United States        Office of Water and      SW 176C.5
           Environmental Protection    Waste Management      October 1979
           Agency          Washington, D.C. 20460

           Solid Waste
&EPA     European Refuse Fired
           Energy Systems

           Evaluation of Design Practices

           Volume  5

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          Pne.pu.btLc.ation -tMue fan EPA
         and Stats.  Sotid Watte. Management Agenoce*
      EUROPEAN REFUSE FIRED ENERGY  SYSTEMS

          EVALUATION OF DESIGN PRACTICES
          Werdenberg-Llechtenstein Plant
          Buchs,  St.  Gallen. Switzerland
Tkit, &u.p tie.pont  (SW-176C..5)
 the. o^-tce o& SoLLd Watte. undeA contract no. 68-01-4376
 and -c6 ?ie.ptwduiC.e.d  a& -^.ecexcuec/ ^om tke.
 The. fandlngt, thouJLd be aWUJo(JUte,d to the.
        and not to  the. O^-tce o^ Sotid
            Copies  will  be available from the
        National Technical Information Service
              U.S.  Department of Commerce
                Springfield, VA  2216T
                      Volume  5
         U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

                          1979

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          This report was prepared by Battelle Laboratories,  Columbus,  Ohio,
under contract no.  68-01-4376.

          Publication does does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect
the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,  nor does
mention of commercial products^constitute endorsement by the  U.S.
Government.
          An environmental  prc^l^iof) publication ,(SW-176c.5)  in the solid waste
management series.
                                Environmental Protection Agency

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                          TABLE OF CONTENTS
                                                                       Page
PREFACE   	     i
ORGANIZATION  	  ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 	     iii

STATISTICAL SUMMARY  	      iv

     Werdenberg Plant  	       v

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SYSTEM  	     1

COMMUNITY DESCRIPTION  	     1

     Geography 	     1

     Government and Industry 	     3

SOLID WASTE	     5

     Solid Waste Generation  	     5

     Solid Waste Collection Activities  	     10

     Solid Waste Transfer and/or Pretreatment   	     10

     Solid Waste Disposal	     11

REFUSE-FIRED  STEAM GENERATOR EQUIPMENT  	     11

     Furnace Hopper and Feeder  .....  	  .  	     16

     Burning Grates  	     17

     Furnace Wall (Combustion and First Pass Radiation
     Chambers)	     20

     Second Boiler Pass  	  .........     23

     Superheater	»	     23

     Boiler (Convection Section)	,  .  .  ,	     24

     Economizer  ,	     25

     Boiler Water Treatment  	     25

     Primary  (Underfire) Air Supply   	     26

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                     TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)


                                                                      Page

     Secondary (Overfire) Air Supply 	    26

     Tertiary (Sidewall) Air Supply  	    29

     Heat Release Rate	    31

     Energy Utilization Equipment  	    32

POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT  	    41

     Wastewater Discharge	    42

     Stack Construction	    42

POLLUTION CONTROL ASSESSMENT 	    43

     Noises	    44

PERSONNEL AND MANAGEMENT 	    44

ENERGY MARKETING 	    46

ECONOMICS	    46

     Capital Investment  	 .....    46

REVENUES	    47



                           LIST OF FIGURES


FIGURE 1-la.  REFUSE GENERATION AREA SHOWING THE SERVICE AREAS
              IN THE CANTON OF ST. GALLEN AND IN LIECHTENSTEIN  .  .    2

FIGURE  1-1.  PLAN OF WERDENBERG PLANT SHOWING RELATION TO
              ASSOCIATED COMMUNITY SERVICE FACILITIES   . 	    2a.

FIGURE  1-2.  PROFILE OF PLANT SURROUNDED BY MOUNTAINS  	    4

FIGURE  1-3.  SOLID WASTE  COLLECTION  RATES	  .  ,  ,  .    6

FIGURE  1-4.  SWISS NATIONAL SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL PATTERNS  FROM
              "WOHIN MIT DEN ABFALLEN", ZURICH, NOVEMBER 1976   .  .    12

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                     LIST OF FIGURES  (Continued)


                                                                      Page

FIGURE  1-5.  TRUCK DELIVERING TO REFUSE BUNKER 	     14

FIGURE  1-6.  CONTROL ROOM WITH SCALE OPERATOR, CRANE OPERATOR
              AND PLANT CONTROL ROOM OPERATOR  	     14a.

FIGURE  1-7.  OVERALL SECTION INSIDE THE WERDENBERG PLANT ....     15

FIGURE  1-8.  AN EXAMPLE OF THE ALBERTI FONSAR STEP GRATE SYSTEM
              ASSEMBLED AT THE FACORY	     18

FIGURE  1-9.  SECTION THROUGH WERDENBERG-LIECHTENSTEIN WASTE-TO-
              ENERGY PLANT	     21

FIGURE 1-10.  SCHEMATIC VIEW OF WERDENBERG-LIECHTENSTEIN WASTE-
              TO-ENERGY PLANT	     27

FIGURE 1-11.  SKETCH OF AIR FLOWS TO FURNACE	     28

FIGURE 1-12.  WERDENBERG STEAM AND HOT-WATER DISTRIBUTION
              SYSTEM	     33

FIGURE 1-13.  OIL-FIRED STANDBY BOILER ON TRANSPORT TRUCK ....     34

FIGURE 1-14.  STEAM TURBO GENERATOR 	     35

FIGURE 1-15.  TWO VIEWS OF AIR-COOLED CONDENSER AT WERDENBERG  .  .     36

FIGURE 1-16.  STEAM AND HOT WATER DISTRIBUTION TRENCH AT WERDEN-
              BERG  	     37

FIGURE 1-17.  CASCADE TYPE WATER HEATER ON LEFT, FEEDWATER
              TANK AND STEAM LINES ON RIGHT AT WERDENBERG ....     38

FIGURE 1-18.  INSULATION, INSTALLATION AND MAP OF HOT WATER
              DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM AT WERDENBERG 	     39

FIGURE 1-19.  APARTMENT HOUSE AT WERDENBERG HEATING BY HOT WATER
              FROM STEAM PLANT	     40

FIGURE 1-20.  ORGANIZATION CHART FOR OPERATION OF WERDENBERG
              PLANT	     45

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                             LIST OF TABLES
                                                                      Page
TABLE 1-1.  DELIVERIES FROM THE COMMUNITES SERVED IN 1976
            (FROM PLANT REPORT)	    7

TABLE 1-2.  DELIVERIES IN EACH MONTH IN 1976 AND TOTALS FOR 1975
            AND 1976 (FROM PLANT ANNUAL REPORT)	    8

TABLE 1-3.  REFUSE COMPOSITION AT THUN, 1975	    9

TABLE 1-4.  REFUSE UTILIZATION IN SWITZERLAND IN 1975 (FROM "WOHIN
            MIT DEN ABFALLEN", ZURICH, NOV. 1976)	    13

TABLE 1-5.  WERDENBERG PLANT COSTS, 1976	    48

TABLE 1-6.  REVENUE ESTIMATE FOR 1977	    49

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                                    i
                                 PREFACE

          This trip report is one of a series of 15 trip reports on
European waste-to-energy systems prepared for the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.  The overall objective of this investigation is to
describe and analyze European plants in such ways that the essential
factors in their successful operation can be interpreted and applied
in various U.S. communities.  The plants visited are considered from
the standpoint of environment, economics and technology.
          The material in this report has been carefully reviewed by the
European grate or boiler manufacturers and respective American licensees.
Nevertheless, Battelle Columbus Laboratories maintains ultimate responsi-
bility for the report content.  The opinions set forth in this report are
those of the Battelle staff members and are not to be considered by EPA
policy.
          The intent of the report is to provide decision making in-
formation.  The reader is thus cautioned against believing that there is
enough information to design a system.  Some proprietary information has
been deleted at the request of vendors.  While the contents are detailed,
they represent only the tip of the iceberg of knowledge necessary to de-
velop a reliable, economical and environmentally beneficial system.
          The selection of particular plants to visit was made by Battelle,
the American licensees, the European grate manufacturers, and EPA.  Pur-
posely, the sampling is skewed to the "better" plants that are models of
what the parties would like to develop in America.  Some plants were selected
because many features envolved at that plant.  Others were chosen because
of strong American interest in co-disposal of refuse and sewage sludge.
          The four volumes plus the trip reports for the 15 European
plants are available through The National Technical Information Service,
Springfield,  Virginia  22161.   NTIS numbers for the volumes and ordering
information are contained in the back of this publication.  Of the 19
volumes only the Executive Summary and Inventory have been prepared for
wide distribution.

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                                    ii
                               ORGANIZATION
          The four volumes and 15 trip reports are organized the the
following fashion:

          VOLUME I

A  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
B  INVENTORY OF WASTE-TO-ENERGY PLANTS
C  DESCRIPTION OF COMMUNITIES VISITED
D  SEPARABLE WASTE STREAMS
E  REFUSE COLLECTION AND TRANSFER STATIONS
F  COMPOSITION OF REFUSE
G  HEATING VALUE OF REFUSE
H  REFUSE GENERATION AND BURNING RATES PER PERSON
I  DEVELOPMENT OF VISITED SYSTEMS

          VOLUME II
J  TOTAL OPERATING SYSTEM RESULTS
K  ENERGY UTILIZATION
L  ECONOMICS AND FINANCE
M  OWNERSHIP, ORGANIZATION, PERSONNEL AND TRAINING

          VOLUME III

P  REFUSE HANDLING
Q  GRATES AND PRIMARY AIR
R  ASH HANDLING AND RECOVERY
S  FURNACE WALL
T  SECONDARY (OVERFIRE) AIR

          VOLUME IV

U  BOILERS
V  SUPPLEMENTARY CO-FIRING WITH OIL, WASTE OIL AND SOLVENTS
W  CO-DISPOSAL OF REFUSE AND SEWAGE SLUDGE
X  AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
Y  START-UP AND SHUT-DOWN
Z  APPENDIX

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                                 Ill
                         ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

          We are pleased to acknowledge the highly cometent  assistance
and generous hospitality of the following during our  visit to  the Wer-
denberg plant:
          Robert Giger,  Plant Manager
          Hansruedi Steiner, Widmer & Ernst
          Peter Nold,  Widmer & Ernst
          Theodor Ernst, Widmer & Ernst
          Robert Hardy,  U.S. Representative,  Widmer & Ernst

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                                      IV
                             STATISTICAL  SUMMARY
                               Werdenberg Plant  _
Community  description:
  Area  (square kilometers)
  Population  (number of people)
  Key terrain feature
900
76,685
mountainous
Solid waste practices:
  Total waste generated per day  (tonnes/day)
  Waste generation rate (Kg/person/yr)
  Lower heating value of waste  (Kcal/kg)
  Collection period  (days/week)
  Cost of collection  (local currency/tonne)
  Use of transfer and/or pretreatment  (yes or no)
  Distance from generation centroid  to:
    Local landfill (kilometers)
    Refuse fired steam generator  (kilometers)
  Waste type input to system
  Cofiring of sewage sludge (yes  or  no)
 71.8  (365-day yr)
 342
 2300-3360
 5

 No
mixed community and bulky
no
Development of the system:
  Date operation began (year)
April, 1974
Plant architecture:
  Material of exterior construction
  Stack height (meters)
Plastic coated steel
40
Refuse fired steam generator equipment:
  Mass burning (yes or no)
  Waste conditions into feed chute:
    Moisture (percent)
    Lower heating value (Kcal/kg)
  Volume burned:
    Capacity per furnace  (tonnes/day)
    Number of furnaces constructed  (number)
Yes

Approximately 25 percent
2300-3360

120 (for 2800 Kcal/kg)
1  (room for 2)

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  Capacity  per system (tonnes/day)
  Actual per  furnace (tonnes/day)
  Number of furnaces normally operating (number)
  Actual per  system (tonnes/day)
Use auxiliary reduction equipment (yes or no)
Pit capacity  level  full:
  (Tonnes)
   (m3)
Crane  capacity:
  (tonnes)
   (m3)
Feeder drive  method
Burning grate:
  Manufacturer
  Type
  Number of sections (number)
  Length overall  (m)
  Width overall (m)
Primary air-max (m-^/hr)
Secondary and tertiary  air-max  (m /hr)
Furnace volume  (m )
Furnace wall  tube diameter  (cm)
                          2
Furnace heating surface (m )
Auxiliary fuel capability  (yes or no)
Use of superheater  (yes or no)
Boiler
  Manufacturer
  Type
  Number of boiler passes (number)
  Steam production per boiler (t/hr max)
  Total plant steam  production (t/hr max)
  Steam temperature  ( C)
  Steam pressure (atm)
 120
 133
 1
 133 (5 days/week)
 No
 1300

 5
 2
 Hydraulic

 Alberti-Fonsar
 Stepped reciprocating
 7 steps long
 7.0
 2.5 (effective)
 32,000 m3/hr  (20 c)
 26,400 m3/hr (20 c)
 142
 7.61
 200 (approx.)
 Yes
 Yes

 Alberti-Fonsar
 Natural circ. water tube
 3
 16
 16
 395
40

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                                       VI
Use of economizer  (yes or no)
Use of air preheater  (yes or no)
Use of flue gas reheater (yes or no)
Cofire (fuel or waste) input
Use of electricity generator (yes or no)
  Type of turbine
  Number of turbines  (number)
  Steam consumption  (t/hr)
  Electrical production capacity per turbine (mw)
  Total electrical production capacity  (mw)
  Turbine back pressure (atm)
  User of electricity ("Internal" and/or "External")
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Back pressure
1
14 t/hr
0.8 mw
0.8 mw
5.5-12 (range)
Internal, external
Energy utilization:
  Medium of energy transfer
  Temperature of medium  ( C)
  Population receiving energy  (number)
  Pressure of medium (atm)
  Energy return medium
Steam, hot water
110-180 (water)
500 plus industry
steam 10
Water
Pollution  control:
  Air:
    Furnace exit conditions
      Gas flow rate (m /hr)
      Furnace exit loading (mg/Nm )
83,000 (274c)
88 at 7% C00

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                                     VI1
    Equipment:
      Mechanical cyclone collector  (yes  or  no)           j^o
      Electrostatic precipitator  (yes or no)             Yes
        Manufacturer                                     Elex
                                             2
        Inlet loading on precipitator (rag/Nm )           300
        Exit - leading on precipitator  (mg/Nm  )          88 at 7% CC>2
                                      3
        Legislative requirement (mg/Nm )                 100 at 7% CC>2
     Scrubber (yes of no)                                No
        Inlet loading:                                   	
          H Cl (mg/Nm3)
          H F (mg/Nm3)
        Exit loading:
          H Cl (mg/NM3)
          H F (mg/Nm3)
                                       3
        Legislative requirements  (mg/Nm  )                	
     Other air pollution control  equipment  (yes or no)   Duray Dr  280
Water:
  Total volume of waste water (liters/hr)
  Ash:
    Volume of ash (tonnes/day)                           40
    Volume of metal recovered (tonnes/day)               ^

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                        DEVELOPMENT OF THE SYSTEM


          As the waste disposal problem evolved in this area, three of the
larger communities—Buchs, Switzerland and Vaduz and Shann (in Liechtenstein)—
began discussions of possible solutions.  Because some years ago composting
plants were in vogue in Switzerland, they decided to build one in Werdenberg.
It cost about 1,000,000 S.Fr. (then about $250,000) and began operation in
January, 1962.  But gradually the plant became too small for the amount of
waste being generated so Incinerator I (without heat recovery) started
operation in January, 1968.  It cost about 2.5 million S.Fr.  However, waste
generation continued to increase at the rate of 20 percent per year and in
mid-1969, it was decided that Incinerator I was too small.  Accordingly, in
1970, the local Vereins fur Abfallbeseitigung (Society for Waste Management)
invited proposals for a new incinerator, a waste-to-energy plant.
          In December, 1971, the proposal of Widmer + Ernst was accepted and
in January, 1972, construction began adjacent to the old incinerator and
compost plants (see Figure 1-1).  The plant was built in about  28 months and
operation began in April, 1974.  It was dedicated on November 22, 1974 and
provisional acceptance was made in July, 1975.  Operation continued after
the dedication while adjustments were made to firing rate and to component
operation.  The plant was accepted  November 1, 1975.

                        COMMUNITY DESCRIPTION

                               Geography

         This relatively new and colorful plant named Werdenberg-Liechtenstein
is located on the Werdenberger Binnenkanal (Inland Canal) paralleling the
Rhine River on the border between eastern Switzerland and Liechtenstein.
(See Figure 1 -la)   Actually the plant is located in the city of Buchs, Switzer-
land.  The name "Werdenberg" comes from a very small neighborhood that is at
the inside edge of Buchs.  The region's area is roughly 900 square kilometers
(345.3 square miles).

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                                                              Service area in the
                                                              Canton of St.
                                                              Location of  Plant
FIGURE l-
              r      GENERATION AREA SHOWING THE SERVICE AREAS IN THE
              CANTON OF ST.  GALLEN AND IN LIECHTENSTEIN

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                                      2a.
1  Truck scale
2  Tipping area
3  Waste pit
4  Air-cooled condenser
5  Furnace room
6  Steel chimney
7  Central control room
 8  Feedwater treatment
 9  Waste storage
10  Old incinerator
11  Service building
12  Offices and locker rooms
            FIGURE 1-1.   PLAN OF WERDENBERG PLANT SHOWING RELATION TO
                         TO ASSOCIATED COMMUNITY SERVICE FACILITIES
                         (COURTESY OF WIDMER & ERNST. ALBERTI FONSAR)

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          The setting and terrain are most picturesque.  The plant is set
on the flat bottoms of the Rhine Valley and nestled between snow capped
mountains.  (See Figure 2.)  Being so close to the canal did present founda-
tion problems and additional costs were incurred.

          Buchs itself had a 1970 census population of 8,570 while the total
waste generating region had 76,685 inhabitants.  After the Swiss referendum
in 1975 loosely labeled, "Swiss for the Swiss", the population declined as
Mediterrenean workers returned to their native lands.  The population in
1977 is likely equal to or less than the 1970 figures.
          The community population is somewhat seasonal with more people
during the winter skiing and summer vacation seasons.

                        Government and Industry

          The government and industry employment sectors are stable with
respect to growth.
          In this region of two countries and  28 cities,, there are  17
Switzerland counties and 11 Liechtenstein counties.  All of the Swiss
counties are within the Canton  (state) of St.  Gallen.
          The industrial base  is varied with the following  composition:
          •  International headquarters for Hilti  fastening
             systems  (metal and explosives)  [in  the  past,
             Hilti  sent sintered magnesium pellets to  the
             plant.]
          •   Hoval household boilers
          •  Textile manufactures  (trimmings)
          •  Carpet manufactures  (trimmings)

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FIGURE 1-2.  PROFILE OF PLANT SURROUNDED BY MOUNTAINS
             Werdenberg-Liechtenstein Plant
             (Courtesy of Widmer + (Ernst (Alfrerti-Fonsar))

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          •  Screen printing firm
          •  Plastic tape manufacturer (plastic trimmings)
          •  Leather shoe manufacturer (leather trimmings)
          •  Petroleum storage
          •  Fruit preserves processing plant (large tin cans)

                         SOLID WASTE PRACTICES

                        Solid Waste Generation

          Figure 3 presents the annual pattern from 1962 to 1973 for animal,
bulky scrap iron, industrial, household and total waste collected.   The rise from
4,000 tonnes  (4409  tons) in  1962 to 24,000 tonnes (26,455 tons) in 1973 must be
interpreted carefully.  First, these are collection rates and not generation
rates.  In other words, there are fewer people throwing refuse over the hill
and more providing their waste to collectors.  Secondly, the Society for
Refuse Management has been expanding its geographic territory as more
communities decide to join.
          Table 1 displays the collection of various types of wastes by the
communities and their respective populations.  These 76,685 people had 26,190
tonnes collected during 1976 for an average generation/collection rate of
342 kilograms per person per year (754 pounds per person  per year).
          The seasonal pattern shown in Table 2 depicts a 11.7% 1975 to 1976
rise in household waste collections versus a 2.8% decline in industrial
collections for an overall increase of 7.3%.  The rise in household collections
came about because more communities have recently been added.  The fall in
industrial pickups coincides with the European and especially the Swiss
recession.  Neither an influx of people nor increased waste generation rates
could have contributed to the dramatic increase in household collections.
          A recent national report presented composition  as had been measured
as Thun, Switzerland  in 1975.  See Table 3.

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                                                      Animal waste
                                                      Bulky scrap iron (white goods)
                                                      Industrial waste
                                                      Household  waste
                                                      Total
1962   1963
1964
1965   1966
1967   1968
                                                    1969
                                             1970   1971
                                                    1972   1973
                  FIGURE 1-3.  SOLID WASTE COLLECTION RATES
                               Werdenberg-Liechtenstein Plant
                               Courtesy of Widmer & Ernst  (Alberti-Fonsar)

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-------
    TABLE 1-2.  DELIVERIES IN EACH MONTH IN 1976 AND TOTALS FOR 1975 AND 1976
                (FROM PLANT ANNUAL REPORT)

Month
Januar
Februar
Marz
April
Mai
Juni
Juli
August
September
Oktober
November
Dez ember
Total
1975
Difference
% + -
Maximum Month:
Maximum Day:
Household
Waste
1561440
1384744
1822910
2070220
1757510
2088730
2056470
1979360
1936810
2020540
1858180
1716660
22,253,574
19,921,940
+2,331,634
+11.7%
April 2357,
Wednesday,
Bulky
Waste
14920
16850
32450
21370
14300
17010
30500
17290
16930
29780
19310
8440
239,150*
469,130
-229,980
-96.1%
298 kilogram
7, April = 160
Industrial
Waste
215090
515946
244410
237805
265385
233230
225680
234290
265560
244960
252610
240280
3,175,246
3,234,702
-89456
-2.8%

,000 kilogram.
Animal
Waste
24750
25375
28935
26713
25560
29170
29085
26025
28125
37890
32795
36001
350,424
455,417
-104993
-29.9%


Total
Waste
1816200
1942915
2128705
2356108
2062755
2368140
2341735
2256965
2247425
2333170
2162895
2001381
26,018,394
24,111,189
+1,907,205
+7.3%


* This total for bulky waste includes only that for private haulers.  Since 1976
  all bulky waste delivered is combined in a single total.

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TABLE 1-3.  REFUSE COMPOSITION AT THUN, 1975


  Paper                        39.66%
  Glass                         8.31%
  Ceramic                       1.23%
  Metal                         4.80%
  Wood                          5.51%
  Textiles, Leather,
  Rubber                        6,04%
  Plastics                      6,57%
  Kitchen waste                 8,96%
  Garden waste                 13.42%
  Misc.                         5.50%
  (From Wohin mit den Abfalien?" Zurich,
   November 1976)

-------
                                   10
                   Solid Waste Collection Activities

          Throughout the region, trucks of various sizes  and  descriptions
collect waste material.  The Society for Refuse Management licenses  four
private companies to collect waste materials from households.   The eight  (8)
trucks owned by these four firms make two to four trips per day.  Truck sizes
                    3                    3
range from 12 to 15m  (15.7 to 19.6 yards ).   In addition, there are  a few
commercial private haulers and several industrial companies with their own
trucks.  Most "Crews work 8 hours per day - 5  days per week.
         Three of the collection firms are paid by the Society  and one is
paid by his local community.  All are paid on a price per ton basis  as
weighed at the plant scales.
          Costs are distributed back to the communities based on  a careful
accounting of where the waste comes from.  Fees have  been relatively constant
over the last three to four years.
          Each household pays taxes to his respective community.  As an
example, the plant manager pays 90 Swiss francs ($36)  per  year for his 0.5 to 0.7
tonnes generated.
          Moisture ranges from 25% to 40% with 35% being  average. During the
compliance test, the lower heating value was measured at  3,200  Kcal/kg
(5,760 Btu/pound)[13,398  k Joules/kg]  by using  the  refuse  fired  steam
generator as a calorimeter.   They  now  believe  that  the lower heating  value
is ranging from 2,300 to  3,360 kcal/kg (4,140  to  6,048 Btu/pound)[ 9,628 to
14,068 k Joules/kg].

                Solid Waste Transfer and/or Pretreatment

          There are no transfer stations or pretreatment facilities.   However,
there are some shopping center-type recycling  centers  where people can bring
newspapers, bottles,  and  cans.   Color-sorted  glass  can be  sold for 60 SF per
tonne ($26.40 per ton)  while noncolor  sorted  glass  can be  sold at  40  SR per
tonne ($17.60 per ton).

-------
                                   11
                         Solid Waste Disposal

          This refuse fired steam generating building has,  standing next to
it, a separate composting building.   For several years back in the 1960's,
the national trend was to construct  compost plants and also incinerators
for waste material from the composting operation.  At one time there were
15 to 19 such combination facilities in Switzerland.  Rarely now is the local
composting equipment run.  Only nine are now operating in combination in
Switzerland.  There is only one pure composting facility now in the country.
          The National Report, "Wohin mit den abtailen" shows the 1975
national pattern for solid waste disposal.  See Figure 5 and Table 4.

                REFUSE-FIRED STEAM GENERATOR EQUIPMENT

          As has been described in previous sections, the combination of
community and industrial wastes is delivered 5 days per week by eight regular
trucks plus a few private ones.  Incoming trucks are weighed on an 30-ton
semi-automatic weigh scale which is  operated by a plant worker who devotes
about 1/4 time to weighing.  The scale operator can barely be seen (Figure 5)
as the third man at the rear of the  control room.  The weights, total and tare,
are printed by an electro-mechanical recorder with digital readout.  The scale
is inspected, calibrated and serviced once per year.  It is expected to last
more than 20 years.  Figure 6 shows  a truck-delivering refuse.
          Figure 7 is an overall section inside of the Werdenberg plant.
          There is no provision for processing bulky waste.  The crane
operator is instructed to crush bulky items (up to 2m by 2m) in the pit by
dropping the 3-ton grapple on the object.  Large metal objects are lifted
out and set aside for recycling which, in 1976, totalled 172 tonnes.
          After each truck driver delivers a load to the pit he is expected
to sweep up his dumping area.  There are four doors to the pit but only one
is used.  If necessary, emergency refuse storage is available in the pits
at the old compost plant next door.

-------
12



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                                        13
             TABLE 1-4.   REFUSE UTILIZATION IN SWITZERLAND IN 1975
                         (From "Wohin mit den Abfalien", Zurich, Nov. 1976)
Facilities

42 (65%) Incinerators

10 (15%) Combined
Burning
Composting
Plants
1 ( 2%) Compost Plant

11 (17%) Controlled
Landfills
64 (100%)
total

Type
13 (20%)With HR 1)

29 (45%) Without HR
6(9%) With HR
4(6%) Without HR

1(2%) Only Compost





Population
Served
2'560'720

1'236'733
498'750
362 '000

21-000

673 '667

5'352'870

%
39,8

19,2
7,8
5,6

0,3

10,5

83,2
Refuse
Tonnes
805'380

335M04
131'916
96'912

5 '882

194 '564

1' 570 '058
1
%.
43,8

18,2
7,2
5,3

0,3

10,6

85,4

? Uncontrolled Dumps
TOTAL
1'076'530
2)
6'429'400
16,8
100,0
269'132
1' 839 '190
14,6
100,0
1)  HR = Heat recovery

2)  Included is the the Principality of Liechtenstein with its population of
    24,000

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                                    14
FIGURE 1-6.  TRUCK DELIVERING TO REFUSE BUNKER,
             (COURTESY OF WIDMER & ERNST-ALBERTI-FONSAR)

-------
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-------
                                   16

                                      3         3
          The main plant pit is 1300 m  (1690 yd ) when filled level with
the tripping floor.  It is 20m long, 8.5m deep and 7.5m wide (65.6 ft by 27.9 ft by
24.6 ft).  It is estimated to hold 600 tonnes (545 tons) at a compressed and
                                 3           3
settled density of 0.462 tonnes/m  (645 Ib/yd ).  If fire breaks out in the
pit it can be controlled by overhead sprinklers.
          There are 2 Von Roll bridge cranes of 5 tonne capacity but only one
is needed.  A clamshell type of bucket on each crane can lift 1/2 to 1 tonne
at a grab 2 m3  (2.62  yd^).  The weight of a bucket load can be determined
from the current consumed by the caBle motor when the bucket is being lifted
at a constant rate of speed.   The corresponding weight can be read by the crane
operator sitting in the control room.
          The pit and crane operation is considered a very important facet of
good plant operation to assure steady feed and good mixing of refuse which
aids furnace operation.
          There were problems due to inexperience during startup.  If the
crane cables were not kept in tension they would jump the pulleys on the
bucket.  With careful operation the cables last 2 months.  With unskilled
operation they last 2 weeks.  About 2 hours are required to repair broken
cables.
          This plant is unusual in that the plant control room also contains
the crane operator's perch high on one side of the pit.  The. room is air
conditioned.  The crane is semi-automatic in that after the bucket is loaded
the crane lifts and positions it over the furnace hopper.

                       Furnace Hopper and Feeder

          The single furnace hopper is 4m by 4m (13.1 ft by 13.1 ft) an(j the
feed chute is 2.5m by 1.2m (8.2 ft by 3.9 ft).  The chute is insulated but un-
cooled.   The lower portion of the chute near the furnace is low alloy steel
to reduce deterioration from high temperature.  An insulated cover can be
placed over the hopper top to stop burnback if it occurs.
          The single-level, ram-type inclined feeder is hydraulically driven
by a Vickers drive.  It feeds intermittently about 12 strokes per hour which

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                                   17

is about half the frequency of the reciprocating grate sections.  The feed
is manually controlled from the control room.  A spare hydraulic drive is
available.  No repairs have been needed in 3 years.

                             Burning Grate

          The Alberti-Fonsar GMP-7 stepped grate is in 7 sections which pro-
vides an average fuel bed slope of about 24  .  It was fabricated in Italy by
the Fonderie e'Officine di Saronne S.p.A. using a grate material which is
25-30%  chromium, 4% nickel, with some manganese and silicon.  Figure 8 shows
that the grate is made up of steps which alternately are fixed and recipro-
cating.  The reciprocating parts have a maximum stroke of  380mm  (15 in) with
the normal stroke being 350mm  (14  in) which  occurs about once every 2 minutes.
As the  upper step moves forward it tends to  tumble the burning refuse downward
to the  next step, thus providing gentle agitation.  Grate  temperature can be
monitored by the control room  operator from  indicators connected to three
thermocouples located under the grate, near  the middle of  the grate surface
and on  a fixed grate section.
          The grate sections were guaranteed for 16 months.  No grate parts
have been replaced in 3 years.   The manufacturer expects the grate to last
5 to 10 years.   Some problem has been encountered with pluggage of the air
holes in the grate by fused aluminum and plastics.  When this happens,
workmen wearing heavy wetted asbestos suits enter the partially cooled
chamber to remove or punch through the fused material in the grate holes.
          Analysis of a sample of the grate residue resulted in a carbon
content of 2.21 percent.   This residue is dropped when hot from the end
of the grate into a large concrete quench tank which appears as a shallow
slag basin in the lower part of Figure 7.  At the deepest point, the water
in the basin is 1.7 m (5.57 ft) deep.  Residues from the precipitator
and boiler passes are also dropped into this tank.  The quenched residue
settles to the  bottom of the tank from which it is removed continuously by
a 12 m (39 ft)  drag-chain conveyor which,  in turn, discharges the wet
material to two rubber belt conveyors in series which deliver it to a
three sided waste area on the  ground floor.

-------
                                   18
FIGURE 1-8.   AN EXAMPLE OF THE ALBERTI-FONSAR STEP GRATE SYSTEM ASSEMBLED
             AT THE FACTORY (Courtesy of Widmer * Ernst - Alberti-Fonsar)

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                                   19
          The manufacturer believes that they have since evolved a much
better quench-tank removal device involving a piston-driven swing gate
which tends to compress the residue as it lifts it much more nearly
vertically out of a much smaller, curved-bottom steel tank.  As a result,
the discharged residue is said to have only 28 percent moisture as against
40 percent from the system at this plant.  The newer system also costs less
and produces less waste water.  The power consumption of the slow chain
is low; the two-motor drive totals only 8 kw, but 4 kw is now seen to have
been sufficient.  However, corrosion of the chain is expected to entail
high maintenance.  There is no provision to recover scrap metal from
the residue.
          The wet residue which is discharged by the conveyor to the "ash
floor" is lifted by a front-end loader to a truck which carries to approx-
imately 3 km (1.9 mi) to a mountainside quarry.  Occasionally the piles
are leveled with a scraper.  There is no daily cover, no lining to capture
leachate and no final cover.  The plant is charged only 0.50 S.Fr.
($0.20) per ton of ash residue.  This landfill (doponie*) is estimated to
last 5 years.
          In 1976 this plant burned 26, 191 tonnes (5.5 tons) in 4740
hours of operation, an average rate of 132.6 tonnes/day (146 tons/day).
*deponie—French for landfill.

-------
                                    20
                      Furnace Wall (Combustion and
                      First Pass Radiation Chambers)
          The water-tube walled portion of the furnace, is shown in Figure
9, an open vertical passage approximately 3 m by 3.5 m (10 ft by 12 ft,
approximately) in cross section and approximately llm (35 ft) tall.  Its
volume is approximately 110 m3 (3,884 ft"3).   It  is  located  directly  above  the
furnace and is intended to provide travel time for final burnout of the
furnace gases while allowing for radiant cooling of the gases and their
entrained dust load.  In this way, partial cooling is achieved without
opportunity for obstructional deposition of hot, sticky fly ash.  Ash
deposition will occur on the water-tube walls but not to the extent that
the deposit can become a major resistance to gas flow.  These deposits
are removed from the water walls by manually scraping every 5,000 hours.
At the same time, the convection passes are washed.
          The wall tubes are made of #35 carbon steel, 76.1mm (3.0 in)
diameter, 4mm  (0.16 in) thick, spaced on 78 mm (3.1 in) centers.  Thus, the
tubes are nearly touching but are not connected together by welded fins as is
done in man-% other modern plants.  This tall vertical water-tube wall  passage
and the main combustion furnace are both covered on the outside with 150 to
250mm (6 tc 10 in)  thick high temperature insulation consisting  primarily of
calcium  reinforced  with asbestos  fibers.

           The sides of the furnace are composed of two different surfaces.
 Near to the grate and  for about 1.5m (4 ft) above  the grate the wall  is
 formed with about 85 air-cooled cast iron blocks made by Kunstler  (Zurich)
 on each side which allow a small amount of cooling air  to enter the furnace
 through small holes in the iron blocks and through narrow  air  gaps  between
 adjacent blocks.  The blocks are about 250mm (10 in) tall and  200mm (8.5  in)
 wide.   Above the  cast  iron blocks,  the furnace  wall is  formed by Plibrico
 Super AB  plastic refractory  150mm  (6  in)  thick  backed up by 250mm '10 in)
 high-temperature  calcium  silicate  insulation.

-------
                                            21
1 Delivery Area
2 Bunker Door
3 Refuse Bunker
4 Crane Pulpit
5 Crane
6 Refuse Grab Bucket
7 Charging Hopper
8 Incinerator Furnace
9 Step Grate
10 Ash Hopper
11 Residue Chute
12 Residue Basin
13 Residue Conveyor Belt
14 Steam Boiler
15 Air Cooled Condenser
16 Electrostatic Precipitator
17 Exhaust Gas Fan
18 Steel Chimney
19 Hot Water Heater
20 Feed Water Tank
21 Turbogenerator
22 Collected Flyash Conveyor
23 Feedwater and Heating Water
     Pumps
24 Oil-Fired Stand-by Boiler
          FIGURE 1-9 .   SECTION THROUGH WERDENBERGrLIECHTENSTEIN WASTE-TO-ENERGY
                        PLANT,  COURTESY WIDMER + ERNST (ALBERTI-FONSAR)

-------
                                  22
          Thus, the lower quarter of the main furnace sidewalls are cooled
only by forced air flowing behind and through the wall blocks, but the front
and rear wall of that chamber are cooled by water-wall tubes similar to the
arrangement in the large, vertical open pass above the furnace.  In the
"rear wall" which actually is a rear "arch" which slopes a little more
steeply than the sloping grate, there are 40 tubes closely spaced over the
width of the furnace.  The W + E engineer stated that the temperature
in the furnace is 950 C  (1742 F).
          This sloping rear roof is studded with 8mm (0.3 in) diameter studs,
22mm (0.9 in) long.  There are about 1000 studs per square meter.  These tubes
and studs are then coated with a 25mm (1 in) thick coating of Plibrico Super
AB plastic refractory.  In the newer plants, 40mm thick Plibrico coating is
used.  This thick coating reduces the heat absorption by the covered tubes but
is a protection against corrosion.  It has been very successful here and
elsewhere.  Apparently the decision to increase the refractory coating
thickness from 25mm (1 in) as used here up to 40mm (1.6 in) in newer plants
was made in order to increase the life of the coating, as this coating is
subject to deterioration from cracking as it heats and cools.  In addition,
the coating is mechanically eroded and spalled by the action of heavy deposits
of fused ash which adhere to the coating then break off or are broken off
during periodic cleaning.  As portions of the coating are broken away,
patching is required to maintain protection of the tubes.  Apparently a
thicker coating reduces the frequency of patching required.
          Welded  studs  and  refractory  coating are  also  utilized over  the
 entire  lower half  of  the vertical,  water-tube walled  boiler  pass immediately
 above  the furnace.   This very common  design of  coating was applied after
 corrosion was experienced  in  1970 in  a  similar  furnace at  Baden-Brugg,  which
 required  protection  after  only 2000-3000 hours  operation.
          The steam generating surface of the boiler  is stated by the
                         2          2
 manufacturer to  be 835 m  (8988 ft  ).

-------
                                    23
                           Second Boiler Pass

          When the upward-flowing gases reach the top of the first water-tube
walled gas passage they  then  are turned horizontally into the entrance of a
second water-tube walled vertical pass (see Figure 9) in which the gases
are further cooled as  they  flow  downward.   These water tubes have no studs
nor coating as by this time the  gases are  cooled to about 650C (1203F) and
corrosion and erosion  are  thus no threat to water tubes.

                               Superheater

          The partially  cooled gases leaving the bottom of the second open
boiler pass then make  a  180  turn and, flowing upward, enter the first bank
of horizontal steam  tubes  of  the 2-section superheater.   Final steam tem-
perature control is  achieved  by  a spray-type attemperator between the 2 super-
heater sections.
            In each row of  superheater  tubes  there are 32 tubes.  Each tube has
  a 33.7mm  (1.33 in)  diameter  and  a wall  thickness of 4mm (0.16 in).  The
  tube  material in the  first section  is 14% chromium, 3% molybdenum and in the
  second  section 0.14%  plain carbon steel.  The spacing of the tubes horizontally
  and vertically is 100mm on centers.   The gas flow pattern is straight upward
  through the bank as the tubes are in  line and not staggered.  The design
  temperature for the gas entering the  first  superheater section is 650C (1203F).
  The temperature leaving the  second  section  is 520C  (968F) .
            A single  cascade of falling steel shot once an hour cleans the
  economizer and superheater.  The top  row of superheater tubes is protected
  by steel shields from the  impact of the falling shot.  Every 5,000 hours the
  economizer and superheater are cleaned by washing by a German company that
  specializes in boiler cleaning.
            In future designs  the manufacturer favors more gas space between
  the superheater tubes.  They also believe that shot cleaning is preferable to
  soot  blowing.
            The manufacturer expects  that the first (bottom) row of superheater
  tubes may need replacement every 10,000 to 11,000 hours  owing to erosion or
  corrosion or a combination of both.

-------
                                   24
                      Boiler (Convection Section)

          The water tube boiler is a natural circulation type built by
Alberti-Fonsar under the Eckrohr Kessel patents of Dr. Vorkauf of Berlin.
Steam capacity is 12 tonne per hour (26,460 Ib/hr) with peak capacity to 16
tonnes per hour (35,275 Ib/hr) at 40 bar (566 psia)  [390 KPA ] and
395C (743F).  The overall height of the boiler is  approximately 18m (59 ft).
Its width is 3.7m (12 ft) and its depth from the front water wall to the rear
of the convection sections is approximately 6.2m (20.3 ft).
          Temperatures are measured continuously for feedwater temperature,
economizer water outlet temperature and saturated  and superheated stream tem-
peratures.  These are all recorded on  strip  charts in  the  control room.
          Boiler control is automatic from steam pressure but can be over-
ridden by a control element that senses overheating of the gases leaving
the furnace.
          The responsible boiler operator must have a certificate of  the
Federal Boiler Association which normally can be obtained  after 1 year
experience  plus part time schooling.
          Reliability of this relatively new plant was stated to be 100
percent except for scheduled shutdowns.  No major repairs  have yet been
required and at least 20 year life is expected.  Amortization period  of
20 years is common in Switzerland.
         In 1974-75, the new plant was operated at an excessive rate for only 3
or 4 days per week.  The remainder of the excessive demand time, steam was
supplied by the oil-fired standby boiler.  Design heat input is 14 x 10  kcal/
          6                  9
hr (55 xlO  Btu/hr)[58.5 x 10  J/hr].  However, the actual input ranged up
to 17-18 x 106 kcal/hr (71.4 x 106 Btu/hr)[75.3 x 109 J/hr] amounting to a
20% to 29% overload.  Formal warning to the owner by the manufacturer of the
possible deleterious consequences of such overloading led  to subsequent
operation at more nearly normal loading.  At the time of our visit, May 2-4,
1977,  there appeared to have been no permanent damage resulting from  the
period of overloading.  However, at the end of the first 11,000 hours of
operation the first row (bottom) of horizontal superheater tubes had  to be
replaced because of erosion.  This could very well have been a direct result
of overfiring the system.

-------
                                     25

          On April 1, 1977 the Swiss organization of pressure vessel inspectors
issued a report on their inspection of this boiler.  They reported the boiler
in good condition with some dirty surfaces but no unusual tube wastage.  Some
steel supports in the superheater section showed some corrosion.
          The manufacturer feels that the trend will be toward horizontal configura-
tion of vertical tubes in the  convection  section with  periodic  rapping  to remove ash
deposits.  To minimize danger of tube metal fatigue the amplitude of rapping
would be 0.5mm  (0.02 in) with emphasis on rapid acceleration by the rapper
rather than on  amplitude to dislodge the deposits.

                              Economizer

          The economizer, see Figure 9 is located near the top of the boiler
in this third pass and consists of vertical carbon steel tubes providing a  heating
                2          2
surface of 165m  (1,775  ft ).  The 2 economizer sections are approximately  2.6mm
high, 0.9m deep  and 3.2m  wide  (8.5 ft by  3 ft by lOtt) . So  far  the  economizer has
required no maintenance.  Cleaning is achieved by  the gravity  fall of a shower of
 steel shot  which intermittently is delivered to a distributor  at  the  top
 of the economizer from which it falls by gravity through  the  gas  passages
 in the economizer and in the superheater.  The falling  steel  shot cleans
 deposited ash  from the  tubes  and carries  it down  to an  ash  separation system
 where it is  removed  from the  shot and is  transported  to  be mixed in with the
 grate residue.   The  cleaned shot is  then  conveyed  pneumatically  to the top
 of the economizer to repeat the cycle.   The shot  cleaning process  operates
 about 4 minutes every hour.

                         Boiler Water Treatment

          Feedwater  is  treated by ion exchange  plus  hydrazine to the following
specifications:

          ph 7-8.5 (measured continuously)
          Hydrazine  <0.25 mg/liter
          SiO   <0.3  mg/liter
          Conductivity  >0.08 megohms (measured  continuously)
          Fe <0.05 mg/liter
          Cu <0.01 mg/liter
          Hardness <0.01 milli equivalent/liter.

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                                  26
                    Primary  (Underfire) Air Supply

                                                                *
          The  combustion  air  to  the grate  is  supplied by one BSH  blower
 rated  at  170 mm (6.7 in)WC static pressure, 194 mm (7.6 in)WC total pressure.
 This air  supply is  taken  from the refuse bunker area and is divided  into
 three  approximately equal grate  zones, each controlled by  a manually set
 damper adjustable from the control room.   At  the plant owner's request,
 provisions were included  to measure air flow  and pressure  to each zone.
                                     3
 The rated blower capacity is  32,000 m /hr  (18,816 cfm).
          Other than minor  startup problems  caused by the  motor-blower
 coupling, there have been no maintenance problems.   The manufacturer antic-
 ipates that  in very dusty plants, blade deposits may induce unbalance and
 vibrations which  could  require annual bearing replacement. In 3  years of
 operation, this has not  happened in  this very clean  plant. At earlier
 plants,  such unbalancing dust deposits were  eliminated by  changing  fan
 blade  shape  to a  less  efficient  design which dropped blower efficiency
 from about 79 or  80 percent  to 75 percent.

                    Secondary (Overfire) Air  Supply

          The overfire air supply is  also taken from  the bunker area.  Blower
capacity is  13,500 m3/hr ( 7940  cfm) at 20 C  (68 F), at a  static pressure  of
350mm (13.8  in),  total  pressure of 385mm (15  in).
          As is shown in Figure  10 and diagramatically in  Figure 11,  there are
 two sets  of overfire jets in  each sidewall.  The upper row of six jets on
 each side consists  of 60mm (2.36  in)  diameter jets in a horizontal row about
 5 m (16.4 ft) above the grate to provide air and turbulent mixing where the
 burning gases pass  upward from the top of  the furnace combustion chamber
 to the first open boiler pass.   The lower  row of 12 jets on each sidewall  are
 about  1.8m (5.9 ft)  above  the  grate and along an inclined line parallel to  the
 grate.   The air flow to the jets is modulated automatically according to
 furnace outlet temperature by a  motor operated valve.  A high temperature
 calls  for more air  to dilute  and thus cool the gases.
 *  BSH = Buttner-Schilde-Haas

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                                   29

          The manufacturer states that they prefer front and top (or rear)
wall jets over this sidewall jet arrangement and their future designs will
not use sidewall jets.  The advantages seen for frontwall jets are:
          •  Better mixing
          •  Better air distribution in the furnace
          •  Shorter flame length
          •  Less carbon monoxide.


                    Tertiary  (Sidewall) Air Supply

          In addition to the overfire air, tertiary air is supplied near the
grate through Kilnstier cast iron blocks in both sidewalls as shown schematically
in Figure 11.  This air serves both to cool the cast iron blocks and to pro-
vide an upward flowing layer of combustion air along the sidewalls for any
rich gases that may be burning there.  The air comes not from the bunker
but from the furnace room.  The forced air is supplied to the back
or "outside" of the blocks and flows in a generally downward direction behind
a steel baffle and then upward until it finds its way into the furnace through
the gaps around the periphery of each block.  A constant flow of tertiary
air is supplied to the blocks by a separately unmodulated blower rated at
       3
12,900m /hr (7600 cfm) at 20 C at a static pressure of 180mm (7.1 in)WC, total
pressure of 190mm (7.5 in)WC.  The 85 cast iron wall blocks on each sidewall are
made of 27-30 percent chromium, 0.53 percent nickel, with small amounts of
titanium and molybdenum.
          An alarm is sounded in the control room if the temperature of a
thermocouple on one of the blocks exceeds a set value of (300 C) (527 F).
This temperature and that of the steel structure nearby to the plate are both
recorded in the control room.  At this small plant, no wall blocks have been
replaced during the 3 years of operation.   Some  abrasion of the  blocks has
been noted where the burning refuse slides along the blocks.  So far, the
eroded area appears to have lost 1 to 3mm of iron.
          It can be seen that the total capacity of secondary plus tertiary
               o
air is 26,400 m /hr, nearly as great as the 32,000 nrVhr available as
primary air.  However, not all of this capacity is used.  The operator is
instructed to regulate the overfire air supply to maintain a furnace exit

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                                     30
CO „ of about 9 or 10 percent.  This is in the range of 120 percent excess
air.  From a heat recovery standpoint, it would be desirable to have the
excess air much less but this manufacturer's experience apparently is that
the higher temperatures associated with lower excess air causes metal wastage
problems.
          The induced draft fan has caused some concern because of vibrations
caused either by the belt drive or by resonance in the duct system.  It has
not been worsening.  In other plants, this is sometimes caused by buildup
of fly ash on the fan blades.  The fan is inspected once in month but has
required no maintenance except possibly replacement of a drive belt.

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                                    31
                           Heat Release Rate


          This plant is conservatively designed from the standpoint of grate

size, furnace size and boiler size.  This can be judged from the following

tabulation of heat release rates:
          Combustion rate
          Grate Area (sloped)


          Grate burning rate


          At an average LHV of
          the total heat released is
     with grate release rates equivalent to
                                         or

          Furnace heat release
          rate considering only
          the volume from the
          grate up to the entrance
          to the silicon-carbide coated
          water-tube-walled first pass:
          volume
                0)
 120 tonnes/day
   5 tonnes/hr
   5.115 tons/hr
 5,000 kg/hr
 11,023 Ib/hr
 17.5m2 (2.5 x 7.
188.A  ft2

 285.7 Kg/m?'-hr
  58.611b/ft'2-hr

 2800 Kcal/kg
 14 x 10b Kcal/hr
 800,000 Kcal/miT-hr
 295,000 Btu/ft -hr
115.65m;:
4084 ft       3
121,055 Kcal/m -hr
13,603 Btu/ft -hr
          If the SIC refractory lined water-
          tube-walled volume of the first
          pass is included as part of the
          burning volume, an additional
          26.4m , total
          the heat release rate is
142m   .
5014 ft
98,591 Kcal/m^-hr
11,080 Btu/ft -hr
          These are all low heat release rates.

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                                   32

                      Energy Utilization Equipment

          This small 120 ton per day plant produces the most complex
assortment of energy forms, considering the plant size, that the researchers
have seen in their travels.  Most of these forms can be understood by
reviewing Figure 12.  These seven forms and uses are listed in order of
energy magnitude.
          o  Hot water for district heating
          o  Steam for industrial process
          o  Electricity for the community
          o  Electricity for internal use
          o  Steam wasted on the roof
          o  Steam for internal use
          o  Hot water for internal use
          When more energy is needed than the RFSG can produce, the auxiliary
standby steam boiler shown in Figure 13 can be used.
          A back-pressure steam turbine-generator, shown in Figure 14 is
used to produce two energy forms: electricity and medium quality steam.  A
small back-pressure turbo-generator has a maximum electricity generating
capacity of 0.85 mw at 10 kv.  Inlet pressure is 39 bar (551 psig) [8.2 x 106 Pa]
and temperature is 395 C  (741 F).  Outlet pressure is 6 bar (72.5 psig)
[1.05 x 106 Pa] and temperature is 250 C (482 F).  The back pressure varies
between 5.5 and 12 bar.  Excess steam is condensed in a forced draft air-
cooled, roof-top condenser as shown in Figure 15.
          The 250 C, 6 bar exhaust steam from the turbine is cooled to
160 C, 6 bar by direct water spray and is then piped to a nearby chemical
plant which returns the condensate at 5 bar with little loss.  Figure 16 Shows
the steam distribution and condensate return tunnel*
          Hot water for district heating is produced in a steam-to-hot water
heat exchanger as shown in Figure 17.  Hot water at  6  bar  (85  psia) and  a
temperature of 110-150 C  (230-302 F) is delivered to the chemical plant  and also
to an apartment complex involving 300 units.  Figures 18 and 19 show the
district heating system under construction, the distribution pattern and
the hot water distribution and return time and the apartment building.

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                   Hochdruckdampf 39 bar, 395  C
                     Sattdampf
                                                                                     90-100°C
                                                                     Heisswasservorlauf 110-180°C
ll.   Refuse-fired steam generator
12.   Oil-fired boiler
(3.   High-pressure fe^dwater turbo-pump
J4.   High-pressure feedwater motorized pump
p.   Mid-pressure feedwater motorized pump
|6.   Turbine steam by-pass
I?.   Synchronons turbognenrator, 950 Kva
     Steam temperature regulator
19.   Feedwater tank and deaerator
                   10.   Air-cooled condenser
                   11.   Condensate pump
                   12.   Steam-to-water cascade
                   13.   Hot water district heating pump
                   14.   Heat exchange for plant heating
                   15.   District heating system
                   16.   Feedwater treatment facility
                   17.   Makeup water tank and pumps
                   18.   Industry steam supply line
                 FIGURE 1-12.
WERDENBERG STEAM AND HOT-WATER  DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
(COURTESY WIDMER & ERNST, ALBERTI-FONSAR)

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                              34
FIGURE 1-13.
OIL-FIRED STANDBY BOILER ON TRANSPORT TRUCK
(COURTESY OF WIDMER & ERNST-ALBERTI-FONSAR)

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                                      35
FIGURE 1-14.  STEAM TURBO-GENERATOR (COURTESY OF WIDMER & ERNST-ALBERTI-FONSAR)

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                             36
FIGURE 1-15.
TWO VIEWS OF AIR-COOLED CONDENSER AT WERDENBERG
(COURTESY OF WIDMER & ERNST -ALBERTI-FONSAR)

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                           37
      Grade level
Coarse
sand fill
             Drainage
             channel

           Optional      J
           drainage zone:
                                     Gravel bed
                       Retainer slab
                       4ft
FIGURE 1-16.
       STEAM AND HOT WATER DISTRIBUTION TRENCH AT WERDENBERG
       (COURTESY OF WIDMER & ERNST-ALBERTI-FONSAR)

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                              38

FIGURE 1-17.
CASCADE TYPE WATER HEATER ON LEFT, FEEDWATER
TANK AND STEAM LINES ON RIGHT AT WERDENBERG
(COURTESY OF WIDMER & ERNST-ALBERTI-FONSAR)

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                                     39
FIGURE 1-18.
INSULATION,  INSTALLATION AND MAP OF HOT WATER DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM AT WERDENBERG (Courtesy of Buchswerdenberg Society
for Waste Management)

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                                        40
FIGURE 1-19.
APARTMENT HOUSE AT WERDENBERG HEATED BY HOT WATER FROM STEAM PLANT
(COURTESY OF WIDMER & ERNST-ALBERTI-FONSAR)

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                                    41

The total length of the distribution system is 2-1/2 km (1.5 mi).  An addi-
tional 0.8 km (0.5 mi) pipeline will be added to provide heat for the railroad
station.  Other buildings may be included.  Where the hot water is utilized
for comfort heating, each building has a water-to-water heat exchanger to
provide 80 C (176 F) water for the building heating system.


                      POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT

          During our 3-day visit to the plant, there was no visible plume
most of the time and even when visible, it was only barely so against a
very clean sky.   The sole pollution control at this small plant is a single-
field electrostatic precipitator by Elex.  Without the hopper it is 9.3 m
high, 5.7 m wide, and 5.9 m deep.  It has a flow rate of 83,000 m /hr at
274 C.  Average velocity is 0.67 m/sec (2.2 ft/sec).  The gas composition
and dewpoint at the precipitator during the compliance test was:
          •  C02 - 5.4 percent
          •  H20 - 13.5  percent
          •  Dewpoint - 51 C (124 F).
                                          3                  3
 Particulates are now limited  to  100 mg/Nm  (0.0438 grains/ft )  corrected
 to 7% C00.  When this plant was  designed,  the allowable limit  was
          3                                     33
 150 mg/Nm .  When tested,  it  achieved  88 mg/Nm  (0.038 grains/ft  ) corrected
 to 7% C02.  Bypassing of precipitators has not been permitted since 1972.
          In Switzerland, waste-burning plants are limited to gaseous
emissions of:
          •  S02 - 300 mg/Nm3
          •  HC1 - 500 mg/Nm3.
          The precipitator and its duct configuration were tested beforehand
by Elex in a small water model to assure a uniform flow pattern.  To
distribute the gas flow ahead of the charging section, there are three
perforated plates in series containing 5 cm holes.  The spacing of the
collector plates is about 300 mm (11.8 in) providing 17 parallel  flow passages.
Residence time is 5.9 sec.   Total plate area is 1,142 m2 (12,288  ft2) with a
                       9           3
projected area of 952 m^ (10,243 f t ).  The plates are cleaned intermittently
by a bottom rapper.  The charging electrodes are cleaned by a rapper at
the top.

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                                    42

          Power consumption is 29 kw at 380 volts.   Output capacity is 47.5 KVA
at 78,000 volts and 600 ma.
          The fly ash hoppers are approximately 50 degree inverted pyramids
electrically heated and covered with 10 cm  (4 in.) of insulation.   The
collected ash is removed continuously by screw conveyors which discharge
into the main residue quench tank.
          The precipitator was guaranteed to achieve 97.5 percent  efficiency
and to emit no more than 100 mg/Nm^, wet gas corrected to 7 percent C02«
It achieved better than that:  88 mg/Nm^, wet at 7 percent C02-
          So far, the precipitator has needed no repairs.  It is cleaned
once per year when the boiler is cleaned.  For personnel protection, the
access doors cannot be opened before an 8-multiple key sequence is processed.
          To achieve even lower particulate emissions from future  plants,
the manufacturer is considering the use of two-field precipitators.

                          Wastewater Discharge

          The wastewater rate from the residue quench tank is about 200
liters/hr  (0.9 gpm).  System blowdown rate  is 160 liters/hr  (0.7 gpm).  The  liquid
discharge from the feedwater treatment system is neutralized before discharge.
All of these waste liquids plus washroom wastes go to the adjacent sewage
treatment plant.

                           Stack Construction

          At the customer's request, the 1.3 m dia  (4.3  ft)  insulated  steel
stack is only 40 m  (131  ft)  tall,  12 m  (39.4  ft) above  the plant roof.  Most
of the steel stack is carbon steel.  The top 4 meters  (13.1  ft) and the bottom
0.5 meters  (1.6  ft) are  stainless  steel.   It  was fabricated  by Lufttechnik +
Metallbau, subsidiary of Widmer + Ernst.  Flue gases from the oil-fired stand-
by boiler are fed into the stack just above the roof.  At roof-level, a
continuous opacity meter manufactured by Durug  (Hamburg) measures  flue
gas opacity which is recorded in the control room.

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                                    43
                      POLLUTION CONTROL ASSESSMENT

          Although the overall appearance of Swiss cities and countryside
is immaculate, this low environmental pollution level is achieved by a minimum
of necessary regulation.  New regulations are implemented with cautious
deliberation.  On the other hand, old regulations are tightened where
economically and technologically feasible.  For example, in recent years,
the particulate emission limit to the atmosphere of 150 mg/Nm^ corrected to
7 percent C02 has been dropped to 100.  This is equivalent to 0.0438 gr/scf or
0.083 Ib per 1,000 Ib gas.  For 5,000 Btu/lb refuse (2778 Kcal/kg) this
amounts to about 0.18 lb/10  Btu input (320 g/10  Kcal) [76.4 g/GJ].
          Similarly,  a Swiss survey of municipal refuse shows that 50 percent
of the refuse averages about 6 kg/tonne of HC1 and that 95 percent of the
refuse burned has less than 15 kg/tonne.   Potentially, this higher value could
result in about 1,700 mg/Nm3 (1.4 lb/1000 Ib) being discharged to the
atmosphere.   Actually, an unknown amount will stay in the furnace, precip-
itator,  and residue so probably less than 1,000 mg/Nm^ (0.8 lb/1000 Ib gas)
is emitted.   The fact that scrubbers to remove HC1 from the hot gases have
not been well developed and no deleterious atmospheric concentrations of HC1
have been observed leads the government to caution in regulation of this
emission.  On the other hand, since HC1 emissions are obviously undesirable,
there has been a 3-4 year effort to encourage the substitution of innocuous
plastics for PVC in the Swiss economy.  This still leaves the normal sodium
chloride in refuse which constitutes about half of the total
amount of chlorine in refuse.
          If eventually scrubbers to remove HC1 become necessary, the regu-
latory staff is well aware of their disadvantages:
          •  Scrubber sludge
          •  Additional cost
          •  Corrosion
          •  Visible wet plume
          •  Acid wastewater
          •  Efficiency on fine particulates often low.
Hence, the Swiss concensus is not to require scrubbers unless HC1 removal is
proven highly necessary.  Meanwhile, the PVC content of municipal refuse is being
monitored and each plant will be tested for HCl emission about every 2 years.

-------
                                    44
                                 Noises
          This plant, along the inland canal is surrounded by industry
and cultivated fields, is remote from human habitations and noise has been
no problem.  According to Swiss regulations, no plant can emit at its
boundary noise exceeding:
          •  55 db (A) at night
          •  65 db (A) in the day
          •  75 db (A) peaks.

                         PERSONNEL AND MANAGEMENT
          Seventy six (76) delegates are chosen (one for each 1000 inhabitants)
to represent them on the Verein fur Abfallbeseitigung (Society for Refuse)
Management).  These 76 delegates elect an operating Board of Directors.
The Board of Directors hires the Plant Manager, who in turn, hires the
remainder of the staff.
          This plant operates 5 days per week with only two operators on each
of four shifts plus a weigh-scale operator in the day shift and the Plant
Manager, Robert Giger and his assistant.  In addition to the refuse fired
steam generator building activity, the two managers are responsible for the
compost plant and the separate Incinerator I - now the community's pathological
incinerator.
          Figure 11 shows the organization for the RFSG only.  During weekends,
when only the standby oil boiler is fired, one of the shift bosses must be
ready to respond to an automatic alarm in his home.  In other words, the
plant produces hot water, steam, and electricity continuously on weekends -
but with no personnel routinely on duty.
          Approximate monthly take-home pay is as follows:
          •  General Manager - 3500 SwFr  ($1400)
          •  Shift Boss - 2600 SwFr ($1040)
          •  Crane Operator - 2500 SwFr ($1000).
          j  Scale operator - 2200 SwFr

-------
          45
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-------
                                    46

          Vacations are given in accordance with age as follows:
          •  Age under 45-3 weeks
          •  Age 45-50 - 4 weeks
          •  Age 5CH- - 5 weeks.
          The shift boss is expected to have a Federal license as a mechanic
or electromechanic.

                            ENERGY MARKETING

          The plant General Manager handles all energy sales.   Steam and
hot water prices are set so as to compete with the rising cost of fuel oil.
At the time of our visit (May 2-3, 1977), No. 2 oil in Switzerland cost
approximately 0.30 SF/liter ($0.45/gal)  or the equivalent of 375  SF/tonne
($167.91/ton).  The plant sells hot water at 20 SF/Gcal which is 56 percent
of the cost of No. 2 fuel oix burned at 90 percent overall efficiency.
                               ECONOMICS

                           Capital Investment

          The capital investment expenditures were available only in gross
form as shown below:
          •  Refuse fired generator building and  13,000,000 SF ($5,200,000)
             contents
          •  Office and workshop-separate          1,000,000 SF   ($400,000)
             building and contents
          •  Hot water distribution system         3,500,000 SF ($1,400,000)
          •  Steam distribution system to            500,000 SF   ($200,000)
             chemical plant
          Fortunately, the 1976 annual expenditures were available in
detail as shown in Table 6.

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                                    47

                                Revenues

          The most consistent picture can be seen in the 1977 estimate of
revenues as shown in Table 7.  The revenue budget has been set lower than
1976 due to expected lower costs.  This table of revenues showing the 12
sources of annual revenues dramatically portrays the revenue raising potential
for a single 120 tonne per day refuse fired steam generator with a standby
oil boiler.  Since the RFSG plant only operates 5 days per week, the standby
oil boiler is regularly used.  The reader is again reminded that these
revenues are for the total four-building complex.  Dump fees for animal waste
and from sale of compost are the only revenues not tied to the RFSG.
           Even in winter there are times when some steam must
be condensed, which also consumes electricity for driving the con-
denser fan.  In 1978 the heating system was to be extended which
will  increase revenues with same increase in amortization.

-------
                                  48
         TABLE 1-5.  WERDENBERG PLANT COSTS,  1976
                                                Swiss Francs
                                          Expense
                   Revenue
Operating Expense
Capital Costs

Maintenance and Repair
  Building Maintenance
  Equipment Maintenance
  Compost Facilities
  Refuse Burning Plant
  Animal Incineration
  District Heating Lines
  Tools and Furniture
  Trax (?)
    TOTAL
    Depreciation
    Insurance

Supplies
  Electricity
  Miscellaneous Supplies
  Diesel Oil
  Heating Oil and Gas
  Cleaning Materials
  Lubricants
  Chemicals
    TOTAL
    Administration

Landfill and Hauling
  Front-end loader, rental
  Truck rental
  Scrap Iron Disposal
  Gretschans Landfill
  Buchserbert Landfill
    TOTAL
Miscellaneous Expense
Special Expense
  Canal Connection
General Fees
Sale of Compost
Sale of Scrap Iron
Used Oil Processing
Sale of Heat
Sale of Electricity
SUBTOTALS
BALANCE
BUDGET PLANNING
TOTAL
   60,223.60
   81,626.07

    5,178.20
    5,633.35
    1,481.50
   96,582.15
      131.20
       96.00
      218.80
    6.008.50
  115,379.70
1,685,998.15
   85,795.00
   58,711.30
    8,386.35
    4,426.65
  235,171.35
    1,461.00
    2,310.30
    3,734.00
  314,700.95
   13,330.20
   45,360.50
    2,275.00
   81,354.75
  128,314.85
    5,219.10

   80,103.95
3,832,691.57

	578.65
3,833,070.22
                       244.45
                       430.95
3,384,848.75
      467.80
    9,555.10
   27,208.77
  346,401.45
   60.297.25
3,828,779.12
    4,291.10

3,833,070.22

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                                     49
                    TABLE 1-6.   REVENUE ESTIMATE FOR 1977
Charge
Annual
Revenue Category Volume
Old
(S.Fr.)
New
(S.Fr.)
New
Revenue
(S.Fr.)
Dump Fee Household & Bulky
  Waste
Dump Fee, Industrial Waste
Dump Fee, Animal Waste
Dump Fee, Scrap Iron
Subsidized Head Tax
Sale of Compost (1976 data)
Sale of Scrap Iron
Sale of Waste Oil
Sale of Warm Water (District
  Heating
Sale of Steam (Chemical Industry
  Process Steam)
Sale of Electricity (1/2)
Internal Credit for Electricity
  (1/2)
  TOTAL REVENUES
20,000 Tonnes
 3,000
   300
   150
76,685
Tonnes
Tonnes
Tonnes
People
 90        80     1,600,000

120       100       300,000
150       150        45,000
200       200        30,000
 12        10       766,850
                        468
                      5,000
                     25,000

                }   320,000
                                  }    50,000

                                    3,142,318
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein Plant, Courtesy of the Society for Refuse Disposal,
1976 Annual Report, Widmer + Ernst (Alberti-Fonsar)

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                      TABLE   .   EXCHANGE RATES FOR SIX EUROPEAN COUNTRIES,
                                 (NATIONAL MONETARY UNIT PER U.S. DOLLAR)
                                 1948 TO FEBRUARY, 1978(a)

1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978 (Feb.)
Denmark
Kroner
(D.Kr.)
4.810
6.920
6.920
6.920
6.920
6.920
6.914
6.914
6.914
6.914
6.906
6.908
6.906
6.886
6.902
6.911
6.921
6.891
6.916
7.462
7.501
7.492
7.489
7.062
6.843
6.290
5.650
6.178
5.788
5.778
5.580
France
Francs
(F.Fr.)
2.662
3.490
3.499
3.500
3.500
3.500
3.500
3.500
3.500
4.199
4.906
4.909
4.903
4.900
4.900
4.902
4.900
4.902
4.952
4.908
4.948
5.558
5.520
5.224
5.125
4.708
4.444
4.486
4.970
4.705
4.766
W. Germany
Deutsch Mark
(D.M.)
3.333
4.200
4.200
4.200
4.200
4.200
4.200
4.215
4.199
4.202
4.178
4.170
4.171
3.996
3.998
3.975
3.977
4.006
3.977
3.999
4.000
3.690
3.648
3.268
3.202
2.703
2.410
2.622
2.363
2.105
2.036
Netherlands
Guilders
(Gl.)
2.653
3.800
3.800
3.800
3.800
3.786
3.794
3.829
3.830
3.791
3.775
3.770
3.770
3.600
3.600
3.600
3.592
3.611
3.614
3.596
3.606
3.624
3.597
3.254
3.226
2.824
2.507
2.689
2.457
2.280
2.176
Sweden
Kronor
(S.Kr.)
3.600
5.180
5.180
5.180
5.180
5.180
5.180
5.180
5.180
5.173
5.173
5.181
5.180
5.185
5.186
5.200
5.148
5.180
4.180
5.165
5.180
5.170
5.170
4.858
4.743
4.588
4.081
4.386
4.127
4.670
4.615
Switzerland
Francs
(S.Fr.)
4.315
4.300
4.289
4.369
4.285
4.288
4.285
4.285
4.285
4.285
4.308
4.323
4.305
4.316
4.319
4.315
4.315
4.318
4.327
4.325
4.302
4.318
4.316
3.915
3.774
3.244
2.540
2.620
2.451
2.010
1.987
     (a) Exchange Rate at end of period.

         Line "ae" Market Rate/Par or Central Rate.

         Source:  International Financial Statistics:   1972  Supplement;  April,  1978, Volume
         XXXI, Mo. 4, Published by the International Monetary  Fund.
                                                                             ycr 18286
U S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE  1979 —u20-007/6313

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