-------
uniform level which is believed to coincide with the groundwater table.
Mining activities have resulted in slightly different features in parts
of Area 1. A sub-classification of Area 1 and its description can be
found in the Subsurface Investigation and Evaluation - Finaj^ Report
(Hooper, 1971).
Area 2 is the area in which no strip mining activities have been
undertaken. Approximately 4 to 8 feet of loess, which is comprised of
50% clay and 50% silt-sized particles, covers the glacial soils. These
materials are essentially impervious, but are subject to erosion if ex-
posed on slopes steeper than 1:5. A groundwater table at a depth of
approximately 15 feet is normal throughout the area with the exception
of slopes leading down to stream valleys. It is known that much of Area
2 has been mined underground by tunneling methods (Hooper, 1971).
Area 3 consists of alluvial soils within major stream beds, and
defines most of the continuous drainage channels. These soils are rela-
tively impervious to percolation water, but are moderately permeable to
horizontal flow. A high groundwater table is normal here.
Based on field pumping tests, laboratory tests, and analysis of
existing groundwater conditions, the permeability of the overall mass of
mine spoil is estimated to be in the range of 10"^ to 10"^ centimeters
per second (cm/sec). The vertical permeability of soils was estimated
by laboratory tests to be from 10 to 10" cm/sec. According to Casa-
grande's classification of soils by permeability, these soils are imper^
vious, non-draining or poorly draining (Casagrande, 1948). However,
some zones or layers may consist of broken shale and sandstone slabs or
blocks arranged in a way that provides a rapid path for water, and may
possess a permeability as high as 10 cm/sec (A&H Engineering Corpora-
tion, 1971).
There are no published Soil Conservation Service soil surveys
available for Fulton County. However, the Fulton County Soil Conser-
vation Agent at Lewistown provided highly useful information concern-
ing the agricultural capability of local soils (see Section F. 3. of
this chapter).
IV-19
-------
C. HYDROLOGY AND WATER QUALITY
This section describes the hydrological and water quality characteris-
tics of the project area. The purposes of this review are to define local
hydrological patterns, establish baseline water quality information, and de-
fine their interrelationships. Moreover, the background quality of ground
and surface waters and their respective flows will determine their vulner-
ability to project impacts.
1. Surface Water Hydrology
The project site is located within the Illinois River basin. Most
of the surface water is drained by Big Creek and Slug Run, a branch of
Big Creek, to Spoon River, a tributary of the Illinois River. The tri-
butaries associated with the project site, on a regional scale, are
shown in Figure IV-8. The flows of Big Creek and Spoon River have been
monitored at three USGS gage stations. Two stations are located on Big
Creek at St. David and near Bryant, and the third on the Spoon River at
Seville. The daily average, maximum, and minimum discharges at these
stations in 1972 and 1973 are shown in Table IV-6. (The detailed drain-
age pattern near the project site is depicted in Figure IV-9, page IV-24.)
Table IV-6. Daily Discharges at USGS Gage
Stations (USGS, 1972 and 1973)
1972 1973
Daily Discharge (cfsT Daily Discharge (cfs)
Mean Maximum Minimum Mean Maximum Minimum
Big Creek at St. David, Illinois
USGS Station 05570350 16.9 137 1.9 39.4 700 7.6
Big Creek near Bryant, Illinois
USGS Station 05570370 28.3 259 6.7 56.4 803 11.0
Spoon River at Seville, Illinois
USGS Station 05570000 625.0 5150 37.0
IV-20
-------
'0 a*ttMuM
THE ILLINOIS
STATE MUSEUM
DICKSON MOUNDS
WATERFORD I ^'nyERpoOL BARGE DOCK
SPOON RIVER VALLEY
SCENIC DRIVE
MSD PIPELINE
COUNTY HIGHWAY MARKER
24\ US HIGHWAY MARKER
•—>
(9) STATE HIGHWAY MARKER
SPECIAL POINT OF INTEREST
Him Project Area
Figure IM-8. Illinois River and Tributories associated with Project Site.
IV-21
-------
Based on a soil permeability of 10" cm/sec,as discussed in Sec-
tion IV.B., the vertical infiltration rate ranges from 1.2 x 10"
inches per hour, for a rainfall intensity of 0.01 inches per hour, to
3.54 x 10~4 inches per hour for an intensity of 3 inches per hour. The
latter is equivalent to the peak hourly rainfall from a 24-hour, 100-
year storm. It is clear that the amount of rainwater infiltrating the
soil surface is relatively insignificant when compared to surface run-
off. In other words, poor soil drainage forces rain water to be dis-
charged to creeks or streams in surface runoff. Assuming no percola-
tion through the soil and no evapotranspiration by plants, the runoff
volume of a one-acre drainage surface is about:
• 23,700 cubic feet for a 24-hour, 100-year storm
• 19,000 cubic feet for a 24-hour, 25-year storm
• 14,900 cubic feet for a 24-hour, 5-year storm
• 9,000 cubic feet for a 24-hour, 1-year storm.
Flood hazards are generally confined to the flood plains, which are out-
lined as Area 3 in Figure IV-7 (page IV-18).
2. Groundwater Hydrology
Migration or drainage of groundwater is much more difficult to de-
fine than for surface water. With the aid of well-water elevations and
river water levels, the groundwater flow in the general area has been
interpreted qualitatively. The water elevations in 22 wells within and
around the project site have been observed monthly by MSDGC personnel.
After some data reduction, all observations are expressed as an average
value, accompanied by its standard deviation and range of variation
throughout the observation periods. The results are summarized in Table
IV-7. (All water elevations are based on US6S mean sea level with the
1929 adjustment.) Utilizing well water and stream water levels, the
pattern of groundwater flow can be established by the "streamline" me-
thod. The pattern is displayed in Figure IV-9.
IV-22
-------
in
ox
01
§
•(->
c a a
° > -E c,
+J 0) 10 C
« a s» o
OI -O tt- 4J
i— S- o *
-a a) s-
c c en ai
(O us c in
Ol +J (O J3
r-
CM
3
VO
CM
3
in
CM
3
CM
3
n
CM
3
CM
CM
3
O
CM
OX
3
co
3
3
to
in
3
i
CO OJ O
ro vo ^ ox
r— CM .—
vo
CO OX O
en ^ ^ r^
in
r^ co o
r-- ox in o
•«• CM CM
r~ * o
in CM co »-*
r- CM
vo
CM CM O
i-^ CO O O
O f— CM
vo
*»• ro o
"— i— *r o
r- i—
in
O 1 1
i i
CM r—
in
O I 1
i i
g
vo
O CM r—
CO VO •— Tj-
Sr^ VO t^
O CM CO
CM t— ro m
ro
vo
ro r-. o
in ro CM to
CM >— i—
vo
CO vo O
^ O CM O
to *""
vo" CD C5 «J-
in
to
i i^ ^
+j c c
H- O O
O i— *r-
i- > s- in
*j ai
-0 0) t-
C C O) 01
rt> jj m ^
Z i/> a; o
IV-23
-------
Deerfietd ! Joshua
Twnsp j Twnsp
Cass ' Pulman
Twnsp • Twnsp
Figure IV-9. Pattern of Groundwater Flow (MSDGC 1972a through 1975g'
IV-24
-------
The interactions between groundwater and surface water systems
cannot be attributed solely to soil percolation or trans-migration be-
cause soils in this area are relatively impermeable. Therefore, sur-
face water flow is generally derived from upstream tributary flow,
storm runoff, and snow melt. Paths of rapid flow between ground and
surface waters may furnish the mechanism for groundwater depletion.
Since there are a number of stable surface water impoundments in the
area, it is likely that groundwater replenishes the surface water sys-
tem.
3. Water Quality
To assess possible impact on water quality from project opera-
tions, surface and groundwater quality prior to project implementa-
tion must be established. Using 1971 as the baseline year, stream
water quality at monitoring stations SI, S2, and S3 (see Figure IV-a)
is summarized in Table IV-8. These measurements must be compared to
standards for the State of Illinois, which are presented in Chapter II.
The 1971 pH values and the chloride (Cl), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr),
manganese (Mn), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn) concentrations
were generally in conformance with water quality standards. Average
concentrations of sulfate ions (SO*), copper (Cu), and lead (Pb) were
within or marginally close to standards. However, these standards were
violated occasionally, as evidenced by the 1971 maximum concentrations
which were all higher than related standards. Ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N),
iron (Fe), and fecal coliform concentrations violated standards on num-
erous occasions, indicating pollution in Big Creek.
Stations SI and S2 on Big Creek constitute an upstream-downstream
pair relative to the project site. The water quality at upstream station
SI might be affected to some extent by the treated sewage effluent from
the Canton sewage treatment plant. Generally, the stream at stations!
was lower in quality than at the downstream stations2 with respect to
Cl, S04> NH,-N, Cu, and fecal coliforms. This indicates that cleansing
and dilution occurred along the approximately 6.5-mile stream reach
IV-25
-------
Table IV-8. Surface Water Quality in 1971 (MSDGC, 1971)
Parameter
and Unit
pH
cr
(mg/1)
_?
SO/
(mg/i )
NH^-N
(mg/i)
Cd
(mg/D
Cu
(mg/1)
Cr
(rng/1 )
Monitoring Station
mean
max.
min.
mean
max.
min.
mean
max.
min.
mean
max.
min.
mean
max.
min.
mean
max.
min.
mean
max.
min.
SI
7.9
8.8
7.3
53
120
24
389
1,250
120
2.6
8.1
0.3
0
0
0
0.02
0.13
0
0
0.18
0
S2
8.1
8.7
7.1
28
72
4
381
879
80
1.8
6.6
0.1
0
0.06
0
0.02
0.06
0
0.02
0.28
0
S3
8.0
8.3
7.5
10
15
6
606
743
424
0.4
0.7
0.1
0
0.04
0
0.01
0.03
0
0.02
0.12
0
Parameter
and Unit
Fe
(mg/1)
Pb
(mg/1)
Mn
(mg/1)
Hg
(mg/1)
Ni
(mg/1)
Zn
(mg/1)
Fecal
Col i forms
(1/100 ml)
Monitoring Station
mean
max.
min.
mean
max.
min.
mean
max.
min.
mean
max.
min.
mean
max.
min.
mean
max.
min.
mean
max.
min.
SI
1.5
4.8
0
0.05
0.2
0
0.7
0.98
0.06
0.05
0.2
0
0
0.35
0
0
0.2
0
7,500
34,000
270
S2
1.3
4.5
0.1
0.09
0.28
0
0.86
1.31
0.60
0
0.2
0
0
0.33
0
0
0.2
0
1,700
3,800
20
S3
0.3
0.6
0.1
0.08
0.2
0
0.47
0.96
0.24
0.2
0.6
0
0
0.31
0
0
0
0
920
4,000
80
IV-26
-------
between the two stations. Levels of cadmium, iron, nickel, and zinc
remained relatively constant at both stations. Surface runoff and
leachates originating in the strip-mined area along this segment of
Big Creek might be the cause of increased levels of chromium, lead
and manganese in the downstream direction. However, lack of detailed
data prevents the specific identification of the source.
Groundwater samples were collected from a number of wells and one
spring (see Figure IV-9, page IV-24).The measured ranges of all groundwater
quality parameters reported in 1971 and 1972, prior to project operation, are
presented in Table IV-9. In this table, the well responsible for the
maximum reading of a given parameter is designated by parentheses..
Wells W2, W4, W9, Wll, W12, and W13 indicated high degrees of contamina-. :
tion. Variations in concentrations of nitrite and nitrate nitrogen
(NCL+NOo-N) and ammonia nitrogen (NH3~N) at all monitoring stations are
summarized in Table IV-10 for 1972.
In earlier years the U.S. Department of the Interior conducted a
survey of water quality from wells and infiltration galleries in more
than 17 study areas throughout the United States. The range in quality
of groundwater used for water supply is summarized in Table IV-9 (Durfer
and Becker, 1965). Comparison of the baseline groundwater quality in the
project area with that from the Department of the Interior study indicates
that concentrations of Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, and Ni in the project area were
within the range found elsewhere in the United States; the ranges of pH
and zinc concentration were close to the national values. Concentrations
of Cl, SO,, Ca, Mg and Na were higher than those found nationwide, indi-
cating that dissolved solids or salt concentrations were relatively high
in the project area.
The U.S. recommended maximum level of nitrite and nitrate nitrogen
for drinking water is 10 mg/1 as nitrogen (U.S. Department of Public Health
Service, 1962 and 1969). If all ammonia nitrogen were oxidized to nitrite
or nitrate, the range of nitrite and nitrate nitrogen concentrations in
the project area would fall between zero and 5.21 mg/1. This range falls
within the lower one-third of the national range of 0 to 17 mg/1 as reported
by Durfer and Becker (1965). The maximum nitrite and nitrate concentration
IV-27
-------
Table IV-9. Range of Various Water Quality Parameters in Well Water,
1971 and 1972; and U.S. Averages (MSDGC, 1972a through
1975g; Durfer and Becker, 1965)
Water Used
Parameter
and Unit
pH
Total P
Cl"
so4 =
Alkalinity
(CaC03)
Conduc-
tivity
Al
Ca
Cd
Cr
Cu
Fe
Pb
Mg
Mn
Hg
Ni
K
Na
Zn
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
limho
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
rog/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/ml
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
1971
6.6-9.0
0.6.0 (W9)
2-500 (W4)
1-500 (W4)
4-1,650 (Wll)
90-1,050 (W17)
--
33-495 (W12)
0-0.1 (W6)
0-0.39 (W6)
0-0.5 (W2)
0-118.7 (W9)
0-1.0 (W19)
21-390 (W12)
0-12.7 (W9)
0-20 (W19)
0-0.42 (W10)
0.1-24.9 (W4)
11.7-310 (W8)
0-390 (W12)
1972
6.5-9.2
0 - 0.054 (W2)
2-488 (W4)
3-1,812 (W14)
100-1,000 (Wll)
200-4,000 (W4)
—
38.5-883 (Wl)
0-0.22 (W2)
0-0.05 (W13; W18)
0-1.82 (W2)
0-182.6 (W13)
0-2.2 (W2)
23 - 410 (W14)
0-3.3 (W12)
0-2.8 (W7)
0-0.3
0-19.4 (W4)
7-646 (Wll)
0-140 (W10)
for Water Supply
(U.S. average)
6.7-8.7
--
2.0-92
0.8-572
--
108-1,660
2.9-83
3.2-121
--
ND-1.1
<0.8-15
1.1-6,600
ND-38
0.3-120
ND-340
--
ND-<15
0.4-30
6.1-129
ND-<470
Fecal
Coliforms 1/100 ml
NO = not detected.
O-OOO
0-120 (W7)
IV-28
-------
Table IV-10. Levels of Nitrite and Nitrate Nitrogen and
Ammonia Nitrogen in Well Waters in 1972
(MSDGC, 1972a through 1975g)
Well
Wl
W2
W4
W5
W7
W8
W9
W10
Wll
W12
W13
W14
W15
W17
W18
W19
N02
Mean
0.03
0.03
0.29
0.04
0.16
0.01
0.02
0.02
0
0.03
0.08
0.01
0.06
0.81
0.03
0.03
+N03-N (mg
Max.
0.11
0.11
1.51
0.27
0.28
0.05
0.09
0.09
0.02
0.13
0.21
0.07
0.28
2.50
0.11
0.13
/I)
Min.
0
0
0
0
0.04
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NH
Mean
0.40
0.80
1.1
0.2
0.5
1.8
1.0
0.8
1.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
1.1
0.5
1.8
0.99
3-N (mg/1)
Max.
0.70
4.10
1.9
0.6
1.1
4.3
1.7
1.6
2.1
1.3
0.8
1.3
1.9
2.2
2.7
2.0
Min.
0
0
0
0
0.1
0
0
0.4
1.4
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.3
0.1
1.3
0.0
IV-29
-------
of 5.21 mg/1, recorded at well W4 in the community of Cuba, was well
within the recommended drinking water standard. Apparently, the base-
line quality of groundwater in the area of the project, was compatible
with use for public water supply. However, the high overall concentra-
tion of dissolved minerals, approximately three times the U.S. standard
of 500 ppm, could necessitate extensive treatment.
IV-30
-------
D. BIOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS
The following discussion of biology and ecosystems is divided into
two sections: fish and wildlife, and natural vegetation. Within each of
these are discussed major species, both past and present, and the rare and
endangered species possibly inhabiting the project area.
1. Fish and Wildlife
Fish abound in most of the local lakes, and are the most numer-
ous vertebrates in the study area. The predominant fish are bluegill,
green and redear sunfish, black crappie, yellow and black bullheads,
large-mouth bass, and catfish.
A great diversity of wildlife currently inhabits the project area.
Turtles, frogs, water insects, and crustaceans are abundant in Lake
Evelyn. There are also some black snakes and signs of beaver activity.
The steep-sided lakes formed by strip mining have fewer_crustaceans and
water insects, but muskrats and frogs are abundant. Land animals include
deer, fox, raccoon, skunk, opossum, rabbit, coyote, badger, groundhog,
and weasel. Water fowl include ducks, geese (especially the giant Canada
goose), swans and an occasional great blue heron. Other birds include
crows, hawks, warblers, robins, starlings, sparrows, red-winged black-
birds, bluejays, and finches.
Within historic times, other animals have populated Fulton County.
These prairie animals included populations of elk, buffalo, trumpeter
swans, sandhill cranes, and the prairie chicken, as well as large preda-
tors like the cougar, bear, and wolf. Big Bluestem, a project aimed at
recreating a native prairie on part of the MSDGC property (the 2,972-acre
former Gale property, see Figure IV-13, page IV-60), is planning to cre-
ate habitat opportunities for a number of original prairie animals.
Six rare and endangered animal species are listed for the region
containing Illinois. Fish species are the longjaw cisco and the blue
pike. Endangered birds are the arctic peregrine falcon and Kirtland's
warbler, and mammals are the Indiana bat and the eastern timber wolf.
IV-31
-------
However, the probability of any of these species being present in the
project area is extremely remote, and should therefore not present a
problem (Smith, 1976, personal communication).
2. Natural Vegetation
The two types of vegetation in the project area consist of culti-
vated monocultures (predominately corn) in the sludge application fields,
and the area's natural vegetation. The following is a discussion of this
natural vegetation and the locally rare and endangered plant species
which might occur.
The predominant grasses are brome, alfalfa, and reed canary grass.
Trees are those generally propagated by wind-blown seeds, including elm,
cottonwood, and willow.
Most of the lakes in the project area were formed from the end cuts
of strip mining operations, and have steeply sloping sides and a small
littoral zone. This., zone supports some growth of Chara and Mi tell a. Dia-
toms are the predominant planktonic species. No cattails or reeds are
present.
A few lakes have gently sloping sides and a relatively large lit-
toral zone. These 'Jakes have an abundance of lake cattails and reeds.
Diatoms and lesser amounts of green algae are the major planktonic spe-
cies. Submerged aquatic vegetation includes stoneworts, Chara, Nitella,
Elodea, Vallesenana, and some of the Potomegetons. Considerable num-
bers of currant, raspberry, and blackberry bushes grow along the banks.
There are three endangered plant species which probably exist in the
project area. (Federal Register, July 1, 1975.) One, an endangered wood-
land species, is Aster chasei, a woodland aster. Two endangered prairie
species are Lespedeza leptostachya, a bush clover found on dry prairie,
and Petalostemum foliosum, a prairie clover found near riverbanks.
IV-32
-------
E. POPULATION AND ECONOMICS
This section is a description and interpretation of the baseline data
needed for the assessment of the socio-economic and land use impacts of the
project. What is presented here is a selective representation of a broad
data collection effort and contains only those data which are relevant to
the prediction of impacts. The two main topics discussed in the_section are
demographic and economic characteristics.
1. Demographic Characteristics
Population will be a major factor in determining the types of land
use for which there will be a demand in the project area. The follow-
ing paragraphs discuss historic and present demographic trends in Ful-
ton County, and give population projections developed from analysis of
trends. The section concludes with a discussion of family income in
the county.
a. Population trends - Table IV-11 shows historic population
trends in Fulton County. The county's population decreased from
approximately 50,000 persons in 1910 to about 42,000 in 1970.
Slight increases in the populations of Canton, Lewistown and Farm-
ington slowed the decline in total population to 6.1% between 1940
and 1970. However, an increase from 41,900 in April 1970 to 42,400
in July 1974 indicates that past declines may be reversed by new
factors which could lead to future population growth. The general
demographic trend prior to 1970 was one of declining rural popula-
tion, only partially balanced by increase in local town populations.
Approximately 80% of the population was rural in 1910, declining to
less than 30% in 1970 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1930 to 1970; Enviro
Control, Inc., 1975). Rural population decrease has been caused largely
by national decline in the labor intensiveness of farm production.
Township population data (1960-1970) show that growth is occur-
ring along a corridor of townships which cross the county from Can-
ton.and Orion Townships on the east to Vermont Township on the west
IV-33
-------
Table IV-11. Historical Population Trends in
Fulton County (U.S. Census of Popu-
lation)
Township
Astoria
Banner
Bernadotte
Buckhsart
Canton
Cass
Deerfield
Ellisvine
Fairview
Farmers
Farming ton
Harris
Isabel .
Joshua
Kerton
Lee
Lewis town
Liverpool
Orion
Pleasant
Putman
Union
Vermont
Waterford
Woodland
Young Hickory
Community
Astoria
Bryant
St. David
Canton
Norris
Smithfield
Ellisville
Fairview
Table Grove
Fanning ton
Marietta
Lewis town
Ipava
Cuba
Avon
Vermont
London Mills
Banner
Dunfermline
Liverpool
Land Area
36.6
33.7
37.7
35.1
35.7
38.7
34.8
13.8
36.4
35.7
36.2
33.8
29.5
35.8
27.3
37.2
35.7
42.2
36.5
37.9
34.8
36.7
36.7
21.3
38.7
24.3
1970
1,738
694
333
1,770
15,837
819
424
230
923
498
3,998
520
300
641
178
404
3,252
844
898
1,018
2,115
1 ,387
1,399
233
596
869
1,281
326
773
14,217
359
318
137
601
469
2,959
169
2,706
608
1,581
1,013
947
612
235
282
218
1960
1,781
739
362
1,974
15,030
835
476
280
921
561
4,052
589
348
707
195
475
3,163
932
776
1,128
1,791
1,443
1,423
266
700
957
1,205
346
862
13,588
307
329
140
544
400
2,831
201
2,603
623
1,380
996
903
_
247
284
184
1950
1,976
756
369
2,257
15,056
948
528
319
1,029
617
3,950
680
387
813
283
496
3,237
1,057
789
1,199
2,025
1,340
1,490
346
843
906
1,303
395
812
11,927
319
355
157
568
481
2,651
178
2,630
667
1,482
870
940
_
215
292
"•
1940
1,953
690
671
2,320
14,152
1,018
580
423
1,065
S67
3,937
903
507
857
370
594
2,943
1,071
900
1,299
2,169
1,370
1,590
352
976
940
1,292
387
859
11,577
339
359
216
528
480
2,225
193
2,335
629
1,620
803
945
_
172
-
••
1930
1,997
617
643
2,589
13,937
937
630
331
1,113
976
3,941
813
460
874
338
627
2,834
955
781
1,333
2,123
1,355
1,602
303
976
798
1,189
442
977
11,718
329
315
164
522
463
2,269
202
2,249
635
1,479
799
948
432
_
_
—
IV-34
-------
(see Figure IV-10). On both sides of this corridor, township
population is declining. It is noteworthy that these declining
areas are largely agricultural. The heavily strip-mined town-
ships of Putman, Canton and Orion show significant population
increase. Thus, in terms of population growth, economic devel-
opment tends to coincide with mining activities. During this same
period the communities of the county showed a pattern of popula-
tion change consisting of three components:
Major communities (Canton, Cuba, Lewistown, and
Farraington) increased significantly
Communities in the predominantly agricultural western
part of the county (Ellisville, Ipava, Marietta, and
Smithfield) declined
Other communities grew slowly
The growth of major communities is presumably related to improved
accessibility and a correspondingly increased radius of commercial
center trade, combined with an increase in service activities. The
decline of the western communities is presumably due to a decline
in agricultural labor. Population decrease in small communities
south of Canton is interpreted as representing a combination of
decline in agricultural labor and bituminous coal mining, and
increased attractiveness of growing urban centers nearby.
b. Population projections - Future population growth is predic-
ted in the two most recent projections describing Fulton County
and its surrounding water resources sub-region. The 1972-E OBERS
Projections predict a 43% population increase between 1970 and 2020
for the 29-county water resources sub-area containing Fulton County.
The basis given is the expected expansion of manufacturing. In-
creased opportunities in industry would facilitate the maintenance
of the existing population, and would encourage population in-migra-
tion to the areas near new industrial plants. Consistent with the
1972-E OBERS Projections are population projections for Fulton County
IV-35
-------
Township Population Change, Plus (+) or Minus (-)
ure IV-10. Fulton County Township Population Change, 1960-1970 (U.S. Census of Population)
IV-36
-------
whichhave been released recently by the State of Illinois (see
Table IV-12 below). These 1975 projections by the Bureau of the
Budget, State of Illinois, predict a 29% increase in Fulton County's
population between 1970 and 2020.
Table IV-12. Population Projections for Fulton County
(Illinois Population Projections, 1975)
1970
Census
41 ,883
1975
41,308
1980
42,031
1985
43,196
1990
44,691
2000
49,454
2020
54,048
c. Family income - Median family income in Fulton County is rela-
tively high when compared to other predominantly rural counties
(Griffin and Chicoine, 1974). Principal causes for higher income
are the availability of nearby manufacturing employment and historic
labor-intensive modes of agricultural and strip-mine production.
Much of the manufacturing employment pays high union wages. Many
other, less well paid members of the work force are able to supple-
ment their income by working shifts at the factories. Fewer people
work on farms or at strip mines at present, but the skills required
to operate increasingly sophisticated equipment enable them to com-
mand higher salaries.
Table IV-13 shows that the median family income has been in-
creasing at approximately the same rate in Fulton County as in the
entire country.
IV-37
-------
Table IV-13.
Trends in Median Family Income (in 1967 dollars)
(County and City Data Book. 1972, 1967, 1956;
Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1974)
Fulton County
United States
1949
4235
4603
1959
5981
6334
1969
7852
8486
2. Economic Characteristics
A number of local economic conditions will influence the overall
impacts of the project. These conditions are described in the follow-
ing section in terms of historic trends and current and probable future condi'
tions. The analysis is divided into two major topics. The first con-
sists of employment and governmental finances including land values in
relation to tax base. These factors create a framework for an ensuing
description of the agricultural, mining and manufacturing and the retail
and wholesale trade sectors of the local economy which is the second
topic.
a. Employment and fiscal trends - Table IV-14 summarizes a de-
tailed history of employment trends in Fulton County. Several gen-
eral trends are apparent in these data. Large declines in employ-
ment have occurred in the agricultural and mining sectors; little
change has occurred in services and wholesale trade; manufacturing
has fluctuated; and slight increases have occurred in retail trade.
Historical trends in revenues, expenditures, and public debts
are shown for Fulton County in Table -IV-15. These trends
document a history of limited local financial resources.
IV-38
-------
Table IV-14. Employment Structure in Fulton County, Illinois
(U.S. Census, County Business Patterns and Census
of Government)
Agriculture
1
Manufacturing 2,
Trade- Retail 1,
Trade-Wholesale
Services
Mining 1,
Contract Construction
Forestry & Other
Government^
Education3
Total
(Teachers)
1950
4302
953
601
726
276
467
268
133
7
1957
1,317
390
1959
919
612
185
195
--
265
20
1959
3842
1964
2,683
1,715
180
828
837
134
10
1962
1,359
295
(229)
1964
3922
1967
3,605
1,898
227
1,024
1,004
127
1967
2,177
-
505
(375)
1969
1231
1972
2,551
2,004
221
1,273
699
192
1972
1,913
955
(673)
1
For Class 1-5 farms for worker by number of days worked -- 150 days or
more.
"Workers by number of days worked — 150 days or more.
Local government employment and payroll in individual city areas.
IV-39
-------
Table IV-1 5. Trends in Governmental Finances in
Fulton County, Illinois (U.S. Census of
Governments)
Year
1972
1967
1962
Total
General
Revenues
(millions)
$16.6
$10.9
$ 7.9
Total
Expenditures
(millions)
$16.4
$10.8
$ 7.6
General Debt
Outstanding
(millions)
$9.3
$7.6
$5.5
Because local public financial resources are heavily dependent on
the property tax base, trends in land values are a useful indica-
tor. The total value of real estate in Fulton County has de-
clined significantly since 1971. As shown in Table IV-16, Banner
Township is the only township in which there was a reversal of
this erosion of tax base. This significant reversal was caused by
the construction of a massive CILCO power plant in the mid-eastern
portion of the county.
b. Agricultural activity - The agricultural sector of Fulton
County's economy is in a state of rapid change. Data in Table
IV-17 are descriptive of numerous agricultural trends which have
developed since 1940. Discussion of these trends sets a frame-
work for an analysis of future agricultural influences on the lo-
cal economy.
Local agricultural trends appear to reflect a number of na-
tional patterns. Complicated, expensive farm machinery has made
farming less labor intensive and has necessitated increases in the
size of farms and the amount of skill required of the farmer. In-
creases in both farm size and required capital investment have tended
IV-40
-------
Table IV-16.
Trends in the Total Value of Real Estate in
Fulton County (Fulton County Assessor's Record,
1963, 1971, 1975)
Township
Astoria
Banner
Bernadotte
Buckheart
Canton
Cass
Deerfield
Ellisville
Fairview
Farmers
Farming ton
Harris
Isabel
Joshua
i'erton
Lee
Lewis town
Liverpool
Orion
Pleasant
Putman
Union
Vermont
Uaterford
Woodland
Young Hickory
Total
1963
10,351,140
6,759,298
4,322,675
11,656,337
69,792,894
6,394,912
5,222,632
2,321,338
12,421,754
6,593,026
22,698,552
4,096,206
4,481,162
10,064,144
3,467,412
6,855,263
16,809,122
7,656,009
5,873,750
8,948,596
12,016,250
11,408,048
10,137,653
3,088,179
5,479,451
5,614,079
Total
100% Value 274,579,880
Value in 1967
1971
13,082,442
5,769,688
5,098,330
11,758,275
66,997,284
5,948,055
5,359,248
2,033,798
12,336,954
6,410,532
22,177,412
3,846,349
5,083,303
8,814,147
3,784,055
7,165,266
16,767,504
8,375,394
6,657,339
8,173,083
16,230,825
10,946,513
9,380,073
3,651,945
6,266,587
5,179,798
277,294,180
Dollars
1975
9,740,176
13,735,906
4,049,181
9,851,977
55,167,531
4,737,494
4,277,267
1,673,854
9,176,247
5,026,814
16,851,133
3,036,348
3,990,668-
6,852,317
2,983,249
5,817,557
14,974,874
7,262,166
5,743,451
6,378,639
14,997,607
8,534,761
7,214,698
3,018,174
4,959,408
4,153,060
233,965,520
Note: Two sets of figures were used to calculate values. These are the
percentage of assessed value and a deflator based on Illinois
farmland values. Values for these are as follows:
Percent of value assessed
Deflator used
J96_3
60^
.76
J_971
50;;
1.09
19_75
38%
2.09
IV-41
-------
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IV-42
-------
to increase corporate ownership of farms and the number of farm
operators living in town, The consolidation of older, smaller
farms has led to decline in farm population, and smaller farms
which remain are not large enough to support the families living
on them. Hence, an increasing number of these farmers have second
jobs, which are generally shift work at factories in Peoria and
Fulton Counties.
A number of trends are apparent concerning the type of farm
goods being produced. Of great importance is the fact, that the
total value (in constant dollars) of all farm products has under-
gone substantial increase, despite a slight loss in the total acre*
age of farms. Decreases in the production of dairy products,, poul-
try and wheat have been balanced by increases in the production of
corn, soybeans and beef.
c. Mining and manufacturing - Strip mining of coal has been a major
influence on the economy of Fulton County. Economic trends in min-
ing are presented in Table IV-18 showing that the total number of
employees has fluctuated, but has generally decreased since 1954.
This decrease reflects technological improvement in the coal ex-
traction process which make it a more capital intensive industry.
Table IV-18. Economic Trends in Mining in Fulton County, Illinois
(U.S. Census of Mineral Industries)
Total
Establ
ishments
1954
25
1958
15
1963
16
1
967
10
1
972
12
Types of Establishments
Bituminous 24 12 14 8 6
Sand & Gravel 1 2 125
*0ther — 1 1 -- 1
Total Employees 1,025 805 984 — 600
Value of Shipments $23,937,000 $19,506,000 $28,229,000 — $28,600,000
Value of Shipments (1967) $27,336,054 $20,617,842 $29,866,282 — $24,024,000
* Includes chemical and fertilizer minerals, coal mining services, and oil and gas
extraction.
IV-43
-------
The countywide total number of strip mining companies has also
decreased, resulting primarily from the economies of scale gained
by merging the resources of two or more firms. Value of shipments,
a measure of total productivity, has declined in total dollar value
since 1963. This decline may reflect the influence of increasingly
stringent national air pollution regulations on the value of high-
sulfur coal, such as the coal extracted locally.
Manufacturing in and near Canton is dominated by the Interna-
tional Harvester plant. However, manufacturing plants west and
south of Peoria exert considerable influence on employment in the
Canton area. As shown in Table IV-19, there are no clearly discern-
able manufacturing trends. Importantly, though, the data show that
there are few firms employing over 100 people. Other, smaller firms
form a fairly diverse, although not strong, industrial base. Accord-
ing to the 1972-E OBERS Projections, the total value of manufactur-
ing output in the sub-region containing Fulton County is expected
to increase by 218% between 1980 and 2020. This projected increase
could replace job losses resulting from expected decline in the em-
ployment on farms, in mines and in small town retail trade and ser-
vices.
d. Retaj_1 and wholesale trade - Historically, most trade activi-
ties have been consolidated in a small number of central places.
Canton is the major urban area in Fulton County, but trade activi-
ties have also been attracted to Lewistown and Farmington. Peoria
and Pekin, however, are the dominant centers of trade in the entire
Region.
Trends in retail activities are shown in Table IV-20. The most
important trend is the high rate of increase in the total volume of
retail sales. The current status of Canton as a central marketplace
is demonstrated by a recent survey which shows that 84% of the in-
habitants of Canton do more than half of their shopping in Canton
(Canton Chamber of Commerce, 1975). There appears to be progressively
IV-44
-------
Table IV-19. Historical Manufacturing Trends in Fulton County, Illinois
(U.S. Census of Manufactures)
I. Selected Data 1939 1947 1954 1963 1972
Number of Establishments 21 30 30 29 26
Total Employees 1,007 3,178 2,065 2,617
II. Number of Establishments by Type
SIC* Category 1947 1954 1963 1972
20 Food and kindred products 8753
23 Apparel and related products 2211
24 Lumber and products except furniture
25 Furniture and fixtures 2 1 -- 1
27 Printing and publishing 8 8 10 7
28 Chemicals and allied products 1 1
31 Leather and leather products 3
32 Stone, clay and glass products — 241
33 Primary metal industries 2 -- 1 1
34 Fabricated metal products 1211
35 Machinery (except electrical) 2 1 1 4
36 Electrical machinery — — 1 1
37 Transportation equipment -- 1 1
38 Instruments and related products 1 1
CAO Central Administrative Offices -- -- — 1
III. Industries (Establishments) Employing 100 or More
SIC* Category 1947 1954 1963 1972
23 Apparel and related products -- 1 1
33 Primary metal industries — -- 1
35 Machinery (except electrical) 1111
37 Transportation equipment -- -- -- 1
*
SIC: Standard Industrial Classification, a code of industrial classifications
issued by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget
IV-45
-------
Table IV-20. Trends in Retail Trade in Fulton County, Illinois
(U.S. Census of Business; Census of Retail Trade)
I. Selected Data -- Number of Establishments
SIC* Major Groups 1948 1954 1958 1963 1967 1972
52 Lumber, building materials,
hardware 27 60 67 48 50 34
54 Food stores 54 87 89 81 55 47
55 Automotive dealers, except 554 42 47 40 42 42 38
554 Gasoline service stations 86 83 80 63 66 63
56 Apparel & accessories stores 25 29 24 31 28 28
57 Furniture, home furnishings,
equipment 32 36 33 36 24 20
58 Eating & drinking places 121 105 113 97 92 97
591 Drug stores & proprietary
stores 19 21 16 12 15 15
II. Retail Trade Volume in Thousands of 1967 Dollars
SIC* Category 1948 1954 1958 1963 1967 1972
52 Lumber, building materials,
hardware 7,217 7,061 6,484 5,609 9,212 4,046
54 Food stores 12,841 12,184 12,963 13,609 15,453 16,269
55 Automotive dealers, ex-
cept 554 8,561 13,066 11,039 12,611 13,059 14,823
554 Gasoline service stations 3,744 4,501 5,305 4,516 5,551 5,472
56 Apparel & accessories
stores 2,239 1,910 2,845 3,281 3,794
57 Furniture, home furnishings
& equipment 2,467 2,829 2,220 1,613 1,977 2,783
58 Eating 8. drinking places 3,495 3,276 3,567 3,684 3,970 5,003
591 Drug stores & proprietary
stores 1,318 1,391 1,388 1,574 1,758 2,075
Total Retail Trade Volume 47,632 54,370 56,557 59,960 67,543 63,338
Deflators (Consumer Price Index) 1.387 1.242 1.155 1.058 1.000 0.799
*
SIC: Standard Industrial Classification, a code of industrial classifications
issued by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget
IV-46
-------
less retail orientation in Canton to the Peoria and Pekin markets.
However, specialized goods such as bricks, sports car equipment,
and furs are available only in Peoria or Pekin. Peoria is a locus
for specialized commodities and services as well as for comparison
shopping.
The number of wholesale establishments and the total volume
of wholesale sales have each increased substantially since 1948
(Table IV-21). These trends further reflect less orientation to-
ward the Peoria market. However, Peoria offers a great diversity
of wholesale firms, most of which have larger inventories.
Table IV-21 Trends in Wholesale Trade in Fulton County, Illinois
(U.S. Census of Business; 1972 Census of Wholesale Trade)
1948 1954 1958 1963 1967 1972
I. Selected Data
Number of Establishments 47 55 51 51 52 77
Number of Employees 244 228 239 195 229 380
Sales in Thousands of
1967 Dollars 16,696 16,301 19,950 19,295 20,761 33,401
II. Types of Establishments
Number of Merchant
Wholesalers 14 13 19 15 14 59
Number of Other Operating
Types* 33 42 32 36 38 18
Note: Data on employment differs from that listed in Table IV-15. The difference is
that the above data are aggregated by place of residence; those in Table 1 are
aggregated by place of employment.
IV-47
-------
F. LAND USE AND DEVELOPMENT
Land use is one physical manifestation of social and economic values.
In the following section, data describing past and current land use, as well
as projected social and economic trends, are used to project future land use.
1. Established Uses of Land
The following discussion of land use is weighted toward current in-
formation; a detailed historical record of land use in Fulton County is
not available. The discussion is divided into two major categories:
• Land use patterns
• Use of strip-mined land.
a. Land use pattern - The only available county-wide inventory
of land use was made in 1968 (Harland Bartholomew and Associates,
1969). Recent low rates of social and economic change in Fulton
County indicate that 1968 data reliably approximate current condi-
tions. According to these data, most of the land in Fulton County
is devoted to unintensive use. Approximately 88% of the land is
either covered by forest or water, used for agriculture, or is va-
cant. Fallow strip-mined land covers nearly 7% of the land. Pub-
lic and semi-public areas, mostly unintensively used, cover over 3%
of the county. Only the 2% of remaining land is used intensively.
Intensive uses amount to a little over 1% residential, less than 0.5%
commercial, and about 0.7% industrial.
While quantitative estimates of past land use are generally
unavailable, some estimates of agricultural and strip-mining acre-
age were obtained. Data from the Census of Agriculture (see Table IV-17,
page IV-42) show that the percent of land in the county davoted to agri-
culture decreased from 87.5% in 1945 to 82.7% in 1969. This change
was accompanied, from 1945 to 1969, by a decrease of 60,000 acres
of pasture and an increase of 32,000 acres of cropland. By 1974
approximately 5,000 acres of strip-mined land had been added to
IV-48
-------
the 1969 county-wide total of 40,000 acres (Sardberg, 1973). Due to
recently increased requirements for land reclamation, this added acre-
age has been reclaimed to a degree much closer to its original state
than were most of the 40,000 acres.
A representation of land use near the project area is provided in
Figure TV-11, This map shows the strong orientation of intensive uses
to Canton and, to a lesser extent, Lewistown. Wee-Ma-Tuk Hills and
Spoon River College are the major intensively developed sites near the
project area; both exhibit potential for future growth.
The predominant urban land use is residential, accounting for al-
most 38% of the total urban area (Harland Bartholomew and Associates,
1969). Most industrial activities are located in or adjacent to urban
areas; remaining rural industrial operations are mostly agriculturally
oriented. Strip-mining activities are located in the central, north-
eastern, and southwestern sections of the county. Agricultural activi-
ties are located throughout the county.
Substantial, widely scattered forests are located along streams
and in areas where steep slopes have limited the use of the land. Ma-
jor conservation districts are locate'd along the Illinois River. Parks
and private recreation clubs occupy many other scattered areas. Hunt-
ing, fishing, and camping are the primary recreational activities. Most
recreation is seasonal and requires an extensive amount of land per user.
Most regional recreation is concentrated at Dickson Mounds State Park
and throughout the Spoon River Valley. Parks are planned for several
sites near the Spoon River (Bordner, 1975).
The major land holders in Fulton County are the mining companies, incor-
porated firms and owners of a number of large farms, as well as MSDGC. Land
holdings as of 1973 are detailed in Table IV-22 on the following page,
indicating that large portions of the county are owned by relatively
few individuals and corporations. The existence of large tracts of
land makes it relatively easy to buy land for recreation, conserva-
tion, industrial development, or strip mining.
IV-49
-------
THfc ILLINOIS
STATE MUSEUM
DICKSON MOUNDS
^LIVERPOOL BAR6E DOCK
SPOON RIVER VALLEY
SCENIC DRIVE
MSO PIPELINE
5; COUNTY HIGHWAY MARKER
US HIGHWAY MARKER
STATE HIGHWAY MARKER
SPECIAL POINT OF INTEREST
Residential and
Commercial areas
P PICNICKING C - CAMPING
Strip Mining
;-''i.re IV-1!. Fulton County Land Use, K68
(Harland Bartholomew ard Ps!cria^e-, 1969}
-------
Table IV-22. Major Land Holders in Fulton County, 1973
(Fulton County Plat Book, 1973)
Land Holders
Total County Land
Mining Companies
Incorporated Farms (9 companies)
Other Major Farms (18 owners)
MSDGC
State of Illinois
Private Recreation
Banks
Major Developers
Industrial Firms
Total
Acres
561,152.00
41,716.58
25,382.90
12,576.05
9,711.31*
4,266.33
2,912.28
1,998.90
1,676.44
832.40
101,073.19
Percent
100.00
7.43
4.52
2.24
1.73
0.76
0.51
0.35
0.29
0.14
18.01
Acreage is 15,528 as of August 1975
b. Use of strip-mined land - A 1973 survey identified land use
in currently and formerly strip-mined areas (Sandberg, 1973).
Table IV-23 summarizes the existing use of reclaimed and unreclaimed
strip-mined lands. Unreclaimed lands were defined as "areas where
no attempt has been made to reclaim stripped land to a productive
use". Reclaimed lands were defined as "areas where the land has
been leveled to reasonable slopes and surface drainage has been re-
stored". Fulton County contains about 21,600 acres of unreclaimed
and 15,500 acres of reclaimed strip-mined lands. Most unreclaimed
areas are in woodlands, light cover, or no cover; most reclaimed
areas are in light cover, light pasture, or heavy pasture. In 1973,
none of the unreclaimed mining sites and less than 3% of the re-
claimed sites were used as cropland.
2. Projected Uses of Land
The 1990 land use plan for Fulton County designates future land
use on the basis of 1968 estimates of future demographic and economic
IV-51
-------
Table IV-23. 1973 Land Use Survey of Strip-Mine Lands in Fulton County, Illinois (Sandberg, 1973)
"~-~-^___^^ Type of Land
Use "~-~~^^_
A. Woodlands
B. Light Cover
C. Light Pasture
0. Heavy Pasture
E. Cropland
F. Residence
G. Commerce
H. Industry
I. Landfill
J. Public Recreation
K. Private Recreation
L. Public & Semipublic
M. Conservation-Wildlife
N. Unused-No Cover
TOTAL ACRES
VALUE PER ACRE*
Total
Unreclaimed
Lands
8518
6547
1011
-
-
-
-
222
15
-
190
-
-
5068
21,571
Unreclaimed Lands
Mine Water
Wastes Areas
-
-
247
-
-
-
-
316
-
-
374
9
3888
1978
2,541 4,271
$259 **
Reclaimed
Lands
392
4064
5992
3123
405
251
-
-
-
-
241
-
-
988
15,456
$323
* Value Per Acre » 100% value in 1967 dollars
** Does not include the value of mining equipment and structures.
Notes;
A. Woodlands included dense, forested lands where the ground surface was not visible
or rarely seen in the aerial photographic interpretation.
B. Light Cover describes areas with surface cover of some form or other,
usually grasses, low shrubs and scattered trees.
C. Light Pasture often included newly reclaimed areas where surface foliage was
provided for grazing. In other natural areas, the distinction between light cover
and light pasture was made on the basis of visible animal paths from fields
to barns or sheds.
D. Heavy Pasture included areas where large-scale grazing operations were found.
Stock trails, animal pens, feeding stations and the like were often used to
determine the scale of operation.
E. Cropland is determined by the visible pattern of planted or harvested crops.
F. Residence Areas are determined by the outline of buildings, driveways,
and arrangement of lots.
G. Commerce includes small commercial facilities usually associated with highways
in the smaller communities.
H. Industry includes active mining areas, railroads, coal tipples and similar
intensive operations.
I. Landfill is an area where solid waste materials are buried in a deep trench
and covered with dirt.
J- Public Recreation Areas are owned by a public agency or unit of local government
andaremade available for use by the general public.
K- Private Recreation Areas include golf clubs, private reserves, camps and the like
and are available to members or owners, not the general public.
L. Public and Semipublic Lands^ include schools, churches, cemeteries, public sewage
plants and similar uses.
M. Conservation-Wildlife Areas include water areas and surrounding lands which, by
virtue of proximity, create a habitat for wildlife.
N. Unused-No Cover Lands are areas where soil conditions are not conducive to growth of
natural vegetation. These lands are often associated with mine waste areas.
IV-52
-------
change. Since the anticipated changes were minor, these future desig-
nations are closely related to the existing land use pattern (Figure
IV-11, page IV-50).
Residential uses are expected to increasingly concentrate in and
near the established urbanized areas. Major residential growth is ex-
pected to the east and northwest of Canton; to the north, east, and
west of Lewistown; to the west and northeast of Farmington; and around
Avon, Cuba, and Vermont. Increases are anticipated in the number of
single-family, multi-family and mobile home dwellings in tract subdivi-
sions, and decreases are expected in the number of farm residences.
Commercial uses are predicted to concentrate in the central busi-
ness districts of Canton, Lewistown and Farmington. The plan antici-
pates major industrial areas near Liverpool and in and near Canton,
Lewistown, and Farmington. The anticipated major new public lands are
six reservoirs with adjacent forest preserves (see Figure IV-13, page IV-
59). Conservation and recreation expansion would concentrate in the
surroundings of the Spoon River Scenic Drive along the river from Dick-
son Mounds to London Mills.
Most future strip mining is expected to occur north of Canton.
A major emphasis in the county's land use policy is the reclamation
of strip-mined lands. Stringent conditional use permits regulate the
nuisance aspects of strip mining and require substantial reclamation
of the land. Land use is also regulated on a county-wide basis by a
zoning ordinance, arid Canton, Cuba and Farmington have separate or-
dinances.
3. Land Development Potential
The potential for actual land development depends upon the inter-
action among land suitability, accessibility and attractiveness,
with the social and economic factors of land use demand discussed earlier.
The suitability, accessibility and attractiveness of land are the physical
IV-53
-------
components of development potential; they deal with the conditions of
the site, its location and aesthetics. These factors are discussed
separately in this section.
a. Land suitability - Suitability of the project site for vari-
ous land uses is affected by topography, soils and drainage. The
application fields, once leveled and graded, have a gently slop-
ing surface which would easily accommodate a variety of land uses,
including roads, housing, industry, row-crop farming and livestock
feedlots. Slightly steeper surrounding slopes are better suited
for pasture and tree farming. Erosion and construction problems
on the steepest slopes make them best suited for unintensive re-
creation and conservation.
Problems of settlement with unconsolidated soils in the strip-
mined sections of the project area would most likely make it pro-
hibitively expensive to accommodate hard surface roads, underground
utilities, and residential or industrial structures. Current levels
of available plant nutrients and organic matter make these soils
unsuitable for intensive agriculture. Soils of the undisturbed
place lands do not present these limitations.
Drainage control systems developed with the application fields
increase their suitability for potentially polluting land uses, in-
cluding industries with hazardous spill potential, livestock feed-
lots and intensive crop production involving high application rates
of fertilizers and pesticides. Polluted runoff and erosion are
much more difficult to contain outside the application fields.
b. Land accessibility - Of course, transportation has a marked
influence upon the potential for land development. Access to ma-
jor population centers significantly affects the number of poten-
tial visitors to regional recreation and conservation sites. Ac-
cess to Peoria and surrounding manufacturing zones strongly influ-
ences the extent of large-scale residential development.
IV-54
-------
The project area is not easily accessible from Peoria and
and other population centers because the roads in Fulton County
are generally two-lane pavements of poor quality. Until high-
speed roads are built, it is expected that most traffic will be
oriented locally. Figure IV-12 is a graphic representation of
traffic volumes in 1965. If a proposed limited-access highway
were built between Canton and Peoria, significant increases in
the inter-city traffic volume could result. However, construc-
tion of this road has not been authorized, and once authorized
will take many years to complete. Freight service is available
on three railroads in Fulton County. The Rock Island Railroad
provides passenger service in Peoria. An airport in Canton can
handle light planes (3,900 ft. runway), and the Greater Peoria
Airport has regularly scheduled jet service. Docking facilities
at Liverpool and Havana provide water transportation to the Chi-
cago region and Lake Michigan and to points south along the Illi-
nois and Mississippi Rivers.
The quality and availability of utilities also heavily in-
fluences land development. At the project site, electricity is
readily available, and bottled gas is used extensively for local
farms and mobile homes. Natural gas pipelines are not expected
in the project area because of the expense involved in building
through disturbed soils and the risk involved in predicting gas
prices and availability. The only large supply of water in the
project area is from wells; this source is too high in dissolved
minerals to be used conveniently or in quantity for residential
or industrial purposes. Surface reservoirs are being planned at
sites near Canton and along the Spoon River for future supplies
of high quality water.
c. Land attractiveness - Factors which affect the attractive-
ness of land are landscape quality, historic resources, and nui-
sance factors. Landscape quality varies according to subjective
interpretations of the viewer. Hunters and fishermen are attrac-
ted to the abundant prairie wildlife habitats and the crystal blue
IV-55
-------
Cuba
J
Lewistown
Vehicles Per Day
^^ 4,000
3,000
2,000
Finure ! •- • "."
Average Traffic Vc'urnes near the Prr-c.
(1965 data. Harlard Par'brlci^ew ?,nu "'
" c p u
-------
lakes of the project area. Fanners may dislike the visible loss
of farmland to the strip mine shovel. Prospective rural homeowners
may shun the barren waste of unreclaimed mine spoils. One method
of evaluating landscape quality is to assess the diversity of land-
scape elements. The project area contains streams and clear blue
lakes, contrasting with the greens and browns of the landscape;
steep slopes and level fields; dense, cultivated vegetation on the
application fields and sparse vegetation elsewhere.
The influence of historical factors on development of the pro-
ject site is probably nil. Farming became an early major influ-
ence when the land that was to become Fulton County was made part
of a larger area known as the "Military Tract," designated for use
in paying soldiers for service in the War of 1812. The second his-
torical influence is that of coal mining. The first mining of shal-
low coal deposits pre-dated the Civil War. Since World War I,
highly mechanized strip mines have extensively altered the land-
scape in Fulton County. Neither of these influences, however, have
produced tangible historic resources at the project site.
Dominant nuisance factors influencing the attractiveness of
the project site are the odors emanating from sludge holding basins
and dispersing from sludge spray during spraying operations, and
the visual blight of sludge spraying. Neither source of nuisance
is a permanent deterrent to human settlement since each would be
abandoned in the event of an alternative use for the project site.
However, in the interim these nuisances may be decisive in their
affect on nearby residential expansion (e.g., Wee-Ma-Tuk Hills).
IV-57
-------
U. ilil V iKUHl'H-11 IMi-L I OE.I1Q1 I IVC. r\l\L.n5
Fulton County has a number of environmentally sensitive land areas and
resources. These are depicted in Figure IV-13 and identified in the ensuing
discussion of water, land, and cultural resources.
1. Water Resources
Surface water is particularly important in Fulton County because
most of the groundwater contains over 1,500 ppm of dissolved minerals
and is unsuitable for public water supply without expensive treatment.
Surface water, having a considerably lower concentration of dissolved
minerals, is therefore a valuable source for public and industrial wa-
ter supplies.
Six multi-use reservoirs (forest, conservation, recreation, and
water supply) are planned to maximize future use of surface water sup-
plies. Pollution in the Spoon River or Copperas Creek watersheds would
severely degrade the value of these resources. The entire length of
the Spoon River is especially valuable because it is one of the last re-
maining natural streams in the State of Illinois.
Wetland areas comprise another environmentally sensitive local
resource; they are located primarily in the flood plain of the Illinois
River and are not directly affected by the project. Major wetland conser-
vation areas include Rice and Anderson Lakes, which serve as habitats for
large populations of game and migratory birds. Lakes and ponds created by
strip mining in the project area are currently important to a flock of
Canada geese.
2. Land Resources
Besides the flood plain wetlands, there are four upland types of
environmentally sensitive land in Fulton County. The first of these,
strip-mined land, is particularly susceptible to damage by erosion.
Sparse vegetative cover, steep slopes, and poor soil permeability are
three factors contributing to the erosion of unreclaimed or incompletely
reclaimed strip-mined areas. Erosion diminishes downstream water quality
and accelerates sedimentation in downstream reservoirs.
IV-58
-------
SUGAR KNOLUS
PC
WILDWOOD „ .
HAVENS - !
PC
5f HOLDING BASINS
''Vsr DAVID
MSD N
RECLAMATION PROJECT
PUTMAN BRYANT^
CJP
IP
THE ILLINOIS
STATE MUSEUM
DICKSON MOUNDS
^ ^rilVERPOOL BARGE DOCK
SPOON RIVER VALLEY
SCENIC DRIVE
--- MSD PIPELINE
COUNTY HIGHWAY MARKER
US HIGHWAY MARKER
STATE HIGHWAY MARKER
A SPECIAL POINT OF INTEREST
A
nun Conservation Zones
Proposed Reservoirs
and Forest Preserves
Figure IV-13. Major Environmentally Sensitive Areas in Fulton County
(Herland Bartholomew Associates, 1969)
-------
Prime agricultural land, watershed woodland, and tall grass prairie
are valuable natural resources. The prime agricultural lands in Fulton
County are characterized by thick, deeply weathered loess soils, small
topographic relief, and few stones in the upper soil layers. Large
fields of these prime soils are well suited for highly mechanized me-
thods of agricultural production.
The main values of local woodland are its recreation potential
and ability to protect the quality of surface water by stabilizing
soils and reducing runoff volume and velocity, which are key factors
in erosion. The local importance of surface water in Fulton County
intensifies the value of these woodlands. The most valuable wood-
lands are found in the watershed of the Spoon River valley and in
watersheds upstream from each of the planned reservoirs.
Prairie, particularly tallgrass prairie, such as that being
planted as a part of the Big Bluestem Management Plan, is environ-
mentally valuable for a number of reasons. First, it would preserve
a rare portion of Illinois natural history. In addition, such prairie
can serve as a conservation area for wildlife, including such locally
rare species as the greater prairie chicken, sharp-tailed grouse, trum-
peter swan, and the sandhill crane. Finally, prairie grasses, with
their deep abundant roots, provide excellent soil-building and erosion
control characteristics.
3. Cultural Resources
Fulton County has numerous areas devoted primarily to outdoor re-
creation. Local recreation needs of many residents are met by public
park districts in Canton, Lewistown, and Farmington. Public recreation
needs of a more regional scope are served by a 400-acre tract of land
which has been made available to the county by the MSDGC. Private
recreation includes an area at Lake Wee-Ma-Tuk, several private
hunting and fishing areas on strip-mined lands, and campsites with
trails for use of off-the-road vehicles on private lands. The most
environmentally sensitive recreation resources are those located adja-
cent to streams and lakes.
IV-60
-------
Fulton County has a number of historic and archeological sites.
Old mansions, "underground railway" stations, and early shaft coal
mines are located throughout the county. An extensive prehistoric
mound-building culture left over 800 mounds in the area that is now
Fulton County. The most important of these, the Dickson Mounds, are
preserved as a state museum.
IV-61
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A&H Engineering Corporation, Subsurface Investigation and Evaluation, Land
Reclamation and Beautification Project, Fulton County, Illinois, prepared
for the MSDGC, 1971.
Bordner, M., Telephone Interview, 1975.
Canton Chamber of Commerce, Survey of the Inhabitants of Canton, 1975.
Casagrande, A., "Classification and Identification of Soils," Trans.
American Society of Civil Engineers, V. 113, 1948.
Durfer, C. N. and E. Becker, Geological Water Supply Paper, U.S. Depart-
ment of the Interior, 1965.
Fulton County Tax Assessor's Office, Fulton County Plat Book. 1973.
Fulton County Tax Assessor's Office, Tax Assessment Records, 1963, 1971,
1975.
Griffin, D. W. and D. L. Chicoine, West-Central Illinois: A Regional Pro-
file, 1974.
Harland Bartholomew and Associates, Fulton County Comprehensive Plan, 1969.
Hooper, L. T., Appendix VII: "Subsurface Investigation and Evaluation,
Land Reclamation and Beautification Project, Fulton County, Illinois,"
prepared for the MSDGC by the A&H Engineering Corporation, 1971.
MSDGC, "Ammonia Volatilization and Ammonia Fixation by Sludge Fertilized
Calcareous Strip-Mined Spoil Material," presented at the annual meeting
of the American Society of Agronomy, November 1973, by the MSDGC RD&D
Department, May 1974.
MSDGC, Environmental Protection System Report for Fulton County, Illinois,
R&D Department, 1972 to July 1975b.
MSDGC, Flood Control. October 1975a.
National Climatic Center, "Local Climatological Data, Annual Summary With
Comparative Data," Greater Peoria Airport, Station No. 14842, 1970 through
1974b.
National Climatic Center, "Local Climatological Data, Monthly Summary,"
Greater Peoria Airport, Station No. 14842, September 1973 through August
1975.
National Climatic Center, "Seasonal and Annual Wind Distribution by Pasquill
Stability Classes, STAR Program," Station No. 14842, Peoria, Illinois, Novem-
ber 1974a.
IV-62
-------
Sandberg, Charles, et al.. Survey of Strip Mined Lands in Fulton County,
Illinois, 1973.
Turner, D. B., "Pasquill Stability Classification," Journal of Applied
Meteorology. February 1964.
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Agriculture, 1940, 1945, 1950, 1959,
1969.
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Business. 1948, 1954, 1958, 1963,
1967, 1972.
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Governments, 1957, 1962, 1967, 1972.
U.S. Bureau of Census, Census of Manufacturers. 1939, 1947, 1954, 1963,
1972.
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Mineral Industries, 1954, 1958, 1963,
1967, 1972.
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Population. 1930. 1940, 1950, 1960,
1970.
U.S. Bureau of the Census, County and City Data Book. 1972, March 1973.
U.S. Bureau of the Census, County Business Patterns, 1950, 1959, 1964, 1969.
U.S.G.S., 1972 Mater Resources Data for Illinois. U.S. Department of the
Interior, 1972.
U.S.G.S., 1973 Water Resources Data for Illinois, U.S. Department of the
Interior, 1973.
U.S. Government, Federal Register. V. 40, No. 127, July 1, 1975,
U.S. Public Health Service, Drinking Water Standards. U.S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1962.
U.S. Public Health Service, Manual for Evaluating Public Drinking Water
Supplies, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1969.
U.S. Water Resources Council, 1972 Obers Projections. Series E, April 1974.
World Health Organization, International Standards for Drinking Water,
2nd ed., 1963.
IV-63
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V. COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF ALTERNATIVE METHODS
OF SLUDGE PROCESSING AND DISPOSAL
The cost-effectiveness of alternative methods of sludge processing
and disposal must be evaluated in terms of system costs, reliability,
and environmental effects. For example, the least-cost alternative may
be unacceptable if it would incur severe environmental impacts that can-
not be mitigated at reasonable cost. An alternative having the least
potential for environmental harm may be infeasible if its required re-
source commitment is not economically justified. Substantial uncer-
tainty in the state-of-the-art of an alternative method still in an ex-
perimental phase may cancel its potential cost savings or environmental
advantages. Trade-offs among these three factors can lead to the iden-
tification of the most cost-effective alternative.
The optimization of these factors requires the separate evaluation
of subsystem options for sludge processing and disposal, which can be
classified as:
• Sludge dewatering subsystems
• Sludge stabilization subsystems
t Sludge disposal subsystems
• Sludge utilization subsystems
• Sludge transportation subsystems
Three to five options for each subsystem category are found in this chap-
ter. Linkages between subsystems are also discussed. Candidate subsys-
tems are assessed and inferior options are rejected on the basis of pro-
cess reliability, unit costs, and environmental implications. Subse-
quently, system alternatives are assembled using compatible combinations
of available and feasible subsystems. A matrix summarizing and comparing
the system alternatives is presented at the conclusion of this chapter.
V-l
-------
A. SLUDGE DEWATERING SUBSYSTEMS
Sludge dewatering is an important process in sludge volume reduc-
tion which renders sludge handling more manageable. Available dewater-
ing processes include:
• Air drying on sand beds
• Thickening by gravity sedimentation or flotation
• Dewatering by centrifugation and vacuum filtration
• Dual cell gravity dewatering and freezing-thawing
techniques
• Use of moving filter screens or a belt-filter press
or vertical screw press.
Among these processes, concentration of raw sludge by air drying on
sand beds and gravity sedimentation or flotation, followed by vacuum
filtration or centrifugation, are the most frequently encountered pro-
cesses and have received a great amount of study, research and testing.
Four processes are described separately in this section.
1. Air Drying
Air drying of sewage sludge on sand beds has been the most common
method of dewatering. The process is accomplished by drainage, which
predominates during the early stages, and evaporation. Approximately
60 to 85% of the water is removed by drainage (Swanwick, 1962). The
rate of drainage depends on sludge characteristics and initial solids
concentration.
Evaporation rates, and the ultimate moisture content of air dried
sludge, depend upon air temperature, wind speed, amount and rate of
precipitation, sunshine, and relative humidity. Drying of sludge takes
approximately 6 weeks during the summer (Fleming, 1959), and about two
times longer in the winter. The drying process can be hastened by cover-
ing the beds and providing an artificial heat source.
V-2
-------
Sludge characteristics have a marked influence upon drying rates.
In general, sludges containing grit dry more quickly than those con-
taining grease. New sludge dries faster than aged sludge, and primary
sludge dries faster than secondary sludge. Digested sludge cracks
earlier and dries faster than raw sludge. It is important that sludge
be well digested for optimum drying (Burd, 1968). After the sludge
has been drained and dried sufficiently to be classified as spadeable
(moisture content 60 to 70%), it is removed from the drying beds. The
dried sludge is either landfilled or given away as soil fertilizer.
MacLaren has reported the annual capital costs of drying beds in
Canada, for the year 1961 and a population equivalent of 10,000, to
be $2.65 per dry ton. Annual operating costs, including hauling,
ranged between $1 and $10 per dry ton, depending upon hauling dis-
tance. In general, the combined annual capital and operating costs
for sand bed drying range between $3 and $20 per dry ton (Burd, 1968).
Based on the 1972 dollar and excluding hauling costs, operating
and maintenance costs for sand beds with a capacity greater than 100
dry tons per day are less than $2 per dry ton per year (Stanley Consul-
tants, 1972). Operating costs can be offset by selling dried sludge as a
soil conditioner. Shredded sludge has been sold for as much as $6 to $10
per cubic yard (Burd, 1968), which is equivalent to $4.50 to $7.50 per
dry ton. Air drying can be an economical method for sludge dewatering
when low value land is available.
Environmental effects associated with sand beds include unpleasant
odors and attraction of flies. In addition, to prevent contamination
of groundwater, the drainage must be returned to the head of the treat-
ment plant. When the sludge supernatant or drainage effluent is returned
to the plant, fine solids and soluble solids are undifferentially re-
cycled. This causes accumulation of nitrogen in the plant, reducing
plant performance and increasing nitrogen levels in the plant effluent.
This could lead to adverse impact on water quality of receiving streams
and lakes.
V-3
-------
2. Sedimentation-Flotation
Thickening of sludge may be accomplished by gravity settling or
dissolved air flotation. Primary sludge and sludge from modified aera-
tion systems are effectively thickened by gravity settling; sludge from
activated processes such as contact stabilization and conventional acti-
vated sludge are more effectively thickened by air flotation.
Gravity thickening operates on the principle that the force of
gravity will cause solids to be separated from the liquid phase in a
settling tank. The weight of overlying solids compacts the sludge that
is gathered at the bottom of the tank. This compacted sludge is with-
drawn, and the supernatant is returned to the head of the plant. Sludge
volume reduction can be as high as 50% by gravity settling. The solids
content of the thickened sludge ranges from 3% or more for conventional
activated sludge to as high as 15% for raw primary sludge. The degree
of volume reduction or thickening depends primarily on the type of
sludge and its volatile solids concentration.
In the flotation thickening process, solids are induced to float
and thereby separate from the liquid phase. Before it is introduced
to the bottom of the flotation unit, the sludge is finely mixed with
air. When the sludge-air mixture enters the unit, minute air bubbles
are formed which adhere to the sludge particles and render the solids
buoyant. The sludge floats to the top and is skimmed off; the under-
flow is returned to the head of the plant. Flotation thickening gen-
erally produces sludge containing a higher level of solids than does
gravity thickening. An achievement of 4% solids is considered normal
for a flotation thickener, and 5 to 6% is not unusual. Chemicals are
used on occasion to facilitate the thickening process. Primary vari-
ables in this process are pressure, recycle ratio, feed solids content,
detention period, air-to-solids ratio, type and quality of sludge,
solids and hydraulic loading rates, and the use of chemical acids.
V-4
-------
Capita] and operating costs of thickening equipment vary widely
and are location dependent. Gravity thickening, in general, has higher
initial costs and lower operating costs than pressurized flotation thick-
ening. Maintenance and operating costs for gravity thickening amount
to approximately $2 per dry ton of sludge per year (Burd, 1968). An-
nual capital and operating costs generally range from $1.50 to $5 per
dry ton (Burd, 1968). Annual operating costs for flotation thickening
range between $4 and $5 per dry ton, or $9 to $11 per dry ton with the
use of chemical acids (Burd, 1968).
Combined annual capital, maintenance and operating costs for gra-
vity thickening decrease with increasing plant capacity, ranging downward
from $2 per dry ton for a plant size of 100 dry tons per day to $1.5 per
dry ton for a plant size of 1,000 dry tons per day, based on the 1972 dol-
lar (Stanley Consultants, 1972). The total annual costs for flotation
thickening, without the use of chemical acids, are the same as for gravity
thickening for this range of plant sizes.
The main environmental problems encountered with these processes
are associated with energy consumption, odor, and noise. Flotation
thickening requires more energy than gravity thickening. Because of
unavoidable agitation from uprising bubbles in the flotation units,
open flotation systems generally have more odor potential than gravity
sedimentation units. In addition, flotation requires either air com-
pressors or vacuum pumps, which are sources of noise. Flotation-con-
centration also requires the recycling of underflow and drain water
back to the head of the treatment plant, leading to the same effects
as described under air drying.
3. Centrifugation
This process occurs in a centrifuge, where centrifugal force
applied to the solids separates them from the liquid phase. Three
types of centrifuges are available for sludge dewatering; basket,
disc, and solid bowl centrifuges. A number of factors must be con-
sidered in the selection of a centrifuge, the most important of
V-5
-------
which are detention time, hydraulic and solids loading, centrifugal
force, permissible amount of solids slippage, desired concentration,
and polyelectric dosage (Barnhill, Dresser and McKee, 1974).
The disc type centrifuge can concentrate activated sludge up to
7« solid at 6,000 rpm, but clogging of the sludge discharge nozzles
necessitates frequent maintenance. Solid-bowl centrifuges thicken
sludge to approximately 7 or 7.5% solids. In this type of centrifuge,
a one-to-one mixture of primary and activated sludges can be thick-
ened up to 9.8%, and solids recovery is better than 95%. A high con-
centration of solids is attainable with some sacrifice in solids re-
covery. In general, highly volatile sludge does not thicken as well as
sludge low in volatiles. Centrifuge performance can be improved signi-
ficantly with the aid of cationic polyelectrolytes.
Annual operating costs range between $3 and $8 per dry ton, and
will run $3 to $10 more per dry ton when chemicals are used (Burd,
1968). The Scottish Development Department (1974), reporting on a
study of centrifugation at a regional sludge-processing facility,
stated that solid-bowl, Scroll-type centrifugation of raw sludge pro-
duced a cake with 23% solids at a total cost of $29 per dry ton per
year. According to Stanley Consultants, the total annual capital,
operating and maintenance costs of centrifugation for a plant hold-
ing more than 500 dry tons of sludge per day are less than $15 per
dry ton, based on the 1972 dollar.
Adverse environmental effects resulting from centrifugation are
slight. Because centrifuges consist of rapidly moving parts and motors,
noise generation is a possible problem. Odor problems are minimal be-
cause the process is generally closed. Centrifugation also produces
the accumulation of nitrogen in the plant as was noted for sand beds
and sedimentation-flotation units; this reduces plant efficiency.
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4. Vacuum Filtration
In the vacuum filtration process, sludge particles are separated
from water by applying a vacuuming force to sludge on a filter medium.
A vacuum filter consists of a compartmented drum rotating on a hori-
zontal axis. About one third of the drum is submerged in a shallow
tank containing the sludge slurry to be dewatered. The drum is co-
vered with a filter medium which consists of either a cloth, screen
or stainless steel coils. A vacuum is applied to the underside of the
filter medium. Sludge cake is formed on the drum and eventually is
scraped off and discharged to a conveyer belt or chute (Barnhill,
Dresser and McKee, 1974).
Important sludge variables affecting filtration performance in-
clude volatile and solids content and sludge age and viscosity. Op-
erating variables include the degree of vacuum, drum speed, degree of
sludge agitation, filter medium, and conditioning of the sludge prior
to filtration. Moisture content of the sludge cake produced varies be-
tween 80 and 85% for activated sludge, and between 70 and 75% for raw
primary sludge, depending upon the nature of the sludge and the amount
of conditioning chemicals used. Among many conditioning agents, ferric
chloride and lime are the most frequently utilized.
Simpson and Sutton (1964) surveyed vacuum filtration costs at
various sewage treatment plants and found total annual costs, includ-
ing labor and supervision, chemicals and supplies, electric power,
maintenance, and indirect costs,to vary between $5.34 and $30.17 per
dry ton. Small plants usually had higher chemical costs. For large
plants, vacuum filtration of composite digested primary sludge and
activated sludge incurred operating costs close to $30 per dry ton
per year. Stanley Consultants report that annual operating and main-
tenance costs range downward from $15 to $11 per dry ton for plants
handling 100 to 1,000 dry tons of sludge per day, with chemical con-
ditioning, and based on the 1972 dollar.
V-7
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Vacuum filtration almost always requires chemical conditioning
of sludge, which constitutes a large portion of its operating costs.
On the other hand, as compared to centrifugation, maintenance costs
are lower. Also, while the initial costs of vacuum filtration are
comparatively lower, these are partially offset by higher cost of
power (Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., 1972).
Vacuum filters present the same problems of plant nitrogen build-
up as the aforementioned processes. In addition, vacuum filters pre-
sent a greater odor problem, but a lesser noise problem, than centri-
fuges.
V-8
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B- SLUDGE STABILIZATION SUBSYSTEMS
Sludge stabilization processes convert noxious and putrescible sub-
stances into stable products acceptable for final disposal. In some pro-
cesses, such as incineration, reduction of sludge volume is accomplished
simultaneously with sludge stabilization. Sludge can be stabilized by
biological, physical and/or chemical methods. Among these methods, heated
anaerobic digestion, Imhoff digestion, incineration, heat drying, and wet
air oxidation are the most frequently used. Selection of a stabilization
method depends upon the type and nature of the sludge, available pretreat-
ment and final disposal alternatives, reliability and costs, energy conser-
vation and other environmental considerations. Each of these five methods
of stabilization is discussed in the following sections.
1. Heated Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion can be defined as the biological decomposi-
tion of organic matter in the absence of molecular oxygen. This pro-
cess can be accelerated by heating the sludge with combustion of di-
gester gases. Decomposition is accomplished by gasification, liqui-
faction, stabilization, breakdown of colloidal structure, and re-
lease of moisture by a mixed culture of microorganisms. Two groups
of microorganisms are predominantly responsible for the decomposi-
tion of organic material. The first group, which consists of facul-
tative and anaerobic bacteria collectively called acid formers, hy-
drolyzes and ferments complex organic compounds into simple organic
acids. The second group strictly consists of anaerobes called me-
thane formers, which convert organic acids formed by the first group
into methane gas and carbon dioxide.
In this digestion process, decomposition is not complete. Inter-
mediate products of metabolism include organic acids, ammonia, methane,
hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, and carbonates. A 60 to 75% reduc-
tion in volatile solids is commonly achieved by anaerobic digestion,
depending upon the initial volatile solids content of the sludge and
the environment in the digesters. An environment which maintains a
V-9
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state of dynamic equilibrium between the acid formers and the methane
formers is essential for optimal performance. Optimal environmental
conditions are:
t 85 to 100°F (if the mesophilic or mid-range is selected)
• Strictly anaerobic conditions
t pH value between 6.6 and 7.6
• Good mixing of the sludge under digestion
• Sufficient biological nutrients
• Absence of toxic materials or inhibitors.
To attain mesophilic conditions in the digester, methane in the di-
gester gases is utilized to heat the sludge. Sufficient digestion time
is important for successful operation. When digestion is proceeding satis-
factorily, alkalinity (as calcium carbonate) normally ranges between 1,000
and 5,000 mg/1, and the volatile acids are less than 250 mg/1 (as acetic
acid). Therefore, the performance of a digester is indicated by the pH
value, alkalinity, volatile acids content, and volatile solids content of
the digester effluent. High pH and alkalinity, as well as low volatile
acids and volatile solids, indicate good performance.
Heated anaerobic digestion may compete in cost with mechanical de-
watering and incineration. Digestion is a redundant process if sludge
is eventually to be incinerated. In addition, sludge low in organic mat-
ter and high in toxic material, such as industrial sludge, is not suit-
able for digestion since it is toxic to bacteria.
Anaerobic digestion costs have been reported in many sources. Ini-
tial capital costs are approximately $2 to $2.50 per cubic foot of diges-
ter capacity. In the Chicago Sanitary District, total annual costs of
digestion and lagooning of activated sludge with 3.5% solids are reported
at $26 per dry ton (Lynam, et al.. 1965); sludge thickening and digestion
account for about 53% of these costs. Digestion costs vary widely with
the degree of sludge concentration achieved by the preceding thickening
process.
V-10
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Burd (1968) conducted a literature review and reported that the
cost of anaerobic digestion alone should be $5 to $18 per dry ton per
year. A study conducted in Westchester County, New York, revealed
that the capital cost for a standard-rate (low temperature) digestion
system is about 2.5 times that for a high-rate (mesophilic) system of
equal capacity. According to Stanley Consultants (1972), the total an-
nual high-rate digestion costs, including capital, operation and main-
tenance amortized over 20 years at an interest rate of 7%, are approxi-
mately $8 per dry ton for a plant handling more than 500 dry tons of
sludge daily (1972 dollars). The operating and maintenance costs for
this plant size were $2 per dry ton per year.
Fuel gas produced by anaerobic digesters can be used to heat
buildings and digesters, and sometimes for power production at the
plant. The poor-quality supernatant liquid in the high-rate diges-
ter, which is pumped back to the head of the sewage treatment plant,
frequently reduces overall treatment plant efficiency. This indirectly
affects the environment of receiving streams.
Heated anaerobic digestion at the MSDGC West-Southwest plant
brings about an 80 to 85% reduction of solids in the sludge. Most
of the digested material is converted to water, carbon dioxide, me-
thane, some hydrogen sulfide, and other gaseous compounds. These
gases are burned to heat the digesters, and combustion products are
released to the atmosphere. Most of these are water and carbon diox-
ide, but sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides are also generated. The
concentration of hydrogen sulfide may corrode heat-recovery equipment
and require the use of a stack scrubber. Therefore, air pollution can-
not be overlooked as a potential impact.
2. Imhoff Digestion
The Imhoff tank removes settleable and suspended solids by sedi-
mentation, and liquifies, gasifies, and stabilizes the organic matter
in the resulting sludge by bacterial digestion. All of these processes
V-ll
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are accomplished in the same tank, without contaminating the settling
sludge with products of sludge digestion (Beaumont, 1929). The tank
is a two-story structure containing three compartments: the upper
flow-through or sedimentation compartment; the lower sludge digestion
chamber; and the gas vent and scum chamber which surrounds the upper
compartment.
The sewage first flows through the upper compartment; solids
settle to the sloping bottom, slide down, and pass through a slot
which prevents the entrance of gas or digesting sludge in the lower
section. The gas and rising sludge particles below are diverted to
the gas vent and scum chamber. In a properly working tank, the gases
generated should contain about 60 to 80% methane and 15% carbon diox-
ide. Digested sludge is drawn by pumps and is usually air-dried on
sand beds.
Imhoff tanks provide sedimentation and sludge digestion in
one unit and should produce a satisfactory effluent with 40 to 60%
reduction of suspended solids and a 25 to 35% reduction in BOD, depend-
ing on sewage characteristics and retention time. With a 2 to 3-hour
detention time in the sedimentation compartment, 100% removal of the
settleable solids and 60% removal of the total suspended solids is
quite common. Since the Imhoff tank has no mechanical parts, it is
relatively easy and economical to operate. However, routine cleaning
and maintenance of the tank are essential for successful operation.
Maintenance routines include daily removal of grease, scum, and
floating solids from the sedimentation compartment; weekly scraping of
the sides and sloping bottom of the sedimentation chamber is also neces-
sary. Scum in the scum chamber must be broken up and removed if its
depth attains 2 to 3 feet. Sludge must be removed from the digestion
chamber before its level rises within 18 inches of the slot in the sedi-
mentation compartment.
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Foaming is a frequent problem associated with Imhoff digestion,
especially in new tanks. Foaming is a result of poor digestion which
can be caused by adverse sewage characteristics (e.g., toxic substances),
temperature and pH value, all of which affect bacterial action. Foam-
ing can be relieved by limiting, heating the tank during winter, chlor-
inating the influent sewage, cracking the scum to vent gas, and seeding
the tank with well-digested sludge (Beaumont, 1929 and Murphy, 1931).
The operating and maintainance costs of Imhoff digestion are low
except when chemicals such as lime or chlorine are used. Since the in-
vention of separate mechanical clarifier and digestion units and the
activated sludge process, the installation of Imhoff tanks has dimin-
ished. Construction or capital cost data are therefore generally un-
available. When the third battery of 36 Imhoff tanks was built in
1935 at Chicago's West Side Sewage Treatment Plant, the construction
cost was $2,700,000 for a capacity of 204 MGD. Including the previous
two batteries of tanks, the total capacity was estimated to be 472 MGD
(Streeter, 1935). The capital cost was approximately $17,000 per MGD
as compared to $28,000 per MGD for the then proposed Southwest Side
Plant, an activated sludge plant with anaerobic digesters.
Environmental effects associated with Imhoff digestion are odors,
attraction of flies, and possible risks of explosion. Chlorination
of influent sewage and proper operation of Imhoff tanks can avoid most
odor and fly problems. Collection of digestion gases and utilization
for space heating or power generation can yield revenues while conserv-
ing energy. Explosions from the ignition of gas pockets in the Imhoff
tanks or gas collection systems can be a serious hazard. However, ex-
plosions are rare if adequate safety precautions are taken. Some safety
practices include isolation of gas lines, insulation of sources of igni-
tion, routine investigation of leaks, and proper venting of gas accumu-
lations (Nagel, 1941).
3. Incineration
Dewatered sludge cakes from vacuum filters and centrifuges can be
sterilized and reduced in volume by incineration. Incineration destroys
V-13
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organic matter in the sludge and dewaters the sludge by evaporation.
The two types of incinerators most applicable to sewage sludge are
multiple hearth and fluidized bed incinerators.
The multiple hearth furnace consists of a circular steel shell
surrounding a number of stacked-up solid refractory hearths. Partially
dewatered sludge is continuously fed to the upper hearths, where the
sludge is heated and vaporized at roughly 1,000°F. Openings in each
hearth allow sludge particles to crop to the next lower hearth. A
high-temperature combustion zone between 1,600 and 1,800°F is formed in
the intermediate hearth, where volatile gases and solids are burned.
The bottom hearth serves as a cooling zone. Fly ash is removed from
the exhaust gases by wet scrubbers.
The fluidized bed incinerator consists of a combustion reactor
or bed of fluidized sand which is supported by upward-moving air. In-
timate contact between the sludge particles and oxygen is achieved by
rapid mixing of the fluidized sand grains. Because of the large sur-
face area provided by the sand particles, heat exchange between gases
and solids is extremely rapid. Sludge is burned in the combustion zone
at 1,400 to 1,500°F. Auxiliary fuel is usually required when secon-
dary sludge is burned. However, after start-up, dewatered raw pri-
mary sludge can be burned without this supplementary fuel. The resi-
dual ash particles are removed from the reactor by the upward move-
ment of combustion gases. Ash parti Ices are removed from the gas
phase by wet scrubbers.
From the study of a model city with 100,000 people contributing
2,530 tons of solids per year, the capital and operating costs for
multiple hearth incineration are given in Table V-l. The total an-
nual capital, operating and maintenance costs for a plant handling
more than 500 dry tons of sludge per day are less than $15 per dry
ton, based on the 1972 dollar (Stanley Consultants, 1972).
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Table V-l. Annual Capital and Operating Costs for Multiple
Hearth Incineration (Quirk, 1964)
(dollars per ton of dry solids)
Incineration Without Incineration With
Deodorization Deodorization
Capital Cost $ 9.15 $ 9.47
Operating Cost $ 6.36 $ 9.50
Total Annual Costs $15.51 $18.97
The annual capital and operating costs reported for fluidized bed
incineration at Lynnwood, Washington, ranged from $26 to $35 for systems
serving populations of 22,000 and 8,000, respectively (Alberston, 1965).
At the East Cliff Sanitary District Plant, California, operating costs
of approximately $25 per dry ton per year were reported (Sohr et.al.,
1965).
Variables in the cost of sludge incineration are:
• Nature of the sludge
• Amount and type of chemicals used in sludge
conditioning before mechanical dewatering
• Degree of mechanical dewatering
• Costs of fuel, water and power
• Extent of air pollution control required
• Size and design of the treatment plant.
Environmental considerations for incineration are centered around
air and water pollution. Air pollutant emissions include particulates,
odors, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and volatile trace metals such
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as mercury. Wet scrubbers are efficient in removing fly ash but in-
effective in capturing hazardous sub-micron particles (diameters be-
tween 0.1 and 1.0 millionth of a meter can lodge permanently in the
lung). The wastewater from the scrubbers requires treatment to avoid
water pollution problems.
Odor problems associated with incineration are of constant con-
cern. Incomplete combustion or partial breakdown of organic volatile
molecules is the major cause of odor. Maintaining an exit temperature
of 1,200 to 1,500°F is effective in destroying odorants. This measure,
however, requires auxiliary fuel and burners. Volatile trace metals
which escape the scrubbers have some adverse impact on the environment.
Economical means for removal of these emissions are not available. The
relatively high fuel consumption for incineration, as opposed to other
sludge processing methods, creates an impact on the environment and non-
renewable resources.
4. Heat Drying
Heat drying removes moisture from sludge, thereby providing for
efficient incineration. Heat drying also prepares sludge for conversion
into fertilizer. Drying is necessary in fertilizer manufacture to permit
grinding and to reduce the weight of the sludge.
Dewatered sludge is mixed with dry sludge to reduce moisture con-
tent and particle size. The mixture is then fed into a flash drying sys-
tem. In the system, sludge is passed through a high-temperature-and-
turbulence zone for a few seconds, reducing the moisture content to ap-
proximately 10/o. Heat-dried sludge is separated from the gaseous phase
in a cyclone separator. Afterburners at a temperature of 1 ,400°p or
higher are frequently required to deodorize stack emissions.
A study of the economic aspects of heat drying in a medium size
plant, handling 2,530 dry tons per year, revealed that the annual capi-
tal and operating costs approximate $37 per dry ton with stack gas de-
odorization and $29 per dry ton without deodorization (Quirk, 1964).
These costs do not account for the sale of dried sludge as fertilizer
or as a soil conditioner.
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Heat drying consumes more fuel than incineration processes. It
also contributes to air pollution by emitting suspended particulates,
nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides and trace metals. However, heat drying
has less air pollution potential than does conventional incineration,
which requires higher combustion temperatures. Cost of air pollution
abatement of exhaust gases can be substantial.
5. Wet Air Oxidation
The wet air oxidation process oxidizes sludge solids in an aque-
ous phase under heat and pressure. The commercialized application of
the process has also been called the Zimmerman process or Zimpro. The
system consists of a heater, compressor, storage tank, reactor, and li-
quid-and-solids separator. Ground, thickened sludge is preheated, pres-
surized and combined with pressurized air, and then introduced to the
bottom of the reactor. Chemical oxidation of organic solids occurs as
the mixture follows a baffled path through the reactor. Carbonaceous
organic matter is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water, organic nitro-
gen compounds are converted to ammonia, and sulfur becomes sulfate.
After oxidation, the residual ash is separated from the liquid phase.
Wet oxidation plant residues or ash are high in ammonia and vola-
tile acids. The biological oxygen demand (BOD) in the process effluent
varies between 5,400 and 8,400 ppm. The ash can be dewatered satis-
factorily by vacuum filtration or centrifugation without chemical condi-
tioning or aids. Use of anionic polyelectrolytes certainly improves
dewatering by centrifugation.
Data from Zimpro pilot-plant operations in the MSDGC indicated that
90% of the organic matter in sewage sludge can be oxidized at 500°F and
1,200 psig (gage pressure). It was also concluded that if the feed so-
lids concentration is high enough, sufficient thermal energy can be re-
covered to operate the entire wet oxidation process (Sanitary Engineer-
ing Committee Report, 1959).
V-17
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The annual capital and operating costs of wet air oxidation in
the MSDGC, providing a 70 to 80% reduction of chemical oxygen demand
(COD), varied from $34 to $38 per dry ton of sludge (Ettelt and Ken-
nedy, 1966). Operating costs for the Blind Brook Treatment Plant at
Rye, New York were reported at $26.80 per dry ton (Harding and Griffin,
1965).
Failure of the wet air oxidation system can create severe occu-
pational health hazards because the system is operated under more than
80 atmospheres of pressure. The process effluent, which is high in
nitrogen, is recycled back to the head of the treatment plant. This
causes nitrogen to accumulate in the plant, raising the nitrogen level
in the plant effluent and reducing plant performance. The final conse-
quence of this occurrence is an increased degradation of water quality
in receiving streams. Accumulation of nitrogen after the introduction
of wet air oxidation in the Chicago Sanitary District has been docu-
mented by Dal ton and Murphy (1973).
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C. SLUDGE DISPOSAL SUBSYSTEMS
In most cases, stabilized sludge is disposed of underground or on land.
In areas where the ocean provides vast dilution capacity, it is the ultimate
dumping site. The most frequently applied methods of sludge disposal are
sanitary landfilling, lagooning, and ocean dumping. The operation of each,
its reliability, unit cost, and environmental implications are discussed be-
low.
1. Sanitary Landfill
The American Society of Civil Engineers defines sanitary landfill
as:
A method of disposing of refuse on land without creating nui-
sances or hazards to public health or safety, by utilizing the
principles of engineering to confine the refuse to the smallest
practical area, to reduce it to the smallest practical volume,
and to cover it with a layer of earth at the conclusion of each
day's operation, or at such more frequent intervals as may be
necessary.
In a true sanitary landfill, waste are deposited in a designated area,
compacted in place with a tractor or roller, and covered with 12 inches
of clean soil.
Sanitary landfill can be used for disposal of sludge, grease and
grit, stabilized or not, if a suitable site is available. The landfill
is most beneficial if it is also used for disposal of refuse and other
solid wastes. Liquid sludge acts as a wetting agent which increases
compaction of the landfill; sludge cake or incineration ash mixed with
refuse increases the density. Sanitary landfills can be divided into
two major categories — area landfills, which are on relatively flat
terrain, and depression landfills, which utilize natural or man-made
depressions in the landscape such as a quarry or gravel pit.
Sanitary landfills have traditionally operated at low unit cost.
Capital costs for a landfill include investment in land, site facilities,
and equipment. A general capital cost cannot be estimated because of
V-19
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the wide variability in land prices. Annual operating costs for sani-
tary landfills were reported to vary between $0.50 and $2.00 per wet
ton (Stone, 1962). These figures are very low compared to other land-
fill data. Therefore, overall costs are largely determined by hauling
costs and land prices. Excluding land investment, the total capital,
operating and maintenance costs are estimated to range downward from
$1.80 to $1.20 per wet ton of sludge per year for operations of 1,000
to 10,000 wet tons per day, respectively (Stanley Consultants, 1972).
Increased emphasis on environmental effects may elevate costs of sani-
tary landfills.
Poor management of sanitary landfills can result in adverse envi-
ronmental effects. Dewatered sludge and other solid wastes in landfills
degrade chemically and biologically to produce solid, liquid, and gas-
eous products. Microbiological decomposition of landfill material ini-
tially occurs aerobically, and then anaerobically when oxygen is de-
pleted. Characteristic waste products of aerobic decomposition are
carbon dioxide, water, nitrate, and nitrite. Migration or leaching of
nitrate and nitrite can cause groundwater contamination. Typical pro-
ducts of anaerobic decomposition are methane, carbon dioxide, water,
organic acids, nitrogen, ammonia, inorganic salts, and hydrogen sul-
fide. Some of these products are odorous. Acidic products can lower
the pH value of the landfill and cause mobilization of trace metals
which may affect the quality of surface and groundwater. Nuisance con-
ditions such as odors and flies can be minimized with daily coverage of
the waste, but cannot be avoided altogether.
In most areas, available land conveniently located is becoming
increasingly scarce and old sanitary landfills are now being used for
development. In general, this reuse was not contemplated during the
construction of the original fill. Uneven settlement and poor bear-
ing strength of fill materials present foundation problems which signi-
ficantly increase construction costs. Total failure of structures built
on landfill sites has been reported. Therefore, it may be desirable to
build landfills so that future development can be undertaken at reason-
able cost (Sowers, 1968).
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2. Lagooning
Lagooning has been the most popular sludge disposal method for
industrial wastewater treatment plants; lagoons are also used at muni-
cipal plants. Lagooning can be used as a contingency method of sludge
handling and storage while other sludge processes are temporarily over-
loaded or out of service. Lagoons can be divided into three classes:
thickening, storage, and digestion lagoons; drying lagoons; and per-
manent lagoons.
Digestion of sludge in the first type of lagoon is a lengthy pro-
cess which creates multiple nuisance problems. Drying lagoons cer-
tainly compete with the use of sand drying beds. The sludge must be
digested before entering the lagoon. Removal of dried sludge, which
must be disposed of by other means, is necessary to maintain the effec-
tive capacity of a drying lagoon. Multiple units and supernatant de-
canting devices are required in the first two types of lagoons, as the
supernatant is always returned to the head of the plant. A permanent
lagoon, one from which the sludge is never removed, is an ultimate dis-
posal site similar in function to sanitary landfills and has proven to
be the most economical method of sludge disposal where suitable sites
still exist.
Variables in lagooning operations are land availability, climate,
subsoil permeability, groundwater table elevation, sludge characteris-
tics, and sludge loading rates. Land available adjacent to the treat-
ment plant substantially reduces sludge hauling costs. Good climatic
conditions, which enhance evaporation of sludge water, are necessary
for efficient performance. Soil permeability and groundwater eleva-
tion affect lagoon performance by determining the rate of drainage
and the potential for groundwater contamination. Raw sludge generally
requires less lagoon capacity than digested sludge. One cubic foot
of lagoon can handle 6 Ibs of raw sludge per year as compared to 2.3
Ibs of digested sludge per year.
-------
Construction costs of sewage stabilization ponds in the Midwest
were reported to vary between $1,000 and $3,000 or more per acre. La-
goons constructed in depression areas can be significantly cheaper
(Howells and Dubois, 1959). Excluding land investment, the construc-
tion costs of lagoons were estimated to range downward from $28.62
to $12.70 a year per acre-foot for lagoon capacities of 10 and 100
acre-feet, respectively. The costs are amortized using a 7% discount
rate over 20 years and are based on the 1972 dollar (Stanley Consul-
tants, 1972).
Literature reviews show that the operating and maintenance costs
of sludge lagooning range from $1.00 to $3.50 per dry ton of sludge per
year (Bubbis, 1962, Caron, 1964, Burd, 1968). In 1972 dollars, the
annual operating and maintenance costs were reported by Stanley Con-
sultants to be approximately $5.00 per dry ton for a plant producing
100 dry tons of sludge per day. Costs will increase ff the sludge is
transported long distances for lagooning.
Lagooning of raw sludge creates nuisance problems such as odor
emission and insect infestation. Nuisance problems associated with
lagooning of digested sludge are less severe. To minimize these prob-
lems, adequate buffer distances must be provided between the lagoons
and the nearest sensitive receptors. Seepage and percolation of sludge
water through permeable soil may present groundwater pollution prob-
lems. Lining the lagoon can prevent groundwater contamination, but this
will increase both initial and operating costs; artifical drainage may
be required due to loss of subsoil drainage.
3. Ocean Dumping
Ocean disposal of industrial and municipal sewage sludge has been
commonly adopted by municipalities close to the sea. Some of the largest
cities in the United States, including Boston, New York, Philadelphia,
and Los Angeles, dispose of their sludge in this fashion. Ocean disposal
V-22
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has proven to be economical and effective as the ocean initially pro-
vides a 1,000 to 5,000-fold dilution. Barging of sludge to the ocean
is considered to be economically justifiable where round-trip distances
range up to 400 miles or more. Design and operating factors in ocean
disposal are constrained by oceanic currents, mixing characteristics,
and ebbing tides.
Of the two methods of ocean disposal — pipeline or barge, pipe-
line disposal is cheaper where transportation distance is short. For
example, annual operating costs for the sludge outfall line at the Los
Angeles Hyperion Plant were expected to be $1.15 per dry ton of sludge.
New York City has been barging digested sludge 25 miles into the ocean
for many years. By using larger and more mechanized barges and unloading
sludge into the ocean more rapidly, New York City has been able to re-
duce sludge handling costs to $7.50 per dry ton (Burd, 1968). Phila-
delphia estimated barging costs to be $8.78 per dry ton of secondary
sludge at 10% solids with a round trip travel distance of 227 miles
(Baxter, 1959). The annual capital and operating costs of barging
for the Blue Plains Treatment Plant at Washington, D.C., based on a
400-mile round trip, were estimated to be $17.95 per dry ton of sludge
at 7.5% solids (Burd, 1968). A recent study of ocean disposal of di-
gested sewage sludge having 10% solids revealed that costs of barging
range downward from $0.32 per dry ton per mile for distances of 15
miles to $0.11 per dry ton per mile for distances of 150 miles or more
(Shea and Stockton, 1975).
Ocean dumping of raw sludge is rare, because numerous nuisance
problems result. Potential damage to marine environment and ecology
resulting from ocean disposal of stabilized sludge has drawn increas-
ing public concern. A Corps of Engineers study of the New York City
sludge disposal grounds indicated that, because of high bacterial con-
tamination in surf clams found adjacent to the disposal site, harvesting
of clams should be prohibited within a 6-mile radium of its center (Smith
and Brown, 1971). Of particular concern is the possibility that surf
V-23
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clams may accumulate and concentrate bacteria, viruses, and toxic sub-
stances found in sludge. These contaminants could, in turn, be biomag-
nified in food chains through consumption of the shellfish. Although ocean
dumping is economically favorable for coastal communities, environmental
effects must be taken into consideration, especially as regulations on
ocean disposal become more stringent (Ocean Dumping Act).
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0- SLUDGE UTILIZATION SUBSYSTEMS
Sludge utilization embraces the recovery of useful material from sew-
age sludge and recycling of sludge nutrients by fertilizing farm or forest
lands, including the reclamation of mining spoil. Utilization of sludge is
becoming more attractive and acceptable than disposal because it offers cheap
substitutes for costly non-renewable resources while avoiding many of the
increasing costs and environmental risks of disposal. Three methods of
sludge utilization are recognized: fertilizer production, composting, and
soil reclamation. Each method is reviewed below.
1. Fertilizer Production
Sewage sludge has been used as fertilizer and soil conditioner
for many years. The use of liquid sludge has been rather limited be-
cause of handling difficulty, but dried sludge reduces this problem
significantly. Preparation of these sludge products can be achieved
by air drying on sand beds, mechanical dewatering, or heat drying, as
discussed in Sections A. and B. of this chapter.
The value of sludge fertilizer is determined by nitrogen, carbon,
phosphorous, and potassium contents. Hence, the value of sludge as a
fertilizer is limited because of low concentrations of nitrogen, phos-
phoric acid, and potash. However, the high content of organic material
in sewage sludge provides for excellent soil conditioning. The phos-
phorous content of municipal sewage sludge was significantly increased
with the use of phosphate detergents (Anderson, 1956). Of course, this
may not be as true currently because of the development of low-phosphate
detergents. Of particular interest to agronomists is the carbon-nitrogen
ratio of sewage sludge. A study of sludge characteristics in five muni-
cipalities indicated that the nitrogen content ranged from 2.0 to 6.0%;
carbon 21 to 47%; phosphoric oxide 1.0 to 11%; ash content 24 to 53%;
and humus 33 to 41% (Anderson, 1956). In general, digested sludge has
a lower fertilizer value because the nitrogen content is reduced 40 to
50% by the digestion process.
V-25
-------
In the past, many treatment plants with heat drying equipment
converted from fertilizer production to sludge incineration or land-
filling, because the sludge fertilizer market could not be success-
fully developed. This trend has been reversed recently because of
the high-energy demands of incineration and the scarcity of landfill
sites. Based on potential sales revenues and the concept of recycling
nutrients, fertilizer production may gain more public acceptance. For
example, Milwaukee, Chicago and Houston have successfully marketed
large quantities of heat-dried activated sludge for many years. The
price has depended on the nitrogen content of the sludge and has varied
from $12 to $18 per ton (Burd, 1968). Over 200,000 tons each year were
sold by these cities for application to crops, golf courses, and park
land. However, most cities have donated sludge dried on sand beds in
order to dispose of it off the plant site.
The major environmental concerns over the utilization of sludge
as fertilizer or soil conditioner deal with possible health hazards
from pathogenic microorganisms and trace metals and non-point source
water pollution. Pathogenic microorganisms are destroyed by heat
drying, but pathogens in air-dried or mechanically dewatered sludge
might contact food plants or fodder and be ingested by humans or live-
stock. Trace metals such as zinc, nickel, copper, cadmium, lead, chro-
mium, and mercury may be selectively concentrated or biomagnified
through the food chain, presenting health problems to domestic animals
and man.
Uncontrolled application of dried-sludge fertilizer may also con-
tribute to non-point source water pollution, which is extremely diffi-
cult to confine and regulate. When assessing the benefits of stabi-
lized sludge used as fertilizer, potential consequences to the envir-
onment must be weighed. Perhaps controlled distribution, mandatory
sterilization, and limitation of dried-sludge fertilizer application
to plant species having low rates of uptake and concentration of harm-
ful substances would render this waste product safe enough. The costs
V-26
-------
of pre-treatment or advanced treatment of industrial wastewater, us-
ing carbon adsorption or other means to remove heavy metals, might be
offset by the increased value of safe sludge fertilizer.
2. Composting
Composting is defined as the aerobic thermophilic decomposition
of organic wastes to a relatively stable humus by microorganisms. The
product of composting can be used as a soil conditioner. Traditionally,
composting has been used to stabilize solid refuse. Sewage sludge has
only occasionally been used in solid refuse composting. Composting
systems generally fall into three categories: pile, windrow, and mech-
anized or enclosed systems.
Composting consists of three stages; namely mixing, composting
and maturing. Solid refuse is sorted by screening and magnetic sepa-
ration, and is pulverized in a grinder. Sewage sludge is then mixed
with the pulverized refuse. The mixture is placed in windrows, pits,
or silos for decomposition and stabilization. The compost row or pile
is normally turned daily for 2 weeks or longer with a composter, except
during periods of rain. Under proper composting conditions, tempera-
tures in the windrow range from 130 to 150°F, falling into the thermo-
philic range wherein the rate of decomposition is the highest. The
heat generated as a result of thermophilic microbial oxidation creates
a convection current, supplying air to the microorganisms. High temp-
erature also can provide for efficient destruction of pathogenic organ-
isms and weed seeds. For efficient composting, the optimum pH of the
material should be neutral.
After decomposition, the compost row or pile is flattened for fur-
ther drying. Material removed from the composting system is cured for
at least 30 days, which provides further stabilization. Besides solid
refuse, other bulking agents such as sawdust, shredded paper, or wood
chips can be used for sludge composting.
V-27
-------
The Agricultural Research Service at Beltsville, Maryland, has
studied sludge composting for several years. The capacity of the com-
post site is approximately 100 to 150 wet tons per day. Their exper-
ience suggests that the major problems associated with the operation
are adverse weather conditions and odors. The study concluded that
the annual capital and operating costs for composting 200 wet tons per
day of digested sludge with 20% solids is approximately $7.31 per wet
ton or $30.00 per dry ton of sludge. The operating cost alone accounts
for $4.10 per wet ton or $16.80 per dry ton. Wood chips contribute
over $2 per wet ton to the costs, most of which is for hauling. The
cost estimate does not consider benefits from sale of the product (Ep-
stein and Willson, 1974). Rodale and Scott reported that compost had
been sold for $2.00 to $90.00 per ton (Burd, 1968). The smaller figure
was the price of large quantities of raw compost; the large figure was
the price for small specialty markets such as gardens and golf courses.
The environmental problems associated with composting are odors
and attraction of insects. Odor nuisance seems to outweigh insect
problems. If the compost system is too large, dense, or wet, anaero-
bic conditions may set in and produce undesirable odors. Enclosing
the system is beneficial but increases costs. Distributing composting
products as soil conditioners provides revenue, but may cause the
same environmental problems as pertain to fertilizer production, dis-
cussed previously in this chapter.
3. Soil Reclamation
Application of liquid sludge to land is a practice dating back
to antiquity, especially in England (Benarde, 1973). In the United
States, disposal of sewage effluent or digested sludge on farmland has
not been widely practiced, due partly to the past availability of in-
expensive and conveniently handled inorganic fertilizer. However,
higher costs and environmental risks with other methods of sludge dis-
posal are making them less attractive. This fact prompts many waste-
water management organizations to seriously consider the alternative of
land application.
V-28
-------
St. Mary's, Pennsylvania, has disposed of digested sludge on
hay fields, pasture, corn stubble and athletic fields. The applica-
tion rate for pasture is about 64 wet tons per acre per year with
3.7% solids. Raw sewage from Muskegon, Michigan is pumped to a series
of aerated lagoons. The effluent from the lagoons, whose quality is
equivalent to that from secondary treatment, is sprayed on farmland.
The projected capacity of the system is 43.4 MGD, including an indus-
trial flow of 24 MGD (Chaiken, Poloncsik, and Wilson, 1973).
Digested sludge has normally been utilized for land application,
because raw primary and activated sludges decompose and create a nui-
sance. Liquid digested sludge can be applied to fields by spraying,
soil incorporation, soil injection, ridge and furrow irrigation, and
infiltration by shallow impoundment. Each method has specific advan-
tages and disadvantages in terms of workability, reliability, and en-
vironmental effects. A detailed discussion is presented in Chapter
VII. Transportation of sludge to the application site can be accom-
plished by tank truck, railroad tank car, enclosed barge, or pipeline,
depending upon transport availability, site location, and cost-effec-
tiveness. Detailed discussions of transportation are presented in the
following section.
The rate of sludge application to land is determined by a number
of factors, including climate, topography, hydrology, and soil and
sludge characteristics. Literature review indicates that a wide
range of application rates up to several hundred dry tons per acre
per year have benefitted soil and crop growth (Table V-2). Upper
limits are not yet recognized; ultimately they will be determined by
the build-up of nutrients and heavy metals in the soils.
The economics of land application have not been fully investi-
gated. The process recycles inexpensive and useful organic and in-
organic materials back to the land, conserves non-renewable resources
such as inorganic fertilizers, and eliminates costly sludge thickening
and dewatering. The capital costs for land application include land
V-29
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V-30
-------
acquisition, access roads and fencing, site grading, sludge stor-
age facilities, distribution systems, and application equipment.
Operating costs include sludge transportation, sludge application
and crop cultivation. Systems to monitor and control environmental
effects further add to costs, and should be accounted for and weighed
against those for other alternatives for sludge disposal or utiliza-
tion. Table V-3 presents reported unit costs associated with land
spreading of sludge.
The wide range in costs is due to the various hauling distances
reported in each of the studies. The construction cost, amortized
capital cost, operating and maintenance cost, and total costs exclud-
ing land amortized at 7% over 20 years are presented in Figure V-l,
based on the 1972 dollar. For a project capacity of 1,000 dry tons
per day, the total annual cost is approximately $7 per dry ton of
sludge.
The major problem associated with land application is public
acceptance. Potential environmental problems include transmission
of odors and airborne pathogens, build-up of nutrients and heavy
metals in the soils, surface water and groundwater contamination,
and biomagnification of toxic substances in food chains or transfer
of pathogens by ingestion, if agricultural produce is raised on the
application fields. Proper choice and control of sludge application
methods, rates and periods, and proper monitoring and pollution con-
trol should eliminate or minimize some of these environmental problems
A complete examination of potential adverse environmental and health
effects and the available mitigating measures follows in Chapters VII
and VIII and IX.
V-31
-------
Table V-3. Land Spreading Costs (Burd, 1968; Dalton et al., 1968)
Reference
Approximate
Year Operating Cost
($/ton of dry solids)
Scanlon
Nusbaum and Cook 1959-1960
Nusbaum and Cook 1960
Dalton et al.
Burd
1957 $7.50
$10.00
$4.00
1968 $20.00-23.00
1968 $4.00-30.00
Remarks
New York, about the same
as barging to sea.
San Diego, 21-mile haul.
San Diego, $1.50 for pipe-
line transfer.
Chicago Sanitary District
preliminary estimate.
General range with $10/ton
average.
V-32
-------
1000
345 67890 2 345 67890
234 567890 100
cr> '
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10 100 1000 10,000
Dry Solids (ton/day in processing capacity)
Notes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Minneapolis, March 1972, ENR Construction Cost Index of 1827.
Amortization at 7% for 20 years.
Labor rate of $6.25 per hour.
Application rate of 25 dry tons per acre per year.
Sludge diluted to a solids content of 2% for spray distribution.
Storage lagoons, dilution wells, pumping station, piping and
spray distribution equipment included.
Figure V-~\. Surface Spreading Costs (Stanley Consultants, 1972)
\l-33
-------
E. SLUDGE TRANSPORTATION SUBSYSTEMS
Sludge transportation is an integral part of sludge disposal or
utilization. Transportation frequently exerts a significant influence
upon overall costs. Optimization of sludge handling and disposal or
utilization requires examination of the reliability, costs, and envi-
ronmental effects of various sludge transportation modes. There are
four modes identified: truck, rail, barge, and pipeline.
1. Truck Transportation
Hauling of sludge by truck offers the advantage of flexibility
in routes and destinations. Liquid sludge can be hauled by trucks
from one treatment plant to another for further treatment or dispos-
al. Dewatered sludge is commonly hauled by trucks to landfill sites
for disposal, or to stockpiles for subsequent utilization as fertili-
zer and soil conditioner. Hauling distance can range from a few miles
to several hundred miles.
Economics of trucking sludge are determined by hauling distances
and sludge characteristics. Unit costs increase with increasing solids
content and hauling distance. A comparative study of the costs of trans-
porting 3.5% solids by pipeline, tank truck and railroad tank car in-
dicates that truck transportation is the most economical mode for dis-
tances up to 150 miles and for a treatment plant size of approximately
1.5 MGD. Truck hauling costs per wet or dry ton of sludge are pre-
sented as a function of sludge hauling distances and solids content
in Figure V-2.
The Blue Plains treatment plant in the District of Columbia in
1973 used its digested sludge for reclaiming marginal soils. Truck
hauling and final disposal of sludge cake (20% solids) were handled
by a private contractor at a cost of $6.85 per wet ton. In 1974,
the contracted price was up to $8.25 per wet ton (Cassel and Mohr,
1974).
V-34
-------
1000
800
600
400
,200
1/1
s_
(O
-g 100
~ 80
J> 60
40
20
15
10
8
c
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15
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8
6
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Health hazards and odor nuisance associated with sludge haul-
ing by trucks are minimized by the use of special trucks with a sealed
tailgate and tarpaulin cover or, in case liquid sludge is hauled, a
sealed tank. However, the noise and air pollutants generated by the
trucks enroute to disposal or utilization sites are generally unavoid-
able.
2. Rail Transportation
Railroads are an attractive mode for sludge transportation when
tracks are near the origin and destination of the sludge and long dis-
tance hauling is required. Liquid sludge can be hauled by rail tank
cars, and dewatered sludge in either open or closed hopper cars. Ma-
jor structures required for railroad transportation are loading and
unloading facilities.
Recently, some attention has been given to the unit train concept
as a means of hauling sludge and refuse. The technology is available
and under consideration by several metropolitan districts. The unit
train in this instance might comprise 80 cars or vehicles. Each vehi-
cle is a 20,000-gallon tank car with special fittings, and each can
handle a load of 80 tons of sludge. The train could make journeys of
several hundred miles. Indoor or outdoor systems could load sludge
either through the top of the tank or through a loading connection at
the bottom. Completely automated systems could load 400,000 gallons
of sludge into 20 cars in less than 3 1/2 hours with a three-man crew.
By increasing pumping rates, the facility could load 600,000 gallons
of sludge in 2 1/2 hours. A two-man unloading crew could unload the
sludge in approximately 2 hours. Based on a 200-mile journey, the
80-car unit train would have an overall turn-around time of 48 hours
(Kostalich, 1973).
Based on a daily handling rate of 7,000 wet tons, the handling
cost for a unit train would be less than $2.00 per ton of wet sludge
containing 6% solids (Kostalich, 1973). The unit cost of hauling
V-36
-------
sludge by a regular train is higher and depends on the rate struc-
tures, which vary with geographic location. On reviewing the haul-
ing contracts for Philadelphia and San Francisco, unit costs were
found to be $5.39 per ton and $6.25 per ton, respectively. The
former figure includes final disposal; the latter does not (Stanley
Consultants). The unit cost per dry ton of sludge as a function of
hauling distance is given in Figure V-3. For distances greater than
150 miles, rail transportation is more economical than trucking for
treatment plants of 1.5 MGD. Generally, the cost of rail transporta-
tion could be reduced in half if the unit train concept were utilized
(Easton, 1970).
The environmental hazards of hauling sludge by rail are similar
to those for truck hauling. However, in the event of an accident,
environmental impacts could be worse because of the vastly increased
amount of sludge.
3. Barge Transportation
Barging of sludge must be considered as an alternative mode of
shipping when navigable waterways are available between origin and
destination. Large quantities of sludge can be transported effi-
ciently, and often barges can be rented.
The costs of barging sludge are examined in the earlier sec-
tion concerning ocean dumping. The cost of barging 250 miles from
Washington, D.C. has been reported as $3.50 per wet ton (Smith,
1968). The barging of sludge 188 miles on the Illinois River from
Chicago costs $1.80 per wet ton, based on a shipping rate of 9,000
tons per day (Stanley Consultants, 1972).
Environmental considerations in barging sludge are completely
different from those for truck or rail hauling. Accidental spills
of sludge from barges could cause severe short-term irreversible
impacts such as a fish kill or destruction of local benthos. How-
ever, the probability of this occurring is small.
V-37
-------
1000
800
600
400
(C
o
T3
I 100
Q
S-
<1>
Q.
80
60
5 40
20
10
J.
J L
10
20 40 60 80 100 200
Distance to Disposal Point (miles)
lOO-
100
80
60
40
20
s-
to
o
"O
O)
Ol
o.
. (/I
4 o
10
8
1
000
Figure V-3. Rail Costs (Riddell and Cormick, 1968; Stanley Consultants, 1972)
V-38
-------
4. Pipeline Transportation
Pumping of sludge and waste slurries through pipelines has been
practiced for many years. Short distance pumping of sludge exists
in most sewage treatment plants. Transporting sludge through pipe-
lines has also become a popular mode for intermediate and long dis-
tances.
When assessing this alternative, the main factor to consider is
the hydraulic characteristics of the sludge. Sludge containing 5% sol-
ids flows as Newtonian liquid, which is similar to water with respect to
friction and power requirements. Sludge with greater than 6% solids
possesses plastic properties, requiring a prohibitive amount of energy
for long distance pumping (Sparr, 1971). A minimum flow velocity must
be maintained to prevent solids from settling and to sustain the flow
during turbulence. Other problems associated with sludge pumping are
grease build-up and pipe corrosion. Degreasing the sludge prior to
pumping and installing protective pipe lining will avoid these prob-
1 ems.
A study was conducted to determine the feasibility of pumping
sludge from Cleveland via a 92-mile, 12^1nch diameter pipeline for
disposal on strip-mined land in southern Ohio, and of pumping sludge
from the Washington-Baltimore area 80 miles by pipeline to an ocean
outfall (Bechtel Corporation, 1969). Capital and operating costs in
the first case were estimated to be $25 per dry ton or $0.27 per ton-
mile, assuming 3.5% digested solids. The costs in the latter case
were estimated to be $28 per dry ton or $0.35 per ton-mile. Based on
a population of 2,000,000, digested sludge with 5% solids could be
pumped 100 miles at a cost of $7 or $8 per dry ton, or approximately
$0.05 per ton-mile, to reclaim marginal or strip-mined land (Rand
Development Corporation, 1967). These costs do not include acquisi-
tion of easements along pipeline routes. The use of pipelines does
not become economical for transporting sludge 25 miles away until
the plant size reaches approximately 10 MGD. A 300-mile pipeline
V-39
-------
cannot be economically justified until plant size reaches approxi-
mately 25 MGD (Riddel! and Cormick, 1968).
Short-term environmental effects during pipeline construction
include air pollution from traffic jams caused by the disruption or
interference of traffic, especially in urban areas. Proper insula-
tion of lift and booster stations will minimize noise impacts on sur-
rounding areas.
V-40
-------
F. COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF SYSTEM ALTERNATIVES
The evaluation of system alternatives for a proposed action is generally
initiated by a review of existing facilities and their capacities, future plan-
ning periods and loading requirements, engineering considerations, and environ-
mental and institutional constraints. Preliminary system alternatives are de-
veloped to represent a range of solutions sensitive to these considerations or
constraints. The preliminary alternatives are then screened by cost analysis,
reliability evaluation, environmental impact assessment, and estimate of com-
patibility with all significant constraints. During the evaluation process,
new alternative's or revisions of preliminary alternatives may result.
In this section, current sludge processing and disposal systems are re-
viewed briefly as are the available and feasible methods for future processing
and disposal. Compatible combinations of subsystems lead to the candidacy
of ten system alternatives. System requirements and construction phasing,
average annual capital, operating and maintenance costs, facility life,
energy requirements, and environmental effects with their cost implications
are discussed for each of the ten alternatives. By weighing each of these
factors, a synthesis of comparative cost-effectiveness of the ten system al-
ternatives is provided.
Existing sludge handling and disposal systems at the West-Southwest
treatment plant, as well as present and future sludge production rates, are
discussed in detail in Chapter II and are summarized below. Sludge dewater-
ing subsystems in 1973 included air drying, sedimentation or flotation, and
vacuum filtration. Stabilization subsystems available were heated anaerobic
digestion, Imhoff digestion, heat drying, and wet air oxidation. Subsystems
for disposal and utilization in 1973 included:
• Lagooning of liquid sludge after sludge concentration and
anaerobic digestion
• Sale of dried sludge as fertilizer after sludge concentra-
tion, vacuum filtration, and heat drying
• Stockpiling and distribution as fertilizer after Imhoff
digestion and air drying on sand beds
V-41
-------
t Stockpiling of scum and grit
• Land application of liquid sludge after sludge concen-
tration and anaerobic digestion
• Land application of liquid sludge after Imhoff digestion.
The wet air oxidation process has been on a standby basis since 1972.
The average sludge processing rate in 1973 was approximately 673 dry
tons per day (MSDGC, 1975a). Based on an area population projection and as-
suming a planning period of 25 years beginning in 1975, the raw sludge fore-
cast is 1,190 dry tons per day in the year 2000 (MSDGC, 1975a). This fore-
cast includes 52 dry tons of sludge per day from the Northside plant.
Ten system alternatives for sludge processing and disposal were devel-
oped on the basis of experience gained from plant operations and research
on various technical topics (MSDGC, 1973a, 1974a, 1974b, 1974c). Each sys-
tem alternative has a planning period of 25 years, an average sludge produc-
tion rate of 1,236 dry tons per day, and a maximum rate of 1,350 dry tons
per day. Each alternative consists of a combination of several subsystems;
namely, dewatering, stabilization, disposal and/or utilization and trans-
portation subsystems. The system alternatives and sludge flows for each
alternative are presented in Figure V-4. The costs, system requirements,
construction phasing, and life of facilities for each system alternative
are summarized in Table V-4,(MSDGC, 1975a).
1. System Requirements, Phasing, Costs, and Life
System 1 uses flotation-concentration of waste activated sludge,
anaerobic digestion, centrifuge dewatering, and ultimate disposal of
digested, dewatered sludge by sanitary landfill ing. The system re-
quirements and construction phasing are as follows:
• Seven 100-dry-ton-per-day digester batteries with con-
centration facilities constructed in 1975; four of the
same constructed in 1980
V-42
-------
F. COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF SYSTEM ALTERNATIVES
The evaluation of system alternatives for a proposed action is generally
initiated by a review of existing facilities and their capacities, future plan-
ning periods and loading requirements, engineering considerations, and environ-
mental and institutional constraints. Preliminary system alternatives are de-
veloped to represent a range of solutions sensitive to these considerations or
constraints. The preliminary alternatives are then screened by cost analysis,
reliability evaluation, environmental impact assessment, and estimate of com-
patibility with all significant constraints. During the evaluation process,
new alternatives or revisions of preliminary alternatives may result.
In this section, current sludge processing and disposal systems are re-
viewed briefly as are the available and feasible methods for future processing
and disposal. Compatible combinations of subsystems lead to the candidacy
of ten system alternatives. System requirements and construction phasing,
average annual capital, operating and maintenance costs, facility life,
energy requirements, and environmental effects with their cost implications
are discussed for each of the ten alternatives. By weighing each of these
factors, a synthesis of comparative cost-effectiveness of the ten system al-
ternatives is provided.
Existing sludge handling and disposal systems at the West-Southwest
treatment plant, as well as present and future sludge production rates, are
discussed in detail in Chapter II and are summarized below. Sludge dewater-
ing subsystems in 1973 included air drying, sedimentation or flotation, and
vacuum filtration. Stabilization subsystems available were heated anaerobic
digestion, Imhoff digestion, heat drying, and wet air oxidation. Subsystems
for disposal and utilization in 1973 included:
• Lagooning of liquid sludge after sludge concentration and
anaerobic digestion
a Sale of dried sludge as fertilizer after sludge concentra-
tion, vacuum filtration, and heat drying
• Stockpiling and distribution as fertilizer after Imhoff
digestion and air drying on sand beds
V-41
-------
t Stockpiling of scum and grit
• Land application of liquid sludge after sludge concen-
tration and anaerobic digestion
t Land application of liquid sludge after Imhoff digestion.
The wet air oxidation process has been on a standby basis since 1972.
The average sludge processing rate in 1973 was approximately 673 dry
tons per day (MSDGC, 1975a). Based on an area population projection and as-
suming a planning period of 25 years beginning in 1975, the raw sludge fore-
cast is 1,190 dry tons per day in the year 2000 (MSDGC, 1975a). This fore-
cast includes 52 dry tons of sludge per day from the Northside plant.
Ten system alternatives for sludge processing and disposal were devel-
oped on the basis of experience gained from plant operations and research
on various technical topics (MSDGC, 1973a, 1974a, 1974b, 1974c). Each sys-
tem alternative has a planning period of 25 years, an average sludge produc-
tion rate of 1,236 dry tons per day, and a maximum rate of 1,350 dry tons
per day. Each alternative consists of a combination of several subsystems;
namely, dewatering, stabilization, disposal and/or utilization and trans-
portation subsystems. The system alternatives and sludge flows for each
alternative are presented in Figure V-4. The costs, system requirements,
construction phasing, and life of facilities for each system alternative
are summarized in Table V-4,(MSDGC, 1975a).
1. System Requirements, Phasing, Costs^ and Life
System 1 uses flotation-concentration of waste activated sludge,
anaerobic digestion, centrifuge dewatering, and ultimate disposal of
digested, dewatered sludge by sanitary landfill ing. The system re-
quirements and construction phasing are as follows:
• Seven 100-dry-ton-per-day digester batteries with con-
centration facilities constructed in 1975; four of the
same constructed in 1980
V-42
-------
System
1 Flotation-Concentration-* £« -» gntHJuj ___> Sanitary
Flotation-Concentration
or rail ,
200 ml )
3 Flotation-Concentration-^Anaeroblc __» ^Application
200 mi)
Heat Drying - ^Fertilizer Sale
• Incineration "f truck
4 Centrifuge DewateHng
5 Centrifuge Dewatering
•^Centrifuge Dewatering
(455 dt/d)
Heat Drying
truck)
Fertilizer Sale
(781 dt/d)
—^Centrifuge Dewatering.
(455 dt/d)
Heat Drying
200 mi)
-Fertilizer Sale
o? "
(1,143 dt/d)
Digestion
(93 dt/d)
•Flotation-Concentration
(1.143 dt/d)
on Sand Beds
(truck)
Sanitary Landfill
Digestlon ^'Dewatering
10
-^Flotation-Concentration—». {££&£•
Und Application
(truck of Dewatered Sludge
^ ' '
D1stribut1on
>Land Application of Liquid Sludge
(oarge
200 mi)
—k.Vacuum Filter Dewatering
(455 dt/d)
(127 dt/d)
• Heat Drying ^Fertilizer Sale
Figure V-4. System Operations and Sludge Flows (MSDGC, 1975a)
V-43
-------
Phasing, and Life of Facilities (MSDGC, 1975a)
Costs (106 dollars/yr.) , Roouirpment- and
S*stem Ta'pilal 0 & M Total Constructs Phasing o.
(») {$) ($)
1 5.62 26.05 31.67 7- 100 dt/d digester batteries with
concentration facilities. i
4- 100 dt/d digester batteries with
concentration facilities.
37 - 21.9 dt/d centrifuges to sup-
plement existing vacuum filtration
facilities.
10- 21.9 dt/d centrifuges.
Additional 152 dt/d flotation-con-
centration facilities.
2 13.84 36.22 50.06* Same as System 1. <
47.70** Land development (25 000 acres)-
Application equipment.
3 10.45 34.53 44.98 7- 100 dt/d digester batteries with
concentration facilities.
4- 100 dt/d digester batteries with
concentration facilities.
Land development (25,000 acres).
4 6.20 26.62 32.82 48- 21.9 dt/d centrifuges with flo-
tation-concentration facilities.
14- 21.9 dt/d centrifuges with flo-
tation-concentration facilities.
40- 12,000 Ib water/hour drying
1 i nes .
10- 12,000 Ib water/hour drying
lines.
5 5.12 -22.71 22.83 48- 21.9 dt/d centrifuges with flo-
tation-concentration facilities.
14- 21.9 dt/d centrifuges with flo-
tation-concentration facil ities.
10- 33.0 ft. diameter fluidized bed
incineration units.
102 dt/d ash dewatering centrifuges.
6 4.95 23.82 28.77 6- 100 dt/d digester batteries with
concentration facilities.
57- 21.9 dt/d centrifuges.
11- 21.9 dt/d centrifuges.
19- 12,000 Ib water/hour drying
lines.
Additional flotation-concentration
facilities.
7 ' 8.50 29.00 37.50 Same as System 6.
Land development (10,200 acres).
Application equipment.
3 5.74 25.78 31.52 Rehabilitation of Imhoff tanks and
sand drying beds.
7- 100 dt/d digester batteries with
concentration facilities.
3- 100 dt/d digester batteries with
concentration facilities.
37- 21.9 dt/d centrifuges to sup-
plement existing vacuum filtration
facilities.
10- 21.9 dt/d centrifuges.
Additional 152 dt/d flotation-con-
centration facilities.
A7.5'** Land development (25,0(1(1 acres)
Application equipment.
10 3.75 31.4 35.19 3- 100 dt/d digester batteries with
concentration facilities.
2- 100 dt/d digester batteries with
concentration facilities.
27- 21.9 dt/d centrifuges.
Land purchase and development
(2,700 acres) .
Application equipment.
Years
o in o ur> Life
CO CO O\ O\
)
1
»
*
k
t
>
•
•
i
t
»
fc
1
•
k
P
V
|
i
(25-yr.)
(25-yr.)
(10-yr.)
(10-yr.)
(20-yr. )
(12.5-yr.)
(25-yr. )
(25-yr.)
(10-yr.)
(10-yr.)
(20-yr.)
(10-yr.)
(10-yr.)
(25-yr.)
(25-yr.)
• (10-yr.)
(10-yr.)
• (20-yr.)
(25-yr.)
•
(12.5-yr.)
(25-yr.)
(25-yr.)
» (10-yr.)
(10-yr.)
(12.5-yr.)
(25-yr.)
(25- vr.)
• (n-yr.)
'Assuming truck transportation.
**Assuming rail transportation.
V-44
-------
« Thirty-seven 21.9-dry~ton-p2r-day centrifuges evenly
scheduled for construction in 1975, 1985, and 1995, for
the purpose of supplementing existing vacuum filtration
facilities; ten additional centrifuges constructed be-
tween 1980 and 1990
e Additional 152-dry-ton-day flotation-concentration faci-
lities.
The average annual capital, operating and maintenance, and total costs
are $5.62 x 106, $26.05 x 106, and $31.67 x 106, respectively (MSDGC,
1975a).
System 2 has the same sludge concentration,dewatering and stabili-
zation processes as System 1, but disposes of digested, dewatered sludge
by dry fertilizer application. Trucks will haul the dried sludge 200
miles to an application site. The system requirements include those of
System 1 plus the development of 24,638 acres of land by the year 1995,
and the necessary application equipment. The land development and equip-
ment investment will be continuous over the planning period. Annual
capital, operating and maintenance, and total costs are $13.84 x 10 ,
$36.22 x 106, and $50.06 x 106, respectively. If a railroad is used
for sludge transportation, the total annual costs will be $47.70 x 10^
{MSDGC, 1975a).
System 3 utilizes the same concentration and stabilization pro-
cesses as Systems 1 and 2, combined with ultimate disposal of digested
liquid sludge by land application. The system requirements and con-
struction phasing include seven 100-dry-ton-per-day digester batteries
with concentration facilities constructed in 1975, and four of the same
in 1980. There will be a continuous development through 1995 of 18,149
acres of land as an application site. Barging is the proposed sludge
transportation mode. Annual capital, operating and maintenance, and
total costs are $10.45 x 106, $34.53 x 106, and $44.98 x 106, respec-
tively (MSDGC, 1975a).
V-45
-------
System 4 includes mechanical dewatering of sludge by centrifuga-
tion and stabilization of dewatered sludge by heat drying. The dried,
stabilized sludge will be sold as fertilizer and soil conditioner.
The system requirements and construction phasing are:
• 48 centrifuges with a capacity of 21.9 dry tons per day with
flotation-concentration facilities, evenly scheduled for con-
struction in 1975, 1985, and 1995, and 14 of the same between
1980 and 1990
• 20 drying lines with a capacity of 12,000 pounds of water
per hour, constructed in 1975; 10 in 1980; 20 in 1995.
The amortized annual capital, operating and maintenance, and total costs
are $6.20 x 106, $26.62 x 106, and $32.82 x 106, respectively (MSDGC,
1975a).
System 5 includes mechanical dewatering of sludge by centrifuga-
tion, stabilization of dewatered sludge by incineration, and ultimate
disposal by sanitary landfill. The system requirements and construc-
tion phasing include the same installations of centrifuges with flota-
tion-concentration facilities as specified for System 4, plus:
• Ten 33.0-foot-diameter fluidized bed incineration units,
constructed between 1975, 1985, and 1995
• 102-dry-ton-per-day ash dewatering centrifuges, constructed
according to the same schedule as the incinerators.
The amortized annual capital, operating and maintenance, and total costs
are $5.12 x 106, $22.71 x 106, and $22.83 x 106, respectively (MSDGC,
1975a).
System 6 utilizes the operations of Systems 1 and 4 in parallel;
the respective capacities, of course, are less. The system require-
ments and construction phasing are:
• Six 100-dry-ton-per-day digester batteries with concen-
tration facilities, constructed between 1975 and 1980
• 57 centrifuges with a capacity of 21.9 dry tons per day
each, constructed between 1975, 1985, and 1995
V-46
-------
0 11 additional 21.9-dry-ton-per-day centrifuges between
1980 and 1990
• 19 drying lines with a capacity of 12,000 pounds of water
per hour, scheduled between 1975 and 1995
• Additional flotation-concentration facilities at the be-
ginning of the project.
The amortized annual capital, operating and maintenance and total costs
are $4.95 x 106, $23.82 x 106, and $28.77 x 106, respectively (MSDGC,
1975a).
System 7 is identical to System 6 except that sanitary landfill ing
of dewatered sludge is replaced by land application of the dried sludge.
This substitution requires a continuous development of 10,200 acres of
land by the year 1995, and requires investments in application equip-
ment. The proposed transportation mode is trucking for the 200-mile
journey to the application site. The annual amortized capital, opera-
ting and maintenance, and total costs are $8.50 x 106, $29.00 x 106,
and $37.50 x 106, respectively (MSDGC, 1975a).
System 8 utilizes existing Imhoff digestion, sand-bed air drying
and sanitary landfilling in parallel with the same operations as in
System 1. System requirements and construction phasing include:
0 Total rehabilitation of Imhoff tanks and sand drying beds
in 1975
0 Seven 100-dry-ton-per-day digester batteries with concen-
tration facilities constructed in 1975, and three of the
same in 1980
0 37 centrifuges, each with a capacity of 21.9 dry tons per
day, constructed between 1975, 1985, and 1995 in order to
supplement existing vacuum filtration facilities, and 10
of the same constructed between 1980 and 1990
0 Additional 152-dry-ton-per-day flotation-concentration
facilities.
The amortized annual capital, operating and maintenance, and total costs
are $5.74 x 106, $25.78 x 106, and $31.52 x 106, respectively (MSDGC,
1975a).
V-47
-------
System 9 is identical to System 8, except that sanitary landfill-
ing of dewatered sludge is replaced by land application of the dried
sludge. This substitution requires a continuous development of 24,638
acres of land by the year 1995, and requires investments in application
equipment. Truck transportation to the application site 200 miles away
is proposed. The amortized annual capital, operating and maintenance,
and total costs are $13.96 x 106, $35.95 x 106, and $49.91 x 106, re-
spectively (MSDGC, 1975a).
System 10 is equivalent to Systems 3 and 6 in parallel, except
for a substitution of vacuum filter dewatering in place of centrifu-
gation before heat drying, plus another parallel sequence — Imhoff
digestion, air drying on sand beds, and distribution as fertilizer.
The system requirements and construction phasing are as follows:
• Three 100-dry-ton-per-day digester batteries with concen-
tration facilities, constructed in 1975, and two of the
same in 1980
• 27 centrifuges with a capacity of 21.9 dry tons per day,
evenly scheduled for construction in 1975, 1985, and 1995
• Continuous purchase and development of 2,700 acres of land
t Necessary investment in application equipment.
The digested liquid sludge will be transported to the application site
by barge. The amortized annual capital, operating and maintenance, and
total costs are $3.75 x 106, $31.4 x 106, and $35.19 x 106, respectively
(MSDGC, 1975a).
2. Environmental Effects of Systems
In addition to costs, energy requirements, environmental effects,
and system reliability must be considered in evaluating the cost-effec-
tiveness of a system alternative. These factors are summarized in Table
V-5 for each of the ten systems.
V-48
-------
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V-51
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The energy required by each system can be divided into three forms:
electricity, gas, and oil. Because the costs presented for each system in-
clude allowances for energy consumption, only forms of energy and relative
energy intensiveness are shown in Table V-5. The cost increment to a system
resulting from future energy shortage is proportional to cost inflation for
the energy source and the energy intensiveness of the system. However,
future process changes permitting energy conversion such as from oil to
coal may ameliorate rising energy cost.
The potential environmental effects considered for each system are
classified into three major groups: air, water, and soil pollution. Air
pollution problems involve emissions from incinerators, heat dryers, diges-
ters, and from transportation sources; problems also occur from airborne
toxic or pathogenic materials, odors arid noise due to sludge processing,
shipping and disposal. Water pollution problems include surface and
groundwater contamination from sludge landfill and land application, and
accidental sludge spills on waterways. Contamination of soil and asso-
ciated vegetation may include the build-up of toxic metals or organic
compounds and of pathogens from land application or landfilling.
To approximately equalize all systems in terms of environmental ac-
ceptability, measures to mitigate adverse effects are proposed for each
alternative system, and are listed in Table V-5. Because the actual scale
and costs of these mitigative measures are location specific, no dollar
values can be designated at this stage of study. The last column of Table
V-5 summarizes those factors limiting the feasibility and reliability of
each system.
3. Summary^ of Cost-Effectiveness
As discussed previously, the cost-effectiveness of a system represents
a balance primarily between monetary costs and environmental effects. The
total annual costs of the ten system alternatives range from $27.83 x 10
to $50.06 x 106, as shown in Table V-6.
V-52
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V - 53
-------
Composite environmental effects are evaluated by combining the
energy, air, water and soil effects of a system alternative. Concep-
tually, this is carried out by summing up the magnitude of each environ-
mental effect identified in Table V-5 for each system alternative. A
ranking of system alternatives within each of the four environmental
categories is presented in Table V-6, along with composite environmental
rankings.
Finally, the end column of Table V-6 offers an estimate of the
relative cost impact of implementing recommended mitigating measures
(Table V-5). The purpose here is to reflect a general magnitude of
costs, in addition to total annual costs, necessary to more or less
equalize the environmental acceptability of alternative systems. The
costs of conventional measures such as runoff controls are already re-
flected in total annual costs; therefore, the rough ranking of mitigation
cost impacts covers only extraordinary features such as wet scrubbers
for incinerator stacks.
V-54
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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on Marine Life," California Fish and Game, V. 56, No. 3, 1970.
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V-56
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Nagel, W. B., "The Safety Features of the Imhoff Tank Reconstruction at
Dayton," Sewage Works Journal (now known as Journal Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation), V. 13. No. 1. January 1941.
New York State Department of Health, Manual of Instruction for Sewage Treat-
ment Plant Operaturns, Health Education Service, New York.
North, W. J., "Ecology of the Rocky Nearshore Environment in Southern Cali-
fornia and Possible Influences of Discharged Wastes," Journal of Air and
Water Pollution, V. 7, August 1963.
Nusbaum, I. and L. Cook, Jr., "Making Topsoil with Wet Sludge," Wastes Engi-
neering, August 1960.
Quirk, T. P., "Economic Aspects of Incineration Vs. Incineration-Drying,"
Journal Water Pollution Control Association, V. 36, No. 11, November 1964.
Rand Development Corporation, "Traveling Record," Engineering News Record,
November 1967.
Riddell, M.D. and J. W. Cormick, Selection of Disposal Methods for Waste-
water Treatment Plants, Proceedings of the 10th Sanitary Engineering Con-
ference, University of Illinois Bulletin, No. 65, 1968.
Sanitary Engineering Committee Report, "Sludge Treatment and Disposal by
the Zimmerman Process," Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engi-
neers, Division of Sanitary Engineers, SAC, V. 85, 1959.
Sawyer, B., Pilot Scale Vacuum Filter Studies at the West-Southwest Sewage
Treatment Plant, MSDGC R&D Department, July 1974a.
Sawyer, B., Pilot Scale Operation of the Carter Belt Filter Press at the
West-Southwest Sewage Treatment Plant, MSDGC R&D Department, July 1974b.
Scanlon, A. J., "Utilization of Sewage Sludge from the Product of Topsoil,"
Sewage and Industrial Wastes. V. 29, No. 8, 1957.
V-57
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Scottish Development Department, "Dewatering of Sewage Sludges by Centri-
fuge at Lockerbie, Dumfriesshire," Applied Research and Development Report
No. ARDI, Edinburgh, 1974.
Shea, T. G. and J. D. Stockton, Wastewater Sludge Utilization and Disposal
Costs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., Office of
Water Program Operations, Technical Report MCD-12, September 1975.
Simpson, G. D. and S. H. Sutton, "Performance of Vacuum Filters in Sludge
Concentration -- Filtration and Incineration," University of Michigan, Con-
tinued Education Services, No. 113, 1964.
Smith, D. D. and R. P. Brown, Ocean Disposal of Barged-Delivered Liquid
and Solid Wastes from U.S. Coastal Cities, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Solid Waste Management Office, Publication SW-19c, 1971.
Smith, R., "Cost of Conventional and Advanced Treatment of Wastewater,"
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, V. 40, 1968.
Sohr, W. H., et a!., "Fluidized Sewage Sludge Combustion," Water Works
and Wastes Engineering, V. 2, No. 9, 1965.
Sowers, G. F., "Foundation Problems in Sanitary Land Fills," Proceedings
of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of Sanitary Engineer-
ing Division, Vol. 94:103-116, 1968.
Sparr, A. E., "Pumping Sludge Long Distances," Journal Water Pollution Con-
trol Federation, V. 43, No. 8, August 1971.
Stanley Consultants, Sludge Handling and Disposal: Phase I - State of the
Art, prepared for Metropolitan Sewer Board of the Twin Cities, Minn., Nov. 1972.
Stanley Consultants, Personal communication with B. Lynam, Metropolitan
Sanitary District of Greater Chicago, February 1972.
Stone, R., "Economics of Composting Municipal Refuse," American Society
of Civil Engineers, Journal Sanitary Engineering Division, V. 88, No.
SA6, November 1962.
Streeter, H. W., "World's Largest Imhoff Tank Installations Completed at
Chicago," Sewage Works Journal (now known as Journal of Water Pollution
Control Federation), V. 7, No. 4, July 1935.
Swanwick, J. D., "Recent Work on the Treatment and Dewatering of Sewage
Sludge," Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, V. 34, No. 3, March
1962.
Troemper, A. P., Discussion of "How Serious is the Problem" (by H. E.
Hudson, Jr.), Proceedings of 10th Sanitary Engineering Conference, Uni-
versity of Illinois Bulletin 65, 1968.
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Water Pollution Control Federation, Sewage Treatment Plant Design, Manual
of Practice 8, 1959.
Watkins, R. E., Report of the Use of the Bird Pilot Centrifuge for De-
watering Digested, Sludge at the West-Southwest Sewage Treatment Plant,
MSDGC R&D Department, July 1974c.
Wolfe!, R. W., "Liquid Digested Sludge to Land Surface, Experiences at St.
Mary's and Other Municipalities in Pennsylvania," 39th Annual Conference
of Water Pollution Control Association of Pennsylvania, August 1967.
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VI. SIGNIFICANT SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND LAND USE
EFFECTS OF ALTERNATIVE ACTIONS
This chapter is devoted to an estimation of future uses of the land
in the project area on the assumption that one or the other of two actions
are carried out. The project either will be discontinued in its present
state, leaving the land partially derelict and partially reclaimed, or will
be continued and the land reused at some time in the future.
There are two steps involved in preparing these forecasts. First,
it is necessary to predict the future socio-economic situation. In the
first part of this chapter, socio-economic change affecting the environs
of the project site is predicted on the basis of present socio-economic
conditions reported in Chapter IV. These projections are then analyzed
as to possible influences of project operation or discontinuance and of
eventual land reuse in the project area.
The second major step is assessing future demand for various types
of land use. In the second part of this chapter, future land use demand
at the project site is predicted on the basis of socio-economic projections
developed previously. Once the opportunities for particular land use are
determined, the project area is analyzed to ascertain the physical con-
straints to accommodating such use. Again, physical capability is assessed
under the two conditions of continued and discontinued sludge application.
For the purposes of this chapter, it is assumed that socio-economic
and land use oppportunities are not constrained by possible environmental
or health risks associated with either project implementation or abandon-
ment.
A. POTENTIAL SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHANGE
Utilizing baseline information developed in previous chapters, this
section deals with projecting trends in population, employment and income,
VI-1
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land value, public finance, agricultural activity, mining and manufacturing,
and retail and wholesale trade. These projections, once established, are
then evaluated in terms of possible future influences by the project.
1. Population Change
Recent national rural-urban trends predict future population
growth in areas such as Fulton County. These demographic trends
include both historic trends and more recent factors which are ex-
pected to influence future trends. Past declines in agricultural
and strip-mining employment have been instrumental in causing de-
cline in the overall population of Fulton County and increases in
the populations of Canton, Lewistown and Farmington. Expected
future declines in agricultural and strip-mining employment will
continue to affect the future population size and distribution.
More recent trends, such as the spread of industry to the exurban
fringe of cities, will increase employment opportunity in many rural
areas. Some of this manufacturing employment will encourage in-migra-
tion of skilled labor. Less-skilled labor can come from the existing
rural labor force. Expansion of industry to the west and south of
Peoria can be expected to enhance employment opportunities for the cur-
rent residents of Fulton County and increase the in-migration of skilled
laborers and their families.
A national survey has indicated that many city residents prefer
nearby, or even remote, rural or small town residence to living in a
large city (Beale, 1975). Considerable demographic data have shown that,
since 1970, non-metropolitan areas are not only retaining people but are
also receiving a net migration (Beale, 1975). Factors associated with
migration to rural areas include the growth of state and community colle-
ges and the development of rural recreation and retirement places, as
well as the decentralization of manufacturing. Fulton County offers
both recreational and retirement opportunities such as the Wee-Ma-Tuk
Hills development adjoining the land reclamation project. Community
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colleges, such as the Spoon River Community College near Canton and
adjacent to the project site, often cooperate with local businesses
in providing appropriate skills for new enterprise.
This evidence clearly suggests that the population of Fulton
County can be expected to grow. The major influences on the growth
rate are the development of new manufacturing in Fulton and south-
western Peoria Counties and the accessibility of existing and poten-
tial residential areas to these manufacturing plants. When such
factors affecting growth are considered, the total future popula-
tion of Fulton County is expected to significantly exceed the popu-
lation forecast by the Bureau of the Budget, State of Illinois.
Future population is expected to be increasingly concentrated in
Canton, Lewistown and Farmington. Substantial growth can also be
expected in the northeastern quadrant of the County toward Peoria.
If the project is abandoned in its present state, current MSDGC
employees would have to seek new employment. Manufacturing growth along
the Illinois River should provide employment for many of .the 120 seasonal
employees working on the Prairie Plan project during 1975. Few of these
employees can be expected to relocate their families. Most of the 23
permanent MSDGC employees would be expected to relocate their families
outside of Fulton County.
Reclamation and reuse of the project area to produce crops or live-
stock would increase population only marginally, because it is estimated
that 708 acres of pasture or 360 acres of row crops are needed to sup-
port one family (Schmitz, 1974 and Muehler, 1975). Conservation and
recreation reuse would attract transient tourist populations.
2. Employment and Income
Continued declines in employment can be expected in the agricultural
and mining sectors. These reflect the influence of advanced technology
in replacing labor with capital-intensive methods of production. Such
methods also necessitate increased training of the resident labor force
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or the importation of skilled labor. Even though the number of em-
ployees in agriculture and mining will decline, increasing skills will
enhance average incomes.
Future employment in the service, wholesale and retail sectors
will increasingly concentrate in larger towns. This urban orientation
will be especially true for Canton, but will also influence Lewistown
and Farmington. Employment in these sectors will be negatively influ-
enced by declines in agriculture and mining, but possible small increases
in manufacturing employment (mostly in new, small firms) and increases
in agricultural and mining wages should offset this effect.
Under expected future conditions of higher labor mobility and in-
creasing skills, the median income in Fulton County is expected to
gradually converge with that of the U.S. (U.S. Water Resources Council,
1974). The higher average income and purchasing power in Fulton County
should increase the strength of its service and trade activities. How-
ever, higher local wages combined with low unemployment is not especially
attractive to new manufacturing, although the proximity of underutilized
urban labor markets and higher labor mobility should enable a new manu-
facturer to import labor or attract commuters. Most of the new indus-
tries can be expected to have small labor requirements and to be tied
to the production of metal and machinery.
The land purchased by MSDGC originally supported an estimated 37
full and part-time jobs, mostly held by local residents (Kelly, 1974).
While these jobs were lost after the purchase, the increasing amount of
agricultural land needed to support a farm worker indicates that, with-
out the MSDGC purchases, the land in the project area would have supported
progressively fewer workers. The increased number of jobs created by the
Sanitary District absorbed approximately 120 skilled and unskilled con-
tract laborers who average 6 to 8 months of employment yearly. Most of
the skilled labor came from a multi-county region surrounding and includ-
ing Fulton County, but most unskilled labor originated within Fulton
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County. In 1975, the MSDGC paid approximately $890,000 to their con-
tract employees. A rough estimate of the total salaries for the full-
time staff of 23 is $300,000.
Discontinuing the project would result in income losses amount-
ing to almost $1.2 million, as compared to a total county-wide personal
income (in 1970) of about $100 million. It is difficult to closely
estimate the multiplier effects of the job and income losses. Project
abandonment would marginally affect the viability of a large number
of jobs in local retail, wholesale and service enterprises. A reason-
able multiplier for a rural county such as Fulton County is two (Fern-
strom, 1974). Because many of the currently employed, skilled seasonal
laborers live outside the county, the multiplied losses within the
county would be somewhat less than twice the losses of salaries and
wages.
Although no future date is projected, reclamation and reuse of
the land would eventually displace MSDGC jobs and income, substituting
less intensive economic activities. These probably would be limited
by economic demand and land suitability to combinations of row crop
farming, livestock production, fish and wildlife propagation, and un-
intensive recreation. These uses would generate little on-site em-
ployment and income. Visitors to the regionally attractive conserva-
tion or recreation sites created by the project would add some local
income in tourist-related retail and service enterprises. However,
poor access to the project area from larger population centers, due
to distance and lack of a high-speed link, will limit this potential.
Agricultural reuse, especially grazing, would have a small multiplier
effect on local employment and income. Feedlots could contribute to
the expansion of nearby meat packing firms.
3. Land Values
Future land values in the project area will be governed by the
growth of Canton, competitive position in land speculation, and the eco-
nomic intensity of future land uses. Expected future growth of Canton
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would slightly increase the value of all land within its geographic
sphere of influence. Speculation in coal extraction and marketing
might affect values in the project area should it become economically
feasible to mine the thin seam of coal underlying the strip-mined sur-
face layers.
The availability of competing land at least equally suitable for
development is the major determinant of local land values. Large tracts
of equally available and suitable land in Fulton County should keep land
values low in the project area. Much of the project land is highly un-
suited for building construction. Residential or industrial buildings
may require expensive structural modifications where they are built on
the disturbed unsettled soil of a strip-mined site.
In Land Use Survey of Strip Mines, Fulton County., Illinois, unre-
claimed lands are defined as "areas where no attempt has been made to
reclaim stripped land to a productive use." Using this definition, un-
reclaimed lands have been estimated to be worth $259 per acre or $64 per
acre less than reclaimed strip-mined lands which are used productively (see
Table IV-23, page IV-52). Land reclamation and re-use could, therefore,
theoretically add about $152,450 to the market value of the 2,382 project
acres of strip-mined land scheduled for sludge application (MSDGC Land
Developr.ient Schedule, revised August 1974). For the period of sludge
application, the 2,382 acres of stripped land and 1,000 acres of piece
land (formerly row-cropped), which comprise the current and planned
sludge recycling fields, continue to be worth to the MSDGC the paid value
of $378 an acre (Kelly, 1974).
4. Public Finance
Two major influences are expected to significantly improve the
ability of Fulton County to attract and accommodate future growth, arid
thereby expand local public finance. One is the Central Illinois Light
Company (CILCO) power plant, now nearing completion. Once the CILCO
plant is operational, it is expected to more than double the total tax
base of Fulton County (Sandberg, 1975). The expanded tax base
is expected to yield the local revenues necessary to enhance public
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facilities and services so as to facilitate growth. The other influence
is Federal and State funding of public works, such as the currently pro-
posed road improvements between Peoria and Canton, which are expected to
substantially improve the regional attractiveness of Fulton County.
Contributions of the reclamation project to local public finance
would be minor as compared to the projected huge tax revenues from the
CILCO plant and potential outside public funds for road or other improve-
ments. Discontinuing the project will result in lost county revenues.
In 1973, the MSDGC paid to Fulton County roughly $102,000 in real estate
taxes and $34,000 in personal property taxes, most of which would be Tost
if the project is abandoned and the land is not reused. According to a
statutory requirement, those formerly strip-mined portions of the pro-
ject area would be assessed at rates applicable to their uses prior to
strip mining. Other portions would be assessed as unproductive agricul-
tural land.
Most feasible reuses of the land would produce much smaller pub-
lic revenues than were gained from MSDGC tax payments. Even prime agri-
cultural land in Fulton County (and very little of the project site can
be considered as such) is assessed at only $380 to $570 (1975 estimates,
Fulton County Tax Assessor). Public recreation or conservation uses
would generate no tax revenues.
5. Agricultural Activity
The soils and topography of Fulton County, and of West-
Central Illinois in general, are well suited for agriculture and support
highly productive principal crops such as corn, soybeans, and hay. Fu-
ture productivity of local agriculture will be influenced by the rich
loess soils and the generally level topography, as well as by changing
methods of agricultural production. Average farm size should increase
while farming should continue to become more capital and less labor in-
tensive, causing continued decrease in farm employment and population.
At the same time, trends in farm production will increasingly favor the
use of larger, more level fields and farms.
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The impact of the project on agricultural activity in Fulton
County hinges on the potential productivity of the 2,382 acres of
formerly strip-mined land used for sludge disposal. It is assumed
that sludge application to the 1,000 acres of place land will only
marginally affect the productivity of these presently fertile fields.
Other portions of the project area are only marginally suited to agri-
cultural uses. Calculations based on 1970 data show an average annual
return per acre from farmland in Fulton County of approximately $85
for row crops and $31 for pasture. Feedlots have a considerably higher
return. This suggests an ultimate agricultural value added per year
by the project of approximately $100,000 to $200,000 (1970 dollars)
due to reclamation and agricultural reuse. (1969 data show a county-
wide produce value of $33 million on commercial-sized farms, or farms
with sales of over $2,500 per year.) These estimates of dollar return
should be viewed only as crude indications of the potential lost value
of agricultural productivity should the project be abandoned or full
reclamation not be achieved. The values of agricultural production
fluctuate considerably from year to year.
In its present state, land in the project area could be used pri-
marily for grazing arid row-cropping. However, without reclamation uti-
lizing sewage sludge, any row-crop production on formerly strip-mined
fields would depend on liberal applications of costly chemical fertili-
zers, extensive soil conditioning, and rigorous conservation practices
such as crop rotation. Continued sludge application can be expected
to enhance the nutrient and organic content of the soil considerably,
and this would favor more intensive row-crop farming over the grazing
of livestock.
6. Mining and Manufacturing
The future importance of strip mining in Fulton County may be
determined by three factors:
• Increasing national consumption of coal for power generation
• Vertical integration of major coal consumers
• Large amounts of strippable reserves in Fulton County.
VI-8
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Increasing coal consumption, interacting with air pollution regulations,
land reclamation requirements, and future improvements in sulfur removal
from coal or coal combustion gases, will govern demand for high-sulfur
coal such as exists locally. The vertical integration of major coal
consumers, such as mine ownership and operation by a power company, would
make large amounts of capital available for the continued mining of
Fulton County's coal reserves. Previously unmined, yet strippable coal
covers over 54% of the county (Griffin and Chicoine, 1974).
Clearly, the enormous reserves, the availability of capital for
their extraction and increasing use of high-sulfur coal would exert
great pressure to further exploit this resource. Nevertheless, coal
mining is not likely to be a future land use in the project area itself.
The remaining thin, deeper seams of coal below the project site are not
nearly as well suited for future extraction as are other reserves near-
by.
The major industrial firms in Fulton County are the International
Harvester Company and the Central Illinois Light Company. Other large
industries include J. C. Schaefer Electric, Inc. and Astoria Fibra Steel,
Inc. Much of the influence of industry on local employment is applied
by firms located in southwestern Peoria County. New industries would
be more inclined to locate along the Illinois River than at the project
site where road access is comparatively poor and cheaper water trans-
portation for high bulk, low-value cargo is unavailable. The water
supply at the project site is inadequate to support many industries,
and low local unemployment rates indicate a low labor supply. Industrial
location both along the river and at the site is favored by large land
holdings, low land prices, available railroad transportation, close
proximity to central markets, and the availability of coal.
The provision of internal access roads and the leveling of strip-
mined areas have lowered construction costs for industrial buildings
in the project area. However, wastewater disposal problems and highly
VI-9
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mineralized water supplies discourage industrial development there. Also,
unstable soils add significant costs and uncertainties to the con-
struction of building foundations, hard-surface roads, rail spurs, and
underground pipelines. Thus, the project site is neither physically nor
economically adaptable for future manufacturing uses.
7. RetajJ and Wholesale Trade
Future retail and wholesale activities in and near Canton depend
on the progress of road improvements. Non-neighborhood retail business
and most wholesale activities in Canton could be affected adversely by
increased accessibility of the Peoria market. Service activities should
continue to increase in Fulton County, tempered by the location in Peoria
of most highly specialized services.
Discontinuing the project would cause some temporary decline in the
volume of local trade and services due to lost purchasing power of cur-
rent employees of the MSDGC or its contractors. Reuse of the project
land would affect trade and services only slightly since most expected
reuse would be economically unintensive.
VI-10
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B. LAND USE OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS
The analysis of land use opportunities and constraints focuses upon
the combined effects of socio-economic demand and physical land suitability
on the future reuse of project land. Of course, land reuse is not assured
by successful reclamation; there must be actual economic demand. Once de-
mand by society is established, the available land must be physically cap-
able of accommodating the desired land use.
On the basis of socio-economic projections, this section predicts fu-
ture demands for agricultural, residential, and recreation or conservation
land use. The project area is then evaluated for its physical capability
to support these uses under two alternatives. Suitability is assessed un-
der present conditions, assuming that sludge application is discontinued,
leaving the land partially derelict and partially reclaimed. Then suit-
ability is predicted, assuming the project is continued and the land fully
reclaimed.
Sludge application fields which were formerly strip-mined (about 2,300
acres) would be marginally attractive for added row-crop farming. While the
addition of nutrients and organic matter has been limited so far, the level-
ing of steep slopes, removal of large rock fragments from the surface, and
the installation of erosion controls possibly make these fields adaptable
to row crops.
Cattle grazing is not an economically competitive use in those areas
which were formerly row-cropped. Growing pasture, however, would be a more
likely alternative than row-cropping on the 2,382 acres of formerly strip-
mined land. The major benefits from the project for pasture use are the
leveling of strip-mine spoil and a slight addition of nutrients and organic
materials. Leveling makes it possible to use farm machinery to control tree
growth instead of hand labor which is prohibitive in cost. Small portions
of the project area are well suited for the development of feedlots. Major
on-site capability for feedlots has been provided by systems installed to
control and monitor pollution from stormwater runoff. Such systems are nec-
essary for environmentally sound management of feedlots.
VI-11
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1. Potential for Agricultural Uses
Present and future feasible uses for agricultural land in Fulton
County include row cropping, pasture, feedlots, and forest management.
Available information suggests that the future economic demand for
increased amounts of farmland will be small. Besides shifting toward
larger individual farms and increasing mechanization, local agriculture
is changing its composition. Dairy, winter wheat and poultry produc-
tion have declined, while corn, soybeans, swine, and beef cattle pro-
duction have increased. Increases in beef and pork production have
been encouraged by expanding local and regional meat packing facilities,
notably Oscar Mayer. A trend toward feedlot production can be expected
to be matched by increasing production of corn for feed.
Discontinuing the project and reusing the site would make available
several thousand acres of land for row crops and pasture. Place lands,
where sludge has been applied to former row-crop fields, are highly
suited to renewed row-crop farming. Sewage sludge application
has increased the nutrients and organic material in the soil, although
not markedly at this early stage.
Steep slopes and severe problems of access in unreclaimed strip-
mining areas have caused failure of previous local attempts to manage
timber crops. The steep slopes of the strip-mined portions of the pro-
ject area have been leveled and many access roads have already been built
as a part of the MSDGC project. However, there would be a long time lag
before the first timber harvest, and considerably more local land would
have to be planted with trees to provide enough continuous supply to sup-
port a local lumber products industry.
Continued sludge application followed by reuse of the project site
could have a major beneficial impact during the entire application period.
The project could serve as the principal site in the U.S. for evaluating
the effects of various application methods in different agricultural acti-
vities. The experiment would be highly valuable in assisting other com-
VI-12
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muni ties in designing and managing their sludge disposal systems. Con-
tinued sludge application would also affect the eventual reuse of the pro-
ject site. The future productivity of the formerly strip-mined areas can
be expected to increase significantly with the continued application of
sludge, possibly making row-crop production economically feasible.
On the other hand, the limitations to sludge disposal imposed by
agriculture, such as required storage during winter and restricted appli-
cation during adverse weather and growing seasons, could prove incon-
sistent with the goals of efficient disposal at competitive cost. In
addition, potentially toxic accumulations of organic compounds and trace
elements in soil, crops and livestock from prolonged sludge application
might outweigh the benefits of sewage sludge to agricultural soils, even
in land reclamation projects where such benefits are maximized. (These
offsetting considerations are beyond the scope of this chapter, and are
taken up in Chapters V, VII, and IX.)
2. Potential for Residential Uses
Future demand for housing in Fulton County will primarily reflect
projected population increases and replacements of the existing housing
stock. This housing demand will concentrate in central places (primarily
Canton, Lewistown and Farmington) and in eastern portions of the county
which have easy access to developing industrial employment in Peoria-
Pekin and along the Illinois River. Although the population of Canton
can be expected to increase, the size of this increase will be limited
in two ways. First, employment centers and regional facilities in Peoria
are presently relatively inaccessible to the Canton population. Second,
the trend in suburban expansion of Peoria demonstrates that the outer
ring of this expansion is not likely to reach Canton in the foreseeable
future.
Two independent methods are used to calculate future housing demand.
One is based on population projections; the other is based on trends in
the issuance of building permits. Population projections by the State of
Illinois Bureau of the Budget (1975) predict a countywide population of
VI-13
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42,031 for 1980 and 44,691 for 1990. As explained in Section IV. E,
more reasonable estimates are 44,000 by 1980 and 48,000 by 1990. These
estimates suggest respective increases of approximately 1,600 and 4,600
over U.S. Bureau of Census estimates of 42,400 for July 1974. Assuming
3.5 persons per household, this population increase would add nearly 460
new housing units by 1980 and a total of over 1,300 units by 1990. In
addition, normal replacement of obsolete housing, tornado damage to hous-
ing, and county-wide migration to central places will all contribute to the
demand for new units. Considering all factors, the total number of new
units might exceed 600 by 1980 and 2,000 by 1990.
Building permit data substantiate these projections. Data from 1972
to 1975 show that building permits were issued for an average of 98 single-
family homes and 48 mobile homes each year. The average number of building
permits issued per month significantly increased from 1972 to 1975. Ex-
trapolating the average of 146 new units per year indicates 584 by 1980
and 2,044 by 1990.
There are major constraints to residential uses in the project area.
These relate primarily to water quality and the problems of building on
unconsolidated materials. Local groundwater is too highly mineralized
to be suitable for drinking water. The naturally clear, deep blue local
lakes are attractive to residential development. However, this clarity
results from deficiencies of nutrients necessary to support algal growth.
Experience in Wee-Ma-Tuk Hills demonstrates that even well-maintained
aerobic septic systems with a sand filter and chlorinated discharge cause
nutrient over-enrichment and consequent aesthetic degradation of the lakes.
These sytems are the most feasible for the project area, yet they cost
$1,500 more than a conventional anaerobic septic system (Muehler, 1975).
Building on the unconsolidated materials of strip-mine spoil adds
other premium costs to home building. Settling problems force homes to
be built on reinforced slabs that average $1,000 in cost above conventional
foundations (Muehler, 1975). Potential settling also adds significantly
VI-14
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to the cost of providing and maintaining pipelines and hard-surface
roads. Despite such serious constraints, improvements made by the
MSDGC to the formerly strip-mined portions of the project site have
increased its suitability for residential use. These improvements
do not, however, counter-balance the constraints which, together with
the availability of numerous competing home sites throughout the
county, make future residential development highly unlikely.
3. Potential for Recreation and Conservation Uses
Several factors directly concerning recreation are of major im-
portance in an evaluation of impacts resulting under the action al-
ternatives:
• Effects of generally poor accessibility on the use of
regionally-oriented facilities
• Availability of areas nearby with recreation potential
• Deficiencies in locally-oriented recreation.
Poor accessibility will be a major limitation on the number of visitors
to a recreation facility in the project area. Poor road conditions com-
pound the difficulty in getting to the project site from interstate
highways or major population centers. Of course, poor accessibility
hinders but does not preclude large numbers of travelers. This is evi-
denced by more than 100,000 visitors last year to Dickson Mounds State
Park and 100,000 visitors attending the four-day Spoon River Drive Fall
Festival (Bordner, 1975; Shields, 1975).
The attractiveness of a regional recreation facility in the pro-
ject area would be enhanced by the diverse attractions in nearby Spoon
River Valley, along the Illinois River, at Dickson Mounds State Park,
and in numerous formerly strip-mined areas. They are often used for
hunting, fishing, camping, and driving off-the-road vehicles such as
trailbikes and snowmobiles.
vi-15
-------
Probable recreation and conservation uses in the project area in-
clude hunting, fishing, camping, native prairie and wildlife and an out-
door ecology laboratory. The MSDGC's past and future alterations of the
project site can be expected to exert important influences upon each of
these activities. Continued sludge application would add organic material
and mineral nutrients in quantities sufficient for the growth of a greater
diversity of plant species than are normally found in unreclaimed strip-
mined areas. Increased plant diversity generally leads to increased di-
versity in wildlife.
Former strip mines which are now sludge recycling fields have con-
siderably increased capability for intensive or extensive recreation use.
In particular, leveling steep slopes and removing surface rocks have de-
creased site limitations for playgrounds, campsites, recreation building
sites, roads and trails. On the other hand, surficial materials are too
clayey for high-traffic uses and for the assimilation of sanitary wastes.
Continued use of the project area for sludge disposal with eventual
release of sites for recreation-conservation uses would have a major effect
only in formerly strip-mined fields. There, the considerable enrichment
of the nutrient and organic content of the soil can be expected to enhance
the biomass of hunting, fishing and prairie conservation areas.
VI-16
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beale, Calvin, "National Rural Urban Trends," The Futurist. September 1975.
Bardner, M., Telephone Interview, November 1975.
Fernstrom, J. R., Bringing in the Sheaves (unpublished), 1974.
Fulton County Tax Accessor1s Office, Personal Visit, October 1975.
Fulton County Planning Department and Associated Planners, Land Use Survey
of Strip Mines in Fulton County, Illinois, 1973.
Griffin, D. W. and D. L. Chicoine, West-Central Illinois: A Regional Profile,
1974.
Kelly, George, Comprehensive Report on the Fulton County Project, revised
November 1974.
Illinois Bureau of the Budget, Illinois Population Projections, 1975.
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago, Land Development Schedule,
Fulton County, Illinois, as revised August 1974.
Muehler, Keith (Fulton County Soil Conservationist), Personal Interview, Octo-
ber 1975.
Sandberg, Charles (Fulton County Planner), Personal Interview, October 1975.
Schmitz, Peter, Economic Impact Analysis of Strip Mining for Coal, Knox and
Fulton Counties, Illinois, 1974.
Shields, Wayne (Dickson Mounds State Park), Telephone Interview, December 1975.
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Population Estimates, Series P-26, No. 128 (revised),
August 1975.
U.S. Water Resources Council, 1972 PEERS Projections. Series E, April 1974.
VI-17
-------
VII. SIGNIFICANT ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF THE PROJECT
The purpose of this chapter is to assess the significant environmental
effects associated with the project and to recommend mitigative or control
measures. The chapter begins with a description of the characteristics of
sewage sludge being applied to Fulton County fields. Sludge composition,
by itself, suggests the potential for various environmental effects. The
discussion of potential effects begins with the theoretical considerations
in odor emission and detection, followed by the potential for airborne dis-
persal of odorants originating in the storage basins and those associated
with alternative application methods. Potential contamination of ground
and surface waters is assessed by comparing present water quality with the
background conditions reported earlier. Possible soil contamination is
evaluated next, and the chapter concludes with a description of noise ef-
fects associated with project operations. These categories of environ-
mental impact are addressed in terms of general theoretical considerations,
measurement techniques, potential and actual impacts, and measures to either
prevent these impacts from occurring or to mitigate their unavoidable adverse
effects.
A. QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF APPLIED SLUDGE
General sludge characteristics and environmental problems associated
with sludge application are presented in Chapter II. However, the assess-
ment of environmental impacts resulting from this particular project re-
quires a description of the characteristics of sludge being spread on Ful-
ton County fields. This section describes the sludge used in this project
in terms of quality and quantity and concludes with a brief discussion of
methods to control the quality of sludge before it is applied.
1. Sludge Quality
There are three types of sludges being shipped to Fulton
County: sludge drawn from heated anaerobic digesters at the West-
Southwest (WSW) treatment plant of the MSDGC; sludge taken from
the Lawndale lagoons, except in winter when icing prevents removal;
and mixtures of the two. Daily composite samples of sludge have
VII-1
-------
been taken from the WSW plant loading dock and the Mannheim Road
Terminal loading dock next to the Lawndale lagoons. The data on
total solids, volatile solids and acids, and alkalinity are ana-
lyzed and plotted on logarithm-probability paper in Figures VII-1
through VII-4 for sludge originating from Lawndale lagoons and
Figures VII-5 through VII-8 for sludge from the WSW plant diges-
ters. Sludge drawn from WSW digesters is occasionally used to di-
lute sludge from Lawndale lagoons to improve pumping efficiency.
Mixtures of plant and lagoon sludges are regarded as sludge from
Lawndale since there are no data reflecting the mixture. In these
figures, the frequencies of sludge constituent concentrations, such
as total solids, volatile solids, volatile acids, or alkalinity,
are given in percent. For example, if the frequency of occurrence
of 4% total solids is 36%, then for 36% of the time the monitored
sludge has a total solids concentration equal to or less than 4%.
In other words, the sludge has total solids concentrations greater
than 4% for 64% of the time.
If the plot assumes a straight line on logarithmic paper, the
time-distribution of a sludge quality parameter is said to be log-
arithmically normal. Logarithmic normality of a data group can be
analytically represented by two numbers: geometric mean and geo-
metric standard deviation. The geometric mean represents the level
of a sludge quality parameter above or below which the frequency of
occurrence is 50%. Geometric standard deviation represents the
spread of data points. A small geometric standard deviation means
that all reported data values are close to the geometric mean value,
or that sludge quality is relatively uniform. The representative-
ness of the geometric mean and geometric standard deviation for a
group of sludge quality data depends upon the number of observations
and the linearity of the log-probability plotting.
A rigorous mathematical analysis of available sludge quality data
by skewed log-normal functions or other distribution functions was not
attempted. Instead, Figures VII-1 through VII-8 show the geometric
VII-2
-------
(O
+->
O
10
9
8
7
Total Solids
.5 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Occurrence of Concentrations of Total Solids
Figure Vli-1.
95 98 99 99.5
the Stated Value (%)
Total Solids Concentration in Sludge from the
Lawndale Lagoons (MSDGC, 1972a. through 1975g;
Enviro Control Inc., 1975)
100
90
80
70
60
s 50
40
T3
O
oo
O)
ro
'o
30
20
10
Volatile Solids
.512 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Occurrence of Concentration of Volatile Solids
95 98 99 99.5
^ the Stated Value (%}
Figure VII-?.
Volatile Solids Concentrations in Sludge from
the Lawndale Lagoons (MSDGC, 1972a through'1975g;
Enviro Control Inc., 1975)
VII-3
-------
Volatile Acids
rO
O
QJ
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to
CO
fC
co
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200
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
12 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 90
Occurrence of Concentrations of Volatile Acids ^ the Stated Value (%)
Figure VII-3.
Volatile Acids Concentrations in Sludge from
the Lawndale Lagoons (MSDGC, 1972a through
1975g; Enviro Control Inc., 1975)
10,000
9,000
8,000
O
O
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5,
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000
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3,000
= 2,000
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Alkalinity
1,000 12 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99
Occurrence of Concentrations of Alkalinity ^ the Stated Value (%)
Figure VI1-4. Alkalinity Concentrations in Sludge from the
Lawndale Lagoons (MSDGC, 1972a through
1975g-3 Enviro Control Inc., 1975)
VII-4
-------
Total Solids
to
•o
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10
9
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6
5
4
3
1
•2 .5 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.5 99.8
Occurrence of Concentrations of Total Solids ^ the Stated Value (%)
Figure VI1-5. Total Solids Concentrations in Sludge from the WSW Plant
(MSDGC, 1972a through 1975g; Enviro Control Inc., 1975)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
Total Volatile Solids
r: 30
20
10
.2.512 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.5 99.8
Occurrence of Concentrations of Total Volatile Solids
-------
200
Volatile Acids
o
re
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ro
CD
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-------
mean, geometric standard deviation, and number of observations, pro-
viding a genera] picture of the data spread or fluctuation. The plot-
tings for volatile ac4ds and alkalinity of sludges from both the WSW
plant and Lawndale lagoons approximate two straight segments with a
break point. Probably this is attributable to digester performance
or to the different ages of sludge in the lagoons.
Properly digested sludge generally has high alkalinity and low
volatile acids. Total solids and total volatile solids are less sen-
sitive sludge quality indicators than are volatile acids or alkalinity.
Sludge quality was compared with applicable sludge quality standards
specified in the operating permit issued to the MSDGC. The applicable
standards and the results of the comparative study are summarized in
Table VII-1. In addition to the four parameters cited above, the pH
value is included. Based on the length of the monitoring period, the
number of samples, and the applicable standards, the number of viola-
tions permitted was calculated and indicated in Table VII-1. Compliance
of sludge quality with applicable standards is determined by comparing
the actual number of violations with the permissible number.
Sludge originating from the Lawndale lagoons has a generally higher
quality than sludge from the WSW plant digesters, which is attributable
to the aging of sludge.in the lagoons. Sludge from the lagoons occas-
ionally exceeds the standard for total alkalinity. Sludge drawn from
the digesters is sometimes substandard in terms of total volatile solids,
alkalinity, and/or pH. Violation frequencies are summarized below in
Table VII-2.
Table VII-2. Compliance of Sludge Quality with Applicable Standards
As of May 1975 (MSDGC, 1972a through 1975g; Enviro Control,
Inc., 1976)
Total
Volatile Solids Volatile Acids Alkalinity pH
Sludge from
Lawndale Lagoons
Sludge from
WSW Plant
Total
compliance
Violated 3.8%
of the time
Total
compliance
Total
compliance
Violated 9.5%
of the time
Violated 1.4%
of the time
Total
compliance
Violated 1.3%
of the time
VII-7
-------
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VII-8
-------
Sludge applied to the project fields is sampled at pumping sta-
tions, and its characteristics are summarized in Table VII-3. Be-
cause there are no standards designated for sludge applied to the
fields, no comparative study was undertaken. In 1973, the total sol-
ids content of sludge applied to the fields in Fulton County ranged
from 0.18 to 0.71%, which resembles the content of supernatant in
the sludge holding basins. It follows, therefore, that supernatant
was not mixed with the bottom sludge in the holding basins, and
only the supernatant was applied to the fields in 1973. This is
further supported by the consistently high pH values and low concen-
trations of total phosphorus, Kjeldahl nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen,
cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury and zinc which are associ-
ated with sludge particles.
2. Sludge Routes and Quantities
Sludges may originate from the WSW treatment plant or from the
Lawndale lagoons, or combination from the two. These sludges are
barged to the Liverpool dock and pumped to the four holding basins.
A portion of the supernatant in the holding basins is occasionally
barged back to either the WSW plant or to the Chicago Lawndale la-
goons. During application seasons, sludge is pumped to various
fields by a distribution system (see Figure VII-9 below).
Sludge from WSW plant,
or Lawndale lagoons, or
combination of both, F^
r
Holding basins,
(capacity = 8 million
\cubic yards)
Supernatant return
to either WSW plant
or Lawndale lagoons, Fr
Sludge Application Fields
Sludge Applied
to Fields, Ff
Figure VII-9. Flow Diagram of Sludge
VII-9
-------
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The amounts of barged sludge and supernatant are summarized in
Table VII-4. The total sludge shipped to the holding basins amounted
to 1,397.5 million gallons or 5.7 million net tons from April 1972 to
May 1975. Supernatant return totaled 477.4 million gallons or 1.98
million wet tons during the same period. Based on the average total
solids concentrations (see Table VII-3, page VII-10) and total wet tons
of sludge applied to the project fields, the cumulative fluid volume
of sludge applied is estimated to ba 244.8 million gallons through
an application period of 13 months, beginning in April 1972 and end-
ing in May 1975.
The average sludge storage time in the holding basins can be es-
timated by a number of methods. Because the holding basins were never
used at full capacity, a conservative method for estimating the aver-
age storage time is as follows:
Fb - Fr (1397.5-477.4) x IP6 gal
*« = ~ff~~ = (244.8 x 106 gal/13 months) = 49 months
Where t$ = average storage time
Fb = sludge barged to the holding basins
Fr = supernatant returned to Chicago
and Ff = sludge applied to fields
This estimation is considered to be conservative because it does not
account for loss of sludge water by evaporation. A storage time of
49 months is considerably long, and is a result of low sludge applica-
tion rates during the development stages of the project
The application rate was originally proposed to be 70 dry tons
per acre per year in the first year and taper down to 20 dt/acre/year
in the fifth year of operations (Dalton and Murphy, 1973). These
rates correspond to 726.5 and 207.6 million gallons of sludge, based
on a 4% total solids content, applied to Fields #1 through #38, hav-
ing a total area of 1,731.6 acres. Accordingly, the mean storage
VII-11
-------
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VII-12
-------
times would have been 15.2 and 53.2 months, respectively. Because it
is desirable to provide at least a 6-month storage or retention time,
the ultimate acreage application of fields that should be developed
can be estimated as follows:
Maximum Acreage = Total Volume of Holding Basins
3 Sludge Application per 6 Months
Based on a 20 dt/acre/year application rate and a 4% solids content,
the ultimate acreage of application fields would be approximately
26,960.
Some substandard sludge is known to have been shipped to the pro-
ject site. Subsequent environmental effects resulting from transport-
ing substandard sludge cannot be assessed because sludge actually ap-
plied may have very different characteristics, depending on time in
storage, mixing with supernatant, and so forth. However, any air pol-
lution from sludge odors and aerosolization and contamination of sur-
face water, groundwater and soil from sludge application would be com-
plicated and abetted by continued shipment of subgrade sludge. As for
the quality of applied sludge, it is important to bear in mind that any
adverse environmental effects estimated from previous sludge applica-
tions may substantially understate their potential because the pollutant
concentrations in sludge applied during the past developmental period
have been atypically low. Also, average retention time in the hold-
ing basins has been much longer than planned.
A procedure must be implemented to ensure that only good
quality sludge is shipped to Fulton County. Substandard sludge
must be stored prior to shipment until its quality conforms with
required standards. The capacity of the holding basins provides
for a sufficiently long storage time, which should guarantee the
destruction of pathogens in the sludge, but this does not alle-
viate the potential for odor problems, especially those associa-
ted with substandard sludge. Therefore, prolonged storage of
sludge in the Lawndale lagoons prior to shipment to Fulton County
is recommended as a mitigative measure.
VII-13
-------
B. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN ODOR EMISSION
Odor is defined as the sensation of smell perceived as a result of ol-
factory stimulation by an odorant. Odorants range from inorganic gases
and vapors to the full spectrum of organic compounds. Many malodorous sub-
stances, including mercaptans, hydrogen sulfides, sulfides, organic sulfur
homologues, ammonia, decayed bacteria, and partially oxidized complex or-
ganics or amines have been identified in sludge from anaerobic digesters.
These odorants are generated by microbiological activity in the sludge.
Odor can be described by quality and intensity. The problems encountered
in odor assessment for this study include:
• Mechanisms of odor generation
• Spectra of odorants from digested sludge
• Sources of odor emission
t Factors of odor emission strength such as sludge quality
and extent of treatment
• Accuracy of odor identification and measurement.
Theoretical considerations in odor emission and detection are pre-
sented in this section to facilitate an understanding and subsequent as-
sessment of the odor potential of sludge holding basins and of alternative
sludge application methods at the project site.
1. Aerosolization and Volatilization
Emission of odor from liquid sludge occurs by aerosolization and
volatilization. Volatilization or evaporation of chemical substances
in water is influenced by air temperature and humidity, wind speed,
and turbulence in the water body. The rate of evaporation depends
upon the mass transfer rate of the chemical species in either the
fluids or liquid phase. For low-solubility gases such as alkanes
or mercury, the evaporation rate is liquid phase controlled; that is,
the chemical species encounters more resistance in escaping from the
VII-14
-------
liquid phase than from entering the gaseous phase. The evaporation
rate of water soluble gases such as sulfur dioxide is vapor phase
controlled.
Evaporation potential of a compound is indicated by half-life.
Evaporative half-life is defined as the time required for evaporation
to reduce the bulk concentration of a dissolved compound to half of
its original concentration. The term is always accompanied by the
depth of the water body because of possible stratification. Each
stratum has a different mixing or turbulence regime. The solubility,
t
vapor pressure, and half-life of some contaminants in a water body
with a depth of one meter are given below in Table VII-5. The table
shows that most of these compounds evaporate rapidly from solution.
Table VII-5.
Solubility, Vapor Pressure and Evaporative Half-Life
of Chemicals in Aqueous Solution at 25°C (Mackay and
Leinonen, 1975)
Compound
n-Octane
Benzene
Toluene
o-Xylene
Biphenyl
DDT
Aldrin
Mercury
Solubility
(mg/1 )
0.66
1,780
515
175
7.48
1.2 x 10"-3
0.2
3 x 10"^
Vapor Pressure
(mm Hg)
14.1
95.2
28.4
6.6
0.057
1 x 10'7
6 x 10'6
1.3 x lO'3
Ha If -Life
(hrs, 1m depth)
5.55
4.81
5.18
5.61
7.52
73.9
185
7.53
When the water body is turbulent with rapid exchange of prop-
erties between the surface layer and the bulk, or during white-capping
on a lake or ocean, the evaporation rate may increase. Low relative
humidity and high temperature encourage evaporation, and vice versa.
However, the influence of these factors on the evaporation of low-
solubility chemicals is limited, because the mass transfer rates and
VII-15
-------
aqueous solubilities of these substances are relatively insensitive
to temperature. The effects of temperature on the vapor pressures
of highly soluble substances, such as sulfur dioxide,can significantly
influence the evaporation rate (Mackay and Leinonen, 1975). The ef-
fect of temperature on the evaporation of substances of intermediate
solubility such as hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, or ammonia, is moder-
ate (Fair, Geyer, and Morris, 1954).
When sewage sludge is stored in holding basins, volatilization
may be the dominant mechanism for the release of odor-producing sub-
stances, unless white-capping occurs. White caps signify the pre-
sence of air bubbles collapsing at the water surface, generating min-
ute airborne water droplets known as liquid aerosols. Evaporation
from liquid aerosols can be significantly higher than evaporation from
a plane water surface or a water body of equalized mass. This is be-
cause aerosolization increases the amount of surface area exposed to
the atmosphere.
As aerosols decrease in size, vapor pressure increases at the
droplet surface, further encouraging evaporation. However, evapora-
tion increases the salt concentration of a liquid aerosol, decreasing
vapor pressure and correspondingly decreasing evaporation rates (Squire,
1951). In addition, the ventilation effects around a liquid aerosol,
as determined by terminal settling velocity, aerosol size, and inter-
nal circulation currents, can influence evaporation to a minor extent
(Fletcher, 1962; Hanna, 1974).
2. Ammonia and Other Emission Sources
Odor emissions from sludge applied to soil may occur by mechan-
isms other than aerosolization and volatilization. For example, am-
monia may undergo a series of physical, chemical, and biological reac-
tions after sludge is sprayed on or incorporated into soil. Ammonia
nitrogen may be adsorbed in the lattices of clay particles or remain
freely soluble in the soil solution. The adsorbed ammonia may be
VII-16
-------
fixed with clay molecules or held by cation exchange sites on clay
particles, and is readily exchangeable with other anions in the soil.
Water soluble ammonia also remains in the soil. The ammonia lost
from the soil is either volatilized as gaseous ammonia or released
as nitrogen gas by microbial nitrification and denitrification reac-
tions. The extent of these reactions and the distribution of ammonia
in the soil, liquid, or gaseous phases depends on:
t Sludge quality and quantity
• Season of sludge application
• Decomposition rate of sludge organic matter
• Fertility of the spoil material
• Soil moisture content
• Soil pH and clay mineralogy
• Availability of air in the soil
• Vegetative cover
• Rainfall and temperature
t Miscellaneous meteorological factors.
The MSDGC conducted a study of ammonia volatilization from a
sludge-treated calcareous mine spoil. The study revealed that at
25°C, more than 43% of the ammonia nitrogen added to the soil vola-
tilizes into the atmosphere one week after sludge application. This
value represented nearly the total amount of nitrogen that would be
volatilized (MSDGC, 1974). This phenomenon is rather independent of
the sludge application rate. The application rates tested in the
study were zero, 10, 20, and 40 dry tons of sludge per acre of spoil
land. Based on an ammonia nitrogen content of 1,540 milligrams per
liter and a sludge application rate of 40 dry tons per acre, approxi-
mately 768 pounds per acre of ammonia nitrogen were volatilized, 398
pounds of ammonia nitrogen were fixed by clay minerals, and 282 pounds
were in water soluble and exchangeable form available for plant nutri-
tion (MSDGC, 1974). These figures ignore mineralization of organic
nitrogen and immobilization of inorganic nitrogen by bacteria.
VII-17
-------
It must be noted that many chemicals or sludge constituents
may be responsible for odor generation. These may undergo reac-
tions similar to those for ammonia nitrogen or they may react dif-
ferently. For example, hydrogen sulfide may be volatilized, oxi-
dized to sulfate by chemical or biological reactions, precipitated
by cations to form less soluble sulfide compounds, converted to other
complex compounds, or assimilated by bacteria for biomass synthesis.
The emission of a given malodorant is therefore the consequence of
a complicated chemical and microbiological system for which no ac-
curate method of quantification or model is as yet available.
The odor emission potential of sludge is determined, in part,
by sludge characteristics, which, in turn, are partially determined
by the type and extent of previous sludge treatment. As a general
rule, fresh sludge produces more odor than digested sludge, and,
odor associated with aerobically digested sludge is less of a prob-
lem than that with anaerobical ly digested sludge. Properly stabil=-
ized sludge should have a pH value higher than neutral, high alka-
linity, and low levels of volatile solids and acids.
3. Identification and Measurement of Odor
Identification and measurement of industrial odors have been
studied for several decades, but studies of odors from municipal
wastewater and sludge are quite limited. The two types of odor mea-
surements are source and ambient measurements. Generally, higher
odor concentrations are encountered at the source than at a distance
downwind. Source measurement procedures are therefore different from
those for ambient measurement. However, the means of detecting or
measuring odor in either instance are similar. Odor is detected and
rated by the use of either human smell or mechanical instruments.
a. Sensory identification - The human nose is highly sensitive
to many odors at extremely low concentrations, but is incapable
of accurate, reproducible odor determinations. Human smell is
VII-18
-------
affected by physiological factors such as age and health of the
subject. Measurement techniques can be utilized to improve the
reliability of sensory detection; the most common technique is
the mixing or dilution method. An odor sample is diluted with
pure air before being administered to a test panel of human sub-
jects. Usually a series of diluted samples is prepared and given
to the panel in descending order of dilution. Pure air is ad-
ministered between each sample to sensitize the panel and to pre-
vent olfactory fatigue. The odor threshold is defined as the con-
centration below which human smell cannot differentiate the sample
from pure air. Table VI1-6 presents the odor threshold and odor
description for some chemicals.
The strength of an odor can conveniently be expressed in
terms of its threshold value. There is the so-called odor unit,
which is defined as the volumetric ratio of clean or odor-free
air necessary to dilute an odor sample, so that 50% of the test
panel cannot detect the odor (ASTM, D1391-57). For example, if
an odor has strength of 1,000 odor units, it will take 1,000 cubic
feet of pure air to dilute one cubic foot of the odorant so that
50% of the subjects will detect odor in the mixture. Odor sam-
ples can be taken by syringe, bag, or gas containers with the
aid of sampling techniques used for air quality studies. The
purity of odor substances, design of odor test facilities, me-
thods of sampling and threshold determinations may all influence
sensory detection of odor.
b. Chemical detection - More objective methods of odor eval-
uation have been attempted for years. These include wet chemis-
try, colorimetry, chromatography, and, recently, mass spectro-
metry. Wet chemical or colorimetric methods are chemical speci-
fic and suitable for single odorants and high odor concentra-
tions. These methods have been used successfully for^some odor-
producing substances and sometimes correlate with the subjective
findings of an odor test panel, but are far from satisfactory
when multiple odorants coexist.
VII-19
-------
Table VII-6. Odor Thresholds and Descriptions (Leonardos, et al., 1969}
Chemical
Acetaldehyde
Acetic acid
Acetone
Amine, dimethyl
Amine, trimethyl
Ammonia
Benzene
Butyric acid
Carbon disulfide
Chlorine
Diphenyl sulfide
Ethyl mercaptan
Hydrogen sulfide gas
Methanol
Methyl mercaptan
Nitrobenzene
Phenol
Pyridine
Toluene (from coke)
Odor Threshold (ppm)
0.21
1.0
100.0
0.047
0.00021
46.8
4.68
0.001
0.21
0.314
0.0047
0.001
0.00047
100.0
0.0021
0.0047
0.047
0.021
4.68
Odor Description
Green sweet
Sour
Chemical sweet, pungent
Fishy
Fishy, pungent
Pungent
Solvent
Sour
Vegetable sulfide
Bleach, pungent
Burnt rubbery
Earthy, sulfidy
Eggy sulfide
Sweet
Sulfidy, pungent
Shoe polish, pungent
Medicinal
Burnt, pungent
Floral, pungent, solventy
VII-20
-------
Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry offer promising
potential for odor identification and quantification because of
their sensitivity to low chemical concentrations, reproducibility,
and ability to verify and quantify multiple odorant mixtures. In
applying these methods, a sample is drawn through a tube and odor-
ants are "fixed" or "frozen" by coolants such as liquid nitrogen.
The sample is brought to the laboratory and subjected to a pro-
grammed heating sequence. The release of chemicals from the sam-
ple are temperature dependent and thus follow the pre-programmed
sequence. Separation of the chemicals is achieved by the succes-
sive release and passage of a given chemical through the gas chro-
matrograph or mass spectrometer, which identifies.:and quantifies
the chemical. These two methods have the drawback of being unable
to describe the composite quality of multi-odorants.
The accuracy and reproducibility of odor measurements rely
also upon field conditions such as source characteristics and mete-
orological factors. Source strength is often neither constant in
time nor uniform in space. The transient nature of an odor source
makes the assessment of odor potential difficult, even though source
strength can be determined accurately at a given moment and at a
fixed receptor. Furthermore, the determination of long-term emis-
sion strength requires numerous short-term observations.
c. Ambient measurement - Upon leaving the source, physical and
chemical atmospheric processes reduce the concentration of odor-
ants by dilution, dispersion, and conversion. The dispersion of
odorants is governed primarily by thermal and mechanical turbu-
lence in the atmosphere, which are, in turn, determined by atmos-
pheric stability, solar insolation or cloud cover, wind vectors,
and other meterological parameters. Odor problems are primarily
of local rather than regional concern. Therefore, topographical
modification of regional meterological phenomena has a significant
influence upon local transport and dispersion of odorants. Chan-
nelization of wind by local terrain and differential heating by
land and water are the most significant topographical influences.
VII-21
-------
Receptors downwind from a constant-strength odor source will
detect fluctuations in odor concentration resulting from wind shift
and atmospheric turbulence. Consequently, short-term concentrations
are always higher than long-term averages. For a period of more
than 30 minutes, the downwind odor concentration usually forms a
cross-wind profile which peaks directly downwind from the source,
and decreases in both the downwind and cross-wind directions as
a greater volume of clean air is available for dilution with in-
creasing distance.
To predict the worst and the most probable concentrations and
their occurring frequencies at a given location, daytime and night-
time observations are necessary. If seasonal variations are to be
established, observations must be conducted over several seasons
or years. Along with ambient measurements, source characteristics
and meteorological parameters must be observed in order to corre-
late ambient odor levels with their influencing factors. However,
for a rough terrain, the wind field is drastically modified by ter-
rain features, and measurements taken at a hillside and at the bottom
of a valley will differ because of wind chanelling, trapping, or lee
wake effects. The location of a sampling station can therefore be
crucial.
In view of the major requirements for successful odor measure-
ment, problems and uncertainties can be anticipated. For example,
daytime observations must not be applied to a nighttime situation,
because daytime and nighttime emission characteristics and atmos-
pheric conditions are quite different. For instance, radiational
inversions occur more freuqently at night. Also, short-term obser-
vations cannot form the basis for long-term projections.
Because the synergistic and antagonistic phenomena of many co-
existing odorants are not understood, measurement of individual odor-
ants cannot be integrated to render a composite assessment that will
correlate with human response. Because of limitations on instrument
accuracy and measurement reproducibility, and because of constraints
of time, resources and field conditions, odor assessments are gen-
erally non-quantitative.
VII-22
-------
C- ODOR POTENTIAL OF SLUDGE HGLCING BASINS
Odor monitoring conducted at the project site includes odor verification
by the Midwest Research Institute and atmospheric ammonia monitoring at the
holding basins by the MSDGC. These monitoring programs are discussed in the
following section, along with an estimate of the atmospheric dilution capa-
city around the sludge holding basins. Potential odor impacts and measures
to mitigate adverse effects of odor dispersion are presented at the conclu-
sion.
1. Odor Complaint Data
The odor verification program undertaken by the Midwest Research
Institute (MRI) under contract with the Fulton County Health Department
was designed to pinpoint the source of an odor after a citizen complaint
arose. Health Department personnel sent air samples from the complaint
site to MRI for analysis by gas chromatography. This technique pro-
duces a chart containing a series of peaks, each peak corresponding to
an individual chemical compound in the sample. The chart of the sam-
ple from the complaint site was compared with those of samples collec-
ted at possible odor sources in the project area. These sources in-
cluded the MSDGC sludge holding basins, the sludge spraying operation
on MSDGC property, the Canton sewage treatment plant, a cattle feedlot,
and the gob piles arid septic tanks common to the area.
The chromatographic analysis neither quantified odor intensity
nor identified the chemical components of the samples. A series of
"finger print" matchings was proposed to identify the responsible odor
source. This approach was proven to be unsatisfactory in correlating
odor complaints with any of the individual odor sources sampled. From
the matching analysis of eight odor complaints, it was concluded that
the probability of the odor originating from MSDGC sources was 0.71.
Figure VII-10 delineates the odor complaint sites and the wind
direction and velocity at the time the complaints were made. The sites
of the complaints indicate that the odors originated from the vicinity
of the MSDGC property.
VII-23
-------
,CANTON
"
; 11^^%
II HI j^Cj
jli^i... j-i"-1 u"Ji;-^%
I i <$^ ':
ILL 9
N
r
' I .eip>)0l t iverpool
i«fp 1 wsp E
• Odor Complaint Site
Upwind Direction
5
. . I
10
I
15
i
Wind Speed - MPH
fD
l/i
ro
OJ
-5
o
(,1
f-f
n-
c
ro
VII-24
-------
2. Atmospheric Ammonia Data
MSDGC personnel have been measuring atmospheric ammonia concentra-
tions near the sludge holding basins since August 1973 (MSDGC, 1972a
through 1975g). Samples are collected at the berm on the downwind side
of the basins. Surface wind speed and direction, air temperature, and
dew point are noted during the sampling period. The corresponding rela-
tive humidity can be calculated from the measured air temperature and
dew point. (A sample data sheet is shown in Table III-5, page 111-29.)
The ammonia study alone cannot satisfactorily disclose the magni-
tude of odor problems. This is supported by the fact that an earthy
smell rather than a pungent ammonia odor was noticed during a field trip
within the project property. Other odorants could therefore be present.
The study of atmospheric ammonia does, however, help to understand the
mechanisms of odor generation and odor impacts.
a. Influence of air temperature and humidity - As previously dis-
cussed, chemicals are liberated from a liquid solution by volatili-
zation and aerosolization. The volatilization rate of ammonia de-
pends on the aqueous ammonia concentration in the bulk water body,
its atmospheric vapor pressure, and ambient temperature. Stratifi-
cation occurring as a result of solid-liquid separation is expected
to be very stable to 5 meters below the water surface of the holding
basins (shown in Figure III-4, page III-6). The exchange of chemi-
cals and heat between the bottom sediments and the supernatant are
expected to be insignificant. Therefore, the volatilization rate
in the liquid phase depends primarily on the ammonia concentration
in the supernatant, which remains quite constant.
To examine the influence of ambient air temperature on ammonia
liberation from the sludge holding basins, atmospheric ammonia con-
centrations are plotted against air temperature in Figure VII-11.
Disregarding wind speed and atmospheric humidity, which may affect
VII-25
-------
LT>
i.
^^:
i>
+
- >
.
K. o+ c
j\* '
< ^N^ 0
<>Nfl 0,.X
* X t *
>^
o
0
a
•a
06 O
Q> b- {>
.4_»
-»—r
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en
o
I t I
It I I I I I
(UJdd)
BLUOLLIII1V
VII-26
-------
the volatilization rate, atmospheric ammonia concentration corre-
lates well with ambient air temperature. Using the least square
method with 235 observations, the best-fit straight line correla-
tion yields a slope of 0.06 ppm per degree (°C), meaning that a
10°C temperature increase causes an increase of 0.6 ppm in source
ammonia concentration at the sludge holding basins. A logarithmic
correlation may generalize this positive correlation more satis-
factorily without risking negative ammonia values in low tempera-
ture ranges. The logarithmic correlation may be approximated by
the dashed curve in Figure VII-11 (page VII-26).
Apparently the vertical spreading of data points for a given
air temperature in Figure VII-11 results, at least partially, from
humidity variation. Disregarding the wind effects on atmospheric
ammonia, the relationship between atmospheric ammonia and air tem-
perature for an increment of relative humidity was analyzed. The
relative humidity intervals used for analysis are 60-70, 71-80,
84-90, arid 90-100%. The slope of correlation ranges from 0.066
to 0.088 ppm/°C with the steepest slope associated with the lowest
humidity and vice versa, as expected. This confirms that low rela-
tive humidity encourages evaporation or volatilization of ammonia
for a given temperature increment.
b. Influence of wind speed and direction - To demonstrate the
effect of wind on ammonia volatilization and aerosolization, at-
mospheric ammonia concentration was plotted against air tempera-
ture for seven wind speed intervals: 0-3, 3.1-6, 6.1-9.0, 9.1-
12.0, 12.1-15.0, 15.1-18.0, and greater than 18.0 mph (these are
shown separately in Appendix B). The number of observations ranges
from 19 to 42. The slopes of correlation range from 0.045 to
0.069 ppm/°C. The highest wind speed interval has a correlation
slope of 0.057 ppm/°C, which falls in the middle of the range of
variation.
At a given temperature, the concentration of ammonia is ap-
proximately equal for all seven wind intervals. Because storm
winds cause high horizontal advection or dispersion capacity,
VII-27
-------
sludge in the holding basins must possess a high ammonia emission
strength during windy-periods in order to maintain a constant
level of atmospheric ammonia over the basin surface. Because the
effects of temperature on ammonia volatilization are limited, in-
creased emission strength is probably due to wind turbulence caus-
ing white-capping and aerosolization of sludge. A theoretical es-
timation using Turner's diffusion model reveals a linear relation-
ship between emission strength increase and the increase in wind
speed (Turner, 1970). For example, when wind speed is increased
from 10 mph to 15 mph, the emission strength is increased by 50%.
The frequency of wind of a given speed and direction is gov-
erned by regional meteorological events and topographical features.
This phenomenon is depicted in the "wind rose" in Figure IV-4
(page IV-9). This directional wind frequency distribution results
in a directional distribution of atmospheric ammonia. The percent
occurrence of a range of ammonia concentrations in different direc-
tions is presented in Figure VII-12 and is referred to as an "am-
monia rose".
Ammonia concentrations are broken into five intervals: 0-0.5,
0.51-1.0, 1V01-1.50, 1.51-2.0, and greater than 2.00 ppm. Eight
directions or sectors are represented by bars. The probability of
a given ammonia concentration occurring in a given sector is pro-
portional to the length of its representative segment. The inner-
most segment represents the lowest ammonia concentration interval.
As shown in the "ammonia rose", the southwesterly and southerly
directions are associated with the low frequencies of ammonia con-
centration. The northerly directions are associated with the high-
est frequencies of high ammonia concentrations.
c. Frequencies of source concentrations - The source concentra-
tion of ammonia is quite variable and is multiple-parameter depen-
dent. Among these parameters, air temperature and wind speed have
VII-28
-------
0
H-r-T
10%
• '
Figure VII-12.
'Ammonia Rose"; Directional Annual Per-
cent Frequency of Ammonia Concentration
at the Project Site in the Ranges of 0-
0.5, 0.51-1.0, 1.01-1.50, 1.51-2.0, and
2.01 ppm or Higher (MSDGC, 1972a through
1975g).
VII-29
-------
the most pronounced influence. Disregarding wind direction, the
frequencies of ammonia concentrations less than or equal to a
designated value are presented in Figure VII-13.
A combination of high ammonia concentration in the sludge,
high temperature, low relative humidity, stable atmosphere, low
mixing height, and no precipitation may generate a very high
source concentration of atmospheric ammonia. However, the like-
lihood of this situation occurring is rather remote, as these
conditions rarely coexist. From the analysis of meteorological
records presented in Chapter IV, the joint frequency of a calm
atmosphere (F), low mixing height (100m) and light wind (1 mph)
is 0.2678%, or 24 hours in a year. However, if worst conditions
do occur, a source of concentration of approximately 4.8 ppm
would be expected, according to Figure VII-13. Statistical analy-
sis of ammonia observations show the geometric mean which occurs
50% of the time, to be approximately 0.5 ppm, which is equivalent
to one-hundredth of the ammonia threshold.
The concentration approximated for worst conditions was ex-
ceeded only once during the monitoring period between August 1973
and May 1975, and is only one-tenth of the ammonia threshold of
46.'8 ppm as reported by Leonardos, Kendell, and Barnard (1969).
This does not necessarily imply that there are no odor problems
in the study area, because odorants with different thresholds
may exist in the sludge. These odorants may react or counteract
among themselves and yield an odor potential that can be extra-
polated theoretically from the ammonia study.
d. Dilution and dispersion of source concentrations - Turner's
diffusion model for an area source was employed to estimate the
atmospheric dilution capacity around the study area (Turner, 1970)
Assuming the source concentration to be at unity at the geometri-
cal center of the holding basins, the ground-level ammonia con-
centrations directly downwind from the source are determined for
VII-30
-------
99.99
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Ammonia Concentration (ppm)
VII-31
-------
both the worst and the most probable conditions (see Section IV.A).
Their isopleths or contours of equal concentration are shown sep-
arately in Figures VII-14 and VII-15. The dilution capacity of the
atmosphere is expressed as a ratio, because the source concentra-
tion is normalized to unity. A dilution ratio of 0.7 at a down-
wind receptor means that the downwind concentration is seven-tenths
of the source concentration.
During worst conditions, the lowest dilution ratio and high-
est ammonia concentration at the MSDGC property boundaries are es-
timated to be 0.8 and 3.8 ppm, respectively, and are most likely to
occur in the vicinity of Highway 5 (Cuba-Canton Rd.). Under the
most probable conditions, this concentration will be reduced to ap-
proximately 0.25 ppm, with a dilution ratio of 0.5. Based on this
rationale and assuming the odor-sensitive receptors to be uniformly
distributed spatially, the incidence of odor complaints should be
highest near the northern perimeter of the MSDGC property. This is
roughly consistent with locations of odor complaints verified by
MRI (see Figure VII-1, page VII-3). Continued and improved efforts
on odor complaint verification by controlled detection, identifi-
cation and quantification are believed necessary to confirm this
finding.
3. Potential Impacts
A comparison of sites where odor complaints originate with winds
blowing from the MSDGC project site at the time of complaints indicates
that the probability of complaints arising due to odors from MSDGC sour-
ces is 0.71 or 71%. It has been shown that ammonia concentrations at the
sludge holding basins, even during the most unfavorable meterological con-
ditions, are less than the threshold value reported by Leonardos et al.
(1969). Therefore, malodorants other than ammonia must reside in the
sludge. These malodorants are as yet unidentified, but probably act
synergistically to generate an earthy smell from the sludge.
VII-32
-------
99.99
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VII-31
-------
both the worst and the most probable conditions (see Section IV.A).
Their isopleths or contours of equal concentration are shown sep-
arately in Figures VII-14 and VII-15. The dilution capacity of the
atmosphere is expressed as a ratio, because the source concentra-
tion is normalized to unity. A dilution ratio of 0.7 at a down-
wind receptor means that the downwind concentration is seven-tenths
of the source concentration.
During worst conditions, the lowest dilution ratio and high-
est ammonia concentration at the MSDGC property boundaries are es-
timated to be 0.8 and 3.8 ppm, respectively, and are most likely to
occur in the vicinity of Highway 5 (Cuba-Canton Rd.). Under the
most probable conditions, this concentration will be reduced to ap-
proximately 0.25 ppm, with a dilution ratio of 0.5. Based on this
rationale and assuming the odor-sensitive receptors to be uniformly
distributed spatially, the incidence of odor complaints should be
highest near the northern perimeter of the MSDGC property. This is
roughly consistent with locations of odor complaints verified by
MRI (see Figure VII-1, page VII-3). Continued and improved efforts
on odor complaint verification by controlled detection, identifi-
cation and quantification are believed necessary to confirm this
finding.
3. Potential Impacts
A comparison of sites where odor complaints originate with winds
blowing from the MSDGC project site at the time of complaints indicates
that the probability of complaints arising due to odors from MSDGC sour-
ces is 0.71 or 71%. It has been shown that ammonia concentrations at the
sludge holding basins, even during the most unfavorable meterological con-
ditions, are less than the threshold value reported by Leonardos et a!.
(1969). Therefore, malodorants other than ammonia must reside in the
sludge. These malodorants are as yet unidentified, but probably act
synergistically to generate an earthy smell from the sludge.
VII-32
-------
Key:
Dilution Factors
Figure VII-1^. Downwind Atmospheric Dilution Ratio
Under the Worst Conditions
(Enviro Control, Inc., 1975).
VII-33
-------
Key:
Dilution Factors
Figure VII-15. Downwind Atmospheric Dilution Ratio
Under the Most Probable Conditions
(Enviro Control, Inc., 197?)
VII-34
-------
Atmospheric dilution in ithe project area is estimated to reduce
ammonia and other odorant concentrations 4 miles downwind by approxi-
mately two to four times under worst and most probable conditions,
respectively. This odorant dilution is considered ineffective in
the abatement of odor problems. If the emission strength of odorants
at the holding basins remains the same, odor complaints will probably
continue to be raised.
The odor impact area apparently is contained by a circle with a
radius of approximately 4 to 5 miles. This circle includes the com-
munities of St. David, Bryant, Cuba, and the outskirts of southwest
Canton. Considering the prevailing winds and dispersion pattern of
airborne odorants, farm households along the northerly perimeter of
the MSDGC property will experience most of the odor impact. Infre-
quent periods of severe impact could result from subsidence inversion
which produces atmospheric stagnation and high air temperatures.
4. Mitigation of Adverse Effects
Atmospheric dispersion is estimated to be inadequate for proper
odor dilution. Providing an increased buffer distance between the
sludge holding basins and sensitive receptors is, therefore, an inef-
fective mitigative measure. Mitigative measures should aim at reduc-
ing emission strength at the source. Three alternatives for this type
of mitigation are discussed below.
Improving sludge quality would reduce malodorant concentrations,
and would thereby reduce odor potential. Sludge quality can be im-
proved by increasing the storage time of properly digested sludge in
the Chicago Lawndale lagoons.
White-capping at the surface of the holding basins due to wind
promotes sludge aerosolization, which is one major mechanism for odor
generation. The use of wind barriers such as tall, dense hedgerows
or fences around the holding basin berms, or floating baffles within
VII-35
-------
the basins, could reduce surface turbulence and wave action which in-
tensify odor emissions. The present requirement of a 4-foot free-
board from the sludge surface to the top of the berm provides wind
baffling only for a short distance downwind.
Odor emission from the sludge holding basins correlates with am-
bient air temperature, which helps to control the evaporation rate of
sludge. Chemical suppression of sludge evaporation, using a low-
volatility liquid film which increases surface tension, might be ef-
fective in reducing odor potential during periods of high air tempera-
ture. The economic and technical feasibility of this option require
further investigation.
Odor masking or counteracting agents have been used successfully
for industrial odor abatement. The MSDGC has spread Odoban 518-D,
manufactured by Rhodia, Inc., around the berms of the sludge holding
basins. Monitoring the effectiveness of this and other odor masking
agents is necessary. If this proves to be an effective odor control
method without adverse environmental side effects, it could be applied
during periods of unfavorable weather conditions when odor propaga-
tion is greatest. Continuous monitoring for odor detection and peri-
odic identification of odorant species are important in judging the
effectiveness of control measures.
The extreme remedy of constructing deeper holding basins having
less exposed surface area in order to reduce evaporation is probably
infeasible both economically and technically. Problems in lining the
basins and mixing solids with supernatant could prove overwhelming.
Also, an increased basin freeboard would prove infeasible; increased
wind sheltering would be slight in exchange for a great reduction in
storage capacity.
VII-36
-------
D. ODOR POTENTIAL OF ALTERNATIVE SLUDGE APPLICATION METHODS
A number of methods are available for applying liquid sludge to soil.
Five alternative methods of sludge application are described in this sec-
tion along with their mechanisms and potential for producing odors. The
five methods discussed are:
t Pressurized spraying
• Overland flow
t Infiltration-percolation by shallow impoundment
• Soil incorporation
• Soil injection.
Overland flow and infiltration-percolation by shallow impoundment can
be categorized as surface spreading methods. Soil incorporation and soil
injection can be categorized as surface penetration methods.
1. Pressurized Pivotal Spraying
In this method, sludge is sprayed onto the field through a pres-
surized nozzle. The nozzle opening is normally at least 2-inches in
diameter to prevent clogging. The nozzle pressure used in the project
is 90 psi and the spray rate is 600 gpm. This yields a horizontal throw
of approximately 120 to 150 feet when the nozzle is inclined at an angle
of 45°.
Odor is generated in this method by sludge aerosolization and sub-
sequent volatilization of malodorants. The volatilization of malodor-
ants from soil surfaces moistened by sludge and localized ponding of
sludge also increase odor generation. Ammonia volatilization from a
sludge surface or field applied with sludge is discussed in Sections
A and B of this chapter. Only the aerosolization and subsequent vola-
tilization are discussed here, but the same theoretical considerations
can be applied to other application methods.
VII-37
-------
a. Formation and evaporation of aerosols - After being ejected
from the sprayer nozzle, liquid sludge breaks up into blobs or
droplets. Large blobs fall rapidly to the ground with little
volatilization or evaporation during travel. Small sludge drop-
lets or aerosols have a slow terminal settling velocity, result-
ing from the balance between gravity and drag resistance of the
air, and may remain airborne for a long time. While residing in
the air, the aerosols volatilize at a rate depending on aerosol
size and ambient conditions such as atmospheric stability, wind
speed, humidity, and temperature.
The quantity and size of sludge aerosols generated by the
sprayer gun are governed by the operating pressure and the shape
of the nozzle opening. As the energy applied to a unit mass of
sludge increases, the proportion of aerosols increases while the
mean size decreases (Fuchs, 1964). The aerosols are polydispersed
rather than uniform in size. The size spectrum of aerosols gener-
ated by this type of irrigation sprayer is unavailable in the lit-
erature. It is therefore necessary to examine the evaporation
potential as a function of aerosol size.
A meaningful indication of the evaporation rate of a liquid
aerosol is the mass half-life. The mass half-life of a droplet
is the time required for the droplet to evaporate or volatilize
to one half of its original mass. Figure VII-15 records the mass
half-lives of aerosols of different sizes containing a sodium
chloride concentration of 8,000 mg/1, where the atmosphere is
still, the temperature is 10°C, and the humidity varies. The
mass half-life ranges from .001 to approximately 100 seconds for
aerosol sizes between 1 and 500 microns and a relative humidity
ranging between 40 and 90 percent. For a given aerosol size, the
mass half-life increases with increasing relative humidity. High
relative humidity therefore hinders evaporation of water and mal-
odorants from sludge aerosols. Using the same thermal dynamic
equation, which establishes the relationship between aerosol evap-
oration rate and the ambient relative humidity, temperature, and
VII-38
-------
salt or impurity content, one can demonstrate that aerosol evap-
oration rates increase with increasing temperatures and decreas-
ing salt or impurity concentrations (Squires, 1951; Fletcher, 1962;
Hanna, 1974).
While airborne, small liquid aerosols may evaporate completely
and leave dried salt nuclei in the atmosphere; large aerosols may
not evaporate completely before striking the ground. The degree
of evaporation of a liquid aerosol is thus governed by its atmos-
pheric residence time, or the time during which the aerosol re-
mains airborne. The residence time of a liquid aerosol emitted
by a sprayer gun at a given height and angle of inclination, in
still air, is plotted in Figure VII-16. This graph shows that
residence time decreases with increasing aerosol size, lower emis-
sion height, and less inclination of the sprayer gun. For the
construction of these residence time curves, it has been assumed
that the operating pressure at the nozzle is proportionately re-
duced so that the horizontal velocity of the jet is the same for
various combinations of nozzle height and inclination.
Figure VII-16 shows that the residence time of a liquid aero-
sol can be reduced tenfold when the nozzle or emission height is
reduced from 40 ft. to 5 ft. and the inclination reduced from 45°
to 0°. Evaporation from aerosols larger than approximately 50
microns will therefore decrease significantly, because their resi-
dence times are small compared to their mass haIf-lives. The
reduction in evaporation from aerosols in the micron and sub-micron
spectra by lowering emission height and the angle of inclination is
of little significance. However, as the operating pressure is re-
duced with a lower emission height and inclination, the energy
applied to a unit mass of sludge is reduced so that the production
of aerosols, especially of fine aerosols, is reduced.
b. Emission strength of aerosols^ - An estimation of the ammonia
emission strength from spraying is necessary to compare its odor
potential with that from the sludge holding basins. This comparison
VII-39
-------
TOO
10 -
1 -
-2
10
-4
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
100
Emission Height,
]0 Inclination of Sprayer)
!(40 feet, 45°)
1 (30 feet, 45°)
(10 feet,0°)
(5 feet, 0°)
10
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10 100 1000
Diameter of Droplet (microns)
Figure VII-16. Mass Half-Life and Residence Time of Aerosols
(Containing 8,000 mg/1 of NaCl and moving at
terminal velocity with an ambient temperature
of 10°C); (Squires, 1951; Fletcher, 1962; Hanna,
1974; Enviro Control, Inc., 1976)
VI1-40
-------
is based on the following assumptions:
• 0.3% of the liquid sludge -is transformed into aerosols
with a mass mean diameter of either 50 or 120 microns,
mean mass half-life of 9 seconds, and equal mean resi-
dence times
• Relative humidity is 75%
• Salt and impurity content of sludge is equivalent
to 8,000 mg/1 of sodium chloride.
• Emission height is 10 ft.
• Ammonia concentration is 1,500 mg/1 in the liquid
sludge.
The emission strength of the spray, in terms of atmospheric
ammonia, is approximately 1.1 x 10~^ cubic meters of ammonia per
second for each sprayer with a mean diameter of 120 microns. If
the mean diameter of the sludge aerosols is 50 microns, the ammonia
emission rate is approximately doubled to 2.3 x 10"4 nrVsec
Each sprayer covers an area ranging from 120 to 150 feet in radius
(or approximately 1 acre); these two aerosol sizes result in rates
of 1.1 x 10 m /sec and 2.3 x 10 nr/sec of ammonia per acre,
respectively. The emission strength will be increased if a higher
proportion of sludge is aerosolized, and vice versa.
Most of the sludge from the sprayer will reach the ground.
Part of the sludge reaching the soil will be volatilized. Accord-
ing to MSDGC's study of ammonia volatilization from sludge-treated
spoils, about 43% of the ammonia added to the spoil is volatilized
within the first week (MSDGC, 1974m). With a sludge spraying rate
of 40 dry tons per acre per day, which is extraordinarily high,
the average emission rate of ammonia at 25°C is roughly 7.6 x 10"^
m3/sec/acre in the first week. If the sludge is applied in six
runs with a week of separation between each run, the emission rate
is estimated conservatively to be 1.3 x 10~^ m^/sec/acre. Assum-
ing a 600 gpm nozzle flow, the allotted amount of sludge can be
applied to an acre in 3 hours. If the application rate is reduced,
the ammonia emission rate or odor potential is correspondingly re-
duced.
VII-41
-------
The foregoing estimation reveals that the odor emission
strength from sludge aerosols is in the same order of magnitude
as that from the evaporation of sludge from treated spoils. How-
ever, the total aerosol volume is only a fraction of 1% of the
sludge volume applied to the field. Obviously, the odor emission
potential of aerosols generated by the sprayer is approximately
50 to 100 times that of the sludge in the spoils.
The great increase in odor emission by sludge aerosolization
is attributable to the great expansion of exposed surface area.
The surface area of exposure is the area of air-liquid interface
on which volatilization or evaporation occurs. Assuming that it
takes three sprayer runs to apply 40 dry tons of sludge per acre,
the total exposed surface area without aerosolization will be
12,000 square meters. If 0.3% of the sprayed sludge is aerosolized
to a mass mean diameter of 120 microns, the surface area will be
approximately 140,000 square meters, which is equivalent to a twelve-
fold increase. If the mean aerosol size is 50 microns instead of
120 microns, the total exposed surface area will be increased to
340,000 square meters.
2. Surface Spreading
Surface spreading of sludge includes overland flow and infiltra-
tion-percolation. With overland flow, sludge is applied to the land
in a sheet flow or in ploughed furrows from distributors which
may be ditches or gated pipes with side outlets (see Figure VII-17).
Liquid sludge percolates through soil and at the same time evaporates
into the atmosphere. Sludge collected at downhill runoff collection
ditches can be pumped back to the ridge distributors or released to re-
tention basins. The exposed surface area of sludge is limited to the
land surface, because sludge aerosolization does not occur. Therefore,
the potential for odor emission in this method is far less than that
for spraying. The exposed surface area of sludge is least if a ridge-
and-furrow surface is employed.
VII-42
-------
EVAPORATION
SPRAY APPLICATION
••*•*." "•
SLOPE 2-4»-^ife
BRASS AND VEBETATIVE LITTER
SHEET FLOW
"rii&TiS^*®.
100-300 FT
/—RUNOFF
COLLECTION
Figure VII-17.
Overland Flow Application of Sludge (U.S.
EPA, 1975; Enviro Control, Inc., 1976)
Infiltration-percolation of sludge is shown below in Figure VII-18.
.Sludge is diverted to shallow ditches or impoundments which encourage
infiltration and percolation through the soil. Evaporation and odor
potential are less than with overland flow application because of re-
duced exposed surface area. Infiltration-percolation can result in a
recharge mound if the horizontal movement of groundwater is exceeded
by vertical percolation. Of all sludge application methods, the poten-
tial for groundwater contamination is highest in this process. Because
the sludge is confined to a system of ditches, ponds or terrace impound-
ments, only limited types of crops can be grown.
EVAPORATION „„„ „
SURFACE APPLICATION
Figure VII-18.
Infiltration-Percolation of Sludge (U.S.
EPA, 1975; Enviro Control, Inc., 1976)
ORIGINAL WATER
TABLE
VII-43
-------
3. Surface Penetration
Surface penetration methods include soil incorporation and soil
injection (see Chapter III). Soil incorporation is accomplished by
tilling machines and incorporates sludge to almost the entire soil
cross-section. In the soil injection method, sludge is injected into
slots formed in the soil by a tool shank. (These two methods are illus-
trated in Figures III- 6 and III-8, pages 111-10 and 111-13, respectively.)
Neither of these methods generate sludge aerosols. Odor emission
is a result of the evaporation or volatilization of malodorants from
the sludge-incorporated soils. The exposed surface area is much less
with surface penetration than with surface spreading, because the soil
behaves as an odor blanket when sludge is incorporated into it. Be-
tween the soil incorporation and soil injection methods, the latter has
less odor potential because injection of sludge further reduces the ex-
posed surface area. The only drawback in both of these methods is their
limited use during crop growing seasons.
4. Potential Impacts
Odor dispersion from sludge application is similar to that from
the holding basins, and the atmospheric dilution capacity is essentially
the same. The shapes of equal dilution contours are different and de-
pend upon the shapes of the individual application fields. In the case
of spray application, the sprayer gun will be the center of odor emission,
but fine aerosols generated by the sprayer may travel great distances
downwind and concurrently evaporate. This will cause a shift of odor
in a downwind direction, depending on wind speed.
Based on the foregoing considerations, sensitive receptors located
near the application fields will be impacted the most by spraying tech-
niques. Affected fields include #27, #28, and #31 through #38. The
spraying method is planned to be curtailed in 1976, and would account for
only 15% of total sludge application, which will definitely decrease odor
problems.
VII-44
-------
The strength of odor emissions from evaporation of sludge applied
to the soil surface and from surface ponding is equal to that from the
sludge holding basins. The consequent odor problems are short-term,
however, because most odorants in the sludge will be released into the
atmosphere within the first week after sludge application. Neverthe-
less, these short-term impacts may be prolonged and intensified during
unfavorable meteorological conditions. The planned 1976 change-over
to sludge application by soil penetration methods for 85% of total ap-
plications should substantially ameliorate odor problems due to applica-
tion; problems related to storage in holding basins would remain.
5. Mitigation of Adverse Effects
Mitigative measures associated with sludge application can either
reduce source strength or discourage odor transmission from aerosol
drift. Reducing spray pressure, emission height, and inclination of
the sprayer gun reduces sludge aerosolization, thus reducing odor emis-
sion strength. Sludge spraying should, however, be prohibited on windy
days and during atmospheric stagnation. The use of surface application
methods will eliminate sludge aerosols and their associated odor prob-
lems at the application fields.
Odors originating from sludge in the soil can be controlled by a
reduction in the surface area of sludge exposed to the atmosphere. Soil
incorporation or,better yet, soil injection is considered to be the
sludge application metnod most effective in reducing odor potential.
Sludge ponding in the fields should be disallowed or certainly kept
at a minimum. Ponding can be reduced by increasing the number of appli-
cation runs and allowing one week to elapse between successive runs.
Occasional unavoidable ponding should instigate control of odor genera-
tion. The MSDGC has applied 74Q7, an odor control product of Pollution
Sciences, Inc., to ponding areas, and this practice should be continued.
VII-45
-------
E. POTENTIAL SURFACE WATER CONTAMINATION
Chemical and biological water quality data collected from various
monitoring stations on streams, reservoirs, and runoff basins are analyzed
and summarized in this section. The conformance of water quality with ap-
plicable standards is examined. The potential adverse impacts resulting
from project operations are delineated and appropriate mitigative measures
are recommended.
1. Water Quality of Streams
There are 11 water monitoring stations throughout the project area:
SI, S2, S3, S19, S20, S21, S27, S29, S31, S32, and S33; their locations
are shown in Figure VI1-19. A total of 24 water quality parameters are
analyzed for each station (MSDGC, 1972a through 1975g).
It*is important to distinguish stations measuring background water
quality conditions from those affected by project operations. The pro-
ject actually began in July 1972 when sludge was applied to Fields #3,
and #9.
Sludge was applied to Fields # 9 through #38, with the exception of
Fields #34, #35, and #36, from July 1972 to July 1975. These fields are
. primarily located south of Highway 5, as shown by the shaded area in
Figure VII-19. Sampling stations S19, S20, S21, S29, S31, S32, and S33,
which were unaffected by the project as of July 1975, will represent
background stream water quality stations. Station SI, which is upstream
from the project site, is also a background station. Station S3 is lo-
cated on Slug Run, a tributary which is isolated from the application
fields, and is therefore considered to be a background station as well.
a. Chemical concentrations - After comparing the water quality
data gathered from these 11 stations with the water quality stand-
ards for Illinois (see Chapter II), the chemical water quality is
summarized in terms of number of observations and violations of
standards in Table VII-7.
VII-46
-------
Key:
W = Well
S = Stream
R = Reservoir
Figure VII-19. General Area Applied with Sludge and
Water Monitoring Stations (MSDGC, 1972a
through 1975g).
VII-47
-------
ID O>
•u,
U) t~. +J
*> o
o «>
CM r- t- S.
'—'—»—* inmr^'*'"
«^_ ^ -^ ^ r^ i~i
O
O~f3c-^o"~~o"o"c3o'~
••- f— r— p—^^-*— p^p— r— CTl
CM Ul •— O C3OC3O
n •— i— i— — —
o* incoino " "ujcs^oT
«/> r— r— CM
OOOO OOOO
oiO»— r- en ^- CMCO
CMCOr— CMCMCMfMPOCOCO
(/>bOi/>mv)ico
VII-48
-------
The pH values and concentrations of Cl, Cr, Ni, and Se are
within standards at all stations. Stations S20, S21, and S33 in-
dicate numerous violations of standards for SO., NH3-N, Fe, Mn,
and total dissolved solids (IDS). These stations might be in-
fluenced by the surface runoff from a cattle feedlot, effluents
from septic tanks in the community of Cuba, seepage from an oxi-
dation pond, and landfill leachate within the project property (see
Figure VII-19, page VII-47). In addition, Station S33 reports high
concentrations of Cd and Zn, and Station S31 shows violations of SO,,
Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, Zn and TDS standards. These violations may result
from runoff on strip-mined land, but this cannot be confirmed in
the absence of a field investigation. Station 27, which is .located
downstream from application fields 28, 30, 31, 32, and 33, has
recorded a number of violations of SO^, Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, and TDS
standards.
The number of violations reported at Station SI correlate with
those at Station S2. Water quality at Stations SI and S2 may be
influenced by the effluent from the Canton Sewage Treatment Plant.
Numerous violations of SO^, NH3, Cu, Fe, Pb, and TDS standards
have been reported at these two stations. Downstream Station S2
demonstrates better overall water quality than Station SI; in-
stream purification must occur along Big Creek between these two
stations. However, cleansing in this stream segment is insuffi-
cient to reduce pollutants at Station S2 to acceptable levels.
Runoff basins provided for the sludge application fields are not
effective in removing dissolved solids. The dissolved solids,
containing metals, seem to be discharged into this segment of the
creek.
b. Fecal coliform concentrations - The only biological water
quality parameter measured at these monitoring stations is fecal
coliform concentration. Fecal coliforms, while non-pathogenic,
indicate that pathogenic organisms of fecal origin may be present
in the water. The number of observations, geometric mean, maxi-
mum, and minimum fecal coliform concentrations at all stream sta-
tions are given in Table VII-8. Geometric means at stations SI,
VII-49
-------
Table VI1-8. Fecal Coliform Concentrations in Streams,
July 1972 to July 1975 (MSDGC, 1972a through
1975g)
Stream
Sampling
Station
SI
S2
S3
S19
S20
S21
S27
S29
S31
S32
S33
Fecal Coliform Concentration
Number of
Observations
25
26
25
26
4
4
24
25
26
26
9
Geometric
Mean*
10,177
3,353
194
566
1,032
14
1,267
628
155
87
346
Maximum
87,000
47,000
1,200
66,000
42,000
100
28,000
5,000
10,370
1,300
6,900
per 100 ml
Minimum
100
100
10
40
30
0
40
0
0
0
60
*Illinois standard = 200 max.
VII-50
-------
S2, SI9, S20, S27, S29, and S33 exceed the Illinois standard of
200 per 100 ml. This is probably due to contamination by human
or animal waste in effluents from the sewage treatment plant and
septic tanks, and in runoff from cattle feedlots.
Fecal coliform concentrations generally decrease between
Stations SI and S2. This is demonstrated by the chronological
plotting of fecal coliforms for both stations as shown in Figure
VII-20. Assuming the flow velocity in Big Creek to vary from 0.3
to l.Ofps, the pollution time in residence between the two sta-
tions ranges from 9.5 to 32 hours.
Using the geometric means in Table VII-8 (page VII-50) and as-
siiming a logarithmic linear die-off function, this residence time
corresponds to a coliform half-life of 6 to 20 hours. This rate in-
cludes the dilution effect of runoff along this 6.5-mile segment
of Big Creek. The actual die-off rate must, therefore, be lower.
Both stations experienced a higher level of fecal coliforms in the
summer, presumably because warm weather favors the survival of
bacteria. In October 1973 and February 1975, fecal coliform
counts at Station S2 were higher than at Station SI. Therefore,
other sources of fecal pollution may exist between these two sta-
tions.
2. Water Quality of Reservoirs
Ten stations are established to monitor the water quality of reser-
voirs; they are designated Rl, R2, R3, R4, R5, RIO, R12, R27 (or RN27),
and R34, and their locations are shown in Figure VII-19 (page VII-47). A
total of 27 water quality parameters .are measured; the data are pre-
sented in Table VII-9.
a. Chemical and fecal coliform concentrations - Strip-mine lakes
in central Missouri were studied by Campbell and Lind (1969) for
long-term aging or successional change by stages. For the pur-
poses of their discussion, lakes were identified by letter:
VII-51
-------
loo.ooo n'~
TOO
1973
1874
1975
Figure VII-20.
Variation of Fecal Coliform
Concentrations with Time for
Stations SI and S2 (MSDGC, 1972a
through 1975g).
VII-52
-------
Table VII-9. Water Quality of Reservoirs (MSDGC, 1972a through 1975g;
Campell and Lind, 1969; General Water Quality Standards
for Illinois' Waters)
Water Quality
Parameter and Unit
PH
Total P (mg/1)
Cl (mg/1)
SO, (mg/1)
N-Kjeldahl (mg/1)
NH3-N (mg/1)
N03+N03-N (mg/1)
Alkalinity
(as CaOh) (mg/1)
Conductivity (mho)
Ca (mg/1)
K (mg/1)
Na (mg/1)
Al (mg/1)
Cd (mg/1)
Cr (mg/1)
Cu (mg/1)
Fe mg/1
Pb mg/1
Mg mg/1
Mn mg/1)
Hg (mg/1)
N1 mg/1)
Zn (mg/1)
T.S.S. (mg/1)
T.D.S. (mg/1)
Fecal Conforms
(1/100 ml)
July-Dec.
1972
6.9-10.0
0-1.20
1-30
4-1 ,508
0-4.4
0.1-1.5
0-1.10
70-580
120-2,500
9-360
0-13
1-535
—
0-0.1
o-o. n
0-0.16
0-3.6
0-0.31
10-483
0-1.19
0-0.9
0-0.38
0-0.6
—
—
0->7,000
Reservoir
Jan. -Sec.
197?
7.3-8.9
0.02-0.73
5-20
16-781
0-2.4
0-1.07
0-8.30
80-500
300-3,340
45-367
1-8
9-229
0-3.77
0-0.02
0-0.02
0-0.13
0-1.9
0-0.33
34-132
0-1.22
0-0.8
0
0
—
—
0-7,600
Samples
Jan. -Dec.
1974
7.3-9.0
0-2.80
2-312
13-1,160
0-4.5
0-2.0
0-6.30
56-530
570-2,300
45-550
2-10
9-265
0-4.0
0-0.03
0-0.03
0-0.08
0-9.2
0-0.27
35-162
0-1.55
0-3.0
0-0.1
0-0.4
0-231
422-2,092
0-1,500
Jan. -July
1975
6.9-9.0
0.01-0.47
4-130
40-1 ,030
0-2.3
0-1.0
0.01-8.48
30-900
300-2,000
20-418
1-10
9-219
0-4.0
0-0.02
0-0.04
0-0.43
.0-2.4
0-0.13
20-137
0-0.98
0-0.88
0-0.3
0-0.2
1-187
189-6,940
0-660
Strip Mine
Lakes of
Type B
6.1-8.2
—
—
134-245
—
._
—
49-92
—
39.5-63.0
5.7-7.5
6.0-7.3
0.001-0.058
/
- \
__
0.0-0.024
—
17.1-25.6
0.08-2.1
..
~
0.05-0.07
«
~
—
Illinois Surface
Water Quality
Standards
6.5-9.0
^0.05
4 500
^500
^
^1.5
^
—
—
—
__
—
—
^0.05
ft I i f\ / f\ f\f
-Cr(+6)4,0.05
.Cr(+3)41.0
^0.02
>1.0
^O.l
—
<1.0
$0.5
^1.0
41.0
,£1,000
/zoo
1 ~ . . \
D.O. (mg/1)
(geometric mean)
>5
(anytime)
VII-53
-------
Al, A2, and A3 are acid; B and D are neutral or slightly alkaline.
Lake A represents the most acidic stage, resulting from continued
oxidation of sulfur-bearing waste coal in the watershed, and Lake
D represents the alkaline stage.
The most obvious changes associated with the aging of strip-
mine lakes pertain to acid-base relationships. Decline in poten-
tial free acidity as lakes age is related to the appearance of bi-
carbonate alkalinity. In addition, decreasing specific conduc-
tance and declining concentrations of sulfate, calcium, magnesium,
potassium, and sodium with increasing pH indicate aging of strip-
mine lakes. The reservoirs within the MSDGC project property have
water most similar in quality to Lake B, which represents a rela-
tively well-aged strip-mine lake. To assess the effects of aban-
doned strip mines on lake or reservoir water quality, the data col-
lected at the project site are compared to those for Type B strip-
miTie lakes.
In general, the pH values, alkalinity, and concentrations of
metals in these reservoirs are somewhat higher than average for
those of strip-mine lakes, though still within their range. Re-
servoirs within the project property are relatively richer in
mineral contents. The comparison shows that project-area lakes
are sufficiently aged to support substantial aquatic life, and
they are more vulnerable to high nutrient inputs and eutrophica-
tion than the less-aged, acidic strip-mine lakes.
The pH values and ammonia nitrogen levels in these reservoirs
generally conform to Illinois water quality standards. Concentra-
tions of chlorides and metals such as Cd, Cr, Ni, and Zn are nor-
mally within state standards. These reservoirs do, however, exhibit
high levels of inorganic nitrogen, total phosphorus, sulfate, Cu,
Fe, Pb, Mn, and Hg, which violate Illinois standards. High salt
content often increases the level of total dissolved solids above
the standard. High dissolved solids may be attributed to surface
runoff from strip-mined areas and sludge application fields, or
VII-54
-------
release of dissolved bottom sediments in the reservoirs. Reser-
voir sediments may contain large amounts of strip-mine spoil result-
ing from rain downwash. Samples of reservoir bottom sediments are
unavailable. This hypothesis could be tested with further investi-
gation and monitoring.
Fecal coliform concentrations in all reservoirs are generally
low, indicating that the treated and aged sludge applied to the
project site has a low fecal coliform level and/or the runoff basins
in the application fields are effective in removing fecal bacteria.
Nevertheless, high levels of fecal coliforms are found sporadically.
b. Dissolved oxyjen concentrations - Dissolved oxygen (D.O.) con-
centrations determine the capacity of a water body to support aqua-
tic life. The State of Illinois specifies that a minimum of 6 mg/1
of D.O. must be maintained for 16 hours of a 24-hour period, and a
minimum of 5 mg/1 of D.O. must be maintained at all times. The
D.O. status of reservoirs Rl, R2 and R3 are discussed below. Data
are unavailable for the other reservoirs.
D.O. levels, average water temperatures, and average theoreti-
cal saturation values of D.O. in the three reservoirs are presented
in Figure VII-21. As the data indicate, D.O. levels are generally
higher than the minimum standard of 5 mg/1. The D.O. levels of all
three reservoirs form a typical seasonal pattern, with D.O. peaking
in winter and at a minimum in summer. This cyclic pattern is, as
expected, opposite to the seasonal variation of reservoir tempera-
ture. D.O. levels are close to the average theoretical saturation
values, and are therefore predominantly influenced by water tempera-
ture and the reservoir mixing characteristics. The reservoirs prob-
ably have not received large inputs of oxygen-demanding pollutants
such as carbonaceous and nitrogeneous organic materials.
During May 1973 and July 1975, D.O. levels dropped below 6 mg/1
in Reservoir Rl, which receives runoff basin effluents from sludge
application Fields #26, #27, #28, and #30. Sludge was not applied
to these fields until August 1974. Runoff retention basin B-30-2
VII-55
-------
30
20 -
OJ
Q.
QJ
£ 1C-
aj
cr>
20
15 -
X
o
15 10
>,
re
Q
0
Key:
Reservoirs
R2
R3
' Average Saturated Level-of Dissolved Oxygen
v-^—*
J J A S 0 N D 0 F M A M J J A SO N DJ FMAMJJAS 0 N D 0 F M A" H J J A S -Q fj D
•1972 >U 1973 »+« 1974 >+* 1975
Figure VII-21. Reservoir Water Temperature and Level of
Dissolved Oxygen (D.O.) (MSDGC, 1972a through
1975g; and Enviro Control, Inc. 1976).
VII-56
-------
discharged into Reservoir Rl after the reservoir water was sam-
pled on July 9, 1975. Therefore, no connection between observed
low D.O. concentrations in Reservoir Rl and the project opera-
tion can be established.
During the summer, when ambient temperatures are high and D.O.
saturation levels are low, nighttime D.O. levels may be much lower
than daytime levels. This is attributable to the continued deple-
tion of D.O. by planktonic respiration while photosynthetic oxy-
gen regeneration is absent. Nighttime monitoring of D.O. is there-
fore essential to complete the assessment of possible environmental
impacts resulting from project operations.
3. Water Quality and Capacity of Runoff Basins
More than 50 runoff retention basins have been constructed within
the project property as of July 1975. With the exception of Field #38,
on which sludge was applied in October 1974, all fields receiving or
scheduled to receive sludge are provided with at least one basin. Each
runoff basin is coded with the same number as the field it serves,
with a sub-number when more than one basin is provided for a particular
field. For example, basin B-20-3 represents Basin #3 of Field #20.
a. Effluent quality - The operating permit issued by the Illinois
EPA specifies effluent standards for total suspended solids (TSS),
biological oxygen demand (BOD), and fecal coliforms (as discussed
in Chapter IV):
• Arithmetic mean of TSS shall not exceed 66.7 mg/1
• Arithmetic mean of BOD shall not exceed 6.75 mg/1
t Geometric mean of fecal coliforms shall not exceed
494.3 per 100 ml.
Effluent quality of a runoff basin is analyzed whenever there is a
discharge. The discharge of effluents from the runoff basin is
necessary to reduce the water level even in the absence of sludge
VII-57
-------
application. The arithmetic or geometric mean, maximum, and minimum
levels of TSS, BOD, and fecal coliforms in each runoff basin are
presented in Table VII-10.
Discharge from runoff basins occurs intermittently and rarely
more than once a month. Therefore, the effects of a discharge upon
the receiving reservoir or creek probably diminish to insignificant
levels when the subsequent discharge is made. The process of aver-
aging effluent quality as required by the state standards may be
inappropriate; very inferior effluents were discharged to receiving
waterways or water bodies, while their averaged water quality was
within the standards. As shown in Table VII-10, these substandard
effluents contained TSS as high as 644 mg/1, BOD as high as 73 mg/1,
and fecal coliform counts as high as 5,000 per 100 ml. Such peak
concentrations could cause fish kills or other irreversible biotic
impacts, primarily due to depletion of dissolved oxygen.
b. Storm runoff capacities - Runoff basins were constructed to
provide a retention capacity for runoff from a 100-year storm.
The purpose of the basins is to retain runoff from application
fields for the length of time required to meet standards before
the runoff water is discharged. Substandard basin water may be
recycled by pumping to the application field.
The effectiveness of runoff basins in containing 100-year
storm runoff can be examined by comparing the design capacity of
the basins with the anticipated volume of storm runoff. Table VII-
11 summarizes the design capacity of each retention basin and storm
runoff volumes for 25-year and 100-year storms. The 24-hour run-
off volumes for 25-year and 100-year storms are calculated on the
assumption of no percolation and no evapotranspiration of rain
water. These assumptions result in slightly overestimating storm
runoff, which causes the evaluation of retention basin effective-
ness to be conservative.
VII-58
-------
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VII-61
-------
Table VII-11. Capacity of Runoff Retention Basins and Volume of 24-Hour Storm Runoff
(MSDGC, 1972c through 197Zg and 19731 through 1973k; Enviro Control,
Inc.. 1976}
Runoff Retention Basins
Field
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
-15
16
19
20
21
22
23
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
47
Basin
B-l-1
B-2-1
B-2-2
B-2-3
B-3-1
B-4-1
B-4-2
B-5-1
B-6-1
B-7-1
B-7-2
B-7-3
B-8-1
B-8-2
B-9-1
B-9-2
B-9-3
B-10-1
B-10-2
B-ll-1
B-12-1
B-13-1
B-13-2
B-14-1
B-15-1
B-16-1
B-19-1
B-20-1
8-20-2
B-20-3
B-21-1
B-22-1
B-22-2
B-23-1
B-25-1
B-25-2
B-26-1
B-26-2
B-27-1
B-27-2
B-28-1
B-29-1
B-30-1
B-30-2
B-31-1
B-32-1
B-33
B-34-1
B-34-2
B-35-1
B-36-1
B-37-1
NA
B-39-1
B-40-1
B-41-1
B-42-1
B-42-2
B-43-1
B-44-1
B-45-1
B-47-1
Capacity
Per Basin
(acre-ft)
24.4
21.5
4.1
2.9
NA
6.2
25.9
15.3
6.6
5.9
16.0
17.0
25.2
6.4
NA
13.7
4.9
21.5
23.0
8.0
11.0
9.5
39.5
14.3
10.5
70.3
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
14.9
6.9
7.5
13.8
8.8
17.5
7.1
13.5
14.9
7.2
20.1
9.3
15.8
*
26.4
12.3
14.2**
78.8
35.7
NA
14.6
30.7
23.3
33.3
24.4
23.1
11.6
48.1
12.5
Capacity
Per Field
(acre-ft)
24.4
28.5
NA
32.1
15.3
6.6
38.9
31.6
>18.6
44.5
8.0
11.0
48.5
14.3
10.5
70.3
NA
NA
NA
NA
14.9
14.4
22.6
24.6
13.5
14.9
27.3
9.3
15.8
38.7
93.0
35.7
NA
14.6
30.7
23.3
57.7
23.1
11.6
48.1
12.5
24-Hr. Runoff Assuming No
Ground Percolation or
Evapotranspiration (acre-ft)
25-Yr. Storm
20.1
22.7
17.9
35.0
13.1
6.6
48.1
31.1
76.5
41.1
9.2
11.8
15.7
30.6
9.6
65.6
16.6
49.9
17.1
22.7
9.6
16.6
28.0
18.8
13.6
17.1
30.2
8.1
14.9
31.3
79.4
30.1
23.7
18,4
35.9
24.1
70.8
25.8
14.9
63.9
13.1
100-Yr. Storm
25.0
28.3
22.3
43.5
16.3
8.2
59.8
38.6
95.2
51.2
11.4
14.7
19.6
38.1
12.0
81.6
20.7
62.0
21.2
28.3
12.0
20.7
34.8
23.4
16.9
21.2
37.5
10.1
18.5
39.0
98.8
37.5
29.5
22.9
44.6
29.9
88.2
32.1
18.5
79.4
16.3
Note: NA * Not Available
*F1eld 133 drains its runoff to Retention Basin B-32-1 of Field #32.
**F1eld #35 drains its eastern portion of runoff to Retention Basin
B-36-1 of Field #36.
VII-62
-------
As discussed in Chapter IV, the vertical permeability of soils
within the project area is estimated by laboratory tests to range
from 10 to 10 cm/sec. According to Casagrande's classifica-
tion of soils by permeability, these soils are impervious, non-
draining, or poorly draining. Areas consisting of broken shale and
i
sandstone slabs or blocks may possess a permeability as high as 10
cm/sec, at which water flows with little resistance. However, con-
struction is not allowed on these areas. In any case, stormwater is
almost totally drained to the retention basins. Localized ponding
of rain water in the fields may tend to reduce total runoff volume,
but is believed to be of minor significance. Because the drainage
areas of the application fields are relatively small, the runoff
concentration times are relatively short, and little evapotranspi-
ration occurs. The preceding argument seems to justify the assump-
tions on which storm runoff calculations are based.
From the available data, only the retention basins for Fields
#1, #2, #23 and #27 will be able to contain 25-year and 100-year storm
runoff. Retention basins for Fields #5, #6, #8, #10, #15, #16, and
#31 through #37 will be able to contain 25-year but not 100-year storm
runoff. The retention basins for the remaining 18 fields do not have
the capacity to contain even 25-year storm runoff.
The preceding analysis is based on the further assumptions
that the basins are completely empty prior to each storm, and the
basin capacities are not diminished by sedimentation of suspended
solids from previous storm runoff. The effectiveness of a runoff
basin is seriously impaired when a storm occurs before the basin
is entirely empty. Furthermore, emptying the basins before a pre-
dicted storm may cause bottom sediments containing sludge parti-
cles to be discharged to the receiving water.
4. Potential Impacts
Pollutant concentrations violating Illinois water quality standards
have been recorded at both background and non-background stream quality
monitoring stations with respect to sulfate, copper, iron, lead, manganese,
VII-63
-------
and total dissolved solids. Runoff over strip-mined areas and sludge
application fields are most likely responsible for poor stream water
quality. Substandard water quality has also been documented for reser-
voirs at the project site. Reservoir water quality parameters regis-
tering below state standards include sulfate, copper, iron, lead, man-
ganese, mercury, and total dissolved solids; these violations generally
parallel those for stream water.
Many runoff basins with inadequate capacity for containing 25-year
and 100-year storm runoff are particularly ineffective in removing sus-
pended solids from storm runoff. Numerous violations of effluent stand-
ards for total suspended solids and biological oxygen demand show that
the runoff retention basins have been ineffective, resulting in silta-
tion and excess dissolved oxygen depletion in the receiving waterways
and reservoirs. The levels of total phosphorous and inorganic nitro-
gen in reservoir waters are high, which is attributable to surface run-
off and substandard effluents from runoff retention basins. Continuous
nutrient inputs are suspected of causing eutrophication of the reservoirs
and their receiving waterways, and present a threat to associated aqua-
tic life.
5. Mitigation of Adverse Effects
The effectiveness of runoff retention basins must be upgraded
so that effluents meet required standards for total suspended solids
and biological oxygen demand. Retarding runoff velocity and erosion
by planting grass, adequate recycling of substandard basin effluents,
increasing the capacity of runoff basins, providing additional basins,
or combinations of these measures is necessary to achieve required
effluent quality.
Analyses of the nutrient concentrations in effluents from runoff
basins must be performed to determine nutrient inputs into receiving
waterways and reservoirs. These data will aid in estimating the eutro-
phi cation potential in receiving waters. Whenever high fecal coliform
counts or dissolved oxygen levels are reported in stream or reservoir
water samples, the responsible sources must be identified to ensure the
effective performance of the control measures.
VII-64
-------
F. POTENTIAL GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION
Groundwater quality must be assessed at wells and springs. The quality
of samples collected from 26 wells and one spring within the project area is
discussed in this section, followed by an assessment of impacts and recom-
mended mitigative measures.
1. Water Quality of Springs and Wells
The locations of wells and springs used for monitoring groundwater
quality are shown in Figure VII-19 (page VII-47). From the discussion of
groundwater hydrology in Chapter IV, the well and spring stations can be
categorized as either background stations or stations where ground-
water may be affected by project operations. The background stations
lie outside of the portion of the groundwater system associated with
the project as of July 1975. Pollutant concentrations at the non-
background stations are possibly affected by seepage or percolation
from upstream reservoirs or the sludge application fields. Fourteen
wells are classified as background stations, and 11 wells and the one
spring are classified as non-background. Possible influences of appli-
cation fields or reservoirs on groundwater quality at each non-back-
ground station are presented in Table VII-12.
More than 25 water quality parameters are analyzed for each sample.
Trends in nitrite and nitrate nitrogen concentrations (N02+N0g - N) for
each well or spring are discussed below, followed by a discussion
concerning trace elements.
a. Nitrite and nitrate concentrations - The nitrite and nitrate
nitrogen concentration in each well or spring is plotted from
August 1973 to May 1975 (see Appendix C). Trends in these con-
centrations were analyzed by the least square method. Both back-
ground and non-background stations have recorded trends of increas-
ing, decreasing, or constant nitrite and nitrate levels. Only non-
background wells W8 and W10 report concentrations in excess of
VII-65
-------
Table VII-12. Classification of Monitoring Wells
(Enviro Control, Inc., 1976)
Wells Representing the
Background Conditions
Well Project Relationship
Wl Upstream from the pro-
ject area.
W4 In the community of Cuba
and upstream from the pro-
ject area.
W6 No nearby fields or fields
upstream.
W15 No fields upstream.
W16 No fields nearby or up-
stream in operation yet.
W17 Probably, on or near
groundwater ridge.
W18 Probably on or near
groundwater ridge, and
no fields upstream.
W19 No fields nearby or up-
stream in operation yet.
W20 No fields nearby or up-
stream in operation yet.
W21 Probably on or near
groundwater ridge, and
no fields upstream.
W24 No fields nearby or up-
stream in operation yet.
W25 No fields nearby or up-
stream in operation yet.
W26 No fields nearby or up-
stream in operation yet.
No fields nearby or up-
stream in operation yet.
Wells Possibly Affected
by Project Operations
Well Project Relationship
W2 Possibly affected by Reser-
voir R2, and Fields 125, #27,
•and #38.
W7 Possibly affected by Fields
#26 and #38.
W8 Possibly affected by Fields
#20 and #21.
W9 Possibly affected by Field
#19.
W10 Possibly affected by Field
#24.
Wll Possibly affected by sludge
holding basins; Fields #3
through #9, and #17; and Reser-
voirs RIO and R12.
W12 Same as Wll.
W13 Same as Wll, and addition-
ally affected by Field #2.
W14 Possibly affected by Fields #
6 through #9, and #17; and
Reservoir RIO.
W22 Possibly affected by Fields #
27, #37, and #38; and Reser-
voirs R2 and R4.
W23 Possibly affected by Field
#31.
Spring Possibly affected by Field
#10.
VII-66
-------
10 mg/1, which is recommended as the maximum level by the U.S.
Public Health Service (U.S. Public Health Service, 1962, 1969).
According to extrapolated upward trends, wells W4 and W20 could
acquire nitrite and nitrate nitrogen levels higher than 10 mg/1
after the next 20 years. It must be noted that Well W4 is located
in Cuba and is possibly affected by community pollution sources.
Wells W8 and W10, possibly contaminated by sludge applica-
tion to Fields #20, #21 and #24, could have nitrite and nitrate
nitrogen levels as high as approximately 75 and 145 mg/1, respec-
tively, by mid-1995. The projection of W8 well water quality may
not be reliable because Well W8 has consistently low levels of
nitrite and nitrate nitrogen, with the exception of a spike be-
tween January and May 1975; a similar condition exists in Well W2.
Certainly a longer monitoring period would be required to confirm
the upward trends in these wells.
The fluctuation in nitrite and nitrate nitrogen levels does
not seem to follow any particular pattern. For wells conceivably
affected by project operations, the variations in nitrite and ni-
trate levels do not correlate with project activities. In addi-
tion, the levels are generally lower than 0.2 mg/1, except for
Well W10 which possesses consistently high values. These findings
suggest that a large portion of nitrogen in the applied sludge is
fixed by soil molecules, converted and released as ammonia gas,
or taken up by crops for biosynthesis. Apparently, little solu-
ble nitrogen is available for leaching into the groundwater sys-
tem. Wells Wll, W12, and W13, conceivably vulnerable to seepage
from holding basins, have consistently shown less than 0.2 mg/1
of nitrite and nitrate nitrogen. This indicates that the clay
linings in the four basins have been effective.
The possible effects of increasing application rates or ac-
cumulation of sludge in the fields on groundwater nitrogen levels
cannot be assessed at this early stage of project development.
Data are not sufficient for analysis of trends, and long-term
VII-67
-------
monitoring of groundwater quality is required to establish the
relationship between project operations and the nitrite and
nitrate nitrogen level. Study of the movements of labeled ni-
trogen compounds or isotopes in the soil and in the ground-
water system would assist in this assessment.
b. Trace element and other concentrations - Variations in
groundwater constituents are shown in Table VII-13. The range
of variation is given for seven calendar periods, either before
or during the sludge application season. The well reporting
the maximum level of a given constituent is indicated in paren-
theses, and underlined well numbers indicate those wells possibly
affected by sludge application.
The pH values, alkalinity, conductivity, and concentrations
of total phosphorus, SO., Ca, K, Na, Al, Fe, Mg, Mn, Hg, Ni, Se,
and fecal coliforms remain close to the 1971 and 1972 baseline
conditions (see Chapter IV). Recent concentrations of Cd, Cr,
Cu, Pb and Zn are lower than the baseline concentrations. In
1971 and 1972, 40% of the wells tested contained excessively
high levels of chemical constituents. When retested between 1973
and 1975, after the project had begun, the statistic was the same.
Groundwater constituents are, therefore, probably influenced by
sources unrelated to the project.
2. Potential Impacts
Apparently most groundwater constituents have been little in-
fluenced by project operations at this early stage of project devel-
opment. The variations in their concentrations are influenced pri-
marily by the geochemical characteristics of abandoned strip mines,
such as heavy metals in exposed black shale. The variations in
groundwater quality at both background and non-background stations
are comparable. Therefore, soils are probably functioning well as a
VII-68
-------
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-------
biochemical filter for the removal, conversion, and fixation of con-
taminants from sludges. Water quality at wells downstream from the
sludge holding basins cannot be differentiated from the quality of
background wells.
Wells W4, W8, W10, and W20 indicate a trend of nitrite and ni-
trate nitrogen build-up. Concentrations at background Wells W4 and
W20 are projected to exceed the 10 mg/1 drinking water standard for
nitrite and nitrate nitrogen by 1988 and 1993, respectively. Well
W8, possibly influenced by sludge application, could exceed the drink-
ing water standard for nitrite and nitrate nitrogen by 1977. The exist-
ing nitrite and nitrate nitrogen level in Well W10 presently violates
the U.S. Public Health Service standard for drinking water, and is de-
teriorating at a rate of 0.5 mg/1 per month. In the absence of com-
plete groundwater flow data, sources of contamination of Wells W8 and
W10 cannot be identified. Also, water quality data is insufficient for
a long-range projection of groundwater quality.
3. Mitigation of Adverse Effects
Groundwater quality monitoring and analysis should be continued
to detect possible contamination from the project. Whenever excep-
tionally poor groundwater quality is documented, responsible sources
of contamination should be identified and effective control measures
implemented. Injection of tracers such as chemical isotopes into up-
stream wells, and subsequent tracer detection in other wells will help
to reveal the direction and velocity of groundwater movement around
the project area. This knowledge would aid the identification of con-
taminant sources, especially in distinguishing project sources from
strip-mine sources of pollution.
VII-70
-------
G. POTENTIAL SOIL CONTAMINATION
Potential soil contamination from the application of stabilized muni-
cipal sludge has been a topic of public concern. The problems are pri-
.marily focused upon the possible build-up of trace metals or toxic materials
in the soil, particularly in the root zone. The soil composition and possi-
ble soil contamination problems are discussed below. Potential impacts and
desirable safeguards are considered.
1. Chemical Concentrations at Soil Boring Sites
Over 52 soil borings were made to bedrock to determine the phy-
sical and chemical characteristics of soils and rocks. Physical soil
characteristics, such as permeability, were used to examine potential
groundwater contamination from the project.
The chemical composition of both mining spoils and place land is
summarized in Table VII-14. Included are the mean, maximum, and mini-
mum values of exchangeable calcium, organic carbon, and hydrochloric
acid-extractable metals such as Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Mn, Ni, and Zn.
In general, the spoil material and place land have approximately equal
concentrations. The mining spoil contains significantly higher levels
of cadmium and copper. This is believed to be the result of past strip-
mining activities. The spoil materials contain more exchangeable cal-
cium but less organic carbon than place land. The higher organic car-
bon content of the place land indicates that it is more fertile.
The proposed second set of soil borings to follow the first 5 years
of project operation has not been made as yet. Therefore, no compara-
tive study can be done to determine any changes in soil structure or
chemistry.
2. Potential Impacts
Due to the paucity of data, impacts on the soil quality resulting
from the project cannot be defined. However, some speculated impacts
VII-71
-------
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VII-72
-------
are discussed below. The purpose of this discussion is to provide
an orientation for the analyses of the follow-up soil borings, so
that complete delineation and assessment of possible problems can
be achieved.
It is suspected that high concentrations of soluble salts in
the sludge may affect soil chemistry and plant growth, possibly
causing excessive plant uptake of toxic materials or trace metals.
Allison (1964) stated that salts directly affect plant growth by
increasing the osmotic pressure of the soil solution, altering
mineral nutrition, and causing toxic accumulations of specific ions
in the plants.
The trace elements in municipal wastes may occur largely in ,
association with complex organic polyanions. This interaction be-
tween heavy metals and humic, polymeric substances in the sludge .
and soil may have a profound effect upon the mobility and toxicity
of metal ions when sewage sludge is applied to agricultural soils.
The reactions of metal ions in the soil solution include solution,
oxidation, reduction, precipitation, adsorption, absorption, and
complexation, all of which may result in a build-up of trace metals.
In terms of complexation, the University of Illinois has developed
a mathematical model based on Schubert's ion exchange equilibrium
technique. The model can measure stability constants of metal-
polyelectrolyte complexes naturally occurring in soils and digested
sewage sludge, and may be useful in predicting the fate of heavy me-
tals applied as constituents of stabilized municipal sludges (Hinesly
et al., 1971).
A review of literature and studies on the build-up of trace
elements in soils receiving sewage sludge is provided in Chapter IX.
The subsequent effects of trace element build-up in soil on crop
growth and human health via biomagnification in food chains are also
discussed.
VII-73
-------
3. Mitigation of Adverse Effects
The most important task in delineating possible degradation of
soil quality is to perform a second series of soil test borings and
analyze soil characteristics, especially in the root zone. Physical
and chemical quality of soils with and without sludge application
should be defined. A comparison between properties of background
soils and soils receiving various amounts of sludge should detect
any build-up of trace metals or toxic materials.
Lysimeter studies in the laboratory would help to understand the
soil chemistry and reactions controlling the fixation and mobilization
of trace elements. Results of this type of study can be used to esti-
mate the capacity of soil to hold trace elements without significant
effects on plant growth and groundwater quality. Once the soil capa-
city for handling trace elements is established, the upper limit for
sludge application can be estimated and enforced.
VII-74
-------
H. POTENTIAL NOISE PROBLEMS
Unwanted sound, referred to as noise, may be generated by most mechani-
cal equipment, including the pumps, tractors, and sludge-sprayers at the pro-
ject site. Noise can have impacts on people ranging from simple annoyance to
psychological and physiological stress. Such reactions include increased
irritability, loss of concentration, nervous tension, impaired aptitude, and
loss of sleep. The extent of the impact depends primarily on the loudness,
pitch, intermittency, and familiarity of the noise reaching sensitive human
receivers. Noise measurement and attenuation, project noise sources and le-
vels, potential noise impact and mitigative measures are considered in this
section.
1. Noise Generation at the Project Site
Noise levels are typically measured in decibels in the "A" scale
(dBA). The scale emphasizes a certain set of frequencies to which the
human ear is most sensitive. Examples of common indoor and outdoor
noise levels are listed in Figure VII-22.
Noise can be attentuated before reaching sensitive human recei-
vers. Distance, vegetation, and topography, including hills and walls,
can reduce noise levels significantly. For example, a 5-foot wall has
been shown to reduce highway noise by five dBA (Sexton, 1969). Vege-
tation must be quite dense to attenuate noise. In an area of dense
evergreen woods with a visibility of 70 to 100 feet, the attenuation
of sound is approximately 18 dBA per 1,000 feet. Trees with trunks
6 to 8 feet high and spaced about 10 feet apart provide no attenua-
tion (Embleton and Thiessen, 1962). Planting vegetation to improve
the aesthetic appearance of the noise-generating site has been shown
to reduce local sensitivity to noise without actually reducing the
noise levels (Sexton, 1969).
The project is located in a remote rural area. The closest com-
munities are Canton, Cuba, St. Davis, and Bryant, with a combined
population of less than 15,000. The ambient noise level is similar to
that of typical rural areas and is estimated to be not more than 45 dBA
90% of the time, which is designated the 10-percentile noise level.
VII-75
-------
COMMON OUTDOOR
NOISE LEVELS
Jet Flyover at 1000 ft
Gas Lawn Mower at 3 ft
Diesel Truck at 50 ft
Noisy Urban Daytime
Commercial Area
Heavy Traffic at 300 ft
Quiet Urban Daytime
Quiet Urban Nighttime
Quiet Suburban Nighttime
Quiet Rural Nighttime
NOISE LEVEL
(dBA)
-i-llO
-4-100
+ 90
+ 80
Gas Lawn Mower at 100 ft -j- 70
+ 60
50
+ 40
+ 3O
+ 20
+ 10
-L 0
COMMON INDOOR
NOISE LEVELS
Rock Band
Inside Subway Train (New York)
Food Blender at 3 ft
Garbage Disposal at 3ft
Shouting at 3ft
Vacuum Cleaner at 10 ft
Normal Speech at 3 ft
Large Business Office
Dishwasher Next Room
Small Theatre, Large Conference Room
(Background)
Library
Bedroom at Night
Concert Hall (Background)
Broadcast and Recording Studio
Threshold of Hearing
Figure VII-22.
Common Indoor and Outdoor Noise Levels
(U.S. Department of Transportation, 1973)
VII-76
-------
Sources of noise in the environment of the project include trac-
tors on the adjacent farms and occasional motor vehicles on highways
and local roads. Because the traffic is light, these sources do not
contribute significantly to the ambient or background noise level.
Sources of noise related to the project include pumps, tractors, and
sludge sprayers. Three pumping or sludge distribution stations are
located within project property, and one booster station is situated
at the Liverpool dock. The pumping stations on the project site are
at least one mile from the nearest farmstead. However, the booster
station at the Liverpool dock and barge pumps are within a half-mile
radius of Liverpool, which had a population of 218 in 1970 (U.S.
Bureau of Census, 1972). Tractors, trucks, and sludge sprayers are
mobile noise sources. This equipment will generate noise detected by
sensitive receptors only when in operation near the boundary of pro-
ject property.
The typical ranges of sound pressure levels from pumps and vehi-
cles are shown in Figures VII-23 and VII-24. As a conservative esti-
mate, the noise level for an unenclosed pump is about 95.dBA 3 feet
away from the pump, and about 80 dBA 25 feet from a tractor and sprayer.
The noise levels at different distances from these sources are derived
from the dissipation law of sound pressure and are shown below in
Table VII-15. These values were calculated assuming the absence of <
sound barriers such as buildings, dense vegetation, and terrain with
high relief.
Table VII-15. Noise Level in dBA of Various Noise
Sources as a Function of Distance
(Enviro Control, Inc., 1976)
Distance from Noise Source
Noise Source 3 ft. 25 ft. 100 ft: 800 ft. 1,600 ft. 3.200 ft. 5,280 ft.
Pump without
Enclosure
Tractor
and Sprayer
95
86
80
80
74
71
65
68
62
64
59
63
57
VII-77
-------
IUU
CM
.£ 90
Z
O
/
/
/
" ' •-
—
~-
/
f
/
>
^'
^
"~-i^
• — *
^^^
^^.
^^^
^^
/
X
»^^
^""""•s^
l\
\
\
\
X
^
^s*"s^
^^fc
31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 80(
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY IN Hz
Figure VII-23.
Range of Sound Pressure Levels from Pumps
(Measured at 3 ft.) (Curves Represent Upper
and Lower Boundaries of Range), (U.S. EPA,
1971a).
VII-78
-------
90
f
8
£
80
rs
5
I
.5?
'
60
50
Heavy Trucks
Highway Buses
Range
Passenger Can
..... Mean Levels
J I I I
I I I
0 To 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Speed - Miles per Hour
Figure VII-24. Single Vehicle Noise Output as a
Function of Vehicle Speed (U.S. EPA, 1971b).
VII-79
-------
2. Potential Impacts
Noise impacts from the pumping station are minimized because
of a one-mile buffer distance between the station and the closest
farm families. Considering further dissipation of noise by build-
ings, vegetation and topography, the noise level of pumps at a one-
mile distance should be less than 60 dBA. This level is acceptable
for residential areas, as recommended by the U.S. Department of
Housing and Urban Development (U.S. Department of Housing and Ur-
ban Development, 1971 and 1972).
Noise generated by pumps at the Liverpool dock and by barge
pumps will somewhat increase the ambient noise level around the
community of Liverpool. Impacts from this intermittent noise can-
not be quantified in the absence of noise data; however, they
should not be severe.
3. Mitigation of Adverse Effects
Assuming the minimum buffer distance that can be maintained
between the mobile sprayer unit and the nearest sensitive receptor
to be 400 feet, the noise level would be 68 dBA at the receptor
during spraying operation. This situation occurs only at Fields
#31 and #34 through #37. The sludge sprayer is operated only dur-
ing the daytime and seldom remains at one location longer than half
an hour. The average upper 10 percentile noise level (L-ig) of the
mobile sprayer is estimated to be less than 60 dBA at the receptor
and is compatible with residential land use.
VII-80
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allison, L. E., "Salinity in Relation to Irrigation," Advances in Agronomy,
V. 16, 1965.
Campell, R. S. and 0. T. Lind, "Water Quality and Aging in Strip Mined Lakes,"
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, V. 41, No. 11, 1969.
Dalton, F. E. and R. R. Murphy, "Land Disposal IV: Reclamation and Re-
cycle," Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, V. 45, No. 7, July 1973.
Durfer, C. N. and E. Becker, Geological Water Supply Paper, U.S. Department
of the Interior, 1965.
Embleton, T. F. W. and G. J. Thiessen, "Train Noises and Use of Adjacent Land,"
Sound, January-February 1962.
Fair, G. M., J. C. Geyer, and J. C. Morris, Water Supply and Waste»=Water Dis-
posal , John Wiley Sons, Inc.: New York, 1954.
Fletcher, N. H., "The Physics of Ra,in Clouds," (Chapter 6), Cambridge Univer-,
sity Press, 1962.
Fuchs, Aerosol Mechanics. Pergamon Press: New York, 1964.
Hanna, S. R., "Fog and Drift Deposition from Evaporative Cooling Towers,"
Nuclear Safety, V. 15, No. 2, March-April 1974.
Hinesly, T. D., et al., Agricultural Benefits and Environmental Changes Re-
sulting from the Use of Digested Slud
versity of Illinois for the MSDGC, 19
suiting from the Use of Digested Sludge on Field Crops, prepared by the Uni-
"*"! = "71.
Junge, C. E., "Air Chemistry and Radioactivity," Institute of Meteorology
and Geophysics, Johannes Gutenberg University, Germany; International Geo-
physics Series, V. 4; Academic Press: 1963.
Leonardos, G., D. Kendall and N. Barnard, "Odor Threshold Determinations of
53 Odorant Chemicals," Journal^ of the Air Pollution Control Association.
V. 19, No. 2, February 1969.
Mackay, D. and P. J. Leinonen, "Rate of Evaporation of Low-Solubility Con-
taminants from Water Bodies to Atmosphere," Environmental Science and Tech-
nology, V. 9, No. 13, December 1975.
Midwest Research Institute, Studies of the Fulton County, Illinois Land Spread-
ing Operation: "Studies of Odor Complaints in Fulton County," (Part II), pre-
pared for the Fulton County Health Department, January 1974.
MSDGC, Ammonia Volatilization and Ammonia Fixation by Sludge Fertilized Cal-
careous Strip-Mined Spoil Material, presented at the annual meeting of the
American Society of Agronomy (November 1973), MSDGC R&D Department, May 1974.
MSDGC, Contract Plans for the Site Preparation for Land Reclamation. Stage 1,
Zone 1, 1972c.
MSDGC, Contract Plans for the Site Preparation for Land Reclamation, Stage 2,
Zone 1, 1972d.
VII-81
-------
MSDGC, Contract Plans for the Site Preparation for Land Reclamation, Stage 3,
1972e.
MSDGC, Contract Plans for the Site Preparation fcvr Land Reclamation, Stage 4,
1972f.
MSDGC, Contract Plans for the Site Preparation for Land Reclamation. Stage 5,
1972g.
MSDGC, Contract Plans for the Site Preparation for Land Reclamation, Stage 6,
1973i.
MSDGC, Contract Plans for the Site Preparation for Land Reclamation, Stage 7,
1973J.
MSDGC, Contract Plans for the Site Preparation for Land Reclamation. Stage 9,
1973k.
MSDGC, Environmental Protection System Report for Fulton County, Illinois,
Third Quarter, 1972a.
MSDGC, Environmental Protection System Report for Fulton County, Illinois,
Fourth Quarter, 1972b.
MSDGC, Environmental Protection System Report for Fulton County, Illinois,
First Quarter, 1973a.
MSDGC, Environmental Protection System Report for Fulton County, Illinois,
Second Quarter, 19735.
MSDGC, Environmental Protection System Report for Fulton County, Illinois,
Third Quarter, 1973c.
MSDGC, Environmental Protection System Report for Fulton County, Illinois.
August 1973d through December 1973h.
MSDGC, Environmental Protection System Report for Fulton County, Illinois,
January 1974a through December 19741.
MSDGC, Environmental Protection System Report for Fulton County, Illinois,
January 1975a through July 1975g.
MSDGC, The Utilization of Municipal Sludge in Agriculture, presented at
United States/Soviet Seminar on Handling, Treatment, and Disposal of Sludges,
U.S.S.R., May 1975h.
Sexton, B. H., "Traffic Noise," Traffic Quarterly. July 1969.
Squires, P., The Growth of Cloud Drops by Condensation: "General Charac-
teristics," (Chapter I), Division of Radiophysics, C.S.I.R.O., Sydney, Aug-
ust 1951.
VII-82
-------
Turner, D. B., Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates, Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Air Programs, revised 1970.
U.S. Bureau of Census, County and City Data Book. U.S. Department of Commerce,
1972.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Noise Assessment Guidelines,
August 1971.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Noise Assessment Guide-
lines - Technical^ Background, 1972.
U.S. Department of Transportation, Fundamentals and Abatement of Highway
Traffic Noise, 1973.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Evaluation of Land Application Systems.
Office of Water Program Operations, March 1975.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Noise from Construction Equipment and
Operations. Building Equipment, and Home Appliances, prepared by Bolt, Ber-
anek and Newman, December 1971 a.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Transportation Noise and Noise From
Equipment Powered b
tories, December 19
Equipment Powered by Internal Combustion Engines, prepared by Wyle Labora-
71b.
U.S. Public Health Service, Drinking Water Standards, U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, 1962.
U.S. Public Health Service, Manual for Evaluating Public Drinking Mater Sup-
plies, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1969.
VII-83
-------
-------
VIII. DIRECT HEALTH EFFECTS OF THE PROJECT
Sludge contains toxic substances such as heavy metals and also may
contain human and animal pathogens and parasites. If humans or animals
are exposed to these hazardous components in sufficient quantities, ad-
verse health effects could result. There are two routes by which these
components could be transferred from the sludge to the receptor: the
direct route, as in the inhalation of airborne particles; and the indirect
route, as in the uptake of heavy metals by plants consumed by animals or
man. Indirect health effects are discussed in the next chapter. This
chapter deals with the direct health effects, in terms of theoretical
considerations and estimated potential health hazards from airborne path-
ogens and toxic substances. The chapter concludes with recommended mea-
sures to prevent or mitigate direct health hazards.
A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN ASSESSING DIRECT HEALTH EFFECTS OF
SLUDGE AEROSOLS
Among all methods of sludge application, pressurized spraying offers
the greatest potential for direct transfer of hazardous components to hu-
mans or animals. Inhalation presents an opportunity for protracted and
repetitive exposure and does not necessarily stimulate preventive action
by those at risk. In contrast, entry through a wound or by hand-to-mouth
transfer occurs only occasionally and is likely to be consciously avoided.
The largest source of inhalable material per unit of sludge applied is pres-
surized spraying. Lightly pressurized sprinkling or other irrigation re-
leases a lesser amount, and other methods can be classified as negligible
sources.
1. Pressurized Spraying
This section examines the phenomenon of aerosol formation, the
origin and survival of pathogens in sludge, and the presence of toxic
substances.
VIII-l
-------
a. Aerosolization of sludge particles - Any spraying operation
is a potential source of aerosol particles, even if carefully de-
signed and operated to deposit large droplets in the immediate
vicinity. The separation of a liquid jet into drops is accompanied
by the generation of very small "satellite" droplets when the li-
quid thread connecting two drops is broken. A film of liquid simi-
larly separates into large and small drops. These aqueous droplets
evaporate rapidly until their vapor pressure equilibrates with the
partial pressure of water vapor in the atmosphere. Suspended and
dissolved substances, as are found in sludge, leave a residual
particle containing some water retained by physical or chemical
processes.
The size of the equilibrated particle depends on the non-
volatile residue. If the bulk density of this is close to one,
size follows directly from the wet droplet size and composition.
For example, a 15- ^-diameter droplet containing 4% solids will
decrease in volume to 1/25, and the diameter will decrease by
I/ ^y25 or approximately 1/3, becoming about 5y . This calcula-
tion can be used if engineering data on a spraying system is avail-
able, and will determine the amount of sprayed material that will
form particles small enough to remain airborne, and hence the
amount in readily inhalable form. In the present case, there are
neither direct measurements of airborne quantities nor the data
necessary for calculation. This analysis must therefore rely up-
on intelligent estimates and data from systems elsewhere.
The total non-volatile content of the sludge influences the
particle size. Analysis of the sludge determines the amount of
hazardous material in each particle. It may be noted that bac-
teria, which are sizeable compared with the droplets (of the order
of 1-u diameter), will not inhabit all droplets; this is especi-
ally true for larger amebic cysts, helminth eggs, and so forth.
Dissolved substances, in contrast, are present in all particles.
VIII-2
-------
From the point of view of mitigating hazards, it should be
noted that spraying can be designed to minimize, but not to eli-
minate, aerosol formation.
b. Bacterial and viral pathogens - •
Before treatment, domestic wastewater usually
contains the complete spectrum of pathogenic
microorganisms discharged by the community...
(Viraraghavan [1973], quoting Greenberg and
Dean [1958], Rudolfs et al. [1950a,19505]).
Crude sewage contains all the [types of] agents
causing infectious disease in man — bacteria,
viruses, protozoa, intestinal parasites excre-
ted through the intestinal tract. Of these, or-
ganisms of the Salmonella group, which are widely
distributed in man and animals, are by far the most
common in developed countries. ("McCoy, 1971)
Although greatly reduced in number, many pathogens survive waste-
water treatment, including salmonellas, Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
and many enteroviruses (viruses of the gastrointestinal tract). These
may even survive chlorination, and it has been shown that the ab-
sence of coliforms does not necessarily indicate virus inactivation
(Allen et al.. 1949; Sorber, 1973; Kruze et a!., 1970; D'ltri et al.,
u/d). The microbial population of sludge is greatly reduced by
holding for a few weeks, but is not eliminated completely.
Pathogens may be present in sludge even after months of la-
gooning. A major factor influencing their presence and quantity
is the community's discharges into the system, which may be ex-
pected to be highly variable. Sources are human and animal and
they include slaughter houses, the meat products industry, poultry
and egg processing plants, tanneries, and many others (McCoy, 1971).
It is evident that the nature and concentrations of pathogens
entering and potentially surviving treatment must vary widely
from place to place and time to time. Evidence from places other
than Fulton County are therefore of little predictive value, and
samples taken in Fulton County at one point in time will not neces-
sarily be valid for other times. For example, midday counts of
VIII-3
-------
E. coli (all x 10 /ml) in a certain sewage effluent were 5.5 in
January 1970 and 0.18 in September 1970, and midnight counts were
0.3 in both months (McCoy, 1971). Futhermore, E. coli are the
overwhelmingly dominant bacterial species in domestic waste; dis-
eases of seasonal and epidemic character would show much wider
fluctuations.
c. Heavy metals and other toxic substances - Treatment plants
handling a substantial proportion of industrial waste are liable
to have a considerable burden of toxic substances in the sludge.
Thome, Hinesly and Jones (1975) report the following figures:
Table VIII-1. Composition of Fresh, Heated, Anaerobically
Digested Sewage Sludge (Thome et al., 1975)
Dry Sludge Basis
Typical
Concentration Concentration
Range (ppm) (ppm)
3 to 3,000 150
50 to 30,000 3,000
100 to 10,000 1,000
1 to 100 3
25 to 8,000 400
Typical
Amount
(Ib/ton)
0.3
trace
6
2
0.8
Cadmium (Cd)
Chromium (Cr)
Lead (P )
Mercury (Hg)
Nickel (Ni)
For comparison, data available from Fulton County reveal an
average of about 450 ppm for cadmium, and a maximum concen-
tration of 1,125 ppm.
It must be emphasized that the input rate for such materials
at the treatment plant is likely to vary widely, even during stable
conditions of industrial production with discharges occurring, for
example, at one step in a batch process or during periodic cleans-
ing. When processes change or new processes are introduced, fur-
ther variations in the effluent may be expected. Consequently, a
few grab samples widely separated in time may give a highly mis-
leading indication of average concentrations.
VIII-4
-------
2. Variables of Airborne Transmission
The purpose of this section is to identify and discuss the vari-
ables other than those associated with the sludge itself, which influ-
ence the extent of any potential hazard.
a. Variables at the source - The amount of material exposed to
a downwind receptor is directly proportional to the rate and dura-
tion of emission at the source, provided that all other conditions
remain constant. It depends, therefore, on the amount of sludge
sprayed and the proportion converted into windborne particles.
Data is available on the rate of application, but the proportion
aerosolized must be determined by guesswork. From knowledge of
similar operations, it would appear that 1% is a reasonable esti-
mate.
No great significance is attached to the size distribution
of the airborne particles. As will be pointed out later, this is
not an important variable in most cases. The information necessary
to make use of this variable is not available.
Linear dimensions of the source are important. If a continu-
ous point source is traversing an area, such as a mobile sludge
sprayer in a field, the total amount arriving at the receptor will
depend on emissions from all points in the area. Calculation of
dosage therefore involves the linear dimensions of the area tra-
versed by the spraying device.
b. Variables in transit - If airborne particles are released at
a given rate, the downwind concentration will vary in response to
three influences. The concentration is inversely proportional to
windspeed, because this determines the downwind particle spread.
The particles are also spread out vertically and across the wind
by turbulent mixing of the air. The third factor is deposition.
For example, a 50- y particle of unit density has a settling rate
VIII-5
-------
of about 10 cm/sec and will fall through 1 meter of still air
in 10 seconds. However, some particles will remain airborne
much longer in a turbulent atmosphere.
Another form of physical depletion is from impaction on sur-
faces. This is not a significant factor in the present context.
For this type of deposition to occur, particles must be relatively
large, windspeed must be high, or the obstacle must be very narrow;
otherwise, the particles simply slip by the obstacle in the stream-
lines. Therefore, vegetative barriers cannot be expected to effect
any substantial depletion in particles of respirable size.
Pathogens are subject to another form of depletion which can
be extensive. Most pathogens are affected by desiccation and ex-
posure to the atmosphere, and are also highly susceptible to sun-
light or even diffuse daylight. A pathogenic bacterium which would
have survived for weeks in aqueous suspension may be killed in sec-
onds if transferred to an airborne droplet a few microns in diameter
and exposed to daylight. It must be emphasized, however, that this
response is extremely variable. Some live microorganisms are found
in the upper atmosphere, and others cannot survive brief desiccation
in the dark. The composition of the suspending medium is one of
the many controlling variables. Other sludge ingredients may have
a large retarding or accelerating effect on loss of viability (Webb,
1959, 1960a, 1960b).
c. Variables at the receptor - A breathing human is an active
receptor (as opposed to a passive obstacle), "sampling" the air
and trapping particles of different sizes in various parts of the
respiratory tract. The rate of "sampling" depends upon the degree
of activity and can vary by one order of magnitude or more. An
average figure of 20 liters per minute,corresponding to light acti-
vity, will be used in this analysis. Efficiency of retention varies
from 100% for larger particles to about 25% for those least retained.
However, most of the total mass of airborne material will be in par-
ticles for which 100% retention is an acceptable approximation.
VIII-6
-------
Account will not be taken of the effect of particle size on
the infectivity of some microorganisms. It is certainly true that
the number of microorganisms required to infect exposed subjects
will vary greatly with particle size. Experiments performed with
bacterial agents in animals have shown that the infective dose is
much less for 1-y than 10-y particles, the transition occurring at
about 5 y and corresponding with a transition from deposition in
the lower to the upper respiratory tract (Harper and Morton, 1953;
Druett et a!., 1953). Particles less than 5 u in diameter are fre-
quently spoken of as being in the "respirable" size range, and
many recent papers, including several on sewage aerosol hazards,
are written as though larger particles were not hazardous. However,
there is evidence that the difference is small in some cases (e.g.,
for Pasteurella pestis in the rhesus monkey), and it may be supposed
that enteroviruses, impacted in the upper respiratory tract and
subsequently swallowed,can infect via the gastrointestinal tract.
Furthermore, we are also concerned with toxic substances for which
the portal of entry may bear little significance.
3. Calculation of Downwind Sludge Particle Concentration
The portion of the sprayed sludge which becomes airborne and avail-
able for inhalation, the downwind concentration, and the amount retained
in the respiratory system are all independent of the presence of patho-
gens or toxic substances. The proportion of potentially hazardous com-
ponents is too small to affect the physical variables controlling the
characteristics of the system. Consequently, the most convenient approach
is to calculate the exposure of downwind receptors to airborne sludge
particles, and convert this to intake of hazardous substance by using
the known or hypothesized concentration in the sludge.
Another step that is taken to produce a general model applicable to a
range of conditions is to deal with a single day's application by one
spraying array, using typical dimensions for the operation. These calcu-
lations can be easily used to estimate the effect of a day's operation
with different dimensions, and the cumulative effect of several opera-
tions.
VIII-7
-------
a. Operational characteristics - A typical day's operation was
chosen to be represented by the following conditions:
• Application area = 24 acres or 116,160 square yards
(assumed to be a square with 341 yd. or 312 m side)
• Application rate (dry basis) = 54 dry tons total or
2.25 tons per acre
• Duration of application = 12 hours
• Sludge solids composition = 4.5%.
These dimensions are based on information obtained from the Prairie
Plan management, stating that sludge is sprayed at a rate of 2 acres
per hour to a depth of 1/2 inch for a period of 8 to 16 hours per
day, depending upon length of the day. On the basis of this infor-
mation, the total dry tonnages of sludge applied in one day are
presented in the following table.
Table VIII-2. Amount of Sludge Applied as a Function of
Spraying Time (assuming 4.5% solids)
Hours per day Acres per day Dry tons
8 16 36
10 20 45
12 24 54
16 32 72
It is further assumed that 1% of the total sludge sprayed be-
comes airborne, the spray trajectory peaks at 45 ft or about 14 m,
and a 12-hour daily application period is average. The percentage
airborne is based only on general knowledge of aerosol formation
in large-flow-rate jets. The spray trajectory assumes a discharge
elevation of 45° and throw radius of 100 to 150 ft (Prairie Plan
staff). The meteorological conditions assumed for the purpose of
this study are a windspeed of 5 m/sec and Stability Class B,
VIII-8
-------
representing most probable conditions, and a windspeed of 1 m/sec
and Stability Class D, representing worst case conditions. These
meteorological conditions are based on an estimate of average local
daytime conditions on days suitable for sludge spraying during the
irrigation season. It was felt that a more thorough analysis of
climatological data would not justify the considerable effort,
in view of the larger uncertainties stemming from variables of air-
borne concentration of the hazardous material and of receptor res-
ponse.
b. Model approach - Receptor response is assumed to be proper- ,
tional to cumulative exposure, as is common for pathogens and
chronic poisons. The source is regarded as a uniform area source,
the area being the acreage sprayed in one day. This is assumed to
be a square with a side perpendicular to the wind, and the area
source is conveniently approximated as a crosswind line through
the center of the square.
Lateral dispersion is treated by the virtual point source
method. An upwind point is computed, from which emitted particles
would give a cloud width equal to the crosswind line in the given
stability conditions. Downwind diffusion is then calculated as
though the source were at the virtual point. Similarly, an up-
wind point (or line) is computed to give a cloud height equal to
the actual height from the top of the spray trajectory to the
ground.
Receptors are placed at various distances downwind from the
downwind side of the square, to approximate several actual condi-
tions:
t 100 m -- operator or close onlooker
• 500 m -- nearest uninvolved bystander
• 1000 m -- nearest resident population cluster.
VIII-9
-------
c. Model calculations - The diffusion equation used is
x = Q
where
X = concentration (g/nr)
Q = source emission strength (g/sec)
TT = 3.14
ay = crosswind standard deviation
GZ = vertical standard deviation
u = windspeed (m/sec)
To calculate the source emission strength (Q), the total dry weight
of sludge applied is converted to grams:
54 tons x 2,240 Ibs/long ton x 454 g/lb = 5.5 x 106 g
The duration of the sludge application period is then converted to
seconds:
12 hrs x 3,600 sec/hr = 4.32 x 104 sec
Source emission strength is then calculated using the total dry
weight and period of duration:
5.5 x 106 - 4.32 x 104 = 1.27 x 102 g/sec
The area source is approximated as a 312-meter crosswind cen-
terline; its standard deviation is estimated to be 73 meters
[312 ; 4.3] (Turner, 1969). For Stability Class B, representing
average meteorological conditions at the project site, this cor-
responds to an upwind point source at 430 meters, or 1,060 meters
for Stability Class D which represents the worst case. Total dis-
tance is calculated by adding the receptor distance to the upwind
vin-io
-------
source distance. Table VIII-3 below presents values of the crosswind
standard deviations (ay) for Stability Classes B and D and for
three receptor distances.
Table VIII-3. Values of Crosswind Standard Deviation (a )
J
Receptor Distance (m)
256
656
1156
Stability B
Total Distance,
686
1086
1586
ay
110
170
235
Stability D
Total Distance,
1316
1716
2216
av
88
112
142
The upper boundary of the source has been estimated at
14 m above ground. Assuming this to represent two standard de-
viations, we have a 0z0 value of 7 m. For stability B, this cor-
responds to an upwind ground level source at 70 m and for stability
D, 160 m. Total distance is calculated by adding the receptor
distance to the upwind ground level source distance. Table VIII-
4 presents values of the vertical standard deviation (az).
Table VIII-4 Values of Vertical Standard Deviations (a7)
Receptor Distance (m)
256
656
1156
Stability B
Total Distance, az
326 33
726 75
1226 135
Stability D
Total Distance, az
416 16
816 28
1316 38
VIII-11
-------
Now the value of X for average and worst easy conditions
can be calculated as follows:
V -
A
TTC
Table VIII-5. Values of
Receptor Distance (m)
256
656
1156
Q _ Q
y a u F
Sludge Aerosol
Stability B
11 °y
3.14 110
3.14 170
3.14 235 1
Concentrations (X)
(Windspeed = 5 m/sec)
az
33
75
35
u F Q/F (g/m3)
5 5.7xl04 2.2x10"^
5 2.0x10^ 6.4xlQ-4
5 5.0xl05 2.5x10'*
Receptor Distance (m)
256
656
1156
Stability D
rr ay
3.14 88
3.14 112
3.14 142
(Windspeed = 1 m/sec)
az
16
28
38
u F Q/F (g/m3)
1 4.4xl03 2.9x10-2
1 9.8X103, 1.3x10,
1 1.7x10* 7.5xlO"J
d. Daily respiratory intake - Assuming that the receptor is an
adult male engaged in light activity throughout the spraying period,
the respiratory intake rate is equal to 20 liters per minute for
a duration of 12 hours. The intake would, of course, be propor-
tionately less for a shorter exposure time. The total inhaled
volume is equal to:
20 liters/min x 12 hrs x 60 min/hr x 10"3 m3/! = 14.4 m3
VIII-12
-------
By multiplying the total volume inhaled by the aerosol concen-
trations (x) calculated above, a daily respiratory intake of
sludge can be determined.
Table VIII-6. Calculated Respiratory Intake
of Sludge Particles for One Day
of Spraying
Receptor distance (m)
256
656
1156
Stability B
(wind 5 m/sec)
3.2 x 10
9.2 x 10
-2
-3
3.6 x 10
-3
Stability D
(wind 1 m/sec)
4.2 x 10
1.9 x 10
-1
1.1 x 10
-1
-1
This table also shows the daily intake in micrograms of a sub-
stance present in the sludge at 1 ppm (dry weight), and can be
used to calculate the intake of a substance present .at any other
concentration. For example, if cadmium is present at 200 ppm,
the 256-m receptor, in stability D, will take in:
4.2 x 10"1 x 2 x 102 = 84 ug.
The emphasis of attention in Fulton County and elsewhere has
been on pathogenic hazards by direct and indirect routes and toxic
substance hazards by indirect routes only. It is felt that the
direct route has been unduly neglected. The ensuing calculations
show that airborne spray may also impose toxic risks.
Analysis of the sludge applied in pulton County is presented
in Table VIII-7. Multiplying the sludge respiratory intake by
the appropriate concentration of a substance gives the estimated
respiratory intake of that substance.
VIII-13
-------
Table VIII-7. Analysis of Liquid Sludge (ppm dry wt)
Date
Total Solids (%)
Cd
Concentrations (mg/1)
Cr Cu Pb Hg
wt. basis)
Table VIII-8. Calculated Respiratory Intake (ug)
Zn
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Avg.
Avg.
1
1
1
1
(
974
974
974
1974
974
ppm, drj
4
4
4
3
4
4
/
.10
.16
.24
.88
.23
.12
—
8.
11.
13.
11.
13.
11.
289
8
9
5
4
8
9
104
154
131
110
125
125
3040
59.7
71.3
75.9
60.6
69.5
67.4
1640
32
37
37
31
27
33
800
173
226
203
197
141
188
4570
125
168
168
150
166
155
3770
Metal *
Cd
[70 Ug]
Cr
Cu
Pb .
[430 ug]
Hg
[43 ug]
Zn
Receptor distance (m)
256
656
1156
256
656
1156
256
656
1156
256
656
1156
256
656
1156
256
656
1156
Stability B
(5 m/sec)
9.2
2.7
1.0
97
28
11
52
15
6
26
7
3
146
42
16
121
35
14
Stability D
(1 m/sec)
121
55
32
1277
578
334
689
312
181
336
152
88
1919
868
503
1584
716
415
Bracketed numerals represent WHO recommended maximum daily intake
VIII-14
-------
In comparing the calculated estimates of respiratory intake
with WHO-recommended maximum daily intakes, it must be remem-
bered that the WHO figures are for continued daily intake. The
figures for cadmium (Cd), for example, show intakes under "worst
case" conditions which are similar to the WHO limit, but subjects
are unlikely to be exposed to spray for more than a few days per
year. A possible exception is the .operators who might experience
a substantial aggregate of exposure if they work consecutively in
many fields. The figures for mercury (Hg), in particular, suggest
that significant doses could be received. It may be supposed, how-
ever, that protracted exposure downwind is unlikely to occur.
Calculations such as these made for pathogens instead of
heavy metals would have to account for the proportion of bac-
teria or virus particles that remain infectious after spraying
and downwind travel. This amount could be very large and would
vary tremendously under different environmental conditions.
Furthermore, airborne survival is quite unpredictable except
for highly robust species.
VIII-15
-------
B. POTENTIAL DIRECT HEALTH HAZARD OF AIRBORNE PATHOGENS AND TOXIC SUBSTANCES
The purposes in this section are to review the likelihood of airborne
survival of pathogens and their dose effects, handicaps due to data short-
comings, and implications of air contamination for human and animal health
based on studies in the literature.
1. Areas of Variability and Uncertainty
The nature and concentration of pathogens in the sludge is an ex-
tremely variable and uncertain area. Well water, streamwater, and soil
sampling programs do not serve as useful indicators of pathogen con-
centrations in the sludge at the time of irrigation, because surface
exposure and percolation through the soil are extremely effective cleans-
ing processes. Pathogen die-off during sludge storage in the holding
basins in another important variable, depending on storage time.
a. Airborne pathogen survival - The second area of variation is
in airborne survival. Most microorganisms, especially pathogens,
lose viability when sprayed, mainly because of the "drying" process
of equilibration with the atmosphere, and sensitive organisms may
be sterilized. However, there are some which are not affected and
continue to survive indefinitely in the dark; spores of Bacillus
anthracis are an example. The rate of decay is influenced by tem-
perature and humidity, being accelerated by higher temperature and
responding variably to humidity. For example, the polio virus sur-
vives best at high humidity, and vaccinia, influenza and Venezuelan
equine encephalomyelitis viruses at low humidity (Harper, 1961).
The survival of vegetative bacteria five munutes after spraying
demonstrate the variability experienced with different humidities
and bacterial species (see following Table VIII-9).
VIII-16
-------
Table VIII-9. Five-Minute Survival (%) at
Different Humidities (Morton, 1962)
Relative Humidity
85-87% 50% 20%
Brucella suis 91 78
Bact. tularense 42 26 1.9
These experiments were performed at 45° to 54°F in the dark;
higher temperatures show similar effects, and sunlight is extremely
destructive for bacteria and viruses. Responses to temperature,
humidity and light are strongly modified by substances accompany-
ing the microorganism in the airborne particle, but this effect is
unpredictable. Other material in a sludge aerosol will probably
favor pathogen survival, but laboratory or field data for aerosols
formed elsewhere from different aqueous media cannot be applied to
Fulton County with confidence.
b. Receptor dose effect - A third area of uncertainty is dose-
effect relations. The number of inhaled organisms required for
infection of humans is very difficult to determine. Similar in-
formation concerning toxic substances is more readily available
because animal experiments in that area can be extrapolated more
reliably. Quantitative estimates of accidental human exposure to
toxic substances are easier to make, and direct human experimen-
tation with low doses is often acceptable. In contrast, species-
to-species extrapolation is far less reliable for pathogens, quan-
titative evidence is seldom available for accidental infections,
and human experiment is usually barred. There are a few sound data
concerning human infection by the respiratory mite, such as for
Q fever and tularemia, but no data are available concerning likely
pathogenic hazards of sewage sludge. A further complication is
that operators and local inhabitants, those most at risk, may be sub-
VIII-17
-------
ject to repeated exposures of subinfective live pathogens or large
numbers of dead pathogens. Such exposures are recognized ways
for building immunity and might affect the sensitivity of the local
population.
2. Absence of Appropriate Data
There are several reasons why the pathogenic hazard is very diffi-
cult to predict:
• Occasional samples taken may be quite unrepresentative
• Pathogen content of the sludge as sprayed is unknown
• If pathogen content were known, airborne survival would
be quite unpredictable
• If air samples were available for estimating the respira
tory intake, the effect on exposed humans could not be
predicted.
Any evaluation of direct health hazards at Fulton County must
therefore be a matter of judgment based on indirect evidence. An ob-
jective evaluation would be possible if certain observations were made,
On the other hand, if spray operations are drastically reduced as pre-
sently planned, there is little need for such observations,
The direct evidence concerning the sludge as sprayed does not of-
fer more than a broad estimate of chemical composition and an indica-
tion, based on lagoon sampling, of a bacterial content that is much
lower than that of freshly digested sludge. Environmental sampling of
well water, streamwater, soil, and crops helps to measure hazards, but
tells little about the sludge as applied, because of the strongly modi-
fying effects of exposure and percolation. No air samples have been
taken to determine biological or chemical composition of the aerosols.
This study is thereby deprived of the knowledge of what is present and
of what quantity. The first might be surmised if thorough sludge analy-
ses (as sprayed) were available, though with considerable uncertainty
about labile microorganisms. The second could be estimated for stable
chemical constituents only.
VIII-13
-------
3. Human Health Implications from Indirect Evidence
The most useful indirect information concerning the Fulton County
project is the absence of reported health effects. As this situation
continues, the probability of serious trouble clearly diminishes. How-
ever, future high levels of pathogens or toxic substances in the sprayed
sludge could result from a severe epidemic, changed industrial pro-
cesses, defective treatment plant operation, or abbreviated sludge hold-
ing time. Lack of evidence concerning health effects is apparently
based on absence of conspicuous ill effects rather than an active medi-
cal search for indicators. For example, serological evidence of immune
levels might point to subinfective exposure, medical records might show
abnormal incidence of respiratory disease in the vicinity, or occupational
health records might reveal cases where exposure at home had tipped the
balance of response by augmenting occupational exposure to an industrial
chemical.
Despite these reservations, the missing evidence is encouraging
and correlates with experience elsewhere (Viraraghavan, 1973; Sorber,
1973; Benarde, 1973; Krishnaswami, 1971; Dixon and McCabe, 1964;
Anders, 1954; Browning and Gannon, 1963; Ledbetter et al., 1973; Illi-
nois Advisory Committee, 1975). Note, however, that the evidence in-
dicates the level of risk to be low rather than nonexistent.
There is no doubt that the influent wastes at treatment plants
contain a wide range of pathogens (see, e.g., Viraraghavan, 1971;
McCoy, 1971) that are not totally destroyed by treatment, including
chlorination (Sorber, 1973; Kruze et al., 1960). Although holding
the sludge further reduces pathogens, there is no evidence that it
eliminates them entirely, and toxic metals and other chemicals may re-
main in sludge in significant concentrations. Also, there is evidence
that operations which release small droplets do generate bacterial
aerosols at treatment plants (Kenline and Scarpino, 1972; Adams and
Spendlove, 1970; Napolitano and Rowe, 1966; Albrecht, 1958; Randall
and Ledbetter, 1966). There is, therefore, reason to believe that
VIII-19
-------
pathogens might exist in the sludge as sprayed and that toxic sub-
stances certainly do, and spraying will definitely result in downwind
aerosol transport of sludge constituents.
Another possible mode of transmission that could affect both man
and animals is by insect vector. Any irrigation operation resulting
in standing water containing pathogen-contaminated sludge presents a
potential hazard (Sorber, 1973). There are no data to support an eval-
uation of this risk for Fulton County, but it may be surmised that the
risk is small or negligible. The initial concentration of any pathogen
would not be high and would be likely to decay rapidly in exposed shal-
low water. In addition, the stagnant water is unlikely to remain for
long periods of time, so the chances of infecting vectors are low.
4. Animal Health Implications
Domestic and wild animals are also subject to airborne exposure,
and waste reaching treatment plants may contain a wide range of patho-
gens and parasites capable of affecting animals exclusively. However,
there is another route for transmission of biological and chemical
agents which may be directly transmitted through ingestion of fodder
plants coated with sludge spray. (This is explored in Chapter IX.)
VIII-20
-------
C. MEASURES TO PREVENT OR MITIGATE DIRECT HEALTH HAZARDS
Recommendations are of two types: actions which would support a more
thorough evaluation of the hazards, and actions which can be taken to reduce
known or suspected hazards.
1. Improved Evaluation of Hazards
Literature on epidemiology of sludge spray irrigation and similar
operations should be more thoroughly reviewed. Useful evidence may be
found, especially in foreign journals. Further evidence from wastewater
treatment plants is not needed. Public health records should be analy-
zed and data collected on industrial discharges to provide a better
identification of the original inputs into the wastewater system. This
information should be examined for correlation with the sludge analyses
to guide future controlling actions in the event of increased pathogen
or toxic substance loads.
Biological and chemical analysis of sludge as sprayed should be
conducted. Air sampling should be performed downwind of the spraying
operation, concurrently with the foregoing sludge analysis. Conditions
favoring a risk should be selected: low temperature, stable atmosphere,
light wind, overcast day. Although less important than on-site sludge
analysis, biological and chemical analysis of sludge leaving the treat-
ment plants would provide baseline information concerning the input to
the on-site storage and spraying operations, and supply better knowledge
of the hazards attendant on short-circuiting the holding stage.
2. Reduction of Known or Suspected Hazards
The following measures are recommended for preventing or ameliora-
ting hazards to human and animal health:
• Entirely eliminate sludge spraying in favor of soil incorpora-
tion and spreading techniques. This would eliminate the aero-
sol hazard.
VIII-21
-------
a Minimize wind drift by designing spray equipment for low
spray nozzle velocity and discharge near the ground. Oper-
ate in moderate to low wind with high turbulence to favor
dispersion.
t Reduce downwind survival of pathogens by operating in con-
ditions favoring viable decay: low windspeed, warm tempera-
ture, daylight. Avoid stable, cool air in overcast or dark.
• Minimize pathogen content at the time of spraying by longer
retention in sludge lagoons and Fulton County holding basins,
Watch for local peak hazards by public health liaison and
monitoring of pathogens and toxic substances at the treat-
ment plants, increasing holding time if necessary. Ensure
that holding procedures cannot be short-circuited.
• Confine sludge sources to non-industrial sewage or pre-
treated industrial wastewater in order to minimize toxic
heavy metals.
VIII-22
-------
BIBLlOGkAPHY
Adams, A. P. and J. C. Spendlove, "Coliform Aerosols Emitted by Sewage
Treatment Plants," Science, V. 169, 1970.
Albrecht, C. R., "Bacterial Air Pollution Associated with the Sewage
Treatment Process," University of Florida (M.S. thesis), 1958.
Allen, L. A., et al., "Effect of Treatment at the Sewage Works on the
Numbers and Types of Bacteria in Sewage," Journal of Hyg., V. 47, 1949.
Anders, W., "The Berlin Sewer Workers," Zeitsch f. Hyg.. V. 1, 1954.
Benarde, M. A., "Land Disposal and Sewage Effluent: Appraisal of Health
Effects of Pathogenic Organisms," Journal of AWWA. V. 65, No. 6, 1973.
Browning, G. E. and J. J. Gannon, "Operator Protection in Wastewater
Treatment Plants," Journal Water Pollution Control Federation. V. 35, 1963.
D'ltri, F. M., et al., "An Overview of Four Selected Facilities That Apply
Municipal Wastewater to the Land," EPA Technology Transfer Program (undated),
Dixon, F. R. and L. J. McCabe, "Health Aspects of Wastewater Treatment,"
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation. V. 36, No. 8, 1964.
Druett, H. A., et al., Studies on respiratory infection: "The Influence
of Particle Size on Respiratory Infection With Anthrax Spores," Journal
Hyg.. V. 51, No. 31, 1953.
Greenberg, A. E. and B. H. Dean, "The Beef Tapeworm, Measly Beef, and
Sewage --a Review," Sew. Ind. Wastes. V. 30, 1958.
Harper, G. J., "Airborne Microorganisms: Survival Tests with Four Viruses,"
Journal of Hyg.. V. 59, 1961.
Harper, G. J. and J. D. Morton, "The Respiratory Retention of Bacterial
Aerosols: Experiments with Radioactive Spores," Journal of Hyg., V. 51,
No. 3, 1953.
Illinois Advisory Committee on Sludge and Wastewater Utilization on Agri-
cultural Land, report on work conducted March 1974-January 1975, Illinois
Environmental Protection Agency, February 1975.
Kenline, P. A. and P. V. Scarpino, "Bacterial Air Pollution from Sewage
Treatment Plants," Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. Journal, V. 33, No. 5, 1972.
Krishnaswami, S. K., "Health Aspects of Land Disposal of Municipal Waste-
water Effluents," Journal Public Health. V. 62, 1971.
Kruze, C., et al., "Halogen Action on Bacteria, Viruses and Protozoa,"
specialty conference on disinfection, University of Massachusetts, July
1970.
VIII-23
-------
Ledbetter, J. 0., et al., "Health Hazards from Wastewater Treatment Prac-
tices," Environ. Letters, V. 4, No. 3, 1973.
McCoy, J. H., "Sewage Pollution of Natural Waters," Microbial Aspects of
Pollution, Academic Press: London and New York, 1971.
Morton, J. D., "Survival of Microbial Aerosols: Experimental Observations
and Calculations," Journal of Hyg., V. 60, 1962.
Napolitano, P. J., and D. R. Rowe, "Microbial Content of Air Near Sewage
Treatment Plants," Water and Sewage Works, December 1966.
Randall, C. W. and J. 0. Ledbetter, "Bacterial Air Pollution from Activated
Sludge Units," Am. Ind. Hyg. Association Journal, V. 27, 1966.
Rudolfs, W., et al., Literature review of the occurrence and survival of
enteric, pathogenic, and relative organisms in soil, water, sewage, and
sludge, and on vegetation: "Bacterial and Virus Diseases," Sew. Ind.
Wastes. V. 22, 1950.
Rudolfs, W., et al., Literature review of the occurrence and survival of
enteric, pathogenic, and relative organisms in soil, water, sewage, and
sludge, and on vegetation: "Animal Parasites," Sew. Ind. Wastes, V. 22,
1950.
Sorber, C. A., "Protection of the Public Health," symposium on land disposal
of municipal effluents and sludges, Rutgers University - The State University,
March 1973.
Thome, M. D., et al., "Utilization of Sewage Sludge on Agricultural Land,"
Illinois Cooperative Extension Service, SM-29, April 1975.
Turner, D. B., Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates, PHS Publica-
tion 999-AP-26, NAPCA, 1969.
Viraraghavan, T., "Occupationally Related Health Hazards in Wastewater
Treatment Systems," Water Pollution Control Federation Highlights, V. 10,
1973.
Webb, S. J., Factors affecting the viability of airborne bacteria: "Bac-
teria Aerosolized from Distilled Water," Can. Journal Microbiol. V. 5,
1959.
Webb, S. J., Factors affecting the viability of airborne bacteria: "The
Effect of Chemical Additives on the Behavior of Airborne Cells," Can.
Journal Microbiol. V. 6> 1960.
Webb, S. J., Factors affecting the viability of airborne bacteria: "The
Role of Bonded Water and Protein Structure in the Death of Airborne Cells,"
Can. Journal Microbiol, V. 6, 1960.
VIII-24
-------
IX. INDIRECT HEALTH EFFECTS OF THE PROJECT
This chapter examines the potential indirect health effects of the pro-
ject, such as those caused by the consumption of vegetables or meats contami-
nated by pathogens or heavy metals in sludge. The chapter begins with a dis-
cussion of theoretical considerations such as the interaction between sewage
sludge and soil, and identifies potentially hazardous constituents. The
potential for biomagnification of toxic substances in the food chain is
then discussed in detail, beginning with an assessment of the accumulation
of toxic substances in soil, and proceeding to each trophic level until hu-
man health implications are addressed. The chapter concludes with sugges-
tions of measures to prevent or mitigate indirect health effects.
A. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN ASSESSING INDIRECT HEALTH EFFECTS
Sludge applied to land has a variety of effects upon the soil. The
first part of this section discusses the types of interactions that occur
between sewage sludge and soil, and the second part examines the behavior
of nutrients and trace elements in the soil.
1. Sewage Sludge and Soil Interaction
An overview of the sources of interaction of sludge components
in the food chain is depicted in Figure IX-1. Sewage sludge under-
goes many types of reactions after being incorporated into soil.
These general reactions are illustrated in Figure IX-2. Reaction
rates and conditions are governed by soil type, cover crop, and en-
vironmental characteristics such as temperature, ion exchange capa-
city, organic matter, soil organism loading, and so forth. Some
interactions are known, but most are only guessed at. There are no
models available which can be used to make predictions about the
effects of sludge on various soil and plant components or characteris-
tics. This section first identifies the variables affecting these in-
teractions and then examines the effects of sewage sludge on soil
structure, erosion, and the soil atmosphere.
IX-1
-------
Soil i
Organisms ^ . s<
|
i
F
C
r
"ood
,rops
1
1
Soil
r
ill ^
i ,
1
Runoff
HoO \ / H90
\ /2
Fish
and Marine
1
<
Ce
I
Slu
1
dge
r
Foraaes Foliaae
rec
Eggs
> i
r
By-products of
il
-
' !
r
Milk Meat Breed in
1
\
Animals
L Human ^»
""Food
,
g
I
1
Forest and ^
Range
So
Or
Ga
il
ganisms
me
above processes
Figure IX-1. Sources of Interaction of Sludge Components in the Food Chain
(Enviro Control, Inc., 1976)
IX-2
-------
Sludge
Soil
Atmosphere
Organic
Matter
-------
a. Factors in sludge and soil interaction - Soil type is the
primary factor in determining the effects of sludge on soil. The
texture of the original soil from the strip-mined land ranged from
loam to clay loam. During stripmining, the overburden, including
loess, glacial drift, limestone and shale, was mixed as spoil.
This material was further mixed by subsequent leveling and grading
as part of land reclamation. Efforts were made to minimize damage
during reclamation by leveling and burying ridges of shale, lime-
stone and claystone.
Chemical and physical sludge properties are also of prime im-
portance in determining effects upon the soil. Depending upon the
season, treatment plant output, shipping schedule, and other con-
straints, the sludge shipped to Fulton County may be fresh from
digestion or it may have been mixed at variable concentrations with
high-solids sludge from storage lagoons. Sludge may have been
stored for up to 20 years in these lagoons. Physical
and chemical properties of the sludge as shipped are shown in
Table VII-3 (page VII-10). In the past, because of Fulton
County facility constraints, barged sludge may have been
pumped into, and supernatant effluent pumped out of, the
same storage basin concurrently. This should not occur under
current operating procedures as separate storage lagoons are planned
to be used. This will result in a minimum storage time of six months.
Effects of sludge upon soil are determined to a great extent
by application rates. Sludge application to strip-mined land is
authorized on a sliding rate scale of 75 dry tons per acre for the
first year-, and 25 tons per acre for the following years. Because
sludge application rates must be modified according to climatic and
cropping conditions, maximum spreading rates are seldom reached.
For the coming year, sludge will be incorporated at a maximum rate
of 25 dry tons per acre in five to six applications to non-cropped
land. Cropped land will receive approximately half that amount in
three applications (two pre-planting and one post-harvest). Sludge
IX-4
-------
application rates and their effect on a specific soil type must
be studied under actual conditions, because inadequate data exists
to accurately predict effects.
b. Effects upon soil structure, erosion, and the soil atmosphere -
Sludge application has physical as well as chemical effects on soils.
These physical effects are mainly the result of the high content of
organic matter in sludge, which directly influences soil structure
and indirectly influences other soil properties, such as aeration.
The interactions between sludge and physical soil characteristics
are so numerous as to preclude an overall analysis. Hence, effects
are evaluated in terms of soil aggregation, infiltration rates, soil
aeration, and others.
Organic matter improves soil properties by providing a matrix
for ionic loading and water adsorption. This increased nutritive
capacity results in increased productivity. In fine textured soils,
sludge organic matter provides a matrix for the formation of a sta-
ble structure. Figure IX-3 below shows the effect of sludge on sta-
ble aggregate formation. The influence of organic matter on aggrega-
tion probably reflects a combination of both direct and indirect
effects. The indirect effects are observed through the influence of
soil organisms upon soil aggregation, particularly fungi, actino-
mycetes, and bacteria (Hubbell and Staten, 1951).
40
o:
CD
m 20
UJ
C_3
UJ
Q-
Soil With 5% of
Digested Sludge
Soil
Figure IX-3.
Effect of Sewage Sludge on Stable Ag-
gregates (Hubbell and Staten, 1951)
IX-5
-------
Increased aggregate stability results in increased infiltration
and permeability rates, increased aeration porosity, and decreased
bulk density. These properties, in turn, influence soil erosion
potential, the soil atmosphere, and the types of reactions occurr-
ing in the soil. Erosion potential decreases with increased water
infiltration rates and stabilization of soil particles, with a re-
sulting decrease in dislodgement and filtration. In addition, a
surface layer of organic matter reduces the energy of raindrop or
spray droplet impact. Reduced erosion may be among the most posi-
tive benefits derived from sludge application.
The soil atmosphere is affected by sludge application, pri-
marily through the effect or organic matter on microbiological popu-
lations (Wakeman, 1932). The soil atmosphere controls the types
of reactions occurring within the soil. Anaerobic conditions favor
denitrification while aerobic conditions favor nitrification.
Ethylene gas, methane and carbon dioxide may accumulate in soil un-
der anaerobic conditions (Russell, 1961). This, in turn, affects
the uptake of water and nutrients by plants. For example, potas-
sium uptake is reduced under high carbon dioxide conditions. The
uptake of Ca, Fe, Mg, and Ni are affected to a lesser degree. Ef-
fects on other elements have not been extensively examined. Sludge
application also affects gaseous diffusion, which is directly re-
lated to soil porosity (Erickson, 1973), as well as soil heat up-
take and water evaporation. It should also be noted that sludges
with high sodium concentrations may have a deleterious effect upon
structured soils through a dispersion effect, as well as creating
conditions for potential salt toxicity.
The organic matter in the soil of Fulton County strip-mined
land begins at an extremely low level and increases on a long-term
basis until it reaches a steady state equilibrium. The mainte-
nance level of sludge application (25 dry tons per acre per year)
provides maximum nitrogen utilization by crops, and should sup-
ply sufficient organic matter for further improvement of soil
structure, although possibly at an artificial level. If sludge
IX-6
-------
were not added after equilibrium was reached, the residual soil
organic matter would presumably decompose and decrease on a log
scale until a new equilibrium, consistent with agronomic practices,
was reached. Probably some soil structure would be lost (Peerlkamp,
1950). If the land lay fallow, organic matter may decrease to near
the original level as bacterial populations are altered. This could
have a dramatic effect upon mineral availability, because most trace
minerals in the soil are absorbed onto or chelated by soil-organic
matrices.
The above change, coupled with a concurrent decrease in soil
pH, loss of buffering capacity and basic elements, and alteration
of conic complexes, could drastically increase the availability of
trace elements. This is a primary cause for scientific concern
about indiscriminate application of sewage sludge to land. Data
does not exist to confirm or refute this hypothesis.
If soil erosion occurs in the future, environmental impacts
from sludge application could be severe. Estimates of normal yearly
2
soil loss range up to 1.5 tons per acre (or 10,000 tons/mi ). Losses
of 30 tons per acre have been recorded on specific small watersheds
(Bondurant, 1970). Since erosion of farmland occurs mainly on the
surface zone, which is analogous to the area of mineral accumulation,
soil erosion may remove sizable quantities of trace metals from land
applied with sludge. Runoff and soil erosion have also directly cor-
related with herbicide application. Herbicides are used extensively
on reclaimed land to control severe weed infestation (Hall, 1975,
personal communication). Catch basins and soil conservation prac-
tices presently control this problem, but future problems may oc-
cur.
2. Behavior of Nutrients and Trace Elements in Soil
Nutrients can be classified as soluble, intermediately soluble, or
relatively inert. Water from sludge and rainfall carries soluble con-
IX-7
-------
stituents while percolating through soil drainage channels. These con-
stituents consist mainly of Na+, K+, NH^"1", Ca+2, Mg+2, Cl", S04"2, N03"2.
HCO-~ and H_BO^, all of which can cause potential problems. The effect
%J *J %J
of sodium on soil structures was cited earlier. With either high rain-
fall and/or irrigation, these solids may leach, resulting in pollution
of the water table (Richards, 1954).
Soluble cations are capable of exchanging with others where the
rate is governed by ionic activity. The major cations of high solu-
+2 +2 + + +3
bility and activity are Ca , Mg , Na , K , and, in acidic soils, Al
and H . A partial list of ions classified as having intermediate solu-
bility includes ionic forms of As, Cd, Co, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, P, Pb, and
Se. Although considerable work has been done with these elements, much
is unknown about their specific solubility, precipitation processes
and interactions. A third group of ions form relatively inert compon-
ents in soils, and are not generally influenced by soil-plant interre-
lationships. This group inc
which form insoluble oxides.
lationships. This group includes ions such as Cr , Fe , and Mn
Accumulation of nutrients and minerals in the soil is an inevitable
result of disposing sludge on the land. As a rule, plants do not accumu-
late large quantities of soil elements other than nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium, and the actual quantity removed permanently from the soil
by commercially salable products is small even for these. Chemical
analyses of soil for total and available nutrients after sludge appli-
cation were unavailable at the time of this writing. By examining soil
composition prior to land leveling or after leveling, after initial
high-level sludge application, and with succeeding sludge application
rates, the effects of sludge application as a function of total and
available elements could readily be evaluated.
This section discusses the relationship between total and avail-
able nutrient concentrations in the soil, and then identifies elements
of potential or minimal hazard.
IX-8
-------
a. Total and available soil concentrations - The important concept
in evaluating the effects of sludge application is not the loading
rate of an element per se, but the availability of the element in
the soil matrix. After sludge is applied, precipitation and other
reactions affecting the activity of an element may take several
weeks or longer to reach equilibrium (Patterson, 1966; Webber, 1972;
Curry and Gigliotti, 1973; Lehman and Wilson, 1971; Leeper, 1973).
When evaluating the potential effects of an element, the oxidation
state, the presence of other ionic elements, chelating agents, and
the soil organic matrix must be considered.
The availability of an element in the soil matrix can be ex-
perimentally estimated by periodically taking soil samples and per-
forming analyses using standardized procedures (Standard Methods
for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 1965). The data de-
rived allow the determination of availability as a percent of a
total element present, which should roughly agree with the total
soil loading from sludge application after correcting for original
soil loads and crop removal. If it does not, a loss through leach-
ing or some other process should be suspected.
b. Heavy rnetals of potential hazard - Copper, nickel and zinc are
usually present in sludge in small quantities and in various insolu-
ble forms. Solubility is directly related to pH (Lindsay, 1972).
The addition of these elements to the soil may actually be beneficial
as they are often deficient in foods for human consumption. At very
high levels of availability, these elements can be toxic to plants
and animals. Cadmium apparently behaves in a manner similar to cop-
per, nickel and zinc. It may be the major problem in applying sludge
to Fulton County land because of its high concentration especially
in relation to the zinc content. USDA recommendations and draft EPA
regulations would limit the Cd level in sludge to 1% of the Zn con-
tent. The rationale for this proposal is that Zn plant toxicity would
IX-9
-------
occur and be noticed before Cd in the plant reached a level poten-
tially harmful to human or animal health. Others feel that this
level of Cd is too high and does not provide an adequate safety
factor for routine unmonitored use.
Chromium behaves similarly to other elements such as zinc.
It is normally found as Cr in insoluble hydroxides. Low pH and
reducing conditions should increase its availability, perhaps re-
sulting in plant toxicity. Proper management will eliminate this
problem. Lead forms relatively insoluble compounds in soil, includ-
ing PbCCL, PbSO,, and Pb» (PCL)2 under normal conditions. Solu-
bility is probably directly related to soil pH and redox potential.
Lead may present a problem, especially in sludge originating from
treatment plants where urban storm runoff and sanitary sewage are
combined.
c." Mineral elements of minimal hazard - Nitrogen is presently the
limiting element for sludge application in Fulton County. Soil
nitrogen is derived from organic residue as NH. , which is rapidly
oxidized to NCL~ by soil bacteria. Under reducing conditions,
NO,, may be converted to NO ~, N2, and O. The gases NH0, N~ and
N-O may escape from the soil as denitrification losses. From 15 to
50% of sludge nitrogen may be lost in this manner. Normally, soil
nitrogen is in the anionic NO,," form and moves as a solution in
groundwater. Nitrogen toxicity to plants or groundwater pollution
can be eliminated by proper management.
Phosphorus usually forms insoluble complexes with Al and Fe, or
at higher pH with C or Ca (Lindsay and Moreno, 1960). Since phos-
phorus is a major constituent of sludge, it may also become a limit-
ing element, especially after several years of sludge application.
Phosphorus toxicity in soybeans has been observed (University of
Illinois and MSDGC Department of Research and Development, 1975).
High levels of phosphorus may be toxic per se, or may create nutrient
imbalances resulting in deficiencies of other elements (Olsen, 1972).
IX-10
-------
The limiting factor for phosphorus uptake is Al, Ca, and Fe levels,
which usually exceed needs. The other aspect of the potential phos-
phorus problem is the presence of detergent polyphosphates and the
organic phosphates used in insecticides and herbicides.
Calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium are usually major soil
constituents and generally present no problem unless applied at ex-
tremely high levels. Normal leaching processes will remove these
elements by ionic exchange mechanisms, but their loss should not pose
a greater hazard than that associated with mine spoils. Iron and man-
ganese occur in abundance in natural soils, normally in the form of
insoluble hydroxides and oxides. The addition of sludge should not,
therefore, cause any problems unless the soil is allowed to become
acidic. Under these and reducing conditions, the elements become
solubilized and may cause toxicity and pollution problems which can
also be controlled by management. Sulfur exists as the sulfur anion
except under anaerobic reducing conditions. It is known to play a
role in metal uptake by interacting with other elements.
IX-11
-------
B. POTENTIAL INDIRECT HEALTH HAZARD OF BIOMAGNIFIED TOXIC SUBSTANCES
This review of potential indirect health effects resulting from sludge
application to strip-mined land is structured into several sections. First,
the accumulation of sludge components by soil and plants, with an emphasis
upon corn, soybeans and grasses, will be evaluated. The potential accumula-
tion of sludge components in milk, beef, pork and chicken will be discussed
second. The next area of interest is the accumulation of components by wild-
life or soil animals. The former could be represented by deer and
rabbits, and the latter by gophers and worms. All of the above fac-
tors play a role in the evaluation of hazards to the last group and major con-
cern of this study — humans.
Assessment of problems is confounded not only by lack of data, but by
continued modification and alteration of sludge handling and disposal proce-
dures. For the coming years, 85% of the worked acreage is supposed to have
sludge incorporated into the soil by disking or plowing operations to a depth
of 8 to 10 inches. Spraying will be utilized on 15% of the interior land in
four fields. Two will be planted to alfalfa-brome mixture for winter pasture
and two to Sudax for summer pasture. These fields will then be "field grazed"
by 87 head of beef cattle over the year.
1. Evidence of Accumulation in Soil
This section presents evidence of accumulation of both heavy metals
and organic compounds in the soil.
a. Concentrations of heavy metals - As a point of reference, 1968
FWPCA water quality criteria for irrigation water were compared
with the composition of sludge applied betweeen May 1974 and Octo-
ber 1974, using the maximum monthly average application rate. The
ratios of sludge concentrations of Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, and In to the
FWPCA limits for short-term irrigation of fine-textured soil reveal
one outstanding difference: Cd is 276 to 1 or about 16-fold greater
than the next highest ratio, which is for zinc (17 to 1). This indi-
cates tremendous cadmium enrichment relative to zinc. Table IX-1 on
the following page compares typical amounts per acre of soil constitu-
IX-12
-------
ents with amounts added in 200 dry tons of sludge (maximum annual
rate per acre). Again, one dramatic difference is apparent. The
sludge-to-soil ratio for cadmium is 1,400, which is 29 times
greater than the next highest ratio, and 56 times greater than
the ratio for zinc. These same calculations could be made for
Fulton County soils if sufficient data were available.
Table IX-1. Comparisons of Normal Soil Constituents to a Sludge
Loading Rate of 200 Dry Tons per Acre (Bowen, 1966)
Element
Cd
Cr
Cu
Pb
Mn
Hg
Ni
Zn
Amount in
Sludge (mg/kg)
350
4450
1800
1720
400
8
350
5000
Amount added
to Soil (kg/ac)
70
980
360
344
86
1.2
70
1000
Amount Present
in Soil (kg/ac)
Normal Range
0.01-0.6
4-2500
1-80
2-160
80-3500
0.01-0.25
80-800
8-250
Typical Level
0.05
80
16
8
700
0.025
30
40'
*
Sludge- to-
Soil Ratio
1400
11
22
43
0.01
48
2
25
*
Ratio of amount in 200 dry tons of sludge to typical soil level
Data published on the build-up of trace metals in soils (see
Tables IX-2 and IX-3) show discrepancies between experimental and
theoretical findings. In Table IX-2, accumulations of extractable
trace elements are shown for soil treated with 76 tons of sludge
over 12 years, indicating that contamination problems can develop.
The analysis shows the sludge to be high in copper and mercury, but
extremely low in cadmium. The percent recovery is a reflection
of element availability and shows an increased mineral pool avail-
able to the plants, presumably originating from sludge. This
indicates that mineral reversion and binding may not be as exten-
sive as many hypothesize. The last column reflects element appli-
cation rate as a percent of control soil and shows an extremely
high loading rate of mercury.
IX-13
-------
Table IX-2. Changes in the Concentrations of Extractable Trace Elements
in Soil Following Application of 76 Tons of Sewage Sludge
Over a Period of 12 Years (Anderson and Nilsson, 1972)
Element
Mn
Zn
Cu
Ni
Co
Cr
Pb
Cd
Hg
Mo
As
B
Se
Sludge
373
4,890
1,960
88
12.2
176
293
11.
12
7.4
6.6
30
7.3
Control
Soil
476
97.9
25.5
28.2
14.2
36.1
25.7
1.2
0.018
0.53
12.3
0.59
0.238
Treated
Soil
_ mn / \s n __
— iiiy/ Kg
480
368.8
90.5
43.3
14.6
61.0
43.9
1.7
0.675
0.68
12.5
0.76
0.569
Total Amount
Appl iedl
11.8
154
61.9
2.78
0.38
5.56
9.25
0.35
0.38
0.23
0.21
0.95
0.23
o
Recovery
( "/}
\i°)
98
146
104
140
100
146
125
no
170
Nv
XX89
100\
\
49 3
121
4
Application
("/}
\/o )
2
157
243
10
3
15
36
30
211
43
3
X 161
N<7
Assuming the bulk density of the soil was 1.33. Except for boron, percent recov-
ery is based upon concentrations extracted with 2 M mineral acids.
>
"Within the surfaci
possibly erosion.
5F
4,
2
Within the surface 20 cm of soil. Losses are due to plant removal, leaching and
F
3
Refers to recovery of water soluble boron.
Amount applied as a percent of control soil.
IX-14
-------
Table IX-3. Element Analysis of Sludge and Top Six
Inches of Soil (Hinesly et a!., 1972}
Total Element
in Soil
Extractable Element
in Soil
Element
Ca
Fe
Mg
Mn
K
Na
Zn
Cu
Pb
Cr
Ni
Cd
Sludge
Application
(mg/Kg soil)
37 75
1362
2023
397
25
175
84
285
74
63
177
18
20
2747
4046
794
49
351
166
570
148
126
354
36
40
Sludge Application Rate
(tons/ac)
0
(mq/Kq
3,000 3
18,300 18
2,700 2
1,200 1
18,000 17
5,900 5
72
19
31
29
23
1.1
(0.1)*
37
soil)
,100
,000
,800
,400
,800
,900
163
34
44
61
25
5.1
(4.1
75
3,100
18,500
2,500
1,500
18,200
6,000
260
52
60
86
28
8.
)* (7.
Sludge Application Rate
(tons/ac)
0
1200
499
400
304
222
14
13
3.
6.
.
2.
5 0.
5)* (0.
37
(mg/Kg soil)
1200
792
413
428
229
27
98
9 19
6 17
9 11
3 5.3
2 3.8
02)* (3.6)*
75
1500
775
410
402
260
32
181
32
30
19
7.0
7.0
(6.8)*
Hg
0.025 0.05
0.04
0.15 0.27
See comment in accompanying text.
IX-15
-------
Table IX-3 shows sludge, total soil and extractable soil con-
centrations of elements for the top 15 cm of soils on sludge-
treated land. Total and extractable elements are increased for
all of the trace elements reported. Since there may have been an
error in the determination of the Cd level in this experiment, a
second line is included, showing that total Cd increases seven-
fold with a high background value, but 75-fold with a low back-
ground value. The same relationship is obtained for extractable
Cd, with a 35-fold increase for a low background value. Table
IX-4, displayed below, presents the data in a different perspec-
tive, where the extractable pool is calculated as a percent of the
total pool. The percent recovery of trace elements in the sludge
applied to the soil is also shown, indicating that element loss is
high. Assuming that the techniques are valid, element loss oc-
curred through plant uptake, leaching or soil erosion.
Table IX -4. Recovery of Trace Elements as a Function of
Trace Elements Applied (Hinesly etal., 1972, 1974)
Sludge Application Rates (dry tons per acre)
Element 0_ 37 75. 37 75
Element Availability (extractable
element/total element) Recovery in 0-15 cm depth* Recovery in 0-15 cm depth*
(X) (%) (%) (*) (*)
17 15
16 13
16 19
17 19
10 11
27 35
*Assuming that all elements applied remain in the 0-15 cm layer.
Cd
Cr
Cu
Pb
Ni
Zn
22
3
23
—
10
18
75
17
56
21
21
60
83
21
61
35
25
68
IX-16
-------
In another study, trace element concentrations extracted from
soils treated with sewage sludge for 19 years were compared with sam-
ples from untreated control sites and from the sludge applied (see
Table IX-5). Considering that application of sludge was discon-
tinued in 1961, the 1967 analyses indicate long-term availability
of these elements. It is apparent that sludge loaded ele-
ments will be available for plant uptake for a considerable period
of time. The soil onto which the sludge was applied had greater
than normal concentrations of Cu, Ni, and Zn. The level of zinc in
these sludge-treated soils may be toxic to susceptable crops (Purves,
1972).
To evaluate the Teachability of various elements from sludge-
treated mine spoils, laboratory soil columns with three sludge appli-
cation rates were leached for 100 days (see Table IX-6). The ex-
tractable elements were determined at various depths after leaching.
Note that sludge incorporation was uniform. It is interesting that
extractable quantities of each element vary with depth and sludge
loading rate. This shows the difficulty in predicting the behavior
of any particular element under specific conditions.
Table IX-7 records the concentrations of elements at two depths
with four sludge loading rates. The data clearly show accumulations
of weak extractable elements with increasing sludge application rates
for both sampling depths. It also shows that most elements are con-
centrated in the upper layer of soil. Available cadmium and chro-
mium disclose the largest increases of 20 and 35 times background
levels, respectively, indicating the need for careful monitoring
under these conditions. All trace elements need to be monitored
periodically for both total and extractable levels. Particular
emphasis needs to be placed on Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Hg, Ni, and Zn in
all cases, and others depending upon the composition of the sludge.
Much needs to be learned about the behavior of trace elements from
sludge when applied to soil.
IX-17
-------
Table IX-5. Trace Elements Extracted by 0.5 N HOAc from Soils Treated
with Sewage Sludge for 19 Years and the Sewage Sludge Ap-
plied, and Compared with Normal Scottish Soils
2
Concentration Extracted by 0.5 N HOAc
Description Cr Cu Pb Mi Zn
Hg/g
Sewage Sludge Applied 3.5 20 3.2 50 800
Control:
Sampled in 1959
Sampled in 1967
Treated :
Sampled in 1959
Sampled in 1967
4
Normal Scottish Soils
Low
High
From Le Riche (1968). Sewage was applied annually at an average rate of
66.5 tons per year for 19 years.
2
Results are the mean from 2 plots.
Treatments were discontinued after 1961. In 1959 and 1967 the total sludge
was 1,260 and 1,393 m. tons/ha, respectively.
4From Mitchell (1964).
0.3
0.9
2.8
2.6
0.01
1.0
5
15
20
58
0.05
1.0
1.2
1.6
5
4.2
0.2
4.0
4.2
4.4
18
8.1
0.1
5.0
88
83
395
275
2
30
IX-18
-------
Table IX-6. Concentrations of Various Trace Elements Extracted
From Sludge-Amended Acid Spoil Mine Material (Peterson
and Gschwind, 1973)
Treatment*
^ m i*nnc/hji^
\ III • LUMo/ flu )
Control
61
122
Spoil
Depth
(r+rn }
U\\)
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
Cr
4.3
20
3.5
77
78
52
51
5.2
3.8
0.1 N HC1
Cu
14
33
5.5
126
127
80
67
7.1
6.4
Extractable
Mn
Hn/n
— ny/y
8.0
7.7
3.5
21
19
12
10
5.5
3.8
Zn
54
136
145
556
488
104
206
113
70
*Sewage sludge was incorporated uniformly to 2 kgm of spoil material
rates indicated.
IX-19
-------
Table IX- 7. Concentrations of Trace Elements Extracted With
0.1 N_ HC1 from Sludge-Amended Soils (Hinesly
et al., 1972)
Application
Rate
(m. tons/ha)
0
44
88
166
Concentration in Soil (Hg/g)
0
44
88
166
Cd
0
1
3
7
0
0
0
0
.2
.5
.8
.0
.6
.7
.8
.9
Cr
0.94
3.3
11
19
0.6
0.8
1.3
1.6
Cu
3.
8.
19
32
3.
4.
5.
6.
0-15
9
4
30-45
5
9
9
4
Pb
cm
6.
11
17
30
Mn
depth
6 304
306
428
402
2
3
5
7
Ni
.3
.5
.3
.0
Zn
13
41
98
181
cm depth
2.
2.
4.
5.
0 45
7 63
2 57
3 61
2
3
3
.6
.6
.6
3.6
7.8
12
16
18
IX-20
-------
The use of sewage sludge in reclamation of strip-mined land
for agricultural purposes may be a significant hazard due to heavy
metal accumulations in food plants and animal produce. The ele-
ments most likely to cause problems are As, Cd, Pb, and Se, with
Cd posing the greatest hazard considering the relative concentra-
tions in the applied sludge. A complicating factor is high back-
ground levels of certain heavy metals in mine spoils. University
of Illinois researchers pointed out that the black shale overlying
the coal seam had been considered a heavy metal mining resource
(Hinesly, 1975, personal communication). Since it was interspersed
within the overburden, it may contribute significantly to the heavy
metal lead in soils.
b. Concentrations of organic compounds - Relevant data could not
be located concerning the levels of organic compounds in sludge,
let alone the accumulation of these compounds in sludge-treated
soils. One exception is humus-related material, which directly af-
fects water and mineral retention and is easily studied. Accumu-
lation of humus is governed by its equilibrium with soil bacteria.
As more organic carbon is applied and more soil organisms are pre-
sent, more organic carbon is degraded. However, quantitative infor-
mation on this process sufficient for reliable predictions is lack-
ing, as is information concerning the effects of arbitrarily halt-
ing sludge applications. These data are necessary to predict the
hazard from trace metals once sludge application is discontinued.
Another concern with organic compound accumulation which may
eclipse humus in importance is the build-up of organic contaminants
such as fats and oils, chlorinated hydrocarbons, herbicides, bio-
logically active metals such as methyl-mercury, and others. Al-
though data was insufficient to assess potential effects of these
organic contaminants, such effects are known to exist in other-
cases. Therefore, a potential hazard could be assumed to exist
in Fulton County.
IX-21
-------
2. Evidence of Accumulation in Plants
Since research has shown that total and available minerals accumu-
late in sludge-treated soil, the potential for accumulation and concen-
tration of minerals in plants grown in such soil must be assessed. Ful-
ton County is in a prime agricultural region where the predominant crops
are corn and soybeans. These two crops will therefore be analyzed in
this section, along with grasses, which could serve as forage or ground
cover.
Data presented in Table IX-8 show typical concentrations of trace
elements in soils as compared to levels in plants. Suggested toxic
levels for "average" plant species are proposed (i.e., ignoring accumu-
lator species). The problem with interpreting this data is that there
is no way to predict availability and uptake of elements.
a. Concentrations in corn plants - Analysis of trace element ac-
cumulations in corn plants and leaves is given in Table IX-9 for
four sludge application levels. The data reveal definite accumu-
lations of Cd and Zn in corn leaves. Mn and B also accumulate
but to a lesser degree. Zn and Cd levels in grain are increased
with increasing sludge application, whereas Mn and N show no sig-
nificant change at the sludge application rates used. Assuming
that these Cd values may be in error, accumulation of Cd would be
even greater than is indicated. The validity of this assumption
is supported by USDA research which reports the Cd level for corn
samples to be 0.035 to 0.148 with a mean of 0.055 + 0.043 mg/kg
(Garcia et al., 1974). This data indicates that there is a de-
finite potential hazard from mineral accumulation in corn grain
and plants.
From the available data, cadmium appears to be the most po-
tentially detrimental element in grain. If the corn plants were
harvested as silage for animal consumption, many elements could pre-
sent problems. In similar laboratory work, Zn and Cr were both
found to be toxic to corn plants, but at extremely high levels
which would probably require long-term sludge application (Mortvedt
and Giodano, 1975).
IX-22
-------
Table IX-8. Concentrations of Trace Elements in
Soils and Plants (Allaway, 1968)
Concentration
in Soils Qug/g)
Concentration
in Plants (jjg/g)
Element
As
B
Cd
Cr
Co
Cu
Pb
Mn
Mo
Ni
Se
V
Zn
Common
6
10
0.06
100
8
20
10
850
2
40
0.5
100
50
Range
0.1 -40
2 -100
0.01-7
5 -3,000
1 -40
2 -100
2 -200
100 -4,000
0.2 -5
10 -1,000
0.1 -2.0
20 -500
10 -300
Normal
0.1 -5
30 -75
0.2 -0.8
0.2 -1.0
0.05-0.5
4 -15
0.01-10
15 -100
1 -100
1
0.02-2.0
0.1 -10
15 -200
Toxic*
—
75
—
—
—
20
—
--
—
50
50-100
10
200
*Toxicities listed do not apply to certain accumulator plant species,
IX-23
-------
Table IX-9.
Element
Fe
Mn
In
Na
Cr
Cu
Pb
Ni
Zn
Cd*
Hg
Content of Trace
Sludge
Application
(Kg/ac)
1,639
3,279
20
40
77
134
143
287
60
120
51
102
14
29
231
462
16
32
2
4
0.017
0.033
lements in Corn
Hinesly et al .
Corn Leaf
(mg/Kg)
107
101
111
81
92
116
96
in
94
4
5
4
9
10
9
7
7
6
3
3
4
58
138
212
3
5
12
26
35
44
0.03
0.03
0.04
Versus
, 1972)
Corn Grain
(mg/Kg)
100
95
106
18
11
18
146
99
232
0.3
0.3
0.4
5
5
6
0.03
0.04
0.03
2
3
3
89
127
152
0.3
0.8
1.0
7
5
7
0.005
0.005
0.004
*Baseline data may be erroneous by a factor of lOx.
IX-24
-------
b. Concentrations in soybean plants - Application of sludge to soy-
beans has demonstrated that serious problems could develop. When
sprayed on soybean fields, sludge accumulates on the leaves and re-
sults in decreased photosynthesis. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria liv-
ing symbiotically with legumes are eliminated. In addition, soy-
beans are extremely susceptible to salt and phosphorus toxicity.
This was observed when 105 tons of MSDGC sludge were applied to
Blount silt loam. The toxicity was reduced by leaching, which pre-
sumably reduced the soluble salt load in the soil (Thome and
Hinesly, 1975).
Soybean plants have been shown to accumulate Cd from sludge-
treated soils (Jones et al., 1973). The addition of 87 metric
tons per hectare produced Cd levels in plants of 18.5jug/l as op-
posed to 1.8jug/l at the control plot. Seeds showed a maximum
concentration of 1 jug/1. Other work summarized in Table IX-10
also indicates that soybean grains can accumulate Cd and other
metals, including Cu and Zn. Presumably other elements can also be
concentrated in soybean seeds.
In summary, trace element uptake has clearly been shown to
occur in corn and soybeans grown on sludge-treated land in Fulton
County or on similar land, as well as in laboratory and analogous
field studies. Data are insufficient for predicting the long-term
effects of sludge application to land. This indicates a need for
continuous evaluation and prompt reporting of results prior to the
release of any product for consumption by humans.
c. Concentrations in grasses and other plants - Data on grasses,
including wheat and rye, disclose a large variation in mineral
uptake. Uptake is dependent upon the plant species and the strain
within the species (Bingham et al., 1975; Dowdy and Larson, 1975).
Trace element uptake is a particular problem with lettuce, because
lettuce is an accumulator. Uptake of Ni by wheat and Cu and Ni by
IX-25
-------
Table IX-10. Analysis of Soybeans Versus Total
and Extractable Soil Elements
(Hinesly et al., 1971)
0.1 NH4C1
Soybean Extractable Total
Element Grain (0-15 cm) (0-15 cm)
(mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)
Na 481 17 8,200
591 26 7,800
507 35 7,500
Zn 154 13 55
174 154 244
175 301 336
Mn 79 103 1,600
89 305 1,300
93 291 1,300
Cu - 31 5 15
30 51 65
29 75 90
Cd* 0.4 0.2 1.7
0.9 8.5 7.8
1.2 13.6 12.3
*Baseline errors may have resulted in erroneous data.
IX-26
-------
oats is shown in Tables IX-11 and IX-12. As with other crops,
soil pH and metal levels have significant effects upon plant mineral
levels. The same types of effects are shown in Table IX-13 for B,
Cu, Mn, and Zn in rye. In this study, Zn accumulated over 20 times
more than at the centrol plot with increasing sludge application
rates. The same pattern would probably be seen for Cd under the
same conditions.
English scientists find instances of metal toxicity to
plants on a routine basis on sludge-treated lands (Patterson,
1971). However, many reports of toxicity involved sludge appli-
cation far in excess of that authorized for Fulton County. Toxi-
city was usually attributed to Zn and Ni.
Tolerance levels have been proposed for monitoring heavy me-
tals and are shown in Table IX-14. In lieu of any nationally ac-
cepted values, these figures appear to be reasonable as a starting
point. The ultimate use of a crop (i.e., human or animal consump-
tion), subsequent dilution, and many other factors are important in
determining these values.
3. Evidence of Accumulation in Domestic Animals
Two factors must be considered when examining the potential for
metals accumulation in animals. The first consideration is whether the
level of ingestion is sufficient to cause short or long-term toxicity
or ill health symptoms. Secondly, the question of whether the biotrans-
fer of elements via animal products is high enough to cause short or long-
term toxicities in the consuming public must be considered.
The primary foods to be concerned about are milk, beef, eggs and
pork or chicken. The first two commodities come from the class of
animals known as ruminants, and the latter two from monogastrics.
a. Toxicity with bioaccumulation - Little data is available con-
cerning types of metal toxicity, as animal scientists have been
concerned with supplying enough rather than too much of a particular
IX-27
-------
Table IX-11
Effect of Ni Applied to Soils at Different pH Levels
on the Ni Content of Spring Wheat (Patterson, 1971)
Concentration of Ni in Plants
Ni
Applied
(Hg/g soil)
0
5
10
20
40
80
160
Grown in Soil @ pH:
5.1
:
2.5
4.5
3.0
8.0
10.0
74.0
--
5.5
un
2.2
2.5
3.7
4.7
6.5
17.2
105.
6.5
Ni/g dry matter —
1.0
0.75
2.2
2.0
2.75
3.0
8.25
7.5
„
0.5
0.5
—
0.75
1.25
3.0
Table IX- 12. Copper and Nickel Concentrations in Oat Plants
as Influenced by Amount of Sewage sludge Applied
and Soil pH (Page, 1974 - condensed and modified
from Patterson, 1971)
Amt. Sludge
Applied
(m. tons/ha)
0
33
67
134
Concentration
Concentration in Plants (Hg/g)'
in Soil
Cu
—
14
28
56
(Hg/g)1
Ni
--
97
194
389
Cu
pH 5.3
11
12
12
19
pH 6.8
13
12
12
14
Ni
pH 5.3
8
90
120
210
pH 6.8
4
28
50
70
In-
Disregarding amount present initially; concentrations in soil are based upon
air dry weight.
"Concentrations in plants are on a dry matter basis.
IX-28
-------
Table IX-13.
Sludge Rate
(m. tons/ha)
0
42
84
121
242
Trace Element Composition and Yield of Rye Clipoinqs
As Influenced by Sludge Ayplications to Soils (King
and Morris, 1972)'
Treatment
unlimed
limed
unlimed
limed
unlimed
limed
unlimed
limed
unlimed
limed
Yield0
TkgTha)
2,000
2,120
1,180
1,570
1,540
1,960
1,650
2,090
390
900
Trace Element
Concentration3
B
5.0
6.2
5.0
6.2
8.8
6.8
6.5
7.5
8.8
6.5
Cu
Hn/n
ng/g
10.0
10.2
11.0
10.2
12.5
11.5
14.5
12.0
20.0
16.0
Mn
128
93
84
72
133
89
111
82
227
161
Zn
32
30
150
106
232
186
340
251
775
579
1
All treated with NPK inorganic fertilizer at recommended rates.
"Total applied on an oven dry weight (110°C) basis over a 2-year period,
Dry weight basis.
IX-29
-------
Table IX- 14. Probable Available Form, Average Composition
Range for Selected Agronomic Crops, and Sug-
gested Tolerance Levels of Heavy Metals 1n
Crops ( Melsted, 1973)
Barium
Cadmium
Cobalt
Copper
Iron
Lead
Lithium
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel
Strontl urn
Z1nc
Arsenic
Boron
Chromium
Fluorine
Iodine
Molybdenum
Selenium
Vanadium
Probable
Available
Ba-H-
Cd-H-
Co++
CU-H-
Fe-H-
Pb-H-
L1++
Mn-H-
Hg-n-
N1-H-
Sr++
Zn++
As04
HB03
Cr04
F"
r
Mo04
Se04
V03
Common Average
Composition Range
(ppm)
Cations
10-100
0.05-0.20
0.01-0.03
3-40
20-300
0.1-5.0
0.2-1.0
15-150
0.0001-0.01
0.1-1.0
10-30
15-150
Anlons
0.01-1.0
7-75
0.1-0.5
1-5
0.1-0.5
0.2-1.0
0.05-2.0
0.1-1.0
Suggested
Tolerance Level*
(ppm)
200
3
5
150
750
10
5
300
0.04
3
50
300
2
150
2
10
1
3
3
2
*Average values for corn, soybean, alfalfa, red clover, wheat, oats, barley
and grasses grown under normal soil conditions. Greenhouse, both soil and
solution, values omitted.
IX-30
-------
element. Table IX-15 deals with the appearance of toxic symptoms
in poultry and swine. Research has shown that toxicities for most
compounds are usually in the same order of magnitude for various
animal species. This is generally true for initial and lethal
effects and is accepted as preliminary evidence for between-species
testing. Data also tends to be concerned with short-term (in the
order of weeks) rather than long-term (in the order of years and de-
cades) toxicity effects. Presumably the long-term toxic level
would be considerably lower than that reported in Table IX-16.
What little data exist indicate that bioaccumulation of most
trace elements does not occur in most types of livestock tissue.
Absorption of trace elements is influenced by body stores of the
element, the form in which the element occurs, efficiency of the
digestion process (i.e., separation and breakdown of element-
organic complexes), and the absorption rate.
Absorption of trace elements is rather inefficient, the maxi-
mum amount absorbed being 0 to 25% of the element intake. If an
animal is biologically able to excrete more of a particular element
per day than absorbed, no tissue build-up will occur unless the ex-
cretory process for that element is regulated by a metabolic mechan-
ism. The liver and kidney may be exposed to high levels of trace
elements during the excretory process. The bioaccumulation of
mineral elements is known to occur in the kidney and liver of do-
mestic animals. For food-producing animals, disposal of the kidney
and liver upon slaughter eliminates the potential problem from the
food chain.
In any case, this type of accumulation makes it difficult to
estimate allowable animal intakes. This, coupled with variability
in absorption due to nutrient intake and composition, confounds the
problem even further. The excretion of trace elements by domestic
animals via milk or eggs does not appear to be a problem according
to limited work using I.V.-administered radionuclides.
IX-31
-------
Table IX-15. Short-Term Toxicities of Elements in Feeds
Element
Al
Ba
Br
Cd
Cl
Cr
Co
Cu
Fe
F
I
Mg
Mn
Hg
Mo
Ni
Pb
Se
Ag
Na
Sr
V
Zn
NOs'2
N02"2
SO.
4
Form
A1C1 3
—
NaBr
CdS04
KC1
Cr2(S04)3
CuS04
NaF
K-
MgC03
MnS04
Hgso4
Na2Mo04
NiS04
Pb acetate
Se wheat
AgS04
Na2S04
SrC03
Na4V207
ZnO
NaN03
N02
CaSO,
4
Chicken (mg/kg)* Swine (mg/kg)*
500
—
5,000
25
15,000
300
5
324 300
5,000
500
625 800
6,000
4,800 4,000
400
200
500
500
10 5
200
8,900
6,000
10
3,000 2,000
900
400
25,000
*
Lowest level of which symptoms occur (generally decreased growth rate)
IX-32
-------
b. Toxicitywith direct ingestion - The second issue in heavy
metal intake by domestic animals is the direct ingestion of sew-
age sludge by grazing or forage-fed animals. Preliminary data
(Chaney, 1975, personal communication) disclose a sludge content
of up to 18% of dry matter in field-harvested forage samples irri-
gated with sludge. A single 13-inch rain reduces the proportion of
sludge in the harvested sample to 9%. These data clearly indicate
that direct ingestion of sludge via the forage from sludge-irrigated
fields may pose a significant problem to animals.
A sample calculation indicates the potential problem. If
sludge containing 50 ppm at 4% solids is spread on land, and assum-
ing 10% of forage dry matter to be sludge, then Cu intake would be
125 ppm of the grazed forage. Cu toxicity symptoms may appear at
20 ppm, depending upon the effects of other elements. The intake
would be six times higher than the point where toxicity symptoms
may occur. Another example might be Cr intake when forage contains
4% sludge on a dry matter basis. Intake would exceed the 100 ppm
level considered toxic for animals, if the sludge contained 3,000
ppm on a dry matter basis.
An analogous issue is the direct ingestion of dirt which con-
tains high levels of trace elements. This could present a signi-
ficant hazard, especially to low grazers such as sheep and to rooters
such as swine.
In summary, research indicates that bioaccumulation of heavy
elements from plants in animals tissues or in milk or eggs is a
minimal problem. Accumulation in the liver or kidney may present
a problem under certain circumstances, such as when Cd levels in
feed plants and grains are high. A significant trace element prob-
lem may exist for domestic animals by direct ingestion of sludge
via forage or soil. The USDA and FDA have ongoing research programs
to assess the hazard level, but complete results will not be avail-
able for several years.
IX-33
-------
4. Evidence of Accumulation in Wildlife
For the purposes of this study, wildlife is divided into two cate-
gories and discussed separately. The first category consists of micro-
organisms and microfauna inhabiting the soil; the second consists of
avian and mammalian species.
a. Soil microorganisms and microfauna - Soil microorganisms are
concentrated in the top 15 cm of soil. Estimates of microorganism
7 9
numbers per gram of soil are: bacteria, 10 to 10 ; actinomycetes,
106 to 107; fungi, 105 to 106; algae, 104 to 105; and protozoa, 103
to 10 . Bacterial biomass is estimated to be approximately 2,800
pounds per acre. Actinomycetes, fungi and a combination of other
soil groups each contribute an equal amount of biomass totalling
15,000 pounds per acre. Little is known about the biological role
of various soil organisms, let alone their in vitro metabolic eccen-
tricities and the effects of sludge application. However, one study
showed significant changes in bacterial populations and in biochemi-
cal and enzymatic activity of the populations in sludge-treated land
(Miller, 1973).
Soil microanimals, which include neiratodes, earthworms, flat-
worms, snails, centipedes, millipedes, woodlice, arachnids, and
insects in various stages, are also affected by sludge application.
These animals probably play an important role in waste recycling
on sludge-treated land (Burges and Row, 1967). Recent research
(Helnke, 1975, personal communication) shows that earthworms have
a heavy metal uptake which is directly proportional to contact time.
Biomagnification is observed for Cd and Hg, with Cd accumulations 30-
to 70-fold greater than soil concentrations. Research also indi-
cates that earthworms are selective foragers for soil organic matter.
Research is underway to determine the effects of methyl mercury on
earthworms. Earlier work indicates that earthworms may accumulate
lead.
IX-34
-------
b. Birds and mammals - Effects of sludge application on wild birds
have not been investigated as far as can be determined. Sludge ap-
plication could result in increased food supply, habitat changes,
changes in predatory activity, and so forth. Potential effects due
to bioaccumulation by the bird per se or from a diet of soil micro-
animals could be significant. An important consideration is that
the access of wild birds to sludge-treated lands cannot be restric-
ted or controlled. An initial estimate of hazard may be made by
correlating the hazard presented by heavy metal uptake to poultry.
No references were found in which the potential effects on wild
mammalian species were evaluated. The considerations are the same
as for avian species. Domestic animals could be used as models for
hazard assessment, but potential effects on wildlife will probably
be more severe than on domestic animals because of the inability to
manage the consumption patterns of wildlife. Available research
data indicates that a potential hazard does exist.
As the Fulton County project increases in size over time and
land use patterns are altered, there probably will be significant
changes in wildlife species. The first noticeable effect may be
upon the growth and re-establishment of the Canada geese popula-
tion, because these geese use the sink and pot holes endemic to non-
reclaimed strip mine land for breeding. Another problem is the
tremendous potential for mosquito breeding with subsequent anthropod-
borne disease transmission. This potential problem was verified
(Pariyek, et al., 1967) through avian hemcocytrozon parasite in-
fections determined by blood smears.
5. Human Health Implications
Potential indirect human health hazards are extremely difficult to
assess. This section first describes the problems associated with this
type of assessment, and then discusses the implications for human health
of agricultural, conservation, and community-related use of the land on
which sludge has been applied.
IX-35
-------
a. Difficulties of assessing hazards to humans - Evaluation of
human health hazards resulting from mineral consumption presents
five problems on which little research has been conducted. First,
human susceptibility to specific mineral toxicities varies from per-
son to person. This is genetically transmitted information which
may cover many mitigating factors. Diet composition is a second
problem. The variety of foods that is normally consumed tends to
dilute high levels of one particular food component. The third
factor is the efficiency of digestion and absorption by humans eat-
ing contaminated foods. This factor has genetic and dietary com-
ponents. Fourth is the metabolic excretion and potential biotrans-
formation of a contaminant which is absorbed, and the question of
whether the metabolic half-life of the component is short (days) or
long (years). Absorption and excretion factors control body loads
of any component. The fifth factor is localization of a dietary
component in specific organs or tissues, which has the net effect
of multiplying existing body loads.
The most likely suspects for potential hazard are As, Cd, Pb,
Hg, and Se. A joint FAO-WHO committee has set provisional limits
on intake of Cd, Pb and Hg, which are shown in the first part of
Table IX-16. The second part shows the permissible average food
levels corrected for maximum water intake. These same calculations
could be made for other elements, providing estimates were made
for provisional intake, by using data presented in Table IX-17.
b. Land use influences on hazards to humans - Unrestricted and
unmonitored use of plant produce or animal products from sludge-
treated land in Fulton County presents a potential human health
hazard. Environmental impacts at this point are minimal because
sludge application rates are relatively low and the acreage developed
for spreading is limited. Future hazards are also difficult to as-
sess, as some of the necessary research is now in progress. The ac-
tual hazard level cannot be evaluated until sufficient data is available
IX-36
-------
Table IX-16. Provisional Recommendations for Cd, Pb and Hg
(Adapted from WHO Technical Report Series 505, 1972)
Element
Cd
Hg (total)
(methyl)
Acceptable Daily
Intake (mg/person)
none
none
none
none
Provisional Daily
Intake (mg/person)
0.07
0.043
0.029
0.43
Average Food
Level (mg/Kg)
0.024
0.015
0.01
0.15
Element
Cd
Hg
Pb
4
Maximum Water
Level (mg/1)
0.01
0.005
0.1
Maximum Daily
Water Intake^
(nig/person)
0.025
0.0025
0.25
2 6
Average Food Level
Excluding Water (mg/kg)
0.016
0.014
0.062
Figure represents average daily intake over a 7-day averaging period.
2
Assuming adult intake of 2.9 Kg/da.
3
Does not apply for children.
Manual for evaluating public drinking water supplies (1971), U.S. EPA.
Assuming intake of 2.51/day.
Assuming H^O levels to be at a maximum.
IX-37
-------
Table IX- 17.
Recommended Limits for Drinking
Water (EPA Manual for Evaluating Pub-
lic Drinking Water Supplies, 1971)
Element
As
Ba
Cd
Cl
Cr
Cu
F
Fe
Pb
Mn
Hg
Se
Ag
Na
Zn
N03-
so/
Maximum
Allowable Limits
[rngTT)
0.1
1.0
0.01
250
0.05
1.0
1.1-1.8*
0.3
0.05
0.05
0.005
0.01
0.05
270.
5.
10.
250.
*Dependent upon air temperature.
IX-38
-------
from soil, plant, and animal studies, especially dealing with
element uptake and bioaccumulation. The actual hazard to humans
will also stem from future use of reclaimed strip-mined land and
agriculture practices. No valid assessment can presently be
drawn due to the lack of information. A preliminary hazard an-
alysis profile is shown as follows:
Worst Case
Sale of land to farm operators who live on the premises
and raise their own food with no monitoring or controls.
Rural housing development where residents garden with no
monitoring controls.
Best Case
Land remains in hands of the MSDGC with rental to farmers,
providing management and monitoring controls.
Land developed for outdoor recreation, prairie preserva-
tion, and tree farms.
Average Case
Land remains in hands of the MSDGC until hazards are de-
fined; crop or pasture land is rented to farmers with man-
agement control.
Land remains in hands of the MSDGC until hazards are de-
fined; crop or pasture land is rented to farmers without
management control, but all produce is sampled and tested
prior to release.
Development of confined livestock operations for beef cat-
tle or swine; produce is sampled and tested prior to release.
Land is developed as fish and wildlife preserve with hunting
and fishing allowed after establishing zero hazard level;
management and monitoring controls are provided.
IX-39
-------
Since this review is primarily oriented to assessing the
potential for causing human health problems, current and hypo-
thetical future land uses and controls are an important consider-
ation. Current uses of the land include row crop production
(corn and soybeans) and pasture (sudax and alfalfabrome) for
beef cattle production. A small prairie conservation project
is also underway. Future effects of land use can be considered
under three classifications: agriculture, conservation and
community.
Four general potential types of agricultural land use are
pasture (beef or dairy), row crop (corn or soybeans), tree farms,
and feedlots (beef or swine). Potential hazard from pasture
development and grazing is great enough to warrant restricting
it to sites where monitoring indicates no hazard. The same holds
true for row crops. There would appear to be no hazard with tree
farming. Use of the land for feedlots, assuming they are con-
fined to well-drained sites with runoff containment, may be feasi-
ble for cattle but not for swine or other rooters. There are
potential adverse effects from the use of crops or forages raised
on project fields in the diet of animals grown for slaughter.
Conservational land uses include prairie restoration, hunt-
ing and fishing. A hazard to humans may exist with consumption
of fish or wildlife from land spread with sludge. Until the
safety of such produce is known, the harvest of fish and wild-
life should be controlled. Aside from this restriction, there
appears to be no hazard with respect to outdoor recreation.
However, rural housing development, on land applied with
sludge,does present potential hazards great enough to warrant
prohibition. A family living in a rural or semi-rural environ-
ment may obtain food from home gardening or raising domestic
animals, in which case a majority of their food intake may ori-
ginate from land treated with sludge.
IX-40
-------
C. MEASURES TO PREVENT OR MITIGATE INDIRECT HEALTH HAZARDS
As in the previous chapter, recommendations are presented here in
terms of actions supporting a more thorough evaluation of the hazards and
actions which would reduce known or suspected hazards.
1. Improved Evaluation of Hazards
An independent party, in cooperation with the MSDGC, Illinois EPA,
U.S. EPA and University of Illinois, should collect and publish all
existing and future information pertaining to the Fulton County project.
Such data would be made available to all interested parties. A coor-
dinated research and monitoring program for soils, crops and pasture,
domestic animals and wildlife should then be formulated with the assis-
tance of an advisory group representing the involved agencies and com-
munities. Research findings should be made available at least one year
in advance of any scheduled or unplanned change in agricultural and
sludge spreading practices. The independent party should have the au-
thority to confirm MSDGC analyses when necessary, and to require ade-
quate sampling of soil and crops.
Several sections of fields should be set aside at the Fulton
County project for evaluating:
• Sludge application rates and practices in demonstration
fields in the immediate future
• Uptake of new or different plant varieties
0 Changes occurring when sludge application is halted.
A comprehensive program should be developed for the evaluation of soil
inorganic and organic elements:
• Prior to leveling
0 After leveling
0 After initial high sludge application rates
0 On a yearly basis thereafter.
IX-41
-------
A similar program should be developed to evaluate inorganic and
organic components of crops and animals raised at the Fulton County
project. Workshops should be held to determine reasonable levels of
contamination for animal and plant produce grown for commercial mar-
kets.
2. Reduction of Known or Suspected Hazards
Two measures in particular deserve attention:
Increase the efficiency of wastewater treatment to reduce
the concentrations of heavy metals in the 3udge, perhaps
through increased industrial pre-treatment.
Minimize pathogen content at the time of application by
longer retention in sludge lagoons and Fulton County
holding basins.
IX-42
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allaway, W. H., "Agronomic Controls Over the Environmental Cycling of
Trace Elements," U.S. Plant, Soil and Nutrition Laboratory, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York, 1968.
American Public Health Association, Standard Methods for the Examination
of Water and Wastewater, 1965.
Andersson, A. and K. 0. Nilsson, "Enrichment of Trace Elements from Sew-
age Sludge Fertilizer in Soils and Plants," Ambio, V. 1, No. 5, 1972.
Bingham, F. T., et al., "Growth and Cadmium Accumulation of Plants Grown
on a Soil Treated With a Cadmium Enriched Sewage Sludge," Journal Environ.
Quality. V. 4, 1975.
Bondurant, D. T., "Some Aspects of Conservation Practices and Agricultural
Related Pollutants," Iowa Acad. Sci. Proc.. V. 77, 1970.
Bowen, H. M. M., Trace Elements in Biochemistry, Academic Press: New York,
1966.
Brown, J., et al., "Influence of Particle Size Upon the Retention of Par-
ti cul ate Size by Human Lung," Am. Journal Pub. Health, V. 40, 1950.
Burge, W. D., "Health Aspects of Applying Sewage Wastes to Land," Univer-
sity of Michigan, 1974.
Surges, A. and F. Row, Soil Biology, Academic Press: New York, 1967.
Chaney, Personal Communication, 1975.
Curry, M. G. and G. M. Gigliotti, "Cycling and Control of Metals," Pro-
ceedings of an Environmental Resources Conference, National Environmental
Research Center, Ohio, 1973.
Dowdy, R. H. and W. E. Larson, "The Availability of Sludge-Borne Metals to
Various Vegetable Crops," Journal Environ. Quality, V. 4, 1975.
Drewy, W. A., "Virus Soil Interactions," Landspreading Municipal Effluent
and Sludge in Florida," Proc. Workshop, 1973.
Drewy, W. A. and R. Eliassen, "Virus Movement in Groundwater," Journal
Water Pollution Control Federation. V. 40, 1968.
Dunlop, S. G., "Survival of Pathogens and Related Disease Hazards," Pro-
ceedings of the Symposium on Municipal Sewage Effluent for Irrigation,"
Louisiana Polytechnic Institute, July 1968.
Erickson, A. E., Recycling Municipal Sludges and Effluents, p. 75, 1973.
Fuchs, N. A., The Mechanics of Aerosols, Pergamon Press: New York, 1964.
IX-43
-------
Fuller, J. E. and W. Litsky, "Escherichia Coin in Digested Sludge," Sew-
age and Industrial Wastes. V. 22, 1950.
Garcia, W. J., et al., "Physical-Chemical Characteristics and Heavy Metal
Content of Corn Grown on Sludge Wastes Strip-Mine Soil," Journal Agr. Food
Chain, V. 22, 1974.
Garcia, W. J., et al., "Heavy Metals in Whole Kernel Corn Determined by
Atmoic Absorption," Cereal Chemistry, V. 51, 1974.
Geering, H. R., et al., "Solubility and Redox Criteria for the Possible
Forms of Selenium in Soils," Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., V. 32, 1968.
Hall, G., Personal Communication, 1975.
Hinesly, Personal Communication, 1975.
Hinesly, T. D., et al.. "Use of Waste Treatment Plant Solids for Mined
Land Reclamation," American Mining Congress Journal, S8, No. 9, September
1972.
Hinesly, T. D., et al., "Agricultural Benefits and Environmental Changes
Resulting from the Use of Digested Sewage Sludge on Field Crops," U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency C06-EC-000801, 1971.
Hinesly, T. D., et al., Factors Determining Loading Rates of Digested
Sludge on Agricultural Lands (unpublished document), 1974.
Helnke, Personal Communication, 1975.
Hubbell, D. S. and G. Staten, "Studies on Soil Structure; What It is, How
Cultural Practices Affect It, How It Affects Cotton Yields," N. Mex. Agr.
Expt. Stat. Tech. Bull. 365, October 1951.
Jones, R., et al., "A Cadmium Content of Soybeans Grown on Sewage Sludge
Amended Oil."Journal Environ. Quality, V. 2, 1973.
Kabler, P., "Removal of Pathogenic Microorganisms by Sewage Treatment Pro-
cesses," Sewage Ind. Wastes, V. 31, 1959.
King, L. D. and H. D. Morris, "Land Disposal of Liquid Sewage Sludge: II.
The Effect on Soil pH, Manganese, Zinc, and Growth and Chemical Composi-
tion of Rye (Secale cerea 1 e L_.)," Journal of Environmental Quality 1 (4),
1972.
Leeper, G. W., Reactions of Heavy Metals with Soil with Special Regard to
Their Application in Sewage Wastes, Department of Army Corps of Engineers,
Report of Contract No. DACW73073-C-0026, 1973.
Lehman, G. S. and L. W. Wilson, "Trace Element Removal from Sewage Effluent
by Soil Filtration," Water Resources Research. V. 7, 1971.
LeRiche, H. H., "Metal Contamination of Soil in the Woburn Market - Garden
Experiment Resulting from the Application of Sewage Sludge," Journal Agr.
Sci., V. 71, 1968.
IX-44
-------
Lindsay, W. L., "Inorganic Phase Equilibria of Micronutrients in Soils,"
Soil Sci. Soc. Amer., 1972.
Lindsay, W. L. and E. C. Moreon, "Phosphate Phase Equilibria in Soils,"
Soil Sci. Cos. Am. Proc.. V. 24, 1960.
Miller, R. H., The Microbiology of Sewage Sludge Decomposition in Soil,
EPA Report, 1973.
Milton, R. H., "Soil Microbiological Aspects of Recycling Sewage Sludges
on Waste Effluents on Land," in Recycling Municipal Sludges and Effluents
on Land, EPA conference, 1973.
Mitchell, R. L., "The Spectrochemical Analysis of Soils, Plants, and Re-
lated Materials," Commonw. Bur. Soils, No. 44A, 1964.
Melsted, S. W., "Soil Plant Relationships," in Recycling Municipal Sludges
and Effluents on Land. 1973.
Mortvedt, J. J. and P. M. Giordano, "Response of Corn to Zinc and Chro-
mium in Municipal Wastes Applied to Soil," Journal Environ. Quality, V. 4,
No. 2, 1975.
Olsen, S. R., "Micronutrient Interactions, Micronutrients in Agriculture,"
Soil Sci. Soc. Amer., 1972.
Page, A. L., "Fate and Effects of Trace Elements in Sewage Sludge When
Applied to Agricultural Lands - a Literature Review Study," EPA 670/2-
74-005, 1974.
Patterson, Personal Communication, 1975.
Patterson, J. B. E., "Metal Toxicities Arising from Industry, Trace Ele-
ments in Soils and Crops," Min. Ag. Fisheries and Food Technical Bulletin
No. 21, 1966.
Patterson, J. B. E., "Metal Toxicities Arising from Industry," Min. of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Technical Bulletin No. 21, 1971.
Pariyek, R. R., et al., "Wastewater Renovation and Conservation," Penn.
State University Studies, No. 23, 1967.
Peerlkamp, P. K., "The Influence of Soil Structure on the Natural Organic
Manuring by Roots and Stubbles of Crops," Trans. 4th Int. Cong., Soil Sci..
V. 2, 1950.
Peterson, J. R. and J. Gschwind, "Amelioration of Coal Mine Spoils with
Digested Sewage Sludge," Research and Applied Technology Symposium on Mined-
Land Reclamation," National Coal Association, 1973.
Philip, J. R., "Evaporation and Moisture and Heat Fields in the Soil,"
Journal Meteorol. V. 14, 1957.
IX-45
-------
Plotkin, S. and M. Katy, Minimal Infective Doses of Viruses for Man by the
Oral Route, Interscience: New York, 1965.
Poon, C., "Studies on the Instantaneous Death of Airborne Escherichia Coli,"
Am. Journal Epidemic!.. V. 84, 1966.
Purves, "Consequences of Trace Element Contamination of Soils," Environ.
Pollution. V. 3, 1972.
Randall, C. W. and J. 0. Ledbetter, "Bacterial Air Pollution from Activated
Sludge Units," Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. Journal. V. 27, 1966.
Richards, L. A. (ed.), "Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali
Soils," USDA Agricultural Handbook. No. 60, 1954.
Russell, E. J., Soil Conditions and Plant Growth. 1961.
Sepp, E., "The Use of Sewage for Irrigation - A Literature Review," Bureau
of Sanitary Engineering, California Department of Public Health, 1971.
Smith, K. A. and S. W. F. Restall, "The Occurrence of Ethylene in Anaero-
bic Soil," Journal of Soil Sci.. V. 22, 1971.
Thome, M. D., et al., "Utilization of Sewage Sludge on Agricultural Land,"
Illinois Cooperative Extension Service, SM-29, April 1975.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, "Agricultural Benefits and
Environmental Changes Resulting from the Use of Digested Sewage Sludge on
Field Crops," (SW-30d), 1971.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, "Manual for Evaluating Pub-
lic Drinking Water Supplies," 1971.
University of Illinois and MSDGC Department of Research and Development,
"Digested Sludge Recycle to Land," Report to Fulton County Steering Com-
mittee, No. 74-21, March 14, 1975.
Walker, J. M., et al., "Trench Incorporation of Sewage Sludge in Marginal
Agricultural Land," Biol. Waste Management Laboratory, Agriculture Environ.
Quality Inst., ARS, USDA; and Md. Environ. Serv., Dept. of Natural Resources:
Report to D. C. Bureau of Wastewater Treatment, 1974.
Wakesman, S. A., Principles of Soil Microbiology, Williams and Wilkins Co.,
Maryland, 2nd Edition, 1932.
Ward, P. C., "Sanitary Filtration Study," Bur. of Sanitary Engineering,
Dept. of Public Health, California, 1965.
Webber, J., "Effects of Toxic Metals in Sewage on Crops," Water Pollution
Control. V. 71, 1972.
Wellings, F. M., et al., "Virus Studies in a Spray Irrigation Project," in
Landscaping Municipal Effluent and Sludge in Florida. Proc. Workshop, 1973.
WHO Technical Report Series 505, 1972.
IX-46
-------
APPENDIX A: IEPA Water Pollution Control Permit
A-l
-------
ILLINOIS ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WATER POLLUTiON CONTROL PERMIT
Permit Number: 1974-DB-444-OP DATE ISSUED: March 7, 1974
PROJECT LOG NUMBERS: 3586_?3/3g87-7;
SUBJECT-. FULTON COUNTY - Metropolitan Sanitary District 3688-73,174-74
of Greater Chicago Sludge Disposal 175-74
Proj-ect - Comprehensive Operating Permit
PERMITTEE TO OPERATE:
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago
100 East Erie Street
Chicago, Illinois 60611
Permit is hereby granted to the above designated permittee
to operate water pollution control facilities described as follows:
The sludge transportation system, sludge storage facilities and
sludge application fields previously approved under Permits I1971-DA-470
#1971-DA-487-l,' U972-DA-215, #1973-DB-1460-OP, #1973-DB-1460-OP-1,
£1973-DB-1492, f1973-DB-1492-1, U973-DB-1682, U973-DB-1682-1, 31973-DE
1752, #1973-DB-2185 and #1974-DB-45-COP.
This Operating Permit expires on March 7, 1975.
The Application for Operating Permit and supporting documents
approved by this Permit were prepared by Metropolitan Sanitary District
of Greater Chicago and are identified in the records of the Illinois
Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Water Pollution Control,
Permit Section by the Ipg numbers designated in the subject above.
This Permit renews and replaces Permit Numbers #1971-DA-470,
S1971-DA-487-1, S1972-DA-215, *1973-DB-1460-OP, #1973-DB-1460-OP-1,
I1973-DB-1492, #1973-DB-1492-1, U973-DB-1682, H973-D3-1682-1,
#1973-DB-1752, S1973-DB-2185 and £1974-DB-45-COPf which were previously
pcAnAii rnMmTinwcranpeii, iv. (continued on Page 2)
READ ALL CONDITIONS CAREFULLY:
STANDAPO CONDITIONS
Pertaining to both construction and operation ptrmils.
1 II any statement Or representation is found to bt incorrect, this
permit may bn the installation, maintenance or
operation of the proposed sewage works; tcl does not take into consideration the
structural stability of any units or pant or the protect, and Id) does not release
the permittee from compliance w*th other applicable statutes of the State of
Illinois, or with applicable local laws, regulation! or ordinances.
4. Treatment works will be operated or supervised by a duly qualified
semge vw.ks. operator certified under the Regulations of the Environmental
Protection Agency
5 The treatment works or wastewater sourc* covered by this parmit
shall b« constructld and operated in compliance with the provision of the
Environmental Protection Act and Chapter 3 of the Rules and Regulations as
adopted by tn* Illinois Pollution Control Board.
6 Plans, specifications and ether documentation submitted shall con-
stitute a pin of thf app'-cation and when approved shall constitute part of the
perm i
7. This Permit may not be assigned or transferred without a new
permit from thr Illinois Environmental Protection Agency.
Pertaimna, only to construction permits.
1. Tftere shall b* no deviations from the approved plans and spec-
ifications unless revised plans, specifications, and application shall first have b*en
submitted to the Environmental protection Agency and a supplemental written
permit issued.
2. The installation shall be made under the supervision of an inspector.
who is familiar with the approved plans and specifications provided bf and
approved by tht owner, and said inspector shall require that construction complies
with tha plant and specifications approved by this Agency.
3. Unless otherwise stated by Special Condition, construction must be
completed in three years for treatment works and two years for sewers and
wastewater sources.
4. Unless otherwise stated by Special Condition, the issuance of this
permit shall be a joint construction and operation permit provided that.
a)
AllitandardandSoecialConditions.ancamBhedwith.
b) This Agency is notified v.ithm ten (10) day*. r*$p*ciivtly. o* tht
start of construction and th» fiat* of tnung and start-up of full
operation.
cl Thi submmion of operating reports of tht treatment worfc\ cov*r«oi
permit, the permittee shall apply fa* a renewal of the operation
permit.
This permit is issued in accordance with the Illinois Environmental Protection Act of 1970 and the Chapter III Water
Pollution Regulations adopted by the Illinois Pollution Control Board in March of 1972.
TRW:CWF:il
ccrGrants & Tax, Region II & III
Fulton Co. Health Dept-, Pulton Co.
Ed. of Supervisors, MSDGC-R. Riir.kus
H.McMillan
J.Braxton
Ar2
DIVISION OF WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
William H. Busch
Manager, Permit Section
FUcyclex-l
-------
Page 2 March 7, 1974
FULTON COUNTY - Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago
Sludge Disposal Project - Comprehensive Operating Permit
issued for the herein permitted facilities.
The Standard Conditions of issuance of this Permit are itemized
on Page 1. (Special Conditions applicable are itemized below).
This Permit is issued subject to the following Special Conditions.
If such Special Conditions require additional or revised facilities,
satisfactory engineering plan documents must be submitted to this
Agency for review and approval for issuance of a Supplemental Permit.
SPECIAL CONDITION #•!•; Upon termination .of the sludge transportation
activities, the Sanitary District shall be responsible for the proper
removal and disassembly of non-permanent equipment for which this
permit is issued.
The proper disassembly includes, but is not limited to, the cleaning
of the pipeline so no sludge residue will escape to any area other
than the properly permitted holding basins.
SPECIAL CONDITION '#2: This permit is issued on the basis that any
surveillance activity by the staff of this Agency does not relieve
the applicant from sole responsibility for establishing and continuing
a surveillance program for monitoring and detecting any discharge of
waters which do not meet the applicable provisions of the Environ-
mental Protection Act or the Rules and Regulations of .the Pollution
Control Board.
SPECIAL CONDITION #3; The sludge transported to the Fulton County
site shall be adequately digested and suitable for land application
based on the parameters presented in Table 2 of the report entitled
"Quality of Digested Sludge Suitable for Land Application" prepared
by the Research and Development Department of the Metropolitan
Sanitary District of Greater Chicago, dated July 23, 1973.
"SPEC-JEM; CONDITION -Mt- • This Permit does not relieve the District of
sole responsibility for the existing discharges .to the waters of the
State which may have occurred through mining activity or any other
past activity in this area, which do not meet the applicable provisions
of the Environmental Protection Act or Illinois Pollution Control
Board Rules and Regulations.
SPECIAL CONDITION 45: The District shall' maintain a minimum of four (4)
feet freeboard in the lagoons at all times.
SPECIAL CONDITION #6; The District must submit to this Agency, in
addition to the quarterly reports currently submitted, a monthly report.
Tho operational information to be contained in the monthly report must
be satisfactory to the Agency and the report must be submitted in
triplicate within 20 days of the end of the month covered by the report.
A-3
-------
Page 3 March 7, 1974
FULTON COUNTY - Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago
Sludge Disposal Project - Comprehensive Operating Permit
SPECIAL CONDITION #7; Up to date sampling data and operational in-
formation to be used in the monthly reports must be available for
inspection by this Agency's personnel at the Fulton County Site.
SPECIAL CONDITION |8;_ If for any reason the District abandons this
project, it is required that the sludge holding basins be emptied of
sludge and the sludge be disposed of in a manner which will not cause
pollution.
"SPECIAL CONDITION $9: The effluent discharged from any retention basin
approved under this Permit must meet the applicable effluent requirements
for discharge to the waters of the State as required by Illinois Pol-
lution Control Board Rules and Regulations Chapter 3. The point of
discharge to the waters of the State is considered to be the overflow
structure of each of the retention basins.
SPECIAL CONDITION #10: This Permit is issued with the .condition that
the following contaminant concentrations are considered to be back-
ground values and the numerical effluent standards shall be considered
met at the designated effluent sampling point described in Special
Condition #9 when the background concentration plus the allowable
regulatory concentration Is greater than the measured concentration
for the appropriate parameter:
Total Suspended Fecal
Solids BOD Cbliform
FC
100 m3
arithmetic
mean 61.7 2.75
std. dev. 87.3 1.48
geometric
mean — - 94.3
SPECIAL CONDITION #11; In order to provide storage for the capture of
a 100 year frequency storm, the District shall remove waters from the
retention basins as soon as practicable after a storm. This Agency
shall require that records be kept of precipitation and the approximate
amounts of runoff pumped back to the fields or discharged and that
these results be submitted along with the monthly operation reports.
A-4
-------
Page- 4 March 7, 1974
FULTON COUNTY - Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago
Sludge Disposal Project - Comprehensive Operating Permit
SPECIAL CONDITION #12t; The District shall maintain at least one
control plot on which crops are grown without the application of
sludge in order to provide a continuing source of data regarding
the runoff from such fields. The runoff from the control plot shall
be monitored and the results submitted to this Agency as a part of
the monthly operation reports.
SPECi:a& CONDITION #13; The District shall restrict its procedures
of land application to subsurface injection or ridge and furrow
application whenever practical.
SPECIAL CONDITION 114; The District shall monitor the metals content
of the crops harvested from the sludge application fields and shall
submit the results to this Agency in the monthly operation reports.
SPECIAL CONDITION #15; This Permit includes the construction of the
supernatant piping around the sludge holding basins.
A-5
-------
-------
APPENDIX B: Atmospheric Ammonia Concentrations,
by Temperature and Windspeed
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-------
APPENDIX C: Trends of Nitrite and Nitrate Nitrogen in Wellwater
C-l
-------
CO
o
CM
O
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1973
1974
1975
Well 1
C 1.5
OO
o
CM
o
1.0
0.5
0
1973
1974
1975
1.52 ppm
CD
CO
O
CM
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0.2
0.1
00
CD
CM
O
0.2
oo
o
0.1
C\J
o
1973 J
1974
0.3l Xo.43 ppm
1973
1974
1975
I
1973 J
1974
1975
Well 4
Well 6
Hell 15
Well 16
I
J
Trend of Nitrite and Nitrate Nitrogen for Background Wells
(MSDGC, 1972a through 1975g; Enviro Control, Inc., 1976)
C-2
-------
1.0
n
o
CVJ
o
CT
CO
O
(D
O
e\j
o
0.5
0
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.15
0.10
0.05
Well 17
1973 J
1973 J
1973 J
1974
1974
1974
1975
Well 18
1975
Well 19
1975
o>
CO
o
C\J
o
3
2
1
1973
1974
Well 20
1975
0.2
r
1.5 ppm
CO
O
<£^
CM
O
0.1
I «
1973 J
Well 21
1974 J
(continued)
C-3
1975
-------
— .
en
CO
O
CM
O
* —
^
01
CO
0
CM
O
0.15
0.10
0.05
0
0.15
0.10
0.05 .
0
.0.39 ppm
Well 24
' — -^—
• •• • • • .» •
i * • * T I
1973 J 1974 J 1975 J
t
Well 25
• • • •
,'•*,!? ,_?*.•"* t . . * 1
1973 J 1974 J 1975 J
CO
o
0.2 .
0.1
Well 26
CM
O
CD
CO
g
CM
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s:
0
0.15
0.10
0.05 .
3
?"..*.., T * •...+•"* l
1973 J ' 1974 J 1975 J
• *
Well 27
• t • *.-•.+•** i
1973 J 1974 J 1975 J
(continued)
C-4
-------
0.2
^ 0.15
CD
^ 0.1
0.05
CO
o
Csl
O
0
-L
1973 J
1974
'1.72 ppm
1975
Well 2
CM
O
1.0
en
£ 0.5
CO
o
15
10
co
O
CM 5
o
0
1973 J
JL
1973 J
• , i
1974
1975
• • • '
1974
1975
Well 7
Well 8
Trend of Nitrite and Nitrate Nitrogen of
Possibly Contaminated Wells or Springs (MSDGC,
1972a through 1975g; Enviro Control, Inc., 1976)
C-5
-------
0.2
ro
o
C\J
o
OT
O
C\J
o
n
o
C\J
o
0.1
0
,40
30
20
10
0
0.15
0.10
0.05
0
. . . . t
1973 J
1973 J
Well 9
1974
1975
Well 10
1974
A0.42 ppn
1973 J
1974
1975
Well 11
1975
0.1
Well 12
C\J
i1 o
CD
c\j
o
0.2
0.1
1973 J
I
1974
1973 J
1974
(continued)
1975
Well 13
1975
C-6
-------
^ 0.15
CD
~ 0.1
ro
f 0.05.
C\J '
O
z 0
— 0.15
i—
— 0.10
en
| 0.05
OJ
i o
0.2
1 0.1
ro
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+
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i 0
_ 0.2
en
o" o.i
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0
-
Well 14
i
i ,.--.• I.., J
1973 J 1974 J 1975 J
.
Well 22
! . . • . . 1 I
1973 J 1974 J 1975 J
Well 23
,- *.*,!?. .,.»., ?..!,.• I
1973 J 1974 J 1975 J
9
* " * .
, , , , , t , , , I . , , I
1973 J 1974 J 1975 J
C-7
-------
-------