at Honey Creek.
The total P and DRP loadings at Noyes Creek were either greater or about
the same as the values for Donges Bay Road on March 4 and May 5. Schoon-
maker Creek had total P and DRP loading values similar to that at Honey
Creek on May 15, which were higher than the loading values for Donges Bay
Road. Donges Bay Road still had the highest (NOa + N02)-N loading value
for all three events. Water yield was highest for the Noyes Creek area on
March 4 and May 5 and highest at Honey Creek on May 15. Since the loading
trends observed were for areas tributary to a single station, the loading
values were related to land use activities. However, the trends are only
tentative because the data represent only three events, and each land use
area except the Donges Bay Road area was sampled only in one or two runoff
events. The 1970 land use information provided by the Southeast Wisconsin
Regional Planning Commission for each area tributary to the automated river
stations was used to make some initial observations (Appendix A Table 5).
The (NOs + NOa)-N loading was more critical from the agricultural land
use area of Donges Bay Road (463001) compared to the area containing a
higher percentage of residential land use. The suspended solids loading
was greater for the medium density residential areas of Noyes and Honey
Creeks (413011 and 413006) than at the primarily agricultural land use
area of Donges Bay Road. A consistent trend relating land use to total P
and DRP loading was not observed. The above relationships were based on
-------
16
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18
normalizing loading values tor land areas and do not reflect differences
in rainfall, rainfall intensity and the amount of water discharged from
each land area during the events. Therefore, the loading values were also
normalized by the following combinations of water and land area data:
1) area and rainfall depth; 2) area, rainfall depth and rainfall intensity;
and 3) event water loading (mean concentration).
The relative magnitude of pollutant loading assigned to a particular
land area varied for some parameters with each method of normalizing the
loading data. Further evaluation of the methods of normalizing loading
data is necessary before the method most correlated with land use activities
is determined. The correlation of land use activities to ways of normalizing
with rainfall data will be evaluated using analysis of variance. Because
of the need to express the loading data in a form compatable with other
data for the Great Lakes basin, the data will always be expressed in kilo-
grams per hectare per season. The above loading trends normalized for land
area for the three events should only be considered as preliminary observa-
tions, since the trends were determined from isolated events and not from
summaries of long-term data divided into seasons. Before seasonal loadings
can be presented, many more events must be summarized, and the trends
observed must be given statistical significance. The data from other events
are being analyzed presently and will contribute to an understanding of the
pollutant contribution from different land uses.
The determination of seasonal loading values depends upon estimating
loading values for events that were not sampled. Multiplying a seasonal
mean concentration value by the water loading for an unsampled event is one
method under consideration. The other method would involve developing a
rating curve which relates flow values to concentration values. Although
seasonal pollutant loadings are not presented, some preliminary indication
of monthly and seasonal loading trends was possible after summarizing daily
suspended sediment loadings determined by the USGS for 1975. Event and
daily mean discharge values also were summarized on a monthly and seasonal
basis for 1975. Due to the methods used to summarize the data, the
accepted criteria for defining the beginning and end of a season were not
used. The beginning and end of the spring season will be based in the
future on the general rise and decline of discharge values, and the end
-------
19
of the summer and fall season will be based on a change in general climatic
conditions which will probably be close to the solar season dates of
September 21 and December 21 respectively.
Approximately 40 runoff events were observed on the hydrograph based
on mean daily discharge for Noyes Creek and 70th Street stations for the
1974 to 1975 water year (Appendix A Fig. 2 and 3). The number of events
for the other stations was probably in the same range. In order to sum-
marize all the event water loadings by month, a computer program was
written to separate all the discharge values by event from the baseflow
value at each station. The program indicated the start of an event if
either of the following conditions was met: l) if the flow was 1.5 times
the average baseflow the computer backed up to the point where flow was
1.25 times the average baseflow and indicated this point as the start of
an event, or 2) if the slope of the flow curve changed by a factor of
2.5 over a period of 1.5 hr the computer indicates the start of an event.
Each of the following conditions had to be met to indicate the end of an
event: 1) if the flow value reached a value which was the difference
between the maximum flow value and average baseflow value times 0.2 plus
the average baseflow value, and 2) the flow value had to reach 1.33 times
the average baseflow value. The average baseflow value was continually
updated.
The above algorithm was applied to the discharge data between January
and September 1975 and generated runoff event water loadings in cubic
meters (Appendix A Table 6). The event loadings were adjusted for baseflow
loading during the event. Since some of the monthly loadings were zero or
negative in value, the monthly event loadings for some of the stations were
probably not accurate. The trend in the data indicated the algorithm was
extending the event time past the appropriate end point and allowed some
of the events to last longer than a month. The extended event times were
especially apparent during the spring runoff and for stations in the upper
part of the watershed with longer response times for flow.
Although the water loading values totaled over the 9 months were
probably higher than they should be, the values were used for some tentative
observations of water loading trends between the stations. Assuming the
unadjusted water loading values at 70th Street (413005) represented the
-------
20
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23
total water loading value for the watershed, then the water loading from
areas tributary to each station were calculated as a percentage of the
unadjusted 70th Street value. The percentages of water loading were not
clearly related to land use (Appendix A Table 5), although the relative
magnitude of water contribution from various areas in the watershed was
observed. The area tributary to 70th Street with 34 percent residential
land use had the highest percentage of the water loading, while stations
673001, 463001 and 413011, with 4, 8 and 37 percent residential land use
area respectively, had the lowest water loading. The percentage values
could not be used to compare the contribution from various land use
activities since the differences in land areas were not compensated for.
No clear trends existed in the water loading values expressed as cubic
meters per hectare per month except for the two stations identified as
463001 and 673001, the farthest up-river stations, which are sampling
runoff from predominantly crop land and pasture and had the lowest water
loading values. Again, station 413005 had the highest loading value.
More identifiable trends in the event water loading data might have
been apparent if the data could have been expressed in terms of seasonal
loadings and if the water loading was normalized for the amount of rainfall
in each tributary area. Also, the water loading values might only relate
to land cover (e.g., percent of impervious area) instead of land use.
Future analyses of water loading trends will include comparing the values
to land cover estimates for each area tributary to a station. A different
algorithm is presently being developed to determine a more reasonable end-
point for the events. The event water loadings will then be expressed as
seasonal loadings, and any relationships between event water loadings and
event water quality loadings will be evaluated.
However, trends in seasonal water loading were observed for this
program report by summarizing the monthly total water loadings (event
loadings plus baseflows) based on mean daily discharges for 9 months in
1975. Since the total of the monthly water loadings, based on daily mean
flows for January through September 1975, included baseflow loadings, the
values were significantly higher than the total event water loadings
(Appendix A Table 7). If the unadjusted 70th Street water loading values
were considered to represent the combined loading from most of the watershed,
-------
13
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25
the event water loadings for the 9 months were approximately 34 percent
of the total water loadings in the same period. The values for event
loadings as a percentage of total loadings ranged from 10 percent for the
two uppermost stations in the watershed, 463001 and 673001, to 70 percent
for station 683002. For most of the other stations the percentages of
event loadings were near 40 percent. The distribution of the values for
the total loading at each station as a percentage of the unadjusted 70th
Street loadings was very similar to the distribution for the event water
loadings except for the two uppermost Menomonee River stations, 673001 and
683002; the percentage value at station 673001 increased significantly.
This increase might be the result of relatively high baseflow loadings
contributed by recreational ponds near the station. The percentage at
station 683002 dropped by 50 percent.
A large overestimate in the event loadings might account for these
differences in percentages. The area tributary to stations 683001 and
413005 had the largest percentages of the unadjusted 70th Street loading,
while the areas tributary to stations 413010 and 413011 contributed the
smallest percentages of the 70th Street loading. Again, as with the event
loading percentages, a well-defined relationship between total loading
percentages and land use activities (Appendix A Table 5) was not observed,
and part of the difficulty in observing a trend was probably due to dif-
ferences in land area sizes. The similarity in percentage distributions
between event and total water loadings indicated that the event loading
estimates might be reasonable.
The total water loadings expressed in terms of cubic meters per hectare
per month were surprisingly similar among the stations except for relatively
high values at stations 413008 (a crop and pasture land area) and 413005
(an established residential and mixed use area) and the low value for the
established medium density residential area tributary to station 413010.
The baseflow water loading might have been sufficient at each station to
normalize the effect of the runoff events.
The loading percentages and loadings in terms of cubic meters per
hectare per month were also evaluated by seasons. The percentage of the
unadjusted 70th Street loading that occurred at each station decreased
slightly for most stations from winter to spring and then decreased by a
-------
26
large amount he-ween b-pi'ir.g and summer (Appendix A Table 8). The per-
centages were n-^t ^ iciest for the spring season because the spring season
for 1975 began before March 15 and was not included in the April through
June values. The seasons were not determined by water flow but by the
more traditional method of using the solar seasons. The different tributary
areas contributed similar percentages of the water loadings for each 3-
month period. The trends between seasonal total water loadings expressed
as cubic meters per hectare per month were the same as observed for the
loadings expressed as percentages of unadjusted 70th Street loadings. The
loading values were similar for most of the stations for any of the 3-month
periods except for higher values at stations 413008 and 413005 and lower
values at station 413010.
All the observed trends in the total water loadings did not indicate
the water quality contributed from each area tributary to a station. The
only long-term data available for this purpose was the suspended sediment
data collected by the USGS. The suspended sediment loadings between March
and September 1975 were determined by summarizing data expressed as kilo-
grams per day and included runoff events and baseflow loadings (Appendix A
Table 9). The total unadjusted 70th Street loading value of about
12,000,000 kg of suspended sediment during the 7-month period represents
the approximate amount of suspended sediment that reached the Menomonee
River estuary in that time period. How much of the suspended sediment
reached the boundary water of the lake was unknown. Adjusting loading
values at 70th Street for loading values from the upstream stations resulted
in some negative values, indicating that some deposition of the suspended
sediment occurred during 5 of the 7 months evaluated. The suspended sedi-
ment loadings or percentages of the unadjusted 70th Street loadings were
highest at stations 413008, 683001 and 413005, and lowest at stations 673001,
463001 and 413011.
Although the percentage values indicated the relative contributions
of the various areas to the total suspended solids loading for the Menomonee
River watershed, the values were not normalized for land area and therefore
were difficult to relate to the different land use activities. The loading
values expressed as kilograms per hectare per month were highest for the
land use activities tributary to station 413008 and lowest for the land
-------
27
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29
use area represented by station 673001. A general trend in suspended
solids loading was the increase in loading with increase in percentage of
residential and commercial land use (Appendix A Table 5). This agrees with
the higher suspended solids loading observed at station 413011 when com-
pared to station 463001 during the March 4 and May 5, 1976 runoff events,
and station 413006 demonstrating a higher loading than station 463001 on
May 15, 1976 (Appendix A Table 4). The exception to this trend was the
land use activities represented by stations 413008 and 673001. The lower-
than-expected value at station 673001 might be the result of settling in a
pond above the station.
The seasonal loading values indicated the spring season usually had
higher suspended sediment loading than summer (Appendix A Table 10). Since
spring began in early March in 1975, the March loading values should be
combined with the April, May and June loading values. The seasonal suspended
solids loadings expressed as kilograms per hectare indicated higher loadings
for spring than for summer. The loadings expressed as kilograms per hectare
were highest for station 413008 and lowest for station 673001 for the
spring and summer.
-------
30
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APPENDIX B
-------
32
SPECIFIC LAND USE STUDIES
Introduction
The heterogeneity of land use in the Menomonee River watershed pre-
cludes the use of most of the river and tributary sampling stations as
specific land use study sites. Additional monitoring stations have been
built at the outlets of homogeneous and/or predominate land use areas in
the watershed to define more precisely the quantity and quality of storm-
water from these areas. These study sites are representative of the
major land uses in the watershed, and data gathered at the stations will
complement data from the major river and tributary monitoring stations.
Data from the specific land use stations will be used to calibrate an
overland flow model.
Study Sites
Construction of the sampling stations continued through the summer
months and is now complete at the sites listed in Appendix B Table 1.
It should be noted that the last three stations are major river stations
and water quality data from these is discussed in Appendix A. All
residential, transportation and service sites have been completed and
additional stations will be built this fall at a recreational area, land-
fill sites, light industrial site and an upland area.
Sampling this past field season commenced in May and was limited due
to drought conditions in the watershed. Rainfall levels for the months
June through September averaged 34-% below normal levels, while May and
October were slightly above normal. At study sites with a high percentage
of previous surfaces this has resulted in reduced flows or no flow at all.
At station 683090, for example, no stormwater discharge has occurred
during the sampling period. Appendix B Table 1 gives a listing of the
number of events sampled during the period January to October, 1976.
It should be noted, that some of the low sampling numbers are due to
equipment failure.
Equipment
Sampling stormwater in urban areas poses a problem in that the high
-------
33
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percentage of impervious surfaces results in a rapid increase and decrease
in discharge and stage. In addition, the shape of the hydrograph is quite
variable being dependent on rainfall intensity. It is not uncommon for
peak discharge to be reached in thirty minutes or less (Appendix B Fig. 1).
Generally, sampling proportional to flow is unsatisfactory since a
fixed water load must be used to actuate the sampler. To partially
eliminate this problem at the specific land use study sites, activation
of the Instrument Specialties Company (ISCO) 1680 sampler and event marker
of the Leupold and Steven, Inc. type A model 71 stage recorder strip
chart, is accomplished using an electromechanical system (Appendix B Fig.
2). Mounted on the 750 mm circumference float pulley of the stage
recorder are fifteen magnets spaced 5 cm apart. As the float pulley
rotates, with changing stage, the magnets come to near contact with a
magnetic reed switch. The closure of this switch, induced by the magnetic
field, activates the ISCO sampler. The system is set up such that at the
initial change in stage the ISCO will sample. After this sequence, the
sampler operates after a set number of pulse counts (magnetic reed switch
closures) determined from field observations and the hydraulic character-
istics of the drainage system.
During the interval of sampling the ISCO sampler's event signal is
used to activate a single pole double throw (SPDT) relay (Appendix B
Fig. 2). This SPDT relay controls the event marker push solenoid to which
a pen is mounted. For the duration of sampling, an event mark is written
on the strip chart. After the sampling is completed the SPDT relay, push
solenoid and pen return to a relaxed position.
Water Quality Data
Twenty-nine storm events occurred in the watershed from May 1, 1976
to November 1, 1976 with only 19 events of sufficient rainfall to produce
runoff for sampling. The number of events sampled during the period from
six specific site stations is as follows: Brookfield Shopping Center -
5; Timmerman Airport - 6; Allis Chalmers - 5; Stadium Interchange - 1;
New Berlin - 1 and Elm Grove - 0. Runoff samples were analyzed for
Group A parameters and metals. Although a majority of the
-------
35
.025
E-
.OH w
Z
W
900 -
d
100
2150
2200
2300
2310
Appendix B Fig. 1. Relationship between discharge and rainfall at
Brookfield Shopping Center station (683089) during
June 13, 1976, runoff event.
-------
36
D
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37
samples has already been analyzed, only the data on four storm events at
the Brookfield Shopping Center station (683089) are presented in this
report. At some stations samplings over the major discharge portions of
the runoff hydrographs at the other stations were incomplete. Due to
this problem, the ISCO automatic samplers were readjusted to give a better
distribution of samples over the major discharge portion of the hydro-
graph .
Runoff samples from four storm events at the Brookfield Shopping
Center were collected on May 28, June 13 and 18, and July 28. Runoff
duration lasted for about 20 hr on May 28, 8 hr on June 13, 6 hr on June
18, and 8 hr on July 28. Although the runoff durations were relatively
long, time and occurrence of major discharges varied among the events.
The runoff hydrograph of the May 28 storm event displayed no distinct
major discharge. On the June 13 and 18 storm events, major discharges
occurred early in the storms and lasted for about 30 and 60 min, respec-
tively. In contrast, the storm event on July 28 showed a broad peak with
the major discharge lasting for almost 4 hr.
Appendix B Fig. 1 shows the relationship between rainfall and runoff
on June 13. The rainfall data was obtained from a rain gauge at station
683001 in Butler about 6 miles northeast of the station. The lack of
correlation between rainfall and runoff indicates that the rainfall in
Butler is not representative of that around the area of the Brookfield
station. Variations in rainfall occurrence might have been due to
isolated thunderstorms during the summer months.
Group A Parameters
The concentrations of Group A parameters are presented in Appendix
B Table 2. In general, solids, phosphorus, nitrogen, organic carbon,
chlorides, alkalinity, and hardness tended to have the highest concentra-
tions during the rising stage of the runoff hydrograph particularly in
events where the increase of discharge was rapid. Concentrations of
dissolved solids (total solids minus suspended solids), chlorides,
alkalinity, and hardness were highest during the initial discharge which
indicates that the initial flush carries most of the dissolved constituents.
-------
38
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-------
39
The concentration of (NO t NO )-N was consistently higher in all events
O £.
than the concentration of NPL-N. It seems that this inorganic N species
predominates in runoff waters.
General comparisons of concentrations between events show the fol-
lowing: (a) chlorides were highest during the May 28 event possibly
due to the washing off of residual salts on the parking lot and surround-
ing areas applied the previous winter; (b) suspended solids, volatile
suspended solids, total P, total organic N, and total organic C were
significantly higher in the June 13 event than in the May 28 event which
might be due to the accumulation of dust and dirt on the impervious
drainage areas of the station during the 2-week dry period; (c) the
observation in (b) was not apparent in the June 18 and July 28 events
despite the prolonged dry spell indicating that some form of dust and
dirt removal was done during the 6-week dry spell; and (d) runoff
samples in an event (June 18) occurring close to another one (June 13)
contained appreciably less total solids, suspended solids, volatile
suspended sediment, total P, total organic N, and total organic C.
Data of the June 13th event are used to illustrate the relationship
of concentrations and loading rate and time of runoff. Appendix B Fig.
3 shows that total solids concentration was highest (1,210 mg/1) during
the initial discharge and decreased gradually stabilizing after about 30
minutes of runoff. Suspended solids and volatile suspended solids
increased with the rise of discharge but the highest concentrations of
716 and 116 mg/1, respectively, were observed 8 minutes before the peak
flow; thereafter decreased gradually and stabilized at the same time the
total solids did. The high initial concentration of suspended sediment
is an indication that most of the soluble materials are transported by
the first flush of runoff. This is further confirmed by the high initial
concentrations of chlorides (280 mg/1) and total alkalinity (274- mg/1)
(Appendix B Table 2), the latter being represented mostly by soluble
carbonates and bicarbonates.
The concentration curves of total organic N (Appendix B Fig. 4) and
total P (Appendix B Fig. 5) followed the behavior of the discharge curve
except that the peak concentrations of these components — 3.80 and 0.65
-------
M
O
C/l
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0 _
B Discharge
• Total solids
X Suspended solids
O Volatile suspended solids
900
800
700
600
500 o
400
300
200
100
w
o
CO
i
l
2210
2220
2230 2240
TIME, min
2250
2300
Appendix B Fig. 3. Concentrations of solids at Brookfield station
(683089) during June 13, 1976, runoff event.
-------
4000
3500
3000
2500
bfl
3.
z:
w
o
Pi
2000
1500
1000
500
• Total organic N
O (N03+N02)-N
X—X
I
I
J_
_L
1000
900
800
700
600$
w
q
500<
o
400
300
200
100
2210
2220
2230 2240
TIME, min
2250
2300
Appendix B Fig. 4. Concentrations of various N forms at Brookfield station
(683089) during June 13, 1976, runoff event.
-------
700
600
500
400
M
a.
CO
o
o 300
p,
to
o
X
P-,
200
100 ~
0 _
• Discharge
• Total P
X Dissolved reactive P
900
800
700
600
500
tOO
300
200
100
o
D
ra
M
O
2210
2220
2230 2240
TIME, min
2250
2300
Appendix B Fig. 5. Concentrations of phosphorus at Brookfield station
(683089) during June 13, 1976, runoff event.
-------
mg/1, respectively — occurred 8 minutes before the peak discharge. No
definite trend was observed on the concentrations of NH -N and (NO +
NO )-N with discharge (Appendix B Fig. 4). Dissolved reactive P (DRP)
concentration was highest (0.110 mg/1) 5 min before peak flow but decreased
rapidly and stabilized even before the maximum flow was over (Appendix
B Fig. 5). Concentrations of the inorganic N and DRP increased towards
the end of the major discharge. These anomalous increases might be due
to the delayed transport of these constituents from less impervious
sections (residential and drive-in theater areas) of the drainage area
west of the shopping center. Drainage waters from the small residential
area have to pass through a marsh before reaching the stormwater sewer
line.
The concentrations of total organic N, total P, total organic C
were closely related with the concentration of suspended solids (Appendix
B Fig. 6). It appears that major fractions of these components are
associated with the suspended particulate load.
Relationships of discharge and loading rates of suspended solids,
DRP, NH -N, and (NO + NO )-N are presented in Appendix B Figs. 7 and 8.
o O 2.
The loading rate was calculated by multiplying the concentration of the
particular constituent by the discharge at the time a sample was collected.
Peak loadings of suspended solids (538 g/sec), NH_-N (214 mg/sec), and
O
(NOQ + NO )-N (685 mg/sec) almost coincided with the peak flow, i.e.,
3 2.
just 2 minutes before maximum discharge. Highest loading of DRP (56 mg/sec)
was reached earlier (5 minutes before peak flow).
Total loadings of suspended solids and nutrients for three storm
events are given in Appendix B Table 3. These loadings represent major
discharges either partially or wholly during runoff periods. Substantial
amounts of suspended solids was transported from the drainage area of
the station ranging from 237 to 388 kg. Based on the 23.5 ha drainage
area, the suspended solids load was 10 to 16.5 kg/ha. The high suspended
solids load of the runoff water could have originated mainly from dust
and dirt accumulated on impervious surfaces particularly on the parking
lot of the shopping center. Ranges of nutrient loads were: 15 to 62 g
for DRP, 197 to 749 g for NH -N, and 792 to 2371 g for (NO. + N00)-N.
o o 2.
-------
900
800
700
600
500
co
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o
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w
o
w
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300
200
100
Total organic N
Total organic C
Suspended solids
Total P
i
70
60
50
o
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20
10
3600
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2000
1600
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1200
o
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800 ,4
<
o
400
2210
2220
2230
TIME, min
2240
2250
Appendix B Fig. 6.
Relationship of the concentrations of suspended solids,
total P, total organic N, and total organic C at
Brookfield station (683089) during June 13, 1976,
runoff event.
-------
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800
700
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Loading rate
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2210
2220
2230 2240
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2250
2300
Appendix B Fig. 7. Concentration and loading rate of suspended solids and
discharge at Brookfield Shopping Center station (683089)
during June 13, 1976, runoff event.
-------
o
3+N02)-N
and discharge at Brookfield Shopping Center station (683089)
during June 13, 1976, runoff event.
------- An error occurred while trying to OCR this image.
-------
Higher nutrient values were observed in storm events with greater dis-
charges which indicate that soluble nutrient load of runoff is dependent
primarily on the volume of water transported.
Group C and D Parameters
Runoff samples from four events at the Brookfield Shopping Center
were analyzed for twelve metals and dissolved reactive silica (Appendix
B Table 4). Metals were determined by atomic absorption method after
digestion of the unfiltered sample by nitric acid or hydrochloric acid
for 20 min. Since the samples were digested only partially the values
obtained were less than total.
Appendix B Table 4 shows that the concentration of dissolved reactive
silica was high in all events particularly during the first flush.
Likewise, concentrations of Fe and Al were high and tended to increase
as the flow increased. Arsenic and Se were undetected consistently in
all events. Nickel was only detected in samples collected during the
storm event on July 28. It was possible that atmospheric deposition of
Ni occurred during the 6-week dry period after the June 18th storm event.
Mercury was only analyzed in the May 28th samples and results showed that
the levels of this element was either at detection limit or below it.
Concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn were generally higher during
the rising stage of the runoff hydrograph and tended to taper off as the
flow progressed (Appendix B Table 4). Runoff after long dry spells (June
13 and July 28 storm events) contained, in general, higher levels of Cd,
Cu, Pb, and Zn than in runoff of storm events immediately preceding the
dry period (May 28 and June 18). Concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, and
Zn in runoff samples of the June 18th storm event were significantly
lower than those of the June 13th storm event. Since the interval between
storm events was only five days, it was possible that less materials were
available for wash off from the impervious drainage areas of the site.
Data of the June 13th storm event are utilized to illustrate the
relationship between concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn and time of
runoff (Appendix B Fig. 9). Maximum level of Cr (162 yg/1) was observed
during the initial discharge then decreased rapidly and stabilized 26 min
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51
after the Initiation of runoff. Concentrations of the other elements
increased with rising discharge although peak levels were attained before
the maximum discharge. Maximum concentrations of Cd (11.0 yg/1),
Cu (68 yg/1), and Pb (1800 yg/1) were attained 5 minutes before the peak
discharge while highest level of Zn (550 yg/1) occurred 3 rain earlier.
Loading rates of Cd and Pb during the June 13th event are presented
in Appendix B Figs. 10 and 11. The maximum loading rate of Cd (5.6 ing/sec)
coincided with its highest level, i.e., 5 min before peak flow (Appendix
B Fig. 9). The loading rate of Pb followed closely the discharge curve
with the peak (1352 mg/sec) occurring just 2 minutes before maximum flow.
Appendix B Table 5 shows total loadings of Cd, Cr, and Pb for three
storm events at Brookfield Shopping Center station. Considerable amount
of Pb was carried by the runoff water in all events. The range was from
580 to 845 g. These loads are equivalent to the Pb content of about 335
to 490 gallons of leaded gasoline (average Pb concentration is 1.72 g/gal).
It appears that high levels of Pb are deposited on the parking lot of the
shopping center mainly from car exhausts and drippings and some from
atmospheric fallout. Cadmium and Cr loadings were 3.5 to 13.5 and 19 to
164 g, respectively. The main source of Cd and Cr is probably atmospheric
deposition.
Future Studies
Metal Concentration in Particle Size Fractions of River
Sediments and Suspended Sediments During Transport
Grab samples of bottom sediments from the river, estuary and 10
miles beyond the breakwater were found to contain a lower percentage of
clay as compared to the dominant soils of the watershed. In addition,
suspended sediments in the river water during storm events were found to
have high clay content. This is probably the result of washing the
surface soil into the river and subsequent settling of the coarse
textured material along the river bed and estuary, while the clay is
transported to the lake. The estuary may serve as a trap for the coarser
sediments but not necessarily a trap for clayey materials. Since metals
tend to sorb on to the surfaces of the suspended sediments, especially
-------
52
900..
800 -
18 _
Discharge
Concentration
• Loading rate
2210
2220
2230
TIME, min
2240
2250
2300
Appendix B Fig. 10,
Concentration and loading rate of cadmium and discharge
at Brookfield Shopping Center station (683089) during
June 13, 1976, runoff event.
-------
53
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800
700
600
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400
300
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finer particles, they may also be transported to the lake. The movement
of metals particularly lead, zinc, cadmium, and chromium to the estuary
is indicated by their higher concentration in the estuary than in the
river bottom sediments.
The following experiments are proposed to investigate the dynamic
relationship between metals and suspended solids during sediment transport
from the watershed to the lake.
Experiment 1
Determination of the particle size distribution of suspended sedi-
ments and the metal concentration in each particle size in the base flow
and storm event water and in the bottom sediments along the river and
estuary. The primary focus will be on the suspended sediments during an
event and sampling will be undertaken several times during the year. If
most of the metal pollutants are associated with either the dissolved
fraction or the clay size fraction then this would indicate that most of
the metal pollutants will reach the lake even though the estuary can trap
the coarser particles.
The Brookfield Square Shopping Center specific study site is of
particular interest because of the substantial distance which the runoff
water travels between the sewer outfall and Underwood Creek. Although
high metal concentrations are being discharged from the storm sewer,
these levels may be altered before entering Underwood Creek which is a
main tributary of Menomonee River. The water course flows through a
natural drainage ditch (Dousman Ditch) that contains soil with high
organic matter which could possibly remove some of the metal pollutants
before entering into the creek.
Method
Sediment samples from 13 stations in the watershed and approximately
21 sites in the estuary and beyond the mouth of the river will be
collected. The collection will be made with a Ponard sampler and acrylic
tube sampler and stored in 1 liter glass and plastic bottles. Sediments
in glass bottles will be analyzed for organics while the samples in the
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56
plastic bottle will be used for metal analyses.
Sediments with intact organic matter will be dispersed with an
ultrasonic probe. The probe being made from approximately 100% titanium
is not considered to be a source of metal contamination. The separation
of sand from silt and clay will be done by gravity settling. Separation
of silt from clay will be done by centrifugation at 750 rpm for 2.9 min
in an International centrifuge #2. The centrifuged silt is then
resuspended and filtered through a preweighed 2.0 y nucleopore filter.
The supernate from centrifugation and resuspension of silt is filtered
through a 0.^ ja nucleopore filter paper. The sediment separates will be
dried at 110° C and weighed. After weighing, the solids and the filter
paper will be wet-ashed in a teflon bomb to determine the total concen-
tration of metals in each separate. A test will also be done to determine
the dissolved metal concentration in the river water before and after
ultrasonic treatment of the sediment to determine whether ultrasonic
dispersion increases or decreases the dissolved metal concentration.
Event samples from selected stations (river and specific land use sites)
will be collected by automatic samplers. This means sacrificing one set
of the normal storm event data for each set of analyses. Grab samples
of base flow water will be used without any sacrifice of. data. The
particle size distribution of the suspended solids will be determined by
the method used for bottom sediments. . - .
The possible alteration of metal concentrations in the Brookfield
Shopping Center runoff will be evaluated as follows. Several sites along
Dousman Ditch will be selected for determination of the metal concentra-
tions in the suspended sediments and in water during an event using a
tracer dye. Bottom sediments at these sites will also be analyzed for
metal concentrations and particle size distribution.
Experiment 2
A determination of dissolved metal concentration in the river water
samples (base flow and storm event) will be made before and after mixing
the river water with lake and estuary water. This would indicate whether
the metal pollutants are being desorbed or adsorbed after mixing the
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57
water with lake or estuary water. If the metals in the suspended solids
are desorbed after mixing river water with lake or estuary water, then
the efficiency of the estuary as a pollutant trap is even less than
expected. On the other hand if the dissolved metals are adsorbed on to
the suspended solids then a longer residence time in the estuary will
facilitate the trapping of sediments and the associated metals.
Method
Unfiltered estuary and lake water collected for part 1 under method-
ology of the experiment will be added at 1:1, 2:1, 5:1, and 10:1 ratios
with unfiltered river water and agitated for approximately 6 hr before
filtering. The dissolved metal will be determined. Metal concentrations
in the filtered estuary and lake water will also be determined.
Experiment 3
A comparison of dissolved metal concentration in river and estuary
water will be made before and after the addition and resuspension of
river and estuary sediments. This will evaluate the "scavenging" effect
of the sediment during storm events on the dissolved metal concentration
in the water.
Method
The resuspension experiment will use unfiltered base flow and storm
event water. Water (200 ml) and various amounts of bottom sediments (10
to 100 mg, which approximates the range of suspended sediment concentra-
tion during an event) will be added to a polypropylene centrifuge tube
(250 ml). The suspension will be shaken at two different frequencies
(60 and 120 cycles/rain) for 24, 48 and 72 hours to determine whether
equilibrium is attained. After centrifugation, the supernate will be
collected and analyzed for metal concentration. Control (no sediment
and/or no shaking) will be carried out during the experiment.
-------
APPENDIX C
-------
59
GROUNDWATER STUDY
Introduction
The groundwater study got underway in June, 1976. The objectives
of the groundwater study are: 1) to define the flow system in the
immediate vicinity of the Menomonee River system; 2) to analyze ground-
water for a number of chemical and physical parameters and note changes
in water chemistry in different parts of the watershed; 3) to assess the
degree to which chemical contaminants are being discharged from ground-
water into the river; ^) to investigate the possibility that surface
contaminants are moving into groundwater via infiltration through the
streambed; and 5) to assist in the modeling effort by developing a
groundwater model to be used as a component in the watershed model.
Existing Data
Several maps developed by the U.S. Geological Survey (U.S.G.S.) for
a groundwater study done in cooperation with Southeastern Wisconsin
Regional Planning Commission (SEWRPC) have been copied from those on
file at SEWRPC. U.S.G.S. well schedules, Wisconsin State Geological
Survey well logs and Department of Transportation bridge boring logs
have been compiled. High capacity wells within the watershed have been
located and historical records of water-level fluctuations in selected
U.S.G.S. wells in the basin as well as U.S.G.S. groundwater quality
records have been obtained. This information will be useful in defining
the groundwater flow system and in interpreting anomalies produced by
human activities.
Operating landfill sites as well as a number of old landfill sites
have been mapped. The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (WDNR)
files on operating landfills are being examined and relevant data will
be extracted.
Field Work
Emplacement of Observation Wells
In July, permission was obtained to install observation wells at
16 sites in the watershed. In August, 38 observation wells were
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60
drilled at 14 sites. Two of the proposed sites were abandoned because
of shallow bedrock.
The wells are 1-1/4 inches (3.18 cm) in diameter and are screened
with one foot (30 cm) plastic well points. Approximately one-half of
the wells are constructed of PVC pipe and the rest are constructed of
galvanized pipe. ELve of the wells are located in recharge (upland)
areas; the rest are located adjacent to the river system. Appendix C
Fig. 1 shows the well locations and the number of wells at each loca-
tion. Most of the well sites are in the vicinity of previously
established surface water monitoring stations. This was done in order
that groundwater data could be correlated with surface water data.
Appendix C Table 1 gives the street locations of the well sites.
Where possible, wells were located on both sides of the river and
piezometer nests were installed. The shallow wells are 12 to 23 feet
(3.7 to 7.0 m) in depth and the deeper wells are up to 53 feet (16 m)
in depth. These wells will be used to monitor groundwater quality
and water levels. Variations in groundwater on opposite sides of the
stream, in different depths of the aquifer and in recharge and dis-
charge areas will be noted.
Surficial Geology
During installation of the observation wells, augered sediment
samples were obtained. Appendix C Fig. 2 shows diagrams for two of
the drilling sites. The most prevalent material is a gravelly clay
till. This till is often overlain by compacted gray clay. Extensive
sand and gravel lenses were found only at Elm Grove (W13) and
Menomonee Falls (W6). The general nature of the material throughout
most of the area investigated is that of highly variable glacial
material of low permeability and poor sorting.
Streambed Sediment Samples
Sediment samples were taken at eleven sites in the Menomonee
River, four sites in the Little Menomonee, and two in Underwood Creek.
Samples were obtained with a hand auger and were retrieved from up to
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61
W7
SWELLS
W.9
WELL
WIO
WELL
W 5
4 WELLS
Wll
2 WELLS
W4
I WELL
W12
2 WELLS
W I
4 WELLS
W13
4 WELLS
W.I4
2 WELLS
Scale
miles
Appendix C Fig. 1. Locations of well sites and number of wells at
each site.
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62
Appendix C Table 1. Street locations of well sites
Site Number Location
Wl Menomonee River at 124th St., Butler
W2 Menomonee River at 70th St., Wauwatosa
W3 Honey Creek, west of West Honey Creek Pkwy., Milwaukee
W4 Menomonee R. in Currie Park, Milwaukee
W5 Little Menomonee R. at Appleton Ave., Milwaukee
W6 Menomonee R. at Pilgrim Rd., Menomonee Falls
W7 Menomonee R. near Fondulac Ave. at Milwaukee-Waukesha
County line
W8 Menomonee R. at Lilly Rd., Menomonee Falls
W9 Little Menomonee R. at Donges Bay Rd., Mequon
W10 South of Good Hope Rd. in Noyes Park, Milwaukee
Wll South of Concordia Pkwy. in Concordia Park, Milwaukee
W12 Underwood Creek above Hwy 45 off of North Ave.,
Milwaukee
W13 Underwood Creek at Municipal Grounds, Elm Grove
W14 West Milwaukee Park, West Milwaukee
-------
63
50
I
100
I FEET
HORIZONTAL SCALE
MENOMONE E
FALLS (W6
—30
-40
-60
BU TLER (W1
4O
Appendix C Fig. 2. Cross-sections of well sites at Menomonee Falls and
Butler. Water levels indicated by arrows.
-------
four-foot (1.2 m) depths. It is probable that these samples are
fairly representative of the medium that groundwater would move
through in discharging to the river except for those areas where the
river flows directly on bedrock.
Much of the Menomonee River System is underlain by compacted gray
clay. A black organic silty muck which at times reaches depths of two
to three feet often overlies the clay. Extensive sand and gravel
deposits were found along much of the streambed near Menomonee Falls
and in Underwood Creek in Elm Grove. The bottom sediment of the
Little Menomonee River contains high amounts of organic silt. Creosote
occurs in a layer up to 6 in (15 cm) thick near Bradley Road and is
still evident in the sediment as far downstream as Appleton Avenue.
Much of the Menomonee River past the confluence with the Little
Menomonee flows directly on bedrock. No augering was done downstream
of the 70th street bridge.
Stream Gaging
During July discharges on two reaches of the Menomonee River and
one reach along Underwood Creek were gaged. Base flow was measured in
an attempt to investigate the magnitude of surface water infiltration.
That surface water is entering the groundwater aquifer is suggested by
a groundwater map produced by the U.S.G.S. in cooperation with SEWRPC.
Gaging was completed twice for a 2.6 mile reach of the Menomonee
River in Menomonee Falls and a 2 mile reach of the Menomonee River in
the Currie Park area of Milwaukee. Similar results were recorded for
both gaging periods. The stream gaging results are inconclusive with
respect to the magnitude of surface water infiltration.
Discharge along the Menomonee Falls reach increased downstream
72% and 83% during the two gaging periods. On later investigation it
was discovered that the increase was probably due to discharges from
two Menomonee Falls sewage treatment plants. The discharge through
the reach in the Currie Park area was essentially constant for four
gaging points. Stream gaging was also attempted for a 1.5 mile
length of Underwood Creek in the Village of Elm Grove. Flow was too
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65
low to be gaged. Two-thirds of a mile of the stream was dry. Flow was
again noted just before the stream crossed under 124th Street.
Initial Groundwater Data
The observation wells have been surveyed and August groundwater
levels have been measured. Initial data show that the groundwater
level is lower than the surface water level by more than 20 ft (6 m) in
Menomonee Falls (W6) and by approximately 10 ft (3 m) in Butler (Wl).
Groundwater gradients as measured in piezometer nests show a downward
gradient at not only the two sites mentioned above but also at W3, W7
and W12. The water levels at Wl and W6 probably indicate that groundwater
is not discharging to surface water. Piezometers should be placed in
the streambed to help clarify the ground/surface water relationship.
Conductivity, pH and temperature were recorded at well sites and
at corresponding reaches of the stream. The general trend exhibited
by the August data shows that conductivities and pH are highest in the
deeper portions of the aquifer, lower in shallow wells and lowest in
the stream. Temperature shows the opposite trend.
Work in Progress
Field Work
Two Leupold-Stevens water-level recorders have recently been
installed at W6 in Menomonee Falls and Wl in Butler. It is expected
that water levels at these sites will be monitored continuously for
several months in order that seasonal changes in water levels and
gradients can be measured. The water-level recorders are housed in
locked metal shelters about 3 ft (1 m) high and recorders are securely
bolted to the shelter. On September 11, it was discovered that the
Menomonee Falls station had been vandalized and the strip chart
removed. The equipment was not damaged.
Within the next few weeks two Peabody Ryan thermographs will be
put into operation. These temperature monitoring devices will be used
in conjunction with the water-level recorders to assess changes in
groundwater storage caused by streambank storage and groundwater
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66
recharge.
Work plans for water quality analyses are being finalized. It is
expected that water sampling will begin at the end of September.
Groundwater Model
Several groundwater flow models are being tested. It is antici-
pated that a two-dimensional groundwater flow model of several repre-
sentative cross-sections will be used to simulate groundwater flow in
the vicinity of the river. Either this model or a one-dimensional
flow model of the upper aquifer will be coupled with a one-dimensional
contaminant transport model. Because restrictions on the size of time
and space increments are necessary to maintain computational stability
and result in increased computer time, it is likely that coupled one-
dimensional models will prove to be most expedient. It is expected
that calibration runs will be made after several months of field data
have been collected and analyzed.
-------
APPENDIX D
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68
BIOLOGICAL STUDIES
Introduction
The biological study was implemented to provide information eluci-
dating the relationship between pollution loadings from the various land
use areas in the Menomonee River watershed, an urbanizing area, and the
stream macroinvertebrate communities present in the river. A Hester-
Bendy artificial substrate sampler was used to collect quantitative
data allowing precise inter- and intrasite comparisons of the stream
community at different sites overtime (for a sampler description see
Menomonee River Semi-Annual Report for April, 1976). To circumvent the
problem of vandalism, Surber samples were later added.
Study Sites
Five sites equipped with artificial substrates were studied from
mid-April to September, 1976. Four of these sites were chosen because
they coincide with continuous stations (413005, 683001, 413008, 673001)
and one is an additional upstream station (683002) (Appendix D Table 1).
Field Procedures
Artificial substrate
Dendy samplers were placed on the float two at a time at two week
intervals with six weeks allowed for colonization (Appendix D Table 2).
They were disassembled in the field and all plates plus conservation
webbing were placed in a plastic container containing 70% ethanol plus
glycerine.
Surber sampler
Two appropriate sections within the riffle area were chosen at
random except at site 3 which has no appropriate riffle area. The
Surber sampler (Wards, Rochester, N.Y.) was set in place and the
substrate within brushed with a toothbrush to a depth of 10 cm. The
sample was preserved in 70% ethanol plus glycerine.
------- An error occurred while trying to OCR this image.
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70
Appendix D Table 2. Implementation of field procedure
Field date
April 19
April 23
May 7
May 21
June 4
June 18
July 2
July 16
July 30
August 13
August 27
September 10
In Out
AA*
BB No sampler at 1
CC No sampler at 2 or 4
A 'A' AA Installed sampler at 1
and 4-
B'B1 BB
C'C' CC
AA A' A1 Installed sampler at 2,
site 4, vandalized, all
Dendys lost
BB B'B'
CC C'C'
A'A' AA
B'B' BB
C'C' CC
'"'Artificial substrate numbering system.
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71
Laboratory Procedures
Dendy and Surber samples
Dendy field samplers were rinsed and scrapped into a pan. This
wash water was concentrated with a 1.25 mm net until as many organisms
as possible were removed. The conservation webbing was then picked with
a forceps and the organisms added to the concentrate. Dendy and Surber
samples were then preserved in 70% ethanol plus glycerine and identified.
When the sample count exceeded 100, the sample was subsampled at 100
organisms.
Discussion
Dendy artificial substrate sampler
This method of sampling allows uniformity between sites as well as
providing a suitable method for deep water sites, however, its greatest
merit comes in its use for quantitative work (Appendix D Table 3).
As presently designed, this method proves to be size selective for
Chiiponomida.e which are time consuming to identify to species or even
genera. However, Mason (1975) has developed a system applicable to
water quality assessment based on the identification of Chipononridae
which may be used for these samples.
With a slight modification in sampler design where washers or
masonite spacers (Hester and Dendy, 1962) are used in place of the
conservation webbing, the size selectivity of this sampler would be
reduced and the in-lab sample preparation time shortened.
While the procedure of removing the organisms from the sampler is
time consuming, these standarized procedures do allow reasonable
accuracy in total organism counts (total counts) per sampler.
The present design for this sampling method which includes both
cement weight anchors and riverbed stakes, seems to be weather proof
and fairly vandalism resistant. A full day's field work is required
every two weeks for sample collection and installation. Laboratory
time is then needed for sample preparation and organism identification
and counting.
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72
Appendix D Table 3. Total average organism counts projected
from Dendy samples
Date
5/21/76
6/4/76
6/18/76
7/2/76
7/16/76
7/30/76
8/13/76
Site 1 Site 2 Site 3
28
42
112
250 121
142 66
87 7
102 102 12
Site 4 Site 5
73
392
1,000
700
500
1,990
151 10,000
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73
Surber sampler
This sampling method provides a view of the natural faunal community
present in the stream bed and is standarized from site to site by sampling
only in riffle areas to a defined depth and width. All surfaces within
the selected area are brushed free of organisms. While this method is
somewhat quantitative in that it samples a uniform area at each site,
the substrates at each site may differ. By sampling the riffle areas
one is biasing samples toward obtaining the maximum variety of clean
water organisms present since these sites will have the maximum D.O. for
that particular point in the river.
Composite samples or duplicate samples at each site would provide
qualitative as well as quazi-quantitative data through identification
and counts of the organisms present.
While this method is somewhat time consuming in the fieldwork, the
laboratory time is minimized by the elimination of sampler cleaning.
Time spent in organism identification and counting exceeds that spent on
Dendy samples because of the greater variety of organisms retrived by
this method.
The Hilsenhoff Biotic Index (1976) is directly applicable to this
data and provides a qualitative assessment of each site without having
to compare organisms found at one site to those found at another very
different site.
Surber sampling is restricted to waters of one foot or less in
depth and is therefore restricted to the shallower riffle areas in the
watershed.
Analysis Procedure
Diversity Index vs. Biotic Index
Probably the most widely employed biological method presently
used in stream pollution analysis is the Diversity Index calculated for
the stream benthic community. The two basic assumptions of analysis by
Diversity Index are:
A. Natural, clean-water streams are inhabitated by benthic
-------
communities with maximum diversity.
B. Pollution of the stream results in increased stress upon the
organisms thereby causing a formerly balanced aquatic community
to be replaced by an unbalanced community dominated by a small
number of species.
The validity of these assumptions, however, must be questioned for
several reasons. Firstly, the composition of aquatic communities is
influenced by more than just the quality of the water. Physical and
chemical stream and watershed parameters as well as competition, chance
and history all influence the. biotic community structure at a particular
site. Because of the fallacy in this first assumption, a pristine,
first-order stream could be ranked as polluted by the Diversity Index
system because of the stream's low faunal diversity. Secondly, while
it is recognized that changes occur in benthic communities in response
to pollution, the community responses are not always unidirectional as
implied by Wihlm and Dorris (1968), For example, should organic wastes
be introduced into a stream section which has low natural inputs of
potential food, the diversity of the benthic community may actually
increase, thus presenting a distorted image of stream condition when
analyzed with the Diversity Index (Hocutt, 1975).
To avoid these problems of interpreting stream community diversity,
some biologists (Chutters, 1972; Hilsenhoff, 1976) have utilized existing
information of pollution tolerance levels of organisms for the assign-
ment of organism quality values. These assigned values constitute a
subjective assessment of the organism's ability to withstand an inhos-
pitable aquatic environment. Organisms found only in clean water
receive low values while organisms found in very polluted waters
receive high values. By multiplying the number of organisms of specie
"a" times its quality value and continuing for all species in the sample,
an average quality value or Biotic Index (BI) can be calculated for the
sampled site. Therefore, if careful attention has been given to the
assignment of specie quality values, the Biotic Index will not be
greatly affected by sample size or exact location within the riffle
area, whereas the Diversity Index value might greatly be affected. A
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75
comparison of Biotic Index values and Diversity Index values calculated
for the five biological stations sampled in this study show that the
Biotic Index is a much more sensitive and descriptive index for use in
assessing water quality biologically (Appendix D Fig. 1). A low Biotic
Index indicates high water quality.
Therefore, the Biotic Index method of data analysis was chosen as
the analytic tool to be used on this biological data. In addition,
this method of analysis is applicable to the Stream Classification Index
(Eilers and Wolfe, 1976) which links water quality to local physiographic
factors.
Explanation of Biotic Index calculations on
Spring 1976 biological data_
All aquatic organisms belonging to the class Inseata rnd orders
Isoposa and Amphipoda were identified to genera with the exception of
most of the Chirononridae. Due to the tremendous amount of time required
to identify all Chironomidae to generic level, only random individuals
were selected at each site for further study. For sites 1 through 4
most of the Chirononridae consisted of genera with quality values between
3 and 4 (i.e. Chypptoohironomus, Crieotopus). Therefore, at sites 1
through 4, the ChipononrLdae are considered as a single taxon with the
quality value of 3.5. At site 5, however, the vast majority of the
Chiponomidae were "blood-worms" which possess hemoglobin, an adaptation
for surviving very low oxygen concentrations (i.e. Chironomus3 Glypto-
tendipes'). The values for these Chi-Tononrldae were averaged to give a
quality value of 4-. 5 for these organisms at site 5. All other organisms,
with the exception of Bevosus^ were given quality values assigned by
Hilsenhoff (1976) (Appendix D Table 4).
Results
The analysis of Surber sample BI values (Appendix D Table 5)
demonstrates the degree of pollution present in the Menomonee River
(Appendix D Fig. 2), however, it does not identify the exact cause and
effects relationships of different urban land use pollution loadings on
the stream biota. The BI vs. SCI (Stream Classification Index)
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76
-p
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Appendix D Fig. 1.
Diversity Index vs. Biotic Index
(mean values)
-------
77
Appendix D Table 4. Quality values of organisms found in
the Menomonee River
Organism Value*
Antooha 2
Asellus intermedius 5
Baetis 3
Berosus** 4
Bezzia - Palpomyia 3
Canenis 4
Cheumatopsyahe 4
ChiroriomLdae 3 to 5
Empididae 4
Ephemerella 1
Gammams 2
Hyalella azteaa 4
Hydropsyohe 3
Hydroptilidae (Ochrotrichia) 3
Optioservus 3
Simulium 4
StenaQTon 3
Stenelmis 3
Stenonema 3
AFrom Hilsenhoff (1976)
''"''Estimated from EPA macroinvertebrate tolerance classifica-
tions
-------
Appendix D Table 5. Average Biotic Index value
78
Dendy samples
Sites 12 3
Biotic Index 3.50 3.50 3.86
Standard deviation 0.01 0.01 0.37
Number of samples
based on 10 4 16
4 5
3.60 4.48
0.11 0.13
5 18
Surber samples
Biotic Index 3.46 3.48 No
appropriate
Standard deviation 0.15 0.23 riffle
area
3.38 4.50
0.19 0.02
Number of samples
based on
-------
79
Natural Range for Wisconsin
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comparison (Appendix D Fig. 2) provides a relative qualitative assessment
of stream pollution for each site in relation to each other as well as in
relation to each site's potential water quality status (SCI). The Stream
Classification Index was developed for the purpose of defining the predict-
ed quality of the stream if the watershed was uninhabited by man. Since
the standard deviation in BI values calculated over the entire sampling
period (Appendix D Table 5) are relatively small, it may be concluded
that an average BI or a BI obtained from any one particular spot-sample
from a site is adequate for stream pollution analysis at this level.
The positions of the biotic quality of the sites as presented in
Appendix D Fig. 2 indicate that the present condition of the river (BI
values) is considerably degraded from the potential water quality (SCI)
at all sites sampled. The severity of the pollution in the Menomonee
River is demonstrated by the location of the number in the upper portion
of the figure representing the Average Biotic Index at the sampling site.
The analysis of data obtained from Bendy samples provides a quanti-
tative assessment of degradation at each site. The very high number of
organisms occurring at site 5 is probably attributable to nutrient load-
ings from the fertilized cropland, golf course, and the Germantown sewage
treatment plant immediately above this location. The very low organism
counts at site 3 are most likely the result of toxic effects from the
creosote present at this site. Investigations of the stream above this
site revealed significant amounts of creosote in and on the channel
substrate.
The non-point source pollution from the agricultural areas in the
headwaters of the Menomonee River and the point source pollution from the
industrial and commercial areas of the watershed are so large that they
mask any effects of the loadings received from additional non-point urban
sources. The physical effect of high currents on the benthic organisms
is an additional variable which cannot be separated from the pollution
load. The anticipated decline in water quality from the urban non-point
source pollution is apparently too short-lived in a small river system
to cause much damage to an already severely polluted river. On the
contrary, the storm events may be beneficial to the aquatic community by
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81
flushing accumulated anaerobic and toxic deposits from the river bed.
By observing the positions of the Biotic Index at each site on the Stream
Classification diagram (Appendix D Fig. 2) it is evident that there is
little room left for responses to additional sources of pollution.
Proposed Plans
The conclusions drawn from the Spring 1976 data will be studied
further due to the problems listed below in the sampling and data analysis
procedures.
1. Physical-chemical data from the in situ monitors were not yet
available for comparison with the biological data.
2. Surber and Dendy samples had not been routinely taken to genus
level for the Chironomids, therefore, calculated BI's suffer a loss in
accuracy.
3. The decision to use Surber samples as the main collection method
was not made until July 1976.
4. None of the sites selected were representative of a predominately
agricultural area.
To assess the biological effects of non-point pollution from land use
areas draining into the river, a less complicated drainage system such as
a tributary will be examined. By studying these smaller more homogeneous
areas, the complex interactions between land use and water become more
approachable.
Study sites were chosen from those areas with monitoring stations,
natural substate bottoms and flowing water throughout the year.
Noyes Creek represents a system influenced predominately by residential,
transportation and open land use. The macroinvertebrate populations
will be compared from multiple Surber samples taken in riffle areas on
Noyes Creek, where it enters the Little Menomonee River and at similar
sites above and below the confluence. These samples will be examined in
relation to the physical-chemical data received from the monitoring station
(413011) on Noyes Creek. The lower watershed, affected by commercial and
industrial inputs, will be sampled at riffle sites on the Menomonee River
immediately above the Honey Creek mergence, below the 70th Street station
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82
(413005) and directly on Honey Creek. The Little Menomonee River will
be studied at the Donges Bay Road station (M-63001), a predominantly
agricultural area which is free from point sources of pollution.
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83
References
Cutter, F. M. 1972. Empirical biotic index of the quality of water in
South African streams and rivers. Water Research 6:19-30.
Eilers, J. M. and P. J. Wolfe. 1976. Biological aspects of non-point
source water pollution. Water Resources Management Workshop.
University of Wisconsin. Madison, Wisconsin.
Hester, F, E. and J. S. Dendy. 1962. A multiple-plate sampler for
aquatic macro invertebrates. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 91:420-4-21.
Hilsenhoff, W. L. 1976. Unpublished stream classification and sampling
data for Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin. Madison, Wisconsin.
Hocutt, C. H. 1975. Assessment of a stressed macroinvertebrate
community. Water Res. Bull. 11:820-835.
Mason, W. T., Jr. 1975. Chironomidae (Dipera) as biological indicators
of water quality. In: Organisms and Biological Communities as
Indicators of Environmental Quality - a Sumposium. The Ohio
State University March 25, 1974; Ohio Biological Survey Informative
Circular No. 8. Published by The Ohio State University, Columbus,
Ohio. pp. 40-50.
Wilhm, J. L. and T. C. Dorris. 1968. Biological parameters for water
quality criteria. BioScience. 18(6):477-481.
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APPENDIX E
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85
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING PROGRAM
Introduction
The objective of the atmospheric studies is to quantify the deposi-
tion and release of several major and trace substances in the Menomonee
River watershed in order to assess the relative importance of atmospheric
transport pathways in the overall geochemical cycle.
Since April, 1976, the emphasis has been on wet deposition sampling.
Installation of modified Wong rain samplers began in July, 1976. Presently
four of these samplers are in operation at stations: (l) 413004 (Falk),
(2) 413005 (70th Street), (3) 413008 (Appleton Avenue), and (4) 673001
(Lannon Road).
A small scale effort has also been initiated to measure polychlori-
nated biphenyls (PCBs) in air at selected locations within the watershed.
Since June, 1976, several solid absorbers have been evaluated for use in
the sampling of PCBs from air.
Equipment Modifications
Wong rain samplers will open automatically during a precipitation
event and close during dry weather conditions. A moisture sensing head
triggers a motor to open the lid and a heating unit causes residual
moisture to evaporate from the head to insure rapid closure when rain
ceases. However, the factory-shipped equipment had several major draw-
backs that warranted modifications. Of primary concern was accidental
sampling of fugitive dust during dry periods when the lid on the sampler
was in the closed position. This results because all samplers have a
gap between the lid and the container when closed. To avoid dust
collection during dry periods the gap was sealed with a foam cushion
covered with plastic. Secondly, the factory-shipped rain collector
contains a flat-bottomed, large, cylindrical container. This configura-
tion causes a severe evaporation problem. To avoid this water loss,
1/8-inch I.D. Tygon tubing was attached to a small glass funnel imbedded
in the neck of a large linear polyethylene funnel. The large funnel
provides a wide collection area while the tubing effectively reduces the
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86
surface area exposed to evaporation by a factor of over 7000. A 2-liter
linear polyethylene screw-top bottle serves as the collection vessel. In
addition, a brake made of plastic-covered urethane foam was also placed
on the collection equipment to insure a smooth operation of the lid.
Sampling and Preparation
Unless a rain event doesn't occur the sample bottles are changed
each week. The volume of the sample is estimated in the field and
concentrated nitric acid is added to achieve a pH of approximately one.
After transportation to the laboratory the rain sample is then stored at
4 C until analysis begins. Sample volume is calculated by weight by
comparison to a known volume of pH 1 tap water. Original volume of the
rain is determined by subtracting the weight of the added acid.
Analysis Procedures
Flame atomic absorption was used to analyze for calcium and magnesium.
Elements Al, Si, and PO^ will interfere in the concentration determina-
tions by this method. The practice of adding lanthanum to the sampling
has been suggested by several investigators to preclude these interfer-
ences. This, however, will add another step to handling and the potential
for contamination is also increased. Other matrix problems may necessitate
use of the standard addition method in favor of a standard curve. These
potential problems were further investigated.
A rain sample from the Appleton Avenue site was selected to compare
the Mg analysis with and without the addition of La, and to assess the
accuracy of the standard calibration curve. The results indicated that
the addition of La to the water sample had a negligible effect on the Mg
determination ( [Mg] ^ yg/il).
The standard addition method was employed on the sample five
successive times. In addition, the sample was analyzed five times using
standard curves. The results indicate that the average value determined
by the standard curve fell within the 95% confidence limit of the value
determined by the standard addition method. It was concluded that
analysis by standard curve was accurate for this particular matrix. It
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87
should be mentioned, however, that La is added to the standards, as this
does seem to make the difference.
For all the data collected thus far, rain samples were analyzed
directly for Ca and Mg after acidification to pH 1. The diluent used
for standards is sub-boiling point quartz distilled water made from
primary distilled water. Presently, a third glass distillation step is
being inserted prior to sub-boiling point distillation for maximum
decontamination in our subsequent trace metal studies.
Preliminary Wet Deposition Data
Beginning July 22, 1976, at least two rain samplers have been
operational. Shut downs have occurred because of vandalism at one site
and equipment failure at another. Because of a dry summer, rain events
have not occurred at each site in each weekly interval. Complete data
does exist for the 70th Street station beginning July 28 (Appendix E
Figs. 1 and 2).
No significant rain event took place in the week of 9/1 -9/8. The
collection flasks were left on for the following week and a complete set
of data was obtained for the four operational samplers (Appendix E
Figs. 3 and 4). Since this data represents limited temporal measurements,
and thus can only be considered preliminary, very few conclusions should
be drawn, especially with reference to any trends. Based on this data
then, the distribution should not be considered typical nor, for that
matt er, atyp ical.
However, as a preliminary exercise, and as an insight into how this
and subsequent data will be utilized, it might be constructive to
calculate the total deposition over the watershed by rain of each element
based on the average loading. For Mg, the figure is 760 kg and for Ca
3900 kg. This is thus based on a depositional period of two weeks.
It is expected that the concentration of an element in rain depends
upon several factors, i.e.: (1) volume of rain, (2) local sources,
(3) time since last precipitation event, (4) time of day, and (5) season.
With collection of more data and with a few more sites, it should become
easier to detect the correlations between each factor and the elemental
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88
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concentrations in rain. A weak correlation between volume and concentra-
tion is already evident.
The data are still subject to modification once figures for the
exact amount of precipitation are obtained. The U.S. Geological Survey
maintains rain gauges at the 70th Street and Lannon Road sites. Once
these data are obtained further comparisons of the different areas will
provide more information.
Hi-Volume Sampling Program
An alternate humidity equilibration and weighing system had to be
constructed when it became evident that the original equipment needed
months of overhauling. The new system is now operational.
Mass flow controllers have now been obtained for each air sampler.
From the previous progress report it is recalled that the flow rate of
the air sampler can vary considerably over time due primarily to clogging,
but also due to humidity, barometric pressure, temperature, and line
voltage changes. The error in a calculated concentration of air from an
estimated flow proved to be significant, especially over an extended
sampling period. The new equipment meets specifications set forth in
the Federal Register and satisfies U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
conditions.
Each constant flow controller must be calibrated. This is being done
at the present time, and the first Hi-volume air sampler has been installed
at the watershed. Sampling times extending from 24 hr to weekly intervals
will be taken depending upon the information that is required. Weekly
intervals will yield composite samples representing several meteorological
conditions while shorter times (24-48 hr) yield more information about
local sources and atmospheric loadings which can be related to one or two
meterological conditions.
PCBs in Air
Previous studies have shown that PCBs in air most likely exist in
the vapor phase. Less than 10% of total PCDs in air have been found in
the particulate phase in samples taken over the Atlantic Ocean. These
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93
results, however, are inconclusive due to the fact that the sampling
devices that were used by these researchers may have vaporized some of
the PCBs off the particulate matter.
Because no uniformly accepted method presently exists for collecting
PCBs in air, our present work has dealt with the evaluation of collection
media. Since PCBs may exist partially in the vapor phase, a filter
cannot be used by itself, but must be used in conjunction with a PCB
adsorbent material. Several materials have been tried in our laboratory—
florisil, magnesium-silica gel catalyst, polyurethane foam, XAD-2 resin,
and polyurethane foam coated with silicone oil. To determine their
respective retention characteristics fro PCBs, each material was spiked
14
with C-labeled 2,5,2',5'-tetrachlorobiphenyl. Volumes of air ranging
3
from 10 to 20 m of air were drawn through each respective column
material. In each case two successive columns were used and the flow
rate ranged from 3 to 9 £/min. The results indicate that XAD-2 resins
are the most efficient in retaining the PCB during the above conditions.
As a second aspect of this study PCB retention capacity of the
XAD-2 resin has been investigated. The tetrachlorobiphenyl was vaporized
in the injection port of a gas chromatograph and then pulled through a
series of two columns. Virtually all of the PCB was recovered from the
first column.
In the future, samplers which contain both filters for filtering
particulate matter and adsorbent material for PCB collections will be
tested on the Menomonee River watershed.
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APPENDIX F
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95
REMOTE SENSING PROGRAM
The objectives of this portion of the project are to develop remote
sensing techniques that will provide information in a compatible form,
computer or otherwise, to the modeling and any other interested group.
These techniques involve the digital analysis of aerial photographic
imagery. The two groups that are presently working on these techniques
are based at The Pennsylvania State University and the University of
Wisconsin-Madison.
Over the past year a number of new developments have changed our
approach to fulfilling the objectives. We have traded in the old scanning
microdensitometer system, the Optronics P-1000, which was used to convert
the photographic image to a digital image for a new system that is more
versatile and compatible with our analysis techniques. This new system,
the Optronics P-1700, also gives us the additional capability to not only
convert a photographic image to a digital image but to reverse the process
and take a digital image and make a photographic image of it. This allows
us, for example, to do a land cover classification from a photographic
image that has been converted to its digital form and then create a pho-
tographic image for the land cover classification. At this time, however,
we are in a transition stage between the two scanner systems. The expected
operational date for the new Optronics P-1700 system is February 1, 1977.
We are still obtaining high altitude aerial photographic imagery of
80% of the watershed, but have also started to acquire low altitude imagery
of the four test subwatershed: Donges Bay Road, Noyes, Schoonmaker, and
Honey Creek. Both Kodak color and color infrared imagery is being obtained
in a 70mm format. This imagery will be scanned by the Optronics P-1700
system when it becomes operational.
The Pennsylvania State University and the University of Wisconsin
personnel are also working on interpretation of color infrared imagery
taken on July 24, 1976 and on a ERTS scene of the watershed from the fall
of 1975.
In the upcoming year we propose to incorporate the Optronics P-1700
system with its new features into our analysis techniques and provide
estimates of land cover and impervious surface in the four subwatersheds.
We also hope to continue the photographic flights over the watershed.
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APPENDIX G
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97
LAND USE-WATER QUALITY MODELING
I. Development and Calibration of the Land Use - Water Quality Model
The major part of activities related to the development and program-
ming of the model has been concluded. The present version of the LANDRUN
model is capable of modeling the following processes:
1. Snowpack - snowmelt by the degree-day method.
2. Infiltration by the Holtan or Philip model.
3. Excess rain from precipitation, minus evaporation, infiltration,
and depression and interception storage.
4. Routing of the excess rain by an Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph
(IUH) method based on a kinematic wave formula or the empirical
IUH formula of Sarma, Delleun and Rao. The routing is performed
separately for pervious and impervious areas.
5. Dust and dirt cumulation in urban areas and washout.
6. Surface erosion by a modified quasi-dynamic Universal Soil Loss
Equation which includes effects of both rainfall energy and
sheet runoff.
7. Routing of the sediment.
8. Routing of volatile suspended solids and soil adsorbed pollutants
as fractions of the suspended solids load.
9. Pollutants transport through a soil column which includes
convection, adsorption, decay, volatilization and uptake. The
dissolved and adsorbed upper layer pollutant is then routed
with surface runoff and sediment. This dynamic model is appli-
cable to phosphorus, organic chemicals and heavy metals. A
more detailed description of this segment of the model is dis-
cussed in a subsequent section of the report.
A soil nitrogen segment has been developed and will be incorporated into
the LANDRUN in the near future.
A schematic block diagram of the above models was presented in the
April 1976 Semi-Annual Report.
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98
Soil Adsorption Model
Soil Adsorption Process
The process of fixation of pollutants by soil and dust particles
can be accomplished either by precipitation or adsorption. Precipitation
refers to a process in which pollutants precipitate (e.g. phosphates
at higher pH, heavy metals) as compounds with low solubility. Adsorption
is a chemical or physical process by which the pollutant molecules or
ions are immobilized and adsorbed on the surface of soil particles. In
the case of precipitation, the amount of pollutants in the particulate
fraction is governed by the solubility of the compound in the soil envi-
ronment. If adsorption is the prevailing process for removal of pollutants
from the soil-water solution, the concentration of the pollutant in the
solution is in a dynamic equilibrium with that adsorbed on the soil
particle surfaces. The preferred form for describing this distribution
is to express the quantity S as a function of C at fixed temperature, the
quantity S(yg/g) being the amount of the pollutant adsorbed per unit
weight of soil, and C (mg/1) being the concentration of the pollutant
remaining in solution in equilibrium. Several mathematical descriptions
for describing the adsorption equilibria (isotherms) have evolved in the
literature, the Langmuir and Freundlich being the most common and most
used. The Langmuir adsorption model is valid for a single layer adsorp-
tion and has been reported as
Q°bC
5 - i+bc (1)
Where Q is the mass of the pollutant adsorbed per unit weight of soil
(yg/g) during the maximum saturation of the adsorbent, and b is a constant
related to the energy of net enthalpy of adsorption (ml/yg).
The Freundlich isotherm is useful if the energy term, b, in the
Excerpt from a paper by Novotny, Tran, Simsiman, and Chesters, "Mathematical
Modeling of Runoff Contamination by Phosphorus", presented at the WPCF
annual convention, Minneapolis, Oct. 5, 1976.
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99
Langmuir isotherm varies as a function of the surface coverage, S. The
Freundlich equation has the general form:
S = KC1/n (2)
where K and n are constants.
The process of adsorption is best known for phosphorus, but similar
models can be applied to other pollutants. The soil sorptivity for
phosphorus is related to several parameters. Aluminum and iron oxides
and hydroxides are believed to be mainly responsible for phosphate
retention in acid soils. In calcerous soils, phosphate is retained by
the phosphate reaction with calcium ions of the soil. Sayers et al
(1971) pointed out that organic matter as well as iron, aluminum,
calcium, or other ions can retain and adsorb phosphate.
Several authors attempted to correlate phosphate sorptivity to
various parameters. Representative data for 102 soils gathered from the
literature (Vijayachandran and Barter, 1975; Gunary, 1970; Syers et al,
1973; Ballaux, 1975) were selected for the statistical multi-regression
analysis. In summarizing the literature findings, it was found that the
following parameters may be related to soil adsorption:
Aluminum content (total, oxalate, exchangeable)
Iron content (same as Al)
Clay content
Organic content,
pH
Exchangeable Al can be closely correlated to pH of soil (Coleman, Weed,
and McCracken, 1959; Franklin and Reisenauer, 1960). The effect of iron
oxides and hydroxides is much less than that of aluminum (Franklin and
Reisenauer, 1960), and there may be correlation between the iron compo-
nents and clay content, pH, aluminum and possibly organic content. The
best correlation was obtained with the following combination of variables:
CLAYC = clay content as a %; ORGC = organic carbon
content as a %; and pH
and yielded the following equations:
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100
For pH £ 7.0
Q° = .3.47 + H.60 x 10~pH + 10.66 x CLAYC + 49.52 x ORGC
(Multiple correl. coeff. r = 0.80) (3)
for pH > 7.0
207.(
(Multiple correl. coeff. r = 0.63)
Q° = 207.09 - 73,327 x 10~pH + 2.81 x CLAYC + 78.25 x ORGC
and
b = 0.061 = 0.027 x CLAYC + 0.76 x ORGC + 169,832 x 10~pH
(Multiple correl. coeff. r = 0.54) (5)
Soil adsorption characteristics for most of the common organic
chemicals have been extensively reported in a publication edited by
Goring and Hamaker (1972). As indicated by the authors, adsorption is
almost linearly proportional to the organic carbon content. The soil
adsorption characteristics for agricultural organic chemicals range
from very low for dicamba to a high adsorption for DDT. It has been
found that most of the organic chemicals adsorption follows the
Freundlich adsorption isotherm better than the Langmuir isotherm. For
computational reasons, the Langmuir isotherm is preferred in a model
(Freundlich model is highly non-linear, requiring trial-and-error
solution of mass balance equations, while the Langmuir isotherm will
yield a quadratic model which can be directly solved). A simple trans-
formation from Freundlich to Langmuir model may be possible assuming
bQ° ->• k and (Cl~1/m - 1) -*• bC.
pH effect on adsorption of organic chemicals depends on their
characteristics. Six different categories of chemicals can be distin-
guished in respect to pH effect: strong acids, weak acids, strong
bases, weak bases, polar materials and neutral materials. Again the
reader is referred to the publication by Goring and Hamaker (1972). The
authors also discuss the effect of clay minerals and hydrated metal
oxides present in soils which in addition to organic matter and pH may
affect the soil adsorption for organic chemicals.
Adsorption of heavy metals (and other pollutants) by clay and
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101
clayey soils was studied by Sanks, LaPlante and Gloyna (1975). The
authors studied adsorption of zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury by
several Texas clays. The highest percentage of sorption from solution
was observed for lead solution equilibrium concentrations never exceeded
0.03 mm/1. They concluded that within their experimental ranges almost
all of the lead would be adsorbed. The amount adsorbed ranged from
0.3 mm/kg of clay to 90 mm/kg of clay while that for cadmium varied
between 25 to 30 mm/kg of clay. The authors also report the isotherm
characteristics .
Kinetics of Adsorption
The kinetics of the soil adsorption process can be expressed as:
P (s) 1 P (a)
where P (s) and P (a) are, respectively, pollutant in solution and in
adsorbed form, and K and K are respective adsorption rates. Very
few data were found which would enable quantification of the adsorption
kinetics rates. Most of the information found in the literature relates
to phosphorus. From the limited amount of data, (Coleman, Thorup and
Jackson, 1960; Rennie and McKercher, 1959; Ryden, Syers and Harris,
1972) it is evident that phosphate sorption is not an instantaneous
process. Adsorption studies over several days reveal that there is an
initial stage lasting minutes or hours with a relatively fast adsorption
rate followed by a slow adsorption process lasting days. For heavy
metals and some pesticides, the data indicate that the process seems to
be mostly completed within several hours. A first order adsorption
model was accepted as a fair representation of the process, i.e.,
f=K(Se-S) (6)
where K is the adsorption kinetic coefficient and S and S are, respec-
C
tively, amount of pollutant adsorbed and adsorption equilibrium. From
data by Ryder, Syers and Harris (1972), the adsorption kinetics
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102
coefficient for phosphorus was estimated to be about 0.12 hour . Enfield
(1974) discussed two simplified kinetic models. The first equation was
a first order model of the type:
^| = a (KG - S) (7)
dt
the second equation was reported in the form:
§-=aCbSC (8)
In the above equations, a, K, a, b and c are statistical constants.
Note that Eq. 7 is almost identical with Eq. 6 assuming that the adsorp-
tion equilibrium is linearly proportional to the pollutant concentration
in the soil water solution. The experimental data by Enfield confirms
the approximate magnitude of the adsorption coefficient as mentioned
previously.
Decay, Sublimation and Transformation
Although not important for phosphorus and heavy metals, decay, sub-
limation or transformation processes must be included if the model is to
describe behavior of such pollutants, as e.g. ammonia, pesticides, and
herbicides. These processes are usually described by a first order
reaction:
where K is the decay (transformation rate), K is sublimation (stripping)
rate and Dx is depth of the upper soil zone.
The system involves transport of three materials: water, sediment
and pollutants. Although most of the discussion in this section was
devoted to soil adsorption processes, it must be remembered that soil
adsorption can be treated independently from other processes only in
some oversimplified hydrologically steady-state case. In a real situation
the model has to be linked to other components of the system.
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Soil Adsorption Model
A block diagram of processes involved in the soil-water pollutant
interaction is shown on Appendix G Fig. 1. To develop a model based on
the diagram, one must perform a mass balance within the soil column
system which — among others — would involve the following processes:
a) Adsorption and desorption of pollutants in the soil water
and soil.
b) Convection of the pollutants by soil-water movement.
c) Dispersion of the pollutants due to a concentration gradient.
d) Pollutant uptake by plants in the root zone.
e) Pollutant uptake by soil microorganisms.
The above processes represent the components of the system. The
inputs to the system are the pollutant contribution from rainfall,
dust and dirt fallout, fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals.
Most of the inputs are related to the land use. The output from the
model is the pollutant distribution between the soil-water solution and
the soil particles (adsorbed phase). The pollutant adsorbed on the
soil particles in the upper soil layer may be lost by erosion processes
and the dissolved pollutant at the lower boundary of the system will be
transported to the groundwater system. The lower boundary of the soil
adsorption system may be related to the depth of the root zone or the
tillage depth of the crop land. In many cases, as it has been done in
the proposed model, the soil zone depth coincides with the depth of the
A-soil horizon.
The model consists of two components:
I. Free Phase Model (dissolved pollutant)
II. Sorbed Phase Model
The governing mathematical equations are:
Free Phase
09C l!c9C_ 3S
j-f- T Ci O ^ ^-4- — t-jj-'
OL Jj 0 ^. O 5C O^
x
------- An error occurred while trying to OCR this image.
-------
105
Sorbed Phase
= K (S - S) where S = -. (11)
9t e e
The above model is a general kinetic model of chemical movement with
sorption described by the Langmuir isotherm. In the model:
C is the concentration of dissolved pollutant (yg/cm )
S is the amount of pollutant sorbed on soil particles (yg/g)
p is the spec, density of soil (g/cm3)
DT is the apparent dispersion coefficient (cm2/hr)
Li
V is the apparent soil water flow velocity (cm/hr)
EN is the sum of sinks and sources of the pollutant within the soil
volume (yg/cm3 x hour)
b is the partition coefficient (cm /yg)
Q° is the maximal sorptivity of the soil for the pollutant (yg/g)
K is the adsorption or release rate coefficient for packed bed
sorption (hr )
S is the equilibrium of the sorbed phase with the free phase (yg/g)
t is the time (hr)
x is the depth (cm)
0 is the soil moisture (cmVcm3)
The above model is non-linear and can be solved only numerically.
The schematic representation of the model solution is shown on
Appendix G Fig. 2. To simplify the solution, the soil zone is divided
into an upper layer exposed to the atmosphere and rest of the soil zone.
For the numerical solution, the following relationships replaced the
analytical form of Eqs. 10 and 11.
For the free phase of the upper layer model
0 — — — — - x VOL = (RAIN x CR x A) + (ATMFL + FERTIL/DT)A
LJ 1 LJ o
as
+ (ORGREL - PLANTU)(VOL(J) - — - (VOLy) (12)
U U (V x A+K, x Vol x 0+K_ x A
2 d u SUB
+ ANRAIN x A)
-------
106
r
Fallout
//////////.' lll'illl 11 ftllKI'V/ll' W't/'lHI '"/ <
TOPLMfrR.
. Hflera^T ,
. IntefflavJ *• ^u.
• Plant Uptake
Uptake-
\ 1
Utak
4r"0und water
Layer
Appendix G Fig. 2. Pollutant transport and transformation
processes in soil columns.
-------
107
For the sorbed phase of the upper layer model
P -J=-VT- V°LU = KSW V°LU Se - — 2
(13)
For the free phase of the lower zone model
0 L „„„—- VOL. = V—— - GINFIL
+ (ORGREL - PLANTU)(VOLT) - P ^r1 (VOLT )
L ot L
For the sorbed phase of the lower zone model
3S S + S
SPT V°LL = KSW Se 2 V°LL
where in addition to the variables described previously:
VOL is the volume of the soil layer (= A x DX)
A is the surface area
RAIN is the rain intensity
CR is the concentration of the pollutants in the rain
FERTIL is the pollutant contribution from fertilizers
ATMFL is the atmospheric fallout
ORGREL is the release of pollutant from the soil organic matter
PLANTU is the uptake of the pollutant into crops tissue
j is the time subscript
DT is the time step
Dx is the depth of soil layer
Using the Langmuir isotherm the adsorbed equilibrium concentration
becomes:
bQ°
6 2+b
-------
108
Calibration of the LANDRUN Model
Three subwatersheds have been selected for calibration of the model.
The selection was based on the availability of field data and on the
character of the land use pattern within the subwatersheds (Appendix G
Fig. 3).
Donges Bay Road station (463001) collects water quantity and quality data
of the Little Menomonee River. The watershed is mostly rural, slowly
2
urbanizing. The drainage area is 21.4 km .
2
Noyes Creek station (413011) is located on a small (5.4 km ) tributary of
the Little Menomonee River. The prevailing land use in the watershed is
residential lower density.
Schoonmaker Creek station (413010) is located in a small high-density
2
residential subwatershed. Drainage area is 2.0 km .
From the available field data, three storms provided adequate
calibration data:
April 24, 1976 Storm
This is a medium intensity, long duration storm preceded by six wet
days. The amount of rain varied between the stations. All three stations
measured flow, but only Donges Bay Road measured quality.
May 5, 1976 Storm
This is a high intensity, short duration (flushing) storm which
followed nine days of dry weather. All three stations measured both flow
and quality.
May 15, 1976 Storm
This is a long duration, low intensity storm.
Calibration Input Data
The model requires dividing the watershed into uniform areas based
on the land use and soil characteristics. A land use with two different
soil types must be computed as two sub-areas. For each sub-area the
following input parameters must be furnished:
-------
109
Donges Bay Road Station
Land Use: Agricultural
Drainage Area: 2146 ha
% Impervious: 5
Noyes Creek Station
Land Use: Residential,
Developing
Drainage Area: 543 ha
% Impervious: 30
Schoonmaker Creek Station
Land Use: Residential, High
Density
Drainage Area: 201 ha
Impervious: 75
Appendix G Fig. 3.
Menomonee River watershed showing locations of model
calibration stations.
-------
110
Area Description
Area as percent of the total area
Percent imperviousness
Slope
Manning roughness coefficient
for pervious areas (default 0.25)
for impervious areas (default 0.012)
Depression and interception storage
for pervious areas (default 0.65 cm)
for impervious areas (default 0.16 cm)
Portion of impervious areas directly connected to the channel
Soil Data
Saturation permeability of A-horizon
Saturation permeability of B-horizon (default = A horizon)
Porosity
0.3 bar moisture
15 bar moisture
Coefficient for Holtan infiltration equation (if selected)
Depth of A-horizon
Erosion Data
Soil erodibility coefficient
Erosion control practice coefficient
Conservation practice coefficient
Soil Adsorption
Clay content
Organic content
PH
Decay and volatilization coefficients
Adsorption isotherm characteristics
Adsorption kinetic coefficient
-------
Ill
Dust and Dirt Accumulation Data for Urban Areas
Dust and dirt fallout
Washout coefficient
Sweeping efficiency
Dust and dirt composition
Salting
Percent of impervious areas affected by saltings
Amount of salt applied during a snow storm
Salt composition
Fertilizer Use
Amount of fertilizer applied
Composition
Meteorological Data
Temperature
Evaporation
Rain Data
Rain Contamination
The above is a complete list of variables necessary to successfully
run the model. Many variables have default values, i.e. a value will be
substituted by the model if the information is not furnished. The
default values are based on the literature or on experience with other
models.
Data Sources
The land use data along with surface characteristics were obtained
from the Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission (SEWRPC).
Most of the information on soil charactersitics was taken from U.S.
Department of Agriculture (U.S.D.A.) soil maps. Additional information
was obtained from the University of Wisconsin sources. Appendix G Table
1 shows the soil characteristics of major soils in the Little Menomonee
River Basin.
Dust and dirt data were initially obtained from the Chicago study on
-------
112
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pollution from urban areas. These data did not reflect accurately the
pollution loads in the upper part of the watershed and had to be assigned
according to the real field data.
Meteorological data for each storm were based on the information
from the U.S. Weather Bureau at Mitchell Field, with the exception of rain
data which was furnished by the U.S. Geological Survey (U.S.G.S.) rain
gauges located near or at the water quantity and quality monitoring
stations.
Discussion of Results
As it can be seen from Appendix G Table 1, the input variables are
not fixed values, but rather statistical quantities with certain ranges
of occurrence. Thus, the true values of the inputs are never known and
can be only roughly estimated. The calibration, which is in a sense a
trial-and-error process requiring some experience, proceeds in two steps.
The coefficients are estimated by comparing output for one storm with
measured data; secondly, the coefficients are verified if the input for
another storm reflects the measured data. The calibration must be firstly
accomplished for the hydrology, i.e. rainfall-runoff relationship, then
for sediments and lastly, for pollutants.
The results of the calibration rains are shown on Appendix G Figs.
4 through 30. At this step of the research the LANDRUN model was calibrated
and practically debugged for runoff (hydrology), sediment transport,
dust and dirt, volatile suspended solids, and the soil adsorbed pollutant,
phosphorous.
The outputs for the April 24 and May 5 storms adequately follow the
measured data for all three stations. The May 5 storm was the main
calibration storm. Difficulties were encountered with the May 15 storm
at Noyes Creek station where the hydrograph seems to be shifted by two
hours. This time error seems to be unlikely for such a relatively small
watershed.
The output in urban areas is most sensitive to the assigned variable
which characterizes the portion of impervious areas not directly connected
with the channel. This fraction of impervious areas includes rooftops
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draining into a subsurface system, flow from impervious areas overflowing
onto surrounding pervious areas, etc. From the model outputs, it has been
estimated that only about M-0% of the impervious areas in the Noyes and
Schoonmaker Creek subwatersheds seems to be directly connected to surface
runoff. This parameter obviously affects also the amount of pollutants
washed off from impervious areas.
In conclusion, it can be stated that the LANDRUN model is capable of
reproducing field data for medium and large storms with adequate accuracy.
This applies to all parameters modelled so far, i.e. runoff, sediment,
volatile suspended solids and adsorbed phosphate.
-------
142
Ballaux, V. C. and D. E. Praske, "Relationships Between Sorption and
Desorption of Phosphorus by Soils," Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc.
39 (1975), pp. 275-280.
Coleman, N. T., Thorup, J. T. and Jackson, W. A., "Phosphate-sorption
Reactions that Involve Exchangeable A.C.," Soil Sci., Vol. 90,
(1960), pp. 1-7.
Coleman, N. T., Weed, S. B. and McCracken, R. J., "Cation-Exchange
Capacity and Exchangeable Cations in Piedmont Soils of North Carolina,"
Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., (1959), pp. 146-149.
Enfield, C. G., "Rate of Phosphorus Sorption by Five Oklahoma Soils,"
Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., Vol. 38, May-June (1974), pp. 404-407.
Franklin, W. T. and Reisenauer, H. M., "Chemical Characteristics of Soils
Related to Phosphorus Fixation and Availability," Soil Sci., Vol. 90
(1960), pp. 192-200.
Goring, C. A. I. and Hamaker, J. W., "Organic Chemicals in the Soil
Environment," Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, N.Y. (1972).
Gunary, D., "A New Adsorption Isotherm for Phosphate in Soil," J. Soil
Sci., 21 (1970), pp. 72-77.
Rennie, D. A. and McKercher, R. B., "Adsorption of Phosphorus by Four
Saskatchewan Soils," Canadian J. of Soil Sci., Vol. 39, Feb. (1959),
pp. 64-75.
Ryden, J. C., Syers, J. K. and Harris, R. F., "Potential of an Eroding
Urban Soil for the Phosphorus Enrichment of Streams," J. Environ.
Qual., Vol. 1 (1972), No. 4, pp. 430-438.
Sanks, R. L., LaPlante, J. M. and Gloyna, E. F., "Survey - Suitability of
Clay Beds for Storage of Industrial Solid Wastes," Tech. Rept.
EHE-76-04 CRWR-128, Center for Research in Water Resources, The
University of Texas at Austin (1976).
Syers, J. K., Evans, T. D., Williams, J. D. H. and Murdock, J. T.
"Phosphate Sorption Parameters of Representative Soils From Rio
Grande Dosul, Brazil", Soil Sci., Vol. 112 (1971), No. 4, pp. 267-
275.
Syers, J. K. et al., "Phosphate Sorption by Soils Evaluated by the Langmuir
Adsorption Equation," Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 37 (1973), pp. 358-
363.
Vijayachandran, P. K. and Harter, R. D., "Evaluation of Phosphorus
Adsorption by a Cross Section of Soil Types," Soil Sci., Vol. 119
(1975), No. 2, pp. 119-126.
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143
II. Empirical Modeling of Runoff Quality from Small Watersheds
In the April, 1976 Semi-Annual Report, work on this portion of the
modeling effort was broken into three phases: I. to continue the monitor-
ing of runoff events on three small tributaries to the Milwaukee River
adjacent to the Menomonee River watershed, II. to determine the mean
concentrations of various materials in runoff from these watersheds plus
the small tributaries of the Menomonee River and then evaluate the
controlling factors on these concentrations, and III. to develop a set
of dimensionless relative concentration curves which show the temporal
distribution of instantaneous concentrations about the mean. The
objective, again, is the development of a simple, alternative model for
runoff quality which uses a series of empirical curves to arrive at the
end product of the mass loading hydrographs for various dissolved solids
from small watersheds. Larger watersheds may be treated as a series of
subwatersheds, and loading hydrographs for the overall watershed
developed by routing those from the subwatersheds through it. Work has
progressed well on all three phases, as is described below.
As has been the case previously, this work has concentrated on the
results from the Milwaukee River tributaries because runoff and quality
data are available for a wide variety of events. In addition, data for
several events within the Menomonee River watershed have been retrived
from storage via teletype and are included below where relevant. These
events include July 18, 1975 (Noyes Cr.), August 18, 1975 (Schoonmaker
Cr.), and September 5, 1975 (Menomonee R. at 70th St.). The information
from the small Menomonee River tributaries (Noyes, Schoonmaker, and
others) is especially important in the full development of this model;
however, since relatively few events are yet available, most of the
emphasis must be placed on the Milwaukee River tributary data. The
first three events listed above were also monitored on all Milwaukee
River sites, but direct comparisons to the Menomonee River data have not
yet been made.
Phase I - Watershed monitoring and initial data analysis
Active monitoring of the Milwaukee River tributary sites continued
-------
until June, 1976. Over 20 events have been sampled, so efforts are
now geared toward catching a few additional major events with emphasis
on nutrient and metal content of the water to tie in with the main
objectives of the overall Menomonee River study. An exceptionally
dry summer (1976) produced virtually no runoff events in the study
area, and none were monitored.
Flow and load hydrographs have been developed, the mean concen-
trations calculated and relative concentration curves established for
each monitored event. The computer software for this work is complete.
Statistical work on the data continues and it has recently revealed
that, when working with total runoff and mean concentrations of
materials within a runoff, it is advantageous to consider thunder-
storms and the gentler fall and spring frontal storms separately.
For the development of relative concentration curves, however, the
storms can still be lumped together.
Phase II - Interpretation of mean chemical concentrations of runoff
This work has continued through the spring and summer of 1976
to the present. The addition of more final results from the Milwaukee
River tributaries has shown the mean concentrations of material in
runoff have a definite relationship to land use, runoff quantity and
type of storm (Appendix G Fig. 31). Only thunderstorm results are
shown here because frontal storm curves are somewhat sketchy at this
point. It should be emphasized that all curves presented herein are
preliminary and subject to modification as additional data become
available.
In a medium density residential area (Appendix G Fig. 31), total
dissolved solids (TDS) as well as chloride, sodium and calcium all
show a definite inverse relationship to runoff quantity for thunder-
storms. The magnesium relationship is unclear at this time, while
suspended solids (SS) apparently are affected by other controlling
factors which need to be distinguished in further work. Results from
the watershed under development are only shown for TDS and chloride.
The information for the other components is currently being analyzed
although preliminary indications are that the construction site
-------
10
1000
500
20 0
-T » 1000
10
20
Total dissolved
solids
500
200
0
0
1000
10
2000
20
(0
c
o
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§
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100
Chloride
N
50
1000
10
2000
20
Calcium
1000
2000
Suspended
solids
100
0
0
50
1000
10
2000
20
Sodium
\
T 40
0
0
1000
10
2000
20
20
0 J
Magnesium
Residential
1000
2000
Total runoff per unit drainage area per unit rainfall
(Use upper scale for rural, lower scale for residential and
construction)
Appendix G Fig. 31. Mean concentrations in runoff as a function of
total runoff per unit area per unit rain and land
use.
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146
will produce higher concentrations of calcium and magnesium (or hardness
in the Menomonee River tributaries) and alkalinity than the residential
area because of the increased exposure of carbonate-rich soils.
The rural watershed has much lower runoff than the others, so the
rural scale has been increased by a factor of 102 (Appendix G Fig. 31).
This land use produces runoff with lower concentrations of sodium and
chloride and higher values of calcium, magnesium and alkalinity than
occur for similar runoffs, in the other watersheds. Suspended solids
show a strong and surprisingly negative correlation to runoff quantity.
The Menomonee River tributary data are now being worked upon for
inclusion. They will provide information on additional land uses as
well as on the concentrations of heavy metals and nutrients which have
not been monitored in the Milwaukee River tributaries.
Phase III - Development and testing of
relative concentration curves
Most of the effort during the summer of 1976 was concentrated here.
A number of important conclusions have been made. First, the dimension-
less time measure, called relative time (Appendix G Fig. 32 )5 needs
redefinition. Originally the ratio of real elapsed time to the length
of the storm (both in hours) had been used. However, it has been
learned from the Milwaukee River tributaries that the time distribution
of the dimensionless relative concentration of water-borne materials in
runoff is not a function of storm characteristics. Instead, it is directly
related to watershed charactersitics --a reasonable conclusion. Thus,
relative time is now defined as the ratio of real elapsed time during an
event to the response time of the watershed being monitored. In the
Milwaukee River tributaries, response time is actually the average time-
of-travel for runoff within the watershed. The rather nubulous term,
response time, has been used at this juncture because it may be somewhat
revised as additional data from the Menomonee River tributaries becomes
available.
Secondly, it has been found that certain related dissolved solids
show virtually identical relative concentration distributions for a given
-------
o
§
o
n
g
-------
148
watershed, allowing use of the same curves for each of them. In the
Milwaukee River tributaries, chloride, sodium and total dissolved solids
can all be represented by the same relative concentration curve for a
given land use. In addition, calcium, magnesium and alkalinity can all
be handled by a second curve. Suspended solids, as expected, are unre-
lated to any of the dissolved solids.
Preliminary evaluation of available data from the Menomonee River
tributaries has revealed that both hardness and alkalinity can be covered
by a single curve. Since hardness is essentially the sum of calcium
and magnesium concentrations this finding corroborates the Milwaukee
River tributary data. Furthermore, among the heavy metals in Schoonmaker
Creek (Menomonee River watershed) runoff for the August 20, 1975 event,
copper, chromium and lead all had very similar relative concentration
curves (Appendix G Fig. 32), while zinc appeared unrelated. Thus far
all the nutrients appear to be unrelated requiring development of
separate curves (Appendix G Fig. 33).
Thirdly, a set of very reliable relative concentration curves has
been developed for medium-density residential, active development and
rural land uses as represented in the Milwaukee River tributaries
(Appendix G Figs. 34, 35 and 36). Inclusion of results from Schoonmaker
and Noyes Creeks and other small tributaries as they become available
will allow the expansion of these curves to encompass all the land uses
under study within the Menomonee River watershed. As has been shown in
earlier reports, these curves can then be used with some means of
predicting mean concentration (such as Appendix G Fig. 31) and a runoff
model to produce very reasonable predicted mass loading hydrographs.
The primary future effort of this segment of the study will be to complete
the development of these curves and refine the empirical model.
A fourth conclusion has been that preliminary relative concentration
curves from Schoonmaker Creek, based on only two events, are totally
consistent with the Milwaukee River tributary curves for all mutual
chemicals. Thus the Schoonmaker Creek chloride and hardness curves have
attributes which one would expect for high-density residential areas.
It is anticipated, therefore, that there will be no major problems in
-------
1U9
combining the Milwaukee and Menomonee River curves.
Finally, it is worthwhile to point out that the relative concentra-
tion curves also demonstrate the general features of the distribution of
water quality during a runoff event from a given land use. They can
serve as a ready means to make dimensionless, graphical comparisons of
the watershed responses. The curves presented herein (Appendix G Fig.
32, 33, 34, 35 and 36) are a case in point. In medium-density residential
areas, each of the dissolved inorganics shows a rapid initial flush of
high-concentration followed by a slow recession in concentration
(Appendix G Fig. 34). Suspended solids have a similar response, but the
flushing peak occurs later.
In comparison (Appendix G Fig. 35), the active development area has
a slower flushing effect for all materials. This effect is consistent
with the incomplete storm drainage systems and landscaping within the
watershed. Overall drainage is less efficient, producing a slower
flush. Note also that the chloride peak on this watershed's curve is
higher than that for the adjacent medium-density residential watershed.
A variety of evidence indicates that the less efficient drainage system
is also less efficient in removing the previous winter's road salt.
The result is more salt to be flushed off this watershed during the
summer and fall storms.
For similar events, the rural watershed has low relative concentra-
tion peaks and a very slow response, indicating that little significant
flushing of inorganics occurs there (Appendix G Fig. 36). On Noyes
Creek (Appendix G Fig. 33), all the nutrients but the nitrite-nitrates
have a very rapid flush followed by a recession of concentrations. The
nitrites actually increased in concentration during the entire July 18,
1975 event. For the August 20, 1975 event, copper, chromium and lead
all showed a double flushing followed by a decline in concentration,
while a zinc flush occurred only during the second flush of the other
metals (Appendix G Fig. 32).
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150
2.5 r
s
o
§
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cfl
2.0 -
1.5 -
1.0 J
0.5 •;
0 1 2 3
Relative time (elapsed time/response time)
Appendix G Fig. 33. Relative concentration curves for nutrients
in runoff from Noyes Creek, July 18, 1975.
-------
151
2468
Relative timo (elapsed tiao/rasponso time)
Appendix G Fig. 34. Relative concentration curves for
indicator materials for runoff from
residential land.
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152
2^68
Relative time (elapsed time/response tima)
10
Appendix G Fig. 35. Relative concentration curves for indicator
materials for runoff from active residential
construction area.
-------
153
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-------
154
III. Channel Transport Modeling
Until now the channel transport model has been viewed as a descrip-
tion of a fast-rushing flume carrying an assortment of materials to which
some biological and chemical effects have been overlain, perhaps along
the lines of the Streeter-Phelps equation. However, literature review,
field investigation and increased attention to U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers dredging operations in the estuary/harbor has reinforced the
belief that sedimentation (scour and deposition) is the predominant
pollutant-transport consideration, if adsorption of pollutants to
suspended sediments is strong.
Attempts to describe the sedimentation process by empirical approaches
have tended to prove unreliable and ultimately more tedious than a
mechanistic approach. The number of controlling factors is large, but
furthermore many possibilities exist for each and for interactions between
them. For instance, watershed size is critical, insofar as larger water-
sheds provide more deposition opportunity. Similarly, channel slope and
character, bed and bank material type, precipitation amount and distribu-
tion, and vegetation/slope/soil character of the surrounding area are all
major factors affecting sedimentation processes. Therefore, one should
rely on a deterministic (i.e. mechanistic) model, though it might have
empirical aspects (such as calibration factors for bank collapse, nutrient
uptakes, etc.). Almost certainly, the best approach wouJd be the modifi-
cation of an existing dynamically routed channel transport model (e.g.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers River-Reservoir Water-Quality Model), drawing
on the extensive body of literature which the Civil Engineering profession
has developed on sedimentation. Inputs to such a model would, of course,
be the hydrologic/pollutant loading outputs of a continous simulation
overland runoff and a ground water model (as well as data sharing
therewith). This approach would not eliminate the need for model corres-
pondence to observations of watershed sediment loading patterns (these,
however, are not yet available for reference in this report). Such
observations and sediment size distributions can most easily be explained
by the presence of extensive scour.
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155
Above and beyond quantification of scour and deposition on a
separable basis, modeling of in-stream processes has other important
benefits. These benefits could also be interpreted as critical to the
overall project objective of extendibility throughout the Great Lakes
Basin. First, calibrations of the overland model would not be distorted.
That is to say, that their applicability to small subwatersheds (i.e.
up to three square miles) would not be jeopardized in order to account
for loadings resultant from an entire 137 square mile watershed.
Secondly, better accounting of sediment transport of other pollutants
would serve to mechanistically describe the tradeoff of contaminated
sediments deposited for the relatively uncontaminated sediments scoured.
Lastly, a better recognition of the stochastic character of land use
pollutant generation would be effected by the refinement of special
studies site derived relationships via a matrix which applies main stem
monitoring data. Thus, not only a greater predictative strength
results from in-stream modeling incorporation but better land use
pollutant generation correlation as well. It is to be remembered that
summation of overland effects at subwatersheds should ultimately provide
the base upon which statistical methodology would be applied in some
future synthesizing extension of Task C results. Therefore, the veracity
of results from the present analytic phase should be sufficiently
paramount to warrant address of all effects reasoned and observed.
Major modeling consequences can come from increased attention to
sedimentation phenomenon, insofar as it is intertied with the hydraulic
aspects of the stream flow. While a kinematic-wave approach to the
problem of dynamic flow-routing has been available, there does exist a
certain recommended prerequisite slope (10 feet drop per mile) throughout
the reach of application. Two other methods, Muskingum and Modified
Puls are less rigorous in that regard, and the Muskingum method is
reportedly more conserving of computer time. However, accessibility to
reach storage quantification within the Modified Puls method makes it a
better choice for those reaches where sedimentation (i.e. scour and
deposition) consideration is adviseable. Thusly, there would be
available input information needed to quantify the modification of
-------
156
output water quality resulting from the mixing of sudden turbid input
water with that having undergone some clarification during prior
retention. In any case, ultimate confirmation of hydraulic calibrations
and computations by dye-tracer studies is adviseable in coordination
with the modeling framework chosen. It is to be appreciated that these
computations apply both to modeling generally and to station sampling
equipment settings most specifically.
Sections where attention to deposition is most adviseable are of
course those reaches of low slope. The Wisconsin Wurm glaciation (i.e.
Green Bay/Lake Michigan interlobe) end moraine/ground moraine topography
of the watershed fortuitously places such consideration in the headwater
areas, where Modified Puls method is most applicable. Storage in ponds
and meandering channel along the uppermost Menomonee River makes that
area especially worthy of focus, with regard to deposition and subsequent
resuspension during high flows. On the other hand, one cannot assume
that scour is necessarily major along the segments of highest slope--again,
in our watershed, along the lower reaches. Unlined channel "improvements"
along the Little Menomonee River, middle Menomonee River (Menomonee Falls
Dam to Underwood Creek confluence), and, to a lesser extent, upper Under-
wood (and Honey?) Creeks have likely increased the magnitude of scour,
while the lined character of channel improvements along the lower
Menomonee River and lower Underwood and Honey Creeks have likely reduced
it. From the viewpoint of scour then, the Little Menomonee River and
middle Menomonee River are especially worthy of focus. The small
magnitude of scour-contribution of upper Underwood and Honey Creeks to
overall watershed sediment make it adviseable to use kinematic-wave
methodology there, and indeed to lump Underwood Creek with the lower
Menomonee River from the confluence down to the U5th St. Dam. The
result of this approach would be the flow-routing pattern proposed
(Appendix G Fig. 37). Not only methodologies are suggested, but computa-
tional segment-lengths for use in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers River-
Reservoir model—under consideration for channel transport modeling
application—are also recommended, such that GEDA program hydraulically-
weighted cross-section summation may be used.
-------
157
f
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*.- x -y ,
//£&f*
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Appendix G Fig. 37. Proposed flow routing.
-------
158
This outlined plan would be compatible with the framework which has
evolved over the past year (Appendix G Fig. 38), utilizing additional
channel studies sites (Appendix G Table 2). Spot-checks on water
quality at those sites would extend across space the more detailed (in
a time-wise sense) monitoring at Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
(DNR) maintained stations, i.e. increase of the "breadth" of sampling
throughout the watershed in order to complement the "in-depth" sampling
at the WDNR stations. Reference to the end of Appendix G Table 2 will
also underscore a problem in modeling (or, for that matter, any other
analysis) not previously foreseen, that being the presence of an
extensive number of point sources. These will have to be scrutinized
and, in many cases, quantified. In any event, the channel studies
sites, plus focus on the specifics of the dendritic drainage system,
results in the basins for overland-flow/pollutant-loading quantification,
as outlined in Appendix G Table 3. It is intended to procure print-out
from Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission (SEWRPC) of
soil-type, slope and, most importantly, land-use information in such
format, as soon as 1975 data is read into SEWRPC's computer data-storage
system. Preliminary print-out has, however, influenced definition of
land use aggregation of SEWRPC classifications, as presented (Appendix
G Table 4). It is to be noted that the former Light Industry focus has
been dropped (at cost of some management practice decision-making input),
in order to increase extendibility to other watersheds. The former
Commerical focus has been expanded to Commercial /Rural and Suburban
Downtown, as residential categories have been brought into approximate
conformity with SEWRPC population densities (in recognition of urban
pollutant output-loading sensitivity to imperviousness). While the
validity of a [now Extra-] High Density Residential/Urban Downtown
Classification remains, the only locales of occurrence are apparently
within SEWRPC-labelled subwatersheds LMR-33 and -34, as well as tributary
to the Milwaukee River below the North Ave. (vicinity) Dam. Since these
are tributary to the estuary section which is evaluated only by grab-
sampling, runoff-loading figures might be synthesized from studies in
the literature. Previous concern that phthalates be modelled as an
-------
159
Uppermost
r,Menpmonee
Middle
Menoinonee
?ty Little. Henpmpne_e
Middle Menoinonee
A
DNR Station
Former SEWRPC
I I Station-now as below
O (Additional) WRC
Channel Study Site
Contributary
fj Sub-watersheds
(as aggregated)
{ y Major Point-Source Input
JJndgryood Creek/Lower tlenomonee
Honey Creek
e Henoinpnee
Underwood Creek/Lower
Kenomonee
Underwood
Creek/Lower
Meiiomonee
Transition
Section
lis ~t\Ti r y~S e c t i o n
Appendix G Fig. 38. Aggregated subwatersheds pattern for incrementing
overland flow and pollutant loadings within a
predictative modeling.
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160
Appendix G Table 2. Channel studies sites recommended for definition
of time-of-travel and seasonal sampling points
Semi-Estuary Section:
1) DNR Station 413004 (Falk Corp.).
Semi-Estuary Section/Transition Section:
A-l) End of Channelization in vicinity of 1-94 undercrossing.
Transition Section/Underwood Creek-Lower Menomonee Reach:
B-l) At base of 45th Street Dam.
2} DNR Station 413009 (Hawley Road)!
3} iDNR Station 413009 (70th Street).
Honey-Creek:
4) DNR Station 413006 (150 yds. above confl. along Honey Cr. Parkway Dr.)
C-4) at R.R. track through State Fair Grounds.
D-4) SEWRPC Sta. TMn-13 site (McCarty Pk.).
E-4) W. Norwich St. extension-crossing (off S. 65th St., -adjacent to Armour Pk.).
[Returning to Underwood Creek-Lower Menomonee Reach]
Underwood Creek-Lower Menomonee Reach/Middle Menomonee Reach:
*F-3) Jackson Pk. Blvd. extension-crossing (to tributary side of mid-channel
below Underwood Cr.-Menomonee River confluence).
Q-3) SEWRPC Sta. Mn-7A site (Currie Park)
Middle Menomonee Reach/Little Menomonee Reach:
*H-3) W. Hampton Ave. crossing (to tributary side of mid-channel below Menomonee-
Lower Menomonee Rivers confluence).
8) DNR Station 413008 (Silver Springs Drive).
1-8) at Good Hope Road crossing.
J-8) immediately below Brown Deer Road crossing.
11) DNR Station 463001 (Donges Bay Road).
K-ll) at Mequon Road crossing (of Little Menomonee River).
[Returning to Middle Menomonee Reach]:
7) DNR Station 683001 (124th Street).
L-7) SEWRPC Sta. Mn-5 (W. Mill Road).
M-7) Menomonee Falls STP#2 (at mid-channel below STP outfall and Lilly Cr. Confl.)
N-7) [146th St. Extension in subdivision] extension-crossing (to tributary side
of mid-channel below Hor-X-Way Channel-Menomonee River Confluence).
10) DNR Station 683002 (Pilgrim Road).
Middle Menomonee Reach/Uppermost Menomonee Reach:
0-10) At base of Menomonee Falls Dam.
P-10) SEWRPC Sta. Mn-3 (County Line Road).
•*Q-10) Off Maple Road vicinity Mr. D.I.'s night club, access through field to/S.
of Willow Cr, paralleling said creek (to tributary side of mid-channel
below Willow Creek-Menomonse River Confluence).
12) DNR Station G73001 (River Lane Road).
R-12) Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul R.R. crossing to/S/of Friestadt Road-
S-12) Chicago and Northwestern R.R. crossing to/NE/of Route 145.
"mixing factors may dictate dropping these sites.
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161
Appendix G Table 2 ('cont.)
[Returning to Underwood Creek-Lower Menomonee Reach]:
6) DNR Station 413007 (above Highway 45 off North Avenue)
T-6) SEWRPC sta. TMn-12 (S. Underwood Cr. Confluence)
U-6) North Avenue crossing.
V-6) S. Side Brookfield City Park (Franklin Wirth) off North Ave. (to tributary
side of mid channel below Dousman Ditch-Underwood Cr. Confluence).
Point Source Inputs to be quantified:
I) Combined Sewer Outfall or Industrial Wastewater Discharge (sources disagree)
in vicinity of Falk Corp. (Note 1)
II) Combined Sewer Outfall immediately to south of 1-94 crossing.
Ill) Sum of pair of Combined Sewer Outfalls at Wisconsin Ave. crossing.
IV) Sum of pair of Combined Sewer Outfalls in vicinity of 45th St. Dam.(Note 2)
V) Combined Sewer Outfall at Hawley Road Site. (Note 3)
VI) Butler Bypass Public Sewage Treatment Facility (STP). (Note 4)
VII) Menomonee Falls STP #2 plus Relief Pumping Station. (Note 5)
VIII) Menomonee Falls STP #1.
IX) Sum of three Relief Pumping Stations at site of former Germantown STP #2.
X) Germantown STP #1. (Note 6)
Portable Relief Pumping Stations should be input at nearest more-substantial
installation listed above.
Handling of Industrial Waste Discharges requires resolution, probably on a
case-by-case basis, to wit:
Note 1-Clarified as two input sites, each combined sewer outfall plus industrial
waste discharge.
Note 2-plus one industrial waste discharge.
Note 3-plus two industrial waste discharges.
Note 4-plus five industrial waste discharges.
Note 5-plus one industrial waste discharge.
Note 6-plus one industrial waste discharge.
Additionally: one along Dretzka Park Creek
one along Lilly Creek
four along Little Menomonee River
three along Middle Menomonee River
three along Underwood Creek
five along Honey Creek
one along Lower Menomonee River
eight within the Semi-Estuary Reach area
-------
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166
Appendix G Table U. Currently-recommended land use aggregations
1) Native-State Wetland; SEWRPC Classes 90+91.
2) Native-State Upland: SEWRPC Classes 49+73+74+94; in rural areas (i.e. more
than one * asterick-designated sub-watersheds on Aggregation Table—No. 2)
also +92.
3) CROPland: SEWRPC Classes 80+84, as proportioned sub-watershed by sub-water-
shed; plus weighted proportioning of 54+55+56.
4) Animal Husbandry: SEWRPC Classes 80+84, complementary to proportioning as
above; also +83; plus weighted proportioning of 54+55+56.
5) Orchard and Nursery: SEWRPC Class 82; plus weighted proportioning of
54+55+56.
6) Low-Density Residential: SEWRPC Classes 53+93; in rural areas (i.e. as
above—for land-use 2) also 00+05+61+71; in urban areas (i.e. one * asterick-
designated sub-watersheds on Aggregation Table—No. 2) also 92; plus weighted
proportioning of 54+55+56.
7) Medium-Density Residential: SEWRPC Class 01; in rural areas (i.e. as
above—for land-use 2) also 03; in urban areas (i.e. as above—for land-use
6) also 00+05+61+71; plus weighted proportioning of 54+55+56.
8) High-Density Residential: SEWRPC Classes 02+04; in urban areas (i.e. as
above—for land-use 6) also 03; plus weighted proportioning of 54+55+56.
9) COMMercial/rural and suburban downtown: SEWRPC Classes 10+11+20+21+50+57+
58+60+62+63+70+72+75; plus weighted proportioning of 54+55+56.
10) INDustrial: SEWRPC Classes 30+51+52+59; plus weighted proportioning of
54+55+56 [Future attention might be given to Heavy/Light Industry breakdowns
in U.S. and Canada; e.g. in Milwaukee area: Heavy Industry seems to be
SEWRPC Classes 51+52 and within Class 30, Standard Industrial Classifications
(S.I.C.) 29+30+33+35+36+37+39; Light Industry seems to be SEWRPC Classes 49_
(where active) +57+59 and within Class 30, S.I.C. 20+21+22+23 to 27+28+31+
^2+34+38. Note that characterization of underlined classifications might
vary in other locales].
11) [Extra High-Density Residential/Urban Downtown: Only found in estuary-
contributory LMR-33 and -34, as well as Milwaukee River margins.]
12) [Extra Low-Density: Not for incorporation within M.P.W.S. project; future
visualized class by SEWRPC.]
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167
organic constituent of water quality has become somewhat muted. It has
been learned that the more hazardous form is relatively rare in the
environment, while the more frequent form seems without biological
consequence. Modeling attention (though not all analysis attention)
might turn to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs) or some pesticide of high hazard and frequent environmental
occurrence. Similarly, toxic metals modeling should preserve the option
that cadmium could be incorporated (perhaps substitution—via coefficient
changes and input data substitution—for zinc in the visualized triad of
lead, copper, and zinc).
Current thinking on the parameters of land use and pollutant focus
having been discussed, attention now turns to the channel-transport
model's sedimentation subroutine felt to be the key to elucidating their
interrelationship.
Modifications to the Einstein Bedload Equation may provide the best
quantification of sediment-delivery by watercourses when sand and gravel
predominate. However, generally cohesive character of fine-silt and
clay conditions tends to lead to the conceptualization that tractive
[shearing-] stress and critical tractive stress considerations govern
for those circumstances. Certainly each approach has its best conditions
of application within a mechanistic sedimentation-effects subroutine, in
turn constituting part of a continuous-simulation water-quality modeling
on a digital computer. However, insofar as watercourse sediment-delivery
is comprised of varying fractions, might the two approaches be linked?
Silt, coarse clay, and medium/fine clay fractions (size-convention as
per Am. Geophysical Union and U.S. Geological Survey) scour might be
determined by tractive-force methodology, deposition of the same by
saturated-flow methodology, and scour/deposition of the sand/gravel
fraction by Einstein Bedload methodology. It is proposed that initial
quantification of scour acting upon the silt/clay matrix would (by
correspondence to sediment-size distribution) yield the amount of sand/gravel
actually available for scour. Thence Einstein Bedload analysis (applying as
D_5 that of the fraction)—perhaps exploiting the Colby-Hembree modification
or revision thereto—would yield either sand/gravel deposition or potential
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168
scour. Actual availability as a proportion of the scour potential would
similarly reduce available tractive-force upon the silt/clay matrix in
an iterative recycle.
Parallel change in critical tractive-force for the composite
aggregation from that of a pure matrix would also require evaluation.
Where correspondence to void-ratio (i.e. a measure of consolidation-
density) has been felt superior to that of plasticity-index, additional
consideration of [vane] shearing-strength probably corrects such
deficiency. However, the dearth of information on electrochemical effect
is a potential major problem. It is hoped that some inherent dependency
between ionic strength and plasticity-index (or, alternatively, to
percentage-clay) is at work, thereby allowing some reproducible
derivation of equilibrium critical tractive-force from results of in-field
[vane] shear-testing (or, alternatively, to void-ratio). Such low-flow
testing upon the wetted sediment would probably show development of some
manner of smooth "gel" coating, since grooves and ultimately core-like
holes seem to develop at higher flows, likely above critical. Similarly,
the dictate that salt, detergent, and cement levels be low suggests
potential for erosion-controlling management-practices.
Streambank-erosion accompanying streambed-erosion might be stochasti-
cally analysed as a contribution linearly-dependent on the soil's tensile
(i.e. cohesion-proportionate) strength and composite (i.e. net-interactive)
shearing strength. Such gross-simplification is to say that failure
might be visualized in bending or, more likely, confined/consolidating
shear mode against the unit-weight based mechanics of quantitatively
scour-undercut bank ideally-cantilevered. Although actual conditions of
fracture in dense silt and dry clay soil would be along an inclined
plane approximating the angle of internal friction (generally manifested
as a curved surface), assumption of vertical failure would probably be
justified as an adequate measure of effective material contribution,
more especially given the stochastic character of the analysis and the
presence of some delivery-coefficient from field calibration.
Throughout modeling, sediment input-quantity is available from the
main-program's finite-elements, consistent with Modified Puls dynamic
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169
flow-routing. Floeculation effect (especially as modified by ferric-ion
concentration and pH) must then also be considered (with scour) to assess
the complemental saturated-flow derived deposition. Use of Langmuir
isotherms, corrected for pH, allows application of the main-program
generated temperature to quantify adsorption of other pollutants.
Thereby, the sediment-transported portion of the total pollution quantities
could be determined for subjection to either deposition-induced reduction
(i.e. as a total pollutant load, percentage of total sediment remaining
constant) or scoured-material "dilution" (i.e. as a percentage of total
sediment, total pollutant load remaining constant). Thus pass to the
next "mix-tank" is not only sediment quantity, but some superior estimation
of other pollutant quantities as well. An outline of the foregoing
sedimentation treatment is presented as a subroutine flow-chart in
Appendix G Fig. 39 and represents the design of current program-writing.
It is important to note, that it is a virtual certainty that a
sedimentation mechanism applicable to rivers would also be applicable to
an estuary, if flows were adequately described. Adequate description
of flows require seiche description. Several agencies (Milwaukee Dept.
of Bridges and Buildings, Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewage Commission, and
the U.S. Great Lakes Survey) have collected water level records, weather
inputs from the National Climatic Center are also available, and a
graduate student at the University of Wisconsin seeks to construct an
analog model describing water levels in Milwaukee Harbor. Secondly,
Wisconsin Power Co. power plant withdrawal effects, both flow and
thermal stratification, must undergo analysis via processing of available
data.
A framework might be the application of several small "reservoir-
elements" at critical points, believed made possible by the relatively
narrow width and significant [dredged] depth of the focus portion of the
estuary. Feeling exists on both sides as to whether this would be a
valid approach (Appendix G Fig. 40). Finally, the need exists to apply
to the estuary what sedimentation routines have been developed for the
river. Though solely-estuary models reportedly exist, they deprive us
of the opportunity to assess deposit at the most upstream portion of the
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170
Appendix G Fig. 39. Flow chart of all-purpose sedimentation
subroutine.
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171
-noMS &V.O=«. TiMS S
<,E-rruM(i VELOCITY (rn»cn<»i)
Appendix G Fig. 39. (cont.).
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172
Section A: Falk Corp. to 26th St.
B: 26th St. to vicinity of Power Plant
C: Power Plant Withdrawal Section
D: So. Menomonee Channel Input Vicinity
E: Milwaukee River Input Vicinity to Harbor Confluence
F: Rivers-to-Harbor Confluence to Harbor Entrance
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173
model. Nonetheless, stripped down to their basic algorithsm, estuary
sedimentation mechanisms are seen to be parallel to river sedimentation
mechanisms and it seems advisable to have the latter modeling encompass
the former, rather than settle for partial effect quantification,
possibly of the portion of lesser significance. Interchangeability in
application should be a design dictate.
Extensive visits to the watercourse channel system have been under-
taken. This field presence not only serves to determine flow-controlling
input-constants, but also produces first-hand a familiarity with the
river system, e.g. location and character of sediment deposits, indication
of problem areas, etc. Similarly, there is implicit suggestion of
management-practice alternatives which does not develop in the office
or during infrequent field visits, no matter what the technical expertise
on hand. It is noteworthy that determination of channel Manning's
coefficients in the uppermost Menomonee River has been accomplished.
Fortuitously, SEWRPC over-bank coefficients are felt adequate for (MPWS)
purposes. Additional channel determinations, in the middle Menomonee
River and probably also the Little Menomonee River, are anticipated, but
have been delayed pending equipment receipt and the possibility of
coordination with bottom-sediment sampling (i.e. size-distribution and
in-place densities both). Numerous details continue to require attention.
Among these are Hydrologic Season definition. In sum, limited flexibility
of flow changes allows for a four season breakdown in accordance with
PLUARG's recommendations. It is very important that control establishment
via at least one "native-state" wetland and one "native-state" upland
site (though it would better to have one of the latter for each of the
three hydrologic soil groups present). Continuing problem-locale
identification would contribute to scrutiny of, feasibility assessment
upon, and development of management-practice alternatives. The data
coming in from the field seems to indicate that the modeling should
consider the soil character difference in watercourse channels between
the western side of the watershed (deep soils, generally silt loam,
underlain by clay; possible glacial lake-bed deposits scattered through-
out) and the eastern side of the watershed (shallow soils, generally
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174
silt loam, underlain by clay). Additionally, coordination with
atmospheric fallout input determinations seems to indicate the efficacy
of applying an atmospheric diffusion model (Ragland et al., 1975).
SEWRPC's urban data-record based modeling could be supplemented by on-
going monitoring (with additional wind-velocity recording, however) and
use of either ASCE-presented surface-soil wind-erosion equations or
Chamberlin's (Vanoni, 1975) deposition work.
Similarly, there remains optimism for successful toxic-metals, CBOD,
and strept coliform calibrations (and ultimately perhaps nutrient and
organic supplement to Marquette University's more-mechanistic approaches)
via shortly-impending "semi-empirical" least squares fit of urban land
use generated pollution to a washoff mechanism and rural to a "Wisconsin-
form" of the Universal Soil Loss Equation (as derived from the Foster
form). Much data input to that process will be extracted from other
sections of this report.
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175
References
Ragland, K. W. , Dennis, R. L., and Wilkening, K. E« March 18, 1975.
Boundary Layer Model for Transport of Urban Air Pollutants. Paper
presented at the National Meeting of the AICHE Session on
Environmental Transport Processes, Madison, Wisconsin. Paper No.
Vanoni, V. A. (Editor). 1975. Sedimentation Engineering, ASCE Task
Committee for the preparation of the Manual on Sedimentation of
the Sedimentation Committee of the Hydraulics Division.
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APPENDIX H
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177
LAND DATA MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Introduction
The Land Data Management System (Land DMS) is a digital computer-
based system designed to store, retrieve, analyze and display—in tabular
or graphic form—land data for the Menomonee River watershed. The term
"land data" as used in the context of the Land DMS is a comprehensive
concept in that it denotes all those watershed characteristics that have
an areal extent. For example, land data encompass land use, soil type
and civil division information but do not include water quality or stream
flow information.
Uses of the Land DMS
The Land DMS has two principal uses in the Menomonee River Pilot
Watershed Study:
1. Interpretation of water quality and quantity data acquired from
routine long-term monitoring activities as well as data obtained
from short-term specific land use studies.
2. Input to hydrologic-hydraulic-water quality models.
Description of the System
The basic areal unit for storing, retrieving, analyzing and display-
ing land data is a cell having a nominal area of 1.0 hectare (2.5 acres).
The corners of each cell may be referenced to the State Plane Coordinate
System, to latitude and longitude, and to the Universal Transverse
Mercator System. The digital computer system--hardware and software—
needed to support the Land DMS is broken into four phases: the input
phase, the data manipulation phase, the data base phase, and the output
phase. Under the input phase, data are entered into the Land DMS on
either magnetic diskettes or punched cards. The second, or data
manipulation, phase is composed of a set of computer programs that perform
contingency checks on the incoming data, provide for the maintenance and
updating of the data, analyze the data, and prepare it for transfer back
to the user. The analysis capability of this phase facilitates—through
an "overlay" process—the identification of cells having specified
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178
combinations of land data types. The third, or data base, phase of the
Land DMS consists of the actual storage of the areal characteristics of
each cell in a computer file which is maintained on magnetic tape or on
magnetic disc. The fourth or output phase provides transfer of land
data from the Land DMS to the user in a variety of media including
magnetic tape, punch cards, on-line printer, and plotter.
Work Elements Completed since April 1976
1. Completed coding of 1970 land use and initiated coding of 1975
land use.
2. At the request of study participants, the Land DMS was used to
provide various graphic and tabular summaries such as a water-
shed map showing land use by cell and a tabular summary of land
use by sub-basin, sub-watershed, and by total area tributary
to each monitoring station.
Land Data Contained in the Land DMS
Appendix H Table 1 summarizes the status of land data within the
Land DMS. Ten data types have been coded for the entire watershed, and
the coding of three data types is in progress. Other land data types
will be added in response to the needs of the Menomonee River Pilot
Watershed Study.
Example of Land DMS Output
The simplest use of the Land DMS is to display, in graphic or
tabular form, one or more of the land data types contained within the
data base for a given geographic area. Typical tabular output is shown
in Appendix H Table 2 in the form of quantified land use and soil data
for an in-watershed portion of a given U.S. Public Land Survey section.
Graphic output from the Land DMS is illustrated in Appendix H Figure 1
in the form of mapped land use data by cell for the same section. Maps
can be produced by the system at essentially any scale, and maps, as well
as tables, can be constructed in any desired format including the
results of "overlaying" specified combinations of land data types. A
variety of special graphic displays can be created such as isometric
representations of surface topographic features.
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179
Appendix H Table 1. Status of land data in the Land Data Management System
Data type
1. Civil division
2. Sub-basins and
subwatersheds
3. Wildlife habitat
(with value ratings )
1. Woodland-wetlands
(with value ratings)
5. Park and outdoor
recreation sites
6. Floodlands
7. Perennial streams
8. Conservancy, flood-
land and related
zoning
9. Soils (with degree
of erosion and
ground slope)
10. Ground elevation
11. Land use-1970
12. Land use-1975
13. Monitoring stations
Status
Completed
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
In
progress
X
X
X
Type of coding
Dominant
characteristic
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Percent
of cell
X
X
X
Other
X
X
X
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180
Appendix H Table 2. Example of tabular output from the Land DMS
LAND USE DATA
SECTION LAND USE CODE
0720-28 00
05
10
20
54
55
58
59
60
72
80
82
91
92
94
TOTAL
BY LAND USE TVPE
AREA IN SECTION
(ACRES!
65.24
11.55
13.02
.28
10.77
8.61
8.24
15.13
15.17
.37
83.82
1.19
12.17
22.98
127.92
396.44
PERCENT CF
TOTAL
16.46
2.91
3.28
.07
2.72
2.17
2.08
3.82
3.83
.09
21.14
.30
3.07
5.80
32.27
100.01
SOIL
SECTION
0720-28-1
DATA 8Y
CELL
NO.
01
02
03
^
CELL
SOIL
CODE
0073
0357
0073
0076
C357
0450
0076
C450
t
ACRES
.73
1.72
.73
.99
.48
.25
.99
1.47
60 '
61
62
63
64
0720-28-2 01
02
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
0212
0364
0299
C364
C299
0363
C076
0363
C076
0363
0450
0450
C450
0450
0450
0450
045C
0450
0450
0450
C450
.25
2.27
1.52
1.01
2.27
.25
.25
2.25
.25
2.25
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.55
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Township 7 North, Range 20 East, Section 28
Land Use Data
181
Watershed Divide
Quarter section lines
cell
Section lines
Numbers indicate code
of dominant land use.
Scale 1" = 2000'
Appendix H Fig. 1. Example of graphic output from the Land DMS,
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