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From the tabulations, the maximum annual average Cd
contribution in the western region would be 0.0162 kg/ha on feed
grain fields. In the eastern region, tobacco fields would receive
the maximum average contribution of 0.0214 kg/ha of cadmium.
ASSESSMENT
A preliminary assessment of the above estimated Cd contri-
butions from phosphate fertilizers follows. Four topic areas
are addressed:
Total Cd contributions from phosphate fertilizers,
Cd effects on soils,
Cd effects on groundwater, and
t Cd effects on plants.
For comparison, potential Cd loadings from sewage sludge
applications are also discussed.
Total Cd Contributions from Phosphate Fertilizers
The utilization of phosphate fertilizers results in quanti-
fiable additions of cadmium to the environment, as shown above.
Table 8 presents a breakdown of estimated quantities on a
regional and national basis. Quantities were calculated based
on the following assumptions:
Intermediate Cd concentrations were 100 ppm (western
sources) and 15 ppm (southeastern sources) in the
phosphate fertilizers consumed.
0 83 percent of the fertilizer consumed was obtained from
southeastern manufacturing sources (derived from 1975
TVA statistics).
In 1976, Cd addition from the use of phosphate fertilizers on a
national basis was approximately 280 t.
To place these quantities in perspective invites further
comparisons between (43) cadmium contributed to the environment
from the utilization of sewage sludges, and (1) total Cd emis-
sions to the environment from all sources.
Estimated Cd Loadings from Sewage Sludge--
An estimated 73 t of elemental cadmium was distributed
to cropland from municipal sewage sludge sources during
1976, based on the following assumptions:
1976 national generation of municipal sewage sludge
was 4.5 million dry t (l ).
16
-------
TABLE 8. ESTIMATED TOTAL Cd CONTRIBUTION TO
THE ENVIRONMENT FROM THE USE OF
DOMESTIC PHOSPHATE FERTILIZERS - 1976
Phosphate Fertilizer Production (1976)*
Western Sources 1,614,000 t
Southeastern Sources 7,878,000 t
Intermediate Cd Concentrations
Western Sources 100 ppm
Southeastern Sources 15 pom
Annual (1976) Contribution of Cd
Western Sources 162 t
Southeastern Sources 118 t
Total 280 t
* Unpublished data - EPA, Region X (46).
17
-------
Average Cd concentration in dry sludge was 81 ppm
(12)
20 percent of all municipal sludge generated was
utilized on agricultural lands (44).
Cadmium distribution from fertilizer sources was slightly
more than four times greater than distribution from municipal
sewage sludge.
The phosphate application rate normally depends on the
soil type, crop to be grown, and method and frequency of
application. Typically, fertilizers are applied prior to
planting and, for some crops, during various stages of crop
growth. Based on which particular fertilizer formulations are
used, application rates may range from 50 to 250 kg P/ha.
Sewage sludge, on the other hand, offers a source of
phosphorus but in a greatly diluted form. Usually, the sludge
is utilized on an available N basis (5) with application rates
ranging from 2 to 50 t/ha (40). If all available sludge were
used as a soil amendment, distribution would approach 2 percent
of available agricultural land (5).
Phosphate fertilizers, on the other hand, are utilized
at much lower application rates - 25 to 250 kg/ha - and are
liberally distributed to a high percentage of the nation's
croplands.
Estimated Cd Loadings from All Sources--
Under contract to the EPA Office of Toxic Substances,
Versar (33,) had revised Cd emission estimates based upon data
originally calculated by Fulkerson and Goeller (n ) for all
contributing sources (Table 9). Cadmium from phosphate
fertilizers constitutes approximately 5.5 percent of the total.
If the total estimated 1976 quantity (280 t) shown in Table 8
were substituted, this percentage would increase to approxi-
mately 14 percent. The difference in Cd contributions from
sewage sludge shown in Table 9 and the sewage sludge contri-
butions presented earlier (73 t) is attributed to the follow-
ing:
The Versar study (Table 9) cites all land disposal of
sludge, e.g., landfill, lagooning, and agricultural
utilization.
The 73 t estimate reflects the loading of cadmium from
only those sludges employed for agricultural utiliza-
tion - approximately 40 percent of the total sludge
destined to land (44).
18
-------
TABLE 9. ESTIMATED Cd CONTRIBUTIONS TO
THE ENVIRONMENT FROM ALL SOURCES, 1974-75*
Source
Zinc Ore Minir»j &
Bene f icia tion
Primary Zinc Industry
Total: Extraction,
Pe fining & Prcduction
Electroplating Shops
Pigment Manufacture
Stabilizer Manufacture
Alloy f-anufacture
Battery I-ianufacture
Ibtal: Industrial Conversion
Secondary Non-Ferrous Metals
Iron ard Steel Injustry
Galvanized Prod-jets
Rubber Tire \.'ear
Incineration
Total: Consumption 4
Disposal of
Cd -containing products
Phosphatfl Fertilizers
Phosphate Detergents
Coal Cdttustion
Diesel t Fuel Oil
Carbustion
Lubricating Oils
Sewage Sludge
Total: Inadvertent Sources
GraM Totals
A.irlximc
Daissioiis
0.2t
102
102
-1
9.5t
2.7 t
2.3f
0.7 +
15
2.2
10.5
-0
5.2t
16
34
-0
-0
80(1974)
50 t
o.at
20
151
300
Watcrbome
Effluents
-0
2.0(1977)
-7(1974-75)
4.0(1977)
0.75
-0
-o
0.3
-8(1974-75)
-0
-0
-0
-0
-0
-0
-0
10.2
-0
-0
-0
-0
-0
10
25(1074-75)
Land -Destined
Waste's
250
-0
250
80(1977)
16.5
-0
-o
11.4(1977)
-102(1974-75)
- 75(1980)
20
330
40
-0
70
460
100(1975)
130(1900)
-0
370(1974)
680(1980)
-0
-0
250
720(1974-75)
1,500(197-1-75)
Total
Baissions
359(1974-75)
125(1974-75)
93(1980)
494
831(1974-75)
1.800(1974-75:
Metric tons per year as elemental cadmium,
"^Estimates unchanged from Fulkerson-Goeller estimates (IX)
19
-------
t Calculations within theVersar study are based on an
annual sludge generation of 10.9 million dry t. In our
study a more conservative figure of 4.5 million dry t
(1) was used.
Cadmium Effects on Soils
To assess the soil effects of cadmium from the use of
phosphate fertilizers, naturally occurring Cd levels in soils
must be considered.
Page and Bingham (28) suggested that soils derived from
igneous rock contain 0.1 to 0.3 ppm Cd and that soils of sedi-
mentary origin contain 0.1 to 1.0 ppm Cd. Page (27) reported
that typical soil Cd concentrations range from 0.03 to approxi-
mately 1.4 ppm, and that a median level for U.S. soils is
approximately 0.3 ppm. Stearns, Lofy, and LaConde (40) reported
naturally occurring Cd levels ranging from 0.24 ppm for a
Morley clay loam to 3.77 ppm for a Salinas silty clay loam
(Table 10).
A preceding section presented estimated annual mass Cd
emissions to the environment. To examine the potential effects
of Cd loading, however, fertilizer application rates must be
examined over longer time frames to determine both net addition
and cumulative effects. Table 11 presents such an approach
showing the hypothetical cumulative Cd loadings for 100 con-
tinuous years of phosphate fertilizer addition. The data in
this table were based on the following assumptions:
Fertilizer was applied annually for 100 yr at the two
rates indicated.
The intermediate values of Cd concentration (western-
100 ppm, southeastern-!5 ppm) represented the phosphate
fertilizer used.
t The natural Cd concentration of the soil was
0.3 ppm.
Application rates of 100 and 250 kg P/ha represented
the range of typical phosphate fertilizer applicatio
rates.
on
Phosphate fertilizers contained 50 percent P205-
The Cd loading data in Table 11 are presented in two
forms. The first shows the 100-yr cumulative Cd addition in
kg/ha for two different application rates; the second presents
a factored Cd addition in terms of 1,000 kg/ha fertilizers
added.
20
-------
TABLE 10. CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN SELECTED U.S. SOILS*
Average Cd Concentrationt
Soil Type (ppm )
Congaree sandy loam 0.76
Salinas silty clay loam 3.77
Xenia silty clay loam 0.87
Britwater silt loam 0.73
Burkhardt sandy loam 0.46
Pembroke silt loam 0.83
Morley clay loam 0.24
Ross silty clay 0.78
* From Stearns, Lofy, and LaConde (40).
t HN03-HC104, oven-dry (11QOC) basis.
21
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It is recognized that farming practices may preclude the
continuous addition of phosphate fertilizers. When such addi-
tion is assumed, the above calculations indicate that the annual
amount of cadmium added to soils via phosphate fertilizers is
quite small. However, the long-term (100 years) accumulation
of cadmium from the western fertilizer source could be signifi-
cant. Total Cd additions of 4.6 and 11.5 kg/ha, respectively.
Williams and David (49) performed a similar analysis on
Australian phosphate fertilizers. Soils that had received
regular top-dressing of superphosphate for 30 to 45 yr and
total cumulative dressings of 2,500 to 4,5.00 kg fertilizer/ha
were analyzed for cadmium. The results were expressed in
terms of Cd increase per 1,000 kg fertilizer/ha and ranged
from 0.023 to 0.053 kg Cd per 1,000 kg fertilizer/ha (0.12 to
0.26 kg Cd per 1,000 kg P/ha). The data presented in Table 11,
0.07 to 0.46 kg Cd per 1,000 kg P/ha, are in general agreement
with the Australian findings.
Some state regulatory agencies have proposed restricting
annual Cd additions to 0.5 kg/ha after 1985. Data from Table 11
when expressed on an annual basis, indicate that the greatest
possible incremental net increases in cadmium from the use of
phosphate fertilizers are quite small - 0.12 kg/ha for western
and 0.02 kg/ha for southeastern sources, both at fertilizer
application rates of 250 k P/ha. As a result, the use of
typical amounts of phosphate fertilizers, regardless of source,
will not result in annual Cd concentrations greater than those
indicated.
In regard to heavy-metal loading from sewage sludge, it
has been recommended that soils with a cation exchange capacity
(CEC) value less than 5 meq/100 g soil be restricted to a total
cumulative Cd addition of 5 kg/ha; those with CEC's between
5 and 10, to a maximum of 10 kg/ha; and those with CEC's greater
than 15, 20 kg/ha (18). Table 12 extends that data in Table 11
and shows the number of consecutive years that phosphate ferti-
lizer can be applied before the first two limits are exceeded.
The following assumptions were made in calculating these
data:
Cadmium concentration of western phosphate fertilizer
was 100 ppm; of southeastern phosphate fertilizer,
15 ppm.
t Five percent of the cadmium applied in the form of
phosphate fertilizer was removed with the harvested
plant tissues. (Williams and David (49) showed that
plant uptake ranged from 0.4 to 7 percent.
23
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Phosphate fertilizers contained 50 percent
0 Annual applications of phosphate fertilizers were spread
at the suggested rate.
The loading period encompassing the shortest time span
for western phosphate fertilizers would occur at the heavier
application rate of 250 kg P/ha. Even at this rate, an esti-
mated 46 yr would be required to reach a cumulative total of
5.0 kg Cd/ha. Using southeastern fertilizer, more than
1,532 yr would be required to exceed 10.0 kg Cd/ha at the lower
loading rate.
Cadmium Effects on Groundwater
Williams and David (49, 50) examined soils (10 percent
or greater clay) that had received cumulative additions of
superphosphate of up to 4,000 kg/ha over 20 or more years.
They indicated that more than 80 percent of the fertilizer
cadmium was retained in the surface 10 cm of soil. In one
soil containing siliceous sand (2 percent clay), 50 percent
of the cadmium had been retained over a time span encompassing
a 900 kg/ha cumulative loading of phosphate fertilizer.
These data suggest that available cadmium applied to soils
by the use of phosphate fertilizers is chemically precipitated
or retained by the soil matrix (e.g., cation exchange). Thus,
its mobility is greatly reduced.
Cadmium Effects on Plants
The use of phosphate fertilizers on vegetable
crops presents one of the greatest potential hazards of
Cd addition to the food chain. The CAST Report (5) indicated
that crops may contain undesirable Cd concentrations in their
tissues without showing visible symptoms of phytotoxicity.
Further, Bingham et al . (3), CAST (5), Dowdy and Larsen (8),
and others have shown that leafy vegetables take up more
cadmium than other vegetable or grain crops. Table 13 presents
relative Cd uptake by selected vegetables and grains. The
ultimate Cd concentration in plant tissues is dependent upon
many factors, such as application rates, form of applied cadmium,
crop species and variety, CEC, soil pH, texture, organic matter
content, and concentrations of other heavy metals present in the
soil .
Williams and David (49) reported that cadmium in superphos-
phate was soluble in water. The cadmium was associated with both
the phosphate and sulfate compounds of the fertilizer, and
appeared to be as readily available to plants as CdCl2- However,
they found low Cd concentrations (0.012 to 0.036 ppm) in grain
and breakfast-cereal foods made from Australian wheat grown
25
-------
TABLE 13. CONCENTRATIONS OF CADMIUM IN THE EDIBLE TISSUE
OF VARIOUS CROPS GROWN IN SOILS CONTAINING 20 ppm Cd*
Crop species
Rice grain
Zucchini squash
Field bean
Corn grain
Cabbage
Tomato fruit
Radish
Cd
Concentration
ppm t
0.6
1.0
1.0
2.4
3.4
3.6
6.3
Crop species
Red beet
Wheat grain
Turnip
Soybean grain
Carrot
Lettuce
Curlycress
Spinach
Cd
Concentration
ppm t
7.4
8.7
11
17
19
135
154
188
* Derived from Bingham et al. (3); to produce a concentration of
20 ppm Cd in soil, 1% sewage sludge which had been spiked with
CdS04 was mixed with the soil.
t Oven dry weight (70°C) basis.
26
-------
in fields with a long history of superphosphate usage (contain-
ing 44 ppm of Cd). Plant uptake of cadmium from these fields
ranged from 0.4 to 7 percent of total cadmium, and the uptake
was greatly influenced by soil type.
Assuming that only a small percentage of the cadmium from
fertilizer sources is available for plant uptake, the effects
of incremental vs. cumulative Cd loadings will be examined.
The CAST Report (5), commenting on Cd concentrations in
corn leaves, stated:
"...data on repeated annual applications of sludge
to soil cropped to corn show that the amounts
applied in a given year influenced the cadmium
content in the leaves to a greater extent than did
the total cumulative amounts of cadmium applied.
The implication of these results is that, at the
rates used, most of the applied cadmium was being
converted to forms of relatively low availability
to plants."
Recent studies on ryegrass (2) and snap beans ( 9 ) also
suggest that cadmium in plant tissues is more a function of
periodic incremental Cd additions than the cumulative Cd total.
Reuss, Dooley and Griffis (3l) recently reported a linear
relationship between Cd additions to soils in the form of
phosphate fertilizers and resultant plant (various species)
uptake. These data, while suggesting a relationship between
total soil and plant Cd concentrations, are seemingly in con-
tradiction with the above referenced studies. Several limita-
tions of the study, however, are noted:
The study entailed greenhouse potting studies conducted
over a one-year period.
The test conditions may not have been typical of field
conditions.
t Extrapolation of one year's data may not be valid,
especially in light of the previously presented
references .
The fertilizers were "spiked" with cadmium.
The calculations in this study show a range of annual Cd
loading from 0.007 to 0.12 kg/ha, depending on the fertilizer
sources (Table 11). Williams and David (49) presented data
showing that up to 7 percent of cadmium in Australian phosphate
fertilizer was available for uptake by plants. Using this
27
-------
availability as a maximum, the above-cited range would diminish
to 0.00049 to 0.0084 kg Cd/ha/yr.
If cumulative loadings play an important role in plant
uptake, a specific but unknown amount of cadmium in phosphate
fertilizers applied to soil will increase the latter range
somewhat. It should be considered, however, that of the
available 100-yr Cd total, some cadmium will be precipitated or
fixed in the soil matrix. Therefore, it would seem unlikely
that reasonable application rates of phosphate fertilizer con-
taining an average of 100 ppm cadmium would increase the Cd
levels of plant species to any significant degree.
There are not sufficient data which can be used to compare
the plant availability of cadmium in phosphate fertilizers with
that in sewage sludge. Cunningham et al. (7) presented data
which showed that the treatments involving inorganic salts of
heavy metals (Cr, Cu, Zn, and Ni) resulted in lower corn
yields, and in general, higher metal concentrations than the
equivalent sludge treatments. Chemical speciation affects rates
of precipitation and dissolution of metals in soil, thereby
influencing their availability to plants (22). These data
seem to indicate that cadmium in phosphate fertilizers would be
more available for plant uptake than that in sewage sludge,
assuming Cd loadings were the same from both sources. However,
more research is needed to substantiate this speculation.
COMPARISON OF Cd LOADINGS FROM SEWAGE SLUDGE AND PHOSPHATE
FERTILIZERS
A recent study by Stearns, Lofy, and LaConde (40) provided
Cd loading data at nine agricultural locations where sewage
sludge had been utilized for 5 to 17 yrs (Table 14). With the
exception of Site 7, the Cd loading rates ranged from 0.08 to
1.0 kg/ha/yr. It is worthy of note that the Cd concentration
of sludges used at Sites 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, and 9 were of the same
magnitude as Cd concentrations of southeastern phosphate ferti-
lizers. Sites 4 and 8 approximated Cd values of western phos-
phate fertilizers.
Site 8 received an annual Cd application rate of 1.0 kg/ha
when amended with Cd-containing sewage sludge. If this site
were to be treated with an additional western source phosphate
fertilizer (100 ppm Cd) at an annual fertilizer application
rate of 250 kg P/ha (equivalent to 55 kg P/ha), the Cd loading
rate attributable to the fertilizer would be 0.025 kg/ha. By
comparison, therefore, the annual Cd addition from sewage sludge
at Site 8 would be 40 times greater than that from phosphate
ferti1izer.
28
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Similarly, Lee and Keeney (21) indicated that sludge
additions, compared to phosphate fertilizer additions, had a
greater potential of significantly increasing the soil concen-
tration of cadmium because of the much higher application rates
used. They estimated that 186 yr of continuous (once per year)
phosphate ferti1izer application at 50 kg/ha/yr would be required
to equal one application of sewage sludge at a rate of 9 dry
t/ha (assuming a sludge Cd concentration of 18 ppm).
The largest contributing difference in the above cited
example stems from the application rates of the sewage sludge
compared to those of the fertilizer. On a short-term basis,
therefore, the net addition of cadmium to soil by the use of
phosphate fertilizers is probably not significant. The long-
term cumulative additions are, however, of potential signi-
ficance .
30
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SCS BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR
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44. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program Operations.
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4 Q
* Williams, C. H. and D. J. David. The effect of superphosphate on the
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35
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EPA REGIONS
CAK \
^ « \
U.S. EPA, Region 1
Solid Waste Program
John F. Kennedy Bldg.
Boston, MA 02203
617-223-5775
U.S. EPA, Region 2
Solid Waste Section
26 Federal Plaza
New York, NY 10007
212-264-0503
U.S. EPA, Region 3
Solid Waste Program
6th and Walnut Sts.
Philadelphia, PA 19106
215-597-9377
U.S. EPA, Region 4
Solid Waste Program
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404-881-3016
U.S. EPA, Region 5
Solid Waste Program
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Solid Waste Section
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Solid Waste Section
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816-374-3307
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Solid Waste Section
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Solid Waste Program
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415-556-4606
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Solid Waste Program
1200 6th Ave.
Seattle, WA 98101
206-442-1260
yo!699
SW-718
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