Sanitary
Landfill
Facts
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ii
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Sanitary Landfill Facts
This publication (SW-4ts) was written by
THOMAS J. SORG and H. LANIER HICKMAN, JR.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Environmental Health Service
Bureau of Solid Waste Management
1970
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First edition, 1968
Second printing, 1969
Third printing, 1970
Public Health Service Publication No. 1792
Second edition, 1970
Reprinted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
1971
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 70-607317
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1
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THE POLLUTED ENVIRONMENT
Our polluted environment has been the
object of increasing concern. Water
and air pollution have received
national attention and treatment for
decades, but solid waste, which has
been called the third pollution, entered
the national limelight only with the
passage of the Solid Waste Disposal
Act of 1965.
Public apathy toward the disposal
of solid wastes is no longer common-
place. In many communities, the public
is rejecting the traditional open burn-
ing dump. Citizens are recognizing the
need for safe and sanitary manage-
ment of solid wastes. Demand increases
for properly engineered, effective, and
economic solid waste disposal facilities.
Sanitary Landfill Facts presents gen-
eral information on the state of the art
of one basic, acceptable, and effective
method of solid waste disposal—the
sanitary landfill. This publication
examines the planning, design, opera-
tion, and public health aspects of
sanitary landfills. This information is
offered as an aid to the growing
number of people involved with plan-
ning and development of solid waste
management.
—RICHARD D. VAUGHAN, Director
Bureau of Solid Waste Management
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MISCONCEPTION
Upon hearing the term, 'sanitary
landfill/ many of us immediately pic-
ture the traditional open, frequently
burning, dump.
This misconception is quite natural
because in many instances the term
'sanitary landfill' has been misused as
the label for an open dump. The fact
is, however, that a true sanitary landfill
is not an open dump.
OPEN DUMPS ARE PARTICULARLY DANGEROUS where salvage is permitted (as in the above
photograph). Open dumps contribute to air and water pollution and are sources of food for insects,
rodents, birds, and other wildlife that may act as disease carriers.
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CONTENTS
1 PLANNING A SANITARY LANDFILL
Competent Designer
Public Information Program
Other Considerations
4 SELECTING A SITE
Land Requirement
Zoning Restrictions
Accessibility
Haul Distance
Cover Material
Geology
Climate
Fire Control Facilities
7 DESIGNING A SANITARY LANDFILL
Plans
Specifications
7 OPERATING A SANITARY LANDFILL
• Supervision
Operating Records
- Directions
On-site Roads
Methods
Compaction
Working Face
' Depth of Cells
Cover
Large Bulky Items
- Landfilling
Blowing Paper
Maintenance
Drainage
Winter Operations
Wet Weather Operation
Salvage Operation
15 PUBLIC HEALTH ASPECTS
Vector Control
Water Pollution
Air Pollution
Dust
Odors
Wildlife
Gas Production
Hazardous Materials
18 EQUIPMENT
Type
Size
Amount
21 FACILITIES
22 COSTS
Initial Investment
Operation Cost
24 COMPLETED SANITARY LANDFILL
Decomposition
Settlement
Underground Fires
Maintenance
Uses
24 SANITARY LANDFILL PROJECTS
25 REFERENCES CITED
25 BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR SANITARY LANDFILL
28 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
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Sanitary Landfill Facts
•TIRE SANITARY LANDFILL is defined
by the American Society of Civil
Engineers as: A method of disposing
of refuse on land without creating
nuisances or hazards to public health
or safety, by utilizing the principles
of engineering to confine the refuse to
the smallest practical area, to reduce
it to the smallest practical volume,
and to cover it with a layer of earth at
the conclusion of each day's operation,
or at such more frequent intervals as
may be necessary.1
' See page 25 for references.
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Such a landfill is a well-controlled
and truly sanitary method of disposal
of solid wastes upon land. It consists
of four basic operations: (1) the solid
wastes are deposited in a controlled
manner in a prepared portion of the
site; (2) the solid wastes are spread and
compacted in thin layers; (3) the solid
wastes are covered daily or more
frequently, if necessary, with a layer of
earth; (4) the cover material is com-
pacted daily. The final result can be a
golf course, tennis court, playfield, bo-
tanical garden, municipal riding ring,
or whatever not-too-heavy activity the
community wants.
PLANNING A SANITARY LANDFILL
A sanitary landfill is an engineering
project. When sound engineering
principles are applied, the result will
be a successful and efficient operation.
Most operational problems can be
prevented in the initial development
stages. This is easier and more eco-
nomical than correcting the defects
once the operation has begun.
The first step toward the ultimate
goal of establishing a sanitary landfill
operation is, of course, initial planning.
Preliminary planning develops the
basic groundwork for the actual engi-
neering phases of site selection,
design, and operation. Advanced
planning should include consideration
of: a competent designer; a public
information program; a survey of solid
waste practices and possible sites;
methods of financing; ultimate use of
the completed site; and site zoning
arrangements.
The solid wastes are covered daily, or more
frequently if necessary, with a layer of earth.
With perhaps a playfield in mind as the final use,
the project must be guided successfully through
an initial planning phase and then a well-
engineered operation to reach the ultimate goal.
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Competent Designer. Engineering
knowledge and experience in sanitary
landfill site selection, design, and
operation are essential requirements
of the individual or agency chosen to
develop the sanitary landfill. If the
planning or operating agency does not
have this engineering experience and
competence, every effort should be
made to obtain the services of the best
engineering consultant available.
Although a sanitary landfill is con-
sidered the most inexpensive of the
methods of disposal, it is a mistake to
assume that a successful operation
requires little skill or knowledge of
design and operation. The engineer or
consultant is important—this is a poor
place to attempt to economize. The
money spent for the services of a com-
petent designer will bring returns in
a sanitary landfill operation that is
successful and acceptable to the public.
Information Program. Unfortu-
nately, many people associate impres-
sions of open burning dumps with
sanitary landfills. As a result the plan-
ning of a sanitary landfill usually
meets with public opposition unless the
operating agency has conducted
acceptable operations elsewhere. In
many communities, public acceptance
of a sanitary landfill site is the most
important factor in deciding whether
it will exist.
Preliminary planning should include
an active public information program
to explain to the public what comprises
a sanitary landfill operation and what
benefits can be expected.
In gaining public support the de-
signer will find it helpful to have the
final use of the landfill area determined
in advance. An architectural rendering
or a model of the completed site as a
park, playground, golf course, or other
planned use, is a good public relations
tool.
When opposition to the proposed
sanitary landfill is exceptionally strong,
the operating agency can use a tem-
porary pilot operation to illustrate
a good sanitary landfill while simulta-
neously soliciting newspaper and TV
support and possibly even hiring
professional public relations services
for the program.
Operations must be exemplary in
order to gain public support. The public
will soon discover any discrepancies
between the public information
program and actual operations.
Other Considerations. The respon-
sible officials in the preliminary plan-
ning phase must decide how the initial
cost and the operating costs of the
sanitary landfill will be financed.
These officials should also investigate
the amount and reliability of available
data concerning the quantity and
characteristics of the solid wastes to be
handled. If sufficient and reliable data
necessary for proper site selection
and design are not available, the area
to be served by the sanitary landfill
must be surveyed to procure the
necessary informations
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If at all possible, the ultimate use of
the completed landfill site should be
decided during the initial planning
stage. Knowing the final use of the site
permits the designer to plan more
effectively and gains public support
for the project.
Zoning restrictions have sometimes
interfered with the development of
an area for a sanitary landfill. Many
legal problems can be avoided if
preliminary planning includes arrange-
ments for zoning potential areas for
sanitary landfill operations and
ultimate site use.
THIS WILL BE A GOLF COURSE.
Homes in the Mission Canyon area of Los Angeles were intentionally built overlooking a large sanitary
landfill, because the owners knew that a park and golf course would be constructed on the completed fill.
•cfial
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SELECTING A SITE
An important engineering step
toward establishing an acceptable
sanitary landfill operation is site
selection. As with the preliminary
planning phase, proper site selection
can eliminate many future operational
problems. The factors to be considered
when selecting a sanitary landfill site
will require technical know-how and
experience, and so it bears repeating
that a well qualified individual or
agency should be responsible for site
selection.
Land Requirement. The land area—
or, more important, the volume of
space required—is primarily depend-
ent upon the character and quantity
of the solid wastes, the efficiency of
compaction of the wastes, the depth
of the fill, and the desired life of the
landfill. Data on the quantity and
character of residential, commercial,
and industrial solid wastes to be land-
filled are therefore necessary for
estimating the space required. In esti-
mating volume requirements, volume
reduction of the solid wastes due to
compaction must be considered. The
desired life of the landfill is another
major factor in determining the total
volume required.
The volume requirement for a
sanitary landfill should be determined
on the basis of the specific data and
information for each individual project.
As an estimate, however, using a
waste generation rate of 5.3 pounds
per person per day, solid waste density
of 1,000 pounds per cubic yard, and one
part earth cover to four parts waste, a
population of 10,000 people would re-
quire 15 acre-feet of space per year.
Zoning Restrictions. A survey con-
ducted by the American Public Works
Association in 1956 indicated that a
high percentage of cities are restricted
by their zoning ordinances in the
acquisition of disposal sites.2
Consequently, before a full-scale in-
vestigation of a potential site is under-
taken, all zoning ordinances should
be reviewed and cleared or changed
to eliminate any legalities that could
prevent or indefinitely hold up the use
of a particular parcel of land for a
sanitary landfill. Advance planning to
zone the potential landfill site areas
- See page 25
A botanical garden became the final layer of this
completed landfill.
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for sanitary landfill operation can
circumvent many of these problems.
Accessibility. The site should be
easily reached by trucks via highways
or arterial streets. Sites requiring trucks
to travel through residential areas
will nomally draw many complaints.
Such sites should be avoided or
selected to minimize residential travel.
The roads to the site should be of
width and construction adequate to
handle all sizes of trucks when fully
loaded, during all weather conditions.
Such problems as narrow bridges,
low underpasses, and steep grades on
the access routes should be investi-
gated. Since the site should be accessi-
ble at all times, it is desirable to have
several access routes so that if one
route is temporarily unusable the site
can still be used.
Haul Distance. The haul distance is
an important economic factor in
selecting the sanitary landfill site. The
economic distance to the site will vary
from locality to locality depending
upon capacity of collection vehicles,
hauling time, and size and methods of
the collection agency. The larger the
quantity of refuse hauled per trip and
the shorter the hauling time due to
express roads, freeways, etc., the
greater the distance the solid wastes
can be hauled for the same cost.
Cover Material. The availability of
cover material is another economic
factor to consider, for the cost of hauling
cover material to the site can be ex-
cessive. A site that has cover material
close by will keep these costs at a
minimum.
The field investigation of the poten-
tial site should include soil analysis
to determine the suitability and the
quantity of soil available for cover
material. Soil with good workability
and compaction characteristics is the
most desirable cover material. A well
graded soil has these qualities and
is a good cover material.
Geology. The potential danger of
ground and surface water pollution
resulting from the landfill cannot be
overlooked. Solid wastes ordinarily
contain many contaminants and often
infectious materials. Serious health
hazards or nuisances can result if these
pollutants are permitted to enter water
supplies. Site selection should include
a geological investigation of the site,
possibly in conjunction with the cover
material field investigation, to deter-
mine the potential of either ground or
surface water pollution. The ground-
water table must be located and infor-
mation obtained on the historical high
groundwater level and on the general
movement of the groundwater.
Geological investigation should also
examine the topography of the site
itself and the surrounding area to
determine potential flooding conditions
during heavy rains and snow melts.
Special attention should be given to
low-lying sites that might be drainage
basins for surrounding areas. Surface
water drainage and flooding can
quickly erode the cover material and
the refuse fill.
Sites located near rivers, streams or
lakes also deserve careful scrutiny.
Generally, a landfill should not be
located in a flood plain because of the
water pollution hazard, and because
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these sites can become unusable both
during and after floods. Sanitary
landfills that are located in such areas
require special engineering design
compatible with the site conditions.
Climate. In some locations, climate
is important in site selection and may
even dictate the method of operation.
In an extremely cold locality, a site
requiring excavation of trenches and
cover material may become a problem
because of freezing during the winter
months. However, a site can be used
in a wintery locale if the trenches and
cover material are excavated during
the summer months to carry the
operation through the winter period.
In areas receiving considerable
rainfall, a low-lying site may be unde-
sirable because of flooding and muddy
working conditions. In rainy areas, a
desirable site would be high in relation
to the surrounding area and have
good drainage features.
In windy locales, a site surrounded
by natural windbreaks will help to
contain loose paper and minimize any
dust problems.
Fire Control Facilities. Although
there is little chance of fire at a sanitary
landfill operated in accordance with
good practices, suitable fire protection
should be provided. Fires can usually
be extinguished by smothering with
a blanket of earth, but all sites should
also have water available for fire
control. Fire control facilities are
especially important if residential or
commercial structures are relatively
close and in extremely dry areas where
the fire could spread quickly and do
extensive damage.
Sanitary landfill is an engineering project.
Sanitary landfills don't "just happen".
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DESIGNING A SANITARY LANDFILL
design and operational steps
during development of the sanitary
landfill are not distinct entities. Basic
knowledge and experience in the
operational aspects of a sanitary
landfill are necessary for the design
phase. In essence, the design phase
develops the plan of operation. It
consists primarily of determining the
operational plan and preparing the
necessary detailed plans and specifi-
cations for construction and operation.
Good plans and specifications are
essential for estimating costs, for
obtaining bids, and for operational
control and inspection.
Plans. Detailed plans should be
prepared showing the existing topog-
raphy and the designed contours of
the completed landfill. As mentioned,
it is extremely helpful when designing
the final ground elevations, if the use
of the completed landfill has been
previously determined.
The plans should show the overall
program for landfilling, the drainage
features, groundwater table, location
of the cover material, and the wet
weather operation site. The plans
should also detail all construction fea-
tures such as access roads, personnel
and eguipment facilities, scales,
fencing, signs, waterlines and other
utilities.
Specifications. The plans should be
complemented with a set of specifica-
tions for construction and operation.
Construction specifications cover
construction materials, workmanship,
and eguipment. Operating specifica-
tions detail the method of operation,
including weighing the wastes, cross-
sectioning the site at definite time
intervals, thickness of cover material,
depth of lifts and cells, compaction, wet
weather procedures, amount, type,
and size of eguipment, and personnel.^
OPERATING A SANITARY LANDFILL
The appearance of the sanitary
landfill during operation cannot be
overly stressed. The operation is the
only phase of the project seen by the
public. Consequently, public accept-
ance of the plan, design, and operation
will be based solely on the operation.
A well operated sanitary landfill is
the goal of the planner, the designer,
and the operator. Each must have a
thorough knowledge of all the factors
in achieving this goal.
Supervision. A clean, orderly, and
economic operation requires constant
and competent supervision. It is also
important to employ experienced
or adequately trained personnel to
operate the sanitary landfill.
—Operating Records. For continuing
evaluation and future planning,
detailed records should be kept of in-
coming material: the weights, the type,
and the origin. Any deviation from the
plan of operation should be recorded.
Topographic surveys of the landfill
should be made regularly to determine
the rate of space utilization. The incom-
ing-material data and the topographic
surveys can be used to determine the
amount of compaction, efficiency, land
use, and operation efficiency, and to
estimate the degree of decomposition
and eventual settlement. Good cost-
accounting records should be main-
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II
Such a landfill entrance helps to secure public
support for the project.
tained, including the initial cost of the
land and equipment, and the operating
cost of the labor, equipment, equip-
ment maintenance, depreciation, etc.
These data are necessary for budget-
ary planning, for determining the cost
rates for users, and for comparison with
other operations, justifying expendi-
tures, and estimating the efficiency of
operation.
Directions. Sanitary landfills, par-
ticularly those open to the public, need
directional signs and markers on
nearby highways to help speed traffic
movement At the entrance to the site
a large legible sign should be posted
to inform the public of the hours of
operation, cost of disposal, and rules
and regulations (such as, "only covered
trucks permitted"). At large sanitary
landfill operations, signs should also be
used on the site to direct the users to
the unloading area.
—On ailtt Roetcls. The on-site roads to
the unloading area should be of all-
weather construction and wide enough
to permit easy two-way truck travel.
Road grades should be designed for
the largest fully loaded trucks to travel
at a reasonable rate. It is particularly
important at large sites that traffic in
and out of the area flow smoothly.
Methods. Sanitary landfilling con-
sists of the basic operations of spread-
ing, compacting, and covering. Two
general methods have evolved: the
area method and the trench method
(Figures 1 and 2). Some schools of
thought also include a third, the slope,
or ramp, method. In some operations,
a slope or ramp is used in combination
with the area or trench methods. For
this reason, the three methods will be
described: area landfill, trench landfill,
and the ramp, or slope, method.
In an area sanitary landfill, the solid
wastes are placed on the land; a bull-
dozer or similar equipment spreads
and compacts the wastes; then the
wastes are covered with a layer of
earth; and finally the earth cover is
compacted. The area method is best
suited for flat areas or gently sloping
land, and is also used in quarries,
ravines, valleys or where other suitable
land depressions exist. Normally the
earth cover material is hauled in or
obtained from adjacent areas.
In a trench sanitary landfill, a trench
is cut in the ground and the solid
wastes are placed in it. The solid wastes
are then spread in thin layers, com-
pacted, and covered with earth exca-
vated from the trench. The trench
method is best suited for flat land where
the water table is not near the ground
surface. Normally the material exca-
vated from the trench can be used for
cover with a minimum of hauling.
A disadvantage is that more than one
piece of equipment may be necessary.
In the ramp or slope method (a vari-
ation of the area and trench landfills),
the solid wastes are dumped on the
side of an existing slope. After spread-
8
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FIGURE 1. AREA METHOD. The bulldozer spreads and compacts solid wastes. The scraper (foreground)
is used to haul the cover material at the end of the day's operations. Note the portable fence that
catches any blowing debris. This is used with any landfill method.
-•Wt
EARTH COVER OBTAINED -^I'fc.'N
BY EXCAVATION
IN TRENCH
L
ORIGINAL
GROUND
-COMPACTED
SOLID WASTE
FIGURE 2. TRENCH METHOD. The waste collection truck deposits its load into the trench where the
bulldozer spreads and compacts it. At the end of the day the dragline excavates soil from the future trench;
this soil is used as the daily cover material. Trenches can also be excavated with a front-end loader,
bulldozer, or scraper.
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ing the material in thin layers on the
slope, the bulldozing equipment com-
pacts it. The cover material, usually
obtained just ahead of the working
face, is spread on the ramp and com-
pacted. As a method of landfilling, this
variation is generally suited to all
areas. The advantage of utilizing only
one piece of equipment to perform all
operations makes the ramp or slope
method particularly applicable to
smaller operations. The slope or ramp
is commonly used with either area or
trench sanitary landfill (Figure 3).
Compaction. Solid wastes should be
placed at the top or base of the work-
ing face, spread in layers about 2 feet
thick, and compacted. If a slope or
ramp is used, better compaction will
normally result if the wastes are
spread and compacted from the base
upwards.
The degree of compaction is depend-
ent on the character of the solid wastes,
the weight and type of compacting
equipment, and the number of passes
the equipment makes over the material.
The actual density of the landfill can
FIGURE 3. RAMP VARIATION. Solid wastes are spread and compacted on a slope. The daily cell may be
covered with earth scraped from the base of the ramp. This variation is used with either the area
or trench method.
DAILY EARTH COVER 6-IN
ORIGINAL
GROUND
-COMPACTED
SOLID WAST
10
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be determined from operating records
and data. The degree of compaction
is a useful tool to determine the rate of
space usage, expected life of the
landfill, and the overall efficiency of
the operation.
Working Face. The size of the
working face of the sanitary landfill
operation is determined by the rate of
unloading of incoming vehicles. The
working face should be as narrow as
possible to minimize the exposed area,
but not so small as to interfere with
the unloading operations and the
movement of landfill equipment.
A minimum width of the working
face should be approximately twice the
width of the tractor to allow the tractor
to move from side to side thus compact-
ing the entire exposed surface.
Depth of Cells. Cell depth is the
thickness of the solid wastes layer
measured perpendicular to the work-
ing slope where the equipment travels.
The depth of cells is determined largely
by the size of the operation, the ele-
vation desired of the completed fill, the
depth of the trench or depression to be
filled, and in some cases, the amount
of cover material available. Eight feet
is generally recommended as a maxi-
mum single cell depth because deeper
cells usually result in fills that have
excessive settlement and surface
cracking. However, the cell depth of
presently operated sanitary landfills
varies from 2 feet to 15 feet or more.
VEXCAVATION FOR
EARTH COVER
11
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Cover. The compacted solid wastes must be covered at
the conclusion of each day, of more frequently if necessary,
with a minimum of 6 inches of compacted earth. A well-
graded soil having good workability and compaction
characteristics is a most desirable cover material. If a well-
graded soil is not available on the site, it will be necessary
to adjust the covering procedures to the type of cover
material available or to haul in a suitable cover material.
The cover is necessary to prevent insect and rodent infesta-
tion, blowing paper, fires, the attraction of wildlife, and the
release of gas and odors.
For daily cover a minimum of 6 inches of compacted soil is
recommended. For intermediate cover on lifts which will
not have additional lifts placed on them within a year, a
minimum of 12 inches of compacted soil is recommended.
A minimum of 2 feet of compacted soil is recommended for
the final cover. The final cover should be placed over the
fill as soon as possible to help assure that wind and water
erosion does not expose the wastes. Where trees will be
planted on the completed fill, a depth of 3 or more feet of
compacted earth has been found necessary.
Large Items. Large bulky items such as car bodies,
refrigerators, water heaters, and tree stumps, can be handled
routinely with other solid wastes at large sanitary landfills
that use heavy equipment. At small sanitary landfills where
light equipment is normally used, special provisions may
be necessary to handle bulky items.
A separate unloading area or an alternate site operated
in a sanitary manner should be utilized for the disposal of
bulky items that cannot be handled routinely with other
solid wastes.
,. .• <«r m-
-.jama- <*- m
12
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Blowing Paper. In a 1959 survey of
sanitary landfill operations by the
American Society of Civil Engineers,
the operating problem most frequently
reported was blowing paper.:! The
common method of controlling blowing
paper is with a combination of perma-
nent and portable fences. It is important,
therefore, that the designer consider
the prevailing wind direction when
designing the operation. Unfortunately,
under certain wind conditions paper
may blow up and over the fences, so
that fences do not provide complete
control. Prompt compaction and cover-
ing and daily pick up of loose paper
should be practiced to control wind-
blown paper.
Maintenance. Routine maintenance
will be required to maintain a clean,
orderly and acceptable operation and
site. It is important, particularly at
public sanitary landfills, to cut grass
and weeds, pick up scattered paper,
maintain good access roads, control
dust, and maintain immaculate em-
ployee and public facilities.
Drainage. Ponding on the landfill
surface will result in excessive seepage
into the landfill and must be prevented.
Precautions must be taken to prevent
runoff water from eroding the cover
material and exposing the wastes.
Adequate drainage therefore is essen-
tial both during the filling operation
and for the completed landfill. Good
drainage will usually require periodic
regrading of the site, and the use of
culverts or grassed waterways. It is
recommended that the slope of the
surface of the completed fill should be
a minimum of 1 percent. Since the
landfill will undergo uneven settlement,
it may be necessary to design the
original slope for more than 1 percent
to maintain a 1 percent slope after
settlement. To prevent erosion, how-
ever, steep slopes should be avoided.
Winter Operations. Experience has
shown that with good planning and
proper operating techniques, a sani-
tary landfill can be operated even in
the severe winters of the northern
states.4 If the trench method is used, the
trenches should be excavated before
the cold weather. It may be necessary
to stockpile cover material and cover it
with straw, leaves, or other material
to prevent freezing. The material
should be piled loosely with minimum
compaction. All snow and ice should
be removed from the trenches before
3 See page 25
4 See page 25
13
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use; snow fences can protect the access
roads. A well-constructed, heated trac-
tor cab enables the operator to work
efficiently during the cold weather.
Wet Weather Operation. Wet
weather can seriously hamper the
operations of a sanitary landfill by
making the soil too soft, mucky, or slip-
pery for equipment operation. Wet
weather can also seriously interfere
with trenching, covering, and general
traffic flow to and from the working
face. For these reasons, all-weather
access roads and adequate drainage
should be provided.
In many cases it is advantageous to
stockpile materials such as concrete
rubble, broken asphalt pavement, or
stone for use on the site roads during
wet weather. This will minimize the
cost of constructing and maintaining
hard-surface roads to the unloading
area. It is also desirable to provide a
temporary wet weather landfill area
adjacent to the all-weather road. Such
sites are used only during the wet
weather periods when the normal
working area is not accessible.
Particular attention must be given to landfills when the
trench method is being used. If pumping or good drainage
is not provided, the trenches will fill with water, resulting in
possible ground or surface water pollution and complete
shut-down of the operation.
Salvage Operation. To ensure clean and orderly sites and
to prevent landfills from looking like open dumps, salvage
operations should be prohibited at all sanitary landfill sites.
The American Society of Civil Engineers has stated that the
most objectionable disposal sites from the standpoint of
appearance are generally those where the salvage activity
is the greatest.1
Storm drains and debris
settling basins are re-
quired to prevent storm
water erosion and re-
lease of debris-laden
water to off-site drainage
works.
i See page 25
14
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PUBLIC HEALTH
ASPECTS
Vector Control. In a properly oper-
ated and maintained sanitary landfill,
insects and rodents are not a problem.
Well-compacted wastes and cover
material are the most important factors
in achieving vector control. Six inches
of compacted earth cover is recom-
mended for preventing the emergence
of houseflies from the fill. Good com-
paction of the cover material also
discourages rodents from burrowing
through the cover material. Good
housekeeping and daily covering of
the solid wastes are musts for vector
control.
Water Pollution. Under certain geo-
logical conditions, the burial of solid
wastes is a real potential for chemical
and bacteriological pollution of ground
and surface waters. Several investi-
gations of the pollution of groundwater
from landfills have indicated that if a
landfill is intermittently or continuously
in contact with groundwater, it can
become grossly polluted and unfit for
domestic or irrigational use.
Proper planning and site selection,
combined with good engineering
design and operation of the sanitary
landfill, can normally eliminate the
possibility of either surface or ground-
water pollution. Some common pre-
ventive measures are: (1) locating the
site at a safe distance from streams,
lakes, wells, and other water sources;
(2) avoiding site location above the
kind of subsurface stratification that
will lead the leachate from the landfill
to water sources, i.e., fractured lime-
stone; (3) using an earth cover that is
nearly impervious; (4) providing suit-
able drainage trenches to carry the
surface water away from the site.
15
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Air Pollution. Air pollution caused
by smoke should not occur. Burning is
not permitted at a properly operated
sanitary landfill. If an accidental fire
does occur, it should be extinguished
immediately.
Dust. In dry weather, dust may
constitute a nuisance at a sanitary
landfill operation. Dust at the unloading
area can be controlled by sprinkling
the unloading area and the deposited
refuse with water. Other dust control
measures are the planting of grass or
other vegetation on the finished fill and
the application of water, road oil, or
calcium chloride to the access roads.
Odors. Odors are usually the result
of gases from anaerobic digestion of
putrescible material. They are gen-
erally considered a nuisance but can
be a public health hazard.
The best control for odors is rapid
and continuous coverage of solid
wastes during the day and sealing
surface cracks of the completed area
of the landfill to prevent emissions of
large concentrations of odorous gases.
Wildlife. Birds, particularly gulls,
and other wildlife are common at open
and burning dumps, but there is little
exposed food to attract wildlife at
sanitary landfills. Most good sanitary
landfill operations are free from these
nuisances; however, there is no
guarantee that all sanitary landfills
will be completely free of wildlife.
If the site is kept clean, and the solid
wastes covered promptly with earth,
gulls and other wildlife will be at a
minimum.
Gas Production. Gases produced
within a sanitary landfill consist chiefly
of methane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen, and hydrogen sulfide.
Methane gas is explosive and can be
a hazard if accumulated in enclosed
spaces. At landfills where methane and
other gases are generated, the gases
should be dissipated into the atmos-
phere and prevented from concentrat-
ing in sewers or other structures
located on or near the site.
Hazardous Materials. Although it is
not common or recommended practice,
hazardous materials such as sewage
solids, radioactive wastes, pathologic
wastes, explosive materials, and chemi-
cals can be disposed of at sanitary
landfill sites under special conditions.
The special provisions for handling
and disposing of these materials will
depend on local conditions. Individual
handling and disposal may be neces-
sary using a special area separate
from the main operation.
The particular requirements should
be considered during the design phase
so that they may be included in the
operational specifications.
16
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YOU CAN FIND ALL SORTS OF USES FOR FINISHED LANDFILLS. In the Chicago area, a ski slope
with toboggan run is being built from solid wastes. At Virginia Beach, boys will have a coasting ramp.
17
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EQUIPMENT
A wide variety of equipment is on
the market today from which to select
the proper type and size needed for an
efficient operation. The size, the type,
and the amount of equipment required
at a sanitary landfill depend on the
size and method of operation and to
some degree on the experience and
preference of the designer and equip-
ment operators.
Types. The most common equipment
used on sanitary landfills is the crawler
or rubber-tired tractor The tractor can
be used with a dozer blade, trash
blade, or a front-end loader. A tractor
is versatile and can normally perform
all the operations: spreading, com-
pacting, covering, trenching, and even
hauling the cover material. The deci-
sion on whether to select a rubber-tired
or a crawler-type tractor, and a dozer
blade, trash blade, or front-end loader,
must be based on the conditions at
each individual site.
Other equipment used at sanitary
landfills are scrapers, compactors,
draglines, and graders. This type of
equipment is normally found only at
large sanitary landfills where special-
ized equipment increases the overall
efficiency.
Size. The size of the equipment is
dependent primarily on the size of the
operation. Small sanitary landfills for
communities of 15,000 or fewer, or
sanitary landfills handling 46 tons of
solid wastes per day or less, can
operate successfully with one tractor of
the 5- to 15-ton range.
Heavier equipment in the 15- to
30-ton range or larger can handle more
waste and achieve better compaction.
Heavy equipment is recommended
for sanitary landfill sites serving more
than 15,000 people or handling more
than 46 tons per day.
Amount. Sanitary landfills servicing
50,000 people or fewer, or handling
about 155 tons of solid wastes per day
or less, normally can manage well with
one piece of equipment, but provisions
must be made for standby equipment.
It is preferable that a second piece of
equipment be purchased and used for
replacement during breakdown and
routine maintenance periods of the
regular equipment Arrangements can
normally be made, however, with
another public agency or private con-
cern for the use or rental of replace-
ment equipment on short notice in
case of a breakdown of the regular
equipment.
At large sanitary landfills serving
more than 100,000 people, or handling
more than 310 tons of solid wastes per
day, more than one piece of equipment
will be required. At these sites, special-
ized equipment can be utilized to
increase efficiency and minimize costs.
In Table 1 a general guide is given
for the selection of the type, size, and
amount of equipment for various sizes
of sanitary landfills.
MULTIPURPOSE
BUCKET
18
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STANDARD LANDFILL EQUIPMENT
RUBBER—TIRED
TRACTOR
FRONT-END ACCESSORIES
-------
SPECIALIZED EQUIPMENT
SCRAPER
STEEL-WHEEL COMPACTOR
20
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DRAGLINE
FACILITIES
A small sanitary landfill operation
will usually require only a small build-
ing for storing hand tools, equipment
parts, etc., and a shelter with sanitary
facilities for the employees. A single
building may serve both purposes.
A large sanitary landfill operation
should have a maintenance and
storage garage for equipment and an
administration building. If the scales
are not adjacent to the administration
building, a scale house may also be
needed. Sanitary facilities should be
available for both employees and the
public. In addition, it is recommended
that locker rooms and showers be
provided for the employees.
Table 1. AVERAGE EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS
Population
0 to 15,000
15,000 to 50,000
50,000 to 100,000
100,000
or more
Daily tonnage
0 to 46
46 to 155
155 to 310
310
or more
No.
1
1
*
1 to 2
*
2
or more
*
Equipment
Type
Tractor crawler or
rubber-tired
Tractor crawler or
rubber-tired
Scraper
Dragline
Water truck
Tractor crawler or
rubber-tired
Scraper
Dragline
Water truck
Tractor crawler or
rubber-tired
Scraper
Dragline
Steel-wheel compactor
Road grader
Water truck
Size in Ibs
10,000 to 30,000
30,000 to 60,000
30,000
or more
45,000
or more
Accessory *
Dozer blade
Landfill blade
Front-end loader
(1- to2-yd)
Dozer blade
Landfill blade
Front-end loader
(2- to 4-yd)
Multipurpose bucket
Dozer blade
Landfill blade
Front-end loader
(2- to 5-yd)
Multipurpose bucket
Dozer blade
Landfill blade
Front-end loader
Multipurpose bucket
' Optional. Dependent on individual need
21
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COSTS
The cost of a sanitary landfill consists
of the initial investment for land,
equipment, and construction features,
and the operating costs.
Initial Investment. The magnitude
of the initial investment depends on the
size and sophistication of the landfill.
A typical breakdown of the major items
that normally constitute the initial
investment is as follows:
1. Land
2. Planning and designing
a. Consultant
b. Solid wastes survey
c. Site investigation
d. Design, plans, specifications
3. Site development
a. Land development— clearing,
landscaping, drainage fea-
tures, etc.
b. Access roads
c. Utilities— water, electricity,
telephone
d. Fencing, signs
4. Facilities
a. Administration
b. Equipment maintenance
c. Sanitation
d. Weight scales
5. Equipment— tractor, scraper, etc.
Generally, the major portion of the
initial investment is for the purchase of
the land and equipment. Often a
sizable part of the initial investment for
land and equipment can be recovered
through the development or use of the
land and the salvage value of the
equipment.
If funds are not available for the
proposed investment, consideration
should be given to leasing land or
equipment, or both, to spread the cost
over the life of operation.
Operating Cost. The operating cost
of a sanitary landfill depends on the
cost of labor and equipment, the
method of operation, and the efficiency
of the operation. The principal items
in operating cost are:
1. Personnel
2. Equipment
a. Operating expenses— gas,
oil, etc.
b. Maintenance and repair
c. Rental, depreciation, or
amortization
3. Cover material— material
and haul costs
4. Administration and overhead
5. Miscellaneous tools, utilities,
insurance, maintenance to roads,
fences, facilities, drainage
features, etc
Wages ordinarily make up about 40
to 50 percent of the total operating cost.
Equipment equals 30 to 40 percent-
cover material, administration, over-
head, and miscellaneous amount to
about 20 percent.
The operating costs per ton versus
the amount of solid wastes handled in
tons and the population equivalent
may be charted (Figure 4).
The operating cost of a small opera-
tion handling less than 50,000 tons per
year varies from $1.25 to approximately
$5.00 per ton. This wide range is
primarily due to the low efficiency of
the smaller operations which are
usually operated on a part-time basis.
Full-time personnel, full-time use of
equipment, specialized equipment,
22
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better management, and other factors
that lead to high efficiency are possible
at large sanitary landfill operations.
The increased efficiency results in
lower unit cost of disposal. The unit cost
of a large landfill handling more than
50,000 tons per year will generally
fall between $0.75 to $2.00 per ton.
To compare the true cost of sanitary
landfilling with that of incineration or
composting, it is essential that the costs
and returns of the initial investments
and the hauling costs be considered
along with the total disposal costs
including the disposal of incinerator
residue and noncompostable materials
The hauling costs of a collection system
that uses the sanitary landfill disposal
method may be higher than the haul-
ing costs of a system using incineration
or composting, since sanitary landfills
are generally located farther from
the waste-generating area than are
incinerators or compost plants. A sani-
tary landfill, however, may increase
the value of a plot of unusable land by
converting the site to a playground,
golf course, park. . . . , thereby obtain-
ing a major investment cost advantage
over incineration and composting.
FIGURE 4. SANITARY LANDFILL OPERATING COSTS
4.00
3.00
T
cc
LU
a.
o
o
2.00
1.00
TONS PER YEAR
TONS PER DAY1
POPULATION*
0
0
0
100,000
320
122,000
200,000
640
244,000
300,000
960
366,000
400,000
1280
488,000
500,000
1600
610,000
1 Based on 6-day work week.
2 Based on national average of 4.5 Ibs per person per calendar day.
23
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COMPLETED SANITARY LANDFILL
Decomposition. Little information is
available on the decomposition of
buried material in a sanitary landfill.
It is extremely difficult to predict the
time required for complete decompo-
sition. Many items, particularly paper,
have been found unchanged in land-
fills that had been completed for 15
to 25 years. The rate of decomposition
is primarily dependent upon the
moisture content and generally takes
place at a very slow rate.
Decomposition of the wastes will
result in the production of gases,
principally methane, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, hydrogen, and hydrogen
sulfide. The rate of gas production will
usually reach a peak within the first
2 years and then slowly taper off.
Methane gas causes the most con-
cern because of its explosive character.
Precautions should be taken that will
prevent the gas from concentrating
in sewers or other structures located
on or near the landfill.
Settlement. Settlement of the landfill
is dependent on the depth of the fill,
composition, compaction of the
material, moisture content, and other
factors. Studies have indicated that
approximately 90 percent of the ulti-
mate settlement will occur in the first
5 years. The final 10 percent will occur
over a much longer period. As a rough
indication of the amount of settlement
that might occur, several Los Angeles
area sanitary landfills, 90 to 110 feet
deep, have settled 2.5 to 5.5 feet in
3 years.
Underground Fires. Although under-
ground fires rarely occur in a com-
pleted landfill, the possibility does
exist. All underground fires should be
dug up and extinguished. The cell
construction of a sanitary landfill helps
to confine and restrict the spread of
the fire should one occur.
Maintenance. Completed landfills
generally require maintenance
because of differential settlement.
Maintenance consists primarily of
resloping the surface to maintain
good drainage and filling in small
depressions that result from uneven
settlement.
Uses. Completed landfills have been
used for recreational purposes—parks,
playgrounds, or golf courses. Parking
and storage areas or botanical gardens
are other final uses. Because of settling
and gas problems, construction of
buildings on completed landfills gen-
erally has been avoided; in several
locations, however, one-story rambling-
type buildings and airport runways
for light aircraft have been constructed
directly on sanitary landfills. In such
cases, it is important for the designer to
avoid concentrated foundation loading,
which can result in uneven settlement
and cracking of the structure. The
designer must provide the means to
allow the gas to dissipate to the atmos-
phere and not into the structure.
Multi-story buildings can be built
over completed landfills, using steel
and concrete pilings, and special
engineering design.
SANITARY LANDFILL PROJECTS ,
The Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965
provided funds lor surveys, demon-
strations, studies, and investigations of
new and improved technology of solid
24
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waste disposal. Awards up to two-
thirds the cost of the project are made.
Information on existing projects and
requirements for new ones'are avail-
able from the Bureau of Solid Waste
Management regional offices listed on
page 30.
REFERENCES CITED
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OF THE SANITARY ENGINEERING DIVI-
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American Society of Civil Engineers, 1959.
61 p.
2. AMERICAN PUBLIC WORKS ASSOCIATION. Munici-
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the Sanitary Engineering Division, Proc.,
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method of refuse disposal in northern
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BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR SANITARY LANDFILL
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SEARCH, Solid Waste Engineering Section. SED
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ASCE, 84(SA6): 1853.1-1853.3, Nov. 1958.
COMMITTEE ON SANITARY ENGINEERING RE-
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25
-------
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61 p.
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best. American City, 73(7) :159, 161, July 1958.
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1967.
BAILEY, C. A., Jr. Public approves sanitary fill in a
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to the land is apparent. Amercian City, 67(11):126-127,
Nov. 1952.
BASGALL, V. A., W. F. JOHNSON, and C. F. SCHWALM.
Sanitary fill series—trench type: civic pride; one man,
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26
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27
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A motion picture, "Sanitary Landfill: One Part
Earth to Four Parts Refuse", may be borrowed
free of charge. The film covers all aspects of
landfill planning and operation and is 24 min-
utes, sound, color, 16 mm, order number M-
1740-X. Request by number from the National
Medical Audiovisual Center (Annex), Station
K, Atlanta, Georgia 30024.
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Light equipment for small town sanitary landfill opera-
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landfills. Refuse Removal Journal, 1(12):8-9, 24-25, Dec.
1958.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Most of the photographs in this publication have been
provided by users and long-term supporters of the
sanitary landfill method. In particular, the authors
wish to thank the County Sanitation Districts of Los
Angeles County and the Recreation Department, City of
Rockville, Maryland.
Table 2. ADVANTAGES AND DK
ADVANTAGES
1. Where land is available, a sanitary landfill is usually
the most economical method of solid waste disposal.
2. The initial investment is low compared with other
disposal methods.
3. A sanitary landfill is a complete or final disposal
method as compared to incineration and compost-
ing which require additional treatment or disposal
operations for residue, quenching water, unusable
materials, etc.
4. A sanitary landfill can be put into operation within a
short period of time.
5. A sanitary landfill can receive all types of solid
wastes, eliminating the necessity of separate collec-
tions.
6. A sanitary landfill is flexible; increased quantities of
solid wastes can be disposed of with little additional
personnel and equipment.
7. Submarginal land may be reclaimed for use as park-
ing lots, playgrounds, golf courses, airports, etc.
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Well-designed landfill sites may be planned for final use as outdoor amphitheatres.
STAGES OF SANITARY LANDFILL
DISADVANTAGES
1. In highly populated areas, suitable land may not be
available within economical hauling distance.
2. Proper sanitary landfill standards must be adhered
to daily or the operation may result in an open dump.
3. Sanitary landfills located in residential areas can
result in extreme public opposition.
4. A completed landfill will settle and require periodic
maintenance.
5. Special design and construction must be utilized for
buildings constructed on completed landfill because
of the settlement factor.
6. Methane, an explosive gas, and the other gases pro-
duced from the decomposition of the wastes may
become a hazard or nuisance problem and interfere
with the use of the completed landfill.
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WHERE FURTHER INFORMATION ON SANITARY LANDFILLS MAY BE OBTAINED
Region I—Boston
John Fitzgerald Kennedy Building
Boston, Massachusetts 02203
Phone: 617-223-6687
Region II—New York
Room 834-H Federal Office Building
26 Federal Plaza
New York, New York 10017
Phone: 212-264-2523
Region III—Charlottesville
220 7th Street, N. E.
Charlottesville, Virginia 22901
Phone: 703-296-1417
Region IV—Atlanta
Room 404, 50 Seventh St., N. E.
Atlanta, Georgia 30323
Phone: 404-526-2921
Region V—Chicago
Room 712, New Post Office Building
433 West Van Buren Street
Chicago, Illinois 60607
Phone: 312-353-6560
Region VI—Kansas City
601 East 12th Street
Kansas City, Missouri 64106
Phone: 816-374-3307
Region VII—Dallas
1114 Commerce Street
Dallas, Texas 75202
Phone: 214-749-2007 or 2008
Region VIM—Denver
9017 Federal Office Building
19th & Stout Streets
Denver, Colorado 80202
Phone: 303-297-4456
Region IX—San Francisco
Federal Office Building
50 Fulton Street
San Francisco, California 94102
Phone: 415-556-3783
•&U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE- 1971 O—438-024
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Public Health Service Publication No. 1792
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Environmental Health Service
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