United States Office of Water & sw - 754
Environmental Protection Waste Management December 1980
Agency Washington D.C. 20460
Solid Waste
v>EPA Technology, Prevalence
and Economics of Landfill
Disposal of Solid Waste
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TECHNOLOGY, PREVALENCE, AND ECONOMICS
OF LANDFILL DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE
This report (SW-754),
performed for the Office of Solid Waste
under contract no. 68-01-4895, is reproduced as
received from the contractor. The findings should be
attributed to the contractor and not to the
Office of Solid Waste
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5 Library (PL-«J)
77 West Jackson Blvd., 12th Floor
Chicago, IL 60604-3690
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
1980
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U,S. Envircr.rr.~r.tn! Protection Agency
This report was prepared by Fred C. Hart Associates, Inc., New York,
New York, under contract no. 68-01-4895.
Publication does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect
the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor
does mention of commercial products constitute endorsement by the
U.S. Government.
An environmental protection publication (SW-754) in the solid waste
management series.
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FOREWORD
This report has been developed under contract number 68-01-4895 to
provide information for the Office of Solid Waste to use in developing
guidelines for the landfill disposal of solid waste and criteria for
the classification of solid waste disposal facilities. These
activities are mandated under Sections 1008 and 4004, respectively,
of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976, Public Law
94-580.
Landfill disposal of solid waste is reviewed in terms of; (1) the
use of landfills for disposal; (2) techniques commonly employed for
such disposal; and (3) the costs associated with landfill disposal by
those techniques. This report also presents estimates of the
anticipated increases in costs of landfill disposal as a result of the
application of the recommended practices and procedures contained in
the Guidelines.
References to the information contained in this report are found
in Environmental and Economic Impact Statements (EIS) which have been
developed in conjunction with the following: "Guidelines for the
Landfill Disposal of Solid Waste" (40 CPR 241); and "Criteria for the
Classification of Solid Waste Disposal Facilities and Practices" (40
CFR 257).
Information presented in this report is based upon an early
working draft of the Guidelines and the February 6, 1978 proposed
criteria (43 CFR 4942). Some information contained in the two EIS's
may, therefore, appear inconsistent with this report. Any such
inconsistencies should be attributed to more current information
available at the time of EIS preparation or to differing assumptions
in the EIS's.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This document was prepared by Fred C. Hart Associates, Inc., 527
Madison Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10022, under Task IV of EPA contract
number 68-01-4895. The major contract personnel contributing to this
document were:
Fred C. Hart Associates, Inc.
Celia Y.C. Chen
William H. Crowell
Fred C. Hart (Project Director)
James E. McCarthy
James A. Rogers
Joel Russell
Wayne K. Tusa (Assistant Project Manager)
Timothy D. Van Epp
Sandy P. Wright (Project Manager)
The EPA Project Officer was Bernard J. Stoll, Office of Solid
Waste. Additional assistance was gratefully received from numerous EPA,
State and industry personnel.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
List of Tables iii
List of Figures v
I. Executive Summary 1
II. Introduction 3
A. Scope of Work 3
B. General Methodology 4
C. Data Sources 5
III. Model Landfills Selection Criteria 7
A. Prevalence 7
B. Unit Cost 7
C. Compatibility with Section 4004 EIS 7
IV. Development of Baseline Cost Data For
Existing Facilities 14
V. Impact of Section 1008 Guidelines on Costs 17
A. Recommended Technologies and Alternatives 17
B. Development of Unit Costs for Upgrading
Technologies 20
VI. Aggregate Cost of Landfill Guidelines 29
A. Approach 29
B. Estimating the Prevalence of
Landfill Types 30
C. Estimating the Prevalence of Environmentally
Sensitive Areas 51
D. Estimating the Distribution of Sanitary
Landfills 56
E. Aggregate Costs 59
F. Sensitivity Analysis of Cost Impacts 71
VII. Economic Effects of Increased Operating
Costs of Landfill ing 74
A. Background 74
B. Supply Effects 75
C. Demand Effects 81
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VI11. Impact of the Guidelines on Energy Use 85
A. Background 85
B. Estimating Construction Energy Impacts 85
C. Estimating Operating Energy Impacts 88
References Cited 89
Bibliography 92
Personal Communications 97
Appendix A. Sample Baseline Cost Curves A-l
Appendix B. Unit Cost Calculations and Assumptions B-l
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1 Landfill Prevalence by Size Category 8
2 Existing Technology Levels and Assumed
Upgrading Technology 21
3 Upgrading Technology Costs 26
4 Alternate Upgrading Technology Costs 27
5 Crop Residues as a Waste Management
Problem 32
6 Prevalence of Municipal Landfills
by Location, 1978 34
7 Standard Industrial Classification Codes
for Manufacturing Industries 37
8 Waste Generation by Manufacturing Industries
in the United States 38
9 Waste Generation by Manufacturing Industries
in San Jose, California 40
10 Waste Generation by Large Firms in San Jose,
California 41
11 Waste Generation by Small Firms in San Jose,
California 42
12 Waste Generation in Wisconsin, by SIC Group 43
13 Industrial Solid Waste Production 45
14 Estimated Number of Industrial Landfills,
by Size Category 46
15 Number of Ash Landfills by Daily Capacity
for Steam Electric Power Plants, by
Plant Type 50
16 Estimation of U.S. Population in
Environmentally Sensitive Areas 60
17 Impact of Guidelines on Operating Costs of
Municipal Solid Waste Landfills (Costs/Ton) ... 66
18 Impact of Guidelines on Operating Costs
of Industrial Waste Landfills (Costs/Ton) .... 67
19 Impact of Guidelines on Operating Costs of
Pollution Control Residue Landfills
(Costs/Ton) 68
20 Summary of Impact of Landfill Guidelines on
Operating Costs of Landfills
(Costs/Ton) 69
21 Aggregate Impact of Guidelines on Annual
Landfill Operating Costs 70
22 Effect of Change in On-site Clay Availability
Assumption on Guidelines Cost Impacts 72
iii
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LIST OF TABLES
(continued)
TABLE PAGE
23 Aggregate Impacts of Guidelines on
Landfill Costs Under Alternative
Sensitive Area Assumptions 73
24 Trend in Mixed-Waste Resource Recovery
Facilities Implementations 82
25 Conversion Technologies at Existing
Recovery Facilities, 1976 82
26 Upgrading Technologies Resulting in
Increased Energy Operating Costs 86
27 Total Increased Capital Costs Per Ton and
Percent Increase in Construction Energy
Use for Upgraded Facilities 87
IV
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
1 Sanitary Landfill Operating Costs 9
2 Sanitary Landfill Costs 10
3 Average Sanitary Landfill Disposal Cost
for Under 20,000 Population 11
4 Scale Economies in Landfill 12
5 Current Sanitary Landfill Costs 15
6 Composite Sanitary Landfill Costs 16
7 Concentration of Wetlands in the U.S 53
8 Existing Flooding Problems 54
9 Continuous Permafrost in the U.S 55
10 Estimated Extent of Sole or Principal Source
Aquifers, Coterminous U.S 57
11 Environmentally Sensitive Areas in the U.S 58
12 Impact of Higher Landfill User Charges
on Demand 75
13 Optimal Location/Market Area for
Sanitary Landfill 78
14 Waste Collection Area for Various
Waste Generation Densities 80
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I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report evaluates the costs and economic and energy use impacts
of the Guidelines for the Landfill Disposal of Solid Waste to be pro-
posed under Section 1008 (a) of P.L. 94-580, the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act. This analysis was accomplished in six steps. Each
step and the conclusions drawn from them are summarized briefly below.
First, existing data on landfill types were used to select three
model landfill sizes on which to base subsequent cost, economic, and
energy use considerations. The landfill sizes chosen 10, 100, and
300 tons per day (TPD) -- represent capacity ranges of 0 to 50, 50 to
200, and greater than 200 TPD.
Second, current landfill practices were defined in terms of the
technologies and operating procedures utilized most commonly, and base-
line unit costs were identified for each of the three model landfill
sizes. Currently, most landfills use only ditching for surface runoff
control and daily cover and clay liners for leachate control. Current
disposal costs range from $2.00 to $12.00 per ton, averaging $11.15 per
ton at 10 TPD landfill sites, $6.65 per ton at 100 TPD sites and $3.95
per ton at 300 TPD sites. These total unit costs represent approximately
20 to 30 per cent capital costs and 70 to 80 per cent operating expenditures.
Third, various available landfill practices which make it possible
to achieve the recommendations of the Guidelines are identified and the
unit costs of these alternate methods were estimated. A variety of
landfill upgrading technologies were assumed. These covered waste
processing, gas control, leachate control, surface runoff control, and
monitoring. Leachate controls, such as impermeable daily cover (off-
site source) and diking, will incur the highest landfill technology unit
costs, accounting for anywhere between two-thirds and all of the total
incremental costs due to the Guidelines, depending on landfill type,
size, and sensitivity.
Fourth, while these Guidelines are only advisory and compliance is
not mandatory the aggregate costs of application of the Guidelines were
estimated. This is accomplished by (1) estimating the population of
various types of landfills, (2) determining the prevalence of various
environmentally sensitive site conditions, (3) determining the tech-
nologies required by the possible combinations of facility type and
environmental conditions, and then (4) summing the costs for each cate-
gory to arrive at an aggregate national cost. Based on a literature
search and stated assumptions, the report concludes that there are
81,317 landfills in the United States, of which 81% are at privately
owned industrial sites. The report further estimates that 73% of all
landfills are located in environmentally sensitive areas. Application
of the Guidelines would result in increased costs of $2,070.3 million, a
60 percent increase over current costs if all landfills in the Nation
complied with these advisory Guidelines. The impact is greatest for
small sites (0-50 TPD) located in environmentally sensitive areas.
Fifth, the economic effects of the increased costs identified pre-
viously are considered. These considerations are grouped into two
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categories: (1) impacts on the supply of landfills; and (2) impacts on
the demand for landfill services. Briefly, the major impacts on land-
fill supply will be: (1) increased disposal fees for landfill users;
(2) higher taxes for landfill support; (3) changes in the profits of
private landfill owners; (4) changes in the profits of industries with
on-site disposal; and (5) regionalization and consolidation of waste
handling. Increased costs for landfill services, on the other hand,
will cause the demand for landfill services to decrease in favor of
increased source reduction, energy and resource recovery, other legal
waste disposal methods, and illegal dumping.
Finally, current and expected landfill energy use at existing
facilities as a result of Guidelines implementation was considered.
Construction energy use will rise anywhere from 1 per cent for a 300 TPD
pollution control residue landfill located in an environmentally non-
sensitive area to 144 per cent for a 10 TPD municipal landfill sited in
a sensitive area. Operating use will increase 100 per cent at most
industrial and pollution control residue landfills which do not already
apply impermeable daily cover.
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II. INTRODUCTION
A. Scope of Work
The purpose of this report is to consider the costs, economic
impacts and effects on energy use of application of the Guidelines for
the Landfill Disposal of Solid Waste to be proposed under Section 1008(a)
of P.L. 94-580, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (hereafter
referred to as the Act). The Guidelines contain recommended considerations
and practices for location, design, construction, operation and maintenance
of solid waste landfills which if applied on a case-by-case basis should
assist in complying with the "Criteria for Classification of Solid Waste
Disposal Facilities" (40 CFR 257) developed in accordance with Section
4004(a) of the Act.
The Guidelines are applicable to the landfill disposal of all solid
waste. They delineate recommended practices but do not contain specific
requirements. The Guidelines are not mandatory. There will be no
Federal enforcement of the Guidelines. Thus, for the purposes of assessing
the economic impact of the Guidelines, it is assumed that all States
will adopt programs which require compliance with the Guidelines.
The scope of the Guidelines covers seven areas, as follows:
Section Topic
241.200 Site Selection
241.201 Design
241.202 Leachate Control
241.203 Gas Control
241.204 Runoff Control
241.205 Operation
241.206 Monitoring
The recommended practices in each of these areas are discussed in Section IV
of this report.
As a result of the adoption of the Guidelines, significant environ-
mental benefits are anticipated particularly in the protection of ground
and surface-water resources. For obtaining these and other benefits, costs
will be incurred as existing facilities undertake an operational upgrading
program and as new facilities are sited, designed and operated. The major
near-term costs associated with Guidelines application will be incurred
through the upgrading of existing facilities.
The provisions contained in Sections 241.200 (site selection) and
241.201 (design) would only be applicable to new facilities. The various
practices discussed under each of the remaining five sections of the Guide-
lines can be used individually or in combination at existing facilities to
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achieve environmental benefits, as dictated by site-specific conditions. It
will not be possible, nor necessarily beneficial, however, for all facili-
ties to institute all of the practices outlined in the aforementioned seven
sections of the Guidelines.
B. General Methodology
1. Format. The analysis of economic and energy impacts contained in
this report proceeds through six steps, each of which corresponds to a
section of the report.
The first step is the selection of model landfills. Existing data on
landfill types have been used to select three sizes of landfill which serve
as the basis for all subsequent consideration of costs, economic impacts,
and energy use.
The second step is to identify baseline costs for facilities in each of
the three model sizes. Baseline costs are defined as the unit costs incurred
by facilities with the mix of technologies and operating procedures currently
in use.
The third step is to estimate the costs of alternate methods of compli-
ance with the Guidelines. This section of the report first identifies the
recommended practices in seven specific areas of siting, design, and
operation. The report then estimates unit costs of the alternate methods in
each category.
The fourth step is to estimate the aggregate costs of compliance with
the Guidelines. This is accomplished by (1) estimating the population of
various types of landfills, (2) determining the prevalence of various envi-
ronmentally sensitive site conditions, (3) determining the technologies
required by the possible combinations of facility type and environmental
conditions, and then (4) summing the costs for each category to arrive at an
aggregate national cost.
The fifth step is to consider the economic effects of the increased
costs identified in Steps 3 and 4. Ten specific effects are considered,
grouped into two major categories: (1) effects on the supply of landfills;
and (2) effects on demand for landfill services, as opposed to other methods
of solid waste management.
Finally, the sixth step considers current energy consumption and in-
creased energy use as a result of Guideline implementation for the three
model landfills.
2. Methods. This report was the second major deliverable under
Contract No. 68-01-4895. It was the result of a concentrated effort over a
very short period of time most of the analysis and writing having been
undertaken during a four week period.
The methods used in data collection were dictated by the time con-
straints. Primary emphasis was placed on a review of available literature,
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supplemented by telephone contacts with a small number of industry associ-
ations and other persons knowledgeable in the areas of landfill prevalence
and related cost data.
Because of constraints in time and in the availability of research, an
incomplete picture of landfill prevalence and costs was obtained. Given the
lack of hard data on many key variables, it was necessary to make numerous
assumptions. For all cases, these assumptions have been clearly stated in
the text along with the reasoning which led to their adoption. By adopting
this approach, it was hoped that useful comments would be stimulated as to
the adequacy of the assumptions, so that further revisions of the report
would rest on the best available estimates.
C. Data Sources
1. Sources Utilized in the Preparation of the Draft Report. A list
of sources used in preparing this report is contained in the Reference
section. Fifty-nine written sources were utilized. These were supplemented
by a half-dozen telephone contacts.
2. Potential Sources for Revision of this Report. Several methods
of improving the data base used in this report have been discussed with the
Project Officer. These discussions have focused on the prevalence of land-
fill types, and estimates of unit costs.
The data on prevalence of landfill types used in this report are as
complete as can be obtained without undertaking a major long-term effort to
conduct a national survey of landfill sites. EPA is currently undertaking
such a survey under the authority of Section 4005 of RCRA, but the results
will not be available until after the scheduled completion of this contract.
When the survey is complete, it would seem appropriate to revise the preva-
lence estimates used in this report.
A second problem area relates to the adequacy of the data relating to
unit costs. The cost estimates used in this report are a combination of (1)
cost data reported by operating landfills and (2) engineering cost esti-
mates. The former, while preferable because they reflect actual operating
conditions, are generally not reported in sufficient detail in the available
literature to provide more than an order-of-magnitude range for cost data.
To be useful, cost data must specify site size, site conditions, type of
waste handled, operating procedures, and type of technologies used to pro-
cess waste and to minimize environmental impacts. None of the existing
literature sources reported the information in such exhaustive detail.
As a result, engineering cost estimates were used to identify most of
the compliance costs. These estimates were based on existing literature and
personal communications. Efforts should continue to improve these esti-
mates. One way in which they might be improved is through a detailed review
of a sample of permit application files in States that require permits for
solid waste disposal facilities. Such permit applications should contain
detailed information on site characteristics, type and projected amount of
waste handled, and technologies utilized for waste processing, leachate
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control, gas control, etc. This information could be correlated with cost
data for the facilities to provide a more accurate picture of existing unit
costs and projected impacts of the Section 1008 Guidelines.
A third problem area relates to the lack of data relating to energy use
at landfill disposal sites. In general the literature does not provide
energy use figures for actual construction, operation, and maintenance.
Available data on energy use are generally provided only as lump sum utility
expenditures.
As with the landfill prevalence and unit cost data, methodologies were
developed in this study to estimate the impact of the Guidelines on energy
use. A more adequate method of assessing energy impacts would require a
survey of actual facilities to develop an energy data base.
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III. MODEL LANDFILLS SELECTION CRITERIA
The first step in the analysis of economic and energy impacts of the
Guidelines was to identify model landfills to be used as the basis of cost
estimates. Three factors were considered in choosing the models: (a) pre-
valence of the model types; (b) differences in unit cost for the proposed
models; and (c) compatibility with the models chosen by Emcon, Inc., in
their Draft Environmental Impact Statement for Proposed Criteria for Clas-
sification of Solid Waste Disposal Facilities under Section 4004 of RCRA
(1978). Since cost estimates for both Section 4004 Criteria and the Guide-
lines will require many of the same technologies and operating procedures,
choosing a compatible model would make possible a comparison of these esti-
mates. The result of this comparison would serve to reinforce and improve
the estimates provided by the earlier Emcon study.
A. Prevalence
The most comprehensive data on landfill prevalence are those provided
by Waste Age in its 1977 survey of U.S. disposal practices (Reference 1).
These data are organized into six size categories, as shown in Table 1.
Since data were presented in size categories, rather than by technology
utilized, by type of waste handled, or by site conditions, this would sug-
gest that size be the variable determining the choice of models.
B. Unit Cost
Unit cost data also suggest that size should be the key variable in the
choice of model landfills, due to the fact that there are important economies
of scale in landfill design and operation which lead to lower unit costs at
larger sites.
Data relating unit costs to size are presented in Figures 1-4. The
actual dollar values assigned as unit costs are of little concern at this
stage of the analysis. What is of interest is that all of the sources show
an initial steep decline in unit costs as landfill capacity increases,
followed by a leveling off past some threshold. The threshold value varies
in each of the sources, but in no case was it higher than 300 tons per day
(TPD).
C. Compatibility with Section 4004 EIS
The final consideration in the choice of models was compatibility with
the models used by Emcon, Inc., in estimating the impacts of the Section
4004 landfill criteria (Reference 6). That analysis was based on four
models:
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TABLE 1
LANDFILL PREVALENCE BY SIZE CATEGORY
Size Category Number of Landfills
0-50 Tons Per Day 11,165
50 - 100 Tons Per Day 1,195
100 - 200 Tons Per Day 781
200 - 500 Tons Per Day 485
500 -1,000 Tons Per Day 331
1,000+ Tons Per Day 129
Unknown 1,807
Source: Reference 1.
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FIGURE 1
SANITARY LANDFILL OPERATING COSTS
4.00
3.00 tfji
v>
o
\. 2.00
o
O
i.oo1-
Tons Per Year 0
Tons Per Day' 0
Population*1 0
100.000
320
122.000
200.000
640
244.000
300,000
960
366.000
400,000
1280
483.000
500,000
16CO
610.CCO
a. Based on a 6-day work week.
b. Based on national average of 4.5 Ibs. per person
per calendar day.
Source: Reference 2.
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FIGURE 3
AVERAGE SANITARY LANDFILL DISPOSAL COST FOR UNDER 20.000 POPULATION
35
30
25
20
3 15
o
P
10
Population
Tons Per D
JL
JL
JL
5,000
13
10,000
26
15,000
39
20,000
52
Source: Reference 4.
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FIGURE 4
SCALE ECONOMIES IN LANDFILL
T 1 r
Capacity 1000's 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56
M /year
Tons per day
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 160 172
Note: Tons per day figure assumes that the waste has the same density as water.
Source: Reference 5.
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10 TPD, TOO TPD, 300 TPD, and 700 TPD. Since there is an apparent consensus
that incremental economies of scale are quite small at sites larger than 300
TPD, it was decided through discussion with the Project Officer to eliminate
the largest of these models. The other three models adequately demonstrate
the range of unit compliance costs at small, medium and large sites. At the
same time, they were compatible with models used in the earlier study.
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IV. DEVELOPMENT OF BASELINE COST DATA FOR EXISTING FACILITIES
A variety of references provide general baseline data for capital and
operating and maintenance expenses for sanitary landfills. Several of these
sources graphically portray this information in a cost per ton vs. daily
waste tonnage chart. To estimate current landfill costs, a composite
graphical approach was utilized. To accomplish this, the graphical data
presented in References 2, 3, 7 and 8 were updated to 1977 dollars. Figure
5 presents the updated disposal costs per ton. For two of these studies an
average modal cost curve was assumed midway between the upper and lower
bounds indicated in the original reference. Appendix A presents each of the
original charts. Figure 6 presents the composite curve. Data points for
approximately two dozen case studies are also indicated in Figure 6 to
demonstrate potential variability of costs due to site-specific conditions
and variability of existing operations. Appendix B presents more specific
data on the case studies.
As indicated, current disposal costs (including capital and operating
expenses) range from approximately $2.00 to $12.00 per ton. Disposal costs
at ten ton per day sites average $11.15 per ton ($12.29 per metric ton).
One hundred ton per day sites exhibit economy of scale effects, with dis-
posal costs averaging $6.65 per ton ($7.33 per metric ton). Similarly,
three hundred ton per day sites average approximately $3.95 per ton ($4.35
per metric ton). Approximately 20 to 30 per cent of these costs represent
design and construction expenses, with the remaining 70 to 80 per cent
representing operating expenditures.
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V. IMPACT OF SECTION 1008 GUIDELINES ON COSTS
A. Recommended Technologies and Alternatives
The following sections summarize the alternate technologies and
approaches as recommended by the Guidelines.
1. Site Selection. Section 241.200 of the Guidelines recommends
avoidance of environmentally sensitive areas and areas requiring complex
engineering solutions, such as locations traversed by pipes. Also
recommended for incorporation in the site selection process are evalu-
ations of the character and availability of on-site soil, potential
socio-economic effects of the facility, and cost estimates, taking into
account future uses of the site. The recommendations of this section
are logical and should be undertaken prior to the design of any solid
waste landfill.
There are no alternative procedures suggested within the text
of the Guidelines. There are, however, provisions for proceeding with a
feasibility assessment for the siting of a disposal facility in an
environmentally sensitive area. The Guidelines do not foreclose the
possibility of siting a landfill in such an area, but rather suggest
that the level of study effort required in the pre-design phase should
be notably greater than that required for siting a facility in a non-
sensitive area.
2. Design. The Guidelines recommend that the following factors
be determined in designing a landfill:
types and quantities of waste
current and projected ground water use
background water quality
direction and rate of ground water flow
depth to water table
potential interactions with ground and surface water
site geology
hydraulic conditions and soil renovative capacity
quality, quantity, source and seasonal variation of surface water
100-year flood plain
water balance
initial and final topography
land use and zoning
The final design, taking into consideration site-specific con-
ditions, should provide a level of environmental protection that is com-
patible with the proposed Criteria and Guidelines. No specific technical
alternatives are presented in this sections.
3. Leachate Control. This section of the Guidelines identifies
three basic alternatives for leachate control, which may be used indi-
vidually or in combination:
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control of leachate production
control of the escape of leachate
control of the impact of leachate on the environment.
Specific technologies that are recommended in the Guidelines, and
that may be used singly or in combination, include the following:
construction of surface runoff diversion
structures to divert all of the water from
a 24-hour, 25-year storm event
construction of a dike around fills within
a 100-year floodplain
grading of fill to prevent standing surface
water, but at slopes less than 30% to avoid
erosion
use of cover material with low permeability
and shrink/swell potential
vegetation of final cover
protection of underlying ground water by liner
installation (12-inch impermeable soil or 20 mil
membrane)
removal and treatment of leachate.
The leachate control section of the Guidelines also suggests
that the bottom of the landfill should be substantially above the seasonal
high water table and that there should be no hydraulic connection between
the fill and surface water. These provisions would normally be considered
in the design phase.
The selection of alternative technologies for leachate control,
if required, would be performed on a case-by-case basis.
4. Gas Control. Like leachate control, gas control can be
accomplished through the application of one or more alternative techniques:
minimization of the production of gases
control of escape of gases
minimization of migration of gases into soils
surrounding the site.
Selection of procedures for gas control should consider the waste type(s)
being accepted for landfilling, and should be developed in conjunction
with the leachate control plan. For example, the complete encapsulation of
a site should be coupled with a venting system where gases may accumulate.
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The Guidelines identify two categories of gas control technology:
passive barriers and active barriers. The pros and cons for each type
of barrier are also discussed. Passive barriers would consist of:
vertical cut-off walls (clay or artificial
materials) extending downward to an impervious
layer below the fill
venting system (gravel-filled trenches, per-
forated pipes or both)
gravel-filled trenches in combination with
cutoff walls.
Active barriers include:
induced exhaust wells
induced exhaust trenches
induced recharge trenches
As in the case of leachate control, the design, construction
and operation of a gas control system if required, would be considered
on a case-by-case basis.
5. Runoff Control. Recommended procedures to control runoff
include diversion of surface water, grading, construction of stilling
basins, final cover and vegetation of final cover. Since runoff control
is important to leachate control, as well as to the direct protection of
surface water bodies, runoff control technologies may be incorporated as
part of the leachate control approach for many sites.
6. Operation. Specific operating technologies recommended in
the Guidelines include the following:
pre-treatment of wastes (e.g., de-watering),
as required;
application of 6 inches of soil or clay daily
application of final cover (6 inches of im-
permeable clay and at least 18 inches of
topsoil)
landfill compaction
use of balers, shredders or stationary compactors
at or before delivery;
provision of safety devices and recommended practices
eradication of vectors, if they become established
initiation of long-term maintenance program.
-19-
-------
7. Monitoring. The scope, frequency and duration of an environ-
mental monitoring program is largely contingent upon the site character-
istics identified during baseline studies undertaken during the design
phase.
However, in general, the Guidelines recommend:
monitoring of ground water, at least annually,
at all landfills which have the potential for
discharge to drinking water supply aquifers;
monitoring of enclosed structures at landfill
facilities to detect gases;
monitoring of soils to detect gas migration.
8. Summary. It is important to emphasize that the mix of tech-
nologies to be employed in the location, design, construction, operation
and maintenance of landfill disposal facilities meeting the provisions of
the Section 4004 Criteria would differ widely from case-to-case. Simi-
larly, unit costs for individual technologies would differ widely, reflec-
ting such factors as availability of raw materials and other resources.
Later sections of this report provide: (a) estimated unit costs for the
specific technologies identified in the Guidelines, and the sources for
those cost estimates; and (b) assumptions applied in aggregating these
costs to the national level, and the rationale for those assumptions.
B. Development of Unit Costs for Upgrading Technologies
To determine the economic effects due to implementation of the Guide-
lines, unit costs for required upgrading technologies were developed.
These upgrading technologies are identified in Table 2. The table identi-
fies assumed technologies for waste processing, gas control, leachate
control, surface runoff, and monitoring at four types of landfills (muni-
cipal, industrial, construction, and pollution control residue). The table
also considers differences in current and recommended practices at sites
considered to be environmentally sensitive. The term "environmentally
sensitive" is defined at length in Section VI. C. of this report. It
includes wetlands, floodplains, permafrost areas, critical habitats of
endangered species, and recharge zones of sole source aquifers.
Table 2 identifies a set of assumptions that must be superimposed on
an assessment of existing practices at landfills in order to derive aggre-
gated national costs of implementing the proposed Guidelines. This set of
assumptions is largely judgmental and identifies those technologies (or
practices) which may be required in facility upgrading in order to attain
or maintain status as a sanitary landfill. The basic rationale behind
these judgements is as follows:
-20-
-------
TABLE 2
EXISTING TECHNOLOGY LEVELS AND ASSUMED UPGRADING TECHNOLOGY
Assumed Current
Technology Levels
Assumed
Upgrading Technologies
MUNICIPAL LANDFILLS
(in environmentally sensitive areas)
Waste Processing:
Gas Control:
Leachate Control:
Surface Runoff:
Monitoring:
Waste Processing:
Gas Control:
Leachate Control:
Surface Runoff:
Monitoring:
None
None
Clay I iner
Daily cover
Ditching
None
MUNICIPAL LANDFILLS
(in non-sensitive areas)
None
None
Permeable cover
Ditching
None
Vertical impermeable barriers
Impermeable cover
Leachate collection & treat-
ment (new facilities only)
Ponding
Dike construction
Gas & leachate
Vertical impermeable barriers
Impermeable cover
None
Gas & leachate
INDUSTRIAL LANDFILLS
(in environmentally sensitive areas)
Waste Processing: None
Gas Control: None
Leachate Control: Ingrequent permeable cover
None
Impermeable cover
Liners (new facilities only)
Leachate collection & treat-
ment (new facilities only)
-21-
-------
TABLE 2
(continued)
Assumed Current
Technology Levels
Assumed
Upgrading Technologies
INDUSTRIAL LANDFILLS
(in environmentally sensitive areas)
(continued)
Surface Runoff:
Monitoring:
None
None
Ponding
Dike construction
Leachate
INDUSTRIAL LANDFILLS
(in non-sensitive areas)
Waste Processing: None
Gas Control:
None
None
Leachate Control: Infrequent permeable cover Impermeable cover
Liners (new facilities only)
Ditching Ponding
None Leachate
Surface Runoff:
Monitoring:
CONSTRUCTION LANDFILLS
(in environmentally sensitive areas)
Waste Processing: None
Gas Control:
None
Leachate Control: None
Surface Runoff: Ditching
Monitoring:
None
None
Impermeable cover
Ponding
Dike construction
Leachate
-22-
-------
TABLE 2
(continued)
Assumed Current
Technology Levels
Waste Processing:
Gas Control:
Leachate Control:
Surface Runoff:
Monitoring:
Waste Processing:
Gas Control:
Leachate Control:
Assumed
Upgrading Technologies
Surface Runoff:
Monitoring:
Waste Processing:
Gas Control:
Leachate Control:
Surface Runoff:
Monitoring:
CONSTRUCTION LANDFILLS
(in non-sensitive areas)
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
POLLUTION CONTROL RESIDUE LANDFILLS
(in environmentally sensitive areas)
None
None
None
Ditching
None
None
Impermeable cover
Liner (new facilities only)
Leachate collection & treat-
ment (new facilities only)
Ponding
Dike construction
Leachate
POLLUTION CONTROL RESIDUE LANDFILLS
(in non-sensitive areas)
None
None
None
Ditching
None
None
Impermeable cover
Liner (new facilities only)
None
Leachate
-23-
-------
1. Landfill liners cannot be retrofitted. Therefore, existing
unlined facilities which are adversely affecting ground water quality would
be considered open dumps and closed under the authorities of Section 4004.
Existing unlined facilities which are not adversely affecting ground water
quality will require only minimal upgrading to assure continued protection
of ground water resources.
2. New facilities will need liners plus leachate collection and
treatment if they are located in sensitive areas since these areas are
generally "wet" and are concentrated in the areas of the country where
annual preciptation is relatively high. The exception is landfills to be
used for disposal of construction wastes, which are inert and generally
pose less of a leachate problem than that associated with other wastes.
3. Liners which would allow slow migration of leachate to the
environment may be necessary in non-sensitive areas. However, due to the
lower precipitation in these areas, leachate collection and treatment would
not generally be necessary.
4. Municipal wastes are the only general category of wastes that
commonly generates gases in quantities that require some control.* Al-
ternative technologies for gas control range from simple venting systems to
more complex (and costly) vertical barriers installed in combination with
gravel trenches. The average fill would probably need a technology some-
where between these extremes, such as the installation of a vertical
barrier or gravel trench alone. The unit cost of either would be similar
to the other.
5. Most existing landfills, regardless of location, waste type and
other factors have some provisions for diverting surface runoff to reduce
problems in actual operation of the facility, if not for environmental
protection. Substantial importance is placed on runoff control in the
Guidelines. Section 241.204 deals exclusively with runoff control and Sec-
tions 241.201 (design) and 241.202 (leachate control) also incorporate
recommendations for runoff control. This is also one of the few areas in
which the Guidelines provide quantitative recommendations (e.g., diversion
of water from a 24-hour/25-year storm event). In view of the emphasis
placed on runoff control, it is considered that all fills in sensitive
(wet) areas will require upgrading of current practices.
6. Monitoring is necessary to assure continued environmental pro-
tection and to measure the effectiveness of control technologies in sensi-
tive areas. Leachate may be generated by any fill type in a wet area.
Therefore, groundwater monitoring should be instituted at all facilities in
sensitive areas.
7. Safety precautions record-keeping, access, and vector control
are generally practiced at all landfills which would meet Section 4004
criteria. Any upgrading of such practices and consequent costs would be
minimal. Therefore these items are excluded from the table.
Some other wastes may generate gas (e.g., the readily decomposable
wastes of the food processing industry, and POTW sludges, if only
partly digested). In general, however, the other categories of
waste can be assumed not to be candidates for gas control.
-24-
-------
Table 3 presents upgrading costs per ton of disposal for the
identified upgrading technologies. The identified upgrading technologies
represent most commonly used state-of-the-art engineering practices for
achieving the objectives of the Guidelines. Table 4 presents additional
unit cost estimates for alternate control technologies. The alternate
technologies represent methods of compliance with the Guidelines which are
either in common use already, or technologies that, when compared to those
listed in Table 3, are less desirable, are more costly, do not represent
current state-of-the-art, or are applicable to fewer sites. It must be
emphasized, however, that the final choice of technologies will be site-
specific. The Table 3 technologies simply represent those which we have
assumed will be the most common methods chosen to achieve compliance.
Cost data were developed via an extensive literature search. Where
data were insufficient, an engineering estimate was used. In general,
total construction and operating costs were estimated for each upgrading
technology and unit costs (per ton) were developed by dividing the present
value of total cost by the total expected waste tonnage over an estimated
ten year site life. Appendix B presents case examples and calculation
assumptions for each of the upgrading technologies.
-25-
-------
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-28-
-------
VI. AGGREGATE COST OF LANDFILL GUIDELINES
A. Approach
In order to project the potential nationwide costs of implementing
the Section 1008 Guidelines, it was necessary to make a number of broad
assumptions based on the finite amount of information currently avail-
able. In the ensuing discussion, the information base and consequent
rationale for each assumption have been identified in order to allow the
reader to recognize the limitations of the data, and the categorizations
and aggregation processes that were applied to those data.
It was not the intent of this study to provide a detailed economic
assessment in which every case situation could be fully evaluated. Such
an approach would neither be feasible nor appropriate, given the flexi-
bility inherent in the Guidelines. The results of the aggregate cost
evaluation contained herein should, thus, be viewed within the context
of national scale, and with an appreciation of the limitations in sen-
sitivity of any analysis conducted at this scale.
The enforceability and applicability of the Guidelines are a pri-
mary concern in projecting the cost of compliance. There will be no
Federal enforcement of the Guidelines; however, certain recipients of
Federal assistance under the provisions of RCRA must demonstrate com-
pliance. Therefore, it is assumed that all States will enact programs
requiring the adoption of procedures identified in the Guidelines. The
cost of compliance would thus be State-induced.
The Guidelines are applicable to all facilities for the landfill
disposal of non-hazardous solid wastes. As indicated earlier, the
nearterm cost effects of the Guidelines will be incurred by existing
facilities which could feasibly upgrade operational practices in order
to achieve, or remain within, the Criteria for classification as san-
itary landfills. Costs will also be incurred for siting, design and
operation of new facilities. Finally, costs will be incurred by exist-
ing and new sanitary landfills as they undergo closure.
The general approach to assessing costs of upgrading existing
facilities involves multiplying incremental cost increases associated
with upgrading existing practices by the number of facilities which may
be required, under State programs, to undertake various upgrading pro-
cesses. Baseline and upgrading costs have been estimated in Section IV
and V of this report.
The potential extent of upgrading and costs thereof, are a function
of: (1) facility size; (2) waste type; (3) site characteristics; and
(4) the extent of current practice of the technologies identified in the
Guidelines.
-29-
-------
1. Facility Size. Representative facility sizes are 10, 100 and
300 TPD landfills, as indicated earlier. These models are intended to
represent facilities in the following ranges: 0-50 TPD, 50-200 TPD, and
greater than 200 TPD.
2. Waste Type. Waste types include five broad categories:
agricultural, municipal, industrial, construction and pollution control
residues.
3. Site Characteristics. Site characteristics, for purposes of
generalization, include environmentally sensitive areas including flood-
plains, wetlands, areas underlain by aquifers, and permafrost areas.
All other areas are placed in the "non-sensitive" category.
4. Extent of Current Practice of the Recommended Technologies.
The existing practice of Guidelines-level technologies can be broadly
sorted by waste type and site characteristics. Table 2 (included in
Section V) was based on an assessment of available literature and pro-
vided a checklist of environmental protection technologies currently
employed by a "typical" landfill for a given type of waste in environ-
mentally sensitive and non-sensitive areas. The indicated technologies
are meant to represent the most commonly utilized technologies at the
national level, and are not meant to represent the complete set of
technologies in use at the various types of site. Utilizing this table,
national upgrading costs can be aggregated by multiplying unit upgrading
costs by the prevalence of landfills in each broad category.
It is important to point out that where existing State programs
require the use of technologies equivalent to, or more stringent than
those recommended in the Guidelines, upgrading costs would be attrib-
utable to those existing programs and not to State enforcement of the
new Federal Guidelines. State solid waste management programs are
currently being examined by another EPA contractor. That portion of
total upgrading costs which may be attributable to existing programs
should be subtracted from the total cost estimated here.
B. Estimating the Prevalence of Landfill Types
1. Agricultural Landfills. Agricultural wastes include wastes
generated from raising and harvesting animals, grains, fruits and vege-
tables, and other field crops. They exclude food processing wastes
which are considered industrial. Several studies have produced data on
agricultural waste generation. However, a survey of EPA and other solid
waste management literature and inquiries at the USDA's Soil Conser-
vation Service produced no specific quantitative data on agricultural
waste disposal practices. General information on current disposal
practices indicates that essentially no single-purpose agricultural
landfills exist, on-site or off-site. The large majority of agricul-
tural waste is returned to the land on the farmsite. Manure and other
livestock solid wastes from feedlot and dairy operations are normally
-30-
-------
collected and stockpiled on-site until they can be spread on and disked
into adjacent acreage. Likewise, as Table 5 indicates, most crop
residues are shredded or chopped and disked or plowed back into the
topsoil. Some crop residues are removed for burning and composting.
(References 8, 9).
The land storage and disposal of all agricultural wastes can pose
serious environmental problems, particularly with regard to water pol-
lution. However, EPA's "Solid Waste Disposal Facilities Proposed Clas-
sification Criteria" specifically exclude from coverage solid waste
storage facilities and agricultural wastes returned to the land. The
disposal of pesticide wastes, which also can pose environmental problems
is addressed by Subtitle C of RCRA, and, therefore is also not covered
by the proposed Guidelines. On-going research, demonstration, and
development of agricultural waste disposal technology also indicates
that the number of future agricultural landfills will be insignificant
(Reference 8). As a result of these considerations, agricultural land-
fills are not considered further in this report.
2. Municipal Landfills. Municipal landfills primarily handle
municipal wastes, but may be privately or publicly owned or operated.
These sites may also accept other types of waste, such as non-hazardous
industrial wastes.
To determine the total number of municipal landfills, Fred C. Hart
Associates conducted a literature search followed by telephone inquiries
to update the 1977 Waste Age survey of landfills (Reference 1):
a. The literature/data base amassed by the project
team was examined. This included the responses to
an Office of Solid Waste (EPA Headquarters) letter,
dated June 18, 1978, to the EPA Regional offices.
This letter requested the Regions to secure from
their respective States any information they might
have that could be used to upgrade the Waste Age
data base. The replies to this request were reviewed.
b. EPA Regional representatives and several State
Solid Waste Representatives were contacted by
telephone. Resource and time constraints, however,
precluded contact with all fifty States. Therefore,
only ten States, (Pennsylvania, Kentucky, New Jersey,
Oregon, New York, Wisconsin, Illinois, Alabama, Washington,
and California) were contacted. A criterion utilized
in the selection of these particular States was the
significant interest they had displayed with respect
to the earlier "Criteria" EIS (Reference 6). In addition,
Mr. Richard W. El dredge, Technical Editor of Waste Age ,
who oversaw the Waste Age survey, was contacted.
-31-
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TABLE 5
CROP RESIDUES AS A WASTE-MANAGEMENT PROBLEM
Crop residue Nature of the residue,
Typical yield to be managed typical management
Crop tons/acre tons/acre problem
Field crops like
canning tomatoes,
sugar beets, pota-
toes
Field crops
harvested dry,
like soybeans,
saf flower cotton
Truck crops
(market veget-
ables)
Orchard fruit
Rice, wheat,
other grains
Field corn
Cotton
Sugar cane
20 (wet weight)
1.5
5-30
5-15
(fresh weight)
3.0
4.0
0.5
60 (wet cane)
30 (wet weight)
to as little as
3 tons dry solids)
1.6
1.5:1 to 4:1
(crop residue)
2
(prunings only)
3.5
5.3
1.5
40 (burned-off)
Cull fruit and all
material (stems,
leaves, roots)
disked back into top-
soil
Dried plant parts;
shredded and disked
into topsoil
Green parts not har-
vested, disked back,
or removed for com-
posting
Prunings-burned;
leaves-compost on
surface; cull fruit-
al so compost
Straw, disked or
burned
Dried stalks,
usually chopped and
plowed in
Dried total plant,
shredded, plowed into
topsoil .
Leaves burned before
harvest, cane harvested
and squeezed, then the
residual (bagasse)
burned at mil 1 , field
trash chopped and
disked
Source: Reference 8.
-32 -
-------
The data collection efforts outlined did not significantly upgrade
the data provided by the Waste Age survey, although in some cases more
reliable, up-to-date data were substituted for that of Waste Age. The
data cover primarily municipal landfills, but in a small number of cases
it was impossible to exclude data on industrial landfills.
Based on these data collection efforts, Fred C. Hart Associates
counted 14,689 municipal landfills nationwide. This figure falls ap-
proximately midway between the Waste Age 1976 estimate of 15,821 land-
fills and its 1977 figure of 14,126 municipal landfills. Table 6 rep-
resents the municipal landfill prevalence data.
3. Industrial Landfills. To date, the disposal practices of
industries have received relatively little public attention. Conse-
quently, very little data quantifying their waste generation and dis-
posal practices are available. Since disposal problems are handled by
the individual firms, the methods of disposal are as varied as the
industries themselves. In addition, wastes are often disposed of on-
site, making assessment of the disposal process more difficult to
quantify. To provide a basis for aggregate cost assessment, four major
questions are addressed: (1) how much industrial waste is generated;
(2) what is its form and how is it disposed; (3) is it disposed on-site
or off-site; and (4) what are the general disposal site characteristics?
Most of the recent studies that were examined defined industry
coverage using the major groupings of the Standard Industrial Classi-
fication (SIC) Code System (see Table 7). In general, the manufacturing
division represents those industries that would produce what is normally
classified as industrial waste. Estimates of solid waste production per
industry are usually presented for the initial two digits of the SIC
Code, (SIC Groups 20 to 39). In order to remain consistent with exist-
ing studies, this study also defines industries using the SIC Code
groupings.
To date, four types of waste generation data have been assembled
from investigations conducted by various authorities: community average
per capita industrial waste contributions; average waste generation in
tonnage per employee per year (TEY); waste generation rates reported for
specific points; and waste generation data for industries determined to
be potential hazardous waste generators. Although none of these esti-
mating measures is ideal, the estimates of projections of tons of waste
per employee per year (TEY) provide the most reasonable method of
relating waste production to the manufacture of products or commodities.
The TEY method is used in this investigation to determine current indus-
trial solid waste generation rates.
In an extensive survey of solid waste management literature, three
sources were found containing TEY coefficients for each of the 20 SIC
manufacturing industries (References 7, 8, 11). Tables 8 through 12
provide a range of estimates for industrial solid waste generation. The
remaining tables of TEY coefficients or the equivalents (multipliers,
annual waste volume per employee, or waste production rate), reveal a
-33-
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TABLE 6
PREVALENCE OF MUNICIPAL LANDFILLS BY LOCATION. 1978
STATES MUNICIPAL SITES
Region #1
Connecticut 164
Maine 387
Massachusetts 320
New Hampshire 128
Rhode Island 25
Vermont 98.
Sub-Total: 1,122
Region #2
New Jersey 296
New York 635
Puerto Rico and
Virgin Islands
Sub-Total: 936
Region #3
Delaware 25
Maryland 67
Pennsylvania 365
Virginia 223
West Virginia 250
Sub-Total: 930
Region #4
Alabama 132
Florida 330
Georgia 480
Kentucky 140 (a)
Mississippi N/A
North Carolina 170
South Carolina 211
Tennessee 148
Sub-Total: 1,611
Region #5
Illinois 300
Indiana 149
Michigan 572
Ohio 250
Minnesota 405
Wisconsin 1 ,297
Sub-Total: 2,973
-34-
-------
TABLE 6 (continued)
PREVALENCE OF MUNICIPAL LANDFILLS BY LOCATION, 1978
STATES
Region #6
Arkansas
Louisiana
New Mexico
Texas
Oklahoma
Region #7
Iowa
Kansas
Missouri
Nebraska
Region #8
Colorado
Montana
North Dakota
South Dakota
Utah
Wyomi ng
Region #9
Arizona
California
Hawaii
Nevada
Region #10
Alaska
Idaho
Oregon
Washington
Sub-Total
Sub-Total
Sub-Total
Sub-Total
MUNICIPAL SITES
460
365
600
l,093(b)
188
2,706
322(c)
341(d)
165(e)
449
1,277
Sub-Total
187
605
35
113
890
350
120
158
410
1,038
United States Total:
14,689
-35-
-------
TABLE 6 (continued)
a. On-site industrial sites included.
b. Includes fly-ash disposal sites.
c. Includes 225 sites currently in process
of being closed.
d. Includes 218 sites currently in process
of being closed.
e. Includes 48 sites currently in process
of being closed.
Source: Fred C. Hart Associates, Inc.
-36-
-------
TABLE 7
STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION CCTcS FOR
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Major Group 20. Food and kindred products
Major Group 21. Tobacco manufactures
Major Group 22. Textile mill products
Major Group 23. Apparel and other finished products made from fabrics and
similar materials
Major Group 24. Lumber and wood products, except furniture
Major Group 25. Furniture and fixtures
Major GrouT 26. Paper and allied products
Major Group 27. Printing, publishing, and allied industries
Major Group 28. Chemicals and allied products
Major Group 2°>. Petroleum refining and related industries
Major Group 30. Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products
Major Group 31. Leather and leather products
Major Group 32. Stone, clay, glass, and concrete products
Major Group 33. Primary metal industries
Major Group 34. Fabricated metal products, except machinery and transportation
equipment
Major Group 35. Machinery, except electrical
Major Group 35. Electrical and electronic machinery, equipment, and supplies
Major Group 37. Transportation equipment
Major Group 38. Measuring, analyzing, and controlling instruments; photographic,
medical and optical goods; watches and clocks
Major Group 39. Miscellaneous manufacturing industries
Source: Reference 38
-37-
-------
TABLE 8
WASTE GENERATION BY MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES IN THE UNITED STATES
SIC
Code
20
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
{in Tons
Industry
Food Processing
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Textile-mill products
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Apparel
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Wood products
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Furniture
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Paper and allied products
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Printing, publishing
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Chemicals and allied products
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Petroleum
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Rubber, plastics
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
per Employee per Year, TEY)
Data
Points
31
11
1
16
15
1
20
0
0
10
0
0
7
0
0
21
9
8
24
12
0
39
23
28
4
1
1
13
8
1
Average
TEY
7.949
0.001
0.400
2.160
0.107
1.508
2.192
-
-
0.531
-
-
2.783
-
-
3.987
0.010
0.012
5.835
0.013
-
8.862
2.599
2.554
1.594
0.041
0.003
9.835
0.072
0.084
Standard
deviation
10.451
0.036
-
1.854
0.233
-
6.197
-
-
7.648
-
-
3.578
-
-
8.267
0.026
0.073
5.958
0.000
-
7.434
4.504
5.944
2.751
-
-
9.163
0.100
-
95%
Confidence
Limits
1.877
0.025
-
0.464
0.135
-
1.461
-
-
2.419
-
-
1.352
-
-
1.804
0.013
0.052
1.242
0.000
-
1.191
1.593
2.102
1.376
-
-
2.541
0.071
-
- 38 -
-------
TABLE 8 (continued)
WASTE GENERATION BY MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES IN THE UNITED STATES
SIC
Code
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
^in Tons
Industry
Leather
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Stone, clay
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Primary metals
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Fabricated metals
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Non-electrical machinery
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Electrical machinery
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Transportation equipment
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Professional and Sci.
instruments
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Miscellaneous manufacturing
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
per Employee per Year, TEY^
Data
Points
2
0
0
18
1
7
13
5
1
42
22
23
47
21
18
21
15
0
8
4
6
7
5
0
25
0
0
Average
TEY
8.989
-
-
6.412
0.005
0.011
3.184
1.397
0.423
6.832
0.014
0.055
3.89
0.258
2.453
2.941
0.172
-
2.562
0.319
0.191
1.769
0.074
-
1.603
-
-
Standard
deviation
6.986
-
-
15.300
-
0.024
8.210
12.067
-
9.180
0.024
2.268
1.448
0.137
2.361
7.009
0.077
-
4.097
0.183
0.124
2.061
0.088
-
1.883
-
-
952
Confidence
Limits
4.941
-
-
3.606
-
0.017
2.277
8.534
-
1.416
0.009
1.307
0.211
0.052
1.363
1.529
0.039
-
1.449
0.129
0.880
0.779
0.062
-
0.377
_
-
Source: Reference 8
- 39 -
-------
TABLE 9
WASTE GENERATION BY MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES IN SAN JOSE. CALI FORM IA
Industry
Nondurables
Food products
Seasonal foods
Other foods
Total food products
Paper, printing and publishing
Chemicals
Other nondurables
Textiles and apparel
Rubber and plastics
Leather
Total other nondurables
Durables
Stone, clay, glass, and concrete
Primary and fabricated metals
Electrical and nonelectric machinery
Other durables
Lumber and wood products
Furniture and fixtures
Transportation equipment
Instruments
Total other durables
Other manufacturing
Total manufacturing employment
Employment0
July 1967
2,200
11,482
13,632
6,478
1,900
2,193
1,835
355
4,383
3,708
15,250
12,478
1,033
1,562
2,768
915
6,278
2,500
66,657
Multipliers
ton/ employee/ yr
5.56570
4.81855
12.87060
8.21075
.52575
1.54810
2.49365
18.11425
6.7300
3.58040
21.68805
20.15545
3.39330
2.51700
2.49365
Wastes
ton/yr
12,245
55,304
83,376
15,600
1,153
2,841
885
67,168
102,632
44,676
22,404
31,483
9,393
2,303
6,234
457,697
a Basic employment data are from the State of California Department of Employment
Community Labor Market Survey. Data were adjusted to exclude Union City which is not
in the study area. Employment in the categories "Other Durables" and "Other Non-
durables" was distributed to the relevant SIC groups by using the same proportions
as existed in the 1965 employment data from ABAC.
Multipliers for the manufacturing industries were developed and reported in Table
VI. Comprehensive Studies of Solid Waste Management, Second Annual Report.
SOURCE: C.G. Golueke and P.M. McGauhey, Comprehensive Studies of Solid Wastes Manage-
ment, Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory, University of California, June 1970,
p.53. (Reference 7)
- 40 -
-------
TABLE 10
WASTE GENERATION BY LARGE FIRMS IN SAN JOSE, CALIFORNIA
Annual Annual wastes
Wastes, vol. per employee,
Standard industrial classification Employment9 yd yd0
Ordnance and accessories 29.356 131.404 4.476
Canning and Preserving0 11.389 102.238 8.977
Other food processing 2.012 17.545 8.720
Tobacco NA NA NA
Textiles NA NA MA
Apparel 601 1.248 2.077
Lumber and Wood Products NA NA NA
Furniture and fixtures NA NA NA
Paper and Allied Products 250 9.360 37.440
Printing, publishing, and allied 968 7.020 7.252
Chemicals and allied MA NA NA
Petroleum refining NA NA NA
Rubber and plastics 481 9.069 18.854
Leather MA NA NA
Stone, clay, glass, and concrete 1.258 6.617 5.260
Primary metals NA NA NA
Fabricated metal products 3.565 47.078 13.206
Nonelectrical machinery 8.872 101.153 13.206
Electrical machinery 7.807 57.252 7.333
Transportation equipment 4.100 100.776 24.580
Instruments NA NA NA
Miscellaneous manufacturing industries NA NA NA
NA - not available
a Data on employment were obtained for those large firms which were surveyed
and included in the wastes calculationfrom the research department of the
Association of Metropolitan San Jose (Greater San Jose Chamber of Commerce).
FMC report. Solid Waste Disposal System Analysis (Preliminary Report).
Tables 10 and 11, 1968.
c 3
Annual wastes, vol. yd /employment
d For canning and preserving, no individual firm data were available. The
industry total developed for the country as a whole was divided by the
total employment in the industry (especially tabulated) to arrive at the
multiplier.
SOURCE: C.G. Goluke and P.11. McGauhey, Comprehensive Studies of Solid Wastes
Management, Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory, University of California
January 1969, p.221.
Source: Reference 7.
- 41 -
-------
TABLE 11
WASTE GENERATION BY SMALL FIRMS IN SAN JOSE, CALIFORNIA
Standard industrial classification
Ordnance and accessories
Canning and preserving
Other food processing
Tobacco
Textiles
Apparel
Lumber and wood products
Furniture and fixtures
Paper and allied products
Printing, publishing,
and allied
Chemicals and allied
Petroleum refining
Rubber and plastics
Leather
Stone, clay, glass, and
concrete
Primary metals
Fabricated metal products
Nonelectrical machinery
Electrical machinery
Transportation equipment
Instruments
Manufacturing
industries
NA - not available
Weekly
wastes,
vol
per firm,
yd3a
Annual
wastes,
vol
per firm,
vd3b
Average
employment
per firm
2.500
(Not surveyed)
10.875
4.000
16.083
23.000
44.650
6.448
6.506
NA
5.275
NA
9.415
2,
5.
4.
000
284
450
6.733
4.
3.
550
600
1,250
130.00
565.50
NA
NA
208.00
836.33
,196.00
,321.80
335.29
338.31
NA
274.30
NA
489.60
104.00
274.75
231.40
350.13
236.60
187.20
65.00
NA
26.979
5.882
17.247
13.767
35,479
13.289
18.439
NA
9.596
NA
16.747
23.409
12.951
12.921
21.036
16.490
20.933
10.931
Annual waste,
vol per
employee,
vd3d
NA
20.961
35.360
48.492
86.877
65.442
25.230
18.348
NA
28.583
NA
29.235
4.443
21.214
17.909
16.645
14.348
8.943
5.946
a Data obtained and calculated for each SIC on the basis of small firm questionnaire
responses supplied by FMC.
b Weekly average in first column multiplied by 52.
c Average size of small firm estimates from the contribution of firms by employment
size, supplied by the California Department of Employment (Research and Statistics),
San Francisco Office.
d Annual wastes/average employment per firm.
SOURCE: C.G. Golueke and P.M. McGauhey, Comprehensive Studies of Solid Wastes
Management, Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory, University of California,
January 1969, p. 221.
Source: Reference 7.
- 42 -
-------
TABLE 12
WASTE GENERATION IN WISCONSIN, BY SIC GROUP
S.I.C.
Group
20-39
20
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
50-51
52-59
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60-67
70-09
70
72
73
76
79
80
89
90-94
Description
Manufacturing
Food Products
Textile mill products
Apparel
Lumber & wood products,
except furnitures
Furniture & fixtures
Paper & allied products
Printing & publishing
Chemicals
Petroleum refining
Rubber & plastics products
Leather & leather products
Stone, clay, glass & concrete
products
Primary metals
Fabricated metal products
Machinery, except electrical
Electrical & electronic machinery
Transportation equipment
Precision instruments
Miscellaneous Mfg. Industries
Wholesale trade
Retail trade
Retail building materials
Retail general merchandise
Retail food
Auto sales, service, repairs
Retail apparel
Furniture
Eating and drinking establishments
Miscellaneous retail trade
Financial operation
Services
Hotels
Personal services
Business services
Miscellaneous repair
Amusements, recreation
Medical & health
Miscellaneous services
Government
Waste
Generation
Coefficient
Ibs/cap/day
26.7
1.7
1.3
89.0
6.8
81.7
6.2
45.0
159.2
6.1
1.1
125.0
36.8
20.4
19.9
14.7
7.1
1.9
6.6
10.3
8.7
1.5
11.9
2.5
2.4
6.4
12.5
5.4
7.1
11.8
2.3
4.1
9.1
4.0
6.9
4.1
Annual Averages
State
Employment
1000s
493.6
57.7
6.7
7.0
16.8
8.5
43.4
26.2
10.1
-
12.5
13.9
8.3
28.1
44.4
103.3
46.5
38.1
8.8
13.0
67.9
278.0
14.1
60.7
45.2
34.3
11.9
7.9
55.5
25.7
64.1
249.5
10.6
14.5
19.0
2.0
8.1
24.6
7.9
279.5
(1972)
Est. Waste
Production
tons /day
(7-day week)
770.3
5.7
4.6
747.6
28.9
1,172.9
81.2
227.3
-
38.1
7.7
518.8
517.1
452.9
1,027.8
341.8
135.3
8.4
42.9
349.7
61.3
45.5
268.9
42.9
14.3
25.3
346.9
69.4
227.6
62.5
16.7
39.0
9.1
16.2
84.9
16.2
Source: Reference 11.
- 43 -
-------
wide range of values for what are theoretically, the same coefficients.
In part this inconsistency arises from the fact that the TEY data for
each industry are based on plants with diverse production methods, which
in themselves are often not reported for reasons of propriety. Another
factor leading to such dispersion of data is company employment figures
which often do not distinguish non-production workers who do not directly
generate the wastes, from the total plant employment. Consequently,
most industrial waste generation rates are based on the total employment
numbers. Lastly, the sample sizes as well as the sampling regions must
also be considered in evaluating coefficient differences.
For this study, coefficient values from Table 8 were chosen to
estimate waste generation, since TEY coefficients in this table were
broken down further into values corresponding to solid wastes, liquid
wastes, and sludges. Based on the assumption that solid wastes are
generally disposed of in landfills, the solid waste coefficients were
utilized to calculate the total industrial waste destined for landfill
disposal. Results are presented in Table 13.
Using the solid waste TEY's presented in Table 13 for each 2-digit
SIC industry, one can evaluate the plant size distribution by number of
employees necessary to produce 0-50, 50-200, and greater than 200 TPD of
solid waste (see Table 14). Census of Manufacturers plant size categories
are then reapportioned to fit the plant size distribution derived above.
Once the number of plants in each waste volume generating category has
been determined for each 2-digit SIC industry, a number of assumptions
are made. These assumptions relied heaviliy on EPA-supported studies of
industrial hazardous waste disposal practices for two reasons: first,
the studies provided the most detailed industry-specific analysis of
industrial waste disposal practices; and second, while the focus of the
studies was hazardous waste, many of the studies noted that industry
generally has not developed separate disposal facilities for hazardous
and non-hazardous solid waste. Thus, the waste disposal practices
described in these reports (References 5, 12-29) provide a reasonable
basis for assumptions concerning solid waste disposal.
Four assumptions were made:
a. Assume the same disposal practices (method and location)
for potentially hazardous and non-hazardous wastes in every
industry;
b. Assume all solid wastes are landfilled unless information
exists which indicates otherwise;
c. Where industrial hazardous waste practices assessments
have been performed for one or more 3-digit SIC indus-
tries within a 2-digit industry, the available disposal
data were averaged and the average was applied over the
remainder of 3-digit SIC industries within the 2-digit
SIC group;
-44-
-------
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TABLE 14 (Continued)
Notes
a.TEY was unavailable for the tobacco industry. The TEY for food
processing was used as a proxy.
b.Average of the "% of all Plants Landfill ing On-Site" for those
2-digit SIC industries for which hazardous waste practices assess-
ments are available.
c.Telephone Contact -- J. Grant, Director of Government Affairs,
Printing Industries of America, Washington, D.C.
d. Weighted average of the "% of Plants Landfill ing On-Site" for:
- inorganic chemicals $IC 281);
References 12, 13, 14.
- paint and allied products (SIC 285);
Reference 15.
- organic chemicals, pesticides, and
explosives (SIC 286, 287);
References 16, 17.
Weights based on total potentially hazardous waste volume (dry MT/Y)
e.Based on percent of total potentially hazardous waste volume
(dry MT/Y) landfill ing on-site; Reference 18.
f.Reference 19.
g.Based on percent of total potentially hazardous waste volume (dry
MT/Y) landfilled on-site; Reference 20.
h. Reference 21.
i. Reference 22.
j. Reference 23.
-47-
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d. For 2-digit SIC industries for which no hazardous
waste practices assessments have been performed,
the disposal data available for the other 2-digit
SIC's were averaged and the average was applied.
Using the industrial hazardous waste practices assessments done for
EPA, the percentage of plants landfilling on-site is determined. This
percentage was applied to the numbers of plants in each waste volume
generating category to yield the numbers of on-site landfills accepting
0-50, 50-200, and over 200 TPD of solid waste. The total number of 0-50
TPD industrial on-site landfills is 75,580 while the number of 50-200
TPD on-site landfills is 125 and there are essentially no on-site land-
fills accepting more than 200 TPD of solid waste.
In a previous EPA study (Reference 30), Fred C. Hart Associates
estimated 10,558 industrial hazardous waste generators would require
permits for on-site hazardous waste facility operation. Assuming most
industries presently co-dispose hazardous and non-hazardous solid wastes
and that 90% of the establishments landfill or open dump these wastes,
9,502 industrial on-site hazardous waste landfills must exist nation-
wide. Since these landfills will be covered under Subtitle C of RCRA,
this figure can be subtracted from the total industry solid waste land-
fill figure obtained from Table 14 to yield 66,203 (or 66,094 10 TPD and
109 100 TPD) industrial on-site non-hazardous solid waste landfills
nationwide which will be subject to the proposed Guidelines.
4. Construction, Demolition, and Disaster Debris Landfills.
There are very few single-purpose construction, demolition or disaster
debris landfills. The majority of construction wastes are used as fill
material or are disposed at permitted municipal landfills. Disposal
methods include separate burial, use for on-site construction such as
for service roads, or burial along with the municipal solid waste.
Demolition wastes normally suffer the same fate as construction wastes,
except that a greater percentage is used for clean fill. The Army Corps
of Engineers reports that there are no pre-planned or active disaster
debris landfills. These landfills are selected on a case-by-case basis
by local authorities at the time of the particular disaster. Depending
on the type and amount of debris, and the availability of landfill
sites, either existing municipal landfills or new single-purpose sites
are selected. These are used only once, covered over, and recorded only
by local authorities. The data base developed in this report does not
represent national prevalence of debris fills. Refinement of that data
base to include debris fills would require, at a minimum, contact with
each State. Since the number of such single-purpose fills is likely to
be quite small, they are not considered further in this analysis.
5. Pollution Control Residues. The waste category of pollution
control residues includes:(a) flue gas desulfurization sludges (FGD
sludge); (b) ash generated by combustion of coal and oil; and (c) munici-
pal waste water treatment plant sludges. Sludges from the treatment of
non-hazardous industrial wastes other than ash and FGD sludge are
accounted for in the industry section. Of the three waste types in the
-48-
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Pollution Control Residues (PCR) category, sludges from waste water
treatment plants will not be considered further. It is estimated that
25 percent of treatment sludges are landfilled. These sludges are
disposed of at permitted sites, which were identified previously in the
municipal landfill category.
The remaining waste stream types are primarily generated by elec-
tric utilities. Due to the large volume of wastes generated, it can be
assumed that each power plant disposes of the waste on its' own site.
Scrubber sludges can be large in volume, but at the present time there
are relatively few power plants with active scrubber systems. According
to a recent Energy Resources Company, Inc. study (Reference 31), there
were 31 non-regenerable scrubber systems (which produce waste streams
rather than a saleable product). Seventeen of these facilities dispose
of sludge in ponds; six units use landfills; and one unit dumps its
sludge in a borrow pit. Seven units did not report on disposal practices,
The other major pollution control residue is ash. Combustion of
fossil fuels, especially coal and oil, generally produces an ash residue
which requires disposal. The electric power generating industry relies
on coal- and oil-fired steam electric power plants to generate about 63%
of the nation's electrical capacity, with coal at 38% and oil-fired
plants at 25% of total capacity. The amount of ash residue generated
depends upon the type of fuel and the ash content of the fuel. The
disposal of the ash is a practice particular to the plant involved. We
have attempted to estimate the population of combustion ash disposal
sites in the manner described below.
From previous studies, the average ash generation figures per plant
and per megawatt (MW) of generating capacity were derived, first for
coal and then for oil-fired facilities. Per MW, coal combustion pro-
duces 300 tons of ash per year or 0.82 tons per day, based on 365 days
per year of operation. The corresponding figures for ash generation at
oil-fired plants are 2.5 TPY and 0.007 TPD per megawatt.
We next scaled the model landfill classes, established previously,
to the MW capacity figures for each type of plant. In order for a coal-
fired plant to generate from 0-50, 50-100 or 200+ tons of ash per day,
its rated capacity had to fall within 3 ranges of values. These values
were 0 to 61 MW, 61 to 244 MW, or 245+ MW for each of the three model
landfill capacities. In the case of oil-fired plants, the MW capacity
had to exceed 7,100 MW to produce more than 50 tons per day of ash. Few
plants attain one tenth that size.
Table 15 lists the number of coal- and oil-fired plants in the
United States, by category of ash production. Oil-fired plants fall
completely within the smallest category. Coal-fired plants do not. The
results, on a national level are that 729 plants (621 oil-fired, 108
coal-fired) generate enough ash to fill ponds and landfills of 0 to 50
TPD capacity; 75 plants, all coal-fired, produce 50 to 200 tons of ash
per day; and 217 plants, all coal-fired, generate more than 200 tons of
ash per day.
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TABLE 15
NUMBER OF ASH LANDFILLS BY DAILY CAPACITY FOR
STEAM ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS. BY PLANT TYPE a
Number of Plants in Ash Production
Categories (TPD)
Plant Type
Oil-Firedb
Coal-Firedc
0-50
621
108
50-200
-
75
200+ Total
621
217 400
Total 729 75 217 1,021
aP1ants in service as of December 31, 1976, according to the Federal Energy
Administration.
Included among oil-fired plants are some plants firing gas or coal.
However, it can be assumed that all the plants generate some oil-
fired ash which must be landfilled.
cNumbers represent plants firing coal only.
Source: Reference 32.
-50-
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Data from the National Ash Association indicate that 15% of the
total ash produced is used in construction and of the remaining 85% of
the total, 49% is trucked to landfills and 51% is sluiced. The latter
figure implies disposal in ponds or lagoons which removes this fraction
from immediate consideration. However, at the conclusion of the de-
watering process, this ash volume is reportedly dredged and dumped on
land.
The practices of ash disposal are random; that is, they are not
correlated with size of plant, with ownership, with plant location in
terms of either physiography or demography, nor with plant age. Prac-
tices are solely determined by the resources of the plant in question
and not of a class of plants. If 41.7% of ash is landfilled (49%
trucked x 85% disposed), then the total number of landfills by capacity
class, assuming a random disposal practice, is as follows:
0-50 TPD 50-200 200+
Number of landfills
304
31
90
Total
425
C. Estimating the Prevalence of Environmentally Sensitive Areas
Wetlands, floodplains, permafrost areas, critical habitats, and
recharge zones of sole source aquifers are considered as Environmentally
Sensitive Areas (ESAs) by the Criteria and Guidelines. Karst terrain and
active fault zones are not designated as ESAs by the Proposed Guidelines,
but are listed nonetheless as areas to avoid in sanitary landfill siting,
and to protect in landfill design and operation. The total U.S. area of
karst terrain and active fault zones is insignificant when mapped at the
gross scale used for estimating the extent of the other, more prevalent
ESAs. For this reason, consideration of ESAs is limited in this report
to wetlands, permafrost areas, floodplains, critical habitats, and areas
overlying sole source aquifers.
1. Wetlands.
areas that
The proposed Guidelines define wetlands as "those
are inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a
frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal
circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted
for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include
swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas." To estimate the aggregate
National costs of sanitary landfilling in wetland areas, it is first
necessary to map and estimate the total U.S. area of wetlands. A recent
inquiry at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service indicates that the Federal
wetland inventory is not yet complete, and that no generalized U.S.
wetland map has superseded the 1956 USFWS Circular 39 map (Reference 33).
-51-
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Figure 7 represents a generalized adaptation of Reference 33.
Heavy concentrations of wetlands were identified by dots which rep-
resented 10,000 acres of wetlands. These were outlined to indicate
generalized areas of expected concentration of wetlands. The total area
of wetlands in the U.S., as reported in Reference 33 is 74 million
acres. Data are still needed for Alaska, Hawaii, and the U.S. territories.
The map is subjective and intended only as a rough estimate of U.S.
wetlands prevalence. When the national wetland inventory is complete, a
refined estimate can be made.
2- Floodplains. The proposed Guidelines define floodplains as
"lowland and relatively flat areas adjoining inland and coastal waters,
including flood-prone areas of offshore islands, which are inundated by
the base 100-year flood." To estimate the aggregate national costs
of sanitary landfilling in floodplains, it is first necessary to map and
estimate the total U.S. area of 100-year floodplains.* A recent inquiry
at the Federal Insurance Administration, which administers the Federal
Flood Insurance Program, indicates that the Federal floodplain mapping
effort is not yet complete, and that no reliable generalized U.S. flood-
plain map yet exists. However, in a 1978 report, the U.S. Water Resources
Council (Reference 34) produced a map of existing U.S. flooding problems
defined as areas (river basins) that have serious or moderate agricul-
tural, urban and other flooding. Figure 8 shows WRC's generalized areas
of serious flooding. When the Federal 100-year floodplain mapping
effort is complete, a refined estimate can be made of the extent of
floodprone areas.
3. Permafrost Areas. The proposed Guidelines define permafrost
areas as areas of "permanently frozen subsoil." R.F. Flint's Glacial
and Quaternary Geology (Reference 39) maps the present extent of con-
tinuous and discontinuous permafrost in the northern hemisphere. Figure
9 was adapted from Flint's map of continuous permafrost areas.
4. Critical Habitats. Critical habitats are those habitats
which have been determined by the Secretary of the Interior to be crit-
ical to the continued existence of endangered species listed under
Section 4 of the Endangered Species Act of 1973. According to K.
Schreiner of the Office of Endangered Species, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, the ultimate total U.S. area of critical habitat will be very
small compared to the total area of the other ESAs. It was therefore
concluded that the identification of the known small areas of critical
habitats would lack meaning in the national-scale maps used for this
report. Further, many critical habitats are contained within the flood-
plain and wetland areas.
5. Areas Overlying Aquifers. The proposed Guidelines recommend
location of landfills in areas which are not underlain by current or
This approach conforms with the intent of Executive Order 11988
dated May 24, 1977, concerning floodplain management.
-52-
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planned drinking water sources. Figure 10 shows the areas of major
aquifers in the country in which municipalities rely heavily on ground
water as a source of drinking water. The map was adapted from U.S.
Geological Survey Hydrologic Atlas 194 (Reference 40) in consideration
of municipal water use data.
6. Total Environmentally Sensitive Area. Figure 11 maps the
total U.S. Environmentally Sensitive Area as defined by the Section 4004
Criteria and the proposed Guidelines. This map was produced by over-
laying Figures 7 through 10 representing the four separately mapped
ESAs. Figure 11 indicates that approximately 50-60% of the area of the
coterminous United States is classified as environmentally sensitive.
D. Estimating the Distribution of Sanitary Landfills
For the purpose of this report, it is assumed that the distribution
of sanitary landfills roughly correlates with population distribution.
To determine the number of landfills in ESAs, the following methodology
was used:
a. Determine which of each State's Standard
Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSAs) lie
in ESAs. This was accomplished by over-
lapping a map of SMSAs with the composite
ESA map in Figure 11, and identifying over
lapping areas. The population of SMSAs in
ESAs was then summed for each State.
b. Determine the percentage of the remainder
of the State (non SMSA) which lies in ESAs
using the same tools as in (a) above.
Subtract the State's total SMSA population
from the State's total population to yield
the population of the remainder of the
State. Assuming an even population distrib-
ution over the remainder of the State, apply
the percentage ESA area found above to the
population of the remainder of the State to
obtain the ESA population in the remainder
of the State.
c. Add the total State SMSA population in ESAs
to the population of the remainder of the
State in ESAs to yield the total State
population in ESAs.
d. Add all the State's total populations in ESAs
together to obtain the total U.S. population
in ESAs.
-56-
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-58-
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e. Determine the percentage of the total U.S.
population which resides in ESAs, and apply
this percentage to the total number of land-
fills to obtain the number of landfills
in ESAs.
These data are summarized in Table 16. As the table indicates, the
total U.S. population in ESAs is 154.5 million or 73.1% of the total
U.S. population. If landfills are evenly distributed according to
population, then 73.1% or 59,443 landfills in all, lie in ESAs.
E. Aggregate Costs
Tables 17-19 outline the potential impact of the proposed landfill
Guidelines on the operating costs of various types of landfill oper-
ations. Table 20 presents the unit cost impact (i.e., costs/ton) of the
Guidelines on landfill sites handling municipal, industrial, and pollution
control residue waste respectively, with these operations further strat-
ified by daily capacity (ton/day) and whether they are located in sen-
sitive or nonsensitive areas. All of these results are then summarized
in Table 21. These cost impact assessments are based on the landfill
prevalence data and landfill upgrading cost estimates as developed in
Sections VLB. and V.B., respectively. The aggregate incremental cost
figures in Table 21 show the amount by which these changes in unit costs
would affect the average annual operating costs of each type of land-
fill, and the total of these Guidelines-related incremental costs for
all landfills nationwide.
The factors that stand out most clearly in these tables are:
1. The potential cost impact is substantial; the national
figure of $2038.0 million is approximately a 60 percent
increase over the present landfill operating cost esti-
mate of $3,539 million.
2. The incremental costs due to the Guidelines reflect
the scale economy assumptions made earlier in this
report for both base line and upgrading technology
costs; this decreasing cost factor is the most
significant for municipal solid waste sites.
3. Leachate controls, and particularly the impermeable
cover requirement, represent the largest incremental
cost element, while surface runoff control is the
second largest factor.
4. The industrial landfill population is responsible for
roughly 66 percent of the total incremental costs,
with virtually all of it falling on the small (10
TPD) sites; the cost data however, show that the
incremental impact per unit of waste was fairly
even among the three waste categories.
-59-
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-70-
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F. Sensitivity Analysis of Cost Impacts
The cost data presented here are based on numerous assumptions, all
of which have been delineated in earlier sections. The results are
highly sensitive to changes in some of these assumptions, while others
have little or no effect on total costs. Two assumptions, one from the
landfill prevalence calculations and another from the upgrading tech-
nology estimates, were tested to see how they would affect the Guide-
lines cost impacts outlined above:
1. the portion of the landfills that have on-site clay
available for the impermeable cover process; and
2. the percentage of total landfills located in en-
vironmentally sensitive vs. non-sensitive areas.
Table 22 shows the substantial difference in the costs of the
impermeable cover requirement for operations with an on-site vs. off-
site clay source. The values of $5.30, $2.65, and $1.75 for 10 TPD, 100
TPD and 300 TPD sites, respectively, assumed that all sites must rely on
off-site sources of clay. This assumption is reasonable since although
there are extensive areas of clayey soils in the U.S., there is relatively
little soil whose clay component is sufficiently impermeable (1 x 10~7
cm/sec) to be effective in meeting the Guidelines. However, if it is
assumed that 20 percent of landfills have on-site sources of clay, the
unit cost figures would decrease to $4.39, $2.19, and $1.45 for 10 TPD,
100 TPD, and 300 TPD sites, respectively.* If 50 percent of landfills
have on-site clay, then the unit costs are even less at $3.02, $1.50 and
$1.00 for 10 TPD, 100 TPD, and 300 TPD sites, respectively. All land-
fills are required to use this form of leachate control, so the cost
impact of this change in assumptions would be fairly uniform. However,
based on the substantial differences in unit costs and the technology's
widespread application, the impact on overall Guidelines-induced costs
would be substantial, causing a 12 percent reduction in costs assuming
20 percent of sites with clay available and a 29 percent decrease in
costs assuming 50 percent of sites with clay available (see Table 22).
It is very unlikely that more than 50 percent of the sites have
available surface clay; the percentage with on-site clay, based on
available aggregated data on soil types, could easily be under 20 per-
cent. Although no exact estimate can be made, it is clear that the
eventual cost results are very sensitive to this factor -- a conclusion
that supports the need for further work in this area.
The unit costs of impermeable cover for landfills with on-site
sources of clay are $0.75, $0.35, and $0.25 for 10 TPD, 100 TPD,
and 300 TPD sites, respectively. See Table 3.
-71-
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TABLE 22
EFFECT OF CHANGE IN ON-SITE CLAY AVAILABILITY ASSUMPTION
ON GUIDELINES COST IMPACTS ($ MILLIONS)
Site Size Categories
Assumption
0/100*
(Baseline)
20/80* 1,456.4 188.2 182.6 1,827.2
(% Change) (-11%) (-13%) (-14%) (-12%)
50/50* 1,177.0 145.5 138.9 1,461.4
(% Change) (-28%) (-33%) (-34%) (-29%)
10 TPD
$1,641.7
100 TPD
$216.8
300 TPD
$211.8
TOTAL
$2,070.3
0/100 = 0% have on-site clay, etc.
The results of the second sensitivity analysis are presented in
Table 23. Two alternative assumptions were substituted for the initial
estimate (labeled Baseline) that 73.1 percent of all landfills were
located in environmentally sensitive areas:
Alternative Assumption 1: 50% in Sensitive/50% in Non-Sensitive Areas
Alternative Assumption 2: 10% in Sensitive/90% in Non-Sensitive Areas
The second assumption is close to the value used by the authors of
the Section 4004 Landfill Criteria EIS. The data in Table 23 demonstrates,
however, that the impact of even large adjustments in this sensitive/
non-sensitive split is rather small. A change in the on-site/off-site
clay assumptions, for example, from 0%/100% to 20%/80% or 50%/50% altered
total incremental costs by 12 percent and 29 percent, respectively. By
comparison, an almost complete reversal of the sensitive/non-sensitive
split (i.e., from 73%/27% to 10%/90%) changed total costs by only 18 per
cent. Although this change is of some significance, the overall results
are clearly rather insensitive to significant changes in this assumption.
-72-
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-73-
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VII. ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF INCREASED
OPERATING COSTS OF LANDFILLING
A. Background
The data presented in Sections V and VI outlined the probable
impact of the proposed sanitary landfill Guidelines on the per unit
operating costs of such facilities. However, it is the reaction to
these additional costs by those residential, commercial, industrial and
government sectors directly and indirectly affected that will determine
the long-run net costs and overall effectiveness of the Guidelines.
When a particular business or government agency is faced with higher
operating costs, it can adjust through one of the following routes:
change operating methods or technologies to
avoid the costs;
absorb the higher costs in the form of lower
profits (higher subsidies);
shift the higher costs backward on to suppliers
(e.g., lower wages);
shift the cost forward in the form of higher
rates or prices to its customers.
These four methods are of course not mutually exclusive, and
typically occur in various combinations as the affected parties search
for ways to minimize the burden of the added costs. In the landfill
"industry" this type of situation is complicated by the fact that much
of the nation's solid waste handling capacity is pub!icy-owned (although
frequently privately-operated), so the profit element is essentially re-
placed by various public mandates or regulations dealing with subsidy
limits, bond retirement guarantees based on user charges, and numerous
other economic, financial or political constraints. Because of the
multiple objectives of the public sector, an analysis of the impacts of
additional costs is more difficult.
The overall incidence patterns of these costs -- i.e., who bears
the burden of them -- will be determined by the particular mix of
reactions outlined above. These can be roughly divided into two cate-
gories, which are discussed in the following sections:
supply effects: reactions by the suppliers of the
landfill services.
demand effects: reactions by those demanding these
landfill ing services (i.e., solid waste generators).
-74-
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B. Supply Effects
The landfill operator faced with higher operating costs can either
absorb the costs or seek out some method of avoiding them or shifting
them elsewhere. The analysis of these reaction patterns is similar in
nature to an analysis of the incidence of various government taxes or
fees; both depend principally on the financial conditions of the firms
and the characteristics of the markets in which they are involved. Any
increases in business costs will eventually be borne either by (a) those
who provide the various factors of production (labor , capital, equip-
ment) or (b) those buying the business's goods or services. The only
remaining alternative is to revise the technological or institutional
structure of the firm (e.g., new equipment, consolidation with other
firms, etc.) to avoid or minimize the impact of these costs by lowering
costs in other areas. The following sections address five major market
and operational effects most applicable to landfill operation.
1. Increase Disposal Fees for Landfill Users. The ability of
landfill operators to pass costs forward in the form of higher user
charges typically depends on the nature of the demand for their ser-
vices. If the demand is very price elastic, the potential increase in
revenue will be minimal as many of the landfill users will find alter-
native methods of meeting their waste handling needs. This is demon-
strated in the figure below.
FIGURE 12
01
D quantity handled (tons)
IMPACT OF HIGHER LANDFILL USER CHARGES ON DEMAND
A hypothetical landfill is used by two waste generators represented by
demand DI and D£ each of which dumps QQ tons of waste annually at the
site. As the landfill raises its rates from RQ to RI, the more price-
sensitive of the two, represented by demand curve DI, reduces its demand
from QQo to QQi- The more price inelastic generator, represented by
curve D£ shows a more modest drop from QQo to QQ2,
-75-
-------
The principal effect of the increase in rates is a decline in
quantity disposed, and, if demand is elastic, a decline in total rev-
enues for specific landfills. However, the problems created by a highly
elastic market demand go beyond those of insufficient revenue generation.
All wastes formerly handled by the landfill must either be deposited
elsewhere or no longer disposed. The first of these options raises the
possibility of illegal dumping as well as the increased likelihood that
various landfill operators might avoid compliance, both of which are
serious enforcement problems. The second option would be that gen-
erators might reduce their waste generation rates and/or expand re-
cycling efforts. This question is covered in more detail in Section
VII.C.
2. Higher Taxes for Landfill Support. A response available to
public landfill operations is to pass the additional costs on to tax-
payers in the form of higher subsidies for landfill operations. Some
municipalities that have formerly assumed that all or a specified portion
of landfill costs would be paid by landfill users may be faced with the
problem of maintaining operating ratios (operating revenues/operating
costs) while not wanting to provide any significant disincentives to
those generators who should be using these facilities. As the portion
of total costs covered by user charges drops, other public revenue
sources would be required. Some private landfill operating costs could
also be indirectly subsidized by taxpayers through investment, tax
credits or loan guarantees for landfill upgrading or construction,
research and development grants, or other forms of subsidy. The spe-
cific policy of the agencies involved, the prevailing methods used to
finance everyday operating costs or retire bonds, and numerous other
factors would have to be considered with the eventual reaction tending
to be highly site-specific.
3. Decreases in Supplier Costs. The theoretical possibility
exists that landfills could reduce their additional costs through
decreases in supplier costs (e.g., lower wages, fuel costs, etc.). This
possibility is raised for the sake of completeness only. It is not
considered a practical possibility for most landfill operations, except
as part of a regionalization and consolidation effort (covered below in
Part 6).
4. Change in Profits of Private Landfill Operators. If a land-
fill operator cannot recover all of its additional costs through rate
increases, subsidies, or decreases in supplier costs, the impact will be
borne by the firm's stockholders in the form of a lower return on inves-
ted capital. Small impacts in this area will probably not cause any
substantial adjustments by these firms, especially in the short-run, but
the decreased profitability could reduce the level of investment in such
operations and make it more difficult to raise the capital necessary to
upgrade existing operations or build new ones. For those landfills that
are publicly owned but privately operated (roughly seven percent of the
total number of sites presented in the Waste Age survey), the situation
would entail a pass-through of costs to the relevant public agency with
whom the operator has contracted. The affected agency would then be
-76-
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forced to either authorize higher user charges, provide alternative
financial support to the operator to cover the extra operating costs, or
implement a substantial revision in its operations.
5. Change in Profits of Industries with On-Site Disposal. For
those firms that handle part or all of their solid wastes at sites owned
and operated by the firm, the higher disposal costs may mean a substan-
tial financial loss if the firm has a high waste generation rate and if
disposal represents a significant element in the firm's overall oper-
ating costs. Conversion from open dump operations to sanitary landfill
operations could^ in extreme cases, mean closure for some financially
vulnerable firms. Others would be left virtually unaffected. This type
of pattern has been shown to exist for the hazardous waste regulations
under Subtitle C of RCRA (Reference 5): some industries (e.g., wool
scouring and organic chemicals) would incur substantial cost increases
and some closures, while others would either have virtually no incremen-
tal treatment costs (e.g., plastics, paints) or could pass through all
of them due to an essentially price-inelastic demand (e.g., explosives).
Industries that would be expected to face relatively substantial solid
waste handling costs include food processing, apparel, wood products,
fabricated metals and non-electrical machinery. It would be necessary
to undertake detailed studies of each of these industries to determine
whether they will be adversely affected by the proposed Guidelines.
6. Regionalization and Consolidation of Waste Handling. The
analysis of economies of scale in landfill operations presented in
Section III showed that cost savings could be realized through con-
solidation of smaller sites into one large landfill operation. The
implementation of the RCRA landfill Criteria and Guidelines will in-
crease the benefits of consolidation due to the lower unit disposal
costs of large sites and the sharing of the initial financing burden of
sanitary landfill capacity among more waste generators. The solid waste
management plans of many states assume that a considerable amount of
regional consolidation will occur. The New York State plan, for example,
assumes that the total number of landfills will fall by over 59 percent
due to the consolidation of smaller sites and the expanded use of energy
and material recovery plants (Reference 35).
The major economic factors that affect the consolidation decision
are (a) the potential for scale economies; (b) the density, dispersion,
and total volume of the waste sources; and (c) the relevant costs of
transportation. These are the essential elements of location theory
that are typically applied to such problems as plant or warehouse
location and market area analysis (Reference 36). A recent study of the
impacts of the RCRA hazardous waste regulations outlined a hypothetical
market area model that minimized unit waste disposal costs by altering
market area. Figure 13 shows the location of this model facility in the
center of a circular market area of radius R. Average transportation
costs of 10
-------
FIGURE 13
OPTIMAL LOCATION/MARKET AREA FOR SANITARY LANDFILL
Boundary of Waste
Collection Area
-78-
-------
Cd = 20 + 143.800 ($/MT)
(MTY)1-04
Total disposal cost then equals Cd + transporations costs
CQ = Cd + Ct
= 2($0.10) (2R/3) + 20 + 143,800
CQ was then differentiated with respect to R and this derivative was set
equal to zero to find the value of R that minimized Cg. Knowing the
average density of waste (wastes/yr./sq. mile), the total volume of waste
in MT/year = 7f R2p, where p = annual waste generation density. Substi-
tuting this for MTY in the above equation and performing the differentiation
gave the following results:
R0 = 78.4
pO.338
Figure 14 shows how the waste collection area decreases as the
density of waste generation increases. At a waste density of 100
MTY/mi^ (equivalent of roughly 120 persons/mi 2 generating 5 Ibs/person/
day), the service area is 855 mi 2 and the per unit treatment costs are
$23.26/MT; for 5 MTY/mi2 (equivalent of 6 persons/mi2) the area increases
to 6500 mi2, and at 1 MTY/mi2 the area is roughly 19,400 mi2.
Clearly there are substantial assumptions included in this type of
model (e.g., the even distribution of wastes, the constant transportation
costs over a wide mileage range). The transportation costs per mile
would probably be considerably higher for the areas with shorter average
routes, as the fixed costs of the vehicles would be spread over a smaller
mileage base. If the transportation costs were doubled to 20
-------
FIGURE 14
WASTE COLLECTION AREA FOR VARIOUS WASTE GENERATION DENSITIES
Waste Generation Density
(MT/mi2/yr)
100-1^ -$23.26
$40.70
10
15
20'
* Market
3D area
(1000 mi2)
-80-
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A hypothetical example showing the potential impact of the Guide-
lines on regionalization follows. Let us assume that the landfilling
operations of states such as North Dakota were to be regionalized using
the plant size/location model outlined above. The state has a land area
of 69,273. sq. mi. and a population of roughly 640,000. Assuming that
solid wastes suitable for landfilling are generated at a per capita rate
of 4.5 Ibs/day, the annual waste volume would be 525,600 tons (476,821
MT). Using the Waste Age survey number of 200 known landfills, these
sites' average capacity (260 days/yr. operation) would be roughly 10 TPD
(9.1 MTD). Waste density would then equal 6.88 MTY/sq. mi. Applying
the equations given earlier, the ideal market area for each regional plant
(assuming that the 6.88 MTY figure applie-j throughout the state) would
be 5,243 sq. mi. , and 13 regional landfills at 36,000 MTY would replace the
200 smaller sites.
C. Demand Effects
1. Source Reduction. Part B.I. of this section showed how
higher disposal costs (or rates) can reduce the demand for landfill
services. Either an alternative wasta disposal method will then be used
(larger landfill, landspreading, illegal dumping, etc.) or the volume of
the waste stream will be reduced. Adjustments in the raw materials used
in production processes, changes in food packaging techniques, bottle
deposit regulations and similar actions could be used to reduce the
volume of waste produced from various industrial, commercial or residen-
tial activities. Part of this may occur as the disposal costs are
internalized into various operations which then independently adjust
their waste generation; other actions may only occur if given the
impetus of State or Federal regulations. Increased disposal costs
should make legislation aimed at source reduction more attractive.
2. Energy and Resource Recovery. The combined forces of higher
waste disposal costs, increased petroleum cost, and concern over pos-
sible disruptions in energy supplies have improved the cost-effectiveness
of many resource and energy recovery systems and approaches. The number
of existing, under construction, or planned recovery plants across the
country has increased substantially in recent years, as the data in
Table 24 show.
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TABLE 24
TREND IN MIXED-WASTE RESOURCE RECOVERY FACILITIES IMPLEMENTATION
Facility Status
Operational
Under Construction
Advanced Planning3
Feasibility Studies'3
Total :
1974
15
7
23
25
70
1975
19
8
30
37
94
1976
21
10
33
54
118
a. Advanced planning = request for proposals issued, final design
underway and/or funding authorized.
b. Feasibility studies = expressed interest in or undertaken informal
studies.
Source: Reference 37.
The 21 operational sites used the following range of conversion/recovery
processes:
TABLE 25
CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES AT EXISTING RECOVERY FACILITIES, 1976
Process
,. Waste >Steam via Combustion
. Waste-»Refuse Derived Fuel
. Materials or Gas Recovery
. Compost ^-Humus
. Waste->Gas via Pyrolysis
No. of
Sites
13
4
2
1
1
Average Capacity/
Site (tons/day)
645
235
150a
200
200
a. Materials recovery plant only; methane recovery plant operated at
existing landfills and therefore had no tons/day figure.
Source: Reference 37. 00
-OIL-
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The average capacity figure for the steam-generating plants is arti-
ficially lowered by demonstration-size plants (in the 20-50 TPD range);
the average value for the 6 largest sites is 910 tons/day with 3 sites
in the 1,200 - 1,600 TPD range. Plants in the 1,200 TPD range are all
located within metropolitan areas. Such facilities need a service area
population of about 500,000 in order to maintain that average flow
figure. The average size of plants under construction and in advanced
planning is even larger. A higher portion of these facilities will be
using RDF technologies, generally in combination with metal and glass
recovery, while the generation of steam via combustion is still freq-
uently applied.
The capital costs of many of these plants are rather high -- up to
$50,000 per daily ton of capacity for plants completed in the 1974-1976
period. Although additional experience in using these technologies in
large-scale (vs. pilot) operations may lower these costs, the cost of
such plants will still imply a long-term commitment. Nevertheless, many
public and private sector observers feel that material and energy recovery
will become a self-sufficient reality in the United States. Their
conclusions are based on the long history of successful operation of
such facilities in Europe and elsewhere, and the fact that private
investment has begun to occur in the field.
The added costs of RCRA will encourage this trend, especially in or
near large urban areas where suitable landfill sites are scarce and
expensive and the waste density exists that is necessary for large scale
recovery plants. Much of this same type of activity will, of course,
occur in the industrial sectors that also face similar disposal cost
increases. In combination with waste reduction, energy and material
recovery techniques will be applied more frequently, depending on (a)
the market for the recovered materials, within or outside the firm, (b)
the incremental production costs of the recovery processes, and (c) the
regional costs of electricity and other energy forms.
3. Other Legal Waste Disposal Methods. Other legal disposal
methods that will continue to exist after implementation of the Guide-
lines are volume reduction (with disposal of residues), surface im-
poundment, and landspreading. The costs of the latter two will also be
affected by RCRA, as Guidelines for surface impoundments and landspreading
are issued under Section 1008. Decisions concerning waste disposal
options by industry and municipalities will change to reflect the costs
of these options after all the Guidelines are issued. Since the costs
of future surface impoundment and landspreading activities are not yet
determined, it is impossible to say how the increases in the cost of
landfill ing identified in this report will affect the choice of these
other legal disposal options.
4. Illegal Dumping. One option that is unfortunately available
to generators and landfill operators is the continued use or operation
of illegal open dumps. The enforcement problem will be most severe for
the thousands of very small sites in rural areas that would face very
large increases in disposal costs under the RCRA Guidelines, even if
-83-
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they were to implement the most cost-effective combination of site and
collection consolidation. The enforcement costs for such operations,
due to their geographic dispersion, small sites, and overall detection
difficulty, will be rather high as well, forcing agencies to concentrate
only on large sites. An enforcement management system would have to be
developed that could maximize the return on resources spent on enforce-
ment by taking into account such considerations as ground water con-
ditions, landfill size, waste types handled, and enforcement staff
constraints.
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VIII. IMPACT OF THE GUIDELINES ON ENERGY USE
A. Background
Guidelines implementation will result in increased energy con-
sumption for both the construction (involved in upgrading) and operating
phases of landfill operations. Construction energy use will increase
due to the requirements for improved levels of environmental protection
with the concommittant use of more complex technologies such as liner
installation, gas venting and collection systems, leachate collection
and treatment systems, etc. Similarly, energy use associated with the
operating phase will increase due to energy requirements for leachate
pumping, more frequent cover application, etc. As previously referenced,
Table 2 presents those technologies which have been defined as required
upgrading technologies for existing landfills and which will result in
increased construction energy use. Similarly, Table 26 indicates those
technologies which will result in increased energy use associated with
landfill operation.
B. Estimating Construction Energy Impacts
Data detailing construction energy use (gasoline, oil, diesel fuel,
electricity) for construction of landfills are currently unavailable.
To estimate the potential increase in construction energy use, the
assumption has been made that increased energy use is directly propor-
tional to increased capital expenditure. The baseline costs for exis-
ting landfill operations, as previously developed in Section III are
$11.15, $6.65 and $3.95 per ton for 10 TPD, 100 TPD and 300 TPD facil-
ities, respectively. Approximately 25 percent of those costs are
attributable to construction costs, as follows: 10 TPD - $2.78; 100
TPD - $1.66; 300 TPD - $0.99.
By utilizing capital upgrading costs for the technologies iden-
tified in Table 2, total upgrading capital costs can be determined.
Table B-l (see Appendix B) presents the capital costs for those up-
grading technologies to be incorporated into existing facilities. Table
27 converts the total upgrading technology capital costs developed in
Appendix B to unit costs, and sums the unit costs of the appropriate
technologies by landfill type, size, and site sensitivity. This yields
increased capital costs per ton. Increased construction energy use has
been assumed to be proportional to increased capital costs of the re-
quired upgrading technologies. Table 27 also shows the per cent increase
in construction energy use for upgraded facilities. Consumption use is
expected to be primarily in the form of gasoline, oil, and diesel fuel
utilization.
-85-
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TABLE 26
UPGRADING TECHNOLOGIES RESULTING IN INCREASED
ENERGY OPERATING COSTS
SENSITIVE FACILITIES
Municipal
Industrial
Pollution Control
Residues
Groundwater Water Impermeable Daily
Quality Monitoring Cover
Gas Monitoring
Groundwater Water
Quality Monitoring
Impermeable Daily Cover
Groundwater Water Quality
Monitoring
NONSENSITIVE FACILITIES
Groundwater Water Impermeable Daily
Quality Monitoring Cover
Gas Monitoring
Groundwater Water
Quality Monitoring
Impermeable Daily Cover
Groundwater Water Quality
Monitoring
a. Daily cover assumed as existing technology; no increased energy use.
-86-
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-87-
-------
C. Estimating Operating Energy Impacts
Table 26 lists upgrading technologies which will result in in-
creased energy use during landfill operation. For existing facilities
the primary energy consuming technology is that of impermeable cover.
It has been assumed that municipal facilities for both sensitive and
nonsensitive areas apply daily cover. Consequently, energy costs will
not increase. For the remainder of the waste types, it has been assumed
that daily cover is not a common practice and that impermeable cover
application is energy intensive. A 100% increase in energy requirements
for those sites which currently do not apply daily cover might be a
reasonable estimate. Consumption is primarily in the area of gasoline and
diesel fuel.
-88-
-------
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pagings.
The report to Congress; waste disposal practices and their effects on
groundwater. Washington, Office of Water Supply and Office of Solid
Waste, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, January 1977. 512 p.
Rossoff, J., et al. Disposal of by-products from nonregenerable flue
gas desulfurization systems: second progress report. Washington, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, May 1977. 278 p.
SCS Engineers. Assessment of industrial hazardous waste practices
leather tanning and finishing industry. Washington, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1976. 233 p.
Sather, J.H. ed_. Proceedings of the National Wetland Classification and
Inventory Workshop, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland,
July 20-23, 1975. Washington, U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and
Wildlife Service, Office of Biological Services (conducted by the
Wildlife Management Institute), July 1976. 248 p. plus Addendum.
Schalit, L., et al. Hazardous solid waste streams from organic chemicals
manufacturing and related industries. Cincinnati, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, undated. Various pagings.
Shaw, S.P., and C.B. Fredine. Wetlands of the United States. U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service Circular 39. Washington, U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1956. 67 p.
Stone, R.S., and R. Kahle. Evaluation of solid waste baling and land-
filling. Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, (103):
557-571.
Thompson, B., and I. Zandi. Future of sanitary landfill. Journal of
the Environmental Engineering Division, EEI (101):41-54.
-95-
-------
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Statistical abstracts
of the U.S.; 98 annual edition. Washington, U.S. Government Printing
Office, 1977.
U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Utility Projections. Inventory of
power plants in the United States. Washington, U.S. Department of
Energy, 1977. 444 p.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Effluent Guidelines Division.
Technical report for revision of steam electric effluent limitations
guidelines, Sept. 1978. 532 p. plus Appendices.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Sanitary landfill: Clark County,
Arkansas.
Vevsar, Inc. Draft report; alternatives for hazardous waste management
in the inorganic chemicals industry. Washington, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1977. Various pagings.
WAPORA, Inc. Assessment of industrial hazardous waste practices --
electronic components manufacturing industry. Washington, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, 1977. 145 p. plus Appendices.
WAPORA, Inc. Final report; assessment of industrial hazardous waste
practices special machinery manufacturing industries. Washington,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977. 230 p. plus Appendices.
Water Resources Council, Executive Office of the President of the
United States. The nation's water resources; the second national
water assessment by the U.S. Water Resources Council; review copy;
summary report. Washington, March 1978. 52 p.
Wilson, D.G., ed. Handbook of solid waste management. New York, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1977. 752 p.
Winfrey, A.J. Financing solid waste services; solid waste management
guide. Division of Solid Waste Disposal, Kentucky State Department
of Health, May 1972. 41 p.
1977 update for land disposal practices survey. Waste Age, January 1978.
6 p.
-96-
-------
PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS
Anderson, W., Pickard and Anderson, Inc., June 1978.
Federal Insurance Administration, Flood Insurance Program, Philadelphia,
August 1977.
Fogg, C., U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service,
Environmental Services Division, Washington, September 22, 1978.
Grant, J., Director of Government Affairs, Printing Industries of
America, Washington, October 11, 1978.
Kohler, M., U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service,
Washington, May 31, 1978.
Sanislow, J., Division Representative, New York City, Army Corps of
Engineers, Emergency Operations Branch, September 22, 1978.
Schreiner, K., Official Contact, U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and
Wildlife Service, Office of Endangered Species, Washington, September 29
1978.
-97-
-------
APPENDIX A
SAMPLE BASELINE COST CURVES
-------
a;
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FIGURE A2
ESTIMATED SANITARY LANDFILLJjPERAJjOin^ COSTS
$350
D One dozer
20 Two dozers operc'ing
DS Do;e.-; cod scraper
Dozers, ripper, scrcper
Eistimcled by others
for Denver crea
aximum, average end
minimum Costs based on
chorccterislics of sites
200 400 600 800 IOOO
Filling Rote, Tons per Average Working Day
Wofe .'Chart shows how cost of ownership- and operation of equipment relates to the
required filling rate.
Source: Reference 7.
A-
-.-2
-------
FIGURE A3
TYPICAL LANDFILL COSTS
4.00
3.00
1 2.00
1.00
Tons Per Year
Tons Per Day3
Population*5
100.000
320
122,000
200.000
640
244.000
300,000
960
366.000
400,000
1280
488.000
500.000
1600
610.000
' Based on 6-day work week.
bBased on national average of 4.5 Ibs per person per calendar day
Source: Reference 2.
FIGURE A4
SANITARY LANDFILL OPERATING COSTS
6
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\\\ COST FOR TOTAL COSTS
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LANDFILL COSTS
il
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200 400 600 800
SOLID-WASTE FLOW, TONS/DAY
TRANSFER-STATION
COSTS:
MILLED
BALED
UNPROCESSED
_L
1000
Source: Reference 8.
A-3
-------
APPENDIX B
UNIT COST CALCULATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS
-------
For the purposes of developing final upgrading unit costs a cal-
culation methodology was adopted which was similar in approach to the
"Draft Environmental Impact Statement Criteria for Classification of
Solid Waste Disposal Facilities." Major assumptions are as follows:
Utilization of 10 TPD, 100 TPD, and 300 TPD sites
Corresponding total acreages of 6 acres, 28 acres
and 75 acres respectively
Corresponding total perimeter lengths of 2,000 ft., 4,400 ft.
and 7,200 ft. respectively
260 days operation per year
In place refuse to soil cover rations of 1:1, 2:1 and 3:1
respectively
26,000, 260,000 and 780,000 total ten year life capacity
for 10 TPD, 100 TPD and 300 TPD facilities respectively
More detailed assumptions for the selected and alternative upgrading tech-
nologies are as follows:
VERTICAL IMPERMEABLE BARRIER
20' depth, 60 cu. ft./ft. perimeter installation
excavation 0 $0.50/cu. yd., clay material @ $3.00/cu. yd.,
placement @ $0.30/cu. yd.
total unit cost $17.00/ft. ($55.76/meter)
DIKE CONSTRUCTION
10' depth, 567 cu. ft./ft.
3:1 slopes
materials and placement @ 1.50 cu. yd.
total unit cost $31.50/ft. ($103.32/meter)
IMPERMEABLE DAILY COVER (ON-SITE SOURCE)
total unit cost $0.60/cu. yd. ($0.78/cu. meter)
IMPERMEABLE DAILY COVER (OFF-SITE SOURCE)
transport @ $1.00/cu. yd., clay material @ $3.00/cu. yd.
placement @ $0.30 cu. yd.
2 mile average transport distance
total unit cost $4.30/cu. yd. ($5.62/cu. meter)
B-l
-------
PONDING
2" 24 hr. rainfall event
runoff storage required for twice the site landfill area
excavation @ $0.50/cu. yd. (0.65/cu. meter) land @ $3,000/acre
($7,410/hectare)
10 TPD, 0.4 acres, 5' depth; 100 TPD, 1.85 acres, 5' depth;
300 TPD, 2.5 acres, 10' depth
PERIMETER GRAVEL TRENCHES
20' depth, 60 cu. ft/ft, perimeter installation
excavation @ $0.50/cu. yd., gravel material @ $4.00/cu. yd,
placement @ $0.30/cu. yd.
total unit cost $21.00/ft. ($68.88/meter)
GAS COLLECTION
perimeter installation
total unit cost @ $20.00/ft for 10 TPD and 100 TPD sites,
$15.00/ft for 300 TPD sites ($65.60/meter, $65.60/meter,
$49.20/meter respectively
Annual operating costs for 10 TPD, $4,000; 100 TPD, $8,800;
300 TPD, $10,800
SYNTHETIC LINER
total unit costs including site preparation and earth cover
$3.60/sq. yd. ($4.31/sq. meter)
LEACHATE RECYCLING
30" infiltration/year.
10 TPD, $6,000 piping, $2,000 pump station, $500 annual costs;
100 TPD, $13,200 piping, $4,000 pump station, $1,000 annual costs;
300 TPD, $21,600 piping, $10,000 pump station, $2,000 annual costs
DITCHING
total unit cost $2.25/ft. ($7.38/meter)
FINAL IMPERMEABLE COVER (ON-SITE SOURCE)
unit cost $0.60/cu. yd. @ 2' depth ($5.62/cu. meter)
FINAL PERMEABLE COVER (ON-SITE SOURCE)
unit cost $0.50/cu. yd. @ 2' depth ($0.65/cu. meter)
FINAL PERMEABLE COVER (OFF-SITE SOURCE)
unit cost $1.75/cu. yd. @ 2' depth ($2.29/cu. meter)
REVEGETATION
total unit cost $l,000/acre ($2,471/hectare)
B-2
-------
The following table presents the development of technology unit
costs in more detail:
GAS MONITORING
10 TPD, 4 wells; 100 TPD, 8 wells; 300 TPD, 12 wells
wells @ $200/each, labor @ $100/day
sampling labor for 10 TPD, 4 man-days/year; 100 TPD
8 man-days/year; 300 TPD, 12 man-days/year
$1,000 monitoring equipment
GRQUNDWATER HATER QUALITY MONITORING
10 TPD, 3 wells; 100 TPD, 4 wells; 300 TPD, 7 wells
quarterly sampling @ $150/sample, $l,000/well
sampling labor for 10 TPD, 3 man-days/year; 100 TPD, 4 man-days/year;
300 TPD, 7 man-days/year @ $100/day
NATURAL CLAY LINER (OFF-SITE SOURCE)
transport @ $1.00/cu. yd., clay material @ $3.00/cu. yd.,
placement @ $0.30/cu. yd.
2-foot depth clay material
2-mile average transport distance
total unit cost & $4.30/cu. yd. ($5.89/cu. meter)
LEACHATE COLLECTION FACILITIES
10 TPD, 3,500' collector pipe; 100 TPD, 14,300' collector pipe;
300 TPD, 36,000' collector pipe
100' collector pipe spacing plus perimeter
total unit cost @ $7.00/ft. ($22.96/meter)
LEACHATE MONITORING, REMOVAL AND TREATMENT
6" infiltration/year, 450 gal/day/acre
10 TPD, 2,700 gal/day, 2.5<£/gal; 100 TPD, 12,600 gal/day, It/gal;
300 TPD, 33,750 gal/day, 0.5tf/gal (18.7<£/cu. ft., 7.5<£/cu. ft.,
3.7<£/cu. ft. respectively
PERMEABLE DAILY COVER (ON-SITE SOURCE)
total unit cost $0.50/cu. yd. ($0.65/cu. meter)
PERMEABLE DAILY COVER (OFF-SITE SOURCE)
transport @ $0.75/cu. yd, material @ $0.30/cu. yd, placement
@ $0.50/cu. yd.
1-mile average transport distance
total unit cost $1.55/cu. yd. ($2.03/cu. meter)
B-3
-------
VERTICAL PIPE VENTS
2 per acre @ $2,000/vent
FIRE CONTROL
one fire truck unit @ $1,000, $2,000, and $10,000 per site
for 10 TPD, 100 TPD and 300 TPD sites respectively
ACCESS CONTROL
perimeter installation
total unit cost @ $12.00/ft. ($39.36/meter)
LITTER CONTROL
litter control fencing, 130 ft., 280 ft. and 450 ft. per
10 TPD, 100 TPD and 300 TPD sites respectively @ $10.00/ft.
($32.80/meter)
COMPACTION
one machine @ $50,000
B-4
-------
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EPA REGIONS
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Waste Management Branch
John F. Kennedy Sldg.
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