SW-731
United States Off ite of 3oljd Waste (WW-562)
'Environmental Protection Washington DC 20460
Agency Order No. 731
December 1978
v>EPA Use of Liner
Materials
for Land Disposal
Facilities
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EPA is charged by Congress to protect the Nation's land, air, and
water systems. Under a mandate of national environmental laws
focussed on air and water quality, solid waste management and the
control of toxic substances, pesticides, noise and radiation, the
Agency strives to formulate and implement actions which lead to a
compatible balance between human activities and the ability of
natural systems to supoort and nurture life.
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY / 1978
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USE OF LINER MATERIALS FOR LAND DISPOSAL FACILITIES
by
Allen J. Geswein
Robert E. Landreth
and
Henry Haxo, Jr.
Presented at the 71st Annual Meeting of the
American Institute of Chemical Engineers
November 12-16, 1978
-—» i •••-.,• ,~i"-i-I^TI 1
.. ,-.-oet
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USE OF LINER MATERIALS FOR LAND DISPOSAL FACILITIES
Robert E. Landreth,* Allen Geswein,-*- and Henry Haxo, Jr.*
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency currently administers
eight environmental laws, one of which is the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA). Among the several major objectives
of RCRA is the elimination of improper land disposal practices, i.e.,
those disposal practices and sites identified as environmentally
unacceptable according to EPA's proposed criteria issued pursuant
to the Act. The criteria cover all forms of disposal of wastes on
landfilling, landspreading, and impoundment or lagooning and apply
to residential and commercial as well as industrial wastes.
Under RCRA's mandate, EPA has undertaken the research and
development of environmentally safe practices for disposal of
industrial residues. Industrial residues can be disposed of in
an environmentally safe manner with carefully selected and designed
secured landfills. Properly designed secured landfills can prevent
excessive seepage of potential pollutants into the surrounding soils
by use of liner materials. Desirable properties of liner materials
for surface impoundments should be (1) impermeable to wastes; (2)
durable; (3) resistant to chemical, biological, and mechanical
damage, weathering, and deterioration; (4) low in cost; and (5)
easy to install. The disposal of residuals in landfills requires
* Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Division, Municipal Environmental
Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
+ Land Disposal Division, Office of Solid Waste, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
# President, Matrecon, Inc.
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an understanding of these factors, since not all candidate liner
materials have these desirable properties.
The Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Division of the
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, has developed research projects designed to
answer questions for the user community and develop documents which
will aid in the understanding of surface impoundment design. These
research projects have been developed to assimilate or expand on
existing data and generate new data. This data base will be used
to establish evaluation criteria and test protocol for liner
materials. The overall objectives of these research projects are
to determine the effects of waste leachate on the physical pro-
perties of liner materials, to develop a data base from which the
potential life of the material can be predicted, and to develop
economic data on the materials and associated construction costs.
LINER CANDIDATE MATERIALS
Those materials that can be listed as potential liner candidates
include natural clay soils; admixed materials (e.g., soil cement
and asphaltic compounds); polymeric membranes; and sprayed-on •
materials. Each of these broad liner classifications have advantages
and disadvantages when used as containment material. They are,
however, being used to contain a wide variety of residuals. The
liner materials being researched, excluding clays, are listed in
Table 1. Clay materials are being evaluated in soil attenuation
projects.
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Natural Soils
The natural clay soils have been used to contain a variety of
industrial wastes. Clay liner designs are usually based upon
permeability and sorption. Permeabilities of clays range from
10-5 cm/sec to 10-8 cm/sec. In layers of several feet thick, clays
could offer only minimal seepage rates for several hundred years.
Industrial waste ponds have clay liner thicknesses in the 2-70
ft range. Obviously, where a toxic waste is being contained,
a greater depth of clay would be required.
Adsorption and ion exchange are two principle mechanisms where
clays act as passive barriers. While these two principles are
different, -hey are difficult to distinguish because each results
i.a uptake ^r,C both can occur simultaneously. The literature on
these mechanisms is extensive.-'- Data on the sorption of industrial
waste and municipal sanitary landfill leaichate are being generated
in a series of controlled laboratory studies.
One effort2 is examining the factors that attenuate contaminants
(limit contaminant transport) in leachate from municipal solid waste
landfills. These contaminants are: arsenic, beryllium, cadmium,
chromium, copper, cyanide, iron, mercury, lead, nickel, selenium,
vanadium, and zinc. The general approach is to pass municipal
leachate, as a leaching fluid, through columns of well-characterized,
whole soils maintained in a saturated anaerobic state. The typical
municipal refuse leachate is spiked with high concentrations of
metal salts to achieve a nominal concentration of 100 mg/1. The
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most significant factors in contaminant removal are then inferred
from correlation of observed migration rates and known soil and
contaminant characteristics. This effort will contribute to the
development of a computer simulation model for predicting trace
element attenuation in soils. Modeling efforts to date have been
hindered by the complexity of soil-leachate chemistry.
The second effort-^ in this area is studying the removal of
contaminants from landfill leachates by soil clay minerals. Columns
are packed with mixtures of quartz sand and nearly pure clay minerals.
The leaching fluid consists of typical municipal refuse leachate
without metal salt additives. The general approach to this effort
is similar to that described in the preceding effort except that
(a) both sterilized and unsterilized leachates are utilized to
examine the effect of microbial activity on hydraulic conductivity
and (b) extensive batch studies are conducted of the sorption of
metals from leachate by clay minerals.
A third effort relates to organic contaminant attenuation by
soil. This is our initial effort in organic contaminant movement
in soil. Much more is known about inorganic contaminant movement
in soil because the analytical techniques for inorganic materials
are well developed and relatively cheap compared to the time-consuming
analytical techniques for organic materials. The problem is com-
pounded by the fact that organic contaminants are more numerous
and more are being synthesized all the time. PCB is the organic
contaminant currently being investigated. As a part of the above-
described effort, a gas chromatographic analytical procedure was
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developed that allowed improved quantitative measurement of PCB's
in aqueous solutions.
Admixed Materials
Admixed materials, such as soil cements and asphaltic concrete,
have also been used to line containment ponds, but to a lesser
degree. While these materials do have application for containment
based upon permeability, the potential chemical interaction limits
the type of residuals that can be contained. W. S. Stewart** reported
that the advantages of asphalt materials are their availability,
versatility in available physical forms, and use for large-scale
waterproof construction. Pure asphalt has also been used in a
membrane form. The major disadvantage to the asphalt membrane was
the subgrade requirement, weathering, aging and erosion from
turblent water, and damage from mechanical equipment. Stewart
developed a matrix based upon the chemistry of the liner and the
waste stream (Table 2). This table should only be used as a starting
point. Actual exposure tests should follow to determine specific
compatibility.
Asphalt linings, compacted properly, have permeabilities in
the range of 10-7 cm/sec. The Asphalt Institute (College Park,
Maryland) has conducted tests in their laboratory^ showing
that properly designed mixes can be essentially impermeable
to water (k=o). The chemical resistance of asphaltic materials
should be checked first, by immersion tests or other test
procedures. Jharts have been developed which illustrate
resistance of asphalt. Strength of waste streams and temperature
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may have an effect on the lining and deserves further laboratory
testing before selection. In those admixes where stone/gravel
are used, the chemical resistance of the stone/gravel should
also be determined. Dissolution of the stone/gravel will seriously
affect the integrity of the liner and could cause direct
channeling through the liner.
Flexible Membrane Liners
Flexible membrane liners are becoming increasingly popular for
containment devices. Their relative ease of installation and the
chemical resistance to a wider variety of chemicals lend themselves
to increased use by industry. EPA research efforts are underway
where a range of generic type materials and thicknesses are being
exposed to selected industrial wastes.
Two projects have been previously reported.6 Data from the
first year's exposure of municipal landfill leachate on flexible
membranes and admixed materials resulted in relatively little change
to the liners.7 There was no apparent increase in permeability
in any of the liner materials. There were losses in compressive
strength of the admixed materials and in physical properties of
some of the polymeric membranes and swelling of most membranes.
Due to the relative small change in the first year, the
exposure time has been increased to a total exposure time of 56
months (July 1979). In addition to the longer exposure time,
additional subtasks have been added to increase the overall data
base.
A series of swelling tests8 at room termperature and at 70°C
indicate that membranes of neoprenes, chlorosulforated polyethy-
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lene, and chlorinated polyethylene continually swell in water, where
as the polyethylene, polybutylene, polyester, and elasticized
polyolefin reach a plateau in the swell, as did polyvinyl chloride.
In the permeability tests there was some indication that permeability
increases with time, probably due to the swelling of the membranes
by water. Since permeability tests take a long period of time, due
to the extremely low coefficient of permeability, data are still
being collected. Also, with the increased attention of landfill
gag migrating away from the land disposal sites, gas permeability
data are being collected. Data will be complete and reported on
in a final report, scheduled for October 1979.
The second project was recently updated,' and a complete report
is due in late 1978. The results of the study must still be con-
sidered preliminary at this point in the exposing testing, but it
is quite apparent that some of the hazardous wastes can seriously
affect the physical properties of the lining materials. The waste
streams are bein/g' completely characterized to determine individual
components which may be aggressive toward linings. Generally,
organic constituents tend to have solvent effects upon the organic
polymeric membranes and asphaltic materials. The effect will depend
upon the specific component, strength, and liner material.
Spray-On Materials
A third effort10 relates to the types of materials being tested
for use as liners for sites receiving sludges generated by the removal
of sulfur oxides (SOX) from flue gases of coal-burning power plants.
The volumes of SOX sludge generated in any particular place will,
typically, be much greater than those for other types of wastes, and
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therefore the disposal sites will be large. Consequently, methods
of lining such disposal sites must have a low unit cost. It is
desirable that the materials be easy to apply or install. Because
of these considerations, the number of polymeric membranes included
in the study have been reduced, whereas admixed and sprayed-on
materials are being emphasized. A total of 18 materials are being
tested, with two types of Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) sludges.
The sludges are from an eastern coal-, line-, and limestone-scrubbed
process.
CONSTRUCTION
The construction of a lined solid waste disposal facility
requires the close attention of the field engineer. The best
specification can be negated if the installation of the liner
system is improperly monitored in the field. Three distinct phases
of construction are necessary to complete the proper installation
of a liner. Each phase requires attention if a successful contain-
ment is to be built. These three phases are discussed separately.
Subgrade Preparation
The liner, which is a relatively thin barrier, must rest on a
firm, smooth foundation. Ideally, the subgrade would consist of
1 to 2 feet of compacted coarse-grained material, such as sand.
The maximum grain size of the material is somewhat dependent upon
the liner material to be used. If recompacted or imported clay is
used or if the in-situ soil is to be amended by the addition of
cement or montmorillonite, a larger grain size in the subgrade can
be tolerated because the barrier will be thicker than polymeric
10
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membranes or asphaltic compositions. There are no specific recommenda
tions for maximum grain size, but it would seem logical that a clay
liner that is 12 to" 18 inches thick could easily tolerate stones
as large as 1 inch in diameter in the subgrade. Polymeric membranes
should have a maximum grain size smaller than this, and specifications
have been written which call for 100 percent of the subgrade to pass
a no. 4 sieve.
In all cases, the subgrade should be free of roots, branches,
and other similiar materials which could puncture the liner. Also,
organic material can degrade and give off methane and other gases
which could be trapped under the liner and could eventually rupture
the barrier.
The subgrade should be smooth. The thin liner materials should
not be required to bridge over tire tracks and other depressions.
T?he subgrade can be rolled or dragged to achieve an acceptable
sybgrade texture.
The subgrade can be susceptible to differential settlement if
not properly compacted. Obviously, the field inspection should
include soil tests to ensure optimum compaction of the subgrade.
Liner Installation
Most liner materials require a unique installation technique.
The exception is the polymeric materials which use essentially the
same installation procedures. The following is a brief discussion
of how to install paving asphalt, hot-sprayed asphalt, asphalt
emulsion sprayed on polypropylene fabric, polymeric membranes,
montmorillonite, and soil-cement liners. Standard specifications
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for the liner materials are available and give more detail on tfte
proper installation procedures.
Paving asphalt is placed by a conventional paving machine. If
a sealer coat is specified, it can be applied using a truck equipped
with a spray bar or by using a hand-held sprayer. Since the integrity
of this type of liner can be damaged by weeds growing through it, the
use of a soil sterilant on the subgrade to prevent plant growth may
be required.
Hot-sprayed asphalt membranes are constructed using a spray bar.
The completed membrane will consist of 1 1/2 to 2 gallons of sprayed
asphalt per square yard and can range in thickness from 1/4 to
3/4 of an inch. Three or four passes of the spray bar are used to
build up this membrane. If fewer passes are used (higher application
rate per pass), there is a tendency for bubbles to form. Leaks
will develop when these bubbles ruptures. Joints are formed by
overlapping. The specified overlap varies from 1 to 12 inches.
There is a three-stage construction process for the asphalt
emulsion sprayed on polypropylene fabric. First the fabric is
spread on the ground. The fabric is in sheets 15 feet by 300
feet which are sewed together. A mixture of water, a wetting
agent, asbestos, and an asphalt emulsion is then sprayed in two
coats. The first coat is applied at a rate of 1 gallon per square
yard. When this coat dries, the evaporation of the water causes
pinholes to develop in the membrane. A second coat of the mixture
is spjuyed at a rate of 0.4 to 0.5 gallons per square yard. The
final membrane is approximately 100 mils thick (one mil equals
0.001 inch). The manufacturer does not recommend placing this
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membrane when the temperature is below 40 degrees F.
Plastic and rubber membranes are delivered to the site in
large sheets. These membranes range in thickness from 10 to over
60 mils. Typically, these sheets will have many factory splices
in the material. In order to make the liner watertight, a number
of field splices are required.
Anchoring the edges of plastic and rubber membranes is accom-
plished by burying the edge in a shallow trench.
The construction of a sanitary landfill liner using montmoril-
lonite as an admixture to the native soil is accomplished using
conventional farm and earth-moving equipment. Spreading the
grayishwhite granular material can be ;',:ooraplished with a fertilizer,
pesticide,, or manure spreadec. Typica^ application rates range from
10 to 20 pounds per square yard. Some experimentation may oe required
to determine the proper setting to use for a particular spreader.
After the material is spread, three to four passes with a disk are
required to mix the montmorillonite to the appropriate depth, usually
6 inches. Flat steel-wheeled rollers or rubber-tired rollers are
recommended for compaction. The use of Sheepsfoot rollers are
not recommended by the manufacturer because these devices tend to
force the montmorillonite deeper into the subgrade than 6 inches.
The material is not an effective liner if it is placed deeper than
the design depth.
Soil-cement is a mixture of pulverized soil and measured amounts
of Portland cement and water, compacted to high density. Since no
full-size sanitary landfill liner has been built using this material,
no special construction techniques have been developed. In general,
soil-cement pavements are built using the following steps:
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(1) spread portland cement and mix, (2) apply water and mix, (3)
compact the mixture, (4) perform final grading for drainage, and (5)
cure the mixture. Depending upon the soil type encountered, cement
is added at a rate of 3 to 20 percent of the weight of the soil.
Spreading and mixing devices have been designed specifically for
soil-cement pavement construction, but conventional earth-moving .
equipment can be used.
Liner Protection
No liner material should be used as a pavement. While some of
these materials can easily support rubber-tired construction equip-
ment, high-wheel loading could rupture some membranes. Equipment
with crawler treads should not be allowed to operate directly on the
liner. Manufacturers recommend protecting the liner with an earth
cover 1 or 2 feet thick. This material should not contain jagged
rocks or other sharp objects that could damage the liner. Similarly,
the first lift of solid waste placed in the fill site should not con-
tain items such as bulky wastes, pipe,, or white goods that could
puncture the liner during the filling operation. Such quality control
is difficult to achieve, considering the heterogeneous nature of solid
waste delivered in compactor trucks.
The above construction information is very general. In an
attempt to be more specific about the actual placement of liner
materials, a study is being undertaken to assess the best procedures
and practices used by the liner industry. The study will encompass
the site preparation and liner placement for a variety of clay,
admixed, and polymeric liner materials.
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Field Verification
Field verification studies for determining liner material
performance require a substantial input of research dollars and
time in order to obtain a long-term data base. The ideal field
verification study would include 20 liner materials, 20 waste
streams, exposure periods up to 5 years, and be located in four
different geographic locations. Since studies like this are not
feasible, based on a limited budget and time constraints, an
alternative study has been selected.
A recently completed studyll identified disposal sites where
liner materials were installed. The survey obtained information
relating to waste type, waste depth, Waste age, type of liner
material, owner, installer, and other pertinent information on
the disposal site. Potential methods of liner recovery and the
associated costs were discussed.
Although these data are still being evaluated, an approach is
being developed where three to five selected lined sites will be
investigated during the next year. Based upon the results of this
effort and the interpretation of the data, additional sites may be
sampled.
Liner Listing-NSF
In an attempt to alleviate the problem of continually reviewing
material and performance specifications from several different
companies for the same generic type polymeric material, the National
Sanitation Foundation (NSF) has initiated an effort which will lead
to a recogni2ed listing of flexible membrane liner materials. The
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NSF has gathered together representatives of Federal and State
governments, industry, manufacturers, users, and the private
community. The purpose12 of the listing will be to:
"Establish the necessary performance requirements for flexible
membrane liners and covers for use in the retention and
containment of substances so as to maintain and protect the
environment. The flexible membrane liners covered under this
standard are intended to retain waters and contain pollutants
or chemicals".
The materials to be incorporated into this listing are
thermoplastics, thermoplastic elastomers, and elastomers. Data
are currently being reviewed by the advisory committees.
REGULATIONS
The vj.S. Environmental Protection Agency, under authority of
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (Public
Law 94-580), is developing recommendations, criteria, and
regulations for the utilization of liner materials. These
recommendations, criteria, and regulations are currently in
various stages of review by industry, the private sector,
and o.her government agencies.
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References
1. Sanks, R. L., J. M. LaPlante, and E. F. Gloyna [Environmental
Health Engineering Research Laboratory, University of Texas
at Austin]. Survey suitability of clay beds for storage of
industrial solid wastes. Report to Texas Water Quality
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8. Haxo, H. E., R. S. Haxo, and T. F. Kellogg. Evaluation of liner
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po 1751
SW-731
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