Tzsa,
1
BK.
SANITARY LANDF LL FACTS
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SANITARY LANDFILL FACTS
Thomas J. Sorg
H. Lanier Hickman
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
NATIONAL CENTER FOR URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL HEALTH
SolidWastes Program
Cincinnati
1968 SW-4tS
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 35 cents
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Public Health Service Publication No. 1792
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FOREWORD
For many years our polluted environment has been the object of
growing concern. Water and air pollution have received national
attention and treatment for a decade, but solid waste disposal, which
has been called the third pollution, entered the national limelight
only during the past two years with the passage of the Solid Waste
Disposal Act of 1965.
Public apathy toward the disposal of solid wastes is no longer com-
monplace. In many communities, the public is rejecting the tradi-
tional open burning dump. Citizens are recognizing the need for
safe and sanitary management of solid wastes. Thus, the demand
increases for properly engineered, effective, and economic solid
waste disposal facilities.
SANITARY LANDFILL FACTS presents general information on the
state-of-the-art of one basic, acceptable, and effective method of
solid waste disposal — the sanitary landfill. This publication ex-
amines the planning, design, operation, and public health aspects
of sanitary landfills. This information is offered as an aid to the
growing number of people involved with planning and development
in solid waste disposal management.
Richard D. Vaughan
Chief, Solid Wastes Program
111
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CONTENTS
MISCONCEPTION vii
PLANNING A SANITARY LANDFILL 1
Competent Designer 1
Public Information Program 1
Other Considerations 2
SELECTING A SITE 2
Land Requirement 2
Zoning Restrictions 3
Accessibility 3
Haul Distance 3
Cover Material 3
Geology 3
Climate 4
Fire Control Facilities 4
DESIGNING A SANITARY LANDFILL 4
Plans 4
Specifications 5
OPERATING A SANITARY LANDFILL 5
Supervision 5
Operating Records 5
Directions 5
On-site Roads 6
Methods 6
Compaction 8
Working Face 8
Depth of Cells 8
Cover 8
Large Bulky Items 8
Landfilling (Photographs) 9
Blowing Paper 13
Maintenance 13
Drainage 13
Winter Operations 13
Wet Weather Operation 13
Salvage Operation 14
PUBLIC HEALTH AND NUISANCE ASPECTS 14
Vector Control 14
v
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Water Pollution 14
Air Pollution 14
Dust 14
Odors 15
Wildlife 15
Gas Production 15
Hazardous Materials 15
EQUIPMENT 15
Type 15
Size 17
Amount 17
FACILITIES 18
COSTS 18
Initial Investment 18
Operation Cost 18
COMPLETED SANITARY LANDFILL 20
Decomposition 20
Settlement 20
Underground Fires 20
Maintenance 20
Uses 20
ADVANTAGES 21
DISADVANTAGES 21
PHS SANITARY LANDFILL PROJECTS 22
REFERENCES 22
BIBLIOGRAPHY 23
VI
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* ^'r**,.i*5wr :~-£ -r
These photographs demonstrate how open dumps contribute to water and air pollution. Open
dumps are also sources of food and harborage for insects, rodents, birds, and o'ther wild-
life that may act as disease carriers.
MISCONCEPTION
Upon hearing the term, 'san-
itary landfill, ' many of us im-
mediately picture the tradition-
al open, frequently burning,
dump.
This misconception is quite
natural because in many in-
stances the term 'sanitary
landfill' has been misused as
the label for an open dump.
The fact is, however, that a
true sanitary landfill is not
an open dump.
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SANITARY LANDFILL FACTS
The sanitary landfill is defined by the
American Society of Civil Engineers as:
"A method of disposing of refuse on land
without creating nuisances or hazards to
public health or safety, by utilizing the
principles of engineering to confine the
refuse to the smallest practical area, to
reduce itto the smallest practical volume,
and to cover it with a layer of earth at
the conclusion of each day's operation,
or at such more frequent intervals as
may be necessary. "•*
Such a landfill is a well controlled and
truly sanitary method of disposal of solid
wastes upon land. It consists of four
basic operations: (1) The solid wastes
are deposited in a controlled manner in
a prepared portion of the site; (2) the
solid wastes are spread and compacted
in thin layers; (3) the solid wastes are
covered daily or more frequently, if nec-
essary, with a layer of earth; (4) the
cover material is compacted daily. The
final result can be a golf course or play-
field as suggested on the cover design of
this booklet.
PLANNING A SANITARY LANDFILL
A sanitary landfill is an engineering
project. When sound engineering prin-
ciples are applied, the result will be a
successful operation and in most cases
will save money. Most operational prob-
lems can be prevented iri the initial de-
velopment stages. This is easier and
more economical than correcting the de-
fects once the operation has begun.
The first step toward the ultimate goal
of establishing a sanitary landfill opera-
tion, of course, is the initial planning
phase. The preliminary planning devel-
ops the basic groundwork for the actual
engineer ing phases of site selection, de-
sign, and operation. Advanced planning
should include consideration of: a com-
petent designer; apublic information pro-
gram; a survey of solid waste practices
and possible sites; the method of financ-
ing; the ultimate use of the completed
site; and site zoning arrangements.
Competent Designer
Engineering knowledge and experience
in sanitary landfill site selection, design,
and operation are essential requirements
of the individual or agency chosen to de-
velop the sanitary landfill. If the plan-
ning or operating agency does not have
this engineering experience and compe-
tence, every effort should be made to ob-
tain the services of the best engineering
consultant available. Although a sanitary
landfill is considered the most inexpen-
sive of the approved methods of disposal,
it is a mis take to assume that a success-
ful operation requires little skill or
knowledge of design and operation. The
selection of an engineer or consultant is
a poor place to attempt to economize.
The money spent for the services of a
competent designer will be realized in a
sanitary landfill operation which is suc-
cessful and acceptable to the public.
Public Information Program
Unfortunately, many citizens associ-
ate impressions of open burning dumps
338-532 O - 69 - 2
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with sanitary landfills. Usually the plan-
ning of a sanitary landfill meets with
some public opposition unless the operat-
ing agency has conducted acceptable op-
erations elsewhere.
Preliminary planning should include
an active public information program to
explain to the public what makes a sani-
tary landfill work well and what benefits
can be expected. In many communities,
public acceptance of a sanitary landfill
site is the most important factor in de-
ciding whether it will exist--or not.
Moreover, it is very useful in gaining
public support and most helpful to a de-
signer to have the final use of the landfill
area determined in advance. An archi-
tectural rendering or a model of the com-
pleted site, as a park, playground, golf
course, or other planned use, is a good
public relations tool. When opposition is
exceptionally strong to the proposed sani-
tary landfill, it is well to consider the
installation of a temporary pilot opera-
tion to illustrate a good sanitary landfill,
while soliciting newspaper and TV sup-
port and possibly even hiring profession-
al public relations services for the pro-
gram. It is well to remember, however,
that the public will soon discover any
discrepancies between the public infor-
mation program and actual operations.
Operations must be exemplary in order
to gain public support.
Other Considerations
The responsible officials in the pre-
liminary planning phase must decide how
the initial cost and the operating costs of
the sanitary landfill will be financed.
These officials should also investigate
the amount and reliability of available
data concerning the quantity and charac-
teristics of the solid wastes to be handled.
If sufficient and reliable data necessary
for proper site selection and design are
not available, arrangements should be
made to survey the area generating solid
wastes to procure the necessary infor-
mation. If at all possible, the ultimate
use of the completed landfill site should
be decided during the initial planning
stage. As stated previously, knowing
the final use of the site will permit the
designer to plan more effectively and will
be useful for gaining public support for
the project. In many instances, zoning
restrictions have interfered with the de-
velopment of an area for a sanitary land-
fill. Many legal problems can be avoided
if preliminary planning includes arrange-
ments for zoning potential areas for san-
itary landfill operations and ultimate site
use.
SELECTING A SITE
An important engineering step toward
establishing an acceptable sanitary land-
fill operation is site selection. As with
the preliminary planning phase, proper
site selection can eliminate many future
operational problems. Most of the many
factors to be considered when selecting
a sanitary landfill site will require tech-
nical know-how, a knowledge of equip-
ment, and experience, and so it bears
repeating that a well qualified individual
or agency should be responsible for site
selection.
Land Requirement
The land area--or more important the
volume of space required--is primarily
dependent upon the character and quantity
of the solid wastes, the efficiency of com-
paction of the wastes, the depth of the
fill, and the desired life of the landfill.
Data on the quantity and character of res-
idential, commercial, and industrial sol-
id wastes to be landfilled are therefore
necessary for estimating the space re-
quired. In estimating volume require-
ments, volume reduction of the solid
wastes due to compaction must be con-
sidered. The desired life of the landfill
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is another major factor in determining
the total volume required.
The volume requirement for a sani-
tary landfill should be determined using
the specific data and information avail-
able for each individual project. As a
rough rule of thumb, however, about 7
acre-feet (11,293 yd3) per 10,000 popu-
lation per year is frequently used.
Zoning'Restrictions
A survey conducted by the American
Public Works Association in 1956 indi-
cated that a high percentage of cities are
restricted in the acquisition of disposal
sites by their zoning ordinances. 2 Con-
sequently, before a full-scale investiga-
tion of a potential site is undertaken, all
zoning ordinances should be reviewed and
cleared or changed to eliminate any le-
galities which could prevent or indefinite -
ly hold up the use of a particular parcel
of land for a sanitary landfill. Advance
planning to zone the potential landfill site
areas for sanitary landfill operation can
circumvent many of these problems.
Accessibility
It is important to select a site that
truck traffic can easily reach on high-
ways or arterial streets. Sites requir-
ing the trucks to travel through residen-
tial areas will normally draw many
complaints, and such sites should be
avoided.
The roads to the site should be of such
width and construction to handle all sizes
of trucks when fully loaded, during all
weather conditions. Such problems as
narrow bridges, low underpasses, and
steep grades on the access routes should
also be investigated. Since the site
should be accessible at all times, it is
desirable to have several access routes
so that if one route is temporarily un-
usable the site can still be used.
Haul Distance
The haul distance is an important ec-
onomic factor in selection of the sanitary
landfill site. The economic distance to
the site will vary from locality to locality
depending upon capacity of collection ve-
hicles, hauling time, and size and meth-
ods of the collection agency. The larger
the quantity of refuse hauled per trip and
the shorter the hauling time due to ex-
press roads, freeways, etc. , the greater
the distance the solidwastes canbe hauled
for the same cost.
Cover Material
The availability of cover material is
another economic factor to consider when
choosing the site, for the cost of hauling
cover material to the site can be exces-
sive. It is desirable, therefore, to se-
lectasite that has cover material avail-
able or close by to keep these costs at a
minimum.
The field investigation of the potential
site should include soil analysis to de-
termine the suitability and the quantity of
soil available for cover material. Soil
with good workability and compaction
characteristics is the most desirable
cover material. Sandy loam is consid-
ered to' be excellent since it contains
about 50 to 60 percent sand and the re-
mainder is clay and silt in equal amounts
with good workability and compaction
qualities.
Geology
The potential danger of ground and
surface water pollution resulting from
the landfill cannot be overlooked. Solid
wastes ordinarily contain many contam-
inants and often infectious materials.
These can produce serious health haz-
ards or nuisances if permitted to enter
water supplies. Site selection should in-
clude a geological investigation of the site,
which can be run in conjunction with the
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cover material field investigation, to de-
termine the potential of either ground or
surface water pollution. The ground
water table mustbe located and informa-
tion obtained on the historical high ground
water level and on the general movement
of the ground water.
The geological investigation should
also examine the topography of the site
itself and the surrounding area for poten-
tial flooding conditions of the site during
heavy rains and snow melts. Flooding
and surface water drainage can quickly
erode the cover material and the refuse
fill. Special attention should be given to
low-lying sites that might be drainage
basins for surrounding areas. Sites lo-
cated near rivers, streams or lakes also
deserve careful scrutiny. Generally, a
landfill should not be located in a flood
plain because of the water pollution haz-
ard, and because such sites are unusable
both during, and for a period following,
flood conditions.
Climate
In some locations, climate conditions
are important considerations in site se-
lection and may even dictate the method
of operation. In an extremely cold local-
ity, a site requiring excavation of trench-
es and cover material may become a
problem because of the frost during the
winter months. However, a site requir-
ing excavation operations can be used in
awintery locale if special operating pro-
cedures are planned in advance to cope
with the expected problems; the trenches
and cover material may be excavated
during the summer months to carry the
operation through the winter period.
In areas receiving considerable rain-
fall, a low-lying site may not be desir-
able because of flooding and continual
muddy working conditions. In rainy
areas, a site high in relation to the sur-
rounding area, with good drainage fea-
tures, is desirable.
In windy locales, a site surrounded by
natural windbreaks will help to contain
loose paper, thus reducing the amount of
this material which may be blown off the
site.
Fire Control Facilities
Although there is little chance of fire
at a sanitary landfill when operated in
accordance with good practices, a sani-
tary landfill site should be provided with
suitable fire protection. Despite the fact
that fires can usually be extinguished by
smothering with a blanket of earth, all
sites should have water available for fire
control. Special consideration for fire
control facilities should be given to san-
itary landfills located relatively close to
residential or commercial structures and
in extremely dry areas where the fire
could spread quickly and do extensive
damage if not brought under control im-
mediately.
DESIGNING A SANITARY LANDFILL
The design and operational steps dur-
ing development of the sanitary landfill
are not distinct phases. Basic knowledge
and experience in the operational aspects
of a sanitary landfill are necessary for
the design phase. In essence, the design
phase develops the plan of operation. It
consists primarily of determining the
operational plan and preparing the nec-
essary detailed plans and specifications
for construction and operation. Good
plans and specifications are essential for
estimating costs, bids for contracts, and
for operational control and inspection.
Plans
Detailed plans should be prepared
showing the existing topography and the
designed contours of the completed land-
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fill. As mentioned above, in the planning
section, it is extremely helpful to the de-
signer when designing the final ground
elevations, if the use of the completed
landfill has been previously determined.
The plans should show the overall plan
for landfilling, the drainage features , lo-
cation of the cover material, and the wet
weather operation site. The plans should
also detail all construction features such
as access roads, personnel and equip-
ment facilities, scales, fencing, signs,
waterlines and other utilities.
Specifications
The plans should be complemented
with a set of specifications for construc-
tion and operation. Construction specifi-
cations cover the construction materials,
workmanship, and equipment. The oper-
ating specifications should detail the
method of operation including the weigh-
ing of the wastes, the cross sectioning of
the site at definite time intervals, the
thickness of cover material, the depth of
lifts and cells, compaction, and wet
weather operation procedures.
OPERATING A SANITARY LANDFILL
The importance of the appearance of
the sanitary landfill during operation can-
not be overly stressed. The operation is
the only phase of the project that is seen
by the public. Consequently, public ac-
ceptance of the entire project—the plan-
ning, design, and operation--will be
based solely on the operation.
There are many factors involved in
the operation of a sanitary landfill. A
well operated sanitary landfill is the goal
of the planner, designer, and operator
and, therefore, each must have a thor-
ough knowledge of all the factors to guide
him in achieving this goal.
Supervision
A clean, orderly, and economic oper-
ation requires constant and competent
supervision. It is also important to em-
ploy only experienced or adequately
trained personnel to operate a sanitary
landfill.
Operating Records
For continuing evaluation and future
planning, detailed records should be kept
of the sanitary landfill operations. Rec-
ords should be kept of the incoming mate-
rial: the weights, the type, and the ori-
gin. Any deviation from the plan of
operation should also be recorded. Top-
ographic surveys of the landfill should be
made regularly to determine the rate of
space utilization. The incoming-mate-
rial data and the topographic surveys can
be used to determine the amount of ma-
terial generated per capita, compaction,
land use, operation efficiency, and to es-
timate the degree of decomposition and
eventual settlement. Good cost-account-
ing records should be maintained, includ-
ing the initial cost of the land and equip-
ment, and the operating cost of the labor,
equipment, equipment maintenance, de-
preciation, etc. These data are neces-
sary for budgetary planning, for deter-
mining the cost rates for users, and for
comparisonwith other operations, justi-
fying expenditures, and estimating the
efficiency of operation.
Directions
Sanitary landfills, particularly those
open to the public, need directional signs
and markers on nearby highways to help
speed traffic movement. At the entrance
to the site, a large legible sign should be
posted to inform the public of the hours
of operation, cost of disposal, and rules
and regulations (such as, "only covered
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THE AREA METHOD
The bulldozer is spreading and compacting a load of solid wastes I"
The scraper (foreground) is used to haul the cover material at the end of the
day's operations. Note the portable fence that catches any blowing debris; these are
used with any landfill method, whenever necessary.
trucks permitted"). At large sanitary
landfill operations, signs should also be
used on the site to direct the users to the
unloading area.
On—site Roads
The on-site roads to the unloading
area should be of all-weather construc-
tion and wide enough to permit easy two-
way truck travel. Road grades should be
designed for the largest fully loaded
trucks to travel at a reasonable rate. It
is particularly important at large sites
that traffic in and out of the area should
flow smoothly.
Methods
Sanitary landfilling consists of the ba-
sic operations of spreading, compacting,
and covering. Over the years, two gen-
eral methods of landfilling have evolved:
the area method, and the trench method.
Some schools of thought also mention a
third, the slope, or ramp, method. In
many operations, a slope, or ramp, is
used in combination with the area or
trench methods . For this reason, three
methods will be described: area land-
fill, trench landfill, and the ramp, or
slope, method,.
In the area landfill, the solid wastes
are placed on the land; a bulldozer or sim-
ilar equipment spreads and compacts the
wastes; then the wastes are covered with
a layer of earth; and finally the earth
cover is compacted. The area method is
best suited for marshes, flat areas, or
gently sloping land and is also used in
quarries, ravines, valleys or where oth-
er suitable land depressions exist. Nor-
mally, the earth cover material is hauled
in or obtained from adjacent areas.
In a trench landfill, a trench is cut in
the ground and the solid wastes are placed
in the trench. The solid wastes are then
spread in thin layers, compacted, and
covered with earth excavated from the
trench. The trench method is best suited
for flat or gently sloping land where the
water table is not near the ground surface.
The advantage is that normally the ma-
terial excavated from the trench can be
used for cover with a minimum of haul-
ing. A disadvantage is that more than
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THE TRENCH METHOD
The waste collection truck
deposits its load into the
trench where the bulldozer will
spread and compact it. At the
end of the day the dragline will
excavate soil from the future trench, and this soil will be used as the daily cover ma-
terial. Trenches can also be excavated with a front-end loader, bulldozer, or scraper.
one piece of equipmentmay be necessary.
In the ramp or slope method (a varia-
tion of the area and trench landfills), the
solid wastes are dumped on the side of an
existing slope. After spreading the ma-
terial in thin layers on the slope, the
bulldozing equipment compacts it. The
cover material, usually obtained just
ahead of the working face, is spread on
the ramp and compacted. As a method
of landfilling, this variation is generally
suited to all areas. Having the advantage
of utilizing only one piece of equipment
to perform all operations makes the ramp
or slope method of landfill particularly
applicable to smaller operations. The
slope, or ramp, is commonly used in the
area and trench landfill and is illustrated
below.
THE RAMP VARIATION
The solid wastes are being spread and compacted on a slope. The daily cell may be cov-
ered with earth scraped from the base of the ramp. This variation is used with either
the area or trench method.
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Compaction
Solidwastes should be placed at the top
or base of the working face, spread in
thin layers about 2 feet thick, and compac-
ted. If a slope, or ramp, is used, better
compaction will normally result if the
wastes are spread and compacted from
the base upwards. The degree of com-
paction is dependent on the character of
the solid wastes, the weight and type of
compacting equipment, and the number of
passes the equipment makes over the ma-
terial. The actual density of the landfill
can be determined from operating rec-
ords and data. The degree of compaction
is a useful tool to determine the rate of
space usage, expected life of the land-
fill, and the overall efficiency of the
operation.
Working Face
The size of the working face of the
landfill operation is determined by the
rate of unloading of the incoming vehicles.
The working face should be as narrow as
possible to minimize the exposed area,
but not so small as to interfere with the
unloading operations and the movement
of landfill equipment. A minimum width
of the working face should be approxi-
mately twice the width of the tractor to
allow the tractor to move from side to
side thus compacting the entire exposed
surface.
Depth of Cells
Cell depth is the thickness of the solid
wastes layer measured perpendicular to
the working slope where the equipment
travels. The depth of cells is determined
largely by the size of the operation, the
elevation desired of the completed fill,
the depth of the trench or depression to
be filled, and in some cases, the amount
of cover material available. Eight feet
is generally recommended as a maximum
single cell depth because deeper cells
usually result infills that have excessive
settlement and surface cracking. How-
ever, the cell depth of presently operated
sanitary landfills varies from 2 feet to
15 feet or more.
Cover
The compacted solid wastes should be
covered at the conclusion of each day's
operation, or more frequently if neces-
sary, with a minimum of 6 inches of
compacted earth. Because of its work-
ability and compaction characteristics,
a sandy loam soil is the most desirable
cover material. But if sandy loam is not
available on the site, itmay be necessary
to adjust the covering procedures to the
type of cover material available or to
haul in more suitable cover material.
The cover is necessary to prevent insect
and rodent infestation, blowing paper,
fires, the attraction of gulls, and the re-
lease of gas and odors.
For daily cover, a minimum of 6 inch-
es of compacted sandy loam is recom-
mended. For intermediate cover on lifts
which will not have additional lifts placed
on them within a year, a minimum of 12
inches of compacted sandy loam is rec-
ommended. A minimum of 2 feet of com-
pacted sandy loam is recommended for
the final cover. The final cover should
be placed over the fill as soon as possible
to help assure that wind and water ero-
sion does not expose the wastes. Where
trees will be planted on the completed
fill, a depth of 3 or more feet of com-
pacted earth has been found necessary.
Large Bulky Items
Large bulky items such as car bodies,
refrigerators, water heaters, and tree
stumps, can be handled routinely with
other solid wastes at large landfills that
use heavy equipment. At small landfills
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STEPS IN
OPERATING A
SANITARY
LANDFILL
Unloading
Solid Wastes
338-532 O - 69 - 3
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10
Spreading and compacting of refuse
followed by earth covering
^ , .. ,
"
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11
,<***.
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12
End of
the day
.4*
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13
where light equipment is normally used,
special provisions may be necessary to
handle bulky items. A separate unload-
ing area at the site or an alternate site,
operated in a sanitary manner, should be
utilized for the disposal of bulky items
that cannot be handled routinely with the
other solid wastes.
Blowing Paper
In a 1959 survey of sanitary landfill
operations by the American Society of
Civil Engineers, the operating problem
most frequently reported was that of
blowing paper. 3 The common method of
controlling blowing paper is with a com-
bination of permanent and portable fences.
Unfortunately, under certain wind condi-
tions the paper may blow up and over the
fences, so that fences do not provide
complete control. Prompt compaction
and covering are also useful in control-
ling windblown paper. It is important,
therefore, that the designer consider the
prevailing wind direction when designing
the operation.
Maintenance
Routine maintenance will be required
to maintain a clean, orderly, and accept-
able operation and site. It is important,
particularly at public sanitary landfills,
to cut the grass and weeds, pick up the
scattered paper, maintain good access
roads, control dust, and maintain clean
and attractive employee and public facil-
ities.
Drainage
To prevent ponding on the landfill sur-
face with resultant excessive seepage in-
to the landfill, drainage must be pro-
vided. This will prevent runoff water
from eroding the cover material and ex-
posing the wastes. Drainage must be
provided both during the filling operation
and for the completed landfill. Good
drainage will usually require periodic re-
grading of the site, and the use of cul-
verts or grassed waterways. It is rec-
ommended that the slope of the surface
of the completed fill be a minimum of 1
percent. Since the landfill will undergo
uneven settlement, it may be necessary
to design the original slope for more than
1 percent to maintain a 1 percent slope
after settlement. To prevent erosion,
however, steep slopes should be avoided.
Winter Operations
Experience has shown that with good
planning and proper operating techniques,
a sanitary landfill can be operated
throughout even the severe winters of
North Dakota. Where the trench method
of landfill is used, the trenches should be
excavated before the cold weather season.
It may be necessary to stockpile cover
material and cover it with straw, leaves,
or other material to prevent freezing.
The material should be piled loosely with
minimum compaction. All snow and ice
should be removed from the trenches be-
fore use; it is good practice to use snow
fences to protect the access roads. Also,
a well-constructed, heated, tractor cab
enables the operator to work efficiently
during the cold weather.
Wet Weather Operation
Wetweather can seriously hamper the
operations of a sanitary landfill by mak-
ing the soil too soft, mucky, or slippery
for equipment operation. Wet weather
can also seriously interfere with trench-
ing, covering, and general traffic flow to
and from the working face. For these
reasons, all-weather access roads and
drainage should be built. In many cases,
it is advantageous to stockpile such ma-
terials as concrete rubble, broken as-
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14
phalt pavement, stone, etc. , for use on
the site roads during wet weather. This
will minimize the cost of constructing
and maintaining hard-surface roads to the
unloading area. It is also desirable to
provide a temporary wet weather land-
fill area adjacent to the all-weather road.
Such sites are used only during the wet
weather periods when the normal working
area is not accessible.
Particular attention must be given to
landfills when the trench method is being
used. If pumping or good drainage is not
provided, the trenches will fill with water,
resulting in possible ground or surface
water pollution and complete shut-down
of the operation.
Salvage Operation
The American Society of Civil Engi-
neers has stated that generally the most
objectionable disposal sites from the
standpointof appearance are those where
the salvage activity is the greatest. 1 To
ensure clean and orderly sites and to
prevent landfills from looking like open
dumps, salvage operations shouldbe pro-
hibited at all sanitary landfill sites.
PUBLIC HEALTH AND NUISANCE
ASPECTS
Vector Control
In a properly operated and maintained
sanitary landfill, insects and rodents are
not a problem. Well-compacted wastes
and cover material are the most impor-
tant factors in achieving vector control.
Six inches of compacted earth cover is
recommended for preventing the emer-
gence of houseflies from the fill. Good
compaction of the cover material also
discourages rodents from burrowing
through the cover material. Good house-
keeping and daily covering of the solid
wastes are musts for vector control.
Water Pollution
Under certain geological conditions,
the burial of solid wastes is a real poten-
tial for chemical and bacteriological pol-
lution of ground and surface water. Sev-
eral investigations of the pollution of
ground water from sanitary landfills have
indicated that if a sanitary landfill is in-
termittently or continuously in contact
with ground water, the ground water can
become grossly polluted and unfit for do-
mestic or irrigational use. Proper plan-
ning and site selection, however, com-
bined with good engineering design and
operation of the sanitary landfill can nor-
mally eliminate the possibility of either
surface or ground water pollution. Some
of the common preventative measures
used are: (1) locating the site at a safe
distance from streams , lakes, wells, and
other water sources; (Z) avoiding site
location above the kind of subsurface
stratification that will lead the leachate
from the landfill to water sources, i. e. ,
fractured limestone; (3) using an earth
cover that is nearly impervious; (4) pro-
viding suitable drainage trenches to carry
the surface water away from the site.
Air Pollution
Air pollution caused by smoke should
not occur. No burning should be permit-
ted at a properly operated sanitary land-
fill. If a fire does occur, it should be
extinguished immediately.
Dust
Dust is a nuisance that may occur at a
sanitary landfill operation in dry weather.
Dust generated at the unloading area can
be controlled by sprinkling the unloading
area and the deposited refuse with water.
Other dust control measures are the
planting of grass or other vegetation on
the finished fill and the application of
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15
water, road oil, or calcium chloride to
the access roads.
Odors
Odorous gases
usually result irom anaerobic digestion
of putrescible material. The best con-
trol for odors is rapid and continuous
coverage of solid wastes during the day
and sealing surface cracks of the com-
pleted area of the landfill to prevent emis -
sions of large concentrations of odorous
gases.
Wildlife
Birds, particularly gulls, and other
wildlife are common at open and burning
dumps. There is little exposed food to
attract wildlife at sanitary landfills.
Most good sanitary landfill operations
are free from these nuisances; however,
there is no guarantee that all sanitary
landfills will be completely free of wild-
life. To keep the number of gulls and
other wildlife to a minimum, the site
should be kept clean, and the solid wastes
should be covered promptly with earth.
Gas Production
Gas produced within a sanitary land-
fill consists chiefly of methane, nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and hydrogen
sulfide. Methane gas is explosive and
can be a hazard if accumulated in enclosed
spaces. At landfills where methane and
other gases are a problem, the gases
should be dissipated into the atmosphere.
Hazardous Materials
Although it is not common practice,
hazardous materials such as sewage
solids, radioactive wastes, pathologic
wastes, explosive materials, and chem-
icals can be disposed of at landfill sites
under special conditions. The special
provisions for handling and disposing of
these materials will depend on local con-
ditions. These materials may require
individual handling and disposal in a spe-
cial area separate from the main oper-
ating area. The necessary provisions
should be considered during the design
phase and, if appropriate, be included in
the operational specifications.
EQUIPMENT
A wide variety of equipment is on the
market today from which to select the
proper type and size needed for an effi-
cient operation. The size, the type, and
the amount of equipment required at a
sanitary landfill depend on the size and
method of operation and to some degree
on the experience and preference of the
designer and equipment operators.
Type
The most common equipment used on
sanitary landfills is the crawler or rub-
ber-tired tractor. The tractor can be
usedwith a dozer blade, trash blade, or
a front-end loader. A tractor is versa-
tile and can normally perform all the op-
erations: the spreading, compacting,
covering, trenching, and even the haul-
ing, of the cover material. The decision
on whether to select a rubber-tire or a
crawler-type tractor, and a dozer blade,
trash blade, or f ront-end loader, must
be based on .the existing conditions at
each individual site.
Other equipment used at sanitary land-
fills are scrapers, compactors, drag-
lines, rippers, and graders. This type
of equipment is normally found only at
large sanitary landfills where specialized
equipment increases the overall efficien-
cy.
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16
STANDARD LANDFILL EQUIPMENT
n
L
H
3
CRAWLER TRACTOR
RUBBER-TIRED TRACTOR
FRONT-END ACCESSORIES
BUCKET
DOZER BLADE
MULTIPURPOSE
BUCKET
LANDFILL BLADE
SPECIALIZED EQUIPMENT
SCRAPER
DRAGLINE
STEEL-WHEEL COMPACTOR
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17
Size
The size of the equipment is dependent
primarily on the size of the operation.
Small sanitary landfills for communities
of 15, 000 people or less or sanitary land-
fills handling 40 tons of solid wastes per
day or less can operate successfully with
one tractor of the 5- to 15-ton range.
Heavier equipment in the 15- to 30-ton
range or larger can handle more refuse
and achieve better compaction. Heavy
equipment is recommended for sanitary
landfill sites serving more than 15,000
people or handling more than 40 tons per
day.
Amount
Sanitary landfills servicing 50,000
people or less or handling about 115 tons
or less of solid wastes normally can man-
age well with one piece of equipment. At
these small sites where only one piece
of equipm'ent is used, provisions must be
made for standby equipment. It is pref-
erable that a second piece of equipment
be purchased and used for replacement
during breakdown and routine mainte-
nance periods of the regular equipment.
Arrangements can normally be made,
however, with another public agency or
private concern for the use or rental of
replacement equipment on short notice
in case of a breakdown of the regular
equipment.
At large sanitary landfills serving
more than 100,000 people, or handling
more than 260 tons of solid wastes per
day, more than one piece of equipment
will be required. At these sites, spe-
cialized equipment can be utilized to in-
crease efficiency and minimize costs.
Table 1 is offered as a general guide for
the selection of the type, size, and amount
of equipment for various sizes of sanitary
landfills.
Table 1. AVERAGE EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS
Equipment
Population Daily tonnage ~ ~ ~ ~~
^ * 5 No. Type Size in Ibs
0 to 15,000 0 to 40 1 Tractor crawler or 10,000 to 30,000
rubber-tired
15, 000 to 50, 000 40 to 130 1 Tractor crawler or 30, 000 to 60, 000
rubber-tired
* Scraper
Dragline
Water truck
rubber-tired or more
=!= Scraper
Dragline
Water truck
100, 000 260 2 Tractor crawler or 45, 000
or more or more or more rubber-tired or more
'•; Scraper
Dragline
Steel wheel compactor
Road grader
Water truck
Accessory"!1
Dozer blade
Front-end loader
( 1 to 2 yd)
Trash blade
Dozer blade
Front-end loader
(2 to 4 yd)
Bullclam
Trash blade
Front-end loader
(2 to 5 yd)
Bullclam
Trash blade
Dozer blade
Front-end loader
Bullclam
Trash blade
•^Optional. Dependent on individual
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18
FACILITIES
Small sanitary landfill operations will
usually require only a small building for
storing hand tools, equipnnent parts , etc.,
and a small shelter with sanitary facili-
ties for the employees or a single build-
ing to serve both purposes.
Large sanitary landfill operations
should have a maintenance and storage
garage for the equipment, and an admin-
istrative-type building. If the scales are
not adjacent to the administrative build-
ing, a scale house may also be needed.
Sanitary facilities should be available for
both employees and the public. In addi-
tion, it is recommended that locker rooms
and showers be provided for the employ-
ees.
COSTS
The cost of a sanitary landfill consists
of the initial investment for land, equip-
ment, and construction features, and the
operating costs.
Initial Investment
The magnitude of the initial investment
depends on the size and sophistication of
the landfill. A typical breakdown of the
items that will normally make up the ini-
tial investment is as follows:
1. Land
2. Planning and designing
a. Consultant
b. Solid wastes survey
c. Site investigation
d. Design, plans, specifications
3. Construction
a. Access roads
b. Utilities--water, electricity,
telephone, etc.
c. Shelter and storage facilities
d. Scales
e. Fencing
f. Miscellaneous--signs, site
clearing
4. Equipment
Generally, the major portion of the ini-
tial investment will be for the purchase
of the land and equipment. Often a size-
able part of the initial investment for land
and equipment can be recovered through
the development or use of the land and
the salvage value of the equipment. If
moneys are not available for the proposed
investment, consideration should be made
of leasing either the land or equipment or
both to spread the cost over the operation.
Operation Cost
The operating cost of a sanitary land-
fill depends on the cost of labor and
equipment, the method of operation, and
the efficiency of the operation. The prin-
cipal items that make up the operating
cost are as follows:
1. Personnel—salaries and fringe
benefits
2. Equipment
a. Operating expenses—gas, oil,
etc.
b. Maintenance and repair
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19
c. Rental, depreciation, or amor-
tization
3. Cover material--material and haul
costs
4. Administration and overhead
5. Miscellaneous --tools , utilities,
insurance, maintenance to roads,
fences, facilities, etc.
Labor wages will amount to about 40
to 50 percent of the total operating cost.
Equipmentwill make up 30 to 40 percent;
cover material, administration, over-
head, and miscellaneous will amount to
about 20 percent.
Figure 1 charts the operating costs
per tonversus the amount of solid wastes
handled in tons and the population equiv-
alent. The unit operating cost of a small
operation handling 50, 000 tons per year
or less varies from $1.25 to approxi-
mately $5.00 per ton. This wide range
is primarily due to the low efficiency of
the smaller operations which are normal-
ly operated on a part-time basis. Full-
time personnel, full-time use of the
equipment, specialized equipment, bet-
ter management, and other factors that
lead to high efficiency are possible at
large sanitary landfill operations. The
increased efficiency results in lower unit
cost of disposal. The unit cost of a large
landfill handling 50, 000 tons or more per
yearwill generally fall between $0.75 to
$2. 00 per ton.
To compare the true cost of sanitary
landfilling with that of incineration or
composting, it is essential that the costs
and returns of the initial investments and
the hauling costs be included along with
the disposal costs. The hauling costs of
a collection system that uses the sanitary
landfill disposal method may be higher
than the hauling costs of a system using
3.C
2.00
0
I
TONS PER YEAR 0
TONS PER DAY1 0
POPULATION2 0
100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000
320 640 960 1280 1600
122,000 244,000 366,000 488,000 610,000
'Based on 6-day work week.
2Based on national average of 4.5 Ibs per person per calendar day.
FIGURE 1. SANITARY LAISDULL OPERATING COSTS
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20
incineration or composting, since sani-
tary landfills are generally located fur-
ther from the waste-generating area than
are incinerators or compost plants. In
contrast to the possibility of higher haul-
ing costs, a sanitary landfill may in-
crease the value of a plot of unusable land
by converting the site to a playground,
golf course, park, etc. , thereby obtain-
ing a major investment cost advantage
over incineration and composting.
COMPLETED SANITARY LANDFILL
Decomposition
Information available on the decompo-
sition of buried material in a sanitary
landfill indicates that it is extremely dif-
ficult to predict the time required for
complete decomposition. Many items,
particularly paper, have been found un-
changed in landfills that had been com-
pleted for 15 to 25 years. The rate of
decomposition is primarily dependent up-
on the moisture content and generally
takes place at a very slow rate.
Decomposition of the wastes will re-
sultin the production of gases, principal-
ly methane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
hydrogen, and hydrogen sulfide. The
amount of gas produced during any time
interval is dependent upon the rate of gas
production; it will usually reach a peak
within the first 2 years and then slowly
taper off. Methane gas causes the most
concernbecause of its explosive charac-
ter. Precautions should be taken to pre-
ventthegas from seeping into sewers or
other structures located on or near the
landfill.
Settlement
Settlement of the landfill is dependent
on the depth of the fill, composition, com-
paction of the material, moisture con-
tent, and other factors. Studies have in-
dicated that approximately 90 percent of
of the total settlement will occur in the
first 2 to 5 years. The final 10 percent
will occur over a long-range period.
Underground Fires
Although underground fires rarely oc-
cur in a completed landfill, the possibility
does exist. AIL underground fires should
be dug up and extinguished. The cell con-
struction feature of a sanitary landfill
helps to confine and restrict the spread
of the fire should one occur.
Maintenance
Completed landfills will generally re-
quire maintenance because of differential
settlement. The maintenance will con-
sist primarily of resloping the surface to
maintain good, drainage and filling in
small depressions that result from un-
even settlement.
Uses
Most completed landfill sites are used
for recreational purposes such as parks,
playgrounds, and golf courses. Comple-
ted landfills are also used for parking and
storage areas and botanical gardens.
Because of settling and gas problems,
construction of buildings on completed
landfills generally has been avoided; in
several locations, however, one-story
rambling-type buildings and airport run-
ways for light aircraft have been con-
structed directly on sanitary landfills. In
such cases, it is important for the de-
signer to avoid concentrated foundation
loading which can result in uneven settle-
ment and cracking of the structure; and
the designer must provide the means to
allow the gas to dissipate to the atmo-
sphere and not into the structure. How-
ever, multi-store buildings can be built
over completed landfills, using steel and
concrete pilings and special engineering
design.
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21
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
The sanitary landfill has many advan-
tages not common to other methods of
disposal.
1. Where land is available, the sani-
tary landfill is usually the most ec-
onomical method of solid waste dis -
posal.
2. The initial investment is low com-
pared to that of other disposal
methods.
3. A sanitary landfill is a complete or
final disposal method as compared
to incineration and composting
where residue, quenching •water,
unusable materials, etc., remain
and require further disposal.
4. A sanitary landfill can be put into
operation within a short period of
time.
5. A sanitary landfill can receive all
types of solid wastes , eliminating
the necessity of separate collec-
tions.
6. A sanitary landfill is flexible; in-
creased quantities of solid wastes
canbe disposed of with little addi-
tional personnel and equipment.
7. Submarginal land may be reclaimed
for use as parking lots, play-
grounds, golf courses, airports,
etc.
1. In highly populated areas , suitable
land may not be available within ec -
onomical hauling distance.
2. If proper sanitary landfill stand-
ards are not adhered to, the opera-
tion may result in an open dump.
3. Location of sanitary landfills in
residential areas can result in ex-
treme public opposition.
4. A completed landfill will settle and
require periodic maintenance.
5. Special design and construction
mustbe utilized for buildings con-
structed on completed landfill be-
cause of the settlement factor.
6. Methane, an explosive gas, and the
other gases produced from the de-
composition of the wastes may be-
come a hazard or nuisance problem
and interfere with the use of the
completed landfill.
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22
PHS SANITARY LANDFILL PROJECTS
The Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965
provided funds for surveys, demonstra-
tions, studies, and investigations of new
and improved technology of solid waste
disposal. The Act authorized awards up
to two-thirds the cost of the project and
the awards are made by the Solid Wastes
Program, National Center for Urban and
Industrial Health, U.S. Public Health
Service. A recent publication describing
funded solid wastes demonstration pro-
jects, including those related to sanitary
landfills, is available from the Solid
Wastes Program.
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113, Aug. 1959.
Weaver, L. , and D. M. Keagy. Sanitary
landfill method of refuse disposal in
northern states. Public Health Service
Publication No. 226. Washington, U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1952. 3 1 p.
Weaver, L. , and D. Keagy. Mandan, N.
D. tries cold-weather operation of sani-
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111, Sept. 1952.
Williams, E. R. , G. F. Mallison, and P.
P. Maier. Light equipment for small
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Winkler, T. E. Compaction, settlement
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U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE • 1969 O - 338-532
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
NATIONAL CENTER FOR URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL HEALTH
solid wastes program
regional offices
REGION I
John Fitzgerald Kennedy Federal Building
Boston, Massachusetts 02203
(telephone: 617-223-6687)
REGION II
837H Federal Office Building
26 Federal Plaza
New York, New York 10007
(telephone: 212-264-2523)
REGION III
220 Seventh Street, NE
Charlottesville, Virginia 22901
(telephone: 703-296-1 445)
REGION IV
404 Peachtree-Seventh Building
50 Seventh Street, NE
Atlanta, Georgia 30323
(telephone: 404-526-3454)
REGION V
71 2 New Post Office Building
433 West Van Buren Street
Chicago, Illinois 60607
(telephone: 312-353-5465)
REGION VI
Federal Office Building
601 East 12th Street
Kansas City, Missouri 641 06
(telephone: 816-374-3307)
REGION VII
1114 Commerce Street
Dallas, Texas 75202
(telephone: 214-749-2007)
REGION VIII
9017 Federal Office Building
19th and Stout Streets
Denver, Colorado 80202
(telephone: 303-297-4456)
REGION IX
254 Federal Office Building
50 Fulton Street
San Francisco, California 94102
(telephone: 41 5-556-8480)
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Public Health Service Publication No. 1792
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