United States Office of Water & SW 771
Environmental Protection Waste Management November 1979
Agency Washington O.C. 20460
Solid Waste
Refuse-Fired Energy
Systems in Europe:
An Evaluation of Design Practices
An Executive Summary
-------
REFUSE-FIRED ENERGY SYSTEMS IN EUROPE:
AN EVALUATION OF DESIGN PRACTICES
An Executive Summary
This report (SW-771) was prepared
under contract for the Office of Solid Waste
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
1979
-------
An environmental protection publication (SW-771) in the solid waste management
series. Mention of commercial products does not constitute endorsement by the
U.S. Government. Editing and technical content of this report were the respon-
sibilities of the State Programs and Resource Recovery Division of the Office of
Solid Waste.
Single copies of this publication are available from Solid Waste Information,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH 45268.
-------
DIGEST AND
MAJOR CONCLUSIONS
The major conclusion is that the mass burning of unprepared municipal
solid waste in heat recovery boilers is well established, and can be a
technically reliable, environmentally acceptable and economic solution to the
problem of disposal of solid wastes. It is not as cheap as use of currently
available landfills. However, when the cost is considered of upgrading current
landfills and established new landfills in accordance with the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) provisions, these mass burning
waste-to-energy systems are expected to compare more economically with true
sanitary landfills.
Another significant conclusion is that many European areas are moving
steadily in the direction of Energy and Environmental Parks that often include
refuse burning, animal rendering, electricity production, sewage disposal,
industrial steam generation, hot water district heating, etc.
A surprising conclusion is that over a wide range of plant sizes from
200 to 1,600 tons per day there appears to be little significant economy of
scale. The data suggests that the net operating and owning costs for plants
within these size ranges and with the same plant configurations normalized for
inflation, exchange rates, site costs and so forth fall in the range of $6 to
$36 per ton with the average about $16. While this range appears significant,
the factors that cause the variation are not size related as much as previously
thought.
A major impetus for the development in European of waste-to-energy
systems was the finding that it was possible to control air pollution from the
burning of wastes by cooling the dirty exhaust gases. Concurrent with this
influence was the disenchantment with old leaching landfills as a long-range
solution to the solid waste problem in very crowded countries.
The cost of alternative energy forms (coal, oil, gas) will become
even more important to the development of refuse-fired energy systems. Yet the
total potential energy in the wastes of a modern community will be less than a
tenth of its total energy demand. Hence, waste-to-energy alone cannot be
expected to become a major energy source.
Many conditions in the U.S. have been different, hence
waste-to-energy has not advanced as rapidly as in Europe. Some of these
differences will continue, but we are moving rapidly to similar conditions in
most of our metropolitan areas. Hence the lessons that have been larned in 80
years of refuse fired energy plant (RFEP) experience in Europe can be
effectively utilized by many U.S. communities. We hope that this series of
reports will be of help to community officials and technologists in applying
those lessons to U.S. environmental and energy problems.
11
-------
PREFACE
This document summarizes a two volume evaluation of European
refuse - fired energy systems design practices, which is a condensation
and analysis of trip reports describing visits in 1977 to fifteen (15)
European refuse fired steam and hot water generators. Interspersed
are comments about another fifteen (15) plants for which official trip
reports were not prepared, i.e., a total of thirty (30) resource recovery
plants were visited. In addition, visits to five (5) federal environmental
protection agencies have provided additional insight to solid waste
management trends, legislation and perspectives on resource recovery
technologies.
The material in the reports describing the visits to the fifteen
(15) plants has been reviewed by the European system vendors and their
respective American licensees. The two volume evaluation report has
also been reviewed, but the comments of the various reviewers has not
been incorporated in the text. Rather, their comments are presented
in toto in the appendix to Volume II.
Battelle Columbus Laboratories maintains ultimate responsibility
for report content. The opinions set forth in this report are those
of the Battelle staff members and are not to be considered EPA policy.
There may be some minor errors and certainly differences of opinion
in the report, but these do not take away from the usefullness of the
document.
The intent of the report is to provide decision making information.
The reader is thus cautioned against believing that there is enough
information to design a system. Some proprietary information has
been deleted at the request of vendors. While the contents are detailed,
they represent only the tip of the iceberg of knowledge necessary to
develop a reliable, economical and environmentally beneficial system.
The selection of particular plants to visit was made by Battelle,
the American licensees, the European grate manufacturers, and EPA.
Purposely, the sampling is skewed to the "better" plants that are models
of what the parties would like to develop in America. Some plants were
selected because many features evolved at the plant. Others were
chosen because of strong American interest in co-disposal of refuse
and sewage sludge.
The two volumes plus the trip reports for the 15 European plants
are available through the National Technical Information Source,
Springfield, Virginia, 22161. Of the 17 volumes, only the Executive
Summary has been prepared for wide distribution.
111
-------
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The project owes much of its success to the many European vendors,
plant personnel, city officials, and European environmental protection agency
staff who opened up so fully to the visiting Battelle team. It is an
established fact that Europe is far advanced over America in commercialization
of the refuse-fired, steam- and hot-water generation tecnnology. This fact and
the accompanying pride of accomplishment are likely causes for the excellent
cooperation we received and outpouring of valuable information from visited
European professionals. Frankly, the amount of information freely provided has
amazed and challenged these researchers. The authors hope that we have been
able to summarize accurately the data provided.
Our appreciation is also extended to the EPA staff of David
Sussman--Project Officer, Steve Levy--Program Manager, and to Steve
Lingle—Chief of Technology and Markets Branch.
The detailed listing of the many names, organizations and addresses
is to be found in Part II. Each person and organization should realize that
they have contributed to the advancement of solid waste management in America.
IV
-------
ORGANIZATION OF REPORT
The report consists of twenty three chapters in two volumes.
Chapter A, The Executive Summary and Chapter B, The Inventory of Waste
to Energy Systems are being published by the Office of Solid Waste
for wide distribution. The Executive Summary and Inventory are also
included in the two volume set, which is available through MTIS. A
Table of Contents, List of Figures, and List of Tables for both Volumes
are included in the Appendix to this document.
Volume I contains information relating to the implementation of
the systems, whereas Volume II contains technical information about
the units themselves. The paragraphs in the Executive Summary follow
the same format.
-------
INTRODUCTION
Background
Since 1896 (in Hamburg, West Germany), communities have been
converting municipal refuse into electricity and other energy uses. Many of
the early systems were batch operated with manual refuse feeding and manual ash
removal.
Between the two world wars, many developments were made in refuse
handling in general and grate systems in particular. There were also major
improvements in the refractory wall furnaces and the separate waste heat
boilers.
Many of the systems were destroyed during World War II. The
evolution of the water-tube wall integrated furnace/boiler began in the 1950's.
It paralleled developments 30 years earlier in the water tube walled
pulverized, coal-fired boiler/furnace.
More precisely, the world's first integrated water-tube wall
furnace/boiler began operation at Berne, Switzerland in 195U. Two 100 tonne
per day units produced steam to make electricity. Some steam was sent to
industry. Other steam was sent to a steam-to-hot-water heat exchanger. This
hot water was then sent to the local district heating network. This original
Von Roll plant continues to operate 25 years later in 1979.
The business of designing and building those and other wate-to-energy
systems has grown exponentially since 1954. Now we can point to at least 522
places in the world where energy conservation objectives are met by recovering
values.
VI
-------
Objective
The general objective of the project was to gather information about
European waste-to-energy practice and to interpret this experience as it may be
conmercially practicable in the U.S. The subobjectives are listed as follows:
1. Report on actual technical, economic, environmental, and social
experience in application of the European technologies of (1)
integrated water tube wall furnace/boiler and (2) refractory wall
furnace/waste heat boiler.
2. Aid American decision makers and engineers in utilization of the
successful experience of their European counterparts.
3. Describe in a technical manner how successful operations are
achieved and how unsuccessful operations are avoide$d.
i». Prepare Report — "Evaluation of European Refuse-Fired Energy
Systems Design Practices".
5. Prepare 15 Trip Reports describing systems visited,,
VI1
-------
The geographic scope as clearly indicated in the title is Europe.
However, there will be frequent references to systems in America and comments
about other countries. For example, Japan has the greatest number of
refuse-fired energy generating units (43) of any country in the world; with an
installed capacity of 27,000 tons per day.
Several solid waste management topics are discussed. Some are beyond
the original contract scope but are presented to give the reader a better
perspective of the total picture. The refuse to energy systems are as follows:
Water-tube wall furnace/integrated boiler
Refractory wall furnace/waste heat boiler
Vertical shaft pyrolysis
Other type
include:
Refuse transfer stations
Hazardous waste transfer stations
Landfilling
Composting
Rendering
Pathological incineration
Waste water treatment
Environmental, Energy and Industrial Parks.
The chronological scope begins in 1876 when the first refuse to
electricity system was built in Hamburg, West Germany.
The scope of processing capacity described ranges from the 120 tonne
(132 ton) per day single line facility at Werdenberg-Liechtenstein to the large
1,630 tonne (1,793 ton) per day four line system at Paris: Issy-les-Moulineaux.
The energy uses scope includes use of hot air, hot water, superheated water,
steam, superheated steam and electricity.
Vlll
-------
CONTENTS
DISCLAIMER ............................... i
DIGEST AND MAJOR CONCLUSIONS ...................... ii
PREFACE ................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................ iv
ORGANIZATION .............................. v
INTRODUCTION .............................. vi
OBJECTIVE ................................ vii
SCOPE .................................. viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Chapters A and B only --- Chapters C through Y
Contents are in the Appendix) ..................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................ A-1
Development of the Refuse Fired Energy Generator Technology. ... A-1
Description of Communities Visited ................ A-3
Locations Visited ........................ A-3
Collection Areas and Jurisdictions ............... A-5
Terrain, Natural and Manmade Boundaries, Neighborhoods ..... A-5
Population ........................... A-5
Separable Waste Streams ...................... A-5
Household, Commercial and Light Industrial Refuse ........ A- 10
Bulky and Large Industrial Wastes ................ A- 10
Wastewater and Sewage Sludge .................. A- 10
Source Separation ........................ A- 10
Front-End Separation ...................... A-1 2
Waste Oils and Solvents ..................... A- 12
Industrial Chemicals and Hazardous Wastes ............ A- 13
Animal Waste .......................... A- 13
Street Sweepings ........................ A- 13
Construction, Demolition Debris, and Ash ............ A- 13
Junk Automobiles ........................ A- 14
Refuse Collection and Transfer Stations ............. A- 14
Household Containers ...................... A- 14
Collecting Organization ..................... A- 14
Collection Costs ........................ A-1 4
Assessment Methods ....................... A- 15
Vehicles ............................ A-1 5
Collecting Times ........................ A- 15
Homeowner Deliveries to Refuse Burning Plant .......... A- 15
Industrial and Bulky Waste Collection Activity Affecting
Resource Recovery ....................... A- 15
Transfer Stations ........................ A- 16
Composition of Refuse ....................... A-1 6
Physical Composition of Refuse ................. A- 16
ix
-------
CONTENTS
Moisture Content A-16
Heating Value of Refuse A-16
Definitions and Calculations . A-16
General Comments on Refuse Heating Values A-18
Refuse Generation and Burning Rates Per Person A-18
Total Operating System A-23
Energy Utilization A-23
District Heating (D.H.) A-25
District Cooling A-28
Underground Distribution A-28
Relation of Refuse as a Fuel in the Long Term Community Plan for
Community Electrical Power, District Heating and Cooling . . . A-28
Energy Marketing and Standby Capacity A-32
Economics and Finance A-36
Capital Investment Costs A-36
Initial Capital Investment Cost per Daily Ton A-39
Expenses A-42
Revenues A-46
Net Disposal Costs or Tipping Fees A-50
Personnel Categories A-53
Education, Training and Experience ... A-53
Finance A-53
System Ovnership and Governing Patterns A-53
Refuse Handling A-5*J
Weighing of Refuse Received ,. . . A-54
Tipping Floor, Pit and Crane A-54
Pit Doors „ . . A-56
Crane „ . . A-56
Bulky Waste: Size Reduction A-57
Hoppers and Feeders A-57
Grates and Primary Air „ . . A-57
Grate Life A-58
Grate Materials A-58
Grate Action A-58
Grate Functions . A-63
Ash Handling and Recovery . A-66
Ash Exit from Grate, Quenching and Removal from the Furnace. . . A-66
Ram for Residue Removal (Martin) . A-68
Submerged Conveyor A-68
Spray Quench with Conveyor A-68
Furnace Wall A-68
Furnace Requirements A-68
Secondary (Overfire Air) A-70
Principles of Overfire Jets A-70
Boilers A-71
Overall Boiler Design A-71
Boiler Tube and Wall-Clening Methods A-75
Steam Condensers A-75
-------
CONTENTS (Continued)
Supplementary Firing of Fuel Oil, Waste Oil and Solvents A-78
Co-Disposal of Sewage Sludge and Refuse A-83
Air Pollution Contro] A-83
Particulates A-83
Precipitator Maintenance A-8?
Gases A-87
Measured Gaseous Emissions A-88
Gaseous Emissions Limits . . A-88
Trends in Emissions Control A-88
Start-Up and Shut-Down Procedures A-88
CONCLUSIONS A-88
World Wide Inventory of Waste-to-Energy Systems A-90
Communities and Sites Visited A-91
Separable Waste Streams A-91
Collections and Transfer Stations A-92
Composition of Refuse A-92
Heating Value of Refuse A-92
Refuse Generation and Burning Rates Per Person A-93
Development of Visited Systems A-93
Total Operating System A-95
Organization and Personnel A-96
Economics A-96
Capital Investment A-96
Expenses, Revenues and Net Disposal Costs A-97
Refuse Handling A-98
Hoppers and Feeders A-99
rates and Primary Air A-99
Furnace Wall A-100
Secondary (Overfire) Air A-100
Boilers A-101
Start-Up and Shut-Down A-103
Supplementary Firing and Co-Firing of Fuel Oil, Waste Oil,
Solvents and Coal A-104
Air Pollution Control A-104
B. WORLDWIDE INVENTORY OF WASTE-TO-ENERGY SYSTEMS B-1
Exclusions B-1
Number and Tonnage Capacity B-1
Energy Use Patterns B-3
Furnace Size Distribution B-9
APPENDIX
XI
-------
LIST OF TABLES
Table A-1.
Table A-1a.
Table A-2.
Table A-3.
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
A-4.
A-5.
A-6.
A-7.
A-8.
A-9.
Table A-10.
Table
Table
Table
A-11.
A-12.
A-13.
Table A-14.
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
A-15a.
A-15b.
A-16.
A-17.
A-18.
A-19.
A-20.
A-21.
A-22.
A-23.
A-24.
A-25.
Summary Data on the 15 Surveyed Plants Visited by Battelle
for the U.S. EPA Project on Waste-to-Energy A-4
Summary Data on the 15 Surveyed Plants Visited by Battelle
for the U.S. EPA Project on Waste-to-Energy A-6
Minor Visits (15) - Date, Location, Manufacture, Reasons
and, Comments Related to Battelle's Brief Visit to 15
Other Waste-to-Energy Facilities A-7
Description of 19 Offices Visited by Battelle While on Tour
of European Waste-to-Energy Facilities A-8
Collection Areas, Radius, Jurisdictions and Population . . . A-9
Separable Waste Streams Identifiable Within the Grates of
Refuse-Fired Energy Plants A-11
Composition of Municipal Solid Waste in Switzerland, USA,
and Britain A-17
Refuse Lower Heating Values: Assumption for Plant Design and
Actual A-20
Energy Values of Selected Refuse Components (Dry) A-21
European Average Refuse Generation and Burning Rates Per
Person (1976-1977 Period) A-22
Three Steps of Energy Form and Use at Visited European
Plants A-24
Key Energy Functions of 15 Visited Systems A-25
Internal Uses and Losses of Refuse Derived Energy A-26
Attractiveness of District Heating as a Function of Density
of Energy Use(a) A-29
Favorable Demand Aspects of District Heating and Cooling
Systems in the U.S.A A-30
Summary of Capital Investment A-37
Summary of Capital Investment (Continued) A-38
Exchange Rates for Six European Countries, (National Monetary
Unit Per U.S. Dollar) 1948 to February, 1978(a) A-41
Summary of Expenses for 15 European Refuse to
Energy Systems , A-43
Summary of Revenues from 15 European Refuse to Energy
Plants (U.S. 1976 $ Per Ton) , A-47
Gross Summary of Revenue From European Refuse-Fired Energy
Plants A-48
Refuse Pit Storage Volume, Dimensions and Capacities .... A-55
Plants A-47
Design Pressure of Primary Air System at Plants
Visited A-59
Grate Bar Replacement A-60
Grate Dimensions ., A-61
Grate Burning Rates A-62
Refuse Burning Manufacturing and Representatives ....... A-65
XI1
-------
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Table A-26. Summary of Ash Handling and Recovery Methods A-67
Table A-27. Secondary Air Systems A-72
Table A-28. Data Regarding Cleaning of Heat-Transfer Surfaces in
Visited Refuse-Fired Steam and Hot-Water Generators. . . A-76
Table A-29. Methods Used to Clean Tubes and Walls of European Refuse-
Fired Energy Plants A-77
Table A-30. Boiler Furnace Design Conditions A-79
Table A-31. Boiler Release Rates A-80
Table A-32. 'Comparison of Energy Recovery A-81
Table A-33. Use of Supplementary Fuels at 16 European Refuse Fired
Energy Plants A-82
Table A-34. Systems for Co-Disposal of Refuse and Sewage Sludge
Location, Manufacturer, Volume, and Process A-84
Table A-35. Characteristics of Electrostatic Precipitators A-85
Table A-36. Measured Gaseous Emission Rates at European RFSG A-86
Table A-37. Emission Limits, mg/Nm3 A-89
Table B-1. Summary of World-Wide Inventory Waste-to-Energy Systems
(1986-1983) B-2
Table B-2. Pounds of Municipal Waste Converted to Energy Per Person
Per Day by Country Capacity when Plants were Surveyed in
1977 B-iJ
Table B-3- U.S.A. Waste-to-Energy Systems Operating (Tonnes/Day). . . B-6
Table B-^. The World's Uses of Energy Produced by Municipal* Waste-
to-Energy Commercially Operating or Large Demonstration
Systems B-7
Table B-5. Number of Furnaces by Capacity and Country (Currently
Operating and Planned Expansion to 1982) B-10
Table B-6. Battelle Inventory of Worldwide Waste-to-Energy Systems. . B-11
Xlll
-------
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure A-l. Annual Average Lower Heating Vaules for Berne, Stockholm,
Frankfurt, The Hague and Duesseldorf and Range of Value
for Other Cities A-19
Figure A-2. Connected and Specific Capacities in Europe A-27
Figure A-3. Steam Distribution and Return Condensate Pipes at
Werdenberg A-31
Figure A-4. Steam Distribution and Return Condensate Pipes at Paris. . A-31
Figure A-5. Hot Water Pipes at Werdenberg A-31
Figure A-6. Hot Water Pipes at Uppsala A-31
Figure A-7. Total Energy Plan Built up in Five Stages. ........ A-33
Figure A-8. Heat Load Duration Curve and Load-Split. Heat Only Package
Boilers Used (1) for Peaking, (2) When There is not Enough
Refuse Supply or (3) When Energy Demand is too Low . . . A-34
Figure A-9. Heat Produced by Each Unit for the Optimum Case in the
Long Range Plan for District Heating Supply in the
Stockholm Area Using Oil, Refuse and Nuclear Power . . . A-35
Figure A-10. Capital Cost Per Daily Ton Capacity A-40
Figure A-ll. Total Annual Expenses Versus Annual Tonnage A-44
Figure A-12. Net Disposal Cost or Tipping Fee at 13 European Refuse
Fired Energy Plants A-49
Figure A-13. Basic Types of Grates for Mass Burning of Refuse A-64
Figure A-14. Dacha Type Superheater and Boiler Convection Arrangement
for Proposed Stapelfeld Plant at Hamburg A-74
Figure B-l. Pounds of Waste Processed in Refuse-Fired Energy Generators
Per Capita Per Day in Selected Countries ... B-5
xiv
-------
A-l
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Development of the Refuse Fired
Energy Generator Technology
Producing and utilizing energy from refuse combustion goes
back many years. One early account is the 1896 refuse to electricity
and industrial steam plant in Hamburg, Germany located on Rohrstrasse.
There were other turn of the century refuse to energy plants located at
Paris and Zurich.
But the Europeans were not the only people active in this field.
There were in New York City several refuse fired steam generators as record-
ed in a Saturday Evening Post article.*
"In 1902 the simple destruction of this material was begun at an
incinerator located at Forty-seventh Street and the North River. This
simple destruction is satisfactory from both a financial and a sanitary
point of view. Very soon an attempt was made to utilize the heat derived
from this combustion for purposes of steaming, and, in 1903, a small elec-
trical plant was installed for the lighting of one of the stables of the
deportment and of the docks and piers in that vicinity.
In 1905, the idea of economically using rubbish wastes to light
municipal structures and buildings, being beyond the experimental stage,
a plant was constructed beneath the Williamsburg Bridge, (on Delancey Street)
where daily 1050 cubic yards of light refuse are destroyed. During the night,
the heat is used to generate electricity to light The Williamsburg Bridge ...
The material handled at the Delancey Street plant is about one-fifth of the
total output of the boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx."
* The Waste of a Great City: The New Alchemy That Transmutes Refuse Into
Heat, Light, Power and Property; The Saturday Evening Post; December 15,
1906.
-------
A-2
The above points out one fact. The first systems were
sophisticated enough to produce electricity. They were not just simple hot
air generators. The early units were refractory walled and thus the steam
quality (temperature and pressure) was limited.
During the period from 1910 through 19^5, there were many
improvements to the overall systems and to the art of boiler making. Also,
during this time there was increasing concern about the wastefulness of
using valuable land for unsightly landfills. There was also an occasional
increase in concern about landfill leachate effects on ground water
contamination.
Then in the late 19^0's and 1950's, vendors (primarily Von Roll in
Zurich) began to develop ways to take more energy out of the combustion
gases. This effort was spearheaded by Mr. R. Tanner formerly of Von Roll.
Some consider him one of the originator's of the modern-day water-tube wall
refuse incinerator/boiler. Basically he applied to refuse combustion what
he and others had learned about coal combustion in water-tube wall units.
As explained later in the Boiler Section, the "water-tube wall
furnace/boiler" has the refuse combustion section surrounded by vertical or
sloping steel tubes in parallel which absorb the heat and thus generate a
major fraction of the total steam produced. This increases efficiency and
allows a much higher quality steam to be produced.
By 1965, European and Japanese citizens and government officials
were becoming concerned about the long-term effects of landfills. These
concerns led many cities to choose refuse burning. They were, and still
are, willing to pay a premium price for refuse burning over landfilling. In
many cases the refuse burning option is two, three or four times as
expensive as landfilling.
The Japanese, since 1965, have become increasingly conscious of
what is put into close-in fishing waters off the Japanese coast. Their diet
depends so heavily on saltwater fish. High concentrations of heavy metals
and organics were found in coastal waters. Industry, municipal sewage
plants and landfills were blamed for these concentrations.
In addition to landfills on normal land, the Japanese have long
reclaimed the sea with trash. In 1974 one of the authors spent an afternoon
observing the 180 acre "Dream Island" in the Tokyo Bay. Pilings had been
driven and household refuse and construction debris were then dumped in.
Now after many years, the waste has settled and several buildings have been
-------
A-3
constructed, including the attractive 1800 ton per day Koto incinerator
built by Takuma. However, sea filling with household refuse is no longer
permitted in the sea. Instead Japan has become the world's most active
builder of refuse fired steam generators—primarily due to their fear of
landfill or seafill leachate effects.
Prompted by concern for leachate and the scarcity of land, many
European countries and cities had refuse burning construction programs from
1960 to 1973. Actually by the time that the Arab Oil Embargo occurred in
1973, some of the countries were nearly saturated with refuse burning
plants. The effect of doubling or quadrupling of energy' prices was not very
noticeable on new orders.
These authors have concluded that energy considerations have never
been, and are not now, the driving force leading to construction of most
refuse energy systems. Cities build refuse fired energy systems because
they fear the long-term effects of landfill leachate, they perceive a
shortage of land and officials are frustrated by the unpleasantries of
locating landfill sites every several years. Imported oil prices would have
to rise dramatically before the basic motivation for resource recovery
changes from concerns about landfilling to concerns about energy.
The next force on the development was pressure to clean the
atmosphere. It is hard to know exactly when this pressure began building,
but it was well noticed during the 1960's. Air pollution control equipment
was needed to capture most of the flyash released by incineration. Such air
cleaning equipment would deteriorate rapidly if the very hot flue gases
from incineration were passed through them. Thus the flue gases had to be
cooled.
Three methods could be used for cooling: (1) water spray, (2)
massive air dilution and (3) heat recovery boiler. There were communities
with refuse but not a sufficiently concentrated energy demand to make
energy production realistic. Hence many systems were built with only a
spray cooling chamber ahead of the: (1) baghouse, (2) scrubber, or (3)
electrostatic precipitator. Unfortunately the moisture inherent in such
water spray systems would remain in the ductwork and the air cleaning
device when the unit was shut down. This often caused excessive "dew point"
corrosion. Air dilution devices are not usually favored because of the need
for vary large and expensive air cleaning equipment. For these reasons the
heat recovery boiler has become the predominant method used for cooling the
gases in European refuse-burning plants.
Description of Communities Visited
As previously explained in the Scope section, this report is
devoted to both (1) the refractory wall furnace with waste heat boiler
often producing hot water for district heating and (2) the water tube wall
integrated furnace/boiler normally producing steam for electrical
production, industrial uses and steam or hot water for district heating.
Locations Visited
In total, 30 refuse fired enerjcv plants were visited. Of these, 15
were examined in detail (See Table A-la). These 15 are described in
separately bound trip reports available from the U.S. National Technical
-------
A-4
a i,
H H
M CO
co -<
M 3
H
CJ
c
as
P.
co
@
Cd fl
CO
CO *~~-
m • 01
•H 3 4J
•rl
J*T^ p-r^ y]
3C S -H
H H >
O O r-
ft. ON
< rH
C—« Ct3 ^^
O
Oi
pa
I
O
CB
rH
I
pa
1 M
rH CO
5 ON -^1
U rH 4-1
< 33
>i C
iH 00 •
•H -H 4-1
CO 01 Z
C 01
o
•o
c •
cs a
CO
01 cj
4J jr.
•H C ^
C oo 44
S -H S
0]
• 0)
0 Q
z
M 2
CO Ci. CO
4J SD Q
eo
•
M
<4-l
M
Ol
00
C
s
4-1
•H
U
01
5
CO
•z
4-1
C
CO
rH
/-N CM
m
v~'
co
H
M 01
CO 4-1
M CO
> O
OS 4J
O •?-
n en
S "I~l
CO CO ON O O
•H ON in O O
O sO CO O O
so rH r* -^ oo
CM > >
•H
r-l
iH
01
S
H
^•^
C N
CO iH rH
U -H g 01 Q
o> -a a) ,a .e
00 3 O U cj
•H 01 .C O 3
0 rJ H t*S PQ
iw -a
13 rH
01 -H 0) 01 JJ
Ijr, oo to 14-1 a.
a (-< a) a) e-
3 3 3 M 3
B3 H Q US 3
•a
•a c
C cfl
<0 rH
•H M
M 0) >s
01 N C >>
N 4-i co e
4-1 -H e >N m
•H 3 M C S
3 co ai co ft
en a e i)
MO
A 00 ** 01
00 00 <4H CJ
ri 3 h -H
01 M O • CO
J3 CO -3 rg 4J
£ | ,_) r-( M
Ol C 01 01 Ol
"O 01 03 14-1 O.
)-i T3 01 Ol O.
0) cfl 3 w 3
3 BO 0 * 3
sr
CM
« CO sO
CO CM CM
iH iH
LO ^H | MA
1 I r-» O CM
CO ON iH CM CM
>% >N >> >, >N
cfl ^3 tl co cj
2 £ S 33 S
-^ in O O CM so
CD ^i^ 00 f^ ^^ c^
O^ t/^ ^O O CO 1 vO
co co O ON <• CM
00 CM CM CM rH >3"
in CM <• CM CM
in o o o ^r *3* o
CO CO CO -^ CO CO O
SO CO iH <• rH I—I O>
rH rH rH
CO CO Ul
r-. rH <• m • •
,_) CM CM rH CM CM CM
(H
^ r-4 CM <• CM CM CO
U-I CO P~ CO ST SO O
so r** ^«. so i^ i^^ p^
ON ^-^ rH ON ON CJN O>
rH p-» rH rH rH rH rH
C C C
•H -H -H
4-1 4J 4J
M M M p*f p^| Q^ CO
CO CO CO 1 1 1 ^3
2 S S > > > «
O
•0 M
M 01
01 00
f— ^.4
CJ 01 )-i
>^ a 01
Cfl 0) 00
01 c n) >N 01 c
3 Ol u g 01 > -H
CO 4J -O 4J Ol (-1 iH
Ol rH C CO 01 CO ^3
C CO I-i O O JU 3
< S3 < ft. to BS Oi
00
j= h oi oi oo
o) y 3 01 o- rH .a
•H -H J2 3 CX > J=
u »- 6 oo oi co 4-1
CO 3 cfl co -H 0) O
Cu N E S Q Q O
•a
c
JU • (0
fa >, rH
S M
• O 0)
X •»"•> N
3 •> CO 4J
CO M >^ -H
Ol • 0 x-« • 3
£ 3 O • CO U CO
rH co y 2— ^^ &-*
3 1
o u •> u oo
2 N 01 0) fe 0) M
1 rH 00 3 rH 01
0) O C 00 - rH J2
rH ,C -H C8 Ol -H ff
1 C rH S 0. > CU
X Oi rH Cu 3 J3
03 00 01 Ol 01 CO 4-1
01 CO 4-» J3 -H 01 O
M S CO SH Q fi O
m so O co
CO O rH rH CM CM
rH 1 I 1 1
rH CO rH rH rH CM CM
c c c a, a a s.
3 3 3 -1! 01 01 CU
"-3 !-] *-j en eo c/j en
O ON O O
^T O O CO
O ON O CM
CM co in >
^
S 01
C 0 rH
Ol 01 Ol
oo 01 01 oi
M (-1 rH C
01 CO -H 0)
« >J z n
CO 01
rH C C C
CO Ol 00 00
01 01 jr, j=
a. s. a. a.
a. o O o
3 S CJ CJ
,^4
^
CO ^
•n s w
C C CO
CO Ol g
rH OS
I-i Ol
cu u O
N 01
4J 00 4-1
•H CO 01
3 ^ = ai
en s < 3
« « i i
CO 01 • •
r-i C G P
CO Ol 00 00
01 en jr, js
a t-i CL a.
a o o o
3 S CJ CJ
p>» ON
CM CM
1 1
sO CO
CM CM
-------
A-5
Information Service (N.T.I.S.). Key energy information is shown in Table A-
l.b. The other 15 plants are listed with identifying features in Table A- 2,
Comments about these systems are interspersed throughout the report. A third
source of information was the visits to 5 Federal environmental protection
agencies. These agencies are listed in Table A-4 along with other local gov-
ernment, manufacturer and consultant offices.
We wish to express our deepest appreciation to our hosts, men of
expertise in converting refuse to energy, for their generous and skilled
assistance.
Background information about the communities visited is necessary
for better understanding of historical solid waste practices, system
development, energy utilization, system performance, etc.
Each community is described in terms of its waste generation
areas, terrain, natural and manmade boundaries, relationship among
neighboring communities, population, and key employment activities that
influence waste composition.
Collection Areas and Jurisdictions
The collection areas and radii are shown in Table A-4. Note that
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein has the greatest area and longest radius. Yet this
plant has the smallest capacity at 120 tonnes (132 tons) per day.
Conversely the largest capacity plant, Paris:Issy, has the smallest
collection area and radius.
Numbers of separate jurisdictions associated with each plant are
also shown in the table. A point to be observed is that, in most of these
systems, it is necessary to obtain waste from many jurisdictions to
maintain or improve economics of scale, once the plant has been built.
Later, in the Economics section, we will argue that (with the exception of
very small plants) there are very few economics of scale taken advantage of
in the designs of refuse fired steam generators.
Terrain, Natural and Manmade Boundaries, Neighborhoods
The sampling of plants covers the many geographical conditions to
be found in Europe.
Population
The most relevant population figure for plant designers is that for
the waste shed area served. As shown in this same Table A-4, the waste shed
population numbers range from 48,000 in Dieppe to 837,286 in Duesseldorf and
even greater at Paris. Population, waste generation rates, collection area
are all related to system economics. At the low end, the plant must be big
enough to achieve some degree of efficiency to pay for fixed costs. However
at the high end, costs of transporting refuse limit the maximum population
served in a waste shed.
Separable Waste Streams
This report is concerned not only with the burning of refuse, but
also with the handling of all waste materials within the same facility.
Many of the observed facilities include three or more separate waste-stream
-------
A-6
V*
C3
03
>* w
to z
w
O 1
w o
£-4 £-4
M |
en w
M E-i
> cn
cn 3
£-»
Z Z
< o
p^ EH
CJ
O Cu
W i-j
JH O
Ed OS
> Cu
Cd /"™N
3 < TJ
cn cu 01
W 3
m c
en 4J
W • G
33 D O
H 0
Z 33
O H •••*
cn
>* rJ
O O cn ON
cn sr oo CN CN
OJ M
4-1 CO
CO 01
oi >
• •
r<4 ^
O OJ
a M
CO —
> S
Cd 4J
co
\^ v^ s^
p** P*» r^»
C7^ C7\ C7N | |
i— 1 rH iH
^y ^o oo
cn CN O
• • •
CN CN CN 1 1
g
flj X
0) JS (0
44 -^ S
cn 4J
X
a
Ofl •
•H CU
CO CO •
cu cj s
Q 0
z
\o i sr i i
rH CT\
sr
•
CN rH O^ CN CN
rH rH 00 ST O
CN
•a
Tf C
C CO
CO rH
•H M
M CU ^s
0) N C >.
N 4J CO C
4J -H g >> CO
•H 3 M S g
3 cn cu co M
cn o g cu
M 0
• 90 • CU
0)
g
CO
Z
4J
C
CO
rH
/-* a.
m
00 80 14-1 CJ
M 3 M rH
CU M O • CO
j3 a 73 T3 4J
(3 1 rH rH M
0) C 01 0) 01
•a 01 co M-I a.
M T3 W 01 CU
CJ CO 3 M CO
3 pa Q ^ 3
N»/
sr
cn CN
M CU
cn w
M CO
> Q
at 4J
O -H
i-l CO
< -H
S >
• cn ^o
00 CN CM
U-1 rH | •>
1 1 P^ O CN
Cn ON rH CN CN
?S ^ ^i ^ >%
£ £ £ £ £
m
in CN ^ tn o O o
CN rH rH CN
O 00 O p^ vO ^O p«-
p^ oo P^» cj> in m rH
p** r** P>I p*» cn cn sr
C O O m O O sr
rH CN rH CN 00 00 rH
sr sr sr sr i— i rH CN
o o sr ^o p*» p^* ON
00 ^O \O ^J3 rH fH O
p^ ^o p- m CN CN cn
cn in CN o vc vo CN
in sr m sr i— i rH CN
*^ vO vO
P^ P^ p*«
1 C7N | CPt 1 1 ON
rH rH rH
rH CO 00
ST C^ rH
• • •
1 CN | rH 1 1 cn
00 1 1 1 1 1 1
rH
m
•
o co o o in in p^
^o en oo in rH r-i in
rH rH rH
5^
G TJ
"3 CO C
M C g CO
fc4 CO M rH
rH CJ M
M O 0)
X Ol /— > N
3 N CO 4J
CO 4J M "•*• -H
CU -H O ^-v -3
c 3 o -co M cn
rH cn 2 Z N-' fe
3 1
O « M • M "00
2 N Ol 01 fe 01 M
1 rH 00 3 rH 0)
CU O C CO « rH j3
rH -S -H CO 01 -H G
1 G rH 33 O- > 0)
>-, 01 -H CU 3 J=
CO SO 01 Ol 0) CO 4J
cn ca 4-1 £ -H 01 o
M 33 cn H G a o
m v£i o cn
cn O rH rH !N CN
rH 1 1 1 |
* 1 cn ST ^ rH CN
rH 00 rH rH rH CN CN
0) Ol CU
c c c a. a o. a
3 3 3 0) Ol 0) 0)
!-3 >-: !-: cn cn cn cn
0 0 0 O
O 1 1 I
oo
CN
OO 1 1 1
cn
rH
O 1 I 1
0
CN
in i i i
rH
m
PN.
CJN 1 1 1
rH
sr
sr
CN 1 I 1
1 1 1 1
/*™V
j2>
S— i-1
0333
sr 53 33 32
^
M
CO Jii
•a g M
C C cfl
CO 01 g
rH 0 G
M 01
CU MO
N CU
U 00 4-1
•H CO M
3 ^ g 0>
cn Q < 3
1 1
co cn
•H c c e
CO 01 00 00
CO CO A &
cu M a. cu
CU 0 0 0
3 33 a CJ
P^ CN
CN CN
1 1
^3 CO
CN
-------
*
Q r
z fa
< H
cn
cn <
Z 2
O
cn as
< w
w s
as E-
o
4M
as m
U rH
Oi
3 O
H H
CJ
-i H
Cn rH
ro cn
Z M
fo
« w
Z M
0 as
rH M
EH
< cn
CJ -
o w
J rJ
«• w
W EH
H H
EH ai
z w
Oi M Z
O 2 M
Z S 1
rH 0 O
S CJ H
*
r^J
1
>
rH
V4 CO
O i-l
<4H O
•rt
C UH
O UH
CO O
03
41 d
Oi 0)
01
3
4-1
01
m
4-1
iH CO
CU C
i-l M
3 W
4-1
y K3
03
3 41
C S
co -a
S -rt
3
•a
c
CO
rH
iH
01
N
J-I
H ^
rl 3
4-i cn
d
3
0 3
a *
00
• >J
>-, 3
4-1 r*
•H 4J
U ri
41
J3
O
,— -\
r-.
ON
rH
— ' in
"^
4) m
4J
CO
f— S
4J
C
CO
rH
a.
4-1
CO
Q
a
e
o
CJ
•a
CO 41
4-1 i-l
i-l CO
CO w
•H ao
> Ol
4J
rH d
CO iH
iH
CJ >,
iH rH
UH rH
UH 03
0 C
0
d 1-1
01 4-1
01 O.
3 oi
4-1 CJ
0) X
pa fcj
o
c
CO
C,— >
tH
•rH
4J •>
M X
ia :*s
••gj ^
-a
s
03
i— 1
iH
01 T3
N d
4-1 03
1-1 rH
3 u
cn oi
N
« u
•a -rt
•H 3
41 cn
r;
C •
Ol rH
N 41
CO iH
ca «
in ^o
—^ -v^.
u-i in
i-i
O
4-1
CO
M
41
d
•H
CJ
d
—4
d
O 41
M
Ol 3
O, CO
0 -H
H 0)
3 rH
W
d
d o
iH
4-1
Ol -H
co cn
3 -H
0 >
r*
00 ?-,
CO CO
A -a
)H
>> 3
rH 4-1
d eo
O cn
4J 4-1
co cn
d d
M rl
U K
^! ^
L-i LJ
M M
01 01
e e
•a -a
•H -rH
2 3
•o
d
CO T3
rH d
i-i cfl
41 rH
N U
U 01
•H N
3 U
cn i-i
3
- cn
r— i
01
4-J CO
CO iH
3 i-l
Ol M
Z H
so r~
•"^. ^^,
in in
rH
CO
CO
o
c.
CO
•H
T3
O
CJ
M
d
o
i-t
4-1
U
d 3
O !-"
•H 4J
4-1 CO
y d
3 O
i- CJ
4-1
CO !H
d oi
O T3
CJ d
3
!H
Ol !H
•O 0)
d -a
3 .TJ
3
U
J-J a
r^ w
U-t
S u
r" CO
« 0)
0) 4J
r« CO
1— 1
U
oi -a
A d
.a eo
3
M 3
CJ 0)
cn z
4-1 4-1
cn cn
d d
in U
U U
1-3 <^3
r«J V1^
Ol 41
e e
TJ -0
•rl "H
2 2
X
d
03
£j
C
>i 01
d cj
cs
G t
C 3
41
CJ
4J
•a
2 co
4-1
« CO
-d rH
4-1 O
u oo
3 d
fe rH
og CM
rH T— 1
•"•^ ^^^
in in
A-/
X
CO
i-i
(.4
O
H
0
4J
4J
X
01
S d
4)
4-1 CO
CO i-l
5-,
cn -o
d
rH CO
rH
co cn
s S
CO 41
4-J
UH cn
o >.
cn
41
rH 4-1
O. CO
£ 01
03 3
X 41
41 d
« cn
01 -
•u d
CO i-l
CO 4-1
3 r.
CO
rH S
CO
4-; UH
•H o
C.
CO Ol
o d
32 O
2
>i
>
^-^
4-J
M
01
^
3
01
Pu
LJ r^
M U>
11 -r-l
rH 4J
rH S-l
01 03
^ S
00
^ H
d 0
03 .a
S S
i-i 01
01 x
CJ 3
•
3
00
»H
01 O
d -a
00 5
o oi
rH X
O 3
CJ ^
MO
rH C^
^^ -^
m ^o
4-1
iH
0
c.
Ol
M
41
O.
o.
41
•rl
Q
4J
d
4-1 41
cn g
Ol 00
rl 3
01 CO
4J
d -o
•H i-l
3
d o
CO O
CJ
•H d
U 00
01 iH
6 co
< 0)
13
TJ
d -1-1
co d
CO
< rH
Oj O.
u
i-l
r- 4)
oo 3
•H 01
s z
rH
rH
v n
?s O
co oi
i-i
rl d
O O
EH >
00
i-l
o
.a oi
S CJ
cu d
X 03
3 rl
1-4 fe
n M
00 4)
iH iH
0 rH
.3 -rl
S ?
D 3
X ca
3 0)
rJ f"J
^^
oo r^
--^ — .
so cn
4-1
iH
0
c.
cu
iH
d
4)
CO
rl
_O
"" d
4-1 rH
CU i-l
s w
eo
3 X
CO rl
CO
•a u
rH O
3 in
o
CJ u
3
d o
oo jr.
•r-l 4J
CO 1-1
D 3
-a
4J
4-1 d
d co
CO rH
rH S.
a.
T3
u d
11 3
3 rH
41 O
Z >
d
4)
cn
C
0)
iH
o
cn
•-3
^
d d
d 3
3 rH
in O
ca >
^
u
Jrf co
U E
H GJ
d Q
Ol
'— 1 M
0)
« T)
CO rH
3 iH
^" —
">H CO
CO O
< eS
O
n so
•*^^ *^.
C7\ 0
rH
CU
•rt
4J
4)
r*
4-1
4J
03
41
a.
o
i-i
3
W
d
•H
I-i
01
rO
J3
3
i-i
U
Cfl
CJ
cn
b
oi
oo
d
•H
,Y
'M
O
^>
4-1
CO
0)
-3
rH
0
3
^
>
>.
rJ
CO
t-
41
a
*
2
M
— 1
OJ
•H
:*:
p~
*^^
o
•a
41
00
i-i
3
>>
r-l
00
d
o
M
4-1
CO
U
o
•a
d
u
>
*i
£
D
4-1
CO
>%
CO
•
es
•
>
4-1
CO
u
3
0)
z
i— i
rH
O
C'
d
o
>
•a
d
CO
u
cu
M
4J
•H
3
cn
M
N
4J
•rt
CS.
cn
E
41
c:
2
a
sr
i — i
^^
o
-H
CO
4J
<~
o
IT
as
c.
•rt
!H
E-
!-l
01
_^
4-1
O
d
•rt
O
4J
T3
41
M
iH
01
UH
11
iH
01
H
CO
>,
C
CO
E
M
i-l
0)
>
01
3
_o
CO
01
•rt
•rt
rH
•rt
CJ
CO
UH
01
cn
4)
,d
4-1
>H
0
U-I
•a
0)
t-4
03
c.
u
iH
O. UH
( — 1
j-i 41
o cn
d u
•rt
CU
'- 4-1
01 M
3 O
a.
CO 41
4J Oi
-
o d
a. o
41 *rt
OS *J
CO
e. 3
•rt r-l
!H 03
^ M
01
4-1 0)
CO ~"
CO
C. TJ
0) d
cn 03
•i!
-------
z
<
w
IX
o
as
3
M
fa
Q
Oi
•jj
o
H
Z
O
K
J
rH
X
3
Ed
j
iJ
u
H
H
<
«
>
to
O
W
EH
1— I
cn
M
>
01
M W
6J M
0 H
M M
fa -J
fa M
O U
<
ON fa
r- 1
bf n
N->
°g
Z Z
o w
M 1
H 0
a. H
M 1
« w
CJ E-
V5 C/3
w <
a s
•
n
i
<
W
tJ
P3
£
^
u
1-1
>
•H
•U
U
<
tJ
O
•a
c
4;
•*
u
0)
_g
c
o
1-1
u
ffl
O
3
C
O
•H
4J
ffl
N
•*•<
C
ffl
00
U
o
4)
U
ffl
O
^
^4
O
4J
ffl
(-
O
rt
ffl
00
c
*H
JJ
0)
0)
IJ
Cn
-5
CO
1
t
1
1
s-^
J3
cn
*
LM
J-l
O
1
cu
3
a
ffl
a.
s
«
u-l
^
S
01
4)
y
i-t
U-l
U-l
O
<
04
CO r*i
u
*H ffl
4^ E
"JH i-i
o r*i
s~^
2
cn ^-s
£
•* U
C ^-^
% ^i
a jg
•w <;
c c-
TO frl
ffl
00 C
•H *H
i*4 u)
u C
y
Ct] p^a
3 C
Gfll
yj
S fa
2
^ 1
C 3
ffl ffl
S 01
O ffl
f— 1 rH
f r-j
cj O
V^ ^J
>^S
>.
e
O
•^x
»
y^ ,*— \
^4 )j
O fa
T3 s— /
OJ
cn cn
w -H
D 03
O 0-»
•
>
C
w
<•£
OJ
>
u 0)
C T3
r-i •
PL^ ^H
CO
lu 3
*>T rM
0
c
*H CO
00 *H
C3 J-i
C ffl
ffl ^
U-l
OJ O
•H >,
O U
1 1
1 1
4-1
ffl
"y o!
4) AJ
UH C
01 O
Q 2Ej
<*~s /*~x
J_j )_|
ft, t&4
**-* ^S
cn cn
•H *H
M M
03 ffl
(2-t PM
C
XI
^
Z3
00
cn c
3 -H
*U ^
U (U
ai ^
U
cn
•^j u
•^
• O
^J
C "*4
M O
1 1
cn
CN" CM
CU 4)
C C
3 3
CJ
c/:
fa
Ci
r-4
i-l
ffl
3
4)
£>
3
u
nl
U'
3
'•W
Q
0)
C -H
00 *4-l
ffl O
£
ffl 4)
S u
ffl
•H a
O U
3
I £>
^i
y
4)
3
cn 4)
01 **?
O iJ
1- 3
CJ *g*
^— ^
?^
E
^ o
>, ^^
O ""H
'*— ^ ^
O
J*fl 1
CJJ rH
3 CO
Xt cn
n3 3
EC Q
afl
C
3
5
<
P-I
w
^H
cn oi cn ffl 01
4) 4) 4) 4) 4)
•H -H -H 4) -H
U-i IH U-l fa U|-|
H [ i| ( 14^ t) t
o o o cn o
•a
U -U 4J ffl 4J
ffl ffl ffl rH ffl
o. a. o. js e.
cj u u z u
C
4J
>j a c/3
ffl i^j 02 i <-3
S 2 ^ I CQ
T3
4) ffl
O ffl
j= oo
GJ i-i
• T3 ^ 4)
rH T3
O C
Z C ^ 0
C * 00 *H
•LJ CH *H 4-1
V-i C J^ C 05
cn }-i *H ca o
y? — J O B^ — —
>*«s
*o
Z
Sv ^
X*** •>
^ x*\ X"N £ x^\
S 3 3 ffl «^
cj c/} c/} 'o O
*^ *^s **-* c; ^**
01
y y "y 01 3
i-t «H *H ^ „£
C V< i-i "H M
3 3 3 01 ffl
*2 fsj r>4 J -^
01
M
CU
M S CU
ffl 4J ?> cn
3 cn > c
cr" C iS 4J
"U )•* ^"^ M
ffl fa O
oil < cn
= ^ rH fa ^J
4-i E "y 3
o
CM cn vo oo
\D rH rH rH CM
4) J J oJ J
c a. a. c. c.
3 _D 01 4) 4)
cn
01
•H
U-l
U-l
Q
4-1
ffl
a
CJ
T3
C
3
O
O
C
•H
?U
1
ca
P— j
T-*
CO
s**^
•^
p
•1
2
01
ffl
c
0)
Q
C_3
3
m
cn"
B
4J
y
c
fa
•H
0
B
4-1
a
M
IJ
•H 4)
a. y
cn -i-i
C u-i
0) U-l
E 0
W 41
O ffl
0
•H Ui
cn o
•H y
ij
W - j
Oil r™i
ffl 01
W c
< >6
1 1
1 1
r-l
— 41
y iH
01 4-1
ffl 01
ffl 3
^^ N^
x— S S~*
3 3
^^ ^^
o "3
•H >T-t
5-J M
3 3
Js] ps]
*
o
ii*
4^J
rH rj
01
r- CO
. f
U i-l
y y
-------
z
o
M
EH
, •]
D
P-
O
0H
a
z
CO
z
O
M
e
M
a
CO
M
en
•a
M
CO
"-J
H
a
2
„
CO
r>i
2
•<
z
o
M
H
CJ
jj
*-J
O
a
•
i
<3
fcj
(—3
ca
rcn cn I 1 1 1 1 I oo i i i i
cn en
OO O 1 1 1 1 1 i O | | | l
00 0 1 1 I 1 1 0
cj\ i— 1 i—t O
M
r-l
•a
c
to P*»
i-t C
1-4 CO
CU S
N U
•H O T3
3 e
CO • CO
3 i— 1 95 ^
• 1-1 -a h
C "O « CU C m v*
•H C >, rlNtO Sl-4
CU CO C O 4-1 r-J C fO
4J i— i to X O -H M CUE
cnMEC S3CU QC
cuNaJlcTcuu. ^f c . ,S
^•i-icu6cS3t>j"z "S ^icu -
CJ3«Or*COCr-4 CUCli-4C04-l
CUC/53 CUJ-t*HOCUCU3CUtOC3en
"rH • CJ {•£< r— 1 _^ ^ cj ^/^ T^ £ ^ CU
iJ « « 3 -HCHC 01C<3
1 00 U-4 «*O1CU tO-SCU-'**
dO CO r4 •• 3 X 4J 40 * M CO C/3 O C d
i-i 3 o 1-1 cncocaoifoiJ cucu
011-i-OCO -CO" =3 3 --COOO
£1 CO rH 4-1 "^ H* 00 "00 -.GcOCncOcO
cu c cn cu'ot cn 3"cj^ c-cu co cu c"c
Tjcucoci.lW'-^BQi-i c._ccncncucj
l-t'OCUCl-CUtiSMOCUiJC-l-'C-C.
CUCQ— J3^itCt03-C'"^OC-OOO
2 PQ O 3 -"^ CU M Sj £— ' O CJ ^ -— CJ CJ
r— 1 CN CO *^ tn ^ !*-• CO O^ O r—1 CNJ C~l ^ u"l
r-l rH i — 1 r-l f-i t— 1
CU
to
to
CU
to
"O
e
3
o
tO
^j
to
01
>>
to
CO
•H
O
O
o
ao
sr
4J
to
cn .s
4-J J-l
c
CO O
r-l 9)
CU
01 vT
cn cu
iu S
4) 3
U CO
O> CU
eo £
l-i -i
to
r-l C
U "H
4)
^ 93
•£• (n
CO
O 0)
w w
o
0) C
4J i-l
cn
03 C
3 0
•M i
00 C ^
^ (73 ^
•H rH 2
•03^
e a.
cu o t:
« SU ,5
-^. **
cs ^a O
• — ' >^-x cj
i • — -
-------
A-10
systems. Table A-b summarizes waste streams associated with each facility
that are treated independently from the main refuse burning waste stream.
There are usually multiple and separate waste streams flowing into
the same property. Perhaps due to socialism or age of the community, there
is a greater sense of environmental planning and physical integration among
system modules. There are many examples of synergistic benefits experienced
by combining not only environmental modules (refuse burning, waste-water
treatment, animal rendering, etc.) but also the energy modules (district
heating, electricity generation, etc.) within the same facility. Each waste
stream category is summarized below.
Household, Commercial and Light Industrial Refuse
(i.e. the Main Waste Stream)
The focus of the project is to examine in detail the treatment of
the household, commercial, and light industrial waste stream. All 15
facilities process this type of mixed waste stream. Refuse collection,
transfer stations, and physical and chemical composition are discussed in
detail.
Bulky and Large Industrial Wastes
Eight of the 15 facilities have shears to reduce bulky and large
industrial waste to 1 meter (3 feet) or less. Only Duesseldorf has a
shredder; it is seldom used.
The large hoppers and furnaces in plants built by Martin will
accept bulky waste of reasonable size. None of the Martin plants visited
had shears or shredders. However, at each Martin plant, there-was
encouragement for acceptance of only household, commercial, and light
industrial waste. The few large pieces are broken in the pit by a falling
grab bucket.
At Copenhagen: Amager the bulky waste is taken to the crusher
transfer station adjoining the refuse-burning plant. Reasonably sized
construction debris and other noncombustible material is packed directly
into transfer trailers. These noncombustible loads are then taken to a
landfill. However, bulky combustible materials first pass through a
shredder before being compacted into a trailer. The combustible loads are
then taken a short distance to the refuse-burning plant.
Wastewater and Sewage Sludge
Five of the facilities have wastewater treatment plants coterminous
with the refuse burning plant. Sanitary services in Europe are often
centralized and well coordinated. In four of the 15 plants, the energy value
in refuse is utilized to drive off moisture in the sludge. Three of these
plants then burn the dried sludge. In total, the Battelle staff visited 7
such co-disposal systems.
Source Separation
Source separation is practiced sporadically in Europe as it is in
the U.S. Its success varies depending on markets, transportation distance,
-------
A-11
TABLE A-5.
SEPARABLE WASTE STREAMS IDENTIFIABLE WITHIN THE GATES OF REFUSE -FIRED
ENERGY PLANTS
l j ij
/ J/ 4/ 5/ J/ -/ -/ »/ -/ c-/ ff/ «/*/ J/ c?/ d
Hou"5«huid, Comr.ercial i Light Industrial
15
X X
Salkv '• Large Industrial
XXXX
'..'asta '^f.a
X X
X X
i.x.irji! and Front-End Separation
i Cardboard
'ron, 3t*sl, i VTniee Goods
la Motors
C3M '-rant. Cass Oil
'..dies Oil EauiSions
Oil Slu4s*s
'.'ai:n Solvents '
3 X
3 X
2
Z
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
XX
Hazardous Wastes
j=-::rose Sludge
X X
XX
Construction Dabris
u ±~-a lit ion Dabris
XX
Jur.k Cars
-------
A-12
price, and conservation attitudes. Two source separation programs were
observed in Denmark.
Near Copenhagen:West, several recycling centers are located at
shopping centers. In addition, one of the recycling centers is located at
the entrance to the West plant. Homeowners and businessmen who appreciate
"the need for recycling can drive their own vehicles to the refuse burning
plant and can then place t.heir discarded items into any of several
containers.
We were told that these and other source separation programs remove
no more than 10 to 15 percent of the potential heat value from the
waste-to-energy system.
Zurich has just started three voluntary recycling centers for
glass, cans, and waste paper. The city has had seven centers for collection
of used crankcase oil. Garages and private individuals bring their waste oil
to the centers. However, no money changes hands.
At Baden-Brugg, about 35 percent of the waste glass generated is
recycled through a residential pickup system using special containers.
Around Werdenberg-Liechtenstein, there are some shopping
center-type recycling centers where people can bring newspapers, bottles,
and cans. Color-sorted glass can be sold for 60 S.Fr per tonne ($26.40 per
ton) while noncolor sorted glass can be sold at 40 S.Fr. per tonne ($17.60
per ton) (at the 1977 rate of 2.27 S.Fr./$).
Front-End Separation
The most elaborate front-end separation system observed during the
30 visits was at The Hague. Private haulers often bring in a combination
load on flat bed or dump trucks. The white goods are unloaded and then the
other bulky combustibles are put into the pit provided to private haulers.
A workman then attempts to remove the copper-rich motors. Rubber tires are
stacked. Then the shovel loader crumples and smashes the stove or
refrigerator for better storage and handling.
The only shredder observed among all of the 15 plants was at
Duesseldorf. The Hazemag shredder was down on both of Battelle's visits in
1976 and 1977- However, because ferrous metal is not even separated, this
can not really be classified as a front-end separation system. This
shredder suffered a major explosion in 1975.
At Uppsala, there is a single bin for ferrous materials in a
corner of the tipping floor.
The only real "American type front-end pre-incineration system"
operating daily on a full scale is at Birmingham, England. It was inspired
by U.S. SPA's demonstration project in St.'Louis, Missouri. Battelle staff
did not visit this Imperial Metal Industries (IMI) facility.
Waste Oils and Solvents
Waste crankcase oil, oil emulsions, oil sludges, and solvents are
processed at two of the facilities. At Baden-Brugg, the oils are carefully
processed in a decanting facility. Nearby at ZurichrHagenholz, waste oils
are decanted and then mixed with more volatile solvents.
-------
A-13
Industrial Chemicals and Hazardous Wastes
There is a distinct difference in attitude in Europe compared to
that in the U.S. with regard to the public sector's responsibility in
i.und'.ing hazardous waste. One-third of the 15 facilities have on the same
or neighboring properties a capability to handle industrial chemical or
hazardous wastes. At Baden-Brugg, a neighboring closed compost plant has
been leased by a private company (Daester-Fairtec A.G.) and has been
converted into an inorganic heavy metals hazardous waste processing center.
This plant has several independent processing lines using ion exchange,
evaporation, activated carbon, filtering, decontamination, and
neutralization.
The ZurichiHagenholz plant receives hazardous wastes from local
industry and transfers it to the appropriate hazardous waste treatment
centers. Some goes to Baden-Brugg and some will go to the elaborate Geneva
County facility being built at les Chenneviers.
In Uppsala, Sweden, the local pharmaceutical company produces a
dextrose sludge. This material is fed to a special hazardous waste
incinerator adjoining the refuse-burning plant. Off-gases are sent to the
hot-air-mixing chamber just after the refuse burner for hydrocarbon
destruction.
Denmark now carefully controls all hazardous wastes. All
industrial generators are required to take their waste to an approved
hazardous waste receiving station. When enough waste has been collected, it
is transported, usually by rail to Nyborg, Denmark for ultimate processing.
Hazardous waste collection centers were observed at Horsens and
Copenhagen:Amager.
Animal Waste
Animal waste is received at four facilities. A trip highlight was
to see the new rendering plant at ZurichrHagenholz. Animal carcasses,
butcher shop trimmings, etc. are rendered into flesh meal, animal feed, and
soap. This new plant was purposely located next to the refuse burning
plant. The rendering plant's ventilation system was carefully designed to
collect odoriferous room air from the plant. The air is sent from the
rendering plant to the refuse burning plant where it is injected directly
into the refuse furnace as high pressure secondary air. This is one
example where the refuse fired steam generator serves as an afterburner.
Street Sweepings
The only facility observed to handle street sweepings as a
separately controlled waste is at The Hague. That was only for weighing at
a common scale, before landfilling.
Construction, Demolition Debris, and Ash
Construction and demolition debris is not put into the refuse
burners to any extent. Ash, however, was a key component of municipal
refuse entering the incinerator plants until about 20-30 years ago when
homeowners switched to oil and gas fuels. The lack of this inert ash has
-------
A-14
allowed the average heating values of refuse to rise. High temperature
corrosion in established furnaces was the result in many furnaces.
Construction debris is brought to The Hague facility and placed
directly into a detachable container for transport to a landfill.
The Horsens plant is located on top of the old landfill and
adjoining the still active landfill jutting out into the sea. Thus, the
total facility consumes locally generated construction and demolition
debris and ash.
Construction debris in southeast Copenhagen is taken to the
transfer station located 100 meters from the Copenhagen:Amager refuse
burning plant. It is then trucked away to Uggelose landfill northwest of
Copenhagen or to an Amager Island seafill reclamation site.
Junk Automobiles
Some of the Horsens community-owned land adjacent to the plant has
been leased to a car and truck junk dealer which is located adjoning the
refuse burning plant.
Refuse Collection and Transfer Stations
The European pattern of collection and transfer has many
similarities to that of North America. Generally speaking, there is more
collection by the public sector, occasional labor representation in
management functions, and occasional computerized systems for physical
control and fiscal billing. The homeowner cost assessment methods are quite
varied.
Household Containers
There is a clear trend away from the open top metal refuse
container in favor of rubber, plastic or paper containers. An integrated
program of collection truck purchase along with purchase of standardized
rubber or plastic containers was observed several times in Central Europe.
Several other systems used standard sized paper sacks that could be
collected by a flat bed truck rather than by a more expensive compactor
truck. Other systems use polyethelene sacks. Most high quality steam
production facilities discourage PVC container sacks due to the corrosive
effects of the chlorides formed in combustion.
Collecting Organization
Generally speaking, there is more public and less private
collection in Europe. However, as in the U.S., this varies widely from city
to city.
Many European public collecting organizations permit
representatives from labor to participate in management functions. This, in
part, has contributed to the success of two industrial engineered collector
control and payment incentive systems at Hamburg and Copenhagen:Amager.
-------
A-15
Collection Coses.
Worldwide, collection costs are 70 to 90 percent of the total cost
of both collection and disposal. At most facilities, only the total is
accurately known because that is the amount billed to citizens and thus the
better known figure. Costs range from $25 to $90 per year per household as
a solid waste management charge to the citizens.
Assessment Methods
The methods for assessing collection (and disposal) costs vary
widely. Some systems serve so many cities that a clear assessment pattern
was not available. The Hamburg and Wuppertal plants obtain revenue from
household rental of standardized rubber containers. At Horsens, paper sacks
are purchased by homeowners. Paris assesses solid waste costs in proportion
to real estate taxes. Dieppe, however, assesses in proportion to metered
water service. Probably the most accurate assessment comes from
Renholdnings Selskabet (Society for Waste Collection) in Copenhagen.
Charges are set based on container volume, steps walked, and stairs climbed.
Vehicles
European vehicles, generally, have similar features, options and
size ranges as in the U.S. However, due to smaller and winding streets, the
average vehicle size is smaller. Paris uses a few electric trucks.
Gothenburg uses cylindrical-bodied transfer trailers not seen in America.
Collecting Times
Trucks make one to four trips per day depending on geography,
average haul distance, and labor agreements. Official hours are often 8 per
day. However, many actually work only 5,6 or 7 hours per day. In Paris,
workers collect refuse for about 4 hours and then sweep city streets for
another 4 hours.
Most workers collect 5 days per week. Some private haulers collect
5 1/2 days. Paris provides 7 day per week pickup of restaurant garbage.
Homeowners have their refuse picked up once or twice per week.
Homeowner Deliveries to Refuse Burning Plant
Many plants place detachable containers near the entrance to the
facility so that cars, trailers, pick up trucks, etc, can unload without
interrupting larger vehicle deliveries. In several countries, citizens are
prohibited from direct dumping into pits.
Industrial and Bulky Waste Collection
Activity Affecting Resource Recovery
Some refuse burning facilities will take only household refuse.
Refuse burning and energy production is greatly simplified if high
calorie-containing industrial and bulky waste is excluded.
Some plants accept such waste because incineration is the
desired disposal alternative and/or because the energy network needs the
energy from this waste. Then, the plant manager and staff may have to put
-------
A-16
forth the extra effort. Care must be exerted to not overheat
the unit if not originally designed for the "hotter" industrial waste.
Transfer Stations
Transfer stations are increasingly popular in Europe as (1)
economies of scale require more waste to be consumed at one location and
(2) there is a desire to reduce highway travel time and collection costs.
In Paris, the Romainville incinerator was converted to a transfer
station. Refuse is transferred to Issy for combustion.
At Gothenburg, five transfer stations compact and 30 trailers
bring refuse to the Savenas refuse fired steam generator.
Copenhagen:Amager's concept is quite different. The transfer
station is located next to the refuse burner. Both are located near the
populated downtown. Bulky combustibles are shredded and transferred 330
meters (100 yards) to the refuse burner. Noncombustible waste is simply
transferred to a distant landfill or seafilled.
There are plans at Uppsala to put a transfer station in a distant
city so that more energy-containing waste can be gathered and converted to
needed district heating hot water at Uppsala.
A transfer station in Horsens is one of 20 that collect industrial
and hazardous waste for transport to Nyborg, Denmark. The Danes are leaders
in regional government hazardous waste collection and controlled disposal.
Because European furnace grates are not designed for shredded
material, there is only a moderate amount of shredding at a transfer
station prior to landfill. In 1977, there were no continental European
transfer stations preparing shredded RDF for 100 percent RDF firing or
co-firing, i.e. only mass burning is practiced.
Composition of Refuse
Physical Composition of Refuse
Refuse composition varies from place to place and from time to
time. Some typical refuse compositions are presented in Table A-6.
Moisture Content
In one analysis, the moisture percent ranged from a low average of
22.5 percent to a high average of 32.5 percent. The average among six (6)
facilities was 27.1 percent.
Heating Value of Refuse
Definitions and Calculations
Heating values are expressed in either of two manners: (1) Lower
Heating Value (LHV), and (2) Higher Heating Value (HHV). This has
occasionally lead to confusion even though the difference is only about 7 to 15
percent. The Europeans have the practice of using Lower Heating Value (LHV)
versus the U.S. practice of using Higher Heating Value (HHV). The
difference arises from the heat of condensation of the hydrogen-produced
-------
A-17
TABLE A-6. COMPOSITION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE IN SWITZERLAND,
USA, AND BRITAIN
Composition
by Weight Percent (%)
(Location and
Switzerland U.S.
Constituants Source:
Food waste
Textiles
Paper
Plastics
Leather and rubber
Wood
G^
Ferrous and nonferrous
metals
Street sweepings and
garden waste
Stones, dust, and other
debris
1 2
20 12
4 2.5
36 30
4 7
2
4 6
8 5
6 7
6
10 33.5
3
14.5
3.0
33.5
2
-
2.5
8.5
5
-
31
1
6
3
40
4
2
2
17
9
5
12
Source)
.A. Britain
4
14
-
55
1
-
4
9
9
5
3
5 6
26 13
2 2.5
37 51.5
1.5 1.0
-
-
8 6.5
8.5 6.5
2 3
15 16
Sources: 1. National averages as
Hagenholz)
2. Municipal solid waste
3. Municipal solid waste
4 . Unknown
5. London (1972)
published
of Geneva
of Zurich
by EAWAG
(1972)
(1971)
(used
for planning
(1963/1964)
6. Birmingham (1972)
-------
A-18
water in the flue gas.
General Comments on Refuse Heating Values
Figure A-1 shows how the lower heating values have risen over the
years in various European Cities. Generally speaking, most of the visited
plants have current values between those of Duesseldorf on the low side and
Stockholm on the high side.
Table A-7 presents LHV's as reported for most of the 15 visited
plants. In several instances the actual LHV has been higher than that used
in the plant design. Energy values for refuse components are shown in Table
A-8.
In some cases the difference between the design and actual values
can be traced to the amount and type of industrial waste now being sent to
the system as opposed to that originally anticipated.
Recently the lower heating value averages have ranged from 1600 to
2800 Kcal/Kg (2,850 to 5,000 Btu/pound). Simply adding 11 percent will
result in rough estimates of higher heating values of 1,776 to 3,108
Kcal/Kg (3,197 to 5,594 Btu/pound). Thus today, European refuse contains
almost as much energy as does American waste.
During the past 25 years, there has
been a dramatic increase in the refuse heating values in virtually all
European communities. This was caused by three factors. First, Households
formerly disposing large volumes of inert furnace ash no lonnger do so
because so many furnaces were converted to oil or gas. Also, newly built
homes normally have oil or gas furnaces. Second, the dry and combustible
wastes that formerly were burned at home in furnaces and stoves are now
discarded for the trashman. Third, many housewives that formerly walked to
the store around the corner with a knit sack to carry unpackaged groceries,
now drive to the store where packaged (paper and plastic) groceries are
loaded into paper sacks. Similarly other consumer goods are now packaged.
Refuse Generation and Burning Rates Per Person
Refuse generation rates are not always equivalent to refuse
burning rates. There occasionally is the tendency to confuse these rates
for several reasons. Sometimes people will report a generation rate that
includes construction waste, demolition debris, power plant ash, sewage
sludge, waste oils and solvents, pathological waste, etc. The above items
are normally not permitted into the refuse pit and are hence excluded from
any calculation of the per capita refuse burning rate. Household bulky
waste is sometimes accepted into the pit depending on the particular system.
Readers of this report are presumably interested primarily in
"solid combustible waste loads" that are "combusted to produce energy".
Thus Table A-9 was constructed to show reported tonnages of only
combustible loads of refuse, (household, commercial and light industrial)
that are combusted at the visited refuse fired energy facilities. The
figures have been divided by the generation population as accurately as is
possible.
-------
ipunou/rugj san|o/\
09
A-19 g
C!
2
1 I t 1
1 1
-
1
/ Xv '\ ~~
/ \ , \ ^ ~ / ^^ 2 o\ >* S
/ — """" ••.•}* • / )j«— ij:^-' —
/ \S^ */ ^ IUQ^W
/ \ fi'-— > V/ u ^ " u
/ \:5^3 \, ^ T3iJ«-^a)
/ \ .^ ^ »/ CC.*)-C
^ * \( -HCSia-OS _
N M XA 01 -^ ~i e cs
S S t H ufc.a.Cii \
l! \ \ \
tn00 \ ^
\ \ \ \
\ \ X -.->.''
\ \ \ 1 1:
N 2 s —
V \ «
v \ 52 ^ •—
V< » 3 . -a
N. O 5 ^
^W
N. ^
\ "^^ ""
\ *\
1 ^S
\ *
\ f
\ f
\ x
\ — ™"
\ f ^ r^ ^H
\ ^**^^ — -J---C ^ ^^
\ rr . S5 t
\Sogo —
\ z vj ^» S o p
x-s \ 2 cr -o > c7>3
rj \ S — ^ — _
0^ N
& ^
, y fcl \O \ ^ t
H — \"^ "s ' ' \
z 2 / "O \
S<=3 gl \
w un^ w v ^-?A
Q — CD ~ \
erf 5 -^ \ —
i 1 i \ I l
B2 2 c
o o
3 0 O
m
£
O
2
o
o
2
o
to
2
S
:2
0)
y
a
b.
i
en
Z 01
^ jj
r-J C3
o "y
<
««
= -a
j- c
01
M
r* ^
L« CQ
^ CJ
M, FRAN
eferenc
0
£(• QJ
CJ en
V5 M
•» K*
j£ O
Ci =
p :-
(•* Cj
ai
^3 •**
3
O ~3
Z <
< '*.
w o
Si CJ
W Z
3 <
O ai
J
Q
Cs3 ^y
CJ <
M £tj
Is
j 3
< w
3 V3
Z EH
Z 3
< «™1
— (
1
***
Cd
iSS
O
cvi
-------
A-20
T
p
o
e
z
o
1— 1
10
Ci3
^
r-
z
J
c-
p^
o
z
o
H- 1
E-t
CU
j£
3
CO
CV2
^
*•
c/3
Ed
3
_J
<
>
C3
Z
M
£H
S
O-
y
12
n
™
..2
•^
a
H
t
p,^
|
w
S
H
M
•^
C3
O
^
0)
3
CO
->
60
C
•H
JH)
C8
CU
J3
^j
CU
3
0
CU
cn
3
U-l
CU
CS
>
i— 1
cd
3
4J
CJ
S
00
T-(
01
01
a
ij
c
t— i
C-,
u
o
>
— "
f 1
•73
4J
es
—
CD
CO
<
"60
i
%
1
Z
?
O
J
J=
00
•H
^3
B
3
•H
"O
4)
S
3
0
C-
H
oooo
oooo
rn O"* CO \O
CO -H rH CS
oooo
o o u~i un
* •* *> A
,H fH SN r-i
o o o
00 O
CO PS. O%
CS rH
*H
^J
Cfl
c
QJ
_f"
"^
u
«
1 00 u-i
50 00 U
t-i 3 O r-t
01 U -O co
J3 C3 rH U -S
a i 4) M ^
41 C cn 41 CU
•o cu cn — uj
V4 T3 4) C. CU
4) C3 3 3 >-i
3 aa O 3 ii
O O O C
O O O O
CT\ in <• n
i-l CM CM (M
o
o
f~4
«
CM
o o o o
o o o o
r^ co CM oo
i-< i— 1 CM .—i
00 00
O O O O
in CM co n
• • MM
CN CN i— i cn
O O O
0 00
cr> o m
•* • •»
-H CN CN
O O O O
00 00
J 1 ,
^,
Q
S
'
~
flrt W
OlJ N
-H *O
rH JS
-H fi
OJ D
>N JJ M
cn V5 co QJ
cn •• z: 3
I*H Ofl •• C^ 00 ^^
•• U J= 1 C3 1
01 3 OrH<-3fH-J-
•H ^ -H
1- = U . . CU . .
cn co 3 o c ••• o o
d<:ZNZZ£->ZZ
00 0
O -3- <•"•)
MM «
CN ID CM
o o o c
o o c: o
O c r>-
o o o
mm CTI
CM CN r-l
O O O
00 T
MM M
CN CM CN
O r>-
O r-4
O r-l
* *
CN CN
o o o
O O
o
CO
c-
cn
§
i
O
^
O
CO
rH
O
-C
E-
3
^
5:
P
,_!
i— 1
CD r-l
J3 II
CO
r-l >
IB S
S
Q
^ *
-H
•»-4 r
C3 rH
CU _C
u 60
g
o oi
c =
e
/^v
60
^
r-4
CO
U
^•^
>
00
•
1— 1
II
T3
c
3
O
c.
3
CQ
N«^
ES
A
60
^i
'cO
O
-^
^
pj
o
CN
II
/^
60
•*^.
r-l
cd
CJ
T3
«^/
>
r-l
^*»
CO
•
r-l
r-l
r-l
•
i— 1
II
T3
C
3
O
0.
3
4-)
a
^~r
S
£.
.
C
*J
ci
CJ
pi
41
60
;•
^1
-:
C
a
60
c
•H
-o
oi
a.
41
•o
>
r-«
41
x:
^
c
ccl
XI
U
CU
i-l
O
B.
**.
r-l
O
4-k
r~l
e
0
>-i
<4-l
ai
60
p;
-J
^.,
P.J
r-|
•H
""
^>
X
M
41
^
-------
A-21
TABLE A-£. ENERGY VALUES OF SELECTED
REFUSE COMPONENTS (DRY)
kcal/kg
Average waste
Constituents (in relation to the
dried products)
paper
plastic, leather, rubber
food waste
textiles
wood
Forest and wood industry residues
Agriculture and food industry waste
Tires
Bituminous coal
Gasoline
Methanol
1600 - 3400
4160 - 4460
5600 - 6450
4775
4500
4820
4090
2780
8230
5600 - 8100
11400
5420
Source: Various sources.
-------
A-2 2
TABLE A-9. EUROPEAN" AVERAGE REFUSE GENERATION AND BURNING
RATES PER PERSON (1976-1977 PERIOD)
Low
Average
High
Low
Average
High
Low
Average
High
Low
Average
High
Household and
Light Commercial
275
318
350
605
700
770
0.75
O.S1
0.96
1.66
1.92
2.11
Other Commercial
and Light
Industrial
kg/ person/ vear
25
45
100
pounds /person/year
55
100
220
kg/person/day
0.07
0.12
0.27
, , , , (a)
pounds /per son/ day
0.15
0.27
0.60
Total
Combustible
Loads Co)
300
363
450
660
800
990
0.82
1.00
1.23
1.80
2.20
2.71
(a) Calculated at 365 days/year even though some systems
operate only 5, 5-1/2, or 6 days per week.
(b) Full weight of contents in a vehicle where contents are
destined for combustion.
Source: Battelle estimates.
-------
A-23
We believe that the best estimate for combustible household refuse
plus light commercial waste is 318 kg per person per year (700 Ib/pers/yr).
The range from this estimate varies by country, by population density, and
by availability of alternative disposal means.
However, the range of volume for burning other commercial and
light industrial waste is more dramatic. The amount of light industrial
waste varies extensively depending on: (1) local industrial composition,
(2) whether the facility has a shear, (3) opening of the feed chute, and
(4) policy of the operator. In this waste category, the rate can vary from
25 to 100 kg per person per year. It is really more meaningful to emphasize
the range than to concentrate on an average. But if one assumes a 45 kg per
person per year average, the total household, commercial and light
industrial waste generation rate becomes:
• 363 kg per person per year (or)
• 800 pounds per person per year (or)
• 1.00 kg per person per day (or)
• 2.2 pounds per person per day.
Total Operating System
Many plants provided a great amount of data in large comprehensive
tables. Such data provide the opportunity to analyze the plant as a total
operating system. Interrelationships and ratios can have more meaning if
the data can be viewed together. Data are included on thermal and
combustion efficiency, volume reduction, shut-downs, operating time, amount
of waste received, cooling water, steaming rate, steam production, air
pressure, availability, etc. Data are presented without extensive analysis.
Energy Utilization
Because the typical European resource recovery plant has such a
complicated energy use pattern, it was necessary to categorize information
into first, second and third step energy forms and uses as shown in Table
A-10.
In the first step, the energy in flue gas can be used directly to
dry sewage sludge or produce hot water or steam in a boiler. There is a
geographic split with steam being produced in central and southern Europe,
while hot water is often produced in Scandinavia. Central Europeans claim
that steam is more useful while the Scandinavians make calculations to show
that hot water is more efficient.
We have wondered whether the geographic difference is an accident
of corporation location. The four steam related water-tube wall vendors
(Von Roll, Widrner & Ernst, Martin and VKW) happen to be located in Central
Europe. Both Volund and Bruun and Sorensen, the continent's leading
refractory wall furnace, hot water generator vendors are in Denmark. The
water-tube wall furnace/boilers can economically produce high temperature
steam. Producing hot water in such a water tube wall furnace might be
considered a waste of capital investment money. The refractory wall
furnaces are generally less expensive and would have technical difficulties
raising steam temperature to much above 333C (632F).
So the question arises, "Do the Danes purchase refuse fired hot
water systems (1) because Volund and Bruun and Sorensen are there
-------
A-2 4
TABLE A-10. THREE STEPS OF ENERGY FORM AND USE AT VISITED EUROPEAN PLANTS
' £ l03l3''S'7:'"5i =
j(T> JM S _= -1 ^ ^
3» i c3 i yi "^3 ~i r— ~
ro 13 ; us o 'i '-a 3
'3 ! r- — O.
I-I I O. 21
1C i 3 —
TO ! ^ i
73
,- , 0 -3 ' O ' 3 ' O O
O ' ^ -3 -1 — "3 H
13 3" « ^ , O 1 >
-; o a ' n 3 ; 3 -
'0 3 ! 1- 3 3-1 —
?5
First Step
Energy Form And Use
Flue Gas to Dry Sewage Sludge
Flue Gas to Heat Hot Water in Boiler
Flue Gas to Heat Steam in Eoiler
Intake of Exhaust Air from Other Process for Distruction
i
(
i
x ix
X X ^ , ,
\ x x x, 3
xxxxxxx;:,xx 12
' ' 2 i
x x x , x" x 1 5
Second Step
Energy Fonn Arid Use
Hot Water for Specific Industrial Uses
Hot Water for Internal Uses
Hot Hater to the Wastewater Treat-er.t 'lane
Hot Water for District Heating (Tiract^
Steam for District Heating (Direct)
Steam for Specify Industrial Uses
Steam for Internal Uses
Steam to Make Hot Water
Steam to Make Electricity
Steam Dry Sewage Sludge
i ,0
x i x x 3
X i X
X X
X ".' i X X X X X
X
X X
XX XIX
11
5
i
Third Step
i I
Hot Water for District Heating (Indirectly From Steam) x :
Electricity for Specific Industrial Uses ; x
Electricity for Internal Uses ;x ,
Electricity for the Network ix ; x
Electricity for the Wastewater Treatment Plant . I x
Large Quantities of Steam Wasted in Condensers !x i
x
X X
X X
X
X
f 1 1
energy Fora And Use
1 x j 1 s : , ; '5
1
x '4
x Xi x :c' ,3
1 2
x! x ' 4
1. Only if extra electricity remains after Internal Uses.
2. Exhaust gases from the separaf pathological waste incinerator and the dextrose vaste industrial
waste incinerator are both blown into the refuse fired steam generator.
-------
A-25
locally and that is what they sell or because hot water systems are mors
efficient and relevant to northern climates? These researchers do not have
a clear answer at this time.
As a summary Table A- 11 was prepared showing how often key
functions are included in the design.
Many of the foregoing comments refer to salable energy uses.
Internal uses and losses also need to be considered by the designer. There
are some necessary internal uses while there are some internal losses that
need to be minimized as shown in Table A-12.
TABLE" ~A-if. KEY afl tuwCTiuNs UK
15 VISITED SYSTEMS
Number of
Systems Having
the Energy
Use Category Percent
Sludge Destruction 3 20
District Heating 9 60
Electricity Export to the Network 8 53
Industrial Process Steam 5 33
Destruction of Exhaust Gases
From Other Processes 5 33
Systems Wasting Large Quantities
of Steam on Roof 4 27
Internal Use of Energy Produced 14 93
(out of a sample of 15 plants)
District Heating
District heating (D.H.) commercialization varies extensively by
country as was shown in Figure A-2. The world's largest D.H. country is the
U.S.S.R. Commericalization is faster with more centralized planning and
control where there is less pressure on immediate economic returns. In
Western Europe, West German systems deliver the most energy. Scandinavia,
however, has the highest per capita rate.
The American D.H. systems are mostly steam. In recent years many
European D.H. systems use only hot water. Sevtral Europeans met on the tour
suggested that the lackluster D.H. situation in America of the last 20
years was partially the fault of using steam and not hot water. "Energy
losses are greater with steam, maintenance is higher and steam can only be
transported 1/3 the distance as hot water" would be a typical European
assessment.
These researchers are not sure if the above is the complete story.
For sure, as the U.S. EPA and State agencies improve the atmospheric
environment, there has been pressure on D.H. systems to spend large sums
for pollution control equipment or to close. Many have chosen to close.
Often systems spend money on emissions cleanup but let the steam lines fall
into disrecair.
-------
A-26
TABLE A-12. INTERNAL USES AND LOSSES OF REFUSE DERIVED ENERGY
Uses
Preheat incoming combustion air
Reheat outgoing combustion air after scrubbing
Preheat boiler feedwater
Heat the plant interior space
Electrify many parts of the plant
Dry sewage sludge internally before combustion
Blow steam chrough sootblower
Lossejs
Cool steam in condensers
Escapes in stack
Escapes in pressure relief valve
Escape in ash and quench water
Escape in sampling for air quality
-------
20000
1SOOO -
210000
5000
2000 '
VI
>—
z
- 1500-
ca
X
z
o 10QO -
V
2
500 •
0 -
P
|
x;
1
y,
Y/
%
i
\
~
•; '
' ,i
','.>
1
a
z -z
UJ <
O -J
0 Uj Z
o: ? —
u. in u.
I
•'•'.
';'..
. ^
'r
.•.'_
.<
~t
t
X » < « uj
a: ee — ui r:
< m to ae N _ :=
23- a »- i-2 5
••" ^^ ^^ 5^ ^f
z >-z w -f. 2
Ul UJ < 3 > < *
a z-i < ./i-i u.
AOOOO-
30000-
20000-
10000 -
o J
2000-
w
fc T
z
<
5 1500-
<
X
z
«•
o
^ 1000-
2
500-
0 _
i
i
^
*•*•<
?r
^.
~t
&>
•j
1
'. \ '
i"'
^
i
1
!
•V:
• ••.'
I'.';.
::':
•v.
I
1
i
ft
E
E
1
2
3
• .*
L* '•'
rOTAL CONNECTS D
FHERMAL CAPACITY (MW)
SPECIFIC CAPAC ITY
PER INHABITANT
MW 10*1 N HABITANTS)
? $1
p!" ^'1
FIGURE A-2.
(/)
I/)
I
o
POLAND
i<
0^,
UJ*
N>
o3^
RUMANI
BUL6AR
a:
<
a
z
0
X
-------
A-2S
It is the opinion of these researchers that the issues raised in
the above two paragraphs have unnecessarily soured decision makers
attitudes in America to the detriment of full consideration of Refuse-Fired
District Heating Systems.
District Heating, however, is not necessarily desirable for all
applications as is shown in Table A-13. It is normally "very favorable" for
downtown, high rise buildings. Even though the table states that it is "not
possible" to provide D.H. for one-family houses, it occasionally is
provided in Sweden and Denmark.
Table A-14 presents several favorable demand aspects of district
heating steam and chilled water systems as prepared for the American
situation.
District Cooling (Not Observed in Europe)
Six years ago Battelle performed a study of the potential for
refuse fired district heating and cooling systems across the U.S.A. The
study concluded that there were definite economic benefits to the system if
district cooling could be provided in the summer. The Nashville Thermal
Transfer Corporation in Nashville, Tennessee, was the model.
Technically, the economic objectives can be accomplished in either
of two ways. In Nashville steam is sent to an adjoining Carrier centrifugal
chiller station equipped with large turbines, compressors and condensers.
Cold water at 5 C (41 F) is then pumped to over 30 downtown office
buildings. The other method that will be used by the Harrisburg Incinerator
Authority in Pennsylvania is to keep sending hot steam through the lines in
the summer. Building owners who desire air cooling can direct steam to
their own adsorption chilling stations—one in each basement.
Without question, in the total subject area of refuse to energy,
the technology flow needs to be from Europe to the U.S.A. However, those
Europeans who desire to increase summer loads and overall financial results
might do well to look at district heating and cooling as practiced in
Nashville, Tennessee, and Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.
Underground Distribution
Every district heating system viewed had unique underground pipe
distribution schemes. In all hot water systems, there is a return warm
water pipe. However, in steam systems, the designers have a choice of
returning condensate or not. Many designers wish to conserve water and will
try to minimize corrosion in their condensate return pipes. Others with a
healthy fear of the corrosive effects will specify a once through recycle
system.
All hot water and some steam systems viewed had packed tunnels,
i.e. packed with dirt, gravel, insulation, etc. See Figures A-3, 4, 5, and
6. Several steam systems, however, used human walk-through tunnels such as
detailed later at Zurich. Duesseldorf, because of the railroad and other
underground utilities, uses an exposed overhead pipe also as shown later.
Relation of Refuse as a Fuel in the Long Term Community Plan for
Community Electrical Power, District Keating and Cooling
-------
A-29
Cn
o
I )
z
o
rH
c^
O
Z
3
^
to
O
z
M
H
w
H
O X-N
M (3
H U
co cn
Q
fa O
O Pi
W
to z
tO W
u
22 £*H
w o
^
M
H >
O H
<: i— i
K cn
H Z
H W
< Q
,
CO
r-t
^4
Cx3
_1
M
L-i
CO
CU x-x
c o)
> -H
•H 4J
4J CO
y rH
«3 4)
'-. c£
4-1 *~S
4J
•-, s-i
41 4J >,
M IH ~v.
s-i cn co
o c -
U 4) 3
Q u
41 03
00
2 i
01
•a-
4)
l-i
^ y
4-1 CO
•H i
en l-i
a .c
cu -~-
Q 3
4_i
J4 03
CO
o) s
a. 2
0)
.a eu ai
O i— 1 rH
U A -0
O eu CO -H
> rH 01 C CO
co ,3 rH o cn
U-| CO ,Q -tH O
M -H 4-1 Q*
>s O cn en
U > CO 41 4-1
4) CO O 3 O
> fa fr, O- Z
cn
xS rH 41
)-i co co
CJ O -H 3
cn 4-1 y o
•H CO (-1 £ r4 CO CO
j_i | CU 3 41 41
1 -H £ >i O CO CO
A 4J E i— 1 U-i 3 3
00 rH O -H O O
•H -H CJ S - — —
S E CO rH
•> UH CO 5^ >i
• " 41 1 -H rH rH
§C 14 iH 4J iH -H
3 0 u C E £
O O O rH 41 CO CO
4J 4_) 3 ^ UH UH
C C >> E -HI
3 3 4J CO O 4)
O O -H )-i CU 3 C
Q C U O « 4J O
O O
r~ co cn
•^ r-- i-H
CM rH P-
O cn
i — o o o cn
• * * c*^
^ O O O i-H
11 1
O O CO r-s O
P-* CN f-H
O O O
;
-C
a
03
0
CO 41 l-i
)-i O.
-o C y o.
nj -H cfl <
0 I
r-t -J WO.
Z >% 41
^ ai — 4-1
co O 3 cn
4) 1J
Ci. UH C3 >>
O »J3
"-1 S
aj N g CU
•^ JJ 41
U 1-1 O 4-1
rJ C 4J CO
CJ 1-1
^3 CO /*N <£
1 ia^ ^
J-i >
•U CO ^»
— J= CO
•„ ° ^
|JJ iH C3
T _ ?% ^3
-3
i^ * 0)
^ X o 4J a) —
u 01 C .a ^
fi l-i O CO
41 cu y >> 4)
l-i Vw C3 C.
4) 41 41 £
U-l 4J C 3
41 C O 13 4j
l-i -H J= CO 03
a. o
en cn 01 rH ~z
iH -H r^ 2
•^ c
41 iH
1-1 4-J
U CO
CO 01
i p:
1-1
_C 4J f^*
**^ CJ •
T-t O.
•3 M
4J 4-1 «
C3 CO CO
•H r-
s~* S Q C7>
co J=
01 S oo l-i
CU O 3 0)
IH O J2
4J UH 1-1 O
ca 43 4J
•a H y
>x 01 O
C3 U C
-a IH o -
^. 0) i-l CU
cn > 4-1 o
>•. c co x;
CO O > CO
"O U )H J«!
41 rJ
41 Ol CO O
4) rJ • C S
l-i 4) --i CO
C > 41 41 41
•H 3 1-1 >N C ~
4J o) .a w
cO l-i -^ u~i — j_j
41 CO CO 41 00 y
— 4) 41 >-i C «-.H
SS Cu iH ^ ^
O ~~- 01 ^ -H 4J
\O 3 J-l ^- rH Vj ^
— ' 4J A u a. a -H
ca --«. -H a
3 C *J
S 4J TH rH C J=
2 C3 3 CO CO
_ « S E -H
• S co x jr cu
vO -O J2 co 3
3
CO ^ l-i ^ CO O
»-x < o H ^^ cn
-------
A-30
TABLE A-14. FAVORABLE DEMAND ASPECTS OF DISTRICT HEATING
AND COOLING SYSTEMS IN THE U.S.A.
1. Large, dense load area
2. Land available for system
3. Sufficient initial customers to assure adequate load
4. Urban renewal slated or under way
5. Location in state capital
6. Local coal-burning steam utility desiring to leave business because
of pollution regulations
7. Local district heating utility desiring to increase business with
addition of chilled water
8. Increasing conventional fuel prices
9. Uncertain conventional fuel availability
10. Lack of interest in solid waste for electrical generation or
industrial steam
11. Flexible rate setting for district heating and cooling products
-------
A-31
• Grode level
Optional
drainage zone
• 4ft
COUPt O'UN CANIVtAU
FIGURE A-3. STEAM DISTRIBUTION
AND RETURN CONDENSATE
PIPES AT WERDENBERG
FIGURE A-4. STEAM DISTRIBUTION AND
RETURN CONDENSATE PIPES
AT PARIS
i^SSs^^^ii
•J* , > —.-»:
s-- '.^-T
Q^Aa5^s£«
FIGURE A-5. HOT WATER PIPES
AT WERDEX3ERG
FIGURE A-6. ROT WATER PIPES AT
UPPSALA
-------
A-32
The following several pages demonstrate how refuse fuel could fit
into a community's total long term energy program.
One of the basic features of community district heating
development is that it progresses in stages. Five key stages are shown in
Figure A-7 and are as follows:
Stage 1: Consumer system
Stage 2: Portable oil or gas fired central substations
Stage 3: Permanent district heating stations
Stage 4: Cogeneration of electricity and district heat
from refuse
Stage 5: Base load with distant nuclear waste heat.
Almost any existing consumer heating system energy plan can be
retrofitted for hot water district heating.
Often portable oil fired district (or central) heating substations
are erected for subdivisions. When two to five of these are in an area it
becomes economical to erect a permanent district heating station.
Permanent operations as district heating stations can be used in
two ways to enhance refuse operations as portrayed in Figure A-8. First,
when the RFEP is providing the base heating load, the permanent boilers can
be used for peaking. Second, when there is either not enough refuse input
or energy demand output,then the boilers can be used instead of firing the
expensive to operate base load refuse fired energy plant.
Repeatedly on the European tour mention was made of the advantages
of cogeneration. A simple power station with a condensing turbine must
waste much energy in a condenser. However with an energy efficient
cogeneration plant that has a back pressure turbine to provide electricity
and then steam for district heating, energy efficiency can be more than
doubled.
The Swedes are considering three situations where they would use
waste heat from nuclear power stations. (See Figura A-9.)
In summarizing the five stages, it is important that each stage be
developed before future stages are implemented. Any particular stage may
require 6 to 12 years before the savings in fuel cost equals the extra
expense of installing that stage. Another, perhaps humbling point for
resource recovery, is that in the long term, refuse-to-energy systems will
be a limited factor in the total energy picture simply because there is not
enough energy in waste and enough volume of waste. Once again the point is
made that energy recovery enables refuse disposal in an economical manner.
But it is not the panacea for the world's energy problems.
Energy Marketing and Standby Capacity
Customarily, established energy customers having their own boilers
will accept interruptible steam but at a reduced price. Commonly there
are situations where (because of the investments that potential customers
have in existing boilers) such customers will use marginal costing instead
of total costing. Two examples are shown:
Example (1). A new refuse-fired energy plant is being considered that
would require $3.25 per 1000 pounds steam as a revenue from
large, steady industrial customers. A new factory might
locate in an adjoining new industrial park. A new oil-fired
-------
A-33
100 * 212
I
90
60
/ 0
~Z'-'
• 9 *»
3 3
-r
i|C
-L
-
I
-
^
i
>
\f~
^
.-
, i
L-
<^
•
-------
A-34
LOAD
% 100
NON REFUSE
HEAT-ONLY BOILERS
CO-GENERATION
40
20
REFUSE
HEAT-ONLY E3OILERS
AT TIME OF
.ELECTRICITY PEAK
Summer Time of Mini-
Refuse Burner
.hut d>own for Annual
inspection and
Reconditioning)
12 MONTH
FIGURE A-8. HEAT LOAD DURATION CURVE AND LOAD-SPLIT. HEAT ONLY PACKAGE
BOILERS USED (1) FOR PEAKING, (2) WHEN THERE IS NOT ENOUGH
REFUSE SUPPLY OR (3) WHEN ENERGY DEMAND IS TOO LOW or (4) DURING SHUTDOWN
FOR INSPECTION AND RECONDITIONING (Modification of Studsvik Energiteknik Ac
figure given at the Swedish District Heating Workshop)
-------
A-35
"D" Includes the Refuse Fired Steam
Generator at Uppsala
FORSM4RK*—._
Nwclt f
Heat prodeced by
A= Peaking plant, Stockholm ^2«L,H*.L.
B - -*- , Uppsala
C - Cogeneration plant, Hasselby ~=
*D = —»— , Uppsala
E = — » — , Va'rtan 5
F = Nuclear plant, Forsmark
2000
1000
HEAT PRODUCED BY EACH UNI. FOR THE OPTIMUM CASE IN TH:
LONG RANGE PLAN FOR DISTRICT HEATING SUPPLY IN THE
STOCKHOLM AREA USING OIL, REFUSE AND NUCLEAR POSTER
-------
A-36
industrial boiler could be constructed to produce steam at a
cost of $4.50 per 1000 pounds steam. The new plant could
need the guarantee of continuously supplied steam in case of
a garbage strike or malfunction of equipment. At this price
it is likely a contract could be signed.
Example (2). The same refuse-fired energy plant is being considered that
would again require $3-25 per 1000 pounds as revenue. An
existing factory has been approached that has existing
coal-fired boilers reliably producing steam for $2.50 per
1000 pounds. ($2.00 for fuel and $0.50 for operations and
maintenance). The factory would keep its coal-fired unit as
an emergency backup. In addition, they already have a small
50,000 pound per hour package oil-fired boiler. The plant
manager's accountants tell him to ignor the "sunk costs" in
his boiler such as the boiler's original cost or the
remaining principal or interest payments. Often in such a
situation the plant owner refuses to sign the steam purchase
contract.
Hence, we conclude, if the potential energy customer is to provide
his own supplemental firing from the existing boilers (and not from the
refuse energy plant), then the customer will use marginal costing rather
than total costing. He will ignore sunk costs and will require a lower
price for externally supplied steam. Occasionally, the factory's marginal
cost to raise its own steam will be less than the total cost to be covered
of a new refuse-fired energy plant. (SFEP)
Economics and Finance
Captial Investment Costs
Capital investment costs are displayed in Table A-15a and A-15b for
the 15 plants visited. The data presented are those provided by local
officials. The definition of the numbers are not necessarily consistent. The
reader will have to review the specific comments as shown in the trip reports
to sort out the data depending on the type of numbers desired.
Land, for example, is.sometimes included if overtly paid for.
However, if the refuse fired energy plant was built on the grounds of an
existing municipally owned Energy and Environmental Park, the land might be
considered free.
Some operators have "within-the-gate" accounting schemes that have
combined and inseparable investment data. For example: consider the newly
constructed RFEP, administration building, truck repair building and
bicycle hall that were funded out of one financing instrument.
American vendors of European licenses were quick to discourage
placing too much emphasis on the following investment figures. What they
hope to market in America in the 1980's bears little resemblance to what
was built in the late 1960's or early 1970's as described in this report.
To quote from from the 1976 "Solid Waste Management Guidelines" as
published by the U.S. EPA:
"It is EPA' s firm belief that attempts to predict (and compare)
costs of various types of plants in a general way, apart from
local circumstances, is more likely to mislead than inform. The
-------
A-37
'F.
•J
i- w -X
0 ? 9
ct S ~
y « £
i* i) 'J
V 3 >
= M 3
•0 i -0
3J > w
uj M ^
i
"3—3
« « U
i. S. 0
3 X.
3) u
3 -4 u
3j ^ =
as a -.
~* w
5)
^4 >•
0 = «
« 5 -
Ju*
u£
5 «
2£
3=1
y as
14
^M 3
S S.
£ u
> u
M 0
•9 "
— 4J
* ?
X C£
«o afl
a cc
u
S % i i
2 S g S
= 5 i S
o s o o
§ 3 s? S
— * ~t -J- (N
—4
O i/^ ?M u^
is *
0 O =
o o a
o o o
§| §
S3 S
« « i s
oop o
§ § i §
i | § 2
2 S S S
u
* _
tn 1
1 S
J 8
0 O
CQ *C
^
^
1
—i m
^* >**
CO 35
— *>
30 '*•
4fl 50 u
u r a —
« u "3 ^5
"S 1 41 ^
il « 3 3
u
X
5^5
2 9 S
ceo
o" o c
o a o
0 O O
SC =0
-^ ^
I I
s
o
o
§
o
u.
i ^ i
o o o
o o o
111
C C =0
u
3
£
1
1C
^
^ ,
X W
•Jl
^: — so
11 'Jl S
u- -4 .3
4) w =
,U ^Li U L.
« " '* vi w
I I I I I
•T O "^ O C
S 0 S S S
35 2 x * —
CD ^
IS di IS5 li?s
"^ *™*
i i i i i
30 0 O 0
CO O O O
°. °. °. = °
Q ~ o" o" o"
O d C O 3
o -r >j co
• • • • *
te U u u u k.
U* Eb Cfc U, X A£
«' M u a ii ui « tn
§§ §8 gSS §
O3 O3 333 O
•TO OO noo O
^O 3C C^f*-3 -J
52 5- " S "
u u
^ *. *.
sn i, « M
O O O 3
0 3 C 3
3 33 3
3" n" o" O
3 *fl O 3
so -no 3
m — i CN *G
CM J
t "
U (N ."^ • S
an a _ ^ ^ —
^ — — sj a 3 -» a
S3 33 — * -* V* S iJ
CO y *j 31
— "" a. i x «
0 ?* • - • «5 y a —
15 — <• « -B o
sd aa w w u. y w _-
» 3( ^ "5 _!- p 3. ^
u .y y ^ ji
3 £ - = =•
U U —
-.' ^ -'
C C C
<-T o" <-i"
0 0 r^
CO f* -T
^ Xj
*y rs, CN i** O O
11 11 II
W L.
O ^
r*» ^
» 3
<•" 0
w_ 5
i^: xx ^^
s a c = c =
5s §1 Ss
-T CO O O O M
* c o o « 5
-1" H* I-2
3
5Q «
*C S 2
O
U 3) '-0
M U
X — —
^ C. W y) 33
a. — a —
a a. at i -
-: i 'J:
~ < 3 3
3 -J S3 s
S 3 « ~* M
u — ^
3 .3 .:
-------
A-38
KKARY OF, CAPI7AL ISVKTMEST (Concinu£d)
Weighted
of tnves
c , i , „ _ —
3-^ i 8C t Z,
3aden-3ru;g
Duesseldocf
Wuppercal
Kreceld
Paris
Hamburg :Scellinger-'(o3c
Zurich . Hagennolz
The Hague
Oieooe
3ochenburg
I'Dsala
Horsens
CoDennagen:Anager
' .-D^r.j^eT :r'"e:5C
TOTAL A'/fSACL-
Average Year
client used co
vchanee Race
• 17-1
' ' J
1«70
1967
1975
1976
1962
.971
1*70
1970
1969
1971
1967
1975
1971
1371
19U
Exchange U-S. Dollars
Race U.S. 5 in Weighted
Ave. Year
3.244 4,007,000
4.316 3,300,000
3.999 11,578,000
:,f-22 43,055,000
2.363 25,391,000
4.900 22,449,000
2.522 18,307,000
4.315 13,331,000
3.598 17,237,000
5.558 1,562,000
4.853 20,173,000
5.165 2,139,000
6,178 2,946,000
5.290 25,056,000
5.343 29,954,000
246,435,000
15,432
Actual 1976
Tonnes
Per Year
26,013
41,593
297,359
173,000
114,000
588,904
420,630
223,595
229,000
14,392
242,536
52,040
13,909
255,000
234,230
2,936,356
'.95, 790
Tons
Per Year
28,620
45,362
327,095
195,800
125,400
647,794
462,748
245,955
251,900
16.381
266,790
57,244
20,300
230,500
257,653
3,230,542
215,369
Tons per
Bav ac
365 Days/Yr.
73
126
396
536
344
1,775
1,263
574
690
45
'31
:.57
57
763
706
3,351
590
Capital Cose
Per Daily
Ton Capacicv
51,103
30,243
12,920
39,582
73,905
12,649
14,440
20,525
24,976
34,304
27,599
13,539
51,597
32,604
42,434
35,541
-------
A-39
range of assumptions regarding specific design, reliability,
markets and other factors is too great to make such an analysis
meaningful."
Initial Capital Investment Cost per Daily Ton
Initial capital investment cost per daily ton capacity has risen
dramatically from 1960 the present. Earlier values of $13,000 per daily ton
compare with 1975-76 values of $50,000 to $90,000 per ton. More recently
there have been some American proposals near $100,000 per daily ton
capacity. These numbers are displayed in Figure A-10. There are seven
general reasons for this dramatic price growth:
• Inflation
- Land
- Capital equipment purchases
Construction service fees
Construction labor and materials cost
Interest rates during construction
Exchange rate devaluation
Corrosion protective equipment designs
Architecture and landscaping for neighborhood acceptance
More complex energy use systems
More air pollution control equipment
Inflation. Generally speaking, with the exception of West Germany,
costs of construction have inflated more in Europe than in the United
States.
Interest Charges During Construction. Prime interest rates have
risen dramatically over the last 20 years.
Exchange Rate Devaluation. Table A-16 has been used for
conversions from local currencies into U.S. dollars for a particular year
throughout this report. As an example with everthing else constant,
devaluation alone would cause a $10,000,000 Swiss plant in 1963 to be
$21,000,000 in 1977.
Corrosion Protective Equipment Designs. The problem of metal
wastage is elaborately discussed in the report. Spending money for features
to reduce corrosion and erosion generally increases investment. A later
table identifies 33 features that could be included to reduce metal wastage
rates,
Architecture and Landscaping for Neighborhood Acceptance. As
close-in European land has become more precious, the few remaining spaces
near the city's core are often in household neighborhoods or near major
highways. The compromise with local citizens has occasionally been to
promise a beautiful plant surrounded by exceptional landscaping. This can
significantly increase costs.
The two almost identical Copenhagen plants, each originally with a
864 ton per day capacity, had very different capital costs. Granted noz all
of the variance can be explained by the aesthetic budget for architecture
-------
A-40
•a
~*
41
11
'Jl
1-
O
a
u
M
a
a
a
a
CO
a
CJ
£ SO
30 3
-3 -2
cj .r/
o o
CJ CO
CO
-H
N a
5 en
"= M
30 3
CJ
CJ
z
so
*ji a
30 3
3 30
KJ C
vi "3
33 X
— w
U 75
OJ
~
3
O
s
O
O O
UOT, A"[7«CI
-------
A-41
[ABLE A-16. EXCHANGE RATES FOR SIX EUROPEA}' COUNTRIES, (NATIONAL MONETARY UNIT PER U.S
DOLLAR) 1948 TO FEBRUARY, 1979^a;
1943
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1953
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1963
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1975
1977
1973
Denmark
Kroner
(D.Kr.)
4.310
6.920
6.920
6.920
6.920
6.920
6.914
6.914
6.914
6.914
6.906
6.903
6.906
6.386
6.902
6.911
5.921
6.391
6.915
7.462
7.501
7.492
7.439
7.062
6.343
6.290
5.650
5.178
5.733
5.773
Trance
Franca
(T.5c.)
2.562
3.490
3.499
3.500
3.500
3.500
3.500
3.500
3.500
4.199
4.906
4.909
4.903
4.900
4.900
4.902
4.900
4.902
4.952
4.908
4.943
5.553
5.520
5.224
5.125
4.708
4.444
4.436
4.970
4.705
W . Gerr-any
Deucsch Mark
(D.M.)
3.333
4.200
4.200
4.200
4.200
4.200
4.200
4.215
4.199
4.202
4.173
4.170
4.171
3.996
3.998
3.973
3.977
4.006
3.977
3.999
4.000
3.590
3.648
3.263
3.202
2.703
2.410
2.522
2.363
2.105
Netherlands
Guilders
(Gl.)
2.553
3.300
3.300
3.800
3.300
3.786
3.794
3.829
3.330
3.791
3.775
3.770
3.770
3.600
3.500
3.600
3.592
3.511
3.514
3.596
3.506
3.624
3.597
3.254
3.226
2.324
2.507
2.539
2.457
2.230
Sweden
Kroner
(S.SCr.)
3.600
5.130
5.180
5.130
5.180
5.130
5.130
5.130
5.130
5.173
5.173
5.181
5.130
5.185
5.136
5.200
5.143
5.180
4.130
5.163
3.180
5.170
5.170
4.353
4.743
4.538
4.0S1
4.386
4.127
4.670
Switzerland
Francs
(S.7r.)
4.315
4.300
4.239
4.369
4.285
4.288
4.235
4.235
4. 235
4.2S5
4.308
4.323
4.305
4.316
4.319
4.315
4.315
4.318
4.327
4.325
4.302
4.318
4.316
3.915
3.774
3.244
2.540
2.620
2.451
2.010
(a) Exchange Race a: and af period.
Line "ae" Maritac Ra:a/?ar or Central Raca.
Source: I.icarr.acior.al Financial Sr.iciscics: 1972 Suppianer.;; Volusie
XXXI, No. 4, Publis.-.ed 3y ;ne I.-xiarr.scisnal Mcr.acarv Fund.
-------
A-42
and landscaping, but aesthetics were the major cause. Amager, located on
land recovered from the sea in an industrial area, has a $32,604 per daily
ton figure while the more aesthetically pleasing West plant located at a
major highway intersection in a residential neighborhood costs $42, 43^ per
daily ton.
More Complex Energy Use Systems. Some newer systems maximize
energy effficiency by having a back-pressure electricity turbo-generator
consuming high pressure steam and exhausting low pressure steam. This is
then used in district heating schemes requiring miles of pipelines. As the
price of energy continues to rise there will be more pressure for
cogeneration and other complex capital-intensive energy schemes.
The single line 132 ton per day plant at Werdenberg-Liechtenstein
producing 0.5 Mw electricity,industrial process steam and district heating
hot water is the prime example of an overly complex energy scheme
considering the volume of waste consumed.
More Air Pollution Control Equipment. Environmental regulations
have continued to tighten. The two highest capital investment cost per
daily ton plants in the survey are Wuppertal ($89,582/Ton) and Krefeld
($73,905/Ton). Both plants came under the new source performance standard
of the new West German regulation "T. A. Luft". In contrast to the United
States, each new West German refuse burner must have a wet scrubber or
equivalent to collect HC1 and HF gases. The Krefeld plant also has a second
stage scrubber to collect S02 to help meet ambient levels.
There has been minimal interest expressed so far by the other
European, the Canadian and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agencies for
control of HC1, HF and SC>2 from refuse burners.
Expenses
In 1976, the average plant surveyed processed 195,790 tonnes (215,369
tons) per year of 536 tonnes (590 tons) per day. The average total expenses
were $27 per ton as summarized in Table A-17.
There should be no doubt about the capital intensive nature of refuse
fired steam and hot water generators. Operations and maintenance accounts only
for slightly over a third of total costs.
The numbers have been recalculated a second time without the very
small Werdenberg-Liechtenstein plant (a single 120 tonne/day line) data. Not
using this data point reduces the total expenses to $2^.33 per ton in 1976.
Economies of Scale. While conducting thhe interviews, these
researchers began to feel that there were no economies of scale in these
wastes-to-energy plants. With the Werdenberg-Liechtenstein exception, there
seemed to be no effect of plant capacity on total expenses per ton of refuse
processed.
With this suspicion, Figure A-10 was generated showing total expenses
per year versus annual tonnage. The data appeared to be linear. Deviations
from the straight line were easily explainable in each facility as shown in the
figure.
To plot the same information but in a different manner, Figure A-ll was
-------
en
en
cs
w
z
w
8
w
en
fc.
w
w
IX.
o
W
'in
g
en
u
en
2
U
a
o
C£
-I a c
*! ;i
ui «* U
ri t. «
« u
?! jS
• 1 c v
i' =a
S * -a
a e
— 4
e
i 3
42
S i
« *T -
c
o
-" « O
— OS
— 00
a o *
•» —!
n* o'
!: 4
I
Ed
S a
2 I
v a
-------
500,000
O
o
o
o
o
rO CM —
a> co
m
ro CM —
LU
|
I
_J
<
Z)
•z.
•z.
<
00
Z)
00
ct:
LU
en
LJ
LU
a.
X
LU
NNAGE
ANNUAL
CD
JO
en
•z.
£ J
w> <
g i
£ 1
•S -^
.a ,H
c ,-H
0> !
"O *£
Q) CL1
T3
I
LU
(9Z6I) $ 'S-n
-------
CD
O
c\J
CO
±
0
O
o
N
CD
ob
•
o
o
(D
(f)
0)
c
o
c
c.
O
8
o
o
o
to
o
10
o
UOJ_
o
ro
O
$ 9Z6I
CO
UJ
o
CO
CO
cr
>
CD
cc z
LU <
CL X
O
X
CO LU
zz> ^
I
LU £
$
JZ
o>
i
Cs.
_
O
C
-------
A-46
constructed showing U.S. $ expenses per ton versus the annual tonnes
throughput. Excluding Werdenberg-Liechtenstein, only a straight horizontal
line could be drawn through the points.
Conventional economies of scale theory is represented by the below
graph (a). This compares with the actual of graph (b).
I
I
03
in
c
-------
A-47
M
to
p
5
"H
Z 0
< r-1
CaJ
5- ei
c a
C5 C-
3
Ed
in vo
iH r~
-E rH
O
ei •
fa, CO
Cfl 3
3
z en
> z
CaJ <
o5 .-:
e-
c >•
CJ
S- t^
as u
< z
^. Cz^
?
3 O
01 H
.
03
1
0)
3
aj
-
0)
rH 4)
n 3
u C
o o
H >
a
V, 41
ft) 3
i e
O >
n
r.
o
00 U lH
•C O -3
330)
rH U V
U5 U U
0!
O
u tn
CO QO Wl sO ^
1-1 " M
W W -J td bl
r^. p*. \o m ^J
rH <• in CN OV
vd o^ r^ MS vn"
rH 00 NO
«s m rs
rH O O
U
O
o
z
1
u
50
;•.
rH
rH
aa «H u
as M x u
Z O rH CO W
as "^ * -a w i
!l_ U W r- •• V.
S a o. <2 -3 J
~ft 3 3" >* -) ?
oa a 3 « a. s:
«H
i;^
•
(^
CM
ts
rH
H
\C
"^
U
rH
"^
o
(S
o
0*
N
rH
5
C
u
so
rj
S
^
•*
3
N
CM
O
fl 00
O CM
U
to
3"
>: :(
•J
o
-------
A-48
Table A-19. GROSS SUMMARY OF REVENUE FROM EUROPEAN
REFUSE FIRED ENERGY PLANTS
Without Werdenberg-
All Plants* Liechtenstein
$/Ton j%. $/Ton %.
Net disposal cost or
tipping fee 18.83 59.4 16.38 55.4
Sale of energy (hot water,
steam, electricity) 7.38 23.3 7.51 25.4
Sludge destruction credit 3.12 9.8 3.12 10.6
Interest on reserves 1.07 3.4 1.07 3.6
Other revenues 0.91 2.9 1.02 3.5
Sale of scrap iron and
road ash 0.39 1.2 0.44 1.5
Average of Revenues 28.43 100.0 25.81 100.0
*Where adequate data is available.
The net disposal cost or tipping fee (regardless of how collected) has
been plotted on Figure A-12for 13 plants. This figure presents an unclear
picture about economics of scale affecting net disposal costs. However, we can
state that we believe there are much more important considerations affecting
economic results than economics of scale.
Sale of Energy. As a general rule of thumb, American refuse
(household, commercial and light industrial waste) will produce a net salable
5,000 pounds steam per ton of reufse while European refuse produces a lower
amount, perhaps 4,000 pounds stean per ton of refuse. The typical European
(1976) revenue for the sale of energy of $7.51 per ton refuse is equivalent to
about $1.88 per million BTU. Many persons have commented that the key reason
that the Europeans have developed their refuse-fired energy systems is that the
price of energy in Europe was much higher than in the U.S. While this may have
been true when some European plants were initially planned, by 1976 incremental
U.S. energy prices were much closer to European prices.
Sludge Drying Credit. Of 30 refuse burning systems that 3attelle
researchers visited, seven systems use the energy in the refuse to dry and/or
destroy sewage. However, only at Horsens do we have a clear and separable
reported sludge drying credit — a figure of $3.12 per refuse input ton.
-------
A-49
CL
#
c
CO
ro
CO
T~
'"{/)" _
CO
±
•
^
Q
O
CD •
>• •
X ^^
0 h-
3 —
^
~~~}
I ^
1 °P0
o
1 1
1
D O O O O O C
o m sr ro
"5
c:
c
^*^
0
O
CJ
O
o
)
•z.
UJ
Q.
0
01
LU
roco
UJ CL
UJ.
I_L ^^"
CD
2 ^
Eg
HQ
UJ
CC^
^
r i . i
^ CO
ID
^ U_
i LiJ
.H.J /^^*
CO
£
CO
Q
U
~5*
.
i— (
i
JO
c
0)
•a
i
JC
en
x
-------
A-50
Sale of Scrap Iron and Road Ash. Ash residue is sold not only for
revenue but also to eliminate or reduce the ash disposal landfill expense.
Landfill costs will be reduced to about 20 percent of the case where there is
no sale of road ash. Therefore, the economist should add the marginal savings
when less ash is landfilled to the metal scrap and road aggregate revenue.
Unfortunately we do not have enough economic data to conclude that ash
recycling is even marginally beneficial for the average plant. Where the
refuse burning plant is located in a steel producing region that, needs scrap
for a melt or there is a shortage of conventional road aggregate products the
economics should be more attractive.
Interest on Revenues. In a few systems more money is collected than
spent. This results in Contribution to Reserves which is akin to profit in a
private enterprise system and is shown as an expense.
On the revenue side, interest on these previously collected and
invested reserves is added in revenues. In a few systems, this figure is
surprisingly high. When averaged over four reporting plants, the average is
$3-01 per ton. But when averaged over ten plants, the average is $0.91 per ton.
"Contribution to Reserves (expense)" and "Interest on Revenues
(revenue)" view is to consider that this public organization, owned by
taxpayers, overcharded themselves. This extra recovery can:
• be invested to produce interest revenue which reduces net
disposal costs
• be applied to debt reduction
• provide a cushion for addition of a new line or
replacement of the entire facility.
Net Disposal Cost or Tipping Fee
To use a business expression, the "bottom line" is the Net Disposal
Cost or sometimes the Tipping Fee. This is the resulting cost or burden borne
by the citizens, taxpayers and generators of waste. This is the figure used to
compare techniccal alternatives for solid waste disposal (compost, landfilling,
materials recovery, waste-to-energy, etc.).
This ranges upward from a low of $6.27 per ton at Paris:Issy.
However, this is not truly a comparable figure because there is no depreciation
expense included in the number. Since the plant is owned by the City of Paris
depreciation is not included in the operator's financial statement. Had normal
depreciation and interest been included the net disposal cost would be well
over $10 per ton.
Low Net Disposal Cost Systems. Uppsala, a refractory walled furnace,
(and not a water-tube wall furnace) shows the best net cost at $6.83 per ton
for two reasons. First, three of the furnaces are old so ~ he original
capital investment cost to amortize is small. Perhaps some equipment may be
fully depreciated already. Then too, many claim that original capital cost and
the continuing operations and maintenance costs on the simpler refractory
walled low temperature energy systems are inherently lower than the complex
water tube wall-high temperature steam systems requiring expensive corrosion
protection.
Second, in addition to having the lowest amortization costs, Uppsala
-------
A-51
has the highest energy revenue per input ton ($11.70) of any visited system.
This is due to the revenue formula that parallels the cost of foreign oil,
storage costs, 50 mile transport costs and Swedish taxes. The Swedes, not
having national energy sources, ha^e traditionally paid more for their energy.
It is interesting to compare at this point this "best" financial
result system in our survey with the U.S. system having an excellent net
disposal cost. The Babcock and Wilcox - Detroit Stoker refuse fired steam
generator and Carrier chiller station energy system in Nashville, Tennessee
achieved. A net disposal cost of only $6.41 per ton is a supurb situation for
the waste generating public.
Of note is that very slightly more revenue comes from sale of chilled
water for district cooling than steam for district heating. While several
energy customers have challenged the steam price, the energy is in fact, priced
in the mid range of all U.S. district heating systems at $5.90 per 1000 pounds
steam. Even with these excellent results, the system only sells 60 percent of
the steam it produces. One can only speculate about financial results if
cogeneration of electricity in a backpressure turbine were ahead of the chiller
station and the district heating and cooling loops.
In addition to the current financial success, the stack emissions are
extremely low at 0.005 to 0.01 grains per SCF adjusted to 12 percent C02- This
compares to the U.S. Federal standard of 0.08 gr/SCF.
Many in this industry remember the previous hopeless situation at the
Nashville unit. The combination of original insight by Mayor Briley, the
designer I.C. Thomasson, the equipment suppliers and community leaders and the.
steadfast continuing support from these same community leaders and financial
institutions and the strong pressure for clean air from the U.S. EPA has all
united in this exemplary American refuse fired steam generator.
A key economic/financial lesson to be learned is that if inflation
consumes a previously passed bond issue, go for more money rather than make
unjustified compromises in design that will need to be rectified later.
High Net Disposal Cost Systems. Comment should be made on the three
highest net cost systems. Werdenberg-Liechtenstein' s $48.25 per ton is the
highest by far. The vendor knew that the figure would be high and so stated to
the community. The community, however, considered its scenic beauty too great
to mar with another landfill. In addition, there was a most attractive Swiss
federal grant or low interest loan program that encouraged the community to
participate. The initial outside funding per capital investment apparently was
emphasized more than the long term net disposal fees needed to support annual
costs.
We suggest that the use of Federal and state funding to further the
objectives of resource recovery take into account the discount ed long term
effects of participation. An analogy might be the wealthy father who helps his
17 year old son buy an expensive Corvette automobile only to later learn that
the son cannot pay the $500 per year insurance premium.
-------
A-5 2
A specific reason for the high cost at Werdenberg is that costs must
be divided by only 120 ton per day. This is the only plant surveyed that we
can clearly say suffers from diseconomies of scale. A single 120 tonne, (132
ton) per day line with standby energy backup is too small. This is especially
small considering the diverse .energy uses (hot water for district heating,
steam for the chemical plant and electricity for the network).
Wuppertal with a $35.66 per ton net disposal cost is adversely
affected today because of concern for the future capacity. Of its four
furnaces, one is always down because of lack of refuse. A second unit is
usually down for preventive maintenance or repairs. Thus the total costs for
this sophisticated electrical generating plant with four lines must be
supported with the activity in only two lines. Planners in other situations
would have built 3 units and left an open bay for a later 4th. Perhaps refuse
input from a neighboring community will increase operations and spread fixed
expenses over more tonnage.
The Hamburg:Stellinger-Moor system at $22.55 per tor. has unusually
high labor costs. The cost of $14.95 per ton for operations and maintenance
labor and materials was the highest in the survey. A second observation was
that the revenue of $5.92 per ton from sale of electricity is a bit low.
One Medium Met Disposal Cost System of Special Note. Zurich:Hagenholz
achieved very reasonable results at $12.66 per ton for several reasons.
Frankly the professional administrative spirit of the Director is to be highly
credited. A spirit of pride and efficiency pervades all activities. Job
positions must continually be justified. Total operations and maintenance
labor and materials was only $4.06 per ton, the lowest in the survey.
Comparatively, the interest and depreciation is high at $15.31 per ton. This
is consistent with management's emphasis favoring purchase of what they
consider to be the best equipment to reduce labor and material needed for
operations and maintenance. Thirty-three (33) separate design and operation
decisions were identified specifically to reduce corrosion. As a result, the
superheater tubes have suffered only 0.3 mm (0.012 in) metal wastage in five or
six years. Other tubes have lost only 0.1 mia (0.004 in) in the same 30,000
hours. This is remarkable and has proven that high temperature steam, 788 F,
can be produced at a reasonable price with virtually no corrosion if proper
design and operation decisions are made and carried through.
Battelle staff have attempted to analyze the wide variation in
results, $6.27 up'to $48.25 per ton, by manufacturer or prime vendor. While
averages can be derived and arrayed, we feel that the Iccal situations far
outweigh vendor importance. Besides that, our sample of only two or three
plants per vendor is not enough to develop significant conclusions..
However, it should be pointed out that each of the four refractory
wall systems performed better than the survey average. Yet the two surveyed
manufacturers have yet to mount an effective North American marketing effort
in recent times. At this writing, Summer 1979, Bruun and Sorenson has no North
American representative. Volund has appointed a new representative in Chicago,
Waste Management, Inc.
It is our opinion that American resource recovery competitions would
benefit by marketing efforts also from European and North American manufactures
of refractory wall incinerator-waste heat recovery boiler vendors.,
-------
A-53
Finance
Table A-21 presents modes of financing. There was no real financial
pattern between countries. In all cases, the plants were built and financed
by the municipality or solid waste authority. This includes Issy, operated
by T.I.R.U. but owned by the City of Paris and also Dieppe operated by I.N.O.R.-
Thermical but owned by the City.
The availability in America of tax free bonding for private enterprise
to develop public service environmental services will continue to affect not
only detailed financing decisions but also basic decisions about ownership and
operations. The long term financing options in America will likely encourage
more privately owned systems than are possible in Europe.
Of note was that the vendor VKW at Wuppertal and I.N.O.R.(Von Roll) at
Dieppe made modest company loans to the customer for purchase of scrubbers, a
crane, a weigh station, furniture, an ash truck, etc. None of that which was
financed was a "manufactured product" of these two companies.
The only relatively common mode (7 plants out of 15) of finance was to
use the bank loan.
System Ownership and Governing Patterns
Private enterprise owned none of the 30 systems visited. In all cases
solid waste disposal and resource recovery are public matters. Of the 15 plants
studied in detail, operation was turned over by the City to another organization
in 2 cases.
Personnel Categories
Over 120 job titles are discussed in the body of the report. In no
way is it recommended that any plant have all of these jobs.
It was observed that larger plants tend to have larger staffs, in-
cluding many jobs not found at smaller plant. Potential economies of scale
from the larger plant are often nullified by a large staff. This observation
holds true not only for managerial functions but also operations personnel.
Rather than hire permanent employees, many plants use outside services
extensively.
Education, Training and Experience
Training varies widely among countries. Germany seems to have the
most rigorous program. This usually involves schooling, navy or merchant
marine boiler room experience, more schooling, more sea experience, etc., for
up to 16 years. Often between ages 30 and 40, a man will leave the sea to
become a stationary power boiler operator. Eventually he may move to a refuse
fired energy plant.
Switerland, a landlocked nation, often uses former employees of Brown
Boveri, Sulzer, etc., who make or install power systems around the world.
-------
A-54
Refuse Handling
Weighing of Refuse Received
Considerable attention is usually given to measuring the amount of
waste received. Many of the plants visited use. automatic recording of
loaded truck weight as it arrives at the plant, and many truck drivers
carry a coded identification card to be inserted into the card slot at
the scale at the time of weighing.
Many of the plants experienced early difficulty with failure
of the electronic system at the scales. In most cases these initial
problems have been cleared up by the scale manufacturer. However, the
electrical system usually requires frequent maintenance. A. few large plants
use 2 scales for redundancy and to handle peak loads without causing long
lines of waiting trucks. One plant uses a separate scale to weigh the
residue from the furnaces. Most scales are recalibrated once every year or
two.
At very small plants the scale operation is observed and
controlled by the crane operator who sits at the plant control board. In such
instances the main control room is located in such a way that the busy
operator can view the trucks discharging to the pit. In some cases he can
also observe the distant tipping floor by means of closed-circuit
television.
In the larger plants the weighing operation is controlled by 1 or
2 scale operators who also direct the truck traffic through amplified voice
instructions and sometimes by means of red and green signal lights.
At most plants it is the duty of the scale operator to detect
bulky items and to instruct the driver to deposit them in a separate
collection place.
Tipping Floor, Pit and Crane
The universal European practice for receiving, storing, and
feeding the solid waste to the furnaces is the ancient pit and crane
system. To some new to the field this method appears incredibly archaic.
However, it has so far satisfied European needs, and efforts to supplant it
with modern conveying equipment have not succeeded. The major barriers to
change is the heterogeneity of MSW, its strong tendency to densify when
stored, and its occasional hazardous nature.
At most of the plants visited the tipping floor is indoors. In
most cases, indoors or outdoors, the discharge openings into the pit are
covered by power-operated doors. Thus pit odor is kept inside by fresh
combustion air flowing through the open doors under the action of the
combustion air blowers. In most cases the blowers take the air from
filtered air intakes near the cop of the pit. Thus air flow is always
inward and in no case was the odor of refuse detected outside the plants
nor in the neighborhood.
In most plants the entrance and egress of the trucks to the
tipping area is controlled by the scale operator, with a workman on the
tipping floor controlling the opening and closing of the pit doors. In a
few cases the hydraulically lifted doors are operated by the truck driver.
Refuse pit storage volume, dimensions and capacities are presented
in Table A-20.
-------
i
1
on
u
U
<
<
c
•z.
<
co
z
cn
z
£i3
=>
•^
i
[ji
<
cs:
O
U}
H
h-t
0-
W
ID
[i,
S
o
CM
1
<
U
5
•<.
c-1
T
C >>
X = «H
-- c *J a
cn =. z c cc
>> =. C £.
•3 3 J-i —i CC
s w < £- y
>,
i— i U
>. •— l •— i
^ 3 -i U
!fl £. fa- C 3
>-, £. C3 £.
eg 3 w — s;
2 cn < t, cj
*J-i Cfl
Psl O
'—' >> r-
>- -J
f- — W
H- cn sj
u - s
< 1 | X C
5- C !3 0
< ^ E w
C») *^ m m
a, — s
&J -^ x-^.i cn
u ^ •— . 6a ,-, o
< cc -£ i^ GJ C
cc a- — m > c
C tn co 0 c
H w -H OC U
cn c w
2: QJ
is ( ~^
S
**• n ^T
S S
IN
2 z
S
4J
oC *-
V
_]
P-I
_ "O
£ >s
3
£
S 1-
3 ^ X
^
5
_,
^«j
a£ ^-* m
UJ 3 X
^ Eb -o
2 ^\
ii "3
Ju
i-j i~ „„
**
_^ ^
a cn
S *J • 0)
= 5 u r >,
O -i C. O 13
2 CL- O *-J tt
>,
4J "^^
c *H cn
j-t d£) y OJ
2 — * CO C
cc cn o. c >s
•— CU CO O C5
ft. Q O JJ -0
^ __
O , -. O r-
in i -T in —i m cn
ii O 1 ! 1 CN
T f!
*T ' '
CN n
r- j-i I | i I
CN * m 1
*-4 ,— ON o m m i
~H M
C O O O NO CN O
CN O \C s S
1-1 ~ o — ' cn v5
cj LI •— 3 cn ••
! J =2 f— JJ t> r-< 60
i C 1 i l-i r-i •• U-
; cu c M oi o « ~
•a aj « c- "— i *H —
l-i "3 O S- CU ^ S
0) C3 r 3 U -5 -z
3 ca 2 3 ^ c- =:
i i
l \O in 1 *""N <• i-n
O c O m O o O
O m CN CN — C
^-i r-» <*i >J ^ O <•
CN \J5 CN _
^O O O O
in O O P4
-T -H 1 1 O CN 1
m vo I I \o —
i i -mi
— < o i i in i
,-t CN T-l
CO O O
00 00
O C 1 1 C -^
N
C •• "c
j= ao c
c u u u a,
iJ " ^- 0) >
.. oc oc --^.£-c-:tt
jr^ c u— cm-- -
cj===->0) "^
"u D cT « tJ c. u
3 .= '- 0 _C _C _C
r^
r^
o
r^.
O
CN
Psl
o
NC
m
sC
L^
r^.
in
m
r->
cc
^
c
o
NC
c
o
c
o
CN
c
X
m
o
o
o
c
-T
NO
X
yr
cc
.. i-
>- c
il -11-
s^ a
J: <
o
CJ
c^
vC
c
c^
m
CO
in
rsj
L-I
m
'N
^C
-------
A-56
Usually the drivers are expected to clean up any spilled refuse
before they leave and, in general, the tipping floors were free of debris,
but not always. The attitude of management toward housekeeping standards
was variable and resulted in very few messy tipping floors. One plant,
Wuppertal, made daily use of a large mobile washer and sweeper to keep the
tipping floor and adjacent ramps exceptionally clean.
Pit Doors
The most commonly used powered pit door is the multi-hinged door.
A distinct disadvantage of this type is that if several such doors happen
to be open at once at a busy time the lifted doors hide much of the pit
from the view of the crane operator who is many times situated directly
above the doors. Also such doors projecting into the crane area are very
vulnerable to accidental collision with the crane bucket. For these reasons
the new Zurich Josefstrasse plant.
Pit or Bunker
The floor of most pits is below grade. Because of water-table or
excavation problems, a few are at grade, in which case the tipping floor is
elevated and is reached by a sloping sometimes helical, ramp. Most pit
walls are reinforced concrete.
The predominant design philosophy provides a maximum pit storage
capacity of 4 to 5 days' operations. Since all of the larger plants usually
schedule one unit to be down for maintenance, the actual storage capacity
provides for 5 or 6 days of normal plant operation.
Pit fires are usually controlled by sprinkler systems and water
guns controlled by the crane operator. For extremely dry, industrial waste
at The Hague, there is a separate pit in which water sprays operate most of
the time to reduce the heat value of the refuse as fired. This prevents
fires and also avoids overheating of the boilers which were designed
originally for wet municipal solid waste.
Crane
The larger plants have 2 cranes which provide redundancy. The
almost universal conment was that the crane operator is the most important
worker in the plant. A. skilled operator will divert troublesome bulky items
to avoid problems in the furnace and will mix segregated, highly
combustible wastes in the pit so as to avoid excessive heat release in the
furnace. Also his skill is very important in extending the life of the
crane cables which can become kinked and twisted in the process of
retreiving batches of waste from the pit.
In most small plants the crane operator performs from a
glass-walled podium at one side of the control room positioned so as to
provide a view of the tipping area, pit and furnace hoppers. In the larger
plants the separate podium is situated high in the wall above the pit often
the podium has dual controls and is lavishly equipped above the pit. In no
case did the crane operator ride the crane, although this is common in
American plants.
-------
A-57
Bulky Waste Size Reduction
Few plants have size reduction equipment. The most used shear is
manufactured by Von Roll. The bulky waste shears operate like multiple
sissors, cutting and crushing the bulky refuse between its shear beams.
Seven fixed and six moveable shear beams are connected at their lower end
through shaft and bearings. Each beam is equipped with double edge blades
of highly wear-resistant alloy steel which can easily be turned once and
reused. The moving beams are arranged in two groups of three, each group
being opened and closed by a hydraulic working cylinder.
The sheared material falls through the spaces between the fixed
and shear beams and down into the pit. The crane operator must then
carefully distribute this usually higher calorific waste over the entire
pit.
Hoppers and Feeders
An integral feature of the pit-and-crane system is that each
furnace receives its waste from a hopper and chute which -are fed
intermittently by the crane bucket. This intermittent batch feeding is
converted to nearly uniform flow to the furnace-grate by 2 factors:
1. Short-term storage capacity of the hopper and chute
2. Action of a reciprocating or vibrating feeder which moves
the refuse from the chute to the grate.
The feeder serves a multiple purpose. In addition to supplying
fuel to the furnace its action in moving packed refuse away from the bottom
of the chute permits the crane operator to keep the chute packed full. This
packed mass served to prevent burn-back from the furnace into the chute and
hopper.
At times the crane operator may be so busy with multiple problems
of receipts, mixing and charging that seme chutes may inadverdently become
emptied. If so, burn-back into the feed chute can occur. Accordingly many
chutes are equipped with gates or dampers that can be closed to prevent
flames from flowing upward through the chute and hopper. Some newer chutes
are equipped with radioactive level indicators which provide indication in
the control room and crane pulpit when the refuse level is low.
Because of the potential for burn-back causing overheating of the
feed chute, some chutes are water cooled or refractory lined.
Grates and Primary Air
The grates used in the early stages of mass burning of refuse were
adapted from coal burning practice, the principal change being to provide
much more fuel-bed agitation. This was needed because refuse is so
heterogeneous that discontinuities and gaps are always present and new ones
can form as the refuse burns. Agitation of the bed is the means used to
shuffle, tumble, or resettle the burning fuel so as to fill the gaps and
make it more uniform for better distribution of primary air and of burning.
-------
A-58
Design primary air pressures at visited plants are shown in Table A
-21.
Grate Life
In most of the plants visited, the annual cost of grate
maintenance was a minor cost but the range of replacement required was
considerable. Table A-22 shows the grate-bar replacement experience.
In addition to grate bar replacement, some grates require periodic
cleaning to keep the air-flow openings free. Melted aluminum and other
metals and mixtures require periodic shut-down for cleaning. For example,
at the Horsens plant, the original grate bars required 2 man-hours per week
for cleaning which was done during regular week-end shutdowns. Use of a
newer design of grate bar has reduced the cleaning required to every other
week.
Grate Materials
Because of the frequent exposure of the grate bars to burning
material, the bars are usually made of high-chromium content cast steel.
However, the Duesseldorf roller grate is primarily of case iron with only
the wear sections at the sides made of cast chrome-nickel alloy. Also, the
Volund grate is made of heat resistant Meehanite, a specific form of grey
iron casting.
Grate Action
As can be seen in descriptions of potential grates, there is a
wide range of concepts for achieving motion of the heterogeneous mass of
burning refuse.
Almost all furnaces have a ram-type refuse feeder to achieve
positive entry of refuse onto the grate. However, some of the systems
depend, instead, on the slope of the grate. The grate bar motion then
ensures movement of the refuse along the grate surface. Virtually all
grates are steeply sloped, up to 30 degrees. But one is not — K&X—which,
under one of its configurations, deliberately holds the refuse horizontally
while agitating it along by reciprocating grate motion.
All grates observed provide agitation of the burning mass. This is
in recognition of the need to do two things:
• Continually expose fresh surfaces to ignition and air flow
• Keep filling in voids that form rapidly when zones of
lightweight highly combustible material burn out. This leaves
voids through which primary air can bypass the* bed unless
such holes are promptly filled by rearrangement of the
heterogeneous mass.
Even the older traveling grate which provides no fuel bed
agitation was installed as a multiple series of stepped traveling grates so
that as the burning refuse tumbled from one grate down to the next, there
was momentary agitation and rearrangement of the bed.
Grata dimensions are shown in Table A-23 Table A-24 follows with the
burning rates.
-------
A-59
Table A-21. DESIGN PRESSURE OF PRIMARY
AIR SYSTEM AT PLANTS VISITED
Primary Air
Plant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein
Baden-Brugg
Duesseldorf
Wuppertal
Krefeld
Paris: Issy
Hamburg : S Cellinger-Moor
Zurich :Hagenholz
The Hague
Dieppe (and Deauville)
Goteborg
Uppsala
Horsens
Copenhagen: Amager
Copenhagen :West
mmH205
170
' 280
180
240
140
300
410
530
580
370
150
400
-
200
230
230
in.H905
6.7
11
7
4.5
5.5
11.8
16.1
21
23
14.4
5.9
15.7
-
7.9
9.0
9.0
Pressure
kPa3
1.67
2.74
1.74
2.37
1.37
2.94
4.00
5.23
5.72
3.585
1.471
3.91
-
1.97
2.24
2.24
-------
A-60
S
Oi
c:
<
cc
w
H
CM
CN
I
a
H
4)
•LJ
CO
C2£
4J
C
4)
E
01
y
cfl
—i
a.
01
B£
-J
Cfl
pa
4)
4-}
Cfl
I-l
C-3
en
c
o
4-1
Cfl C
Jj I-i 03
CO O) 00
0) S, 01
>-i O CQ
a
•H
I-i
W
CO
o>
x
CN
<— 1
d
•H
L/™)
C*"5
cn
i-i UM
cfl 0
01
>, 4J
3
41 o
01
ij cn
J3 rH
4J r-l
0
C I-l
•H
4)
4) 4)
C 1 rJ
O 1 —
S 1 H
-T O LO CN
O"* C^ O""> C7>
rH rH rH rH
C
01
4J
CO
c
Ol
4J
jr;
y
4)
•H
J
1 00 u-i
00 00 rJ
I-i 3 O
01 I-i -C
.0 CO rH
3 1 0)
o) e cn
TJ OJ CO
I-i 73 0)
01 CO 3
3 M a
-H CN fl
41
y
CO
c
I-l
3
UH
p
01
o.
0
o
rW I-l O"^
rS X
"•^H ^— * U-I
to co o
O) 01
g £ 4J
•rt -H 3
4J 4J O
O O -J
? ? X
4-1 4-1 ^.
to
J- C Vj
CQ n3 c^
OJ OJ J3
r— t i—l
U O O
r^>»
o
0) 0) 4J
e c
o o o
Z Z 0
o ^0 m
r** P^- \JD
CP» CT> O>
rH rH *H
>^
rH CO
CO W
4J -3 1— 1
U i— 1
4) oi cn
£1* U-| •— t
C. 41 )-i
3 -J CO
r^ S^ Q.4
^T LA *sO
to
|j
cfl
J3
0)
4J
CO
IJ
QO
rH
rH
CO
U-I
O
l-i
>^
*^.
4-1
C
4)
B
0)
y
co
-H
o .
4)
4J
C
0)
y
i-i
4)
C,
^3-
CN
^
*^.
CU
y
CO
rH
*••
4)
U
4-1
r^
4)
y
^4
41
C.
2
41
£>
0)
C/3
^
p^.
CN
N
rH
O
.C
c
4)
00
cfl
*
• •
j£
U
•H
^
3
N
OO
cn
41
4J
CO
'Z.
4J
I-l
O
a.
D.
3
to
oo
^
•rt
-a
T-t
CO
UH
O
r^
CO
^
o
£
01
s^
rH
CO
3
C
£
cfl
4J
CM
0)
a
X
OI
01
c
o
z
oo
O"\
. — 1
O)
3
00
3
a
J~^
^
C^
cn
i^
cfl
o>
^
px.
^
4)
^»
O
•o
41
y
cfl
a.
41
i-i
o
4-1
cfl
I-l
00
U-I
0
U-I
rH
CO
^
41
2
0
/•"N
fS
Sw'
, — I
p^
O^
rH
,_^
01
rH
, — 1
•H
p>
3
CO
41
Q
•^-j
c;
co
^^
41
a
CM
41
•H
Q
0
rH
cn
M
co
4J
^
41
^
•H
U^
4_l
CO
^
•H
(4^
C
•t-1
•o
0)
u /-^
cfl O
i— i O
c.c
4) .
1-4 O
^4O
4)
4J 1
CO
rJ O
00 O
O
U-< X
C O
L/"l
4J
~
5 4J
u to
i-i y
01
C, rH
CO
O 4J
p*»* o
1 H
O ^-^
vO
O
o^
^
oo
rJ
O
O
Cj
4J
O
CJ)
rH
M
M
1-1
01
>,
O
rH
<~
'D
•>
0
1/5
C
-H
.-.
(J
(I)
(n
I-O
rH
>-i
j_,
0)
a
•LJ
C
0)
S
o
03
rH
CL
a
u
^
fj
^
5^5
O
O
rH
.
£
•H
4J
cn
b3
o
o*>
r— j
^J
CJ
co
w
C
-------
A-61
Table A-23. GRATE DLMEiSICHS
Trip
Year
Scar cad
No. of
Boilers
Mfg. of
Graces
Grace Dimensions
Uidth
m ft
1
2
3
4
5
5
7
3
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
W'erdenberg-Liachc ens tain
3adaa-3rugg
Duesseldorf Soiiar 1-4
Boiler 5
U'uppercal
Krefald
Paris :Is3y
Haaburg: Stellmger-Moor
Zurich: Hag enholz
The Hague 3oilar 1-3
Boiler 4
DieppeCaad Deauvilla)
Goteborg
Uppsala
Ho r sens
Copenhagen: Aeager
Copenhagen : Wesc
1974
1970
1965
1972
1976
1976
1965
1972
1973
1963
1971
1974
1976
1970
1970
1974
1970
1970
1
2
4
1
4
2
4
2
(1)
3
1
2
3
(1)
1
3
3
A-F
A-?
vra
VKW
7KW
VKW
M
M
M
TO
TO
TO
TO
3&S
3iS
7
V
2.77
2.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
5.3
4.7
5.5
3.0
3.4
2.0
3.4
2.0
2.0
2.7
2.7
9,
3,
11,
11.
11.
11.
20.
15.
13.
9.
11.
6.
11.
6.
5.
8.
3.
1
2
5
5
43
43
66
6
0
3
1
6
1
5
5
9
9
Langth
01 f t a2
6
7
11
10
10
10
3
3
3
10
12
3
10
3
3
7
7
.65
.5
.0
.7
.2
.2
.4
.9
.4
. 5
.0
.0
.9
.1
.1
.0
.0
21.3
24.5
36.0
35.1
33.5
33.5
27.5
29.3
27.5
34.0
39.4
26.2
35.8
25.6
26.5
23.0
23.0
13.
13.
38.
37.
15.
35.
52.
43.
44.
31.
40.
15.
36.
16.
15.
13.
13.
No. of
Separata
Grate
Sections
So. of
Parallel
Grate
Runs
Area
42
75
7
5
7
7
9
9
9
5
3
0
9
2
2
9
9
193.3
201.3
416
400
384
384
569
472
433
339
439
172
397
174
174
203
203
1
1
7
6
6
6
1
1
1
3
3
2
3
1
T_
2
2
1
I
1
1
1
1
3
2
3-
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
*Manuraccurer abbreviations: A-?(Alberce-?onsar); VKV( Veraini^ce Kasselwor'se) ; M(Martin); TO(Voa Roll);
(1) Describes only che last furnace - boiler line purchased.
3&S(3ruun S Soransan); V(Volund) .
-------
•U
fl
OS
U 'U
U 31
L, C
a eo
>
5
5j
7)
Q
U
X ^J
3u cc
tn u
3 =
£
1
CM
M-l
3
CO
j.
i
CN
a
2
JS,
\
3
a
*
7
CN
^J
^
•f
CM
a
so
*
.0
^
*->
00
2
M
^
^
1
U
^
C
—
9
2
~~Z
-&
CN
O
CN
CN
CO
— <
O
fN
C*
0»"
r%
vO
in
u-i
-*
O
O
CN
Z!
o
0
33
^J
O
^J.
•
!M
^
«i
03
i/l
in
^
in
cr>
CO
0
O
—4
*
vO
^
un
^?
0
00
GO
03
o
o
o
™
m
tn
o
*o
vJ3
r^
n
O O O n co
O O O -1 vO
^ o m ca oo
,0 cr, oo 00 ^J
^H CN n CN CN
^4 O m in *N
o 3> cn -- *r
0 O O O O
o a o o in
eo fN m r
m eo O a rJ
>0 m -i CN r-
~ oo «T -J vn
r^ =0 o< cj, ^
O -1 O O O
m — 4 in in o
CO -* CN CN CD
— 1 CN CN IN -1
CT\
1 1 1 1
*H
C7>
1 1 1 1
-1
in -*r
r^ in CN r-
r-f "O l£ f^» 00
CN O ^T >N »
in CN co in *NJ
co ^T r^ CN ri
CM o< in in -i
CN n <-, n n
O r^ <• r^ ^?
— i -< O 03-1
CN in in in in
§OO O 0
O -i o O
oo" o" m" ,0" -/
f** CO O CO 30
n ,0 vo o -v
f** -«j in r** in
— t
S S 2 S3
o o o o a
CN P-. — ' {N .-4
r*. — i O ^* O
m CN vo m so
r* ^o 0 r^ ^r
O O O O O
O 0 0 00
PH _| (N ^-( (N
CM CN
• • 1 1 1
r— r*»
CN CN
CO CO
• -1 t 1
~^
00 O 00 CO 00
^4 f> CN —1 ,T
in oo O -H r*
n
CO O O -* CO
O O O O O
O O in O O
O "1 >T OO O
CN CN CN CN CN
cn m n
1 1
co so
-------
A-63
Three basic grate systems are used as shown in Figure A-13. There
are many other variations of these three types.
This particular contract between Battelle and EPA is to
concentrate on European refuse burning to energy systems. As such all
systems viewed have been mass-burning grate systems. To our knowledge there
was only one system in Europe (Birmingham, England) burning refuse in
suspension — in contrast to U.S. developments.
Table A-25 presents a listing of independently developed
refuse burning systems, their home country and their American
representative "Refuse burning" refers to "combustion" or "incineration"
where combustion products after a few seconds are H2Q C02 302 etc. There
is no attempt to present manufacturers of pyroiysis or other developmental
resource recovery processes, i.e. this is not a full list of resource
recovery manufacturers. Also excluded are the many manufacturers of small
modular package incinerator-heat exchangers. The table includes present and
past manufacturers with heat recovery.
Manufacturers of only incinerators (without boilers to cool
combustion gases prior to gas cleaning) are not included in the listing.
Grate Functions
The three primary functions of grates are:
• Support the burning refuse
• Move and agitate the burning refuse
• Distribute the primary air.
There is a wide range of differing design philosophies aimed at
achieving these three functions. While all the grates observed do
accomplish these primary functions, they do so at varying levels of grate
maintenance required and with varying success in achieving uniform
combustion.
The grate burning capacities for the plants visited range from
24.5 down to 3-33 tonnes (27 to 3-7 tons) per hour, a. unit size range of
7-4 to 1. And the burning rates range from 560 down to 175 kg/m2/hr (114.6
to 35.8 Ib/ft2/hr), a range in rates of 3.2 to 1.
If all other factors are equal, the higher the grate burning rate,
the more effective and efficient the grate will be. However, the effect of
the grate on the combustion in the boiler furnace is of critical importance
to boiler-furnace life and efficiency. It appears that one popular design
philosophy is to use moderate burning rates and large boiler furnaces to
provide reasonable heat recovery efficiency while minimizing maintenance.
Another more bold approach is to design for much higher intensities of
burning but to use precise control of primary and secondary air to assure
relatively uniform, but intense combustion and rapid furnace-gas mixing.
This involves the careful control of high-pressure primary and secondary
air. In effect, this philosophy aims for accurate control of air-fuel ratio
throughout the active burning areas of both grate and furnace. A critical
factor in successful application of this intense burning mode is primary
air pressure. To some extent, the successful pressure ranges used are
considered proprietary by some manufacturers. The nominal design pressure
of the primary air for each plant ranges from 140 to 580 run water.
The highest primary air pressure shown is for Unit Mo. 3 at the
Hagenholz plant at Zurich, started up in 1973- The detailed plant report
indicates outstanding performance by this particular unit which probably
can be ascribed, in part, to the excellent combustion control provided by
the grate which utilizes a high primary air pressure. However, many otner
factors are also contributory.
-------
A-64
Reciprocating Grace
7
Reverse Acting Grate
Roller Grate
FIGURE A-13. BASIC TYPES OF GRATES FOR MASS BURNING OF REFUSE.
THERE ARE AVAILABLE MANY VARIATIONS OF THESE
BASIC TYPES (FROM E3ERHARDT-PROCEEDINGS 1966 NATIONAL
INCINERATOR CONFERENCE, ASMS, NEW YORK, p 124-143)
-------
TABLE . REFUSE BURNING MANUFACTURERS AND REPRESENTATIVES
( Grate and Suspension Firing)
International Technology
Country
Representative in the U.S.A.
Alberti-Fonsar
Babcock Wilcox (BW)
Bruun & Sorensen
Carbonisation Enterprise
et ^eramique (CEC)
Claudius Peters
Combustion Engineering (CE)
De Bartolomeus
Destructor
Detroit Stoker
Dominion Bridge
Esslingen
Flynn & Emrich
Foster Wheeler
Heenan
International Incinerators
K K K
Kunstler Koch
Keller-Peukert
Kochum-Landsverk
Italy (Milan)
U.S.A. (North Canton, Ohio)
Denmark (Aar'nus)
France
West Germany (Hamburg)
U.S.A. (Windsor, Conn.)
Italy (Milan)
Sweden
U.S.A. (Monroe, Mich.)
Canada
West Germany
U.S.A. (Baltimore, Md.)
U.S.A. (Livingston, N.J.)
United Kingdom
U.S.A. (Columbus. GA.)
Switzerland (Zurich)
West Germany (Leverkeusen)
West Germany
Widmer i Ernst (Swiss Co.)
Babcock Wilcox
looking for repre.
Combustion Engineering
Detroit Stoker
Flynn & Emrich
Foster Wheeler
International Incinerators*
Widmer 4 Ernst
Grumman Ecosystems
fohlenscheidungs-Gesellschaft(KSG) West Germany
Kraus-Maffei West Germany
Lanbian-SHG West Germany (Kassel Bettenh
Lokomo Finland
Lurgi West Germany (Frankfort)
Martin West Germany (Munich)
Nichols U.S.A.
Plibrico U.S.A. (Worcester, Mass.)
Riley Stoker U.S.A. (Chicago, II.)
Stein France
Steinmueller West Germany (Hamburg)
Takuma Japan (Osaka)
Venien France
Vereinigte Kesselwerke (VKW) West Germany (Duesseldorf)
ausen)
Volund
Von Roll
Widmer & Ernst
2urn Industries
Denmark (Copenhagen)
Switzerland (Zurich)
Switzerland (Wettingen)
U.S.A. (Erie, Pa.)
Universal Oil Products
Nichols Research & Engineering
Plibrico
Riley Stoker
Widmer & Ernst (Swiss Co.)
Inactive representative in CA.
Grumman Ecosystems (total
system)
Waste Management Inc.
Wheelabrator - Frye
Widmer & Ernst
Zurn Industries
MOTE: 1. The above systems are combuston oriented.
2. Small modular package incinerator - heat exchanger manufacturers are not included.
3. Pyrolysis and other developmental resource recovery systems are not included.
4. The above systems have been installed with energy recovery.
-------
A-66
Ash Handling and Recovery
For purposes of this discussion and design of refuse energy
plants, there are five kinds of ash, residue or slag that need to be
defined:
• Ash, Residue, Slag are general terms loosely used to name the
solid waste product after combustion. This is also referred to
as residue in America and slag in Europe. It may contain
bottom ash, grate siftings and or flyash
* Bottom Ash is the solid residue falling off the grate end and
into the chute
• Grate Siftings are the relatively small particles and dust
falling under the grate normally through the spaces where the
primary underfirs air rises
• Fly Ash is the fine solid waste material that falls from
boiler tubes and electrostatic precipitator plates either
naturally or when blown off by soot blowers or when
mechanically rapped
• Processed Ash is the sorted nonferrous aggregate of stone,
dirt, glass, etc. usually less that 1.5 cm (0.6 inch) ready
for use as road aggregate or cinder block, etc.
Table A-26 sumnarizes ash handling and recovery options exercised
at the 15 visited plants. Generally speaking ash handling is somewhat more
advanced in Europe over the U.S.A. Ash recovery is practiced much more in
Europe than in this country. Of the 15 plants, 9 have ash recovery.
Ash Exit from Grate, Quenching
and Removal from the Furnace
All systems arrange for the moving grate to discharge the hot,
unburned residue into a water sump, quench tank or a spray chamber from
which it is removed by a variety of methods. The residue, usually
containing less than 3 percent combustible, is a highly variable material
both in size and composition. Quenching is necessary because if the glowing
residue were removed from the plant in its high temperature condition the
dust and odors emitted from the hot surface would frequently be a nuisance.
Usually the residue is continuously removed from the tank. During
that movement it is partially dewatered or drained by a drag conveyor or
seme form of hydraulically-driven ram or pusher. The wet residue then is
discharged to a holding pit or movable bins. Trucks then transport the ash
to a processing plant or to a landfill.
The quench container is the sink for the boiler blowdown water and
other dircy water at most plants. Often this result in no wastewatsr
(except for sanitary waste water) leaving the plant (except in ash trucks).
If scrubbers are not used, zero wastewater discharge can be a reasonable
challenge for designers. This is the reason that this report does not have
a chapter devoted to water pollution control in most systems there is
no real water pollution.
-------
A-67
TABLE A-26.
SUMMARY OF ASH HANDLING AND
RECOVERY METHODS
*
I.i Plane Ash Handling
• Reciprocating ?'-isn Rooa
• "ibratin^ Conveyor
• Sceei 51at Conveyor
• Xubbar Conveyor
• Ski? Ho isc
-•;
X
;c
r
X
j
1
x; x
x| .£
y j
"I
1
X
x
•<
V
x
J
f
1
X X
•f
] !
1
i i
1
X
j
J
T '
i
y ! X
!
!
1
f
1
1
1
« Decachaola Container
• Ash Pit
• Ash Floor wicil '<"he?l#
x ' X
xj
x: i
fror.c ind Loaaar 1
Quanch Xachoc
• Soccom of Chuee Has Wacar
• Waear Pic
• Trough
• Ash Sunkar 13 '.«ae
Aah Recovery
• Enclosed 3uiidiag Recovery
• Ou:looc Xacovary
• Discaac Racovar;'
• No Xaaovery ac Plane
Operation Gwnersni?
• Plant Itsei:
• P-ivata Contractor, Receiver ana
Processor
Seoarabie Ash Components
• Farrous Fines (caps, lids, nails)
• Ferrous Coarse (cans)
• Farrous Ail Sizes
• Farrous Bulky (bicycles, barrels;
• Ferrous 3a.ec1
« Road A?gr»ga:a
« Sulky :lon ferrous (sf-^aos, tiras,
paoar roils)
• Median and Coarse Son Farrous (2"
stones, bor.as)
« Lane Raciair-acion :i-tarial
X XI
r. ;c ; xi
{2
I: IjJ
x; si
X XI X
X1 X
XI i
x
X!
six! x i
Ta X pattarn is tioc :omplati jr ia: ir.ua.
-------
A-68
Ram for Residue Removal
The simplest and most compact reside removal system uses a
curved-bottom tank which is cleared by a slowly reciprocating pusher. As
the submerged residue is pushed upward toward the left by the ram it has
time to drain off excess water before it drops into the pit, buggy, truck
or other container. The discharge channel is tapered outward in the
direction of motion to prevent packing and jamming.
Submerged Conveyor
Another common type of submerged drag conveyor which slowly lifts
the residue upward along a sloping channel so that it has time to drain.
The conveyor housing is often reinforced concrete to resist the
corrosive attack of the acids which accumulate in the quench water.
Spray Quench with Conveyor
An alternate system which avoids some corrosion problems of the
quench tank is the use of a water spray to quench the residue as it falls
off the end of the grate. The moisture pickup of the residue is much less
with this system although it is more difficult to cool large, red hot
clinkers than by submersion. From the spray quench the cooled residue falls
into a belt or trough conveyor.
Furnace Wall
Most of the plants that were visited utilized water-tube cooling
of the furnace wall. This type of wall has been translated from
coal-burning to refuse-burning practice over the period since about I960.
In some cases the furnace is only partially water-cooled with the rest of
the wall formed of conventional refractory. In all cases where wall tubes
are used these tubes are a part of the boiler flow system. They are
pressurized to boiler pressure and they supply a mixture of heated water
and saturated steam to the boiler steam drum. Thus from a flow standpoint
they are considered an integral part of the boiler system.
However, from the standpoint of combustion, the wall tubes are an
essential part of the heat recovery from the flame that helps to cool the
gases to a temperature level that is safe for them to pass on to the
superheater and boiler convection banks. Thus the water-tube walls of the
overall boiler system are treated here as a separate component of the
combustion system while recognizing that they also constitute an important
element of the overall boiler.
Furnace Requirements
The complex variety of furnaces now in use has evolved because of
the interaction of several different requirements:
-------
A-69
• Temperature: High pressure for steam power generation versus
low-pressure steam or hot water for heating only.
Low-pressure boilers are much cheaper to build, operate, and
maintain.
• Size: Small furnaces need not be water-cooled if waste
burning rates are moderate because the high
surface-to-volume ratio of the small chamber facilitates
cooling. Large furnaces are more likely to need water
cooling because the wall surface is relatively small in
proportion to the volume; hence, normal heat loss through
refractory walls becomes insufficient to keep the refractory
cool enough to survive.
• Fly Ash: The highly variable but active chemical nature of
the fine ash produced, which can foul and corrode water-tube
walls and boiler surfaces.
• Refuse Heat Valve: The remarkable increase in heat value of
European municipal refuse since World War II, which has
markedly changed furnace wall design requirements.
Residential heating was converted from coal to oil which produced
no ash residue. Paper and plastic packaging of consumer products became
widespread.
In a 1965 article, Mr. R. Tanner, father of the modern water-tube
wall refuse furnace, stated the following:
"For, as the calorific value rises, the uncooled combustion
chamber leads to chamber temperatures that can no longer be
controlled by air injection and fume feedback (flue-gas
recirculation) alone. Thus, the adoption of radiation heating
surfaces is becoming essential for refuse firing systems as
it has long been usual in firing systems involving higher
grade fuels."*
In this latter phrase, Tanner was referring to the fact that coal- and
oil-fired furnaces, once refractory walled, had by the late 19^0's, been
largely changed to water-tube wall construction.
A significant goal of heat recovery in these waste-to-energy
plants is to cool the exhaust gases to a temperature level of 117 to 260 C
(350 to 500 .F) where reasonably sized, high efficiency electrostatic
precipitators will be practical. However, up until the early 1960's, there
was considerable reluctance to locate the waste heat boiler surfaces too
closely with the furnace. In 1969, Hotti and Tanner stated that a common
earlier attitude was: "The combustion chamber must not be cooled. Designers
thought that cooling would not permit reaching an adequately high
combustion temperature". However, as the heat value rose, for example, in
Berne, the average heat content rose from 1,160 Kcal/Kg (1,090 Btu/lb) in
1955 to 1,950 Kcal/Kg (3,510 Btu/lb) in 196U, rising furnace temperatures
probably caused increasing troubles with refractory maintenance.
Accordingly, Hotti and Tanner observed in 1969: "The trend of boiler
development steered mainly toward adjustable radiation heating surfaces in
the combustion chamber..." These same authors, Hotti and Tanner*, then
pointed out that at their next plant at Ludwigshafen in 1967, "...the
radiation surfaces surrounding the combustion chamber can be studded and
covered with rammed material or, alternatively, stripped bare, as
required". An earlier plant at Helsinki in 1961 had also used
Tanner, R., "The Development of the Von Roll Refuse Incineration System,"
Sonderdruck aus Schweizerischen Bauzeitung, 83, Jahrgang, Heft 16,
(1965).
Hotti, G. and Tanner, R., "Kow European Engineers Design Incinerators,"
American City, June 1969.
-------
A-70
water-tube-walls. Thus, with this company, the transfer of water-tube-wall
technology from well-developed coal-burning practices to waste-to-energy
plants occurred in the mid-1960's.
Meanwhile, the first large water-tube-wall boiler, 264 tons/day,
had been installed at Sssen-Karnap in 1960 as part of an existing
coal-fired power plant.* Pulverized coal was fired above the refuse fuel
bed.
During the same period, the Martin grate, originally applied to
the burning of brown coal, was adapted at Munich to water-tube-walled
furnaces for the large-scale burning of municipal refuse for power
generation. Bachl and Mykranz* described the first Munich unit in an
extensive article published in Snergie, in August, 1965. Pulverized coal
was fired in a separate furnace. In a second unit, the coal was fired
directly above the refuse.
Secondary (Overfire Air)
All grate-burning of fossil fuels requires overfire air jets above
the fuel bed for smokeless, complete combustion.
Mass burning of refuse has very similar requirements. In addition,
at very high refuse burning rates in large furnaces, the turbulent mixing
provided by jets is of critical importance in assuring complete combustion
of the furnace gases before they reach the superheater. If this combustion
is not completed well ahead of the superheater, the ash deposits on the
tubes can become overheated by the hot, burning gases and tube corrosion
can occur as discussed under Metal Wastage.
As with fossil-fuel practice the application of overfire air jets
for mass burning of refuse is still an art and from plant to plant the
details of application vary considerably. Some vendors are much more
committed to the application of highly intense overfire turbulence than are
others.
Principles of Overfire Jets
To abate smoke formation the unburned volatile gases rising from
the fuel bed must be mixed rapidly with ample oxygen. If this mixing does
not occur promptly the rich gases are very likely to decompose thermally
because of the high temperature, thereby releasing fine carbon particles
that form smoke and soot.
Because of the principle of prompt and early mixing just described
the jets should be relatively near to the fuel bed. But because of the
construction of seme furnaces this is very difficult to arrange from either
the front or rear walls. Accordingly some furnaces are equipped with
sidewalls jets so that the jets can be located low in the furnace on a line
parallel to the sloping fuel bed. If such sidewall jets are suitably spaced
and staggered so that the opposing jets intermingle , mixing can be very
effective. However, if the jets are directly opposite each other and are
too closely spaced, they have a tendency to drive the flame toward the
center of the furnace where oxygen may be deficient. Such an arrangement,
then, can cause a longer flame to rise out of the furnace center. A few
-------
A-71
plants then use tertiary jets located higher up in the furnace wall to make
sure that rising tongues of flaming unburned gases are quickly mixed with
ample oxygen.
Because of the inherent limitations of sidewall jets just
described, many designers prefer front-wall and rear-wall or similarly
situated jets, because the main gas flow can often be mixed by such jets
without displacing the flame toward the center of the furnace.
In all cases, whether sidewall, front-wall or rear-wall care must
be taken to avoid too intense burning in the immediate area around the jet
opening. As the jet of air emerges into the chamber at high velocity, 50 to
100 m/s (164 to 328 f/s), it induces rapid inward flow of furnace gases
along the wall toward the jet. If this rapid influx occurs in a region of
active burning the turbulent flow induced by the jet can cause intense
local burning and very high temperatures that can deteriorate either
refractory or water-tube walls and can aggravate slagging. If this
phenomenon is observed, the solution is to reduce the secondary air jet
pressure on the few jets involved to a level where the induction effect is
minimal.
If such reduced jet velocity then impairs the desired mixing
effect in the main part of the furnace, tertiary jets should be considered.
Usually the quantity of overfire air suppli-ed ranges from 10 to 25
percent of the total combustion air, primary plus secondary. Since most
furnaces already have ample excess air, the main objective of overfire air
jets is to provide good mixing and not to add air. Thus additional air is
usually less important than turbulence for intense mixing. Thus small jets
introducing very high velocity air are usually preferable because this
minimizes the amount of air added.
Table A-27 shows the range of jet conditions employed in the
plants visited. Volune III points out the features of each installation and
the drastic changes that have been made at a few plants to improve jet
performance. The art is still evolving.
Boilers
In this research on Refuse-fired Steam-and Hot Water-Generators
the most important single component of the plant and often the most costly,
is the boiler. However, the word "boiler" may not convey the same meaning
to all engineers.
In tnis report, boiler is defined to mean a closed pressure
vessel, a set of interconnected tubes and drums acting as a fluid system
containing water or steam or a mixture of the two at essentially a constant
pressure throughout that has a function of producing superheated water,
saturated steam, or superneated steam.
Overall Boiler Design
It has taken a long time for some waste-to-energy plant designers
to become fully aware that refuse is not coal. Refuse is:
• More variable
• Less dense, but subject to amazing variation in density,
especially if very wet
• High in chlorine
-------
A-72
2 !i
1
1
.
,
Y3 '
__
Csi !
-H
cn ;
r— 1
Q£
y D
s 3
> N
O ™
T
M n
™ t>
0 "I
y
.5
^
•j
-3 T
J ~
J '3
a
w)
•J
HI
Cl ~
"i
C
1
n
"2
V)
u
j
w
O
n
", w
^ -i
T3
y
i
^ e
c o
"-S
fl
a
U
3
o)
a.
w
9
a
Tj
a
5
y
?
(44
0
U
n
u
U
.3
-a
"V
-fl
a
fl
w
^
T
a
'fl
0
LJ
y
•j
•a
0
_£
at
3
*
y
-3
i
•u
y
T;
-3 -
y _9
•5 o
S -
01 ••«.
— t TJ
,
u
a.
«
__^
^M
fl
5
£
' o
u
G
O
1
J
CN
fiO
C
>
^
—
"*. X
n w
SI
O fl
u-i u
a
•5 o
CO l-
C
•"3 a
y u
"3
**
u r*
'J) •
_^
^ ^
3
-3 u
y
3
***
— *
>s V<
—
-* y
^ >
O. — 4
*J 3
£ "™
C^5 T3
•o
U
•fl
3
U
0
£
0,
^l
3
en
•a
5
.1
TJ
3
OO
G
U
3)
a"
y
u
-3
C
lj
(3
-------
A-73
• Always changing
• Usually has much higher alkali content in the ash
• Feeds poorly
• Can lose ignition if wet or can almost explode with
threatening intensity.
Boilers and stokers, following well established design, have not
always been designed to cope with these properties. Accordingly,
refractories, tube walls, and superheaters have suffered.
Some designers still don't seem to be enough aware of these
effects.
On the other hand, in about 1965 or 1967, someone in Martin and
Von Roll evidently began to perceive that the superheater must not be
located where, even momentarily, its ash deposits could become overheated.
Thus, the Paris (Issy) (1965) and Ludwigshafen (1967) designs had the
superheater after a second, open radiant, water-tubed pass.
But Martin didn't use this again until 1971 at Kezo-Hinwil and
1972 at Hagenholz. And VKW even hung the superheater in the first pass as
recently as 1972 in Unit 5 at Dusseldorf. Then in 1976 at Krefeld and
Wuppertal, VKW placed the superheater beyond the first pass. Now in 1976,
Widmer & Ernst at Werdenberg has included the open second pass ahead of the
superheater.
Oddly, when Von Roll built Saugus near Boston in 1975, they
included no open second pass; but at Stapelfeld, to be completed in 1980,
Widmer & Ernst will. So the choice between the lower cost, close-coupled
boiler-superheater arrangement, and the more costly double-open pass is
still not yet clear among the various designers.
There are good reasons for the differences in plant design that
were encountered and there is much evidence of a continuing process of
evolution. At this time, 1977-78, it appears that the current "best"
boiler-furnace design in use for large, high-pressure units is the
completely water-tube-walled furnace and radiant section, studded and
coated with thin refractory in the intense burning zone, followed by one or
more long, open, vertical radiation passes preceding a convection-type
superheater and boiler-convection passes and an economizer.
However, an emerging newer philosophy is to follow the tall
water-tube-walled chambers by a long horizontal superheater and convection
section. This is called the "dacha" boiler because of its extended
horizontal configuration. Figure A-14 shows such a design for the proposed
Staplefeld plant at Hamburg. The purpose of this design is primarily to
enable all of the boiler convection tubes and, in many cases, the
superheater tubes as well, to be suspended vertically in the horizontal gas
passage. This arrangement makes it relatively easy to remove and replace
failed tubes from, the top. It also facilitates the removal of ash deposits
from those vertical tubes by means of mechanical rapping. Thus, the coalmen
threat of the erosive action of steam-jet soot blowers is eliminated. It is
too early to tell how effective this cleaning method will be in the long
run.
It is notable that the Stapelfeld (to begin operation about 1979)
platen-type superheater is preceded by an open, water-tube-walled second
pass to assure that the superheater is not touched by excessively hot flame
or furnace gases. Furthermore, it is in a location sucn that it is
completely shielded from furnace radiation. A similar design philosophy is
apparent at the Werdenberg and Zurich plants. 3oth of these factors will
combine to keep the ash deposits on the superheater from becoming heated to
the point that chlorine may attack the metal.
-------
A-74
FIGURE A-14.
DACHA TYPE SUPERHEATER AIO 30ILER
CONVECTION A5LRA-\'GE>£:™ FOR PROPOSED
STAPELFELD ?1A.\'T AT '-AHBU7.G (COURTESY
WIDMZR i ER.\'ST) . S - Suparhaarar
B - Boiiar Cor.vecric
-------
Tube and Wall-Cleaning Methods
In conventional boiler practice, the accepted method for removing
ash and carbon deposits periodically from the heating surfaces is by means
of steam-driven jets or "soot-blowers." However in refuse-burning practice
most plant operators have quickly learned that the high-velocity jets of
water slugs and steam from steam soot blowers can accelerate corrosion by
removing too much of the ash deposit. As discussed under metal wastage, the
ash deposit serves as a protective layer and corrosion inhibitor. When the
bare tube metal is exposed once or twice a day by excessive soot blowing,
high temperature chloride corrosion can be very rapid.
Accordingly some plants have abandoned soot-blowing completely.
Many have learned to use the soot blowers sparingly and then only in those
locations where occasional surface cleaning is particularly important to
satisfactory operation. Some have turned to compressed air blowers to avoid
any possibility of having slugs of steam-condensate being blasted against
the tubes during soot blowing. Others have arranged the convection surfaces
so that they can be shot-cleaned jy a periodic or continuous cascade of
steel or aluminum falling shot. Others use mechanical rapping of vertically
suspended tube banks.
Tables A-28 and A-29 list the various furnace-boiler cleaning
techniques employed at the plants visited.
Steam Condensers
At times when the connected energy demand is low, some quantities
of steam must be condensed in either water-cooled or air-cooled condensers.
This is done at 5 of 15 plants as listed below:
-------
A-76
1
= 3
2i
33
S?
i§
si
Sfi
If
la
33
5a
1
2
*•
g
1
JJ
sj
Jl
1
£
|
1
«
.
;
«
u
I
3
.,
i
V
X
J
1
^
1
* •
• «
to
•t
- 5:
a f ^
I i\
Is:
u •»
et
.
II
-
Jf
? 5 * ^ to
? ij i-:
! I: I:
- - j --
ali 1!
1
«•
4
i
11 §
1
: : !
.1 3
II 1 0
J S
* «
II ' '
•
i
l! , ,
13 . ,
* ' ' £
* t 1 •»
• ] i i
.111
.3 ?
: I 4 '.
•57 -5 J
"• * • *
• + 1 *
y <• a 3
! !
• •
4
r 3 . " -
. ^9 «• ••
i , 11 I 11
2
1
• « * • •
I I j S 1
to M
• if ?
3 »
: s 2 s 1
j 1 5 53
=
* a
• 1 ' 2 •
* O
• M
II
' i ' 2 '
' 1 ' Jl
, J , 75
a •
• i i • •
II
s :
11
1 1
I m m 11
11 s s s
• • 3 S3
•to «i
III "• "•
i 2
^
|
•
t ! !
•
i 1
i * i
1 1 ]j
i i
•f !
* • fc
to •
• «t •
"" * t '
{i ja
' ~ 2 »
:i i :
r
•
M
3
i i
: :
„
|
•
to
*•
•
•
*
? 2
if
'1
1?
Si *
1 ^
1 S
1 *•
*
•
i
*•
3
• •
; ^
4 5
•
1
a •
« ^
•• •
: J
»,
1
]
• ]
«
\
i
• = :
i i i
t i i
• • «
a 4 4
1 ' i
*
1 • 1
«
>
1 1 4
1
2
j
]
r.
j
3
** k «
i i i
* t i
i i i
. . 5
« « •
•i j •
1
«
— J J
5 i a
-------
A-77
TABLE A.-29. METHODS USED TO CLEAN TUBES AND
WALLS OF EUROPEAN REFUSE-FIRED
ENERGY PLANTS.
A. Automatic Remote Controlled Soot Blowing
1. Fixed Position - rotary motion
2. Retractable Positions - spiraling motion
3. Steam
4. Compressed air
B. Mechanical Rapping
1. Automatic continuously operating hammers
2. Sledge hammering of boiler tube bundles by operator
3. Unbalanced compressed air vibrator
C. Automatic Shot Cleaning
1. Falling aluminum shot
2. Falling steel shot
D. Chemical Additive
1. Blowing inorganic "Gamlenita 8" dust to soften deposits
E. Non-Chemical and Manual Cleaning of Cooled Furnace
1. Compressed air manually operated nozzles
2. Small miscellaneous brushes
3. Manual scraping
4. Pneumatic hammering
5. Powered rotating wire brush for fire-tube boiler
F. Chemical anc1 Manual Cleaning of Cooled Furnace
1. Soak with alkali, sodium carbonate or other chemicals
2. Rinse with high pressure water jets
3. Soak again
4. Rinse again
5. Scrub with brushes, pneumatic hammers and other tools
6. Sand blast difficult deposits.
-------
A-78
Boiler/furnace design conditions are shown in Table A-30.
Boiler heat release rates are shown in Table A-32. Comparative
energy recovery figures for Harrisburg, PA.; Gothenburg, Sweden;
Zurich, Switzerland and Duesseldorf, Germany are shown in Table A-31.
Steam Condensers
At times when the connected energy demand is low, seme quantities
of steam must be condensed in either water-cooled or air-cooled condensers.
This is done at 6 of 15 plants as listed below:
Plant Mode of Cooling Steam
Werdenberg Air
Baden-Brugg Water
Wuppertal Air
Hamburg:Stellinger-Moor Air
Zurich:Hagenholz Air
GothenburgrSavenas Air
Supplementary Firing of Fuel Oil,
Waste Oil and Solvents
Number 2 Fuel Oil can be fired at five of the surveyed plants.
Waste oil and/or solvents are fired at three plants, as shown in Table A-33.
The reasons for supplementary firing are:
• Emergency standby backup
• Routine firing when refuse burning ceases on weekends
• Preheat the RFES upon startup
• Keep boiler and electrostatic precipitator "hot" to prevent
dew point corrosion when unit is down
• Supplemental fuel oil keeps furnace temperature at legal limit
for destruction of pathogens, etc.
• Additional energy for routine uses.
In designing a total system, it is important to also consider the
various reasons for not spending funds to install such supplemental firing
features.
In each case listed below, the facility provides base load
interruptable energy. Often, if the refuse to energy plant does not have
continuous responsibility (as in the interruptable situation) the revenue
per 1000 pounds of steam is less.
The reasons for no supplanentary firing are:
• Hot water to a district heating system where the system has
other oil fired district heating stations
• Industrial process steam to a user that maintains his own
older conventional boiler ready for startup should there be an
interruption in the supply of refuse derived steam
• Electricity to an electric network where the loss of refuse
derived electricity would have Ittle effect on total network
operations
• Drying and burning of sewage that can be postponed several
hours or days if the sludge storage tanks are large enough
-------
o
I
z
u
en
£
i
oc
3
S
i
u
« 01
u u
fl) 3
* «
u u
a K
7
n
4J
4)
&
U)
U
8 c*>
i £
X 91
Sen
3
Of
U
I
*•
41
en
3
01
t£
"S
4J
u "S
eo u
41 b
>• «
VI
0}
IU b
O 41
Z 03
O
ft< sr
in
U o
en
2 0
"u in
03
00
en
en
O
en
00
00
•3
03
1
e
01
•V
eg
a
CM
en v£
O m
m en
O 0 0
en o in
en co o
f*" OD *T
r» 00 ej\
SO O
— i in
00 ••< CM
M CN
I
•4 in
n
01 41
*"4 ^
o o
03 S3
b
0 -1
13 SI
01 b
en oi
in a
oi a.
S J
en ^a>
§o o
rv r*.
>0 O O
en *» ^
O O O O
in -T -T o
O evi CM r-.
S S enS
«»--*•
O O O O
m o o o
CM oo co in
CN -^ -H — 1
9
^
CM
g,
-H
CM r. vo ^
en 00 O i**
-« F* CM CM
O O 00 vO
«M f*» 00 -*
^ -H rt CM
\o in CM
c* o en
b
o
i
01
00
c
^4
at
01 U)
•0 M 00
-1 .. U
oi n 3
41 b a
*tf a. x
m >o r^
00
00
0
CM
-a*
O
,«(
O
*
o
o
en
CM
**
^
O
e
41
00
a
.£
U
b
3
N
CO
S
in en en
^ «M CO
O r» oo
CO *"4 (*1
^ CM ^
§ § s
\c >n -^
*T CO 00
00 O O
o o o
O O u"»
o m -s?
(N fM PJ
vn
^o
o
1— <
•H 00 "^
00 u-i O
(N p^ in
»H
^
S
-.OO
09^
y-s
^-
^^
41
^q
>
31
a
•a
e oo
« b
ja -a
0) C —4
o. ij a
rtl l_l O-
-400.
Q U =
0 ~J
b
01
u
ro
^^ '
O
en
O
"*
0
o
^
-
o
o
CO
CM
in
O
in
-T
cn
01
G
ul
b
O
~
41
u
3
**^
CO
o
~*
o
o
^
-J
00
o
o
0
en
^
—i
0
—I
CM
p-4
O
CM
"*
O
as
Ui
30
<
fi
G
a.
o
u
OJ
nj
3
v--
00
o
1 —
"*
o
o
^D
-
00
O
o
0
n
^
^
o
-^
^
o
(NJ
^
o
C\
1
u
a)
2;
c
0}
M
T3
C
S>
3
t-i
u
0
cu
2
trt
•-H
-C
u
g
T)
a)
TJ
tn
c
CJ 11
en 3
ai (j
Q C
O
en u
3 J
c a
o
-------
^
i
2
31
^
e
w
31
Q
t» -P4
31 a
00
31
9)
31 31
a n
3.3
u 3)
,2*
<*)'
u
<*-t
•s.
3
flQ
^
en1
S
2
A
en1
m
u
en
u
en— .
a
^
U
a
£
£
3
*
a
^*
a
u
("*
o
8
-H
§
00
CM
5
ON
OS
ON
^
S
CM
**
M
-------
u -a oi o m
e c 01 u 2{
oj o js eg D 2
' - r> o s 5
2"§ S. *
II VI
*H «l
u u
>>
ad
u
§
I
cu
3
1
as
<
9i a 2
•rt U !0 «
S£3^
pa
01
e 3
o 2
•O -rt a
41 u 01 5
w o "-T
3 U « g
« i.*3
x 5 2
X5 «
- 3
a5
" >
3-3.21
s a ^-51
•-4 01 01 d
S3 M 5
-I 3 2
T4 eg vu "
§> 01
as oo
41 /-« S
en CNI sO *
P"» oo so
ill II I i i I
en ^
CN O -T CM en^rin en r* m -3* (** CFS
cri rH oo as cooaoo oar^ oococooo
sO<4*r^ Osor« sOO r^assOi
r^^a-^ inp*.o »-*ejs enenrsii
i r*« cfs sO r^« o CN CTS r^ O 00 eft
•asf^l »H3' O*J QsOenr*"
0)
0.
4JW4JU bUU UM U
cnoigin >>>• >. >. >.
HHHH >srmso •a'so en
sOeTssOr^ as^noo OOM *wp^ in oo O
in o O O O "™^ i™4 in ^ r^ so co o
(Menken en en CO en
t en os «M
O
3
3
SO
\o in en as
en »n ^r so
O 00 T M O
O so m 10
11
a.
a.
u (I)
eg 01
01 o
JS 13
b 8
01 eg
£ 01
00 u
•H 91
-C
"3
•o u
01 «
b 3
3
91 X
01
£
as
«sT
CM
Os
SO
o
«4
^4
en
o
o
01 '-s
iS
N
~4 **.
a j:
^ u
C -H
01 U
U 3
<3 eg
o 01
°
«
3
<9
U
0)
Jd
01
•3 -5
9)
3
e o
01 -a
01 eg
^
X
u ^
> ^
eg to
£ 3
w
01 u
01 a
3
-4 a
5 3
<-> a
eg a
01 ^
u 3
41 "3
3 a
O u
-. a.
oo u
b b
3 O
01 —t
•H 4)
b 01
b CQ
eg 3
X Q
3J sU
.£ ^
-------
CO
I
:/3
Z
_;
o
z
fc
z
vO
r" X
< -si
L^
1C -
-3 5
3 —
ackage Boiler Operates Unmanned on Weekends
Station Prior to Hurnlng in Refuse Incinerator, Tired
ghest Electricity Revenue Rate
i. ao -H
| f =
*™ Cg —
B y 3
:/) 2
tartnp and Emergency
yi
c
^5
41
3
Electricity Produced is Accepted Into Network Grid
tent ly
i jj
3 '-
41 4)
Z JJ
S
Z
> Longer Permitted. Waste Oil Diverted to Regional
Energy from Plant is fed Into the large district
Z <-> '
= if
"r* «i —
M CD „
a £z
X
3
u
3
4)
C
^
• w
41
tar tup. Burning of Methane Gas from the Sewage
t Plant has been discontinued.
v. =
S
"3 41
41 '-
x H
3
u
3
u
41
3
41
L.
«
3"
o
a
CM
3
Z
ac
u
u
C
u
O
41
jn
£.
O
V3
waste oil and solvents. Common steam header for all three
ys terns .
"3 X
a
C 41
y — i
11 3
jj
y
y
41
4)
ao
S
— -i
3
JJ
3
i — i
41
jj
X
_
3 '-
4) D
Z 3
Z
41
41
4)
y
41
ac
3
41
4)
X
ao
c.
C
•3
e
ao
3
41
Z
Z
Refuse Energy plant is only one module of largest distrlc
system in world .
• ao
•3 C
41 — i
41 _>
Z f.
4)
Z
u
_j
X
41
L.
H^
.— f
aO
«*
c
3
jj
3
.j
jj
41
-J
— H
X
4) C
• ac
"3 C
4) -i
z -
4;
Z
X
ao
li
4>
41
X
3
i_. •
V S
~ -J
X
-3 X
41
x ac
41 JJ
™i ^J
4)
41 j:
S y
10 X
5-,
u •—
•r s
41 11
eo —
c/: i
lj
41
4! X
Z —
C
•z.
41
JJ
- JJ
-s o
41 jj
Li 3
— ,«;
-^ jj
—^ en
Vv
JJ
afl s
- a
•H
3 -I
•3' b>
a i— i
3 s-
JJ 3
X
•3 X
41 4)
!— y
41
X -w
— 11
JJ U
c *-
3
jj 41
jj —
c
C •
41 JJ
-I C
«*J KM •
Cri — ^
X S
— t ao 3
4) CT ~
_J 4) -i
v: — 3
-J -3
• y li
-3 -4 L.
41 u — i
41 JJ —
z x ]_
3 "3 U
Z
Steam Is intermittently fed to adjoining oil fired
heat ing plant .
jj
•3 -^
4) W
41 ~i
Z X
-^
Z
emental Fuel Oil keeps the furnacr- temperature at Its lega
cessary to destroy contaminated (non-tissue) hospital wast'
" S
~
>j *^
r-
z
z
_;
^
5
v:
Is.
^
c^
C/4
3
_J
0;
r?
J3
u
w
0)
£
a
p— i
r-
*^ -
2
C/3
^
*""
«»
il
3
«.
(N
•
O
"Z.
~~l
—1
Q
OJ
JJ
«
^3
3
^~
0
" H
4)
C^
CM 41
• — '
3 3
Z Z
—
o
—^ F— •
— H CJ
o =
ti,
CJ
JJ OJ O4
75 r" *
r: 3 3
3 Z Z
— "
a
— *
QJ
~
w
JN
•
0
2
£
a
>
jO
M*
—X
M^
O
41
jj
X
c:
3
41
£
3
Z
41 u
C C
11
z
3
z
41
Z
C
"a
i
33
41
JJ
4)
aa
= I
S) Z
-S 4)
•3
41 '-
X C.
•3
O
41
U
X
U
U
3
3
I
U
1)
ac
c
41
ao
c ao
4) s
— 41
CJ
V3
U
41
ac
jj
x
41
-------
A-83
• Energy to a physically adjacent conventionally fired energy
plant where the total standby responsibility rests with the
neighboring plant
• A regional plan that mandates waste oil treatment and burning
at a distant facility.
Only 5 of the 16 plants described were designed with key functions
being served by fuel oil, waste oil or solvents.
Co-Disposal of Sewage Sludge and Refuse
In 1977, the Europeans were well advanced over North Americans in
the combined destruction of refuse and sewage sludge within the same
system. Seven (7) such plants were visited in Europe. Several other plants
are identified as well. Of note is that each of the six major European
manufacturers visited during this project have a co-disposal system in operation.
Most processes involve several stages of drying as listed in Table
A-34.a. Typically, a unit operation will convert incoming raw sewage sludge
at 9^-96 percent moisture to a 70-80 percent moisture. At this moisture
level, the sludge has a thick consistency that can lead to dramatic further
moisture reductions down to 5-20 percent. The third stage of several
processes is to combust where, by definition, the moisture content of the
sludge goes to zero. Thirty four (34) such systems are listed in Table A-34b.
From a reliability standpoint, each of the described processes
does work a respectable part of the time. Unfortunately, economic data was
not available for enough systems to perform any kind of economic analysis.
Air Pollution Control Equipment
Particulates
The emergence of the refuse-fired steam generator in Europe in
the 1960's was a direct result of the growing desire for pollution
control—especially control of flyash that made nuisances of many old
incinerators. That is, the very dusty, hot gases from the incineration
process had to be cooled before practical high efficiency flyash control
could be applied. The most logical means for cooling that gas is by means
of a boiler to produce useful hot water or steam. In seme cases, usually
anall plants, where energy recovery was not attractive, the gas cooling has
been achieved not through heat recovery but by means of water sprays or
air-cooled heat exchangers. However this wasteful practice has not become
widespread.
Regardless of the method used for cooling of the dusty flue gas,
the almost universal method for particulate removal from the partly cooled
gases has been electrostatic precipitation, (ESP). Here again the
considerable experience already developed in coal-burning practice was
available to guide the application of ESP's to RFES. One attempt was made
to apply cloth filtration (baghouse) at Neuchatel but, although the system
is still in operation, the results obtained were not outstanding.
Table A-35 shows the characteristics of the SS?' s at the plants
visited.
-------
A-84.a.
*s
00
tH 0)
•a W
c ca
u 's
o
oo
o
r--
a
in
I
o
oo
o
in
i
m
o
m
I
o
i
m
cn
'O
cu
1
o
u
CU
00
o
CN
I
I
m
m
en
pa
&
cn
H
O
•&
O
H
W
P-i
O
W
ca
cu
o
CO
? 2
o t;
en
I
W
H
c
c
•H
00
01
C
O
•H
4J
Cfl
J_j
cu
a
o
4-1
iH
c
D
vO vO ^ *O
j^ O^ CTN ON O^
CU 1 1 1 1
4J -3- -a- vr -a-
ctf O^ O^ ON (^
4-1
tH
fM
CU
CO
3
UH
CU
O
u
r*
tH
CD
^
CS
•a
£f)
1
CN
j_l
0
M-4
S
iH
•H
W
^
t-l
cd
o
Di
o
c
ca
Q
O
4J
C
•H
(U
00
T3
3
rH
C/5
oo
C
•rH
^
TH
s
V£)
Q\
1
O
C/3
pLj
orf
00
C
•H
C
3
«
cu
cn
3
UH
CU
E
O
4H
W
O
(1)
3
rH
fr !
4-1
O
P3
f*t
4-1
•H
S
=:g
•H
»*4
^,
M
4J
0
^o
O*v
1
>«3-
^
CU
00
T3
3
rH
C/3
•a
cu
•H
r4
P
O
fN,
33
$*£
in
rH
1
in
CU
E
0
•C
.u
•H
5
CU
00
•a
3
rH
W
4J
CU
^
oo
C
•H
^
•iH
Z2
0
oo
1
O
*"*
00
c
•H
C
tl
3
PQ
CU
Cfl
3
<4H
CU
Cd
E
0
14-1
cn
ca
o
CU
3
i-H
£t4
4J
O
Si
,£2
4-1
•H
S
rH
i-H
•rH
E
M
CU
ca
X
i-i
cu
^
0
c
o
•H
4J
•H
CO
o
ex
s
0
o
CU
p
a
-H
_a
o
M
ca
C
cn
^
o
•H
r<
eq
•H
^
ca
rH
o
a
iH
p
en
oo
c
•H
*s.
ca
~z.
u-i
m
I
0
in
•o
o
•H
j_l
(U
ex.
A
4J
C
0
2
rH
O
CN
1
u-i
rH
C
O
•rH
4-1
•H
cn
o
ex
E
0
CJ
CU
P
o
•H
j^\
O
>-i
cu
^4
O
HH
cn
^J
a
•H
S-i
ea
ex
l~i
00
c
•H
*^
ca
CU
^i
ea
C"
is
M
CU
ex
cn
cu
e
•H
4-J
cn
i
CN
00
c
•H
C
M
3
H
CU
cx
•H
P-t
^r;
4-1
•H
^
c
0
•H
4->
•H
cn
O
ex
E
o
o
cu
O
a
•H
fs
O
M
CU
<3
o
-------
A-84.b.
t- .
O U
< J
Oj o
tn
Q w
i a
8g
0! <
o £
to =
Z
en <
S z
to z"
>* o
. H
J <
< 3
fa
£ g
S3
u en
>
fi O
o •»
z E
< w
tc
J Q en
M < U
OS
M en ew
5 s. o
O u: z
u a <
.0
S
1
^
w
CO
H
X u
01 41 CO Q
OC OC O
4t iH •
w t/: S -u
QJ
2
en
93
u
o
Cu
e
= 5
*J 00 CO
Q sa u
a
o
E ' — .
eu • >,
t, u H re
£ £z a
~"T x
>• H flj
u « Q
-i CB JC
u C
ra -H
a. -:
3 S-^
C) H 3
« S S
Qi
CO
C
•H
^j
41
)^
4J
U
Q
3
C
U
C
3
3
X
•H
O
0 i^
1 1
0) p _C JJ
3 N- ' 3 • CC
41 h 414)*OOJCJ*H
OS 4ioj cnN4>Q£j:w
x PI o -H as u a
.C IH O rH t-< j: W QJ
*J CSX U-HT3JJ300
•^ y^ O QJ ^ 4)i-
3 e- 00 4) 41 O 1- N 3 41300
'-'C Ofi^-i(C • QJ -H ' » *j »-i «o
4> 4)*O i— ( X )-i O CJ CJ tJ -H QJ -f fll rH
•H 9 *H «H 4) fit. CCCCBC ^ iM OC Q C
Z i-ft- iJfcrf J^i-^fc- I*. S T3 ftD'O
WO KJS 333-O3 3 -K C
• fBQJJ fa fa fa O fa O * 'H * »— j fa CO
4J OD*&iZh O iJ 4J W 41 O C
S OM S QJ QJ QJ Ui QJ » » Q; 4J J-* *J J-t 1-1 C. CJ ^ * Q
3 S'^'H'HO X »-HiHS Wi W U QJ >- -^ U3W>wQ£
O 4j £^ CO O * Q tH*H4> 4> 4i4)t9QJ CQfH-u^d > M-I
e i*- e s ^ a: = = = = caco c c c
X*H x e a E a; E hua ^ -c 3 — c/i w o
I^ ti ^_( ,— , ^H *O i— ' 4) QJ -H QJ O QJ W 4) QJ T5 T3 • TD -^ C
4J QJ 4J [b fa fa iH fa S E ^ & &C.»CU-H03QJ>--i— (UW (A-H
QO. O iJ flJtCS •H-H-HCfi-H>O4)O.l-O-^4i 4»*J
3 .H -H ^ ^ .HrHf-t'Hi-ISp q i-( 4i
OO O -C J: JZO^wC OOO 3 33U3 — ( -o O ^ W C J OOO
CO -H « OO O CO i— 10 (OCflCn 0 OOWO O^^^ «l-n -H
OCQJ 00 U -D OC 00 bO C • C C 00 C CC.4I 4-t Oi 41 0! O *H
4)^ D tt(C C4)OtQ tn CJ QJ QJ r* 41 WTUt^QjtD TJ W QJ O
33 3 4)(U QJ 3 tH QJ 0333 fa ON fa fa 3 fa fat33Oo333(01-
f-Hi-Hr-4 ^^t^Hr-i^Hp^^l^n^HjHiH «H iH f-i
§o
o
rH iH*
CMOO^ ^a^ooeNO>a'CM<'H i— I i— 1 i— 1 i— 1 t-4 rH (N iH (N i— 1
m
muiu-tinm »ntn r*» mcsj
gO fs) ^3" \Ocv')CN(NlON\OOO^OvOr4r>>r>*i>CM
M M ^H
CN r-i ^ FH^CMCN^ ^^ C C JJ
c c UQUUCU cc e-*H g
41 4) 4>CQ414>4> O ^ QJ
O O 3O33O CQL^X COPs
«> « s > > a: > £ < « M S S >s» B 3 z z 33 u «£b s c2
« "O -O T3
•0 C C C
fa -H »H F-I
ce
Jd ' .-4
* a TJ c u. •
u s c -a • • c • —i
X3 t7U r-t OOfHC'-'ZCXiZnecj
u •• FHC3-K ^ SWOCflCO-fCOfl-
FI e * eu-nuij 3 uocju-^oo-zutuc
OCU CU *Wr*f^3'QU NU^ U V3C*>U*Q CQO
ffl5 § ^ctikf^flFSweniSaio je i •§ ™«5'28j=m'S25 JS it?
^eU CCCU>3CB£X-£OOUCOCJO>^^)CA
-------
A-85
C/3
as
o
H
<
H
M
0-
)^
Cd
04
0.
CJ
M
C
00
•H
0}
01
Q
01
C it
3 iH
rH G
o a
Mfll
w
d su
a
!4 0-
oi cn
.Q Cd
g
3 <4-l
Z O
^
4J
4J-H
•H O
C CO
3M
CU
CO
CJ
rH -U
CO 4J iH
ecu
•H ca co
§rH Cw
£4 Cfl
Z CJ
^
CO
>•>
oo
CN 00
U CN
CM
rH
CN
CM ST
8 rH
«
rH
rH
CO CM
<44 CN
r^
CO *O
e o
cn oo
E 1
IM O 00
y rH sr
tn X
.c cn o
cn O cn
j5 rH 00
Z X
rH
CO M
01 4= O
C W u"i
^J O>
cn co
01 "O
e o
C (4 CM
O 01 rH
•u a
O O 00
rH CN cn
CN O O
in CN o
ON O NO
* «*
CN cn
rH CN CN
cn r^ r^»
CM cn CM
o
r*« rH 00
O rH O
r- ON
• •
p*» CM
cn CM
0 0
sr ON
NO cn
CM cn rH
cn O m
cn O CM
o o
^^ ^0
CM CM
A
iH
O in CM
00
00 *4
3 V4
W 0
B3 T3
1 rH
e oi
0) CO
•o w
ca s
a Q
o o
cn cn
CM CM
o o
cn cn
O O
oo oo
M M
CN CN
CM CN
cn cn
cn cn
O O
i— 1 rH
ON NO
• •
00 O
m in
O o
^D ^0
O 00
rH
•^ CN
0 0
m CN
O NO
^ r**
^r m
*
rH
NO NO
\^h ^^
i—H
cO
•W T3
J»J l~"l
OJ . O
NO 00
O
M
p^
NO O
ON ON
^
CN
-— • ao
01 U
rH O)
•H e
> 0)
3 .£
<0 "
0) O
0 CJ
II
1
1 1
1 CN
cn NO
CM rH
rH OO
0 0
cn CM
• •
P** rH
rH CM
cn o
ON NO
CM cn
rH rH
O O
in m
p4.
O O
,CM CN
rH rH
0 ST
ON ON
CO CO
rH C
CO Ol
CO CO
e. u
a. o
' '
I I
CN CM
oo oo
CM CM
NO NO
00 CO
0 0
o o
cn cn
NO NO
0 O
r- r>-
O O
rH rH
1 1
O 0
CM CM
rH rH
sr CM
vo in
00 rH
rH
O O
CJN ON
^4
01
00 4->
CO Cfl
£ 01
•3 s
c c
01 0)
ao ao
CO CO
.e A
c c
01 01
o. a.
o o
CJ CJ
•
01
JZ
T3
Ol
01
•u
•H
ca
c
0
y
CO
•H
U
C
CO
rH
a
CO
•H
J=
•U
e
•H
4J
•H
3
jj
Cfl
01
3
01
c
CU
u
>^
rH
C
o
s-\
rH
Cfl
O
i4
CO
rH
3
00
01
f-
u
01
fa
u
c
ca
iH
a
rH
rH
CO
g
CO
Cfl
•H
JZ
U
j^
O
U4
4-1
3
rO
A
CU
cn
Cd
Cfl
5
**•
CU
rH
rH
vH •
3 <4-l
co y
oi ca
O '-.
• - oo
e
O NO
•H CM
y o*
-Hcn"^
rH £
O Z
y "*^
ao
cn
3 0
T3 0
NO
rH
CO O
ao u
3
•H 3
4J C
C O
0) -H
y co
CO
cn t-i
tQ £
£ 5
CU 4J
O, -H
=- £
01 u
•H 01
a o-
x^S
r^i
-------
A-86
u
cn
fc.
an o
z "
< — (
0- >
O 01
fii — J
~~l ^—^
Cti CS-O
O 01
H CJ 4J
01 3
Jfl iJ •— )
H CJ 5
» "3 cn
C i-l
Z -H
C C
—• yi o
cn — ^ -H
cn cn u
rH 01 CC
S £ I-
e c
cn 0) o
—1 Lj f ]
C cs C
U C- O
cn u
< c
c •« a
c cn Ij
M i"
C£ 01 -S
~~. ^ ;j
W. E t-t
< 3 J=
t: z 3
•
^o
en
(
•a-
^ P^ O
-H ,H CO
"^ i i
f*^ ^J *B^
O n~ O
O O vn
•» *
t— H t—4
-H -3-
• •
l-« CO
1 1 1
i~-f f^«
• •
vO r-»
N
rH
C
JH
C
01
«-i x ec
v- cn re
O co s
•a M «
r-H •• w
oi cn o
CD —4 iH
cn u u
3 S3 3
Qc.cs
8
1 1
CN
,/MV
p«*
1 1 —
0
y--S
0 ^
SM/ S-X
0 0
CO O <^N
co co r-»
1 1 ^-*
C O cs
ffN O CO
CS
1 I 1
^— ^
O ^-N
r" f*"*
^-fc^ N^.*
<• o
1-* O ^S
r— O> P^-
i i ^^
CS O O
cs O c~
P^ -*y
I
-T 00
• •
^O 00
/^
f-H
v^
ij
c
PJ
p—
b
OI jS
ec u
c c
E OI
< U
• • [£„
C
ai cn
OC 3
C (5 O
»— < .£ c:
CO C >,
cn oi c
c. c. c
e. o c
=J O <
CO
rH
0
c
OJ
c.
cn
rH
O
£
0
a
cnro
oi e
0 --
•u oC
0) S
^o
* •
cn cs
OI
T3 cn
X Cy
•£• !3
OI
•o cn
•H -a
w c
3
. 0
cn e.
"O £
-H 0
a o
co
CJ
CJ iH
C CJ
CC X
00 CJ
I- X
0 rH
O
o
-o
E C
3 (8
cn
u
0) — <
j= 1—1
4-J CJ
^,
- CJ
u
c -a
CO C
-H EC
C.
„
r* (/;
CJ U
C — l
01 J-J
i- a
fe. j:
c.
CH -n
3 r--
O -C
E
c cn
C r-<
c c
C3 C
01
oi j:
j= a.
iJ ^
i—1
J_J C
< 2.
/X^,
•— (
*
en
£
2
*^^
SC
E
CN
•
o
•3
CU
rH
re
u
o
rr
U
T3
C
>c
»t
cn
»*
z
U-i
C
cn
•u
c
3
O
a.
E
o
CJ
CJ
rj
oC
^
O
U
0)
^J
c
/^v
fN
r^ ,
•C C —
en
S
z:
-x""» • *
CC
E
^
r— i
C.
— -^ ; ;
^j
*— •»
3
E
-
— •( CS
CJ t c
• •
£
C.
iJ
CJ
OC
C r"
jj ;*•
f- "
0
s I
cy
c
0
u
CS
C
-------
A-87 '
Precipitator Maintenance
Reliability of ESP ' s has been excellent except where the inlet
gases have been too hot: above about 250 C (482 F). This has caused very-
rapid corrosion and deterioration of the precipitator. In most cases this
overheating has been caused by an unanticipated increase in the heat value
of "the municipal refuse or wearing grate systems. Then if the boiler
heating surfaces were not amply designed to cope with the resulting
excessive heat release in the boiler-furnace, the gases pass on to the
precipitator at high enough temperature to cause serious corrosion. In some
cases this overheating may not occur until toward the end of a long period
of operation when the heating surfaces are heavily coated by ash. Many
plants then shut down for through boiler cleaning, usually after 3000 to
4000 hours.
Gases
Some attention is now being given to controlling gaseous
emissions - HC1, HF and SOg. However these gases are not emitted in high
concentrations, and their ambient levels in the vicinity of even the
largest plants is probably so low that no attempts have been made to
measure nor to estimate them continuously in the surrounding air. Instead
their control is now being considered just because they are perieved to be
a problem. At present only in West Germany are new or modified plants now
required to control gaseous emissions to the following levels (at 0 C, 32
F, corrected to 7 percent 003):
HC1: 100 mg/Nm3 (62 ppm) 0.083 lb/1000 Ib gas
HF: 5 mg/Nm3 (11 ppm) 0.008 lb/1000 Ib gas
S02 500 mg/Nm3 (175 ppm) 0.46 lb/1000 Ib gas
Accordingly only in Germany are scrubbers being tried. None was
working satisfactorily at the plants visited. However, except for the very
major maintenance problem always caused by the corrosiveness of acidic
scrubber water, air emissions of HC1 can probably eventually be controlled
because it is highly soluble in water. HF should also be absorbed in a
scrubber but the scant data available on HF emissions indicates that the
German limit of 11 ppm at 7 percent CC>2 is readily met without scrubbers .
Similarly, the sulfur content of refuse is so low and the probaible capture
of 25 to 59 percent of the sulfur by the alkalis in the ash means that S02
control will often be unnecessary to meet the 175 ppm emission limit in
Germany.
One vexing aspect of scrubbers is that the saturated gas leaving
the scrubber often creates a highly visible white steam plume. It may
actually be a very clean plume but its appearance calls attention to
possible emissions. Also if conditions are such as to produce large water
droplets in the plume the resulting "rain" will be acidic because no
scrubber removes 100 percent of the acid gas. The solution to a white plume
and its acid rain is to reheat the plume to about 80 C (176 F) by means of
steam-heated heat exchangers. However, reheaters consume energy and are
subject to plugging and corrosion. One practical solution to this problem
will be used at Wuppertal. The plan is to scrub a major part but not all of
-------
A-88
the gas to a level surpassing the allowable limit, meanwhile bypassing the
uncleaned portion of the hot gas to a mixing and reheat section. The
resulting reheated mixture can then be discharged without visible plume or
acid rain while still being within the allowable emission limit.
Measured Gaseous Emissions
Table A-36. shows the results of emissions measurements at
selected plants.
Gaseous Emission Limits
Table A-37. shows the emission limits applicable to refuse burning
in the countries visited.
So far only in Germany and Sweden is there any limit on gaseous
emissions, and even in Sweden the value of 40 mg/Nm3 (approx. 20 ppm) of
total acid gases is not a limit but a signal: if a plant exceeds that
emission level it must undertake a study of feasible means to control
emission. Presumably then actual control requirements will depend on the
cost of feasible control and whether the need for improvement in local
atmospheric quality levels warrant that expenditure.
Trends in Emissions Control
As can be seen from Table A-37 and the prior discussion,
particulate control in these plants is excellent and high standards are
regularly achieved. There is no strong trend in Europe to further control
particles nor to control gaseous emissions. Many agencies appear to be
awaiting the demonstrated effectiveness and reliability of the acid gas
scrubbers now going through normal problems of startup in Germany at
Wuppertal, Krefield and Kiel. If these eventually prove out to be as
effective, maintainable and cost effective as ESP's there will probably be
a trend to apply them more widely, especially in densely populated areas
where ambient pollution levels are high. On the other hand, since there are
no data to demonstrate the specific needs for elimination of HC1 and HF
from the ambient air, if their removal turns out to be as formidable a task
as S02 control has been for coal-fired plants, the control of HC1 and HF
emission may become limited to those situations where a specific measurable
need can be shown.
Start-Up and Shut-Down Procedures
Detailed comnents about such procedures were obtained at four
facilities. Starting up a unit can take anywhere from 2 to 24 hours
depending on how much the furnace had cooled from the last firing.
Often a light oil burner is used to preheat the boiler and
electrostatic precipitator. A slight variation is that the oil burner is
almost always kept on upon shut-down to prevent dew point-corrosion of the
boiler and electrostatic precipitator.
At some of the plants the importance of a uniform and controlled
rate of increase in burning rate is recognized as an important factor in
minimizing equipment overheating and elaborate procedures are specified to
assure that objective.
-------
A-89
3
TABLE A-37. EMISSION LIMITS, mg/Nm*
(Parentheses indicate C
which the concentration is adjusted)
(Parentheses indicate CO. level to
COUNTRY
W. Germany
Switzerland
P ARTICULATES
mg/Nm
100(7)
100(7)
HC1
ag/Nm3
100(7)
500(7)
HF
mg/Nm
5(7)
_
so2
mg/Nm
500(7)
300(7)
France 1 tonne/hr 1,000(7)
1-4 tonne/hr 600
4-7 tonne/hr 250
7-(15)tonne/hr 150
over (15) tonne/hr 30*-' '
Holland
Sweden
100(7)
180(10)
0(10)
(b) (b)
(b)
Denmark small plants 180(10)
large plants 150 (11) 1,500
USA 180
(a)
(b)
(O
Estimated from incomplete data. May be 150 mg/Nm^
Total acid equivalent - Exceeding this total, 40 mg/Nm3 for all acid gases,
feasible control system.
SO., plus SO .
The conversions to volume units are:
HC1
HF
multiply mg/Nm^ bv 0.62 to get ppm
" 1.12 to get ppm
" " " 0.35 Co get ppm
To convert parciculates: mg/Nm^ to grains/set", multiolv bv .00043
-------
A-90
CONCLUSIONS
(And Comparisons of
U.S. Versus European Practice)
The following conclusions are arranged in order of their
discussion in the evaluation volumes and not in order of importance.
Major conclusions have been presented in a. previous section.
World Wide Inventory
Of Waste-to-Energy Systems
• The "3attelle Worldwide Inventory of Waste-to-Energy Systems"
shows (as of March 1979) 522 locations where daily operating
plants have, are or will process waste into energy. Also
included are several large pilot and demonstration plants.
• Were all waste-to-energy systems consuming bark bagasse, waste
oil, waste solvents, etc., known, our estimate is that well
over 1000 systems exist and operate on a daily basis.
• Very few of the plants opened since World War II have closed.
Plants typically operate for 25 to 40 years.
• Plants have been producing electricity from household refuse
since before the term of the century although not always
continuously: Hamburg (1896), Paris (1903), Zurich (1904) New
York (1905), etc. The European systems have been replaced by a
succession of refuse to energy systems.
• On the average, there are two furnaces per system. Some
systems have up to six furnaces.
• The average furnace capacity is 232 tonnes (255 tons) per day.
• During the 1977 survey period, the U.S.A. had about 9430
tonnes of installed capacity and was consuming less than 5000
tonnes per day in waste-to-energy systems. This compares to a
1977 worldwide capacity of 101,937 tonnes.
• This converts to 0.0436 Kg (0.0959 pounds) total generation
per U.S. person per day. If plans hold true and there are not
further closings, this per capita figure should rise to 0.1818
Kg (0.4 pounds) of waste per person per day
converted to energy in the U.S.A. by 1983-
• Japan has more systems and processes more waste than any other
country. However, due to the high moisture content, very
little useful energy is produced for sale.
• The Central European countries of West Germany, France and
Switzerland have concentrated on high temperature steam
systems for electrical production and district heating.
• Scandanavian countries use more refractory wall furnaces with
waste heat boilers to produce hot water for district heating.
• Sewage sludge is dried and usually disposed of by the energy
in refuse in 25 co-disposal systems worldwide.
-------
A-91
The U.S.A. inventory shows 31 systems that are major pilot
plant or demonstrations.
In the U.S. we have tried to develop new approaches to enjoy
recovering while the remainder of the world has continued to
build mass burning energy recovery systems.
Communities and Sites Visited
Generally speaking, the sampling of 15 European communities is
a fair representation of those U.S. communities that might
undertake resource recovery with respect to collection areas,
terrain, boundaries and population.
Waste shed populations served by single plants range from a
winter population of 20,000 in Dieppe to a year-round
population in Paris.
Many of the plants are most attractively designed, landscaped
and located in residential or downtown business areas.
Separable Waste Streams
This report, while mainly concerned with the treatment of
household, commercial and light industrial waste, also
discusss treatment of other waste streams within the same
plant gate. The total list follows:
- Household, comnercial and light industrial (typical
garbage truck loads)
- Bulky household and large industrial waste
- Waste water and sewage sludge
- Source separated material (paper, bottles, etc)
- Materials from front end separation - but without
shredding (white goods, tires, copper in motors)
- Waste oils and solvents
- Industrial chemicals and hazardous wastes
- Animal waste
- Street sweepings
- Construction, demolition debris and ash
- Junk automobiles
Many facilities have been planned with the various component
activities for synergistic benefits.
One example is the odors that are collected in a new rendering
plant and are piped 100 feet to the refuse fired energy plant
for destruction.
Another example are the seven plants out of thirty viewed that
use the energy content in refuse to dry sewage sludge prior to
burning the sludge or land disposal.
Finally, there are industrial and hazardous waste processes
needing a high temperature and long residence time.
Afterburning may be offered by a high temperature refuse
furnace.
-------
A-92
Collections and Transfer Stations
Compared to America, there is more collection in Europe by the
public sector.
In several cities there is labor representation in traditional
management functions.
There are occasional computerized systems for route
management, fiscal control and billing.
There is a clear trend away from the open top metal refuse
container in favor of rubber, plastic or paper containers.
As in America, collection costs represent 70 to 90 percent of
the total solid waste management costs.
Assessment methods for collection and disposal vary widely
from city to city.
European collection vehicles have similar features, options
and size ranges as in the U.S. However, due to smaller and
winding streets, the size distribution is different. This
results in a smaller average size vehicle.
Collections are made 5 or 5-1/2 days per week. Collectors work
5 to 8 hours per day.
Due to the increasing energy value of refuse, and limited heat
capacity per furnace many plants will no longer accept
"hotter" industrial solid waste, (pallets, cardboard, rubber
and plastic trimmings) some systems wet this "hotter" waste
before burning.
Transfer station systems are being developed in Europe as in
the U.S.
Composition of Refuse
While there will be excursions below and above this range, the
moisture content normally varies from a low average of 22.5
percent to a high average of 32.5 percent. The average among
six facilities was 27.1 percent.
European refuse has been rapidly approaching the composition
of American waste as Europe has continued to "modernize" its
way of life.
Heating Value of Refuse
Because of the hydrogen content in refuse the higher heating
value (HHV) conventionally used in the U.S. is roughly 7.0
percent higher than the lower heating value (LHV) as used in
Europe.
Recently the lower heating value averages varied from 1600 to
2800 Kcal/kg (2,850 to 5,000 Btu/pound) (6690 to 11,700
Kj/Kg). Simply adding 7 percent increases this to (3050 to
5350 Btu/pound). Thus today, European refuse contains almost
as much energy as does American waste. This is a major shift
from 25 years ago.
The heating values, which have risen dramatically since 1945,
are expected to begin stabilizing as citizens become more
-------
A-93
conservation conscious, as petroleum becomes more precious and
as material needs become satisfied.
The dramatic rise in heating values has adversely affected
facility performance. Boiler tube corrosion has increased.
Downtime is up as well as maintenance costs. Many units have
eventually been derated. As inferred above some 10 or 15 year
old plants have discontinued receiving "hotter" industrial
waste in an attempt to reduce the overall average heating
value to design values.
"Hotter" waste is inherently neither good nor bad. However,
the designer must have a correct prediction of what his unit
should expect over its reasonable life.
Refuse Generation and Burning Rates Per Person
Most facilities viewed accept household, commercial and light
industrial waste for burning at about these rates:
- 318 kg per person per year (household and light
conmercial)
- 45 kg per person per year (other commercial and light
industrial)
- 363 kg per person per year (total normal)
- 800 pounds per person per year
- 1.00 kg per person per day
-2.2 pounds per person per day
Development of Visited Systems
The primary motivation for constructing refuse to energy
plants in Europe has been to replace an existing landfill,
compost plant or incinerator or to add additional incineration
with heat recovery capacity. However, dramatic changes in the
world energy supply will affect future attitudes as
wast e-to-energy.
At none of the 15 major and 15 minor visited plants did. anyone
indicate to these authors that the primary motivation was
connected with energy i.e. cost savings from free fuel, energy
conservation or unavailability or other energy forms.
Citizen and elected local official's perception of harmful
effects from landfills is greater in Europe than America. This
U.S. perception may be changing due to relevations about the
"Love Canal" at Miagra Falls. Relevations that 60 to 80
percent of the American municipal waste landfills have
accepted hazardous waste are also bound to increase the
American citizen's perception of the hazards of unfcrolled
landfilling.
Many Europeans in moderately populated areas have greater
concern for the destiny of land than Americansninisimilar
areas.
For many years, European federal governments have
energetically supported refuse-fired energy plants at the same
time that the U.S. Public Health Service and USEPA were
-------
A-94
innovatively developing and encouraging the sanitary landfill
concept.
A corollary is that because many Europeans did not learn about
or develop enthusiasm for the sanitary landfill, they turned
to one of the other two key disposal alternatives: either
composting or refuse to energy plants.
Many European equipment vendors have not joined the American
thrust towards refuse derived fuel and co-firing and hence
such technical options have not been readily commercially
available in Europe. Many of these vendors have expressed the
following attitudes toward co-firing of refuse and coal,
resulting in little continental enthusiasm. These authors are
journalistically reporting actual attitudes and do not
necessarily attest to the scientific validity of the
statements:
- "You should not burn refuse in the same combustion
chamber with fossil fuel (coal, oil or gas). The high
temperature of the fossil fuel will melt the fly ash.
This fused and sticky fly ash will hit the wall or super-
heater tubes and instantly freeze a hard deposit that
quickly reduces thermal efficiency. The more brutal tube
cleaning methods needed will likely break large and hard
deposits off thus leaving bare tubes now exposed to new
corrosion. Many refuse furnaces equipped with auxiliary
waste oil jets no longer use them - even though the waste
oil may be free."
- "Front-end preparation systems have a history of jams and
other mechanical problems that reduce reliability and
increase costs."
- "Seme Americans are under the false impression that a
homogeneous fuel is needed for steady steam output. Our
European systems do not need a uniform fuel. Attem-
perators (desuperheaters) and temperature sensing analog
computers can carefully control steam temperatures to
plus or minus 5 C. degrees.
- "Explosive material in a shredder can cause explosions
and fires inflicting destruction and occasionally loss of
of life. The same explosive material in a furnace ex-
plodes usually without harm to the furance/boiler.
(During the tour Battelle heard stories of explosions but
no incidents of damage were reported to the authors.)
"Why do the Americans waste all that effort and cost in
preparing the refuse. We just throw it into the pit, mix
to a relatively uniform charge and drop it into the
furnace hopper."
In general, net operating costs per ton, after sale of
resources recovered, have always been two to four time greater
in a refuse to energy plant than in a landfill of prevailing
practice at the time (of design or of construction).
Regarding leachate, the U.S. approach has been to "correct"
the problem by operating a better landfill. Europe's approach
-------
A-95
has been to "avoid" the problem by burning the refuse and
recycling the ash into useful products.
Composting, very fashionable in Europe 10 to 20 years ago, has
fallen as a chosen alternative because large volume,
consistent product markets could not be maintained.
In five of the visits, the plant was a replacement for refuse
to energy plants that had served the community for many years.
Satisfaction with refuse to energy operations of over 8
decades naturally enforces the momentum to continue with
resource recovery. Hamburg, W. Germany has been producing
electricity form refuse since 1896; Zurich since 1903.
In sumnary the European attitude might be stated as follows:
- "We don't like landfills
- We don't think that a compost product can reliably be sold
- American type front-end resource recovery seems to be
needless because of the high processing cost, low
materials revenues and that the energy plant doens't need
the uniform fuel
- So what's left?
- Refuse fired, mass burning, energy production
- If we have to pay more for proper disposal, so be it."
We predict that in time, Europeans wil learn more about the
advantages of a sanitary landfill. Perhaps also in time, the
American front end processing systems utilizing refuse derived
fuel (RDF) will mature and be attractive to European decision
makers as a reliable and economical alternative.
There is one sour note regarding future refuse to energy
systems. The Swedish Government has adopted a policy of
disfavoring further construction of refuse to energy systems.
The SOg acid fallout is extensive in Sweden. About 10,000
lakes are "dead" because of an acid condition and more lakes
are affected each year—primarily from sulfates due to fossil
fuel (coal and oil) burning throughout not only Sweden but all
Europe. There is concern about mercury already in some lakes
from industrial wastes and in batteries and florescent tubes
evaporated in refuse burners. Some claim that this mercury
will more quickly convert to more readily assimilated methyl
mercury when in these acidified lakes.
Total Operating System
The report presents single tables which show for a unit of
time, tons refuse processed, ash output, energy output,
efficiency, operating hours, steaming rate, air pressure, etc.
A detailed review of these tables with concentration on ratios
between operating variables should improve the reader's
understanding of the total operating system and how one
activity affects another.
-------
A-96
Organization and Personnel
• Each of the 30 systems visited in Europe was owned by either
the local municipality or a not for profit authority. Of the
15 plants studied in detail, cities own 8, authorities own 6,
and a nationalized electric company owns one. To our
knowledge, private enterprise does not own any daily operating
resource recovery systems in Europe consuming municipal waste.
• The 120 observed job titles can be condensed into 55 personnel
categories.
• Potential economics of scale for large plants were often
negated by establishing too many job categories and placing
too many people into them.
• Rather than hire permanent employees, many plants extensively
use outside services.
• The program of education, training and experience varies among
countries. The Germans have a. very rigorous program of
schooling, navy or merchant marine boiler room experience,
more schooling etc. Other countries however emphasize
on-the-job training.
• The majority of furnace/boiler operators and plant managers
have had sea experience.
Economics
Capital Investment
• Capital investment costs per daily ton capacity have increased
5 fold during the past 10 years. The 1960-1968 "capital cost
per daily ton" ranged from $13,000 to $15,000 at three
surveyed plants. The average for all 15 plants was about
$35,000. The three later plan.ts built in 1975 and 1976
averaged about $70,000. Plants in the early 1980's could
initially cost over $100,000 per daily ton capacity.
• Of special note is that the three co-disposal systems
(Krefeld, Horsens, and Dieppe) have higher than average
capital costs. Considering the accompanying equipment, this is
understandable.
• Seven reasons are discussed as contributors to this dramatic
rise:
- Inflation
- Exchange rate devaluation
- Corrosion protective equipment designs
- Architecture and landscaping for neighborhood acceptance
- More complex energy use systems
- More air pollution control equipment
• American systems, for the same point in time, were usually
less expensive than European systems.
• The American systems do not have as many "bell and whistle"
design features as the European systems.
• the American purchaser has not previously feared corrosion
enough to demand protective features.
-------
A-97
• The American buyer often concentrates more on the lowest bid
while the European buyer prefers a reliable system that he and
the conn unity can be proud of.
• Most European systems have very aesthetic features of
architectuure, landscaping, conference rooms, offices, shower
and locker rooms, etc.
• There are enough systems in Europe that personnel can choose
among the many plants. Decision makers believe that the
aesthetics, safety and worker comfort features are needed to
attract and hold qualified employees.
• The essential difference, however, is momentum. With 275
systems to visit and be familiar with features, the European
buyer knows and appreciates his options. To some extent, there
may be peer pressures to have an excellent system. We
Americans have not been exposed to enough facilities to have
developed the same Continental appetite.
Expenses, Revenues and Net Disposal Costs
• Conmunities that have insisted on extra "chute-to-stack"
design and operating features to increase reliability have
benefited by having lower net disposal costs.
• The four refractory wall furnace/waste heat boilers surveyed
each had net disposal costs lower than the average for all 15
plants surveyed. Hence American buyers should think also of
the refractory wall furnace and waste heat boiler when
discussing the "European Technology".
• The plants averaged $27 per ton for total gross expenses.
• Removing the small and most expensive plant at Werdenberg
yields an average of $24.33 per ton total expense.
• With the exception of Werdenburg, there seems to be little
effect of plant capacity on total expenses per ton of refuse
processed, i.e., there seems to be little if any economy of
scale.
• Revenues from sale of energy averaged about $7.50 per ton
throughput.
• All 5 of the 15 systems receiving the highest revenue per
refuse input ton are providing energy to district heating
systems. Their average revenue is $9.76 per ton.
• All 5 of the 15 systems receiving the lowest revenue per
refuse input ton are adversely affected by very competitive
fossil fuel or nuclear electrical power stations. Their
revenue averaged $5-30 per ton.
• As the price of conventional fossil fuel rises higher than the
average inflation rate, there is a potential for the revenue
from energy sale to rise, resulting in declining net disposal
costs and tipping fees.
• The 1974 Nashville Thermal Transfer Corporation with a net
disposal cost of $2.00 per ton and the new 1980 Akron system
having estimated costs of $3-50 per ton have excellent net
costs to tax payers because of the high steam price paid by
district heating customers of $6.00 and $5.50 per 1000 pounds
-------
A-98
steam respectively. Assuming 5,000 pounds of "reasonable
quality" steam can be produced from one ton of refuse,
revenues at Nashville and Akron would be around $30.00 and
$27.50 per ton of refuse. In no way could such energy revenue
be raised by sale of electricity alone. No European system
observed had such low net disposal costs.
Those plants that processed their ash into ferrous scrap and
road building aggregate received about 40 cents per ton in
revenue but avoided about $1.00 per ton in landfilling of ash
per refuse input ton.
Refuse Handling
• For furnace feeding all plants observed have the system of
"pit crane mixing and loading into the feed hopper". No plant
observed has the American system of dumping refuse onto the
floor, moving it by front end loader onto conveyors, etc.
• Crane operators are situated in the stationary control rooms
along the front side or back of the pit. This is in contrast
to many American systems where the cab is located on the
crane. European designers have concern for operator safety
should there be a pit fire.
• Most modern plants, especially in Scandinavia, use
plastic-magnetic cards inserted by truck drivers on entry as
part of the automatic weighing and billing system.
• Large plants usually have a separate weighing station while
very small plants have the weighmaster actually inside the
plant control room.
• Many plants shear bulky combustible objects (desks,
mattresses, couches, etc.) in a powerful scissors shear for
size reduction to pieces less than 1 m (1 yd) in length.
• Many plants have large separate containers for receipt of
ferrous metals, cardboard, bottles which can be recycled.
• Source separation progrms for newspapers, cardboard, bottles,
cans, etc. will not substantially detract from energy
production.
• Many Northern and a few Southern European plants have enclosed
tipping halls.
• Most systems have doors between the tipping floor and the pit
(1) to keep odors inside when the system is closed, (2) to
permit a higher negative pressure and thus better odor control
when operating and (3) to increase the effective volume of the
pit for refuse storage against a few of the closed doors.
• Most pits are designed to hold 3-5 days volume of refuse.
• Most pits are equipped with fire control devices.
• Most plants have at least two cranes to provide redundancy.
• A key crane operator function is to mix incoming refuse prior
to loading into the hopper.
-------
A-99
Grates and Primary Air
Burnback is common in hoppers and feed chutes. Some are
water-cooled.
Thirty-five (35) independent grate systems are available from
vendors.
European grates are designed for "mass burning", i.e. the
refuse is burned essentially as received from the typical
household garbage truck.
The only commerically operating municipal refuse systems in
Europe known to these researchers which are not mass burners
are in England. One is a suspension fired boiler at the I MI
plant in Birmingham, England. The other is a Portland Cement
plant in England.
Most European grate vendors are skeptical regarding the
long-term commercial viability of suspension fired systems
instead of grate systems. As explained before one concern is
the additional costs of preparing the refuse derived fuel
(RDF). Another concern expressed by many vendors is the high
temperatures usually experienced when co-firing with a
conventional fuel such as coal, oil or gas. The flue gas
temperature and sticky deposits form on boiler tubes that
reduce heat transfer efficiency and occasionally can block
sections of boilers. When these deposits are finally blown
off, the unprotected surfaces suffer increased
"high-temperature corrosion".
Grates have the four primary functions of (1) supporting the
burning refuse, (2) agitating the refuse for better
combustion, (3) moving the refuse downward and out of the
furnace, and (4) distributing the primary (underfire) air.
Observed grate capacities ranged from 3-33 tonnes (3-7 tons)
to 24.6 tonnes (27 tons) per hour. Other furnaces, not
viewed, have design capacities ranging from less than 1 tonn
per hour to as much as 44 tonnes per hour.
Careful design and control of primary and secondary air
systems is essential for good combustion control, especially
if high temperature steam is to be produced.
Concentrated amounts of high energy-containing material may
(1) melt the cast iron grates or (2) cause fires underneath
the grates. Examples are magnesium chips, aluminum, plastic
film, butter, etc. Progressive plant managers have suggested
industrial waste source separation programs.
Grates need to be designed so that mechanical wear does not
create large air spaces that reduce primary air pressure. This
can cause serious loss of control of combustion. Carbon
monoxide (CO) forms and can (according to some theorists)
accelerate tube corrosion. Also unburnt carbon may leave the
furnace in exit gas or bottom ash.
Some vendors believe that combustion air should be held
constant, while the feed is controlled in an effort to keep
the steam temperature constant.
-------
A-100
Furnace Wall
Prior to 1957, all European refuse furnaces were lined with
refractory and not with water tube walls.
Beginning in 1957 with the Berne, Switzerland plant, the use
of water tube walls as the furnace enclosure has increased
substantially.
Earlier furnaces had carbon steel exposed bare tubes. Later
furnaces have low alloy steel tubes, usually protected on the
flame side by plastic refractory held in place by welded studs.
Many integrated furnace/boiler designs result in half of the
energy removed going into the wall tubes while the other goes
into the convection banks.
Refractory wall furnaces with waste heat boilers, being less
expensive, are often appropriate for hot water or low
temperature steam applications.
Water tube wall furnace/boilers producing high temperature
steam are usually chosen for high temperature steam systems
producing electricity efficiently.
The remarkable increase in refuse heating value since 19^5 has
exerted substantial influence on furnace wall design. Even
controlled air injection or flue gas recirculation alone was
not enough to lower flue gas temperature so that older
equipment would survive.
Many furnaces have extended life if the lower furnace walls
near the grate can be cooled.
Some plants use silicon carbide bricks just above the grate to
prevent slag adhesion.
Increasingly water-tube walls are of the membrane or welded
fin design to reduce air infiltration and to keep tubes in
line rather to permit some tubes to bend in or out.
Sootblowers with a fixed blowing pattern can erode a displaced
tube that is over-exposed to the steam jet.
One manufacturer, Volund, often uses a rotary kiln after the
grate 'furance to ensure a complete burnout. Another, Bruun and
Sorensen, uses a vertical, refractory, cyclonic afterburner
chamber.
Secondary (Overfire) Air
To obtain complete combustion, and to abate smoke and possibly
corrosive carbon monoxide formation, the unburned volatile (or
pyrolysis) gases rising from the fuel bed must be mixed
rapidly with ample oxygen. This mixing must be done relatively
near the fuel bed with the assistance of high velocity
secondary air jets.
There is a trend away from side wall jets and towards the
front and rear wall jets.
Care must be taken to avoid intense burning of volatile gases
along the wall near the air jets.
Usually the quantity of overfire air supply ranges from 10 to
25 percent of the total combustion air: primary plus secondary.
-------
A-101
Boilers
Most superheaters suspended at the top of the first pass are
subject to increased chloride corrosion because of overheating
of chlorides in the ash deposits, especially when long flames
reach up to them during occasional "excursions" characteristic
of mass burning.
Long, water-cooled first and second passes followed by a
superheater in the third pass appear to be very important in
keeping the ash deposits on the superheaters cool enough that
chloride attack is minimized.
Refractory wall furnace/waste heat boilers producing hot water
or low temperature steam exhibited almost no corrosion.
There are a few examples of systems producing high temperature
steam where corrosion is minimal. Some such systems have
operated over five (5) years without a tube failure. They are
characterized by having numerous metal wastage (erosion and
corrosion )preventive design features and operating practices.
At this time, 1977-1978, it appears that the current "best"
boiler-furnace design in use for large, high pressure units is
the completely water-tube-walled furnace and radiant section,
studded and coated with thin plastic refractory in the intense
burning zone, followed by one or more long, open, vertical
radiation passes preceding a convention-type superheater and
boiler-convection passes and economizer.
Roughly 180 units world wide have an Eckrohr (translated to
"corner-tube") boiler as licensed by Professor Vorkauf of
Berlin. The Eckrohr design can stand alone as a waste heat
boiler following the furnace or can be placed in an integrated
furnace/boiler.
Recent work for EPA by the Battelle Columbus Laboratories
postulate that corrosion can be lessened due to an interesting
chemical phenomena. Sulfur (in coal, oil, sewage sludge or
contaminated methane gases from landfills) has the effect of
forming relatively harmless deposits that prevent chlorine
from being so corrosive.
An emerging newer boiler design is to follow the tall
water-tube-walled combustion chamber by a long superheater,
boiler convection section and economizer. This is called the
"dacha" boiler (after the female dashund dog) because of its
extended horizontal configuration. This permits tube cleaning
by mechanical rapping and eases the labor of tube replacement
when needed.
-------
A-10 2
Nine of the fifteen plants visited employ superheaters to heat
saturated steam to temperature levels that enable relatively
efficient electrical production. The other six plants do not
generate power and therefore have no superheaters.
A protective ash coating ranging between a minimum of about
three mm (.12 in) and a maximum of 15 mm (0.6 in) appears to
be in the desirable range.
Above some ash deposit temperature, perhaps 744 C (1300 F),
the protective deposit becomes chemically active and corrosion
begins.
Burning either too much normal refuse or a normal volume of
"hot" industrial waste can overheat the furnace/boiler and
cause corrosion.
There are several theories of corrosion causes. Three causes
stand out: high temperature, HC1 and CO. Investigators do
not agree among themselves as to the "real" phenomena.
Interestingly, the successful systems (those producing high
temperature steam with little or no corrosion of boiler tubes)
have design features and operating practices consistent with
even conflicting theories.
The report identifies over 33 design features and operating
practices that reduce corrosion. A prudent design/operation
will selectively use more than 10 features and practices but
not waste money by utilizing all of them.
Superheater life can be enhanced by use of alloy steel
containing chromium, molybenum and occasionally nickel.
Alloy shields and bead-welded coatings can also extend tube
life.
Attemperators (desuperheaters) located between superheater
bundles can control steam temperature, metal temperature and
thus ash deposit temperature to prevent high temperature
chloride corrosion.
Plants not able to utilize all of the produced steam must
condense the steam in air-cooled or water-cooled condensers.
Excessive use of high-pressure steam soot blowers is a common
source of tube erosion-corrosion.
Other boiler cleaning methods less threatening to boiler tubes
are available such as mechanical rapping, shot cleaning, and
compressed air soot blowing.
-------
•
A-103
One plant, Krefeld, located in a S02 non-compliance area was
required to install (1) an field ESP for particulates , (2) a
one stage wet scrubber for HC1 and HF and (3) a second stage
wet scrubber for
• Technically, the U.S. standard for particulates of 0.08 grains
per standard cubic foot adjusted to 12 percent C02 (180
mg/Nm3) is bettered by many plants achieving 0.03 to 0.05
g/SCF. Some Japanese plants achieve even 0.01 g/SCF upon
startup.
• The U.S. standard of 0.08 g/SCF is technically very reasonable
and achieveable.
• The requirement of scrubbers for HC1 removal for new plants
greatly increases original capital investment and has slowed
implementation of New RFES's in Germany.
• The Europeans seem to be more concerned with heavy metals and
organics in landfill leachate and groundwater than they are
with traces of heavy metal oxides from the refuse fired energy
plant stack.
• Of the German plants visited having scrubbers, none was yet
working adequately and without corrosion.
• Saturated gas leaving the scrubber often creates a highly
visible white steam plume that often may upset the neighbors.
As a result most systems having scrubbers are trying to use a
flue gas reheat system but reheater corrosion is often a
problem.
• Water pollution control is often not an issue at plants with
scrubbers. Dirty process water can normally be disposed of in
the ash chute qupnching system.
Start-Up and Shut-Down
• Start-up and shut-down procedures are carefully patterned to
reduce corrosion of boiler and electrostatic precipitators
(ESP). Often standby oil burners and steam boilers are used.
-------
A-104
Supplementary Firing and Co-Firing of Fuel Oil,
Waste Oil, Solvents and Coal
Supplementary firing of fuel oil, waste oil or solvents is
preferred when there is a need for emergency backup, routine
weekend uses, preheating upon startup, prevention of dew point
corrosion, legally destroying pathogens and other
hydrocarbons, and for routine energy uses when the refuse
fired energy plant is down.
However, supplementary firing may not be necessary when the
energy user has his own alternative energy supply, when
electricity is fed to a large electrical network, when
treatment of refuse or sewage sludge can be postponed several
days or when a regional plan mandates waste oil treatment and
burning at another facility.
When supplementary standby capability is required, the plant
can usually sell its steam at a premium price.
Many vendors (but not all) believe that no fuel other than
refuse should be burned in the same chamber with refuse.
In 1977, no continental European plant co-fired refuse and
coal in the same combustion chamber. The only facility
anything like St. Louis, Ames, Chicago S.W., Milwaukee, etc
was located in Birmingham, England at the IMI factory.
Many European vendors suggest that if refuse and a fossil fuel
are to be fired in the same system they be fired in separate
combustion chambers. Flue gases can later be united before
entering the boiler convection section.
Air Pollution Control
The development of the modern water-tube wall furnace/boiler
was in part due to the need for proper air pollution control.
Flue gases can be cooled with massive air dilution, water
spray or boiler.
Energy recovery in boilers is the preferred cooling method if
a reasonable market can be assured or anticipated.
The almost universally accepted method for particulate removal
is the electrostatic precipitator.
Scrubbers alone have failed to meet the particulate standards.
We observed what is believed to be the only baghouse control
on a commercial refuse fired energy plant, at Neuchatel,
Switzerland. The efficiency was only moderate and the plant
had suffered extreme problems with corrosion.
Reliability of electrostatic precipitators (ESP) has been
excellent except where the inlet gases have been too hot.
Entering flue gas temperatures must be kept above 177 C (350
F) to prevent dew point corrosion of electrostatic
precipitators (ESP).
Entering flue gas temperatures must be kept below 260 C (500
F) to prevent high temperature chloride corrosion.
The most stringent air pollution control standards have been
set for West Germany. The standards are much more stringent
than in the U.S. Many persons questioned the health effect
justification for the standard. Other European Federal
environmental agencies have carefully viewed the standard and
have either accepted the particulate but rejected the tight
gaseous (HC1, HF) control or have adopted a wait and see
attitude.
-------
B-l
WORLDWIDE INVENTORY OF WASTE-TO-ENERGY SYSTEMS
The growing "Battelle Worldwide Inventory of Waste-to-Energy
Systems" in March 1979 shows 522 separate systems where solid waste was, is
or will be converted to energy from 1896 to 1983. The vast majority of
these consume municipal solid waste composed of household, commercial and
light industrial waste. With this publishing, we are aiming for complete
coverage of municipal waste-to-energy systems. Complete coverage of systems
using municipal solid waste as energy to evaporate the moisture in
municipal sewage sludge is also a goal.
This chapter concludes with Table B-6; the inventory itself.
While this contract focuses on Europe, the inventory includes
plants from the entire world (U.S.A., Japan, Brazil, etc). Interestingly,
Japan has more plants and more tonnage capacity than any other country in
the world.
Battelle has for six years been a collector of
inventory lists and encourages others to send lists
and updations to the principal author of this report.
Exclusions
Systems converting industrial waste (sludges, slurries, paste,
liquid chemicals, etc.) to energy are included where possible. Only a few
of the numerous bark and bagasse waste-to-energy systems are included.
Systems recovering materials and not energy are usually not included. Daily
operating systems of every size are included. However, experimental or
demonstration units are only included if system capacity is above 50 tonnes
(55 tons) per day. Only a few of the many small modular package
incinerator/heat exchanger-boilers are included. Sludge incinerators fired
with oil or gas are excluded.
Battelle has also been compiling an even greater listing showing
about 750 places where money has, is or will be spent to advance the
various technologies. Many companies have developed new technologies which
have been tested in bench models or small pilot plants. Other notations
reflect communities or companies initiating feasibility studies. These
systems are not included in Table B-6.
Number and Tonnage Capacity
Results of the 522 system inventory are statistically summarized
by analyzing only 368 currently operating systems that have complete enough
information. Hence Table B-1 understates the true situation by 154 systems.
As time progresses we desire to complete the information and increase the
numbers in the table. About 24 of these 522 systems identified have closed.
Closures fall generally into several categories. Some commercial systems
that have operated 25 to 40 years close as part of normal retirement. We
know of only one commercially operating European system (Gluckstadt, West
-------
u
H
in
3
h-
O
>• ^
e£ i
0 cc
H ON
g~
> 1
Z
M SO
O
U CC
C -^
*-l *— '
3 »
ss
tt H
O W!
5 >*
C/3
U.
°5
t- a:
a; K
1S
3 C
W P
.
r-t
CQ
U
J
CC
f*
u
e
e
>, 3
1C U.
Q
fi £
x «
IS 4J
O — i
•». a
Jc u
J «•-
-•-tN
tt ZC
c •-.
c >>
o tc
H e
(C
IM/
-ff
ecu
O — ( C
•^
4-> 0) f*
CO -
^H O -
3 O CM
CL O r*
ft, ^T S
to
CM
ci) £
u tx:
.^
T3 (C
0 >^ O
^H -^ tt
re a oj
*•• 18 C
tc D. n
c n o
HUH
CO
4,;
C
S
u U
O cc
c
0 3
Z b.
u. |
C U
• tt
o ^
Z U
o -s> o
S3 \D *••
IN CM fM
\D \c r-.
CO CO 11
O ri CM
O o O
(1
1
C
VB <•
O -H 0
O O O
O cc o -I
CM \D CM f-i
fN i-l
-0" -3" *3- O
vD co co in
v£> *£> fl o
r>. cc co n
CM P^
c o cc
CM CM ST
in ro O
*-< "^
cfi to
'C *H
-H rH 1C E
4J O — 1 3
C b h -H
0) *J OJ bO
60 B tt *H
h 3 3 01
< < < m
in c
o cc
•H CM
•* &
•H r^
O fM
o o
1
1 1
o o
in r-.
p^ O
r» CO
O CM
O O
0 g
O IN
cc o
*H \£
m crv
cc c^
o o
\c cc
CM
^ a
•H -O
N to
a c
£ 3
CO
CO
pg
s
o
CO
sC
§
O
o
ec
-i
0
CO
CM
3
CO
eg
*s
n
o
o:
o
j:
u
01
u
5
(M
CM
CM
m
3
o
o
o
*
CO
m
vC
in
m
•*
a
E
e
&
0
rH
s
o
0
i
o
o
o
o
m
0
\o
•o
c
a
c
u.
B-2
sSsI5Slsss§SHss5s S
CO O *^ *^ CO CM »H 1 CO «ff r^ 1 "^ \D I^J O CM
OO-^OOOlo— IC^O-HCMOOO O
CM
d H
1 1
C 0
ine^ O.O--H--H-HO-.- CO
CM O f*» »— ( tl i— if") fim^O«— iCO'^OCM O
ooioooo-coo^oooooo o
2
ccoecMOoooooc-coooo ^
-H r\i CM O
fH
Issssss'cssssslSS i
mcM fir") r"i iTi-c1 cMC^r^1^1
O> CM **
CM *
S£S5S;coicoSoSSScSS S S
COf^*M«tfO^m\CfM\DCM*3'l~<'^'NC^CCO O *^
^ r-> r-i ^ cr HO h CC.
UC6 (O^sCEOOlCCCOCOJNQJCJyS *^
CCUCCCOC^XC^jWCtCU *H *H *H CA ^
m
,H4
cc
4J
CO
o
o
o
09
•o
c
1C
u
tc
c
I
^
•0
^u
9
flj
-JJJ
CC
-------
B-3
Germany) built after World War II that has been closed. It was a refractory
wall unit used for drying sewage sludge. There were several f\ "mature
closings in the U.S.A. brought on by new air pollution control regulations.
Several listed American pilot or demonstration plants have closed once they
accomplished their objective of proving or disproving the project idea.
These systems have from one to perhaps six lines or furnace units.
Our inventory show 771 such furnaces.
The 522 systems span a time frame of 1896 to 1982. The U.S.A. is
expected to build three times as many waste-to-energy systems from 1977 to
1982 as it has built throughout its history. The 368 systems (771 furnaces)
for which complete data was wastable were designed to consume 178,581
tonnes (196,112 tons) per day. The average furnace cpaacity is 232 tonnes
(255 tons) per day.
Special effort was made to develop Table B-2 which is an analysis
of operating plants in 1977 which can be used as a base point and coincides
with the study tour. The U.S.A. capacity was 9130 tonnes out of a total
101,937 or 9.25 percent of the world capacity in 22 countries. Dividing by
the total population (1,071,318,000) for those 22 countries, gives a 0.2
pounds of waste per person per day being converted to energy in countries
that have at least one municipal waste-to-energy system.
The third column of Table B-2 was used to prepare Figure B-1.
Municipal waste per person per day is portrayed for 22 countires ranging
from 0.003 in the U.S.S.R. to 2.111 in Luxenborg. While Luxemborg might be
a unique situation, Denmark at 2.301 and Switzerland at 1.982 certainly
must be respected for their efforts in energy conservation through resource
recovery. Thus the installed capacity is more than half the amount
generated. The U.S.A. in 1977, however, was in a dismal position at only
0.0136 Kg (0.091 pounds) .'efuse per person per day being converted to
energy. Even with the plants anticipated by 1983, this figure rises only to
0.1818 Kg (0.100 pounds) per day.
Table B-3 presents a closer look at the U.S. situation in 1977.
The daily installed per tonne capacity was only 7912 tonnes at 18 system
locations.
(We expects this number to be less because some of
these systems are not consistently reported, i.e.
Amarillo, Beverly, Braintree, Houston, Portsmouth)
Energy Use Patterns
Table B-1 by country presents the energy use pattern of those
plants where information is available. Patterns vary widely from country to
country as influenced by waste composition (H20 and HC1), climatic
conditions, attutudes, building codes, federal funding, utility regulations
and prohibitions against ocean dumping of sewage sludge.
Japan has municipal waste twice as wet (55 percent H20) and three
times more plastics (10-15 percent) than waste in America. As a result,
energy left after water evaporation is severely limited. In addition the
high presence of chlorine in the plastics potentially causes "high
temperature chloride corrosion". This limits the steam temperature
possible. While Japan has more systems (85) and more installeld tonnage
capacity 11,581 tonnes than any other country, the useable and sellable
-------
B-4
sCi—iOmiAm^cMtH
fM >H CM
ac
C
CM t—t »—t
O C.' rv
C. C. CN
tH
i 01 S
IT; c
C .
' O 0) (5
& 6. £5
O C
C in
cc —i
r^ vC
O -T
a* o
C Oi
C C^
O rt
•H *—f
J-l B
O -
fH C
3 O
O C
^ oc
00 iH
CO O O
C-- CM r~
O* CTi O
C
C
~< *•
C
3
c
c
•^
OC
CM
CM
C O C
r-* CM m
^\ CM f"l
O 00 0
z 1
I/1) T-l
CN
o
0
f"J
o o
it O
a—i
re H
U £
o o
vC C
\D CO
C^ 00
-? >c
O O
O
CM 00 CM
Ji "0
u. c c
new
E -H c
c c a
OJ -H U
Q b. U.
•i
C
g
cS
cC
c
o
e
^
0 t*"1!
e e
_3 u
c
n
c-
-S
OC
o
i
01
X
3
o
(J
c
c
1
•o
c
s
j:
u
(0
e
o
z
01
0
c.
re
OC
c
w
e
u
•o
&>
3
Oi
UJ
-------
Pounds of Waste
Hong Kong
Germany(FGR)
Luxemborg
Denmark
1
FIGURE B-l. POUNDS OF WASTE PROCESSED IN REFUSE-FIRED ENERGY
GENERATORS PER CAPITA PER DAY IN SELECTED COUNTRIES
(RATED INSTALLED CAPACITY)
-------
B-6
TABLE B-3. U.S.A. WASTE-TO-ENERGY
SYSTEMS OPERATING (TONNES/DAY)
Amarillo, Texas
Ames , Iowa
Baltimore, Maryland
Beverly, Massachusetts
Blytheville, Arkansas
Braintree, Massachusetts
Chicago, N.W., Illinois
Franklin, Ohio
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
Hemps tead (Merrick) , New York
Hempstead (Oceanside) , New York
Houston, Texas
Nashville, Tennessee
Norfolk, Virginia
North Little Rock, Arkansas
Portsmouth, Virginia
Saugus, Massachusetts
Siloam Springs, Arkansas
Capacity
in 1977
218
182
727
455
41
218
1,455
45
655
545
682
364
655
327
91
145
1091
16
7912
Actual
in 1977
1400
25
500
655
120
550
-------
c: —i o
o * c
= IT. C.
k. i4 u
4J i. C
t L^
— K t>
(J —1
r s
01 M
— C
u: -. ;
ij tr
E R aj
c r u
D -D O
U oc
« C 6 ^ O
•c no.
^. 01 *J OJ
H
tt (t
X *
D SI
SK c e
=» £ M, ;
cc t£
= c
i ct *l B
XCEWJiKRcS
.•HCOilC'CIkOC^'Q
tcc-xc-w^ettt
^jcsfift-o-^ii-*
(-""-J^IZZWIBW
£•£:
-------
B-8
B-S
i—3' rs
o = u
W T3 C
w c u
VI — C.
U QC
EI^
— fN (M <
*- « —
C 1- EC
CJ C E k- O
•e « fc
—, K 41 i_i 4,
c x w c «
3 =3 « i- 3
w &
*-> EC
C ** 0
= c =
•** v — x
M W (C —
= c
•• o
t. «
o 3
& T
-3 V
T ec u
c c 5
e — *->
i « S^
-------
B-9
energy output is rather small. Our records show that only H of these 85
systems produce enough high temperature steam for electrical production and
sale. Twelve (12) systems produce only enough electricity for internal use.
Heating swimming pools (7) green houses (3) and public facilities (18) are
other energy uses. About 61 systems produce hot water for internal or other
unidentified uses.
The United States (with 55 systems) has the broadest range of
energy uses for systems between 1896 and 1983. Interestingly, 31 of the
United States systems have have been major pilot plants or large
demonstrations. This highlights a major difference between the U.S.A. and
most other countries. The Americans have spent money looking for new
systems while the remainder of the world has built systems based on the
proven "European technology". Of note is the absence of hot water systems
in the U.S. This is consistent with U.S. district heating practice of using
only steam (in contrast to Denmark and Sweden). The single most common
American energy use is production of electricity. The inventory includes 9
systems producing a methane based gas or pyrolytic oil. The inventory
purposely excludes another 75 or so pyrolysis liquifaction, gasification,
etc. developments that are not commercially relevant to include.
West Germany (FOR) has the most systems (39) of any European
country. The Germans have concentrated on steam for electrical production,
district heating and for industrial processes.
Denmark has (35) systems. Unlike the Germans, most Danish systems
supply hot water for district heating.
Our records show France with 26 systems but none produce hot
water. Comparatively France has led developments in sludge drying and
destruction with 6 systems. Steam for electricity production and district
heating is a common energy requirement.
Switzerland with 26 systems is ranked third behind Germany and the
U.S.A. in production of electricity. Both steam and hot water district
heating are prevalent.
Italian systems produce steam for electrical production or for
only internal use.
Swedish systems supply hot water for district heating and
government owned hospitals.
Furnace Size Distribution
Table B-5 shows the capacity distribution of furnaces in 25
countries that are now operating or will be by 1982. Most furances consume
5 to 10 metric tonnes per hour. However over 8 consume over MO tonnes pgr
hour per furnace. Japan again stands out with its 180 units in this 5 to 10
tonne per hour category. The largest furnaces are to be found in France,
Germany and the United States.
-------
B-10
TABLE B- 5.
NUMBER OF FURNACES BY CAPACITY AND COUNTRY
(CURRENTLY OPERATING AND PLANNED EXPANSION
TO 1982)
(METRIC TONNES PER HOUR PER LINE)
0-
5.0
Argentina
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Brazil
Canada
Czechoslovakia
Denmark 43
Finland 4
France 16
Germany, FGR 12
Hong Kong
Hungary
Italy 24
Japan 6
Luxemborg
Monaco
Netherlands
Norway 10
Singapore
Spain 1
Sweden 34
Switzerland 33
United Kingdom 2
United States 8
U.S.S.R.
TOTAL 193
5.1-
10.0
3
5
4
12
2
28
30
14
180
3
2
5
1
1
6
14
7
12
2
331
10.1- 15.1- 20.1- 25.0-
15.0 20.0 25.0 40.0
2
2
10
3
7
9 4
18 27 6 2
13
18
60 6
4 10 4
3
3
5
231
10
84 9
13
187 51 17 11
40.1+
2
3
3
8
-------
B-ll
V. V.
*c £
I!
u >
o
SS Si
=>§
c 8
c;lt-|>
•c
i
CJ —
-3
C =
-5
U
O re :N
O *•> —
E w 3
O O JJ
4J -I 0
c -j —i
>>- re \a
E u
C U
o u
o
o
J
o"
.z u-
•— c -
u -c
.. o i-
E O *•>
re -c u
o o
LC re —
o
c.
re re
3 3
u w
o c o
-J .O ^
re — re
33i 3
re ^*
3 ^
5^ =
•Scf
-J o —
< >,—i re
» o i. —i
H C C) —<
U5 -O > O
3 x re o
< M a 3
a:
H
Z
=>
.
&:
EC
- E
-
X z
'
c.
o
j:
CJ
— 'Sl <-* ~z
-------
B-12
V,
*R
U
c
•5
g
V9
3
s*
£
CJ
1
W
^
O
U
s
i
B:
tc
c
0
Ifi
I
e
o
K
rc
P)
c
c
0
n
J
E
0
y
X
R
CJ
*
0
§
.
0
c
et
C'
n
G.
__t
*n
^
*T3
R
b
(•,
c ^
S !_' t
•c
12
a.
tlr c '
S CS
gs *•
•• S C
1 O 4!
— a
t: u
TD
C
R
C.
i,
rc
o
jo
— H
— i
E
u
£,
£.
R
G.
AJ
U
Ld
^,
•J.
a
?»
CJ
-0
i_i
R
C
c
ec
c
fcj
(7
C
oc
c
•H
c
c
"O
c
c
o
K
o
»•
-M'
R
iJ
c
c;
J
o
c.
X
LaKarj
R
•3
C
R
-?
R
C
_^
^
tfi
3
Q
to
H
>^
R
C
&
«_j
—4
JM
-^^
U
m
—
R
C
JO
-o
&
R
U
R
U
R
zs
—
= S£
fe =
- 3
-L- tf, ~*
_0 _R O
X 1-
0 0
u j;
-H 0
3 -j:
I
Cj w
O C
U '"
a o
f^ ^3
S
C
2
W
C
o
.9
— <
o
a:
c
o
•^
*H
O
o
±>
V X
O 2 a
'— V) Z
5 - —
^5 J
o o-
vH C)
•J C
t>J u
S g g
c
— ( R
5 S
J" C
^j
n ^^
-£
o
r ^
c
o
^^
E
_R
— t
R
ij
C
_o
jj
y
,£
£
*-y
U 3
• G
O It — i
° T °. >
c tc ~ c
0 -J l. 3
u = o O
>
J
CA
o
u
u:
r ^
EC
>
^_(
X
iJ
R
ra
E
O
U
C C
> 1-
C JJ
-O ^C
•a
c.
-^ w
U R
r v-
R ^
••^
c;
c
D U
-^ R
tt —1
N C
R 1-
O LO
~
.a. ^ -i
-------
B-13
tf, M
e £
O C8
Eu:
l!
_w -c
£«
" K
in C
S S
-
= •1
'5b re
ej —
U
* ~ ,S;
So"
III
it
o
.c
u u
—I CC
i- -o
2 C
•• C
•• 0) 1-
u a 3
o w .c
I &J,
QJ ^5
•J 3 =
O —i —i
= i. .« E
•D
C
Ef
c
cc
u
c
cc
•^ c
5 c
— E
-------
U 01
C iJ
tO Urt
If. £
T= 3
C* fi
£ 55
e "5
U S
— o
a. s
£-8
4) = 'C
ss
S
c
^
c
12
•
i. t»
* t
V O
cub
C K X
O O
01 —I O
—< c
C — 1C
> u
•C n
iJ 01 61
1C K X
I- O
•* —I O
b. U -a-
oc
c
X
4->
o
B
•H
•O
u
v<
•o
•" B
_o u
O p.
ICC 00
|vC 00
— CM
05 ^
00 fl
OB
rs o
00 -
O •
00
O «
in
•a- *
U
1
1:
es
>,
u
0
o
1C
p
£
^
•H
^
0>
0 X
(B U 3
-H C 0 O
It 3 O U,
S b. « OS
X
kl
o
4J 01
o u
B B U
U ^ C 3
OJ 15 3 U.
a: s u. a:
X
b
0
tj OJ
O 0
B SO
U — < C 3
H) re 3 x
oe S u.
-------
B-15
je ^3
5 I
c tt
j £ £ HI
k
£
w
•c
S e ^
111
'J C/i 7"
q.-S-l
u C
If. 01
•C 4J
c
— oc
i- -o
4J 3
» ^
•^ en
•o
• • n
u o>
DC DC
C C
>*4 l-<
4J 4J
B It
C* CJ
oc
c
U b
CI O
4J 4J
- o
= C. X
IM in
E w
it u
o o
(M vD 05
r^ ON vC
^ (N CM
•^ r^ ^
O
cc
•O
CO
0.'
U
"
U g
- HI
_:
o
ndu
o re 3 u.
CI
It t^
-i C 3
^H Ul ^
re 3 u-
3 tu *
re o
C 3
""
Di 3 ti. OS
7 CJ
>> •
it
p
it o
~< c 3
o
u g
u u
it so
u — C 3
o re = u.
tt 3 fa. a:
O 1C 3
a: 3 x
re 3 x
3 is. CL
C = U.
3 u. a:
13
C
3
— u:
o >«
> ta
e
o
u
*"* t>c
^ c
o: -<
< t-
id i-,
o s?
c.
3
Cl Cl
O O
o
l-
j:
Cl
C fcC
jC C
W -H
u -o
Cl --
c o
= *
Ci
•c
-------
B-16
1
J
.J
\
3
j*j
c —
^ f?
£55
11
K •=
'"H ^
T* >
t** c
f £
O L*
^ 1
£ G
1?
g
r "S> 5
~ i £
*" — s.
O
c
1- Z !_' X
,^
ej f~; ^
"sk
i- |_' _U
w;
fc
|
•5
•2
0
. t *
&••= 2>
Cr s 'E
S c~
>
§!l
•- t/3 Z
.5 II
cf DC M
e c _c
B 18 O
O O1 0*
4J 4J 4J
U U U
t. W IJ
1C 1C U
•U "V "D
O1 OJ O
4J 4J 4J
5 § 5
o o o
0 J5 •» Cf-
S; £ c£ S
— ^ — 1 WH
fN O |CC
r» C^fv^ CO 02
fM \£ (C 00
m <• rg M
._ .
« M 1-1
• • »
u u ,
*^ ttj O ** ^H
S C > CS U.
•o
01
3
C
C
O
u
~ -0
1 s g § |
r o c -< M
£ ^ o; re c
§>, T3 O -H
Z 0 tt
M DC BC CO OC Of
C C C C C _C
e it ic « « s
M) 01 0< & OJ OJ
f £ £ £ -C -Z
jj 4J 4J 4J J-i 4J
t; cl u CJ U u
i 4J 4J 4J 4J 4J
OS B B) 05 W W
•& T) "O "O "C t3
L U ^ ^ ^ w
c> a> ot oj cj 01
jj 4J 4J 4J *J 4^
te to re ic 5 5
333333
4j 4j 4J U *J
° ^ £ — — —
v^ so ^H -- O fO r>^
2 2 2 5 2 5S ~
•& 00 CC \C fN f*^ 'JS ^
fsj (N f^J *^> CC
r^. cooocOr*. r*- ON -3"
-^. - ^£
4-( 4_*
rt coooccoom m <• ^
"
M M i-. «-< • •— •-*
_! J J J J -
tT tT t/ u u o
= = = = = =
^ ^ ^> ^ ^~' ^
o o o o c o
QJ 4jrj 4^0) 4JOJ 4J01 4J01 4JQJ
U Utl CJU OU CJU UU CIO
co a co o co ~ U5tD "" "S ^ 52S
reo >es •* o •« •«*
ci> eon; a: s> « cao
or eo
cc w i.
01 C OJ C O
-c ^ tfi ^ -"
•5 ^> -i u " ^
x o oi oi a «;
Ji ^ OC "O "O =
S •§ * g I £
OS OS W W W t/5
-------
V. If.
"s S
O «
- C/3
61
II
*™ u
1 £
!r £
Si S
' ?
£ a
£ =
3
^ *St K
~C
E_.
b ^ ^""
£s ~
Cj H" R
5j=-
ti n-.^
'6*
|
j
|
^
.5
*
|
"s
u.
w S |
>j?'J ~Z
«t A
EC".
£ u c
10 u "5
c/T ? g
*>
^ Si
c 5 5
'.z c/3 21
5 " J_r
.5 ••• *•
Us:
OC OC 00 DO
c c c c
*-t ** *-*•**
« C K C!
(u u o QJ
X J= J .C
4J U *•> U 6
U (J U U fc<
.* .P* «H *4 0
U U U U *M
u 4J *J J_l
tn us K CD £
*- «H ^-1 -4 (J
•O -D -O -O -^
3
0) 01 QJ CJ O
U 4J 4-t 4J
R re R R x
3 3 3 3 M
4J 4J *•> 4J CJ
= = = = u:
O OC T~ CO -»
r~ i~. vC vD T-
•JT \C CM £> CM *T
CO C^ r^ \D CS
w
LTi ^^. .C
c^ *T n ^ co — *
— * •« 1
CJ
dj
CO
3
R
1-1 HH H^ M ft
tj
O LJ U O 3
•o
— " — ' — —" c
X X X X
V- kJ Ui 1^
o o o o
4->O> 4JOJ 4^CJ 4^C1
(JCJ (JU CJU CJU
It RU R reL? R RO CC Rt5
)-- 05 Q cs ce
•o
o
3
C
«*4
C
O
^^ OC 00
w 1- C.
u: o o 3
ce f ja i- c
< -c -o t-> u o
EC c u cc u
Z Oi o> K •* 1C
U > > R «H 0>
O W to H f- 3
Cl
C 00
•H C
•H **-(
•"^ 4j
l-i R
£. a
— j:
u
CO U
• u
— ••*
u
ce
ii •£
K
a ^
4J C
to w
t^
vC
cr-
0
r^
^^
in
%c
in
CM
c
o
O
< *^
-3 4J
Z -C
>-l R
U. ,J
c;
C OD-I
-< C «
-I -< C
•^ 4J U
I- C! O
£. U JJ
^i C
4-1 3 4J
n u
Cv U 4J CJ
4J O O -^
to •— i u;
CM
vC
ON
Q
-a
o
O
CM
CO
CN
J
U
—
„
^
R
3 CJ
U
V- CC
0) C 5J>
*J k. t/3
R 3 U.
3 u. BE:
—
t-4
c
c
c
w4
ji:
c
v4
CO
a>
s:
«»••
X
u
s
c
u
&
Ui
4J
K
0)
0
£
(A
•H
J_>
^
fSJ
r**
^
C
CJ
O
fN
— <
m
CM
»— i
j
-"
^^
^H
re
3 CJ
U
f R
u c c
R 3 Is.
3 U. CC
^^
1
C
o
s
^
Wl
H
AJ
c
T3
•c
O
CJ
Z
r-
^
m
r*.
lA
r*.
_^
m
„
-
j
="
^
iH
R
3 ej
CJ
>- R
01 C
4J h*
R 3
3 !«.
f-4
O
oc
c o
O Z
CJ
Z c
oc oc
u. <
-------
B-18
~
•*s
%
u
•c
rs
M W
*c 3
t> n
£55
1'
O £
U £
= |
1 S
M ®
^ ^
S fi«
S 0
§J
£•5
=
B 'P> E
C« i?
5
g -^
w t< -J >>
"" -,
.=£ =
!•
U -—
^ — ' 1.
\f.
£
3
^
Iff
^
c
•-
£
5
o
K1
'c
JR
fell
i£P c •?
S«£
S c -
£ * >- >, U
0) OC Id C J- CJ
— 13 C 01 4-> Oi *J
re 3 o > c > c
w — -Hore -H ore-^
M «J U J- CJ *J
o OJ re 01 re
0 3 1- -0 •• k. -0 ••
E OC i- S Z
re re--*J'O re w-cre
CM 3nre& & reoio)
*J OOJCJCJ *J OJOJJd
^0 1/72ZZ J2 3IZ^O
^ <*<, * ^
2 2 E^ 2 22
= = 2 2
r", " ""1- -" *
O O O O
r»i ^ CC r\) fN O O
— <• — ' — fNJ
", - r,
iri n r^ o m ^r =o
rg »-« — » — « — . _r rw
OJ
•O
3
r— ' f-« (0 I— 1
-3 J -J
01
» • ei ..
'•J '-^ It ^3
3
. OJ
=: = « =
w-< -^ *H ^^
re ic re re
3CJ 301 30J 3cv
0 O CJ CJ
wre ^re kite *<(Q
OJC^IOC CJC^l QJCp
fa3^n3 re3^ (C-3X
3U.=£3X 3U.ai 3x0:
^, ^.
c e ^ "o o
a: -i c as =*
a! *J 3 2£
co i- -« i >;.; >-H -j> >
•0 -H
41 »<
3 3
e o
•H ^->
J_l £
c u u
O OJ BC
i S c <
-* O 1
td to *J u to
W i- to z EC c c
Z (U Q> (U (C CO
< CC i-l E 1- (AN
as c i* )» u & &
u
w
CJ
3
o
^0
J%J
u u
•(H u
— c
.0 O
Q>
*J It!
C3 —
01 U
"~ to
3
.. ^3
01
X O
in
r*j
JN
o
in
j^
fsl
~
CM
>_l
_J
*T"
i
c
J!
=1
ki
U
C
.0
O -H
«$£
4J ki
fc* OJ TO
ki ^ 3
1C OJ -O
S Hi J
CO
C
^^
?^
w
T3
OJ
3C
•C3
3
n
1
(U
J_J
J3
m
ON
O
rsj
^
^>
m
rvj
rs
o
of
-5
— I x
-J
&
* Ot
•-> c:
3
_* CJ
"" ^
&
— < X
-H E t-
3 QJ -^
u >— a>
WC t DC
O S L? C "O
c ,3 ^ .r Ji
o
3£
C O
o z
&
>
23
U
a
>-.
•c
c
a:
k.
^
c
c •—
>* IT
'1
GJ C
83 °
O 3 -C
J 'C
^5 ^i tZ
O
r^
3N
D
r^j
^
,
»— i c i-
c >~~ ™
30 •-
U wo
"-re I oc
0) C U = •=
:?£ S = ^
«"
i^ j
o o
ac j£
a£
c co
o o z
> > 1—
to
•^
c
4J
ki
<
QJ OJ
C — 1 —
OJ -H — 1
X > >
re 33
3 CO
=c _§!-
u
"O C
1r Ij
(j
o 5
3 «
O £
f**
r-.
^
d-i
rsi
CN
,—1
L-l
tn
r^g
—
^
•J
—
— ^
2 OJ
^
u re
3 x
_=
Id
s
c
re
c
a
3
-------
B-19
h.
>
>l
I
o
e;
V W-
O R
i *^
C "5
a ?.
(ft "3
a 1
" e
""" u
*3 i>
= K
K K
\r. Cy
jS S
^ 5
- K
= ~
b "s
^
•> =1
«'?» E
= ~ a
O
IHI-
£-s~
W5
iT^" >,
o|r- R
3|=-
sk
*&*
If
o
3
tw
IT
f"
s*
^
<••
•^
^
y^
U
£
1
. £ 1
V=.s?
iz *x ^
S = A
£="".
A £ c
S-ll
w 0 I
w >
. 41
- - S
5 2 5
'.= t/; Z
5.
. >;•=
c « c
•Sof
^ t
tr W C
r^ x o w
0 w -^ S
SL « c ^ o>
r* n •* • AJ •
« Ci, C CJ CC 1-
O •"•! b U C
^ "O 1* «*^ C3 CJ *J
B C C J^ t- C
^ C tt CJ ^
^~ « CJ "C K CJ
_ "B CJ C -^ C
e -^ *J O 3 tC —
5 *M tr ^ o
o c c «H c c
ESJ W 3 -^ J — —1
T! ar DC
CC OC ~
c c _^
b «H *"
fij • *J *^
« u 0 o «u J;
C oc fa O * CO
•< ui £ £ — ^ "-
E ^ *-'
_- JJtl " — l»t>C
c ci (ji- u wrec
ere E co-^j: -^ .cce —
6CO 3 — fc-U"^W t* ^.*J
e^o •• • tC4J^ts *•" *^ ^O cc
^ u .-<^ u. Ketc ce _tc — t, ».,
U gi £ oS? ss ^ 5"t;i
g Is i S i 'i J i i J i i s s S
o " *c cjtj f Ciu~>c o>in GJ *ttCy
*^= 4J^4 ^ WCOf *JCC *J 4J4J*- —
y5^fC C/^LL] f3 ^r^W W CM to t/i tc ^ 1C
— inoN oo fsjco ^D\O mn o
f^ t^« t1^ r*- t^> f* r-* ^^ ^ f** I**
O CT^O <7» ONCT* CT^C^ CJ^O> CT*
O •«• f^. O CM *£>|OC -3" COlfM O OlO CC
IN %
j-j
tc tn
C CJ
C. J-f
cc
*C CC
t* ^_ M >-( c3 •- —
_j J J J J CC *J J
co -c
»* » » -C 0! ^-i * *
U CJU tj W "^^S O U
— ( W C"
» »*. *. «. oc-*-i * *
s E: s » — w3^ — —
& ^ c
^->,-M c^ >^ -^ *-'
»H E Iw ^«4 K b W fc) *-{ W «*M »™^
5 OJ ^-i Scuctr.-uciflw- SO) jj o 3 C
we ibCUtci-iAj'-*r-H4-t—w wtcug u c v. c 4-ircuu.LA AJ --* u; u-< ,-- u j-> LC 4-i^u:
c=i*-z:-^ tcs o-jrxc QJ:XC o»««3U- o-*u- (ucrou. C3t-
;xu.c£Hc/3 S u- >tc&.u > «; B, t-H a:oc:xu,x; CCJ^K; CE: 3 u. ci ci s ^ x
X X
CC CC
)w w
*-( w w
— C ^t o O
«-H u *^ H1 tc t^ *H *^
O-r"O= C C -0 C
aiEa-oerc •* •* c —
C£^- U-^U N N : ^S!
coo c-o— -0 sc sc -to b i-.
02^ o ceo c i* s u: 3 oa rs2
> M (- > H >(- >U SLJ
•0
5
C
^-4 Ui
U 5
C O
O E CJ CJ
O < C V,
^ O - C V
^ 15 C TS -H
[i3 CJ OJ .£ ^ C J^
(JC. C -* K OOJ O C ^E
5 S" P "^ j? fl» ^4 ^ ft Lj ' ' •• ^
c2>H <*^b h V - *^ X0> CJZ>U
U. C CU U U - J JO £
-------
B-20
£55
S .H
al
.£ ""
1 I
C e
ll
= <»
S £
O .
u. •=
s^,
C
" 3
U lA
^ »
X
team:
.n
4J
U
u
(J
&>
i:
o
E
re
c.
j-.
>, 0
4J 7-|
O
k< ••
^J £
0 0
u: vs
Cl
p
a:
i
.e
u)
u
0
c
u
X
JJ
re
u
\n
c
u
u
u
M
o
s
re
u
y;
"essure
c.
I
.*
u
X
•S
o
E
re
u
O
^ £
O —
> •"
"J M
k>
£ t> ec
•^ re e
E --M >-
rz -^1 -J
o u:
— i 0
U U
So -
C/ O R
•O 0
L. O
fell
S » I
£c"".
-j
o"
E3
C O «
O Z ta.
Z &l
I U
C •«
§J
0) u
S ~
o £
— CO
R
•s§
S
Z
'c
•D
Cl
3
C
^j
C
o
LI
1£
U
1
tn
3
O
i
^
c/
C
Oi
•c
DC
c
TO
H
1
C
•u*
u
«
1C
--)
Lrf " *£
|5-
a re
CJ CJ
•s
C
3
II
if
C
i
-------
B-21
v. v.
"n 3
t> R
|£
= -o
d S
^ t>
= K
C
a; r ™
i?
5k
OC
•o
c
c^. u
B 1
re
u o
o —
c.
u
OC
C
c
o c
IJ 1C
o c u
AJ W Vi
E s~
C - 3 C
3: 2
C S H
C Z ?!
^ O
< ^5
3 C
> !-
•o
o
3
C
u:
-o
c r
re —
oc
^
5
c
U
u
t-
-------
B-22
c
>.
'w
R
5
U
1
IS
K K
|l
s *"
1 1
"
tt *5
fS f
II
P
£ Fi
K k»
•5 *•
*^ tj
•£•5
t, e-2
e '** g
— e S,
O
s __
. r • >,
; .= H; jrs
to2""
^_^
j^J X
C* • , f;
13 ^ ^
1
sSkJ j.
Is""
K
5
b
g
2
<—
H
id
£
•K
1
w O
• C> £
w C *S
y O ft*
S e c
il cv c
wi ™ T3
-o'|
ftl t*
<£ •» C
C « B
•r c/5 z
ifl
O b
IE -*
~* rc
CO *
•o C
ec c —
C CC C
•H _C
— 1 C U
IM -H *d
-^ CC C
— CJ 0
O S c
ec
o< c
C L.
— . tl
•^ C C C
U -H «- -H
JT •-( ^
~~ — xec ^ec-ceo
<-> b 1- C bCCC
f. t. V -* £. ~ CO •<
fsj ^ -*^, (g DO OS U "•«.. k^ ^ -W
n« *JCD c s to *j««circ
i cc x -t-i *o QJ ecu -*-1 E O oc E i- E u ^- w E i-
CU « -C C*J tC5J-"«*J
C \ClTl sC Or^ f**
S^EIS 222 22 2
^
vCCCCOCM -^ OOO
i^r^r^OCM CO csl>£) O*-T»A CM
--enp^ -ff<-cN — * -^ r^
e-
-a--a-»o OCM oo o
r^rNfn m CM CM—C cn^y CM
vcvovc.n 0 mo 0
_ __ -CM
*tfcMrNjfM c>ifM m — « m
rt rc re
J J U ^ l- _J
» » CJ 0) K cJ cr 0 *
£ K -C KS «0 »
* - crcctc cro •
S S U3--3 —3 =
c
j-< F-H Vd •»- «M f-i
« cc C -A: ec ff
5(y 3O 4JC 3ti 3(U
L) t> (J W X (J V
W(C h>CC (C (C t- ^ CC W It
CJ C C? 0) C U W »-( C O C> CJ C C 0* C O
flssfr. CC3&- oitcrot*' fe ? b» ic s u*
3 u. a: 3 u. a: Q£?u.Q^a: ^b-cc ?u.ac
rc
b C
4v re
13 K U
U> O -H ^H
U- C 3 S
D i ;> ^
O • W 1 -H
00 *J T.) 1- t-i C
t«-H^ vccj cj a£
tn > <-< 5 c- E w
3k- 2 C0£ ^CL. 2 CL' t- C
03 O > H->CC >^ > ca o ,>
eo CJ
4J ^ K -^ 4-1 e
tfi CJ -H dC QJ -o ftt
C>C J53 I- Wff 5>
^-i i ^j - cj u cj n & cc .£
Z C CJ C JJ tfl 6C OC K C CJ h
<^*-t «-i^ CC ( OJ CO [C Cl
S»«lX X
OJ •* >- "-5 W
> o o c
o co c:
u rs
o u. m -fl- m «c
U 0> -H — Cv
at s u e u k-
i- r: s
C O OO 4J 0% «
w s — to — w
O^
0
O — CM
— O> f~
O
O — CM
CC
•
<-> en
" "
01
CC
cc ec
ec ec
"- CC b CC
C CO C
C CO CJ C! C 0>
t-i»- V--HCC>
0>Cfl3b CJCC31*
ee 3 b H ;ae;3ijL,H
«H
0
OS
C 3 3
O b^ dd
> > >
01 0>
Jt 01 JC
01 OJ 0) 01 3 CJ
occ ec c — < ecc-M
o—i-o O-^JITJ o-^w-o
*-4CU f^OOb ^SOCCM
OUC O * --< O C i£ rc C
Ovv'U. O^xSCbh COv^CAb.
-------
c —
tv R
§ "s
U 5
•="?
11
•— o
= «
R
ii
*^ *^
e
u. "r
e
- .£
5 of "
~er5
E-r ^
t> » H" R
*•' IKS ~
* -^
rs £ ^". R
a 5-E-
U
w
"5 U ^^>
i ^ ?~ ™
5 *~
3
C.
r;
a
"c
•5
_C
£
X
c
£
*il
y so p
2 S~
w &J C
£JJ
ill
•r c/: z
R
*•* >. T
O ^ ~
61
Oi 01
K E
0! U! —1
R 0. k.
o 3 : c
— o c.
H 01 X
^ 1-1 01
O £ R
O H C 01
CM •••< *J
OC R
1C • —i k.
c. -o i- oc
R CJ C
£ tt w-
kd C 01 kd
01 —t f C
6. U 4^ -o
oo
c
^J
R 01
01 01 C
C £ 4J •*
>i-< « •*<
k. C -H £ £
£ U -< U. --. U --«
UCCR 0!X »>. R
01 <^( 4J CM U >O C£
oo-^£ O^( — « in •••< — •
CM U — U 00
!-< -H — C 00
EUW E " EUU E -
R«-i RC1 RUR^J
0>OC C0> OlCOl C
inoio inua cnnw win
O i** c*> •-* in CM
r^ vc r*. \D vD !-*
O >O v*7 O O
CO r»* in O •& O
— CM
O 00 O O O
•«• 00 -JT •< d
CM CM CM CM r"l
in
O CM O O CM
CM CM — — -» —
R -J « -J
— CJ .
C. u U U U
K K
o re • » »
•H i-^ t— I
R R R
3 OJ 301 30)
U C U
k4 R U R k- R
OICU 01CU 0>C
4J k. V5 4JUU3 J-> U
R3U. RSU, R =
3 U. a£ 3u.c£ 3U.
u
s
0)
a. .H
i *^
01 tt 01
3 — CC-ri3 3k<
^i 11 o R O u: it s
> X >zca> > Q
•o
3
e
e
O u-i u-i
y X «- W
•-^ -H 13 "D "D
,EC/->kd K
Z o — i > c. 6 01 n
fiepHo-^nu o 01
idO^coe f 3
OU^==O Q D
B-23
c
c
^
R £
u-i 3
k. "C
0> OJ
> k.
•0 u. — I
OJ 1 R
01 - O O
z u o
u
c
zi
DC OC k"
C C £
R O R
>. 01 >\ 0> O B2 X
— ii — oo -*
u *j y *J cj^ u
i-l O *- U i^
kd -H k< -^ •• » k-
uk< E<->k< EU*-1
U JJ R cl *J R CJ
t tt con oca
[a2 o en u o m m u
1
CM — * -^ in
2 2—2
o o
*D O
CM
•H C 3 C 3 t. -H
C 0 *l J^ ^ 3 0
E C-
•H a
-ci c
at, £ R
01 01 R
£ -0 £ C
EC OJ k* OJ
•H -H 01 o:
r z j= K
2 U2 E±2
C-
c
1-1
c
R «
« —'
U
.. kd
R U
01 01
00
T^.
c^
o
o
O
o
o
o
05 t.
-rt O
tt 4J
>> 1C
p^ 3
C .O
K E
>> O
O C O
i-i h in
R S U.
3 U. 3£
U 4J
*H h
C R k.
as oc oj
C 3 1-1
O R O
> cc cc
e s
01 IM
OC C ^
c — c
•* 4J R
X 3 u.
1x3 U th
-------
B-24
— c
—I ^J
3 in
V. M
"c 3
O R
5 t/5
I-s
U R
a: t>
1 I
C F
J! s
"* s
*-* "•
c w
- .2
|||
~- >%
o s-
-a
r^ tT *J
^ z y;
— — o
•o o c >
c/ _et o c/ 5
6 S «< K ~
-* —< i C C
U M H 3 ->
CC
C
OJ
4) 3
DC U
C t. _1
— x: re
•- i- re
£• c 3
c: =c
c w
-' £ C
.0 •S —
1. V
„— Sb
B n r
~ y£ Tr
re
3£i
•• r \ «_
i-f K —
3
'£
3
•D
3
>
C.
O
.°
u
i
n
iJ
C
13
I 5T
C-
c
-------
- c,
E — C
o u o
B-25
Z £
c S
•c »j
~ o
s S
c; - "C
5 ?1
e -^_
E !_' *>
~ H c;
C/ C
r:
c -^
-O u
O O
"C 3
4J -^ 01 t» a-t O U)
fC w C. C -^ O.
'i r- O E . rM O
r>l r*» C r"i no
E S. E ^ E i
O u"i i -- o O
- w
1C O
CJ O £.'
_K
5 O
tfi .J
U
O r
"" = ^ o
O -J J:
S 00 Xi
0 X 30
so 3S
CO 30
O
=0
u
g
s
l_
w
•s
12
t,
i
h"
c
re
E:
wig,
2"= £
S c~.
i * S
£.1!
>•
8* I
o £ «
** ^ Z
R
c ^^
CM
I--
—
*
*
z:
0
u u
re c
w — « c
111
c
i
c
1
•c
Cl
3
C
•H
C f
O (A
U U
^ bC J-1
Z b U
s Jo
a£ £ —
O ^
"-J — 1 —4
"^ — -3
•J" :T
• *. •.
— — —
-
cs C
3 OJ 3 (U
LI re * o
OJ C C O C ^5
1 1 i 1 1 i
— i Li
5 £ c
fcC "" tj 4J
Li C — * Li
5 55 S
o
K Cf,
CD R
re ^ L
i- 0 4J
4-| O K
ex cc be L( &o ac
LJ — ' LI ^ LI —
3 K S — I 5 W
JO L> -C — -C V-
E C E -H EC
c so cs =o re —
« 31 ZZ
H-.
J
*
»
—
•H
3 CJ
u
L. tc
CCO
±J LI i^I
u
C CJ
4J JJ
li
Ll
o
f
^
^
c
60 -*
u ^^
JO (U
E u
C i/3
zz
Ml -H
-J —
•. •
« z:
S 0 30)
U tJ
L, re u B
3E £ S 2E £ 2C
X
c
Ll Li
•* ?
L< |
0 C
E ^
•C 8/ 3
2 ^0 >
TO
&C rH
L. O C
3 a. — ,
jo re o
E 4J E
1C LO C
« 13
Li
^J
re K i—
*j y **
K -3 0
•5 —i K
c c c
t-< K 3
>,
re c
c —
^ J^
^
o
c
0
V.
p
o
3
re
y
•^ -H
*~* S re
= -J
o
it
_=
— 'X -^
— 0 —
-" r
"3 "
. c
= J~. —
§ 41 3" C,
c u
^ r: t- c
C< C 15 0 c 'J
.g -f 2 3 f S
4J
K
a
-H ^
"c i-
a: j
e -e 3
> 3 >
^^
tc u
4J -0
C 1C C
C. C _K "5
C JJ 0 l<
C 5 C£ C
f: C c y:
= U — i-
-------
B-26
c -a
-J
^ U *J
V 17
|K
= "D
Si
01 TJ W<-1 O —
c c i- hi o
— -a —i ON —
E v. re i o
o •* o c - -
ij K is
x 01
O X
o
t- OC u
c c c.
a: >N—
•o
c
re
re c
C ~H
oi re
c ^J -=
o
= S
*j io —«
il •» Ji
I y u
0- -J 03
J ON ^<
E"-,
0. C 15
AJ L> a;
c s u.
3 t ai
01 = U
4J hi ^)
3£'Z
4J f iO
re s u.
u t. i(5
J? = '*:
oi c re u
AJ hi ^ j;
^JiS
Se.
S c'
c ~ =
Kl
•e
o
I
u
a
£
Kasse
c
01
c.
E
01
o.
E
3 -i
U V
3
*
>
o
2:
c
o
>
•o
01
01
c
01
•o
C'
C
«
_:
c
o
>
O
>
Oi
_•
-------
C k.
•c c
B-27
si
11
- rM
rt 5
C, _i .
a; m
AJ r^
« 1M
is
-?
«M in
e o
rc
01 O
H
,-, — k.
u o
1 o
0. O «J
u — I O
c s£
e - u
s u ^
C O V
oc
35
U - (3-
" K —I
K -O —(
— 3 —i K C
-------
B-28
Comments
and Status
— "2
3 |
£ o
IK
il
S V
t -5
s
a> (£ -^
O
jj£!
£*
Ibu
is =
re
5
C.
£
£
£c^= 5-
w •£ '^
S c .
£ oj
' a £
C B =
— Tfl Z
r;
c.
— 1 >*
O -0
•o
8s? C
O re
— • W
b
t£ *J OC
J *« C C
^ we: ^ P: >^ ^ ^
•o
3
c
C Ij 0 C
K - C C U
>- ^ K U. W ^
Z — C ~ u i j: T*
< u« u rc^c so -*
S— *-w -H j^33*J wv; c
CO C U75>3 =a S
M zs: r o>Zs^< GJ> cj
ij z •£. -z. z z
1 II
o oc j: -•*. e£ -^ tc
JJC-^. l-Ck-C-C
CCr-w JJttfS-'cCf: tC
>>Ci» =2>%01 ^>%CJ fc-
JJ"X(Nt O-J— JT4JX 5
E^3i- £ EU-^r *E 'J -J »- El-
cu*->c; cu^rro^ctf^
Cj I1 -1-1 K f CJ'AWaJ C^OCf, Ci —
J5 ^2 = 0 « X .n ^ 0 j: -sj & - -0 m
CO O rM ON in
^ S 3> ^ ^
03 ac c
OX Ji rsi
00 30 0
ft -C1 tn rs
lA
n - m n
j _j _j _j o
X u;
— * * _T -_* ^ r:
^ ^
™ c ir "
•30 y o 3d 3O
u u u u
bto wcc ^cc ur:
3t»-5 2CJ.2 s^az jc^^:
u
c
c s
C 6) i)
— o tc a.
-i e c i
as — j: -H -H o
c w r. £ K 3 i 3—i
> 5 5 £ a > > > ^
^
? ^
CCJ3 ec — * -* — < « u o
k-E WK-oc-5 r: M
CJ CJ O — C -*-1 C £ w-.
XV- XO*Jtt— C ~-
cs c *J cn — w c, o
US k-X ^C CJ *-j ID
z^ 2' ^"3 2 as
-------
B-29
al
_K -O
11
"" V
1 &
" *.
II
H .- —
•S « 5
-H &
3IZ"
5
X k.
•; t: c.
i" c >-,
oc.ec
u E w
O —i
E SI
< u re
3
Cc
U O 00
c — c
CX
u
c
— i LTI U 4->
u — -» n w
C —' *J CL 1C
22 ^ C ^ OJ
.n *T — ~
U
U o
U J-)
— Li
re o
G) O *-
w -i C
_ - E fc. -J k.
c: u -* re u -^
CJIT\C.X C'Oox
ij r>l ^H —i JX;--" —
r. t x
If.
£ -
a- K —
~- Z ? V
j u "o '' o
•J -z " s — ^ u
~0 X -o -J tf.
= f 5 5 £ § =
u ^ ^ .
u re i- c =
ci c re = ^ —
Jj -~ _ —
o c
t: 2
2 = ;
E ^
V. *" '
i^ -1;
C 'S
c ^
•- c/5;
3 = 1
g
•o
t; t K
~> E
o _: c, o
K i: c s.
m s- o £.
= o -J r
2S 2
e. ~t
c = —
one
-------
B-30
= t/S
II
— u
ti >
2 c
= a:
u! £
fe £
- w;
* a*
C
b c ™
r * £
a
<: u
a) \r\ o
o
tc
a-
CO
O
o
o
o
IT* LA
O O
>^
c
0
1C
c
^
1C
3
tl
u
1C
c
3
U.
^H
^
It
C
>,
o
4-1
u
re
01 re
K 3
01
U
CC
c
_
b.
«^
^
re
o
x
o
4J
U
re
o>
•H
re
3
Q)
n
c
3
I*.
F-H
j,.
(5
O
CC
ill
So
e* =
c « 5
= 1/5 2
U
It
ct;
> U, U!
= u.
u. o!
o
>
I
3
O
H
u
It
3
a:
<
-------
B-31
— -
"e 3
li
11
« >
£ o
u
X ^
Ss
Cl u
5 g
c
E as
u >5
s
^ =-2
75 'ft 2
O
C
*• ^ t™ j-1
!«S
L_' X
t, r~ «
| | = c
j&k
~h£
s ""
2
K
^1
*
g_
H
's
E
^
h. O
> "e
j -tl «
3
C
tc
e£ o
J —
E
B
"
rs. (-*
8 8
* 6C C U
JO *J U
^ -^ 4J —K
HO TO —
rH "H
e c
u &
C *J C
(J
•H
£ E E *J E
(C R 1C U C
CJ (V C & &'
S K ££ S
in fs. -a- r- CM r\
000
fs. sjO O O ^C
h*. (^ cs \£; —
O O
CO MS O O O
ri o^ — • fsj oc
\o (n
• "^ # *
^ ^ff «*T OC O
~
» » » » «. _
u u u t^ u u
~ ~ I I I I
O O C 16 « 1C
*-> V 4_* f 4->O 3 O 3GJ 301
U(JU(JO(J CJ U O
tc rc tcco ere ucc uc i-c
orer CD CT ec"ti- cru. cr^.
a: 5 La. oi la. G; fa. 3 u- o: ^ u- a: 3 u. D:
a: tc tc
3 3 S
1 c 1 1
r-t OJ I-4 ^*
O ^H C C -1 — -<
u a) u ^ o o c
ic > c B o: oJ sc
cc me
ca c c c
Cl 01 Cl C C C
o a c D > > >
QJ C
— 1 •*< C N C
01 C O C C W
CO C U u 1C
w CJ *-( »« B O >
ni* o W-H-H o .c -• <
>U E C^b^ C 0£<^
B H C «-H N^ C CJ O N —
u u u- u- u J
O
CO
— rj ~<
r-l u
E U -u
B U
Cy C CJ
4J <• ^
w sr u;
CO
o
ON
C
o
NO
o
>
c —
3 •**
O B
-------
B-32
§•8
u s
•c w
£ K
• Z
c o
CJ = *J
T? ** 5
*•&
V5 -
L_ -^
p"; tyl^ ••
I :=-'C
3
•o
c
•*-( Ui
U 0)
E u
re o
: o
1 c>
a
E u
re jj
E K
C ~
a -u
" C
in >-
co
o c
o o
O-N —'
o
o
o
CO
o
o
o
o
CO
08
o o
I- tv
tv c
«:= so
e .
& c
c -
B: 3 u. X.
c
re
c.
E
U
re
u
^
«
3
0)
U
n
c
3
fe<
O
U.
c:
3
&
(t
3
•nace
i
CJ
U >N
n u
c E CJ
u AJ w
5 O U.
u. oj B:
o
o
4j
•o u
c re
3 to
o 01
> c
o
u.
I
c
c
u.
I
C
C
>
C
O
>
c
o »~
U HJ
coc.
reexs
C "H
c -< e.
« or s
60-^
6C E
re
01 H
E C
o w
IX
-------
B-33
II
•C S!
2 O
•= "
3
c
•s
u »
151
c c
*J C
C 0.
•o
c
e "
It U
C Q-
o
o
c
o
xO
c
o
o
o
AJ u u; jj u
re 3 t*. re 3
a u. os 3 u.
re - c
3 u, as
£ c
3 -H
< t.
H re
H-l H
JAPAN
re
tc
tr
I
3
N
O
Kanzashi-<
0
Aizu Area
Minamlyonf
e
|
re
U5
s
iJ
•H
u
kuok
•H C X
o ^ rc o
4J >*H U
o; C — ft- —
jc ui O ri E
o o> toe
-------
£
r:
*s3
•c
u
"K
1/J K
II
I-s
U «
nz t>
^y >r
*"" o
~ £
E K
K CJ
fe fc
3 s
• v:
£ &
E "
C ^
c
e
o = —
7: "an B
,£ o £
e ^
CJ •"• ^™ *5
M "• 1..X U
"5 "*
^
wlc-' r1
3"*
."h>
Is""
V
=
O
t/;
c:
s
|
£
t>
^
f—
••
f;
,_
• C C
M" ££
*"* *X *^
<*£ ^,
S c~
w U C
^ -^ S
w ^.
*™ *" C
J5 S K
"a '. _
•2g£
i— I
e
o
c
«r«
W
4J
rc
E 3
cc
& W
*J 0
r*.
CTv
0 0
O CO
en —
o o
IT, CC
.— «M
in
CM in
* ""•
CM —«
J J
U U
=" =*
c
U .H
O Ji
iJ 0)
CJ V >,
C! R W
U l-H C CC W
CJ C 3 O It
o£ 3 u. o: B:
c c
S tf.
~H C
C cj
y_v
•o
0>
s x x
C W 4J
4J O ^)
c
O OJ 3
cj x n
•^ O *J
C cc
Z — E
< X CC
C* U E
< cc cc
"1 — —
"o
oc
c
"e
e
"s
^
«^*
O
>,
GC
O
X
o
t-f
(C
c
U 00
d &
C iW
t-< ^H
.. (J
Ui 1- C
C/ & ta*
JJ 4J
§ 3 i
o c s
= =0.
0 0
O in
<•> —
C 0
^n in
"" •""
in in,
CM CM
«C vC
CM — <
S
U
~"
Jj
cc
c
o
cc
c
a.
n c
E X
3
^ cc
1C O
c- f-
o
X
I 4J X U
CC CC C ^ C
E .C B — cc
B ~ a K
c c; o c ec .a; o
c jr x 3 = cj
u -H o o e tc u
"-ii j* •" <
in cy o O *•< R
t~ -H O -JT U -< CM
-/-?
n
01
4J
^
f CC
t U-
U
cc u
3 -i
C S
= o.
0
o
\o
o
o
in
CM
*
CM
^
0
="
CJ
L>
u c
ij kd
CC =
t£ b^
_
K
CJ
C
•T^
CC
H
O
O X
X b£
^ c
i2 J?
X
U O
f
R U
4J I
O —
lltachl-
143 Mnsu
_
c
o
c
**"*
'i
4J
1C
_c
o
o
ri
O
m
«-M
IT\
CNJ
sD
(N
^
u
s
cc
E
-
CC
H
^
f-(
O
tbaraki
— t 1- Ui
-H *J t5 4J 1C
u re c g c
E *j 3 w 3 w
eye/ C
CJ CJ AJ *J 4J *J
^ *"* £ c £ c
*r> o
r~«- iA
0 "•
vn o
CM in
CM —
CC m
c*n CM
er> o
en —
3 3
J J
= =
cy
c.
H
1
w
CJ
u
K
•£ "5
•^ K C
C -H t-t
& ^
D tt >
tc ,£ .£
n
E J-1 4>J
O *4 ^ *,
r- fj p CO
0 = 1
2 *H >- cc -< -a- »-H
^H
K CC
CC & C
•*• *•* (U
tc — c
U ~~ h. R
4J CC (J *J C£
tc c —» tc u c
3 t- i- 3 — -H
&J ±j — j-i
jj *J cr. *-* •£ ^
= H- c = ft- =
O
O v£ O
-T IN m
C' C O
l/*i O iTi
— r"> —
fM (N
"in •
xC — \C
fl ^ r*J
N
3 j ^
U U VJ
=r =r t."
s
cr
OJ
i
(A
"B
— C *4
:x s r:
XX X 0) E
« > S ^ S
3 tC 01 CC j^
rc ti tc -^ re
u s >- r; H
X X 4J
•r-l -^« S ~- CC
C t- «O -O C6 C. O-
•^O OClB X GJ tC
J:E— .aicc3 c .c 3O
(J5tC SStH 00-^-«-< --4J
fCK^J K ^ CIJ .CR
x*-"c «H ** ta c rt K tccoo
ceo «c vfi *-t KOO-H ccsm
"^
-------
B-35
11
K
-> §
= £
c
"B jj
6"
3js
2
•H C -I
§ £
b
O C
U K
CJ — 5
«J re c
re e .=
o f
c c t-
£ E *->
ec c y
t> f o
E -> 3
C U
CJ 0) —*
S i
O
Q
O
""»
tN !M
_: _:
y J1
c. K —
DO
J^L'-i
&*.&
>— - K
-o
c
a > ij
u re u
=i f> s
I
s
v
"O
3-10
Aoki
"* ° -
U JJ i- E X ~U
s o c; r K n
ec ;/: *u K -^ *•>
c a -i o «
3 o E 3 xi 3
o ?> 5 a o re
a< :N c H H i<:
j*: o
w -^ ts
w CB — <
we
co^
3 K' X
jt E
res
tow
j; u — to
ccirc
j: a,
o —i
-------
B-36
~?
'C
si
"o
C5
K
1
!
!
V. V.
c =
t> ^
I-
51
.2 -3
•5 g
<•• ^
™ C
1 tt
R
si
c
=" s
*^ L
~
=
I'll
M *"* &
O
s -^.
• ^* M ^
£'•*
i.
•' JK
•a|s ~
£k
' IHH
f^
«
O
•sJ
|
^
•k.
2
»,
2^
f**
si
i.
^
• t =
S ~ J5j
r ** i^
~ £ £
««",? g
J 5 5
"« ',
*•
V
c
^
p
"•-
•*' o-
" B C
E 3 u
a a
a> jj jj
4J C C
v. a — i
CO r-
r- U5
s §
-a -»
O O
m O-
— CM
n
^4D 00
f^ r<*
K- M
O U
K •
= s
^ ^
B CD
3 01 3 01
u c
w. B t. re
Cv C CJ V C U
4j u to 4-1 h< «
C! 3 X eg 3 U.
3 u. a. s b. os
CO
CJ
"£
K
WC ^^ «-(
•rf — CM
x c oi o
3 >• -H JZ OS C
M > *J s j:
u B W ^ C CJ
•m 0) R B O 1
E = S S > It
c
B
£
•O C
01 ^
3 B
C *•*
•^ (C
O *J «C
u -i e
v^ U M 3
z o j: E i
< 4J 4J ^ O
d< O ^ ^
< ^, o r~ *
•-; (^. X S CM 3
01 0)
c c
•H 1*
•-« M -^
1- C 1-
X — £
"SB «
r~ *J X r^
CM O^ "H U CS)
— i V d-> C -H
«^ U ^ C
'• • u ^- B C ••
E U u P 3 u E
O O CJ U JJ 4J CJ
-J i^ — I -' O C *J
w CM u: o ^ ^ w
o
o o o
o o o
M5 vC U5
o o o
0 O 0
CM r-i CM
f-i in
• CM
CC —
r-t CM r-j
_ _ ^_
O U (J
K » »
* = "—
- 5
B B
3 CJ 3 01
U U
CJ C O 01 C CJ
u P CO JJ V- U!
B 3 U. fi 3 U.
? b' ac 13 u- tf
CO
C1
"2
CO
£ T)
IT C
B ^ C
E 3 >,-!
3 CO > JJ
s^: co -< cj B
> H £ Z = S
u
1
01
e
5
EC
4J
X >t 3 - t-<
•rt -J B
U CJ T3 3 -*
Cj .* E
O C £ 1 C B
4J tj 4J O C *J C
O O tt >% O ~<
X X CJ v£ J^ X «^
^ * 3 CM 3 ii
CJ
C
—<
CC U
u .=
U 4J
— « in
u — >
U- C CM
CJ IM
cc U ••
E E 3 -i E
cc B — ' B
Cy C ^ .C CJ
LO tQ =Z C- LO
O in co
CC r- r-
O C O
o — o
CM — • -C
o c c
o — c
~* — • CM
^
•^ -ff CC
CM -« CM
«3 CC ^
U
— I CJ -
cj tn
j: re
= U 3 =
£r 5 £r ^
O J! «tj B
XI CJ C CJ 3 CJ
O CJ >> X O CJ U
B«i- P -^B PB
W^CBCJ BC *JC CvCCJ
u-»-^uiiJy2 Ajt-t CCP uv-iul
CJB3OU- O-^ *-J3 CC3U-
cc 3 u. a; 2; =c ^ cAb. :xb-o£
CO
01
u
4J
at K
c ~< ;
— f -o
1- 01 C
o — —
•0 OJ J5 C
C — 1 C 3 >>-H
3 J* T^ tt > *->
~4 3 C M tJ B 1-
o ^ rs c ^ ^ 2
x
3 . — u
>-. CO O CJ C
u u C B
^ « ,-1 1C ~4 ••<
U O E C- rj
t- — B t! -rt
O B X C 3 CM Ji
•c -^cjejeycBcMB
3 3 — ki -< (5 1 B
K toEBEC-^B
B ---CEOlOinB
r suztnss;— z
-------
B-37
if) IA
c 2
O R
i;
O c
U R
= —
J;
•O
c
C
a
c —<
l. E
& E
o
O
c.
o
o
o
CO
o
c
C .S K
•S l^ Z
l£l
tt
c
cc
>->
o
6C
rc
2:
Inokoli
0
r-i
ri
Inokol:
FnotAk;
Chikus,
1
4J C 3 O
-. -i .* jr
&. o u
c.
is —i e —
>-, 6 G E 1-
O 3 H 5 O
t£ L. U -D
(C (t O R -^
X £0
JJ T- K I
•rt i- CS (C
U 1C OC.*
3-^0
c O =
^ —. e
C •« H
K £
c: o —'
j^ c i
c = <-j
-------
B-38
e
I
•3
1
n
G£
K K
o 7s
i?
d i
II
T3 s*
« i!
£ OS
§ 8
•* 5
^* 15
C «£•
£ ^
c
c
b S •.=
|'g>2
5
gin*
w*
t»
K • Jf
'•3
£u7 b
•a ~
£
a
|
*
c
•s
a.
£
(t
£•
^
.; £ £
ab~ °°
u_ 3 *p
S B Jj
S s ~
S 1
^ 3 IB Ji
^.^
0) CM
9 *t
•* X E 1* 1C
C •* i X X-H O
o u u » *J ^ u
CJ f V -H ^ k
_/ w o jj u o <
Z 1C IH H C jO O
O- 1C U — IH """ c
•<. ^ C 1 E (N 1C
1-5 O = N O m O
15
c
01
c
o
15
3
_0
o
o
o
m
in
is
vC
»4
u
eo
^*
•o
j: s
U X
n c.
U 1^
—1 X
O = V]
£
|
q;
It
C C
*J C 15 C >» —
c o u; j; 15 ^ u
1C .* O li -^ 1
-HICK b U O
B* 1C 3 C < O
.* &0 t/2 O 6C
— C -< C -rt <
3 3 1C — * j:
M Jt Jf 1 B U ->
3 3 1C tM 0> 1C 1
u. ^£ w m o ^ r^
c ic R a
C C C -i C
* I- b B b
i a ci ca
U 4J U b U
c c c c c
e
i) v a> •• o
1C 15 15 C 1C
u
W 4J AJ CM
= = S = =
§00 o o c
o c o o m
§000 o o 6
o o m *n in m
f* r^ in in in in
rt m CM
-------
B-39
V,
•3
<*
1 =
!£
3|
•r. -O
=5 £
51
"S aj
5 „
K bi
fc £
S §
1*
MX Q
* °
b> - 'C
1 ?2
— e i
£ -5 H ^
£s~
.
jgl
>k
Is"
£
3
(M
g
•j^*
_
R
w
i- O
b £ £
S a 2
c fc ""
S *" *"*
H « *§
W5 ^ o
^
|||
l*s
«•} ;™ _5
61
*•*»
•o
V
s
e
•H
§
U
1
a.
^
to
d
•*•(
JJ
y »-4
IS Q
VM C
0) y ^ o
««< -H (B *J
fl <-< C C
0} .O t-i i-i
E.S
c ..
™* fcj k* ™*
i £ £ .2
U R R b
6 w 3 3 E •"
re u R u
0> Oi *•* iJ 01 O1
«j — o O u -*
w u « = w u:
VD
I 1
§o
o
en CM
in m
CM •
— 00
m CM
»•• H*
-J -3
*-H
§ °
Jt C
« 0
s u
« c
-^ R
a. --
Cu
x to x
in
-* o •
u w dj a CM
i £ z< w
R R X
3 3 X CC E
fc- u re
1 i AJ QJ &1 0)
_ — s^ Ui
O
00
c^
o o o o
O O OS O
O 0 O O
in O 00 O
— CM — < CM
mo x
CM en in rl
X CO r*> 00
CM d ~* d
*-i *-i
U U
«— (
R
3 a
i* re
ecu
-u u tn
re r u.
3 U. K
n
c
w
c cc
*^ ^ to C
£ 3 0 R X C
u £ cc: E r x -H
R B. 5 1C > JJ
jj — i c j^ u e b
•H £ O R -H 0> R
= « > S- Z S Z
c
£
U
R C R
b R X
R R -* CC
R RX-* XR XX R
3 &JJ £ U-H^ WU b
O b»< 0) -rt£— •* —1 C R
CO OR 01 »J
sO CC*^ CM RXC RCCX E
I jtR O j«r — •« ^jj4j re
in R.* — < RE" R^b ec
I to re — « I tez «3O re
CM OtO^*- OW— OWZ t/i
ec
c
•M
R —
C -H
b 5
U £
4J
C C
-i c ec
woe
• • 0) i" C. —
b a o -< £
! Ilia
= OC-t«*
8
0
o
in
in
CM
0
CM
«
R
E
3
fb
H
4J
X C
i .5 i
O &. R
c z — < £
W U U
O
o
i
in
CM
U
R
E
R
f-
4J
C
R
X -H
U C.
U 3
CO
0 4J
b U
OCM.C
C. • W
CO'*-'
U5 Z <
ec
c
c
o
~<
VJ
•o
c
c
o
"
3
1
£
1C
e
tn
o
o
c,
c.
o
c
o
E
t/5
C
c
Ci
c
..
b
b
I
C
=
^
r*
O
i-l
§
CO
""
rvJ
b_l
-
0
£
b
R
Z
4J
X C
*J R
U 0.
R -^
^ E
0 R
= ec
N R
£ S
CO Z
,r4
E
R
ec
1C
c
H 1
R m
C t-
-^ CM
2 —
-------
B-40
—
o
I
U
jn
"j?
71
»
K
H*
£
2
c
£
& —
I'f
1 S
£ - H
£ £5
ic
i
x i
li -5
1 2s
£ *;-
U M U '
— H
C
>
C
o
ey
£
tt
&
o
v.
O
W
_5
K
ti
o"
?*.
(t
?-.
JT5
V
fc
3
&
v:
«
^
u«
5
^
2
t>
>t
I
w
b
_5;
"7
*
c
0
>
=
R
z
"c
R
El
/•"s
•c
cu
3
C
v4
±J
C
o
u
z
<
&M
<
•-)
-H
*c
c
u
u
c
L*
0)
u
(C
3
J_l
_0
o
r^
O
LT>
in
rj
>C
rj
M-l
J
U
_ T
«
•^
X
tn
X
3
tr.
ij
j^
>-,
4J
•^
>
>
c
o
c
X
u
1
CC
^
CC
c
re
R
•c c
re — *
3 sD
E
C!
O
*J
W
0
lA
^
Jj
1-J
o
•H
^!
3
a
.u
C
Jlf
19
H
C
*-4
-^
^
&
LJ X
R w
C CD CJ
U J-» W
3 O bu
U. DC C£
^H
«
C
U
ft)
U
C
•^
p
a»
•LJ
CC
3
4->
^
f""»
r*.
(^
O O
O O
m m
o o
m in
vn
CM
vC
CM CM
M *— *
-J -3
y y
«T _T
= —
«
GJ
ti
^
tc
S -c
we «-*
Xi C
2 x a:
w >
*J CC C
•H «* O
£ S >
X
4J
o
•H
JK! c
a re — 3
WEI C
4J ^-| fSJ H
cc f">sr cc
J*i Of rs E 3
(C cc 1 cc o
H E n t- 2
f-H ^-t
CC CO
c c
U w
o> c
c c
o
o
•• c.
w u
C EC &
4-1 C u
n ~< re
? e 3
E
4J — 4 4_)
C 3 C
= t/5 32
O C
in o
*r m
in o
CM m
csr — i
CM (N
(-3 «
L? 0
— T ^
— _~
•*^
X
tn
fS X
O K
X u
3 •*
^ H
jj
C O
(C X
X-J V >,
JJ C- t ^
-- s «-<
u c: « u
E ^
e — ^ c> re
X •'""> U iTi "O
c re c co o
H = =: r^ H
K
C
w
U
K
3
•C
C
>s
>
re
&
™
4J
c
re
<—(
&.
cc
•o cc
0 T^
H C^
X *
PC O
u •*":
te -K
3 eo
•c
V- 4J
X tt
**-. Ui
AJ n >,
4_> J-*
^& re -^
K O
• • u t- 3
e re e -w E
re e: c u
&l CJ C C
_> SO *J ^J •
w — y5 u: ^D
CO T^
r«* ^*
o> c^
m
m
m
r"i
cr
r"!
•— '
c
.«- cy
U 4J
& K
c. rc
1/5 3
^
lM
re c
J-> -S
O —
tf -*
s
?•
kl
o
u
^ C
«•< ai
c u
1C W ^
g C 1
to -^ -^
>. C 0 —
tC C5 ^ U
JC t* ^ N *4
JJ ^!
— ' tj re *-
U CJ w u
^ 3 It O 1C
e ^ s 3 J! 3
re u i-t
C t r- -^ X ^
*•• »— I • C 3 C
c/> t: — =: ^ s
ps.
ON
>— \ X"»
Q O
^ n
O O
O in
f") — '
tn in
• CM
fM •
— < >JS
CM fM
i-2 J
•o -^
* »
= —
re re
E E
r a
.* j*:
re rc
H t-
-^
I
re
ci x
« re re
o o at~- k- C
x *J re i 5 >>
^ 1-1 .u — .s; ^;
c X c; i x o
H U IX — C H
a.
x -H
••- x
••-< U)
O (t
X! 2
5 1-1 N
u- CC --
_ O = E —
O X —I O I
-------
B-41
V. V)
'c S,
E-
si
in
"tt
TJ
O
*jj
K
C
C?
1
2
6
f^
•f.
£
s
c
if.
b
i—
f^
C
C
o
c
o
3
c
c
^
ft)
c
..
>.
AJ
u
re o
o e; IN
0!
01
u
^H
•H
u
0 ^
^j
3 2
£ =
01
e
— 3
•*-• z
£ N
AJ
LI *J
E *J
C5 U
rrt r*^
tt
u
,^4
o
«-J
_C 3
^
oc
«•<
c
o
c
^
••
s
JJ
re
_0
JT
£.-' 2
r=v ar1
c:
— W 1C
o OJ <*• oc
—' u c
u re u ^
1C U
10 u;
o
o
o
o
o
o
c
o
o
o
O
o
o
o
c
o
J
u
J
u
_;
u
_ b
~ ,
S CJ^
re o i 3
o
^K
^^
OC
0!
s c
K >,e
Ot -n >C
j^m
oi
^-^ECN
O—-"l
re
^H
CL
C
o c
-H O
u c re
c S re
OQJ C -H = £
HZ HZzin
-^ H O w s in
-------
B-42
>1
ID
E"
U
w
7s
K W
C 3
** JS
I*
o *•
U E
^ ^
™ c*
^J Si
1*
(A U
C
^ w;
w c£
B- 0
s
7? "«* £
O
= ~^ X
Ml ** V ^
t/?1^
yH£
!3l-' ~"
j
s« [//" w
iS =
i/;
1
|
°
£
|
"c
zf
. 5 £
S)~ ob
MI
£*j "™
aj *" ^
ws "** *^
>% 2 c
1/5 » « ^
Rj ^
.£ ~ "
111
«
•-I iH C
1C 1C W
C C V
W Li JJ K
C C -u
*j U
lJ Li -^ U 05
OJ ft) (J ft) **J
(C ft * 3 to U
s a E ^ r s -H
1C U -H
4J AJ C) O U*l *J .C
C 0 w »H • O 3
s: = « id CM x e.
\D
O O O
O lA O
O 0 O
lA lA O
»-« — « m
kA LA lA
AJ fSI •
,C M> -
r-J — i ri
2 " J
(J U* U*
^- «. w
1
1C X
E >
«-> 0) i
1C s »< w ^
3 f c —
1C 1C *^ 1C 01 O
j: E K E x ce
x P -c j: h c
W 1C C 1C 1C O
i-< s M H E >
13
01
3 4J 01 JJ 0) *J
C C E Cg C
U ^ W ^ WJ ^
c &- c &. cc c«
o ^ o ^ o
U C 1 *J C I *J CC
*^ (U^CC ID-^fC ^
ijwm i jc « o «*c
Z OC05O— ' OCttO— O6CW—"
< >iUCCEI ^0>(CEI >i(C7(
&. ji ic eo -H ni j^ n oc -H m ^jjj^— <
< O3-HXI O3-H^t CCJ1
o H«O:S:W^ H«=:w^r t-t/5O —
^-t
n
c
O Oi
•C JJ O
t- C -"<
0) -^
> I—1
JJ U Li U
^H cj c; re
-H re
w 3 >. 3 u
E w r « -•
tt U ^ 4-1—1
ft) t) lA CD O .£
JJ ^ • C S 3
W til ^ Ll« CM
0
N£> cc r-- ^ f^>
2 2 2 2 2
o
o o o
O O r-i
^o en
C
O O tA
lA
• *
—
CNi
csi cn
s :;
u u
•"
2 - -
O C i.
& OM VC
C C u
o ° .5
> > :=
•o
u
3 B 3
3 .* S X.
3 j<: I ix
•H ^ 1 3 -rf — i 4->
^i ic j<: E '- E -<
•^ItC X — < tCl^- 1C U-H
O3E 03 e--> oc—< oc o ic
x.y~* xx xc x—
-------
B-43
V. V.
11
h
U 5
(ft ^
"5 »-
— c
C c
|l
If. CJ
CJ (j
c
E ~.
£ 'r
_ .9.
•£ 'MB
•" — &
O
> IHJ?
"™" x 2 """
1/3
>. i^
'C i— f x
•c oh-
0 — U. "-
"B ' • —
s: IE
cJ
=
D
A
2t
w
w
•g
1
•- &
L ^ •"
£ e"
O
5/3 O £
§ 5 K
S'x-
•s-l
CC
C
_tf »•< -4 "O -H -H
re c cc «— i re cc
c ejye-^^cc
c •c cp to ftiCv re cy J2 recucy
C H JJ CCJJ CCV _CC
o i 2 ZJ x 2 x
CJ ^ QJ ^ Cv ^ cy **^ tJ & 3 f O ftJ U
(C X CCU «f CCJ »- (C^JJ t-lCRCU
3 00 3-- 3-H 3-H E*-> 3CC E»J33-C
U P-( —* f-HTCCJ >ft)CL' —
tl c^ ^>» J *J £ 4J i^* CJCJ ^Jw^CJ CJC^1 iJCf
O C OS ^OS O3 ^—< C^-^ 4J^^CCCJ
o
o oooocoo
mcctN -fl" 00*3" inin
-in-. in f^imin <•<•
o ooooooo
in co O o5 in in cC *n in
in r^ in in in in in
rsj-I^H^'
o u urare.c.cj5
.£ cc^ tc *H ccx E sx r x 3X
3 i-"* 1--H «> 3 tt> W> B>
W (t w-i (D U-i 3 CC ^ •t-'ct *J C 4JtC
ct -C c ^ c re eu cc T^& — ^ cj -^ o
s u .- w « « = H s = z= s =
•c •
ci o x
3 X U JJ
C JJ i-l XXX
UU O XC C C C-nJJO-JJJ—l
c *J jjcc re res xc OCJE uc o
o-»J o -«trHc X-H X»H JJ-H reu re
urt z: O&.-H JJ&. •H&. *^o. re-^i c;^^ re
'— ' E -^i— J— E O EB.CJ £C- E-H
c « re-no orecncre -< rec re reE
3E^Om ^-^-rn ^->-^--^
c-
c
Cv
JJ K
c a
^•J -*^
•H
• « »J
X »H
— ' t. C
0 L I-
ki re cj
E JJ 3 —
re C •—
JJ -i 5 5
r*.
""
C
0
0
®
in
r^
J
fc
O
c
re
c
m 3
Ji O
c to -.- j:
c. re "u 3
C..C C C
*H C Cy -^
Z H X -5
C
ct
re a. o
re c u
x re i
o c o o
Ji £ C • it = *3
0
O
C.
C
"E
E
^
-------
B-44
II
JJ -3
n K
v. c/
C
'M'B
~ x
3 B
bJ U
O O
Iw O OS
U 0 -'
UJ -o —I CJ
O C u 3
u: c f co
I- B U GJ
_ 41 e co
U. B. u- =3
•H C I-l
^ U B
b CJ C
-» C O
C
E *J 3
cv n *^
AJ ^ 0
CO U v
CJ CO
O *J
S O
co
CO CJ
CJ CO
a B
n oc
oc >,
C AJ
CO O "H
K JJ i-l
>• tt t-i
-i 3 E *J
o .e e u
I- g CJ CJ
>> O *J —I
&• u c/5 u:
>,
^
X
01
•o
S
u i,
•
re c;
•c
y T3
•c o
O co
k<
C. 4J
g
hd >s
o
4J 4J
B O
3 £
O
O
-it- i
i • —
|
3
.' t* C
^1 •*
ill
,?• E =
o
o
•»
o
o
o
o
o
o
c
as
O
o
IO
jo
§§
n fi
cc
o
in
r-
00
I— tt N^
3
' CJ
V.
u
K
a u
U CO
3 b.
u- cc
CO C
•Hi-IB
CO > £.
u a co
•J CJ «
E a s2
I
c
O O
•H *J ^H
4J IM O -
W 15 fc-
C X >,
> CC CM »
O W
H 3
O <-l O
•0 3 0
C B i-l
< H. «
CJ C O
•i-l U CO
K 3
3 U.
a
LJ
C
C U
W
U.
CC
" c
CJ 3
CO
— c
*-' 3
>•' >
R' U
z: u
-H P B
•* OJ CJ
C -* •*
a: jj uj
K -4
C C -O
O 3 O
> ^ z
ontinued
U
z
<
a.
<
-s
£•!
•H to
0
B
e
B
O
C
>-
1
•H
1
C
2
X
CJ
1
o
~e
B
^^
i
in
•^
O
ct
3
to
OJ
e
.0
>•
10
o
00 (M
3 1
CC
^
1
u
o
ED
S
X
=1
J
00
*
E
CJ
X
J
8
U U
P S
£ I
j::
c;
CJ
U 00
3 B
ac B
B =
K
•c
c
-------
B-45
j£ ~
u. *r
I'll
j: —
•^^ tc
4J C.
E b.
cc
tl C
DC
C
•c
c.
rg |\C5 —•
II £F ~ '
u w
X —
CO CO
JJ W
CN r-J
•o
c
O O
CJ u CJ *J
u u u u
C U
u UJ
r i- c
£. E £
H •"
U O
z a:
a:
I
C
O
oc
-------
B-46
i
"C
1
0
3
tt
V. ¥1
"c s
s£
<5l
!!
£ Q
""" u
•3 V
5
S li
" S
^ £
E ci
u c
- .§
^J Bfc R
(5
~ "^ X
&*•
L
[LH ^">
5|S' =
£K
I** "*"
|S
3
•
£
3:
w
^
•2
U
^
*-
's
_£
* fi> SZ
Jj— _M
£ c -
£ 0 C
*^' ? ^
"£ J
- £ Si
i 5 i
••= 1/5 2
C ^* C
*"
•o -o -o
Cl Cl CV
ceo
u u u
ci a' o
JJ 4J 4J
re re re
S = =
vo o a? o \e
22 2 £ 2
^-rlcc N*|CC N
)M W U> W Ll
£ *= J= -C f
CO CC 00 00 CC
-C -ff CM ȣ> C"J
--
V
CO
CC
3
3 j 2
» • ^^
U L? CX
cc
=" z" s
x x x
o o o
4J C) *J O AJ O
u u u u u u
CC CC CC ft (9 CC
CJCC3 CICC3 C)re3
0:311. a;3u. a£3u.
in en U)
tS >£ >£
S5 CS c=
•o
Cl
S
C
C
o
u
>. X 1-1 H^
SO O O
O CC CD CC
z o o o
•o
Cl
Cl
o
u
C
u
^
=
vC
\D
CM
i
cc
-
Cl
en
a
3
»_
re
w
cc
3
•C
C
HH
x
C
u C)
u u
c re
O cc 3
to
-5
ca
>
o
cc
O
•O
Cl
Cl
c
u
c
Ui
ct
=
CC
v£>
CN
W
oo
CM
-
Cl
«
re
3
r~t
re
£
cc
3
T3
C
h-l
>s
O
jj Jy
U U
re re
ci n s
a. 3 u.
tn
a!
.,
0
cc
O
•o
c>
c>
o
u
Cl
re
=
2
0
tri
CO
-
Cl
cc
3
^
re
£
cc
"C
c
x
b
o
u o
u u
re re
u re 3
o: 3 u.
en
cc
(—1
c
cc
o
•c -o
ci g
O Cl
0 C
u u
0 Cl
U k*
re re
= =
'2 2
*ff CN
U W
X X
00 CO
»JT CN
_
Cl
cc
CC
3
f^
re
_J U
• CC
O 3
•0
_- C
>, ><
U b
0 0
^ a, _j cj
U O U CJ
re re re re
Cl CC 3 O C 5
a: 3 ib o: 3 x
en en
>« -5
ce e
w S
E E
Cl Cl
X JE
•O T5
C C
o o
H H
01
e
•*4
t-H
1^
.C
•-^ u
" to
cc >.
I~>J 4J
c^ in ^M
r> o
*v*
E O *-"
g £
£ i
< CO
z c
t-< •**
en en
-------
B-47
£ £
c —
.
s I
* B
= - E
5 5 B
'
oc
c
X
4-1
V
M4
E "
K O
C! 01
4J K 01
C -1 rH
=; O u:
•c
o *-«
W (•»
o -c
> c
O -rt
V *
o
u ^
V
1^ •**
c f
Si 3
• • cc --
E 3 i-
c ^
O w cr
4- C —
in s —
O
O
O
O
O
c
O
sC
O
o
>,
u
o
It 5 to-
3 U- IX
it 5 U.
3 to. «
O 3
3 &.
u -i c 3
*M tM 14 —
t) C 5 '.&.
ot 3 u. o:
O
3
—
L,
0) C
OJ R S U.
B: 3 u. as
•D
C
3
u
•o >
C IT.
3 -D
c u
•D U.
O
1C ~<
E -i
•— ct
r. S
c
DC
C
O
tc
u x
•H u:
^^ •
&. CL,
U Q
.fr II
-j c j: "c
1C f- O U.
o
a.
c c
o> &>
X >
*J (t
o in
-------
B-48
U S
*5 ^
r. £
t> >
C c
L»
2^
Vi K
E
C A-1
C
in CJ
>i JT E
tt C
60
C
TT
•C
?s 01
(J J_>
e u i.
c> 0) tc
4J t—I *•«
in u; C
•* o>
i £
E ^ b
B U iJ
10
01
I 6C 0)
C t) t5
CC 01 to
u u.
e
cc
3 u
O -<
«
c tc
3 •«
•H C
o tc
DO
c
T4
c.
o
•g
^
J
u
»
E
^
3 0)
o
t- re
5t u. B:
^4
o
c
DC
C
•(•<
c.
o
j:
C
J
&
"O
_^
>—< tfi
OJ
°"f
» Cv
= «
X 1-
O B C
iJ 01 -J
U U *J tc
re re c u
b •- c j: ci
u re s u. cu
B£ 3 U. tt U
t/5
K
re
to
o
.J
u
u
t-H
01
OB CJ
-01
™ 5/» —
>, ^ >,
U ~« U U
o re o o
u CJ -u •»-> C!
0 U iJ 0 O CJ
rc to o ^ rc co
i. — e .= j n-
C 1C
3 t3
in -< c
•e o c
(B > .J
re re
% 2
^ J
15
K
re
It
u
i^
6
e
c
tj
,j
it
3
w
O
5
c
iH
JJ
1-4
S
tt
G
•H
rc
:z
V,
re
3
C
J~l
D
"U
c
—^
&
(J
S|
it n:
cc
c
or
3
O
pC
(5
c
01
c.
c
r4
CL
»
U
»
=
x
c
4_l 5^
re re
W ^H C
tu ^^ i_i
0) O 3
t£ 3 n-
[/I
g
05
re
c
re u
u ^
•o c
re tn
t/;
-------
B-49
*u
«
re*
U
"S
rs
OS
K in
il
S 13
0 £
u i
.E ""
1 1
c!
= C£
V.
g £
_ c
C* £
= K
c .
"" c
C
- .2
« '? 2
O
E~-
eU -Si H* rs
CM j^v' £
iul -^
i! • 4?
**]«£, "~
i
J&K ^
""fc ^*
IS
*•»
<£
re
S
'c
2
v
>^
t-
a
K
,: £ 1
*— • C "5;
S "™ ^
So"-
«S« OJ O
<^o J
„ «< *
.1 - «
« £• «=
u £
oc oc o: oo
c c c c
lj ^W JJ ^
R R R C5
cj (y cj cJ
£ — £ j
U U U U
3- » "u §t § "w
^>K^K ^(A U(C
CO O-' O-- O-^
£ = = Q =0 =O
— U~i CD *f)
/-.
O O
^ CO O -ff o
ce a. > o 2
•o
u
y
c
c
S * ERE
>— ' *-t ^H t- ^M OC
o o o c c
20 J= J= E ^ C
K *C J* Ji •"( J^ "D
fi > u u — ( go
u: o o o o o w
3 ^ ^j *J pD J_> CC
W5 t/3 W3 C/l CO
C
3
4J
>*-(
5
C
Sfi
OC K OC
C C C
U 4J >, JJ
ts c i- ec
.-( I- t- 0 P
w 4vn; 4->U f iJ U
w cc*- c — 4 i- rc-^*
ffi cC ±J &•
JJ-H CO 0-< C O —
to w s: s: ^c z: =: c
O — p^. «*> ** [o^ r*J
r. IT- cy^ ^ ^ \c
in
~ UUUU
3 CJCO U-JC3 u-^3 kw- O Z O Z c > J
OC
EC'ECJ € E EC
-(8) "-IOC i-l ^ -H.C
J^« 0 C 0 0 0 >,
it .Ci-i ^R J=n ^x>
-**O J^"C J^C ^C J^"C
oo c 2 °° cc O5
CC W "" to " W W
OC OC
c c
d^ ^
R R
C — w
URL;
5iS
u .
c
u u
U "R = £
a: 3 u, s:
Q
u
jD •
w^ U
c- a.
E
0
2 £•
O R
W
-------
B-50
j
^,
~
F3
U
u
K
Bf
(fl M
c S
u £
£^
<5l
J£ *°
71 >
— c
= K
K E
w- b
= |
£ &*
"• c
s
^ .2
"S Jf E
k- c Si
O
£-_. ^
? * -• £"
t/?"£ ""
i
jj >>
.Is —
^
JU -~.
)S
5
i
s
'c
•3
J
w
J"
H
1
k. 0
w' i =
S «= |
Ul"
w J g
O &
i B S
?*
c ^ ^
O £
>* oc oc be
u 5 C ^
Q; 4j AJ 4^
3
^ u * * ~
OJ *J QJ ^J J^
C v- (C -H .H
C 3 w. S k. E u
It *J 4J It 4J
0) *J 1C *J W 0< W
*J O ~* O — w «-i
n = c = c to o
£.
00 iff Q"^ O CS iH
rv f-fc ^t? r^h \o \£>
s; 22; 2 — 2
p*.
O o O O cs fM
•* >jf rv o <^J r-* o>
00 CO — < fS — —
p^
O o O
rsl <• (S O O CM
, ^ — X
C O 19 O
4J&I ^jot 3QJ ^O'
O V C V U U U
o 10 K reu kieu o re
urtco k--^ca oica ^^co
t cr - u- o/nsu. r. z i*. ciresb
acsb.::: cc 3 u. n: & t>. sz 0:311.0:
t-l 0)
•o o -a >
c re a: c o:
S Jl 3-D
rt W 1- C — C
o •« o o o a
> ca z •> > J
^^
T!
01
e
•H
e c
y p^ *J
re re tc
U2 K t-^ CC
11 1 1 1
oc
c
^j
«
u
f
4-t
C
E *
it w
O1 1C
CO O
M
2
(IN
S >S
c
Ju)
o
0 S
u
"-(
1H
u
cc
tn b.
re
<5
tc
c.
— c.
s>
M<
tj
s
X
o
u u
c cs
i s £ £
oi e 3 i«.
e: 3 u. as
w:
cc
AJ
. C
~H 01
re c. >
rt C
C Cv j:
re E re
B. n
c. to ic
=> >^ re
-------
B-51
ES
£«;
II
J5 "O
TJ >
si g
15
= «ss
£l
.£
o e
3 o
ec
c ic
•H CJ
O 4J «-
4J C k.
re -^ 4j
3 P ic
O — C
= C —
cc
c
-< 9C
jj C
i 4J
~ c
>, OJ
£ tf 4J W
re 3 t) 4j
01 13 O K
t/> ^ U O
n -c
01
4J
•• re
e w
re =
C. 4-
4-> re
to u;
4J B
C C
3 i-
If.
w
•H
K
§
ty
H
E
r:
c
Wl
,-jtcd water l-
oc
c
*H
>,
U
"*
4J
U
u;
efuse Fired
generator
* E
•-* rc
^H C
c ^
3 ic
E
re
o
05
10
1C
U
U
o
c.
tc f
•^ 4J
u: 3
*T3 U
C JD
CC
C
•H
K
C'
.C
4J
(J
u
en
^
E
tz
C
4J
US
w
tn
&
o
c
c.
>^
tj —^ CJ
— < lJ 4J
E *J K 3
C O 13 *-•
w u: K- s
tc
c
•H
e:
c
*J
c
^ E
*J C
1C CJ
C VJ
5" 3
IT C
1C 1-
c
« c
C k.
3 =
C
sr oi
J= ~
r cj
CC 1-
^
4-1
y
"-1
E *J
c: u
G. &
4-» r-i
V- U3
e
•c
t
c
.>
c
u
E
c
C,'
tt
tt
V.
V
u
c
J^
c
— '
l-
K
«5
C
ORirn 1
o
c
c.
CJ
4-1
3
4-1
_c
rn tor
QJ
c
c
DC
C
4-1
R
c
4V
(^
t-
tt
a
&o
x hi
c c
£ o
•0 0
w s
cr s
3 C,
*~
C
••H
U
•c
cc
3
— I
U-
o
4-1
c
u
Q.
K
C
C-
CO
vC
o
o
c
vP
O O IN
O
o
O
O
O
00
- i -
i B i
•S 05 Z
P T5 C"
1C C -<
g re —i
— c
o c
- 01
O 4J
re -3
- ci
U 15
3
3 OJ
^ re
01 C U
4J b U2
re 3 u.
3 U. K
O/ C U
4J u u;
C 3 b.
3 b a:
c >
o o
o>
-H I
Ol B
1C J=
re -H
i u
-------
B-52
c —
t> n
gM
c •=
11
2 o
1 d
S b
= 2i
ej .= 'S
O
S
S
c
M~ .SP
i— C 7.
o a
c
!M
CJ
E
3
in
D
c
Ui
^
-y
0
4J
c
o
CJ
c.
^
y3
c
JJ
Ui
«
5J
g
u i
61 0 *J
•J — I O
>
c
u -<
u re
jj a.' • "" c
mo -< c
us
£ 'a. 4J o
re u j
E K
i -5
O
O
O
0
O 0 0
r» o rsi
CJ
_c
E —
C re
= 0)
C "
-5-1
— c vs
5 U,
o
2:
•o c -o c
•H 1-1 -H O
•3 a < •*.
fc. i_ wB
c o ^
H —
— N
3 K
U5 -J
E c
01 O
Jo
t, a,
S o
re n c c o
i- ;j =1 -; ^
c
CC
£ =
-^ a
U N
CJ
c,
-------
B-53
tJ
r^
O
£
u
'3
£>
fib
*••
C
w
>-,
C/3
C
"*£
5
C
tft W,
c 2
U R
H w
i "*
u i
•: -3
~ U
£ S
tj s.
"" o
X f£
f= K
£ t
•^ V'
£ K
(£ i__
*- C
C
~ .£
« •*•
oc *»
~0
i-l1
s-
uT >•
s *-
-~.
f" -i
s""
(/;
^
i
K
>-
j.
tC
12
a*
t>>
u.
~
jt
w
t- t1
" ,2£
*£ *u^
b. "•
C .
tJ C
K s
c>
£E
« K
c/2 2
M S
ft.
^^
•e
&
3
C
•H
4J
C
C
u
o
z
<
J
ai
LI:
t<
H
7
1/5
E
C
t
3D
i/-,
O>
5
fsi
=
O
LTl
M4
-C
•M
•w
C
^
c
c
>
&
c
c
V.
5
ct
^
GJ
c
•H
U
4J K -^
>v in x >>
jj * ^ U *J
tJ QJ m y t >s U
is e J i i ^ B i
u t: u 3 ec c
O— COQ *J"C C. O
— -,
CP> O^
2 § g
-, N
C5
^0 0
i/\ *r\ — .
m
"•j
rw rj rJ
J J 3
• » »
^j y ^J
— — —
-*
r o c
3 CJ ~ J Ql 3 ^
u o o u
i- r: c R '-? i- c:
CJ=O >-^C3 OC^
rr£ c;t3-"S^ It s ^
3^-ai ai3X3i 3c x ai
en
"w
E
^
O "
C I- >- O
— •* o ct as
u — < ^
2 £ o >
re c o
woo c
*•» ^ c c j-
n ^ w wo
E j-> c o u
E & U N 3
•^ -^ O 5 —
-JO _J — s—
CO O QJ &•
C *^i c -*i E
K O C C C
~ W ^ V- 0
"tr 4j i- *j u
C; tfi C W C.
^0 ^0 —
"s 1 It 1
^o s u —
4_l
C
o a)
ceo:
> r — * ?• x
x c ^ooc-o *-
*j y w to T; L- -o
O O I- U3CCV- ~
*J -* C£ — O N fr- O
C t- C >^ «tr-C£?^ —
3 e -w - t^5*jj;lJtc
r:u *J fc* re u *J rt *- *^
•^ *j ^Jj J £fjJi?"H£- ?
— j^'j^ s: iH _c _^- — c -^ ^ »
-c- O o ao
O ^ r* sC
^ ^ ^ ^
— — — • —
O COO
•Jf •& OO^O "-j^j
r-4 r-j ^ x^ — * r>i r*.rv.
DO O
-y X OOOO = O p>3a z
&C
^1
2
^
c c
ci no
c ei sc t:
tt 3 U ti
5 - 5 £
k. OJ i— C C
~ -* c. ccx-c o/-^w
E = i-jj:^^: c.eT3
- Z O^H z>^ =
X
0
k.
w
•c
y:
,^-
^
if.
-=
U
l_
u
K
L',
,_;
-—"
W
-------
B-54
>,
••
re
J*
•c
u
re
bi IB
£55
I-s
U E
w «e
5£ u
£ U
V >
2 o
•0 j;
c c
" w
If
r? **
S K
"• "3
S
*j ** •••
•5-a«
O
__
e T ^
" &S ~
to
^*7 ^
= Sc
3
O p""*"
Lj UN*
IS
£
3
|
Uv
C
•c
£
H
"c
. s 1
s»||
s c 7-
• ftj O
>4 B S
^ >
ill
— (/5 Z
S * —
61
&c
c
re
X V
u —
C JJ X
^ CJ b
E -J U «
O O WJ 13
iTl
O
2
O
esj
0
o
""*
N
_J
y
fc
=
[-
3 OJ
U
w re
3 i *
0
•c c
u o
3 >
C
•H
^J
C
O
u
^
i s
2 5
u: i-
N o
-J C
W 3
3
in 01
IN C
0) . •*
C i/l —<
— i x c; k.
00 "C CC ^^ GC t£ C *£ CC
CO Ck-rgc c —--s:
ts > c^c.»c r: usocc
xn c x >,o xu xo xj; -xc
4J.C u M ^-I^OOO^-1— '-'w *-> -ff^J:
U-UX^ C U-*-J *">c.tJ UW UU C^
•^Uk- — ' -^U — U •'"Cj •»<••* WL-
gJJl-K CC EiJ g"l- 6 i. J 1. EUW S w 1C EUW
U QJ tft "\J O D t' &• O UJ CJCCfU> OCX fti f W U U tC
e-.
00 ^O iT* Pn -3" CC 30
r** |O f** >J3 f** O rsi rs.
2|S 222 222
^
re
0 ^
0 " -J 3 O O -a- —
rc ^
O l- 3 0 0 <• —
OSCN-TOO'- —
-jrj:i-.;Nf^;N.«- in
&i n
c • oo
J5 _ 30
-* fN tN PNj «^ rsl —
3
-J -J -J S -J -J -J -J J
•> . „ (- * •. *. *. *.
= ==3"= = = = =
tt TO n n
3V 301 3 0 3 o
o c u o
k,re ^C U-< U —
U lp».£QCJ~4C>&)**40J&) »^O ***0) *^t
c a o — IE k.uc uuc wu i- u- i- -x
-< » =p^E ^ _B -5 5J5-H 3C 3D =O
-------
B-55
M 10
'c 3
u s
g hj
S
B O
L. W
— -^ o -H
-CO
C U -^ 3 CJ EEU-
reuonc
oocctjJR O a, O
*Jinr— CO
"• 2 H (?
CO *
|S1
*k*
i
o
ce 2 2|tN S —
S 12 2 S
™™* "ff" ^ co *~"
iTl «« ••« (SJ y~)
g.
*J W t/3
cc r ^
3 U. E£
3 01
C
3 C
b C U
u. a: ac 5 u.
•^ c S c; c O
^-< ^ 2: A-1 u W
« " 5 c »•«
n tc-rfpos<: x >B
Z Zeeacc? > ca
S 1
O tc
Z *H
5 K C -C
Id "O i-< CJ
u c v o ecu
H SJ tt 9 -DEO!
Z O &> -H OUR
C
^
3 ^
> i
E
c n
u "ai
0) C
•O -i
—( O
z z
in s
ts >
?s to
C TJ
5 S 2
••* t-- Ct
c r i-
AJ C J
C (A
-------
B-56
c —
u a
if
ds
• w;
C O
Hi
3 — ^
u
z
n:
UNtTF.D
te
^
u
houlh '
JBsex
•J~.
±>
if.
0-
•3-
c
12
•o
u
K
O
3
& cr*
•= ^
— < L.
•rf W
V- 3
t) -O
o. c
6 ^
•H
Cl
b
"v,
J_l
3
GJ
-^
u
V
ro
O
=C
-------
51
* §;
ft s
=•!
O v- w
•• C " 3
e •>. a o
U. O O (ft
•• O 3
I E O b O
x o -c t: t-
a - c u c
a J-. a -Ji ±
— K 3
H 3 C
ya i: u. <
U C.
" 'S -J 4J ~
K _ ^ £ ^
C 4- V. C
IT C 3 1J OC
C IT. O u: E
C tf
E t i
o a t
-j — c.
5 "^
£_ **•'
vi *•
f:
is
' C*
i— C
S "^
= c
if w
v. ™
^c
V
c *•
C w
•C en
«
c
^
£
-
=
V.
i
3
re
"c
•C
•^
4>
H*
f-
HI
£
1
-•
^3
|
-
S
K
z
**
£
C »n
y\ \&
~*
^ u
„ r
Q 'H
L 1 "
— 5 = ^. — — ' 5
ct — i- ^ re —
3 » = a >, » w
C w I* C
i- c. K n i* b
b a. b c s p oc.
tt 3 — 3 W 'A. K3
3 ^; JL s a. a: 3«
...
— - c 0
-C X
rN — •
„
'J
„
flj i— '
U 1 O
«a 5 — » c
c u, w — ' c
3 as >, i «
w ca u< QJ
CJ C S ^ f C.
u. {* a. ai 3 to
T3 C
QJ C
*J tt *«
(T &C
"^ Kg
—i z j:
u_ c u,
u_ oj 3
< _ a
.
c
•-H tfc
— n; » P-
^ X K 3
1^ 4"
-I 0
•S X
0
in
^
^
3 3 3
*« »• »
u y -j
^ » *• «
b S = W =
b *-^ 6C '••
c ctt^ — i y- — —
3^zcjc u^v-x «J b cotp4~o ^ y;
uw WU (CCC^C/ (J UX — C£>3 77^^
yv ^< ^ BC cs cc^* — J re t£^^
xiy'sa: :::.— =: S3^=i :-3-j— Ji ;: i.
C tt
C I-
c c c
O — 4J
« — — — _ =
•J
SJ •
x a
c
^ - c
to r- • c b T3
•^ -i It k, K C
KI-CC n— c cc-^
3OC -JCC • U( g — >,
b^.— Ct. C— — >* u
uj; r. o tt— uu^
•C^K -HC, 3K — It J
c — ct *Jw NO cs:s^-
<<3 < < 3;
-------
B-58
^
1
u
•o
'a
M V,
'c 3.
C» R
£ M
Jl
£ "°
.*• V
*• V
V >
^* O
-G g.
5
f ^
•7 ™
c
C K
fB
5
•£ •= ?
/- C; j
— — a.
O
.. 1^ x
IJ,!~:S
,
jtx
2JS =
.sk.
"g =
|
b
^»
?
^I
_^._
fS
X
«
(""
c
1
w
„. £ !
M~ °°
w. C *S?
S •" A
— i .£
, j> £ =
O .i!
e 5 i
•.= t/: Z
O ^ "*
•sei
=-^ ^
e w. *-
o ~ *•*
u re 5 -i —
re — T3 re
u c »- ^ *- "*
4J 3 -HO. 1« 4) 0>
tt O E •" E 5
C C u O K C X
E ^>- GC B "5 B O
C/ 2 —I 3 =3 U
O 2£ _2 y — y ^:
o;
•c _
"o £
W w
re
tc ^
C 3
o re — " -J
i 1C C J "—3 y •-?
=" =* &. S* ="
b C
o re —
•c re o re
ft) ^0)UX30> O1
u recxoo; u uu
re — re c w« .c —
S. 3^-H^J C>CU I"O w-1
— £ "2re-S t--£ a? o
^ s. z e.— = 3^-s6 =1:=. y
re ^
= J - c
o o re o -J
O-O£BJ-> JJ iJ — . c
cccore v> C"o
>,reooe P QJKE-
-3 — I U — < 3 ^S) -COSC-U
0(>.t-i> B OJ-^ — i U -O •** O
— < i- > irf C — * *-4 UJ->E3tfl
o;rescj o — ' o t> v _c zr 'J:
•o
3
C « 1
c -HO a » 3 = c <•>
o • »._i -K u u — re c
N_ PC>-B -^re o.S c -J — a, —
creu>>^B ^u £-u a<
• E— co ac -Jre otfc"ccc
< —.^3^ J:R cic occo = c
• UWOU *^^ i-W "CC-^-^O
tn -HROC >.t- rere — o -* -* >
• res^'U — < i-s i-^creoj
33; £ x ia=ca
re re
u in u
B ^ W
C — Z
o o
E ~ E
& — * O
•0 73
•O
u C. u
C K O
-«-! C "I
.re — .5
_
c
^ i- ^
BO *J
re- c u
S 3
» S *>
re ^ tc
tc c>
"U T3
3 Oi
•23 U
3 O -J 3
o >- o —
_: c. tt x
rg
Ov
o
32
-
T?
— — M
~" G
• a
y "J re
3
=" =" X
*••< w'
L 2- J= U
j_, -4_i *J U C
L. tc "-™ c; i«
= = u.
=
•c "u
X £ ii3 O
o re c t-
•a w u in >
•5 "S 3 = 5
re
-
u.
c c c
c re —
re j: ^ 4J re
w u _c c 'J
S z - "* "^ c •
1 C -0 C 'J T3
B - — ' ^- 5- t-
cc *•> re re re o
BT C u- .= 3 -* U
« re >- u t B c
•• r' 5 i 2; .9-9
^ S« AC: . «? «? O
re o ^
_. "* o
B -D *J
cue.
& U
•C J 0!
e. -c
too
o _ —
- = e.
4J
•
3
^^
3
—
O
0
re
^
^.
S
O
3
—
L^
-
— <
J
^J
="
w a; o
Hj — J — J — ^
K CZ K *->
>v C >> W
C *J — o ^
>! ^ & .£ >% O
i. =£ > tt X U
CJ
•H
W
t:
c
£
-g
•
5 J;
C X!
0 >-
tt >
&
l^ tt
J: 3
s -,
e re"
— B
E u i"
X 3
C ~"
E l-
re ^ o
c; 4- _/
j*. 3 s
^
£3
tt
0 C
re1 —
u —
5 ""
-------
B-59
I"5
I *c
US
II
c
s a
3
C .=
c —
CC U
2 O
£
C
•o
b
o
c — o
£ e£ U C U!
•3 -c o — -a
01 c o
» C C tt
i "u a. "u 3 u
X
c
o
06-H
C -J
.=•£
B M n
"
fc
3
O
o
-~- oc
u ^
o s
5 «
i- — c B -j
w--^wjJ^
L. 01 U
CJ — i -
ki o QJ — O C
g c. o c = j^ —
E
DC
CC
C
c c
-j c:
c ti
•o c o
C k. C
occcio
Si
(U <
r^ ^
Ci
U X
O G
-J 3
c •
o «
u
3
z
EC
o c
if. B
CS-HJ:
SCO
y
us c
ire
cc
-------
B-60
15
si
•e *>
c K
-
— o
o"
K
(5
c o
Ci n
•o
k. 3 S "
CJ O -^ K
3 — t, re
>- 3
o "a o •*
6
C C C
0-^-4
E w
m re c
•C -t -H
re z u.
0 5 U
CX -fi CJ
o o .e
= -~ ~
^ ™ u:
3 -5 §
c -o re re w
-1 61 S CJ uol-o
^ •— u - re 5; 1 —'
I! i £ £ 36 Ittl
^ =: S x
c =
•J c
re -u
3 -U jii
O 3 CJ
tC O C
-3 -^ U
T- 4-1 X
U U
a o k.
c o
u c o
tt O C
re u -^
a
o
*J E =
f i- re
o <: —(
-------
B-61
c _
a I
er. *o
If
1*
= 5
.
• —
IS
C C-
— in
2 °
•5 »
•
< C c
--! u ;- t; c c
E -I O O >T, U «
E 3 O C — _! —
CJ *. tr. cl & K i-
4J C. C — -J — X —
C C C
C ^ 4J O
o
0 C
U
•c c
c —*
. " ^
3
c i- ^-i
~^ cf
£ s
CC ~
* tc
"J C
3
^lt
- £ c
5 S B
c o
4- 0
•^ tc
E K
WL,
o<
c a.
o a
£ _rr
~ t;
^ tC C t/
c E
O K
>3
CQJ
wz
<
• >-, -
0 —I •
c. =
e <; •
o £.
c c
li I:
K B
w c
-------
B-62
si
£ o
" C
- \f.
'
U
o
c.
K
o e
C. (A
C U
O K
E O
— - i/"i
C. U E H
—H •** £0 3
3 fa 3 C fa
=. E " o K —i e a
S U fa IT. E C JC
-J -i. i C I- C I SJ .C
CJ 2 -J — O — — JJ 3
3 X J~. tt '•*• 13 < V) &
O 3
w O t- —
o
o
c *
— Wj 2
3
- 01
C —i
•c ^
6J O
K
-o
o o
3 ^ ET iT o
e. C 3 3
O ** W *J WH ftj
fa I 3 .*
•c i, w c ec o
x= -, E. c -i
— a; c « — «
0
,11!
O 3 « •"
c: c fa -^
C. 3
e ^
01
>, o -<
> u) tt
= e: o -,
-; n fa s ~t
If. -H
R fa
O ^
R E
S5^
O -<
^ re c
U > -H
rc c U,
-5 3
—< E C
tj —< u
3 * J5
a£ S 'JS x jai
I u: •
~ x
O t-
•£> JZ &/ •
— sj M y c
-* 3 ft »-
c £ ^- tr. CJ •
c O re —* o c
22 2 -1 < 5 ^
•j-. —
U C w
-< s =
CJ " ^- —
> O 3
fa — e z
^
^^
3
^
^
C
C
6t
_f~
K
^
C
O
c
„
CJ
c
D
U2
x
y;
U
fc
^
ID
C
O
tc
^a
w
M
5
K
3
CJ
«a
S
ui
&
c
c
JU
tc
CJ
OC
<
«
Jj
i*
3
c
<
«
c
c
^J
c
i,
c
•j:
-S
i-
o >•
u tr.
AJ O
K —
— ' ff
-------
B-63
U 5
f- "C
IS
ll
SB
*. a
= 1
u <5
' £ 5
- c.
U
«= .*
"— .£ ™-
S e .
£ , C w
It 1
I
c >
cu
w c —<
III ^ p
—i C <
O u I ,-
C£ O C —
C u- O -I
* y, u
c = c^
CCOSJ
— — -c — a ~< —
if. t; o c -s -< -3 '^
c "J j: re c 3 n
J M j = r ^s
^ c
us c 3
w — =:
e t.
c. c >%
-------
B-64
c -
o er
15
3!
= S
S? fc
E e:
£ o
S f i-i j?
r-r
B*
£ K O
S, = "5
•c o —
o *^
1C C
r. (fi —
wow
CJ -J C
c o
~" c
a. — u
C u; —<
C. h.
K C,
IT C
•3
111
(fl
0
"3
I S -^ g c ^ —i u
— * ^
2 C
^ yj
J^ *J U
,
fC K Iw
C 0 CJ
o a: >
±J \^ !J
£ C 3
•O a.
u «
o n
> 3
C u
—' O
C —i
-H CJ
> c
JZ C
a.
k<
^
tf.
-* =
O -rt
c
5
u o
EC
O O
>- ^J
3 "
C£ 3 J£
^ o/ C
—I Z C
-------
B-65
!l
s!
a*
5s
£ O
•C "
* »
II
3 2
= 3
C K
t — '«
E » 5
C -^
slKS1
J:K
= c .
i«l
w; •- E
:- I
; ^; ft
: >> c
'g£-
C. K.
lr. i-s R
o u
c — ^
— 1C
•O •" O
o t. x
a c c
.c
c
e
-» tc
a c
O C
15 "O
5 g
•5
JJ
C
E «->
(t U
CJ CJ
— 3
C
It i, ^
J^ C y. re
5^i2.
u — 3 x
o > o •
Z X. =1
0) >
C •
Z =
O tt
W j: C —4 .£
re v < -~ u
o tc — re
.Z W « b. IT.
V- I- u > o
o r c re Z
Z Z =
K t, G
— 3 o -i -2
^ i- « •« v.
c re we
= 0-0—1
-------
h-bb
c
«• "U
c *™
f-s
3i
U* T"
o"
c
M
—
u
c.
3
3
.* 3 E
It C IS
•o .co
O _O
C
O
E
C
•o
^
0
2
u
o
M
w
tt
c
1C
c
£,
K
__
2
c
c
^
o
c
u
~
c
.c
X
V.
JZ
•—I
•u r-»
B 2
2
F c
L. t,
o yi
.if o
c ir
i|
u v.
C X
•— [fi
«••* w
a, &
5 o
^ c
1 tS
v O
fe Si
= §
£ **
w C
[£" *^;
U
O
U
o
u
1C
^
^1
tr.
c
&:
tn
•^
^
C
^
w
^
-*H
(J
4J
(J
•-^
wC
t,
•^^
2
^
*a
^2
— •
o
o
r^
•^
s
w
./:
*-^
o
C'
-*
]*
o
2 X
X a-
1C
re
cc
u
•"
^
O t.
_x .s
« 1
5^
i- C
O "
U. <
—
•^
tT)
E X
rr
-j -c
«c x
>,
1~t
w
u
u
u
o
— 1
^
.„
£
i"*^ rt
-,
E K
ij c
yj —i
= s ?
5
s
Sk,
-Ir-'i
Is"
o
o
j
•j
•e
C
&
U
re
•— ' p
— ^ M
5£
4J
K
C
T3
C
Uj
-*
f
5
—
»
tn
o
L.
a.
_,
c
6
X
c.
X —
4-t «0
u ^
u
c ^-
§0
T! K
c a.
e
c
u cj bw u;
c sc o k-
r j^ — « ^
~ u c -^
- -R c a
^
e
=
5
w ^ R
o ^ —
t> O C
IT, >H - 1-1
0 E U
^3 C l-
C Z ," =>
a:
r:
c
c.
tJ
a
o"
&
^^
-
Et
•r.
y.
IZ
"u
re
c:
rc
"S-
u
c
•^
^
u
•H
tn
X
o
X
&.
X •^>'
U 4-> "u i.
C) U W jl
E t! rt
C h u •
O t- « Si
£32 =
"-
3
O
r;
2
^J
3
c
c
^
a:
3
JS
u
u
c
c ^?
i S
1 C
0 £
c c
i S
t o£
c x
^ u CJ
3 X ^
K
*J ^^
iJ C
0 C
6 K
f 5
tc
y. w
K C
S ^
O
U
K
^
c r:
o c
O —i i.
C. K
J2 C
E C
-------
B-67
1"
A £
= 1
£ t
b >•
1 tt
C5 y.
il
o
£
E S
£ V
0 3 a
.C 6C — ^-
-«. c — -<
= -< 5 E
-I C *J "
:± re — ^ c
c — c
o u o
— -* t£
II C
£"5 £,
41 • a
-------
B-68
£ £
e £
ci
K -S
r= c<
*
II
«.= ••=
^- 00 W
•e
V
2
S
e
is
e
12
| 5~-
7 ••" —•
§!l
cc
c
o
c
-» tic
u u c
.£ re -«
in QJ
m • j:
«• jj
u
E U ^ g b
C *- 1C *J
COR V tc
IO CM C (AC
6C
c
u
e "-
CC U
01 DE
tn a
u
E f
cc ^
o cc
•J-. a
^ oc ^ ec
t u c K i- c
•C s= U i 5 u
*J re 4J «
- - in c
m
U
e u
£ L3 *-
cc ±J
U O Hi V O K
AJ in >VH ^_* m *H
in cs O en CM a
O
CO
o
o
o
o
o
tc
o
o
cc
o
o
vO
a
3 a
u
u eg
01 C O
u b tn
e a u.
3 it. a.
1
4J b • -C
b eg in c
01 » • 3
.o c o -i
—< o • c
< Ik I*. >
1
15
j:
u
o
r
0
r
-------
APPENDIX
The Table of Contents, List of Tables and List of Figures
for the remainder of Volume I (Chapters C through M) and
all of Volume II (Chapters P through Y) appear on the
following pages.
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(For Remainder of Comprehensive Report)
C. DESCRIPTION OF COMMUNITIES VISITED C-1
General Comments about About the Communities .... C-1
Collection Areas and Jusisdictions C-1
Terrain, Natural and Manmade Boundaries, Neighborhoods .... C-1
Population , . . . C-1
Specific Comments About the Communities. ... C-5
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West ....... C-5-25
D. SEPARABLE WASTE STREAMS D-1
General Comments D-1
Household, Commercial and Light Industrial Refuse. ...... D-1
Bulky and Large Industrial Wastes D-1
Wastewater and Sewage Sludge . D-4
Source Separation D-U
Front-End Separation D—4
Waste Oils and Solvents D-9
Industrial Chemicals and Hazardous Wastes D-9
Animal Waste D-9
Street Sweepings D-12
Construction, Demolition Debris, and Ash D-12
Junk Automobiles D-16
Interrelation of Waste Streams D-16
E. REFUSE COLLECTION AND TRANSFER STATIONS E-1
General Comments on Collection E-1
Household Containers . E-1
Collecting Organization E-1
Collection Costs E-1
Assessment Methods E-5
Vehicles ..... E-5
Collecting Times E-5
Homeowner Deliveries '. E-5
Collection Activity Affecting Resource Recovery. . E-5
Transfer Stations E-8
Specific System Comments on Collection E-8
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West E-8-16
F. COMPOSITION OF REFUSE F-1
Physical Composition of Refuse F-1
Moisture Content F-1
Chemical, Elemental and Molecular Composition of Refuse. .... F-1
G. HEATING VALUE OF REFUSE G-1
Definitions and Calculations G-1
General Comments on Refuse Heating Values G-3
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
Specific Comments on Systems' Heating Values G-3
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West G-3-10
H. REFUSE GENERATION AND BURNING RATES PER PERSON H-1
I. DEVELOPMENT OF THE REFUSE FIRED ENERGY GENERATION TECHNOLOGY
AND DEVELOPMENT OF VISITED SYSTEMS 1-1
DEVELOPMENT OF THE REFUSE FIRED ENERGY GENERATOR TECHNOLOGY
(1896 to 1982) 1-2
General Comments About Development of Visited Systems 1-3
Motivations and Decision Making 1-3
Main Purpose - Waste Disposal? or Energy Production 1-4
Stated Reasons for Development of Refuse Fired Energy Systems.1-4
Unstated Reasons 1-13
Specific Comments About Development of Visited Systems .... 1-14
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West 1-14-29
J. TOTAL OPERATING SYSTEM J-1
General Comments J-1
Total Operations at Visited Systems J-1
Baden-Brugg through Copenhagen West J-1-36
K. ENERGY UTILIZATION K-1
General Comments K-1
District Heating (D.H.) K-5
District Cooling (Not Observed in Europe) K-7
Underground Distribution K-15
Community Electrical Power District Heating and Cooling
Development K-15
Energy Utilization - Specific System Comments K-32
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West ....... K-32-76
L. ECONOMICS L-1
General Comments About the Capital Investment Costs L-1
Initial Capital Investment Cost Per Daily Ton L-1
Specific Comments About the Visited Systems' Capital Invest-
ment Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West. . . . L-8-18
General Comments About Expenses L-18
SeontMtties of Scale L-24
General Comments About Revenues L-27
Sale of Energy L-27
Sludge Drying Credit L-31
Sale of Scrap Iron and Road Ash L-31
Interest on Reserves L-31
Net Disposal Cost or Tipping Fee L-31
Specific Comments About Expenses and Revenues L-34
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West . L-34-72
M. ORGANIZATION AND PERSONNEL . M-1
System Ownership and Governing Patterns M-1
Personnel Categories M-1
Education, Training and Experience M-5
Organization and Personnel at Visited Systems M-5
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West M-5-27
VOLUME II
P. REFUSE HANDLING P-1
Weighing of Refuse Received-General Comment P-1
Details on Specific Weighing Systems . P-1
Werdenberg, Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West P-1-8
Tipping Floor, Pit and Crane General Comments P-10
Pit Doors P-10
Pit or Bunker P-12
Crane P-12
Plant Details on Receiving Storing and Feeding Refuse P-12
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West P-12-51
Q. GRATES AND PRIMARY AIR Q-1
General Comments Q-1
Grate Functions Q-1
Grate Life Q-5
Grate Materials Q-5
Grate Action Q-5
Specific Vendor Grates Q-8
Von Roll Grate Q-8
Kunstler Grate Q-12
Martin Grate Q-15
Widmer & Ernst Grate Q-17
VKW (Duesseldorf Grate or Walzenrost) Q-17
Bruun & Sorensen Grate Q-22
Volund Grate Q-24
R. ASH R-1
Ash Exit from Grate, Quenching and Removal from the Furnace. . R-1
Clinker Discharge Roll (Martin) R-3
Ram for Residue Removal (Martin) R-3
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Flyash Ash Handling (Martin and Others) R-6
Submerged Conveyor (Old Widmer and Ernst and Old Volund). . . . R-6
Additional Ram-Type Dischargers . R-6
Spray Quench with Conveyor R-6
Ash Handling in the Plant, General Comments R-12
Ash Recovery, General Comments R-12
Ash Handling and Recovery at Specific Plants R-15
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein to Copenhagen West R-15-^2
Road Test Procedures R-51
Parking Lot and Road Test Results R-51
S. FURNACE WALL S-1
General Comments S-1
Furnace Requirements S-1
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West S-3-^8
T. SECONDARY (OVERFIRE) AIR T-1
General Comments T-1
Principles of Over fire Jets T-1
Werdenberg-Leichtenstein through Copenhagen West T-2-20
U. BOILERS U-1
What is a Boiler? U-1
Definition of Boiler Terms U-3
Summary of Boiler-Furnaces. ... U-5
Overall Boiler Design U-5
General Boiler Designs U-6
Comments About Specific Boilers U-8
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West U-8-83
Metal Wastage (Corrosion and Erosion) of Boiler Tubes U-85
Experience with Fossil Fuels U-85
Experience with Refuse as Fuel U-85
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions U-85
Effect of Soot Blowing U-86
A Proposed Corrosion Mechanism U-86
Reasons for Minimal Tube Corrosion U-88
Steam Condensers U-90
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Gothenburg:Savenas U-90-94
Steam-to-Refuse Ratio U-94
V. SUPPLEMENTARY FIRING OF FUEL OIL, WASTE OIL AND SOLVENTS V-1
Oil and Waste Oil Co-Firing - General Comments V-1
Oil and Waste Oil Co-Firing - Specific Comments V-3
Werdenberg-Lechtenstein through Copenhagen West V-3-10
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
W. CO-DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE SLUDGE AND REFUSE W-1
Co-Disposal, General Comments W-1
Co-Disposal, Comments About Specific Systems W-1
Krefeld through Copenhagen West W-1-25
X. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL X-1
Development of Emission Controls X-1
Particulates X-1
Precipitator Maintenance ... X-1
Gases X-1
Measured Gaseous Emissions ..... X-3
Gaseous Emission Limits X-3
Trends in Emissions Control X-6
Specific Comments about Air Pollution Control at Plants Visited. X-6
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West X-6-3^
Stack Sampling Methods X-3^
Y. START-UP AND SHUT-DOWN PROCEDURES Y-1
General Comments Y-1
Specific System Comments Y-2
Z. APPENDIX Z-1
-------
LIST OF TABLES
(For Remainder of Comprehensive Report)
Table C-1. Collection Area and Radius C-2
Table C-2. Terrain, Natural Boundaries, Highways, Neighborhoods . . . C-3
Table C-3. Population of Visited Areas C-4
Table D-1. Waste Streams Treated Independently from the Main Refuse
Burning Waste Stream D-2
Table E-1. Household Refuse Containers E-2
Table E-2. Refuse collection E-3
Table E-3. Collection Costs and Assessment Method E-if
Table E-4. Collecting Times E-7
Table F-1. Moisture Percentages in Refuse Combusted in Visited European
Refuse-to-Energy Plants F-2
Table F-2. Composition of Municipal Solid Waste in Switzerland, USA,
and Britian F-3
Table F-3. Composition of Municipal Waste at Hamburg:Stellinger-Moor. F-4
Table F-4. Refuse Composition at Thun, 1975 F-5
Table F-5. Approximate Composition of Municipal Solid Waste in Zurich
Switzerland. F-6
Table F-6. Average Chemical Composition of Municipal Solid Waste in
Zurich Switzerland F-7
Table F-7. West Incinerator of Copenhagen Refuse Analysis F-8
-------
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Table G-1. Hydrogen Content and Calorific Values of Four Fuels. . . . G-2
Table G-2. Refuse Lower Heating Values: Assumption for Plant Design
and Actual G-5
Table G-3. Energy Values of Selected Refuse components (Dry) G-6
Table G-4. Heating Values for Mixed Municipal Refuse in Refuse Power
Plants G-9
Table H-1. Quoted Refuse Burning Rate on a 7-Day Basis (Does Not Include
Alternate Disposal Means H-2
Table H-2. European Average Refuse Generation and Burning Rates Per
Person (1976-1977 Period) H-3
Table 1-1. Stated Reasons Associated With Each Unit 1-5
Table 1-2. Rank Order Listing of Reasons Mentioned for Deciding to
Construct a Refuse to Steam or Hot Water Plant 1-9
Table 1-3. Matrix of Stated Reasons for Development of Refuse Fired
Energy Systems 1-10
Table J-1. Energy Generation Rates at Baden-Brugg for 1975 and 1976
(From Plant Statistical Statement) J-2
Table J-2. Baden-Brugg Weekly Operating Summary May 2 to July 4, 1976 J-3
Table J-3. Dusseldorf Waste-Burning Facility-Operating Results - 1976 J-5
Table J-4. Availability of Issy's Total System J-8
Table J-5. Gross Operating Figures for December 1976 and The Complete
Years 1976 and 1975 for Hamburg: Stellinger-Moor .... J-9
Table J-6. Detailed Operating Statistics for November 4, 1976 Boiler
Number 1 at Hamburg: Stellinger-Moor J-11
Table J-7. Detailed Operatinng Statistics for April 2, 1977 Boiler
Number 1 at Hamburg: Stellinger-Moor J-12
Table J-8. Comparison of Zurich-Hagenholz Incinerator Performance, 1974
Table J-9. Report of Operations 1974 and 1976 J-14
Table J-10. Refuse Burning Summary, The Hague, 1976 (Compared to 1975) J-20
Table J-11. The Hague Plant Annual Operating Results Over Seven Year
Period (Furnace 4 Began Operation Early 1974) J-21
Table J-12. Summary for 1976 of Refuse-Sludge Burning Plant Operation
at Dieppe. Tabulation Prepared by Plant Operators,
Thermical-Inor, in Fulfillment of Their Operating Contract
with the City J-23
Table J-13. Dieppe Wastewater Plant Summary for 1976. Tabulation
Prepared by Thermical-Inor, in Fulfillment of Their
Operating Contract With the City J-24
Table J-14. Annual Refuse Incinerator Operating Results for Dieppe
1972 -1976 J-25
Table J-15. 1976 Operating Results for Gothenburg: Savenas Plant . . . J-26
Table J-16. Gothenburg Savanas Annual Results 1974-1976 J-27
Table J-17. Operating Data for the Uppsala Energy System for 1975 and
1975 J-28
-------
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Table K-1. Three Steps of Energy Form and Use at Visited European
Plants K-2
Table K-2. Key Energy Functions of 15 Visited Systems K-3
Table K-3. Heat Utilization From German Refuse Power Plants Start-up
During the 1960-1975 Period K-1*
Table K-1*. Internal Uses and Losses of Refuse Derived Energy K-5
Table K-5. Attractiveness of District Heating as a Function of Density
of Energy Use K-9
Table K-6. Specific Heat and Energy Numbers of Different Types of
Swedish Buildings K-11
Table K-7. Favorable Demand Aspects of District Heating and Cooling
Systems in the U.S.A K-13
Table K-8. Report on Operations Nashville Thermal Transfer Corporation
for the Twelve-Month Period Ending May 31, 1978 K-11*
Table K-9. Steam Production, Losses, Sale and Availability K-i*5
Table K-10. History of Electrical Production, Sales, Purchases and
Internal Consumption K-^7
Table K-11. C.P.C.U. District Heating Uses, Production Capacity,
Climatological Conditions and Annual Actual Steam
Production K-H9
Table K-12. C.P.C.U. District Heating Network Facts K-50
Table K-13. C.P.C.U. Percent Distribution of Customers K-51
Table K-11*. Hamburg: Stellinger-Moor Total Operating Figures K-51*
Table K-15. Energy Produced by Savenas Plant in 1976 K-68
Table K-16. Typical Autumn Month Operation Data for Uppsala Heat Power
Company, October 1977 K-72
Table L-1. Summary of Capital Investment L-2
Table L-2. Exchange Rates for Six European Countries L-5
Table L-3. Status of construction Expenditures - Wuppertal - as of
December 31, 1975 L-11
Table L-1*. Capital Investment Cost (1969) for Units #1 and #2 and Other
Buildings at Zurich: Hagenholz L-11*
Table L-5. Capital Investment Costs (1972) for Unit #3 and the Water
Deaeration Tanks and Room at Zurich: Hagenholz L-15
Table L-6. Assets and Liabilities of Copenhagen: Amager as of March
31, 1976 L-19
Table L-7. Capital Cost (Assets and Liabilities) at Copenhagen: West
(Fiscal Year 1975-1976) L-20
Table L-8. Detailed Expenses for 15 European Refuse to Energy Systems
(U.S. 1976 $ Per Ton) L-21
Table L-9. Summary of Expenses for 15 European Refuse to Energy Systems
(U.S. 1976 $ Per Ton) L-23
Table L-10. Detailed Revenues of 15 European Refuse to Energy Plants
(U.S. 1976 $ Per Ton) L-28
-------
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Table L-11. Summary of Revenues From 15 European Refuse to Energy Plants
(U.S. 1976 $ Per Ton) L-29
Table L-12. Gross Summary of Revenue from European REfuse Fired Energy
Plants L-27
Table L-13. Operations Results at Werdenberg-Liechtenstein for 1976. . . L-35
Table L-14. Revenue Estimate for 1977 at Werdenberg L-36
Table L-15. Operating Results for 1976 at Baden-Brugg L-15
Table L-16. Costs of the Waste Burning Facility at Duesseldorf,, 1975 . . L-39
Table L-17. Duesseldorf Revenues from Sale of Steam, Baled Scrap Steel
and Processed Ash in 1975 L-40
Table L-18. Operating Results for Paris: Issy During 1976 L-M2
Table L-19. Operating Results for 1976 at Hamburg: Stellinger-Moor and
Hamburg: Borsigstrasse Plants (MVA I + II) L-^6
Table L-20. Annual 1976 Operating, Maintenance, Interest, and Other
Costs for Zurich: Hagenholz Units #1, #2, and #3 L-48
Table L-21. Annual 1976 Revenues for Zurich: Hagenholz Units #1, #2,
and #3 L-50
Table L-22. Operations Results for 1976 at The Hague L-52
Table L-23. Annual Invoice Billings From the Contract Operator Thermal-
INOR to the Dieppe Community for Operations and Maintenance
(1976 Results) L-5*»
Table L-24. Operating Results for 1976 at Gothenberg L-55
Table L-25. Operations Results at Uppsala for 1976 Expenses and 1975
Revenues L-57
Table L-26. Operating Budget for Horsens Plant, 1977-1978 L-60
Table L-27. Annual Costs and Revenues at Copenhagen: Amager L-61
Table L-28. Operations Results at Copenhagen: Amager (Refuse to Energy
and Landfill) Plant, Transfer Station L-62
Table L-29. Operations Results at Copenhagen: West (Vest) for 1975-1976. L-63
Table L-30. Modes of Finance for European Refuse-Energy Plants L-65
Table L-31. Financial Structure of 15 European Refuse-Fired Energy
Plants L-66
Table L-32. Financial Structure of 15 European Refuse-Fired Energy
Plants L-67
Table L-33. Financial Structure of 15 European Refuse-Fired Energy
Plants L-68
-------
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Table M-1. Ownership/Governing Patterns M-2
Table M-2. Personnel Category Listing for Refuse Fired Energy Plants. M-3
Table M-3. Outside Contracted Services Frequently Used M-6
Table M-4. Staff Organizatioon at Stadtwerke Duesseldorf Waste-to-
Energy Plant M-10
VOLUME II
Table P-1. Refuse Pit Storage Volume, Dimensions and Capacties. ... P-13
Table Q-1. Refuse Burning Manufacturers and Representatives Q-3
Table Q-2. Grate Dimensions and Burning Rates Q-M
Table Q-3. Design Pressure of Primary Air System at Plants Visted . . Q-3
Table Q-H. Grate Bar Replacement Q-7
Table R-1. Summary of Ash Handling and Recovery Methods R-2
Table R-2. Disposition of Bottom Ash, Scrap Metal and Fly Ash at
Paris: Issy R-23
Table R-3- Population, Refuse and Ash in and Around Zurich R-24
Table R-4. Analytical Values of Trace Elements in the Percolate . . . R-55
Table R-5. Element Composition of Soil and Cinders (All Analyses made
on Dry Material) R-57
Table R-6. Comparison of Analyses of Percolate from Depot 1 in
Vestskoven and Percolate, Drain Water, and Surface Run-
Off from Parking Lot in Ballerup R-58
Table S-1. Wall Tube Thickness Measurements of Screen Tubes at the
Rear of the Radiation First Pass at Hamburg:Stellinger-
Moor S-31
Table S-2. Wall Tube Thickness Measurements of Screen Tubes at the
Rear of the Radiation First Pass at Hamburg:Stellinger-
Moor S-33
Table S-3. Boiler Furnace Design Conditions S-47
Table T-1. Secondary Air Systems T-3
Table T-2. Primary, Secondary, Flue Gas and Recirculation Fan
Parameters at Copenhagen:Amager T-23
Table U-1. Composition of Sicromal Steel Used for Shielding Tubes
from Hot Corrosive Gases U-23
Table U-1a. Flue Gas Temperatures, CO Levels, and Steam Flow Rates
Recorded on June 9, 1977 at Zurich: Hangeholz Unit #3 . U-28
-------
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Table U-2. Superheater Tube Materials Used ....... U-51
Table U-3. Comparison of Energy Recovery U-77
Table U-4. Methods used to Clean Tubes and Walls of European Refuse-
Fired Energy Plants U-78
Table U-5. Comparison of Energy Recovery U-97
Table V-1. Use of Supplementary Fuels at 16 European Refuse Fired
Energy Plants V-2
Table W-1. Co-Disposal of Refuse and Sewage Sludge Location, System
Vendor and American Licensee W-2
Table W-2. Co-Disposal Unit Operation Moisture Conditions W-3
Table W-3. Sludge Drying Mill Design Conditions for Waste of Three (3)
Lower Heating Values W-10
Table W-4. Results of Calculation by Krings of Heat Balance for Dieppe
Plant W-16
Table W-5. Approximate composition and Lower Heat Value of Some
Typical Raw Sewage Sludges According to Eberhardt. ... W-17
Table W-6. Summary for 1976 of Refuse-Sludge Burning Plant Operation
at Dieppe W-20
Table W-7. Dieppe Wastewater Plant Summary for 1976 W-21
Table W-8. Annual Refuse Incinerator Operating Results for Dieppe -
1972-1976 W-22
Table X-1. Characteristics of Electrostatic Precipitators X-2
Table X-2. Measured Gaseous Emission Rates at European RFSG X-4
Table X-3. Emission Limits, mg/Nm^ X-5
Table X-^J. Results of Two Performance Tests by TUV on a Precipitator
at the Duesseldorf Refuse Plant X-9
Table X-5. Precipitator Design Characteristics at Wuppertal X-12
Table X-6. Characteristics of the Two Krefeld Precipitators. .... X-15
Table X-7. Paris-Issy Air Pollution Test Results X-18
Table X-8. Performance Test Data on Precipitator No. 2 Serving Furnace
No. U X-27
Table X-9. Results of Gaseous Emission Measurements from Original
Three Furnaces at Uppsala (April 23, 197*0 X-28
-------
LIST OF FIGURES
(For Remainder of Comprehensive Report)
Figure C-1.
Figure C-2.
Figure C-3.
Figure C-4.
Figure C-5.
Figure C-6.
Figure C-7.
Figure C-8.
Figure C-9.
Refuse Generation Showing the Service Areas in the Canton of
of St. Gallen and in Liechtenstein C-6
Profile of Plant Surrounded by Mountains C-7
View of Baden-Brugg 200 Tonne Per Day Plant From the
Adjacent Sewage Treatment Plant Property C-8
Area in Aargau Canton Served by Duesseldorf Plant C-10
Waste Collection Area Served by Duesseldorf Plant C-11
Region Served by Wuppertal MVA C-12
Krefeld Waste Processing Facility; Wastewater Treatment
Plant on Left, Refuse and Sewage-Sludge-Burning Plant
on Right C-13
Waste Generation Area and Treatment Plants for the Paris,
France Plants that Treat Urban Waste C-15
Location of Stellinger Moor Plant C-16
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure C-10. The Hague Plant Situated Near the Center of The Hague
The Four Chimneys in the Background Serve the 200 MW
Oil-Fired Municipal Power Plant C-18
Figure C-11. Collection Area for Gothenburg Waste Handling System
Total Area Served is About 1000 km2 C-20
Figure C-12. Map of Aera Served by Horsens Refuse-Burning, Sludge-Drying
and District-Heating Plant C-22
Figure C-13. Aerial View of Horsens Refuse-Burning Plant, Sludge-
Drying and District-Heating Plant C-23
Figure C-11*. Copenhagen:Amager Plant Located on Canal C-2*J
Figure C-15. Detailed Map Showing Location of West Plant at the
Intersection of Two Major Highways C-26
Figure C-16. Map of Copenhagen, South and East Metropolitan Area
Served by the Amager Plant C-27
Figure C-17. Map of Greater Copenhagen Area Showing the Location of
the West (Vest) Refuse Fired Steam Generator, The
Hillerod Transfer Station, Volund Headquarters, Etc . C-28
Figure D-1. Transfer Station Under Construction at Amager D-3
Figure D-2. Source Separation Recycling Station at Copenhagen:
West D-5
Figure D-3. White Goods, Bicycles, Etc., Reclamation at the
Hague (Battelle Photo) D-6
Figure D-4. Front End Separation of Cooper-Rich Motors and Tires in
Scrap Dealer's Area at the Hague (Battelle Photo) . . D-7
Figure D-5. Crushing White Goods After Motor Removal in Scrap
Area at the Hague (Battelle Photo) D-8
Figure D-6. Ferrous Material Bin in Corner of Tipping Floor at
Uppsala (Battelle Photo) D-10
Figure D-7. Industrial Chemical and Hazardous Waste Collection Center
at Horsens D-11
Figure D-8. Horizontal Ventilation Air Pipe From Rendering Plant to
Zurich rHagenholz Plant D-13
Figure D-9. Street Sweeping Truck Off-Loading at The Hague D-14
Figure D-10. Front and Back End Materials Separation at The Hague. . D-15
Figure D-11. Automobile Junk Yard Next to Refuse Burning Plant at
Horsens D-17
Figure D-12. Waste Streams and Their Treatment Options in Copenhagen
and Its Western Suburbs D-18
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure E-1.
Figure E-2.
Figure E-3.
Figure G-1.
Figure G-2.
Transfer Vehicle. The cylinderical Chamber Holds About
50m3 (1,675 ft3) Compressed at the Transfer Station
by a Factor of About 3-3 to 1 E-6
Public Relations Cartoon of Oscar (of Sesame Street)
Encouraging People to Put All Trash in the Containers . E-11
Cross Section and Plan View of Transfer Station E-14
Annual Average Lower Heating Values for Berne, Stockholm,
Frankfurt, The Hague and Duesseldorf and Range of
Values for Other Cities G-4
Shredder and Shear Layout at Duesseldorf G-7
Figure 1-1. Artist Sketch of the 1904 Refuse Fired Steam and Electricity
Electricity Generator as Manufactured by
Horsfall-Destructor Co. at Its Location
Location on Josefstrasse in Zurich 1-20
Figure 1-2. First Volund System Built at Gentofte in 1932 and
Decommissioned 40 Years Later in 1973 1-28
Figure J-1. Steam Production, Flue Gas Temperatures, and COj Levels
(Weekly Average) During the 4000 Hour Operating Cycle
Between Cleaning at Zurich: Hagenholz Unit #3 J-17
Figure J-2. Steam Production, Flue Gas Temperatures, and COj Levels
(Weekly Average) During the 4000 Hour Operating Cycle
Between Cleaning at Zurich: Hagenholz Unit #3 J-18
Figure J-3. Arrangement of Components of Bolanderna Incinerator Plant . J-31
Figure J-4. Total (Three Lines) Operation Hours Per Month J-32
Figure J-5. Taken From an Article Written By Gabriel S. Pinto in April
1976, that Discusses Basic Design of the Total Operating
System at Copenhagen: West J-34
Figure K-1. Connected ans Specific Capacities in Europe K-6
Figure K-2. Schematic Showing How a Central District Heating System
Compares in Efficiency With Individual Home Heating
Systems K-8
Figure K-3. Building HVAC System Survey K-10
Figure K-4. Maximum Hourly Heat Demand Average Monthly Heat Demand. . . K-12
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure K-5a. Steam Distribution and Return Condensate Pipes at
Werdenberg K-16
Figure K-5b. Steam Distribution and Return Condensate Pipes at Paris . K-16
Figure K-5c. Hot Water Pipes at Werdenberg . . K-16
Figure K-5d. Hot Water Pipes at Uppsala K-16
Figure K-6. Conventional Hot Water Distribution Pipes ........ K-17
Figure K-7a. Concrete Culvert . . . K-18
Figure K-7b. Plastic Pipe Culvert K-18
Figure K-7c. Asbestos Cememt Pipe Culvert K-18
Figure K-7d. Copper Pipe Culvert K-18
Figure K-8. Design of the Trench When the Pipe is Insulated With
Mineral Wool K-19
Figure K-9. Design of the Trench When the Pipe is Insulated With Wirsbo-
Pur (Polyethylene Pipe) K-19
Figure K-10. Wirsbo-Pex Polyethylene Pipe and Wirsbo-Per Insulation Pre-
fabricated Parts at a Junction Box K-19
Figure K-11. Several Figures of the Aquawarm System of Polyethylene
Encased Copper Pipe K-20
Figure K-12. Asphalt Concrete Coated District Heating Pipe by
TK-ISOBIT K-21
Figure K-13. Total Energy Plan Built Up in Three Stages K-23
Figure K-14. Staged Development of District Heating in Sodertalje. . . K-24
Figure K-15. Annual Capital Investment of the City of Sodertalje
Energy Authority K-25
Figure K-16. Two Schemes Showing How Customer Systems Can Be Converted
to Hot Water District Heating K-26
Figure K-17. Portable Oil-Fired District Heating Sub Station K-27
Figure K-18. Portable Oil-Fired Fire-Tube Boiler K-27
Figure K-19. Original and permanent Standby Oil-Fired District Heating
Boiler Building K-28
Figure K-20. Heat Load Duration Curve and Load-Splie. Heat Only Package
boileer Used (1) for Peaking, (2) When There is not Enough
Refuse Supply or (3) When Energy Demand is Too Low. . . K-29
Figure K-21. Schematics of Simple Power Station and a Cogeneration
Electricity and District Heating System K-30
Figure K-22. Useful Energy and Losses of Simple Power Generation
Compared with Cogeneration K-30
Figure K-23. Fuel Economy in Condensing Plant and Combined Plant . . . K-31
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure K-24. Heat Produced by Each Unit for the Optimum Case in the
Long Range Plan for District Heating Supply in the
Stockholm Area Using Oil, Refuse and Nuclear Power. . . . K-33
Figure K-25. Werdenberg Steam and Hot-Water Distribution System
(Courtesy Widmer & Ernst, Alberti-Fonsar) ... K-34
Figure K-26. Standby Oil-Fired Package Boiler at Werdenberg K-35
Figure K-27. Back Pressure Turbine at Werdenberg K-35
Figure K-28. Steam Distribution Trench at Werdenberg K-36
Figure K-29. Two Views of Air-Cooled Condenser at Werdenberg . K-37
Figure K-30. Cascade Type Water Heater on Left, Feedwater Tank and Steam
Lines on Right at Werdenberg K-39
Figure K-31• Insulation, Installation and map of Hot Water Electrical
Systems K-UO
Figure K-32. Schematic Diagram of Baden-Brugg Thermal and Electrical
Systems K-41
Figure K-33. Steam and Return Condensate Lines Connecting Duesseldor's
Refuse-Fired Steam Generator and the Coal-Fired Electrical
Power Plant K-1J3
Figure K-34. Steam Distribution and Return Condensate Pipes of C.P.C.U.
in Paris K-52
Figure K-35. Steam Produced TIRU (Solid Waste Fueled) and by C.P.C.U.
(Fossiled Fueled) in Paris K-53
Figure K-36. Diagrams Thermal and of Electrical Systems at Stellinger-
Moor K-56
Figure K-37. Electrical Power Generation Room K-58
Figure K-38. Steam and Boiler Feedwater Flow Pattern External to the
Zurich: Hagenholz Boiler K-58
Figure K-39. Tonne Steam Produced Per Tonne of Refuse Consumed (1976
Average was 2.41) K-59
Figure K-40. KWH Electrical Sales Per Tonne of Refuse Consumed K-59
Figure K-U1. 1976 Heat Deliver to Kanton and Rendering Plant and Steam
to EWZ From Zurich: Hagenholz K-61
Figure K-42. Kanton District Heating System (5.3 km Long) Using 260 C
(500 F) Steam at Zurich, Switzerland K-62
Figure K-43. Entrance to Walk-Through District Heating Tunnel at Zurich:
Hagenholz K-63
Figure K-44. Cross-Section Schematic of Pipes in the District Heating
Supply and Return Tunnel at Zurich: Hagenholz K-6U
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Page
Figure K-45. 1976 Energy Delivery (Warmeabgabe) to the Railroad
Station, the KZW and EWZ K-65
Figure K-M6. Monthly Trend for 1976 of Heat Production and Utilization
in Gothenburg (Courtesy GRAAB) K-69
Figure K-47. Schematic of Uppsala Heating System (Courtesy Uppsala
Kraftvarme AB) K-71
Figure K-U8. Installation of Hot Water Distribution Piping (Courtesy
Uppsala Kraftvarmewerke AB) K-73
Figure K-^9- Copenhagen: Amager's Refuse Fired Energy Plant in the
Foreground and the Oil Fired Plant in the Background. . K-75
Figure K-50. Insulated Hot Water Pipes Leaving Boiler at Amager. . . . K-77
Figure K-51. Pumps to Send Hot Water to the Power Plant Which Sends the
Hot Water to the District Heating Network at Amager . . K-77
Figure K-52. Map of District Heating Network of Amager Island K-77
Figure K-53. Energy Delivery to the District Heating Network ..... K-78
Figure K-51. Map Showing District Heating Customers K-80
Figure K-56. District Heating Pipe Tunnel at Copenhagen: West .... K-82
Figure L-1. Reasons for 10-Fold Increase in Capital Investment Costs
Over 10 Years for European Refuse Fired Energy Systems. L-1
Figure L-2. Comparison of European, American and Co-Disposal Systems. L-7
Figure L-3. Total Annual Expenses Versus Annual Tonnage L-25
Figure L-4. Expenses Per Tonnage (U.S. $ Per Ton) Versus Annual Tonnes
(1976 Exchange Rate) L-26
Figure L-5. Net Disposal Cost for Tipping Fee at 13 European Refuse-Fired
Energy Plants L-30
Figures L-6.
and L-7. Unit Prices for Electricity and Steam in Paris TIRU . . . L-U4
Figure L-8. Revenue and Expense Components for the Four TIRU Plants . L-15
Figure L-9. Costs of Zurich Cleansing Department Since 1928 L-49
Figure L-10. Past and Predicted Trend of Net Operating Cost of Refuse
Burning Plant After Credit is Taken for the Value of
Heating Recovered .... L-58
Figure M-1. Organization Chart for Operation of Werdenberg Plant. . . M-8
Figure M-2. Wuppertal Organization Chart M-12
Figure M-3. Organization Chart of TIRU in Paris M-14
Figure M-M. Organization Chart for Hamburg: Stellinger-Moor M-15
Figure M-5. Organization Chart for Municipal Functions in the City of
Zurich: Switzerland M-16
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure M-6. Organization Chart for Waste Collection and Disposal in
Zurich, Switzerland M-17
Figure M-7. Total Personnel (Collecting and Disposal) Working for
ABFUHRWESEN: The City of Zurich M-19
Figure M-8. Control Room at Savenas Plant M-22
Figure M-9. Management Structure of CopenhagentAmager M-2M
Figure M-10. Annual General Meeting Participants M-25
VOLUME II
Figure P-1. Layout of Flingern Refuse Power Plant at Duesseldorf. . . P-3
Figure P-2. Map of Wuppertal Plant P-M
Figure P-3. Two Partial Views of the Receiving Area at the Issy Plant
Showing the Scale House at the Unloading Platform . . . P-5
Figure P-4. Top View of Savenas Waste-to-Energy Plant Showing Traffic
Pattern, Weigh Stations and Distinctive Square U-FLue
Chimney. Only three Flues in Use. Chimney Equipped with
Two-passenger Elevator at Gothenburg P-7
Figure P-5a. Scale House and Two Scales P-9
Figure P-5b. Plastic Card P-9
Figure P-5c. Monitor in Control Room of Truck Scale P-9
Figure P-5d. Digital Readout in Scale House P-9
Figure P-5e. Ramp to Tipping FLoor P-9
Figure P-5f. Tipping Floor P-9
Figure P-5g. Arrangement Permitting Good Crane View P-9
Figure P-6. Residences Viewed Through Truck Entrance at Deauville
Plant (Battelle Photograph) P-11
Figure P-7. Overall Section Inside the Werdenberg Plant (Courtesy
Widmer & Ernst-Alberti-Fonsar) P-1U
Figure P-8. Truck Delivering Waste to the Pit at Baden-Brugg The
Pit Doors are Hydraucially Opened (Courtesy Region
of Baden-Brugg) P-16
Figure P-9. Crane Operator, Cranes and Graabs above Pit (Courtesy
Region of Baden-Brugg) P-17
Figure P-10. Main Storage Pit. There are two Crane Operators Operating
Pulpit for one is at Upper Left at Duesseldorf (Courtesy
Vereinigte Kesselwerke AG) P-18
-------
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure P-11. New Polyp Bucket Being Prepared for Installation P-19
Figure P-12. Cross-Section of Boiler Systems, 1-3 The Hague P-24
Figure P-13. Crane Operator's Cabin at the Hague Plant with Empty
Furnace Hopper and a Portion of the Floor Plate of the
Vibrating Feeder in the Foreground P-25
Figure P-14. Mirror above a Furnace Hopper to Enable Crane Operator to
Determine when the Hopper Needs to be Replenished -
The Hague Plant P-26
Figure P-15. Polyp Bucket Dropping a Charge of Municipal Refuse into a
Furnace Hopper at the Hague Plant P-27
Figure P-16. Transfer Truck in Unloading Position at the Gothenburg
Savenas Plant P-29
Figure P-17. Refuse Pit with 2 of the 14 Doors Open to Receive Refuse
at the Gothenburg Savenas Plant P-30
Figure P-18. Truck Entrance Ramp to Uppsala. This was Added in 1971 to
Enable Operation with a Much Deeper Bunker Which More Than
Doubled Refuse Storage Capacity . P-32
Figure P-19. Photo Shows Polyp Grab with Heavy Concentration of
Plastic Waste from the Separate Commercial and Light
Industrial Waste Pit at Horsens P-33
Figure P-20a. Von Roll Shear Opening at Zurich. P-31*
Figure P-20b. Scissors-Type Hydraulicly Driven Shear Adjacent to
Hopper H P-31*
Figure P-21. Elevation and Plan Views of Von Roll Shear P-36
Figure P-22. Furnace/Boiler Cross-Sectional View of the Zurich:
Hagenholz Unit #3 13 Martin's Double Feeder P-40
Figure P-23. Water Cooled Arch Connecting Feed Chute to Combustion
Chamber at Baden-Brugg P-42
Figure P-24. Cross Section of One of Boilers No. I-1* P-43
Figure P-25. Arrangement of Uppsala Plant P-49
Figure P-26. Empty Feed Hopper Showing Line of Flame Beneath Double
Flap Doors at Uppsala ..... P-50
Figure P-27. Warped Feed Chute at Copenhagen: West ". P-52
Figure Q-1. Basic Types of Grates for Mass Burning of Refuse. There
are Available Many Variations of These Basic Types. . . Q-2
Figure Q-2. Von Roll Reciprocating Step Grate in Refractory Walled
Furnace Q-9
-------
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Q-3« Two Steps of Von Roll Grate Using Reciprocatig
Forward-Feed Design Q-10
Figure Q-4. Arrangement and Drive of Grate Blades in Original Von
Roll Grate Q-11
Figure Q-5. Kunstler Grate and Air-Cooled Wall Plates Applied to an
Incinerator Q-13
Figure Q-5a. Diagrammatic View of Application of a 3-Step Kunstler &
Koch Grate to 3-Pass Boiler Q-14
Figure Q-6. Martin Three Run Grate System Q-16
Figure Q-7. Side View of the Martin Grate Q-18
Figure Q-8. Refuse Tumbling Action of Martin Grate Q-19
Figure Q-9. An Example of the Alberti Fonsar Step Grate System
Assembled at the Factory Q-20
Figure Q-10. Six Drum Walzenrost (Roller Grate); also Commonly Known
as the Duesseldorf Grate. Note the Cast Iron Wiper Seals
Between Adjacent Rolls Which Prevent Large Pieces of
Refuse From Falling Out of the Furnace Q-21
Figure Q-11. Sketches of Grate Action Q-23
Figure Q-12. Bruun and Sorensen Cast Alloy Grate Bars. The Older Bar
is Shown Below the Newer, Wider Bar is Above Q-25
Figure Q-13. Volund's Lengthwise Placed Section of Grate Q-26
Figure Q-14. Volund's Movable Sections Hydraulically Driven by a
Transverse Driving Shaft Connected to the Individual
Sections by Pendulum Driving Bars Q-27
Figure Q-15. One of the Earliest Volund Patents Q-28
Figure R-1. Martin Ash Discharger R-H
Figure R-2. Martin Ash Discharger Dumping Into Vibrating Conveyor at
Paris: Iss R-5
Figure R-3. Cross Section of Baden-Brugg Plant R-7
Figure R-4. Discharge End of Residue Conveyor at AARAU, Switzerland
Showing Electric Truck for Removing Loaded Hopper. . . R-8
Figure R-5. Residue Removal Sump and Oscillating Ram at Bottom of Plant
at Trimmis, Switzerland R-9
Figure R-6. Portion of Proposed Stapelfeld Plant at Hamburg Showing
Refuse Removal Sump and Oscillating Ram at S Which Dis-
charges to Either of 2 Trough Conveyors, C R-10
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure R-7. Widmer & Ernst Quench Tank and Residue Removal Drive
Mechanism at Oberthurgan, Switzerland R-11
Figure R-8. Furnace Bottom Ash Chute Discharging Into Ash Vibrating Steel
Conveyor at Uppsala R-13
Figure R-9. Alternative Designs for Flow of Refuse and Ash. ..... R-14
Figure R-10. Plan of Duesseldorf Waste-to-Energy Plant R-16
Figure R-11. Inclined Conveyors Removing Baled Scrap at Duesseldorf. . R-17
Figure R-12. Close-up of Baled Steel Scrap at Duesseldorf. R-18
Figure R-13. Visitors Discussing Fine Ash Residue Uses Near Storage Area
at Duesseldorf R-19
Figure R-14. Wuppertal Plant Showing, in Top Portion, the Air-Cooled
Steam Condenser Housing at Rear of Plant and Below the
Privately-Operated Residue Processing Plant R-21
Figure R-15. Rear View Showing Ash Conveyor From the RFSG Plant to the
Ash Recovery Facility at Paris: Issy R-22
Figure R-16. Truck Dumping Unprocessed AHS (For Two-Week Stabilization
Prior to Processing) at Zurich: Hagenholz ....... R-26
Figure R-17. Signed Stumps, Tirs, Paper Rolls, Etc., Remaining After
Ash Processing at Zurich: Hagenholz R-27
Figure R-18. Front End Loader Dumping Ash into Begining of Ash
Processing System (Hopper, Vibrating Conveyor and
Rubber Belt Conveyor) at Zurich: Hagenholz R-28
Figure R-19. Workman Removing Jammed material from Vibrating Conveyor
Near End of Coarse Ferrous Line at Zurich: Hagenholz . . R-29
Figure R-20. Medium Ferrous Scrap from the Ash Recovery Process at
Zurich: Hagenholz R-30
Figure R-21. Coarse Ferrous Scrap from the Ash Recovery Process at
Zurich: Hagenholz R-31
Figure R-22. Mountain Pile of Processed ASH (1/H" and less) for Road
Building at Zurich Hagenholz R-32
Figure R-23. Experiment Road Patch to Test Heavy Metal Leaching of
Processed Ash Use R-33
Figure R-2H. Sketch of the Hague Plant Highlighting the Bottom Ash Pit
and the Flyash Slurry Tank (Before ash recovery was
installed) ,. R-35
Figure R-25. Bottom Ash Pit and Fly Ash Slurry Tank at the Hague. . . . R-36
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Page
Figure R-26. Conveyors and Magnetically Separated Scrap and Pile of
Sized Residue Accumulated by New Resource Recovery
System Adjacent to the Hague Plant (Battelle
Photograph) R-37
Figure R-27. Ash Being Discharged from Furnace onto Vibrating Steel
Conveyor at Uppsala R-39
Figure R-28. Vibrating Steel Conveyor Dumping Bottom and Fly Ash into
Container at Uppsala (Battelle Photograph) R-40
Figure R-29. Elevator for Ash Containers in Pit one Level Lower than Ash
Conveyor at Uppsala R-lJI
Figure R-30a. Rubber Ash Conveyor at Copenhagen: Amager R-43
Figure R-30b. Ferrous Separation from Ash at Copenhagen: Amager .... R-H3
Figure R-31. Skip Hoist Dumping Incinerator Ash (Slag) at Copenhagen:
West R-W
Figure R-32. Ash Handling and Processing at Copenhagen: West R-^6
Figure R-33- Ash Recovery at Copenhagen: West R-1!?
Figure R-3^. Vibrating Machinery for Ash Processing at Copenhagen:
West R-M8
Figure R-35. Ferrous Magnetic Belt for Ash Recovery Processing at
Copenhagen: West R-49
Figure R-36. Mountain of Processed Ash Residue Awaiting use for
Roadbuilding or Cinder Block Manufacture at
Copenhagen: West R-50
Figure R-37. The variation Interval for the I6mm Fraction of Graded
Cinders Before (solid line) and after (dotted line)
Compacting by Field Tests R-52
Figure S-1. Annual Average Lower Heating Values for Berne, Stockholm,
Frankfurt, The Hague and Duesseldorf and Range of Values
for Other Cities S-2
Figure S-2. Partially Water-Cooled and Air-Cooled Furnace at
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein S-U
Figure S-2a. Diagram of Application of Kunstler Sidewall Blocks. . . . S-6
Figure S-3. Cross Section of Baden-Brugg Plant S-8
Figure S-1*. HR. B. Lochliger, Assistant Plant Manager, Holding Steel
Reinforcing Coil for Tube-Covering Molded Refractory. . S-9
Figure S-5. Cross Section of One of Boilers No. 1-U S-11
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure S-6. Diagram of Location of Guiding Wall at Top of Furnace
Outlet Showing Effect on Oxygen Distribution in Gases . S-13
Figure S-7- Cross Section of Boiler No. 5 with Roller Grate "System
Duesseldorf" S-15
Figure S-8. Schematic Cross Section of the Paris-Issy-Les Moulineaux
Plant S-19
Figure S-9. Issy Alumina Blocks Surrounding Boiler Surrounding Boiler
Tubes S-21
Figure S-10. Plastic Silicon Carbide Surrounding Boiler Tubes S-21
Figure S-11. Issy Metal Wastage Zones and Areas of Corrective
Shielding S-22
Figure S-12. Issy New Second Pass Deflector Baffle to Protect Third
Pass Superheater S-24
Figure S-13. Metal Wastage of Water Headers Above the Hot Section of
the Grate at Hamburg :Stellinger-Moor S-26
Figure S-14. October 1976 Additions of Refractory to Hamburg
Stellinger-Moor Furnace #1 S-27
Figure S-15. May 1977 Additions of Caps onto Studs and Refractory to
Hamburg:Stellinger-Moor S-29
Figure S-16. Furnace/Boiler Cross-Sectional View of the Zurich:
Hagenholz Unit #3 S-3^
Figure S-17. First Pass Walls Covered with Silicon Carbide Over
Welded Studs: Shows Rejection of Slag from Walls of
Zurich: Hagenholz ..... S-36
Figure S-18. Perforated Air-Cooled Refractory Wall Blocks by Didier
as Installed by Von Roll at the Solingen Plant,
West Germany S-39
Figure S-19. Construction Photograph Showing Air Supply Chambers for
the Refractory Wall Blocks Shown in Figure S-18 . . . . S-39
Figure S-20. Lower Portion of First Pass Showing 18 Original Sidewall
Jets, Now Abandoned, Rear Nose Formed of Refractory
Covered Bent Tubes, and Manifolds for New Front and
Rearwall Secondary Air Jets Aimed Downward about
30 Degrees S-41
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure T-1. Schematic View of Werden-Liechtenstein Waste-to-Energy
Plant T-4
Figure T-2. Sketch of Air Flows to Furnace T-5
Figure T-3. Widmer & Ernst Photo of Man Applying Kunstler Air-Cooled
Wall Blocks at Plant in Trimmis Switzerland T-7
Figure T-4. Fifteen Secondary Air Jets of Revised System in the
Baden-Brugg Rear Wall T-8
Figure T-5. Proposed Revision of Sidewalls Incorporating Air-Cooled
Cast Iron, Kunstler Blocks. ... T-10
Figure T-6. Anonymous Furnace Where Secondary Overfire Air is Very
Little or Totally Lacking T-13
Figure T-7. Highly Turbulent Air at Hamburg:Stellinger-Moor Resulting
from Very High Secondary Air Pressure T-14
Figure T-8. Nearly Clear View Across First Pass at Hagenholz Unit #3
After Secondary Overfire is Injected at High Pressure. T-16
Figure T-9 . Exterior View of Tubes for Secondary Air Jets on Side of
Unit #4 at The Hague. Ten Jets are Spaced Horizontally
and Two are Located Along a Slanting Vertical Line at
Left. Note Springloaded Cap on Each Tube to Facilitate
Inspection and Cleaning T-18
Figure T-10. Lower Portion of First Pass Showing 18 Original Sidewall
Jets, Now Abandoned, Rear Nose Formed of Refractory
Covered Bent Tubes, and Manifolds for New Front and
Rearwall Secondary Air Jets Aimed Downward About 30
Degrees T-19
Figure T-11. Six Dilution Sidewall Secondary Overfire Air Jets at
Copenhagen:Amager T-20
Figure U-1. Graphical Definition of Overall Steam Generation Plant
and the Specific Combination of Components Called the
Boiler U-2
Figure U-2. Dacha Type Superheater and Boiler Convection Arrangement
for Proposed Staplefeld Plant at Hamburg U-7
Figure U-3. Section through Werdenberg-Liechtenstein Waste-to-Energy
Plant U-9
Figure U-4. Cross Section of Baden-Brugg Plant .... U-11
Figure U-5. Cross Section of One of Boilers No. 1-4 U-13
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure U-6. Cross Section of Boiler No. 5 with Roller Grate "System
Duesseldorf" U-14
Figure U-7. Cross-Section of Wuppertal Plant U-16
Figure U-8. Issy-Les-Moulineaux Incinerator Plant Near Paris,
France U-17
Figure U-9. Large Boilers at Ivry Built for TIRU 4 Years after
Issy U-19
Figure U-10. Cross Section of Stellinger-Moor Plant Started up at
Hamburg in 1970 U-20
Figure U-11. Furnace/Boiler Cross Section of Unit No. 3 at
Zurich :Hagenholz U-25
Figure U-11a. Boiler Tube Sections Layout at Zurich:Hagenholz U-27
Figure U-12. Comparative Cross-Sections of the Two Boiler-Furnace
Systems at the Hague Plant. . U-29
Figure U-13. Cross-Section of Boiler Systems, 1-3 The Hague U-31
Figure U-14. Comparative Cross Sectins of Dieppe and Deauville
Refuse-Burning Plants U-32
Figure U-15. Cross Section of Nominal 900 Tonne Per Day. Refuse
Fired Steam-to-Hot Water Heating Plant at Savenas,
Gothenburg U-31*
Figure U-16. Cross Section of Furnace No. 4 and Boiler No. 3 at
Uppsala U-37
Figure U-17. Arrangement of Uppsala Plant . . .... U-39
Figure U-18. Schematic of Original Horsens Plant with Water Spray
Cooling Tower. . U-40
Figure U-19. Engineering Drawing of Copenhagen: Amager U-42
Figure U-20. Moscow Plant Showing Four-Pass Water Wall Waste Heat
Boiler Separate from the Furnace U-43
Figure U-21. Half Shields for Clamping on Superheater Leading Face
at Baden Brugg U-52
Figure U-22. Hard Coating on Bends of Superheater Tubes to be
Installed in the Second Pass of Boiler No. 5 U-53
Figure U-23. Baden-Brugg Ruptured First Row Superheater Tube .... U-55
Figure U-2*l. Wuppertal Plant Showing Superheater Located in
Second Pass Away from Furnace Flame U-60
Figure U-25. Issy Shields for Bottoms of Superheater Tubes U-62
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure U-26. Issy Old and New Superheater Spacing U-63
Figure U-27- Superheater Tube Arrangements at Issy and Hagenholz . . U-63
Figure U-28. Superheater Flue Gas and Steam Temperature and Flow
Patterns at Zurich: Hagenholz U-65
Figure U-29. Superheater Flue Gas and Steam Temperature and Flow
Patterns at the New Zurich: Josefstrasse Plant and at
the Yokohama, Japan Martin Plant U-66
Figure U-30. Three Superheater Bundles at Hamburg: Stellinger-
Moor U-69
Figure U-31. Flow Defection Caused by Angle Iron Shields on First
Row of Superheater Tubes U-70
Figure U-32. Method of Welding Curved 50 mm Shields on First Row
of Superheater Tubes U-71
Figure U-33. Water-Tube Wall Portion of Boilers in Units 1-3, The
Hague, Showing Suspended Platten-Type Superheater at
Top of Radiation Pass, Screen Tubes at Outlet from
Radiation Pass, Screen Tubes at Outlet from Radiation
Pass, Sinuous Tube Convection-Type Superheater at Top
of Second Water-Tube Walled Pass, Boiler Convection
Sections, Economizer, and Tubular Air Heaters .... U-?4
Figure U-31*. Cross-Section of the No. 4 Boiler Furnace System
at the Hague Plant U-75
Figure U-35. Shot Pellet Cleaning Feed System at Uppsala U-84
Figure U-36. Two Views of Air-Cooled Condenser at Werdenburg. . . . U-91
Figure U-37. Underside View of Wuppertal Plant Highlighting the
Air-Cooled Steam Condensers and the Stack U-93
Figure U-38. Sloping Air-Cooled Steam Condenser Tubes at Zurich:
Hagenholz U-95
Figure U-39. Louvers Below Inverted V-Shaped Air-Cooled Steam
Condensers at Gothenburg: Savenas U-96
Figure V-1. Oil Burner on Side of and Toward Rear of Furnace for
Firing of Waste Oil at Baden-Brugg V-4
Figure V-2. Cologne, West Germany Hospital Waste Incinerator with
Sidewall Oil Burner V-5
Figure V-3. Schematic of the Process of Waste Oil Firing V-6
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Page
Figure V-4. Krefeld Waste-to-Energy Facility: Plan View V-8
Figure V-5. Waste Oil and Solvent Receiving, Processing and Mixing
Layout at Zurich:Hagenholz V-11
Figure W-1. Krefeld Waste Processing Facility; Wastewater Treat-
ment Plant on Left, Refuse-and Sewage-Sludge-Burning
Plant on Right VM
Figure W-2. Map of the Krefeld Refuse Burning and Wastewater
Plants W-5
Figure W-3. Krefeld Sludge-Processing and Burning Systems W-6
Figure W-4. Cross-Sectional View of Krefeld Plant W-7
Figure W-5. Calculated Drying Mill Conditions as a Function of
Sludge Drying Rate W-9
Figure W-6. Calculated Dust Load of the Flue Gas as a Function of
the Amount of Ash on the Grate W-11
Figure W-7. Top of Two Luwa Sludge Dryers at Dieppe W-13
Figure W-8. Cutaway Drawings Showing Principle of Luwa Dryer ... W-14
Figure W-9. Plot by Eberhardt of Relation of Combustible and
Ash Content of Dry Sewage Sludge to Its Lower Heat
Value W-18
Figure W-10. Krings Results of Test in 1973 at Dieppe on the
Effect of Type of Sludge and Sludge Feed Rate on the
Efficiency of the Luwa Thin-Film Dryer W-19
Figure W-11. Diagram of Horsens Refuse-Burning and Sludge-Drying
Plant W-11
Figure W-12. Co-Disposal of Refuse and Sewage Sludge at Ingolstadt,
West Germany W-26
Figure W-13. Overhead Plan for the Environmental Park at Biel,
Switzerland W-28
Figure W-14. Aerial Photo of Environmental Park at Biel,
Switzerland W-28
Figure W-15. Original Dano Kilns for Compost Initiation at Biel,
Switzerland W-29
Figure W-16. Aeration Turning by Pivot Bridge Final Composter at
Biel, Switzerland W-29
Figure W-17. Pig Feed made from Digested Sewage Sludge and Refuse. W-30
Figure W-18. Bricolari Compost Storage Yard (4-5 weeks) with Pig
Feed Buildings in Background at Biel, Switzerland . . W-18
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure X-1. Sample Data Cards as Used in Plant Data System at
Duesseldorf X-11
Figure X-2. Downward View from the Wuppertal Plant Showing the
Nearby Country Club and Swimming Pool X-13
Figure X-3. Supply and Wastewater Systems at Krefeld X-16
Figure X-4. Replaceable Cast Alloy Steel Vane which Imparts Spin to
the Gases Entering Each Collection Tube of the Prat
Multiple Cyclone Dust Collector X-23
Figure X-5. Deauville Refuse-Sludge Cofiring Plant X-21J
Figure X-6. Arrangement of components of Bolander Incinerator
Plant at Uppsala X-26
Figure X-7. Electrostatic Precipitators Retrofitted for Units
#1 and #2 Outside at Uppsala X-29
Figure X-8. Ducts leading to Base of Ten Flue Chimeny at Uppsala. X-30
Figure X-9. Looking out the Windows Taken from Under the
Electrostatic Precipitators at Copenhagen: West. . . X-32
Figure X-10. Diagram of Equipment for Measurement of Dust
Loading and Moisture Content of a Gas X-35
Figure X-11. Appartus for Isokinetic Determination of the Dust
Content of Flowing Gases (VDI Konmission Reinhaltung
Der Luft) X-36
Figure Y-1. Sample Data Cards Used in Plant Data System at
Duesseldorf Y-3
Uol828
SW-771
JJU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1979-632-710/225
------- |