OVERVIEW OF
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION IN THE
NIAGARA FRONTIER,
NEW YORK
March 1982
James Vincent
Arthur Franzen
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5, Library (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Boulevard, 12th Floor
Chicago, IL 60604-3590
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report was prepared at the National Enforcement
Investigations Center, Denver, Colorado.
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CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
I INTRODUCTION 9
II SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 13
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS 13
SOURCES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES 19
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL PROGRAMS 32
III BACKGROUND 37
DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA 37
PREVIOUS STUDIES 44
STUDY METHODS 46
IV ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS 51
INACTIVE HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL SITES 54
FISH CONTAMINATION 55
WATER QUALITY 63
AIR QUALITY 94
RADIOLOGICAL ASPECTS 100
V SOURCES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES 101
POINT SOURCES 101
NON-POINT SOURCES 105
DEVELOPMENT OF AN INVENTORY OF POINT SOURCES 108
VI MAJOR SOURCES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES,
BUFFALO-LACKAWANNA SUBAREA 129
INDUSTRIAL POINT SOURCES 129
MUNICIPAL POINT SOURCES 140
NON-POINT SOURCES 141
VII MAJOR SOURCES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES,
TONAWANDA-NORTH TONAWANDA SUBAREA 147
INDUSTRIAL POINT SOURCES 147
MUNICIPAL POINT SOURCES 160
HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL SITES 161
NON-POINT SOURCES 162
VIII MAJOR SOURCES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES,
NIAGARA FALLS SUBAREA 163
INDUSTRIAL POINT SOURCES 163
MUNICIPAL POINT SOURCES 179
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT FACILITIES 181
NON-POINT SOURCES 185
IX ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL PROGRAMS 187
ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS 187
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 190
REGULATION OF WASTEWATER DISCHARGES 192
REGULATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTES 196
REFERENCES 201
BIBLIOGRAPHY 211
APPENDIX
SELECTED WATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES FROM THE INTERNATIONAL JOINT
COMMISSION, GREAT LAKES WATER QUALITY AGREEMENT OF 1978
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TABLES
1 Multi-Media Ratings of Major Industrial Sources of
Chemical Substances 21
2 Major Wastewater Discharges of Priority Pollutants 22
3 Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites of Concern Not at Major
Industrial Plants 27
4 PCBs and Organochlorine Pesticides Changes in Young-of-the-Year
Spottail Shiners Samples at Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario .... 58
5 PCBs and Organochlorine Pesticides in Young-of-the-Year
Spottail Shiners - 1980 60
6 Public Drinking Water Supplies 73
7 Comparison of Concentration of Some Trace Organics Detected
in Treated Water at Municipal Intakes with Suggested Drinking
Water Limits 76
8 Mean Annual Concentration of Trace Metals in Water Samples
Collected in the Niagara River at Niagara-on-the-Lake
and in Lake Ontario at the Mouth of the Niagara River
during 1975-1980 83
9 Percentage of Weekly Water Samples Violating 1978 Agreement
Objectives in the Niagara River at Niagara-on-the-Lake
during 1975-1980 84
10 Mean Concentration of PCBs, Pesticides, Arsenic, Cyanide
and Heavy Metals in Niagara River Surface Water during 1980 ... 85
11 Summary of 1979 Upper Niagara River Mean Trace Metal Data
(Water) 86
12 Summary of 1979 Organic Contaminants Data in Upper Niagara
River Water Samples 87
13 Summary of Trace Element Concentration in Suspended Sediment
at Niagara-on-the-Lake 88
14 Mean Concentrations of Organic Contaminants in Suspended
Sediment at Niagara-on-the-Lake - 1980 89
15 Summary of 1979 Environment Ontario (MOE) Analytical Results for
PCBs, Organochlorine Pesticides, Chlorophenoxy Acid Herbicides
and Chlorophenols, Arsenic and Heavy Metals in Niagara River
Bottom Sediments 91
16 PCBs and Organochlorine Pesticides Accumulated by Freshwater Clams
(Elliptic complanatus) After 16 Day's Exposure - 1980 92
17 Heavy Metals and Arsenic in Attached Filamentous Algae
(Cladophora sp.) - 1980 93
18 Wastewater Discharge Rating Criteria Ill
19 Air Emission Ratings 114
20 ICS Rating Criteria 114
21 Hazardous Waste Management Rating Criteria 117
22 Site Contamination Rating Criteria 118
23 Multi-Media Ratings of Major Industrial Sources of
Chemical Substances 119
24 Major Wastewater Discharges of Priority Pollutants 122
25 Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites of Concern Not at Major
Industrial Plants 125
FIGURES
1 Locations of Major Point Sources of Chemical Substances 23
2 Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites of Concern 28
3 Study Area 38
4 Niagara River Biomonitoring Locations - 1980 59
5 Public Drinking Water Supply Intakes 74
6 Niagara River Water Quality Monitoring Locations - 1979/80 .... 80
7 Niagara River Bottom Sediment Sampling - 1979 81
8 PCB Concentrations in Surface Sediments of Lakes Huron,
Erie, and Ontario 95
9 Mirex in Sediments of Lake Ontario - 1968 96
10 Locations of Major Point Sources of Chemical Substances 120
11 Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites of Concern 126
12 Lackawanna Area 130
13 Buffalo River - Buffalo Harbor Area 134
14 South Portion of Tonawanda Area 148
15 North Portion of'Tonawanda Area 155
16 East Niagara Falls Area 164
17 Niagara Falls Industrial Area 166
18 North Niagara Falls Area 177
19 Lake Ontario Ordinance Works 184
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
A multi-media study of the occurrence of chemical substances in the
environment of the western New York area (Erie and Niagara Counties), com-
monly called the Niagara Frontier, was conducted from August through
December 1981. The study primarily concentrated on the Buffalo and Niagara
Falls urban areas. Available information in published literature and in
State and Federal agency files was compiled by an extensive computerized
literature search and manual file review.
This report provides an objective overview of the available informa-
tion on environmental conditions, sources of chemical substances, and regu-
latory programs to control these substances. The report focuses primarily
on the specific group of chemical substances which are commonly called toxic
substances — those substances which pose a potential or actual hazard to
human health when present in relatively small quantities or low concentra-
tions. Because the term "toxic substances" is often used indiscriminately
to describe a wide variety of chemical substances, many of which may not
pose a hazard, the report uses specific terminology keyed to environmental
laws whenever possible to identify the substances present in the environ-
ment.
Specific objectives of the study were:
1. Define present environmental conditions and associated trends.
2. Define major sources of chemical substances that impact environ-
mental conditions.
3. Define remedial measures and programs to control chemical
substances.
4. Define any additional or revised measures or programs that are
needed to adequately manage chemical substances and meet inter-
national environmental objectives.
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
Air and water quality have improved markedly during the past 10 years.
Present ambient conditions compare favorably with criteria defining accept-
able quality. Most air and water contaminants occur at levels well below
established regulatory limits at most locations.
Although general environmental quality has improved, inadequate con-
trols on releases of chemical substances to the environment in the past
have resulted in several environmental conditions of concern: (1) the move-
ment of chemical substances into the environment from inactive hazardous
waste disposal sites, (2) the presence of low levels of chemical substances
in public drinking water supplies, and (3) the contamination of sports fish
resulting in restrictions on consumption of fish.
At a number of inactive hazardous waste disposal sites, chemical sub-
stances have seeped out of the disposal area into surface and groundwaters
and have contaminated the surrounding environment. This occurred because
large volumes of hazardous wastes were disposed of in the past in dumps and
landfills which were not adequately designed, constructed, or maintained to
provide secure containment of the concentrated chemical substances present.
Remedial measures have eliminated some but not all of the more serious en-
vironmental contamination.
The quality of drinking water obtained from the Niagara River and east-
ern Lake Erie and supplied to more than a million persons meets applicable
U.S. and Canadian drinking water criteria designed to protect human health.
Drinking water criteria have not been established for several organic chemi-
cals detected on occasion at trace levels in some supplies.
Comparison of the City of Niagara Falls water supply with other U.S.
cities using river water indicates that the Niagara Falls supply is of bet-
ter chemical quality than many. Other New York and Ontario supplies ob-
tained from the Niagara River also compared favorably in quality.
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Contamination of sport fish in Lake Ontario and the Niagara River with
DDT, mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and mirex has declined
markedly (30 to 90%) over the past 5 to 10 years. However, the PCB and
mirex contamination, coupled with recently detected dioxin contamination,
is considered serious enough that health advisories have been issued by
both New York and Ontario that limit consumption of the fish. This contami-
nation results from bioaccumulation of persistent chemical substances pres-
ent in the water and sediments.
Extensive monitoring of chemical substances in surface waters over the
past 3 years indicated that average water quality meets New York water qual-
ity standards and international water quality objectives established by the
International Joint Commission. Some substances occasionally exceed maximum
limits. Water quality standards have not been established for a number of
chemical substances observed in the Niagara River.
Although water quality met the objectives, the Niagara River continues
to be a major source of PCBs, pesticides, heavy metals, and other persist-
ent chemical substances present in suspended sediments discharged into Lake
Ontario.
SOURCES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
Industrial manufacturing plants are the most important sources of chem-
ical substances in the Niagara Frontier. The plants release chemical sub-
stances to the environment in wastewaters that are discharged directly to
surface waters or indirectly through municipal wastewater treatment plants,
in spills and leaks at plant sites that contaminate surface runoff and
groundwater, in the disposal of hazardous wastes, and in air emissions.
There are 33 major industrial sources of chemical substances in the
study area. These sources were selected by the use of multi-media rating
criteria that evaluated the relative significance of releases of chemical
substances from several hundred industrial plants.
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Fifteen major industrial wastewater dischargers in the study area col-
lectively discharge about 95% of the total direct industrial discharge of
priority pollutants.* In a total flow of 460 mgd, these 15 sources dis-
charge daily maximum loads of 558 Ib of organic priority pollutants, 237 Ib
of total phenols, and 682 Ib of heavy metals.
Four municipal wastewater treatment plants that receive major flows of
industrial wastes are estimated to discharge about 90% of the chemical sub-
stances discharged by municipal plants in the study area. In a flow of 268
mgd, these four plants discharge about 328 Ib of organic priority pollu-
tants, 525 Ib of phenols, and 566 Ib of heavy metals.
The City of Niagara Falls wastewater treatment plant is the largest
point source of chemical substances, discharging about 800 Ib/day of prior-
ity pollutants. Failure of activated carbon beds in 1978 has resulted in
inadequate treatment of industrial wastes. Reconstruction of the beds in
1983 is expected to reduce the discharge of priority pollutants by about
70%.
Canadian industrial and municipal wastewater discharges tributary to
the Niagara River are reported to collectively discharge about 23 Ib of
organic priority pollutants, 3 Ib of phenols, and 156 Ib of heavy metals
daily in a flow of 62 mgd.
Inadequately contained hazardous wastes at inactive disposal sites are
believed to be major sources of chemical substances transported to surface
waters by contaminated groundwater and surface runoff. There are 155 dis-
posal sites within 3 miles of the Niagara River. Sixty-eight of these are
at the 33 major industrial sources. Contributions of chemical substances
from these sites are not quantified.
* Priority pollutants are the specific group of toxic pollutants defined
by Sec. 307 of the Clean Water Act.
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There are two major regional hazardous waste management facilities
(CECOS and SCA) in the study area. Extensive multi-media monitoring indi-
cates these facilities release only small amounts of chemical substances to
the environment consistent with current hazardous waste management
technology.
Estimated total discharges of organic priority pollutants and phenols
from industrial and municipal point sources were in the same range as the
observed loads at the mouth of the Niagara River. Estimated point source
discharges of heavy metals were only about 5% of the river load.
Groundwater contaminated by spills and leaks of chemicals at indus-
trial plants and by inadequate hazardous waste disposal is a major non-
point source of chemical substances transported to surface waters. Infil-
tration of contaminated groundwater into industrial and municipal sewers
and into industrial water supply wells may account for about half of the
organic priority pollutants discharged by point sources.
Bottom sediments contaminated with PCBs, mercury, DDT, and other per-
sistent chemical substances were dredged from the Buffalo River and Harbor
in the past and disposed of in shallow Lake Erie waters. Resuspension of
this dredged spoil during major storms on Lake Erie may be a significant
non-point source of suspended sediments contaminated with chemical
substances.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL PROGRAMS
Environmental control programs administered by the New York State De-
partment of Environmental Conservation, the Environmental Protection Agency,
the Ontario Ministry of the Environment, and Environment Canada have been
effective in achieving major improvements in environmental quality. These
programs have achieved a high degree of control over traditional air and
water pollutants and are now concentrating on control of chemical substances.
Control methods include establishment of environmental standards, ambient
and point source monitoring, permit programs, and enforcement actions. The
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International Joint Commission and the American-Canadian Niagara River Tox-
ics Committee assist in coordination of programs between the two countries.
Comprehensive limits on priority pollutants consistent with best avail-
able technology (BAT) are needed in State Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (SPDES) permits to achieve adequate control of chemical substances.
These permits are the principal means of controlling releases of chemical
substances to surface waters in industrial and municipal wastewaters. Pre-
sent SPDES permits contain only a few such limits.
Issue of a comprehensive SPDES permit to the City of Niagara Falls
wastewater treatment plant is a high priority need because of the large
volume of priority pollutants discharged and the need for treatment and
sewer system improvements. High priority SPDES permits for industrial fa-
cilities include Ashland Petroleum, Bethlehem Steel, Donner-Hanna Coke,
DuPont (Niagara Falls), Hooker Chemical (Durez and Niagara Falls), National
Steel (Hanna Furnace), 01 in, Republic Steel, and Spaulding Fiber. These
industries should achieve the majority of expected reductions in discharges
of priority pollutants when BAT permit limits become effective.
Revision of the New York water quality standards to include additional
chemical substances consistent with international water quality objectives
is needed to provide a basis for establishing wastewater discharge permit
limits. Present standards do not include several chemical substances of
concern in the Niagara River.
Litigation pursued by the Environmental Protection Agency and the New
York Department of Environmental Conservation against owners of inactive
hazardous waste disposal sites which have caused environmental contamina-
tion has resulted in remedial actions to abate hazards at several key sites.
Long-term remedial actions are being negotiated at major sites. Voluntary
remedial action by site owners has been performed to remove actual or poten-
tial environmental hazards at a number of sites. Site investigations to
determine the need for additional remedial actions are continuing.
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Operating permits issued to the two large active hazardous waste dis-
posal sites by the Department of Environmental Conservation contain strin-
gent operating and monitoring requirements that should assure adequate
environmental protection. All hazardous waste generators and transporters
and operators of hazardous waste treatment, storage or disposal facilities
are required to meet comprehensive requirements now being implemented which
were promulgated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act.
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I. INTRODUCTION
A variety of environmental problems in the Niagara Frontier have been
publicized with increasing frequency in the past few years. Love Canal, an
inactive hazardous waste disposal site that exposed the occupants of adja-
cent homes to chemical substances, focused national and international atten-
tion on the area in 1978. The Love Canal incident resulted in an accelera-
tion of the already numerous investigations of the environmental effects of
past and present hazardous waste disposal practices, of releases of chemical
substances from industrial plants, of the quality of public drinking water
supplies and of the contamination of fish in Lake Ontario and the Niagara
River. These investigations have been and are being conducted by local,
State and Federal agencies, municipalities, industrial companies, environ-
mentalists, public interest groups and (because the Niagara River is an
international boundary) the Canadian government.
Ironically, this concern about the effects of chemical substances on
Niagara Frontier residents and the environment comes at a time when environ-
mental pollution control programs have achieved major improvements in air
and water quality. There are understandably many doubts in the minds of
area residents concerning the safety of the water they drink, the fish they
catch and the very environments of their homes and workplaces. There are
also concerns among regulatory agencies of both countries with respect to
the pace of environmental improvement, the continuing adverse publicity and
the adequacy of existing scientific knowledge and regulatory programs to
effectively achieve control of chemical substances.
Much of the emotional response to public announcements concerning the
presence of chemical substances in any environmental media is due to a lack
of understanding concerning the significance of the levels detected. Recent
improvements in analytical techniques now make it possible to detect some
chemical substances at very low levels, well below the levels at which the
substance might cause harmful effects. Thus, because a substance can be
detected does not necessarily mean it is a hazard.
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This report is the result of a multi-media study, initiated by the
National Enforcement Investigations Center (NEIC) in August 1981, of the
occurence of chemical substances in the environment of the Niagara Frontier.
The report provides an objective overview of the available information on
environmental conditions, sources of chemical substances and regulatory
programs to control these substances. The report, as well as the study
were designed to meet the following objectives:
1. Define present environmental conditions and any identifiable trends as
characterized by the quality of ambient air, surface waters, ground-
waters, and drinking water supplies and by biological data on aquatic
life including contamination of edible fish.
2. Define major sources of chemical substances that impact environmental
conditions.
3. Define past, present, and proposed future remedial measures and pro-
grams for control of chemical substances.
4. Define any additional remedial measures and/or programs or revisions
of existing programs that appear to be needed to adequately manage
chemical substances and meet international environmental objectives.
The report focuses primarily on toxic substances, those chemical sub-
stances which pose a substantial potential or actual hazard to human health
or the environment when present in relatively small quantities or low con-
centrations. The term "toxic substances" is often used indiscriminately to
describe a wide variety of chemical substances, many of which may not pose
a hazard but are perceived to pose a hazard. Various references discussed
in this report use the term "toxic substances" in a broad context; in such
discussions, the term is used in the context explicitly expressed in the
reference. Whenever possible, however, the report uses specific terminology
keyed to environmental laws to identify the substances present in the envi-
ronment. For example, when discussing wastewater discharges or surface
water or groundwater, "priority pollutants" refers to the group of 65 or-
ganic and inorganic chemical substances and heavy metals classified as
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toxic pollutants*. "Hazardous wastes," another term frequently misused,
in this report refers to specific types of industrial, municipal and commer-
cial solid or liquid wastes that have been identified as hazardous wastes by
EPA** or New York State***.
Geographically, the study concentrated on the Buffalo and Niagara Falls
urban areas. The broader study area encompassed the western New York coun-
ties of Erie and Niagara (commonly called the Niagara Frontier) and, to a
limited extent, the adjacent eastern portion of the Regional Municipality
of Niagara Falls in the Canadian Province of Ontario.
The scope of the study consisted of evaluating of available data and
information compiled from the published literature and from local, State,
and Federal regulatory agency files. A substantial data base existed from
studies conducted before the Love Canal incident. Studies subsequent to
Love Canal provided specialized data on sources of chemical substances and
related environmental effects. New data from ongoing studies and routine
regulatory activity continued to become available during the course of this
study and were incorporated into this report.
Section II summarizes the findings of this study including the most
significant environmental problems, the causes or sources of these problems,
existing environmental control programs, and needed program revisions and
additions. Background data are presented in Section III including a descrip-
tion of the study area, condensed descriptions of selected previous studies
and a summary of study methods.
* Defined by Section 307(a) of the Clean Water Act and listed in 40 CFR
Part 401.15.
** Identified in lists promulgated under Section 3001 of the Resource Con-
servation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 and codified in 40 CFR Part 261.
*** Identified in lists promulgated under Section 27-0903 of the New York
Environmental Conservation Law.
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Environmental conditions are summarized in Section IV. Conventional
air pollution parameters are used to define present air quality and show
trends. Data developed by a variety of short-term studies and by long-term
monitoring by Canadian agencies that document levels of chemical substances
in surface waters are summarized. Areas of known groundwater contamination
are discussed. Contamination of fish with chemical substances and observed
trends are also discussed.
There are a large number of known or potential sources of potentially
toxic chemical substances in the Niagara Frontier including municipal and
industrial wastewater discharges, industrial air emissions and hazardous
waste disposal sites. Section V discusses how an inventory of such sources
was prepared and major sources identified.
Sections VI through VIII discuss major sources of chemical substances
for each of three study subareas (Buffalo-Lackawanna, Tonawanda-N. Tonawanda
and Niagara Falls). Chemical substances handled at the facility, emitted
to the air, discharged in wastewaters and/or stored, treated or disposed of
in hazardous wastes are defined within the scope of available data.
The final section (Section IX) discusses State and EPA regulatory pro-
grams for control of chemical substances, their current status and sugges-
tions for additions and modifications.
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II. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
Air and water quality in the Niagara Frontier have improved markedly
during the past 10 years. Present environmental conditions compare favor-
ably with criteria defining acceptable air and water quality. Most air and
water contaminants occur at levels well below established regulatory limits
at most locations. Many chemical substances that are used or produced in
the area's commerce are either not detectable in the environment or occur
at trace levels.
Although general environmental conditions have subtantially improved,
inadequate controls in the past over releases of chemical substances to the
environment have resulted in several environmental conditions of major con-
cern to the public and to environmental regulatory agencies. The three
environmental conditions of most concern are: (1) the movement of chemical
substances from inadequate hazardous waste disposal sites into the adjacent
environment with exposure of local residents to potential health hazards,
(2) the presence of low levels of chemical substances in public drinking
water supplies, and (3) the contamination of sports fish with elevated lev-
els of chemical substances that has resulted in prohibitions or limitations
on fish consumption.
Environmental Contamination at Inactive Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites
At a number of inactive hazardous waste disposal sites, chemical sub-
stances have seeped from the disposal area into surface and groundwaters
and have contaminated the surrounding environment. This occurred because
large volumes of hazardous wastes were disposed of in the past in dumps and
landfills which were not adequately designed, constructed, or maintained to
provide secure containment of the concentrated chemical substances present
in the wastes.
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Remedial measures have been taken at the most hazardous sites to elimi-
nate health hazards by removing environmental contamination and/or contain-
ing the wastes. However, these are not always long-term solutions. At
some sites with known environmental problems, remedial measures have not
been completed. Other sites with potential problems await detailed investi-
gations to define problems and develop ,a^euidf measures.
Public Water Supplies
The quality of drinking water supplies obtained from the Niagara River
and eastern Lake Erie and supplied to more than a million persons in U.S.
and Canadian urban areas along the river meets applicable U.S. and Canadian
drinking water criteria. These criteria, based on scientific studies, are
designed to protect human health. The criteria specify allowable levels
for several chemical substances detected in the Niagara River and, on occa-
sion, at trace levels in some treated water supplies. The quality of public
drinking water supplies is of particular concern because this is the princi-
pal means through which people can be exposed to chemical substances in the
water environment.
Drinking water criteria have not been established for several organic
chemical substances detected on occasion at trace levels in some water sup-
plies. EPA and the New York Department of Health are considering adding
criteria for other organic chemicals.
Comparison of the level of organic chemical substances in the City of
Niagara Falls water supply with other U.S. cities using river water indi-
cates that the Niagara Falls supply is of better quality than many of them.
An Ontario study of trihalomethanes in 40 surface water supplies in that
province in 1977 indicated that the quality of the Niagara-on-the-Lake sup-
ply (downstream of all U.S. sources of chemical substances) was close to
the median of all 40 supplies. A 1978 New York Department of Health study
of trihalomethanes in eight water supplies in the study area found that the
range of 0 to 73 ppb observed was below many supplies in other areas of the
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state and below the 100 ppb average of an EPA national study. Trihalometh-
anes are chemicals formed during water treatment by chlorination of trace
organic chemicals in the incoming water supply.
The City of Niagara Falls regularly monitors its water supply for
trace organic substances. The City has modified its intake system and also
its treatment process (by the addition of powdered activated carbon to
absorb organic chemicals) following the discovery of chemical contamination
in the intake system. This contamination is alleged to originate at an
adjacent hazardous waste disposal site.
The locations of public water supply intakes in the Niagara River and
Lake Erie were selected to obtain the best water quality available in the
vicinity and avoid higher pollutant levels. Hydrologic conditions in the
Niagara River, in combination with the locations of sources of chemical
substances, produce significant area! differences in concentrations of
chemical substances in the River.
Fish Contamination
Adult sport fish in Lake Ontario and the Niagara River are contami-
nated with persistent chemical substances to the extent that both New York
and Ontario have issued health advisories that effectively prohibit or se-
verely limit fish consumption. Substances of most concern include poly-
chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), mirex (a highly toxic pesticide), and dioxin
(a highly toxic byproduct of trichlorophenol production). Contamination
with DDT (an organochlorine pesticide) and mercury were problems in the
past.
Contamination of fish in the Niagara River and Lake Ontario is the
result of bioaccumulation of persistent chemical substances through the
aquatic food chain. Point sources of the five substances of most concern
have been eliminated or, in the case of mercury, reduced to a nominal level
consistent with the best available treatment technology. This has resulted
in major decreases (30 to 90%) in the levels of contamination in fish over
the last 5 to 10 years.
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Elevated levels of persistent chemical substances are present in bottom
sediments throughout much of the area's waterways. This contamination, in
combination with non-point source contributions such as contaminated ground-
water and landfill leachate, provides a reservoir which continues to supply
contaminated suspended sediments and direct water contamination in the
Niagara River system and Lake Ontario. Bioaccumulation of persistent chem-
ical substances can thus be expected to remain a problem that decreases
with time as non-point sources are abated and the sediment reservoir is
depleted.
Surface Water Quality
Extensive monitoring of surface waters over the last 3 years indicates
that average water quality meets New York water quality standards and inter-
national water quality objectives established by the International Joint
Commission for protection of beneficial water uses. However, concentra-
tions of several substances in specific water samples from the Niagara River
occasionally (less than 10% of the samples) exceed applicable maximum limits.
Waters of the Niagara River and Lakes Erie and Ontario are used for a vari-
ety of beneficial purposes of which public drinking water supplies and pro-
pagation of aquatic life have the highest water quality needs.
Although water quality met the objectives, analyses of suspended and
bottom sediments and aquatic life indicated that the Niagara River contin-
ues to be a major source of chemical substances discharged into Lake Ontario.
Substances of concern transported on river sediments included PCBs, pesti-
cides, and heavy metals. There are no water quality objectives specifically
applicable to suspended sediments. However, concentrations of these pollu-
tants in the suspended sediments exceeded allowable limits for disposal of
dredged spoil in open waters.
Environmental monitoring detected significant spatial differences in
concentrations of chemical substances in the water, sediments, and biota.
Highest concentrations were generally present in the Tonawanda Channel and
the Lower Niagara River. These data suggested the presence of significant
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sources of chemical substances along the Tonawanda Channel. An alternate
interpretation of the data, based on hydrologic considerations, suggests
that at least part of the increased contamination in the Tonawanda Channel
may actually originate in the Buffalo River-Buffalo Harbor area and near-
shore waters of Lake Erie.
Various special studies have detected localized areas of chemical sub-
stances pollution in small Niagara River tributaries and the Buffalo River.
This pollution has been related to specific sources such as landfill leach-
ate in some cases; in others, investigations are continuing. Tributaries
with detected elevated levels of chemical substances include Smokes Creek,
the Lackawanna and Union Canals, and portions of the Buffalo River in the
Buffalo-Lackawanna area, Two Mile Creek in Tonawanda, and Black, Bergholtz,
Bloody Run, Cayuga, and Gill Creeks in the Niagara Falls area. Cleanup of
the more seriously contaminated areas, such as Gill Creek, has been completed,
Groundwater Quality
Groundwater has been contaminated with chemical substances at several
known locations adjacent to or near the Niagara River. Other areas of con-
tamination will likely be found as investigations of inactive hazardous
waste sites continue.
Groundwater has been contaminated by spills and leaks of chemicals at
manufacturing plants and by improper disposal of hazardous wastes, both at
plant sites and at offsite disposal areas. Contaminants in the groundwater
thus reflect the broad spectrum of chemical substances used or produced by
area industries.
The largest known area of contamination extends under most of the Buf-
falo Avenue industrial complex in Niagara Falls. Chemical substances in
the groundwater infiltrate industrial plant sewers and are discharged di-
rectly to the Niagara River or are discharged to the Niagara Falls sewer
system. Groundwater also flows directly to the river. This contaminated
groundwater thus is a significant source of chemical substances.
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Other known or probable areas of groundwater contamination include the
Hyde Park, Love Canal, and 102nd Street landfill areas in Niagara Falls,
portions of the Tonawanda-North Tonawanda industrial areas, and the Buffalo
waterfront industrial areas.
Air Qua!ity
Air quality in the Niagara Frontier, as measured by traditional air
pollution parameters, has improved markedly over the past 15 years. With
the exception of a few stations in the industrialized areas of Buffalo and
Niagara Falls, ambient air quality is well below maximum concentration
limits specified in primary air quality standards designed to protect human
health. At the few stations, air quality only infrequently exceeds stand-
ards and then by relatively low amounts.
Available data on ambient levels of chemical substances are limited.
Several studies have suggested possible localized problems related to in-
dustrial emissions of benzo(a)pyrene, chlorine, and vinyl chloride. Con-
trol of these situations is being handled on a case-by-case basis by DEC.
Radiological Contamination
Several sites in the Niagara Frontier were contaminated with low level
radioactivity as a result of Federal government activities associated with
the Manhattan Project during World War II. Remedial measures have since
reduced the contaminated areas to four sites. Uranium ore residues (tail-
ings) are stored at the Niagara Falls Storage Facility (NFSF) located at
the old Lake Ontario Ordinance Works and in Tonawanda at a landfill and an
industrial site. Contaminated earth and debris from remedial measures at
other sites are also stored at the NFSF. Low-level radioactive wastewaters
were injected into the groundwater at a Tonawanda industrial site.
Recent environmental monitoring indicated that these sites do not
pose any radiological hazard to area residents. However, the contamination
limits the use of the four sites and long-term remedial measures are needed.
-------
19
SOURCES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
Chemical substances are released to the environment of the Niagara
Frontier from numerous point and non-point sources. Important point sources
include industrial manufacturing plants, municipal wastewater treatment
plants, and hazardous waste management and/or disposal sites. Important
non-point sources include contaminated groundwater, dredged spoil disposal,
contaminated lake and river bottom sediments, and urban runoff.
Industrial Point Sources
Industrial manufacturing plants are the most important sources of chem-
ical substances in the Niagara Frontier. Because some of these plants use
or produce large quantities of chemical substances, the release of some
chemicals into the environment is inevitable and unavoidable. These re-
leases occur in industrial wastewaters that are discharged directly to sur-
face waters or indirectly through municipal wastewater treatment plants, in
spills and leaks at plant sites that contaminate surface runoff and ground-
water, in the disposal of hazardous wastes either at the plant site or at
some other location, and in air emissions.
There are several thousand industrial facilities in the study area.
Most of these use little or no chemical substances or have processes or
products that result in no releases of chemical substances to the environ-
ment. Most either have dry processes that generate no wastewaters or dis-
charge small volumes containing minimal chemical substances to municipal
sewer systems. The collective load of chemical substances from these numer-
ous wastewater sources is significant, but this load is included in that
attributed to municipal point sources.
There are 33 major industrial sources of chemical substances in the
study area. These sources were selected through the use of a multi-media
rating system that ranked the relative significance of releases of chemical
substances to the environment through air, water, and hazardous waste path-
ways for several hundred industrial facilities. (See Section V for more
-------
20
detail on the rating criteria.) In general, these major sources discharge
significant loads of chemical substances (at least 1 Ib/day of organic
priority pollutants and/or heavy metals) in their wastewaters (either di-
rectly to surface waters or through municipal sewage systems); emit chemical
substances to the air; use or produce large volumes of chemical substances;
generate, manage, and/or dispose of large volumes of hazardous wastes; and
have significant site contamination such as inadequate hazardous waste dis-
posal sites or groundwater contamination.
The 33 major industrial sources are listed alphabetically in Table 1
with their associated ratings. Their locations are shown in Figure 1. The
individual and total rating values assigned to each source indicate the
relative magnitude of activities associated with chemical substances at
that source in comparison with other industrial sources. Higher rating
numbers are assigned to facilities with higher relative potential for re-
lease of chemicals to the environment. A high total rating is not a measure
of "good" or "bad" nor does it necessarily indicate the facility has an ac-
tual adverse effect on the environment.
Fifteen major industrial sources listed in Table 2 were identified as
having the largest direct discharges of chemical substances to surface
waters. The 15 majors are estimated to discharge more than 95% of the prior-
ity pollutants from industrial point sources. These sources discharge a
total average flow of about 460 mgd. Based on recent SPDES permit applica-
tions and EPA and DEC monitoring, these sources are estimated to discharge
maximum loads of organic priority pollutants totalling 558 Ib/day. Total
maximum discharges of heavy metals and total phenols are estimated at 682
and 237 Ib/day, respectively.
Improvements in wastewater treatment or controls necessary to achieve
effluent limitations based on the best available technology (BAT) for each
type of industry should reduce total discharges of organic priority pollut-
ants and heavy metals by more than 50% below reported maximum levels. These
reductions will primarily occur at a few sources with the largest loads.
Most priority pollutants at most sources are already discharged at levels
-------
21
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-------
22
Table 2
MAJOR WASTEWATER DISCHARGES OF PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
Facility City
Organic
Flow Priority Pollutants Phenols Heavy Metals
(mgd) (lb/day)a (lb/day)a (lb/day)a
Industrial
Allied Chemical Buffalo
Ashland Petroleum Tonawanda
Bethlehem Steel Lackawanna
Buffalo Color Buffalo
Chevrolet Tonawanda
Donner-Hanna Coke Buffalo
DuPont Niagara Falls
FMC Tonawanda
Hooker Chemical
(Durez) North Tonawanda
Hooker Specialty
Chemical Niagara Falls
National Steel
(Hanna Furnace) Buffalo
01 in Niagara Falls
Republic Steel Buffalo
Spaulding Fiber Tonawanda
Tonawanda Coke Tonawanda
Industrial Subtotal
Buffalo Sewer
Authority Buffalo
City of
North Tonawanda North Tonawanda
City of
Niagara Falls Niagara Falls
Town of Tonawanda Tonawanda
Municipal Subtotal
12.
19.
233
10
23
9.
10.
7.
0.
38.
38.
6.
42.
4.
2.
460
180
9.
64
15
268
2 <1
3 0
65
0
0
8 69
8 69
1 0
7 17
5 100
8 3
8 274
8 2
7 0
6 2
558
Municipal
60d
r|
2 14d
p
252d
2d
328
0.5
2.3
0
OK
55b
25C
2.4
0
119
4
22
4
0
p
1.3C
237
<15d
H
od
b f
510°
od
525
3
242
38
9
id
5
5
4
69
65
8
53
175
5
682
J
520d
H
3d
Ct
42d
ld
566
Hazardous Waste Management
CECOS Niagara Falls
SCA Model City
Hazardous Waste Subtotal
Canadian Industrial and
Municipal Subtotal
SUBTOTAL - Known Point
Sources
Assumed Contribution of Minor
Point Sources
TOTAL
<1
<1
<1
62
791
-------
RlO
-N-
LEGEND
• INDUSTRIAL POINT SOURCE
• MUNICIPAL POINT SOURCE
A HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT FACILITY
SOURCE NUMBER SEE TABLE I,
FOR IDENTIFICATION
LAKE
FIGURE \. LOCATIONS OF MAJOR POINT SOURCES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
-------
24
meeting expected BAT limitations. At such sources, no further reductions
are anticipated.
Many of the major industrial sources also discharge significant loads
of priority pollutants to municipal sewer systems for treatment, primarily
to the City of Niagara Falls and the Buffalo Sewer Authority. These loads
are included in those reported for the major municipal point sources.
Municipal Point Sources
Four municipal wastewater treatment plants that receive major flows of
industrial wastes containing chemical substances were designated major
sources. These four [listed in Table 2] are estimated to collectively con-
tribute more than 90% of the priority pollutants discharged by the 20 munic-
ipal wastewater treatment plants serving the study area.
Based on EPA monitoring in May and June 1981, the four plants dis-
charge about 328 Ib/day of organic priority pollutants, 525 Ib/day of phe-
nols, and 566 Ib/day of heavy metals. These loads are 59, 222, and 83%,
respectively, of the maximum loads reportedly discharged by major indus-
trial sources.
The majority of the organic priority pollutants and almost all of the
phenols are discharged by the City of Niagara Falls plant. Key treatment
units of this plant, the activated carbon beds, have been inoperable since
they failed in 1978. Reconstruction of the carbon beds is scheduled for
completion in 1983. Addition of the beds and other treatment improvements,
coupled with changes in industrial loads on the plant, are expected to re-
duce organic priority pollutant loads discharged to about 100 Ib/day and
phenols to about 80 Ib/day.
The Buffalo Sewer Authority plant discharges nearly half of the re-
ported heavy metals from industrial and municipal sources. The plant is
currently experiencing some operation and maintenance problems, primarily
related to its older primary treatment units and instrument malfunctions in
-------
25
recently constructed secondary treatment units. Improvements and repairs
on these units should achieve higher removal of heavy metals but the total
discharged will remain high because of the large flow discharged.
Canadian Industrial and Municipal Point Sources
A 1981 Environment Ontario survey of industrial and municipal point
sources (including two combined sewer overflows) tributary to the Niagara
River in Ontario detected a total discharge of about 23 Ib/day of organic
priority pollutants and 156 Ib/day of heavy metals. The organic priority
pollutants were less than 3% of the U.S. point source load while the heavy
metals were about 13% of the U.S. load.
Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites
Releases of chemical substances from inadequately contained hazardous
wastes at inactive disposal sites are believed to be a major source of per-
sistent chemical substances that are detected at low levels in the Niagara
River system and that contribute to fish contamination. Investigations by
the Interagency Task Force and DEC identified 155 hazardous waste disposal
sites within 3 miles of the Niagara River. These sites have the highest
potential for contributing chemical substances to the River. Although the
sites themselves are point sources, their contributions of chemical sub-
stances through contaminated surface runoff and groundwater are analagous
to sources traditionally considered to be non-point sources.
Monitoring data on surface and groundwater and hydrogeological assess-
ments have been completed at 37 sites. An additional 22 sites are under
litigation, recommended for litigation, or are under investigation. Detailed
site investigations have been proposed for 73 sites. Preliminary investiga-
tions indicate the remaining 23 sites do not warrant further investigation.
Although monitoring and site data have been obtained on many of the
155 sites, it has not been compiled into a form that allows definition of
the contributions of chemical substances from these sources with the excep-
tion of two commercial sites.
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26
There are two major active commercial hazardous waste disposal sites
in the study area. The large CECOS site in Niagara Falls discharges process
wastes to the City of Niagara sewer system after extensive pretreatment
including activated carbon columns. Peripheral surface drainage from the
site, which is discharged to the Niagara River, reportedly contains negli-
gible priority pollutants [Table 2].
The SCA hazardous waste disposal facility at Model City provides ex-
tensive treatment of process wastewaters before controlled batch discharge
to the Lower Niagara River. The maximum discharge reported was 5 Ib/day of
heavy metals and less than 1 Ib/day of organic priority pollutants and phe-
nols (based on a 1 mgd discharge rate). Only 6 million gal. of wastewater
were discharged in 1981.
A comparison of the 155 hazardous waste disposal sites within 3 miles
of the Niagara River with the list of 33 major industrial sources indicates
that 68 of these sites are located at major industrial sources. Sixty-seven
sites located at minor industrial facilities or other off-site locations
have significant potential for release of chemical substances to the environ-
ment. These hazardous waste sites of concern are listed in Table 3 and
shown in Figure 2. No attempt has been made to rank the relative environ-
mental significance of the sites listed in Table 3 because of inadequate data.
Comparison of Point Source and River Loads
A comparison of the estimated total loads from U.S. and Canadian point
sources with the reported loads in the Niagara River at its mouth in 1980
indicates that point sources account for major portions of the organic
priority pollutants and phenols in the river, but only a small fraction of
the heavy metals. The 1980 Canadian data indicated that mean organic prior-
ity pollutant loads in the river increased from about 1,070 Ib/day at the
inlet to Chippawa Channel to 1,570 Ib/day at the river mouth, an increase of
500 Ib/day. The estimated total point source load was 970 Ib/day, 62% of
the total river load at the mouth and 194% of the downstream increase in
load.
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27
Table 3
HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL SITES OF CONCERN
NOT AT MAJOR INDUSTRIAL PLANTS
Task Force
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
a See
b A =
c I =
M =
Site No.
103
82
A
162
111
113
£
128
83
6
84
167
207
173
67
21
242
68
85
219
72
39
182
86
136
190
38
137
76
138
140
141
77
93
14
87
81
196
94
95
144
79
147
149
B
201
150
151
100
203
63
62
C
204
206
241
91
208
220
89
160
90
88
2*4
245
40
56
Figure 2
Active, I
a
Site Name
R. P. Adams
Adams Generating Plant
Allied Chemical - Hopkins Street
Altift
Aluminum Matchplate
Anoconda Company
Basic Carbon
Bell Aerospace - Textron
Buffalo Avenue, 52-60 Street
Buffalo Pump Division
Cayuga Island
Chemical Leaman Transit Lines
City of Tonawanda
Empire Waste
Frontier Chemical
Frontier Bronze
Charles Gibson Site
Gratwick Park
Griffon Park
Hartwell Street Landfill
Holiday Park
Hooker - Hyde Park Landfill
Huntly Power Station
Hydraulic Canal
IWS Equipment
Lehigh Valley
Love Canal
Lucidol of Pennwalt
Lynch Park
MacNaughton - Brooks
Manzel Division
Mobil Oil Corporation
Modern Disposal
Nash Road Site
Necco Park (DuPont)
New Road
Niagara County Refuse Disposal
Niagara Frontier Port Authority
Niagara River Site
Old Creek Bed (Dibaco Site)
Otis Elevator
Power Authority of New York
Ramco Steel - Hopkins Street
Robbin Steel
Rodeway Inn
Seaway Industrial Park
Shavco Plastics
Shavco Plastics
Silbergeld Junk Yard
Squaw Island
Stauffer Chemical (Art Park)
Stauffer Chemical (North Love Canal)
St. Mary's School (60th Street)
William Strassman
Tifft Farm
Times Beach
Town of Niagara
Veteran's Park
West Seneca Transfer Station
Whirlpool Site
J.H. Williams (TRW)
Witmer Road
64th Street
93rd Street School
97th Street Methodist Church
102nd Street Landfill (Hooker)
102nd Street Landfill (01 in)
for site locations.
= Inactive
At an industrial plant 0 = Offsite industrial
Municipal
site P = Private site
City
Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Buffalo
Buffalo
Tonawanda
Buffalo
Niagara Falls
Porter
Niagara Falls
North Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
Tonawanda
Tonawanda
Pendleton
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
North Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
North Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
Buffalo
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Buffalo
Buffalo
Buffalo
Model City
North Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
Wheat Field
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
Buffalo
Niagara Falls
Buffalo
Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
Tonawanda
Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Buffalo
Niagara Falls
Lewiston
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
Buffalo
Buffalo
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
Buffalo
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
disposal site
Statusb
I
I
I
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
A
I
I
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
I
I
I
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
Typec
P
I
0
P
I
I
I
I
M
I
P
I
M
P
0
I
P
P
M
P
P
0
I
M
I
0
0
I
0
I
I
I
P
M
0
M
M
M
0
0
I
M
I
I
I
P
I
I
I
M
0
0
0
P
P
M
M
M
M
M
I
M
M
0
0
0
0
-------
28
ONTARIO
LAKE
ERIE
FIGURE 2. HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL SITES OF CONCERN
-------
29
The estimated phenol point source load of 829 Ib/day was larger than
the mean phenol load of 680 Ib/day at the mouth of the Niagara River. An
incremental increase in the river could not be computed because all phenol
measurements at the upstream location were below the detection limit.
The estimated total point source load of 1,495 Ib/day of heavy metals
was less than 5% of the reported heavy metals load in the river of more
than 34,000 Ib/day. The river load is suspect, however, because about half
the load was for two metals which were below detection limits in all sam-
ples. Because the river flow is very large and concentrations of chemical
substances are at very low levels near the detection limit of analytical
methods used, estimates of component loads are subject to significant errors
(±50% or more) due to small errors in the absolute value of a sample
concentration.
Based on a mean river flow of 202,000 cfs, the estimated point source
loads would produce a calculated incremental concentration increase of
0.9 ug/Ji organic priority pollutants, 0.7 ug/£ phenols, and 1.3 ug/£ total
heavy metals. These concentrations are below the detection limit for most
of the component substances, especially phenols and heavy metals.
Non-Point Sources of Chemical Substances
Contaminated Groundwater
Large areas of the Niagara Falls industrial complex, other scattered
smaller industrial sites, and several large inactive hazardous waste dis-
posal sites are known to be underlain by groundwater contaminated with or-
ganic priority pollutants and, sometimes, heavy metals. Other industrial
areas and hazardous waste disposal sites are suspected of having contami-
nated groundwater. Investigations have been proposed to more fully define
this problem.
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30
Concentrations of organic priority pollutants in some groundwaters are
several orders of magnitude higher than current wastewater discharges.
Thus, small volumes of infiltration into industrial sewers can significantly
increase the load of organic priority pollutants discharged.
The known discharge of contaminated well water and engineering esti-
mates of contaminated infiltration to industrial sewers in the Niagara Falls
area indicate that contaminated groundwater is the source of more than half
of the organic priority pollutants present in direct industrial wastewater
discharges in the study area.
Dredged Spoil Disposal
Contaminated sediments averaging more than 500,000 ydVyear were dredg-
ed from the heavily polluted Buffalo River, Buffalo Harbor, and Black Rock
Canal navigation channels and dumped in the shallow open waters of Lake
Erie near Bethlehem Steel until 1968. Open water disposal of part of the
spoil continued until 1972. These sediments contained elevated levels of
persistent chemical substances such as PCBs, mercury, and DDT. These con-
taminated dredged spoils are exposed to resuspension by wave action in Lake
Erie during wind storms. Surface and littoral drift currents in this area
could move pollutants along shore to the inlet of the Niagara River.
Dredged spoil is currently disposed of in a large diked disposal area.
Any organic priority pollutants present in the dredged spoil could leach
out through the porous dikes as the spoil dewaters. This potential source
of chemical substances has not been defined.
Current monitoring locations in Lake Erie and the Upper Niagara River
are not designed to monitor any residual pollution from the spoil disposal
areas or from dredging activity. The contribution of chemical substances
from spoil disposal activities (past and present) is not defined.
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31
Contaminated Lake and River Bottom Sediments
Sampling of bottom sediments during the past decade, as well as recent
sampling, have demonstrated that large areas of bottom sediments in Lakes
Erie and Ontario and in the slower current areas of the Niagara River have
elevated levels of persistent chemical substances including PCBs, DDT, mer-
cury, and mi rex. The extent to which these sediments may be resuspended by
wave action or high river flow during major wind storms and provide a major
source of suspended sediments contaminated with chemical substances has not
been defined. The fact that suspended sediment loads in the river increase
during wind storms with no significant surface runoff strongly suggests
this possibility.
Urban Runoff
Urban runoff contributes chemical substances to the river system by
direct discharges through storm drainage systems and through combined sewer
overflows. The urban runoff contains low levels of heavy-metals, pesti-
cides, and other chemicals widely used in urban areas and also present in
air pollution fallout. When storm runoff overloads combined sewers, it
also causes industrial and municipal wastes to be discharged through com-
bined sewer overflows. This problem occurs in Buffalo, Niagara Falls, and
North Tonawanda. The contributions of chemical substances in storm drainage
and combined sewer overflows are not defined.
Summary of Non-point Sources
Except for the well water and sewer infiltration in Niagara Falls,
contributions of chemical substances from non-point sources are not defined.
The large loads of heavy metals and persistent chemical substances on sus-
pended sediments in the river system in comparison to known point sources
strongly suggest non-point sources as major contributors. Additions and
modifications to the current monitoring program are needed to better define
the significance of non-point sources and to identify possible control
measures.
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32
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL PROGRAMS
Environmental programs directed toward the control of chemical sub-
stances are administered by both American and Canadian agencies at the fed-
eral and state (province) level. These programs establish environmental
standards, conduct extensive ambient and point source monitoring, and regu-
late point sources of chemical substances through permit programs and other
means including enforcement actions. Activities of the International Joint
Commission (IJC) and the American-Canadian Niagara River Toxic Substances
Committee serve to coordinate activities between the two countries.
Environmental Standards
New York water quality standards need revision to include criteria for
all chemical substances of concern for which recommended criteria exist.
Such a revision would provide a basis for assessing present water quality
for those substances and provide a basis for establishing wastewater dis-
charge permit limits. Water quality standards which specify water quality
that must be maintained in the Niagara River and Lakes Erie and Ontario to
protect beneficial water uses have been established by the NYDEC. Water
quality objectives for specific chemical substances in international bound-
ary waters have been established by the IJC. Recommended water quality
criteria have been published by EPA for many priority pollutants present in
the Niagara River system. The New York water quality standards are not as
comprehensive or as stringent as the IJC objectives and EPA-recommended
criteria.
Drinking water criteria (state and federal) for additional organic
chemical substances are needed to provide a basis for evaluating present
quality and to provide additional protection of public water supplies.
Present criteria do not contain limits on some chemical substances of con-
cern in the Niagara River system.
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Environmental Monitoring
A comprehensive study of existing ambient data (water, sediments, and
biota) and their relationships to location, meteorologic, and hydrologic
factors is needed to better define these relationships, help define the
relative contributions from the various point and non-point sources of chem-
ical substances, and guide future monitoring efforts. Existing data show
large temporal and spatial variations in observed concentrations of chemical
substances. The comprehensive data evaluation is needed to identify prob-
able causes of these variations so that sources can be isolated by future
monitoring and remedial programs or measures developed.
Regulation of Wastewater Discharges
Issuance of SPDES permits containing comprehensive limits on priority
pollutants consistent with best available technology (BAT) to all signifi-
cant sources of such pollutants is needed to achieve comprehensive control
of wastewater discharges and reduce priority pollutants from these sources.
Present SPDES permits contain only a few limits on priority pollutants be-
cause they were given only limited attention in the early EPA guidelines.
Reissue of expiring permits has been delayed by DEC to allow new EPA guide-
lines containing priority pollutant limits to be promulgated.
The new SPDES permits should be developed and issued as soon as prac-
ticable based on existing data, DEC development work completed to date, and
EPA effluent guidelines program data. Early issuance is needed to allow
permittees time to meet the July 1, 1984 BAT deadline. DEC has completed
detailed evaluations of many major sources of priority pollutants. EPA has
completed major phases of the effluent guidelines development work. Avail-
able data should be adequate in many cases to prepare permits based on best
professional judgment (BPJ) procedures.
Permits should include provisions requiring the development and imple-
mentation of best management practices (BMPs) when there is known or prob-
able contamination of groundwater or surface runoff by priority pollutants
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from leaks and spills, solid or hazardous waste disposal practices, raw
material storage, or other ancillary activities. The use of BMPs has al-
ready been initiated at some problem areas. Clarification of EPA guidance
and regulations for BMPs is needed to facilitate acceptance by permittees.
Development of comprehensive priority pollutants limitations for the
City of Niagara Falls wastewater treatment plant permit is a high priority
need because of the large quantity of chemical substances discharged and
the need for treatment and sewer system improvements. High priority indus-
trial wastewater discharge permits include Ashland Petroleum, Bethlehem
Steel, Donner-Hanna Coke, DuPont (Niagara Falls), Hooker Chemical (Durez
and Niagara Falls), National Steel (Hanna Furnace), 01 in, Republic Steel,
and Spaulding Fibre. These industries should achieve the majority of ex-
pected reductions in discharges of priority pollutants when BAT permit
limits become effective.
Regulation of Hazardous Wastes
Operating permits for the two large active hazardous waste disposal
sites (CECOS and SCA) issued under DEC's Part 360 permit program contain
monitoring and operating requirements more stringent than RCRA Interim
Status Standards (40 CFR Part 265) applicable to the facilities. DEC moni-
toring of these sites should assure adequate environmental protection until
final disposal regulations can be promulgated by EPA and RCRA permits issued
by EPA or DEC. The present DEC permits may contain requirements as strin-
gent as RCRA requirements when promulgated.
All hazardous waste generators and transporters and operators of hazard-
ous waste treatment, storage, or disposal facilities, as defined by RCRA,
must meet RCRA Interim Status Standards (40 CFR Parts 262, 263, and 265).
These standards can be enforced by EPA or DEC and provide the basis for
regulating generators, transporters, and treatment or storage facilities.
Major industrial sources with high hazardous waste management ratings
in Table 1 are candidates for early requests for submission of Part B RCRA
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permit applications and issuance of RCRA permits for treatment and storage
facilities. These facilities are the largest treatment and storage faci-
lities and thus have the greatest potential for release of chemical sub-
stances to the environment. Permit requirements for treatment and storage
facilities (40 CFR Part 264) have been promulgated and the permit process
can now begin.
Litigation pursued by EPA and/or DEC against owners of inactive hazard-
ous waste disposal sites which have caused environmental contamination has
resulted in remedial actions to abate hazards at several key sites. Long
term remedial actions are being negotiated at the major sites.
EPA and New York State have expended millions of dollars on actions to
mitigate the environmental and cultural effects of the Love Canal and other
disposal sites. These sites are also under consideration for additional
cleanup under Superfund financing.
The DEC program for investigation of inactive hazardous waste disposal
sites has resulted in the voluntary conduct of remedial work by site owners
to remove actual or potential environmental hazards. Investigation of re-
maining sites with the higher potential environmental impacts is continuing.
Regulation of Air Emission Sources
Sources of emissions of chemical substances are being reviewed by DEC
on a case-by-case basis to define any abatement needs. Major industrial
sources with high air emission ratings in Table 1 are candidates for early
review in this program. Sources of chlorine, vinyl chloride, and benzo(a)
pyrene are of the most environmental concern.
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III. BACKGROUND
DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA
Demography
The Niagara Frontier is the name commonly given to the western New
York counties of Erie and Niagara abutting the Niagara River. These same
two counties comprise the Buffalo Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area
(SMSA) and also the Niagara Frontier Air Quality Control Region (AQCR).
The Buffalo and Niagara Falls urban areas dominate the western edges of
Erie and Niagara Counties, respectively [Figure 3]. The 1980 population of
the SMSA was about 1,243,000, of which about a million were in Erie County.1*
Buffalo, with a population of about 358,000, is the largest city.2 Buffalo
suburbs account for an additional 460,000 population. Populations of the
City of Tonawanda and Town of Tonawanda total about 108,000.
The City of Niagara Falls is the largest in Niagara County with a popu-
lation of about 71,000. Suburbs add another 48,000. The City of North Tona-
wanda population is about 36,000. The Buffalo-Lackawanna, Tonawanda, North
Tonawanda, and Niagara Falls urban areas account for about 90% of the popula-
tion of the SMSA.
For the purposes of this study, the southeastern two-thirds of Erie
County was excluded because it has a small population, has little industrial
development, and exerts little influence on environmental conditions in the
study area. For similar reasons, the eastern two-thirds of Niagara County,
including Lockport, was excluded. Lockport has significant industrial de-
velopment and hazardous wastes from the study area have been disposed near
there. However, air emissions generally do not affect the study area and
water pollutants are tributary to Lake Ontario rather than the Niagara
River. The Canadian communities of Fort Erie, Wei land, Niagara Falls,
* Superscripts refer to specific sources of information listed in the
References section at the end of this report.
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Figure 3. Study Area
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Queenston, and Niagara-on-the-Lake in the Regional Municipality of Niagara
Falls were included because they are tributary to the Niagara River and
generally upwind of the study area. Study area boundaries are shown in
Figure 3.
Hydrology
Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Niagara River are the dominant water
features. Lake Erie is a relatively shallow basin with a mean depth of
about 90 ft. The bottom slopes gently from shore with the 30 ft depth con-
tour about a mile offshore. In the Buffalo Harbor area, water depths are
greater in the dredged channels near shore.
Lake Erie is subject to sudden storms because of its position with re-
spect to storm tracks. Prevailing storm winds parallel to its long axis,
coupled with the shallow average depths, cause wide fluctuations in water
levels over a short period of time. Fluctuations in water levels of more
than 10 ft at Buffalo due to storms have been observed.3
The Niagara River flows in a northerly direction from the east end of
Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, a distance of about 37 miles [Figure 2]. The
total catchment area of the Great Lakes tributary to the river is about
265,000 sq mi. The drainage area tributary to the river itself is about
1,700 sq mi with nearly three-fourths in the United States.
The Upper Niagara River (above Niagara Falls) is divided into two
channels by Grand Island: the Tonawanda (East) and Chippawa (West) Channels.
About 60% of the river flow follows the Chippawa Channel, The gradient of
the Upper River is relatively flat except in the inlet area leaving Lake Erie.
At Niagara Falls, the river drops about 50 ft in the rapids above the
Falls and then plunges another 160 ft into the lower gorge. An additional
100 ft of elevation are lost in rapids upstream and downstream of the Whirl-
pool. The river flows in the gorge for about 7 miles, emerging from the
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Niagara Escarpment to flow on a low gradient to Lake Ontario. Total ele-
vation difference between Lakes Erie and Ontario is about 326 feet.
Hydroelectric power development has altered flow patterns and rates
at the Falls and in the gorge by diverting flow through powerplants and
storage reservoirs.
Outflow from the Niagara River disperses outward from the mouth of the
river into Lake Ontario and then generally flows eastward along the south
edge of the Lake. Lake Ontario is a very deep lake with depths in excess
of 500 feet. A delta has been created off the mouth of the river by de-
posited sediments.
Average flow of the Niagara River is about 202,000 cfs. Lake Erie
acts as a reservoir to dampen flow fluctuations due to runoff in the water-
shed of the Great Lakes. However, lake level fluctuations due to storms
cause rapid changes in river flow rates. Flow rates ranging from 90,000 to
375,000 cfs have been observed.4 Additional information on hydrologic char-
acteristics of the river system are discussed in Section IV. The principal
tributaries of the river are the Buffalo River, Ellicott Creek, and Tona-
wanda Creek in the U.S. and the Welland River in Ontario [Figure 2].
The Buffalo River flows through the Buffalo Outer Harbor and into the
inlet of the Niagara River. Principal tributaries of the Buffalo River in-
clude Buffalo, Cazenovia, and Cayuga Creeks. Average stream flow is about
400 cfs but very low flows occur in summer. Flows in the lower reaches are
augmented by discharges of industrial wastewaters, primarily cooling water.
For many years, industrial plants along the Buffalo River obtained their
water supply from the river and returned wastewaters to it. The river was
a trap for pollutants during low flow conditions and was highly polluted.
Now, process wastewaters are primarily discharged to the Buffalo Sewer
Authority and cooling water is obtained from the Buffalo Outer Harbor by
the Buffalo River Improvement Corporation.
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Tonawanda and Ellicott Creeks join about one-half mile above their
confluence with the Niagara River at Tonawanda. Their combined drainage
area is about 650 sq mi. The lower few miles of the Tonawanda Creek channel
are part of the Erie Canal (New York State Barge Canal) that connects Lake
Erie with eastern New York waterways. Depending on flow rates in Tonawanda
Creek and Erie Canal operations, "vhj f"!c - frcm Tonawanda Creek may ba either
into the Niagara River or into the Canal toward Lockport.
Other minor tributaries in the U.S. of interest because of pollution
sources or problems include Smokes Creek in Lackawanna, Scajaquada Creek in
Buffalo, Two Mile Creek in Tonawanda, and Cayuga, Bergholtz, Black, Gill,
and Bloody Run Creeks in Niagara Falls. These are all basically intermit-
tent streams, especially in their upper reaches.
In Ontario, the main tributary is the Welland River with a drainage
area of about 370 sq mi. Historically, the Welland River discharged to the
Niagara River above Niagara Falls. Flow in the lower 4 mi has been reversed
by a power development and the Well and River now discharges through a power
canal and plant to the Lower River gorge.
Portions of the Niagara River and tributaries are maintained as navi-
gation channels. The lower 3 mi of the Buffalo River is navigable. Buffalo
Harbor and the Lackawanna and Union Canals are navigation channels and har-
bor works in the Buffalo waterfront area of Lake Erie. Black Rock Canal
and the locks at Squaw Island bypass the rapids in the inlet of the Upper
Niagara River. A navigation channel is maintained in the Upper River and
Tonawanda Channel to Tonawanda where it connects with the Erie Canal. Main-
tenance dredging is performed annually in most of these channels. A navi-
gation channel was formerly maintained in the Tonawanda Channel from Tona-
wanda to Niagara Falls but dredging was stopped about 20 years ago. Great
Lakes navigation bypasses Niagara Falls and the entire Niagara River system
through the Well and Canal in Ontario at the west edge of the study area.
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Topography
The topography of the study area \$ relatively flat, consisting of the
Lake Erie and Lake Ontario plains separated by the east-west trending Nia-
gara Escarpment near Lewiston. The Escarpment is about 200 ft high. In
New York, drainage south of the Escarpment is either to the south or west
to the Niagara River. To the north of the Escarpment, drainage is to the
north into Lake Ontario.
Geology
The study area is underlain by relatively flat sedimentary rock forma-
tions that dip to the south-southeast at a rate of about 30 ft per mile.
Bedrock in the southern portion of the study area around Lackawanna is
Marcel!us Shale.5 Most of the Buffalo area is on Onondaga Limestone bed-
rock. Grand Island and the Tonawandas are on Camillus Shale. Bedrock in
the Niagara Falls area south of the Niagara Escarpment is the Lockport
Dolomite.6 North of the Niagara Escarpment, the bedrock is Queenston Shale.
None of the bedrock formations are good aquifers.7 Most water movement
occurs in unconsolidated materials overlying bedrock. Some water movement
occurs in vertical and horizontal bedding joints in the Lockport Dolomite
and Onondaga Limestone.
The Lackawanna area has lacustrine deposits of clay, silt, and sand
overlying bedrock at depths of 20 to 80 feet.8 Most of Buffalo is on about
20 to 80 ft of glacial till over bedrock. This formation also extends under
the Town of Tonawanda.
Lacustrine deposits cover the Camillus Shale to depths of 20 to 80 ft
in the cities of Tonawanda and North Tonawanda. In the Niagara Falls area,
unconsolidated deposits are relatively thin, only 5 to 20 ft thick over the
Lockport Dolomite south of the Niagara Escarpment. To the north of the
Escarpment, the deposits are about 80 ft thick over the Queenston Shale
bedrock.
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The permeability of the unconsolidated deposits is relatively low but
varies widely by location as does permeability of specific bedrock zones.
In the Buffalo and Tonawanda areas, groundwater movement is toward the
Buffalo River, Tonawanda Creek, and the Niagara River. In Niagara Falls,
groundwater flow patterns have been disrupted by construction of power pro-
jects and by industrial pumping.
Industrial Development
Industrial development in Buffalo and Niagara Falls began around the
turn of the century. Cheap hydroelectric power and an abundant water sup-
ply attracted industries such as electrochemical, electrometallurgical, and
iron and steel that capitalized on these resources. Major portions of many
of the present industrial plants were built prior to the 1930s. The age of
these plants is a major factor in the characteristics of the pollution prob-
lems presently observed in the Niagara Frontier.
Growth of the organic chemical industry nationally has been paralleled
by growth in the same industry in the study area. This growth has occurred
over the last 40 years. The presence of major chlorine production facili-
ties in Niagara Falls resulted in the development of industrial facilities
for a wide range of chlorinated chemicals. Organic and inorganic chemi-
cals, plastics, iron and steel, automobile parts, carbon products, electro-
metallurgy, synthetic dyes, petroleum refining, abrasives, and grain milling
are all important area industries.
Industrial facilities are primarily concentrated along the lower Buf-
falo River, the Buffalo Harbor, and Lackawanna waterfront areas in Buffalo,
the Upper Niagara River waterfront in the town of Tonawanda, the Tonawanda
Channel in the cities of Tonawanda and North Tonawanda and along the Nia-
gara River in Niagara Falls. Canadian industries in the study area are in
Welland and Niagara Falls.
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PREVIOUS STUDIES
There have been many studies of environmental pollution in the Niagara
Frontier. The wide variety of types of studies and investigators is shown
by the variety of publications listed in the References and Bibliography.
Until about 1975, most of the studies evaluated environmental pollution
with respect to traditional pollutant parameters. Since 1975, chemical
substances have received much more attention. Because this current inves-
tigation focussed on the group of chemical substances commonly called toxic
substances, the later studies were the most applicable. Earlier reports,
however, provided valuable background data on the broader environmental
setting of the Niagara Frontier. Selected studies which provided part of
the input for this report are discussed below. The reader is referred to
the Bibliography at the end of this report for additional references of
interest. In addition, specific references are used throughout this report
to identify the source of particular facts or data. These are listed in
References at the end of this report.
An early study by the U.S. Public Health Service for the IJC conducted
in 1948-1949 was particularly useful in defining the effects of hydrologic
factors on pollution dispersion patterns in Lake Erie and the Niagara River
system.9 The study was primarily limited to conventional pollutants but
included data on total phenols taken at many locations over a 16-month per-
iod. It also identified dredged spoil disposal practices in effect during
the 1940s that may be currently adding priority pollutants to the river
system.
An extensive amount of water-resource and water-quality planning was
conducted in the early and mid-1970s. Planning reports were numerous with
the various documents providing background information on surface and
groundwater resources, hydrology, geology, and sources of pollution. The
two water quality management plans and the comprehensive water resources
plan covering the study area were particularly useful.10 1X 12
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A report on a 1970-75 study of New York drinking water supply quality
was published in 1980 by the U.S. Geological Survey.13 This provided com-
parative data for various priority pollutants for water supplies in the
study area and at other New York locations.
A very useful compilation of sources of data on the Niagara River was
prepared by EPA in 1980.14 This was used to identify various other refer-
ences to be obtained and reviewed.
In 1979, the Interagency Task Force on Hazardous Wastes, composed of
representatives from New York State agencies and EPA, completed a study of
hazardous waste disposal sites in Erie and Niagara Counties. This draft
report15 has been widely used as the basis for other studies of hazardous
waste disposal.
There have been several followup reports to the Interagency Task Force
draft report that provide data on hazardous waste generation and disposal.
An inventory of hazardous waste generation was released shortly after the
"draft report.16 An update on the inventory of hazardous waste disposal
sites was published in June 1980.17
The New York DEC has given specific attention to toxic substances in
the environment in several reports. An interim report on toxic substances
in New York was released in 1979.18 A report specific to Erie County was
completed in I960.19 Reports summarizing levels of toxic substances in
fish and wildlife and associated trends were completed in 1980 and 1981.20
21
Interim reports summarizing a variety of toxic substances information
on six study area segments were prepared in 1981 by the Great Lakes Labora-
tory of the State University College at Buffalo under an EPA contract as
part of a Niagara River toxics study.22 23 24 2S 26 27 Unpublished drafts
were obtained for use in this study.
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In 1981 the New York Public Interest Research Group (NYPIRG) completed
a 3-year study in 1981 of available data on toxic chemicals in the Niagara
River and their effects.28 The report included an extensive and comprehen-
sive compilation of information extracted from regulatory agency files. It
also included the results of limited environmental sampling conducted by
NYPIRG.
A preliminary report by DEC on toxic substances control in the Niagara
River was completed by DEC in June 1981.29 It summarized DEC regulatory
activity with respect to wastewater discharges and hazardous waste disposal.
It also discussed activities of the American-Canadian Niagara River Toxics
Committee. A detailed work plan, completed in September 1981, provided
additional details on committee environmental studies.30
A report on an EPA-NEIC evaluation of the Niagara Falls wastewater
treatment plant was completed in November 1981.31 This study evaluated
various aspects of the Niagara Falls industrial waste disposal system.
STUDY METHODS
Because the environmental problems of the Niagara Frontier have re-
ceived much publicity in recent years, numerous studies of various aspects
of the area environment have been conducted by a wide variety of research-
ers, government scientists, and industrial consultants. Numerous reports,
technical papers, newspaper articles, memoranda, letters, and other docu-
ments have been generated containing data on the presence of toxic sub-
stances in the environment, their sources and effects, regulatory require-
ments, and a wealth of other information of use to this study. The Niagara
Frontier would appear to be one of the most extensively studied geographi-
cal areas in the country with respect to toxic substances.
An extensive literature and file search was conducted to compile this
available information. A key element in the literature search was a com-
puter search of selected commercial literature data bases. Major data bases
searched (with the number of references identified shown in parentheses)
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included: APTIC (51), Pollution Abstracts (26), ENVIROLINE (53), GEOREF
(69), NTIS (172), DOE Recon (124), GEOARCHIVE (2), and SSIE Current
Research (2).
The literature search yielded more than 400 references, most with
abstracts. Geographical, as well as subject, search terms were used to
yield the broadest possible literature coverage. Thus, a number of refer-
ences meeting the geographical criteria were retrieved which were not appro-
priate subject matter. However, this was minimized by searching data bases
containing only appropriate subject matter.
A review of the abstracts indicated about half of the references ap-
peared to be applicable to the study. These documents were then obtained
from numerous libraries around the country. About one-third of the docu-
ments were already in the NEIC library microfiche holdings. The documents
were reviewed as received and categorized. Secondary references cited by
the documents were also obtained when appropriate.
Most published documents and several other document types compiled for
this study are listed in either the Bibliography or References section at
the end of this report. All documents which were reviewed for content and
application but were not cited in this report are listed in the Bibliography.
A separate References section lists all items cited.
The second major element of the data collection activity was a detailed
file search. The file search encompassed air, water, and hazardous waste
regulatory program files maintained by the New York Department of Environ-
mental Conservation and by the Environmental Protection Agency. Files re-
viewed by the study team were maintained at DEC offices in Albany and
Buffalo, New York, and at EPA offices in New York City and Edison, New
Jersey. Additional file materials were obtained from EPA offices in Wash-
ington, D.C., Chicago, Illinois, and Warrenton, Virginia.
The file search concentrated on compiling data on ambient air, water,
sediment, biota, and fish to aid in defining environmental conditions and
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on compiling data on air emissions, wastewater discharges, and hazardous
waste management at major sources of chemical substances.
Available data on chemical substances in ambient air and water, sedi-
ments, and aquatic life collected primarily during the past 6 years were
evaluated and summarized to define existing environmental conditions and
identifiable trends. A major portion of the recent data on chemical sub-
stances in the aquatic environment was collected by the Ontario Ministry of
the Environment and Environment Canada. Additional data were collected by
DEC, several EPA offices, and a variety of researchers. Much of this data
was generated by coordinated studies guided by a work plan developed by the
joint American-Canadian Niagara River Toxics Substances Committee. Data on
groundwater contamination was obtained from DEC files. The limited avail-
able data on chemical substances in ambient air was obtained from DEC files
and the literature search.
An inventory of more than 10,000 manufacturing, wholesale, and retail
trade, commercial, and service facilities in Erie and Niagara Counties was
prepared from EPA and New York computer files. This inventory was used to
define the boundaries of the detailed study area. A second inventory of
about 1,000 facilities in the detailed study area was prepared with computer
assistance to identify those facilities (primarily industrial manufacturing
plants) with the potential to be significant sources of chemical substances.
This inventory was compared with EPA and DEC lists of wastewater dischargers,
air pollution sources, hazardous waste disposal sites (active and inactive),
hazardous waste management permit applications and the DEC Industrial Chem-
ical Survey (ICS) to eliminate facilities with no significant chemical sub-
stance activity. The resulting list of facilities with known or probable
chemical substance activity was used as a guide in the file search to iden-
tify facilities for which information was collected on wastewater discharges,
air emissions, hazardous waste management, and chemical substance use or
production.
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Where available, the most recent SPDES permit application containing
priority pollutant data (EPA Form 2C) was obtained and used to define
current wastewater discharges of chemical substances. Unfortunately, only
a single sample was often reported in the permit application. Other
sources of data on priority pollutants in wastewater discharges included
self-monitoring data where the existing permit contained limits on these
substances, results of special engineering studies conducted by permittees
as a basis for evaluating sources and control methods for significant dis-
charges of priority pollutants and compliance monitoring investigation re-
ports where priority pollutant analyses had been run. EPA had evaluated 11
major sources in May 1981.
Initially, an attempt to prepare a mass balance for each priority pol-
lutant frequently reported in discharges was considered. This was discard-
ed because of the large data manipulations that would have been involved
and the lack of priority pollutant data at all sources of interest. In-
stead, a simplified mass balance was prepared for major sources with totals
of groups of priority pollutants. These groups included organic priority
pollutants (volatile, base-neutral, and acid extractable priority pollut-
ants), phenols, and heavy metals. Cyanides were not included in the mass
balances because only a few sources discharge significant amounts. Pest-
icides were also omitted because there were no significant discharges of
pesticides.
Rating criteria were developed and used to define the relative magni-
tude of chemical substance releases to the environment through wastewater
discharges and air emissions, the volumes of chemical substances used, pro-
duced, and stored as indicated by the ICS, and the hazardous waste manage-
ment activities. The rating results were used to develop a list of major
point sources (industrial, municipal, and hazardous waste sites) of chem-
ical substances.
Available information on non-point sources of chemical substances from
EPA and DEC files and from published research results was summarized.
Relative ratings of the contributions of the important non-point sources
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(contaminated groundwater, dredged spoil disposal, contaminated bottom sedi-
ments, and urban runoff) were not possible because of a lack of data defin-
ing the contributions from each source.
Information on past, present, and proposed future environmental pro-
grams applicable to the regulation and control of chemical substances in
the Niagara Frontier was compiled from government documents and interviews
with EPA and DEC personnel.
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IV. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
Chemical substances are present in large quantities in the Niagara
Frontier. The bulk of this volume is raw material or products of the vari-
ous manufacturing plants, especially chemical manufacturers. Chemical sub-
stances are also used by many non-chemical manufacturers, by commercial
establishments and by residents in and around their homes in many common
products including pesticides, cleaning agents, and paints. This situation
is not unique to the Niagara Frontier but is shared with other areas of the
country which have concentrations of chemical manufacturing plants.
Releases of chemical substances to the environment from the various
industrial, commercial, and residential activities are inevitable and un-
avoidable. Both the quantity of such releases and the pathways they follow
are important in determining environmental impacts and resulting effects on
man.
Within the Niagara Frontier, chemical substances are present to some
degree in ambient air; the inside air of homes and industrial plants; sur-
face waters including the Niagara River and its tributaries and Lakes Erie
and Ontario; the suspended and bottom sediments of these surface waters;
contaminated groundwater aquifers; public drinking water supplies; and fish
and other aquatic life. All of these media are important because they re-
present pathways by which chemical substances are transported through the
environment and by which they may ultimately impact on man.
In the past, controls on releases of chemical substances to the en-
vironment were inadequate and serious environmental impacts occurred. Large
volumes of chemical substances were discharged to surface waters in indus-
trial and municipal wastewaters and in contaminated stormwater runoff.
Improper disposal of large volumes of hazardous wastes also contaminated
surface and groundwaters and surface soils near disposal sites. This re-
sulted in serious contamination of Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Niagara
River with adverse impacts on public drinking water supplies and on aquatic
life.
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Migration of chemical substances from inadequate hazardous waste disposal
sites caused serious contamination of several residential areas and created
potential health hazards. Inadequate controls on emissions of air contami-
nants also produced air pollution problems.
Over the past 15 years, implementation of various pollution abatement
measures to control traditional air and water pollutants (such as suspended
particulates in air and oxygen demanding substances in water) have resulted
in major improvements in air and water quality. Concurrent with this im-
proved control of traditional pollutants has been a reduction in releases
of chemical substances to the environment.
Recent improvements in man's understanding of the adverse health and
environmental effects of low levels of chemical substances have led to leg-
islation, regulations, and activities directed toward minimizing the presence
of hazardous chemicals in the environment. This regulatory thrust, coupled
with improved control technology and disposal practices, has also resulted
in major reductions in releases of chemical substances to the Niagara
Frontier environment. However, because of past disposal practices and the
persistence of many chemical substances, several environmental problems
remain.
The environmental problem of most concern to the public and to the en-
vironmental agencies is the migration of hazardous wastes from inactive
disposal sites with subsequent environmental contamination and potential
health hazards for area residents. Love Canal is the best known problem of
this type, but other less populated areas of contamination have been identi-
fied. Remedial measures have been taken at a number of sites to abate any
imminent health hazards. However, long-term solutions to most problem
sites remain to be completed.
Contamination of edible sport fish with PCBs, mirex, dioxin, mercury,
and DDT (all persistent toxic substances) is a well-documented environmental
problem. Although this contamination has been reduced over the past years
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by controls on sources of these substances, the contamination is still seri-
ous enough that both New York and Ontario continue to ban or restrict the
consumption of several species of fish from Niagara River or Lake Ontario
waters.
Of perhaps greater concern to the public is the low-level contamina-
tion of public water supplies with a variety of chemical substances. The
extent of the contamination is fairly well defined. Its significance, how-
ever, is controversial.
Water quality objectives have been established to protect water uses
of the Canadian-United States boundary waters in the Great Lakes by the
International Joint Commission (IJC). Although water quality generally
meets these objectives, concentrations of several chemical substances occa-
sionally do not meet the objectives.
Government activity during World War II, as part of the Manhattan Pro-
ject to develop an atomic bomb, resulted in the low-level radioactive con-
tamination of several sites in the study area. Full decontamination of
these sites has not been completed.
Because of the widespread public attention focused on the Niagara Fron-
tier area over the past 5 years, numerous environmental studies have been
conducted. This has resulted in an extraordinary availability of data on
the presence of chemical substances in the environment of a particular geo-
graphic area. This fact, coupled with the emotional public response to
problems such as the Love Canal incident, tend to produce a general impres-
sion that the entire Niagara Frontier is grossly contaminated with toxic
substances, the environment is seriously degraded, and these conditions are
steadily worsening. In fact, available data indicate that environmental
quality has substantially improved over the last 10 years and that this
improvement is continuing.
Much of the emotional response to public announcements concerning the
presence of potentially toxic chemical substances in any media is due to a
lack of understanding concerning the significance of the levels detected.
Recent improvements in analytical techniques now make it possible to detect
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54
some chemical substances at very low levels. Because a substance can be
detected does not necessarily mean it is a hazard. In the following dis-
cussion an attempt is made to put available data in their proper perspec-
tive. Where criteria or standards exist defining acceptable levels of chem-
ical substances in any media, present conditions are compared to these cri-
teria. Trends in environmental quality are also discussed.
INACTIVE HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL SITES
Hazardous wastes containing highly toxic substances from Hooker Chem-
ical Company and other generators were disposed of for years in an abandoned
power canal segment known as the Love Canal in eastern Niagara Falls. After
cessation of disposal activity in 1952, the site was covered with earth and
deeded to the Niagara Falls School Board. A school was subsequently built
near the center of the site and adjacent lands were developed as a residen-
tial area.
In 1978, it was discovered that chemical substances from the Canal had
migrated outward from the site into the residential area and had contami-
nated yards and basements. The same chemical substances were also found to
have migrated offsite in storm drains and surface runoff.
Understandably, the discovery of the contamination in the residential
area caused much public concern. Allegations of various serious health
problems were made. New York State declared an emergency and evacuated
about 240 families. The State then took control of the vacated homes ad-
jacent to the disposal area.
Today, the environmental and public problems concerned with Love Canal
continue. The site is the subject of active litigation between EPA, DEC
and others, and the Hooker Chemical Company. Remedial measures including a
new clay cap on the disposal site and a leachate collection and treatment
system have been completed. However, the problems associated with the va-
cated residences and public concern over the safety of other nearby resid-
ences continue. Both New York State and EPA have spent millions of dollars
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55
on the Love Canal emergency and followup activities. Ultimate solutions to
Love Canal environmental conditions probably will be determined by the re-
solution of the active litigation.
The Love Canal incident spawned various investigations into hazardous
waste disposal practices in the Niagara Frontier. Investigations by the
Interagency Task Force in 1978-79 identified 215 sites in the Niagara Fron-
tier where hazardous wastes may have been disposed of. Followup investiga-
tions at these sites have resulted in the initiation of litigation on sever-
al sites and the implementation of remedial measures at sites with the most
serious environmental problems. Investigations of additional sites contin-
ue. The status of many of these sites are discussed in the following sec-
tions of this report.
As a result of this activity, environmental problems associated with
inactive hazardous waste disposal sites have been reduced but not elimi-
nated. Substantial investigation and implementation of remedial measures
remains to be completed before these sites are fully controlled.
FISH CONTAMINATION
Contamination of edible fish in Niagara Frontier waters, although re-
duced in the last 5 years, remains of major concern. Levels of PCBs, mirex,
and dioxin in adult sport and edible fish are such that both New York and
Ontario have issued health advisories and/or consumption guidelines that
have the effect of restricting or prohibiting the consumption of certain
species or sizes of fish.32 33 Contamination of fish with DDT and mercury,
formerly a major problem, has been reduced to the point that it is no longer
a problem by itself.
Extensive monitoring of fish to assess levels of contamination is con-
ducted by both Canadian and U.S. agencies. Monitoring of both sport and
forage fish conducted by Environment Canada and the Ontario Ministry of the
Environment is reported in the 1980 and 1981 Baseline Reports.34 3S The
New York DEC monitoring results are published in various technical
reports.36 37 38 39 Unpublished preliminary DEC data were also obtained for
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56
this study.40 41 42 Other U.S. agencies have also done some periodic anal-
ysis of fish from the area including EPA and the Fish and Wildlife Service.43
Contamination of fish in the Niagara River and Lake Ontario is the
result of bioaccumulation of persistent chemical substances. These sub-
stances are picked up through the food chain and accumulated in body tissue,
especially fats. The large predator sport fish are at the top of the aqua-
tic food chain and tend to have the most body fat. Consequently, they have
the highest level of contamination. They also are older fish and reflect
accumulation of chemical substances over a period of several years. In
contrast, small forage fish are young and have little fat. Accumulation of
chemical substances in forage fish thus reflects recent exposure to these
substances. Both types of fish are monitored to detect short- and long-term
trends.
Ambient levels of chemical substances are generally below concentra-
tions considered acutely or chronically toxic to fish. Therefore, direct
toxicity is no longer of major concern. Fish kills sometimes occurred in
the past as the result of toxic levels following spills of chemicals.
Low levels of chemical substances in ambient water, suspended sediments,
and bottom sediments contribute to the bioaccumulation of chemical sub-
stances in the aquatic food chain. Therefore, it is desirable to reduce
the release of persistent chemical substances to the aquatic environment to
the minimum consistent with available control technology.
High concentrations (up to 100 ppm in edible flesh of Lake Trout) of
the persistent chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide DDT, the result of wide-
spread agricultural use,44 were discovered in fish throughout New York state
in the 1960s. Adverse environmental effects led to restricted use of DDT
in 1965 and a complete ban on its use in New York in 1971. Ontario also
restricted DDT use to limited non-agricultural purposes in 1969.45
Since 1969, DDT levels in Lake Ontario sport fish have declined by
80-95%.46 Canadian monitoring of forage fish in the Lower Niagara River
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57
showed an 89% decline in DDT contamination between 1975 and 1979 and then a
slight increase in 1980 [Table 4].47 Detected concentrations were well
below the IJC objective for protection of fish-consuming aquatic birds.
The 1980 increase was small but of concern because it reflected an increase
in parent DDT detected in both the forage fish and suspended sediments in
the Lower Niagara River.45 The source of this unexpected increase in fresh
DDT is unknown because of the restrictions on DDT use.
Analysis of forage fish from eight locations in Lake Erie and the
Niagara River showed substantial spatial variations in DDT levels [Figure 4
and Table 5].48 Highest levels were detected in the lower River and in the
Tonawanda Channel at the mouth of Little Niagara River near Cayuga Creek.
Contamination of fish with mercury was discovered about 1970. Mercury
discharges from industrial sources in the Niagara Falls area were reduced
by about 99% in the early 1970s. Mercury concentrations in fish have de-
clined about 30% since 197049 and are below the Food and Drug Administra-
tion (FDA) allowable limit of 1.0 ppm for edible flesh.
Essentially all fish samples collected from Niagara Frontier waters
show contamination with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Elevated levels
of PCBs in fish in Lake Ontario and the Niagara River are a major factor in
restrictions or prohibitions on their consumption.
PCB levels in most fish sampled peaked about 1977 following a ban on
manufacture in the U.S. and earlier use restrictions but remain elevated.
PCBs may now only be used in closed systems with no discharge such as elec-
trical transformers. However, earlier losses of PCB to the environment
from a variety of sources resulted in widespread contamination of bottom
sediments in area waterways. PCB concentrations in excess of 100 ppb exist
in large areas of Lakes Erie and Ontario bottom sediments.50 PCBs are also
present in suspended and bottom sediments in the Niagara River. Leachate
from landfills containing PCBs may also be a continuing source.
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58
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PCB levels in edible portions of sport fish in Lake Ontario declined
about 46% in DEC samples between 1976 and 1978.51 Between 1975 and 1979,
Canadian monitoring detected a decline of 78% in PCB levels in forage fish
at the mouth of the Niagara River [Table 4]. However, a substantial in-
crease was observed in the forage fish in 1980. The significance of this
increase is not clear. All of the samples of forage fish taken from 1975
to 1980 contained PCB concentrations from 1.3 to 9 times the IJC objective
for protection of birds and animals consuming fish.
As shown in Table 5, major spatial variations were observed in PCB
concentrations in forage fish. The highest levels were detected in the
Tonawanda Channel in the Love Canal vicinity.
Essentially all mature game fish from Lake Ontario are contaminated
with the persistent pesticide mirex. This is the major health concern as-
sociated with consumption of these fish. This contamination is associated
with losses of mirex from its producer, Hooker Chemical Company in Niagara
Falls, and from a smaller user of a fire retardant chemically the same as
mirex in Oswego, near the east end of Lake Ontario.
Manufacture of mirex stopped in 1967 and grinding of the product stop-
ped in 1977, eliminating the point sources. However, contaminated sedi-
ments and possibly landfill leachate continue to contribute some mirex to
the Niagara River and Lake Ontario.
Contamination of fish with mirex appears to have peaked in 1977.
There have been small declines (16%) in the levels of mirex in adult game
fish except Lake Trout.52 However, mirex in most gamefish continues to
average above the FDA action level of 0.1 ppm. At the mouth of the Niagara
River, contamination of forage fish showed a decline till 1979 and then
increased in 1980 [Table 4]. Concentrations in 1980 were about double the
IJC objective.
Spatial differences in mirex concentrations in forage fish were also
detected [Table 5]. Highest concentrations were at one Tonawanda Channel
station and in the Lower River.
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Contamination of sportfish from western Lake Ontario by 2, 3, 7, 8-
tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD or commonly dioxin), a highly toxic trace
byproduct of 2,4,5-trichlorophenol production, was detected in 23 of 61
fillet samples collected by Canadian agencies in 1980.53 This contamination
was below Health and Welfare Canada's limit for public consumption of 20
parts per trillion (ppt) in most samples but was above the DEC recommended
maximum limit of 10 ppt in some samples. No dioxin was detected in Canadian
samples from Lake Erie or the Niagara River.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reported substantially higher dioxin
levels in two whole fish samples from the Niagara River.53 For carp taken
from the junction of Cayuga Creek and Little Niagara River, the dioxin level
was 417 ppt. For fish taken near the mouth of the Niagara River, the dioxin
level was 53 ppt.
There are no known point sources of dioxin in the Niagara Frontier.
Trichlorophenol wastes are reportedly landfilled at several locations along
the Niagara River.53
f
Trends in dioxin contamination of fish are not established. However,
comparison of analysis of archived samples of herring gull eggs with recent
analyses indicates that dioxin contamination of the eggs decreased about
tenfold over the last 10 years.
Analysis of forage fish for other organochlorine pesticides in 1980
[Table 5] indicates that concentrations are higher at most upper and lower
Niagara River locations sampled than at the background station in Lake Erie.
No specific IJC objectives have been established for the other pesticides
in Table 5 except lindane, an isomer of BHC. All isomers of BHC totalled
well under the IJC objective of 300 ppb. BHC is detected routinely at
Niagara River water sampling stations.
One study has shown an apparent link between exposure of fish to con-
taminants in the aquatic environment (polyaromatic hydrocarbons or PAH) and
fish tumor pathology.54 Samples of bottom sediments from one segment of
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63
the industrialized portion of the Buffalo River were found to be contami-
nated with mutagenic substances as determined by the Ames test. Analysis
of the sediments detected a variety of PAH compounds. Fish taken from the
same area were contaminated with similar compounds. Bottom-feeding fish
were found to have a high incidence of fish tumors.
WATER QUALITY
Surface waters are the principal pathway for transport of chemical
substances in the Niagara Frontier environment. Chemical substances from
point and non-point sources in the Buffalo, Tonawanda, North Tonawanda, and
Niagara Falls areas are dispersed by surface waters throughout the far east-
ern end of Lake Erie, the Niagara River system, and much of Lake Ontario.
These substances are transported both in dissolved form in the water and as
part of the suspended sediments. The extent of this pollutant transport is
effectively demonstrated by the contamination of fish with persistent toxic
substances discussed in the previous section.
Waters of the Niagara River and the two lakes arc used for a variety
of beneficial purposes, most of which are water quality dependent. These
uses include public water supply, water-based recreation (contact and non-
contact), industrial process and cooling water supplies, propagation and
growth of aquatic life, and navigation and transport of industrial and
municipal wastewaters. The outstanding scenic values of Niagara Falls and
the lower River gorge are also, to an extent, dependent upon water quality.
Water quality of public water supplies is of particular concern. This
is the major means by which chemical substances in the water environment
can be transported to humans. Acceptable levels of a variety of chemical
substances in public water supplies have been established based on scienti-
fic studies and health risks.
All public water supplies in the study area obtained from the Niagara
River and Lake Erie are believed to meet applicable drinking water criteria.
Canadian monitoring during 1979 and 1980 indicated that all Canadian water
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supplies met existing and proposed Canadian and Ontario objectives for
drinking water.55 The Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, supply obtained from
the Lower Niagara River is downstream of all sources of chemical substances
in the study area. Because of variations in hydrologic conditions discussed
below, supplies obtained from the Tonawanda Channel may have higher concen-
trations of specific pollutants at times. Public water supply quality is
discussed in more detail below.
Water quality is also of concern with respect to its effects on aquatic
life. As previously discussed in the section on fish contamination, chem-
ical substances have been bioaccumulated by the aquatic food chain resulting
in unacceptably high levels of persistent toxic substances in sport fish.
Although water quality generally meets objectives for protection of aquatic
life, these chronic contamination problems continue, in most cases in de-
clining levels. Water quality is also adequate in most cases to prevent
any acute toxicity problems or chronic effects on propagation or growth of
aquatic life.
Water quality is adequate for other beneficial uses of surface waters.
The most critical requirements are for public drinking water supplies and
protection of aquatic life.
Applicable Water Quality Objectives
Section 303 of the Clean Water Act requires the states to establish
water quality standards applicable to the surface waters of their state.
These standards consist of classifications of each stream segment or water
body based on water uses to be protected and water quality criteria applic-
able to each classification. New York has established water quality cri-
teria which are published in their environmental conservation regulations,
Parts 701 and 702. The Niagara River has been assigned a classification of
Class A - Special Waters applicable to international boundary waters. The
small tributaries of the River have a variety of classifications assigned.
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The Class A - Special Waters criteria are keyed to the Great Lakes Water
Quality Agreement of 1972, an agreement between the United States and Canada
setting forth general and specific objectives for water quality in boundary
waters.56 Because this agreement was primarily directed toward minimizing
contributions of nutrients into the Great Lakes and gave limited attention
to toxic substances, the New York water quality criteria for Class A - Special
Waters also have limited application to toxic substances.
A narrative criterion applies to "Taste and odor-producing substances,
toxic wastes and deleterious substances".57 Such substances are limited as
follows:
None in amounts that will interfere with use for primary contact
recreation or that will be injurious to the growth and propagation
of fish, or which in any manner shall adversely affect the flavor,
color or odor thereof or impair the waters for any other best
usage as determined for the specific waters which are assigned to
this class.
In addition, numerical criteria are applicable to five chemical
substances.
Cyanide - Not greater than 0.1 mg/£ expressed as CN
Ferro- or - Not greater than 0.4 mg/£ expressed as Fe(CN)g
ferricyanide
Copper - Not greater than 0.2 mg/£ expressed as Cu
Zinc - Not greater than 0.3 mg/£ expressed as Zn
Cadmium - Not greater than 0.3 mg/S. expressed as Cd
The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1978 superseded the 1972
agreement.58 It gives much more attention to toxic substances, establishing
policy, programs, and general and specific objectives for control of toxic
substances in boundary waters. Annex 1 of the 1978 Agreement contains Spec-
ific Objectives specifying levels of numerous toxic substances in water and
fish flesh designed to protect water uses. Annex 10 establishes lists of
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hazardous polluting substances. Annex 12 sets forth policy and programs
for control of persistent toxic substances. These three annexes are repro-
duced in the appendix of this report.
The 1978 Specific Objectives are more stringent than the New York Water
Quality Criteria. They cover more toxic substances and specify lower limits
for cadmium, copper, and zinc than the New York criteria. The 1978 water
quality objectives are used in the following discussion to assess present
water quality. They are also useful in evaluating the adequacy of effluent
limits in SPDES discharge permits.
Hydro!ogic Considerations
At first look, the Niagara River may appear to be a relatively straight-
forward hydraulic connection between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. As shown
in Figure 4, the River flows northward out of the east end of Lake Erie at
Buffalo. About 5 miles downstream it divides into the Chippawa (West) and
Tonawanda (East) Channels. About 60% of the flow goes to the Chippawa
Channel. The two channels meet downstream of Grand Island to form the Grass
Island Pool above Niagara Falls. The 20 mile segment of the River extending
from Lake Erie to Niagara Falls is known as the Upper Niagara River. This
river segment has a low gradient except for the first 2 miles downstream
from Lake Erie.
At Niagara Falls, the River drops about 50 feet in the rapids upstream
of the Falls and then plunges another 160 feet over the F'alls into the Lower
River Gorge. Another 50 feet of elevation are lost in the Whirlpool Rapids.
The River then flows at a low gradient through the remainder of the lower
Gorge and into Lake Ontario. The total River length between lakes is about
37 miles. The average elevation difference between Lakes Erie and Ontario
is about 326 feet.
Hydro!ogic conditions are more complex than they appear. The Upper
River is navigable from Lake Erie to Niagara Falls, New York. The Black
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Rock Canal along the east side of Bird and Squaw Islands bypasses the shal-
low rapids at the head of the River. A lock is present at the north end of
Squaw Island. A navigation channel extends downstream through the Tonawanda
Channel to the Niagara Falls industrial complex. The Erie Canal in the
Tonawanda Creek channel connects with this navigation channel at Tonawanda.
These navigation improvements affect flow distribution in the river channels.
Dredging of the channels results in movement of bottom sediments.
At Niagara Falls, major flow diversions are made for hydroelectric
power generation. On the U.S. side, flow is diverted from the Grass Island
Pool through two large underground conduits to the Robert Moses Powerplant
near Lewiston. This flow is either directed to the plant in the Gorge and
discharged to the Niagara River or is pumped to a large storage reservoir.
At times of peak power demand, the stored flow is discharged through the
pumping plant (now a generating station) and the Moses Powerplant in series.
A similar power project operates on the Canadian side. Part of the
river flow is diverted by reversing flow in the lower 4 miles of the Well and
River and diverting it through the Queenston-Chippawa Power Canal. Other
Canadian diversions occur through intakes and power plants at the Falls.
The International Niagara Control Works, a system of gates extending from
the Canadian side to mid-river upstream from the Falls controls water levels
in the Grass Island Pool. Power diversions are controlled by International
Treaty which specifies minimum flows over Niagara Falls. Lower flows over
the Falls are permitted at night.
The effect of the power developments are to cause diurnal variations
in flow in the lower River. Pollutants and sediments from the upper River
may also be stored in the power reservoirs.
For a large river, flow variations in the Niagara River are relatively
small except for those in the lower River induced by the power operations.
The average flow is about 202,000 cfs. Extremes are in the range of 90,000
to 375,000 cfs. Seasonal variations occur as a result of flow changes in
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the upper Great Lakes system with higher flows occurring in spring and early
summer and low flows in fall and winter. Short term changes in flow occur
as the result of wind or storm induced changes in Lake Erie water levels.
Water quality conditions in Lake Erie and the Niagara River are influ-
enced by several natural and man-made hydrologic conditions. This is demon-
strated by the observed variations in concentrations of a number of chemical
substances that can only be partially explained by temporal and spatial
variations in discharges of these substances from known point sources.
Hydrological factors believed to affect the movement of chemical substances
in these surface waters include wind-induced storm surges on Lake Erie, the
level of Lake Erie, surface runoff tributary to the Niagara River and the
eastern end of Lake Erie produced by precipitation or snowmelt, seasonal
changes in precipitation, and the large diversions of river flow through
both Canadian and U.S. hydroelectric power projects.
A comprehensive study of water quality in Lakes Erie and Ontario and
the Niagara River was conducted during 1948-1949 by the U.S. Public Health
Service for the IJC59 This study documented the temporal and spatial
variations in water quality that resulted from changes in these hydrologic
conditions. The study found that the Buffalo River and other tributary
discharges and pollutants from point sources on the U.S. shoreline had a
strong tendency to follow and remain along the U.S. shoreline of the Upper
Niagara River. Dispersion of this pollution across the river channel in-
creased with increased outflow from the Buffalo River. However, at no time
did the pollution from the Buffalo River and U.S. point sources in the
Buffalo area (when wind mixing of Lake Erie was not a factor) disperse
across the upper river to the degree where it entered the Chippawa (West)
Channel. In fact, under fair weather conditions, the band of pollution
from the Buffalo waterfront area was usually less than 200 feet wide at
Bird Island. At Squaw Island, the pollutant band exceeded 700 feet in width
under adverse weather conditions (high local runoff).
Strong winds from the west were found to produce substantial mixing of
the east end of Lake Erie. Under these conditions, pollutants normally
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confined to the near shore waters of Lake Erie and transported down the
east edge of the River were instead dispersed out into Lake Erie for several
miles. This resulted in the detection of pollutants across the full width
of the upper river and in the Chippawa Channel.
There have not been major changes in the hydraulic characteristics of
the Niagara River system since the 1948 study with the exception of the
changes in U.S. power projects. For this reason, it seems reasonable to
assume that similar flow and pollutant dispersion patterns exist today.
Based on this assumption, it appears that four general hydrological situa-
tions occur which would produce different effects on observed concentra-
tions of chemical substances in the Upper Niagara River and the Tonawanda
Channel, These can be described as follows.
1. Fair Weather Condition
This condition occurs when Lake Erie is relatively quiescent and has
not been subjected to wind-induced mixing or water level changes for several
days. Tributary stream flows (Buffalo River, Tonawanda Creek, etc.) are at
normal seasonal levels and are not influenced by recent precipitation or
snowmelt (no active surface runoff). The Niagara River is at a seasonal
flow rate, relatively stable except where affected by power diversions.
Under these conditions, variables in inputs of pollutants from point and
non-point sources should be at a minimum. Essentially all short-term changes
in water quality should be attributable to variations in pollutant discharges
from point sources.
It would be expected that pollutants from the Buffalo River-Buffalo
waterfront area and along the east shore of the Tonawanda Channel would be
concentrated in a narrow band along the east shore of the upper river and
Tonawanda Channel, gradually mixing in the lateral direction until the Falls.
This set of conditions would produce the most severe lateral stratification
in the River. However, total pollutant loads in the river would probably
be the lowest of the four conditions.
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At Niagara-on-the-Lake, the river is always completely mixed, with the
exception of pollutants discharged to the river downstream of the whirl-
pool.60 Variations in concentrations of pollutants observed at this loca-
tion under these conditions should reflect variations in point-source loads
only although some variations might be due to operations of the power proj-
ects and associated pumped storage. The relative concentrations of pollut-
ants at Niagara-on-the-Lake are also affected by total river flow.
2. Local Runoff Conditions
Lake Erie is at the same steady-state conditions as for fair weather
condition No. 1. In contrast to fair weather, significant local surface
runoff is occurring due to precipitation and/or snowmelt. Niagara River
flow is the same as the fair weather condition except for the slight in-
crease from tributary inflow.
Under these conditions, pollutant levels in the main body of Lake Erie,
on the western side of the Upper Niagara River, and in the Chippawa Channel
would be expected to be the same as for the fair weather condition. Lateral
stratification of pollutants in the east side of the Upper River and the
Tonawanda Channel would still exist but lateral mixing would be greater.
Pollutant concentrations and loads in the stratified area and the Tonawanda
Channel would be higher because of the increased loads in the runoff. At
Niagara-on-the-Lake, pollutant loads and probably concentrations would be
higher. Variations in pollutant concentrations would be a function of both
point source variations and fluctuations in runoff loads.
3. Lake Erie Wind Storm
This condition is associated with strong westerly winds on Lake Erie
without associated precipitation and/or snowmelt runoff. Sustained strong
winds generally parallel to the axis of the Lake produce several conditions
which apparently have major effects on water quality in the Lake and the
Niagara River. Increased wave action stirs up bottom sediments, especially
in the shallow eastern edge. This effect would also be important in larger
portions of the Lake during major storms. Pollutants from point sources in
-------
71
the Buffalo-Lackawanna area, the Buffalo River and the resuspended sedi-
ments are dispersed throughout the eastern end of the Lake. The lake level
at the east end is elevated by a storm surge. This elevation is a function
of wind speed, direction, and duration. Storm-induced lake elevation changes
of more than 10 feet above low water have occurred. Changes in lake eleva-
tion in turn substantially alter flow in the Niagara River with 50% flow
increases possible over a few days' time span.
These conditions substantially alter the water quality patterns in the
Niagara River. Because of the mixing in the Lake, water quality across the
Upper River and in both the Tonawanda and Chippawa Channels would be rela-
tively uniform. Some stratification along the east shore could be expected
because of point source contributions but lateral mixing would be more rapid
than the first two conditions because of higher river flow. Substantially
higher concentrations of suspended sediments would be present throughout
the river. It would appear probable that pollutants detected in bottom
sediments would increase in the water column as well. Increased movement
of bottom sediments would occur because of the higher river flow. Pollutant
loads would be expected to be significantly higher at Niagara-on-the-Lake
for most pollutants, especially those found in river and lake bottom sedi-
ments. Pollutant concentrations could be expected to increase at Niagara-
on-the-Lake for pollutants found in sediments but decrease for those con-
tributed only by point sources.
4. Major Storm Condition
This condition is the same as the Lake Erie Wind Storm condition with
the addition of local surface runoff from precipitation and/or snowmelt.
The runoff would be expected to increase overall pollutant levels by in-
Creased pollutant dispersion in Lake Erie and by increased pollutant dis-
charges to the River. This would produce greater lateral stratification in
the Upper River and Tonawanda Channel than Condition 3 and the highest pol-
lutant loads in Tonawanda Channel and at Niagara-on-the-Lake of the four
conditions.
-------
72
There are other hydro!ogic conditions that also affect pollutant
levels in the Niagara River. River flows vary seasonally and from year to
year as the result of seasonal variations in runoff from the entire Great
Lakes drainage above Lake Erie. Longer term flow variations also occur
because of drought cycles.
Seasonal and long-term variations in precipitation in the area imme-
diately tributary to the Niagara River and the east end of Lake Erie affect
the frequency and magnitude of surface runoff events. These same varia-
tions in precipitation affect recharge of groundwater systems and cause
seasonal and long-term variations in the contribution of pollutants to the
river from landfill leachates and from contaminated groundwater aquifers.
For landfills and aquifers adjacent to the river or lakeshore, changes in
groundwater levels produced by changes in lake or river levels may produce
rapid changes in the contributions of pollutants by these sources.
Public Drinking Water Supplies
Ten public drinking water systems obtain their supply directly from
the Niagara River. In addition, the City of Buffalo obtains its supply
from Lake Erie at the entrance to the Niagara River. The smaller St.
Davids system in Ontario obtains its supply by induced infiltration of
Niagara River water from a power canal. Average volume treated and popu-
lation served by each system is shown in Table 6, arranged in downstream
order. Intake locations are shown in Figure 5.
These water supply systems distribute more than 250 mgd of treated
water to a population of more than a million persons. The water supply
systems thus have the potential to transport chemical substances present in
the Niagara River to a large population.
None of the nine U.S. water treatment plants are specifically designed
to remove potentially toxic chemical substances. The City of Niagara Falls
uses powdered activated carbon chemical to remove organic chemicals.61
Information on Canadian treatment systems was not obtained.
-------
73
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N TONAWANDA
LAKE
FIGURE 5. PUBLIC DRINKING WATER SUPPLY INTAKES
-------
75
The settling and filtration processes employed remove substantially
all suspended solids present in the raw water supply. Because many chemical
substances found in the Niagara River are present in the suspended solids,
solids removal in tha traatment process produces incidental removal of chem-
ical substances. Except for the Niagara Falls plant, however, dissolved
(usually organic) chemical substances may not be significantly removed.
Therefore, the presence and concentration of dissolved chemical substances
in the raw water supply are of importance to the quality of treated water.
Chlorination of the water supply for disinfection purposes during the
treatment process can produce chemical substances known as trihalomethanes
(THMs) if organic chemicals are present in the raw water supply. Limits on
allowable total THMs in treated water have been established by both Canada
and the U.S. As shown in Table 6, total THMs at eight U.S. supplies sam-
pled in July 1978 were all below the allowable limit of 100 ppb. The ranges
of total THMs observed at the two Canadian sources in 16 samples taken dur-
ing 1978-80 were all well below the Canadian limit of 350 ppb.62 The U.S.
and Canadian THM limits are comparable because different test procedures
are used.
Canadian monitoring of raw water for PCBs, organochlorine pesticides,
dioxin, various hydrocarbons, and radionuclides was conducted at Fort Erie,
Niagara Falls, and Niagara-on-the-Lake on the Ontario side of the River in
1979 and 1980 and at St. Catharines, which receives Lake Erie water by the
Welland Canal, in 1980.6S Treated water was monitored at the same locations
except Fort Erie for the same parameters except radionuclides. This moni-
toring found that essentially all samples met drinking water limits that
have been established or suggested. The frequency of detection and concen-
trations of chemical substances were higher at Niagara Falls and Niagara-on-
the-Lake than at Fort Erie and St. Catharines. However, most substances
detected at all locations were at trace levels. Table 7 is a comparison of
some of the trace organics detected with suggested limits.64
A Canadian study in 1977 of THM3 in 40 surface water supplies in Ontar-
io indicated that the Niagara-on-the-Lake supply had concentrations close
to the median value for all plants.65 No change was detected in 1978-79.
-------
76
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77
The U.S. Geological Survey periodically monitored raw and treated
water for pesticides and heavy metals during the 5-year period 1970-7566 at
Buffalo, Grand Island, Lockport Niagara Falls, Niagara County Water District,
North Tonawanda, and Tonawanda. These data indicate that observed concentra-
tions met applicable drinking water standards with pesticides usually below
detection limits.
Monitoring of the Buffalo water supply in 1976 and 1977 as part of the
EPA National Organics Monitoring Survey found most trace organics were below
detection limits except THMs which were less than 40 ppb.67
The City of Niagara Falls water supply has received the most extensive
monitoring as the result of the discovery of various organic chemical sub-
stances in the intake system. This contamination is alleged to be the re-
sult of the migration of hazardous wastes from an adjacent landfill on
Hooker Chemical Company property. This contamination is part of ongoing
litigation.
The first discovery of some chemical contamination in the intake sys-
tem may have occurred as early as 1969.68 Additional contamination was
detected in 1978 and 1979. At least 38 organic chemicals were detected in
one or more samples of finished drinking water in concentrations ranging
from traces less than 1 ppb to 55 ppb.69 The higher concentrations were
THMs.
The City has taken a number of steps to eliminate contamination of the
water supply including blocking off parts of the shore segment of the in-
take system, cleaning intake structures and lines, and installing an emer-
gency intake line into the Tonawanda Channel. Raw water is now obtained
from both the Chippawa and Tonawanda Channels.
The City now monitors regularly for trace organics in the water sup-
ply. Powdered activated carbon is added in the treatment process to remove
organic chemicals. Finished water quality is reportedly better than most
water supplies obtained from industrialized rivers in other parts of the
country.61 The water also reportedly meets Department of Health standards.61
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78
Because of the highly toxic nature of some of the substances known to
be disposed of in the Hooker landfill only 200 yards away and the detection
of these substances in the groundwater and the contaminated intake system,
it may be necessary to relocate or reconstruct the intake system to prevent
future contamination. The City has developed several alternatives for pro-
tecting the water supply but has not yet implemented any of them.
At most Niagara River water supply systems, the locations of the in-
takes directly affect the quality of the supply. As previously discussed,
pollutant levels in the Niagara River are affected by hydrologic conditions
that concentrate pollutants along the east shore of the Upper River and the
eastern half of the Tonawanda Channel. Therefore, except when wind condi-
tions cause mixing in Lake Erie, the City of Buffalo, Town of Grand Island,
Niagara County Water District, Niagara Falls, Ontario and St. Davids sup-
plies would be expected to have the best water quality [Figure 5]. The
Town of Tonawanda and Erie County Water Authority intakes are located at
mid-channel in the Upper River and should usually have water quality nearly
the same as the above intakes.
The intakes for the Cities of Tonawanda, North Tonawanda and Lockport
are all located just west of center in the Tonawanda Channel. This loca-
tion in the river cross-section results in the minimum intake of pollutants
for this river segment, but water quality is not as favorable as in the West
Channel. The City of Niagara Falls intakes from both the Tonawanda and
Chippewa Channels. Water quality is influenced by the ratio of withdrawals
from each channel. Since the River is well mixed at Niagara-on-the-Lake,
water quality is a function of river quality, not intake location.
The horizontal stratification of the river and its effects on the qual-
ity of public water supplies were known as early as 1913.70 Several intakes,
including the City of Niagara Falls, were relocated and new intakes located
farther away than the closest channel during the 1940's and 1950's in order
to obtain better water quality.
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79
Surface Water Quality
Within surface waters, chemical substances partition themselves among
the water, the suspended sediments in the water, and the bottom sediments.
In addition, a fraction of the chemical substances may also be bioaccumu-
lated by aquatic life. All four components of the aquatic system must be
monitored to develop a complete picture of the extent of chemical
contamination.
Extensive monitoring data for all four components sampled by Canadian
agencies in 1979 and 1980 were recently published in the 1981 Baseline Re-
port Update.71 Selected tables from the report are presented here to define
present water quality. Data on fish contamination and the quality of public
water supplies were discussed in earlier sections of this report.
The monitoring was designed to assess the status of water quality with
respect to applicable objectives, to determine temporal and spatial varia-
tions in water quality, and to assist in defining sources of chemical sub-
stances. Water quality monitoring locations are shown in Figure 6. Bottom
sediment sampling locations are shown in Figure 7. Biomonitoring locations
were previously shown in Figure 4 in the section on fish contamination.
The Niagara-on-the-Lake station defines the pollutant load entering
Lake Ontario from the entire Niagara River system. Variations in observed
water quality are the function of variations in point source discharges and
numerous hydrologic factors.
Other key monitoring stations are at Fort Erie, the Buffalo River, and
in the Tonawanda Channel. Under most hydrologic conditions, the Fort Erie
samples are representative of Lake Erie water not contaminated by releases
of chemical substances from point and non-point sources in the Buffalo area.
Water quality would be expected to be similar for the Thunder Bay (Lake
Erie), Fort Erie and Niagara Falls, Ontario monitoring stations, and all of
the Chippewa Channel. The Buffalo River station reflects the higher levels
of contamination present in the Buffalo area and is representative of some
or the pollutants that move down the ease, side of tha Upper River into the
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80
f
N
LEGEND
— ---0.0 SURVEY RANGE
WATER TREATMENT
PLANT INTAKE
MONITORING
FIXED POINT
STATION
Fort Erie boat ramp &
Niagara Christian College
LU
L A K
E R
FIGURE 6. NIAGARA RIVER WATER QUALITY MONITORING LOCATIONS - 1979/80.
-------
81
Sediment Sampling
Station
NiL-2
NIL-3
YOUNGSTOWN
NiL-4
FIGURE 7. NIAGARA RIVER BOTTOM SEDIMENT SAMPLING - 1979.
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82
Tonawanda Channel. The Tonawanda Channel stations demonstrate the horizon-
tal stratification that is present in this channel and also reflect local
point and non-point source contributions along the channel.
As shown in Tables 8 through 12 taken from the 1981 Canadian report,71
average annual water quality conditions in the Niagara River over the period
1975-1980 met 1978 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement objectives* for trace
metals, pesticides, and trace organics. Concentrations of some organics and
metals exceeded these objectives in less than 10% of the samples.
Copper and iron were the only metals to frequently exceed the object-
ives. As shown in Tables 8 and 9, both annual average concentrations and
the percent of samples not meeting objectives for copper declined signifi-
cantly in the lower River since 1977. Iron concentrations were higher in
1979 and 1980 than in previous years. In the upper River, the percent of
samples exceeding objectives was about the same in 1979 as in 1975.
Spatial differences in average metal concentrations were noted
[Tables 10 and 11] with higher values observed in the upper River and the
Tonawanda Channel than in the Chippawa Channel.
Most organic substances were non-detectable in water. As shown in
Tables 10 and 12, a-BHC was detected in all samples. Cyanide, y-BHC
(lindane), dieldrin, and PCB were also frequently detected.
In contrast to the water samples, PCBs, pesticides, and metals were
more frequently detected in suspended sediments. Occurrence of these sub-
stances in suspended sediments at Niagara-on-the-Lake are shown in Tables 13
and 14. Concentrations of PCBs, HCB, lead, copper, and zinc are the most
significant. There are no water quality objectives specifically applicable
to suspended sediment.
* These are shown in the tables as IJC objectives. The tables also show
Ontario Ministry of the Environment (MOE) objectives that are slightly
different for some pollutants.
-------
83
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84
TABLE 9 .
PERCENTAGE OF WEEKLY WATER SAMPLES VIOLATING
1978 AGREEMENT OBJECTIVES IN THE NIAGARA RI-
VER, AT N1ACARA-ON-THE-LAK.K DURING 1975-1980
'ARAMETER
CADMHrM-T
CHKOMRfM-T
•:OPPER-T
[RON-T
LEAD-T
NICKEL-T
7.INC-T
HERCURV-F.XT
CYANIDE
'T
1978
IJC
SPEC
OBJECT
ug/L
0.2
50
5
300
25
25
30
0.2
MOE
OBJECT
ug/L
0.2
100
5
300
25
25
30
0.2
5
% VIOLATIONS AT NIAGARA-ON-THE-LAKE
1975
0
0
16
0
0
0
0
-
1
1976
6
0
61
20
0
0
0
-
1977
6
0
79
15
0
2
2
-
•
1978
o
1
1979
5
0 ! 0
I
40 33
i
19 41
0 0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1980*
0
2
17
34
0
0
0
o
i
- incomplete data sec (includes data from Jan 3- Oct 7/80)
Source: Reference 32
-------
85
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-------
86
TABLE 11.
SUMMARY OF 1979 UPPER NIAGARA RIVER
MEAN TRACE METAL DATA (mg/L)
('WAT f K1
PARAMETER
RIVER RANGE
As-DTSS
SC-DISS
•ijz-EXT
C
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-------
TABLE 13.
fMMARY OF TRACE ELF.MENT CONCTr.'TTAT K>;i (nr./g) IN SUSPENDED
SEDIMENT AT NIAGARA-ON-THE-LAKE
PARAMETER
CADMIUM-EXT
LEAD-EXT
CQBALT-EXT
COPPER-EXT
ZINC-EXT
NICKEL-EXT
CHROMIUM-EXT
1978
N.OBS.
13
13
13
13
13
13
13-
l
MEAN
2.4
80.0
6.6
4G.O
177.0
29.0
39.0
S.D.
0.8
28.6
3.3
15.1
44 .0
16.0
31.0
1979-80
N.OBS.
35
35
35
35
1
35
35
35
MEAiN
2. A
58.0
6.5
44.0
163.0
24.0
30.0
S.D.
1.3
18.9
2.3
37.0
50.0
. 12.0
12 .0
Source: Reference 32
-------
89
TA:it.!: 14 MEAN CONCENTRATIONS OF ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS (ng/g) IN SUSPENDED
SEDIMENT AT NIACAKA-ON-THE-LAKF.-1980
PARAMETER
PCB (TOTAL)
ALDR1N
DIELDFUN
«X-BHC
tf-BHC(LINDANE1
c*-CHLORDANE
t-CHLORDANE
o.p-DDT
p.p-DDT
p.p-DDE
p.y.-TUE(UDD)
ENDRIN
HEPTACHLOR
NO. OF
SAMPLES
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
HEPTACHLOR EPOXIDE 24
HCb(packed col)
HCB(CAP.COL)
M1REK
/3-ENDOSULFAN
METHOXYCHLOR
°<-ENDOSULFAN
* 24(23)
18
24
24
1 T_
24
CONFIRMED DETECTIONS
NO.
24
0
21
18
10
14
20
8
18
24
13
1
0
14
24(23)
18
17
0
17
1
MEAN (ng/R)
642
N.D.
4
11
2
1
2
3
13
19
2
L 1
N.D.
2
160(51)
83
6
L 1
10
L 1
i
ST. DEV.
534
—
2
15
4
3
2
5
16
10
2
—
—
3
535(58)
78
7
—
19
-^
* Oiu hij'.'1 v;;liu' olirun.ilril
N.D. Values net detected
Data set from Jan 5 - Auj; 19/1980
IVtocLion Limit v.ilm-s c-niori-d ns zero in mean calculations
L - les-; than detoction limit
Source: Reference 32
-------
90
Analysis of bottom sediments collected from 25 stations [Figure 7] in
1979 detected the widespread occurrence of PCBs [Table 15]. Almost all
stations had PCB contamination exceeding Ontario Ministry of the Environ-
ment guidelines for prohibiting disposal of dredged spoil in open waters.
The highest concentrations were detected in Buffalo Harbor, Tonawanda Chan-
nel, and the lower River.
Significant contamination of sediments with organochlorine pesticides
was also detected. In the upper River, only chlordane, DDE and DDT were
frequently observed and then at low concentrations. Additional pesticides
and much higher concentrations were observed in the lower River north of
Queenston indicating that section is an accumulation point for contaminated
sediments.
No chlorophenoxy acid herbicides or chlorophenols were detected in the
bottom sediments.
Heavy metals were detected in all bottom sediments. Copper, lead, and
zinc exhibited the highest concentrations but all metals reported except
cadmium exceeded MOE dredged spoil disposal criteria at at least one sta-
tion. The highest metal concentrations were detected in the Upper Tona-
wanda Channel.
Freshwater clams were exposed to Niagara River and Lake Erie waters
for 16 days in 1980 at several locations [Figure 4]. Contamination with
PCBs and organochlorine pesticides was the highest in the Tonawanda Channel
[Table 16].
Algae collected from similar Lake and River locations [Figure 4] were
analyzed for heavy metals and arsenic. Again, the highest contamination
was found in the Buffalo River and Tonawanda Channel [Table 17].
The 1981 Baseline Report Update concluded that "the major portion of
the loading of PCBs and some pesticides occurs adjacent to and downstream
from Grand Island, New York."72 The high concentration of PCBs observed in
-------
91
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94
Buffalo Harbor in bottom sediments and of heavy metals in algae suggest
that this area could also contribute significant loads of PCBs and heavy
metals.
Bottom sediments in large areas of Lake Erie have elevated levels of
persistent chemical substances as shown for PCBs in Figure 8.73
Persistent toxic substances can be transported long distances by sedi-
ments as shown by the distribution of mi rex in the bottom sediments of Lake
Ontario [Figure 9].73 Highly contaminated bottom sediments dredged from
Buffalo Harbor and the Buffalo River were disposed of in a shallow, open-
water dumping area west of Bethlehem Steel in Lackawanna for many years.
It appears possible that under previously discussed adverse hydrologic con-
ditions on Lake Erie, bottom sediments in eastern Lake Erie could contribute
significant loads of persistent chemical substances such as PCBs to the
Niagara River both in the suspended sediments and water. Some of these
sediments may then be redeposited in quieter river sections adding to con-
tamination from local point and non-point sources.
AIR QUALITY
Traditional air pollution parameters are used to define present air
quality and to show the major air quality improvements that have occurred
over the past 15 years. The limited data on chemical substances in ambient
air are discussed. No data on air quality in homes were available other
than for homes involved in the Love Canal litigation. Because of the liti-
gation, these data are not presented. Occupational exposure to air pollution
is beyond the scope of this study.
The most recent published data74 on air quality in the Niagara Frontier
Air Quality Control Region (Erie and Niagara Counties) showed that downward
trends in air pollution, as measured by traditional parameters, continued
through 1979. Monitoring was conducted by the DEC at 10 continuous moni-
toring sites and 47 manual sites in the AQCR in 1979.
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Sulfur dioxide levels have declined substantially over the past 10
years. Whereas sulfur dioxide levels were in contravention of the annual
mean standard of 0.03 ppm prior to 1975 in Niagara Falls, Buffalo, and
Lackawanna, all stations are below the standard. The decline has been most
significant at stations where 1970 averages were about 0.05 ppm and are now
about half that level. These declines are the results of enforcement of
fuel regulations and application of industrial emission controls.
Major reductions in total suspended particulate (TSP) levels have also
occurred over the past 15 years. At Niagara Falls, average TSP levels have
decreased from about 120 ug/m3 to about 50 ug/m3 at one key station and
from 270 to 110 ug/m3 at another. In Buffalo, similar reductions from 260
to 95 ug/m3 at one site and 80 to 46 ug/m3 at another were observed. The
health-based ambient air standards are 75 ug/m3 for the annual geometric
mean and 260 ug/m3 for the 24-hour average. Most stations now meet these
standards whereas major contravention of standards was common 10 years ago.
These reductions in TSP levels are particularly significant with re-
spect to such substances as benzo(a)pyrenes, other organic chemicals, and
heavy metals which may be present in the particulates. Sources of such
particulates include chemical plants, steel mills, carbon product manufac-
turers, and coke ovens. A study conducted from 1963 to 1970 showed a rela-
tionship between air pollution from the coke oven industry and the health
of the general population.75 Coke ovens were identified as a source of
high levels of suspended particulates which have since been reduced by con-
trols on the coke ovens and on other industrial and utility sources.
Carbon monoxide (CO) levels have declined throughout the AQCR as a
result of auto emission controls. Automobiles are the most important
source of CO although there are significant emissions of CO from carbon
products plants in the Niagara Falls area. There have been a few contraven-
tions of the 8-hour standard of 9 ppm in the Niagara Falls area in recent
years. Contraventions are slightly more frequent in the Buffalo area.
Annual CO averages are now low (1 ppm or less) areawide.
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Nitrogen oxides are not a problem in the AQCR. Most sites average
less than half the primary standard of 0.05 ppm. Slightly higher levels
occur in Buffalo than in Niagara Falls.
Lead monitoring began in 1973. A decline in lead levels occurred be-
tween 1973 and 1977 with relatively constant levels since 1977. All loca-
tions are well below the standard of 1.5 ug/m3. There are no major indus-
trial sources of lead emissions in the study area.
Short-term ambient air monitoring for vinyl chloride was conducted in
June 1974 in the vicinity of the Goodyear polyvinyl chloride plant in
Niagara Falls and at three residential locations in Buffalo.76 Vinyl chlor-
ide was detected downwind of the Goodyear plant at concentrations up to 40
ppb in a Niagara Falls residential area. One sample downwind of the Buffalo
Avenue industrial complex in Niagara Falls reportedly contained 28 ppb vinyl
chloride. No vinyl chloride was detected in the Buffalo residential areas.
EPA has not established an ambient air criterion for vinyl chloride but has
established National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP)
for industrial emissions of vinyl chloride. Sources are required to limit
their emissions to total volumes or concentrations dependent upon the source
process involved, The emissions concentrations allowed are in the 10 ppm
range. New York DEC uses an Acceptable Ambient Level (AAL) of 0.41 pg/m3
to evaluate sources of vinyl chloride emissions.77
Goodyear is the only reported source of vinyl chloride emissions in
the study area. At the time of the 1974 sampling, Goodyear1 s emissions
were estimated at 4 tons/year.76 They are now reported as 32 tons/year.78
No current data were identified to evaluate present ambient levels of vinyl
chloride.
During the 1974 vinyl chloride sampling near the Buffalo Avenue indus-
trial complex, the study team experienced eye, nose, and throat irritation
which they attributed to emissions of chlorine or other chemicals from the
nearby plants.76 They also observed corrosion and other damage to aluminum
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windows and doors and to paint in the residential area and to aluminum lamp
poles, iron guard rails, and telephone guy wires that they attributed to
emissions of chlorine in the industrial complex.
There are several plants in the Niagara Falls complex that produce
large volumes of chlorine or chlorinated compounds. Monitoring of ambient
chlorine levels during the past several years by the Niagara County Health
Department indicates that maximum levels approximate and sometimes exceed
Acceptable Ambient Levels.79 Ambient levels were believed to be higher in
the past. The DEC has initiated a case-by-case evaluation of chlorine emis-
sions and an associated abatement program. Present chlorine emissions are
estimated to be in the range of several hundred tons per year.78
A Canadian study of ambient levels of benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) and benzo-
(k)fluoranthene (BkF) in 11 Ontario communities was conducted in 1971 and
1972.80 The highest levels observed (116 |jg BaP and 176 jjg BkF/1,000 m3)
were in Wei land on the west edge of the Niagara Frontier study area. These
were attributed to emissions from a graphite electrode production facility.
There are several similar plants in the Niagara Falls industrial areas.
Coke oven emissions are also known to contain BaP. The DEC has not estab-
lished Acceptable Ambient Levels for either of these substances although
BaP is considered a high toxicity air contaminant.77 The current DEC emis-
sions inventory does not list any significant sources of BaP.78 No current
ambient data on BaP were identified during this study.
Atmospheric levels of pesticides were evaluated at nine U.S. cities by
a 1970 study.81 Only low levels of DDT were detected at the four sampling
stations in the Buffalo vicinity. DDT use has been discontinued. No recent
pesticide sampling data were identified.
More than 200 atmospheric samples obtained during 1968 and 1969 from
the Buffalo area were analyzed for 18 trace elements including chromium,
copper, iron, lead, nickel, and silver.82 Chromium, copper, nickel, and
silver concentrations were low with maximum samples less than 0.5 pg/m3.
Lead ranged from 1.6 to 7.2 |jg/m3, much higher than current levels. Iron
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was the highest, ranging from 0.1 to 12.64 ug/m3. These samples were taken
during a period when total suspended particulates were at least double
present levels. No comparable current data on metals were discovered during
this study.
RADIOLOGICAL ASPECTS
Federal government activities associated with the Manhattan Project
during World War II to develop an atomic bomb left several sites in the Nia-
gara Frontier contaminated with low-level radioactivity. Remedial measures
have since reduced these contaminated areas to four sites. Three of the
sites are in Tonawanda and the fourth is north of Niagara Falls. Uranium
ore residues (tailings) are stored at the Niagara Falls Storage Facility
(NFSF) on the site of the old Lake Ontario Ordnance Works and at a landfill
and an industrial site in Tonawanda. Low-level radioactive wastewaters
were injected into the groundwater at a Tonawanda industrial site. These
sites are discussed in more detail in Sections VII and VIII.
The potential environmental hazards associated with these contaminated
sites include emissions of radon gas to the atmosphere and the contamina-
tion of surface runoff or groundwater with radium or uranium. Recent en-
vironmental monitoring has indicated that offsite radiation levels do not
pose a hazard to area residents.83 84 Onsite contamination limits the use
of the sites and long-term remedial measures are needed to insure that no
spread of the contamination occurs.
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V. SOURCES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
Chemical substances are released to the environment of the Niagara
Frontier from numerous point and non-point sources. Important point
sources include industrial manufacturing plants, municipal wastewater treat-
ment plants, and hazardous waste management and/or disposal sites. Important
non-point sources include contaminated groundwater, dredged spoil disposal,
contaminated lake and river bottom sediments, and urban runoff.
In the following discussion, additional details are presented on each
type of source including the pathways by which chemical substances are re-
leased to the environment. Details are presented on the preparation of an
inventory of all known and potential point sources and the subsequent rating
to identify major sources of chemical substances. Lists of major industrial,
municipal, and hazardous waste facilities are presented. Detailed discus-
sions on the major sources are presented by area in Sections VI-VIII.
POINT SOURCES
Industrial
Industrial manufacturing plants are the most important sources of chem-
ical substances in the Niagara Frontier. Many of these facilities handle,
transport, consume, and produce large volumes of chemical substances. It is
inevitable and unavoidable that some of these substances are released to
the environment from such facilities.
Industrial wastewaters are a common pathway for transport of chemical
substances from industrial plants. These include process wastewaters, cool-
ing water, and miscellaneous utility and other waste streams. The volume
and types of chemical substances in the wastewaters are affected by the
process/products, in-process controls, and wastewater treatment units present
at the facility.
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Wastewaters may be either discharged directly to surface waters after
treatment (if required) at the industrial plant or they may be discharged
to a municipal sewer system for treatment at a municipal wastewater plant
(indirect discharge). In the latter case, the volume and types of chemical
substances reaching surface waters are also affected by the type and effi-
ciency of treatment provided at the municipal plant.
Because large volumes of chemical raw materials or products are often
handled or stored, spills and leaks of chemical substances may occur within
an industrial plant site. Stormwater runoff or groundwater may become con-
taminated in such cases and transport these substances off site. This was
more of a problem in the past when material handling and maintenance proce-
dures were not adequate. The use of best management practices (BMPs) for
control of spills and leaks has reduced this problem. However, past spills
and leaks may have seriously contaminated a plant site, often with chemi-
cals no longer used or produced at the site.
Many industrial plants, especially chemical manufacturers, generate
large volumes of hazardous wastes that may contain chemical substances.
These wastes are often stored and/or treated on site prior to ultimate dis-
posal. Disposal may be either at the industrial plant site or at some other
location. Both storage and treatment activities are potential sources of
spills or leaks of chemical substances. Disposal poses a higher hazard for
release of chemical substances to the air, surface water or groundwater.
This was especially true of past on-site disposal practices that did not
adequately contain hazardous wastes.
Many industrial processes emit air pollutants to the atmosphere. As
in the case of industrial wastewaters, the volumes and types of chemical
substances emitted are a function of factors such as process/product com-
binations and air pollution controls.
Municipal
Municipal wastewater treatment plants that receive significant indus-
trial wastewaters are also important sources of chemical substances. Com-
bined sewer overflows and sewer system bypasses are also important.
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Municipal wastewater treatment plants usually treat wastewaters con-
sisting primarily of domestic sewage and commercial wastewaters. Such
wastewaters usually contain low levels of some chemical substances used in
the home and in commercial establishments. If the volume of wastewater is
large, the contribution of chemical substances may be significant.
In industrial areas such as Buffalo, Tonawanda, North Tonawanda and
Niagara Falls, the municipal wastewater treatment plants also receive major
volumes of chemical substances in industrial wastewatars. The types and
volumes of these substances discharged to surface waters are a function of
the type and efficiency of treatment provided in the municipal plant.
Parts of Buffalo, North Tonawanda and Niagara Falls are served by com-
bined sewer systems that convey storm runoff as well as wastewaters. During
dry weather, all sewer flows are usually treated. During wet weather, how-
ever, the sewer flows exceed the treatment plant capacity and mixed runoff
and wastewater overflow from the system to surface waters either at combined
sewer overflow points or in treatment plant or pumping station bypasses.
This results in the discharge of untreated wastewaters that can contain
significant volumes of chemical substances.
Part of the chemical substances removed in the treatment process is
concentrated in sludges that may be classified as hazardous wastes if suffi-
cient toxic substances from industrial sources are present. Sludge dis-
posal poses a potential for release of these substances to the environment
in the same manner as hazardous waste disposal.
Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites
Hazardous waste disposal sites have the potential to be major sources
of chemical substances. Many hazardous wastes contain high concentrations
of chemical substances. If not adequately contained, these substances may
be released to the environment through ground and surface waters and air
emissions.
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Most hazardous waste disposal sites in the Niagara Frontier are land-
fills. Hazardous wastes have been placed in the landfills in liquid or
solid form, in bulk, or in containers. Ultimately, liquids move from the
landfills into the environment unless adequate containment measures have
been used as is now required for active landfills. This movement is in the
form of leachate which may be the hazardous waste liquid itself or, more
commonly, the liquids diluted by precipitation or groundwater percolating
through the landfill.
Because containment measures were not adequate at many of the earlier
landfills, contamination of ground and surface waters is a major problem at
a number of locations. If a landfill contains large volumes of persistent
chemical substances, the landfill will continue to be a source of these
substances for many years unless remedial measures are initiated to minimize
or eliminate leachate migration.
Inactive hazardous waste landfills are a major problem. These were
usually the earlier sites that had the poorest containment. Records of
what hazardous wastes are present at a site are often sketchy or non-
existent. Because of the age of the landfills, chemical substances have
had a longer time to migrate into the environment.
Hazardous waste disposal sites may be located at an industrial plant
(onsite disposal) or at another non-industrial location (offsite dis-
posal). The offsite disposal facilities include sites operated by an in-
dustry for their own waste disposal; commercial or public landfills that
primarily received non-hazardous wastes such as household trash and garbage,
but also some hazardous wastes; and the commercial hazardous waste facilities
receiving wastes from many sources. Onsite disposal is discussed with
industrial point sources in this report while the offsite disposal facili-
ties are discussed separately.
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NON-POINT SOURCES
Contaminated Groundwater
Contaminated groundwater is an important non-point source of chemical
substances at several locations in the Niagara Frontier. This contamina-
tion is primarily the result of spills or leaks of chemicals at industrial
plants or of inadequate hazardous waste disposal practices (both on- and
offsite).
A number of organic chemical substances used or produced at Niagara
Frontier industrial facilities are readily transported through groundwater
aquifers. Thus, over time, these substances may be transported for substan-
tial distances from the point of contamination of the groundwater.
Three major pathways for movement of chemical substances from contami-
nated groundwater to surface waters are present in the study area. The
most common pathway is the normal discharge of groundwater to surface
streams at the interface of the aquifer with the waterway.
In the Niagara Falls industrial area, contaminated groundwater infil-
trates into both industrial and municipal sewers. This results in the di-
rect discharge of chemical substances to the Niagara River through indus-
trial outfalls and the discharge of additional chemical substances to the
Niagara Falls wastewater treatment plant.
At Niagara Falls, several industrial water supply wells draw contami-
nated groundwater. Chemical substances present in the water supply are
eventually discharged directly to the Niagara River without treatment.
As discussed in more detail in the following section on industrial
point sources, infiltration of contaminated groundwater into industrial
sewers and the use of contaminated well water in the Niagara Falls area may
account for more than one-half of the industrial direct discharges of organ-
ic chemical substances and more than one-third of the discharges of these
substances from all point sources.
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The extent of the contaminated groundwater problem is only partially
defined at this time. Additional studies are underway or proposed to deter-
mine the area! extent of contamination, define what chemical substances are
present, define flow paths and rates, and develop plans for remedial measures.
Dredged Spoil Disposal
Past and present dredging practices associated with maintenance of
harbors and navigation channels are believed to be significant sources of
chemical substances. Contributions of chemical substances from disposal of
dredged spoil and dredging activity are not defined at this time.
Maintenance of the harbors in Buffalo and Tonawanda and the navigation
channels in the Buffalo River, the Upper Niagara River, and the Tonawanda
Channel requires annual dredging to remove accumulated sediments and main-
tain design depths. The accumulated sediments are contributed by surface
runoff from upstream agricultural areas, urban runoff, industrial waste-
water discharges, and shifting of bottom sediments from adjacent waterways.
Sediments dredged from the channels are known as spoil and must be
disposed of. The early practice was to transport the spoil in hopper
dredges to dumping grounds in shallow open-water areas where it was dumped
and allowed to settle to the bottom. Two disposal areas were used, a large
area about 0.7 by 1.4 miles immediately west of Bethlehem Steel in Lacka-
wanna and a smaller area adjacent to Buckhorn Island at Niagara Falls.
Spoil is now disposed of by pumping it into diked disposal areas. Two diked
areas in the Buffalo Harbor area have been filled and a diked area adjacent
to Bethlehem Steel is in current use.
Dredged spoil in the study area is known to be contaminated with chem-
ical substances including PCBs, mercury, and other heavy metals. Samples
of bottom sediments at locations to be dredged have shown such contamina-
tion. As discussed in Section IV, bottom sediments are contaminated at
most locations within the study area as detected by monitoring studies.
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Contamination of bottom sediments was probably much higher than at
present during the time open-water disposal of dredged spoil was practiced.
Discharges of chemical substances to area waterways were larger than at
present because less wastewater treatment was provided. Gross pollution of
the Buffalo River was present. This pollution also impacted the Buffalo
Harbor and Black Rock Canal.
The large volumes (more than 500,000 yd3/year) of contaminated dredged
spoil disposed of in the past in shallow open waters continue to be exposed
to resuspension in lake waters by Lake Erie storms and associated wave ac-
tion. During the time the disposal area was active, a nearby water supply
intake was periodically affected by pollutants from the spoil area disturbed
by storms. As discussed in Section IV, pollutants dispersed by storms can
be transported into the Niagara River by Lake currents.
Dredged spoil is currently disposed of in a diked area that serves as
a settling basin. Solids settle to the bottom leaving free liquids that
may contain chemical substances present in the spoil. Dikes are constructed
of relatively permeable rock rubble that would allow this liquid to seep
into adjacent waterways (Buffalo Harbor or Lake Erie). The settled spoil
has a low permeability but leaching of contaminants from the spoil could
occur if precipitation is allowed to pond on the surface.
Dredging of the navigation channels to remove bottom sediments results
in the resuspension of some of these sediments. This may release chemical
sediments into the water. Where currents exist, as in the Niagara River,
the suspended sediments would be immediately swept away. The significance
of current dredging and spoil disposal practices as sources of chemical
substances are not defined in any of the literature reviewed for this study.
Bottom Sediments
Bottom sediments in Lakes Erie and Ontario and in the Niagara River
and its tributaries are contaminated with varying levels of persistent chem-
ical substances (see Section IV). Heavy metals, PCBs and persistent pest-
icides are of importance because these substances are bioaccumulated in the
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aquatic food chain. Sediments in shallow areas of Lake Erie and in the
River and tributaries are subject to resuspension and transport under ad-
verse hydrologic conditions such as wind storms and floods.
Much of the chemical substances present in the sediments may have ac-
cumulated years ago when discharges of these substances were much larger.
This would be especially true of PCBs, DDT, and mercury. Substantial con-
tamination of sediments still exists although point sources were basically
eliminated years ago.
Contaminated bottom sediments may be a major source of the persistent
chemical substances currently observed in suspended sediments in the Niagara
River. None of the literature reviewed specifically addressed this possibility.
Urban Runoff
Surface runoff from urban areas following precipitation events or snow
melt is contaminated with low levels of chemical substances including heavy
metals and pesticides. This runoff reaches surface waters through storm
sewers or drainage ditches. It may also flow through combined sewers caus-
ing overflows of untreated wastewaters as discussed in the municipal point
source section.
DEVELOPMENT OF AN INVENTORY OF POINT SOURCES
Industrial
The first step in the identification of major industrial point sourcas
of chemical substances was to develop an inventory of all known industrial
facilities in Erie and Niagara Counties. This was primarily done with the
assistance of EPA and NYDEC computer files.
The EPA Region II Facilities Index System (FINDS)85 was used to prepare
a comprehensive inventory of more than 10,000 manufacturing, wholesale and
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109
retail trade, commercial, and service facilities in Erie and Niagara
Counties.86 The inventory included all facilities in the Dun and Bradstreet
file, all State Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (SPDES) permits, all
major sources of air pollution, and all known hazardous waste disposal
sites. The geographical distribution of these facilities was evaluated and
the boundaries of the detailed study area selected. The inventory was also
reviewed to evaluate what types of facilities were present in the area that
could be potential sources of chemical substances.
A second FINDS inventory, containing about 940 selected facilities in
the detailed study area, was prepared with computer assistance to identify
those facilities (primarily industrial manufacturing plants) with the poten-
tial to be significant sources of chemical substances.87 This inventory
was compared with EPA and DEC lists of wastewater dischargers (SPDES permit
holders), air pollution sources, hazardous waste disposal sites (active and
inactive), hazardous waste management permit applications, and the DEC In-
dustrial Chemical Survey (ICS) to eliminate facilities with no significant
chemical substances activity. This reduced list was used to select files
for detailed review during the file search.
Another EPA Region II computer system, MAPS, was used to plot the loca-
tion of all wastewater discharges, air emission points, hazardous waste
disposal sites, ambient air and water quality monitoring stations, and pub-
lic drinking water supply intakes on transparent overlays keyed to USGS
topographical maps.86 This facilitated identification of any duplicates in
the inventory and assisted in defining the relationships between point
sources and monitoring points, water intakes, and other topographical
features.
Rating criteria were then developed to define the relative significance
of actual or potential releases of chemical substances to the environment
through air, water, or hazardous waste pathways. The criteria were develop-
ed for those specific pathways for which data were available for most signif-
icant sources. These included direct discharges of wastewater, indirect
discharges to municipal sewer systems, air emissions, chemical substances
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used or produced, hazardous waste generation, management and disposal, and
site contamination.
The rating criteria were designed to group facilities by their relative
degree of activity for each pathway. The intent was to identify the facil-
ities with the most significant potential for release of chemical substances
to the environment so that they could be reviewed in detail. The criteria
were not designed to compare a facilities rating with any fixed numbers to
suggest that the facility was "good" or "bad". A high rating number indi-
cates that the facility has a significant potential for release of chemical
substances to the environment but does not necessarily mean there are any
major environmental problems associated with the facility. For instance,
both major commercial hazardous waste management facilities received moder-
ately high ratings because of the large volumes of chemical substances and
hazardous wastes handled. However, the known releases of chemical sub-
stances to the environment from both sources are relatively small in compar-
ison with other major sources.
Wastewater discharges to surface waters were assigned ratings based on
the relative magnitude of the total loads of organic priority pollutants*
and of heavy metals** discharged [Table 18]. The ratings were based on data
reported in recent SPDES permit applications. These data were supplemented
by recent EPA and DEC compliance monitoring samples and by engineering stu-
dies performed by the permit applicant. Daily maximum values were used
because long-term data were only available for a few sources and then only
for a few pollutants. The daily maximum values reported in the permit ap-
plications usually represented only a few samples, often only one. Long-
term averages could thus be significantly different (higher or lower) than
these single samples.
* Priority pollutants in this report are synonymous with the 65 toxic
pollutants defined pursuant to Sec. 307(a) of the Clean Water Act and
published in 40 CFR Part 401.15.
** As used in this report, heavy metals does not include iron as iron is
not an EPA priority pollutant.
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Table 18
WASTEWATER DISCHARGE RATING CRITERIA
Total Load (Ib/day)
Rating* Organic Priority Pollutants Heavy Metals
Direct Wastewater Discharge
0
1
2
3
4
5
Flow
(mdg)
50
Rating*
Organic Priority
Pollutants Present Heavy Metals
<1
1-2
2-5
5-10
10-25
>25
Present
Indirect Wastewater Discharges
<0.1
0.1-0.5
0.5-1.0
1.0-2.0
2.0-3.0
>3.0
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
Rating values were assigned for both the organic
priority pollutants and the heavy metals and summed
to get the total rating for direct discharges. The
indirect discharge total is computed in the same
manner.
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Indirect discharges of priority pollutants to municipal treatment
plants were also rated. Data were generally not available on priority pol-
lutant loads in these discharges. The flow rate was known in most cases,
however, and the types of pollutants present (organic priority pollutants
and/or heavy metals) could be inferred from plant operations when specific
data were unavailable. The rating criteria [Table 18] were based on flow
rate and presence of pollutants.
An EPA Permit Compliance System (PCS) computer listing of SPDES permits
indicated there were 140 active permits for wastewater discharges in Erie
County and 61 in Niagara County, a total of 201. Sixty-six of the Erie
County permits were in the detailed study area as were 42 Niagara County
permits, a total of 108. Most of the permits not in the detailed study
area were for scattered municipal wastewater discharges or minor industrial
discharges. Of the total of 201 permits, 57 were for municipal wastewater
treatment plants and the remainder for industrial or commercial facilities.
In the Erie County portion of the detailed study area, 9 of the permits
were for municipal facilities and 57 for industrial or commercial facilities.
In Niagara County, the corresponding figures were 11 municipal permits and
31 industrial or commercial permits.
Data on air emissions were obtained from the DEC Air Pollution Source
Management System, a computerized file of all air pollution sources. The
file was programmed to identify all air pollution sources in Erie and Nia-
gara Counties and to list all process emissions for each source. There
were 828 sources in the Erie County inventory, of which only 344 had process
emissions.78 The remainder were primarily combustion sources such as heat-
ing boilers. There were 139 sources which listed some emissions of air
pollutants of concern.* The other process sources emitted only criteria
pollutants such as particulates or sulfur dioxide. Process sources dis-
charging more than 1 ton per year of air pollutants of concern totalled 74.
* For this report, air pollutants of concern are defined as those air
pollutants listed by the New York Department of Environmental Conserva-
tion as low, medium or high toxicity air contaminants77 plus carbon
monoxide.
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There were 180 air pollution sources in the Niagara County inventory,
of which 99 had process emissions. There were 57 sources emitting air pol-
lutants of concern with 39 sources each emitting more than 1 ton per year.
Criteria used to assign relative ratings to emissions of air pollutants
of concern are shown in Table 19. No distinctions were made between types
of substances or their relative potential toxicity. The distribution of
sources by emissions volume is also shown in Table 19.
The relative significance of the use, production, storage, and handling
of chemical substances at a facility was assessed based on responses to the
DEC Industrial Chemical Survey (ICS). This survey, begun in 1976 and period-
ically updated, requested industrial facilities to report their average
annual use and average storage volume of selected chemicals of concern.
These chemicals include most of the priority pollutants and hazardous sub-
stances defined by ~PA regulations plus a few chemicals of special interest
in New York. Questionnaires were initially sent to SPDES permit holders.
They have also been sent to industrial facilities that discharge wastewaters
to municipal sewer systems. The survey of these indirect dischargers is
continuing and has not been completed.
Some facilities responded negatively (they did not use chemicals of
concern). Positive responders were those facilities indicating some use or
production of chemicals of concern. The Industrial Chemical Survey computer
file listed 131 positive responders in Erie County of which 117 were in the
study area.88 This is an incomplete list as DEC is in the process of enter-
ing into the file additional responders that discharge wastewaters to the
Buffalo Sewer Authority. The ICS list for Niagara County included 42 posi-
tive responders with 30 in the study area.
Rating criteria based on the ICS data are presented in Table 20. A
rating value was assigned both for the total average annual use of chemicals
of concern used or produced and for the average quantity on hand and the
values summed to yield the total rating. No attempt was made to different-
iate between the relative toxicity or har..--c .;f the various chemicals of
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Table 19
AIR EMISSION RATINGS
Emissions
(ton/year)
<1
1-5
5-10
10-25
25-50
50-75
75-100
100-150
150-300
300-500
>500
Rating
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Total
Number
Erie County
65
23
10
16
12
5
2
1
1
1
1
137
of Sources
Niagara County
18
6
4
7
5
4
2
0
3
2
6
57
Table 20
ICS RATING CRITERIA
Rating
0
1
2
3
4
5
Annual
Chemical Use
(lb)
0-1,000
1,000-20,000
20,000-100,000
100,000-1,000,000
1,000,000-5,000,000
>5,000,000
Chemicals
on Hand
(lb)
0-1,000
1,000-10,000
10,000-50,000
50,000-100,000
100,000-500,000
>500,000
A rating number was assigned both for chemical use
and chemicals on hand and the two ratings summed
to obtain the total ICS rating.
-------
115
concern. The annual use rate gives some indication of the relative poten-
tial for spills and leaks in handling operations, process units and trans-
portation equipment, and other factors related to potential site contamina-
tion and the need for best management practices to minimize the effects of
such contamination. The quantity stored is also related to the relative
magnitude of potential spills, leaks, and site contamination problems. Of
the 147 positive responders in the study area, 17 received a rating of 10
indicating large volumes of chemical substances are handled or stored.
Two sources of information were used to evaluate hazardous waste manage-
ment activity. A Region II computer listing was prepared of all facilities
that notified EPA that they generate, transport, treat, store, or dispose
of hazardous wastes as required by the Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act (RCRA).89 Because the notification form did not request the county in
which the facility was located, a retrieval by county was not possible.
This listing was retrieved by postal zip code areas that approximated the
study area.
There were 283 facilities that indicated they were only generators of
hazardous wastes. An additional 36 generators also transported hazardous
wastes and 62 generators operated treatment, storage, and/or disposal faci-
lities (TSDFs). There were 42 facilities that conducted all three types of
activity (generator, transporter, TSDF). Fifty-seven were transporters
only, 6 were transporters and TSDFs, and 31 were TSDFs only. This is a
total of 517 facilities.
It is probable that the number of facilities in each category is too
high. Many companies unfamiliar with the new regulations notified EPA when
they did not need to. When permit applications were required at a later
date for TSDFs, the numbers decreased substantially. There were 141 TSDFs
in the inventory that indicated their operations would be such to require
permits. Only 67 permit applications (Part As) were received for all of
Erie and Niagara Counties, of which 47 were in the study area.90 It is
also probable that some facilities stopped treating, storing, or disposing
of hazardous wastes because of the new requirements that went into effect
subsequent to the notification.
-------
116
The computer lists of notifiers and permit applicants were compared to
the industrial inventory to identify facilities with significant hazardous
waste management activity. Relative ratings were then assigned using the
criteria in Table 21. These criteria assign ratings based on the capacity
of treatment, storage, and disposal units and on the total volume of wastes
handled per year. No ratings were assigned to generators and transporters
because the notification forms did not specify the volumes of wastes han-
dled, only types. The TSDF rating criteria did not distinguish between
categories of wastes and their relative toxicities or hazards.
An evaluation of the potential for site contamination to release chem-
ical substances to the environment was made. For those facilities with
inactive hazardous waste sites, ratings were keyed to the Interagency Task
Force (ITF) priority rating [Table 22]. Additional rating points were as-
signed if there was known groundwater or surface runoff contamination or if
there was a high probability of such contamination.
Facilities which received non-zero ratings in more than one category
or ratings of 5 or more points in a single category were assembled on a
work sheet showing the incremental and total ratings for each source.
Thirty-three facilities with a rating total of 11 points or more were se-
lected as major sources [Table 23]. In general, these were sources that
discharge significant loads of chemical substances (at least 1 Ib/day of
organic priority pollutants and/or heavy metals) in their wastewaters (ei-
ther directly to surface waters or through municipal sewage systems); emit
air pollutants of concern; use or produce large volumes of chemical sub-
stances; generate, manage, and/or dispose of large volumes of hazardous
wastes; and have significant site contamination such as inadequate hazard-
ous waste disposal sites or groundwater contamination. The locations of
these sources are shown in Figure 10.
There were 15 major industrial sources among the 33 in Table 23 that
had non-zero ratings for direct wastewater discharges. These 15 sources
are estimated to discharge about 95% of all organic priority pollutants,
phenols, and heavy metals directly discharged by industrial point sources.
-------
117
Table 21
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT RATING CRITERIA
Rating
0
1
2
3
Volume Handled
Metric tons/year
10-50
50-100
>100
Storage Capacity
Rating Capacity (gallons)
0 <5,000
1 5,000-10,000
2 10,000-25,000
3 >25,OOQ
Treatment Capacity
Rating Capacity (gallons/day)
0 <1,000
1 1,000-10,000
?. 10,000-100,000
3 >100,000
Disposal Capacity
Rating*
0
1
2
3
Land Application
(acres)
<1
1-10
10-25
>25
Landfill
,. (acre-feet)
<1
1-5
5-10
>10
Surface Impoundment
(gallons)
<1,000
1,000-5,000
5,000-10,000
>10,000
The highest rating value obtained for all three columns
-------
118
Table 22
SITE CONTAMINATION RATING CRITERIA
Rating Conditions
Inactive Hazardous Waste Onsite Disposal
0 No onsite inactive disposal
1 Disposal site has low probability of containing
hazardous wastes, ITF priority III
2 Possible hazardous wastes, small area (< 1 acre),
ITF priority II
3 Possible hazardous wastes, larger area, ITF
priority II
4 Known hazardous wastes, ITF priority I
5 Known hazardous wastes, known major environ-
mental problems
Groundwater Contamination
0 No known or probable contamination
1 Significant potential for contamination
2 Known contamination
Surface Runoff Contamination
0 No known or probable contamination
1 Significant potential for contamination
2 Known contamination
-------
119
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|TARI°
LEGEND
• INDUSTRIAL POINT SOURCE
• MUNICIPAL POINT SOURCE
A HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT FACILITY
SOURCE NUMBER SEE T ABIE 23 ,
FOR IDENTIFICATION
LAKE
ERlE
FIGURE 10. LOCATIONS OF MAJOR POINT SOURCES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
-------
121
To provide an estimate of the maximum discharges of priority pollutants
from industrial point sources, daily maximum values from SPDES permit appli-
cations were compiled in Table 24. These data show that in an average daily
flow of about 460 mgd, the 15 industries discharge reported maximum daily
loads of 558 Ib of organic priority pollutants, 237 Ib of phenols, and 682
Ib of heavy metals.
Table 24 shows that a major portion of the chemical substances is con-
tributed by a few sources. This suggests a priority order for new SPDES
permits containing best available technology (BAT) based effluent limits on
priority pollutants. It is estimated that the improvements in wastewater
treatment or controls necessary to meet BAT permit limits could achieve at
least a 50% reduction in maximum priority pollutant discharges from indus-
trial point sources.
Table 23 indicates that many of the major industrial sources discharge
significant loads of priority pollutants to municipal sewer systems for
treatment. These loads are included in the major municipal point source
loads.
Municipal
There are about 20 municipal wastewater treatment plants serving the
study area. Only four of these plants were found to discharge significant
loads of priority pollutants [Table 24]. These plants receive major flows
of industrial wastes containing chemical substances. The four plants are
estimated to collectively contribute more than 90% of all priority pollut-
ants discharged by municipal sources.
Based on EPA monitoring in May and June 1981, the four plants discharge
about 328 Ib/day of organic priority pollutants, 525 Ib/day of phenols, and
566 Ib/day of heavy metals. These loads are 59, 222, and 83%, respectively,
of the maximum loads reportedly discharged by major industrial sources.
-------
122
Table 24
MAJOR WASTEWATER DISCHARGES OF PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
Facility City
Allied Chemical Buffalo
Ashland Petroleum Tonawanda
Bethlehem Steel Lackawanna
Buffalo Color Buffalo
Chevrolet Tonawanda
Donner-Hanna Coke Buffalo
DuPont Niagara Falls
FMC Tonawanda
Hooker Chemical
(Durez) North Tonawanda
Hooker Specialty
Chemical Niagara Falls
National Steel
(Hanna Furnace) Buffalo
01 in Niagara Falls
Republic Steel Buffalo
Spaulding Fiber Tonawanda
Tonawanda Coke Tonawanda
Industrial Subtotal
Buffalo Sewer
Authority Buffalo
City of
North Tonawanda North Tonawanaa
City of
Niagara Falls Niagara Falls
Town of Tonawanda Tonawanda
Municipal Subtotal
Organic
Flow Priority Pollutants Phenols Heavy Metals
(mgd) (lb/day)a (1b/day)a (lb/day)a
Industrial
12.2
19.3
233
10
23
9.8
10.8
7.1
0.7
38.5
38.8
6.8
42.8
4.7
2.6
460
Municipal
180
9.2
64
15
268
<1
0
65
0
0
69
69
0
17
100
3
274
2
0
2
558
H
60d
rl
14°
p
252d
2d
328
0.5
2.3
0
°b
55b
25C
2.4
0
113
4
22
4
0
1 c
1.3C
237
A
<15Q
H
oa
h f
Sioj
oa
525
3
242
38
9
-
ld
5
5
4
69
65
8
53
175
5
682
H
520a
d
3a
p
42d
lu
566
Hazardous Waste Management
CECOS Niagara Falls
SCA Model City
Hazardous Waste Subtotal
Canadian Industrial and
Municipal Subtotal
SUBTOTAL - Known Point
Sources
Assumed Contribution of Minor
Point Sources
TOTAL
<1
<1
<1
Canadian
62
791
-------
123
Canadian Industrial and Municipal Point Sources
In early 1981, Environment Ontario conducted a survey of industrial
and municipal point sources (including two combined sewer overflows) tribu-
tary to the Niagara River in Ontario which provided the only available data
on discharges of priority pollutants substances from Canadian sources.91
As shown in Table 24, the Canadian loads were about 23 Ib/day of organic
priority pollutants, 3 Ib/day of phenols, and 156 Ib/day of heavy metals.
The organic priority pollutants were less than 3% of the U.S. point source
load while the heavy metals were about 13% of the U.S. load.
Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites
As shown in Table 23, there were three major hazardous waste manage-
ment facilities in the study area. One treats and reclaims wastes. Only
two were active commercial hazardous waste disposal sites. As shown in
Table 24, they discharge only minor amounts of priority pollutants. The
maximum daily values shown for SCA would occur on only a few days as the
facility only discharges a few days a year. Although the maximum discharge
rate is 1 mgd, SCA discharged only 6 mil gal. in 1981. CECOS discharges
process wastes to the City of Niagara Falls after extensive pretreatment.
Only peripheral drainage, reportedly containing negligible priority pollut-
ants, is discharged directly to surface waters.
There are many other active and inactive solid and hazardous waste
disposal sites in the study area. Contributions of chemical substances
from these sites are not well defined. In many cases, the disposal sites
may contribute to non-point sources of chemical substances such as contami-
nated groundwater and surface runoff. For disposal sites located at indus-
trial plants, their contribution of chemical substances may be partly re-
flected in the point source discharge.
Of the hazardous waste disposal sites identified by the Interagency
Task Force (ITF) and followup DEC investigations, 155 are located within 3
miles of the Niagara River. These sites are considered to have the highest
-------
124
potential to contribute chemical substances to the River because or their
location.
Of these 155 sites, 68 are at major industrial sources of chemical
substances specifically discussed in Sections VI, VII, and VIII. An addi-
tional 20 sites were eliminated from consideration based on DEC preliminary
investigations. The remaining 67 sites are considered of concern with re-
spect to their potential for release of chemical substances to the environ-
ment. These sites are listed in Table 25 with locations shown in Figure
11.
No attempt was made to rank the significance of these sites. Remedial
measures have been completed at some. Others are scheduled for detailed
site investigations. A few are under litigation.
Comparison of Point Source and River Loads
A comparison of the estimated total loads of priority pollutants from
U.S. and Canadian point sources with the reported loads in the Niagara River
at its mouth in 1980 indicates that point sources account for major portions
of the organic priority pollutants and phenols in the river, but only a
small fraction of the heavy metals.92 The 1980 Canadian data indicated
that mean organic priority pollutants loads in the river increased from
about 1,070 Ib/day at the inlet to Chippawa Channel to 1,570 Ib/day at the
river mouth, an increase of 500 Ib/day. The estimated total point source
load was 970 Ib/day, 62% of the total river load and 194% of the increase
in load.
The estimated phenol point source load of 829 Ib/day was larger than
the mean phenol load of 680 Ib/day at the mouth of the Niagara River. An
incremental increase in the river could not be computed because all phenol
measurements at the upstream location were below the detection limit.
The estimated total point source load of 1,495 Ib/day of heavy metals
was less than 5% of the reported heavy metals load in the river of more
-------
125
Table 25
HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL SITES OF CONCERN
NOT AT MAJOR INDUSTRIAL PLANTS
Task Force3
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1C
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
a
b
c
Site No.
103
82
A
162
111
113
4
128
83
6
84
167
207
173
67
21
242
68
85
219
72
39
182
86
136
190
38
137
76
138
140
141
77
93
14
87
81
196
94
95
144
79
147
149
B
201
150
151
100
203
63
62
C
204
206
241
91
208
220
89
160
90
88
244
245
40
56
See Figure 11
A = Active, I
Site Name
R. P. Adams
Adams Generating Plant
Allied Chemical - Hopkins Street
Altift
Aluminum Matchplate
Anoconda Company
Basic Carbon
Sell Aerospace - Textron
Buffalo Avenue, 52-60 Street
Buffalo Pump Division
Cayuga Island
Chemical Leaman Transit Lines
City of Tonawanda
Empire Waste
Frontier Chemical
Frontier Bronze
Charles Gibson Site
Gratwick Park
Griffon Park
Hartwell Street Landfill
Holiday Park
Hooker - Hyde Park Landfill
Huntly Power Station
Hydraulic Canal
IWS Equipment
Lehigh Valley
Love Canal
Lucidol of Pennwalt
Lynch Park
MacNaughton - Brooks
Manzel Division
Mobil Oil Corporation
Modern Disposal
Nash Road Site
Necco Park (DuPont)
New Road
Niagara County Refuse Disposal
Niagara Frontier Port Authority
Niagara River Site
Old Creek Bed (Oibaco Site)
Otis Elevator
Power Authority of New York
Ramco Steel - Hopkins Street
Robbin Steel
Rodeway Inn
Seaway Industrial Park
Shavco Plastics
Shavco Plastics
Silbergeld Junk Yard
Squaw Island
Stauffer Chemical (Art Park)
Stauffer Chemical (North Love Canal)
St. Mary's School (60th Street)
William Strassman
Tifft Farm
Times Beach
Town of Niagara
Veteran's Park
West Seneca Transfer Station
Whirlpool Site
J.H. Williams (TRW)
Witmer Road
64th Street
93rd Street School
97th Street Methodist Church
102nd Street Landfill (Hooker)
102nd Street Landfill (01 in)
for site locations.
= Inactive
I = At an industrial plant 0 = Offsite industrial
M = Municipal
site P = Private site
City
Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Buffalo
Buffalo
Tonawanda
Buffalo
Niagara Falls
Porter
Niagara Falls
North Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
Tonawanda
Tonawanda
Pendleton
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
North Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
North Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
Buffalo
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Buffalo
Buffalo
Buffalo
Model City
North Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
Wheat Field
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
Buffalo
Niagara Falls
Buffalo
Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
Tonawanda
Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Buffalo
Niagara Falls
Lew is ton
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
Buffalo
Buffalo
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
Buffalo
Niagara Falls
Tonawanda
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls
disposal site
Status13
I
I
I
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
A
I
I
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
I
I
I
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
Type0
P
I
0
P
I
I
I
I
M
I
P
I
M
P
0
I
P
P
M
P
P
0
I
M
I
0
0
I
0
I
I
I
P
M
0
M
M
M
0
0
I
M
I
I
I
P
I
I
I
M
0
0
0
P
P
M
M
M
M
M
I
M
M
0
0
0
0
-------
126
ONTARIO
LAKE
FIGURE 11. HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL SITES OF CONCERN
-------
127
than 34,000 Ib/day. The river load is suspect, however, because about half
the load was for two metals which were below detection limits in all sam-
ples. Because the river flow is very large and concentrations of chemical
substances are at very low levels near the detection limit of analytical
methods used, estimates of component loads are subject to significant errors
(±50% or more) due to small errors in the absolute value of a sample con-
centration.
Basc~ of, :: mean river flow of 202,000 cfs, the estimated point source
loads would produce an incremental concentration increase of 0.9 ug/£
organic priority pollutants, 0.7 H9/£ phenols, and 1.3 ug/£ total heavy
metals. These concentrations are below the detection limit for most of the
component substances, especially phenols and heavy metals.
-------
129
VI. MAJOR SOURCES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES,
BUFFALO-LACKAWANNA SUBAREA
The Buffalo-Lackawanna subarea encompasses the cities of Buffalo and
Lackawanna and portions of the town of Cheektowaga, all in Erie County.
There are seven major industrial sources, one major municipal source (Buf-
falo Sewer Authority), no major active offsite hazardous waste disposal
facilities, and 20 hazardous waste disposal sites of concern. Seven of
these disposal sites are at major industrial sources. Five of the indus-
trial sources and Buffalo Sewer Authority are major wastewater dischargers.
Combined sewer overflows, urban runoff, dredged spoil disposal, and contam-
inated bottom sediments are all important non-point sources of toxic sub-
stances in this subarea. With the exception of two industrial facilities,
all major point sources and major non-point source contributions are along
the Buffalo River, the Lake Erie waterfront, or the Upper Niagara River.
INDUSTRIAL POINT SOURCES
Bethlehem Steel Corporation
Bethlehem Steel Corporation operates a large, fully integrated iron
and steel mill on a 1,200 acre site in Lackawanna [Figure 12]. This mill is
the largest industrial facility in the study area. It began operation in
1922. Processes include coke ovens, blast furnaces, basic oxygen furnaces,
and various rolling mills.
Bethlehem Steel is the largest source of wastewater in the study area.
About 233 mgd of cooling water, process wastewaters, and other wastewaters
are discharged through five outfalls to Blasdell, Rush, and Smokes Creeks
and to the Union and Lackawanna Canals. A wide variety of treatment or
control processes are employed.
A total of 42 organic priority pollutants were reported as detected in
Bethlehem Steel wastewaters in the 1981 SPDES permit application. Fourteen
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DIKED DREDGED <••
SPOIL DISPOSAL £fe\\ ^
NATIONAL STEEL X^"^"1 V\\V\\ 2
(HANNA FURNACE) ~^V "'' ' ' *N "
BETHLEHEM STEEL
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DISPOSAL AREA
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Figure 12. Lackawanna Area
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of these were reported at higher values in the intake water from Lake Erie
than in plant effluents. The total net load of organic priority pollutants
discharged was reported as 64 Ib/day. The most significant organic priority
pollutants discharged were (loads in Ib/day are in parentheses): benzene
(3.2), acenaphthene (7.5), acenaphthylene (8.5), 2-chloronaphthalene (7.5),
dimethylphthalate (10.2), dinitrotoluene (7.5), fluorene (7.2), hexachloro-
benzene (8.5), and pyrene (14.2). Many of these substances are polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Screening sampling of various stream loca-
tions around the Buffalo study area for PAHs in 1980 and 1981 detected me-
dium to high relative concentrations in Smokes Creek and Lackawanna and
Union Canals.93
Other priority pollutants discharged as reported in the permit appli-
cation were 102 Ib/day of cyanide and 38 Ib/day of heavy metals (23 Ib/day
was zinc).
Priority pollutant analyses of samples collected by EPA on May 8 and
9, 1981 from Smokes Creek and the outfalls discharging to Blasdell Creek
and the Lackawanna Canal detected 15 organic priority pollutants at levels
less than 10 ug/£.94 About 107 Ib/day of heavy metals were detected in
three discharges, of which 91 Ib/day was zinc and 13 Ib/day was copper.
The steel mill has other liquid wastes which are not included in the
SPDES permitted outfalls. Runoff from raw material storage piles goes to
surrounding waterways without monitoring. Wastewaters from the coke ovens
and byproduct plant are stripped and dephenolized and then used to quench
hot BOF slag and hot coke. Waste pickle liquors are neutralized on the
alkaline slag landfill that now covers a large area of former Lake Erie
shallows on the west edge of the mill [Figure 12]. Dredged spoils from
Smokes Creek, process sludges, and waste treatment sludges are placed in
surface impoundments on the slag fill. The ootential contributions of pri-
oricy pollutants from these ancillary activities to Lake Erie waters was
not defined. The use of best management practices (BMPs) to control con-
tributions from these sources was not defined.
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Process emissions of air pollutants of concern to the atmosphere total
about 97 ton/year.78 This included 85 tpy of phenolic compounds and smaller
amounts of trichloroethane, hydrogen cyanide, lead, copper, and zinc. No
emissions data on benzo(a)pyrenes were reported.
The Industrial Chemical Survey (ICS) for Bethlehem listed 15 chemicals
of concern with more than 25 mil gal. used or produced per year and more
than 1.6 mil gal. in storage on the average.88 Major volumes of benzene,
toluene, xylene, and coal tar were listed. About 12,000 gal. of PCBs are
used in closed systems.
Bethlehem Steel has applied for a RCRA permit for its hazardous waste
management activities.90 More than 67,000 metric tons of hazardous wastes
are handled annually. Onsite disposal includes a 240 acre-foot landfill
and a 48,000 gal. surface impoundment. Large volumes of blast furnace and
EOF slags are landfilled onsite. A May 1981 RCRA inspection by EPA found
the hazardous waste management activities and facilities to be essentially
in compliance with Interim Status Standards.95 A June 1981 site inspection
by an EPA contractor did not resolve questions concerning whether leachate,
seepage, or runoff from the site could transport chemical substances into
Lake Erie.96
This is an Interagency Task Force (ITF) listed site. An April 1980,
assessment of environmental problems at the site by DEC indicated potential
ground and surface water contamination.97 The site is now operated under a
DEC Part 360 permit.
It is evident that a significant potential exists for the discharge of
priority pollutants from ancillary activities at this facility including
hazardous and industrial waste disposal in the slag fill area. Permit con-
ditions requiring Bethlehem Steel to address the need for BMPs to minimize
such contributions are needed in the next SPDES permit.
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National Steel (Hanna Furnace)
National Steel operates a basic blast furnace operation producing about
1,000 to 1,930 ton/day of pig iron from iron ore. The facility is adjacent
to the Union Canal northeast of Bethlehem Steel [Figure 12].
About 38.8 mgd of wastewaters (primarily non-contact cooling water) is
discharged to the Union Canal when both blast furnaces are operating. The
flow is reduced to 23.5 mgd when only one furnace is in use. About 5 mgd
is scrubber wastewater. The permit application indicated this wastewater
contained major loads (daily maximum) of heavy metals (65 Ib), cyanide (87
Ib), and phenolic compounds (22 Ibs) but only a small load of organic prior-
ity pollutants (3 Ib). Only four organic priority pollutants were reported
present. Lead (17.9 Ib) and zinc (45 Ib) accounted for most of the heavy
metals.
No wastewaters are discharged to a municipal sewer system.
Hanna Furnace listed only small volumes of a few chemicals of concern
in their ICS response.88 They have not applied for a RCRA permit for
hazardous waste management facilities.90
Raw materials and some solid waste materials including slag and flue
dust are stored in piles on the north side of Union Canal. This area is
reportedly curbed and relatively impervious and no storm runoff occurs.
This is an ITF listed site.98 The site has a DEC Part 360 permit.
No emissions of air pollutants of concern were reported in the emis-
sions inventory.78
Allied Chemical
Allied Chemical on the Buffalo River [Figure 13] manufactures acids
and industrial inorganic chemicals. Products reportedly include ammonium
thiosulfate; cadmium, copper, iron, and nickel nitrates; nitric, oxalic,
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Itpv :.U$
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135
and sulfuric acids; potassium nitrite; and sulfur trioxide." However, the
permit application indicates the metallic nitrates are no longer produced.
The plant began operation in 1930.
Contact and non-contact cooling water and small amounts of utility
wastewaters are discharged to the Buffalo River through four outfalls.
Flow averages 12.2 mgd. The only treatment for these wastewaters reported
in the permit application was neutralization. Cooling water supply is ob-
tained from the Buffalo River Improvement Corporation (BRIC). Process waste-
waters are pretreated at the adjacent Buffalo Color Company facility and
discharged to the Buffalo Sewer Authority system.
The permit application indicated that, based on three samples, maximum
loads of priority pollutants in the direct discharges were low, with less
than 1 Ib/day of organic priority pollutants and phenols present and 3 lb/
day of heavy metals, primarily cadmium, copper, and zinc. The organic
priority pollutants were about 0.2 Ib/day of various pesticides.
No significant emissions of air pollutants of concern were reported.78
Allied applied for a RCRA permit to store less than 20,000 gal. of
corrosive hazardous wastes in containers and tanks.90 Annual volume handled
was estimated at about 200 metric tons.
An IFT-listed disposal site at this facility was a sludge lagoon that
has been excavated and filled with clean fill.100 No obvious environmental
hazards were present in April 1980. Monitoring wells have been installed.
The Allied Chemical and adjacent Buffalo Color Company plant (formerly
owned by Allied Chemical) are along an area of the Buffalo River shown to
have elevated levels of chemical substances in the sediments. The hazardous
nature of the Allied Chemical products and proximity of the plant to the
river indicate the need for BMP conditions in the SPDES permit to minimize
contributions of priority pollutants from ancillary activities.
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Buffalo Color Corporation
Buffalo Color Corporation manufactures a variety of anilines, anhy-
drides, dyes, dye intermediates, and food colors. The plant began operation
in 1879 as National Aniline and Chemical Corporation. It was operated by
Allied Chemical prior to its present ownership.
About 10 mgd of non-contact cooling waters are obtained from BRIC and
discharged along with minor amounts of boiler blowdown and steam condensate
through two outfalls to the Buffalo River. The only significant priority
pollutants reported in the permit application to be in these discharges
were 9 Ib/day of heavy metals. Process wastewaters (about 1 mgd), contain-
ing about 6 Ib/day of 17 organic priority pollutants and 20 Ib/day of heavy
metals (primarily chromium), are discharged to the Buffalo Sewer Authority
after pretreatment.101
Because of the nature of their operation, Buffalo Color Corporation
uses, produces, and stores very large volumes of chemicals of concern. The
ICS response indicates that more than 50 mil Ib of more than 75 chemicals
are used or produced each year.88 About a million pounds are in storage.
About 20,000 Ib. of PCBs are used in electric transformers.
A wide variety of process air pollutant emissions are reported.78 The
most significant emission of air pollutants of concern was 21 tons/year of
aniline.
An application was filed for a RCRA permit to store and treat (the
pretreatment unit) hazardous wastes.90 Container storage capacity of 75,000
gal. was requested. About 1,500 metric tons of hazardous wastes are han-
dled annually. No onsite disposal was requested.
There has been disposal of hazardous wastes on site in the past. Three
ITF sites are listed at this location.102 The most significant is the
"weathering area" where sludges were stored for many years on the banks of
the Buffalo River. A 500-foot deep well was used for disposal of about 3.5
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mil gal. of ammonium sulfate solution from 1960 until the well collapsed in
1963. This plant produced benzidene dyes until 1976. Traces of the dyes
and intermediates have been found in Buffalo River sediments. Fish tumor
pathology has been linked to this sediment contamination.103
Contamination of the plant site, possibly including groundwater, from
past disposal practices may be continuing to contribute to pollution of the
Buffalo River.102 An effective BMP plan with specific BMPs to control chem-
ical substances in runoff, leachate, etc. is needed.
Donner-Hanna Coke Joint Venture
Donner-Hanna Coke produces metallurgical coke from coal and recovers a
variety of byproducts including phenols, sodium phenol ate, ammonia, ammon-
ium sulfate, tars, light oil containing benzene, toluene and xylene, and
naphthalene. Plant operations began in 1919. The plant is adjacent to the
Buffalo River and Republic Steel [Figure 13].
About 9.8 mgd of cooling water and process wastewaters are discharged
through one outfall to the Buffalo River. Most process wastewaters, after
primary treatment, are used for quenching of coke. Treatment sludges are
recycled to the raw materials. Other process wastes receive filtering,
solvent extraction and distillation treatment before mixing with cooling
waters for discharge. Sanitary wastes are discharged to the Buffalo Sewer
Authority. Most of the water supply is obtained from BRIC.
The SPDES permit application reported a daily maximum discharge (gross)
of organic priority pollutants of 69 Ib, of which 54 Ib was methylene chlo-
ride and 13 Ib was benzene. These two pollutants were also present in the
BRIC supply. The maximum net discharge was about 30 Ib/day. Maximum dis-
charges of cyanides and phenols were reported as 16 and 25 Ib/day,
respectively.
The May 8 and 9, 1981 EPA sampling detected only acenaphthene, arsenic,
and selenium in the discharge at a net discharge load of less than 2 Ib/
day.104 The concentrations observed by EPA sampling are below expected BAT
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levels. However, reported maximum values in the permit application are
above expected BAT concentrations indicating the need for additional prior"
ity pollutant limits in the next SPDES permit. The facility produces a
variety of organic priority pollutants that should be controlled by the
permit.
The ICS response indicates the plant produces more than 15 mil gal.
per year of toluene, phenol, xylene, coal tar, and light oil.88 Average
storage is about 1.6 mil gal. The Company claims there is no surface run-
off or groundwater infiltration from their raw material and product storage
areas.105 The large volumes of organic priority pollutants stored indicate
the need for BMP conditions in the SPDES permit.
Donner-Hanna Coke applied for a RCRA permit to store and treat about
3,300 metric tons of hazardous waste annually.90 Storage is in tanks and a
surface impoundment with a total volume of 35,000 gal. The DEC has listed
a possible solid waste management site (ammonium sulfate) at this facility
but the Company has denied this.106
Process emissions of air pollutants of concern included about 12 tons/
year of phenols and miscellaneous organics,78 No specific emission rates
were given for benzo(a)pyrene, known to be emitted by coke ovens.
Republic Steel Corporation
This iron and steel mill is on about 120 acres adjacent to the Buffalo
River [Figure 13]. The mill has been in operation since 1906. Processes
include blast furnaces (2), basic oxygen furnaces (2), and pickling and
rolling mills.
About 43 mgd of cooling and process wastewaters and storm runoff are
discharged to the Buffalo River through four outfalls. Water supply is
obtained from Lake Erie.
The SPDES permit application indicated that maximum discharges of or-
ganic priority pollutants and phenols were nil but heavy metals were 53
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Ib/day. This was primarily copper, lead, and zinc. The May 4, 1981 EPA
sampling also indicated organic priority pollutant discharges were nil107
but heavy metals were 37 Ib/day with the same three metals dominant.
The ICS response indicated relatively small use and storage of a few
chemicals of concern.88 A RCRA permit application was filed for the tank
storage of up to 5,250 gal. of hazardous wastes.90 About 1,300 metric tons
are handled annually. Waste treatment sludges are stored at a company-owned
site at another location and then shipped out of state for recovery of iron.
Slags are landfilled at the offsite location.
The only emissions of air pollutants of concern reported were less than
1 ton/year of lead.78 The Company reports storm runoff from material storage
is essentially contained in a diked concrete area with no discharge.108 It
is not clear if there are any other ancillary activities that could contri-
bute priority pollutants.
Chevrolet (Harrison Radiator Division)
This plant in northeast Buffalo manufactures automotive air condition-
ers, heaters, and radiators. It has no direct discharge of wastewaters.
Process wastewaters containing organic priority pollutants and heavy metals
are discharged to the Buffalo Sewer Authority system for treatment.
The ICS response indicates this plant uses about 40,000 gal./year of
1,1,1-trichloroethane, toluene, xylene, and petroleum distillates.88 About
2,800 gal. are stored at one time.
The facility is a large RCRA generator, storage, and treatment faci-
lity.90 The application requested a permit for tank treatment capacity of
0.43 mgd, tank storage of 400,000 gal., and container storage of 2,000 gal.
About 730,000 metric tons of hazardous waste are handled annually, primar-
ily spent electroplating bath solutions. Emissions of air pollutants of
concern were reported as 14.5 tons/year of trichloroethane and 3.5 tons/year
of xylene.78
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No site contamination data were located.
MUNICIPAL POINT SOURCES
Buffalo Sewer Authority
The only major municipal wastewater discharge in this subarea is the
large Buffalo Sewer Authority (BSA) Bird Island plant that serves about
550,000 persons in the City of Buffalo and parts of suburban cities and
towns. A major portion (14% or 24 mgd) of the plant influent is industrial
wastes contributed by about 620 industrial users. About 96% of the tribu-
tary area is served by combined storm and sanitary sewers. Located on Squaw
Island on the Upper Niagara River, the plant discharges directly to the
river.
The plant's primary treatment units were built in the 1930s. Acti-
vated sludge secondary treatment units were completed in 1980. Sludge is
incinerated on site; however, there have been frequent malfunctions in these
incinerators and associated equipment and large quantities of sludge have
been transported to approved landfills.
The secondary treatment units have experienced operational problems
since startup which have been attributed to equipment failures, poor opera-
tion and maintenance, inadequate operator training, and carryover of solids
from the primary units. Renovation of the primary units was not started
until after the secondary units were placed in operation. Repairs and re-
placements of equipment and operator training programs directed at these
problems are continuing with completion scheduled by early 1983.
Average dry weather wastewater discharge is about 160 mgd. Design
flow is 180 mgd. Sampling of the discharge by EPA in May 1981 found that
all organic priority pollutants were below detection limits (ranging from 1
to 10 ng/£) except for bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate discharged at 10 pg/£ (13
lb/day).109 Department of Health analysis of the effluent in August 1980
found four compounds at detectable levels: bromodichloromethane (6 |jg/£),
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dibromochloromethane (1 ug/£), methylene chloride (4 ug/£), and chloroform
(17 ug/£)- This is equivalent to a total toxic organics load of about 60
Ib/day. EPA heavy metals analyses showed a much larger load of about 520
Ib/day.109 Predominant metals were zinc (357 Ib), nickel (69 Ib), chromium
(60 Ib), and copper (30 Ib).
Observed concentrations of organic priority pollutants are low. Heavy
metals concentrations are also low relative to BAT for heavy metals. The
BSA pretreatment program is not fully operational. Completion of the plant
renovation plus implementation of the pretreatment program should achieve
some reductions in heavy metals loads but the magnitude of the reduction
cannot be predicted with present data.
NON-POINT SOURCES
Dredged Spoil Disposal
Navigation channels dredged deeper than the historic river or lake
bottom have been constructed in the lower Buffalo River, the Buffalo Outer
Harbor area, the Upper Niagara River, and Tonawanda Channel downstream to
the City of North Tonawanda. Because these deepened channels serve as sedi-
ment traps, they must be dredged annually to maintain navigable depths.
Sediments trapped in the channels originate in urban and agricultural
runoff, combined sewer overflows, industrial wastewater discharges, and
shifting bottom sediments. Pollutants from these sources, including PCBs,
pesticides, and heavy metals, become trapped in the bottom sediments and
appear in the dredged spoil.
The dredging process results in the immediate resuspension of some
sediments that can be carried away by river currents. Disposal of the
dredged spoil results in the transfer of polluted sediments from the dredg-
ing site to the disposal site. This can also result in the release of pol-
lutants.
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Prior to 1968, all dredged spoil from Buffalo River, Buffalo Outer
Harbor, Black Rock Canal, and Tonawanda Harbor removed by the U.S. Corps of
Engineers was disposed of in open waters of Lake Erie.110 The disposal
area was adjacent to Bethlehem Steel in Lackawanna [Figure 12]. It was
about 0.7 mi wide and 1.4 mi long with its long axis parallel to the Beth-
lehem Steel plant.3 Water depths ranged from 6 to 25 feet.
This disposal area was and remains exposed to the full force of wave
action from Lake Erie storms. This could resuspend bottom sediments into
the lake waters. A hydraulic model study performed by the Corps of Engin-
eers in 1972 found that both surface and littoral drift currents in the
disposal area moved northward parallel to shore with some entering Buffalo
Outer Harbor and others moving into the Upper Niagara River.110 Thus, sedi-
ments from the disposal area could be transported into the river.
In the 1940s, the open water disposal caused some pollution problems
at a western New York water company (later the Erie County Water Authority
Wood!awn plant and now closed) water supply intake at the south edge of the
disposal area.3 The Corps of Engineers attempted to minimize the problem
by depositing coarser dredged materials from the Black Rock Canal near the
intake. The more polluted finer materials and sludges from Buffalo River
and Buffalo Harbor were disposed of farther north.
Before 1968, dredged spoil volumes were probably in excess of 600,000
to 700,000 yd3/year. All except 90,000 to 100,000 yd3 from the Tonawanda
Harbor were dredged from the Buffalo River, Outer Harbor, and Black Rock
Canal areas. Additional spoils from private dredging were also dumped in
the open water area.
The dredging in the Buffalo River was and is done under contract by
clamshell dredge with spoil placed on barges for transport to disposal
areas. This volume was about 125,000 ydVyear in 1973 and is the most pol-
luted. The remainder of the public dredging was and is done by Corps of
Engineers hopper dredges. No information on private dredging practices was
reviewed.
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Beginning in fall 1967, the more polluted spoil (100,000 yd3) was
placed in a diked experimental disposal area (No. 9) near the south end of
Buffalo Outer Harbor [Figure 13].110 Between 1968 and about 1973, the Buf-
falo River spoil and about 50,000 yd3/year of hopper dredge spoil from near
the mouth of the Buffalo River (classified as seriously polluted because of
mercury content) were disposed of in the No. 9 diked area and a new diked
area at Times Beach near the mouth of the Buffalo River [Figure 13].110
The remaining spoil (about 400,000 yd3/year) was dumped in the Bethlehem
open water area. Between 1974 and 1977, all dredged spoil was disposed of
in the two diked areas.
The disposal area dikes were constructed of steel mill slag. Engi-
neering studies found the dike material to be relatively porous.111 Thus,
as the spoils dewatered, the water could seep out through the dikes carry-
ing any soluble pollutants with it. The dredged spoil in the No. 9 disposal
area was found to have low permeability. The extent to which leaching
could still occur from these diked sites would be reduced by this low per-
meability but could still occur.
In 1977, a new 107 acre diked disposal area was completed at the south
entrance to Buffalo Harbor adjacent to Bethlehem Steel and just north of
the old open water disposal area [Figure 12]. Dikes for this area were con-
structed of rubble which would also be expected to be porous. All dredged
spoil is now disposed of in this new area (No. 4). Expected capacity is
10 years of spoil.
Data on the presence of priority pollutants in the early dredged spoil
is nonexistent. However, it can be assumed that pollutants in the spoil
were higher than at present because the Buffalo River and Outer Harbor were
much more polluted than at present. A comparison of conventional pollutant
levels in bottom sediments from various Buffalo River-Outer Harbor loca-
tions taken in 1967 and 1972 showed the sediments were less polluted in
1972.112 However, the 1972 data still showed Buffalo River sediments to
have higher lead and zinc levels than EPA criteria for open water spoil
disposal.
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Samples of bottom sediments from several locations in Buffalo River,
Outer Harbor, and the Black Rock Canal were collected in August 1981 by the
Great Lakes Laboratory under a Corps of Engineers contract.113 The sediment
samples were analyzed for heavy metals, several conventional pollutants,
PCBs, and pesticides. Elutriate tests were also run on the sediments. A
comparison of the metals concentrations with EPA Region V sediment criteria
indicated that all stations were classified as heavily polluted for at least
one metal. Most samples had high levels of four or five metals. The most
contaminated sediments were found in the Buffalo River and in the Black
Rock Canal near the mouth of Scajaquada Creek.
Some PCB contamination was detected at most stations, usually below
1.0 ug/g dry weight and all below 10 M9/9- Low levels of pesticides were
detected in some samples, usually less than 0.5 (jg/g with a few samples
exceeding 1.0 ug/g.
Elutriate tests demonstrated that some pollutants are released from
the sediments in the water column. These include mercury and phenols. The
report concluded that critical releases during dredging and disposal may
not initially exist but the potential for long-term releases exists. Be-
cause of this potential for pollutants to be released into the water column,
alternative dredging and disposal practices may have to be considered.113
The current environmental monitoring program for the Niagara River
system is not designed to assess the magnitude of priority pollutants con-
tributed by past and present dredging and spoil disposal practices. Based
on the above information, a modification of the monitoring program to eval-
uate this non-point source is needed.
Contaminated Bottom Sediments
As indicated in the previous discussion on dredged spoil disposal,
bottom sediments in the Buffalo River, Buffalo Outer Harbor, and Black Rock
Canal are contaminated with persistent priority pollutants above levels
acceptable for disposal of dredged spoil in open waters. Other areas of
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contamination were discussed in Section IV. These sediments in stream and
river channels and in shallow water areas of Lake Erie are susceptible to
movement and resuspension in the water column by wave action and/or high
stream flow during storms.
The extent to which contaminated bottom sediments are a source of the
persistent priority pollutants observed in Niagara River suspended sediments
is not defined. This non-point source needs to be evaluated to assist in
development of control strategies.
Combined Sewer Overflows
About 55 combined sewer overflow points are located along the Buffalo
River and its tributaries, the Buffalo Waterfront, and the Upper Niagara
River. These overflows contributed significantly to pollution of the Buf-
falo River in the past with overflows occurring as often as every 5 days on
the average. Overflows allow untreated municipal and industrial wastes to
enter the river where priority pollutants may settle into the bottom sedi-
ments in the slow-flowing lower reaches, adding to the contamination from
point sources and upstream runoff.
Urban Runoff
The Buffalo River, Scajaquada Creek and the Niagara River receive large
volumes of urban runoff from the Buffalo area following precipitation or
snowmelt. This runoff may contribute to the sediment contamination in Buf-
falo River and at the mouth of Scajaquada Creek.
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VII. MAJOR SOURCES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES,
TONAWANDA-NORTH TONAWANDA SUBAREA
This subarea extends along the Tonawanda Channel of the Niagara River
from the north boundary of the City of Buffalo to the north boundary of the
City of North Tonawanda. It includes the west part of the Town of Tonawanda
and the Cities of Tonawanda and North Tonawanda. All of the subarea except
the City of North Tonawanda (Niagara County) is in Erie County. Tonawanda
Creek (Erie Canal) and Ellicott Creek enter the Niagara River near the mid-
dle of the subarea.
There are 11 major industrial sources and two major municipal sources
in this subarea. Six of the industrial sources and the two municipal
sources are major wastewater dischargers. With the exception of the Hooker
Durez plant and the City of North Tonawanda wastewater treatment plant, all
of these facilities are in Erie County. No major active commercial hazardous
waste disposal facilities are in the subarea but there are 55 hazardous waste
disposal sites of concern. Thirty-three of these are located at major indus-
trial sources. Important non-point sources in this subarea include urban
runoff and contaminated bottom sediments.
Most of the major point sources are along the shore of the Tonawanda
Channel [Figure 10].
INDUSTRIAL POINT SOURCES
Chevrolet Motor Division
The Chevrolet Motor Division of General Motors Corporation operates
three plants (Forge Plant, Metal Casting Plant, and Motor Plant) at one
site in the Town of Tonawanda [Figure 14]. The facility makes automotive
motor assemblies and parts.
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149
About 23 mgd of treated process wastes and cooling water are discharged
to the Niagara River through one outfall. The discharge contains low levels
of organic priority pollutants and heavy metals but daily maximum discharges
of phenols are about 55 Ib/day. The high phenol loads occur during mainten-
ance problems in the treatment system. The plant does not discharge waste-
waters to a municipal system.
ICS responses were submitted for all three plants.88 A wide variety
of chemicals of concern are used in the plants with a use rate of more than
10 mil Ib annually. More than 6,000 gal. of PCBs are present in closed
systems. Other substances used of particular concern include asbestos and
several degreasers.
Emissions of air pollutants of concern reported include small amounts
of trichloroethane and trichloroethylene, 54 tons/yr of organic solvents,
28 tons/yr of miscellaneous organics, and 55,000 tons/yr of carbon monoxide.78
A RCRA permit application requested approval for container and tank
storage capacity of 660,000 gal. of hazardous wastes.90 Tank treatment
capacity of 0.735 mgd was also requested. The plant reports annual hazard-
ous waste generation of more than 60,000 tons, primarily degreasing solvents.
No site contamination data were reviewed for this facility.
Dunlop Tire and Rubber Corporation
This facility in the Town of Tonawanda [Figure 14] manufactures motor
vehicle tires. The plant began operation in 1920.
About 4 mgd of cooling water and process wastes are discharged to the
Niagara River. Most of this supply is obtained from the River and Company
wells onsite. Both the permit application and EPA sampling indicate that
the effluent contains less than 1 Ib/day of organic priority pollutants.114
Because this effluent does contain process wastewaters, permit limits should
include priority pollutants used in the plant.
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Some wastewaters (about 0.15 mgd) are discharged to the Town of Tona-
wanda sewer system.
Chemicals of concern used in the plant, as reported in the ICS re-
sponse, total more than 300,000 Ib/yr with 18,000 Ib in storage.88 Toluene
and xylene were included.
Process emissions of air pollutants of concern reportedly include small
amounts of toluene, trichloroethylene, zinc, and 28 ton/yr of organic
solvents.78
Dunlop did not apply for a RCRA permit for hazardous waste management.90
For many years, various industrial solid wastes which may have contained
hazardous wastes were disposed of in pits and piles on the plant site.115
This may have resulted in significant groundwater contamination. Three ITF
sites are designated at this location and are proposed for subsurface inves-
tigation.8
FMC Corporation
This plant in the Town of Tonawanda [Figure 14] is an inorganic chemi-
cals manufacturer. Products include a variety of persulfates, paracetic
acid, and calcium, zinc, and hydrogen peroxides. Perborates were produced
until 1980. FMC began operations at this site in 1952. From 1925 to 1952,
the facility was the old Buffalo Electro-Chemical Plant.
About 7 mgd of river water are used for contact and non-contact cooling
and process (0.15 mgd) purposes. Much of the process wastewater and contact
cooling water is recycled. The permit application indicates a daily maximum
of 5 Ib of heavy metals (primarily zinc) is discharged to the Niagara River.
No other priority pollutants are discharged. EPA sampling in November 1980
detected no priority pollutants.116
Less than 5,000 Ib/year of chemicals of concern are used at this plant
according to the ICS response.88 About 180 gal. of PCBs are present in a
closed system.
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The plant has negligible process emissions of air pollutants of
concern.78
The RCRA permit application indicates about 25,000 metric tons/year of
hazardous wastes are handled, primarily corrosives.90 Storage (tank and
container) totals 84,000 gal. Treatment capacity in tanks is 0.066 mgd.
An EPA inspection on December 17, 1980, found the facility in compliance
with RCRA Interim Status Standards.117
About 100 tons of various products and raw materials have been dis-
posed of in four pits onsite.118 Remedial measures (closing the pits) have
been completed. This site is proposed for subsurface investigations.8
Some zinc contamination may be present.
Polymer Applications
This firm produces phenolic resins for plastic manufacture. It is on
a small site adjacent to Dunlop and FMC [Figure 14].
About 0.25 mgd of non-contact cooling water and roof and yard drainage
are discharged to a ditch across a powerplant site to the Niagara River.
This discharge is contaminated with phenols reportedly from surface runoff.
The plant uses large volumes of phenols. Contamination of the plant site
occurred in the past from a lagoon and a leaky waste storage tank. The
tank and lagoon sites have been excavated and contaminated material removed
but site contamination still exists. Process and sanitary wastewaters are
discharged to the Town of Tonawanda.
Phenol and formaldehyde are the only chemicals of concern reported in
the ICS response.88 Volumes used and stored are large; 7.5 mil Ib/year and
170,000 Ib in storage. Because of the existing site contamination and the
large volume stored and handled, the facility should have a Best Management
Practices (BMP) Plan.
No process emissions of air pollutants of concern were reported for
this facility.78 No RCRA hazardous waste management permit application was
listed.90
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Allied Chemical Corporation
The Specialty Chemicals Division of Allied operates this plant in the
Town of Tonawanda [Figure 14] for the production of polyethylene plastic.
Process wastewaters are discharged to the Town of Tonawanda. About 4.5 mgd
of Niagara Riv^~ •./='-|-?~ <,'«°H for non-contact cooling is mixed with small
amounts of storm runoff and contact cooling water and returned to the river.
The permit application indicated that organic priority pollutants in this
effluent were all below detection limits. Negligible amounts of heavy met-
als were detected.
Chemicals of concern reported in the ICS response were confidential.88
Air emissions were minor.78
Allied's RCRA permit application indicated that about 15 metric tons
of hazardous waste are handled annually.90 Container storage capacity of
about 14,000 gal. was requested. An EPA inspection on May 7, 1981, found
the facility in compliance with RCRA Interim Status Standards.119
Quantities of coal tar, scrap polyethylene, and spent catalyst have
been disposed of at this location at three sites.120 Subsurface investiga-
tions have been proposed by DEC to evaluate potential groundwater
contamination.8
Tonawanda Coke Corporation
This facility, adjacent to Allied Chemical [Figure 14], produces found-
ry coke from coal in 60 ovens. Byproducts include light oil (benzene, tol-
uene, xylene), tar, and coke oven gas. Ammonia is no longer recovered as a
byproduct. This plant was formerly operated by the Semet-Solvay Division
of Allied Chemical.
About 2.6 mgd of cooling water and coke quenching wastewaters are dis-
charged to the Niagara River after treatment in two lagoons. The permit
application indicated that this discharge contained a daily maximum load of
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5 Ib of heavy metals [primarily lead], 7 Ib of cyanide and 22 Ib of phe-
nols. Average phenol discharges are only 1 Ib/day. No organic priority
pollutants were present above detection limits. A second set of special
samples for benzene, xylene, and toluene indicated they were below detection
limits.
The ICS response indicated that about 0.9 mil gal. of coal tar, ben-
zene, toluene, and xylene are produced annually with about 50,000 gal. in
storage.88
No significant process emissions of air pollutants of concern were
reported.78 However, coke ovens are known to emit benzo(a)pyrenes.
No RCRA permit application has been submitted from Tonawanda Coke.90
Unknown quantities of coal tar and rubble were disposed of at three sites
at this facility for several decades.121 Surface sediment samples indicate
contamination with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Groundwater is also
potentially contaminated.121 Subsurface investigation has been proposed by
DEC.8
Union Carbide, Linde Division
Union Carbide develops, designs, and fabricates cryogenic hardware at
a plant in the Town of Tonawanda [Figure 14]. During World War II the plant
also refined uranium ores for the Manhattan Project.
The plant has no direct wastewater discharge. Wastewaters are dis-
charged to the Town of Tonawanda sewer system for treatment. During the
uranium refining operations, caustic wastewaters containing low-level radio-
activity were initially discharged to town sewers.122 Because this caused
operational problems at the treatment plant, these wastewaters were alter-
nately discharged to five 150 ft deep wells onsite or through a storm sewer
to Two-Mile Creek. About 37 mil gal. of wastewaters containing radioactive
materials were injected in the wells.
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154
The ICS response indicates about 10,000 gal. of 1,1,1-trichloroethane
are used annually.88 About a thousand gallons of chemicals are stored at
one time.
Process emissions of air pollutants of concern total about 30 ton/year
and are primarily trichloroethane and xylene.78
The RCRA application indicates about 250 mil tons of hazardous wastes
are handled each year.90 Container storage for 100 drums and treatment
tank capacity of 0.03 mgd were indicated.
Some residual radioactive contamination of soils and building materials
is present in addition to the groundwater contamination. Soil and ground-
water samples were taken in March 1981 by the Department of Energy. The
Department reported in December 1981 that radioactive contamination of
groundwater was not a problem.123
The well initially used for waste injection was formerly used as a
water supply. It was out of service because of groundwater contamination
before wastes were injected. The type or source of this contamination was
not defined.
Ashland Petroleum Company
This is a petroleum refinery with a capacity of 62,000 barrels of crude
oil per day. Products are gasoline, fuel oil, asphalt, and aromatic petro-
chemicals. The facility is on the Niagara River adjacent to the south Grand
Island bridge in the Town of Tonawanda [Figure 15].
Process wastewaters are discharged to the Town of Tonawanda sewer sys-
tem for treatment, The refinery has four direct discharges to the Niagara
River. The main discharge is about 19 mgd of non-contact cooling water
which flows through a circulation pond before discharge. The permit appli-
cation indicates this discharge is a major source of heavy metals with re-
ported daily maximum loads of 199 Ib antimony, 3 Ib copper, 17 Ib lead,
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155
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15 Ib nickel, and 8 Ib zinc. Phenols were only 2 Ib/day and other organic
priority pollutants were below detection limits. Two discharges are storm-
water runoff with reportedly low contamination. The fourth discharge is an
intake screen backwash.
The heavy metais discharges are above levels expected for non-contact
cooling water, especially the antimony. A BAT level SPDES permit should
require reduction of the metal discharges.
About 1.5 mil gal. of benzene, toluene, and xylene are produced
annually and stored at the refinery according to the ICS response.88 This
storage, coupled with the stormwater contamination potential of a refinery,
indicates the need for a BMP plan to minimize contributions of priority
pollutants from ancillary activities.
Process emissions of air pollutants of concern from the refinery report-
edly include benzene, xylene, and organic solvents totalling about 17 tons/
year.78
Ashland Petroleum applied for a RCRA permit to handle and treat about
576 metric tons of hazardous waste annually.90 This is primarily DAF float
from the process waste pretreatment unit.
Three ITF hazardous waste sites are at this facility.124 Ashland now
owns the former Haist property that was used for disposal of uranium ore
residue (tailings) from the processing of Colorado ore at the Union Carbide-
Li nde facility in the 1940s.83 Ashland removed some of the tailings to
the adjacent Seaway Industrial Park landfill and built storage tanks on the
site. Low level radioactive contamination is present in the remaining tail-
ings. Some movement of minor amounts of radioactive contamination offsite
in surface runoff may be occurring. The Department of Energy is reviewing
long-term remedial measures.
The other two sites are a lead sludge disposal area and a concrete
storage pit for API sludges. DEC has proposed subsurface investigation of
the lead site.8
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Spaulding Fibre Company
Spaulding Fibre manufactures various vulcanized fibers and high-pressure
plastic laminates, and also several grades of resin and paper for in-plant
uses at their plant in the west side of the City of Tonawanda [Figure 15].
Cooling and process wastewaters totaling about 2.7 mgd and 2.0 mgd of
stormwater are discharged through two outfalls to the Niagara River. These
discharges are reported in the permit application to be major sources of
heavy metals (175 Ib/day of zinc daily maximum). Zinc chloride is used in
the vulcanizing process. Reported zinc concentrations were more than 5
mg/£ indicating that BAT for this facility should reduce maximum zinc dis-
charges by 80%. The facility is reportedly currently meeting its permit
limit of 70 Ib/day of zinc. Other priority pollutants in the discharge
were nil.
The ICS response indicates this plant is a large user of phenol (1 mil
Ib), zinc, asbestos, toluene, and other chemicals of concern totaling about
2.4 mil lb/year.88 Onsite storage exceeds 400,000 Ib.
Process emissions of air pollutants of concern included chlorine, phe-
nol compounds, and miscellaneous organics totalling 24 tpy.78
A RCRA permit application was filed for storage in containers and tanks
(15,000 gal.) and waste piles (1,400 yard3).90 No significant hazardous
waste volumes were reported.
Four ITF hazardous waste disposal sites are located at this facility.125
One contains 20 tons of asbestos and fiberglass. Another was a concrete
tank that formerly stored metal sludges. A third site was several lagoons
that contained zinc chloride and phenolics. These have been excavated and
filled with clean fill. The fourth site contains 750 drums of varnishes
placed there in 1978. Monitoring wells are present. No additional remedial
action has been recommended by DEC.8
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Columbus-McKi'nnon Corporation
This facility on Ellicott Creek in the City of Tonawanda manufactures
chains and hoists. A variety of metal processing steps are used including
pickling, degreasing, and zinc phosphating.
City water is used for cooling and processes. This water is recycled
in sumps with blowdown from the sumps averaging 0.08 mgd discharged through
two outfalls to the Creek. Organic priority pollutants and heavy metals in
the discharge were less than 1 Ib/day.
A large number of chemicals were reported in the ICS response.88 Most
of these were either very small quantities, industrial gases, or oils.
Cutting oils are of concern at this facility as 27,000 gal. of waste cutting
oils have been disposed of in a pit.126 DEC has proposed subsurface inves-
tigation.8
Emissions of 62 tpy of paint thinner that could include air pollutants
of concern were reported.78
A RCRA permit application was filed for storage in containers and tanks
(11,000 gal. capacity) and tank treatment (0.01 mgd capacity).90 About 500
metric tons/year of hazardous wastes including corrosives, chromium wastes,
and pickling wastes are handled.
Hooker Chemical Corporation, Durez Division
This plant is a chemical manufacturing facility producing phenolic
resin, phenolic molding compound, hexamethylenetetramine, paratertiary-octyl
phenol, zinc and calcium stearates, alkyd molding compound, and diallyl
phthalate molding compound. Formaldehyde, used in several processes, was
formerly produced. The plant is in the northeast part of the City of North
Tonawanda about 1 h miles from the Niagara River.
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Water supply of about 0.7 mgd is obtained from the City of North Tona-
wanda. Sanitary wastes are discharged to the City. All other wastewaters
including cooling water, utility water, process wastes, and stormwater run-
off are discharged through 14 outfalls to storm sewers. These sewers dis-
charge to the Little River branch of the Niagara River at the north end of
Tonawanda Island.
Sampling data and the permit application show that concentrations of
toxic organics, phenols, and heavy metals were above BAT levels in several
of the discharges. The permit application indicated that a total of 27
organic priority pollutants were detected in one or more discharges. The
reported daily maximum load of organic priority pollutants was 17 Ib/day.
The highest concentrations reported were 38 mg/S, chlorobenzene, 18 mg/Z
benzene, 3.6 mg/£ phenol, 5 mg/£ dichlorobenzene, and 11 mg/S. 1,4-dichloro-
benzene. Concentrations in excess of 1 mg/S. were observed for these five
organics during the May 4 and 5, 1981 EPA sampling with a total of 16 com-
pounds detected.
Total phenols as high as 150 mg/£ were reported in the permit applica-
tion. The EPA sampling detected total phenols of 24 mg/1 in one outfall.
A total daily maximum load of 119 Ib/day was reported in the permit
application.
Heavy metals totalled 4 Ib/day, primarily zinc. Concentrations as
high as 2.5 mg/£ were reported.
In the ICS response, Hooker indicated that chemicals of concern used
at this plant exceed 50 mil lb/year.88 Storage exceeds 5 mil Ib. Phenol
use exceeds 30 mil Ib/year. Other high volume substances include formal-
dehyde, aniline, and styrene. Asbestos was used until 1978.
Air emissions from processes include 73 tpy of formaldehyde and 26 tpy
of phenol compounds.78
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A RCRA application was submitted for the handling of about 1,200 mil
tons/ year of hazardous wastes.90 Hazardous waste management units include
50,000 gal. of container storage, 540,000 gal. of tank storage, a 720 gpd
solvent recovery unit, and a 720 gph incinerator.
There are 14 ITF hazardous waste disposal sites at this facility.127
Materials landfilled include about 250 tons of phenol tar that may contain
chlorobenzenes and 28,000 tons of phenol-bearing materials. Hooker is in-
stalling wells to assess the extent of any groundwater contamination.
Both surface runoff and groundwater contamination are known to occur
at this facility. Contamination may be infiltrating plant sewers. This
contamination is the result of past spills as well as waste disposal.
It is apparent that permit limits need to be established for a number
of organic priority pollutants observed in wastewater discharges to reduce
concentrations discharged to BAT levels. The site also has significant
contributions of priority pollutants from ancillary activities (primarily
past waste disposal activities). A comprehensive best management practice
(BMP) plan is needed to minimize these contributions. The plant has some
BMPs in use.
MUNICIPAL POINT SOURCES
Town of Tonawanda
The Town of Tonawanda operates an advanced activated sludge wastewater
treatment plant that serves a population of about 129,000 in both the Town
and the City of Tonawanda and the Village of Kenmore [Figure 15]. Waste-
waters formerly treated at the City plant are now diverted to the Town plant
and the City plant has been abandoned. Design flow for the town plant is
30 mgd and dry weather flow is about 15 mgd. Treatment units in addition
to the standard activated sludge process include chemical clarification for
phosphorus removal and mixed media filtration. The plant was completed in
1978.
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At least 20 industrial plants are connected to this treatment facility
with about two-thirds discharging some or all of their process wastes to
the town for treatment. Influent priority pollutants from these industries
are not defined.
EPA sampling of the plant effluent in May 6 and 7, 1981, detected only
low levels of priority pollutants.128 Organic priority pollutants were
about 2 Ib/day, heavy metals 1 Ib/day and phenols essentially zero. Seven
organic priority pollutants were detected in the effluent, most at less
than 10 ug/£.
City of North Tonawanda
This new wastewater treatment plant serves the City of North Tonawanda
and at least 10 industrial facilities. Average wastewater flow is about 9
mgd; design flow is 15 mgd. Industrial inflow is less than 1 mgd.
The plant uses physical-chemical treatment processes. Units include
flow retention basins for stormwater surges, primary clarifiers with chemi-
cal addition, sand filters, and activated carbon filters. Such a treatment
system design is effective in removing most priority pollutants. The acti-
vated carbon filters have been plagued by construction delays and equipment
malfunctions and are not yet in service.
Plant effluent was sampled by EPA in May 1981.12S Total organic pri-
ority pollutants were about 14 Ib/day. Heavy metals were only 3 Ib/day and
phenols were essentially zero. Specific organic priority pollutants de-
tected included trichloroethylene, chlorobenzene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane,
chloroform, 1,2-trans-dichloroethylene, methylene chloride, tetrachloro-
ethylene, and toluene. The activated carbon filters would be expected to
substantially reduce the discharges of these organic substances.
HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL SITES
There are no active major commercial hazardous waste management/dispo-
sal facilities in this study subarea. There are 34 ITF-identified hazardous
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waste disposal facilities at major industrial point sources. These were
discussed under each point source above.
An additional 21 hazardous waste disposal sites have been identified
at other industrial facilities or at nonindustrial (offsite) locations.
NON-POINT SOURCES
Non-point sources of priority pollutants in this subarea appear to be
less significant than in the Buffalo-Lackawanna or Niagara Falls subareas.
Contaminated bottom sediments have been detected in the Tonawanda Channel.
During high flows in the Niagara River, these bottom sediments contribute
to the load of priority pollutants carried by suspended sediments in the
river. Conversely, this area may be a sink for contaminated sediments dur-
ing low flows. Contaminated sediments dredged from the Tonawanda Harbor
channels are disposed of in the Buffalo spoil disposal areas.
Urban runoff from Tonawanda and North Tonawanda probably contribute
some priority pollutants. There are eight combined sewer overflows in North
Tonawanda.
The contributions of these non-point sources are not defined.
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VIII. MAJOR SOURCES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES,
NIAGARA FALLS SUBAREA
This subarea extends from the north boundary of the City of North
Tonawanda north to Lake Ontario. It abuts the north shore of the Tonawanda
Channel and the east shore of the Lower Niagara River. The entire subarea
is in Niagara County.
There are 12 major industrial sources and one major municipal source
(the City of Niagara Falls wastewater treatment plant) in this subarea.
Most of the industrial sources are in the City of Niagara Falls or Town of
Niagara. There are three major commercial hazardous waste management fa-
cilities. Two of these are large disposal sites. An additional 61 haz-
ardous waste disposal sites of concern have been identified in the study
area. These include Love Canal, Hyde Park Landfill, the 102nd Street
landfills, and the Niagara County Refuse Disposal Site. Twenty-eight of the
disposal sites are at major industrial sources.
Important non-point sources in this subarea include contaminated
groundwater, combined sewer overflows, contaminated bottom sediments, and
urban runoff.
INDUSTRIAL POINT SOURCES
Bell Aerospace Textron
This facility, adjacent to the Niagara Falls International Airport
[Figure 16], manufactures and tests missile and space vehicle components,
high-energy lasers, and various aircraft parts and electronic navigation,
communication, and guidance systems.
Process wastewaters are discharged with sanitary wastes to the City of
Niagara Falls for treatment. Consideration has been given to diverting
these wastewaters to the Niagara County Sanitary District No. 1 wastewater
treatment plant.
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Cooling and stormwaters averaging about 0.09 mgd are discharged to
Bergholtz Creek through two outfalls. These discharges contain small vol-
umes of chromium and zinc from cooling tower blowdown.
About 100 chemicals of concern were reported in the ICS response.88
Most of these were in small volumes of 100 Ib/yr or 10 Ib in storage. The
largest use and storage were for trichloroethylene (16,000 Ib/yr and 6,500
Ib, respectively).
Process emissions of air pollutants of concern include about 62 tpy of
trichloroethylene and small amounts of lead and zinc.78
Bell Aerospace applied for a RCRA permit for storage of hazardous
wastes in a 240,000 gal. surface impoundment.90 This is a pretreatment unit
for plating wastes discharged to the City. Only about 2 metric ton/yr of
hazardous wastes are handled.
The plating waste lagoon is an ITF hazardous waste site and has been
proposed for subsurface investigation by DEC.8 There is a potential for
groundwater contamination by lagoon seepage.130
Hooker Specialty Chemicals Division
This Hooker facility on Buffalo Avenue in Niagara Falls [Figure 17] is
the largest and most complex chemical manufacturing facility in the Niagara
Frontier. It has received much public and regulatory attention as a result
of Love Canal and other Hooker hazardous waste disposal sites and its dis-
charge of mi rex and other releases of chemical substances of environmental
significance. Hooker's past hazardous waste disposal practices are the
subject of active litigation. Extensive engineering studies and pollution
abatement activities have been undertaken with respect to both hazardous
waste disposal sites and wastewater discharges. The present SPDES permit
contains numerous limits on priority pollutants and other chemical sub-
stances. Because of all this activity, voluminous file materials and publi-
cations are available on this facility. To put the environmental effects of
the Hooker plant in the same perspective as other major industrial sources of
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chemical substances, the following discussion will primarily consider the
same types of information as at other facilities.
More than 250 chemicals have been produced at this facility since 1930.
The plant produces chlorine and caustic by the diaphragm process (85%) and
by the mercury cell process (15%). A wide variety of chlorinated compounds
also are or have been produced. These have included various chlorinated
toluenes, dechlorane (a fire retardant), and mi rex (a pesticide with the
same formula as dechlorane), hexachlorocyclopentadiene (C-56), chlorinated
benzenes, and trichloroethylene.
About 6 mgd of process wastewaters containing a wide variety of pri-
ority pollutants are discharged to the City of Niagara Falls wastewater
treatment plant. Other wastewaters, primarily non-contact cooling water,
totaling about 38 mgd are discharged to the Niagara River. Most of this
flow is discharged directly to the River at the plant site. Part of the
flow goes to the Niagara Falls Diversion Sewer that connects to the dis-
charge tunnel for the City wastewater treatment plant and discharges to the
Niagara River below Niagara Falls.
Although the direct discharges are primarily cooling water, they con-
tain major loads of chemical substances. Total organic priority pollutants
reported in the permit application have a daily maximum load of about 100
Ib. Other organic chemical substances not required to be reported in the
permit application have been detected in these discharges in the past.
Heavy metals daily maximum loads totaled 69 Ib. Phenols were only about 4
Ib/day.
Extensive engineering studies by Hooker have indicated that up to
three-fourths of this priority pollutant load may be contributed by contam-
inated surface runoff and by contaminated groundwater infiltration into
sewers. Higher loads were discharged in the past. Various improvements to
reduce sewer infiltration have been completed and others are planned. En-
gineering studies have been completed by Hooker at DEC's request to form a
basis for systematic further reductions in these discharges of priority
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168
pollutants and to develop the basis for additional, more stringent permit
limits for a variety of chemical substances. Major reductions in these
discharges of priority pollutants are expected by mid-1984 as BAT require-
ments become effective.
Hooker's ICS response declared chemical names and use rates confiden-
tial.88 It is evident from the complexity of this facility's operations
and processes that large volumes of numerous chemicals of concern are used
and stored.
Process emissions include at least 10 air pollutants of concern of
which the emission of 110 tpy of chlorine is the most significant.78 Other
significant emissions are chloroform, benzene, ortho-chlorotoluene (22 tpy),
and mercury. Total emissions of air pollutants of concern are about 140
tpy.
Data on the Hooker RCRA permit application were not included in the
Region II computer listing.90 It is obvious, however, that Hooker is a
major generator of hazardous wastes. Large volumes of hazardous wastes
have been disposed of in the past at Hooker-owned sites at Love Canal, Hyde
Park, and 102nd Street. About 75,000 tons of hazardous wastes have report-
edly been landfilled on the Buffalo Avenue plant site. Various hazardous
waste management facilities are present at the site including container,
tank and surface impoundment storage units, treatment units and an incinerator.
Contamination of the Hooker plant site by hazardous waste disposal is
the subject of active litigation. It is evident, however, that much of the
plant site and the underlying groundwater are contaminated with chemical
substances and these pollutants are being transported offsite by surface
runoff and sewer infiltration. A comprehensive Best Management Practices
(BMPs) plan and specific BMPs should be required by the new SPDES permit to
minimize the contribution of priority pollutants from existing contamina-
tion of the site and to prevent future contamination by spills and leaks,
hazardous waste management activities, and other ancillary activities.
Hooker has already initiated a number of BMPs.
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169
There are 10 ITF hazardous waste sites at this plant.131 They are
under active litigation. More than 100 monitoring wells have been installed
and voluminous data collected. Future monitoring and remedial measures
will primarily be determined by the litigation.
DuPont
This facility, west of Hooker adjacent to the Niagara River and Gill
Creek [Figure 17], manufactures inorganic and organic chemicals. Products
include chlorine, sodium, copper and zinc cyanides, polytetramethylene ether
glycol from tetrahydrofuran, polyester, and electroplating bath additives.
An April 1979 ICS response indicated that until about 1975 the facility
manufactured up to 500 mil Ib/yr of chloroform, carbon tetrachloride (a
byproduct), methyl chloride, methylene chloride, tetrachlorethane and
trichlorethylene.
About 2 mgd of process, utility and sanitary wastewaters are discharged
to the City of Niagara Falls wastewater treatment plant. An additional 11
mgd of wastewater, primarily non-contact cooling water, is discharged di-
rectly to the Niagara River via two outfalls, to Gill Creek in one outfall
(3.1 mgd), or to the Diversion Sewer in one outfall (5.5 mgd). The permit
application indicates the direct discharges have daily maximum loads of 26
Ib organic priority pollutants, 5 Ib heavy metals, and 2 Ib phenols. The
organics were primarily carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, and methylene
chloride.
DuPont1s latest ICS response declared the chemicals used and their
volumes to be confidential.88 It is evident, however, that major volumes
of chemicals of concern are used, produced, and stored at this plant. The
April 1979 ICS response indicated about 1500 gal. of PCBs were present in
transformers and capacitors. In the 1960's, about 24,000 Ib/yr of PCBs
were used in a closed loop cooling system with dirty oil sent to a reclaimer.
Process emissions of air pollutants of concern include 20 tpy of cop-
per, 2 tpy of zinc, and 14 tpy of chlorine.78 Miscellaneous organic emis-
sions of 11 tpy are also listed.
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170
DuPont submitted a RCRA permit application which requested approval of
tank storage capacity of 60,000 gal.90 About 154,000 m ton/yr of hazardous
wastes were handled, primarily corrosives. DuPont subsequently withdrew
their permit application indicating that all hazardous wastes will be moved
offsite within 90 days.
Five ITF hazardous waste sites are at this facility.132 Wastes dis-
posed of included copper, zinc and sodium cyanides, chlorinated organics
(primarily volatiles), and barium salts. Soil contamination by chlorinated
organics, cyanides, and metals was possible. One area contained soil con-
taminated by PCB leaks. In addition, sediments in the adjacent Gill Creek
were found to be contaminated with PCBs. Most of this contaminated mater-
ial, including the Gill Creek channel, has been excavated and replaced with
clean fill. DEC has recommended a plant wide monitoring program for detec-
tion of site contamination.
Both the nature of this plant's operations and the known contamination
indicate the need for a comprehensive BMP plan.
01 in Corporation
01 in operates an inorganic chemicals plant on 22 acres adjacent to
DuPont and the Niagara River [Figure 17]. Sodium and chlorine are produced
in a mercury cell. Other products include calcium hypochlorite (HTH) and
sodium chlorite and methylate. Chlorine production began in 1897.
About 0.5 mgd of process wastewaters are discharged to the City of
Niagara Falls for treatment. Most mercury contaminated wastewaters are
sent to the City after pretreatment for mercury removal. Non-contact cool-
ing water, boiler blowdown and uncontaminated, uncontrolled stormwater run-
off totaling about 7 mgd is discharged to the Diversion Sewer via four
outfalls.
01 in obtains its water supply from the Niagara River (70%) and from
two 125 ft deep onsite wells (30%). This well water is contaminated with
organic priority pollutants. It is used for cooling water in the HTH pro-
cess and does not receive treatment. Consequently, Olin's discharges con-
tain a large load of organic priority pollutants (274 Ib/day), the largest
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171
reported discharge in the Niagara Frontier. A majority of this contamina-
tion is tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethylene, trans-l,2-dichloroethylene,
and 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane.
Heavy metals (primarily zinc; mercury is <0.1 Ib/day) at 8 Ib/day and
phenols at 4 Ib/day are also reportedly present.
Olin and DEC are negotiating a solution to this discharge of organic
priority pollutants through the SPDES permit process. The current permit
contains limits on priority pollutants based on the existing discharge. A
new permit will require major reductions. This could be accomplished by
activated carbon filter treatment of the well water or construction of a
recirculating cooling system using river water as makeup. Costs of either
alternative are high.
The ICS response indicated that Olin uses or produces large volumes of
chemicals of concern including 42 mil Ib/yr of HTH. About 7 mil Ib are in
storage. About 250 gal. of PCBs are in use in transformers and capacitors.
Process air emissions from Olin include 65 tpy of chlorine and 0.3 tpy
of mercury.7S
Hazardous waste management facilities listed in the RCRA permit appli-
cation included 27,500 gal. of container storage, 180,000 gal. of tank stor-
age and 0.09 mgd of tank treatment capacity.90 About 600,000 tpy of hazard-
ous wastes are handled, primarily corrosives. An EPA inspection on Decem-
ber 17, 1980 found the facility in compliance with RCRA Interim Status
Standards.133
There are five ITF hazardous waste sites at the Olin facility.134 A
125 ft deep well was used from 1963 to 1977 to dispose of about 130,000
tons of C-2 end liquor. Brine sludge possibly contaminated with mercury
and waste transformer oil that may have contained PCBs were spread at three
sites. The old mercury pond was excavated and refilled with clean fill.
Contamination of soil, surface, and groundwater with mercury is possible.
DEC has recommended subsurface investigations at the Olin plant.8
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Contamination of Gill Creek sediments with BHC (primarily Lindane) was
detected. The contamination was removed by 01 in. 01 in produced BHC and
trichlorobenzene from 1950 to 1956 but did not manufacture Lindane.135
01 in attributed the Gill Creek contamination to a reported spill of chlori-
nated benzenes from the old Solvent Chemical Company facility just upstream
of the contamination. Olin also indicated that trichlorophenol contamina-
tion in its well water may be related to Olin production of trichlorophenol
from 1954 to 1956. Other observed site contamination may be related to
activities of at least six other companies prior to 1930 on this site.
It is evident that site contamination is a major problem at Olin. A
comprehensive BMP plan is needed to minimize contributions of priority pol-
lutants from the site. Olin has been working on such a plan.
Carborundum Company
This facility at the west end of the Buffalo Avenue industrial complex
[Figure 17] manufactures abrasives (silicon and boron carbides and aluminum
oxide). The plant has been in operation since 1895.
About 3 to 4 mgd of process wastewaters are discharged to the City of
Niagara Falls for treatment. About 4 mgd of cooling waters and storm run-
off are discharged to the Niagara River through three outfalls (50%) and
one outfall to the Diversion Sewer (50%). Water supply is obtained from
the river. The discharges contain negligible priority pollutants.
The ICS response indicates the plant is a major user of phenol (2 mil
Ib/year) and also uses large amounts of trichloroethylene (18,500 Ib/year)
and coal tar (140,000 Ib/year).88 Chemicals stored exceed 100,000 Ib.
Process emissions of air pollutants of concern were minor.78 No haz-
ardous waste management permit application was listed.90
An ITF site at this facility was a small coolant disposal pit.136
Remedial measures will remove any contamination. No further investigation
was recommended by DEC.8
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Priority pollutant use at this site suggests the need for a BMP plan
to prevent contamination of cooling water or surface runoff.
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company
This plant, at the east edge of the Niagara Falls industrial complex
[Figure 17], manufactures vinyl chloride plastizol resin, vinyl co-polymer
resin, and accelerators and anti-oxidant chemicals for the rubber industry.
Process wastewaters averaging about 0.4 mgd are discharged to the City
of Niagara Falls for treatment. There are no direct discharges of waste-
waters from this plant.
Goodyear uses very large volumes of chemicals of concern totaling about
87 mil lb/year.88 Vinyl chloride (57 mil Ib) is the largest volume but
more than a million Ib of each of the following chemicals are used: ani-
line, o-toluidine, nitrobenzene, xylidene, dioctyl phthalate, mixed tolui-
dines, and di-isooctyl phthalate. Storage is about 1.7 mil Ib.
Process air emissions include 32 tpy of vinyl chloride.78
The RCRA permit application indicates that the facility has 1,000 gal.
of container storage capacity and an incinerator with a capacity of 0.116
ton/hr.90 Hazardous wastes handled total about 789 m ton/year. This is
primarily hydrogen sulfide that is incinerated.
There are no ITF sites at this facility.137
Great Lakes Carbon Corporation
This facility at the northeast corner of the Niagara Falls industrial
area [Figure 17] produces carbon and graphite forms from coke, coal tar,
and petroleum pitch.
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Sanitary wastes only are discharged to the City of Niagara Falls waste-
water treatment plant. There are no process wastewater discharges. Non-
contact cooling water and stormwater averaging 0.6 mgd are discharged to
Pike's Creek to the 61st Street storm sewer to the Niagara River. No prior-
ity pollutant data were available for this discharge, but pollutant levels
are believed to be negligible.
The ICS response indicates the plant uses about 12 mil Ib/year of coal
tar, coal tar pitch, and petroleum pitch.88 Storage is about 600,000 Ib.
Process emissions include 1,990 tpy of carbon monoxide and 112 tpy of
unspecified hydrocarbons.78
No RCRA permit application was submitted.90 One ITF site is at this
plant.138 Unknown quantities of product and raw materials have been dis-
posed of in a landfill. DEC has proposed subsurface investigations to de-
tect any polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon contamination that might be
present.8
A comprehensive BMP plan is needed for this facility to insure that
priority pollutants from raw material storage do not enter the untreated
cooling water and storm runoff.
Airco Carbon (Speer)
This facility produces carbon and graphite electrodes and products
from petroleum coke, coal, charcoal, carbon black, and natural graphite.
Coal tar pitch and other polymers are used as binders. Chlorine is also
used in the process.
The plant has no direct wastewater discharge. Wastewaters averaging
about 1.5 mgd are sent to the City of Niagara Falls for treatment.
No ICS response was listed for the Company.88 Chemical use similar to
Great Lakes Carbon would be expected.
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Process emissions include 16,600 tpy of carbon monoxide, 0.3 tpy of
chlorine, and 0.02 tpy of benzo(a)pyrene.78
No RCRA permit application was listed for this facility.90 An ITF
listed site reportedly received asbestos and large volumes of refractory
and sand.139 DEC has proposed subsurface investigations and monitoring for
polynuclear aromatics.8
Varcum Chemical Company (Reichhold Chemicals)
This plant at the north edge of the Niagara Falls industrial complex
[Figure 17] produces phenolic resins used by the abrasive industry. Raw
materials include phenols and formaldehyde.
Process wastewaters are discharged to the City of Niagara Falls for
treatment. This discharge is a major source of phenols. Phenol discharges
as high as 2,000 Ib/day in the past have been reduced to about 100 Ib/day.
There is no direct discharge of wastewaters. However, storm runoff may
have some phenol contamination.
Varcum's use of chemicals of concern is large with phenol/phenolic
compound use of more than 17 mil lb/year.88 Xylene use is also significant.
Storage of phenols exceeds 1 mil Ib.
Process emissions of air pollutants of concern including phenol and
xylene are reportedly small, less than 2 tpy.78
The RCRA application indicates that Varcum has container storage capa-
city of 5,000 gal., tank storage capacity of 30,000 gal., and an incinerator
with a 400 gal./hr capacity.90 About 52 m ton/year of ignitable wastes and
spent solvents are incinerated.
An ITF listed site at this plant was a settling pond used for phenolic
sludges and resins.140 The site has been excavated but there may be some
residual phenolic contamination. DEC has proposed a site investigation.8
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Problems have been experienced in the past with material spills and
runoff contamination. A BMP plan is needed to minimize any releases of
priority pollutants.
SKW Industries (formerly Airco Alloys)
This facility in north Niagara Falls [Figure 18] is a ferroalloy plant
producing a variety of ferrosilicon, ferrochrome, and ferromanganese alloys.
The plant does not have any direct wastewater discharges. Sanitary
wastewaters only are discharged to the City of Niagara Falls. Storm runoff
disposal was not defined. The plant has large raw material piles including
chrome ore.
No ICS response was listed for SKW or Airco Alloys.88 Process emis-
sions included 10.5 tpy of chromium oxide.78
SKW did not submit a RCRA permit application.90 The facility has an
active industrial solid waste disposal site under DEC permit.141 The site
has been used for about 60 years for disposal of large volumes of slag and
flue dust. The dusts are moved in slurry form. Groundwater monitoring has
detected high levels of chromium. Surface runoff is also contaminated with
chromium. This is an ITF listed site.
TAM Ceramics (formerly NL Industries)
This Company in north Niagara Falls [Figure 18] produces specialty
ceramic products including dielectric materials, zirconium oxide alloy, and
electronic specialty products.
The facility has no direct wastewater discharge. About 0.4 mgd of
cooling and process water is sent to the City of Niagara Falls for treat-
ment. Infiltration of organic priority pollutants into plant sewers, pos-
sibly from the nearby Hyde Park Landfill, has been detected.
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178
The ICS response lists about 1,400 Ib/year of asbestos use.88 Process
emissions include 29 tpy of carbon monoxide and a small amount of lead.78
No RCRA permit application was listed.90 A 30-acre disposal site was
used by NL Industries to dispose of several thousand tons of various solid
wastes (oxides, chlorides, carbonates containing zirconium, and titanium).142
This facility is adjacent to the Hyde Park Landfill and related to that
litigation.
Union Carbide Corporation - Carbon Products Division
The National and Republic plants of this Division are in north Niagara
Falls [Figure 18]. They manufacture carbon and graphite products from coal
and coke mixed with coal tar and pitch binding resins.
Wastewaters (sanitary and contact and non-contact cooling) are dis-
charged to the City of Niagara Falls for treatment. There are no direct
wastewater discharges.
The ICS response indicated that about 32 mil Ib of petroleum and coal
tars are used annually with about 2 mil Ib in storage.88
Process emissions include about 517 tpy of carbon monoxide.78 The
RCRA permit application indicated only nominal hazardous waste handling and
storage.90
An active industrial solid waste disposal site (a listed ITF site) is
operated under DEC permit on 300 acres for disposal of carbonaceous material,
air pollution control dusts, fire brick, etc.143 There is possible contami-
nation of ground and surface water with coal tar derivatives. DEC has recom-
mended monitoring for polynuclear aromatics.8 Monitoring wells are onsite.
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MUNICIPAL POINT SOURCES
City of Niagara Falls
The only major municipal wastewater discharge in this subarea is the
new City of Niagara Falls advanced wastewater treatment plant adjacent
to the Buffalo Avenue industrial complex and the Niagara River [Figure 17].
This plant serves the City of Niagara Falls, part of the Town of Niagara,
and about 25 major industrial plants.
Much of the City is served by combined sewers. Until 1978, dry
weather wastewaters from these combined sewers were intercepted and con-
veyed to a primary treatment plant in the Niagara River gorge about 1 mi
downstream from the American Falls. This plant provided only fine
screening and chlorination. Wet weather flows were bypassed directly
to the Niagara River at eight points in the gorge. By 1970, dry weather
flows were about 70 to 90 mgd, far in excess of the plants 50 mgd capacity,
and continuous bypassing of excess flow occurred.
During the 1930s, the Diversion Sewer was built to collect cooling
water from the Buffalo Avenue industries and relieve the combined sewer
system. The Diversion Sewer extends from 47th Street westward along
Buffalo Avenue to the site of the present treatment plant where it dis-
charges to an old hydroelectric power plant tailrace tunnel. This tunnel
discharges to the Niagara River below the Falls near Rainbow Bridge. The
tunnel now also receives the effluent from the new wastewater treatment
plant.
In 1976 the gorge pumping station at the site of the old treatment
plant and a force main to the new treatment plant were completed. The
Southside Interceptor was also completed in 1976 to convey primarily
Buffalo Avenue industrial wastes to the new plant.
The new treatment plant was placed under construction in 1973 and com-
pleted in 1973. It was and is one of the largest municipal advanced waste-
water treatment plants in the country. It is a physical-chemical plant
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designed to handle a mixture of industrial-commercial-domestic wastewaters.
Treatment includes chemical flocculation, pH adjustment, sedimentation,
granular activated carbon contact, and chlorination.
After a few months of operation, the carbon filter beds failed in 1978.
Since July 1978 the plant has provided only primary treatment. The plant
failure and the subsequent delays in repairs have resulted in much contro-
versy and in a Federal-State suit against the City. Litigation is
continuing.
Average dry weather flow to the treatment plant is about 65 mgd, sub-
stantially above the design flow of 48 mgd. Wet weather flows are much
higher and the combined sewers overflow at eight points in the gorge.
Part of the cause of the excess flow is sewer infiltration. The plant
was designed for 10 mgd of infiltration. Present infiltration estimates
are about 24 mgd.
Analyses of the treatment plant effluent in June 1981 by NEIC found 26
organic priority pollutants totalling 252 lb/day.31 Chloroform, 1,2,4-
trichlorobenzene, trichloroethylene, and toluene concentrations were the
highest at 36 to 72 ug/£. Substantially lower concentrations and loads
would have been expected if the carbon beds were in use.
Heavy metals totaled 42 Ib/day, primarily copper. This was substan-
tially below design limits because influent zinc was well below design.
Total phenols were not analyzed by NEIC. City data indicate the plant
discharged an average of 510 Ib/day of phenols for the 12-month period end-
ing in June 1981.
Industrial wastes are the source of most of the priority pollutants
discharged. Contaminated groundwater infiltration may also contribute
priority pollutants to the system.
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Industrial wastes discharged to the system by major industries are
limited by contract with the City. Flow is limited to 26 mgd in alloca-
tions to major industries. Waste loads as defined by TSS and COD are also
allocated. Specific priority pollutants are not allocated. The City has
undertaken a program to reduce phenol discharges to the system from indus-
try because this is the priority pollutant most difficult to remove in the
treatment system.
The SPDES permit should include additional limits on priority pollut-
ants to provide adequate control of such substances in this discharge when
the carbon beds are rebuilt. The permit should also require other treat-
ment plant and sewer system improvement needs that have been identified to
be completed so that additional reductions in discharges of priority pollut-
ants can be achieved.
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT FACILITIES
CECOS (formerly Newco Waste Systems)
This is a very large solid and hazardous waste management facility
adjacent to the Niagara Falls industrial complex [Figure 17]. Waste dis-
posal areas cover more than 300 acres and extend up to more than 50 ft in
elevation above the surrounding terrain.
The facility accepts a wide variety of waste materials including muni-
cipal solid waste, industrial solid wastes, waste treatment sludges, and
hazardous wastes. Activities at the site include a foundry sand reclama-
tion area, a salvage yard, a sanitary landfill, an intermediate landfill, a
secure landfill for hazardous wastes, an acid neutralization facility, and
an aqueous waste treatment facility.
The site has been in operation since 1896 and was initially a deposi-
tory for lime wastes from an acetylene gas production plant. These lime
wastes are now used for acid neutralization.
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The site is operated under a DEC permit that requires extensive envi-
ronmental monitoring including surface runoff, groundwater, leachate, and
ambient air.
There are two wastewater discharges from the facility. Process waste-
waters and landfill leachate are batch treated in the industrial wastewater
facility that includes activated carbon filters. Batch discharges are made
to the Niagara Falls sewer system about twice a month. Total wastewater
discharged averages about 0.5 mil gal./month.
Peripheral site drainage receives neutralization and is discharged to
a ditch leading to the 62nd Street storm sewer and the Niagara River. Neu-
tralization is needed because of leachate or runoff from the lime wastes.
EPA analysis of this flow (about 0.3 mgd) on May 5, 1981, detected phenol
at 75 ug/£, methylene chloride at 10 ug/£ and seven heavy metals at concen-
trations ranging from <10 to 47 pg/£.144 Total toxics load was <1 Ib/day.
Sanitary landfill leachate has since been diverted from the storm sewer
system to the City of Niagara Falls for treatment.
Frontier Chemical Company
Frontier Chemical operates a hazardous waste management facility in
the Niagara Falls industrial complex under a DEC Part 360 permit [Figure 17].
The Company treats aqueous wastes and operates a fuel recovery process and a
chlorinated hydrocarbon recovery distillation unit. No disposal occurs at
this facility. Fuel products, recovered hydrocarbons, and residuals are
sent elsewhere for use or disposal.
The RCRA permit application listed container storage capacities as
330,000 gal., tank storage capacities as 650,000 gal., and a 3,000 gal. sur-
face impoundment.90 Total hazardous wastes handled are more than 6,000
tpy. An EPA inspection on December 16, 1980 found the facility in compli-
ance with RCRA Interim Status Standards.145
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The treatment system includes chemical oxidation or reduction, neutral-
ization, further oxidation, activated sludge, and a granular activated car-
bon column. About 0.05 mgd of treated effluent is discharged to the City
of Niagara Falls.
Infiltration of groundwater contaminated with organic priority pollut-
ants into the sewer system has been detected. Soil borings also indicate
contamination is present.
SCA Chemical Services (formerly Chem-Trol Pollution Services)
SCA operates this large regional hazardous waste management and dis-
posal facility on 630 acres of the old Lake Ontario Ordnance Works
[Figure 19]. The facility has been in operation since 1972.
A wide variety of hazardous wastes from western New York and other
states are treated, recovered, or disposed of at this site. In 1978, about
17% of the wastes were received from Erie and Niagara Counties and 42% from
New York State.146 Activities include aqueous waste treatment, solvent
recovery, fuel recovery, and secure landfills. A liquid incinerator was
operated until 1974.
The RCRA application listed 43,000 gal. of container storage capacity,
54,000 gal. of tank storage capacity, 0.2 mgd of treatment capacity in tanks
and surface impoundments, other treatment processes with a capacity of 0.04
mgd, and 240 acres for land application.90 Hazardous wastes handled in 1978
were about 28 mil gal.146
The aqueous wastes (primarily landfill leachate) are treated in a sys-
tem including biological treatment, activated carbon filtration oxidation,
lime precipitation, sand filtration, and aeration. The treated effluent is
stored in large lagoons and tested before periodic batch discharges.
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Figure 19. Lake Ontario Ordinance Works
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Two discharge paths have been used. Prior to 1981 when a pipeline was
completed to the Niagara River west of the facility, wastewater was dis-
charged to Six Mile Swale at a controlled rate based on stream flow. This
discharge began in 1977. About 3 to 6 mil gal./year were discharged. Dis-
charges to Six Mile Swale have been terminated.
Direct discharge to the Niagara River began in July 1981. About 6 mil
gal. were discharged in 1981. Discharge occurs at a 1 mgd rate. Based on
sampling of the lagoon contents and a 1 mgd discharge rate, this discharge
would contain about 1 Ib/day of organic priority pollutants and 5 Ib/day of
heavy metals. Such a discharge would only occur a few days a year.
NON-POINT SOURCES
Important non-point sources in this subarea include combined sewer
overflows, contaminated groundwater, urban runoff, and contaminated bottom
sediments. Combined sewer overflows occur at eight points in the Niagara
River gorge along the west side of the City of Niagara Falls. As discussed
in the section on the City sewer system, industrial wastewaters comprise a
large volume of Niagara Falls wastewaters. Combined sewer overflows would
thus be expected to be significant sources of priority pollutants during
wet weather.
Contaminated groundwater is present under most of the Buffalo Avenue
industrial complex. Specific conditions were previously discussed for each
major industrial facility in that area. Contaminated groundwater has also
been detected in north Niagara Falls near landfills and industrial plants
and in the Love Canal-102nd Street landfill area. Infiltration of this
contaminated groundwater into industrial sewers and wells may contribute as
much as one-third of organic priority pollutant discharges by industrial
and municipal point sources in the study area. Direct groundwater flow
into surface waters probably contributes additional priority pollutants.
Urban runoff from Niagara Falls through separate storm sewers directly
contributes some priority pollutants. Another effect is the contribution
to combined sewer overflows.
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Contaminated bottom sediments are present in much of the Tonawanda
Channel and the Lower Niagara River. Concentrations of priority pollutants
are the highest off the 102nd Street landfill area and the Buffalo Avenue
industrial complex waterfront. Resuspension of these sediments during high
river flows can be a significant source of contaminated suspended sediments.
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IX. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL PROGRAMS
Environmental conditions, their causes, and their effects in the
Niagara Frontier are of local, state, national, and international con-
cern. Agencies at all levels of government are thus involved in programs
to control and regulate activities that exert an effect on the environ-
ment. This section reviews the activities of New York State and Federal
agencies as they relate to environmental control programs. Several
Canadian agency activities associated with the Niagara River are also
discussed. Where needs are identified, suggestions are made for program
changes or additions.
ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS
Environmental standards or criteria have several purposes. They
form benchmarks against which existing environmental conditions can be
measured. They specify acceptable ambient air quality to protect human
health and acceptable water quality to protect human health and other
beneficial water uses. They are often used by regulatory agencies to
determine the need for more stringent controls on sources of air or
water pollution. They may form the regulatory basis for specific limits
on sources of pollution.
Environmental standards are based on scientific study and consider
health risks among other factors. They are defensible in regulatory
actions. They are useful for objective evaluations of environmental
problems of public concern. This is especially important with respect
to the emotional issues surrounding toxic substances in the environment.
Water Quality
Section 303 of the Clean Water Act requires that water quality
standards be established for all surface waters of the U.S. These
standards consist of designated uses of stream segments based on water
uses to be protected and water quality criteria for each designated use.
The crit?"-1'? -~*r.*fv "levels of water quality that must be maintained or
exceeded to protect each water use.
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EPA is given the responsibility to develop and publish information on
water quality required for various uses and other guidance for the develop-
ment and promulgation of water quality standards. The states are given the
responsibility of designating the water uses to be protected in their
streams and establishing associated water quality criteria.
The NY Department of Environmental Conservation established water qual-
ity standards for the waters of the Niagara Frontier as required by the
Clean Water Act. These were subsequently approved by EPA. Specific water
quality criteria included in these standards were discussed in Section IV.
These criteria give limited attention to chemical substances.
Section 304 of the Clean Water Act amendments in 1977 required EPA and
the states to give more attention to a series of specific toxic pollutants
known as priority pollutants. EPA was required to develop and publish re-
commended criteria for 65 priority pollutants for protection of human health
and aquatic life. Recommended criteria were published in a series of cri-
teria documents during 1980. A summary of the water quality criteria was
published in the Federal Register on November 28, 1980.
In 1978, DEC proposed revisions of their water quality criteria to
include stringent limits on a number of additional chemical substances.
There was much opposition to the proposed revisions and they were withdrawn.
The International Joint Commission (IJC) has been active in establish-
ing water quality objectives for boundary waters of the Great Lakes. These
objectives are not enforceable by either country but represent target water
quality levels which both countries have pledged to implement programs to
achieve and maintain. The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972 es-
tablished general and specific water quality objectives which addressed a
few chemical substances. The 1972 agreement was superseded by the Great
Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1978 which contained specific objectives
for numerous chemical substances. The current New York water quality stand-
ards are keyed to the 1972 agreement and do not reflect the more stringent
1978 objectives or the recent EPA guidance.
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Revision of the current water quality standards is needed to include
specific criteria for chemical substances of concern in the Niagara River
consistent with IJC objectives and EPA guidance. This would provide a ra-
tional basis for programs to control sources of these specific substances,
would ensure protection of water uses, and would provide benchmarks for
assessing existing water quality.
Air Quality
A similar regulatory pattern exists with respect to air quality. The
Clean Air Act requires EPA to establish primary and secondary air quality
standards for several air pollutants to protect human health. The states
are required to develop implementation plans that prescribe control meas-
ures to achieve these standards.
EPA promulgated the required air quality standards and New York deve-
loped an EPA-approved State Implementation Plan (SIP). New York also pro-
mulgated their own air quality standards which covered more pollutants than
the EPA standards.
Coverage of specific chemical substances emitted to the air in the
Niagara Frontier by this program was limited. To offset this deficiency,
the DEC developed and implemented an approach previously discussed in Sec-
tion IV. Lists of air contaminants with high, medium, and low toxicity
were prepared and used to evaluate emission inventories to identify speci-
fic sources of chemical substances for review. Acceptable ambient levels
were established for some air contaminants by the New York Department of
Health. Published occupational health limits were used for others with
appropriate application limits. Simplified air modeling techniques are
used to identify sources that potentially cause ambient levels to exceed or
approach guidelines. Any such sources are then required to conduct detailed
source and ambient studies and develop and implement control measures as
needed.
The DEC program for control of toxic air contaminants has only recently
been implemented in its present form. The program appears to have the poten-
tial to identify and control any significant sources of emissions of chemical
substances.
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ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
Monitoring of ambient environmental conditions and of pollution sources
is an important part of all environmental control programs. Ambient moni-
toring is needed to assess environmental quality with respect to the stand-
ards previously discussed and to identify trends and problem areas. It is
also useful in identifying sources of pollution. Monitoring of pollution
sources is needed to assess compliance with applicable limits on pollutant
emissions or discharges, to define pollutant loads, to assist in interpreta-
tion of ambient data and to evaluate the efficiency of pollution controls.
Environmental monitoring has been conducted for years in the Niagara
Frontier by both American and Canadian agencies. Most U.S. monitoring is
done by DEC and EPA while Canadian monitoring is primarily conducted by
Environment Canada and the Ontario Ministry of the Environment.
Over the years, a gradual specialization and division of types of moni-
toring primarily performed has occurred for the Niagara River system. Be-
cause most water pollution sources are located on the U.S. side of the River,
DEC and EPA have concentrated on source monitoring. The Canadians have
concentrated on long-term ambient monitoring. However, all agencies do
some monitoring of all types.
Because of the growing international concern over chemical substances
in the Niagara River, in early 1981 an American/Canadian Niagara River Tox-
ics Committee was established to oversee and coordinate a comprehensive
investigation of chemical inputs to the Niagara River. The Committee con-
sists of representatives from DEC, EPA (Region II - New York City and Great
Lakes National Program Office - Chicago), Environment Canada, and the Ontar-
io Ministry of the Environment. The Committee developed a 2 h year work
plan to identify sources of chemical substances, recommend control programs,
and recommend long-term monitoring programs.
Environmental monitoring (both ambient and source) was a key element
in the work plan. Ambient monitoring of the river designed to identify
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191
areas of significant chemical substances input was proposed. This included
water, sediment, and biota sampling. Several special monitoring programs
were proposed to identify the occurrence and sources of specific substances
such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Some of the monitoring has been
completed and results are becoming available. Data were incorporated into
the preparation of this report as they became available. Additional data
are expected in the next few months that should assist in the design of
subsequent monitoring efforts.
Monitoring of selected major industrial and municipal point sources of
toxic substances was scheduled in the work plan. EPA Region II conducted
monitoring of 11 sources in May 1981. Preliminary results are used in this
report. Monitoring of the Niagara Falls wastewater treatment plant was
conducted by EPA-NEIC, Denver, in June 1981. Data not restricted by litiga-
tion was incorporated in this report. DEC has scheduled monitoring of addi-
tional sources.
Contaminated groundwater and leachate from hazardous waste disposal
sites are important non-point sources of chemical substances to the Niagara
River. Some monitoring of these sources has occurred as part of the ongoing
DEC program to identify disposal sites requiring remedial measures or as
part of engineering studies conducted by applicants for SPDES permits dis-
cussed below. However, the monitoring to date has not adequately defined
the significance of these non-point sources.
A comprehensive subsurface investigation and groundwater monitoring
program has been proposed by DEC to investigate the 73 most significant
hazardous waste disposal sites remaining to be evaluated and to evaluate
contaminated groundwater conditions in the Niagara Falls industrial complex.
This investigation and monitoring program is needed to fill critical gaps
in information on sources of chemical substances.
In addition to normal EPA and DEC program funds and personnel resources,
the Niagara River investigations have been partially funded by EPA's Great
Lakes National Program Office. This has enabled several specialized studies
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and investigations to be funded. The Niagara River is currently one of the
Great Lakes National Program Office's top priorities.
Recent results of the monitoring programs, evaluated in light of the
various hydro!ogic conditions that occur in the Niagara River system as
discussed in Section IV, suggest several possible changes and additions to
the monitoring program. The wide variations in the concentrations of some
chemical substances appear to be at least partially related to changes in
hydrologic conditions. A detailed study of recent monitoring data and hy-
drologic data is needed to develop and refine correlations between the two
factors. This would assist in defining the relative inputs of point sources
and non-point sources and in defining source locations.
Additional monitoring locations in the Upper Niagara River and Lake
Erie are needed to separate the effects of pollution sources in the Buffalo
River-Buffalo Harbor area and in the nearshore waters of Lake Erie. Previ-
ous studies have shown that pollution from the Buffalo area enters the Upper
River in a narrow band along the east shore that may be missed by present
sampling locations. Some sources of chemical substances which (based on
sent data) appear to be located along the Tonawanda Channel may actually be
in the Buffalo area.
Large volumes of polluted bottom sediments dredged from Buffalo River
and Buffalo Harbor navigation channels were dumped in a shallow open-water
area of Lake Erie near Bethlehem Steel prior to 1972. This spoil area is
exposed to wave action during wind storms that can resuspend these sedi-
ments. This spoil area may be an additional significant source of persist-
ent chemical substances observed in Niagara River suspended sediments.
Present sampling is not designed to evaluate this possibility.
REGULATION OF WASTEWATER DISCHARGES
The primary program for regulation of industrial and municipal waste-
water discharges is the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES) permit program established by Section 402 of the Clean Water Act.
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193
(In New York, this is known as the SPDES permit program.) This is a joint
Federal-State program. EPA is required to establish overall program guid-
ance and regulations and develop and publish various guidelines. Permit
program regulations have been published by EPA in 40 CFR Parts 122 through
125. Effluent guidelines on which permits are based are contained in 40
C7R Parts 400 to 460.
Administration of the SPDES permit program in New York has been dele-
gated by EPA to the Department of Environmental Conservation. DEC has pro-
mulgated their own regulations governing operation of the SPDES program
(Title 6, Environmental Conservation, Article 3, Parts 750-757). DEC re-
ceives permit applications from dischargers, develops permit conditions,
issues the permits, monitors compliance with permit conditions, and takes
enforcement actions to achieve compliance when necessary.
EPA retains program overview. This is conducted by the Region II of-
fice in New York City. Region II conducts selected compliance monitoring
inspections and provides technical assistance to DEC. In some cases, EPA
can also initiate enforcement actions against dischargers to achieve com-
pliance.
At the national level, EPA is required to develop and promulgate regu-
lation effluent guidelines that specify what pollutants must be limited for
each type of industry and what volume of each pollutant may be discharged.
Similar effluent standards are promulgated for municipal discharges.
EPA promulgated effluent guidelines for most industrial categories in
the mid-19701s. These guidelines gave limited attention to toxic substances
because analytical methods did not exist for many of them and little was
known of their presence in wastewaters or the environment.
As the result of a 1976 court settlement concerning a suit filed by
the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) and the 1977 amendments to the
Clean Water Act, EPA was required to develop effluent guidelines for 34
industrial categories that gave special attention to 65 toxic pollutants.
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194
This list of toxic pollutants was subsequently expanded to the 129 "priority
pollutants" that include the organic priority pollutants, pesticides, and
heavy metals discussed throughout this report.
Development of effluent guidelines for priority pollutants has proven
to be a difficult, complex, and expensive task. As a result, promulgation
of guidelines for most industrial categories has slipped several years be-
hind the original schedule. Final guidelines are still not available for
most major industry types.
Beginning in 1975, DEC issued SPDES permits to industrial dischargers
based on the early EPA effluent guidelines. Most permits had few if any
limits on priority pollutants.
In 1976, DEC initiated the Industrial Chemical Survey (ICS) that re-
quired industries to report what chemicals they used or produced that were
included on a list of "chemicals of concern". This list included most of
the priority pollutants. Industry responses to the ICS survey gave DEC its
first comprehensive information on priority pollutants potentially present
in wastewater discharges.
As the initial SPDES permits began to expire, DEC issued short term
permits based on EPA policy requiring permits to be issued with expiration
dates based on expected effluent guideline promulgation dates for that in-
dustry. In some cases, DEC added priority pollutant limits in the short
term permits based on the ICS response, plant evaluations and/or selected
effluent sampling. In many cases, the permittee was required to conduct
special short term effluent monitoring to evaluate the actual discharge of
priority pollutants potentially present. For several complex plants, de-
tailed engineering studies were required to develop methods for abating
discharges of priority pollutants.
In May 1980, EPA revised its NPDES permit regulations to require most
industrial dischargers to submit data on priority pollutants in their ef-
fluents as part of their permit applications. DEC has now received such
data from most major industrial dischargers in the Niagara Frontier.
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195
The Clean Water Act requires all industrial dischargers to achieve
effluent limitations for priority pollutants based on best available tech-
nology (treatment or process control) (BAT) by July 1, 1984. The EPA ef-
fluent guidelines under development are to prescribe BAT for priority
pollutants.
DEC has delayed issuing long term SPDES permits containing BAT limits
because of the delays in promulgation of effluent guidelines. Permits based
on guidelines are much easier to prepare and are more defensible under chal-
lenge by the permittee. The alternative is to prepare permit limits based
on the best professional judgment (BPJ) of the permit writer and available
information. The permit regulations allow BPJ permits when no applicable
guidelines are available.
DEC has indicated that it will begin issuing BPJ permits by July 1,
1982, if EPA guidelines are not yet available. This issue date is necessary
to allow permittees time to construct any needed treatment or control units
and meet the July 1, 1984 BAT deadline.
It is probable that many guidelines will not be available prior to
mid-1982. Also, promulgated guidelines will not cover all processes at
some of the more complex plants necessitating preparation of part of the
permits by BPJ procedures in any case. DEC has done much of the development
work for many of the permits. EPA has compiled extensive data that could
be used for BPJ permit development. Therefore, it appears that preparation
and issue of BPJ permits for many of the major industrial dischargers should
begin as soon as practicable.
Based on an evaluation of existing discharges of priority pollutants
from the 15 major industrial facilities, reductions in these discharges of
more than 50% should occur when BAT limits are achieved.
A special need with respect to the permit program is related to the
need for Best Management Practices conditions in the permit. As discussed
in Sections VI-VIII, BMP plans and/or specific BMPs are needed at a number
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of Niagara Frontier industrial plants to minimize discharges of priority
pollutants from ancillary activities such as spills and leaks, raw material
storage, and solid or hazardous waste disposal. This is especially true in
the Niagara Falls area where extensive groundwater contamination exists.
Some plants have partial BMP programs but more formalized implementation is
needed.
EPA has promulgated permit regulations specific to BMPs (40 CFR Part
125, Subpart K) but the effective date has been suspended indefinitely be-
cause of industry objections and litigation on the overall permit regula-
tions. The permit regulations (40 CFR Part 122.62(k)) contain adequate
authority to establish BMP permit limits for the types of problems encoun-
tered in the Niagara Frontier. Clarification of EPA policy, guidance, and
regulations on BMPs would be helpful in gaining permittee acceptance of
such permit conditions.
REGULATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTES
Hazardous wastes (as defined by 40 CFR Part 261 promulgated in accord-
ance with Section 3001 of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act) are
subject to regulation by provisions of RCRA essentially from the time of
their generation until ultimate disposal. The storage, treatment, and dis-
posal of industrial solid wastes, including those classified as hazardous by
New York regulations (not necessarily RCRA hazardous wastes), are regulated
by a New York program governed by Title 6, New York Codes, Rules and Regula-
tions, Part 360. These two programs regulate essentially all current hazard-
ous waste management activity in the Niagara Frontier.
Neither RCRA nor the Part 360 program apply to inactive hazardous waste
disposal sites. To abate environmental impacts from inactive sites, alter-
nate approaches are used depending on the severity of environmental problems
and cooperation of site owners. These include negotiating voluntary reme-
dial measures, litigation of recalcitrant cases, and direct Federal/State
remedial action in severe cases.
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Active Hazardous Waste Management Facilities
EPA has promulgated regulations under RCRA that specify what chemicals
and industrial wastes are hazardous wastes (40 CFR Part 261) and establish
operating procedures for waste generators and transporters (40 CFR Parts
262 and 263). Regulations have also been promulgated (40 CFR Part 265) that
specify procedures that facilities that store, treat, or dispose of hazard-
ous wastes must follow in the interim period until they are issued a RCRA
permit. These "interim status standards" specify general operating proce-
dures and minimum facility standards. EPA can enforce these regulations or
delegate their enforcement to DEC. These regulations are currently the
primary EPA method of regulating hazardous waste management activities.
All facilities that store, treat, or dispose of RCRA hazardous wastes
(TSD facilities) are required to apply for a RCRA permit. This is a two-
step operation. All existing TSD facilities have submitted a simple permit
application (Part A) that defines their activities in general terms. Upon
EPA request, the facility must submit a much more detailed permit applica-
tion (Part B) within 6 months of the request. A RCRA permit is then pre-
pared and issued.
RCRA regulations have been promulgated for facilities that store or
treat hazardous wastes in containers, tanks, and waste piles. These regula-
tions cover about two-thirds of active hazardous waste TSD facilities.
Regulations have not been finalized for existing disposal facilities or for
facilities that store or treat hazardous wastes in surface impoundments or
for incinerators. Part B applications are now being requested from facili-
ties with containers, tanks, and waste piles. A few permits have been issued.
Major industrial facilities that were assigned high hazardous waste
management ratings in this study are candidates for early requests for sub-
mission of Part B applications. RCRA permits should be issued to these
facilities as soon as practicable to help ensure that releases of chemical
substances to the environment from storage and treatment of hazardous wastes
are minimized.
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198
All storage, treatment, and disposal of industrial solid wastes, in-
cluding hazardous wastes, is subject to regulation by operating permits
issued by DEC under their Part 360 program. The three major commercial
hazardous waste management facilities in the Niagara Frontier have such
operating permits. These permits specify operating conditions, facility
standards and environmental monitoring requirements more stringent than
RCRA interim status standards. DEC monitoring of these facilities and en-
forcement of permit conditions should assure adequate environmental protec-
tion until disposal regulations are promulgated by EPA and RCRA permits can
be issued by EPA or by DEC after program delegation to New York. The cur-
rent DEC operating permits may meet RCRA requirements when promulgated.
DEC has issued Part 360 operating permits to most active major indus-
trial hazardous waste TSD facilities. In some cases the facilities must be
upgraded to meet permit requirements. All active TSD facilities should
receive permits and upgrade their facilities as soon as practical to mini-
mize potential or actual releases of chemical substances.
Inactive Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites
Following discovery of the Love Canal problems in 1978, various activ-
ities by New York State and EPA led to the identification of about 300 haz-
ardous waste disposal sites in the Niagara Frontier. About 155 sites within
3 miles of the Niagara River were selected by DEC for priority attention.
Active sites were brought under Part 360 permit requirements. The 125 inac-
tive sites received different attention.
The primary approach used by DEC was to conduct a preliminary investi-
gation of each site and, where environmental impacts or hazards were evi-
dent, negotiate with the site owner to conduct voluntary remedial measures.
This was successful in a number of cases. Remedial measures have been com-
pleted on many of these sites.
Where negotiations were not successful, legal action was initiated by
DEC and/or EPA to force remedial work to proceed. Such cases were filed
against the Hooker sites at Love Canal, 102nd Street, and Hyde Park and part
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of the sites at Hooker's Buffalo Avenue plant. A case was also filed
against Olin's 102nd Street site.
At Love Canal, the environmental and human impacts were such that New
York and EPA took direct emergency actions to reduce the problem. Residents
of the immediate area were evacuated and their homes purchased by the State.
Remedial measures to minimize infiltration of precipitation through the
site and to collect and treat leachate were initiated. The State and EPA
spent millions of dollars to mitigate the Love Canal effects. Love Canal
and the Niagara County Refuse Disposal site in Wheatfield are under consid-
eration for further cleanup under Superfund financing.
The preliminary DEC investigations at many sites indicated the need
for further study including subsurface investigations and groundwater moni-
toring. DEC has proposed such investigations for 73 priority sites.8 This
study is needed to identify sites for which remedial action is needed and
to better define the contributions of chemical substances from these sources.
-------
REFERENCES
&
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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201
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110. U.S. Army Engineer District, February 16, 1973. Final Environmental
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Buffalo, New York.
111. State University of New York College at Buffalo, December 1975.
Buffalo Harbor Diked Disposal Sites: Engineering Properties and
Drainage Characteristics. Buffalo: 12 pp.
112. U.S. Army Engineer District, October 1974. Final Environmental
Statement: Black Rock Channel and Tonawanda Harbor, New York
(Operation and Maintenance). Buffalo, New York, Table 9.
113. Great Lakes Laboratory, October 1981. Analysis of Sediment, Water
and Elutriate Water Collected and Processed from Buffalo Harbor, New
York Sampling Sites. State University College at Buffalo, New York,
pp. 24-26.
114. Region II, August 1978. Priority Pollutants Monitoring Report, Dunlop
Tire and Rubber Corp., Buffalo, New York, NY 0101575, January 24-25,
1978, March 14-15, 1978. Environmental Protection Agency. Edison,
N.J.
115. Division of Solid Waste, Junr 1980, op. cit., pp. B-9-65 to 68,
C-9-31 and 32.
116. Region II, undated. Compliance Monitoring Report, FMC Corporation,
Tonawanda, New York, NY 0000337, November 19-20, 1980. Environmental
Protection Agency. Edison, N.J.
117. Dec. 17, 1980. RCRA TSD Facility Inspection Checklist, FMC Corp.,
Tondawanda Facility, Environmental Protection Agency, Region II,
Edison, NJ.
118. Division of Solid Waste, June 1980, op. cit., pp. B-9-79 and 80.
119. May 7, 1981. RCRA Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facility Inspection
Form for TSD Facilities only, Allied Corp., Allied Fibers and Plastics
Co., Environmental Protection Agency, Region II, Edison, NJ.
120. Division of Solid Waste, June 1980, op. cit., pp. B-9-35 to 40.
-------
209
121. Ibid, pp. B-9-129 to 134.
122. Task Force on Toxic Substances, January 29, 1981. The Federal Connec-
tion: A History of U.S. Military Involvement in the Toxic Contamina-
tion of Love Canal and the Niagara Frontier Region, Vol. I and II.
New York State Assembly.
123. December 1981, Press Release, U.S. Dept. of Engergy
124. Division of Solid Waste, June 1980, op. cit., pp. B-9-47 and 48,
C-9-21 and 24.
125. ibid, pp. B-119 to 124, C-9-45 and 46.
126. iMd, pp. B-9-61 and 62.
127. Ibid, pp. B-9-231 and 232, 371 and 372.
128. Region II, undated. Compliance Monitoring Report, Town of Tonawanda
WWTP #2, Two Mile Creek Road, Tonawanda, New York, NY 0026395,
May 6-7, 1981. Environmental Protection Agency. Edison, N.J.
129. Region II, August 1981. Compliance Monitoring Report, North Tona-
wanda Wastewater Treatment Plant, North Tonawanda, New York, NY
0026280, May 4-5, 1981. Environmental Protection Agency. Edison,
N.J.
130. Division of Solid Waste, June 1980, op. cit., pp. C-9-145 and 146.
131. ibid, pp. B-9-233 to 248.
132. JMd, pp. B-9-215 to 226.
133. Dec. 17, 1980. RCRA TSD Facility Inspection Checklist, Olin Chemical
Corp., Environmental Protection Agency, Region II, Edison, NJ.
134. Division of Solid Waste, June 1980, op. cit., pp. B-9-273 to 276.
135. January 16, 1980 letter from Olin to New York Dept. of Environmental
Conservation, Buffalo, New York.
136. Division of Solid Waste, June 1980, op. cit., pp. B-9-287 and 288,
C-9-143 and 144.
137. ibid.
138. ibid, pp. B-9-229 and 230.
139. ibid, pp. B-9-201 and 202.
140. ibid, pp. B-9-277 and 278.
141. ibid, pp. C-9-109 and 110.
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210
142. Ibid, pp. B-9-259 and 260.
143. iMd, pp. C-9-131 and 132.
144. Region II, undated. Compliance Monitoring Report, CECOS, Inc.,
May 5, 1981. Environmental Protection Agency, Edison, NJ.
145. Dec. 16, 1980. RCRA TSD Facility Inspection Checklist, Frontier
Chemical, Environmental Protection Agency, Region II, Edison, NJ.
146. SCA Chemical Services, Operating Report for the SCA Chemical Waste
Services, Inc., Model City, New York Facility, February 1979.
-------
211
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-------
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214
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Fred C. Hart Associates, Inc., June 27, 1980. Hazardous Waste Site Inves-
tigation, S.K.W. Alloys, Inc., Niagara, N.Y., for Environmental Pro-
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Hooker Chemicals and Plastics Corporation, September 22, 1980. Volume I -
Executive Summary, Report on Wastewater Outfall Sewers, Niagara Plant
Comprehensive Water Management Study. Niagara Falls, N.Y., 41 p.
Hooker Chemicals & Plastics Corporation, September 22, 1980. Volume II -
Field Investigation, Report on Wastewater Outfall Sewers, Niagara
Plant Comprehensive Water Management Study. Niagara Falls, N.Y. ,
150 p.
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Plates: Report on Wastewater Outfall Sewers, Niagara Plant Comprehen-
sive Water Management Study. Niagara Falls, N.Y., 25 p.
Hooker Chemicals & Plastics Corporation, September 19, 1980. Vol. IV -
Chemical Loadings and Groundwater Quality: Niagara Plant Comprehen-
sive Water Management Study. Niagara Falls, N.Y., 202 p.
Hooker Chemicals & Plastics Corporation, February 23, 1981. Niagara Plant
Comprehensive Water Management Study, Remedial Work Alternatives to be
Evaluated. Niagara Falls, N.Y., 8 p.
Hooker Chemicals & Plastics Corporation, undated. Response to NYSDEC Reply
Letter dated December 29, 1980. Niagara Falls, N.Y., 44 p.
McPhee, Smith, Rosenstein Engineers, January 1977. Industrial Waste and
Pretreatment in the Buffalo Municipal System. Ada, Oklahoma, EPA-600/
2-77-018, 184 p.
National Enforcement Investigations Center, September 1976. Compliance
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Denver: Environmental Protection Agency, Permit No. NY0001597.
New York Department of Environmental Conservation, undated. Compliance
Monitoring Report, Buffalo Color Corporation, Buffalo, New York,
# NY 0002470, February 26-27, 1980. Buffalo, N.Y.
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Monitoring Report, Dresser Industries, Inc., Depew, New York, May 15-16,
1978. Buffalo, N.Y.
New York Department of Environmental Conservation, undated. Compliance
Monitoring Report, Hanna Furnace Corporation, Subsidiary of National
Steel Corporation, Buffalo, New York, NPDES Permit # NY 0001597,
December 3, 15,9. Bo. ."aio, N.Y.
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215
New York Department of Environmental Conservation, September 1980. Compli-
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Buffalo, N.Y.
New York Department of Environmental Conservation, June 1981. Compliance
Monitoring Report, Westinghouse Electric Corp. , Cheektowaga, New York,
SPDES Permit # NY 0001210, December 16-17, 1980. Buffalo, N.Y.
Region II, undated. Compliance Monitoring Report, Allied Chemical Corp.,
Buffalo, New York, NY 0002160, November 17-18, 1980. Edison, N.J.
Region II, undated. Compliance Monitoring Report, Buffalo Color Corp.,
Buffalo, New York, NY 0002470, November 17-18, 1980. Environmental
Protection Agency, Edison, N.J.
Region II, undated. Compliance Monitoring Report, The Carborundum Company,
Niagara Falls, New York, NY 0001376, November 19-20, 1980. Environ-
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Region II, June 1978. Compliance Monitoring Report, Dun!op Tire and Rubber
Corporation, Buffalo, New York 14240, NY 0101575, January 24-25, 1978.
Environmental Protection Agency, Rochester, N.Y.
Region II, January 1979. Compliance Monitoring Report, E.I. DuPont de
Nemours and Co., Inc., Niagara Falls, New York. August 2-3, 1978,
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and Co., Inc., Niagara Falls, New York, NY 0003328, November 17-18,
1980. Environmental Protection Agency, Edison, N.J.
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Region II, September 1981. Compliance Monitoring Report, Hooker Chemical
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0001198. Environmental Protection Agency, N.J.
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N.Y. 0003336, September 13-14, 1978. Environmental Protection Agency,
Rochester, N.Y.
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Olin Chemicals Group, Niagara Falls Plant, Niagara Falls, N.Y. 14302,
September 21-22, 1978, NY 0001635. Environmental Protection Agency,
Rochester, N.Y.
Region II, undated. Compliance Monitoring Report, Tonawanda Coke Corporation,
Tonawanda, New Jersey, (sic, N.Y.) NY 0002399, November 17-18, 1980.
Environmental Protection Agency. Edison, N.J.
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216
Region II, February 1981. Compliance Monitoring Report, Union Carbide
Corp., Niagara, New York, NY 0000060, November 19-20, 1980. Environ-
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Protection Agency, Rochester, N.Y.
Region II, undated. Performance Audit, Olin Corp., Niagara Falls, New York,
NY 0001635, July 31 - August 1, 1980. Environmental Protection Agency.
Edison, N.J.
Region II, undated. Priority Pollutants Monitoring Report, Bethlehem Steel
Corp., Lackawanna, New York, NY 0001368, October 29, 1979. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Edison, N.J.
Region II, undated. Priority Pollutant Monitoring Report, Ford Motor Com-
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Management Plan for the Lake Erie-Niagara River Basin. New York.
Diachenko, Gregory W., March 1979. Environmental Science and Technology,
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Erie and Niagara Counties Regional Planning Board, June 1972. Niagara
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217
New York State Departments of Environmental Conservation and Health, May
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Municipal Source Information
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Engineering. Niagara to be One of the Biggest.
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Falls Wastewater Treatment Plant, Niagara Falls, N.Y., June 6-8, 1978.
Environmental Protection Agency, Rochester, New York: NPDES NY 0026336.
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Wastewater Treatment Plant No. 2, Tonawanda, N.Y., NPDES Permit No. NY
0026395, September 19-20, 1979. Environmental Protection Agency, Ro-
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Water Quality
Canada Center for Inland Water, Burlington, 1979. Niagara River Chemical
Loading 1975-1977. Ontario: Scientific Series No. 106, 11 p.
Department of the Environment, Burlington, 1977. Water Quality Surveys
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Elder, Vincent A., Bertha L. Proctor, and Ronald A. Hites, October 1981.
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Richard C. Noonan, National Enforcement Investigations Center.
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218
Great Lakes Laboratory, 1980. Water Quality and Bethlehem Steel Corporation.
Buffalo: State University College at Buffalo.
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A Perspr-Vvo on the o-->i--.-^ Of Haz:r^"s Substances in the Great Lakes
Basin Ecosystem. Toronto, 70 p.
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Lakes Water Quality - Appendix. Toronto, 82 p.
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No. 5. The Rise and Fall of Mirex. Ontario: Canada Centre for In-
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Technology. Aromatic Amines In and Near the Buffalo River. Indiana
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in the Niagara River, Lake Ontario and St. Lawrence River. Environ-
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2(1). Distribution of Macrobenthic Species in Lake Ontario in Rela-
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Columbia.
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the Erie-Niagara Basin, New York. State of New York Conservation
Department, Basin Planning Report ENB-5, 33 p.
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Basin Planning Report ENB-4, 104 p.
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219
Water Supply
Carlo, George L. and Curtis J. Mettlin, May 1980. American Journal of Pub-
lic Health. Cancer Incidence and Trihalomethane Concentrations in a
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Westerhoff, G. P., June 1971. Journal of American Water Works Association,
Vol. 63, No. 6. Experience with Higher Filtration Rates. New York,
p 376-386.
-------
APPENDIX
Selected Water Quality Objectives
From the International Joint Commission
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1978
-------
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SURVEILLANCE AND MONITORING
Surveillance and monitoring activities shall be
for the following purposes:
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Corrpliance. To assess the degree to which
jurisdictional control requirements are being met.
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Achievement of General and Specific Objectives. To
provide definitive information on the location,
severity, areal or volume extent, frequency and
duration of non-achievement of the Objectives, as a
basis for determining the need for more stringent
control requirements.
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Evaluation of Water Quality Trends. To provide
information for measuring local and whole lake respo
to control measures using trend analyses and
cause/effect relationships, and to provide Informati
which will assist in the development and application
predictive techniques for assessing impact of new
developments and pollution sources. The results of
water quality evaluations will be used for;
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A joint surveillance and monitoring program necessai
the attainment of the foregoing purposes shall be
and implemented among the Parties and the State and
1 Governments. The Great Lakes International
nee Plan contained in the Water Quality Board Annual
1975 and revised in subsequent reports shall serve <
the development of the joint surveillance and ,
g program.
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The program shall include baseline data collection,
alysis, evaluation and quality assurance programs
g standard campling and analytical methodology,
oratory comparisons, and compatible data management)
essments of the following:
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Inputs from tributaries, point source discharges,
otmonphere, and connecting channels;
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Khole lake data including that for nearshore areas
(such as harbours and embay^er.ts, general shoreline
cladophora growth areas), open waters of the Lakes,
fish contaminants, and wildlife contaminants; and
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U.S. Efwlronmcntal Protection Agwqr
fegkm 5, Library IPL-12J)
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