INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION
STUDY
BI-STATE DEVELOPMENT
AGENCY
ST. LOUIS DEPARTMENT OF
HEALTH AND HOSPITALS
ST. LOUIS - DIVISION OF
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
PHASE II PROJECT REPORT
EAST ST. LOUIS - AIR
POLLUTION CONTROL
COMMISSION
ST. LOUIS COUNTY
HEALTH DEPARTMENT
EAST SIDE HEALTH
DISTRICT
MISSOURI DIVISION
OF HEALTH
ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT
OF PUBLIC HEALTH
CHAMBER OF COMMERCE OF
METROPOLITAN ST. LOUIS
VI. EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
ILLINOIS AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL BOARD
DHEW
PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE
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INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY
PHASE II PROJECT REPORT
VI. EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
prepared by
J. D. Williams
F. D. Maddox
T. O. Harris
C. M. Copeley, Jr.
W. Van Dokkenburg, Jr.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5, Library {5PL-16J
230 S. Dearborn St-eet, Room 1670
Chicago, IL 60604
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Bureau of Disease Prevention and Environmental Control
National Center for Air Pollution Control
Cincinnati, Ohio
December 1966
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Copies of this report are available from the cooperating agencies listed on
the cover of this report and from the Technical Assistance Branch, Division of Air
Pollution, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, 4676 Columbia Parkway,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
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FOREWORD
The Interstate Air Pollution Study was divided into two phases. Phase I, a
general study of the overall air pollution problems in the St. Louis - East St. Louis
metropolitan area, was conducted to determine specific activities that would require
further study in Phase II of the project. The effort was divided into two phases to
provide a logical stopping point in the event that interest and resources for proceed-
ing further might not materialize. The necessary impetus did continue, however,
and the Phase II operation was also completed.
The Phase I operation resulted in a detailed report, designed primarily for
use of the Executive Committee members and their agencies in making decisions
concerning the Phase II project operation. A Phase I summary report was also
prepared; it received wide distribution.
Numerous papers, brochures, and reports were prepared during Phase II
operations, as were some 19 Memorandums of Information and Instruction concern-
ing the project. All of these documents were drawn upon in the preparation of the
Phase II project report. The Phase II project report consists of eight separate
volumes under the following titles:
I. Introduction
II. Air Pollutant Emission Inventory
III. Air Quality Measurements
IV. Odors - Results of Surveys
V. Meteorology and Topography
VI. Effects of Air Pollution
VII. Opinion Surveys and Air Quality Statistical Relationships
VIII. Proposal for an Air Resource Management Program.
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
Methods Available for Setting Air Quality Goals 4
SULFUROUS COMPOUNDS 6
Sulfur Oxides 6
Hydrogen Sulfide 12
CARBON MONOXIDE 13
Acute Effects 14
Sensitive Groups 15
OXIDANTS 15
OXIDES OF NITROGEN 17
EFFECTS OF PARTICULATE MATTER 19
Introduction 19
Health-Related Effects 20
Vegetation Damage and Related Effects 21
Soiling 22
Visibility 22
ODORS 29
ASTHMA - A PILOT STUDY 30
AEROALLERGENS 31
VEGETATION DAMAGE 31
Fluoride Effects on Vegetation 32
Fluoride Effects on Farm Animals 33
Sulfur Dioxide 33
Photochemical Smog 34
Ethylene 34
Miscellaneous Pollutants 35
VEGETATION DAMAGE IN STUDY AREA 35
Historical Development 35
Tobacco Plant Oxidant Study 36
MATERIALS DETERIORATION 39
Steel Corrosion Study - 3-Month 39
Steel Corrosion Study - 16-Month 39
Effects on Exposed Nylon Fabric 41
Effects on Exposed Cotton Fabrics 44
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON PROPERTY VALUES 46
Economic Effects of Open Burning 49
PUBLIC OPINION SURVEY - EFFECTS REPORTED 50
HEALTH EFFECTS - A SUMMARY STATEMENT 51
ECONOMIC EFFECTS - A SUMMARY STATEMENT 52
REFERENCES 55
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VI. EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
INTRODUCTION
The Air Quality Goals Subcommittee, appointed under provisions of item 5-A-5
of the Interstate Air Pollution Study Phase II Project Agreement, reviewed litera-
ture, met with consultants in the air pollution effects field, and selected air quality
goals for consideration by the Project Executive Committee. The Committee lim-
ited its consideration to goals because it does not have authority to adopt air quality
standards, a function restricted to legally constituted governmental agencies. The
Committee does, however, by approving this report, accept the consensus of pro-
fessional and technical personnel. The explanations of effects levels presented
herein were prepared by the staff of the Public Health Service Technical Assistance
Branch who utilized the advisory resources available within the Division of Air
Pollution.
The effects of air pollution, as a program element, is only one part of an air
resource management program; the relationships among the several elements are
shown in the diagram in Figure 1. Air pollution effects, air-quality levels, and
pollutant emissions are the major program elements that provide the basis for air
quality goals. Actually, if no consideration were given to the length of time needed
to reach goals or to the priorities of community needs, air pollution effects would
be the only program element to be considered in establishing goals. The suggested
goals listed in Table 1, however, are based on the air quality (indicating major
QUALITY
GOAL
AIM QUALITY
GOAL SETTING PROCESS
ORDINANCES
RULES a
REGULATIONS
PLANNING
Decisions
COMMUNITY
PURPOSES
a
POLICIES
LI
LI
T?
T"
CHANGED
EFFECTS
CHANGED
AIR QUALITY
CHANGED
EMISSIONS
Figure 1. Air resource management flow diagram.
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Table 1. SUGGESTED AIR QUALITY GOALS
FOR INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY AREAa
Sulfur oxides
Sulfation, measured by lead peroxide candle method
Maximum annual average 0.25 mg 803 per 100 cm^ per day
Maximum month 0. 5 mg 803 per 100 cm^ per day
Sulfur dioxide, measured by West-Gaeke or conductometric methods
Maximum annual average 0. 02 ppm
24-hr average 0. 1 ppm not to be exceeded over 1 percent of the days in any
3-mo period
1-hr period not to exceed 0.20 ppm more than once in any 4 consecutive days
5-min period not to exceed 0. 50 ppm more than once in any 8 hr
Suspended sulfate, measured by high-volume sampler
Maximum annual average not to exceed 4 jig per m^
Not to exceed 12 (ig per rrH over 1 percent of time
Sulfuric acid
Maximum annual average not to exceed 4 jig per m^
Not to exceed 12 ug per m^ over 1 percent of time
Not to exceed 30 ug per m^ hourly average over 1 percent of time
Hydrogen sulfide, measured by AISI spot sampler using lead acetate impregnated paper
0. 05 ppm 1/2-hr average not to be exceeded over 2 times per yr
0.03 ppm 1/2-hr average not to be exceeded over 2 times in any 5-consecutive-day
period
Oxidant (total), measured by potassium iodide colorimetric method
0. 15 ppm for 1 hr (not to be exceeded)
Carbon monoxide, measured by nondispersive infrared method of measurement
30 ppm for 8 hr
120 ppm for 1 hr
Dustfall, measured by settled particulate accumulated in dry jars for 1 mo
10 tons per mi^ per mo, 3-mo average above background in all areas except those
zoned heavy industrial
(Use 5 tons per mi^ per mo background)
25 tons per mi^ per mo, 3-mo average above background in zoned heavy industrial
areas
(Use 5 tons per mi^ per mo background)
Suspended particulate, measured by high-volume sampler
75 ug per m , annual geometric mean
200 ug per m^, annual 99th percentile
Soiling index, measured by AISI spot sampler
0.4 Coh per 1,000 lineal ft, annual geometric mean
mg = milligram ug = microgram
cm = centimeters m = meter
ppm = parts per million mi = mile
hr = hour ft = feet
mo = month Coh = function of optical density - see reference 1
Note: All goals, unless otherwise stated, apply to any place where people live or an
undesirable effect could result from levels above the goal.
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types and amounts of pollutants present) as well as actual and anticipated effects of
air pollutants in the Interstate Air Pollution Study area. They do not provide a great
factor of safety in health matters, nor do they include the time that might be needed
to reach those goals without undue disruption of normal community life. Timing
should be specified, however, in provisions of suggested ordinances that will imple-
ment the air-use plans.
The effects of air pollution, have been considered in this report from the view-
point of a consultant •whose task has been the development of a set of goals that will
meet the future needs of the area. Some of the quantitative relationships between
effects and air quality levels have not yet been established, but enough is known that
a guide for a constructive air resource management program has been provided for
the Interstate Air Pollution Study area. This guide (Table 1) is intended to serve
the needs of the Study area only, and is not intended to have general application.
The frame of reference in which this report has been prepared recognizes that
approaches of the past are not always valid in the present. For example, in the
field of public health, past successes have stemmed from the control of epidemics.
These successes have been based on single-cause, single-effect relationships. Few,
if any, of these simple or direct relationships seem to exist in the complexities of
community air pollution problems. A departure of public health programs from the
orientation of epidemic control has been recognized for those modern programs in
health that are being oriented toward a relatively new priority need, the control of
chronic diseases and the conditions causing them. In the air pollution field com-
parable situations are represented by multiple types, combinations, and levels of
air pollutants, which, combined -with other stresses on individuals or groups, cause
undesirable effects. Program needs in both instances only remotely resemble the
old priority need established for control of epidemics. This report's frame of
reference also recognizes that community capability has changed and that this in-
creased capability holds the promise of effective action toward improving air qual-
ity. An example of the importance of increased community capability is apparent
from a quick review of the air pollution problems in London, England, and other
manufacturing centers. As long ago as 1907, deaths associated with sulfur dioxide
•were reported, but little if any action was taken to alleviate this admittedly unde-
sirable situation until community competence in many activity areas had advanced
and met the established priority needs of these cities and their citizens.
The frame of reference recognizes that metropolitan areas have decided to
develop their central city areas for new purposes. By way of example, the old
purpose might very well be compared with an extractive operation such as mining
or lumbering. The new metropolitan central city area's purpose contrasted with
the old, emphasizes people rather than production or even sales. In effect, these
metropolitan areas have, -without consideration of air pollution and probably many
other important factors, committed themselves to a mixed and varied land use, at
least in their central areas. Major decisions left for the future pertain to how
these many mixed and varied land uses can be made to function in a compatible
manner.
Recognition has been given to the competition between major metropolitan
areas for people, money, and talent; in effect, viability of the total metropolitan
area as contrasted with competition among the area's several parts, as has often
been the case in the past.
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Last, but not least, recognition has been given to the beginnings of attempts to
come to grips with the urban environment. Those attempts are directed toward
shaping the urban environment so that it develops the best in its citizens, while
making living in this urban environment worthwhile, and imparting beauty and a
sense of well being to not only those people who live there, but also to those who
visit. For example, Oscar Sutermcister, in a paper presented at the annual con-
ference of the American Institute of Planners in 1961, said: "The planner may ask
the health officer to consider such questions as 'Does mixture of land uses along an
arterial road bounding a residential neighborhood promote well being7 Does the
existing level of traffic noise promote well being? ' " To these it would be easy to
add many more, such as: Does the existing quality of air in our cities promote
well being9 Do community decisions made now adequately consider future air
quality?
In the preparation of this report the folio-wing guidelines selected by the Sub-
committee on Air Quality Goals have been used:
1. The quality of the air should not adversely affect the health of even the most
sensitive or susceptible groups in the population.
2. Pollutants should not be allowed to reach concentrations that would cause
a nuisance, such as the sensation of unpleasant tastes or odors.
3. Pollutant concentrations should not reach levels that would be damaging to
animals, ornamental plants, or agricultural crops.
4. Pollutants should not reach concentrations that would significantly reduce
visibility, especially visibility reductions that would, or could, be a
hazard to transportation.
5. Soiling, corrosion, and damage to materials, as well as adverse economic
effects, should not occur to any great extent. (These effects have been
considered in a way that points toward the economic savings that could re-
sult from improvement in air quality. )
A few words indicating the differences among standards, goals, and criteria
are in order. Goals relate to objectives that are not necessarily legal standards,
nor need they be linked to obvious health effects or vegetation damage. They should
relate to what is best for the total development of the human resources of the com-
munity. This does not mean complete freedom from air pollution, or no stress on
the citizens, but does dictate an approach directed toward what is best for the
citizens' total development. Standards, by contrast, are specified by lav/. They
may be as broad in their meaning as goals, or they may be limited to some effect
such as health or vegetation damage. Criteria refer to relationships bet-ween air
quality and various effects of pollution, -word meanings equated with numerical values.
Methods Available for Setting Air Quality Goals
Many methods have been used in the developing air pollution field for establish-
ing air quality goals for particular kinds of pollutants. Much of this work has been
based on knowledge of the effects of single pollutants, often under conditions and
with populations that are not typical of those exposed to air pollution. Unfortunate-
ly, little is known of the synergistic effects of combinations of pollutants, although
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it is known that such effects exist. Generally, in goal setting relating to the effects
of air pollutants on health, as knowledge became more detailed from research and
experience, the standards of maximum permissible human exposure have had to be
progressively lowered. The acute effects on human beings have been much easier
to evaluate than the chronic effects, particularly those chronic effects that may
evolve after a great many years of exposure to low levels of air pollution. Long-
term effects are extremely hard to evaluate, and not much effort has been put forth
for their definition since the least productive part of the population is most affected.
Most of the people suffering from long-term exposure have already lived the major
part of their lives and carried out their reproductive function to sustain society.
The effects of air pollution on them, therefore, arouses less attention than similar
effects upon young and vigorous persons.
The Russian philosophy in establishing maximum permissible exposures to air
contaminants is perhaps the most rigorous currently proposed. It takes the posi-
tion that any detectable effect upon the human organism that can be measured by
any known method in an average group of exposed individuals should establish the
maximum allowable standard. These levels are frequently far below that which the
individual can recognize by sensory perception, and they may or may not have long-
range or chronic effects on the individual. The methods include testing exposed
individuals for such hidden effects as changes in optical chronaxy in the eye, changes
in brain waves, threshold odor, and any other measurable effects for which there
are test procedures. The standard is set by the most sensitive measurement that
first shows the effect of exposure to an air pollutant. At the other end of the
philosophy spectrum, some persons advocate that standards should be established
only upon the basis of proved damage to the human organism.
A reasonable approach to the establishing of air quality goals would apparently
demand that such goals be sufficiently low so that no adverse health effect or im-
pairment of bodily function -would occur, even in the most susceptible or sensitive
group in the population. As an example, goals would not be based on currently
established threshold limit values applicable to the active male -working population
exposed for 8 hours a day. Instead, they would be based on the older part of the
population suffering from chronic health problems that would predispose them to
the effects of acute air pollution episodes to which such people have been shown to
succumb in the past.
In summation, air quality goals for those contaminants that affect health should
be based upon concentrations at -which sensitive groups of individuals in the popula-
tion would not be affected. This would not, however, preclude all effects upon all
hypersensitive individuals.
Where health effects are not believed to exist, other criteria must be used to
set goals. Where sensory effects to humans are involved, it would appear that
the public would wish that the standards would not allow the sensory threshold to
be exceeded as related to irritation, taste, or odor, at least in the residential and
general-public-use types of environment. When economic effects serve as the
basis for goals, the public would probably wish that resulting standards would
not allow demonstrable damage to animals or to ornamental plants or crops, and
that corrosion and other damage not appreciably shorten the usable life of building
materials, instruments, and fabrics. Obscuration of vision should not be so se-
vere that transportation is affected or rendered more hazardous. Where nuisance
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effects are the primary concern, it would seem that the public would readily ac-
cept standards that would prevent the filth in the environment from being objection-
able to most individuals.
Aesthetic values such as the beauty of an unobscured view are difficult to
assess, but may be important under certain circumstances. Certainly the Los
Angeles and Denver areas have lost much of their natural beauty from smog ob-
scuring the mountain ranges around them. Certainly St. Louis will lose much in
addition to economic costs if visitors to the Arch and the residents of the fashion-
able high-rise apartments frequently look out upon a sea of air pollution instead of
the suburbs to the west and the bottom land and bluffs to the east.
SULFUROUS COMPOUNDS
The effects of sulfurous compounds are summarized in Table 2. The sulfur-
ous compounds in the atmosphere are primarily from the sulfur oxides group,
which consists of sulfur dioxide, sulfuric acid, and sulfate salts. Hydrogen
sulfide, mercaptans, and other such compounds occur occasionally, but generally
in small amounts or in limited parts of urban atmospheres. The effects of sul-
furous compounds reported herein are related to pollutant concentration and to
exposure time. Although expressed in terms of sulfur dioxide, concentrations
are reported with the assumption that normally occurring amounts of sulfuric
acid and suspended particulates are also present.
Sulfur Oxides
The suggested goals for sulfur oxides (determined by measuring sulfur di-
oxide) in the Study area are dual. On the basis of observed effects, an annual
arithmetic mean concentration not to exceed 0. 02 part per million is recommended.
In addition to this annual goal, the sulfur dioxide concentrations shoiald not exceed
0. 1 part per million more than 1 percent of the time in any 3-month period. Both
of these goals are to relate to 24-hour sulfur dioxide measiirements based on the
West-Gaeke or equivalent method of analysis. These concentrations are not to be
exceeded in any place where people live, or where an undesirable effect may occur.
The sulfur oxides group is one of the most prevalent man-made pollutants in
the United States and is concentrated in major metropolitan areas. This wide-
spread condition results from the abundant use of fossil fuels, such as coal and
oil, used for power and heat. (See report Volumes II - Air Pollutant Emission
Inventory and III - Air Quality Measurements. )
The effects of sulfur oxides reported in Table 2, with the exception of those
in the "brief exposure" section, do not ordinarily derive solely from the presence
of any one sulfur oxide or, necessarily, the sulfur oxides as a group. They are
for the most part observed effects associated with sulfur oxides when various con-
centrations of these pollutants and other pollutants (the normal situation), have
been present in urban atmospheres. Because of the interreactions among pollu-
tants and the reactions of pollutants with oxygen and water in the atmosphere, as
well as the influence of sunlight and temperature on these reactions, the effects
of sulfur oxides pollution in a total atmosphere may be quite different from the
effects of sulfur oxides under laboratory conditions. The effects reported, there-
fore, are not primarily expressions of cause and effect that can be duplicated pre-
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Table 2. SUMMARY OF EFFECTS OF SULFUROUS COMPOUNDS
Sulfur dioxide
concentration, ppm
Exposure period
and effect
Measurement
method*5
Reference
Trace
0. 01 to 0.02
0. 02 max annual avg
0. 02 to 0.03
0.07 to 0.25
0. 20 to 0. 30 for 3 days
0. 20 to 0. 86 for 3 days
0. 21
0. 1 not to be exceeded
over 1% of time in any
3-mo period
0.25
0 28
0. 04
0. 08
0. 10
0. 20 for I hr not to be
exceeded over once in any
4 consecutive days
0. 30
0. 50
0. 50 for 5 mm not to be
exceeded over once in any
8-hr period
0 5 for 1 sec
0. 5 for 4 hr
0. 5 for 7 hr
1 0 for 10 mm
1 6 for 1 to 5 mm
Yearly exposure
Metal corrosion beginsa
Significant metal corrosiona
Impaired pulmonary functiona
Increased cardiovascular morbiditya
Air-quality goal for Study area
Increased respiratory death rates for
area studied3
Detectable chronic injury to perennial
vegetation3
2 - to 4-day exposure
Hospital admissions for cardio-
respiratory diseases increase3
Rhinitis, sore throat, cough, and eye-
imtation rates increased3
Mild to acute sensitive vegetation injury
Cardio-respiratory mortality increased3
Acute vegetation injury
24-hr exposure
Bronchitic patients' health deteriorates3
Air-quality goal for Study area
Increased total death r-ates3
Detectable injury to sensitive vegetation
Brief exposures
Visibility reduced to 10 mi at 70% relative
humidity
Cortical conditioned reflexes produced.
Repeated 10-sec exposures
Visibility reduced to 4 mi at 70% humidity
Air quality goal for Study area
Taste threshold
Visibility reduced to 0. 85 mi at 70% humidity
Air.-quality goal for Study area
Odor threshold
Detectable injury to sensitive vegetation
Acute injury to trees and shrubs
Respiration and pulse rates increase
Threshold for inducing measurable broncho-
constriction in healthy people
Pb02
PbO2
Pb02, W.G.
Pb02, W.G.
PbO2
T. A.
H2°2
P.G.
H2°2
P.G.
H2°2
H2°2
C
NMI
C
P.G.
C
P.G.
P.G.
P.G.
P.G.
P.G.
5
5
6,7
6,7
8
9
10
1 1, 12
13
14
13, 15
16
16
13
17
18
19
13
15
20
21
Effect determined for ambient air-quality conditions. Other effects are calculated or determined by
laboratory experiment.
PbO2 - lead peroxide candle method
T, A. - by Thomas autometer
E - by electroconductivity
C - calculated effect
W.G. - West-Gaeke method
H2O2 - hydrogen peroxide method
P.G. - pure gas used
NMI - no method indicated
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cisoly from one location to another, but rather they are useful values derived
from what has actually been taking place in urban atmospheres.
Each of the sulfur oxide compounds - sulfur dioxide, sulfuric acid, and sul-
fate salts - contributes individually to the effects of sulfurous pollution. The pro-
portions of the compounds, of course, vary in a complex manner over any geo-
graphical area, both in regard to the proportions of the compounds and the time
or times during which they occur. Over a long period, it is expected that the pro-
portions of the compounds would remain roughly the same from place to place
and season to season. Studies involving volumetric and sulfation measurement
methods during two winter seasons in the St. Louis area tend to confirm this ex-
pectation.
Since the methods of measuring the sulfur dioxide component have been more
fully developed than methods of measuring other pollutants, and since most in-
vestigations reported from other places have relied heavily on measurements of
sulfur dioxide, concentrations of this gas have been used to express the concen-
trations of sulfur oxides. Considering that the sulfur dioxide measurements are
an index of effects, the higher-than-normal sulfation levels in the Study area may
be found at some time to have some major significance, such as indicating the
presence of significant levels of sulfuric acid.
In the documented air pollution disasters in Belgium (1930), Donora,
Pennsylvania (1948), 23 New York City (1953 and 1963), 12 and London (1952 and
1962), 24, 25 large numbers of people became ill, and many died. All of these
episodes occurred in heavily industrialized areas during relatively brief periods
of weather conditions that prevented dispersal of air pollutants. Sulfur dioxide
concentrations were abnormally high, as were the concentrations of other gaseous
and particulate pollutants. Although the pattern of effects -was not uniform in all
these episodes, generally speaking, the elderly, the very young, and those with
preexisting cardiorespiratory disease were affected most.
The evidence is considerable that sulfur oxides pollution aggravates existing
respiratory disease in humans and contributes to its development. Sulfur dioxide
gas alone irritates the upper respiratory tract. Adsorbed on particulate matter,
the gas can be carried deep into the respiratory system to injure lung tissue.
Sulfuric acid in a certain particle size, when inhaled, penetrates deeply into the
lung to damage tissue.
Epidemiological, as well as clinical, study substantiates the evidence that
certain portions of the population are more sensitive than others to sulfur oxides
pollution. For example, prolonged exposure to relatively low concentrations of
sulfur dioxide has been associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity in
older persons. Prolonged exposure to higher concentrations of sulfur dioxide has
been associated with an increase in respiratory disease death rates and an in-
crease in complaints by school children of such symptoms as nonproductive cough,
mucous membrane irritation, and mucous secretion. Furthermore, the residual
air in the lungs of emphysema patients has been significantly reduced when the
patients breathed outdoor air that had been filtered of its pollutants. Alveolar
elasticity is apparently restored somewhat, or airway resistance is decreased
by the cleaner air. The most important single factor in improving the feeling of
well-being in chronic bronchitis patients has been decreases in the amounts of
smoke and sulfur dioxide pollution.
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Sulfur oxides pollution can also adversely affect the most robust persons of
the population. Experiments in which human volunteers were exposed to sulfur
dioxide concentrations several times higher than the 0. 3-ppm taste threshold
indicate that such exposure will produce pulmonary function changes, including
increased respiration rates, decreased respiratory flow rates, and increased air-
way resistance. The impairment of function is greater when the sulfur dioxide
gas is administered along with particulate matter. *-"> ^ ' The latter appears to in-
crease the penetration of sulfur dioxide into the lung. Sulfur dioxide and partic-
ulates would be a normal combination found in urban atmospheres.
In other experiments involving sulfur dioxide concentrations below the taste
threshold, cortical conditioned reflexes were produced. Tests made -with concen-
trations at the taste threshold desynchronized the predominant wave in electro-
encephalograms and increased the sensitivity of the dark-adapted eye.
studied the incidence of respiratory illness lasting more than 7 days
in female employees in five cities. Results of this study showed a very high
correlation (0. 964) of the average concentration of suspended sulfate in the air in
these cities with the rate of respiratory illnesses. The average sulfate concen-
trations for the cities ranged from 5 to 20 micrograms per cubic meter. During
the non-influenza-epidemic years, the incidence of respiratory disease was more
than twice as great in the city with the highest sulfate concentration than it was in
the city with the lowest sulfate concentration. As one would expect, the incidence
of total respiratory disease during the Asian flu epidemic of 1957-1958 was great-
er than in the same cities during nonepidemic years. In the city with the lowest
concentration of suspended sulfates, the incidence of respiratory illness increased
about 20 percent during the epidemic year, whereas in the city with the highest
concentration of suspended sulfate, the incidence of respiratory illness increased
approximately 200 percent. This was 10 times as great an increase in the city
with the highest sulfate concentration as in the city with the lowest sulfate concen-
tration. In absolute terms rather than percent increase, during the influenza year
the incidence of respiratory diseases in the city with the highest sulfate pollution
was more than five times as high as that in the city -with the lowest sulfate pollu-
tion. There is, of course, the possibility that the sulfate concentrations mea-
sured indicate the presence of other pollutants that increase simultaneously with
sulfate concentrations and that are contributory to adverse health effects or are
even more damaging to health than the sulfurous compounds producing the sulfate.
Sulfuric acid mists and sulfates in the atmosphere scatter light and thus re-
duce visibility. Because sulfuric acid and sulfate are hygroscopic, they tend to
cause fogs. These fogs decrease the amount of solar energy reaching the ground
and, therefore, tend to stabilize the atmosphere so that pollutants are held in the
affected area.
Prolonged exposure of all but the most resistant metals to any quantity of
sulfuric acid accelerates corrosion. The corrosion rate increases rapidly as the
pollution level rises. The effects of sulfur oxides on nylon and cotton fabrics
have been studied to some extent during the Interstate Air Pollution Study. In
fact, these studies have been some of the first of this type ever made. (See
Materials Deterioration in the Study Area section of this report. ) The effects of
sulfur oxides corrosion on stone statuary and buildings has been recognized
throughout the world. Damage to art objects, paper, leather, textiles, and paint
is also a widespread problem.
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Vegetation is acutely damaged by a few hours oi exposure to concentrations
of sulfur dioxide in excess of 0. 25 ppm, and injury may be detected in many areas
that have yearly average concentrations of 0. 02 to 0. 03 ppm. Vegetation sensi-
tive to sulfur oxides disappeared many years ago in several parts of the Study
area. Decreases in measured sulfur dioxide concentrations during the past 20
years, however, have allowed some species to reappear in the central part of the
Study area (see Vegetation Damage section of this report).
Table 3 reports effects caused by different amounts of sulfuric acid (criteria).
For the most part these criteria are derived from laboratory investigations and
do not, like sulfur dioxide criteria (Table 2), represent conditions found in urban
atmospheres. This is undesirable, but is understandable because of the major
difficulties encountered in the measurement of sulfuric acid in urban atmospheres.
It has been postulated that the presence of sulfuric acid aerosol can be shown
by comparison of sulfation candle results and West-Gaeke results. Correlations
of results from paired samplers located at the same sites can be expected to differ
for the two methods from site to site and city to city because the West-Gaeke method
is specific for sulfur dioxide and the nonspecific, sulfation method shows the pres-
ence of all sulfurous compounds that react with lead dioxide to form lead sulfate.
The relative importance of sulfuric acid aerosol at any site, therefore, may be
determined by comparing the difference in the sulfation and sulfur dioxide levels
with the cliffcrences found for other sites. Volume III - Air Quality Measurements
rc'ports in some detail on the high sulfation levels found in the Study area. These
levels were five times higher than those found in Nashville, Tennessee, and in the1
same range as those found in London, England. Sulfuric acid aerosol may, there-
tore, be more important in the Study area than sulfur dioxide levels would indicate.
The following quotation from the book, Air Conservation, ^ 9 reports the prin-
cipal effects of sulfuric- acid on man and animal:
"Sulfuric acid must have been the principal cause1 of the air pollution
disasters of the Meuse Valley, Donora, and London. It (sulfuric acid)
produce's on a molar basis from 4 to 20 times the physiological response
in animals as sulfur dioxide does. The effect of sulfuric acid mist is
greatly influenced by the size oi the mist particles. Those of interme-
diate size (about 1 micron in mean diameter) appear to be most injurious. "
Sulfuric acid mist causes spots on the surface of leaves exposed to falling
droplets. Discrete spots appear only when the drops arc large enough to settle
upon the1 leaf and wet its surface. Such damage occurs most often during foggy
weather, which is conducive to both coalescence of droplets and to leaf wetting.
As one would expect, nonwaxy leaves are more susceptible to this type of damage.
Sulfuric acid mist promotes corrosion and materials deterioration. Especial-
ly damaging to certain cloth materials, such as nylon, sulfuric acid causes the
formation of pinholes and weakens cloth as a whole. Participate matter in the air,
depending upon its characteristics, may detract from or enhance the acid-mist
effect.
A goal of 0. 004 milligram per cubic meter for a maximum annual average1
(4 ug/m ) and 0.030 milligram per cubic meter (30 |o.g/m ), not to be exceeded as
an hourly ave^rage over 1 pc'rcent of the1 time, is sugge'sted for the' Interstate- Air
10
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Pollution Study area. These- concentrations would not entirely eliminate mate-
rials deterioration, but would, based on current information, provide reasonable
protection oi the- public health.
Hydrogen Sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide is easily identified by its distinctive rotten egg odor. Its
effects include gastrointestinal disturbances, damage to lead-base paints, and
emotional stress caused by its odor. Table 4 shows that concentrations greater
than 500 ppm cause death; lower concentrations cause respiratory irritation re-
sulting in nausea, vomiting, discomfort, loss of sleep, shortness of breath, and
headache. Concentrations of 10 to 100 ppm can cause eye effects including con-
junctivitis and keratitis.
The odor threshold for sensitive individuals is about 0.01 ppm and ranges up
to 0. 10 ppm, depending upon individual olfactory sensitivity. At higher concen-
trations the odor becomes progressively stronger and more disagreeable; it
reaches intolerable levels at about 30 ppm.
Damage to lesid-based or pigmented paints and paints containing mercury-
based fungicides can be caused by hydrogen sulfide. Discoloration occurs when
the metallic oxides react with the hydrogen sulfide to form metallic sulfides. The
occurrence of this type of damage depends considerably upon the presence of water,
which hastens the reaction and allows it to occur with smaller amounts of hydrogen
sulfide. When the paint surface is moistened, damage may occur with exposures
of less than 1 hour and concentrations as low as 0. 1 ppm. Figure 2, a photograph
of a garage in the Study area, shows the type of damage caused by hydrogen sulfide.
Table 4. EFFECTS OF HYDROGEN SULFIDE FROM BRIEF EXPOSURES
Concentration, ppm
Effects
Reference
0. 003
0. 001 to 0. 10
0. 03 for 1/2 hr not to be exceeded
more than twice in any 5 days
0. 05 for 1/2 hr not to be exceeded
more than 2 times/yr
0. 01 to 0. 3 for 30 mm
1. 0 for 30 mm
3 to 5
4 to 30
20
20 to 30
20 to 40 for 5 hr
50 to 500
>500
Tarnishing of silver and copper occurs
slowly
Odor threshold depending upon olfactory
sensitivity
Air quality goal for Study area
Air quality goal for Study area
Paint blackening in presence of water mist
Paint blackening under dry conditions
Offensive intense odor
Eye effects noted by most people
Industrial hygiene threshold limit value
Strong odor, intolerable at about 30 ppm
Damage to sensitive vegetation
Respiratory irritant subacute poisoning
Systemic poisoning, death
34
35-37
38
4
39-43
44
45, 46
47
12
-------
Odors and tarnishing of metals are other specific effects found in the Study
area. These effects are found within small areas and are intermittent in occur-
rence. The hydrogen sulfide upper limit goal of 0.05 ppm, 1/2-hour average, not
to be reached or exceeded over two times a year at any place where people live or
an effect maybe objectionable, is suggested. This concentration would be detected
as odors by some people, and some tarnishing of metals would occur; but if the
goal is met, the frequency of such occurrences would be low.
CARBON MONOXIDE
Table 5 presents carbon monoxide criteria. The toxic action of carbon mon-
oxide is related primarily to its affinity for hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying com-
ponent of blood. Human hemoglobin has an affinity that is about 200 times greater
for carbon monoxide than it is for oxygen; therefore, a relatively small concen-
tration of carbon monoxide in the inhaled air can tie up significant quantities of
hemoglobin as carboxyhemoglobin. Hemoglobin is then unavailable for the trans-
port of oxygen to the various body tissues. Secondary, though probably important,
effects of carbon monoxide result from carboxyhemoglobin inhibiting the dissocia-
tion of oxygen and hemoglobin molecules. This further reduces the body's oxygen
supply. Carbon monoxide in the blood also reduces the partial pressure of oxygen,
as a gas, in the blood, and thereby lessens the moving force that causes the oxygen
to diffuse into the tissues.
The amount of carbon monoxide within the body is related to both its concen-
tration in the air and the length of time the individual is exposed. Unless the
concentration in the air is sufficient to bring about death, an equilibrium condition
is established between the carbon monoxide in the air breathed and that in the blood.
Figure 2. Example of paint damage caused by hydrogen
sulfide in Study area.
13
-------
Table 5. EFFECTS OF CARBON MONOXIDE
Concentration ,
ppm
5
5 to 10
30
30
45
70 to 100
120
200
500
1,000
2, 000
Exposure
time
20 mm
-
8 hr or more
8 hr
-
1 hr
2 to 4 hr
2 to 4 hr
2 to 3 hr
1 to 2 hr
Effects
Reflex changes in the higher nerve centers
Average levels of CO in St. Louis and most
large cities
Impairment of visual and mental acuity
(5% carboxyhemoglobin)
Air quality goal for Study area
Peak concentration at St. Louis CAMP
Station
Maximum levels occurring in some large
cities
Air quality goal for Study area
Tightness across the forehead, possible
slight headache
Severe headache, weakness, nausea, dimness
of vision, possibility of collapse
Rapid pulse rate, coma with intermittent
convulsions, and Cheyne-Stokes respiration
Death
Reference
4
48
49-51
48
49
52
52
52
52
All effect levels pertain to healthy individuals. Specific effect levels for individuals who for
other reasons are approaching the levels of tolerability are not available.
In the concentration range of 0 to 100 ppm carbon monoxide, after sufficient time
has elapsed to establish equilibrium, each 1 ppm of carbon monoxide has inactivated
approximately 0. 17 percent of the body's hemoglobin. The time necessary for
equilibrium to be reached is a matter of hours, however, Both time and concentra-
tion must, therefore, be considered in determining effects.
Acute Effects
The oxygen deficiency that results from exposure to carbon monoxide is a re-
versible chemical asphyxia, a type of asphyxiation or oxygen deficiency. There
is no satisfactory evidence to indicate that permanent ill effects occur from single
acute carbon monoxide exposures that do not result in a loss of consciousness;
however, when poisoning is severe enough to cause loss of consciousness, some
damage to the brain, central nervous system, and circulatory system may occur.
The degree of damage incurred is related to the length and severity of the asphyxia. ^
Impairment of body function is detectable at carboxyhemoglobin levels as low
as 5 percent in the blood. Such levels could result from exposure to 30 ppm car-
bon monoxide for an 8-hour period. 49-51 Effects caused by such exposure involv-
ing higher nerve centers include impairment of the ability to think and see clearly,
a faculty very important to motor vehicle drivers. Detectable effects caused by
14
-------
levels of 1. 7 ppm for 24 hours affect the reflex actions in the higher nerve centers
(such as light sensitivity of the eye, optical chronaxie, and the cerebral biocur-
rents). "*
Sensitive Groups
For persons with certain types of preexisting physical disabilities or illnesses,
the concentrations required to produce effects can be considerably less than those
causing effects in healthy people. Included among this group would be persons
with one or more of the following conditions: anemia, certain forms of heart
disease, emphysema, a high metabolic rate (e.g., those with thyrotoxicosis or
fever), and bronchial asthma.
In addition to those having an increased susceptibility because of certain
disease conditions, there are others, who, because of where they are or what
they have been doing, may exhibit an increased susceptibility. For example,
those people at high altitude, in high temperature and high humidity, or persons
with significant preexisting amounts of carboxyhemoglobin in their blood result-
ing from their occupation, from smoking (which has been found to produce carboxy-
hemoglobin levels of up to 8 percent), 53 or frOm traffic may be thought to be suf-
fering from chronic effects of carbon monoxide when in fact they have accumulated
acute levels of carboxyhemoglobin in the blood. Traffic exposures in St. Louis
inside vehicles alone, for example, have been found to be over 30 ppm, or about
twice the levels measured by the Continuous Air Monitoring Program station. 54
As far as healthy humans are concerned, numerous experiments conducted
under carefully controlled conditions have demonstrated that repeated exposures
to low but significant amounts of carbon monoxide do not result in any permanent
ill effect. 52
The goal of 30 ppm, not to be exceeded for any 8-hour exposure period, in-
cludes some consideration of the persons within special groups, but is not unduly
governed by the needs of these groups. Some researchers believe this goal should
be as low as 5 ppm for 8 hours. -*->
OXIDANTS
Oxidant levels, as measured in urban atmospheres, record the results of a
complex atmospheric interaction that apparently involves the primary air pollu-
tants as reactants and catalysts. Photochemical smog is the term used to describe
the resulting group of secondary air pollutants. Measured levels of urban air
oxidants are compared in Table 6 with results from experiments using ozone under
laboratory conditions. The complexity of urban-air-measured oxidants as com-
pared to the simplicity of the laboratory-measured ozone must be kept in mind in
assessing the effects attributable to oxidants.
Oxidants measured in urban atmospheres indicate effect levels of photochem-
ical smog. Photochemical smog, as explained by Haagen-Smit, "° is associated
•with a considerable increase in concentrations of ozone and other oxidant mate-
rial. In smog formation sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and aldehydes are be-
lieved to absorb ultraviolet radiation and react chemically •with molecular oxygen
to produce atomic oxygen (ozone). These reactions are irreversible for sulfur di-
15
-------
Table 6. EFFECTS OF OZONE
Concentration, ppm
Observations
Reference
0. 01
0. 02 for 8 hr
0. 03 for 8 hr
0. 05
0. 05 for 1 hr
0. 10 for 1 hr
0. 05
0.15b
0. 15 maximum allowable for
1 hr average (total oxidant)
0. 10
0. 1 to 0.25 long term
0. 10 for 8 hr
0.20 for 3 hr
0.60
1 for 1-1/2 hr
3 to 12 for few hr
Ozone considered radiomimetic - no safe
level
Odor threshold of ozone
Damage to tobacco leaves begins
Significant damage to tobacco leaves
Nose and throat irritation threshold
Damage to tobacco leaves begins
Significant damage to tabacco leaves Pine
tree needle tips burned
Threshold for eye irritation in sensitive
people (ambient oxidant)
Generally stated eye-irritation threshold
for normal people (ambient)
Air quality goal for Study area (ambient
oxidant)
Reduction in oxygen consumption and blood
oxygen tension (concentration) levels of
emphysema patients, compared to effects on
some patients breathing filtered air (ambient)
Shortens life span, increases mortality of
guinea pigs
Definite symptomatic effects in sensitive people
Decrease of visual acuity
Cough irritation threshold, pronounced nose and
throat irritation
Coughing, irritation, severe exhaustion
Lethal to small laboratory animals
56
57
58
58
56
58
58
59
60
61
57,62
63
63
64
65
As determined from laboratory experiments using ozone except where otherwise noted.
Ambient measurements are for "total oxidants. "
0.25 ppm by the phenolphthalin method.
oxide and aldehydes, but the nitrogen dioxide reaction is cyclic unless the nitrogen
dioxide is converted to nitric acid or is used up in organic reactions. In the sulfur
dioxide reaction, the sulfur dioxide is oxidized to sulfur trioxide, with subsequent
formation of sulfuric acid aerosol. Hydrocarbons and other organic pollutants
react in varying degrees with the ozone and oxidant formed to yield compounds
that cause eye irritation, vegetation damage, and reduced visibility.
Most researchers agree that eye irritants are produced by photochemical oxi-
dation of hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight and nitrogen oxides. Research-
ers further agree that eye irritation is directly and consistently correlated with
formaldehyde, acroletn, and PAN concentrations in the air. Ozone, the compound
16
-------
with which most laboratory studies were made, constitutes the major proportion
of oxidant in the atmosphere of most cities during all seasons. Concentrations,
however, vary from season to season, being highest in the summer and fall as a
result of the greater photochemical activity associated with the greater amount of
sunlight. The percent ozone portion of oxidant concentrations is highest in the
winter, often being 95 percent or more of the total oxidant. In the summer and
fall, the relative proportion of ozone may drop to 80 percent or less because of
the production of other oxidants in the photochemical reactions and the increased
conversion of nitric oxide to nitrogen dioxide, the latter being an oxidant itself.
Eye irritation, although possibly not the most important effect of the constitu-
ents measured as oxidants, is the most troublesome and most commonly recog-
nized effect in urban atmospheres. This major problem of photochemical-type
air pollution varies greatly in the effects caused, not only because of differences
in the sensitivity of the individuals affected but also because of variations in light,
humidity, haze, and wind currents. Although the eye-irritation threshold level
is usually placed at 0. 15 ppm total oxidants as measured by the potassium iodide
method, it appears that the total oxidant is not directly responsible for this effect. ° '
It is attributed to specific chemicals associated with or among the measured oxi-
dants, in particular the ozone-olefin reaction products.
The goal of 0. 15 ppm, not to be exceeded for over 1 hour, is based upon the
California standard. This goal measured as total oxidant will be equivalent to
approximately 0. 13 ppm ozone. As seen from Table 6, this concentration is
somewhat higher than those concentrations causing significant damage to sensitive
plants and producing symptomatic effects in sensitive people.
OXIDES OF NITROGEN
Seven oxides of nitrogen are known, but only nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide
are thought to play an important role in the formation and action of photochemical
smog. Of the other five oxides, only nitrous oxide is normally present in signifi-
cant concentrations (0. 5 ppm) in the atmosphere. It is chemically inert at am-
bient temperatures. As described in the discussion of oxidants, the complex
reactions that produce smog are initiated by the photolysis (breakdown) of nitrogen
dioxide. In sufficient concentrations nitrogen dioxide is toxic to humans and vege-
tation; under some conditions it gives the atmosphere a yellowish-brown color.
Nitrogen oxides are formed primarily during combustion. In most communi-
ties power plants and motor vehicles are the primary sources, and space heaters,
water heaters, and industrial processes contribute varying but lesser amounts.
In the St. Louis area, motor vehicles emit an estimated 32 percent of the total
nitrogen oxides and fuel combustion by power and industrial sources contribute
about 55 percent. (See Volume II - Air Pollutant Emission Inventory.)
Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are the only nitrogen oxides found in the at-
mosphere that reach concentrations sufficiently high to be of concern. Since nitro-
gen dioxide is five times as toxic as nitric oxide and is most active in promoting
photochemical smog, most research on determining effects of nitrogen oxides
has been based upon nitrogen dioxide. Table 7 shows some of its effects.
17
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Since neither gas is very soluble in water, they pass through the upper res-
piratory tract and are hydrolized to nitric and nitrous acids in the high-humidity
atmosphere of the alveoli. Nitrous acid is a potent mutagen, and nitric acid dena-
tures human tissue and makes it leathery and brittle. These two acids promote
the development of emphysema by destroying the lung alveoli and by decreasing
resistance to other stresses such as airborne infectious microorganisms. A con-
centration of 3 ppm by volume of nitrogen dioxide for 1 hour may be serious
enough to cause acute effects in sensitive people. Prolonged exposures to nitrogen
dioxide concentrations of 0. 5 to 1.0 ppm have been shown to be detrimental to the
health of animals.
Data on phytotoxic effects indicate that exposure to 2 to 3 ppm by volume of
nitrogen dioxide may cause acute damage to sensitive plants. Long-term ex-
posure to concentrations of nitrogen dioxide below 1 ppm by volume may lead to
growth suppression, chlorosis, and premature abscission of leaves. Exposures
to 1 ppm by volume for 8 hours produce significant growth reduction, but no
visible lesions.
Nitrogen dioxide absorbs light in both the ultraviolet and the visible spec-
trums. In sufficient concentrations it reduces the brightness and contrast of
Table 7. EFFECTS OF NITROGEN DIOXIDE
Concentration,
ppm
Effect
Reference
0. 1
0.25
0. 5 3 mo
<0. 5 12 to 19 days
1 to 3
2.5 7 hr or more
3 4 to 8 hr
3.5 2 hr
13
Limit of acceptability for coloration effect
in aerosol-free air with viewing distance
of 10 miles.
Limit of acceptability for coloration effect
in normal metropolitan area air with view-
ing distance of 10 miles when the visibility
is 20 miles.
Increased susceptibility to infection in mice
by certain aerosolized bacteria.
Significant growth reduction in tomato and
bean seedings. No visible lesion damage.
Chlorosis of leaves reported.
Odor threshold.
Bean, tomato, and nicotiana glutinosa leaves
damaged with white lesions occurring.
Pinto bean leaf damage.
Increased susceptibility to infection in mice
by certain aerosolized bacteria.
Nasal and eye irritation noticeable.
68
68
68
69,70
68
71
71,72
73,74
75
18
-------
distant objects and imparts a yellow-brown color to the horizon sky and distant
white objects. These coloration effects are enhanced as aerosol concentrations
in the atmosphere decrease. Objectionable coloration effects can be expected to
occur on days of good visibility (20 miles) with concentrations of about 0. 25 ppm
by volume of nitrogen dioxide.
At present authorities disagree as to whether reductions in hydrocarbon con-
centrations alone will produce the desired reduction in photochemical smog prod-
ucts. In Los Angeles, for example, two eye irritation peaks have been ob-
served. The earlier of the two peaks occurs at approximately 9 to 10 a.m. and
seems to coincide with the maximum daily nitrogen dioxide concentration. The
later peak occurs between about noon and 4 p. m. and corresponds to the peak
total oxidant measurement. Some authorities believe that a reduction in hydro-
carbon emissions alone may lead to a prolongation and intensification of the earlier
peak. This presumably •would occur because of a lack of hydrocarbons with which
the nitrogen dioxide and other intermediate photochemical products react to form
the materials causing the second eye irritation peak. Both hydrocarbon and nitro-
gen oxide emissions may thus have to be reduced to alleviate smog conditions that
cause eye irritation.
No goal for nitrogen dioxide for the Study area has been chosen because of the
uncertainty of authorities concerning the health effects of concentrations in the
range of those occurring in the Study area. Adopting an ambient-air-quality
standard such as that adopted by the California Department of Health (3 ppm for
1 hour = serious level) is considered unnecessary since this level is over 10
times higher than the 5-minute maximum levels recorded in St. Louis by the Con-
tinuous Air Monitoring Program. The mutagenic and denaturing effects of low
concentrations of this pollutant in the lungs as •well as the sky coloration and
phytotoxic effects may, however, call for ambient-air -quality goals of less than
1 ppm.
EFFECTS OF PARTICULATE MATTER
Introduction
The effects of particulate matter vary widely, depending on particle size and
composition as well as numbers. For example, less than 1 microgram per cubic
meter of beryllium presents a health hazard, whereas inert dusts could be present
in quantities several hundred times that without comparable danger. In their
present stage of development, particulate collection and analysis do not make
nearly all the tests desirable, but are limited primarily to finding total weight of
particulate matter per unit volume of air. For this reason, many of the effects
reported in Table 8 are based on the opinions of experts in the field of air pollu-
tion. These opinions relate to urban air, and the effects are attributed to or
related to particulate matter combined with other pollutants in that environment.
Reported visibility reductions and results from public opinion surveys, however,
do stem from quantitative relationships.
The effects of particulate matter include contributions to reduced visibility,
increased health effects (including cardiorespiratory diseases and eye irritation),
increased vegetation damage, soiling, and increased materials damage.
19
-------
Table 8. EFFECTS OF PARTICULATE MATTER
Concentration
Effect
Reference
ug /m
25 to 50
75 to 100
over 100
150 to 200
over 200
100
140
75, geometric mean
200, 99 percentile
Cohs/ 1 , 000 lineal ft
over 0. 3
0. 4 60% relative humidity
0 4 > 90% relative humidity
0. 4
i. 6 60% relative humidity
tons/mi /mo
5
15
10 3-mo average above
background in all areas
except those zoned heavy
industrial.
25 3-mo average above
background in zoned
heavy industrial areas.
30
Background levels
Considered satisfactory air quality by most people
Increased mortality from all causes, increased
mortality from chronic respiratory diseases
Considered dirty by most people
Considered excessively dirty by most people
Visibility reduced to about 5 mi
Visibility reduced to about 3 mi at humidity > 60%
Residential Air quality goal for Study area
Increase in total morbidity and incidence of
cardiovascular diseases among middle-class
individuals 55 years of age or older
Increased mortality from respiratory diseases
among the middle socioeconomic class
Visibility reduced to about 9 mi
Visibility reduced to about 3 mi
Air quality goal for Study area
Visibility reduced to about 3 mi
Background level
Considered satisfactory for residential areas
76
77
78
78
79
79
79
Considered dirty by most people
Health-Related Effects
Health effects associated with airborne particulate matter vary with the particle
sizes and the chemical activity of the pollutant, and its sites of toxic action. Since
air pollutant effects are associated primarily with action upon the respiratory sys-
tem, consideration of the mode of entry and action -will be limited to that system.
Particles larger than 10 microns in diameter are practically all removed in the
nasal passages. Upper respiratory efficiency in removing particulate matter de-
creases as the size of particles decreases and becomes practically nil for 1-micron-
diameter particles. The efficiency of particle removal is high in the pulmonary air
spaces, being approximately 100 percent for all sizes above 2-micron diameter.
Below this size, the efficiency decreases to a minimum at about 0. 5 micron and
then increases again as the force of precipitation by diffusion becomes more ef-
fective on these smaller particles. The percentage penetration of particles into
20
-------
the pulmonary air spaces increases from practically zero at 10 microns to a
maximum at and below 1 micron, where it is equal to the percentage of tidal air
that reaches the lungs. The percentage of inhaled particles that are deposited in
the pulmonary air spaces has a maximum value between 1 and 2 microns. The
relative amount of particulate matter deposited and its distribution in the respira-
tory system, however, does change with breathing frequency and tidal volume.
Upper respiratory trapping increases with faster breathing as the rate of inspired
airflow increases. The amount of deep lung deposition of particulates increases
with slow, deep breathing because of the larger amount of tidal air reaching the
Q f\
pulmonary air spaces and the longer transit time of air in the lungs. °
The effects of particulate matter deposited in the lungs depend upon the chem-
ical and biological action that the material may have on the exposed cell tissue
and the body's defense mechanisms. Acid mists, silica,and beryllium as well as
certain other metals are especially damaging to the lungs and human health.
Beryllium, -which was not found in samples collected during the Study, is a serious
health hazard. Certain carcinogenic materials, which also occur in particulate
form, can be a serious health hazard. Measurements of benzo(a)pyrene, one of the
potential cancer-causing air pollutants, made during the Study, showed the pollu-
tant concentration in the St. Louis area to be comparable, in a general sense, with
those in other United States cities of similar size and composition. The sample
average was 10.2 |ag/l,000 m during the winter of 1964, -with the range bet-ween
sites from 1.4 to 28.0 jig/1,000 m^. The United States urban average value is
5 |j.g/l, 000 m^. In addition, samples analyzed indicated the possibility that other
potential cancer-producing airborne particulates may be present in the Study
area's atmosphere. In 1959 an abnormally high concentration of 54 micrograms
of benzo(a)pyrene per 1, 000 cubic meters, over 10 times the urban average, was
recorded. Report Volume III, Air Quality Measurements, presents the benzo(a)py-
rene data in detail with interpretation regarding occurrence and sources. Present
knowledge of this pollutant is inadequate to explain the variation found in the Study
area, but its occurrence emphasizes the need for continuing to measure the con-
centrations of this pollutant and supporting research to better define its importance
in the environment. Most authorities agree that although a large proportion of the
increased rate of lung cancer in c ities can be attributed to the smoking habits of
city dwellers, a certain part of the excess cancer rate in urban areas is due to air
pollut ion . " 1
As mentioned previously, laboratory experiments with human subjects have
demonstrated that particulate matter penetrating the pulmonary air spaces exerts
additional effects when present with certain gaseous pollutants in the air. In other
words, when the gas is adsorbed on the particulate matter, it has a greater detri-
mental effect than if it were present in its natural state. ° ' ° In addition, free
soluble gases are largely absorbed in the upper respiratory tract, -whereas gas
adsorbed on particulates may pass through the upper respiratory tract and be
deposited in the alveoli.
Vegetation Damage and Related Effects
Gaseous matter adsorbed or absorbed on particulate matter may also produce
vegetation, animal, or materials damage. Vegetation damage can be caused by
chemically inert particulate matter building up on the leaf until sunlight cannot
21
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penetrate the layer. If the particles are not inert, damage may occur as the
result of direct burning by acid, caustic, or other active droplets or by absorp-
tion of biologically injurious compounds. Animals eating pollutant-covered
forage or forage having the pollutant within its leaves are particularly endangered.
Fluoride damage to bones and teeth of cattle is an example of this type of effect.
Particulatcs soil many surfaces and increase the costs of cleaning buildings,
laundry, and dry cleaning. Figures 3 and 4, showing cleaning of the Old Post
Office Building and an office building in downtown St. Louis, illustrate these ef-
fects. Damage to building exteriors caused by particulates and by gaseous com-
pounds in the air decreases building life and increases building maintenance costs.
A study conducted in the upper Ohio River valley in 1959 and I960 revealed
important differences in the cost of four categories of cleaning in communities
subjected to different levels of air pollution." The activities examined were care
of the exterior of homes, interior of homes, clothing, and hair and face. Three
communities having distinctly different air quality, but similar weather and in-
come levels were compared. With few exceptions, greater frequency of cleaning
and maintenance operations was found necessary in areas of higher air pollution.
Estimates of the costs of 28 household and personal chores (Table 9) show that a
family living in air containing an average of 383 micrograms per cubic meter of
suspended particulates spent from $47 to $829 per year more than a family living
in air containing an average of 115 micrograms per cubic meter. The third city
included in the study had an average air quality of 178 micrograms per cubic
meter, and, as expected, the cleaning costs for its citizens were greater than
those for the cleaner city and less than those for the dirtier city. The large range
in cleaning costs is due to the differences in standards of living. The range is
considerably less for any one selected standard of living. The table also shows
an increase in laundry and cleaning costs of about 25 to 30 percent for the people
living in the dirtier atmospheres.
Visibility
Visibility is reduced appreciably by particulate matter in the atmosphere. At
relative humidities of approximately 70 percent or greater, visibility may be re-
duced primarily by -water vapor. At lower humidities, the decreases in visibility
are due primarily to the effect of particulate matter in the air. Of major impor-
tance in the relationship between air pollution and decreased visibility are particle
sizes and numbers. Particles having approximately the same diameter as the
•wavelength of light (0. 4 to 0. 7 micron) reduce visibility more effectively per unit
quantity than do other sizes - a fact related to light-scattering properties and total
area available to block light. Burt, ^9 using St. Louis, Missouri, data from 1954
through 1958, showed a semilog relationship between visibility and soiling index
at 60 percent relative humidity (Figure 5). Day-to-day or other single-event pre-
dictions of coefficient of haze (Coh) values based on visibility, or vice versa, may
be highly inaccurate, however, since the variables concerned cause a wide scatter
of data. ^ In part, this lack of small-number correlation may be due to difficul-
ties in making field measurements of visibility and particulate concentrations as
well as the influence of the variable particle densities along any visibility measure-
22
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Figure 3. Post Office Building during sand-blast cleaning.
23
-------
Figure 4. Office building during sand-blast cleaning.
ment trajectory. In spite of these difficulties, correlations based on long-term
relationships have been determined for visual range and pollutant concentrations,
both by calculations and experiment. ^° Figure 6 shows a corresponding range of
visibility for specific water droplet and iron sphere sizes at various concentrations.
This figure further emphasizes that for a fixed weight of particulates per cubic
meter of air, the point of maximum visibility impairment occurs as particle di-
ameters approximating the wavelength of light. 85
Visibility trends are affected not only by air pollution control efforts, but also
by general changes that occur in the community. An analysis made in Salt Lake
City, Utah, utilizing number of hours with visibility of 3 miles or less due to
smoke, shows a sharp rise caused by rapid industrial expansion during World War II.
An investigation of visibility conditions in the Salt Lake Valley by the Utah State
climatologist revealed that visibility was much better during the 1930' s than during
the years after World War II. Contrary to the experience at Salt Lake City, visi-
bility has improved in many cities during these years as a result of conversion
from steam to diesel locomotives and from coal to gas and oil for heating. This
improvement in visibility pertains to the Study area also. As indicated in Table 10,
visibility has improved the most during the winter months. The improvement re-
flects both regulatory activity and changes in fuel use.
24
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Table 9. ADDED COSTS OF LIVING IN DIRTY ENVIRONMENT
(DOWNTOWN STEUBENVILLE, OHIO, 383 ug/m3 VERSUS
UNIONTOWN, PA. ,115 (.ig/m3) FOR 28 ACTIVITIES, 1960
Inside
maintenance
Outs ide
maintenance
Laundry and
cleaning
Hair and
Facial care
Totals, per family
In private homes
In apartments
(no inside painting or
decorating, no outside
maintenance)
Income
g r oupa
(1)
(2)
(1)
(2)
(1)
(2)
(1)
(2)
(1)
(2)
Per family
Do-it-
yourself
$ 29
44
21
337
27
129
9
86
519
47
158
Non-do-it-
yourself
$ 162
227
49
368
79
186
48
338
829
263
423
(l) Annual income under $8,000.
(2) Annual income $8,000 or more.
Table 10. PERCENT FREQUENCIES OF ALL VISIBILITIES LESS THAN 7 MILES
AT WEATHER BUREAU AIRPORT STATION (ST. LOUIS)
Dates
(month/year)
1/35 to 12/41
1/58 to 12/60
Jan
50
34
Feb
45
18
Mar
39
28
Apr
32
10
May June
18 14
12 8
July
14
13
Aug
17
11
Sept
22
9
Oct
33
20
Nov
40
13
Dec
52
22
25
-------
DAT* A*C FOR FEDERAL BUILDING IN JT LOUIS
WO WCRC TAKEN »T LtSS THIN 60% RELATIVE
IOITY
SUSPENDED PARTICULATE SAMPLING 1030 TO 1330 C5T
VISIBILITY OBSERVATION IZOO CST
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
SUSPENDED PARTICULATE , Cohs / IpOO feel
Figure 5. Soiling index versus visibility.
Figure 7 reports the hours per month that visibility is restricted at Lambert
Field. These 10-year-average figures, varying from. 55 hours in July to 160 hours
in January, show that restricted visibility occurs a considerable portion of the
time as a result of air-pollution-associated conditions.
Figure 8 is a wind rose of the wind directions and speeds associated with
visibility of less than 3 miles at Lambert Field. Such visibility occurred during
11 percent of the total Lambert Field wind observations during the 1941 to 1950
period. Low visibility is associated primarily with low wind speed since calms
and wind speeds less than 4 miles per hour occur during 37 percent of the low
visibility observations. Such winds are reported for only about 15 percent of the
total wind observations; therefore, about 27 percent of these low wind speeds
(0. 37 x 11/15) are associated with low visibility. In other words, low visibility
can be expected to occur during about 3 out of 10 such low wind speed occurrences.
Winds from the east to southeast, from the direction of the urban area, account
for about 32 percent of the occurrences of low visibility, a higher percent than is
associated with all three other quadrants together when allowance is made for the
37 percent low visibility that occurs during calms. Winds from the east to south-
east quadrant occur only about 23 percent of the total time; thus low visibility does
26
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- 10
5 oe
CD
tn 06
a =2r K PARTICLES RADIUS -r LIGHT WAVELENGTH
001 002 004 006 OO6 Ol 02 04 06 0.8 I
WEIGHT OF PARTICLES, mg/m'
6 8 10
Figure 6. Range of visibility as a function of particle concentration
by weight in the atmosphere.
1600
§ I&OO
" 1400
3
* I30O
MEAN MAXIMUM MIXING DEPTH, m«terj i
* A U o* -4 a Ifi O — h)
3OOOOOOOOO
DOOOOOOOOO
160
150
• ^ I4O
130
VISIBILITY LESS THAN 7 MILES.hr/
*J>lPV-^ai
-------
N
W
Figure 8. Wind rose for visibility less than 3 miles for
all causes, Lambert Field, St. Louis, Mo. ,
1941-1950, percent frequency of occurrence.
occur more frequently than the general wind pattern would lead one to expect.
This can be attributed to weather patterns and air pollutants from the metropolitan
area.
Information on visibility at the Bi-State Parks Airport south of East St. Louis
is not available. Since visibility is restricted by air pollutants at Lambert Field,
reduced visibility can be expected to be more frequent at the Bi-State Parks Air-
port because of the greater frequency of low wind speeds at its location, its prox-
imity to many major pollutant sources, and its location within the St. Louis -
Cahokia Bottom area of high inversion frequency. ° '
28
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Decreased visibility levels cause a direct economic loss when airports must
be closed because of limited visibility. Three miles is the visibility distance
needed for aircraft to land by visual approach. Instances of air-pollutant-caused
reduction of visibility causing disruption of air service at Lambert Field have been
reported by the Weather Bureau Station situated there. Reduced visibility is also
reported to have significant effects on people who find their view of some cherished
scene obstructed by air pollutants.
One of the criteria for particulate goals in the Study area is the 3-mile visi-
bility needed by aircraft for visual landing approach. The goal of 200 micrograms
per cubic meter not to be exceeded over 1 percent of the times would, according
to present knowledge, correspond with the 3-mile sight distance when the relative
humidity is below 70 percent (See Figure 6).
ODORS
The effects of odors are not limited to nuisance conditions; they also include
human physiological effects such as nausea and psychological stress. Odors can
result in economic effects because people tend to leave odorous areas. Odor prob-
lems in the Study area are documented in Volume IV, Odors - Results of Surveys.
Some severe odor problems and an odor episode are reported in that volume. The
downtown area of St. Louis is subjected to a pervasive odor that permeates hotel
rooms, clothing, and certain items of merchandise. Persons visiting the area
detect the odor on their clothing long after they have left the St. Louis area. Some
merchants in the area have considered the installation of special filtering devices
to remove the odorous material from the air as it comes into the buildings.
The report, Public Awareness and Concern With Air Pollution in the St.
Louis Metropolitan Area, "" indicates that 53 percent of the respondents who said
there was air pollution in their neighborhoods defined air pollution as odors.
Odors were consistently the highest definitional item for air pollution. The same
report also indicates that 46 percent of all respondents in the Study area are
bothered by air pollution. Although the effects of air pollution on cleanliness are
most frequently mentioned, Table 22 of this same report indicates that 15 to 25
percent of the people feel the value of their homes is affected and 20 to 35 percent
feel that the reputation of their residential area is damaged by air pollution. The
report goes on to point out that those individuals having lung trouble, heart trouble,
or allergies are more likely to indicate that they are bothered by air pollution.
Public awareness of odors caused by motor vehicle exhaust is reported in
Table 27 of Public Awareness and Concern With Air Pollution in the St. Louis
Metropolitan Area. 88 This table shows that in St. Louis County, motor vehicle
exhaust is named more frequently (approximately 25 percent) as a definitional
item for air pollution than it is in any of the other political subdivisions of the
Study area.
A review of complaint records, reported in detail in Volume I, reveals that
objectionable odors cause more complaints than any other type of air pollution.
The good agreement among the several reports and surveys indicates that people
notice the effect of odors more than those of any other type of air pollution in the
Study area.
29
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ASTHMA - A PILOT STUDY
There have not been any recent community-wide epidemiological studies or
investigations relating air pollution to effects on human health in the St. Louis
Metropolitan Area. In 1964, however, the Public Health Service, Division of Air
Pollution, Field Studies Branch, initiated a pilot project study to investigate the
occurrence of asthma attacks in the St. Louis area and their relation to air pollu-
tion. Because the study is still in progress, the data relating to asthmatic attacks
presented in this report are only a fraction of those planned for the above-men-
tioned study.
The pilot project data consisted of records of asthma patients admitted or
treated during 1961 and 1962 in the emergency rooms of the two East St. Louis
hospitals, St. Mary's and Christian Welfare. During the 2-year span, 739 cases
of acute asthma attacks were recorded in the emergency room logs of the two
hospitals. These cases accounted for 2. 1 percent of the total number of emer-
gency room visits recorded. The maximum number of asthma patients reported
in any 1 day during this time was six.
The seasonal distribution of asthmatic patient visits recorded during both 1961
and 1962, as shown in Figure 9, indicates a significant increase during the months
of September, October, and November. Similar autumnal increases in the fre-
quency of asthmatic attacks have been observed in other cities. °9, 90 Suggestions
explaining the cause of these increases include: onset of cold weather with ac-
companying metabolic adjustments; resuspension of settled allergens in the home
heating systems at the beginning of a heating season; increased atmospheric stag-
nation during this period with associated increases in pollutant levels;91 and
prevalence of mold spores, particularly those associated with decaying vegetation.
89
60
4O
85
Q.
en
20
r i
_L
1961
i I I I L
J_
J L
_L
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
MONTH
Figure 9. Emergency room visits by asthma patients in East St. Louis
hospitals during 1961 and 1962.
30
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AEROALLERGENS
Pollen grains discharged into the atmosphere by weeds, grasses, and trees
are the major cause of hay fever; certain molds, spores, and plant rusts also add
to the problem. As measured by the American Academy of Allergy method, 25 to
30 pollen grains per cubic meter of air are considered sufficient to cause a reac-
tion in allergic individuals. " Estimates of the proportion of populations affected
by hay fever in various areas of the United States vary from 2 to 10 percent. "<--94
An estimated 100, 000 people in the St. Louis Metropolitan Area suffer from hay
fever. Most patients have an uncomplicated type of hay fever in which the symp-
toms disappear at the termination of the pollen season, but sinusitis, catarrh,
bronchitis, bronchial asthma, and both acute and chronic dermatitis may develop
from ragweed sensitization. °^ The most important effect is the development of
bronchial asthma, which increases debilitation and decreases life span in cases
•where sensitivity has extended to the mucous membranes of the lungs.
Hay fever is most often seasonal in character. Spring hay fever (March to
June) is associated with tree pollens; summer hay fever is attributed to grass
pollens; and autumn hay fever is usually due to weed pollens. August and Septem-
ber are the worst hay fever months in the St. Louis area, with the greatest part
of the problem caused by ragweed pollen. This weed, although not an aggressive
invader, rapidly takes over neglected land and land that has been denuded or dis-
turbed, and thus begins a succession of plant types that ultimately ends with grass.
Each ragweed plant may produce millions of pollen grains. Although most
pollen pollution occurs in the immediate area of origin, pollen grains, because of
their small size (10 to 50 microns) and buoyancy, may be carried long distances
by the wind. Actual clouds of pollen are known to occur. In 1873, pine pollen
from 400 miles away deposited in St. Louis made the ground appear as though it
had been sprinkled with sulfur. 92 Pollen clouds may explain increases in hay
fever symptoms after sunset even though ragweed plants usually release their
pollen early in the morning. With sunset, cooling of the air concentrates clouds
of pollen at ground level.
Although local ragweed control programs have been found effective in some
areas, other ragweed control programs have proved ineffective because of trans-
port of pollen from nearby areas having no ragweed control. °4 Eradication of
ragweed in a limited area may not, therefore, reduce hay fever incidence. An
approach toward solution of the problem seems to be control on a metropolitan-
wide basis through (1) mowing, (2) use of soil sterilizers, (3) use of herbicides,
and (4) maintenance of ground cover.
Such a program should be accompanied by research that would evaluate results;
determine threshold response levels; determine the importance of various pollens,
spores, molds, and plant rusts; and establish the degree of control needed to re-
duce hay fever incidence by known amounts.
VEGETATION DAMAGE
The effects of air pollution have long been known to cause serious damage to
vegetation. For example, agricultural losses from photochemical smog in the
belt from Washington, D. C. , to Boston are estimated at some $18 million a year.
An additional annual loss of approximately $10 million is attributed to this same
31
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pollutant in California, and the characteristic markings of smog have been found
on vegetation near practically every metropolitan area in the country. Other
commonly occurring pollutants such as sulfur dioxide result in additional losses.
When air quality standards and goals are being established, the vegetation effects
associated with these pollutants should be considered both from an economic and
an aesthetic standpoint.
Fluoride Effects on Vegetation
The concentration of gaseous fluoride required to cause injury in susceptible
plants is exceedingly low. For example, gladiolus plants incur appreciable injury
in a few days when exposed to concentrations of 1 to 2 parts per billion. "-' A list
of some of the more susceptible species is presented in Table 11.
Table 11. SENSITIVITY OF SOME CULTIVATED PLANTS AND
FARM ANIMALS TO INJURY BY HYDROGEN FLUORIDEa
Sensitive
class 1
Plantsb
Gladiolus
Apricot
Prune
Sweet potato
(some varieties)
Corn
Grapes
(some European varieties)
Peach
Buckwheat
Animals
Cattle
Intermediate
class 2
Alfalfa
Barley
Buckwheat
Carrot
Clover
Lettuce, head
Sweet potato
(some varieties)
Wheat
Swine
Sheep
Resistant
class 3
Cabbage
Cotton
Dandelion
Squash
Sweet pea
Horses
Poultry
Data from references 95 and 96.
Concentrations required to cause slight injury to plants in 7 to 9 days:
Class 1=5 ppb or less
Class 2 = 5 to 10 ppb
Class 3 = more than 10 ppb; higher concentrations require
proportionally less time.
Rations containing fluoride concentrations that exceed the following
values may result in clinical fluorosis:
Class 1 = 30 to 50 ppm
Class 2 = 70 to 100 ppm
Class 3 = greater than 100 ppm (poultry 1,200 to 2,400 ppm).
32
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The principal industries or processes responsible for atmospheric fluoride
emissions are: (1) aluminum reduction, (2) smelting of ferrous and nonferrous
ores, (3) ceramics, and (4) phosphate reduction and phosphate fertilizers. In
the aluminum industry the fluorides stem primarily from the molten cryolite bath.
In the others they arise from impurities in the raw materials.
Exposure to fluorides causes a characteristic tissue collapse. Gaseous fluo-
rides are presumed to enter the plants through openings in the leaves and, once
inside, to be transported to the edges of the leaves along with the normal flow of
water. When the accumulation of fluorides in the tips or edges of the leaves exceeds
a certain concentration, the tissue collapses, dries out, and usually develops a
reddish tan or deep brown color. Continued exposure causes the injury to progress
inward from the edges of the leaves.
Because of the cumulative effect of gaseous fluorides, establishing air quality
goals for these materials is difficult. In addition, the extremely low levels en-
countered in the atmosphere present many analytical problems.
Fluoride Effects on Farm Animals
Damage to farm animals as a result of atmospheric fluoride pollution involves
primarily those animals that graze on contaminated forage. This contamination
may result from absorption of gaseous fluorides by the forage, deposition of
particulate fluorides on the leaves, and/or absorption from the soil. Fluoride
uptake from the soil by vegetation, however, is generally slight even in the pres-
ence of high concentrations because fluorides are relatively insoluble. '-"
The effects of fluorides on farm animals are cumulative. Cattle are the most
susceptible, with sheep, swine, horses, and chickens decreasingly susceptible in
the order named. In animals with immature teeth dental mottling is an early sign
of fluorosis. If the fluoride intake is high, an abnormal growth in the bones of
the legs, jaw, and ribs may occur. Advanced cases of fluorosis are characterized
by lameness, weight loss, lowered fertility, bone lesions, retarded growth, and
reduced milk production. ' '
Fluorosis may be prevented by reducing the fluoride in the daily total ration
of cattle to 30 to 50 ppm and that of sheep and swine to 50 to 70 ppm. 96 Since the
quantities of fluoride present in the rations depend on the ambient air concentra-
tions, any air quality goals established for fluorides should be low enough to en-
sure the production of acceptable forage crops.
Sulfur Dioxide
Because of the severe damage it causes in certain areas and its widespread
distribution, sulfur dioxide has been studied more intensively than any other
single pollutant. Large quantities of this material are released by the combus-
tion of fossil fuels (especially high-sulfur coal, and to a lesser but still significant
degree from fuel oils). The smelting of sulfide ores and the manufacture of sulfuric
acid also produce large quantities of this gas, which is emitted to the atmosphere,
unless proper control equipment are employed.
33
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Sulfur dioxide injury to vegetation can be divided into two distinct types, acute
and chronic. Acute injuries are characterized by the killing of sharply defined
marginal or interveinal areas of the leaves. Following exposure, the leaves take
on a dull water-soaked appearance. Subsequently, they dry up and usually bleach
to an ivory color; some, however, turn brown or reddish brown. Chronic injury
does not produce the leaf collapse observed in connection with acute injury, but
bleaching occurs; and microscopic examination reveals cellular destruction.
Injured areas of the leaves never recover, but the uninjured areas quickly and
fully regain their functions; and new leaves develop normally.
Much work has been done on the effects of sulfur dioxide on crops of economic
significance, and from these investigations formulas have been developed to pre-
dict yield losses resulting from exposure to this pollutant. These formulas take
into account both concentration and length of exposure. '' The results of investi-
gations such as these together with the establishment of sulfur dioxide threshold
response levels for various species of plants make it possible to establish air
quality goals for such plants with a reasonable degree of confidence.
Photochemical Smog
Injury to leafy vegetables and field crops from photochemical smog was first
documented in 1944 in the Dominquez area of Los Angeles. This injury is now
known to occur throughout the United States in most metropolitan areas. ' Symp-
toms of this type of plant injury include silvering, glazing, bronzing, and some-
times necrosis of the lower leaf surface. The under-surface glaze on young
leaves is only one aspect of a complex of symptoms now recognized to be associated
with photochemical smog. Leaf injury has been associated with periods of high air
pollutant concentrations when reduced visibility and human distress are reported' '•
and particularly with elevated oxidant measurements (levels above 0. 05 ppm may
mark tobacco leaves). °° In 1952 it was demonstrated that typical "oxidant" damage
•was produced by complex chemical compounds resulting from the reactions of
nitrogen dioxide, olefins, and air in the presence of ultraviolet light. " Within
the photochemical complex are a number of known plant toxicants such as ozone
(although ozone injury typically develops on the upper leaf surface ), peroxyacetyl-
nitrate, * and the oxides of nitrogen. "°
Serious damage occurs to ornamental shrubs and plants and to leafy vegetable
and forage crops such as alfalfa, spinach, parsley, and celery. Exposure to
photochemical pollution reduces tomato yields, retards cereal growth, injures
cotton foliage, reduces alfalfa hay protein content, and reduces plant growth rates.
Ethylene
Ethylene occurs in the exhaust gases from combustion processes, including
those of automobiles. Ethylene damage to a few highly sensitive plants, most
notably to orchids, has been observed in many areas of the country. Exposure to
concentrations as low as 2 parts per billion for 24 hours results in premature
aging of certain portions of the orchid bloom. Such damage renders these flowers
almost worthless on the commercial market.
34
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Miscellaneous Pollutants
Numerous other pollutants may cause damage to vegetation, but the concentra-
tions of these materials normally found in the atmosphere are generally not suffi-
cient to be of significance. The rare occasions when they do occur in significant
amounts are usually the result of a spill of some type - industrial or other. Among
the contaminants in this category are chlorine, hydrogen chloride, ammonia, hydro-
gen sulfide, and formaldehyde.
VEGETATION DAMAGE IN STUDY AREA
Historical Development
Among the early published reports concerning the damaging effect of air pollu-
tion on vegetation in the St. Louis area were those that appeared in the Missouri
Botanical Garden Bulletin during the 1910's, 20's, and 30's. 10° These articles
described severe injury resulting from concentrations of smoke, soot, and sulfur
dioxide in the atmosphere. Eighteen varieties of plants were listed as being seri-
ously affected by atmospheric pollution in the November 1917 issue of the Missouri
Botanical Garden Bulletin.
In June 1924, the Garden published a growth zone map, which showed the city
divided into three zones having different levels of air pollution. A short list pub-
lished with this map indicated those plant species most likely to survive in the
general areas of each of the three zones. A radial gradient of diminishing effect
was easily discernible from the center of the city to the surrounding country.
Kentucky bluegrass, American red cedar, and the lily were among the plants that
could not survive in the more highly polluted areas. Because of this situation the
Garden found it necessary to grow all of its display plants at Gray Summit growing
station some 30 miles southwest of the city.
Following the enactment of the smoke control ordinance, conditions improved,
and by 1945 many species of vegetation could be grown in the city again.
Since the end of World War II the metropolitan area has expanded in size and
increased in complexity, and the variety of products manufactured has also ex-
panded. This growth has caused new pollutants to be released to the atmosphere
and has increased the levels of many of the existing pollutants. The principal
gaseous pollutants of importance in vegetation damage are ethylene, fluorides,
sulfur oxides, hydrogen sulfide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and photochemical
reaction products including oxidants such as peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN). The in-
creasing concentrations of these various substances has once again resulted in in-
creased deleterious effects to vegetation. As evidence, Dr. Edgar Anderson of the
Missouri Botanical Garden has reported that attempts to grow Korean lespedeza
(a plant used for ground cover on right-of-ways) in and near the center of the
metropolitan area have been unsuccessful and attributes the problem to air pollution.
Over the past several years repeated instances of orchid damage have been
observed by Mr. Robert J. Gillespie, Professor of Biology, Meramec Community
College. Disfigurement of the flower's lower leaf division occurs most frequently
in November and December, especially during or immediately after periods of
heavy fog and smoke. The condition is seldom observed by growers in the rural
areas away from the city.
35
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E. P. Hume, a horticulturalist from Southern Illinois University, reported in
June 1966 that over the past 3 years he had noted severe damage from air pollution
to ornamental plants in the East St. Louis area. Plants most affected are the
Chinese elm, tree of heaven, empress tree, and all the members of the legume
family that were observed.
The injuries sustained were identical to injuries caused by certain growth-regu-
lating hormones when used in toxic quantities. The causal factor attacks the terminal
growth, often the tip leaf on a branch, or the top leaflets of a compound leaf. Grow-
ing points may be injured or killed, and similar damage to side branches, starting from
below, may also take place. Repeated injury usually results in plant death.
Some sulfur dioxide damage was observed and reported in the Interstate Air
Pollution Study Phase I Report. Other air-pollution vegetation damage was reported,
but was not verified by the project staff.
Tobacco Plant Ox id ant Study
A study to define plant injury due to oxidant exposure in the St. Louis Metro-
politan Area was conducted from April 29 to October 15, 1965. This study showed
that oxidant, presumably of photochemical origin, occurs in the St. Louis area in
sufficient concentrations to produce markings on sensitive vegetation (Figure 10).
Figure 10. Markings on sensitive vegetation.
36
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Observations were made at 14 sites (Figure 11). Tobacco plant oxidarit damage
occurred most frequently at the three central metropolitan sites (those within East
St. Louis and St. Louis cities), probably because of the dense traffic in these areas.
Leaf damage was reported at each of these three sites on 20 or more occasions.
Since all sites reported damage on at least two occasions, damaging oxidant con-
centrations occur throughout the Study area (Figure 11).
Observed leaf damage is apparently associated with sudden increases in oxidant
levels measured by the USPHS Continuous Air Monitoring Program station the day
400- 410 420 430 T40 450 460 470 480 490 500*"' 510 520 530 540
550
Figure 11. Locations of tobacco leaf damage observations. Underlined figures
indicate 4- or 5-month observation period, other figures 2-month
observation period. Numbers report number of times leaf damage
occurred.
37
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before the observable damage occurs. Table 12 shows that the sum of total hourly
daytime (8 a.m. to 4 p.m. Central Standard Time) averages of oxidant concentra-
tions increased significantly during the day before observed damage. This sum for
Table 12. OBSERVED DAMAGE VERSUS CONTINUOUS AIR MONITORING
PROGRAM OXIDANT MEASUREMENTS IN MAY AND AUGUST 1965a
Levels of oxidant - sum of
hourly daytime averages, ppm
(1)
Date of
observed
damage
May 2
5
12
14
19
22
25
31
June 3
10
13
18
24
28
July 5
11
18
25
29
Aug 10
16
20
24
30
(2)
2 days
before (1)
b
X
25
30
40
X
X
30
40
May avg 33
20
25
40
45
30
50
June avg 35
35
25
30
40
45
July avg 35
15
35
X
25
20
Aug avg 24
(3)
1 day
before (1)
35
30
55
45
X
40
20
50
39
35
90
50
55
50
25
51
70
30
40
X
25
41
25
55
X
50
25
39
(4)
day
of (1)
X
25
40
X
X
40
15
35
31
55
80
40
50
30
X
51
45
40
50
45
30
42
35
45
X
30
30
35
Change in sum of hourly
daytime averages, ppm
(3) to (2)
X
5
25
5
X
X
-10
10
7
15
65
10
10
20
-25
16
35
5
10
X
-15
9
10
20
X
25
5
15
(4) to (3)
X
-5
-15
X
0
-5
-15
-8
20
-10
-10
-5
-20
X
-5
-25
10
10
X
5
0
10
-10
X
-20
5
-4
The average of the sums of daily hourly averages (8 a. m. to 4 p. m. Central
Standard Time) was 32 ppm for May, 42 for June, 37 for July, and 32 for August.
x indicates no data.
38
-------
the day before observed damage was. also significantly greater than the.monthly
average in most cases. Decreases in the sum generally occurred the day of and
the second day before the observed damage, with the sum of the second day before
usually being considerably lower than the sum of the day of the observed damage.
Several cooperating growers noted the appearance of similar injury patterns
on other greenhouse crops simultaneously with the injury of the sensitive tobacco
plants. Especially noted as having developed typical oxidant damage lesions were
geranium, gloxinia, begonia, and periwinkle plants.
MATERIALS DETERIORATION
During the Study several activities were conducted to determine the effects of
air pollution on steel plates, cotton fabrics, and nylon fabrics. These studies
generally showed that the severity of effects coincided with the sulfur oxides and par-
ticulate air pollutant distribution pattern over the metropolitan area.
Steel Corrosion Study - 3-Month
Figure 12 shows the geographical distribution of steel panel exposure sites
used for a study from December 1964 through February 1965 and the resulting
3-month corrosion losses. Comparison of these losses with high sulfur oxides
and particulate air pollutant levels shows that increased corrosion generally
occurred in the areas with higher pollutant levels. Comparison between the corro-
sion level at a suburban site west of the metropolitan area and that in the highest
pollutant area showed an increase of approximately 240 percent. Figures 13 and 14
show that statistical correlations of corrosion with sulfur dioxide levels and sulfa-
tion levels -were quite high.
Steel Corrosion Study - 16-Month
Figure 15 shows the locations of 33 of the 35 exposure sites used for this study
and their corresponding 2- and 16-month •weight losses due to corrosion. For the
16-month period, above-average corrosion occurred primarily in south St. Louis
and in Illinois, along the Mississippi River from Alton to below East St. Louis.
Little difference was noted between St. Louis County and St. Louis City residential-
commercial areas by the end of the 16-month exposure period.
A significant relationship was found between corresponding sulfation rates and
losses from corrosion (see Figure 16). Dustfall data compared in a similar manner
did not show a similar correlation. The conclusion is that gaseous pollutants cause
more damage than particulate pollutants to metals in the Study area.
Because of the "protective" nature of rust coatings, atmospheric corrosion
rates generally decrease with the length of exposure time. When plotted on graph
paper, these rates assume a form between parabolic and logarithmic functions.
The maximum protection offered by the rust coating takes several years or more
to develop fully. During this period, and especially in the early stages, seasonal,
meteorological, and air pollutant variations markedly influence corrosion rates.
As exposure time increases, the influence of these environmental factors becomes
less and less, as demonstrated graphically by Figure 17, which shows the composite
curves for time versus weight loss for the St. Louis County residential-commercial
39
-------
10.040 ppm 24-hr S02 geometric mean
12.00 mg 303 100 cm2'day sulfation geometric mean
sssssSl.40 Cohs 1,000 lineal ft AISI sampler geometric mean
' 1
:150 Mg/mJ High-Volume sampler geometric mean
i / trmn
780
770
700
750
740
730
720
710
700
690
680
670
000
440 450 460 470 480 490 500"° 510 520 530 540 550
660
Figure 12. Three-month mean corrosion losses (Dec. 1964 - Feb. 1965) and
high mean pollution levels (July 1963 - July 1964).
sites (9 sites east of Bypass 66 and 67 Highway) and for the St. Louis City residential-
commercial sites (9 sites). The corrosion rates for the two types of sites are signi-
ficantly different (at the 99 percent confidence level) during the early stages of corro-
sion, but at the end of 16 months, the protective coatings provide equal protection
against the pollutants at both types of sites. This relationship is not true for sites
in the higher pollution areas. The composite high-pollution (industrial) curve shows
a higher initial weight loss from corrosion and a consistently greater corrosion rate
than that determined for the residential-commercial areas. After 16 months, panels
exposed in the industrial areas had lost 35 percent more weight than those exposed in
the residential-commercial areas.
40
-------
14.0
12.0
in
E
o
10.0
tf)
CO
o
o
01
8.0
6.0
2.0
I I '
O 2 - hr MEASUREMENTS
X 24-hr MEASUREMENTS
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
O.I4
MEAN SULFUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION, ppm
Figure 13. Relationship between corrosion of mild steel and
corresponding mean sulfur dioxide concentration
for a 3-month exposure at 1 0 metropolitan St. Louis
sites (Dec. 1964 - Feb. 1965).
Effects on Exposed Nylon Fabric
As part of the Interstate Air Pollution Study effects-measurement program,
nylon panels were mounted on small wooden frames and exposed. The nylon cloth
panels consisted of Dupont* nylon 66, woven into a fine 210-mesh material of a type
ordinarily used as a filter material. The panels were set out in mid-June of 1963
and were observed monthly. After 2 months of exposure, the panels exhibited
varying degrees of dirtiness, a few runners had developed, and chemical (rust-
like) stains were noted. After 4 months, runners had developed on five of the panels.
At the end of 8 months, fine pinhead-size perforations began to appear in the panel
:=Mention of company or product names does not constitute endorsement by the Public
Health Service or the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
41
-------
14.0
2345
MEAN SULFATION RATE , mg S03/I00 cmVday
Figure 14. Relationship bet-ween corrosion of mild steel and
corresponding monthly mean sulfation rate for a
3-month exposure at 10 metropolitan St. Louis
sites (Dec. 1964 - Feb. 1965).
located at site coordinate* 472-680 (see map Figure 15). After 9 months, fine
perforations had appeared in the panel at site 499-700, and had extensively covered
the panel at site 472-680. The latter was estimated to have approximately five holes
per square inch. The condition of three of the panels after 11 months is shown in
Figure 18. During this exposure period, all the panels developed progressively
dirtier surfaces; those in the East St. Louis and south St. Louis City areas became
opaque. Panels in the Brentwood and Wood River areas remained essentially trans-
parent and relatively clean.
Observations made after heavy rainfall during the fifth month of exposure
indicated that the rain tended to clean the nylon quite well, although in some instances
the panels remained dark gray and almost opaque. The texture of all exposed panels
changed visibly, and the exposed fabric lost strength probably because of chemical
*Site coordinates refer to the cell to the north and east of the designated point.
42
-------
AND 16- MONTH WEIGHT LOSS CORROSION
VALUES INDICATED BY EACH SITE, grams
PER 4~ BY 6- INCH PANEL
400°°° 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500°°° 510 520 530 540 550
figure 15. Corrosion exposure sites in St. Louis - East St. Louis area.
Shaded portion of map indicates area having above-average
corrosion of steel panels during 16-month exposure period.
43
-------
12
10
cc
iu c
Q. 6
i
000
I
12-MONTH MEAN SULFATION RATE
0
2.5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.O
MEAN SULFATION RATE, mg S03/IOO cm2/day
Figure 16. Relationship between corrosion of mild steel panels
and corresponding mean sulfation rate measured at
selected sites in St. Lcnus - East St. Louis Metro-
politan Area from December 1964 through February
1965.
decomposition caused by ultraviolet radiation and air pollution. Unexposed fabric
could not be torn by hand, but all exposed panels could be easily torn by hand. Panels
exposed in areas of highest air pollution were found to be the weakest.
Nylon hose could have a similar response to that observed in these studies. The
fabric used in the study was much stronger than material used for hose.
Effects on Exposed Cotton Fabrics
During the period June 1963 to June 1964, cotton fabrics were exposed at seven
different sites in the Study area. The objectives of the study were to determine
whether various levels of air pollution significantly damaged outdoor-exposed cotton
44
-------
10
E
a
» 6
tff
(f)
O
I 4
INDUSTRIAL AREAS
(9 SITES- NO. 498-704 OMITTED)
COMMERCIAL AREAS
(9 SITES)
ST. LOUIS COUNTY
RESIDENTIAL-COMMERCIAL
AREAS (9 SITES)
0
8
16
EXPOSURE, months
Figure 17.
Mean corrosion rate of mild steel panels versus
exposure periods for specified types of land use
from April 1963 through July 1964.
fabrics beyond the damage normally caused by photolysis and biological effects. Two
fabrics, a print cloth and an army duck cloth, were used. After exposure periods of
1 to 12. months, chemical and physical tests were made on samples of the cloths.
Figure 19 shows the loss in breaking strength with exposure time. Table 13
shows the sulfation, dustfall, and suspended particulates at the sites plotted in
Figure 19. Figure 20 shows that there is a close relationship bet-ween breaking
strength and fluidity (a chemical physical test of material degradation ' ).
(Fluidity is expressed in rhes, a unit equal to the reciprocal of 1 poise, which is a
measure of viscosity. ) Fabric test results were compared with the air pollution
levels at the points where these fabrics were exposed. The rates of degradation of
the cotton fabrics increased as air pollution levels increased for dustfall, suspended
particulate, and sulfation.
Of these three, degradation was most directly related to sulfation levels. Visual
examination, comparison of breaking strength values for exposed print cloth and
duck samples, and the correlation of fluidity versus breaking strength (Figure 20)
all indicated that degradation was not caused by biological factors, but by chemical
action resulting from exposure to ultraviolet radiation and air pollution.
45
-------
AERO - CHARTS
(472 - 680)
GRANITE CITY
(505- 740)
MUNICIPAL COURTHOUSE
C49Q- 713 J
UNEXPOSEO FABRIC
Figure 18. Effects on nylon fabric exposed to ambient
air (June 1963 - April 1964).
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON PROPERTY VALUES
Air pollution is generally assumed to depress property values; however, very
few attempts have been made to measure this relationship quantitatively. As yet
no commonly accepted hypothesis exists for the mathematical form that this rela-
tionship might take. Dr. Ronald G. Ridker of Washington University started work
toward defining this mathematical relationship in 1963. Dr. Ridker used Interstate
Air Pollution Study air-quality data and census tracts in which s ingle-family housing
units comprised at least 60 percent of the total housing and the population density
\vas at least one person per acre. He then applied the following variables to his
census tract population sample: (1) air pollution as measured by sulfation, (2) time
46
-------
100
Q
UJ
Z
UJ
cc
UJ
on
i-
oo
o
z
Ul
CC
CD
80
c 60
o
H-
o
c 40
0>
20
0
PRINT CLOTH
DUCK CLOTH
- \
\
\
\
\
\
^COMPLETE
N, ^ DEGRADATION
\
0
468
EXPOSURE, months
10
12
Figure 19. Percent of fabric breaking strength retained versus
exposure time.
Table 13. MEAN POLLUTANT LEVELS
Site grid
coordinates
449-719, residential,
St. Louis County
505-740, industrial,
Illinois
472-680, industrial,
St. Louis
Sulfation, a mg SO^/
100 cm2/day
0. 56
2.9
5. 5
Dustfall, a tons/
mi /mo
14
67
61
Suspended par-
ticulate.b (ig/m^
84
246
303
Arithmetic mean, March 1963 through February 1964.
^Arithmetic mean, July 1963 through June 1964.
47
-------
100
- 80
i
LJ
cr
in
2
cr
CD
60
20
0
10
20 30
FLUIDITY, rhes
40
50
Figure 20. Loss in breaking strength as a function of
fluidity for cotton duck cloth exposed from
June 1963 to June 1964 (Results are plotted
for all seven stations).
from the central business district as measured by the average time during rush hours
hours required by an express bus to reach the central business district, (3) accessi-
bility to highways as measured by the census tract touching a highway or a major
thoroughfare, (4) shopping area accessibility as measured by a shopping area in the
census tract, (5) industrial area accessibility as measured by the inclusion of an
industrial area in the census tract, (6) school quality, (7) crime rates, and (8) state
location - Illinois or Missouri. 1^4 Shopping area location, industrial area location,
and crime rates proved to be unimportant in explaining variations in property values.
The remaining variables, however, explained practically all the variation in
these property values. Air pollution as measured by sulfation was iound to be
significant in the overall explanation of property value variation; in fact, it was
shown to be almost as important as highways and more important than state
location, time from the central business district, or school quality. Partial re-
gression coefficients calculated for sulfation indicated that if sulfation levels to
which any single-family dwelling unit is exposed were to drop 0. 25 milligram SOj
per 100 square centimeters per day, the value of that property could be expected to
48
-------
rise by at least $83, and possibly by as much as $245. If no off setting'market ad-
justments are assumed to occur, this conclusion can be generalized to include all
house's in the St. Louis Metropolitan Area. If, therefore, sulfation levels -were
reduced by 0. 25 milligram SO^ per 100 square centimeters per day, but with no
level below 0. 49, the estimated property value increase in Dr. Ridker's sample
area \vould range from $24 million to $72 million. If the sulfation levels were
brought to a uniform 0. 49 milligram per 100 square centimeters per day over the
sample area, the estimated property value increase would range from $74 million
to $219 million. If this analysis were applied to the entire St. Louis standard
metropolitan statistical area, the increase in value at $83 to $245 per single dwell-
ing unit per 0.25 milligram SO^ per 100 square centimeters per day reduction -would
range from $28 million to $83 million. If a uniform sulfation level of 0.49 milli-
gram SOj per 100 square centimeters per day were reached, the change in value
would range from $85 million to $251 million. It seems doubtful that these in-
creases in value could be obtained because the greater availability of pollution-free
property would more than satisfy the demand. Although Dr. Ridker does not feel
that his findings report every aspect of property value change, he does feel that they
point to air pollution as an important contributing factor in depressing property
values.
An analysis of an air pollution problem area adds further weight to these findings.
In south St. Louis, Dr. Ridker selected an area in which an air pollution source
caused a major complaint. This complaint, in 1962, in a quiet middle-class neigh-
borhood, concerned offensive gases and fumes. It apparently was considered to be
a serious problem because petitions against it were signed by 270 residents.
To assess the effect that air pollution had on property values in this neighbor-
hood, apart from the changes in a general market condition, a study-control area
as similar to the affected area as possible was selected. A comparison was made
between recorded sales of property in the two areas for the years 1957 through
July 1964. (See Figure 21). The control area, over this period, exhibited a slight
upward trend in property values. During the period from 1957 to 1962 the property
values in the south section of St. Louis remained stable; however, after 1962, when
this area was subjected to increase air pollution, the polluted area showed a marked
depression in property values. By taking the 1964 difference between actual property
values and property values estimated by using control-area property indexes, an
individual property value loss of $400 to $1000 each was estimated by Dr. Ridker.
For the area under study, this amounts to a total property value loss of $306, 000
to $765, 000. The study is being continued (June 1966) to add sales data beyond
July 1964; these estimates are, therefore, provisional.
Economic Effects of Open Burning
A report by the St. Louis County Health Department in January 1966 in-
dicates the cost of open burning. The report results from a questionnaire survey
of 52 fire departments. In 1965, 10,993 fire calls were received in the county.
Of these, 1,203, or 11 percent, resulted from some type of open burning. Based
on cost information from 20 percent of the fire departments, these fires cost the
fire departments about $83, 000 and the property owners $473, 000, a total of
$556,000 in 10 months of 1965. Regulation of open burning was reported to be
effective in eliminating fire calls for this type of fire.
49
-------
1957 1956 1959 I960 1961
YEAR
1962
1963
1964
Figure Zl. Comparison of property values in control area
and area affected by offensive odors in 1962.
PUBLIC OPINION SURVEY - EFFECTS REPORTED
The effects of air pollution are not wholly measured by physical and bio-
logical means. The air quality, likewise, is only partly defined by physical
measurements such as those reported in Volume in of this report. The
opinion surveys reported in Volume VII reflect total air pollution effects as
respondents sensed them. The surveys included responses to some air pollu-
tion effects not measured by physical and chemical means such as "bother, "
dirtiness, and odors and eye, nose, and throat irritation. They excluded
some air pollution effects because they are not detected by the respondents'
sense of smell, sight, or touch. Volume VII reports both the magnitude and
distribution of effects in the air pollution basin. To a considerable extent the
opinion survey results are used here to substantiate air quality goals selected
on the basis of chemical, physical, and biological measurements.
The opinion survey revealed that 90 percent of the respondents were satisfied
with air quality, 43 percent reported some bother with air pollution, and 35 percent
50
-------
reported air pollution existing in their neighborhood -when the respective pollutants
were at the following levels:
1. Suspended particulates (high-volume sampler)
- geometric mean, 78 to 85 ug/m
- 99th percentile, 240 to 268
Soiling index (AISI strip filter paper sampler)
- geometric mean, 0. 37 to 0.45 Coh/1, 000 lineal ft
- 99th percentile, 2. 8 to 4. 0 Cohs/ 1 , 000 lineal ft
Sull'ation (lead peroxide candle method)
- geometric mean, 0. 42 to 0. 73 mg SOj/100 cm /day
- 99th percentile, 1. 9 to 2. 4 mg SC>3/100 cm2/day.
More people were found to be bothered by air pollution than recognized air
pollution in their neighborhoods. This seems logical in a suburban way of life in
which many people live away from highly polluted industrial and central city areas,
but work in or travel through these high-pollution areas and, consequently, are
bothered by the high pollutior conceatrations in such areas.
In general, there is agreement between goals selected by means of public
opinion surveys and those based on physical, chemical, and biological measure-
ments .
HEALTH EFFECTS - A SUMMARY STATEMENT
A summary statement comes from an address made in 1965 in Los Angeles by
E. T. Blomqmst, M.D. , Assistant Chief, Public Health Service, Division of Air
Pollution:
"The fact that air pollution in high concentration can cause widespread illness
and death was amply demonstrated by tragic episodes in the Meuse Valley of Belgium,
in London, and in Donora, Pennsylvania. These episodes were recognized and
documented at the time they occurred, but epidemiologic studies revealed that
similar episodes could occur and, in fact, had occurred, without being noticed. For
example, it v/as found, 9 years after the fact, that some 200 excess deaths occurred
in New York City in 1953 during a period of air stagnation.
"In the long run, however, there is even greater significance in the health haz-
ards associated with levels of air pollution to which millions of urban dwellers are
exposed almost constantly. Knowledge of this aspect of the problem has been
broadened and amplified through epidemiological and statistical as -well as labora-
tory and chemical studies. These investigations have covered a broad area ranging
from correlations between urban air pollution and the incidence and mortality rates
for various respiratory diseases to the effects produced by exposure of animals and,
111 some cases, human beings, to controlled amounts of specific air pollutants.
"The results of these studies can be summed up by saying that air pollution is
associated with the occurrence and worsening of many serious respiratory diseases,
including asthma, chronic bronchitis, lung cancer, and emphysema."
51
-------
The foregoing remarks by Dr. Blomquist summarize health effects from an
epidemiological point of view. The following quotation from the February 1966
Scientific American article "The Lung"-'"" summarizes the same subject in this way:
"Other air pollutants - irritant gases, vapors, fumes, smokes, aerosols, or
small particles - may give rise to a similar bronchial constriction. It is one of the
ironies of man1 s urban way of life that exposure to the pollutants that produce severe
and repeated bronchial constriction results in excessive secretion of mucus, a re-
duction in ciliary activity, obstruction of the fine air paths, and finally cell damage.
These circumstances enable bacteria to penetrate to the alveoli and remain there
long enough to initiate infectious lung disease. They are probably a factor in the
development of such tracheobronchial diseases as chronic bronchitis and lung
cancer. Thus man's advances in material culture increasingly threaten the air
pump that helped to make his evolutionary success possible. "
ECONOMIC EFFECTS - A SUMMARY STATEMENT
A 1958 estimate of economic losses due to air pollution in the United States
was $65 per capita per year. ^^ Applied to the Nation, this amounted to $11 billion
for 1964, or $130 million per year for the Interstate Air Pollution Study area.
A number of economic effects were studied, observed, or reported in the
Study area. Visibility was found to be reduced sufficiently by air pollution to
affect airport operation and to obscure valuable views in certain parts of the Study
area. Vegetation damage of several types was reported or found by observation
and study. This damage was of the ozone or photochemical-smog-associated type,
the sulfur dioxide type, as well as types of damage caused by other pollutants.
Materials deterioration associated with air pollution was found by studies of steel
corrosion, nylon fabric, and cotton fabric. Soiling effects occur and -were mea-
sured by determining the soiling characteristics of the air. Property values were
found to be decreased by $400 to $1, 000 for each single residence in an air-pollu-
tion-problem area. Single-dwelling residences -were found to have a potential in-
crease in value of $83 to $245 each for each 0.25 mg SO, per 100 square centimeters
per day decrease in sulfation.
The $130 million per year estimate of the cost of air pollution in the Study area
is logical when the great variety of effects is considered. It would also seem that
the air-pollution-related economic effects are basically matters of equity. This
equity involves the importance of the purpose for which the air is being used by
those who claim the air. This is illustrated by two photographs, Figures 22 and
23, taken in the central part of the Study area. Figure 22 shows the air being used
for dilution of air pollutants from a number of sources located near each other.
The second photograph, of the same area and air mass as the first, shows the
St. Louis central city district as it is now being rebuilt. The new structures,
changing the character of the area, represent an investment of at least $200 mi-
lion. Possibly of more importance than the dollar amount of the change is the
major change in functions and purpose of the entire metropolitan area illustrated
by the central city district photograph. There is little doubt that the two photo-
graphs show the same air mass being used for conflicting purposes. The back-
1 08
ground of this conflict is amply stated by Bollens, "Growing up in the age coal
and steam, the older portions of St. Louis City reflect the high premium placed
on land near transportation facilities. Until recently, the most important facili-
52
-------
Figure 22. Air pollution in central city area.
Figure 23. Urban renewal in central city area.
53
-------
ties were the river and the railroads. Location of industry in such sections
brought about the construction nearby of the extensive, crowded residential districts
to house the labor force. Another heritage from the age of coal and steam is the
thick film, of grime covering many of the aged buildings in the downtown com-
mercial center. This discoloration creates the impression that the older part
of the City is even older than it is; only during the past two decades has the
municipal government been able to suppress the use of fuels that once gave down-
town St. Louis a dusky, evening aspect at noontime. "
Future air use, including resolution of air-use conflicts typified by the two
photographs, have not been decided for the Study area. To a considerable extent
the Interstate Air Pollution Study has been dedicated to providing background in-
formation that will help others reach decisions concerning this important matter.
In planning for the solution of air pollution problems having economic effects
relating to potentially conflicting air uses, information and data will need to be
obtained and analyzed on a continuing basis. These program activities must in-
clude urban planning as well as regulatory activities. The resulting bases for
decision will need be acted upon through a suitable decision-making and program-
implementation process covering the entire air pollution basin as a unit.
54
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55
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