PROCEEDINGS
THIRD SESSION
RECONVENED IN
WORKSHOP SESSIONS
September 28, 29, 3O,
October 1,2, 197O.
Chicago, Illinois
Vol. 2,
Pollution of Lake Michigan
and Its Tributary Basin
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR . . . FEDERAL WATER QUALITY ADMINISTRATION
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WORKSHOP SESSION FOR THE THIRD SESSION OF
THE CONFERENCE IN THE MATTER OF POLLUTION
OF LAKE MICHIGAN AND ITS TRIBUTARY BASIN
IN THE STATES OF WISCONSIN, ILLINOIS,
INDIANA, AND MICHIGAN VOLUME II
Louis XVI Room
Sherman House
Chicago, Illinois
September 29, 1970
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ii
CONTENTS
Page
A. F. Aschoff 619
R. W. Patterson 665
Charles A. Bane 69$
Byron 0. Lee, Jr. 702
Wesley 0. Pipes 72?
William McNamara 753
D. W. Pritchard 758
Paul Keshishian 850
G. Fred Lee 862
Andrew Robertson 893
Edward C. Raney 919
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Ill
Workshop Session for the Third Session of the
Conference in the Matter of Pollution of Lake Michigan
and Its Tributary Basin, in the States of Wisconsin,
Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan, held in the Louis XVI
Room of the Sherman House, Chicago, Illinois, on Tuesday,
September 29, 1970, at 9:00 a.m.
PRESIDING:
MURRAY STEIN, Assistant Commissioner
for Enforcement and Standards Compliance,
Federal Water Quality Administration,
U.S. Department of the Interior,
Washington, D.C.
CONFEREES:
BLUCHER A. POOLE, Technical Secretary,
Stream Pollution Control Board, Indiana
State Board of Health, Indianapolis,
Indiana.
PERRY E. MILLER, Assistant Director, Stream
Pollution Control Board, Indiana State Board
of Health, Indianapolis, Indiana.
RALPH W. PURDY, Executive Secretary, Michigan
Water Resources Commission, Lansing, Michigan.
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IV
CONFEREES (Continued):
FRANCIS T. MAYO, Regional Director,
Federal Water Quality Administration,
U.S. Department of Interior, Chicago,
Illinois.
ALTERNATE CONFEREES:
DOUGLAS B. MORTON, Environmental Control
Engineer, Illinois Environmental Protection
Agency, Springfield, Illinois.
DAVID P. CURRIE, Chairman, Illinois Pollution
Control Board, Chicago, Illinois.
JACOB D. DUMELLE, Member, Illinois Pollution
Control Board, Chicago, Illinois.
CARLOS FETTEROLF, Supervisor, Water Quality
Standards Appraisal, Michigan Water Resources
Commission, Lansing, Michigan.
DONALD -J. MACKIE, Assistant Secretary,
Division of Environmental Protection,
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources,
Madison, Wisconsin.
ROBERT P. HARTLEY, Director, Office of
Enforcement and Cooperative Programs,
Federal Water Quality Administration, U.S.
Department of Interior, Chicago, Illinois.
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PARTICIPANTS:
A. F. Aschoff, Head, Environmental Division,
Sargent and Lundy Engineers, Chicago, Illinois„
R. W. Patterson, Manager, Mechanical Department,
Sargent and Lundy Engineers, Chicago, Illinois.
0, K. Petersen, Senior Attorney, Consumers Power
Company, 212 W. Michigan Avenue, Jackson, Michigan 49201<>
Charles A. Bane, Attorney, Isham, Lincoln and
Beale, One First National Plaza, Chicago, Illinois 60670.
Byron 0. Lee, Jr., Assistant to the President,
Commonwealth Edison Company, Chicago, Illinois.
Wesley 0. Pipes, Professor of Civil Engineering
and Professor of Biological Sciences, Northwestern Univer-
sity, Evanston, Illinois.
William McNamara, Vice President, Madison Gas
and Electric Company, P. 0. Box 1231, Madison, Wisconsin
53701.
Donald W. Pritchard, Professor, The Johns
Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21218.
Paul Keshishian, Director, Power Production,
Wisconsin Power and Light Company, Madison, Wisconsin.
G. Fred Lee, Professor of Water Chemistry,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.
Andrew Robertson, Associate Professor of Zoology,
University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma.
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VI
PARTICIPANTS, Continued:
Edward C. Raney, Professor of Zoology, Cornell
University, Ithaca, New York.
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Murray Stein
PROCEEDINGS
MR. STEIN: Let's reconvene, and we will continue
with the presentation of the power industry. I thought of
something this morning, and I guess this will just take a
few minutes or less than that. But while the representa-
tives of the power industry are here, I think — at least
I should make something clear to them because, as I see
the discussions developing today, we are just dealing with
a small part of what is popularly called "the thermal
pollution problem," i.e., the return of heated water to
a watercourse.
But I would like to suggest to you people that,
in looking at the problem, we see this in a much clearer
way. There are several aspects to the problem: 1) If
you take water in from a watercourse in vast amounts, the
very fact of taking that water in and having other water
take its place may change the ecological characteristics
of that body of water that you are dealing with when you
use that as your intake water source. This has to be
remedied. 2) We have the problem, in determining the
fate of the minute organisms that are taken in with the
water — small fishes, snails, plankton, zooplankton,
phytoplankton — whether the heat that they are subjected
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Murray Stein
to going through the operation affects them then or whether
there is a delayed shock and they may be affected later,
or whether just the mechanical bruising they get going
through the system may affect them. Now, if this happens,
what you may get is that these organisms don't live out
their normal life cycle and you are dropping trillions of
little carcasses' in your outfall through your outfall line,
and you may get a fairly rapid decay. 3) The third point,
of course, is the one we have been discussing here: the
effect of heat on the receiving water. 4) And the fourth
is the reverse of the first. If you put vast amounts of
w£.ter back into a watercourse at a particular point, even
though you haven't changed that water at all, on that
assumption, just putting that in physically you may, if
that changed the ecological characteristics of that
receiving body of water, unless the water you are putting
in is exactly like the receiving body, if it doesn't have
the plankton in it, if it somehow changed in the system
when you are putting that in, and you are putting vast
amounts in, the ecology of the receiving body of water
may very well be different.
Now, I think with the representatives of the
industry here, as I see it, and I think I am speaking for
the Federal organization at any rate, we are going to
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A. F. Aschoff
have to consider all these aspects of the problem in the
future.
Mr. Petersen, would you proceed?
MR. PETERSEN: Thank you, Mr. Chairman.
The presentation of Consumers Power Company is
continuing this morning. Representatives of Sargent and
Lundy Engineers will speak. First will be Mr. A. F.
Aschoff, Head of the Environmental Division for Sargent
and Lundy, who will speak on "Thermal Discharges in Proper
Perspective." He will be followed by Mr. R. W. Patterson,
partner and Manger of the Mechanical Department, who will
speak as to "Preliminary Comments on the U0 S» Department
of the Interior Reports on Lake Michigan Issued in
September 1970."
Mr. Aschoffo
STATEMENT OF A. F. ASCHOFF, HEAD,
ENVIRONMENTAL DIVISION, SARGENT AND
LUNDY ENGINEERS, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
MR. ASCHOFF: Mr. Stein, conferees, ladies and
gentlemen. My name is A. F. Aschoff, and I am with the
firm of Sargent and Lundy Engineers in Chicago0
"I appreciate this opportunity of presenting
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A. F. Aschoff
additional information on the thermal problem.
This statement was prepared to help further the
understanding of powerplant thermal discharges, especially
as related to the physical laws of nature and natural
behavior of waters.
Through this discussion, it is hoped that
powerplant thermal discharges can be considered in their
proper perspective in the broad scope of natural phenomena
which are occurring continuously in the universe.
A discussion regarding thermal discharges
necessitates a general understanding of the characteristics
and behavior of natural bodies of water. This should
include an appreciation of the world's supply of water and
its continuing cycle, change in phase, and change in loca-
tion. Natural variations occur in all natural bodies of
water and are the result of many causes. One of these
is the heat exchange between the earth and outer space.
With knowledge of the natural behavior of natural
bodies of water, unnatural or manmade influences such
as the addition of heat may then be superimposed and their
magnitude compared to the natural background phenomena.
Physical characteristics of water such as
density, viscosity and vapor pressure, as well as heat
transfer, change with temperature. Understanding of these
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A. F. Aschoff
relationships is essential.
The ensuing discussion considers both the
general aspects of thermal discharge and behavior of
warmed water and the relationship of these factors to
natural waters. Lake Michigan is considered particularly.
II. Natural Behavior of All Natural Bodies of
Surface Water
The Water Cycle
In a broad sense water is never lost. The world
supply of water circles endlessly from sky to land to
ocean, and then back to sky again. Water rises from the
ocean and is carried across the land, partly as invisible
vapor and partly as tiny condensed droplets. Some of this
moisture in air falls to earth as rain, sleet or hai!0
There a small amount quickly returns to the ocean as
runoff, some goes underground to feed plant roots, or
seeps back to the ocean. Moct of the water on the earth's
surface returns to the atmosphere by evaporation from land,
water surfaces and plants. Within this mechanism, Figure
1, (See P. 63?)t the amount of water remains essentially
constant. But the way water is distributed in the ocean,
in the atmosphere, on and under land, varies from hour-to-
hour, day-to-day, and month-to-month.
Variations in Surface Water Temperatures
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A. F. Aschoff
Temperatures of natural bodies of water are also
naturally dynamic. They change as the water flows from
one location to the other, from hour-to-hour, between
day and night, from month-to-month, and year-to-year.
For example, the temperature of the Mississippi
River increases by 5 degrees Fahrenheit, from 75 degrees
Fahrenheit to SO degrees Fahrenheit, in its travel from
south of Moline, Illinois, to north of Memphis, Tennessee.
Estimating this distance as 400 miles would indicate that
natural influences tend to increase the water temperature
of a river by 1 degree Fahrenheit for each BO miles it
travels southward.
Surface water temperatures vary from day to
night. A 24-hour change is called a diurnal variation,,
It should be noted that the actual magnitude of the diurnal
change also varies from day-to-day in a given month. For
example, in the month of June 1954» the diurnal change of
the Vermilion River in Illinois ranged from 2 degrees
Fahrenheit to 12 degrees Fahrenheit.
Natural water temperatures vary month by month
and the monthly temperatures may also differ from year
to year. Data from the Vermilion River shows an average
43 degree Fahrenheit seasonal variation, from 35 degrees
Fahrenheit in January to ?3 degrees Fahrenheit in July.
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A. F. Aschoff
For the 5-year period recorded, the maximum and minimum
monthly temperature in July also varied by 31 degrees
Fahrenheit from 64 degrees Fahrenheit to 95 degrees
Fahrenheit, and in January by 13 degrees Fahrenheit from
32 degrees Fahrenheit to 45 degrees Fahrenheit.
Data from Lake Michigan at Kenosha, Wisconsin,
indicate differences in temperatures within a month of
up to 12 degrees Fahrenheit, The annual range of 1964
monthly average temperatures vary from 32 degrees Fahrenheit
in February to 66 degrees Fahrenheit in September, an
increment of 34 degrees Fahrenheit.
Natural Heat or Energy Cycle
The natural cause of the preceding water
temperature variation is the heat or energy exchanges
between outer space and the earth and its atmosphere.
MR. STEIN: Pardon. May I interrupt just a
moment? You are not reading your whole statement.
Do you want this statement to appear as you have
written it in its entirety in the record?
MR. ASGHOFF: les, sir.
MR. STKIN: Without objection, this will be done.
(The document referred to above follows in its
entirety.)
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THERMAL DISCHARGES
IN PROPER PERSPECTIVE
A STATEMENT PREPARED FOR THE
FEDERAL-STATE ENFORCEMENT CONFERENCE ON POLLUTION
OF LAKE MICHIGAN AND ITS TRIBUTARIES
SHERMAN HOUSE
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
SEPTEMBER 28, 1970
SARGENT &LUNDY
ENGINEERS
CHICAGO
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SARGENT & LUNDY 62 5
ENGINEERS
CHICAGO
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION
II. NATURAL BEHAVIOUR OF ALL NATURAL BODIES OF SURFACE WATER
III. HYDRO-THERMAL EFFECTS OF HEAT DISCHARGE TO SURFACE WATER
IV. INFLUENCE OF NON-NATURAL HEAT DISCHARGES ON NATURAL BEHAVIOUR
OF NATURAL WATERS
V. SUMMARY
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ENGINEERS
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THERMAL DISCHARGES IN PROPER PERSPECTIVE
I, INTRODUCTION
This statement was prepared to help further the understanding of power
plant thermal discharges, especially as related to the physical laws of nature
and natural behaviour of waters. Through this discussion it is hoped that
power plant thermal discharges can be considered in their proper perspective in
the broad scope of natural phenomena which are occurring continuously in the
universe.
A discussion regarding thermal discharges necessitates a general understanding
of the characteristics and behaviour of natural bodies of water. This should
include an appreciation of the world's supply of water and its continuing cycle,
change in phase, and change in location. Natural variations occur in all natural
bodies of water and are the result of many causes. One of these is the heat
exchange between the earth and outer space.
With knowledge of the natural behaviour of natural bodies of water, un-natural
or manmade influences such as the addition of heat may then be superimposed
and their magnitude compared to the natural background phenomena.
Physical characteristics of water such as density, viscosity and vapor pressure,
as well as heat transfer, change with temperature. Understanding of these
relationships is essential.
The ensuing discussion considers both the general aspects of thermal discharge
and behaviour of warmed water and the relationship of these factors to natural
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ENGINEERS
CHICAGO
waters* Lake Michigan is considered particularly.
II. NATURAL BEHAVIOUR OF ALL NATURAL BODIES OF SURFACE WATER
The Water Cycle
In a broad sense water is never lost. The world supply of water circles end-
lessly from sky to land to ocean, and then back to sky again. Water rises
from the ocean and is carried across the land, partly as invisible vapor and
partly as tiny condensed droplets. Some of this moisture in air falls to
earth as rain, sleet or hail. There a small amount quickly returns to the ocean
as runoff, some goes underground to feed plant roots, or seeps back to the ocean.
Most of the water on the earth's surface returns to the atmosphere by evapora-
tion from land, water surfaces and plants. Within this mechanism, Figure 1,
the amount of water remains essentially constant. But the way water is distrib-
uted in the ocean, in the atmosphere, on and under land, varies from hour-to-
hour, day-to-day, and month-to-month.
Variations in Surface Water Temperatures
Temperatures of natural bodies of water are also naturally dynamic. They change
as the water flows from one location to the other, from hour-to-hour, between
day and night, from month-to-month, and year-to-year.
For example, the temperature of the Mississippi River increases by 5°F, from
75°F to 80°F, in its travel from south of Moline, Illinois to north of Memphis,
Tennessee. Estimating this distance as four hundred miles would indicate that
natural influences tend to increase the water temperature of a river by 1°F for
each eighty miles it travels southward.
Surface water temperatures vary from day-to-night. A twenty-four hour change
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ENGINEERS
CHICAGO
is called a diurnal variation. It should be noted that the actual magnitude
of the diurnal change also varies from day-to-day in a given month. For
example in the month of June, 1954 the diurnal change of the Vermilion River
in Illinois ranged from 2°F to 12°F.
Natural water temperatures vary month by month and the monthly temperatures may
also differ from year-to-year. Data from the Vermilion River shows an average
43°F seasonal variation, from 35°F in January to 78°F, in July. For the five
year period recorded, the maximum and minimum monthly temperature in July also
varied by 31°F from 64°F to 95°F, and in January by 13°F from 32°F to 45°F.
Data from Lake Michigan at Kenosha, Wisconsin indicate differences in tempera-
tures within a month of up to 12°F. The annual range of 1964 monthly average
temperatures vary from 32°F in February to 66°F in September, an increment of
34°F.
These previous examples should illustrate that the surface water environment
is dynamic. It continually undergoes variations in flow and temperature due
to natural causes. The magnitude of some of these are diurnal variations from
2°F to 12°F within the same month, annual changes of 63°F, and summer monthly
variations from year-to-year of 31°F. All of these temperature changes occur
without any manmade influence.
Natural Heat or Energy Cycle
The natural cause of the preceding water temperature variation is the heat or
energy exchanges between outer space and the earth and its atmosphere.
In the same broad sense that water is never lost, so heat or energy is never lost.
Considering all incoming solar radiation, thirty-three percent is reflected
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and nine percent is scattered back to outer space from the atmosphere. Some
fifteen percent is absorbed by the atmosphere and the balance passes to the
earth as direct diffuse radiation. Diffuse radiation is direct radiation which
has been scattered by atmospheric constituents. This is an average overall
balance and, of course, does not indicate daily, seasonal, or local variation.
Variations in Heat Flows
An illustration of the annual variation of solar radiation for different lati-
tudes is shown on Figure 2. The effect of latitudes is greater in the winter
months compared to the summer months. For January the average solar energy is
1,000 Btu/sq.ft./day and increases to almost 3,000 Btu/sq.ft./day or an average
variation of about 2,000 Btu/sq.ft./day.
A far greater variation occurs during the day when from 6:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m.,
on a clear July day, the rate of solar energy for a selected location varied from
0 to a mid-day peak equivalent of 7,200 Btu/sq.ft./day and decreased again to 0.
The July average value for Lake Michigan exceeds 2,500 Btu/sq.ft./day.
Therefore, as in the case of the surface water environment, the heat exchange
between outer space, atmosphere and the earth's surface is also dynamic. Heat
is never lost but the rate at which it is transferred varies from hour-to-hour,
day-to-day, and month-to-month.
With this understanding of the natural effects of natural bodies of surface
water as a background it is of interest to superimpose and compare the manmade
effects onto the natural phenomena.
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III. HYDRO-THERMAL EFFECTS OF HEAT DISCHARGE TO SURFACE WATER
Condenser Cooling Water Cycle
Heat rejection from the turbine source leaves the power plant via the condenser
cooling water cycle. See Figure 3_. Cooling water is generally obtained from a
river, a lake, or other large body of water by pumping. After passing through
the condenser, the water conveys the heat back to the river, lake or other lar^.e
body of water. This heated discharge spreads itself over the water surface and
the heat is transferred to the air. Although the magnitude of heat is determired
by the turbine, the temperature rise of cooling water passing through the con-
denser will depend on the quantity of water used.
Distinction Between Heat and Temperature
The relationship between temperature and heat is subtle and not always under-
stood .
If 20 Btu's are added to 1 pound of water, the temperature is increased 20°F.
So, if water is initially 85°F, it would become 105°F. If the same Btu's are
added to 2 pounds of water, the temperature is increased only 10°F and the
same 85°F initial temperature of water would be raised only to 95°F. Therefore,
different quantities of water passing through the condenser and receiving the
identical turbine exhaust heat rejection will have different final water
temperatures depending on the quantity of water and its initial temperature.
Temperature rise through existing condensers in power plants ranges from 10°
to 30°F.
Change in Physical Properties of Water With Change in Temperature
Density is one of the physical characteristics of water that changes with
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temperature. Density decreases with increasing temperature as shown in
Figure 4_. Water density or weight at 100°F is 99.3% of the weight of water at
50°F. It is this characteristic that manifests itself by vertical temperature
stratification (or layering) in bodies of water. Conclusions reached from many
studies on rivers, lakes, and reservoirs substantiate the fact that hot water
at lighter density rises to the surface.
The second physical characteristic influenced by temperature is viscosity.
Water becomes less viscous at higher temperatures as shown in Figure 5_. At
100°F water viscosity is about half that of water at 50°F and is more fluid
and slippery. Manifestation of the change in viscosity with temperature
occurs in the channeling of hot water discharges. Temperature measurements
taken over the surface of Lake Michigan near a power plant discharge in
Figure 6_ show a defined hot water plume. Because of its lower viscosity the
hot water slips by the adjacent cooler water, yielding an overall channeling
effect. This same channeling characteristic has been noted in many other
rivers, lakes, and reservoirs.
A third physical characteristic that changes with temperature is water vapor
pressure as shown in Figure 7_. Water vapor pressure influences evaporation.
The higher the vapor pressure, the greater the evaporation. The increase in
vapor pressure is far more rapid at the higher temperatures of 80 to 100°F
then in the range of 40 to 60°F.
Energy Budget of a Body of Water
Having briefly reviewed the change in physical characteristics of water with
temperature and the resulting hydraulic effects, let us next consider the
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CHICAGO
energy budget of a body of water. Although a lake will be used to illustrate
the phenomena, the principles apply to any body of water including rivers,
estuaries or oceans.
The energy budget of a natural lake or other body of water without any indus-
trial heat loading is always tending to maintain a balance. When industrial
heat is added, equilibrium is maintained by increases in conduction, evapora-
tion and radiation from the surface.
The industrial heat portion is dissipated by four mechanisms - evaporation,
conduction (transfer of sensible heat), radiation and advection. On an annual
average, the relative magnitudes are evaporation-4070, conduction-257<>, radiation-
30%, and advection-5%. However, this relationship varies with seasons and the
water temperature.
Heat Dissipation From Water Surface
Plots of heat dissipation from water surface for various water temperatures and
a winter and summer month in Figure 8. illustrate two phenomena. First, although
the relative magnitudes of advection and radiation are about the same in January
and June, the percentage of evaporation is greater and the percentage of conduc-
tion less in the summer than winter. The reason for this is the difference in
ambient air wet and dry bulb temperatures over the year plotted in Figure £.
The temperature difference between the hot water discharge from a plant and the
wet bulb is the motivation for evaporative heat transfer. This temperature
difference is greater in the summer and accounts for the higher evaporation at
this time of year.
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On the other hand, the motivation for heat transfer by conduction is the differ-
ence between the hot water and the dry bulb temperatures. In this case the
greater difference and hence greater conduction occurs in the winter months.
This explains the higher evaporation and lower conduction that occurs in the
summer months. The other phenomenon illustrated in Figure 8_ is the significant
increase of heat dissipation from a surface as the water temperature increases.
In the month of June each 10°F increase in water temperature almost doubles the
quantity of heat dissipated. This indicates that the hotter the water, the
sooner the heat is dissipated from the surface area, or, for the same time
interval, less surface would be required to dissipate the same quantity of heat.
This can be illustrated by comparing the two water surface areas needed to dissi-
pate heat from a 2000 MW plant with hot water discharge temperatures of 100°F
and 107°F as shown in Figure 10. In both cases the final temperature is just
under 85°F. The surface area required to cool this heat to 85°F from an initial
temperature of 100°F is 2700 acres, whereas only 2000 acres is required with the
initial temperature of 107°F. The amount of heat rejection for both cases is
identical.
If these two cooling curves are plotted for the same surface area as in Figure
11, the portions of surface above various temperatures can be compared. With
the 100°F water discharge, 100% of the surface area would be above 85°F and 37%
above 90°F. However, if the water discharge is hotter, such as 107°F, only 85%
of the surface would be above 85CF and 33% above 90°F. The portion of total
surface above 95°F is relatively small for both cases - 15% for the 100°F
discharge and 19% for the 107°F discharge.
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From this data a further plot of surface area and water temperatures fo:r the
100°F and 107°F discharge can be made as shown in Figure 12. This shows that
a larger percentage of water surface area is cooler with a hotter water dis-
charge. For example, with the 107°F discharge, over 80% of the surface is
cooler than with the 100°F discharge. Therefore, if it is the objective to
keep the majority of surface water at as low a temperature as possible, the
hotter the thermal discharge the better.
IV. INFLUENCE OF NON-NATURAL HEAT DISCHARGES
ON NATURAL BEHAVIOUR OF NATURAL WATERS
Modern steam turbine-generators have the highest efficiency of all heat machines
in practical use today. Fossil fuel steam electric stations utilizing steam
pressures from 2000 to 3500 psi at temperatures of 1000°F have an overall
thermal efficiency of 37 to 38%. Nuclear fueled plants operating at somewhat
lower pressures of 1000 psi and 600°F temperature attain a thermal efficiency of
33%. These thermal efficiencies are still significantly higher than other heat
machines in use today such as gas turbines at 207o and automobile engines at 10%.
The higher the efficiency the less waste heat discharged.
The magnitude of heat rejection from a steam turbine is related to the inlet
steam pressure and temperature and the exhaust pressure as shown in Figure 13.
Exhaust pressure is a function of cooling water temperature. The higher the
temperature, the higher the exhaust pressure and hence the higher the heat
discharge. For the three steam cycles in common use today the heat rejection
ranges from 4000 Btu/Kwh generation to 7300 Btu/Kwh generation.
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Cooling water from Lake Michigan has a lower temperature than water cooled by
alternate means, such as cooling towers. Therefore, steam cycles utilizing
Lake Michigan cooling water are more efficient. This results in conservation
of energy and permits lower thermal discharge to the surroundings.
Although many power generating facilities have been built on Lake Michigan, it
is interesting to note that long term temperature trends for Lake Michigan
indicate a gradual decrease in mean annual water temperatures. Earliest
records at Milwaukee, Wisconsin, dating from 1875, indicate a mean annual
temperature of about 48°F. Temperatures have been gradually falling since then.
Recent records indicate a mean annual temperature of only about 43°F. This
strongly suggests that man-made thermal effects are non-cumulative.
V. SUMMARY
In summary, we have investigated the influence of natural variations on the
thermal behaviour of water. Many examples were cited which demonstrated
widely varying temperatures related to variations in solar radiation and
stream flow, and to seasonal and climatic effects.
The power plant heat cycle was reviewed to assess its contribution to that of
nature.
We have seen that there are several physical properties of water such as den-
sity, viscosity, and vapor pressure, which aid in heat removal by increasing
heat lost by evaporation. In the case of Lake Michigan, annual temperatures
have been decreasing. This indicates that man-made heat has a non-cumulative
effect.
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We have also learned that neither water or heat is ever completely lost, only
displaced. We note that heat transfer is accelerated by higher discharge
temperatures, resulting in less water area affected. Finally, we see that use
of Lake Michigan water for direct cooling results in more efficiency and less
heat loss to the surroundings.
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Water Vapor in the Atmosphere
I
Freshwater
Surface
Vegetation
Surface
The World of Water
Figure 1
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(After Kbberg, 1962)
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Jan Feo I/iar Apr l»by June July Aug Sept Oct Nov DE:C
Figure 2
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CONDENSER COOLING WATER CYCLE
Power Plant
Heat From Surface to Air
\
River or Lake
639
Condenser Cooling Water Circuit
Figure 3
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1.000
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30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TEMPERATURE°F
DENSITY CHANGES WITH TEMPERATURE
Figure 4
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30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TEMPERATURES
VISCOSITY CHANGES WITH TEMPERATURE
Figure 5
-------
642
Discharge ^^ 52°
52°
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Figure 7
-------
Heat Dissipation From Water Surface By Evaporation, Radiation,
Conduction And Advection During January And June
Heat
From
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-------
645
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WET BULB AND DRY BULB TEMPERATURES
Figure 9
-------
646
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Figure 12
-------
649
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3500 Psig 1000° F/10000 F
8 Heater Cycle-600 Mw
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 XO
Exhaust Pressure-in, of Hg Abs
COMPARISON OF CONDENSER HEAT REJECTION FOR
THREE TYPICAL CYCLES
Figure 13
-------
650
A. F. Aschoff
MR. ASCHOFF: In the same broad sense that water
is never lost, so heat or energy is never lost. Consider-
ing all incoming solar radiation, 33 percent is reflected
and 9 percent is scattered back to outer space from the
atmosphere. Some 15 percent is absorbed by the atmosphere
and the balance passes to the earth as direct diffuse
radiation. Diffuse radiation is direct radiation which
has been scattered by atmospheric constituents. This is
an average overall balance and, of course, does not
indicate daily, seasonal, or local variation.
Variations in Heat Flows
An illustration of the annual variation of
solar radiation for different latitudes is shown on
Figure 2. (See P. 638) The effect of latitudes is
greater in the winter months compared to the summer
months. For January the average solar energy is 1,000
B.t.u./sq.ft./day and increases to almost 3,000 Bot.u./-
sq.ft./day or an average variation of about 2,000 B.t.u./-
sq.ft./day,
A far greater variation occurs during the day
when from 6:00 a0nu to 7:00 p.m., on a clear July day,
the rate of solar energy for a selected location varied
from zero to a mid-day peak equivalent of 7>200 B.t0u./-
sq.ft./day and decreased again to zero. The July average
-------
651
A. F. Aschoff
value for Lake Michigan exceeds 2,500 B.t.u./'sq.ft./day.
Therefore, as in the case of the surface water
environment, the heat exchange between outer space,
atmosphere and the earth's surface is also dynamic. Heat
is never lost but the rate at which it is transferred
varies from hour-to-hour, day-to-day, and month-to-month.
With this understanding of the natural effects
of natural bodies of surface water as a background it is
of interest to superimpose and compare the manmade
effects onto the natural phenomena.
III. Hydro-Thermal Effects of Heat Discharge
to Surface Water
Condenser Cooling Water Cycle
Heat rejection from the turbine source leaves
the power plant via the condenser cooling water cycle.
See Figure 3. (See P. 639) Cooling water is generally
obtained from a river, a lake, or other large body of
water by pumping. After passing through the condenser,
the water conveys the heat back to the river, lake, or
other large body of water. This heated discharge spreads
itself over the water surface and the heat is transferred
to the air. Although the magnitude of heat is determined
by the turbine, the temperature rise of cooling water
passing "through the condenser will depend on the quantity
-------
652
A. F. Aschoff
of water used.
Distinction Between Heat and Temperature
The relationship between temperature and heat
is subtle and not always understood.
If 20 B.t.u.'s are added to 1 pound of water,
the temperature is increased 20 degrees Fahrenheit, So,
if water is initially 85 degrees Fahrenheit, it would
become 105 degrees Fahrenheit. If the same B.t.u.'s are
added to 2 pounds of water, the temperature is increased
only 10 degrees Fahrenheit and the same 85 degree
Fahrenheit initial temperature of water would be raised
only to 95 degrees Fahrenheit, Therefore, different
quantities of water passing through the condenser and
receiving the identical turbine exhaust heat rejection
will have different final water temperatures depending
on the quantity of water and its initial temperature.
Temperature rise through existing condensers in power-
plants ranges from 10 degrees to 30 degrees Fahrenheit.
Change in Physical Properties of Water with
Change in Temperature
Density is one of the physical characteristics
of water that changes with temperature. Density decreases
with increasing temperature as shown in Figure 4. (See
P. 640) Water density or weight at 100 degrees Fahrenheit
-------
653
A. F. Aschoff
is 99.3 percent of the weight of water at 50 degrees
Fahrenheit, It is this characteristic that manifests
itself by vertical temperature stratification (or layering)
in bodies of water. Conclusions reached from many studies
on rivers, lakes, and reservoirs substantiate the fact
that hot water at lighter density rises to the surface.
The second physical characteristic influenced
by temperature is viscosity. Water becomes less viscous
at higher temperatures as shown in Figure 5. (See P. 641)
At 100 degrees Fahrenheit water viscosity is about half
that of water at 50 degrees Fahrenheit and is more fluid
and slippery. Manifestation of the change in viscosity
with temperature occurs in the channeling of hot water
discharges. Temperature measurements taken over the
surface of Lake Michigan near a powerplant discharge in
Figure 6 (See P. 642) show a defined not water plume8
Because of its lower viscosity the hot water slips by
the adjacent cooler water, yielding an overall channeling
effect. This same channeling characteristic has been
noted in many other rivers, lakes, and reservoirs.
A third physical characteristic that changes
with temperature is water vapor pressure as shown in
Figure 7. (See P. 643) Water vapor pressure influences
evaporation. The higher the vapor pressure, the greater
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654
A. F. Aschoff
the evaporation. The increase in vapor pressure is far
more rapid at the higher temperatures of BO to 100 degrees
Fahrenheit than in the range of 40 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit.
Energy Budget of a Body of Water
Having briefly reviewed the change in physical
characteristics of water with temperature and the resulting
hydraulic effects, let us next consider the energy budget
of a body of water. Although a lake will be used to illus-
trate the phenomena, the principles apply to any body of
water including rivers, estuaries or oceans.
The energy budget of a natural lake or other body
of water without any industrial heat loading is always
tending to maintain a balance. When industrial heat is
added, equilibrium is maintained by increases in conduction,
evaporation and radiation from the surface.
On an annual average, the relative magnitudes
are evaporation, 40 percent; conduction, 25 percent;
radiation, 30 percent; and advection, 5 percent. However,
this relationship varies with seasons and the water
temperature.
Heat Dissipation from Water Surface
Plots of heat dissipation from water surface for
various water temperatures and a winter and summer month
in Figure 8 (See P. 644) illustrate two phenomena. First,
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655
A. F. Aschoff
although the relative magnitudes of advection and radiation
are about the same in January and June, the percentage of
evaporation is greater and the percentage of conduction
less in the summer than winter. The reason for this is the
difference in ambient air wet and dry bulb temperatures
over the year plotted in Figure 9. (See P. 645)
The temperature difference between the hot water
discharge from a plant and the wet bulb is the motivation
for evaporative heat transfer. This temperature difference
is greater in the summer and accounts for the higher
evaporation at this time of year.
On the other hand, the motivation for heat transfer
by conduction is the difference between the hot water and
the dry bulb temperatures. In this case, the greater
difference and hence greater conduction occurs in the
winter months.
This explains the higher evaporation and lower
conduction that occurs in the summer months. The other
phenomenon illustrated in Figure 8 (See P. 644) is *-" e
significant increase of heat dissipation from a surface
as the water temperature increases- In the month of June
each 10-degree-Fahrenheit increase in water temperature
almost doubles the quantity of heat dissipated. This
indicates that the hotter the water, the sooner the heat
-------
656
A. F. Aschoff
is dissipated from the surface area, or, for the same time
interval, less surface would be required to dissipate the
same quantity of heat. This can be illustrated by compar-
ing the two water surface areas needed to dissipate heat
from a 2,000 MW plant with hot water discharge temperatures
of 100 degrees Fahrenheit and 10? degrees Fahrenheit as
shown in Figure 10. (See P. 646) In both cases the final.
temperature is just under $5 degrees Fahrenheit. The
surface area required to cool this heat to $5 degrees
Fahrenheit from an initial temperature of 100 degrees
Fahrenheit is 2,700 acres, whereas only 2,000 acres is
required with the initial temperature of 107 degrees
Fahrenheit. The amount of heat rejection for both cases
is identical.
If these two cooling curves are plotted for
the same surface area as in Figure 11 (See P. 647)» the
portions of surface above various temperatures can be
compared. With the 100 degree Fahrenheit water discharge,
100 percent of the surface area would be above &5 degrees
Fahrenheit and 37 percent above 90 degrees Fahrenheit.
However, if the water discharge is hotter, such as 107
degrees Fahrenheit,, only 8$ percent of the surface would
be above $5 degrees Fahrenheit and 33 percent above 90
degrees Fahrenheit. The portion of total surface above
-------
657
A. F. Aschoff
95 degrees Fahrenheit is relatively small for both cases:
15 percent for the 100 degree Fahrenheit discharge and 19
percent for the 107 degree Fahrenheit discharge.
From this data a further plot of surface area
and water temperatures for the 100 degree Fahrenheit and
107 degree Fahrenheit discharge can be made as shown in
Figure 12 (See P. 64#) This shows that a larger percentage
of water surface area is cooler with a hotter water dis-
charge. For example, with the 107 degree Fahrenheit dis-
charge, over $0 percent of the surface is cooler than with
the 100 degree Fahrenheit discharge. Therefore, if it
is the objective to keep the majority of surface water at
as low a temperature as possible, the hotter the thermal
discharge the better.
IV. Influence of Non-Natural Heat Discharges on
Natural Behavior of Natural Waters
Modern steam turbine-generators have the highest
efficiency of all heat machines in practical use today.
Fossil fuel steam electric stations utilizing steam
pressures from 2,000 to 3,500 p.s.i. at temperatures of
1,000 degrees Fahrenheit have an overall thermal efficiency
of 37 to 3$ percento Nuclear fueled plants operating at
somewhat lower pressures of 1,000 p.s.i. and 600 degrees
Fahrenheit temperature attain a thermal efficiency of
-------
65B
A. F. Aschoff
33 percent. These thermal efficiencies are still signifi-
cantly higher than other heat machines in use today such
as gas turbines at 20 percent and automobile engines at
10 percent. The higher the efficiency the less waste heat
discharged.
The magnitude of heat rejection from a steam
turbine is related to the inlet steam pressure and temper-
ature and the exhaust pressure as shown in Figure 13. (See
P. 649) Exhaust pressure is a function of cooling water
temperature. The higher the temperature, the higher the
exhaust pressure and hence the higher the heat discharge.
For the three steam cycles in common use today the heat
rejection ranges from 4»000 B.t.u./Kwh generation to 7»300
B.t.u./Kwh generation.
Cooling water from Lake Michigan has a lower
temperature than water cooled by alternate means, such
as cooling towers„ Therefore, steam cycles utilizing Lake
Michigan cooling water are more efficient. This results
in conservation of energy.and permits lower thermal dis-
charge to the surroundings.
Although many power generating facilities have
been built on Lake Michigan, it is interesting to note
that long-term temperature trends for Lake Michigan
indicate a gradual decrease in mean annual water temperatures.
-------
659
A. F. Aschoff
Earliest records at Milwaukee, Wisconsin, dating from
1$75, indicate a mean annual temperature of about 48 degrees
Fahrenheit. Temperatures have been gradually falling since
then. Recent records indicate a mean annual temperature
of only about 43 degrees Fahrenheit. This strongly suggests
that manmade thermal effects are noncumulative.
Vf Summary
In summary, we have investigated the influence
of natural variations on the thermal behavior of water.
Many examples were cited which demonstrated widely varying
temperatures related to variations in solar radiation and
stream flow, and to seasonal and climatic effects.
The powerplant heat cycle was reviewed to assess
its contribution to that of nature.
We have seen that there are several physical
properties of water such as density, viscosity, and vapor
pressure, which aid in heat, removal by increasing heat
loss by evaporation. In the case of Lake Michigan, annual
temperatures have been decreasing. This indicates that
manmade heat has a noncumulative effect.
We have also learned that neither water or heat
is ever completely lost, only displaced. V/e note that heat
transfer is accelerated b^y higher discharge temperatures,
resulting in less water area affected. Finally, we see
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660
A. F. Aschoff
that use of Lake Michigan water for direct cooling results
in more efficiency and less heat loss to the surroundings.
This concludes ray presentation.
The next paper will be presented by Mr. R. W.
Patterson.
MR. STEIN: Let's see if the panel has any
comment.
MR. CURRIE: Yes, Mr. Chairman, one question.
MR. STEIN: Yes, Mr. Currie.
MR. CURRIE: You are in favor, I take it, as you
say on page 9» of keeping the thermal discharge as hot
as possible in order to reduce mixing?
MR. ASCHOFF: In order to get the increase
necessary in evaporation, this is the most efficient from
an engineering standpoint0
MR. CURRIE: And any mixing that takes place
with the surface waters in your view would retard
evaporation and therefore be undesirable, is that right?
MRo ASCHOFF: That is right.
MR. CURRIE: So that you disagree with the
statement of Dr. Pritchard on behalf of Commonwealth
Edison Company in which he says very clearly that in his
opinion maximum mixing will minimize the area of the lake
affected by actual powerplant discharges up to — well,
-------
661
A. F. Aschoff
above 1 degree Fahrenheit. Are you familiar with that
statement?
MR. ASCHOFF: No, I am not.
MR. CURRIE: Well, I think it would be helpful
at some point if we could have a little meeting of the
minds between the people of the power industry as to which
is the better means of disposing of heat. You seem to be
saying you want to concentrate it all in one place and
Edison seems to be saying it wants it spread around as much
as possible, and I would think it helpful if at some point
you could give us your comments on Dr. Frit chard's paper,
which seems to me to take a very different view from yours
upon this question.
MR. ASCHOFF: Well, I would like to have an
opportunity to review that before we could submit comments,
but we were speaking from our experience with primarily
manmade lakes for cooling, in which we note the rapid
rise of water to the surface, in which the maximum heat
transfer, then, occurs by evaporation,,
MR. STEIN: Are there any other comments?
MR. MAYO: Yes, I have a question, Mr0 Chairman.
On your page 10, Mr. Aschoff, you make reference
to the temperature observations on a long-term basis for
Lake Michigan, dropping from 1+8 degrees to the diurnal
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662
A. F. Aschoff
of only about 43» and then you have reached the conclusion
that this strongly suggests that manraade thermal effects
are noncumulative.
MR. ASCHOFF: Yes, sir.
MR. MAYO: Do you have anything upon which — any
basis upon which you could make an evaluation that if it
had not been for manmade thermal effects, the temperature
in Lake Michigan might be 42 degrees instead of 43?
MR. ASCHOFF: No, sir, I don't. But I am taking
my data from Dr. Acres' paper that was presented a few
years ago in which he attributes the decline in temperature
to things such as storm fronts and increased differences
in climatic effects. There is no mention made in that
paper of manmade influence.
MR0 MAYO: So, as I would take your response,
it appears that the data upon which you made your obser-
vation may not have included any significant considera-
tion of manmade temperature.
MR. ASCHOFF: I would assume if there was any
appreciable cumulative effect of manmade influences that
they would have been manifested by an increase of temper-
ature rate rather than a decrease. I think that is a
rather logical assumption.
MR. MAYO: If we were in a general period of
-------
663
A. F. Aschoff
temperature decline or whatever the variety of contributing
factors might be, could the rate of decline of temperature
have been impacted by manmade heat contributions? If
the answer is yes, then your observation that the manmade
thermal effects are noncumulative would not be correct.
MR0 ASGHOFF: Do you feel that they are cumula-
tive?
MR. MAIO: No. I am asking the question, that
if the evaluation on which you base your conclusion didn't
take into account manmade temperature inputs —
MR. ASCHOFF: It was. based entirely on Dr. Acres'
paper, plus what I felt was a logical conclusion to the
results of that paper.
MR. MAIO: You don't know whether Dr. Acres took
into account manmade contributions?
MR. ASCHOFF: I don't believe he did.
MR. MAYOs And whether or not manmade contribu-
tions would have impact on the rate of otherwise natural
decline in temperature.
MR. ASCHOFF: I don't recall reading in his
paper any discussion on manmade influences.
MR. STEIN: Any other comments or question?
Mr. Aschoff, you surely have opened another
interesting avenue. As I understand it, maybe you are
-------
664
A. F. Aschoff
suggesting we are operating on the wrong wavelength here
in trying to keep this water as cool as possible. Maybe
the trick is to get it as hot as possible, and if we run
around the plant long enough, get it pretty close to 21
degrees before we discharge it, we might be able to have
ice skating in the lake all year-round.
MR. ASCHOFF: Well, I was attempting to demonstrate
the engineering aspects of it rather than the ecological.
MR. STEIN: Well, if your theory is correct,
though, why don't you just run it through a closed system
until it gets near to boiling, and then put it out and
it will hardly have any effect if the hotter you get it
the less it is going to affect the lake?
MR. ASGHOFF: We will have to consider it.
MR. STEIN: Right. Thank you.
MR. ASCHOFF: Are there any other questions?
MR. STEIN: No, I don't think so. We are holding
the public questions until the power industry is completed.
As I pointed out, in the interest of saving time, we are
just going to let the panel have questions. Then we will
open this to public discussion after all of the power
companies are completed.
May we go on with the next one, please?
MR. ASCHOFF: I would like to introduce the
-------
665
R. ¥. Patterson
next paper if I might.
My paper will be followed by the paper by Mr.
R. W. Patterson, who is the Manager of the Mechanical
Department, Sargent and Lundy Engineers. The title of his
paper is "Preliminary Comments on U. S. Department of the
Interior Reports on Lake Michigan Issued in September
1970."
Mr. Patterson.
STATEMENT OF R. ¥„ PATTERSON, MANAGER
MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT, SARGENT AND
LUNDI ENGINEERS, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
MR. PATTERSON: Mr. Chairman, members of the
conference, ladies and gentlemen.
The two documents prepared by the Department —
MR. STEIN: Would you care to announce your
name, again, sir?
MR. PATTERSON: R. W. Patterson.
The two documents prepared by the U. S. Depart-
ment of the Interior have been available for review for
only about a week, and certainly detailed comments on
these documents at this time must be somewhat less than
definitive, not only because of the very few days since
-------
666
R. W. Patterson
their release, but also because of the lack of ready
accessibility to the many references and data used by the
Department in the preparation of the report. It has been
impossible to study much of the data in sufficient detail
to determine whether it is or is not questionable. There-
fore, these comments have to be brief.
Our general impression is that to support their
conclusions, the Department of the Interior has overstated
the effects that powerplant heat will have on Lake Michigan,
and at the same time has minimized the problems and effects
of the alternate means of cooling.
I would like to expand on these points and also
discuss the effect that the imposing of "alternate means"
on the utilities would have on plants already under con-
struction.
The main emphasis in the whole report is on the
effects of heat on the lake in the year 20000 To arrive
at the data for that year reference is made to the "Acres
Report," which bases its projection on the estimated
electrical power requirements for the midwest area. In
other words, it is assumed that plants will be put on
Lake Michigan in proportion to the power growth. It is
quite obvious, however, that the governmental regulating
bodies are not likely to approve unrestricted building of
-------
66?
R. ¥. Patterson
powerplants on Lake Michigan for the next 30 years. Also
no consideration is given to the fact that there will be
no technological improvements, which will increase the
efficiency and thus lower the heat output of powerplants.
Therefore, the heat loads and water flows extrap-
olated to 2000 will never occur. This data should not be
used as a reason for imposing restrictions on plants now
under construction or those proposed for the next few years.
One example of the exaggeration that results
from looking at the year 2000 is the figure of heat
injected by powerplants as compared to the heat from the
sun. The report concludes that the powerplant heat will
amount to 12.6 percent of that from the sun by the year
2000. If only the existing plants, plus those now under
construction and which will be completed in the next 5 years
are included, the percentage is only between 2 and 3 percent,
Even the 2 to 3 percent figure is based on all
of the plants operating at 100 percent load for 100 percent
of the time. This just doesn't happen. We question why
the Department increased the capacity factor from the more
realistic 60 percent to $0 percent used by Acres.
The heat from powerplants is assumed to be con-
centrated in the "beach water zone," or an average of
about 1 mile from shore. Just extending this to only the
-------
R. W. Patterson
so-called "inshore waters" would increase the area three-
fold, and reduce the average heat input to 1/3. This
seems more reasonable because of the statement that so-
called "thermal bar" separates the "inshore waters" from
the rest of the lake. But even the inshore waters will
lose heat to the atmosphere and to the main body of the
lake. The report recognizes that their arbitrary zone
of heating is "subject to criticism," This is one state-
ment in the report with which we wholeheartedly agree.
When stating that "some" of the waste heat will diffuse
beyond the 1-mile limit, and "some"will be lost to the
air, it is essential to find out whether "some" means
"little" or "much."
The volumes of water taken through powerplant
condensers is brought out in the report, and has been given
considerable emphasis in the press. Although the flows
may be large, we must put them into perspective. Remember
that Lake Michigan is an extremely large body of water
containing 173 billion cubic feet. The Department of the
Interior report estimates a total flow through all of the
powerplants on Lake Michigan to be 22,364 c.f.s. by 19&0.
In relation to the total lake, this would be equivalent
of about 2 or 3 drops of water in a bucket per day.
Some of the problems of alternate cooling
-------
669
R. W. Patterson
methods are not, in our opinion, given full consideration.
It is imperative that in attempting to alleviate one
condition that the alternative does not become an equally
or even greater problem.
Potential fog problems from cooling towers are
covered by the Department's report in detail, but the
conclusion is that there will not be much of a problem.
MR. STEIN: While these slides are coming on,
Mr. Patterson, if you want these in the record, the slides
you have put in your report just don't reproduce, so
unless we get negatives or better prints, we will just
get a blur.
MR, PATTERSON: We can furnish you with them.
These were done rather hurriedly, I believe.
MR. STEIN: Thank you.
MR. PATTERSON: Figure 1 (See P. 6?0) indicates
that under certain-weather conditions, vapor plumes can
certainly be significant and affect the environment<,
Plants now under construction cannot be located where
prevailing winds would tend to keep the fog away from
highways and communities. In addition, there are daily
wind patterns induced by the lake itself, which are not
considered by the Department of the Interior0
The estimated costs prepared by the Department's
-------
6?0
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 2
-------
R. ¥. Patterson
consultants for each type of auxiliary cooling system are
well below the estimates we have made for various locations.
The costs presented were apparently gleaned from magazine
articles and information given by equipment manufacturers,
and then put together by people who have, as far as we can
determine, little background of design or construction.
We question whether adequate consideration has been given
to structures, to support towers, piping, controls, and
instrumentation, electrical work, and realistic con-
struction costs including labor rates which would be in
effect at the time the systems would be installed. In
addition, the costs per kilowatt hour apparently do not
fully recognize the lower efficiency when using a different
cooling system or the cost of adding more capacity to
compensate loss of output.
Originally it was my intention to go no further
in trying to compare costs. However in response to the
question raised yesterday by the conferee from Wisconsin,
Mr. Mackie, I will try to expand on this subject.
My hesitation in getting specific is due only
to the fact that the Interior report gives very little
detail, and I don't want to challenge anything without
substantiation. In addition, it is hard to find a study
which exactly parallels the report's parameters, such as
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R. W. Patterson
unit size, location, etc. Obviously, the few days' time
available since the release of the report make it impossible
to generate estimates, so we must look at a past study
which fits as closely as possible and draw conclusions from
it as best we can.
The arrangement of the numbers given in the
report makes them difficult to compare. The "condenser
and pump" are lumped together, for example, and the
cooling tower or lake or spray pond is separate. We
cannot determine which figure includes the interconnecting
piping, or the makeup pumping system, or whether or not
it was included at all.
I am elaborating on this only to show why we
cannot very well say that we differ from the report by
"X" percent.
Each plant is a different situation and must be
looked at specifically. The costs of supposedly similar
powerplants vary widely because of site peculiarities,
the year of construction, and many other factors. The
cooling towers will undoubtedly do the same.
Our estimates for a number of tower installations
show this, so it is impossible for us to come up with a
number, a dollar per kilowatt.
We can say that as best we can determine that
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R. W. Patterson
the alternate cooling systems have been underestimated.
In particular, the cooling pond costs do not include
development of the land which very often exceeds the bare
land cost, and the land costs alone ire extremely modest.
Many utilities are paying much more than $1,000
per acre for land. Certainly land near the lake — for land
near the lake, this is a very low estimate except possibly
for northern Wisconsin or Michigan.
The data on spray cooling canals is undoubtedly
extrapolated from much smaller installations. We would
like very much to have a detailed economic study prepared
by the Department or a detailed review. Considerable work
may have to be done to determine the interrelationship
between individual sprays in a large installation (15 to 20
acres in the examples given in the report).
Dry cooling towers have never been used for a
powerplant of any significant size in the United States.
To our knowledge, the largest operating dry tower in the
world is for a 160 MW unit. Certainly the costs for a
large unit in the U.S.A. are of a speculative nature at
this time.
The report appears to be self-contradictory in
trying to condemn adding heat to the lake while at the same
time trying to make cooling towers appear to be an
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R. W. Patterson
acceptable alternate. In the volume on '"Physical and
Ecological Effects ...," page 35, it is stated that "recent
findings tend to substantiate the theory that under normal
conditions the principal amount of waste heat (added to
the lake) is passed to the water mass, arid only a relatively
small proportion is dissipated directly from the plume to
the atmosphere." This statement is presented to try to
show that most of the heat stays in the lake. However,
in the volume on "Feasibility of Alternate Means ...,"
page VT-26, it is stated that "when one compares the
evaporation rates of wet towers and spray canals with the
evaporation rate for once-through coolings (i.e., in Lake
Michigan), a difference of only 10.6 minus #.2 c.f.s., or
2.4 c.f.s. exists."
This statement is presented to try to show that
cooling towers should not be penalized for water evapora-
tion in comparison to putting the heat into the lake. It
appears that two conflicting statements are used to try to
win two arguments in favor of cooling towers. Logic and
the laws of physics would lead one to believe that if so
much water is evaporated from the lake in "once-through"
cooling, most of the heat would have to be dissipated to
the atmosphere.
The Department of the Interior discussion on
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R. W. Patterson
blowdown from cooling towers suggests a lack of understanding
of the fundamental principles of water chemistry. Blowdown
is required to control scale formation caused primarily by
calcium compounds in Lake Michigan water. Even with proper
alkalinity and pH control, this will limit cycles of con-
centration to between 5 and 10. References in the text
to concentrations of 100,000 p.p.m. total dissolved solids
are based on the use of salt water, which has 35»000 p.p.m.
total dissolved solids initially. This is mostly sodium
chloride which does not form hard scales. This reference
is totally irrelevant to Lake Michigan.
Because of pH control required to increase the
cycles of concentrations to the 5 to 10 level, the blowdown
water will have little or no alkalinity when discharged.
This is contrary to the text. Also, the lack of alkalinity
precludes removal of calcium and magnesium alkalinity from
the blowdown as suggested in the text.
Finally, a concentration of 5 will approach
the Illinois regulations for total dissolved solids,
presently set at 750 p.p.m. average, assuming these wastes
are undiluted with other waters. A limit of 5 concentra-
tions appears to be the maximum based on this considera-
tion. Such a limit would result in a large increase in
water usage over that predicted in the text.
The use of Lake Michigan for cooling in comparison
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R. W. Patterson
to the alternate cooling methods must also be evaluated in
respect to land usage. Cooling towers require large areas
in themselves, and must be spaced far apart to allow air
to circulate through them. Figure 2 (See P. 670) shows
a typical wet mechanical draft cooling tower. A 2,000
MW nuclear station would require about seven towers of
this type each 420 feet long, 70 feet wide and over 50 feet
high. The same station would require three of the wet
natural draft type of cooling towers, 500 feet in diameter
and 500 feet high. An existing site might be on the flight
path of an airport, which would cause height restrictions.
If the Federal Aviation Administration requested a. 245 foot
height restriction, for example, the natural draft cooling
towers could increase in number from three to as many as
ten. Dry type towers require considerably more area than
wet towers.
Figure 3 (See P. 676a) shows the relationship
between a dry tower and a wet tower at an installation in
England. The tower on the left is a dry tower and it is
our understanding it is for the same heatup load as any one
of the wet towers to the right. Note not only the large
size of the wet towers, but how even they are dwarfed by
the dry tower.
Spray ponds or canals take significant areas (15
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Figure 3
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R. W. Patterson
to 20 acres in the Interior's examples) and cooling lakes
even more (1470 to 2140 acres in the examples). You may
be aware of the opposition of farm groups to the use of
farm land for manmade lakes. People from Illinois are
aware of present opposition to a plant in this area. This
opposition would undoubtedly apply also to large numbers
of towers as well.
It is one thing to impose specific restrictions
on powerplants at some time in the future, but quite another
thing to require changes on plants now under construction.
In 196$ the Department of the Interior published
a report entitled, "Water Pollution Problems of Lake
Michigan and Tributaries," which stated that "assuming the
powerplants to operate with an average output equal to $0
percent of plant capacity, and assuming no escape of the
input heat from the water (a conservative assumption),
the combined effect of existing plants plus the proposed
nuclear plants, that is, (through 1973) would not raise the
overall average water temperature by as much as one-tenth
of a degree Fahrenheit. Even this minute increase in water
temperature would be nullified during the following winter,
so that no progressive warming tendency for Lake Michigan,
attributable to powerplants, is expected to occur."
State regulations have also permitted temperature
rises consistent with the plans for the plants now under
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R. W. Patterson
construction. To drastically change the rules for these
plants now would be unfair to the utilities who have plants
already under construction and which were designed under
criteria applicable at the time of commitment, and which
have features not easily adaptable to the "alternate means"
suggested by tne Department of the Interior.
Even if the Interior Department cost estimates
for alternate means of cooling were accurate, they could
not be applied to plants already designed for lake cooling.
When cooling towers are to be used, the powerplant equipment
is designed specifically for such a system. Some of the
factors which are unfavorable to the addition of cooling
towers, spray ponds, etc., to plants under construction are
as follows:
1. The temperature rises through the condensers
of many units of Lake Michigan were limited by State
criteria. As the Interior report recognizes, "cooling
systems perform most effectively at elevated water tempera-
ture." Therefore, most of the present condensers are not
normally considered optimum for cooling towers or ponds.
2. Dry type cooling tower installations normally
employ an entirely different condenser cooling cycle
philosophy. To understand the differences in the condenser
cooling cycle, it is necessary to review the equipment
involved. A simplified diagram of the conventional con-
denser cooling water system is shown in Figure 4. (P. 6?9)
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679
(c w';W>& il fcj -<5 1; II
W- A ril I?- •:
Power Plant
Condenser
Heat From Surface to Air
E_T
River or Lake
Condenser Cooling Water Circuit
Figure 4
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R» W. Patterson
In the powerplant, steam is generated in the boiler and
conveyed to the turbine where the expansion of the steam
causes the rotation of the turbine and the electric
generator, with the subsequent generation of electricity.
The waste steam from this operation is condensed in a large
condenser and returned to the boiler. In a separate system,
cooling water is taken from a lake or other cooling medium
and passed through the tubes of the condenser, separate
from the steam, causing the steam to condense and thus
absorb the waste heat from the station. This condenser
cooling water is returned to the lake or other cooling
medium for transmission of the waste heat to the atmosphere.
It should be clearly understood that in this process the
condensing cooling water only experiences a moderate
increase in temperature in the range of 15 to 30 degrees
and at no time is subjected to any great increase in temp-
erature such as involved in boiling water„ The nature of
water in the cooling water system is not changed in any
significant degree. The problem then becomes strictly one
of the effect of this warm-water plume impinging upon the
cooling water body.
For a system using dry type cooling towers, the
optimum system does not have a tubed condenser. As shown
on Figure 5 (See P. 6#l), the circulated water is actually
part of the boiler-turbine heat cycle, and the steam
leaving the turbine is condensed by intimate direct contact
-------
Hot We!
Pump
Turb. Gen.
Direct Contact
Cond.
Water Turb.
^
6Sl
Air Flow
Condensate
Return
Retire. Coolanr Cooler
Sections
NATURAL DRAFT-TYPE DRY COOLING-TOWER CYCLE
Figure 5
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R. W. Patterson
with cooled water returned from the tower. In the dry
cooling tower, heat transfer to the atmosphere is by con-
duction and convection through finned tube cooler sections,
instead of evaporation. A tubed surface condenser designed
for once-through cooling could be adapted to the wet
cooling tower cycle, but only with a corresponding severe
penalty in plant efficiency; however, such a surface con-
denser would not be suitable for the dry cycle.
3. Conventional turbine-generators operate with
vacuums at their exhaust ends in the range of 1 to 3-1/2
inch Hg Abs. The manufacturers' designs are for a maximum
of 5 to 5-1/2 inch Hg. The vacuum is directly related
to the cooling water temperature. With a dry cooling
tower system, optimum cycles operate at considerably higher
pressures because the dry tower is simply unable to provide
the condensing water at the cool temperatures available
with wet systems. In summary, neither the condensers nor
the turbine-generators for stations now under construction
are compatible with dry cooling towers.
4. Plants already committed are in various
stages of design and construction. The majority of these
are scheduled for operation orior to the summer of 1972.
Those familiar with the complexities of design and con-
struction will realize that the facilities for withdrawing
water from Lake Michigan and returning it are at an
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R. W. Patterson
advanced stage, and, in fact in a number of cases, com-
pleted. Many millions of dollars are already spent. But
of even more concern is the time that has been spent,
which cannot be regained. The time to design and construct
a cooling tower system will vary considerably with each
plant because each will have unique problems in trying to
install cooling facilities at a plant not designed for them.
But is is almost certain that any plant scheduled for
operation in under 2 years cannot have cooling facilities
installed prior to the operating date. Interfering with
the operation of these plants would jeopardize the power
planning of the utilities.
5. In previous paragraphs it has been pointed
out that sites already committed cannot now be optimized
for such things as drift of cooling tower fog in relation-
ship to highways and communities, proximity to airports
or flyways, and the land area that would be required for
cooling towers, cooling ponds or spray ponds. For the
plants under construction, there are no alternatives but
to use the present locations, whether or not they are at
all feasible for the installation of new cooling facilities,
In summary, we believe that for the near future
at least the heat effect of powerplants on Lake Michigan
are of much less consequence than implied by the Department
of the Interior report.
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R. ¥. Patterson
The alternatives suggested by the Department of
the Interior may impose problems for the adjacent communi-
ties and have an effect on the lake itself which cannot be
overlooked. The alternatives will also cause the plants
to be less efficient, and this will mean more fuel consumed
and more waste heat to the total environment.
Certainly we must differentiate between the heat
that would be added by plants built in the next 5 years or
the next 10 years and those postulated for the next 30
years.
If plants now under construction are not per-
mitted to be completed as presently designed, there could
be a serious impact on the power supply in the Midwest.
Thank you.
MR. STEIN: Thank you, Mr. Patterson.
Any comments from the conferees?
MR. PURDT: Mr. Stein.
I am wondering if Mr. Patterson or his colleagues
— if they can take a new plant, a set of conditions in
Lake Michigan that might represent summertime conditions
and critical conditions that you might anticipate and which
occur over a significant period of time, and then calculate
under a given set of heat projection rates and Delta T,
the number of acres of the lake that would be affected by
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R. W. Patterson
various temperature extremes. Can you do this at this point
in time with the present state of the art?
MR. PATTERSON: Definitely. We have been involved
in a great number of cooling lakes, and have computer
programs for determining the heat radiation, and so on,
for optimizing the size.
MR0 PURDI: Thank you.
MR. STEIN: Are there any other comments or
questions?
MR. MAYO: I have one.
MR. STEIN: Mr. Mayo.
MR. MAIO: You indicate, Mr. Patterson, that
the estimates prepared by the Department for the various
types of auxiliary cooling systems are far below the
estimates that you folks have made. How far below? Could
you give us some idea?
MR. PATTERSON: Well, I tried to steer around
that because there are so many variants that I would hate
to come up with a number. I would be very happy to take
the Department's estimates and review them to see whether
there are figures which we would disagree witho We have
no exact comparable estimate for a thousand megawatt
fossil fuel in this area for construction in, say, the
next few years. All of these things vary with time and
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R. W. Patterson
location, and so on. We cannot say this is the number that
we compare with the Department's estimates.
MR. MAYO: Your comment, then, perhaps is based
upon engineering intuition?
MR. PATTERSON: No, it is based on looking at
many other estimates of many other jobs and getting a
feeling for what it would probably be at this size and
this location, and built in, as I say, the next few years.
MR. MAYO: Would your comparison have been based
essentially on a difference in capital costs as distinguished
from a difference in total cost?
MR. PATTERSON: No, it would be botho The capital
cost is what I was referring to basically but, as I said,
I don't know whether they have taken full cognizance of
the power costs, for instance, the power losses, the cost
of adding capability at some other unit to make up for the
power that is lost for the cooling cycle, the lower
efficiency.
MR. MAYO: It is my understanding that these have
been taken into account.
MR. PATTERSON: I asked this question yesterday.
You cannot get the figures out of the report. That is why
I say that there is a question in our minds whether they
have been adequately taken care of.
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R. W. Patterson
MR. MAYO: I certainly hope that as the companies
proceed with the evaluation of the Department's report*
you will carry your evaluation out to the costs that were
compared in the report, so that we don't end up with the
critics trying to compare differences in capital costs;,
when the point that we were making a particular effort to
stress was the relatively small difference in total cost to
the consumer. I think this is a very interesting point.
I think it is one to which the power companies should very
appropriately address themselves, because this is the cost
that I think is most significant to the public.
If we are talking about ranges of difference that
might be in the magnitude of 20 percent in capital costs
— from 30 to 40 percent in capital costs would come out at
the end in terms of total cost in the magnitude of a penny
per month or two cents per month, then I think the estimates
that we have made were very reasonable ones.
MR. PATTERSON: We would be happy to do this.
It would be helpful if the data prepared for this report
could be made available.
MR. MAYO: Well, I think you need only get in
touch with Mr. Tichenor. The data is available for what-
ever scrutiny you want to put it to.
MR. PATTERSON: We would be happy to.
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R. W. Patterson
MR. MACKIE: Mr. Stein, referring to the second
paragraph in the conclusions of this paper, they state:
"The alternatives suggested by the Department of Interior
may impose problems for the adjacent communities and have
an effect on the lake itself which cannot be overlooked."
What effect on the lake is it you are speaking of?
MR. PATTERSON: Evaporation perhaps. Greater
evaporation to some extent, and putting the heat into the
lake.
MR. STEIN: Are there any other comments or
questions?
I would like to call your attention to one factor
here ™^ich I think is a threat not only from your paper
but a lot of the others, and that is, in some ways, the
last sentence in your report. You say: "If plants now
under construction are not permitted to be completed as
presently designed, there could be a serious impact on
the power supply in the Midwest," and you have had some
considerable discussion on that with existing plants or
plants under construction.
One of the trials in pollution control is that
we deal in — that is, the regulatory agencies —
challengeso Now, if you Ibok at the problems that have
been created, I don't think you have to go very far. If
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R. W. Patterson
you go to the South Works of U. S. Steel and see what they
had to do to put in the treatment facilities which would
protect Lake Michigan, it was practically an urban renewal
program. There was no place to put anything. You had to
rip something down to put the waste treatment facility up,
and they had the same problem that you have in the city with
urban renewal. You have to keep the people living; you
have to keep the traffic moving. And they kept production
moving.
I think what U. S. Steel did not have was that
if they didn't do it, possibly you could get the steel
somewhere else from one of their competitors, not that you
wouldn't have any steel in the Midwest.
No one disputes that the kind of pattern the
power industry has is one of an exclusive franchise. If
we are dealing with an industry with this pattern, such as
the power industry has; if we are going to present the
argument that power is not available to other j-dustries;
that if when we are dealing with an older planx even
a plant that is under construction, we just may not be
able to get power because we are going to protect the
environment — I think that this kind of argument coming
again and again is going to need some very careful
scrutiny on how we deal with this.
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R. W. Patterson
Do you have any comment on that?
MR. PATTERSON: I think the testimony from some
of the utilities can expand on that somewhat more. I can
only sav that the way the power situation stands now, the
units now under construction are being counted on for the
next few years, that if there is an interruption, there
just is no place else to go. I mean you can't buy it in
Europe or Japan.
MR. STEIN: Let me pose you a question, and you
don't have to answer this. This may be a rhetorical
question.
Let us suppose we had these requirements on the
existing plants in the East and Midwest, say, last year,
and let's suppose we had the brownouts we just experienced
in the past few weeks. The question is: Do you think
that the regulatory agencies would have been blamed for
the brownouts because of their restrictions for environ-
mental protection? Is this what we are going to be
faced with later if we put the requirement to you that
every time there is an insufficient amount of power that
the finger is going to be pointed at the regulatory agen-
cies responsible for the environment, or because of it?
As I said, these are rhetorical questions. You
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R. W. Patterson
don 't have to answer them.
MR. MAYO: I have a couple of more comments,
Mr. Chairman.
On page 8 and 9 and perhaps a little bit of
page 10 of your report, you make quite a point of dis-
cussing the inapplicability of trying to back fit dry
cooling towers to existing plants that are currently
under construction or existing plants. I just wanted
to make the point that I don't think there is anywhere in
the Department of Interior report that the proposal is
made that dry cooling towers are an economical way to
back fit a facility —
MR. PATTERSON: That is correct.
MR. MAYO: — on a plant that is already under
construction. So, I would hope to make it clear that at
least by inference you weren't implying that the Depart-
ment was, at this point in time, suggesting back fitting
in the plants under construction or those in existence with
dry cooling towers.
MR. PATTERSON: No, there was no differentiation
between plants under construction or future plants in the
report, so I thought I had better do it myself just to
make sure there was no misunderstanding.
MR. MAYO: Then you go on a little bit later to
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R. W. Patterson
make the statement that the nature of water in cooling
water'systems is not changed to any significant degree
and then come to the conclusion: "The problem then
becomes strictly one of the effect of this warm water
plume impinging upon the cooling water body."
It seems to me you made that observation essen-
tially from an engineering viewpoint and not from a bio-
logical viewpoint.
MR. PATTERSON: That is correct.
MR. FRANCOS: Mr. Chairman, just a followup on
Mr. Mayo's earlier question, and that relates to these
cost figures.
Did I understand that Mr. Patterson or someone
from the industry will indeed furnish the conferees with
their assessment of the figures presented, by Interior?
MR. PATTERSON: We would be happy to do this.
MR. FRANCOS: I think it is important and I
would agree with Mr. Mayo that really we recognize no
problems on getting compatibility on how you make the
assessment of the cost, but I think the ranges are the
figures that we are looking for.
MR. STEIN: How long would that take you, Mr.
Patterson?
MR. PATTERSON: It will take a while.
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R. W. Patterson
MR. STEIN: I would like to get those figures.
I think Mr. Frangos1 thinking was that could aid the
conferees in making a judgment, and I am not sure how much
of a while we have before we can make that judgment.
MR. PATTERSON: Can we discuss that and get back
to you before the end of the conference?
MR. STEIN: Yes.
MR. MAYO: I would like to make one final comment,
Mr. Chairman.
You make the observation, Mr. Patterson, that
interfering with the operation of these plants — I think
you are talking about those presently under construction
and those in operation — would jeopardize the power plan-
ning of the utilities. I have enough confidence in
the capability of the electric utility industry that I
think any reasonable amount of back fitting that might
ultimately be required for these facilities is not going
to jeopardize the power planning. I think the utility
people are very, very competent in the planning area, and
I don't think it would take very long for them to make the
planning adjustments that would be required, if, in fact,
planning would at all be significantly impacted in that
regard.
MR. PATTERSON: I was referring to the plants
*Figures referred to were not supplied.
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R. ¥. Patterson
that are scheduled for the next couple of years which add
up to many thousands of megawatts, and you just can't take
this amount of power out of the Midwest and not have
problems.
MR. PURDY: Mr. Stein.
I am not only interested in this, say, average
billing per customer, but also what this might mean in
the way of total cost to all of the customers in the Lake
Michigan Basin here — those served by the utilities that
have plans to utilize Lake Michigan as a cooling water
source.
MR. STEIN: Do you think that could be included
in your report?
MR. PATTERSON: That makes it pretty long.
We have to first get the data that I asked for
from the Department, and then work up a construction cost,
and then it is going to take some input from a number of
utilities, if that is what you want, if you want the
total four-State picture.
MR. PURDY: Well, does this mean that this, on
an annual basis, is, say, $1 million from the standpoint
of financial resources, or is it $30 million that it may
cost all of the customers on the system?
MR. PATTERSON: Oh, that can be developed.
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R. W. Patterson
MR. STEIN: Are there any other questions?
Off the record.
(Discussion off the record.)
MR. STEIN: Let's get back on the record.
Are there any other comments or questions? If
not, thank you very much, Mr. Patterson.
Are there prints — or negatives for those
Figures 1 and 2 in your report?
MR. PATTERSON: Would slides be satisfactory?
MR. STEIN: Yes, slides would be satisfactory.
MR. PATTERSON: We can give you the slides.
MRo STEIN: Okay.
May we go on with the speakers?
MR8 PETERSEN: Mr. Chairman, in asking ques-
tions of these representatives, it would be helpful in
knowing, one, when full answers can be given, to know
when the full data behind the Federal reports can be
made available so it can be examined and factored into
any conclusions which may be reached.
MR. STEIN: The full data behind the Federal
report, as far as I am concerned, is available right now.
Does anyone have a contrary notion?
MR. PETERSEN: Excellent.
Before concluding Consumer Power's presentation,
I would note that you had two questions which pertained
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0. Ko Petersen
to legal matters,,which perhaps should be best answered by
counsel. One of these pertained to the legal necessity
of all four Lake Michigan States have identical temperature
standards for that lake. It is my legal position that
identical standards are not required by Federal law. I am
not here —
MR, STEIN: I don't think I said. that. If I did
it was in error, but I don't think I said it. They have
to be compatible.
MR. PETERSEN: The second question pertains to
the burden of proof on matters of pollution. We don't
believe it is proper to begin with a conclusion of pollu-
tion,, and the burden of proof is with the entity alleging
pollution or setting standards to demonstrate that pollu-
tion. But as a matter of corporate policy, not legal
requirements, Consumers Power Company has undertaken some
studies to determine whether or not there will be adverse
effects from these thermal discharges.
Now, as to future plants, if properly justified
standards are set, the burden of proof may shift. And I
am not saying this to start an argument on the master, but
I think these were legal questions raised that are more
properly answered by counsel0
The next company —
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697
0, K, Petersen
MR. STEIN: Really, we have no difference here.
As far as I understood your statement, Mr. Petersen, your
/
industry feels that if the companies are going to use
the water resources of Lake Michigan as cooling water
in their plants, they should indicate, as a matter of
corporate policy or as a legal requirement, that they are
not hurting the environment by such use?
MR. PETERSEN: I don't speak for the industry,
I only speak for Consumers Power Company, and as far as
Consumers Power Company is concerned your statement is
correct.
MR. STEIN: All right. Thank you.
MR. PETERSEN: The next utility will be
Commonwealth Edison Company. Mr. Charles A. Bane of Isham,
Lincoln and Beale, who is counsel for that company, will
be in charge of their presentation.
MR. STEIN: I think it might expedite matters,
Mr. Bane, let's talk about just the mechanics. You
have a long presentation. If once you get up there, do
you want to run for awhile, take a break before lunch, or
how do you figure you want to handle it?
MR. BANE: Anything is agreeable to us,
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C. Bane
Mr. Chairman. If you want to break now, why that is all
right.
MR. STEIN: How long will your first presenta-
tion take?
MR. BANE: The first presentation will be about
20 minutes or a half an hour.
MR. STEIN: Why don't we take that one first
and take a break after that, and then continue. We will
go to lunch.
MR. BANE: Charles Bane, B-a-n-e, Isham,
Lincoln and Beale.
Mr. Chairman, the Commonwealth Edison presenta-
tion will consist of the following witnesses —
MR. STEIN: May we have your full name, sir?
MR. BANE: Yes. Charles A. Bane, B-a-n-e,
of the firm of Isham, Lincoln and Beale, One First
National Plaza, Chi-cago, Illinois 60670, counsel for
Commonwealth Edison Company.
The Commonwealth Edison Company's presentation
will consist of the following witnesses: First, Mr.
Byron Lee, Jr., Assistant to the President of the Company,
who will present a policy statement on behalf of the
Company.
We will then go into a number of expert
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C. Bane
witnesses who, in the course of their testimony, will,
I am sure, cover the points that were made by Mr0 Stein at
the beginning of today's session and a number of others
that are relevant and important. The first of these expert
witnesses will be Dr. Wesley 0. Pipes, Professor of Civil
Engineering and of Biological Sciences at Northwestern
University, who will describe the study program which
Commonwealth Edison Company has undertaken on Lake
Michigan.
Next, Dr. Donald W. Pritchard, Director of the
Chesapeake Bay Institute and Professor of Oceanography,
The Johns Hopkins University, who will discuss the way
heat from a cooling water discharge behaves after it is put
into a lake.
Next, Dr. G. Fred Lee, Professor of Water
Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, who will discuss
the chemical effects resulting from the introduction of
cooling water discharges into the lake.
Next, Dr. Andrew Robertson, Associate Professor
of Zoology, University of Oklahoma, who will discuss the
effects of the input of heat on the ecology and general
biology of the lake.
Next, Dr. Edward C. Raney, Professor of Zoology
at Cornell University, who will discuss the impact of
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C. Bane
cooling water discharges on fish.
Next, Dr. Wesley 0. Pipes, again, for his
recommendation regarding thermal discharge regulations.
Then, finally, Mr. 0. D. Butler, Assistant
Vice-President of Commonwealth Edison, who will discuss
the alternative cooling possibilities for the Commonwealth
Edison plant at Zion.
I believe that last night the copies of the
proposed testimony were distributed to the conferees,with
the exception of the statement of Mr, Byron Lee which has
been distributed this morning.
With respect to cross examination, Mr. Chairman,
we are agreeable to anything that you will or have pro-
posed. We would suggest — and I believe this is in
line with what has gone before — that the conferees can
break into our testimony, or they can reserve until the
end of the presentation by Commonwealth Edison Company
— all members of the panel. All of the witnesses will
be available.
Several of them — several of our people are
having difficulty in staying over and consequently I
would like to suggest — and I think this is also perhaps
a fairer way to go abbut it — that the members of the
public should also be available and should be allowed to
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C. Bane
cross-examine our witnesses at the end of our presentation
rather than at the end of the entire power industry's
testimony. That would be most convenient for us, and I
think convenient for the public. We would expect that that
termination of our testimony would take place sometime
this afternoon.
MR. STEIN: We would be happy to do that.
Without objection, I think this will take most
of the day.
By the way, Mr. Bane, would it be possible --
do you have another set of the papers that you gave or
have you exhausted your supply?
MR. BANE: No, I am sure that we have another
set.
We have given the reporter five sets, I think,
altogether.
MR. STEIN: I would appreciate another one,
but I think we can proceed on that basis.
If we are going to have this open to the public,
they should be able to direct their questions to Common-
wealth Edison and Consumers Power together. We will do
them all this afternoon.
MR. BANE: I am sure that is agreeable to
Consumers and EEI, although I don't speak for them.
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
MR. STEIN: Because otherwise, I think it will
possibly get this a little out of order.
MR. BANE; Yes. As we said at the beginning —
with apologies to Chairman Gurrie — this is basically
the material that we have presented to the Illinois Board,
so much of it will be repetitive for him. But we believe
it is important for these conferees to have the material
also.
We will start with Mr. Lee.
STATEMENT OF BYRON 0. LEE, JR., ASSISTANT
TO THE PRESIDENT, COMMONWEALTH EDISON
COMPANY, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
MR. LEE: Thank you, Mr. Bane.
Mr. Stein and conferees. Mr. Bane said my
name is Byron Lee, Jr. I am Assistant to the President,
Commonwealth Edison Company, and my purpose here today
is to explain Commonwealth Edison's position in connection
with the hearings and workshop being conducted here.
Commonwealth Edison Company has two responsi-
bilities: 1) to provide reliable electric service to
B million people and 2) to minimize the impact on the
environment of doing so. Let me explain our views on how
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
we can perform our responsibilities without conflicting
with yours.
This body must consider to what extent and
under what conditions the discharge of cooling water into
Lake Michigan is compatible with protecting the lake's
quality. There are some who take the position that no
such discharge can be permitted without harming the lake.
The Fish and Wildlife Service has recently projected
thermal loads on Lake Michigan in the year 2000, assuming
that powerplant technology will not change between now
and then and that all powerplants on the lake will operate
at 100 percent of capacity — a completely unrealistic
assumption. On this basis, the Fish and Wildlife Service
has argued that the thermal load on the lake will be
larger than it can support. Therefore, they argue, dis-
charges must be stopped no\v.
As indicated yesterday, they have modified that
slightly but the conclusions are the same.
We regard this position as unsound. The
testimony vie will present at this hearing shows that
properly managed thermal discharge will not harm the
lake. Nevertheless, maintaining the quality of the lake
is too important to permit any but conservative measures.
Therefore, we propose a solution which meets four tests;
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
1) It will avoid damage to the lake; 2) It will conserve
committed resources; 3) It will help avoid air pollution
and fossil fuel shortages; 4) And it will be subject to
change from time to time.
Our proposal is:
1. Only plants operating or committed at Lake
Michigan sites should be permitted to discharge cooling
water into the lake, using properly designed discharges
and subject to temperature limits such as those in the
current Illinois standards.
2. Provision should be made at each such plant
for careful monitoring of the discharges.
3. Powerplant cooling water discharges, in
addition to those already committed, should be installed
only after two conditions have been satisfied — first,
a full year's operation for each of a minimum of five
large units confirms what the existing evidence indicates
— that such discharges will not adversely affect local
conditions in the lake; and, second, review of the
aggregate effects of actual operations has demonstrated
the- absence of adverse effects on the lake as a whole.
Commonwealth Edison Company, for its part, is
willing to build no more units with once-through cooling
on Lake Michigan until these conditions have been met.
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
This proposal originates, of course, in our
planning and studies for our Zion Nuclear Generating
Station and I will talk about these in a moment.
It should be noted, however, that the deliber-
ations of this body may affect not only new power
generation installations on the lake shore, but also
existing generating stations as well as sewage and water
facilities and industrial plants, and you commented on
this, Mr. Stein, several times during the first day and
a half.
Edison's lake shore generating stations today
have a capability of about 2 million kilowatts requiring
use of cooling water. This represents lB.5 percent of
Edison's present capability. Indeed, Lake Michigan today
provides cooling water for 3.4 million kilowatts in
Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan, or about 19
percent of the capacity in these States. And, of course,
there are many other industries and municipal installa-
tions around the lake which discharge heated water.
Let me now turn to our Zion Station and the
conclusions we have drawn from our work there. We are
building two nuclear fueled electric generating units,
each with an expected capability of 1.1 million kilowatts.
When the second unit is completed in 1973, Zion Station
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
will provide about 13.5 percent of the total capability of
Commonwealth Edison Company's system,. We believe that the
once-through cooling system designed for Zion is the best
environmental solution available at that site, and that
proper water quality standards should permit its operation
as planned. Our reasons for this position and our recom-
mendations as to the manner on which standards should be
set will be dealt with in detail by the expert testimony
which will follow my preliminary statement. Our position
and the basis for it may be summarized as follows:
1. We have designed Zion with an offshore,
high-velocity discharge which will protect, the shore and
bottom, sharply limit localized temperature effects, and
minimize the period during which the entrained organisms
are exposed to warm water.
2. We are carrying out the most, comprehensive
program of environments! studies ever conducted on an
inland body of water. Even though we have complete con-
fidence in our design, we recognize the necessity of
monitoring "one Zion discharge to make certain that
experience bears out our prediction of no damage bo the
lake. These studies include consideration of both nuclear
and cooling water aspects. Since these hearings are con-
cerned primarily with lake temperature, one of our witnesses
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
will present a description of temperature-relevant studies
for the record. The work done to date as a part of this
extensive program indicates that no significant biological
damage is to be expected from the Zion discharges. This
is confirmed by the independent review of the scientists
we have retained to examine the question.
3. A number of independent organizations are
conducting similar or parallel studies to identify any
adverse effects from the Zion discharge and promptly bring
them to the attention of the regulatory bodies concerned.
The organizations making these studies include Argonne
National Laboratory, Metropolitan Sanitary District of
Greater Chicago, and EPRO, the Environmental Protection
Research Organization, a privately-financed conservation-
motivated organization. Argonne is coordinating a full
exchange of the data acquired in these studies.
4. The extensive surveillance of Lake Michigan
waters resulting from our efforts and those of others
will make possible a direct assessment of the effect of
Zion Station by comparing water quality after the station
goes into operation with water quality before operation
begins. There will inevitably be prompt discovery if there
is error in the forecast that Zion will not have an adverse
effect on the waters of Lake Michigan.
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
5. The scientists whose testimony will follow
mine are of the opinion that any adverse effect which
this surveillance might disclose would be localized and
reversible. Permitting Zion to go forward, therefore,
with the discharge presently planned is not an irrevocable
decision; if the discharge is shown to be harmful, it can
be modified or stopped and a substitute cooling method
used.
6. Permitting the Zion discharge has distinct
ecological and service advantages, both short-term and
long. Today, there is a nationally recognized problem
of fossil fuel supply, particularly fossil fuels with low
sulphur content. The two Zion units, when in service,
will supply electric energy which otherwise would require
over one-half million tons of coal a month. Early service
dates for these units, therefore, will both help reduce
the impact of the fuel shortage and avoid the emission
of very substantial quantities of fossil fuel combustion
by-products. Long run, so long as no harm is done to
the lake, the Zion discharge as designed is preferable to
cooling towers at the Zion site. While cooling towers
may be a good and economic solution for generating units
designed for them and located in a sparsely settled area
where thorough meteorological research demonstrates they
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
will not adversely affect the countryside, this is not the
situation at Zion. Zion was designed for once-through
cooling; it is close to a congested area and an airport;
it is near one of the best recreational sites in northern
Illinois; and the meteorological conditions are far from
idealo The use of the present Zion design will, in the
short run, avoid delays in service which could threaten
the reliability of power supply because of capacity and
fuel shortages. For the life of the plant, it will avoid
the economic, esthetic, and meteorological disadvantages
of large and unsightly cooling towers on the lake shore.
The Zion plant discharges fall well within the
temperature limits of the existing Illinois regulations
for Lake Michigan, assuming a reasonable mixing zone —
and our design calls for a small one. We regard the
Illinois standards as sufficiently restrictive. Our
experts advise us that there is no scientific evidence
justifying any more stringent regulation on general
temperature levels. We urge that the Illinois standards
be continued in effect.
As indicated at the beginning of this statement,
we are prepared to add an additional element of conservatism.
Our proposal involves limiting powerplant discharges into
the lake to a level below that anticipated for 19$0 until
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
a further demonstration that water quality will be pre-
served. We believe that there is no evidence suggesting
that so restrictive a rule is necessary. This proposal
would limit the level of heat discharges to less than a
quarter of the level estimated for the year 2000 in the
Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife report. That
estimate was the primary basis for its adverse conclusions.
We suggest the restriction only so that there is complete
confidence that no significant risk to the lake is involved
in meeting the need for electric power.
MR. STEIN: Thank you, Mr. Lee. Are there any
questions or comments from the panel?
Mr. Lee, who selected that Zion study site?
MR. LEE: Who selected the Zion site?
MR. STEIN: Yes. Your company?
MR. LEE: Yes, sir, we bought the site over 15
years ago.
MR. STEIN: And how long will it take if there
is damage for you to put in an alternate method. Let's
suppose you run that. In accordance with your proposal,
how long would it take to put this in?
MR. LEE: Our preliminary estimates — and Mr.
Oliver Butler, our Assistant Vice-President in charge of
Engineering will be on later talking about all of this —
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B. 0. Lee, Jr-
but our preliminary reviews indicate that it would take
at least 2 years and possibly 3 years to modify the plant
for additional — for some other facilities.
MR. STEIN: Sir, I fully agree with what you
say. But here is the problem as I see it: You are asking
that the regulatory agencies let you use Lake Michigan.
If there is damage to the lake so that it is going to be
2 or 3 years before you get this fixed up and everyone
in the Midwest and probably in other areas of the country
because of the operation of the grid system is going to be
dependent upon the Zion Plant just as a necessity for power,
we are going to have a hard time cutting that back.
Furthermore — and here is, I think, the basic point —
you selected the site, as you indicated. You say that
the site is close to a congested area, an airport, near
one of the best recreational sites of northern Illinois.
Meteorological conditions are far from ideal. This is
right from your statement.
We have heard previous statements on problems of
cooling towers or any kind of towers near an airport, how
plumes can be bad when meteorological conditions are not
just right. But the point is, as I see this, from the
statement of the industry itself, you were the people who
have selected the site. Then you point out that these are
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
the problems on the site, and you say that these cooling
systems are not feasible because of these problems.
I think you give us a rather difficult area to
deal with, when we are faced with this situation.
MR. LEE: Well, I think we all have a difficult
area to face, Mr. Stein. I think that, first — and, of
course, the siting of a plant depends to some extent upon
the electrical problems — service reliability is one of
our main responsibilities.
You were talking about problems in the East —
we would like to hopefully avoid that type of thing. As
a consequence, siting is an important consideration, and
sites near urban areas certainly are desirable. I think
that the experts that we will have on the stand following
me will hopefully prove to you or at least give you very
strong indications — they have tc us — that the effects
whatever they are will be extremely minimal, and that they
would be reversible. It is not the problem that you
espoused to, I believe, that it is not reversible. I
think some of the problems you were talking about were
chemical inputs and other inputs to the lake. One of our
experts will talk about this, that there is a difference
between that type of an input to the lake and the input
of heat. I think this is one of the main thrusts of our
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
talk — of our expert's proposals.
MR. STEIN: Well, I don't know that we are going
to have a difference there. And I said before, we have
moved in several of our cases — that is why I didn't think,
as the Court proved, that we couldn't get a preliminary
injunction down in Florida, because I don't think the
damage is irreversible.
The issue though is when you fret heat — we know
we have had areas where we have a biological desert or have
had one because of the addition of heat. But not here.
I want to indicate if we stop thermal discharges or we
go to the winter months, we are going to get a recovery,
and it. is going to come back, and we are going to do this
back and forth. The question is_, even considering that
it is not irreversible, what we are going to do to the
environment. This is the point. The other point is: if
you take into account these other factors I mentioned this
morning, the issue may not be quite that simple. In
changing the ecology of the whole area over a period of time
by ,just taking the water out, and if you wreck the plankton
and stuff, there may be real changes in the ecology of the
area. But the thing that bothers me, sir, is this: On
the supposition that some think more is going to have
to be done at Zion, and you admit the possibility
here, otherwise you wouldn't have made this proposal.
-------
B. 0. Lee, Jr.
MR. LEE: No, I don't think we admit the possi-
bility. There are certainly a great many people who doubt
our conclusions, and as a consequence, as a matter of good
faith, we have made this commitment.
MR. STEIN: Well, you have made the commitment.
But let's suppose if this commitment is to be met, and you
have to put something up that is going to take 2 or 3
years. We are going to have to put in something which is
compatible to a congested area, an airport, one of the best
recreational areas, and where meteorological conditions are
far from ideal.
These are all the factors we are going to have
to take into account, and your corporation, your company,
is going to have to take into account if we are going
to consider any additional facilities.
MR. LEE: That is right, and those are the same
facts that we have taken into account before. I think I
should hasten to add, Mr. Stein, of course,, that, as you
said, the Zion site was acquired many years ago. The
design was started several years back. It was designed
to meet the existing standards of the State of Illinois
which were approved by the Department of Interior. I
think that we felt — and we still do feel — these are
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
good standards and there is no reason to change. As a
consequence, we did not anticipate and still do not anti-
cipate the need for supplementary cooling.
MR. STEIN: I understand your position, sir. But
what I am suggesting: If there is a contrary view on the
kind of cooling that is needed, once there is a commitment
and Zion goes under construction or completes its operation
and starts producing power, the problems we are going to
have to face, if additional cooling devices are necessary,
are going to be formidable indeed*^iven just the site
description that you have given in this paper. And this is
a very, very difficult determination for a body such as
ours to make, because unless you are abundantly sure you won't
have to make the change — and we have all these restrictive
items — if we have to put in additional facilities later,
I think you have given us quite a problem.
MR. LEE: Well, we are abundantly surea
MR. STEIN: I know. But I think this is the crux
of the issue. The question is: We know you are abundantly
sure, but if the regulatory agencies agree with that point
of view, and we think we are abundantly sure, we are
really playing with the water quality of Lake Jlichigan,
and some people might think that is even a little worse
than Russian Roulette.
MR. LEE: Well, I hope that our experts will
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
indicate to you that it is not quite that same kind of
game.
MR. STEIN: Are there any other comments or
questions?
MR. CURRIE: Mr. Chairman.
MR. MAYO: Mr. Lee, your exchange with Mr.
Stein leads me to pursue a related line of thought with
you. Does Commonwealth Edison have, as a matter of
policy, any feeling about public involvement in pre-site
selection activities of the utilities?
MRo LEE: No. I would think that we have no
official position on it. This has been tried and is
being tried, as you are probably aware, Mr. Mayo, in
several places. At least our understanding, it has not
met with the greatest of success in several instances.
I think we are — we have a problem here, where
siting is a serious problem, and it is going to certainly
have to — each individual site is going to have to be
looked at separately. The sites are certainly going to
have to be reviewed from their total environmental impact
and this will have to be done with a great many agencies
who are involved, and I think that we feel that through
the Illinois Commerce Commission that they do represent
a good agency to coordinate all of these reviews. They
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
understand the need for the power, and I think certainly
they understand the need for the protection of the environ-
ment.
MR. MAIO: I would make the observation, Mr.
Lee, that much of the discussion this morning and yesterday
certainly leads us squarely to the issue of the importance
of the site to the prospects for environmental impact. I
think it would be not at all inappropriate for the
conferees to address themselves to this issue of site
selection, maybe even to the point of making recommendations
through the conference meetings through their respective
States or for a much more aggressive role on the State level
in the way of public review of pre-site selection consider-
ation.
I have one or two other —
MR. LEE: I would like to add one point to that,
Mr. Mayo. I think in the discussions you also have to
give consideration to service reliability, as I have
indicated before. This too is an important part of the
siting problem.
MR. MAIO: Oh, certainly, and I think that could
very well be a part of the public consideration in the
pre-site selection atmosphere.
I have just one or two other questions,, You
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B. 0. Lee, Jr0
made the observation that early service from the Zion
Plant would reduce the impact of the fuel shortage and avoid
the emission of very substantial quantities of fossil
fuel combustion by-products.
As far as the Commonwealth system is concerned,
do you anticipate that when the Zion Plant continues on
that there would be a reduction in your fossil fuel
combustion for the rest of the system?
MR. LEE: Yes, there would obviously. Of course,
the nature of an electric system is that the newer units
come on, the largest percentage of the time, and the older
units continually decline in years, in their normal oper-
ation. And, as a consequence, we would expect that in 1973,
I think, your estimates are that nuclear power would
represent very close to 50 percent of our total generation
in our service territory.
MR. MAYO: Would you care to make any observa-
tions on what the impact on the Commonwealth system might
be if the conferees were to recommend that you suspend
construction on the second unit at Zion?
MR. LEE: Yes, I would think that it would have a
rather dramatic effect on our ability to serve the
territory that we serve0 v It is 1.1 million kilowatts, as
I indicated in the paper that — both units will represent
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
13 and a half percent of the system capabilities, so half
of that is a significant percentage of our system. I
think that, of course, that would not only affect us, it
would affect all of our neighbors who are here also, and we
are interconnected. We think we have one of the best
interconnected systems in the United States in this area,
and this would have a serious effect on all of us, not only
in our service territory.
MR. MAYO: Approximately how far percentage-wise
has construction proceeded on the second unit?
MR. LEE: Second unit — the construction is
about 45 percent complete. The majority of the structural
work is completed.
MR. STEIN: What would happen if we considered
suspending you on the first unit?
MR. LEE: If we — I couldn't hear that.
MR. STEIN: What would happen if the conferees
would consider neither unit?
MR. LEE: You double the problem.,
MR. STEIN: We won't increase it in geometric
projection, arithmetically. I feel better. But how
soon — how far is your first unit along?
MR0 LEE: The first unit is about 55 to 60 percent
completed. We would assume that by this time next year
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
we will be running through some of the original pre-
operational tests on some of the auxiliary equipment on
the unit.
MR. STEIN: And you are going ahead — I think
you indicated this — just with that once-through cooling
on both units?
MR0 LEE: Yes, sir, our construction is contin-
uing with the system,,
MR. STEIN: Are there any other comments or
questions?
MR. GURRIE: les, I have two brief comments and
a question.
First of all, I have some doubt about whether
the one-year test post-operation that is proposed in
Mr. Lee's statement shows whether or not there will be
long-term subtle effects on lake quality.
Second, I think there is some question —
MR. STEIN: Pardon. I don't want to interrupt,
but I think it is fair to just ask one question at a
time and see if Mr. Lee wants to comment,,
MR. STEIN: Do you want to talk about that?
MR0 LEE: Well, we are proposing a one-year study
on five plants, which means 5 years of study. In addition,
of course, we have been studying Waukegan for sometime,,
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
It has been there for 40 years. We will continue to study it
in' our existing program.
There are a great many other studies — there are
other studies, I should say, on the lake — on the plumes
of various Lake Michigan plants that have been studied and
will be discussed later* So I think that the beginnings
of the work that has gone on and the work that we are pro-
posing here will give us the ability to look at long-term
subtle effects, Mr. Currie.
MR. CURRIE: I think one of the things I am
suggesting is that five independent one-year studies of
different sites might not have the same effect as a single
5-year study of one site. We are talking about long-term
effects in a single place, and I just have some concern,
Secondly, I think that your proposal raises a
question of fairness in the allocation of limited and
valuable natural resources, namely the heat assimilative
capacity of Lake Michigan. Your proposal seems to be that
those who come along first should be allowed to grab all of
this resource for free leaving none for anyone else who may
want to build a plant in the future. I don't know the answer
to the question; I just raise it.
MR. LEE: Well, I think that if I read the paper
correctly, the power industry is the primary and — if I
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
interpret it correctly — the only problem that is of
concern*as far as the Department of Interior is concerned.
As a consequence, I think that this problem of others is
somewhat limited, and somewhat academic maybe.
MR. STEIN: Are there any further — yes, you
had another?
MR. CURRIE: One question. On page 5 you say
that the decision to go ahead with Zion without heat con-
trols is not irreversible and that your company would be
willing to accept a later requirement of back fitting on
the Zion Plant should that prove necessary because of harm
done by the discharge. Does that willingness extend to
all existing plants, or is this a special Zion proposal?
MR. LEE: I would think that that would — that
does exist through all existing plants. The studies on
Waukegan certainly are well advanced. I think that in
that consideration", I think we would have to look at the
life and the operation of the plant. Certainly the Waukegan
plant is — will and is declining in use, so I think that
we would look at the results of the studies in that area
and be guided accordingly.
MR. STEIN: Any other comments?
MR. MAYO: Yes.
MR. STEIN: Let me comment, Mr. Currie.
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
I think your first point, Mr. Currie, about the result of
the study is well taken and I will give you a prediction
now, based on many years of experience, what the conclusion
is going to be at the end of the first year. The conclusion,
after you hear all of these nice professionals and profes-
sors come up, will be the results are inconclusive and
further study is necessary.
Mr. Mayo.
MR. MAYO: You took the words out of my mouth,
Mr. Chairman.
MR. STEIN: All right.
Let us recess for 10 minutes and then we will
continue. Thank you very much, Mr. Lee.
MR0 BANE: Mr. Chairman, before we recess and
before Mr. Lee leaves the stand, I would like to comment
on two or three matters which I think have legal implica-
tions and I wouldn't want them to pass without comment.
MR. STEIN: All right.
MR. BANE: First of all, with respect to Mr.
Mayo's suggestion that there is a need for aggressive
State action on the location and siting of powerplants,
as the witness had indicated and as I, as counsel for
Edison, would like to confirm, we have a highly respectable
State agency, the Illinois Commerce Commission, that
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
administers the Illinois Public Utilities Act. Before we
have authority to site a generating station, we must
receive from that Illinois Commerce Commission following
hearings of which notice is given to the public and at
which the Attorney General, among others, is represented,
we must receive a Certificate of Convenience and Necessity.
I wouldn't want any implication to be left here
on the record that this site at Zion was chosen without
any participation by any public officials or any pursuit
of an aggressive policy on the part of the State regulatory
authorities.
Secondly, with respect to the question of whether
the conferees would like to recommend that the Zion No. 1
or Zion No. 2 be discontinued, I would like to state that
we do not acquiesce in any position, if that is the
position that you are taking, that you do have the authority
to direct that we discontinue Zion No. 1 or Zion No. 2.
You have some authority, but it doesn't extend that far,
and I wouldn't want the witness1 answers to be construed
as indicating that we acquiesce thnt you do have that
authority.
Third, I am somewhat puzzled as to what technique
you are going to propose, l-'?r. Stein, whereby the public
utilities, and particularly Commonwealth Edison, is going
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B. 0. Lee, Jr.
to have an opportunity to respond to certain statements
that you make which do not partake of cross examination.
But rather as your last statement or colloquy with Chairman
Currie indicated, represents a conclusion that you are
reaching concerning some of the issues on which you are
receiving testimony,,
I would like to state on behalf of our company
that we would like to have an opportunity, either by brief
or otherwise, to respond to those points that you make
during the course of these hearings which we consider
relate not to proper cross examination but to the conclu-
sions that you ought to be arriving at.
MR. STEIN: All right. You certainly will be
given this opportunity,, We are not going to leave until
you feel you have said anything you want to say. We will
keep the record open for a reasonably short time — a week
— to do this.
This question of whether we have the authority
or not is one, of course, for the courts to decide. We
are in court now on one case . I guess the issue that
the case may be boiling down to is whether discharge of
heated water by a powerplant is discharge which may be
considered a pollutant that may be covered under the
River and Harbors Act of 1#99. If that is the way
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726
B. 0. Lee, Jr.
the industry wants these conclusions to be reached, I
guess when there is a difference of opinion in our society,
we have a court system that decides it.
I think your points are well taken, Mr. Bane.
I have not made any conclusions as far as I am concerned,
and I didn't think my remarks were made to be directed
at conclusions. I am just — as a matter of fact, I have,
at this point, certainly myself a very open mind on this0
We have not heard from all of the companies yet —
(Laughter) — well, that indicates to me where our audience
comes from. But there have been no conclusions reached.
The conferees will reach the conclusions.
I also would like to point out, sir, that I am
chairman, and the conferees arrive at the conclusions
themselves, and I think they are all pretty independent-
minded people.
MR. BANE: We are glad to hear that.
MR. STEIN: We will stand recessed for 10 minutes,
(Short recess.)
MR. STEIN: Let's reconvene,
Mr. Bane, if it would be agreeable, I think it
might be wise it we can break — I think we will have more
flexibility if we can go to lunch — do you think — about
12:00 o'clock — and then we can come back and we will
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727
W. 0. Pipes
have a bigger push in the afternoon — more time to deal
with/ this.
MR. BANE: All right, sir.
Our next witness v/ill be Dr. Pipes, and I think
he will run just about until 12:00 o'clock.
Dr. Pipes.
STATEMENT OF WESLEY 0. PIPES, PROFESSOR
OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND PROFESSOR OF
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES, NORTHWESTERN
UNIVERSITY, EVANSTON, ILLINOIS
DR. PIPES: Mr. Chairman, members of the con-
ference and ladies and gentlemen.
I have a statement which has been submitted in
writing. I am going to ask that the statement be made
a record of this conference. In the interest of
expediency, I am going to try to summarize some of the
major points in the statement which I have made.
MR. STEIN: Without objection, Dr. Pipes'
statement will be included in the record as if read.
(The statement above referred to follows in
its entirety.)
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728
STATEMENT ON STUDIES OF TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON LAKE MICHIGAN
Wesley 0. Pipes
September, 1970
Introduction
I am Wesley 0. Pipes, Professor of Civil Engineering and
Professor of Biological Sciences at Northwestern University. I
have been on the faculty of Northwestern University for the past
twelve years. During this time my primary educational effort has
been teaching water chemistry and pollution biology to graduate
students in sanitary engineering. I have published over thirty
papers on waste treatment and water pollution. I am a member of the
Technical Advisory Committee on Water Resources of the Northeastern
Illinois Planning Commission and the committee which prepared the
13th edition of Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
iLas_t£. Water» My curriculum vitae is appended to this statement.
I was graduated from North Texas State University with a
B.S. in Biology in 1953. I also received an M.S. in Biology from
North Texas State University in 1955, and a Ph.D. in the field of
Sanitary Engineering from Northwestern University in 1959-
Previous Studies
In March of 1968, I was asked by Commonwealth Edison Company
to advise them in connection with a short term study of Lake Michigan
in the areas of Waukegan Station and Zion Station,. The purpose of
this study was to establish background information on the water
quality in this region and determine the nature of the aquatic
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-2-
communities present so that an evaluation of the possible effects
of the discharges from the two stations could be made. Waukegan
Station, as you may know, has a steam generating capacity of 10^-7
megawatts electric and at maximum capacity discharges 875,000
gallons per minute of condenser water with a temperature rise of
12°P. For this study, I worked with Dr. L.P. Beer. A series of
samples was taken and analyzed during April, 1968. A report on this
study was prepared and published by Commonwealth Edison Company in
June, 1968. This report was presented to a number of state and
federal agencies with a request for their comments and was made
available to all interested parties.
The short time sampling program of April, 1968 resulted
in the findings that there were very minor differences in water
quality and in planktonic organisms between water samples from
the Waukegan Station discharge plume and a similar area four miles
to the north. These differences were well within the range of
variation expected for the sampling and analytical procedures used.
That is, we did not find any significant difference between the
Waukegan Station discharge plume and the control area on the basis
of the water and plankton samples.
We also took several grab samples of the benthic community
in the area of the Waukegan Station discharge plume and the control
area to the north. Samples of benthic organisns have proved to be
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730
-3-
of great value in water pollution investigations because these
organisms have a strong tendency to remain in a specific location
and the benthic population reflects changes in water quality over a
long period of time. Plankton and fish communities respond more to
water quality changes in the overall body of water than to changes
in a particular area. The difficulty with using benthic organisms
as indicators of pollution is that there are many causes of variation
in the benthic community which are the result of natural fluctuations
in ecological factors. For instance, in this region of Lake
Michigan, benthic organisms are very scarce at depths less than
ten feet apparently due to the mechanical abrasion of waves and
currents. There are also changes in the benthic population depending
upon the composition of the sediment.
We found considerable variation in the benthic organisms
in the different samples which we had taken in April, 1968 as would
be expected with the variation in water depth and sediment types
present. However, the benthic organisms of Lake Michigan which
are most indicative of good water quality, Crustacea and fingernail
clams, were found in reasonable numbers in the area of the Waukegan
Station discharge plume. The numbers of these organisms was not
greatly different between the plume area and the control area to the
north.
On the basis of the April, 1968 study, it was concluded that
the Waukegan Station discharge had not eliminated any planktonic or
benthic organisms from that area of Lake Michigan influenced by the
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731
discharge plume. Therefore, it was Inferred that the Waukcgan
Station discharge had not produced any gross pollutional effect.
The results of this short term study also led us to recommend that
a long-term monitoring program to run from two years prior to start-up
of Zion Unit No. 1, to two years after start-up, be established.
This program was intended to provide more detailed information on
water quality and aquatic communities in this region of the Lake
and for determining if any gross changes occurred as a result of
the discharges from Zion Station.
In June, 19&9; Commonwealth Edison Company established a
program with Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc., of Northbrook,
Illinois, to carry out this monitoring program. As a part of this
program, samples were collected in August, October and December of
1969.
Interpretation of Temperature Effects
At this point I would like to introduce some comments on
the technique of measuring pollutional effects. In my opinion, it
is absolutely necessary to conduct an investigation of the
environment in question in order to demonstrate pollutional effects.
Laboratory studies of the tolerance ranges of aquatic organisms and
calculations of permissible loadings are helpful as guidelines to
determine what specific problems may or may not exist. However,
there are so many factors v;hich may have a critical influence on the
manifestation of any particular pollutional effect and these factors
ni*e so variable in nature that there is always a great deal of
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732
-5-
uncertainty in any prediction of the effects of any discharge. What
is required is a comparison of samples from the area influenced by
the discharge and samples from a comparable area which is not
influenced by the discharge,
In conducting the field investigation to determine whether
or not there are any pollutional effects, it is necessary first to
determine if any effects at all are to be expected in the overall
receiving water body or if the effects will occur only in a limited
local area. This is done in terms of primary effects and secondary
effects. The primary effects are qualities of the discharge itself
which are measurably different from the receiving water body.
Secondary effects are changes in water quality or in aquatic
communities in the receiving water body which are induced by or
correlated with some primary effect.
In this particular case, the primary effect is a temperature
change. The temperature change itself is not a pollutional effect
unless it interferes with some beneficial use of the water or in
some way damages the aquatic communities of the lake. It has been
demonstrated that the primary effect, temperature increase, is
measurable only within a limited distance from the point of discharge.
Therefore, if a pollutional effect is to be demonstrated, it is necessa.
to investigate possible secondary effects. These postulated secondary
effects are changes in aquatic communities such as the plankton,
periphyton, benthos and fish. These changes will have to be
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733
-6-
mcacurcd in the area of the primary effect and related to water
quality and aquatic populations in the entire body of water.
The measurement of the primary effect is direct and
relatively easy. The measurement of secondary effects is complicated.
If we were dealing with gross pollution, the secondary effects would
be easily measurable at the present time as elimination or
major alteration of some components of biological communities.
However, we have already demonstrated that the same components of
the biological communities are present in the area of measurable
temperature change as in comparable control areas. We are dealing
now with the possibility of subtle changes in population distributions
in aquatic communities. If there are gross pollutional effects
which would not be demonstrable until several years hence, they should
be measurable as subtle effects now.
Because of the approach which has been taken by some other
investigators, it should be emphasized here that the only practical
approach to establishing whether or not any ecological effects
actually occur is to measure temperature differences and changes in
aquatic communities. Temperature change is a measurable quality
whereas heat load is not directly measurable. The British Thermal
Unit (BTU) and the calorie are hypothetical concepts which are
inferred from measurable temperature changes and used to relate-
temperature changes in one substance to temperature changes in another
substance. The response of organisms to heat is a response to
temperature not a response to heat load. The relation of BTU1s
to effects on aquatic communities .is complicated by a number of
-------
734
factors and there arc large uncertainties In predicting these
effects in a natural situation by theoretical calculations.
However, given an adequate effort direct responses to temperature
changes are measurable.
Water quality parameters and components of aquatic
communities vary greatly due to natural causes. In order to prove
that temperature changes are causing subtle Secondary effects,
it is necessary to determine first what the range of natural
variation is and then to show that the variation in some aquatic
community in the area of the temperature change is significantly
different from the natural variation. This requires a great many
samples for chemical and biological analysis and statistical analysis
of the data obtained. Our current estimate of the numbers of
samples required to demonstrate the subtle effects on a statistically-
significant basis is between five hundred and one thousand camples
collected over a one-year period. This is the effort required to
determine if any measurable secondary effects are occurring.
In order to demonstrate pollutional effects from a
thermal discharge, it is necessary to undertake an extensive field
investigation to compare measurable changes in water quality or
aquatic communities in the area of temperature increase with
natural variation in these parameters. If gross pollutional effects
were present, these could be detected with only a few samples.
However, gross pollutional effects as a result of condenser water
-------
7i5
-8-
discharger> into Lake Michigan have not been found. We are dealing
with the possibility of very subtle effects which could be obscured
by natural variations. Therefore,, a well planned field investigation
extending over at least a year's time is required.
Present Studies
In the fall of 1969* Commonwealth Edison Company asked me
to design a series of studies which would provide enough data so
that subtle effects of the Waukegan Station discharge upon the
aquatic communities could be measured and so that better estimates
of the effects of the proposed Zion Station discharge could be
made. Actually, for the type of studies which we are planning, it
is necessary to have a great deal of preliminary information before
the details of the study program can be specified. From January,
1970 through June, 1970, I worked with Industrial Bio-Test
Laboratories, Inc. using a large number of experts on water quality
and aquatic biology as consultants to develop the study plan.
In order to measure any of the possible secondary
effects of a temperature increase it is necessary to know specifically
what effects are being searched for and to have a well thought out
plan of investigation to detect them. In a scientific investigation
the effects which are being searched for are formulated in terms of
questions to be answered. The questions we are trying to answer arc:
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736
-9-
1. Is the dissolved oxygen concentration in the thermal
discharge pluTnc decreased below the normal concentration in a
similar control area?
2. Is there sufficient biochemical oxygen demand in
Lake Michigan so that a temperature increase would cause a
significant burden on the oxygen resources of the water?
3. Is there any increase in total algal growth, planktoni
or periphytic, in the discharge plume?
4. Is there any change in the algal species in the
discharge plume compared with species present in a similar
control area?
5. Are any cold-water fish being displaced from the area
of the discharge plume to the extent that their populations
in the lake are threatened?
6. Is there any alteration of seasonal biological events
in the area of the discharge plume?
7. Are there any fish pathogens present whose activities
would be increased at increased temperature?
8. Are toxic chemicals present in concentrations great
enough so that an increase in temperature would make them a
threat to the aquatic communities?
9. Are any fish food organisms; e.g., zooplonkton and
benthos, being eliminated?
10. Is the chemical composition of the water altered by
passing through the condenser of a large steam electric
generating station?
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737
-10-
Thio list of questions wac compiled after an extensive
literature survey and discussion with a number of experts. Another
person could come up with a different list of questions but I
believe that all of the possible adverse effects of temperature
increase are covered by one question or another on the list. I
also believe that when we obtain the answers to these questions,
we will be in a much better position to make judgments about the
speculations of possible adverse temperature effects on Lake
Michigan.
The types of subtle changes in the aquatic communities
which we are searching for are transitory effects. There are no
residual temperature effects in the water after it equilibrates
with atmospheric temperature. Thus, it is necessary to look for
these changes in aquatic communities in the area of direct temperature
change due to the discharge plume. If any of these effects which
are presently being sought actually do occur, they would be readily
reversed by natural biological processes after the thermal
discharges were discontinued.
How well we answer the ten questions listed above depends
upon the number of samples collected, the sampling pattern, the
methodology of analysis, and the interpretation of the results
obtained. We are making available a detailed description of our study
plan at this time so that there can be an evaluation by the scientific
communJty of how well we have done our job so far. I am not going to
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738
-11-
comment on the study plan at present other than to say that a parent
deal of effort by many people has gone into its preparation and
we believe that it merits a serious attempt at scientific evaluation
by others.
We are now in the middle of carrying out this study plan.
Some of the results will be available in finished form in six months.,
but other results will not be completely interpreted and written up
for another nine months. We expect to obtain answers to some of our
questions in explicit form when this study plan has been completed.
However, some of the questions are very difficult to answer and we
expect to recommend that certain parameters of water qulaity and of
the aquatic communities be monitored for several years in order to
give us better information.
There are also several other agencies, including the
Environmental Protection Agency of the State of Illinois, the Lake
Michigan Basin Office of the Federal Water Quality Administration,
the Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago, Argonne
National Laboratories and the Environmental Parameters Research
Organization, studying the Waukegan Station discharge plume and the
area of the Zion Station discharge. We have discussed plans and
exchanged information with these agencies. I believe that it is
beneficial to all concerned to have this exchange of information
and ideas.
We have obtained a great many results from our efforts
on Lake Michigan during 1970. Dr. Beer has prepared some of the
temperature data which we have collected and wjll present this later
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739
-12-
to chow what a discharge plume in Lake Michigan look:", like. On the
basic of preliminary reviews of the chemical and biological data as
it comes in, we have nob found any evidence of adverse
effects from the discharge into Lake Michigan. The final conclusions
from this study must await detailed analysis of the complete set of
data.
Summary
1. Previous studies of the Waukegan Station discharge plu-e
in Lake Michigan have demonstrated that there are no gross
pollutional effects of this discharge.
2. Waukegan Station has a generating capacity of 10^7
MWE and at maximum capacity discharges 875 thousand gallons per
minute of condenser water with a temperature rise of 12°F. It is
of the same order of magnitude as the largest nuclear generating
units now planned for Lake Michigan.
3. At present, we have underway an intensive study which
has as its objective measurement of subtle changes in water quality
and aquatic communities which may be associated with temperature
changes in Lake Michigan.
4. If any of the possible subtle effects of increased
temperature were to occur they could be reversed by elimination
or modification of the discharge.
5. Several governmental and one private agency are also
carrying out studies in the Waukegan-Zlon area of Lake Michigan.
The existence of these parallel studies provides a convenient means
of verifying results.
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-13-
6. I have specific recommendations to make regarding the
form of proposed regulations. I prefer, however, to make thorn after
you have heard our remaining witnesses. Until then, so that you
may know my position, let me say that, based on my own work and my
review of the work of others who are participants in our study, I
believe that the reasonable course to follow is to allow a moderate-
number of discharges from large steam electric generating stations
into Lake Michigan and require that these discharges be studied.
It would then be possible to make a decision on whether to eliminate
these discharges or to allow more of them when further scientific
information is available.
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741
W. 0. Pipes
DR. PIPES: To begin with, in the statement I
refer to some studies which were made in April of 196$
by Commonwealth Edison Company at the Waukegan station
generating plant. This study of April 19&# was the basis
for the famous or, if you will, infamous Pipes-Beer work,
which has been rather widely quoted and rather often mis-
quoted.
In respect to comments on that study, I would
like to say that I believe the data in the studies support
the text of the study. I might indicate in reference to
this that well over half of the pages in that particular
report consist of raw data, and I believe that chis data
does support the text of that study, the text of that
report taken as an entirety.
I believe this data does not support some
conclusions which have been drawn by pulling certain
statements out of the report and twisting the meaning
of the statements.
Now, what the April 196S study does say is that
in respect to thermal discharges into Lake Michigan at
the level we are talking about at the present time, we
are not talking about pollutional effects. Gentlemen,
I am well aware of what pollutional effects are and what
they look like. I have pulled up bridges full of ooze
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742
W. 0, Pipes
which were teeming with lake eel maggots and sludgeworms.
I have seen lakes which were covered with, floating scum
or blue-green algae. I have seen rivers in which the
only fish left were carp, and carp were floating up on
the surface?
Now, these types of things are entirely different
than the type of thing that is occurring in Waukegan
station. The Waukegan station discharge, once you get
your foot in this, feels uncomfortably cold most of the
time.
The data in the report, I think, do indicate
that there have not been the types of qualitative changes
in the biota which you do find in cases of gross pollution.
The type of thing that we are dealing with —
the type of questions that we are dealing with here are
questions of very subtle ecological effects. They are
very sophisticated questions, and what you need to get as
an answer to these sophisticated questions is a very well
thought-out-in-detail plan, and a great deal of effort
over a period of some time in order to arrive at answers
to these questions.
Now, the April 1963 study was a preliminary
study. There were some samples which were taken in 1969
— not a great deal more — but these were studied in
-------
743
W. 0. Pipes
1969 and continued because the recommendations were
continued "chat were made in the 196$ study.
During the past 9 or 10 months, I have been
working, again, under request of Commonwealth Edison
Company, at developing a study plan which will allow us
to arrive at answers to some of these rather sophisticated
ecological questions which have been derived.
I believe that the study plan — by the way, it
is being made available at the present time; copies will be
available to the members of this conference; copies will
be made available to anybody who writes in asking for a
copy. What we are suggesting here is that Commonwealth
Edison has accepted this concept of taking the burden of
proof upon itself. They asked me: How do you go about
developing the answers to these questions which have
been raised?
I have been working on this for a number of
months, and I believe that we have an approach which, to
the best I con tell, is an adequate approach. What I
would like to have done with the study plan is I would
like to have a good scientific evaluation. There are
oorne very good scientific people on the staff of the
Federal Water Quality Administration. I have the highest
regard for the scientific capabilities of people like
-------
744
W. 0. Pipes
Fritz Bartsch, Don Mount, Clarence Tarzwell, Dave Stephan
and the rest of their staff. We would very much like to
have them review the study plan which we have developed
and tell us where we have made mistakes in it.
I think that the question here is: having decided
that there is some proof needed, what are the best ways to
go about obtaining this proof? And we have done the best
that we could on developing the study plan to go after
these questions, and we would very much like to have the
people in the Federal Water Quality Administration and
other scientists take a look at this and give us their
evaluation and perhaps we can arrive at a plan which
will come to some conclusions in respect to the significant
questions which have been asked here.
In respect to how do you get at some of these
significant questions, I would like to say that the
things we are looking for are very subtle changes in
population distribution in various aquatic communities.
We are not looking at the matter of part of the aquatic
community being wiped out.
I would also like to make the comment that in
approaching an investigation like this, you have to deal
in temperature changes. The organisms in the lake respond
to changes in temperature. They have no method of sensing
-------
745
W. 0. Pipes
a B.t.u.j they have no method of sensing heat, other than
the temperature change which the heat induces. And so in
the approach that we are using, we cannot talk in terms
of B.t.u. loadings in terms of the response of the
organisms in the lake; we have to talk in terms of the
amount of temperature change and the area of temperature
change which these B.t.u.'s produce.
I would also like to point out that in respect
to looking for the subtle types of changes in aquatic
communities which we are searching for at the present
time, it takes a great many samples. Mr. Currie quoted
from a statement I made last week in terms of the 500
to 1,000 samples. This I would like to emphasize is an
estimate. The more samples we get, the better our estimate
gets as to how much we need in order to answer the question
within certain quantitative limits. And so the 500 to
1,000 samples is no magic number; it just happens to be
our current estimate based on the numbers of data that we
have collected, and so forth.
This study is under way, has been under way for
a number of months. As a matter of fact, it is something
we have been developing as we go along. The more time we
spend at the lake, the smarter you get about what you need
to find out about what is going on out there. And we do
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746
W. 0. Pipes
need information on the number of samples required to
establish a particular point as we go along, as we get
more and more data.
I am av/are of the fact that the types of comments
that have been made so far are not much help to you gentle-
men in your deliberations as to what should be the temper-
ature standards established for Lake Michigan at the present
time. 4nd I am in agreement \vith Mr. Stein with the fact
taat very often these studies come out with a conclusion
that the data collector was not adequate or the study was
inconclusive or something like that. I hope that we can
do a lot better on this study than has been done on some
of these studies in the past.
In the meantime and as an interim suggestion,
I would like to say I believe the evidence indicates that
the mixing zones which have been studied in Lake Michigan
so far are not producing any pollutional effects, that
this evidence should be recognized and that a limited
number of mixing zones should be allowed until such time
as we have the data upon which we can give you bettor
information which can be related to standards.
Thank you.
MR. STSIN: Thank you, Mr. Pipes, or Professor
Pipes, I should say.
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747
W. 0. Pipes
I say this just as a general proposition. In
terras of the people you are talking about I would suggest
that if you are going to do these things, it might be
advisable for you to get in touch with them and work up
something, in conjunction with the people not only on our
staff but on the State staffs, so at least we all have the
same methodology that we can agree on. I appreciate your
statement very much, but just a little while ago, I guess
Mr. Bane called one of my predictions a conclusion. I
didn't think it was a conclusion* But, Dr. Pipes from
Northwestern University, the first man up, — I never
expected a confirmation so fast — he says on page 8 —
by the way, I am not attempting to deprecate these at all —
"Therefore, a well planned field investigation extending over
at least a year's time is required."
Then he goes into details on another study and
says, "We expect to obtain answers to some of our
questions in explicit form when this study plan has been
completed. However, some of the questions are very
difficult to answer and we expect to recommend that certain
parameters of water quality and of the aquatic communities
be monitored for several years in order to give us
better information."
Again, sir, I am not criticizing this
-------
743
W. 0. Pipes
approach one bit, but I thought it was a fairly safe
prediction.
Are there any other comments or questions?
DR. PIPES: Mr. Stein, if I could answer that.
The easy questions to answer are in terms of large effects.
The questions which are difficult to answer are looking
in smaller and smaller effects.
MR. STEIN: I recognize this. But, sir — and
I put this out because this is the issue we are going to
have to face — if we really have questions about smaller
and smaller effects and these effects are considered-to
be significant, the question that any regulatory agency
responsible for water quality has to face is whether it
is going to be prudently cautious until you resolve those
questions. Should the agency not permit an entry or a
change in water quality, whether it is a material or
diminishment of flow, an increase, or what-have-you?
Or should it instead permit this activity to go on
and check these subtle effects with the notion that
you correct the damage once found.
Now, I think this is precisely the area in which
the regulatory agencies find themselves, and we are going
to have to work our way through that.
I hope that we will, with the aid of the industry,
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749
W. 0. Pipes
be able to come up with an agreed-upon approach to this.
Now, again — on thinking about this in the
recess — I think we have had the same problem with regu-
latory agencies and industries that we see reflected
here. Sometimes when we first begin dealing with a
particular industry, as we are doing here, en masse, we
are experiencing the same kind of situation we did with
the other major industries in the country. That is,
very often you may be surprised and often dismayed at the
difference in philosophical or legal approach from a
regulatory man in the environmental field and an indus-
trial view. However, I have always felt that while
these philosophical and legal differences still remain
between us and the representatives of the other indus-
tries that we have dealt with through the years, we have
always under the American system of government been able
to arrive at an accommodation and a settlement and an
approach to each individual case. I am v-^ry hopeful
that we can do that here.
DR. PIPES: Mr. Stein, a point you raised
earlier — I think it brings out thu critical issue of
the biological reversibility of these ecological effects,
which are still a matter of question.
\
Mr. Currie quite properly asked me the question
-------
750
W. 0. Pipes
last week if we had any data bearing on the biological
reversibility. In the 2 or 3 days since then, we have
been scratching around. We hope to prepare this data
for presentation at the Illinois hearing in November.
There is some evidence in terms of the movement
of organisms in the lake,from one part of the lake to
another part of the lake,in response to temperature change.
There is,some evidence in investigations on other environ-
ments about the recovery of the environment after damage
was done on the ecology of the environment. There is some
evidence in the literature, particularly in the paleo-
limnology, when you look at sediment forms on the bottom
of- the lake and how the population of the lake has changed
over periods of many years, and I believe that this is a
pretty good record and I hope we will be able to present
this a month from now.
MR. STEIN: Fine0
Are there any other comments or questions?
Mr. Purdy.
MR. PURDY: Yes. In the conclusions, Mr.
Pipes, you make an — or you reach the conclusion that
the Waukegan discharge does not have gross pollutional
effects.
DR. PIPES: Correct.
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751
W. 0. Pipes
MR. PURDY: And certainly we need to be looking
at something far less than that. I believe back in your
papers you seem to indicate that it is your conclusion
that the changes which you expect to find there will be
no greater than those that you would expect to find under
natural — caused by natural variations. Is this correct?
DR. PIPES: Well, I didn't intend to convey that
impression. I think the first point: I would like to say
that as a scientist I am obligated to try to keep my mind
as open as possible for analyzing data, seeing what the
data looks like after it comes out.
In the second place, the point I was trying to
make is that there are rather wide ranges of natural
variations. Actually the temperature changes that we
are looking — outside of a similar area — for are
well within the natural temperature variations of the system
that we are looking at. And due to these natural variations,
it does take a great many samples, a lot of work and
analysis, and a pretty detailed statistical analysis of
the data we get to show the differences between the
natural variations and those which might be considered
as temperature changes by the discharge zones.
Mi. PURDY: In Michigan — I think it is no
different than the feeling of all of the people on this
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752
W. 0. Pipes
board — in Michigan, if we reasonably anticipate some adverse
effects, that we need to take some action now before the ad-
verse effects take place, and I am looking for some informa-
tion from the scientific community to indicate where vie can
reasonably expect some adverse effects or if the scientific
community believes that the likelihood of adverse effects
would be very slight.
DR. PIPES: Well, the question I would ask: In
your reading of an official Wildlife Service "white paper,"
do you find anyplace in there that they say there aren't any
pollutional effects of the present discharges, or do you
find anywhere in there that they say there are any pollu-
tional effects of the discharges which are expected from
plants in development in the next 5 years?
In my reading, I did not find any allegations that
there were pollutional effects or that there would be pollu-
tional effects. In my reading of the paper they were talk-
ing about very long-range effects, and I am essentially
agreeing with you. It is a very difficult question to find
good advice on.
MR. STEIN: Mr. Frangos, any other comments or
questions? If not, I think we are a little bit ahead of
schedule, and let's try to keep on this. Let's recess for
lunch and we will start again at 20 after 1:00.
(Noon recess.)
-------
753
W. A. McNamara
AFTERNOON SESSION
MR. STEIN: Let's reconvene.
Mr. Bane?
MR. FELDMAN: William McNamara.
STATEMENT OF WILLIAM A. McNAMARA,
VICE PRESIDENT, MADISON GAS AND
ELECTRIC COMPANY, MADISON, WISCONSIN
MR. McNAMARA: Mr. Chairman and members of the
panel, my name is William McNamara. I am vice president
of Madison Gas and Electric Company, and inasmuch as it is
apparent that you will not complete the meeting today
as far as all of the utilities putting in their statements,
I am asking permission that our company be permitted to
leave our statement in writing here with the reporter
and with members of the panel, and inasmuch as — I request
that because I have been requested to be back in Madison
tomorrow.
MR. STEIN: Without objection, this will be
done.
(The document above referred to follows in its
entirety.)
-------
754
Statement of
Madison Gas and Electric Company
My name is William A. McNamara. I am Vice President of Madison
Gas and Electric Company, an investor-owned public utility serving gas and
electricity to approximately 76,000 customers in .Madison, Wisconsin, and
surrounding areas. We are pleased to participate in this workshop and to
present our views on the optimum uses of Lake Michigan water.
We do not presently have any generating facilities on Lake
Michigan. We are, however, partners with Wisconsin Public Service
Corporation and Wisconsin Power and Light Company in a 527 MW nuclear
generating plant now under construction at Kewaunee, Wisconsin on the
western shore of Lake Michigan. Wisconsin Public: Service Corporation,
which will be in operational control of the plant, has already described
the facility and our proposed use of Lake Michigan for cooling purposes.
We fully subscribe to Wisconsin Public Service Corporation's statement
previously made in this proceeding.
As a public utility, our primary concern is to comply with the
obligation imposed on us .by Wisconsin law that we be prepared to satisfy
the electrical requirements of our customers. We attempt to discharge
that essential service in a manner most beneficial to our customers and
community. This entails consideration of a great number of factors,
including the environment in which our facilities and customers exist.
For over 30 years—long before the popular advent of ecology, pollution
and environment—v;e have been dedicated to a program of minimizing the
effect of our operations upon the air, land and water of our environment.
-------
755
In our opinion, the selection of one technique over another
for purposes of cooling, or anything else, must be made in the perspective
of the total environment. Judgments based only upon the oossible effect
on one isolated segment of that environment are unrealistic because they
ignore the close interrelation between all components of the total
environment. Similarly, favoring certain water uses to the exclusion
of others should not be undertaken without a full consideration of the
relative importance of the uses and the long-term effect upon the whole
environment. Fishing, boating and swimming are splendid forms of
recreational lake usage and, as such, are important; but let us not
forget that, on a per capita basis, very few people in fact elect to so
utilize our water resources. On the other hand, virtually everyone
benefits from judicious use of lakes and rivers in the electric generating
process. I am referring not only to cost and availability of energy but
also to many other more subtle benefits, such as aesthetics and the
availability of land for other productive uses. Man-made cooling ponds,
for example, completely change the environment of the inundated area and
remove it from other productive uses. We do not, for a moment, mean to
infer that artificial cooling ponds should be discarded as a cooling
technique. Obviously they should not. In the right olace and under
appropriate circumstances, cooling ponds may well be the most attractive
of the known alternatives. The same can be said about cooling towers;
they are huge man-made structures and have their own environmental
disadvantages.
-2-
-------
756
Each situation presents its own unique problems which can best
be solved only by having a variety of alternatives available. Armed with
flexible tools, we can chart a course which will ruffle the feathers of
environment the least. Unfortunately, the converse is also true. At the
present time and given the present state of technology, we, as a public
utility, would be severely hampered in our efforts to solve the waste
heat problem if we lost Lake Michigan as an alternative to be considered
through the adoption of thermal standards which would, for all practical
purposes, preclude the use of it.
-3-
-------
757
D. Feldman
MR. FELDMAN: Do I understand, Mr. Chairman,
that this permission is available for the other companies
that can not stay on?
MR. STEIN: We will deal with each company as
they come up and this is available to you.
MR. FELDMAN: Thank you.
MR. STEIN: Thank you.
MR. FELDMAN: Mr. Stein, I am afraid Mr. Bane
got caught in a long lunch hour, but we are ready to
resume on the next person who will appear at the request
of Commonwealth Edison, who is Dr. Donald W. Pritchard.
His testimony, as Mr. Bane indicated this morning, forms
the basis for the testimony of the three witnesses who
will follow him who deal with the ecology.
MR. STEIN: Would you care to give us your
name?
MR. FELDMAN: I gave it to you yesterday,
Mr. Chairman. My name is David Feldman from Isham, Lincoln
and Beale. I am here on behalf of the —
MR. STEIN: Well, let the record show that
the G ^airman was here on time.
You may proceed.
MR. FELDMAN: Mr. Chairman, the next witness
is Dr. Pritchard.
-------
758
D. W. Fritchard
DR. PRITCHARD: Thank you.
STATEMENT OP DONALD W. PRITCHARD,
PROFESSOR, THE JOHNS HOPKINS
UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND
DR. PRITCHARD: Mr. Chairman, you have before
you, I believe, my written statement as submitted to you
among the papers that were given you by the Commonwealth
Edison Company.
Since I will from time to time depart slightly
from this prepared text, I would ask that the statement
as written and as in your hand be considered a part of
the record.
MR. STEIN: Without objection, this statement
will be entered into the record as if read.
(The document above referred to follows in its
entirety.)
-------
September, 1970 759
Statement on Temperature Standards for Lake Michigan
Prepared by D. W. Pritchard
Introduction
My name is Donald W. Pritchard. I am Director of the Chesapeake
Bay Institute and also Professor of Oceanography, Department of Earth and
Planetary Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University. I hold a B.S. degree in
Meteorology and M.S. and Ph. D. degrees in Oceanography. For the past
23 years I have conducted and directed research programs concerned with
the movement and mixing of waters in lakes, estuaries, and marine coastal
areas, and with the chemistry and biology of these water bodies. Investiga-
tions of the heat budget have been a part of my studies of the physical
processes in natural water bodies and for the last five years I have concen-
trated on studies of the fate of excess heat discharged with the condenser
cooling water flow from steam-electric generating plants. I have served as
an advisor to federal, state and local government agencies concerning the
fate of waste materials discharged into natural water bodies, and as a-
consultant to industry. In recent years, much of my consulting activities
have been carried out as a partner in the firm of Pritchard - Carpenter,
Consultants.
I have been concerned with the conservation and management of our
natural resources for over 20 years. I was a member of the Board of
Natural Resources of the State of Maryland for 12 years, and also served as
Vice-Chairman of that Board. I am presently serving the State of Maryland
as a member of the Board of Review, Department of Natural Resources; as
a member of the Air Quality Advisory Board, State Health Department; and
as a member of the Radiation Control Advisory Board. I have been a member
of the Committee on Oceanography, National Academy of Sciences for the past
12 years, serving for some six years as Chairman of the Panel on Radioactivity
-------
760
- 2 -
in the Marine Environment of that Committee. I was also Co-Chairman, of
the National Academy of Sciences - National Academy of Engineering Joint
Workshop on Coastal Waste Management.
A curriculum vita is attached to this statement as an appendix.
I was invited to present this statement by the Commonwealth Edison
Company, Chicago, Illinois. However, the opinions and conclusions I present
here are my own, and do not necessarily represent the views of either The
Johns Hopkins University or the Commonwealth Edison Company.
Lake Michigan as a Receiver of Condenser Cooling Water Discharge:
A Natural Resource which can be Used Without Detrimental Effects
on Other Uses of the Lake.
A major purpose of my presentation here is to emphasize that Lake
Michigan represents a great natural resource for cooling of water used in
the generation of power, and that this resource can be used, with proper
design of intake and discharge structures, without detrimental effects on
other uses of the Lake, or on the natural biota of the Lake. From the stand-
point of the heat carried with the condenser cooling water discharge, Lake
Michigan may be considered as a temporary receiver, since, independent of
the method of introduction into the Lake, virtually all of the heat rejected
from steam-electric power plants will be lost from the Lake surface to the
atmosphere. There is thus no permanent storage of the rejected heat in the
Lake; the excess heat resident in the Lake at any given time is in transit,
with the atmosphere as the ultimate destination.
Temperature standards should be set to provide both for the protection
of aquatic biota and for effective use of the resource of the Lake as a heat
transfer mechanism. Overly stringent temperature standards beyond those
necessary for protection of the aquatic biota represent a waste of a natural
resource. From the standpoint of the total economy, funds expended (that is,
wasted) in meeting unrealistic standards will not be available, in the long run,
-------
761
- 3 -
to serve in meeting other important environmental protection needs; for
example, in the construction of adequate muncipal waste treatment plants.
In addition to the seasonal variations in temperature, water bodies
such as Lake Michigan are subject to natural variations in temperature
associated with longer term climatic fluctuations. Studies of other natural
;
water bodies of comparable size in mid-latitudes have revealed that the
annual mean temperature of the surface layers show a year-to-year variatior,
compared to a mean over the last 50 years, having a range of nearly 7"F.
Further, the mean temperature of the surface layers over periods as long as
10 years may vary from the long term (50 year) mean by 1. 5°F. Spacial
variations in temperature of several degrees Fahrenheit over distances of one
or two miles are also characteristic of such natural water bodies. The
natural biota will be conditioned to these natural fluctuations, and it is unlikely
that man-induced temperature changes over any significant fraction of the Lake
surface which fall within these natural fluctuations will have any measurable
effect on the ecology of the Lake.
The quantitative expression giving the rate of change of heat content of
a body of water such as Lake Michigan in terms of the difference between the
radiation terms which add heat to the surface of the water body and the
radiation terms which remove heat from the surface of the water body is called
the heat budget of the Lake. An examination of the various terms which enter
the heat budget for Lake Michigan can serve as a basis for a consideration of
the relative significance of the heat which might be discharged into the surface
waters of the Lake as a result of electric power generation. The heat budget
states that the time rate of change in the amount of heat stored in the waters
of the Lake equals the rate of input of solar radiation to the surface of the Lake,
plus the rate of input of long wave radiation from the atmosphere to the Lake
surface, minus the long wave radiation emitted from the Lake surface to the
atmosphere, minus the heat loss from the Lake surface to the atmosphere due
-------
762
- 4 -
to evaporation, minus the heat loss from the Lake Surface to the atmosphere
due to conduction. Since the heat concentration per unit volume is directly
proportional to the temperature, the heat budget is also a. statement of the
time rate of change of temperature. Each of the radiation and heat exchange
terms which enter the heat budget is individually much larger in magnitude
than the algebraic sum of all of the terms at any given time. Thus the time
changes in temperature in the surface waters of the Lake, such as the diurnal
or seasonal variations, result from a relatively small difference between
several relatively large radiation terms in the heat budget. Since each of the
terms in the heat budget vary in both space and time, natural variations in the
temperature in the surface layers of the Lake are to be expected.
Characteristic values of long term averages of the terms in the heat
budget for Lake Michigan are listed below, in units of BTLJ/hr gained or
lost at the water surface. Note that these terms are given for the total Lake
surface area.
Input of solar radiation to the Lake surface r = 3. 75x10 BTU/hr.
\ =7.50xl013 BTU/hr.
Input of long wave radiation from the
atmosphere to the Lake surface
Loss of heat from the water surface due to , -
,.,.„. ? = 9.38x10 BTU/hr,
back radiation J
Loss of heat from the water surface due to .
\ = 1.56x10 BTU/hr,
evaporation J
Loss of heat from the water surface due to
conduction
|=3. IZxlO12 BTU/hr.
Thus, on the average, solar radiation and long wave radiation from the
atmosphere provide a heat input to the surface of Lake Michigan of some
11.25x10 BTU/hr; while the processes of back radiation,, evaporation, and
*
conduction of sensible heat produce a rate of loss of heat from the Lake
13
surface totaling about 11. 25x10 BTU/hr. By way of comparison, the rate of
-------
763
- 5 -
rejection of heat at the condensers of a 1000 MWE nuclear power station, or
a 1700 MWE fossil fueled power station, at existing efficiencies, is
o
6.8x10 BTU/hr, or six-one thousands of one per cent of the average rate of
heat input to the surface layers of the Lake due to solar radiation and
atmospheric radiation.
As I will demonstrate later in this statement, the most effective way
that Lake Michigan can be used as a receiver of waste heat is through a
combination of efficient dilution, that is mixing, of the heated effluent with the
surface layers of the Lake, plus loss of excess heat to the atmosphere through
surface cooling. To demonstrate the potential capacity of Lake Michigan to receive
condenser cooling water discharges, I have computed the mean temperature
rise of the surface layers of the Lake which would result from the discharge
of the> condenser cooling water flow from an unspecified number of power plants
distributed around the lake shore, having a given total rate of heat rejection at
the condensers of these plants, and producing a given total net electric power.
This illustrative computation is made assuming "perfect" mixing of the
discharged excess heat into the surface layers of the Lake, and subsequent
excess heat balance due to surface cooling and advective discharge from the
Lake. Admittedly, the assumption of "perfect" mixing of the heated effluent
into the surface layers of the Lake is unrealistic. Departures from this ideal
assumption for actual discharges of heated effluent would result in local areas
having excess temperatures exceeding those calculated in this illustrative
example, and also large areas of the Lake having excess temperatures less
than those calculated here. Later in this statement I will give examples of the
local distribution of excess temperature in the thermal plume which would
result from specified design criteria for the discharge structures of a power
plant.
I have used the expression "excess temperature", and it would be well
9
to clearly state what I mean by this expression. Designating the natural, or
ambient, temperature which would occur at a given location in the surface
-------
764
- 6 -
layers of the Lake, at a given time, under conditions of no discharge of heated
effluent, by T , and designating the temperature which would occur at that
same location and time under conditions of discharge of heated effluent by T ,
h
then the excess temperature, 9 (Greek letter Theta) is given by the difference
between T, and T . That is, 0 = T, — T .
h n h n
The necessary input data for this illustrative computation are: (1) the
surface area of the Lake, which I have taken from available publications to be
14. 33 million acres; (2) the average annual volume rate of outflow from the
o
Lake, which I have taken from available publications to be 39, 000 ft / sec;
(3) the surface cooling coefficient for the Lake, which I have taken here to
fj tff 2
l^l6-f BTU/ft / (°F)/ day, a value corresponding to a wind speed of 10 mph,
an ambient temperature of 70°F, and an excess temperature between zero and
1. 0°F; and (4) the relationship between net electric power production and the
rate of rejection of excess heat at the condensers. In this illustrative
computation I have used two values for this latter relationship; that is, I have
assumed efficiencies now possible for nuclear power production (6. 8x10 BTU/hr
rejected heat per MWE produced power); and efficiencies now realized in fossil
fueled power plants (4.0x10 BTU/hr rejected heat per MWE produced power).
The following table gives the results of this computation, in terms of
the total rate of rejected excess heat and the total net electric power
production from an unspecified number of power plants distributed around the
shoreline of the Lake, for the stated values of mean excess temperature in the
surface layers.
Mean Excess Total Rate of Rejection Total Net Electric Power
Temperature of Excess Heat, in Production, in MWE
9, °F BTU/hr Nuclear Fossil Fueled
0.05 1.75xlOU 25,750 43,750
0.10 3.50xlOU 51,500 87,500
0.50 1.75xl012 257,500 437,500
1.00 3.50xl012 515,000 875,000
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765
- 7 -
From this table it is clear that Lake Michigan has the capacity, under
ideal conditions of mixing, to receive the excess heat rejected during the
production of relatively large amounts of electric power, with only very small
increases in the mean temperature of the surface layers of the Lake.
It should again be emphasized that the assumption of perfect mixing of
the heated effluent into the surface layers of the Lake cannot be realized in the
actual environment. Departures from this idealized situation for actual
discharges of condenser cooling water would result in localizing any tempera-
ture increases above ambient. Thus, this example computation demonstrates
that the temperature rise in the surface layers of the Lake as a whole,
resulting from the discharge into these waters of the condenser cooling water
flow from a total net electric power production exceeding any reasonable
projection of power requirements in the foreseeable future, would be sufficiently
small so as to have no detrimental effects on other uses of the Lake, or on the
natural biota of the Lake. Any possible detrimental effect of the discharge of
heated effluent into the surface layers of the Lake must therefore be of a
local nature, occurring only in the vicinity of the point of discharge.
It is therefore desirable to examine the character of the local
disturbance of the natural temperature regime resulting from the discharge
of waste heat into the surface waters of Lake Michigan, for several different
sets of design criteria for the discharge structure.
Distribution of Excess Temperature in the Thermal Plume From
Q
a Steam-Electric Power Plant Rejecting 6. 8 x 10 BTU/hr of
Excess Heat to the Surface Layers of Lake Michigan, Corresponding
to a Nominal 1000 MWE Nuclear Power Plant or to a 1700 MWE
Fossil Fueled Power Plant.
The distribution of excess temperature in the thermal plume resulting
from the discharge of condenser cooling water from a steam-electric generat-
ing plant depends upon three processes. These are: (1) dilution due to
momentum entrainment of cooler receiving water into the dispersing thermal
-------
766
- 8 -
plume; (2) dilution due to natural mixing processes, or turbulent diffusion,
of the heated effluent into the cooler receiving waters; and (3) transfer of
excess heat from the water to the atmosphere across the air-water interface
due to surface cooling.
Observations of the temperature distribution in thermal plumes
resulting from the horizontal discharge of heated effluent into the surface
waters of Lake Michigan as well as other similar water bodies reveal that
the excess heat is primarily confined to a surface layer 10 to 15 feet in
vertical thickness. The actual depth to which measurable increases in water
temperature above ambient may be observed depends upon the depth of the
water at the point of discharge, critical design features of the discharge orifice,
the slop'e of the bottom offshore from the point of discharge, and the natural
vertical gradient in the ambient temperature field. However, experience has
shown that the probable distribution of excess temperature in a thermal
plume within the surface layers of Lake Michigan resulting from the horizontal
discharge of a heated effluent may be computed with reasonable confidence
using a prediction model in which it is assumed that the excess heat discharged
with the condenser cooling water flow is confined within a dispersing thermal
plume extending from the surface to a depth of approximately 10 feet. Vertical
entrainment of dilution water into the thermal plume is included in the
prediction model only when the design of the discharge orifice is such that the
initial vertical dimension of the discharged jet is less than 10 feet.
The excess temperatures computed using this numerical predicting
model apply to the water surface. It is also assumed that 1:here is no vertical
variation in temperature in the upper 10 feet. As pointed out above, actual
observations in thermal plumes in Lake Michigan show thai: the excess tempera-
ture is a maximum at the surface, and decreases with depth. Measurements
made in the thermal plume adjacent to the Waukegan Power Station show that a
thermal plume at a depth of 10 feet is significantly smaller than at the surface,
and that the temperatures at a depth of 15 feet are not measurably larger than
the ambient temperature. Thus the areas contained within specified isotherms
-------
767
- 9 -
of excess temperatures as computed from the numerical prediction model
used here are larger than would actually occur for all sub-surface depths.
Field studies of actual thermal plumes, as well as laboratory studies
involving the horizontal discharge of a heated jet into a water flume reveal
that within the constraints of practical design for the large majority of real
or potentially real situations, the primary mechanism producing the initial
decrease in excess temperature is dilution of the thermal plume by
horizontal momentum entrainment of the cooler receiving waters. Dilution
by the natural mixing processes becomes important only after the initial
mechanical dilution of the thermal plume by momentum entrainment has
altered the transverse temperature distribution from a nearly flat-topped
structure to a sharply bell-shaped structure. Existing evidence indicates
that natural turbulent diffusion becomes adominant process in controlling the
distribution of excess temperature in the thermal plume after the plume has
been diluted by momentum entrainment by a factor of about five-fold.
The rate at which excess heat is lost from the water to the atmosphere
per unit surface area is directly proportional to the excess temperature at
the surface. The proportionality factor relating the excess temperature to
the rate of loss of excess heat per unit surface area is called the surface
cooling coefficient. Its value depends primarily upon the wind velocity,
secondarily on the ambient temperature, and to a lesser extent on the actual
excess temperature. For practical purposes, within the normal range of
excess temperatures, the dependence of the surface cooling coefficient on
the excess temperature may usually be neglected. This coefficient has the
units of heat flux through a unit surface area per unit of excess temperature
per unit of time; for example, in BTU/ft /(°F)/hr. The surface cooling
coefficient increases with increasing wind speed, with increasing ambient
temperature, and with increasing excess temperature, with the* dependence
on wind speed being the most important.
-------
768
- 10 -
The fact that the rate of loss of excess heat from the water to the
atmosphere per unit area of water surface is greater the larger the excess
temperature.has led to the rather widely held opinion that the most effective
way to use a natural body of water as a receiver of waste heat is to introduce
the heated effluent into the surface layers of the water body in a manner
designed to prohibit, or at least minimize, dilution of the heated effluent by
the cooler receiving waters. The rate of loss of excess heat from areas
having relatively high excess temperatures would thus be maximized, and the
area of the lake surface within which measurable temperature rises would
occur would be minimized.
An alternate hypothesis is that the most effective way to use a natural
water body such as Lake Michigan as a receiver of waste heat is to design
the discharge structure for the introduction of the heated effluent into the
surface layers of the Lake in such a way that dilution of the thermal plume by
momentum entrainment and natural turbulent diffusion is maximized. In this
scheme the dilution capacity of the receiving waters of the Lake adjacent to
the point of discharge of the heated effluent is used to the maximum extent
practically possible. The excess temperature in the thermal plume is thus
reduced rapidly by dilution. Heat loss to the atmosphere occurs for the most
part from relatively large areas of very small excess temperature.
Both laboratory studies of heated jets discharged into a flowing water
flume, and field studies of thermal plumes in natural water bodies, reveal
that when a heated effluent is discharged at the shoreline into a transverse,
longshore ambient current, the thermal plume is bent in a downcurrent
direction to become parallel to the shoreline. Consequently, the supply of
low temperature dilution water is cut off on the inshore side of the thermal
plume, and the rate of dilution of the plume is significantly reduced as
compared to the case of discharge into the receiving body of water in the
absence of an ambient longshore current. If, however, the discharge is made
from a structure located sufficiently far offshore, • and the discharge pipelines
-------
769
- 11 -
are buried below the bottom of the waterway between the shoreline and the
point of discharge, free flow of dilution water on the inshore side of the
thermal plume occurs even in the presence of an ambient longshore current.
Consequently, the rate of dilution in the bent jet discharged offshore
approaches that which occurs in a thermal plume discharged into a water
body having no longshore currents.
The following four example computations serve to provide a compari-
son between the distributions of excess temperature in the thermal plumes
resulting from the discharge of condenser cooling water via discharge
structures designed either to minimize dilution of the heated effluent or to
promote such dilution. In each of the four cases described below it is
Q
assumed that a steam-electric generating plant rejecting 6. 8 x 10 BTU/hr
of excess heat at the condenser discharges the heated condenser cooling water
into the surface layers of Lake Michigan. This rate of heat rejection
corresponds to a nominal 1000 MWE nuclear power plant or to a nominal
1700 MWE fossil fuel power plant, at present efficiency levels. It is further
assumed that the temperature rise of the condenser cooling water flow at the
condensers is 20°F, and hence the required volume rate of flow of condenser
cooling water is 1520 ft /sec. In all cases it is also assumed that the heated
effluent is discharged into a waterway having no longshore currents, or that
the discharge structure is located far enough offshore so that free passage of
dilution water can occur on the inshore side of the bent thermal plume even
in the presence of a longshore current.
Case I: Discharge structure designed so that no dilution (mixing) of the
heated effluent with the receiving waters of the Lake occurs.
Hence the decrease in excess temperature occurs as a result of
surface cooling only. It should be recognized that it is in fact
*
impossible to discharge the condenser cooling water flow into the
Lake without some mixing between the heated effluent and the
cooler receiving waters. However, it is of some interest to
consider this case for purpose of comparison.
-------
770
- 12 -
Case II: Discharge structure designed to minimize dilution of the heated
effluent by the cooler receiving waters of the Lake. Dilution of
the thermal plume by both momentum entrainment and turbulent
diffusion is enhanced by introducing the heated effluent as a high
velocity jet. Hence in order to minimize dilution of the thermal
plume the discharge structure should be designed to produce as
low a discharge velocity of the condenser cooling water flow as
possible. The conditions assumed for this case produce what I
consider to be a practical minimum of mixing of the thermal
plume with the receiving waters. Specifically, I have assumed
a. discharge orifice 500 ft. wide and 10 ft. deep, discharging
into the surface layers of the Lake at a point where the water
depth is at least 10 feet. This discharge orifice would result in
a discharge velocity of the heated effluent of 0. 30 ft/sec.
Case III: Discharge structure designed to produce a rate of dilution of the
thermal plume by the receiving waters "typical" of many existing
steam-generating electric plants. Specifically, I have assumed a
discharge orifice 50 ft. wide and 10 ft. deep, discharging into the
surface layers of the Lake at a point where the depth is at least
10 feet. This discharge orifice would result in a discharge
velocity of the heated effluent of 3. 0 ft/sec.
Case IV: Discharge structure designed to promote rapid dilution of the
thermal plume by the receiving waters. The design criteria
for the discharge structure assumed for this case do not
represent the most optimum design criteria for producing the
maximum dilution possible. However, they do represent
criteria which can be met with reasonable engineering effort,
t
and serve to indicate the type of thermal distribution which can
be attained by using the basic design principles which have been
applied to the discharge structures of a number of power plants
-------
771
- 13 -
now under construction or in the planning stage. These include
the Surry Nuclear Power Station on the James River estuary,
the Morgantown Power Plant on the Potomac River estuary, the
Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Po\^er Plant on the Chesapeake Bay, the
Pilgrim Nuclear Power Station on Cape Cod Bay, and the Zion
Nuclear Power Station on Lake Michigan. Specifically, I have
assumed a discharge orifice 15 feet wide and 10 feet deep,
discharging into the surface layers of the Lake at a point where
the water depth is at least, 10 feet. This discharge orifice would
result in a discharge velocity of the heated effluent of 10. 1 ft/sec.
The computational model used to determine the probable distribution
of exce'ss temperature in the Lake wp-ters adjacent to the point of discharge
makes use of the most recent knowledge of momentum jet entrainment,
turbulent diffusion, and surface cooling processes. It has been verified by
comparison of computed vs. observed temperature distributions in the thermal
plume adjacent to several existing power plants. One such comparison, that
for the Waukegan Power Station on Lake Michigan, will be shown later in this
statement.
Table 1 gives the results of these computations for the four cases
described above, in terms of the area, in acres, contained within specific
isotherms of excess temperature. These data are also shown in graphical
form in Figure 1. Note that in this figure both the excess temperature and the
area coordinates are on a logarithmic scale, in order to cover the large range
of these variables.
The computational model also gives the length, width, and general
shape of these areas contained withifa the specified isotherms, and hence the
horizontal distribution of excess temperature in the surface layers of the Lake
can be given in the form of contours of excess temperature on a* schematic
plan view of the Lake adjacent to the point of discharge, as shown in Figure 2.
Since Case I does not represent a practically attainable situation, this case
is not included in Figure 2.
-------
- 14 -
772
Table 1
The Area, in Acres, Contained Within Specified Isotherms of Excess
Temperature in the Thermal Plume Resulting from the Discharge of the
Condenser Cooling Water Flow from a Steam-Electric Generating Plant,
Q
Rejecting 6. 8 x 10 BTU/hr of Excess Heat at the Condensers, With a
Temperature Rise of the Condenser Cooling Water Flow of 20°F, for
Four Different Discharge Structure Designs as Described in the Text.
(This Rate of Heat Rejection Corresponds to a Nominal. 1000 MWE Nuclear
Power Plant or to a Nominal 1700 MWE Fossil Fuel Plant at Present
Efficiency Levels).
0'F
Area, in Acres, for:
Excess
Temperature
Isotherm
14
10
5
3
2
1
Case I
3.78xl02
7.71xl02
1.66xl03
2. 36xl03
2.94xl03
3.90xl03
Case II
1.66xl02
5.42xl02
2. 57xl03
3. 19xl03
3.26xl03
3.29xl03
Case III
1.9
7. 1
1. llxlO2
4.65xl02
l.OOxlO3
3.47x10'*
Case IV
0.2
0.6
10
44
99
3.91x10
-------
- 15 .
773
50000
30000
2000.6
1 000.0
700.0
500.0
(I'F)
<3.900>-^L f^3'
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(3,290) — -A ^\ f— X
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(39.4 <4651^
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Surface Area vrs Excess
Temperature in Thermal Plume
from a 1000 MWE Nuclear
Power Plant, with a 20° F
Temperature Rise at Condensers.
I • Surface cooling only-
No dilution (mixing)
C • Discharge structure designed to
minimize dilution (mixing)
31: Discharge structure "typical" of
many existing plants
12 Discharge structure designed to
promote dilution (mixing)
W(HI)
\
\<3«F) \
V- r
\
f \
*^/im *
*moi
\
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V7.I)
v
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1.0
07
O5
0 3
0 2
_
Note Surface cooling coefficients used
are far a wind speed ~of 10 mph and an
ambient surface temperature of 70* F
(ie,l34 BTU -ft"2!" F)~' day"1 to
190 BTU fr2(«F)"' - day"1 . depending
on the excess temperature).
i i i i t ( i i 1 i tit
f F> \
Wo 6) \
•l
\
\
\
, \
I t I 1 I' i 1
02 03 04 06 08 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 15 20
Excess Temperature, *F
Figure 1
-------
- 16 -
CASE: TSL
Figure 2
Horizontal Distribution of Excess Temperature.
-------
775
- 17 -
In all of the cases treated the excess heat would be primarily contained
in the upper 10 to 15 feet of the surface layers of the Lake. Inspection of
Table 1, and of Figures 1 and 2, clearly indicates that the areas contained
within the specified isotherms of excess temperature, for all excess tempera-
tures equal to or greater than 1°F, are significantly smaller for Case IV, for
which the discharge structure design provided for rapid dilution of the thermal
plume, than for Case II, for which the discharge structure design provide for
minimizing dilution of the thermal plume. To relate these example computa-
tions to actual discharges of heated effluent into Lake Michigan, note that the
thermal plume from the Zion Power Station will be somewhat smaller than that
shown for Case IV. It is also worth noting that the dilution characteristic of
many of the existing power plants (Case III) results in significantly smaller
areas than for Case II, for excess temperature greater than 2°F.
Percent of Lake Surface Area Which Would Have Excess Temperatures
Equal to or Exceeding Specified Values for an Unspecified Number of
Steam-Electric Generating Plants Distributed Around the Lake Shoreline,
Which Reject a Total of 3. 50x10 BTU/hr of Excess Heat, Corresponding
to a Total Production of 51, 500 MW (Nuclear) or 87, 500 MW (Conventional)
Inspection of the data on temperature distribution in the thermal plume
from a single power plant, such as that contained in Table 1 and in Figures 1
and 2, does not readily reveal the relative significance (in terms of areas
affected by the heated discharges) of a number of power plants distributed
around the Lake shoreline. In order to provide such a comparison, I have
computed the areas, both in terms of acres and in terms of the percent of the
Lake surface area, which would result from the use of the Lake waters for
condenser cooling water flow, for a total power production of 51, 500 MWE for
nuclear fueled plants or 87, 500 MWE for fossil fueled plants. At existing
efficiency levels, these values for net electrical power production would
correspond to a rate of rejection of excess heat of 3. 50x10 BTU/hr. In
-------
776
- 18 -
picking this particular figure for use in this illustrative example, I do not
intend to indicate that this or any other value for the rate of rejection of
heat from power plants located on the shores of Lake Michigan represents a
contemplated, or necessarily an acceptable, total rate of rejection of waste
heat. It does, however, represent about ten times the amount of waste heat
now discharged into Lake Michigan. Also, as I showed earlier, this rate of
heat rejection would produce a mean temperature rise of the surface layers
of the Lake of only 0. 1°F, a value sufficiently small so that, by taking
reasonable precautions in plant location, interaction between thermal plumes
from adjacent plants would be insignificant.
I have made these computations for the same four sets of design
criteria as used in the previous section of this statement. The results of
this evaluation are contained in Table 2. Note that in terms of the percent
of the total area of the Lake Surface, the area contained within the relatively
high isotherms of excess temperature are quite small for all four cases.
Again, the considerable advantage of a design which promotes rapid dilution
of the thermal plume is evident. Thus, for this case, less than four-hundredths
of one percent of the surface area of the Lake would have excess temperatures
exceeding 2°F, for a total power production of 51, 500 MWE (nuclear) or
87, 500 MWE (fossil fuel).
Temperature-Time of Exposure Relationships for
Organisms Entrained into the Thermal Plume
A number of biologists who have studied the effects; of temperature
increases on aquatic and marine biota in the laboratory have been surprised
to find, upon extending their studies to actual thermal discharges in natural
water bodies, that the conclusions they had arrived at from their laboratory
studies were not applicable to the real world. The major reasdn for this
apparent contradiction is that most laboratory studies have involved exposures
of organisms to temperature increases for relatively long time periods. These
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778
- 20 -
investigators failed to realize that the biologically important relationship to
be investigated is the temperature-time exposure history. The discharge
structures of many existing power plants provide for sufficiently rapid re-
duction of the temperature in the thermal plume due to dilution so that the
laboratory data on mortality and other detrimental effects; on organisms
simply do not apply.
It is possible to develop relationships which give the maximum time
of exposure to any specified temperature rise for organisms entrained into
the thermal plume, for any specified set of discharge structure design
criteria. I have used such relationships to compute the time-temperature
relationships for each of the four cases of discharge design described
earlier in this statement, for a nominal 1000 MWE nuclear power plant, or
a 1700 MWE fossil fueled power plant, discharging 1520 cfs of condenser
cooling water with a temperature rise at the condensers of 20°F. The
results of these computations are shown in Table 3, in which the maximum
time during which an organism entrained into the thermal plume would be
subjected to excess temperatures equal to or greater than the listed values
is given. These same data are shown in graphical form in Figure 3. Note
that in Figure 3 both time and excess temperature are plotted on a logarithmic
scale so as to provide for the large range of these two variables.
Note that the times of exposure-given in Table 3 and plotted in Figure 3
are measured from the time of discharge of the heated effluent into the surface
layers of the Lake. The time of transit of the condenser cooling water flow
from the condensers to the point of discharge must be added to the times given
in Table 3 and plotted on Figure 3 in order to obtain the total maximum time
of exposure as a function of excess temperature for organisms which are
entrained into the condenser cooling water intake flow and carried with the
flow through the plant. For example, in the case of the Zi.on Power Station
the time of transit of the condenser cooling water from the condensers to the
point of discharge will be approximately 2 minutes. In order to minimize any
-------
779
- 21 -
Table 3
Maximum Time of Exposure vs. Excess Temperature for Organisms Entrained
Into the Thermal Plume Resulting from the Discharge of the Condenser Cooling
Water Flow (1560 cfs, 20°F Temperature Rise) from a 1000 MWE (Nuclear)
or a 1700 MWE (Fossil Fueled) Power Plant, for the Four Cases of Discharge
Structure Design as Described in the Text.
Time of Exposure For:
Excess
Temperature
°F
14
10
5
3
2
1
Case I
17 hr
32 hr
64 hr
88 hr
107 hr
139 hr
'Case II
6 hr
12 hr
36 hr
42 hr
43 hr
44 hr
'Case III
4 min
9 min
1.2hr
5 hr
15 hr
79 hr
Case IV
19 sec
47 sec
6 min
27 min
1.5 hr
11 hr
-------
- 22 -
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781
- 23 -
possible biological effects of using the surface waters of Lake Michigan for
cooling, the condenser cooling water flow system should be designed to
minimize the time of transit of the heated effluent from the condensers to
the point of discharge.
An inspection of the data given in Table 3 shows that with respect to
the time of exposure-temperature relationship, Case IV, for which the
discharge structure design provided for rapid dilution of the thermal plume,
has considerable advantage over designs which tend to minimize dilution.
For example, organisms entrained into the thermal plume immediately after
discharge of the heated effluent from a discharge structure designed to promote
rapid dilution would be exposed to excess temperatures greater than 10°F for
only 47 sees, and to excess temperatures greater than 5°F for only 6 minutes.
The corresponding times of exposure for organisms entrained into the thermal
plume immediately after discharge of the heated effluent from a discharge
structure designed to minimize dilution are 1Z hours and 36 hours respectively.
Comparison of Computed vs. Observed Temperatures in
the Thermal Plume From the Waukegan Power Station
In order to demonstrate the validity of the computational model used in
preparing the illustrative examples contained in this statement, I am including
here a comparison of the predicted temperature distribution as computed using
this model, with the observed temperature distribution in the thermal plume
from the Waukegan Power Station. The observed data were obtained in a field
survey carried out by Lawrence P. Beer and Wesley O. Pipes in April, 1968.
The comparison between the computed and the observed distributions
is shown in Figures 4 and 5. In Figure 4 the solid curve represents the
computed temperature as a function of distance along the axis of the thermal
plume, while the closed circles are the maximum distances from the discharge
at which the specified temperatures were observed by Beer and Pipes. Note
-------
- 24'-
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-------
784
- 26 -
that in the field survey, temperatures were recorded only to the nearest whole
degree, and at discrete positions in a network of stations which covered the
plume area. Consequently it is to be expected that the predicted curve would
represent an upper boundary for the observed data.
In Figu-ie 5 the horizontal distribution of temperature in the thermal
plume as predicted by the computational model is shown by the contours and
the large numbers. The actual observations at the water surface are given by
the small numbers. Again, taking into account the fact tha.t the observed
temperatures were recorded only to the nearest whole degree, the comparison
between the computed and observed distributions is quite good.
Some Final Comments
I have investigated the circumstances associated with all mass mortali-
ties of aquatic organisms which have been reported during the last five years
as being caused by thermal shock, in large lakes, in tidal estuaries, and in
coastal waters. In every such case, there is clear evidence that the primary
cause of the mortality was not thermal. The largest mortcLlities were usually
caused by fish, crabs or other swimming organisms being drawn against the
trash racks and intake screens. The other cases resulted from the use of
excessive amounts of antifouling chemicals. Proper design of the condenser
cooling water flow system can completely eliminate these causes of mortality.
Several field studies have been undertaken to establish the biological
effects of actual thermal discharges into natural water bodies. Some of these
studies have been underway for over five years, and include studies made
both before and after the initiation of the discharge of a hea.ted effluent. None
of these studies have demonstrated adverse effects of the heated discharge on
the ecology of the receiving waterway. In most cases, a new or augumented
sport fishery has been established in the thermal plume, as for,example at
the Chalk Point Plant on the Patuxent River estuary and at the Connecticut
Yankee Plant on the Connecticut River estuary.
-------
785
- 27 -
On the basis of my experience and my calculations of heat exchange
from the surface of Lake Michigan, I find that the discharge of condenser
cooling water from the power plants currently proposed for Lake Michigan
will have no measurable effect on the overall Lake temperature. I do find
that even using the most conservative assumptions, the area of the thermal
plume from a 1000 MWE nuclear power station having excess temperatures
greater than 2CF would be less than 100 acres, and would have a maximum
linear dimension of less than 1500 yards. I conclude that there is no
scientific evidence to substantiate any need for a temperature standard of
1"F above ambient at the point of discharge but that, on the contrary, such
a standard would lead to the waste of a valuable natural resource.
D. W. Pritchard
Consultant
-------
APPENDIX
786
September 1970
DONALD WILLIAM PRITCHARD
Biographical Data
•Boriv. Santa Ana, California, October 20, 1922
Education: B. A. Degree in Meteorology, University of California at
Los Angeles, 1943
M. A. (1948) and Ph. D. (1951) degrees in Oceanography,
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California,
La Jolla, California
Present Employment: Director, Chesapeake Bay Institute, The Johns
Hopkins University (since 1951); also Professor of
Oceanography, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences,
The Johns Hopkins University
Past Professional Employment: Served as Weather Officer in World
War II, forecasting sea and swell for amphibious landing
operations in Normandy and in Pacific.
Head, Current Analysis Section, Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, 1946
Oceanographer, U. S. Navy Electronics Laboratory, San
Diego, California, 1947-48
Associate Director, Chesapeake Bay Institute, The Johns
Hopkins University, 1949-1951
Chairman, Department of Oceanography, The Johns Hopkins
University, 1950-1968
Professional Activities:
National Boards and Committees
Member, Committee on Oceanography, National Academy
of Sciences (NASCO)
Chairman, Panel on Oceanographic Data (NASCO)
Member, Panel on Radioactivity in the Marine Environment (NASCO)
Member, Advisory Committee on Isotopes and Radiation
Development, U, S. Atomic Energy Commission ,
Member, Marine Resources Advisor.y Committee, Department
of the Interior
-------
787
D. W. Pritchard - Biographical Data - 2 -
Professional Activities: (continued)
State Boards and Committees
Member, Board of Review, Department of Natural Resources,
State of Maryland
Member, Air Quality Control Advisory Council, State of Maryland
Member, Radiation Control Advisory Board, State of Maryland
Member, Commission on Submerged Lands, State of Maryland
Member, Study Commission to Investigate Problems of Water
Pollution in Maryland
Consultant to Special Commission on Pollution, State of Maryland
Professional Societies, Editorial Boards, and Honors
Fellow, American Geophysical Union; Past President, Past
Vice President and Past Secretary, Section of Oceanography
Life Fellow, The International Oceanographic Foundation
Member, American Society of Limnology and Oceanography;
Past Vice-President
Member, Society of Sigma Xi; Past President and Past Vice-
President, JHU Chapter
Member, American Association for the Advancement of Science
Member, Atlantic Estuarine Research Society
Board of Editors, The Johns Hopkins Oceanographic Studies
Board of Editors, Journal of Marine Research
Past Professional Activities :
National Academy of Sciences Representative on the Advisory
Board to the National Oceanographic Data Center, 1960-1968
Consultant to Special Advisory Committee to Department of
Commerce, The National Academy of Sciences, 1959
Consultant, Sub-Committee on Oceanography and Fisheries,
Committee on the Biological Effects of Atomic Radiation,
National Academy of Sciences
Chairman, Panel on Waste Disposal from Nuclear Powered Ships,
Committee on the Biological Effects of Atomic Radiation,
National Academy of Sciences
Panel member - Radioactive Waste Disposal into the Sea,
International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
Member, Ad Hoc Expert Committee on Radioactive Materials
in Food and Agriculture, Food and Agricultural Organization
of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
-------
788
D. W. Pritchard - Biographical Data - 3 -
Consulting Experience:
Consultant to Virginia Electric and Power Company, 1954 to present;
on projects related to limnology of impoundments for hydroelectric
projects; water quality of hydroelectric plant discharge; distribution
of excess temperature from conventional and nuclear powered
thermal-electric plant discharges in lakes, rivers and estuaries;
distribution of radioactive waste products discharged from nuclear
power plants.
Consultant to Rochester Gas and Electric Company relative to distribution
of excess heat and rad-waste products in Lake Ontario from the Brookwoo.
Nuclear Power Station. (1966)
Consultant to Florida Power and Light relative distribution of excess
heat and rad-waste products in Biscayne Bay from the Turkey Point
combined conventional-Nuclear Power Station, (current)
Consultant to Duke Power Company relative to limnology of hydro-
electric impoundments and water quality of discharge from such
impoundments .(1959)
Consultant to Pacific Northwest Power Company relative to stratification i
and salmon migration through the proposed Nez Perse - High Mountain
Sheep hydroelectric project.(1962)
Consultant to Bechtel Corporation relative to distribution of excess
heat and rad-waste products from the Pilgrim Station Nuclear Power
Plant, Boston Edison Company, (current)
Consultant to Philadelphia Electric Company relative to distribution
of excess heat and rad-waste products in Conowingo Reservoir from
Peachbottom Nuclear Power Station, Unit #1 (I960) a.nd Units #2 and
3 (current)
Publications:
Author of some 50 scientific papers published in scientific
journals, in symposia proceedings, in encyclopedia, and as chapters
in text books, on such subjects as the physical oceanography of the
Arctic and Antarctic; the physical limnology of lakes; the kinematics
and dynamics of estuarine circulation and on the distribution of
constituents in estuaries; the processes of diffusion in estuaries,
• coastal waters and in the ocean; the fate of radioactive materials
in the marine environment; and the eutrophication of estuaries.
-------
789
D. W. Pritchard
DR. PRITCHARD: One minor other point, Mr.
Chairman. I will have some slides. I note that the
viewability of these slides from the audience is
detrimentally affected by this rather high intensive lamp
over here to the left or to the right as you face the
screen. I wonder if someone nearby might be permitted
to turn the switch on that light. Also, we would afford
a reduction in electric power.
Thank you.
My name is Donald W. Pritchard. I am Director
of the Chesapeake Bay Institute and also Professor of
Oceanography, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences,
The Johns Hopkins University. I hold a B.S. degree in
meteorology and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in oceanography.
For the past 23 years I have conducted and directed research
programs concerned with the movement and mixing of waters
in lakes, estuaries, and marine coastal areas, and with
the chemistry and biology of these water bodies.
Investigations of the heat budget have been a part of my
studies of the physical processes in natural water bodies
and for the last 5 years I have concentrated on studies
of the fate of excess heat discharged with the condenser
cooling water flow from steam-electric generating plants.
I have served as an advisor to Federal, State, and local
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790
D. W. Pritchard
government agencies concerning the fate of waste materials
discharged into natural water bodies, and as a consultant
to industry. In recent years, much of my consulting
activities have been carried out as a partner in the
firm of Pritchard - Carpenter, Consultants.
I have been concerned with the conservation
and management of our natural resources for over 20 years.
I was a member of the Board of Natural Resources of the
State of Maryland for 12 years, and also served as
Vice-Chairman of that Board. I am presently serving the
State of Maryland as a member of the Board of Review,
Department of Natural Resources; as a member of the
Air Quality Advisory Board, State Health Department; and
as a member of the Radiation Control Advisory Board. I
have been a member of the Committee on Oceanography,
National Academy of Sciences for the past 12 years, serving
for some 6 years as chairman of the Panel on Radioactivity
in the Marine Environment of that committee. I was also
co-Chairman of the National Academy of Sciences, National
Academy of Engineering Joint Workshop on Coastal Waste
Management.
A curriculum vita is attached to this statement
as an appendix. (See Pp. 786-788)
I was invited to present this statement by the
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791
D. W. Pritchard
Commonwealth Edison Company, Chicago, Illinois. However,
the opinions and conclusions I present here are my own,
and do not necessarily represent the views of either The
Johns Hopkins University or the Commonwealth Edison
Company.
Lake Michigan as a Receiver of Condenser pooling
Water Discharge: A Natural Resource Which Caji be Used
Without Detrimental Effects on Other Uses of the Lake
A major purpose of my presentation here is to
emphasize that Lake Michigan represents a great natural
resource for cooling of water used in the generation of
power, and that this resource can be used, with proper
design of intake and discharge structures, without
detrimental effects on other uses of the lake or on the
natural biota of the lake. From the standpoint of the
heat carried with the condenser cooling water discharge.
Lake Michigan may be considered as a temporary receiver,
since, independent of the method of introduction into the
lake, virtually all of the heat rejected from steam-
electric powerplants will be lost from the lake surface
to the atmosphere. There is thus no permanent storage
of the rejected heat in the lake; the excess heat
resident in the lake at any given time is in transit, with
the atmosphere at the ultimate destination.
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792
D. W. Pritchard
Temperature standards should be set to provide
both for the protection of aquatic biota and for effective
use of the resource of the lake as a heat transfer
mechanism. Overly stringent temperature standards beyond
those necessary for protection of the aquatic biota
represent a waste of a natural resource. Prom the
standpoint of the total economy, funds expended (that is
wasted) in meeting unrealistic standards will not be
available, in the long run, to serve in meeting other
important environmental protection needs: for example,
in the construction of adequate municipal waste treatment
plants.
In addition to the seasonal variations in
temperature, water bodies such as Lake Michigan are
subject to natural variations in temperature associated
with longer-term climatic fluctuations. Studies of other
natural water bodies of comparable size in mid-latitudes
have revealed that the annual mean temperature of the
surface layers show a year-to-year variation compared to
a mean over the last 50 years, having a range of nearly
7 degrees P.
Further, the mean temperature of the surface
layers over periods as long as 10 years may vary from the
long term (50 year) mean by 1.5 degrees P. Spatial
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793
D. W. Pritchard
variations in temperature of several degrees F. over
distances of 1 or 2 miles are also characteristic of such
natural water bodies. The natural biota will be conditioned
to these natural fluctuations, and it is unlikely that
man-induced temperature changes over any significant
fraction of the lake surface which fall within these
natural fluctuations will have any measurable effect on the
ecology of the lake. I might add that I had the opportunity
to read a paper which I understand Dr. C. H. Mortimer,
Director of the Center for Great Lakes Study, University
of Wisconsin, delivered at this workshop on Thursday in
which Dr. Mortimer reviews his long period of studies of
temperature from intakes and other sources in the Great
Lakes and particularly in Lake Michigan. These studies
demonstrate and support the contention that I have Just
made of very large or relatively large natural temperature
fluctuations in Lake Michigan.
The quantitative expression giving the rate of
change of heat content of a body of water such as Lake
Michigan in terms of the difference between the radiation
terms which add heat to the surface of the water body
and the radiation terms which remove heat from the surface
of the water body is called the heat budget of the lake.
An examination of the various terms which enter the heat
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794
D. W. Pritchard
budget for Lake Michigan can serve as a basis for a
consideration of the relative significance of the heat
which might be discharged into the surface waters of the
lake as a result of electric power generation. The heat
budget states that the time rate of change in the amount
of heat stored in the waters of the lake equals the
rate of input of solar radiation to the surface of the
lake, plus the rate of input of long-wave radiation from
the atmosphere to the lake surface, minus the long-wave
radiation emitted from the lake surface to the atmosphere,
minus the heat loss from the lake surface to the
atmosphere due to evaporation, minus the heat loss from the
lake surface to the atmosphere due to conduction.
Since the heat concentration per unit volume is
directly proportional to the temperature, the heat
budget is also a statement of the time rate of change of
temperature. Each of the radiation and heat exchange
terms which enter the heat budget is individually much
larger in magnitude than the algebraic sum of all of the
terms at any given time. Thus the time changes in
temperature in the surface waters of the lake, such as the
diurnal or seasonal variations, result from a relatively
small difference between several relatively large radiation
terms in the heat budget. Since each of the terms in the
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795
D. W. Pritchard
heat budget vary in both space and time, natural variations
in the temperature in the surface layers of the lake are
to be expected.
Characteristic values of long-term averages
of the terms in the heat budget for Lake Michigan are
listed below, in units of B.t.u./hr. gained or lost at
the water surface. Note that these terms are given for the
total lake surface area.
Input of solar radiation to the lake surface
equals 3.75 x 1013 B.t.u./hr. I might point out that
this corresponds to 1440 B.t.u. per square foot per day,
a value somewhat smaller than that given in the Department
of Interior "white paper" which was 1735 B.t.u. per square
foot per day.
The second term is the input of long-wave
radiation from the atmosphere to the lake surface amounting
to 7.50 x 1013 B.t.u../hr.
And the third is the loss of heat from the
water surface due to back radiation, amounting to
9.38 x 1013 B.t.u./hr.
I might note also that in the Department of
Interior "yrhite paper," it is apparent that they considered
as input only solar radiation. This is an improper
treatment' of the heat budget input of the lake, since the
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796
D. W. Prltchard
amount of energy added to the lake's surface from
the Input of long-wave radiation from the atmosphere into
the lake surface is dependent primarily on atmospheric
conditions and is the amount of water vapor primarily
in the atmosphere.
The loss of long-wave radiation from the water
surface back to the atmosphere and to space depends only
on the temperature of the water surface.
The fourth term of the heat budget — the second
heat loss term is the loss of heat from the water surface
due to evapoaration, amounting on the average to 1.56 x 10 ^
B.t.u./hr.
And finally, the loss of heat from the water
surface due to conduction, amounting to 3.12 x 10^2
B.t.u./hr.
Thus, on the average —
MR. STEIN: Just wait a moment. You know, this
is kind of tough. I always try to get people to reduce
to specific numbers. You run down times 10 to the 13th
power four numbers, then you switch times 10 to the
12th.
Now, why can't you reduce that to a number that
we can get instead of switching your coefficient.
DR. PRITCKARD: I am sorry if it is confusing to
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797
D. W. Pritchard
you, Mr. Stein.
MR. STEIN: I recognize you are sorry, but it is
not confusing to me. It is not confusing to me at all,
but it might be confusing to someone else.
Why did you shift your coefficient and why
couldn't you use regular numbers and work this out?
DR. PRITCHARD: Well, to me these are regular
numbers. To ease your confusion, the last number is —
MR. STEIN: Why do you insist you are going to
ease my confusion?
DR. PRITCHARD: Mr. Stein, I am not here to
argue with you. I am here to present some facts
for consideration of the conferees and if you would allow
me to continue I will do so.
The last thing —
MR. BANE: I suggest I think the witness ought
to be allowed to proceed with his paper.
MR. STEIN: He will.
DR. PRITCHARD: The last number expressed to
the same coefficient as the others is .312 x lO1^ B.t.u.
MR. STEIN: In other words, it is a typographical
error?
DR. PRITCHARD: No. 3.12 x 1012 B.t.u./hr.
is the same as 0.312 x lO1^ B.t.u./hr.
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798
D. W. Pritchard
MR. STEIN: Thank you. You may proceed.
That is correct.
DR. PRITCHARD: Thus, on the average, solar
radiation and long-wave radiation from the atmosphere
provide a heat input to the surface of Lake Michigan of
some 11.25 x 10 ^ B.t.u./hr.; while the processes of back
radiation, evaporation, and conduction of sensible heat
produce a rate of loss of heat from the lake surface
totaling about 11.25 x 10 3 B.t.u./hr. In other words,
on the average, the input heat terms and the input heat
loss terms are in balance.
By way of comparison, the rate of rejection
at the condensers of a 1,000 MWe nuclear power station, or
a 1,700 MWe fossil-fueled power station, at existing
efficiencies, is 6.8 x 10^ B.t.u./hr.} or 6/1,000 of 1
percent of the average rate of heat input to the surface
layers of the lake due to solar radiation and atmospheric
radiation.
I might add that the heat rejected from
51,500 MWe nuclear oy 87,500 MWe,fossil fuel is 3.5 x 1011
B.t.u./hr. or a rejection rate 10 times the present
input to the lake represents only 3/10 of 1 percent of the
average heat input to the lake from natural sources.
As I will demonstrate later in this statement,
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799
D. w. Pritchard
the most effective way that Lake Michigan can be used as
a receiver of waste heat is through a combination of
efficient dilution — that is mixing — of the heated
effluent with the surface layers of the lake, plus loss of
excess heat to the atmosphere through surface cooling.
To demonstrate the potential capacity of Lake
Michigan to receive condenser cooling water discharges, I
have computed the mean temperature rise of the surface
layers of the lake which would result from the discharge
of the condenser cooling water flow from an unspecified
number of powerplants distributed around the lake shore,
having a given total rate of heat rejection at the
condensers of these plants and producing a given total
net electric power.
This illustrative computation is made assuming
"perfect11 mixing of the discharged excess heat into the
surface layers of the lake, that is the upper 10 feet,
and subsequent excess heat balance due to surface cooling
and advective discharge from the lake. Admittedly, the
assumption of "perfect" mixing of the heated effluent
into the surface layers of the lake is unrealistic.
Departures from this ideal assumption for actual discharges
of heated effluent would result in local areas having
excess temperatures exceeding those calculated in this
-------
800
D. W. Pritchard
illustrative example, and also large areas of the lake
having excess temperatures less than those calculated here.
Later in this statement I will give examples of the local
distribution of excess temperature in the thermal plume
which would result from specified design criteria for the
discharge structures of a powerplant.
I have used the expression "excess temperature,"
and it would be well to clearly state what I mean by this
expression. Designating the natural or ambient temperature
which would occur at a given location in the surface
layers of the lake at a given time, under conditions of
no discharge of heated effluent, by T , and designating
the temperature which would occur at that same location
and time under conditions of discharge of heated effluent
by Tj^, then the excess temperature, Q (Greek letter Theta)
is given by the difference between T^ and T . That is,
Qa Tft minus Tn.
The necessary input data for this illustrative
computation are:
1) The surface area of the lake, which I have
taken from available publications to be 14.33 million
acres:
2) The average annual volume rate of outflow
from the lake, which I have taken from available publications
to be 39,000 ft.3/sec.;
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D. W. Pritchard
3) The surface cooling coefficient for the lake,
which I have taken here to equal 135 B.t.u./ft. /(°F.)/day,
a value corresponding to a wind speed of 10 m.p.h., an
ambient temperature of 70° F., and an excess temperature
between zero and 1.0° F.
I might point out that in the text you have there
is a typographical error. The number l6l should be 135.
4) The relationship between net electric power
production and the rate of rejection of excess heat at the
condensers. In this illustrative computation I have used
two values for this latter relationship; that is, I have
assumed efficiencies now possible for nuclear power
production (6.# x 10" B.t.u./hr. rejected heat per MWe
produced power); and efficiencies now realized in fossil-
fueled powerplants (4.0 x 10 B.t.u./hr. rejected heat
per MWe produced power).
The following table gives the results of this
computation in terms of the total rate of rejected excess
heat and total net electric power production from an
unspecified number of powerplants distributed around the
shoreline of the lake, for the stated values of mean excess
temperature in the surface layers. (See P. 764)
I would point out that in particular the
second line in that table, which indicates that for a total
heat rejection of 3.5 x lO-'-^, which is approximately ten
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802
D. W. Pritchard
times the current amount of heat rejected from the
powerplants into the surface waters of Lake Michigan, that
this total rate of heat rejection would correspond to the
mean temperature rise in the surface layers of the lake
1/10 of 1 degree P. This would correspond to the stated
figures of 51»500 MWe total power production if the
-plants were nuclear or $7,500 MWe, if the powerplants
were fossil-fueled.
Prom this table it is clear that Lake Michigan
has the capacity, under ideal conditions of mixing, to
receive the excess heat rejected during the production of
relatively large amounts of electric power, with only very
small increases in the mean temperature of the surface
layers of the lake.
It should again be emphasized that the assumption
of perfect mixing of the heated effluent into the surface
layers of the lake cannot be realized in the actual
environment. Departures from this idealized situation for
actual discharges of condenser cooling water would result
in localizing any temperature increases above ambient.
Thus, this example computation demonstrates that the
temperature rise in the surface layers of the lake as a
whole, resulting from the discharge into these waters of
the condenser cooling water flow from a total net electric
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803
D. W. Pritchard
power production exceeding any reasonable projection of
power requirements in the foreseeable future, would be
sufficiently small so as to have no detrimental effects on
other uses of the lake, or on the natural biota of the
lake. Any possible detrimental effect of the discharge of
heated effluent into the surface layers of the lake must
therefore be of a local nature, occurring only in the
vicinity of the point of discharge.
It is therefore desirable to examine the character
of the local disturbance of the natural temperature regime
resulting from the discharge of waste heat into the
surface waters of Lake Michigan, for several different sets
of design criteria for the discharge structure.
Dijstrib_ution of Excess Temperature in the
Thermal j?lum§_ From a Steam-Electric Powerplant Re J acting
^•_§. x j-P_ B't.u./hr. of Excess Heat to the Surface Layers
of Lake Michigan, Corresponding to a Nominal 1,000 JViWe
Nuclear Powerplant or to a 1,700 MWe Fossil-Fueled Power-
plant
The distribution of excess temperature in the
thermal plume resulting from the discharge of condenser
cooling water from a steam-electric generating plant
depends upon three processes. These are:
1) Dilution due to momentum entralnment of
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804
D. W. Pritchard
cooler receiving water into the dispersing thermal
plume;
2) dilution due to natural mixing processes, or
turbulent diffusion of the heated effluent into the
cooler receiving waters; and
3) transfer of excess heat from the water to
the atmosphere across the air-water interface due to sur-
face cooling.
Observations of the temperature distribution in
thermal plumes resulting from the horizontal discharge of
heated effluent into the surface waters of Lake Michigan
as well as other similar water bodies reveal that the
excess heat is primarily confined to a surface layer 10
to 15 feet in vertical thickness0 The actual depth to
which measurable increases in water temperature above
ambient may be observed depends upon the depth of the
water at the point of discharge, critical design features
of the discharge orifice, the slope of the bottom off-
shore from the point of discharge, and the natural verti-
cal gradient in the ambient temperature field. However,
experience has shown that the probable distribution of
excess temperature in a thermal plume within the surface
layers of Lake Michigan resulting from the horizontal
discharge of a heated effluent may be computed with
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305
D. W. Pritchard
reasonable confidence using a prediction model in which it
is assumed that the excess heat discharged with the
condenser cooling water flow is confined within a dis-
persing thermal plume extending from the surface to a
depth of approximately 10 feet. Vertical entrainment of
dilution water into the thermal plume is included in the
prediction model only when the design of the discharge
orifice is such that the initial vertical dimension of
the discharged jet is less than 10 feet.
The excess temperatures computed using this
numerical predicting model apply to the water surface.
It is also assumed that there is no vertical variation
in temperature in the upper 10 feet. As pointed out above,
actual observations in thermal plumes in Lake Michigan
show that the excess temperature is a maximum at the
surface, and decreases with depth. Measurements made
in the thermal plume adjacent to the Waukegan Power
Station show that a thermal plume at a depth of 10 feet
is significantly smaller than at the surface, and that
the temperatures at a depth of 15 feet are not measurably
larger than the ambient temperature. Thus the areas con-
tained within specified isotherms of excess temperatures
as computed from the numerical prediction model used here
are larger than would actually occur for all subsurface
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806
D. W. Pritchard
depths.
Field studies of actual thermal plumes, as well
as laboratory studies involving the horizontal discharge
of a heated jet into a water flume reveal that within the
constraints of practical design for the large majority of
real or potentially real situations, the primary mechanism
producing the initial decrease in excess temperature is
dilution of the thermal plume by horizontal momentum
entrainment of the cooler receiving waters. Dilution by
the natural mixing processes becomes important only after
the initial mechanical dilution of the thermal plume by
momentum entrainment has altered the transverse temperature
distribution from a nearly flat-topped structure to a
sharply bell-shaped structure. Existing evidence indicates
that natural turbulent diffusion becomes a dominant process
in controlling the distribution of excess temperature in
the thermal plume after the plume has been diluted by
momentum entrainment by a factor of about fivefold.
The rate at which excess heat is lost from the
water to the atmosphere per unit surface area is directly
proportional to the excess temperature at the surface.
The proportionality factor relating the excess temperature
to the rate of loss of excess heat per unit surface area is
called the surface cooling coefficient. Its value depends
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80?
D. W. Pritchard
primarily upon the wind velocity, secondarily on the
ambient temperature, and to a lesser extent on the actual
excess temperature. For practical purposes, within the
normal range of excess temperatures, the dependence of
the surface cooling coefficient on the excess temperature
may usually be neglected.
This coefficient has the units of heat flux
through a unit surface area per unit of excess temperature
' ? '
per unit of time; for example, in B.t.u./ft. /(°F.)/hr.
The surface cooling coefficient increases with increasing
wind speed, with increasing ambient temperature, and with
increasing excess temperature, with the dependence on
wind speed being the most important„
The fact that the rate of loss of excess heat
from the water to the atmosphere per unit area of water
surface is greater the larger the excess temperature, has
led to the rather widely held opinion that the most
effective way to use a natural body of water as a receiver
of waste heat is to introduce the heated effluent into
the surface layers of the water body in a manner designed
to prohibit, or at least minimize, dilution of the heated
effluent by the cooler receiving waters. The rate of loss
of excess heat from areas having relatively high excess
temperatures would thus be maximized, and the area of the
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308
D. W. Pritchard
lake surface within which measurable temperature rises
would occur would be minimized.
An alternate hypothesis is that the most
effective way to use a natural water body such as Lake
Michigan as a receiver of waste heat is to design the
discharge structure for the introduction of the heated
effluent into the surface layers of the lake in such a
way that dilution of the thermal plume by momentum
entrainment and natural turbulent diffusion is maximized.
In this scheme the dilution capacity of the receiving
waters of the lake adjacent to the point of discharge
of the heated effluent is used to the maximum extent
practically possible. The excess temperature in the
thermal plume is thus reduced rapidly by dilution. Heat
loss to the atmosphere occurs for the most part from
relatively large areas of very small excess temperature.
Both laboratory studies of heated jets dis-
chnrged into a flowing water flume, and field studies
of thermal plumes in natural water bodies, reveal that
when a heated effluent is discharged at the shoreline into
" transverse, longshore ambient current, the thermal
plume is bent in a downcurrent direction to become
parallel to the shoreline. Consequently, the supply of
low temoerature dilution water is cut off on the inshore
-------
809
D. W. Pritchard
side of the thermal plume, and the rate of dilution of
the plume is significantly reduced as compared to the
case of discharge into the receiving body of water in the
absence of an ambient longshore current. If, however, the
discharge is made from a structure located sufficiently
far offshore, and the discharge pipelines are buried
below the bottom of the waterway between the shoreline
and the point of discharge, free flow of dilution water
on the inshore side of the thermal plume occurs even in
the presence of an ambient longshore current. Consequently,
the rate of dilution in the bent jet die; charged offshore
approaches that which occurs in a thermal plume discharged
into a water body having no longshore currents.
The following four example computations serve
to provide a comparison between the distributions of
excess temperature in the thermal plumes resulting from
the discharge of condenser cooling water via discharge
structures designed either to minimize dilution of the
heated effluent or to promote such dilution. In each of
the four cases described below it is assumed that 3
- > 1
steam-electric generating plant rejecting b.6 x 10'
B.t.u./hr. of excess hent at the condenser discharges the
heated condenser coolcng water into the surface layers
of Lake Michigan. This rate of heat rejection corresponds
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810
D. W. Pritchard
to a nominal 1,000 MWe nuclear powerplant or to a nominal
1,700 MWe fossil fuel powerplant at present efficiency
levels. It is further assumed that the temperature rise
of the condenser cooling water flow at the condensers is
20 degrees Fahrenheit, and hence the required volume rate
3 .
of flow of condenser cooling water is 1,520 ft. /sec.
In all cases it is also assumed that the heated effluent
is discharged into a waterway having no longshore currents,
or that the discharge structure is located far enough off-
shore so that free passage of dilution water can occur on
the inshore side of the bent thermal plume even in the
presence of a longshore current.
Case I: Discharge structure designed so that no
dilution (mixing) of the heated effluent with the receiving
waters of the lake occurs. Hence the decrease in excess
temperature occurs as a result of surface cooling only.
It should be recognized that it is in fact impossible to
discharge the condenser cooling water flow into the lake
without some mixing between the heated effluent and the
cooler receiving waters. However, it is of some interest
to consider this case for purpose of comparison.
Case II: Discharge structure designed to
minimize dilution of the heated effluent by the cooler
receiving waters of the lake. Dilution of the thermal
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D. W« Pritchard
plume by both momentum entrainment and turbulent diffusion
is enhanced by introducing the heated effluent as a high
velocity jet. Hence in order to minimize dilution of
the thermal plume the discharge structure should be
designed to produce as low a discharge velocity of the
condenser cooling water flow as possible. The conditions
assumed for this case produce what 1 consider to be a
practical minimum of mixing of the thermal plume with
the receiving waters. Specifically, I have assumed a
discharge orifice 500 feet wide and 10 feet deep, dis-
charging into the surface layers of the lake at a point
where the water depth is at least 10 feet. This discharge
orifice would result in a discharge velocity of the heated
effluent of 0.30 feet per second.
Case III: Discharge structure designed to
produce a rate of dilution of the thermal plume by the
receiving waters "typical" of many existing steam-gen-
erating electric plants. Specifically, I have assumed
a discharge orifice 50 feet wide and 10 feet deep, dis-
charging into the surface layers of the lake at a point
where the depth is at least 10 feet. This discharge
orifice would result in a discharge velocity of the
heated effluent of 3.0 feet per second.
Case IV: Discharge structure designed to
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812
D. W. Pritchard
promote rapid dilution of the thermal plume by the
re/ceiving waters. The design criteria for the discharge
structure assumed for this case do not represent the most
optimum design criteria for producing the maximum dilution
possible. However, they do represent criteria which can
be met with reasonable engineering effort, and serve to
indicate the type of thermal distribution which can be
attained by using the basic design principles which have
been applied to the discharge structures of a number of
powerplants now under construction or in the planning
stageo These include the Surry Nuclear Power Station on
the James River estuary, the Morgantown Power Plant on
the Potomac River estuary, the Calvert Cliffs Nuclear
Power Plant on the Chesapeake Bay, the Pilgrim Nuclear
Power Station on Cape Cod Bay, and the Zion Nuclear
Power Station on Lake Michigan. Specifically, I have
assumed a discharge orifice 15 feet wide and 10 feet
deep, discharging into the surface layers of the lake
at a point where the water depth is at least 10 feet.
This discharge orifice would result in a discharge velocity
of the heated effluent of 10.1 feet per second.
The computational model used to determine
the probable distribution of excess temperature in the
lake waters adjacent to the point of discharge makes
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813
D. W. Pritchard
use of the most recent knowledge of momentum jet entrain-
ment, turbulent diffusion, and surface cooling processes.
It has been verified by comparison of computed versus
observed temperature distributions in the thermal plume
adjacent to several existing powerplants. One such
comparison, that for the Waukegan Power Station on Lake
Michigan, will be shown later in this statement.
Table 1 (See P. 772) gives the results of these
computations for the four cases described above, in terms
of the area, in acres, contained within specific isotherms
of excess temperature. These data are also shown in
graphical form in Figure 1. (See P. 773) Note that in
this figure both the excess temperature and the area
coordinates are on a logarithmic scale, in order to cover
the large range of these variables.
The computational model also gives the length,
width, and general shape of these areas contained within
the specified isotherms, and hence the horizontal distri-
bution of excess temperature in the surface layers of the
lake can be given in the form of contours of excess
temperature on a schematic plan view of the lake adjacent
to the point of discharge, as shown in Figure 2 (See P.
774) • Since Case I does not represent a. practically
attainable situation, this case is not included in Figure 2,
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D. W. Pritchard
In all of the cases treated the excess heat
would be primarily contained in the upper 10 to 15 feet
of the surface layers of the lake. Inspection of Table
1, and of Figures 1 and 2, clearly indicates that the
areas contained within the specified isotherms of excess
temperature, for all excess temperatures equal to or
greater than 1 degree Fahrenheit are significantly
smaller for Case IV, for which the discharge structure
design provided for rapid dilution of the thermal plume,
than for Case II, for which the discharge structure
design provide for minimizing dilution of the thermal
plume. To relate these example computations to actual
discharges of heated effluent into Lake Michigan, note
that the thermal plume from the Zion Power Station will
be somewhat smaller than that shown for Case IV. It is
also worth noting that the dilution characteristic of
many of the existing powerplants (Case III) results in
significantly smaller areas than for Case II, for excess
temperature greater than 2 degrees Fahrenheit.
Percent of Lake Surface Area Which Would Have
Excess Temperatures Equal to or Exceeding Specified Values
for an Unspecified Number of Steam-Electric Generating
Plants Distributed Around the Lake Shoreline, Which
Reject a Total of 3* 50x10 B.t.u./hr« of Excess Heat,
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D. W. Pritchard
Corresponding to a Total Production of 51,500 MW (Nuclear)
or 87,500 MW (Conventional)
Inspection of the data on temperature
distribution in the thermal plume from a single power-
plant, such as that contained in Table 1 and in Figures
1 and 2, does not readily reveal the relative significance
(in terms of areas affected by the heated discharges)
of a number of powerplants distributed around the lake
shoreline. In order to provide such a comparison, I
have computed the areas, both in terms of acres and in
terms of the percent of the lake surface area, which
would result from the use of the lake waters for condenser
cooling water flow, for a total power production of
51,500 MWe for nuclear-fueled plants or 87,500 MWe for
fossil-fueled plants. At existing efficiency levels,
these values for net electrical power production would
correspond to a rate of rejection of excess heat of
3.50X10"1-1 B.t.u./hr. In picking this particular figure
for use in this illustrative example, I do not intend
to indicate that this or any other value for the rate of
rejection of heat from powerplants located on the shores
of Lake Michigan represents a contemplated, nor necessarily
an acceptable, total rate^of rejection of waste heat.
It does, however, represent about ten times the amount
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D. W. Pritchard
of waste heat now discharged into Lake Michigan. Also,
as I showed earlier, this rate of heat rejection would
produce a mean temperature rise of the surface layers of
the lake of only .1 degree P., a value sufficiently small
so that, by taking reasonable precautions in plant
location, interaction between thermal plumes from
adjacent plants would be insignificant.
I have made these computations for the same
four sets of design criteria as used in the previous
section of this statement. The results of this evaluation
are contained in Table 2. (See P. 777) Note that in
terms of the percent of the total area of the lake surface,
the area contained within the relatively high isotherms
of excess temperature are quite small for all four cases.
Again, the considerable advantage of a design which
promotes rapid dilution of the thermal plume is evident.
Thus, for this case, less than V.100 of 1 percent of the
surface area of the lake would have excess temperatures
exceeding 2 degrees P. for a total power production of
51,500 MWe (nuclear) or 87,500 MWe (fossil fuel).
This incidentally represents less than 16/100
percent of the inshore area shown as defined by the
Department of Interior "white paper."
I might pause to point out that the areas contained
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817
D. W. Pritchard
within the specified isotherms of excess temperature from
my Case IV are considerably less than those given in
Table 14, Page 45 of the Department of Interior "white
paper" in which they made use or misuse of a computation
I had previously made for a proposed discharge of heated
effluent into Lake Erie. The reason that it was impossible
to translate those calculations I made for Lake Erie to
Lake Michigan are as follows:
One, the introduction of the heated effluent
in the case taken by the authors of the Department of
Interior "white paper," in using my calculations, was the
case for a shoreline discharge made into a section of the
lake which is relatively shallow, and the depth at the
point of discharge being only 6 feet, and was made in
the presence of a relatively large longshore current,
which bent the discharge plume alongshore in the
downcurrent direction and denied the inshore side
of the plume dilution water from the free flow of
the ambient current.
As I have pointed out, this condition can be
corrected. I simply located a discharge point offshore,
so that the cooling level of receiving waters can freely
flow inside the discharge point and provide dilution water
both for the inshore side and the offshore side of the
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818
D. W. Pritchard
bent thermal plume, and in this case the areas contained
wit,hin the specified isotherms would be as those given in
my Case IV.
Further, the authors of the Department of Interior
"white paper" have chosen to use some interim results
in the step-wise procedure of my computation, i.e., the
computational procedure ir the use of predicting model
involves the prediction of the areas in the absence of
cooling and then the correction of these areas for surface
cooling. The values of the areas without surface cooling
are interim steps in the computation and do not represent
any real phenomena and should not be used in translating
those data to Lake Michigan.
There is clear evidence that cooling occurs at
all times. We refer back to the heat budget of the lake.
There were two input terms and three heat loss terms.
Now, any additional input term would have no effect on
the other two input terms, but would affect the rate
of cooling or the rate of the loss, since any increase
in temperature is reflected in an increase at all three
cooling terms. Hence, neither the input of solar energy nor
the input of longwave radiation from the atmosphere would
be affected by an additional input of heat such as from a
powerplant, but all of the cooling terms would be
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D. W. Pritchard
increased and hence there would be a compensating loss of
heat which would limit the temperature rise in the
surface layers.
Temperature-Time of Exposure Relationships for
Organisms Entrained into the Thermal Plume
A number of biologists who have studied the
effects of temperature increases on aquatic and marine
biota in the laboratory have been surprised to find, upon
extending their studies to actual thermal discharges in
natural water bodies, that the conclusions they had arrived
at from their laboratory studies were not applicable to
the real world. The major reason for this apparent
contradiction is that most laboratory studies have
involved exposures of organisms to temperature increases
for relatively long time periods. These investigators
failed to realize that the biologically-important
relationship to be investigated is the temperature-time
exposure history. The discharge structures of many existing
powerplants provide for sufficiently rapid reduction of
the temperature in the thermal plume due to dilution so
that the laboratory data on mortality and other detrimental
effects on organisms simply do not apply.
It is possible to develop relationships which
give the maximum time of exposure to any specified
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820
D. w. Pritchard
temperature rise for organisms entrained into the thermal
plume, for any specified set of discharge structure
design criteria. I have used such relationships to
compute the time-temperature relationships for each of the
four cases of discharge design described earlier in this
statement, for a nominal 1,000 MWe nuclear powerplant, or
a 1,700 MWe fossil-fueled powerplant, discharging 1,520
c.f.s. of condenser cooling water with a temperature
rise at the condensers of 20 degrees P. The results of
these computations are shown in Table 3, in which the
maximum time during which an organism entrained into
the thermal plume would be subjected to excess temperatures
equal to or greater than the listed values is given. These
same data are shown in graphical from in Figure 3.
(See P. 7.79). Note that in Figure 3 both time
and excess temperature are plotted on a logarithmic scale
so as to provide for the large range of these two
variables.
Note that the times of exposure given in Table
3 and plotted in Figure 3 are measured from the time of
discharge of the heated effluent into the surface
layers of the lake. The time of transit of the condenser
cooling water flow from the condensers to the point of
discharge must be added to the times given in Table 3
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321
D. W. Pritchard
and plotted on Figure 3 in order to obtain the total maximum
time o f exposure as a function of excess temperature for
organisms which are entrained into the condenser cooling
water intake flow and carried with the flow through the
plant. For example, in the case of the Zion Power Station
the time of transit of the condenser cooling water from
the condensers to the point of discharge will be
approximately 2 minutes. In order to minimize any possible
biological effects of using the surface waters of Lake
Michigan for cooling, the condenser cooling water flow
system should be designed to minimize the time of
transit of the heated effluent from the condensers to the
point of discharge.
An inspection of the data given in Table 3
shows that with respect to the time of exposure-temperature
relationship, Case IV, for which the discharge structure
design provided for rapid dilution of the thermal, plume,
has considerable advantage over designs which tend to
minimize dilution. For example, organisms entrained into
the thermal plume immediately after discharge of the
heated effluent from a discharge structure designed to
promote rapid dilution would be exposed to excess
temperatures greater than 10 degrees F. for only 47
-------
822
D. W. Pritchard
seconds, and to excess temperatures greater than 5 degrees
F. for only 6 minutes. The corresponding times of exposure
for organisms entrained into the thermal plume immediately
after discharge of the heated effluent from a discharge
structure designed to minimize dilution are 12 hours
and 36 hours, respectively.
Now, Mr. Chairman, I have included in my
statement a comparison of the model used — which I have
used in making these computations, and observed
temperature distribution at the Waukegan power station.
In the interest of time, I would pass over that unless
there are specific questions concerning it and conclude
with some final comments.
I have investigated the circumstances associated
with all mass mortalities of aquatic organisms which have
been reported during the last 5 years as being caused by
thermal shock in large lakes, in tidal estuaries, and
in coastal waters. In every such case there is clear
evidence that the primary cause of the mortality was not
thermal. The largest mortalities were usually caused by
fish, crabs, or other swimming organisms being drawn
against the trash racks and intake screens. The other
cases resulted from the use of excessive amounts of
antifouling chemicals. Proper design of the condenser
cooling water flow system can completely eliminate these
-------
823
D. W. Pritchard
causes of mortality.
Several field studies have been undertaken to
establish the biological effects of actual thermal discharges
into natural water bodies. Some of these studies have been
under way for over 5 years, and include studies made both
before and after the initiation of the discharge of a
heated effluent. None of these studies have demonstrated
adverse effects of the heated discharge on the ecology of
the receiving waterway. In most cases, a new or augmented
sport fishery has been established in the thermal plume,
as for example, at the Chalk Point Plant on the Patuxent
River estuary and at the Connecticut Yankee Plant on the
Connecticut River estuary.
On the basis of my experience and my calculations
of heat exchange from the surface of Lake Michigan, I
find that the discharge of condenser cooling water from
the powerDlants currently proposed for Lake Michigan will
have no measurable effect on the overall lake temperature.
I do find that even using the most conservative
assumptions, the area of the thermal plume from a 1,000
MWe nuclear power station having excess temperatures
greater than 2 degrees F. would be less than 100 acres
and would have a maximum linear dimension of less than
1,500 yards. I conclude that there is no scientific
-------
D. W. Pritchard
evidence to substantiate any need for a temperature standard
of 1 decree F. above ambient at the point of discharge but
that, on the contrary, such a standard would lead to the
waste of a valuable natural resource.
That completes my presentation, Mr. Chairman,
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$25
D. W. Pritchard
MR. STEIN: Thank you, Dr. Pritchard, for a very
illuminating statement. You know, I am sorry I broke in
on you.
DR. PRITCHARD: That is all right.
MR. STEIN: But you know I have had this problem —
particularly we have had it in radiation when they have
given a number. When I say you confuse me, I am old
enough to have taken the regular arts course and gone
through considerable amounts of mathematics. But I have
found when we give numbers — and you have given a variety
here — and you have coefficients of 2 and 3 in your paper,
9, 11, 12, 13 — these can cause great variance. I have
asked the Federal people — and we have done this with the
radiation standards — to stop that, to get this down to a
number where we are communicating with everybody. The
answer I got when I asked them why they were using 10 to
the 9th power, 10 to the llth power, was that people might
not understand the numbers we are putting out and will
misinterpret them. I said that is for the people to do.
Let's give them a straight number and do the mathematics
for them.
This is one of the campaigns that I have had for
better understanding between the scientific community and
the public by trying to do away with these coefficients. So,
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826
D. W. Pritchard
I wonder, do you think they have a reason,, or why do we
need these?
DR. PRITCHARD: Well, from my standpoint at least
I wonder whether the nonmathematical individual any better
understands a number like 3.75 or 37.5 trillion or 3.75
times 10 to the 13th.
MR. STEIN: No, when you change the coefficient,
10 to the 13th to 10 to the llth and 10 to the 9th, we get
a difference. You see they can make a Judgment. What is
larger or what is smaller if we use the same coefficient?
But when you keep switching the coefficients on them, the
people who are not sophisticated in mathematics don't even
know if it is a larger or smaller number, and this is the
thing I hope we can get together on.
As a matter of fact, if we are going to sell
our program — and this applies to the university program
as well as the industrial program or the governmental program
I think we have to begin communicating with the public, and
if we shift the coefficients on our multiplier I am not sure
we are communicating.
I don't know whether you want to answer that or
not.
DR. PRITCHARD: I would Just advise the public
here that 10 to the 9th is larger than 10 to the 6th —
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D. W. Pritchard
(Laughter) — by a few thousand.
MR. STEIN: By what, 1,000?
DR. PRITCHARD: By a factor of a 1,000.
MR. STEIN: By a factor of a 1,000.
How many people knew that other than your experts?
... Showing of hands ...
MR. STEIN: That is great, 10 percent.
I think you have proved the point.
Do we have any comments or questions?
DR. PRITGHARD: Mr. Chairman, while you were
talking, another point occurred to me which I had intended
to include, and which I will try to put in, in units
without using factors of 10.
There is inherent in my computations a requirement
that dilution water be available for the diluting plume, and
there is inherent in the Department of Interior "white
paper" an assumption that there is some mysterious invisible
but impermeable barrier erected vertically at the 100-foot
contour, which separates the waters inshore of the 100-foot
contour from the rest of the lake volume. I find this
assumption to be untenable.
All of the river inflow and all of the undissolved
material which enters the lake enters at the shoreline into
\
the inshore area. If, in fact, there was this impermeable
-------
828
D. w. Prltchard
barrier separating the waters inside the 100-foot contour
from waters offshore from the 100-foot contour, then we
should see the water pile up very high along the shore, and
also we should see the dissolved components increase
without limit in the inshore area.
Now, one can take an estimate of the rate of input
of freshwater and the rate of input of dissolved solids and
the stated concentrations of the various components of the
dissolved solids in the inshore waters and in the open
waters of the lake and make a reasonable estimate of the
exchange that must occur between the open lake waters and
the inshore waters of the lake,as defined by the Department
of Interior "white paper."
I have made this computation following a question
that was raised at the Illinois hearing, and by my
computation I estimate that the rate at which the inshore
waters are renewed by waters from the open lake is
equivalent to a flow of 1,480,000 cubic feet per second. By
comparison, the amount of condenser cooling water that would
be required by powerplants rejecting a total of 3.5 times
10 to the llth B.t.u. per hour at a 20-degree P. temperature
rise or rejecting approximately 10 times the amount of heat
presently rejected to the surface waters of the lake would
be 7,200. That is a comparison between 1,068,000 cubic feet
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829
D. W. Pritchard
per second, as a rate of supply for new water from the open
waters of the lake to the inshore, and a requirement on a
part of that many powerplants of 78,200 cubic feet per second,
This ratio comes to .053-
MR. STEIN: Thank you. Are there any questions?
You know, I am delighted, Dr. Prltchard, to see
that we can translate 10 to the llth very rapidly to a
finite number. You have just done it and that is great.
MR. PURDY: Mr. Stein.
MR. STEIN: Mr. Purdy.
MR. PURDY: Dr. Pritchard, in your calculations,
you have used consistently a 20 degree Delta T. Is there
a preference on your part for using a 20 degree Delta T,
or could you compensate for a lower or a higher Delta T in
the design of your outlet structure and accomplish the same
thing in the lake?
DR. PRITCHARD: I made use of the 20 degree
Delta T since this is a value which is not common, at least
representative of the number of powerplants in existence
or under design on Lake Michigan. Computations could
equally be made if the temperature rise were 10 degrees F.
initially. This would involve twice as much water, and
hence the discharge structure would have to be designed to
take this much larger flow. A lower initial temperature rise
-------
830
D. W. Pritchard
would result in lowering the areas contained within some
of the higher temperature isotherms providing one kept the
width of the discharge this same. This means you would have
to — if you had a temperature, you would have to double
the velocity or discharge for such a case, and you would
effectively reduce some of the areas within some of the
higher temperature — excess temperature contours near 10
degrees, for example.
This is somewhat obvious, since in this latter
case there would be no water higher than 10 degrees. So you
wouldn't have any areas 12 or 14 degrees. However, as we
get down to 4 degrees or so — 4 degrees, 2 degrees — at
such temperature, these two cases must come together. That
is, they must essentially provide for the same area, because
we have the same amount of heat, and in the end when we get
far enough away from the point of input the critical thing
is the amount of heat rejected and the areas are then
relatively independent of the velocity discharge. But the
computation can be made, it has been made for other areas,
for any temperature rise at the condensers.
MR. STEIN: Mr. Currie.
MR. CURRIE: Dr. Pritchard, most of your paper
deals with the physical aspects of heat dissipation and that
sort of thing in the lake, and I take it that principally
-------
831
D. W. Pritchard
is your training, is it not, physical aspects?
DR. PRITCHARD: Mr. Currie, the field of
oceanography is a scientific study of the oceans, its
contents both living and dead, and its boundaries from the
high tide level to the present physical depths. This means
that as an oceanographer I received training in physics,
chemistry, biology, and geology of the marine environment.
Now, in fact, my training did not include studies of the
biology of freshwater bodies. However, as we so eloquently
heard yesterday from scientists from Illinois, the basic
principles of biology are invariant whatever the medium,
and I am familiar with the basic principles of biology that
apply to aquatic and marine organisms.
I direct research programs and have biologists
under me who carry out research programs dealing with the
biology of both aquatic and marine organisms, though my
major field of application of my studies is the physics.
MR. CURRIE: Well, the Commonwealth Edison Company,
I understand, has additional witnesses who will deal with
some of the biological aspects of this as well as yours.
DR. PRITCHARD: That is true.
MR. CURRIE: Now, on some of the physical matters,
you say that the area affected by — that is above 1 degree
P. by approximately — multiplying by 10 times the present
-------
832
D. W. Pritchard
power capability along the lake — would be only .14 percent
of the lake's surface, and I believe it is also true that
according to the same table that means approximately 20,000
acres, is that correct? This is page 19.
DR. PRITCHARD: That is correct. The 1-degree
line would be — would enclose for — the total area
enclosed by the 1-degree line from all of the plumes from
our plants discharging 10 times the amount of heat now
discharged to the lake would total 20,000 acres.
MR. CURRIE: So that while we are talking about
a small percentage of the total surface, the lake itself is
so large that we are talking, in fact, about 20,000 acres.
DR. PRITCHARD: We are talking about 20,000 acres
of 1 degree; we are talking about 2,270 acres at 3 degrees.
MR. CURRIE: Yes. Now, you don't deny, do you,
Dr. Pritchard, that the degree of mixing between open waters
of the lake and inshore waters of the lake may be somewhat
inhibited by currents along the shore and by the so-called
thermal bar?
DR. PRITCHARD: There will be a number of factors
which will both promote and discourage mixing between the
open waters of the lake and the inshore waters. I do not
consider the thermal bar, however., to be an actual barrier
to mixing. If we consider the physics of the phenomenon,
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D. W. Pritchard
at the time the so-called thermal bar exists, the lake
temperature decreases when it moves offshore and is the
highest onshore and decreases to a volume of 39 degrees or
approximately 39 degrees P., or approximately 4 degrees
centigrade — that is the temperature of maximum density of
freshwater at the point of the thermal bar — and then
slowly continues to decrease as one moves into the main
body of the lake. And the waters both offshore, where
this water is colder than 39 degrees, and onshore, where
this water is warmer than 39 degrees, are less dense than
the waters at the thermal bars. The water at the thermal bar
must be in active vertical motion. The fact that the
temperature increases as one moves shoreward from the
thermal bar means that there is lighter water on the
shoreward edge of the inshore region, and the denser water
offshore, and this gradient produces a slope to the surface
with the water near shore standing slightly higher than
the water offshore, simply because it takes a greater height
of water to equal the same weight if it weighs less.
Now, this slope of the water surface combined
with the effects of the earth's rotation produce a current
along the shore, and this current will be at maximum in the
\
inshore region and essentially die out at the thermal bar.
Now, this means that there is a gradient in velocity, a
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834
D. W. Fritchard
difference in the speed of the water flowing alongshore
inside of the bar and offshore from the bar. Whenever such
a shear in the velocity field occurs, the effective lateral
diffusivity or the rate at which materials are diffused
across a boundary is increased because of the shear.
So that the conditions which are associated with the thermal
bar must set up a motion, and that motion, because it
represents a change in velocity field at the thermal bar,
must provide for an actual increase in the transport of
material across the bar.
As evidence for this, if the thermal bar
really represented a barrier, we would expect to see the
dissolved components which have their origin at the
shoreline increased during periods of the thermal bar and we
do not.
MR. CURRIE: In fact, I take it that you rather
sharply disagree with the views expressed by the Department
of the Interior in their paper presented on this subject.
DR. PRITCHARD: I do.
MR. CURRIE: And have you conducted any field
studies in Lake Michigan to disprove their position?
DR. PRITCHARD: I have not conducted field studies
in Lake Michigan. I have studied one of the Great Lakes,
Lake Ontario, and the south shore of Lake Ontario between
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835
D. W. Pritchard
Rochester and Sodus Bay.
We undertook — my colleagues and I — to discharge
dye at a location offshore but in the inshore zone and we
did this three times during the year. One occurred during
the period of the so-called thermal bar, which also
develops in that lake as well as in Lake Michigan, and we
discharged dye over a 20-day period and looked at the
distribution of dye as it spread downcurrent in an easterly
direction, as the current flowed in response to the thermal
gradient.
Now, we made runs offshore measuring the dye
concentration at a number of sections downstream from
the point of discharge and observed that the dye concentration
decreased sharply when we reached what would be called
the thermal bar. The first impression is, while the dye
is all contained within this thermal bar and it is some
type of a barrier, upon further examination of the data,
we realized when we tried to account for
continuity of the dye that dye was being lost between
successive downstream segments, and that the only way it
could be lost would be to be lost out into the open lake
where two things happened: one is to essentially be peeled
off by the large-scale eddies at the edge of the bar, and
because of the shear and the velocity field, and relatively
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836
D. W. Pritchard
large horizontal diffusion causes a very rapid mixing, jo
that the concentration of dyes simply drop below the levels
of our ability to detect with the gear we had on hand, even
though it had been transported through this invisible barrier
offshore.
Further, there is an active sinking of the waters
at the thermal bar, so that some of the material carried
through the bar by this diffusing process were actually
sunk below the surface layers where we were measuring the
dye. And I am convinced from this field experiment that
we have demonstrated the fact that the thermal bar is not
a barrier to diffusion of material from the inshore waters
to the offshore waters.
MR. CURRIE: And you are convinced, Dr. Pritchard,
that the conditions were comparable to Lake Michigan
conditions when you were conducting this Lake Ontario
experiment?
DR. PRITCHARD: I am not.
MR. CURRIE: Well, Mr. Chairman, it seems to me
that since Dr. Pritchard's paper so clearly contradicts
the findings of the Department of Interior on a very
important part of their thesis, it would be helpful to
have, at some point, the views of the Department of
Interior on Dr. Pritchard's paper, to make the record complete,
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837
D. W. Pritchard
MR. STEIN: All right.
The way we generally work that is to put the
Government on first and let the other people have the right
of rebuttal, but if you want that, and if the industry is
consonant, I have no objection to that procedure.
MR. PURDY: I have a couple of other questions.
Was I right, Dr. Pritchard, when I asked the
gentleman from Sargent and Lundy this morning — when I
suggested to him that there might be a significant
difference between your view and his as to the value of
dilution of heat from the thermal plume? Is there a
substantial difference? They seemed to be saying that
dilution should be minimized and you seem to be saying it
should be maximized in order to minimize the adverse effect
of heat on the lake.
DR. PRITCHARD: Well, if that is what they said
we are evidently in disagreement. I might point out there
are several points of agreement first, and we ought to seek
these.
We certainly, in all of the studies, have shown
that heat is confined primarily to the surface layers.
A thesis held by the people — the people meaning Consumers
this morning, and myself, and by all of the students of the
distribution of thermal discharges on the lake — that is,
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838
D. w. Pritchard
that the excess heat, the temperatures above ambient occur
in the surface layers; second, that all of the heat is
ultimately lost to the atmosphere. The difference of view
concerns whether or not it is desirable to promote a loss
of most of the heat from areas having high temperature
excess or to — rather than doing that, my contention is
that it is best to reduce the area having high temperature
excess as rapidly as possible and allow the temperature to
be lost from the atmosphere from relatively large areas of
low temperature.
There is no question that if one carried out the
kind of analysis that I have done, to look at the areas
contained within, say, isotherms of a tenth of a degree
F., then the areas contained within isotherms of a tenth
of a degree P. would be larger for my approach than for the
cooling approach.
MR. PURDY: But your view on that would be that
the tenth of a degree is insignificant, would it not?
DR. PRITCHARD: That is correct. I consider that
an organism, as has been stated here, does not sense heat.
It senses concentration of heat or temperature. The real
crux of my argument is contained on page 21, my table 3,
which speaks about the time of contact . T his is really
the time at which a slug of water which pasL. > through the
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839
D. W. Pritchard
condenser is subject to the temperatures, and any organism
contained within that slug of water is subject to the
temperature rises, given in the left-hand column. One
can see that if we take a design which is intended to
minimize rapid dilution that organisms contained in the
plume would be subjected to temperature rises greater than
10 degrees for 1 hour as compared to 47 seconds for the
case of a discharge design to promote mixing — one being
satisfactory — but there are going to be more organisms
in my Case IV than in my Case II, since I've had the
entrained dilution water. My point is that if I have no
effect by keeping the time small enough, it really just
doesn't matter that I have exposed more organisms. And
I have conducted experiments; I have been party to the plan-
ning and to the analysis and the results of experiments in
which organisms, very critical organisms — they don't
happen to be Lake Michigan organisms, but they, as I pointed
out, remain the same — organisms that are highly susceptible
to temperature change. For instance, oyster larvae —
the early stages in the development of larvae of oysters
in the Chesapeake Bay, at a time when they are microscopic
and free swimminir and subjected to entrainment through the
condenser cooling water system and being passed out into the
\
thermal plume — and these organisms can be killed —
30 percent of them killed — within a 2/,-hour exposure
-------
#40
D. W. Pritchard
to a 10-degree temperature rise from $3 degrees to 93
degrees.
However, there is no significant difference between
control specimens or populations and populations of oyster
larvae exposed to temperature rises characteristic of
passing through a condenser and, say, a 3-minute exposure
on the way out to the discharge point, and then a rate of
cooling characteristic of this Case IV. And I am convinced
that this is the key biological question: How loner are
organisms exposed to a given temperature rise? What is the
temperature history of organisms entrained into the plume?
The problem is that people consider the nlume as some sort
of stable water mass, and there is a lot of organisms
living in there that wander in and become fried when, in
fact, this is a dynamic system, always changing;. The water
is moving through and out, being diluted and cooled, and the
organisms are being subjected to this motion, and they are
not exposed to temperature rises for a very long period.
This is especially crucial with respect to this
question of changes in population. We have had several
references to two phenomena that are predicted because of
temperature rises in the lake. One of these phenomena has
been called eutrophication. I consider that it is a highly
misapplied word. For one thing, eutrophication means to me
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841
D. W. Pritchard
the undesirable presence of an excessive population of
microorganisms favored by the environmental conditions;
that is a large standing crop — in general, a standing
crop of plants which are unfavorable, as far as food for the
grazers. A healthy environment, on the other hand, is an
environment in which the plant population is produced at
the rate which the grazers use it.
In other words, the cows crop the grass at the
daily rate of growth, and this is the most efficient use
and it is the way the energy in the biosystem is passed
from the primary producers to the secondary producers and
on up the food chain which has been recognized as being
most healthy. When one has the condition of eutrophication,
organisms are favored which are not desired by the grazers
and so they tend to grow without limit, and then when they
have exhausted the energy supplied by the sun or any other
immediate available nutrients, they die off in large masses
and cause an undesirable condition. Eutrophication from
that sense depends only on the amount of nutrients, not on
the temperature.
However, temperature may change the distribution
of organisms. It is admitted that if one moves to a lake
of higher temperature, one finds a different suite of
organisms. The suite of organisms may be undesirable in the
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842
D. W. Pritchard
environment that you live in. For instance, Lake Michigan.
However, in the cases that I have described, even
the existing cases, let alone the well designed cases,
organisms will be exposed in the thermal plume to
temperatures of significance from the standpoint of population
change for such a short period of time — short compared to
their reproductive cycle — that there will be no change in
the distribution of populations. You will not see a shift
to blue-green algae, for example. It just cannot occur in
these few seconds, 2 minutes, to a few hours. It takes
days for such a transfer of a change in the population, and
my whole case is really built on this time factor.
MR. STEIN: Mr. Currie.
MR. CURRIE: Yes. Did I gather, Dr. Pritchard,
that vesterday when Mr. Barber was on the stand for the
Department of Interior, he was disagreeing; with your
estimates as to the amount of time that a given molecule
or organism would remain at a high temperature? I thought
he was.
DR. PRITCHARD: Yes, he did.
MR. CURRIE: Do you have anything to say to that
point?
DR. PRITCHARD: He made an estimate or used an
estimate — I don't know the origin of that estimate that —
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843
D. W. Pritchard
I think it is contained in the "white paper," however —
that the minimum residence time for the heat discharged
from a powerplant to the lake would be about 10 days.
Now, there are two points here: One is that I
don't think he implied that the thermal plume, as such,
would remain for 10 days — he meant to imply this anyway—
that the thermal plume would remain without change and then
suddenly disappear. The second point I would make is that
the time changes that I have computed depend both on
dilution and cooling, so that when I say that an organism
would be exposed or a water particle composed of many
molecules would have temperatures greater than 10 degrees
for only 47 seconds, I don't mean that we lose half of the
heat in a short time. I mean that dilution has decreased
the heat concentration or the temperature by that amount
in that time.
If one computes the minimum residence time for
the heat discharge into the lake in terms of the large-scale
processes, the time depends upon the type of discharge
structure. But for Lake Michigan, before one can make this
kind of calculation — and the minimum residence time of
heat discharged to the lake surface waters in the case of
cooling would only be about 2 days, and in the case of
complete nixing would be about 4-1/2 days — but this does not
-------
D. W. Pritchard
mean that the temperature stays up during that time. The
temperature has dropped because of dilution and then there
is a slow loss of heat from the large areas.
MR. CURRIE: Thank you.
Again, I think this is one area on which I would
like to hear more from the Department of the Interior.
MR. STEIN: Are there any other comments or
questions?
MR. PURDY: Mr. Stein, I have one additional
question.
MR. STEIN: Yes.
MR. PURDY: Dr. Pritchard, with respect to the —
say, the mortality that might take place through the
condenser — would the Delta T — would there be a critical
Delta T now through the condenser? You are relating
experience here with the 20-degree Delta T.
DR. PRITCHARD: I am sure that there would be a
combined temperature-time — critical temperature-time
relationship that would have, as a number, to be bound to some
maximum temperature rise which organisms could not survive
for any time comparable to the time which is necessary
to pass them from the condensers to the point of discharge.
So that the critical time is really the time to pass from
the condOTers to the point of discharge coupled with the
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845
D. W. Pritchard
temperature rise at the condensers, and I am sure there is
some maximum temperature rise which would be incompatible
with that time, however, small engineering-wise you could
make that time« So I am sure that the answer to your
question is yes, there is some temperature relationship.
MR. PURDY: You just answered my next question.
MR. STEIN: The advantages of long answers are
sometimes they take care of more than one short question.
MR. MAYO: I have got a couple of questions.
As I understand your figure 2, Dr. Pritchard, the
isotherms that you show are average for some depth of
water, is that correct?
DR. PRITCHARD: They are the upper 10 feet. They
represent the temperature at the surface, first of all, and
that temperature is assumed to be constant with depth. As
I have pointed out in the text, experience has shown that
the temperature actually decreases with depth, so that the
size of the areas shown in figure 2, while applying to the
surface, would actually be larger than the size of the
thermal plume at any subsurface depth. So if we take
Case IV, for example, and look at the bottom in 10 feet of
water, we would find a much smaller area.
MR. MAYO: The point I wanted to get at: Within
that area of contact at the bottom an immobile organism or
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846
D. W. Pritchard
a relatively immobile organism would be continually subject
to some change of temperatures that would differ from the
period of time in terms of entrainment.
DR. PRITCHARD: Right. Entrainment calculations
take care of any organisms carried with the water or free to
move into the plume. I might point out that there is ample
evidence that fish will avoid an. undesirable temperature
change, so if they are free to swim they won't move into
the plume. But if they are carried into the plume, that is
when these times apply. Any benthic organism would be
subjected to temperatures in the plume during the time that
the plume was extending in their direction. I might point
out that these plumes are observed to meander depending on
the currents in the open lake, and that the way around this
problem is to design the discharge so that the plume
never touches the bottom and you do not, then, have any
exposure of bottom organisms.
MR. FETTEROLF: Dr. Pritchard, would you care to
speculate on what would happen with the Delta T of 28
degrees F. on organisms as they are passed through a
condenser and discharged into a canal?
DR. PRITCHARD: You are asking whether I could
speculate whether organisms in Lake Michigan which might be
entrained into the condenser water are carried through the
-------
847
D. W. Pritchard
plant and through some discharge structure would be subjected
to mortalities or other inconveniences during the temperature
rise in the condensers during discharge. I am afraid I am
going to have to pass that to later experts. While I am
well aware of basic biological principles, that is a specific
question concerning specific organisms here in Lake
Michigan, and considering a specific reaction which goes
beyond my expertise.
MR. STEIN: Any other comments or questions?
Well, I think this is kind of a late answer to
Mr. Currie's earlier question.
Let me call your attention to a statement —
several statements — and I think I understand what you are
saying.
On page 3 of your statement you say, "...it is
unlikely that man-induced temperature changes over any
significant fraction of the lake surface which fall within
these natural fluctuations will have any measurable effect
on the ecology of the lake." That refers to Lake Michigan.
Then flip to page 26. You say, "I have investigated
the circumstances associated with all mass mortalities of
aquatic organisms which have been reported during the last
5 years as being caused by thermal shock, in large lakes,
in tidal estuaries, and in coastal waters. In every such
-------
848
D. W. Pritchard
case, there is clear evidence that the primary cause of the
mortality was not thermal."
Then you go down in the last paragraph and say,
"None of these studies have demonstrated adverse effects of
the heated discharge on the ecology of the receiving waterway"
and you go on to say, "In most cases, a new or augmented
sport fishery has been established in the thermal plume ..."
Now, as I read that, these statements go toge..>• K-* ,
and perhaps the Interior report and some of these people
are on the wrong track.
If in no cases we have had any adverse effects
from thermal pollution and the only effects we have been
able to find is to improve the fishery, perhat>s the thrust
of this operation should be to encourage the discharge of
heat into the lake rather than to restrict it. I think we
may be on the other side of the moon. What do you think of
that, Dr. Pritchard?
DR. PRITCHARD: You have stated it very well.
MR. STEIN: Well, I am glad we understand each
other. The issues have never been more clearly drawn.
Thank you very much.
I think we had better take a 10-minute recess.
(Short recess.)
MR. STEIN: Let's reconvene.
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849
D. W. Pritchard
Mr. Bane.
MR. BANE: Mr. Chairman, responding to your query
and to Illinois Chairman Currie's suggestion, I would like
to say that we would welcome the comments of the Department
of the Interior, the Fish and Wildlife Service, the
anonymous authors of the "white paper" on Dr. Pritchard's
comments. And, indeed, I believe that if we do not receive or
if tut* Conferees do not receive those comments from the
Fish and Wildlife Service that then the conferees should
take Dr. Pritchardfs statements as being accurate and
unrefuted.
MR. STEIN: Glad to have your views. I think
Dr. Pritchard's statement and your views speak for themselves.
MR. BANE: We have been asked by Commonwealth
Edison if we could step aside for 25 or 30 minutes, if
that is agreeable with you, Mr. Chairman. There is a
Wisconsin witness who has only today available. It is
agreeable with us if it is all right with you and the
conferees.
MR. STEIN: Pardon me. Let me get off the
record a minute.
(Discussion off the record.)
MR. STEIN: Why don't we proceed.
MR. PETERSEN: Thank you, sir.
-------
350
P. Keshishian
Mr. Keshishian.
STATEMENT OF PAUL KESHISHIAN, DIRECTOR,
POWER PRODUCTION, WISCONSIN POWER AND
LIGHT COMPANY, MADISON, WISCONSIN
MR. KESHISHIAN: Mr. Chairman, honored conferees,
ladies and gentlemen. My name is Paul Keshishian. I am
the Director of Power Production of the Wisconsin Power
and Light Company.
Wisconsin Power and Light Company is an investor-
owned electric, gas and water utility. It provides retail
electric service to 23^,000 customers in over 400
communities. It provides wholesale electric service
bo 33 municipalities anr] 5 cooperatives. Its service
area occupies 15»000 square miles in central and southern
Wisconsin with a population of "Imost 700,000.
Wisconsin Power and Light Company owns and
operates four fossil-fueled electric generating plants
with i total generating capacity of ?o(),000 kilowatts.
Ono of th^ generating plnnts, Ec.gewater, with a capacity
of 45^,000 kilowatts, is located on Lake Michigan at
Shehoygnn. Two are located in Rock County and one in
Grant County. It owns hydroelectric facilities with
-------
851
P. Keshishian
a generating capacity of 51»200 kilowatts.
Wisconsin Power and Light Company in partnership
with Wisconsin Public Service Corporation and Madison Gas
and Electric Company is in the process of constructing a
527,000 kilowatt nuclear generating plant on Lake Michigan
near Kewaunee in Kewaunee County. Operation of the Kewaunee
plant is planned for 1972. The same throe companies are
also constructing a 527|000 kilowatt fossil-fueled generating
plant, known as the Columbia station, near Portage, Columbia
County. Commercial operation of the Columbia plant is
scheduled for 1975.
Wisconsin Power and Light Company is pleased to
have the opportunity to participate in the development of
a policy for the responsible use of our water resources.
It will be pleased to carry out any policy that provides
for a meaningful, workable, realistic solution to the
problem of the responsible use of our water resources^
It has an interest in the development of such 3 policy as
a responsible citizen of the State of Wisconsin and o^ the
communities in its service area. It has an interest in
thp development of r^ch a poUcy TS an electric nub Lie
utility charged with the responsibility under J/i:-. con sin
law of not only providing adequate electric service to
its customers but also reasonably adequate facilities to
-------
352
P. Keshishian
enable it to provide that service. Wisconsin Power and
Light Company believes that its record to date in all
phases of pollution abatement establishes its position
as a responsible citizen in these areas.
Wisconsin Power and Light Company supports the
efforts to establish a limitation on the temperature of
water discharged into Lake Michigan. It must oppose,
however, any limitation adopted in the name of environmental
protection which in reality imposes an unnecessary and costly
burden upon the electric rate-payers without producing a
corresponding benefit. It is Wisconsin Power and Light's
position that the proposed 1 degree Fahrenheit limitation
at the point of discharge is virtually an unattainable
goal. Moreover, it is a goal which has little real meaning
from the standpoint of environmental protection. Its real
and primary effect will be to force utilities to cool
water by other means at substantially higher costs to the
detriment of the rate-payer.
Wisconsin Power and Light would support a 5 degree
Fahrenheit limitation on discharged water if that limitation
were coupled with a reasonable mixing zone for measurement
purposes. It would also support a requirement that the
discharged water be continually monitored and that appro-
priate corrective action be taken when any harmful effects
-------
353
P. Keshishian
are shown to exist.
To put the problem in its proper perspective, it
would be helpful to examine the actual temperature impact
of electric generating units on Lake Michigan. It is
anticipated that in the year 2000 with the projected
increase in use of electric energy and the corresponding
increase in generating facilities, the heat imparted to
Lake Michigan by these generating plants is negligible
when compared to the heat imparted by solar radiation.
Thus, at the January 1963 Four-State FWPCA Lake Michigan
Conference, it was stated: "Assuming the powerplants to
operate with an average output equal to SO percent of
plant capacity, and assuming no escape of the input heat
from the water, the combined effect of the existing plants
plus the proposed nuclear plants would not raise the overall
water temperature by as much as one-tenth of a degree
Fahrenheit. Even this minute increase in water temperature
would be nullified during the following winter, so that no
progressive warming tendency for Lake Michigan attributable
to powerplants is expected to occur."
Going further, our studies have shown that heat
given off by all the powerplants in the year 2000 during
a 1-year period would be less than .2 percent of the heat
generated by the sun on Lake Michigan for the same amount
-------
354
P. Keshishian
of time.
Measurements taken at existing plants along Lake
Michigan including Wisconsin Power and Light Company's
Edgewater Plant, show that heat dissipation from a plume
is very rapid. The water discharged quickly forms a thin
surface layer and there is practically no temperature
change a few feet below the surface. Seventy percent to
BO percent of the area covered by this plume of warmer
water is from 2 degrees to 5 degrees above the ambient
water temperature.
Studies of powerplants throughout the United
States but most especially along Lake Michigan including
the Edgewater Plant establish that plumes are found to
exist only a couple thousand feet out from the point of
discharge. The length, of course, varies with wind and
current velocity and direction. The same studies have
shown that generating plants on Lake Michigan have produced
no deleterious effects on benthos and water life of the
area. In fact it has been established that discharge
waters are beneficial and are being used for incubation
areas for water life.
The Question of the appropriate temperature
limitation for waters discharged into LaKe Michigan involves
the balancing of the interests of all sectors of the public
-------
355
P. Keshishian
in the use of Lake Michigan. Wisconsin Power and Lia;ht
Company submits that a 5 degree Fahrenheit limitation that
is coupled with a reasonable mixing zone and constant
monitoring of the discharge waters with appropriate
remedial action when any actual harm is detected does
represent an appropriate balancing of those interests.
Thank you.
MR. STEIN: Thank you.
Are there any comments or questions?
I think we may be beginning to see the light at
the end of the generator. Here is the first one that has
come up — why don 't you just wait there? — with a
limitation on the other end — 5 degrees. I would like
to emphasize at least the numbers because I am noo
sure I quite follow it. You say and go along with, "In
fact it has been established that discharged wastewaters
are beneficial and are being used for incubation areas
for water life." If that is so beneficial why do we have
to put a limit on that at all? Why did you want to go the
5 degree limitation if you are doins that life so much
good by heating the water?
MR. KESHISHIAN: Are you asking the question?
MR. STEIN: Yes.
MR. KESHISHIAN: We are not saying it is
-------
356
P. Keshishian
beneficial in all cases. We have said that in many cases
around the country utilization of the heated discharge
waters have been used to increase trout, game fish produc-
tivity. That was the case of the Texas Electric Service
area in Texas. Waccamaw Lighting Company at their Northport
fossil-fuel station is using heated water to improve the
productivity in growth rate of oyster beds. There are a
number of other cases in England wnere they are using heated
water to increase productivity.
MR. STEIN: Well, I understand the theory on this,
but if the theory is correct that we are doing everyone
a benefit by putting in the heated water into the lake
then this whole operation, it seems to me, is misdirected.
We should encourage you to heat this water as much as
possible and put it in. If you are going to heat the
lake up, why do we need a limitation of 5 degrees on the
top limit? Or why do you want to submit to that 5 degree
limitation if you are helping the lake out by heating the
water?
MR. KESHISHIAN: Speaking for the Wisconsin Power
and Light Company, we are not saying that there can be any
unlimited heating of discharged waters in lake bodies;
we are saying that in many cases there are beneficial uses
of heated water.
Mi. STEIN: In other words, you feel that you
-------
857
P. Keshishian
would go along with not heating the water of Lake Michigan
more than 5 degrees from your plant?
MR. KESHISHIAN: We are saying that we feel that
a 5—degree limitation.coupled with a reasonable mixing zone
and constant monitoring of the discharged waters^with
appropriate remedial action when any actual harm is
detected,does represent an appropriate balance in those
interests.
MR. STEIN: One specific question.
With your plant near Kewaunee in Kewaunee County
— a nuclear generating plant — if you had that 5- -degree
limitation, would you have to put up cooling towers, or ho\v
would you cool it, once-through?
FIR. KESHISHIAN: The Kewaunee nuclear power
station is being built under the auspices of three com-
panies: Wisconsin Public Service, Madison Gas and Electric,
Wisconsin Power and Light Company. And I would rather
defer the answer to the Wisconsin Public Service Company<>
MR. STEIN: In other words, you don't know what
kind of cooling devices they are going to use?
KR0 KESHISHIAN: No, sir, I certainly do know
what kind of cooling devices are contemplated for Kewaunor,
You asked the question in the event to accommodate the >-
degree limitation what would be necessary — whether
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858
P. Keshishian
cooling towers would be necessary. I think they should
answer that question.
MR. STEIN: Well, again, you know, I don't want
to put anyone on the spot here and this is in deference
to Commonwealth Edison. But, I think the essence of
this operation indicates an additional expense. If you
are going; to put in cooling towers or other devices and
if you can talk about 5 degrees and get by without putting
anything in, and Commonwealth Edison cannot do it without
putting in some extensive devices, then one can understand
why one company talks in terms of 5 degrees and the other
company doesn't mention any degrees. I think the key
point in the statement here on your 5-degree rise is
what kind of devices are you going to have to put in that
nuclear plant in order to meet that ^-degree operation. If
that means you don't out any other coolin^ devices in except
that once-through, that may have some significance.
Aro there any further questions or comments?
Yes.
MR. MACKIE: Yes, Mr. Stein.
Since a specific suggestion has been made h-jro,
a specific recommendation, I assume that we will get a
copy of the studies that were referred to,. In particular,
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359
P. Keshishian
I am wondering if they are specific to Lake Michigan.
MR. KESHISHIAN: Yes, it is specific to Lake
Michigan.
MR. MAGKIE: Will the conferees be furnished
with a copy of the studies about Lake Michigan?
MR. KESHISHIAN: Yes, sir.
MK. STEIN: YJhen can we have them?
MR. KESHISHIAN: I think we can have them
delivered within a v/eek.
MR. STEIN: This week or next?
MR. KESHISHIAN: Next week.
MR. STEIN: All right.
Any further questions or comments?
If not, thank you very much, sir.
Mr. Bane.
KR. PSTER3EN: Mr0 Keshishian, just a moment.
Inasmuch as this witness is leaving, if there were going
to be any questions from the floor —
MR. STEIN: Oh, yes. I think that would be the
point. Are there any questions from the public of Mr.
Keshishian?
MR. PETERSEN: And being at the microphone, I
have a question, and the question I have: When you spoke
of 5 degrees, Mr. Keshishian, did you speak of 5—degrees
-------
Wisconsin Power & Light Company
Investor-owned Energy
122 West Washington Avenue PO Box 192 Madison, Wisconsin 53701 Phone 608/256-3151
October 6, 1970
Mr. Murray Stein
Conference Chairman
United States Department of the Interior
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
Washington, D. C. 20242
Dear Mr. Stein:
At the recent Federal-State Enforcement Conference
on Pollution of Lake Michigan, Wisconsin Power and Light Company
gave testimony in regard to plume dissipation. During the
questioning you asked if there was available information as to
the plume configurations of existing plants. In this regard
we are sending to you three isometric graphs depicting plumes
from the Edgewater fossil fuel plant of Wisconsin Power and
Light Company, the Big Rock Point Nuclear Plant and J. H.
Campbell fossil fuel plant, both of Consumers Power Company.
Vie are sure the information contained will demon-
strate the quick dissipation of heat within the plume.
Very truly yours ,
Paul Keshishian
Director of
Power Production
PK:rb
Attachment
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P. Keshishian
temperature rise or 5 degrees at the edge of the mixing
zone?
MR. KESHISHIAN: We are speaking of 5 degrees
Fahrenheit at the edge of the mixing zone. I think the
statement is pretty clear. It says the"Wisconsin Power
and Light Company submits that a > degree Fahrenheit
limitation that is coupled with a reasonable mixing zone
and constant monitoring of the discharge waters with
appropriate remedial action when any actual harm is detected
does represent an appropriate balancing of those interests."
We are saying the edge of the mixing zone; we are
not saying the point of discharge of the pipe.
MR. STEIN: Any other comments or questions?
Thank you, sir.
MR. BANE: Mr. Chairman, resuming with Commonwealth
Edison Company, our next three witnesses are going to give
testimony that is somewhat interrelated. Dr. Lee is going
to talk about chemical effects, and the tv.ro following wit-
nesses are going to discuss the biota and the effects of
heat on them.
I would like to suggest, if it is agreeable, that
all three might give their direct testimony and then we
would submit them as a panel to the panel — to the con-
ferees for examination.
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861
C. Bane
MR. STEIN: Let me suggest, to do this with the
conferees — we have been through this before, and I think
this is so complicated that for the purposes of the record
I would hope that we could keep the questions and the
answers short. But I think — let's take them up one at
a time to get into the issues.
MR. BANE: Yes. All right, sir.
MR. STEIN: I think in the long run, Mr. Bane,
this will save time.
MR. BANE: That is all right.
One other point, Mr. Chairman, I would like to
mention at this time.
After the next three, we would then have two
witnesses to complete our case: Dr. Pipes to come back to
talk about standards, and Mr. Butler to discuss cooling
towers and cooling systems. It would be most helpful to
us if we could finish today, and as we are going I think
that I could predict that we would finish if the conferees
would be willing to extend this hearing today until some-
thing like 5:30 or so.
MR. STEIN: Let's make a judgment on that when
we get to the time. Looking at the statements, unless
they are summarized — or maybe they will be —
MR. BANE: There will be some summarization, yes.
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862
G. F. Lee
MR. STEIN: Mr. Bane, let me tell you this:
Personally I think if we can finish at 5:30 I would cer-
tainly be for it. But I think before we make a judgment
on that, let's see where we are and see if we are actually
going to hit 5:30.
Mo BANE: All right, sir. Fine. Okay.
Dr. Lee.
STATEMENT OF G. FRED LEE, PROFESSOR OF
WATER CHEMISTRY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN,
MADISON, WISCONSIN
DR0 LEE: Thank you, Mr. Bane.
Mr. Chairman, conferees, ladies and gentlemen.
My name is G. Fred Lee. I hold the position of Professor
of Water Chemistry at the University of Wisconsin. 1 have
a Bachelor's Degree from San Jose State College. I have a
Master of Science in Public Health from the University of
North Carolina. I have a Ph.D. from Harvard University
with a major in Water Chemistry ?nd vri.th. minors in Aquatic
Microbiology, Limnology, and S-onit^ry Engineering.
l^v oriiT^^v ^r^^s of act^ v^ tir ci'^o in tnr o^c'1'71
of teaching and research in water chemistry.
By water chemistry we moan the chemistry of
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G. F. Lee
natural waters, water and wastewater treatment, and water
pollution control. I am primarily concerned with what
happens to pollutant chemicals in natural waters and the
factors influencing the concentrations and forms of
chemicals in natural waters.
I am also concerned with the interactions of
various chemical pollutants and aquatic organisms, and
effects of chemical pollutants on water quality.
An area of my specialization is the eutrophication
of natural waters with emphasis on the causes, effects, and
methods of control of eutrophication.
I am an advisor to governmental agencies and
Industrial firms including the President's Council on the
Environmental Quality in the area of eutrophication and
chemical pollution of water.
I am consultant :o the Commonwealth Edison
Company, assisting them in evaluating the effects of
their Waukegan and Zion discharges on water quality in
Lake Michigan. I have been asked by Commonwealth to
discuss the effects of thermal discharges on the chemical
paramaters of water quality and on eutrophication.
A manuscript covering this topic has been dis-
tributed. I will summarize the highlights of it and
comment on certain sections of the U. S. Department of
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864
G. F. Lee
Interior Fish and Wildlife Service "white paper" on the
effects of thermal discharges on water quality.
MR. STEIN: Without objection, Dr. Lee, your
full statement will be included in the record as if read.
DR. LEE: Thank you.
(The document above referred to follows in its
entirety.)
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865
Effect of Thermal Dlr, charger, on the Chemical Parameters
of Water Quality and Eutrophlcatlon
by
G. Fred Lee
Professor of Water Chemistry
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin
Introduction
One of the areas of primary concern today is the
effect of thermal discharges to surface waters on the chemical
parameters of water quality. Of particular concern in lakes is
the effect of heated discharges on the degree of eutrophication
of the receiving water. This paper summarizes the current state
of knowledge in the area of the relationships betv;een thermal
discharges and the chemical characteristics of the receiving
water.
In order to understand the effect of temperature on
the chemical parameters of water quality, it is necessary to have
some estimate of the amount of temperature increase that will
likely be encountered, as well as the time during which the
elevated temperatures will be present.
Considerable confusion exists today on the amount of
heating that will actually take place in a large lake like
Lake Michigan from the installation of large nuclear electric
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866
generating stations. It is true that large amounts of heat must
be dissipated from ouch installations and that location of such
installations on small bodies of water, or in situations v/here a
significant part of a river flow will be heated, could lead to
water quality problems. However, the location of such electric
generating stations on lakes like Lake Michigan v/ill have only
a. localized heating effect on the lake. The area and volume of
the lake that will be affected by a significant rise in temperature
from nuclear electric generating stations, such as Zion, is not
significant compared to the total area or volume of Lake Michigan.
In fact, the installation of many electric generating stations
such as Zion will not cause a measurable increase in the overall
temperature of the lake.
Examination of the thermal plume characteristics of
existing electric generating stations, such as the Commonwealth-
Edison Waukegan station and the predicted characteristics of
plumes from Zion Station shows that, in general, there will be
a ten to twenty degrees increase in the temperature of the water
at the point of discharge.
Actually, for some of the newer discharge works, such
as that at Zion, the excess temperatures in the order of 5°F
above ambient, or greater, persist for less than ten minutes.
From an overall point of view, this highly localized rapid
heating and cooling results in little or no effect on (he normal
chemical parameters of water quality.
-2-
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86?
In order to understand the role of heated discharges
on chemical parameters of water quality, one must consider the
path of a pollutant molecule, piece of partlculatc matter, etc.
as it goes through the period of elevated temperature. As this
molecule of particulate matter enters the intake works it is
subjected to a greatly increased velocity and shear and pacses
through the condensers of the electric generating station where
there is a rapid rise in temperature in the order of 10 to 20°F.
Dependent on the design of the discharge, the elevated temperatures
will persist for several minutes and upon exposure to the lake
water and the atmosphere the chemical pollutant is then rapidly
cooled in the matter of a few minutes to a few hours , to its
original ambient condition.
With this information as background to our discussion,
it is appropriate to consider the various types of chemical
reactions that may occur in natural waters and how these reactions
might influence water quality.
General Considerations.
Many of the chemical reactions that occur in natural
waters show an activation energy in the order of 15,000 Kcal per
mole. An activation energy of this order of magnitude is equiva-
lent to a doubling in the rate of reaction for each 10°C increase
in temperature. Therefore, as a pollutant molecule passes through
the electric generating station, there is an opportunity, prior
to the time that it cools back to ambient conditions in the lake,
for an increase in the rate of chemical reactions. The fact that
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868
most chemical reactions arc hastened at increased temperatures
\vlll not, however, result in a significant effect on the chemical
parameters of water quality except in those situations where large
amounts of chemical pollution of the waters have recently occurred
or where two water masses of distinctly different chemical char-
acteristics are mixed just prior to entering the intake works
of the electric generating station. In other words, for most
natural waters, the rate of change in the chemical parameters of
water quality is sufficiently slow, compared to the excess tem-
perature-time relationship normally associated with the thermal
plume, so that no significant change in the chemical parameters
of the water occurs.
I should also point out that most of the chemical-
biochemical transformations that occur in natural waters tend
toward the production of the water with more desirable water
quality characteristics. Therefore, any hastening of the normal
rates of self-purification would result in improved water quality
rather than its deterioration.
Specific Reactions.
The most frequently cited example of an increase in
temperature leading to deterioration in water quality is that
associated with the removal of biochemical oxygen demand from
surface waters. Micro-organisms, in using organic matter as a
source of energy, utilize the oxygen in the surface water as part
of the respiratory processes. In general, the rates of these
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369
reactions increase with Increasing temperature. It is conceivable
that a body of v/atcr v/ith a certain waste load would have adequate
amounts of oxygen to maintain desirable fish life at one tem-
perature, while at an elevated temperature, the rate and exertion
of the BOD would be increased sufficiently to cause a critical
depletion in the dissolved oxycen concentration. Such a situation
would occur, however, only if two other conditions are also
present: the intake waters of the electric generating station
must be grossly polluted, i.e., where large amounts of untreated
municipal and/or industrial wastes are discharged immediately
adjacent to the intake works, and the elevated temperatures must
persist for periods of many hours to days. This type of situa-
tion would not be encountered in the majority of the electric
generating stations located on large lakes like Lake Michigan and
is certainly not the situation that is encountered at the Uaukegan
and Zion installations of Commonwealth Edison. Here the BOD of
the water is in the order of only 1 to 3 rog/1. Increasing the
temperature of the water a few degrees will not cause a significant
depletion in the dissolved oxygen of the water as a result of
increased BOD exertion. This situation is a good example of why
it is necessary to consider each individual electric generating
station with regard to its potential water quality problems.
The other most frequently cited example of a deleterious
effect of thermal discharges on the chemical parameters of water
quality is the reduction in the amounts of dissolved oxygen that
can be present in the heated discharge waters. To the extent
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870
that oxygen and other dissolved gases chow an inverse relation-
ship between the solubility of the gas in the water and the
temperature of the water, increased temperatures would result in
decreased solubility. Since oxygen is an extremely important
parameter of water quality, increasing the temperature of the water
could cause a deterioration in water quality.,
However, it is important once again to examine the
actual situation that will likely be encountered in the thermal
discharges from a large generating station. Normally, v/e expect
to find that the waters taken into the intake works of an electric
generating station from Lake Michigan would be at or near satura-
tion with respect to dissolved oxygen. As the water passes
through the condenser it will become supersaturated. As this
water is discharged to the plume, there will be a tendency for
this supersaturation of dissolved oxygen to be lost to the
atmosphere. Actually, the amount of loss that will occur is
highlj' dependent upon the turbulence level that occurs in the
discharge plume. With low velocity discharges, i.e., low turbu-
lence, there will be a strong tendency to maintain the super-
saturation that developed as a result of the temperature increase
in the water. At high degrees of turbulence there will be a
more rapid equilibration between the elevated temperature water
and the atmosphere. With a high velocity discharge, however,
large amounts of water become entrained in the plume. Any
depiction in dissolved oxygen due to exchange with the atmosphere
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871
Is rapidly made up from the surrounding waters. Moreover, in a
high velocity discharge, undcrsaturated waters in the plume tend
to equilibrate with the atmosphere more rapidly because of the
higher turbulence levels in the plume and thereby regain the lost
dissolved oxygen. The overall result normally in a barely per-
ceptible decrease in the dissolved oxygen levels in the plume
as compared to those of the surrounding waters.
Therefore, for normal situations where the intake
waters do not contain large amounts of oxygen demand pollution
material, or are already at critically low oxygen levels,
the effect of using the water for cooling purposes probably would
have little or no effect on the amount of dissolved oxygen in
the water.
Miscellaneous Chemical Parameters.
Tastes ond Odors. The taste and odor characteristics
of natural waters are often intensified at elevated temperatures.
Therefore, the increase in the temperature of the water could
cause a deterioration of water quality. However, if we again
consider the typical situation that will occur in the I^ake
Michigan, we will find that it is highly unlikely that water
supply intakes would be located immediately adjacent to the
discharge works of large electric generating stations. Unless
the water, when it reaches the water supply intake, has been
raised more than 2°, there would be no significant deterioration
in water quality as a result of tastes and odors in the water.
Increasing the temperature of water as it passes through an
electric generating station and j.n the plume of the station's
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872
discharge in the order of a few degrees would not be normally
expected to change the color, turbidity, alkalinity, ammonia,
various toxic metals and non-metals, aquatic plant nutrients such
as nitrogen and phosphorus, and organic compounds to a degree
such that there would be a measurable deterioration in v/ater
quality.
To*icity.
As explained above, the chemical species present in the
intake water would not be expected to change as a result of
heating the water a few degrees above ambient for a period of a
few hours. Therefore; any toxicity problems in the water that
would be detected in the discharge plume would not be of a greater
magnitude or equal significance than was true in the intake waters.
Eutrophication.
Eutrophication of natural waters is a process of
increasing the nutrient flux to the body of water. It results
in increased aquatic plant growth with a concomitant decrease
in water quality. Eutrophication is one of the most significant
problems that occurs in lakes. The nearshore areas of southern
Lake Michigan are experiencing significant degrees of eutrophicaticn
as a result of the discharge of municipal and industrial wastes
as well as runoff from urban and from agricultural areas and natural
sources. In addition, precipitation and dustfall from the
atmosphere may add significant amounts of aquatic plant nutrients
to some bodies of water. Anything that would tend to increase
the degree of eutrophication or the problems that are caused by
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873
it represents a significant deterioration of water quality. It
is Generally believed that there is a hich degree of correlation
between the temperature of the water and the growth of aquatic
plants in the water. While there is a correlation betv/ecn these
two, for many bodies of water it should not be taken that higher
temperatures cause a greater degree of eutrophicatlon.
There is little doubt that algae and other aquatic
plants grow at a more rapid rate as the temperature of the water
is increased. However, this does not mean that the total biomass,
i.e., amount of algae present in the water, will be increased as
a result of the increased temperature. The total amount of algae
and other aquatic plants present in a given body of water is
primarily dependent on the availability of aquatic plant nutrients,
rather than on temperature. Some of the most productive areas of
the world's oceans are the cold waters in the Antarctic and the
upwelling areas of cold water from deep within the ocean while
many of the tropical waters are sparsely populated with aquatic
organisms. The differences are primarily due to the rate of
nutrient supply and have little or no relationship to the tem-
perature of the water. Therefore, unless it can be shown that
heating water for a short time, a few degrees above ambient,
would increase the nutrient availability within the water,there
is no reason to believe that thermal discharges will have any
effect on the degree of eutrophication of a given body of v;ater.
While it is true that the rates of mineralization of
nitrogen and phosphorus compounds from dead algae and other
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874
aquatic organisms Increase with increasing temperature, it v/111
be generally found that the time-temperature relationship that
will exist in the normal thermal discharge plume of large electric
generating stations located on large lakes v/ill be such as to not
alter to any me a.Durable degree the rate of retnincralizatlon of
nitrogen and phosphorus compounds in the lake water. In other
words, the increase in temperature and the relatively short
period of time over which this increase takes place in far too
short to be of any significance compared to the normal rates of
mineralization of nitrogen and phosphorus compounds.
Special consideration must be given to the growth of
attached algae in the region of the discharge plume since some
forms of these algae, especially Cladophora, do cause a signifi-
cant deterioration of water quality, especially in southern
Lake Mighigan. At the present time, the factors that influence
the grov;th of CJadophora are poorly understood. Hov/ever, it
is clear that there are many other factors than temperature
which tend to control its growth. Based on the limited knowledge
available, it is reasonable to predict that if a suitable sub-
strate for the attachment of Cladophora occurred in the region of
the discharge plume, Cladophora would be present at a slightly
earlier date each spring as a result of heating the water in the
order of a few degrees above ambient. This would occur only in
the region of the discharge plume. This docs not mean that there
would be increased amounts of Cladophora occurring within the lake
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875
or within the discharge plume, it means only that they would
occur slightly earlier in the spring. Thin, in my opinion, doer;
not rcprcccnt a significant effect on water quality nincc the
amount of Increased growth that v/ould occur at a few degrees
above ambient v/ould be barely perceptible and the area over
which such growth v/ould occur v/ould be completely insignificant.
There is one effect that thermal discharges might have
v/hich would tend to reduce nutrient availability within the
lake. This is the possibility of precipitating calcium carbonate
in the thermal plume. Calcium carbonate has an inverse relation-
ship between solubility and temperature. Precipitation of
calcium carbonate may, therefore, occur in the discharge plume.
If precipitation does occur, it would tend to remove some aquatic
plant nutrients, such as phosphorus and various trace elements,
and carry these materials to the sediments. However, once again,
because of the limited area of the thermal discharge plume,the
small temperature increase and the fact that calcium carbonate
tends to readily form stable supersaturated solutions, I v/ould
not expect any significant effect on the amounts of aquatic plant
nutrients in the water as a result of calcium carbonate precipi-
tation.
The other often cited effect that could be caused by
thermal discharge is a change in the type of algae present in a
given lake. Normally, the secession of algae proceeds from
diatoms to green to blue-green algae as the water is warmed in
the spring and summer. It is generally believed that the blue-
green algae has a preference for warmer waters. Since blue-green
algoc often cause a greater deterioration in water quality than
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876
diatoms or green a]gae, any fnctorr; that would tend to promote
the presence of blue-green algae would represent a potentially
significant deterioration of v/ater quality. However, the factorc
influencing the secession of the various typos of algae are not
v;ell understood. While it is generally found that blue-green
algae are dominant during the warmer summer months, they are not
restricted to this period and, in fact, some of the highest con-
centrations ever encountered by the author have been found under
the ice in winter.
If we accept the fact that blue-green algae would be
more dominant under warmer conditions, then we must ask if the
conditions that are likely to be encountered in the thermal dis-
charge tend to promote the growth of blue-green algae. And here
the answer is that the few degrees rise in temperature that will
persist over a period of a few hours v/ill not have a sig-
nificant effect on the rate of growth, nor the numbers, of blue-
green algae in Lake Michigan v/ater. The primary reason for this
statement is that planktonic algae normally grow at a very slow
rate compared to the time that they v/ill be present in the dis-
charge plume. Algae normally
requires several days to double in number. There is no evidence
to show that an Increase in temperature in the order of a few
degrees will significantly alter the rate of growth of this type
of algae.
s ability of thermal effects.
While all available evidence points to the fact that
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877
the discharge of heated effluent from electric generating stations
located on Lake Michigan, as currently contemplated, v;ill not
have a significant deleterious effect on water quality, it is not
possible to be absolutely certain that no effects will be en-
countered. It is important to consider whether the discharge in
a heated effluent to Lake Michigan could cause irreversible damage
to the lake if, at some future date, some very subtle effects of
the heated discharge are found on some types of aquatic organisms.
It can be unequivocably stated that thermal discharges, unlike
other discharges, do not leave a residue in the water which must
be flushed from the lake upon termination.of the input. The
thermal discharges continuously equilibrate with the atmosphere,
there are no long term effects on water quality after the discharge
is stopped.
If it is found at some time in the future that a certain
type of aquatic organism is significantly effected by thermal
discharges, and it is decided that this effect is of such pro-
portions as to warrant the termination of further thermal dis-
charges to the lake, it is reasonable to expect that upon termina-
tion of these discharges the affected aquatic organism will
recover and repopulate the affected area with normal organisms.
In other words, thermal discharges are the only types of discharge
to natural v/aters which are reversible in terms of their effects
on water quality.
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$78
G. F. Lee
DR. LEE: I wish to start my discussion by
saying that there is no doubt that electric generating
station thermal discharges can cause water quality problems,
Large thermal discharges to small rivers or to small lakes
will be detrimental and also if large electric generating
stations are placed completely around Lake Michigan so
that discharge plumes overlap, there will be water quality
problems.
However, a large lake like Lake Michigan has a
certain amount of assimilative capacity for waste heat
without having a deleterious effect- on water quality.
I feel it is a significant waste of the financial
resources of the States bordering Lake Michigan to force
the public to pay for cooling towers or other devices in
order to meet some arbitrary thermal standard that does
not take into account the heat assimilative capacity of
Lake Michigan.
The best way, I feel, to determine the number
of thermal discharges that can be made to Lake Michigan
without causing significant deterioration of water quality
and to properly utilize the heat assimilative capacity of
the lake is to examine the discharge characteristics and
the effects of a few electric generating plants and then
extrapolate to many plants.
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879
G. F. Lee
If we understand how one plant or a few plants
affect a lake, we can begin to understand what may happen
when many electric generating stations are placed on the
lake. With this in mind, I will restrict my discussions
today to a review of the thermal discharges similar to
the Commonwealth Edison Zion Plant.
As we have heard from Dr. Pritchard, this plant
discharges water at about 20 degrees Fahrenheit above
ambient in large quantities to the near shore environment
of Lake Michigan. The design of the discharge works for
this plant enables a very rapid-cooling of the water
primarily by dilution so that it will be a few degrees
above ambient within a few minutes after discharge and
back to essentially ambient conditions within a few hours.
The important question is: Given these condi-
tions, could the heated discharge from Zion cause
significant deterioration in the chemical water quality
and/or accelerate the eutrophication of Lake Michigan?
I wish to point out that although thermal dis-
charges are alleged to have significant deleterious
effects on many chemical characteristics of natural waters,
very few studies have actually been conducted in this area.
Fortunately, we are not in as bad a shape as it
may seem since we do know something about the aqueous
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Go F. Lee
environmental chemistry of various pollutants in natural
waters. From this information we can draw inference
about the effects of thermal discharges in natural waters.
Temperature affects both the position of equil-
ibrium and the rate at which equilibrium is attained for
each chemical reaction.
Even though we do not know the equilibrium and
rate constants for many of the chemical reactions that
occur in natural waters, we do have a reasonably good idea
of how temperature affects both the position of equilibrium
and the rate at which it is attained for chemical and
biochemical reaction in general. From this information
and the time-temperature relationship of a thermal dis-
charge plume from an electric generating station, we can
predict with n. reasonable degree of reliability the effect
that heat might have on certain chemical processes and
.also estimate how this might influence the growth of
certain organisms.
In making predictions in this area, it is
necessary to consider the relative rates at which
chemical processes proceed in natural waters versus
the time-temperature relationship in the discharge plume.
If a reaction proceeds so that only a small
part of it takes place each day then heating the water a
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8&L
G. F. Lee
few degrees above ambient for a few hours will not result
in any significant change in the amount of reaction that
takes place from an overall point of view.
Most chemical reactions double in rate for each
10 degrees centigrade increase in temperature so that a
couple of degrees above ambient does not represent a sig-
nificant increase in the reaction rate.
Also since my reactions proceed toward a natural
purification, the discharge of hot water may actually
enhance water quality under certain conditions from a
chemical point of view.
In my review of the potential effects of the
Zion discharge on the chemical parameters of wrter quality,
I hnve considered for each of the common chemicil pollutants
whether or not fin increase in temperatures in the order of
?. few dn~rees cbovo ambient could result in n deterioration
of wa"Cer TJ.I 1 ity.
I have concluded, as a result of this ~~evirw,
that, based on tho time-temperature relationship of trio llion
discharge and the chemical and biologic"! chirrcteri "tier,
of the water near Zion, no signifio'Mt do J ot^rious effi:>'t
on water quality would occur as a .•esii1^, c> C this diseh'> rg-o
This review includes such p-'-irameterr, ar or.yg': .1,
color, turbiditj7", p!I, alkalinity,
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882
G. F. Lee
phosphate, taste and odors, iron, manganese, copper, zinc,
BOD, pesticides, toxic metals and nonrnetals, sulfate, rate
of release of nitrogen and phosphorus from lake sediments,
etc.
This conclusion is based on the fact that the
rate at which these various chemical parameters change
with a small change in temperature for the Zion water as
compared to the time-temperature relationship for the
Zion plume is too small to be of any significance in
affecting water quality from either a beneficial or adverse
point of view.
I wish to mention that while the toxicity of
many metals and other chemicals increases with increasing
temperature, it has been recently found that DDT, unlike
other pesticides, is more toxic to fish at lower tempera-
ture than at higher temperatures. Therefore, we must be
cautious about making broad generalizations about the
deleterious effects of heated discharges.
In the U. S. Department of Interior "white
paper," mention is made on page 74 that increased tempera-
ture will increase numbers of botulism organisms in lake
water. Since this organism causes losses of water birds
and is a potential hazard to humans, increased numbers
could be of significance. Several of my colleagues at the
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883
G. F. Lee
University of Wisconsin have been actively investigating
the factors influencing the numbers of botulism organisms
in Great Lakes waters. I have discussed the "white paper"
statement on botulism with them and conclude that the
current state of knowledge on the factors influencing the
numbers of botulism organisms is such that it is impossible
to predict the effect of temperature on their numbers in
natural waters.
It has not been established whether or not those
organisms even grow in natural waters. Some feel that since
they are foxind in soil in large numbers that the botulism
found in water is washed in from the soi!0 Even if they
are found to reproduce in water, increasing the tempera-
ture will not necessarily increase numbers of botulism
organisms. It is conceivable that the competitors of
botulism would b<~> enhanced to a greater degree than the
botulism organism with the result that increased tempera-
ture would result in lower numbers of these organisms.
The key point I wish to make here is that the
positive unqualified statement made in the U. S. Department
of Interior "white paper" that numbers of botulism organisms
will increase with increasing temperature is not in accord
with the best technical information available today.
A similar problem exists on page 76 of the
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G. F. Lee
"white paper" where the statement is made that the super-
saturation of the dissolved gases that will occur in
thermal discharges will cause embolism or bends in fish.
While supersaturation of dissolved gases does cause
embolism in fish, it should be mentioned that the degree
of supersaturation that will occur in most thermal discharges
is equal to or less than the amount of supersaturation that
is frequently found in the near shore environment of many
lakes and streams. Therefore, I doubt that the supersatur-
ation that will exist from that thermal discharge like the
Zion plant would cause any increase in the embolism in fish,
Eutrophination is the fertilisation of a water
that results in excessive growths of algae and other
aquatic plants. It is of great significance in Lake
Michigan. Already vie have excessive planktonic and attached
alg-, 1 growths, particularly the Cladophora.
There is considerable confusion today about what
controls the rate and degree of eutropliication in a body
of water. Many individuals, including the authors of the
U. 3. Department of Interior "white paper" have confused
the fact that because many algae tend to grow more rapidly
at higher temperatures, that there would be increased
eutrophication at higher temperatures. This concept is
in general incorrect. On page 8l of the U. 3. Department
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885
G. F. Lee
of Interior "white paper," the statement io made that
nutrients and/or temperature will increase eutrophication.
In my opinion, this statement is incorrect as far as
temperature is concerned.
The ultimate total population or bicmass of algae
is dependent on aquatic plant nutrients, not temperature.
The effects of algae on man are related to total numbers,
not their rate of growth.
Tho algal population in Lake Michigan are nutrient-
limited not temperature-limited. The frequency and severity
of obnoxious algal blooms and growth of attached algae in
Lake Michigan will not increase because of increased
temperature. They will increase if you add additional
aquatic plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus,
silicon, etc.
Blue-green algae are usually associated with
warmer waters. This emperical correlation is often cited
as evidence that thermal discharge will increase blue-
green algae. The factors that control the presence or
absence of blue-green algae are very poorly understood.
Temperature may influence the rate of growth of some
blue-green algae. It is certainly not a dominant factor
in controlling the biomass present during the summer months.
The nutrient levels and other poorly defined factors within
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G. F. Lee
a lake control total numbers of blue-greens. In my opinion,
no increase in the number of blue-green algae will occur
if a water is heated from 20 degrees to, say, 25 or to 30
degrees centigrade.
Let's consider the Zion discharge and its effect
on algae. First, planktonic algae grow at a relatively
slow rate. A day to several days is needed to double in
numbers. There will not be an increase in the numbers of
algae present in the Zion plume because of the increased
temperatureo The time-temperature relationship in this
plume is such that there is insufficient time to allow the
algae to grow to any degree»
The attached algae such as Cladophora must have
suitable substrate for attachment in order to grow. If
a r;uit;:ble substrate is present in the discharge plume
area, then we might find that Cladophora would be present
a little earlier each spring because of the warmer water.
However, we would not expect to find larger numbers of
Cladophora in the critical summer months. During the
summer, the total biomass of Cladophora is dependent on
nutrients rnd other factors but not temperature.
I fdvooote a much more liberal approach to the
sotting of thermal r-.t^riJ-u'ds more in line with the existing
Jtito standards than either the 1 degree Fahrenheit
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88?
G. F. Lee
proposed by a former Department of Interior official or
the eseentially no heat addition proposed by the U. S.
Department of Interior "white paper." I feel that strict
thermal standards such as these are not in the best interests
of the public.
While with chemical pollution of a lake like
Lake Michigan requires that we take a conservative approach
because of the very long periods of time needed to flush
out the lake, heat additions do not require the same con-
servative approach because the heat is rapidly lost to
the atmosphere. Any deleterious effects that are found
as the result of thermal additions are rapidly reversible
once the heat input is stopped.
I forer.ee no harm from allowing the Zion Plant
to operate provided that it is adequately studipd to
determine its effect on water quality. It will be from the
operating records and studies of plants like Zion that we
will obtain the information needed in order to revise our
thermal standards a few years from now,
T wish to comment briefly on the FWQA cooling
tower ropo^t that WTS p^foented hero yesterday niorninn'»
It is difficult for me to undorr-tand how any '\goncy wonld
develop a report on the feasibility of using cooling towors
on Lake Michigan without considering the chemical
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G. F. Lee
characteristics of the water.
The chemical characteristics of the water used
in a cooling tower determine the amount of scale and
corrosion in the heat exchange system. 1 doubt that any
wet type cooling towers could be utilized, on Lake Michigan
without blowdown because of the chemical characteristics
of the water.
Wet type cooling towers do cause water quality
problems. The blowdown water is a concentrated brine,
contains large amounts of algal nutrients and contains
corrosion and scale control chemicals.
I am more concerned about the potential effects
of cooling tower blowdown water on water quality than from
the Zion type thermal discharge.
In Madison, Wisconsin, we have recently required
that all cooling tower blowdown waters be kept out of the
Madison lakes. I wish to point out that the operation of
the wet type of cooling towers without blowdown requires
that the salts that build up as a result of evaporation
must be carried to the atmosphere. This results in con-
tinuous rain of salt particles and brine droplets in the
area of the cooling tovrer. Those salts can cause
environmental contamination problems. They aro deoocitod
on the soil, houses, lawns, and the agricultural areas
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G. F. Lee
in the vicinity of the cooling tower. They arc also washed
to the lake with the stormwater.
1 feel that insufficient attention has been given
to the water quality aspects of wet cooling towers.
In summary, I do not foresee any significant
adverse effects of thermal disc harder, such as the Zion
Plant of Commonwealth Edison on the chemical parameters
of water quality and the eutronhication of Lake kichifpa.
I feel that some of the statements made in the U. ,'j.
Department of Interior "white paper" on the thermal
effects on water quality are not in accord with the best
technical information available today. I advocate more
liberal policy on thermal discharge standards than proposed
by the J. 3. Department of Interior provided that these
standards are periodically reviewed and updated in accord
with the information available at that time, and that each
proposed thermal discharge is reviewed in order to protect
any unique features or characteristics of the earth.
ThanK you.
i TP 'iV '"TrT • 'Ph""-)!' T,~m
ill.. ^JJ. i.i- . J • j_ . I ---el I f *. f ^J -X. •
Before I throw this open to questioning, you
confused me at one point. You referred to a former
Interior Department official. What former Interior
Department official?
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G. F. Lee
DR. L3E: Mr. Klein. Is he still with you?
mi. ST3IN: He sure is.
DR. L3E: All right. I am sorry.
MR. STEIN: That is corrected now. All right.
Are there any other comments or questions'?
KR. MACKIS: Yes, Mr. Stein.
I am not sure that Professor Lee is the gentlemn
to answer this question, but his discussion pronpted the
question, so I will ask it now, and that is: V/ill the
projected power facilities in the year 19$0 or 2000 result
in overlapping of plumes in any of the areas of Lake
Michigan?
DR. LEE: 1 do not feel qualified to answer
that question.
MR. MACKIE: It was your discussion that prompted
it, and I do think it, would be of interest to the
conferees to have some sort of on answer to that.
DR. L3E: Yes, that is extremely important in
terms of determining the speed v/ith which we must act on
any standards, very definitely.
MR. STEIW: Are there any other questions or
comments?
Mr. Currie.
MR. CURRIS: Yes. You mentioned, Dr. Lee,
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G. F. Lee
several times studies that have been made to prove the
points which you made. I think we would be helped if we
had copies of those studies.
DR. LEE: Yes, sir.
MR. STEIN: If we can, when?
DR. LEE: Well, some of these are in progress;
some of them are in unpublished form at the University of
Wisconsin. I would say it would take probably a month to
get this into form.
MR. STEIN: Dr. Lee, you know we are going to have
to come to a conclusion of the conferees. How much can you
make available by next week?
DR. LEE: It would be very difficult to make any
significant amount of information available by then. I
have other commitments.*
MR. STEIN: Right. I understand that.
Are there any other comments or questions?
According to your statement, you say that as
far as discharge from the Zion Plant is concerned, there
are no adverse effects on the lake that you can determine.
DR. LEE: From the review of the situation, I
predict no deleterious effects of this discharge.
MR. STEIN: Right. Well, glad to hear from you
again. I guess the last time we heard from you, you said
* Information not supplied.
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G. F. Lee
that the 67,000 tons of taconite tailings coming out of
Reserve Mining would have no adverse effects on Lake
Superior.
DR. LEE: The situation is still the same today
as then.
MR. STEIN: I know, but the point is — the idea
is: Here you said it wasn't heat. It was nutrients there,
when Dr. Mount and the other people said that taconites
contained nutrients, there was still no effect from the
nutrients.
DR. LEE: The evidence presented there did not
support the position of Dr. Mount, in my opinion.
MR. STEIN: I understand that. I can't say you
are inconsistent.
Are there any comments or questions?
If not, thank you very much.
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A. Robertson
MR. BANE: Dr. Robertson.
STATEMENT OP ANDREW ROBERTSON, ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF
OKLAHOMA, NORMAN, OKLAHOMA
DR. ROBERTSON: Mr. Chairman, honorable
conferees, ladies and gentlemen.
I am Andrew Robertson, Associate Professor of
Zoology at the University of Oklahoma. I have held my
present position for the past 2 years, and previous to that
I was Associate Research Limnologist with the Great
Lakes Research Division of the University of Michigan
for approximately 5 years. My work at Michigan entailed
full-time research on Lake Michigan and led to
approximately twenty publications concerning the biology of
the lake.
I hold a B.S. degree in chemistry from the
University of Toledo and M.A. and Ph.D. degrees from the
University of Michigan in zoology. I have also spent 2
years in Edinburgh, Scotland, on an Office of Naval
Research Fellowship with the Scottish Marine Biological
Association doing research in biological oceanography.
Attached hereto as an appendix is a complete list of my
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A. Robertson
professional experience and honors, of my publications
and of my memberships in professional societies.
(The Appendix above referred to follows.)
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APPENDIX
PROFESSIONAL INFORMATION ON ANDREW ROBERTSON
EDUCATION
B.S. 1958, University of Toledo, Chemistry Major
1959.> Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Marine
Biology Major
M.A. 1961, University of Michigan, Bacteriology then
Zoology Major
Ph.D. 1964, University of Michigan, Zoology Major
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE
1957-58, Laboratory Assistant, University of Toledo
1958-59j Research Assistant, Scripps Institution of
Oceanography
1959-60, Teaching Assistant, University of Michigan
1960-62, Teaching Fellow, University of Michigan
1962-64, Research Fellow, Scottish Marine Biological
Association (Edinburgh)
196^-67, Assistant Research Limnologist, Great Lakes Research
Division, University of Michigan
1967-68, Associate Research Limnologist, Great Lakes Research
Division, University of Michigan
1968-69, (summers), Visiting Associate Professor, University
of Michigan Biological Station
1968- , Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, University
of Oklahoma
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-2-
HONORS
Beta Beta Beta, 1957 (Biological Honor Society)
Phi Kappa Phi, 1958
Graduated B.S., magna cum laude, 1958
NSF Summer Fellow, University of Michigan Biological Station,
Summers 1957 and I960
Phi Sigma, 1960 (Biological Honor Society; Faculty advisor,
1965-1968)
University of Michigan Research Club, 1960
Sigma Xi, 19&7 (Chapter council member, 1969- )
SOCIETY MEMBERSHIPS
American Society of Limnology and Oceanography
Ecological Society of America
International Association of Limnology
Midwest Benthological Society
American Association for the Advancement of Science
Southwestern Association of Naturalists
Oklahoma Academy of Science
PUBLICATIONS
1. Distribution of the Cladocera in the North Atlantic.
1964. Rep. Challenger Soc. 3, No. XVI
2. A method for studying herbivore standing crip with the
Continuous Plankton Recorder. 196^. Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Michigan. 97 p.
3. Particulate organic matter in Lake Michigan. 19&5. Proc.
Eighth Conf. Great Lakes Res., 175-l8l (with C. F. Powers)
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897
-3-
4. Some quantitative aspects of the macrobenthos of Lake
Michigan. 1965. Proc. Eighth Conf. Great Lakes Res.,
153-159 (with C. F. Powers)
5. The aging Great Lakes. 1966. Scientific American 215(5):
94-100, 102, 104 (with C. F. Powers)
6. A comparative study of Lake Michigan macrobenthos. 1966.
Limnol. Oceanog. 11: 576-583 (with W. P. Alley)
7. The distribution of calanoid copepods in the Great Lakes.
1966. Proc. Ninth Conf. Great Lakes Res. 129-139.
8. Research ships of opportunity program Project Neptune
Limnos. 1966. Univ. Michigan, Great Lakes Res. Div.,
Pub. No. 2b, 25 p.
9« Comparison of the distribution of organic matter in the
five Great Lakes. 19^7. Univ. Michigan, Great Lakes
Res. Div. Spec. Rept. No. 30, p. 1-18 (with C. F. Powers)
10. Zonation of the benthis environment in Lake Michigan.
1967. Univ. Michigan, Great Lakes Res. Div. Spec. Rept.
No. 30, p. 78-94 (with C. F. Powers)
11. Design and evaluation of an all-purpose benthos sampler,
1967. Univ. Michigan, Great Lakes Res. Div. Spec. Rept.
No. 30, p. 126-131 (with C. F. Powers)
12. A note on the Sphaeriidae of Lake Michigan. 1967. Univ.
Michigan, Great Lakes Res. Div. Spec. Rept. No. 30, p.
132-135.
13. Lake Michigan biological data, 1964-1966. 1967. Univ.
Michigan, Great Lakes Res. Div. Spec. Rept. No. 30,
p. 179-227.
•14. Direct observation from a submarine on the vertical distri-
bution of Mysis relicta in Lake Michigan. 1967. Univ.
Michigan, Great Lakes Res. Div. Rept. No. 30, p. 138-l4l
(with C. F. Powers and R. F. Anderson)
15- The distribution of organic nitrogen in Lake Michigan. 1968.
Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts, Letts., 53= 135-151 (with C. F. Powers)
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898
16. Subdivisions of the benthis environment of the upper Great
Lakes, with emphasis on Lake Michigan. 1968. J., Fish.
Res. Bd. Canada, 25:ll8l-1197 (with C. F. Powers)
17. Abundance, distribution, and biology of plankton in Lake
Michigan with the addition of a Research Ships Opportunity
Project. 1968. Univ. Michigan, Great Lakes Res. Div.
Spec. Rept. No. 35, ^3 p.
18. The Continuous Plankton Recorder: A method for studying the
biomass of calanoid copepods. 1968. Bull. Mar. Ecol., 6(7):
185-223.
19. Direct observations on Mysis relicta from a submarine. 1968;
Limnol. Oceanog., 13: 700-702 (with C. F. Powers and R. F.
Anderson)
20. Identification of the copepodids of the Great Lakes species
of Diaptomus (Calanoida, Copepoda). 1968. Proc. Eleventh
Conf. Great Lakes Res., 39-60 (with S. C. Czaika)
21. Biological exploration in Lake Michigan from a research
submarine. 1968. Proc. Eleventh Conf. Great Lakes Res.,
117-123 (with C. F. Powers)
22. What is happening to our Great Lakes? 1969. Limnos, 2(1):
12-17
23. Unsung heroes. 1970. Limnos, 3(1), 18-22. (with S. C.
Czaika)
24. The distribution of Calazoid Copepods (Calanoida, Copepoda)
in Oklahoma. 1970. Proc. Okla.Acad. Sci. (Accepted for
publication)
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A. Robertson
I have been invited to present this statement by
Commonwealth Edison Company and welcome the opportunity
to express my views concerning the protection of this
most valuable and unique resource. This statement represents
my own viewpoint and does not necessarily correspond with
the views of Commonwealth Edison Company.
I will restrict myself in this statement to
the effects of the input of heat on the ecology and general
biology of the organisms, exclusive of the fish, in Lake
Michigan.
The setting of thermal standards for Lake Michigan
is in some ways substantially easier than setting
standards for concentrations of materials such as mercury,
DDT, or lead. In the first place, the organisms in the
lake, especially those which inhabit the upper waters,
live in an environment which already undergoes extensive
temperature variations. In adding heat we are, therefore,
affecting the property of the lake for which the
organisms inately have a substantial tolerance. Many of
the Lake Michigan species are known to thrive in other
lakes with temperatures, at comparable times and locations,
above those contemplated in these harings. As a result,
and in contrast to what may result from the addition of
toxic chemicals, we are concerned here more with subtle
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A. Robertson
alterations in the ecology, rather than with the direct
threat of elimination of the organisms in the lake.
Moreover, we do not have the problems of concentration in
the higher levels of the food chains of the lake, with a
resulting risk to human life. Even more importantly, heat
added to the lake stays in the water for only a relatively
short period of time and is then given off to the air.
We are thus in a substantially better position than is
true of the addition of toxic chemicals, since they accumulate
both in the water and in the bottom sediments and our ability
to clean them out of the lake is both much less certain
and would take a far longer time. For the range of heat
inputs under discussion here we need only stop the
addition of heat to the lake and natural processes will
reverse any detrimental effects that may have occurred.
Even with these inherent advantages in
considering standards, I will attempt in this statement
to take a quite conservative position. 1 do so because
the question of what effect a thermal plume will have
on the ecology of the included organisms is a complex and
difficult one.
The effect of increased temperature on an
organism depends on other physical-chemical factors in the
environment, such as the concentration of oxygen and the
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A. Robertson
intensity of light. It also depends on biological
considerations such as the types and amounts of food
present. Increased temperature may, for example, affect
an organism by increasing or decreasing the abundance of
its food. Other biological relationships of the organism,
such as those with the species that prey upon it or compete
with it for food or for sites for breeding and the like,
further complicate the question. The history of the
organism is also relevant since those raised in warm
temperatures can often withstand higher temperatures than
can members of the same species which were raised under
cooler conditions.
The analysis, much less the understanding, of
these relationships calls for a great deal of research and
that research has not yet been done. For these reasons
I have not attempted to predict in a detailed way exactly
what will happen within the thermal plume. The studies
Dr. Pipes has described to you should enable us, some
months from now, to speak more accurately of the impact on
individual species. Even more field studies will be
required to evaluate the consequences to the ecology of
the operation of a generating station such as that being
built at Zion.
Nonetheless, it is quite possible, even without
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A. Robertson
these studies, to form an opinion concerning the danger to
the ecology of the lake from the addition of heat by
generating stations such as Zion. I have assumed, for
the purposes of this statement, that if there is a
reasonable likelihood of a substantial change in the ecology
of the lake due to a postulated heat addition, the addition
of that heat is undesirable. Having taken that
conservative position, let me immediately say that I do
not favor a policy of prohibiting all discharges of heated
water to the lake, or of limiting such discharges to 1
degree F. above the natural water temperature at the
point of discharge.
I regard any such policy as prohibitive and less
than fully rational, rather than merely conservative. As
an ecologist I feel that we must adapt our culture so that
it fits into and harmonizes with the ecology of our
natural environment. Quality of life depends on
preserving our natural resources while at the same time
using them for our benefit. My analysis of the ecological
effects of the heat additions contemplated in this hearing
convinces me that they pose very little danger to the
ecology of the lake. Let me now turn to the basis for my
opinion.
In order to determine the consequences of adding
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A. Robertson
heat to the lake one must know the magnitude and
distribution of those additions. I accept Dr. Pritchard's
demonstration that the existing and presently proposed
powerplants would have only a negligible effect on the
average temperature of the water in the entire lake. The
problem lies in evaluating the possible consequences of
more substantial but localized increases in water
temperature.
I have used the predictions contained in Case IV
of Dr. Pritchard's statement concerning the distribution of
excess temperatures which will result from the discharge
of condenser cooling water. With his predictions of the
size of the thermal plume in mind, I will attempt to look
at the major functional groups of organisms in the lake and
ascertain the likely consequences to them of the proposed
thermal additions.
Effects on the Bottom-dwelling plants
where the water is shallow enough to allow
penetration to bottom of sufficient light foi growth
aquatic plants are often found on the bottom of Lake
Michigan. In most places, except in protected areas such
as bays, these plants are restricted quite largely to
microscopic algae. These plants often play an important
part in the ecology of nearshore areas. A notable exception
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A. Robertson
to small size is the alga Cladophora which forms the major
part of the green mats often found covering rocks and
other nearshore surfaces.
It is well established that one of the major
factors controlling the types of these algae is the
water temperature. Substantial permanent increases of
temperature in an area would undoubtedly change the
types and possibly the amounts of bottom-growing
algae. Thus, it would seem undesirable to have any but
a very small area of the bottom of the lake exposed to
substantial temperature increases from thermal additions.
A special problem with temperature increases are
their effect on Cladophora. Under certain conditions,
especially where plant nutrient concentrations are high,
the mats of this alga can be so thick as to be detrimental
to recreational uses of shores, both as slimy materials
covering the bottom and, after parts of the mats have
become dislodged, as material floating on the water and
piling up and decaying on the beaches. The effect of
increased temperature on this alga in Lake Michigan is
uncertain at present. Studies elsewhere have indicated
increased temperature may either increase or decrease the
growths of this material, depending on the species present,
the temperature changes involved and probably other factors.
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A. Robertson
Thus, until we have further predictive capacity it would
seem prudent to avoid running the risk of increasing
growths of Caldophora over an appreciable area.
However, discharges such as those described in
Dr. Pritchard's Case IV involve very little danger of
alterations to any of these bottom plants. The outfalls
would be directed away from shore and in deep enough
water so that little if any of the bottom would experience
substantial temperature changes.
Effects on the Bottom-dwelling Animals
A variety of animals live on the bottom of the
lake. Important forms include the amphipod Pontoporeia
affinis, the mysid Mysis relicta, several species of
oligochaetes, a number of spaeriid clams, and several types
of insects especially chironomid larvae. Smaller animals
such as nemato'des, ostracods, bryozoans and rotifers are
also well represented. The animals occur not only in
shallow water, as with the plants, but are found all over
the lake bottom, even in the deepest water. There is
little doubt that these organisms are sensitive, to a
greater or lesser extent, to temperature changes. The
animals that live in the deep waters, such as Pontoporeia
and Mysis are thought to be especially sensitive because they
live in an environment that is very cold all year around
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A. Robertson
and so have not evolved much tolerance to temperature
variations. This raises the possibility that major changes
in the temperature of the deep waters could have adverse
effects on these animals. Fortunately, however, warm water
is less dense than cold, and so heated discharges should
stay well above the deep waters except in the unlikely case
where they are released there. All the Lake Michigan
stations of which I am aware contemplate outfalls very near
the surface and well away from these deep waters and so
represent no perceivable danger to the animals occurring
there.
The outfalls are, however, located where they
might influence the nearshore bottom animals. This
situation is comparable to that for the bottom-dwelling
plants; the effect will depend on the distribution of the
excess temperature. However, if Dr. Fritchard's Case IV
is assumed then only minimal temperature changes along the
bottom will result, and there should be little likelihood
of noticeable effect on the bottom animals.
It seems then that proper design of generating
stations can remove dangers to the bottom animals.
However, standards eliminating the possibility of temperature
changes to the deep (hypolimnion and thermocline) waters
and restricting the shallow areas that could be exposed
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A. Robertson
to temperature changes should be set.
Effects on the Plants in the Plankton
Many species of algae, including especially
diatoms and green algae, are found suspended in the waters
of Lake Michigan. These members of the plankton are
vitally important as they are the primary agents of
photosynthesis in the lake, and so the primary means by
which organic matter is produced. The algae are eaten by
small animals which are eaten, in their turn, by larger
animals and so on. Thus, directly or indirectly most
of the organisms in the lake depend on these planktonic
algae as their source of energy and materials needed for
life. Because of their extremely important role in the
ecology, it is especially important to avoid changes to
these algae.
There is evidence that substantial permanent
changes in temperature of a lake can change the types and
amounts to these algae. However, this evidence mainly
applies to cases where an entire small lake has
experienced the temperature increase, and so the algae
are continuously exposed to the increased temperature. The
contemplated thermal additions to Lake Michigan are quite
different; they will only affect limited local areas and
the algae will only be exposed for a limited time.
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A. Robertson
The situation in terms of the effect of large
power stations on planktonic algae can be separated into
two distinct problems:
1) What will be the effect on the algal cells
that are present in the water passing through the station
as part of the condenser cooling water?
2) What will be the effect on the larger numbers
of cells that are present in the water that dilutes the
warmed cooling water after discharge?
Let us first consider the situation for the
algae included in the cooling water, using the situation
at Zion as an example. Both units at Zion Station together
are expected to have a total flow of 1,530,000 gallons per
minute with a rise in temperature for this water of 20
degrees F. The effect of this increase of temperature on
the algae in the water will certainly vary with the species
present.
However, if for the sake of argument we were to
assume the unlikely situation that all were killed, it
seems extremely unlikely that any noticeable effect on
the ecology of the lake will result. My calculations
indicate that less than 1 out of each one-half million
parts of water in the lake will flow through the station
per day. The planktonic algae tend, to a limited extent,
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A. Robertson
to be concentrated in the upper layers of the lake, the
part from which the condenser cooling water will be
drawn. Thus, a somewhat greater proportion of the
algae will flow through the condenser than the proportion
of the lake's volume that flows through the station would
indicate.
Still, it seems assured that only a very small
fraction (much less than 1 in 100,000) of the algae will
be exposed to the 20 degrees P. temperature increase per
day. Further, planktonic algae are known to reproduce
quite rapidly, often once every few hours or days. This
process is part of a natural cycle in the lake of growth
and reproduction of some cells coupled with death and
decay of others. The nutrient materials freed by the
decay of the dead cells provide the building materials for
the growth of others. Thus, it seems likely that any cells
killed by exposure to the cooling water will be replaced
quite rapidly as their materials are made available to
other cells as part of this natural cycle. Therefore,
with only a very small fraction of the cells in the lake
being exposed to the temperature rise associated with
inclusion in the cooling water, and with any cells in
this fraction that are killed being replaced quite quickly,
it seems extremely unlikely that the effect on the algae in
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A. Robertson
the cooling water will give any noticeable effect on the
ecology of the lake.
What then of the greater amounts of algae that
are exposed to increased temperatures by being in the
water that mixes with the heated outflow after discharge?
Still, the proportions of the algae of the lake affected
per day are very small.
For the situation at Zion, it is calculated
that, to reduce the temperature of the cooling water to a
temperature 2.5 degrees above ambient, will call for a
dilution of each part originally at 20 degrees above
ambient with 8 parts of ambient temperature water. This
means that no more than about 1/70,000 of the water in
.the lake will be heated to 2.5 degrees above ambient
or more each day.
If we consider the more generalized generating
station of Dr. Pritchard's Case IV, we again find that very
little of the lake will be affected. He calculates the
surface area of the lake contained within a number of
different isotherms of excess temperature. Even for an
excess temperature as small as 2 degrees P., the area
exposed is only 99 acres. This is out of a total surface
area for the lake of approximately 14.3 million acres.
Further, the exposure of the organisms to these
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A. Robertson
excess temperatures is only for a very limited time. Dr.
Pritchard's calculations show the maximum time of exposure
at excess temperatures of 2 degrees or more to be
only 1.5 hours, with the time much shorter yet at higher
temperatures. Thus, even for the dilution water only a
very small fraction of the algae in the lake will be exposed
per day. Further, for most of the cells the exposure will
be to much less than a 20-degree increase in temperature
and for only a few hours. It is very doubtful that an
increase of temperature of a few degrees for a relatively
short period of time will have much permanent effect on the
algae cells. Even if it does, however, they should be
replaced quite quickly by further reproduction of the
remaining cells.
One other possibility, that the increased
temperatures will cause changes in the species present,
has been suggested. If it were possible for certain parts
of the water volume to be permanently warmed above ambient,
this could happen. However, as the heated water will be
quite quickly cooled by dilution, the exposure to
Increased temperatures for any particular parcel of water will
be quite restricted in time. Thus, there will be little
time for new species, favored by the increased
temperatures, to be established in a parcel of water before
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A. Robertson
the water is returned to ambient temperature and the
conditions favoring the naturally-occurring assemblage of
algae.
There seems little likelihood then that temperature
conditions from a station like the one proposed at Zion or
suggested in Dr. Pritchard's Case IV will have any
appreciable effect on the ecology of the planktonic plants
in the lake. This conclusion receives support from the
field study of Beer and Pipes (1968) at the existing Waukegan
power station south of Zion. In their preliminary study
of the effects of the thermal discharge from this station,
they found no evidence of changes in the types or amounts
of plant plankton.
Effects on the Planktonic Animals
Many small animals live xvith and feed on the
planktonic plants. These include small crustaceans such
as copepods and cladocerans, rotifers and protozoans.
Much of what was said previously concerning the plants also
applies here. As with the plants, only a minute fraction
of the planktonic animals in the lake will be exposed per
day to temperature increases at a station such as Zion or
Dr. Pritchard's Case IV;
There is one difference in regard to the animals
that should be briefly considered, the rates of reproduction
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A. Robertson
for the planktonic animals tend to be every few weeks or
months rather than every few days as with the plants.
The slower rates of reproduction mean that any animals
which may be killed by the elevated temperatures of the
cooling water will not be replaced as fast as will the
plants. However, their reproductive rates are still very
rapid in relation to the proportion of the animals in the
lake that will be exposed per week or per month to the
thermal discharge.
Further, personal experience with these and
similar animals leads me to believe that many of them will
survive the short exposure to a 20-degree increase of
temperature that will occur with the Zion station. Thus,
the decreased reproductive rates seem to mean little in
terms of increased damage to the ecology of the lake.
Beer and Pipes (1968) have shown with the planktonic
animals, as with the.plants, no detectable effect of the
thermal discharge of the Waukegan station. This work supports
my own conclusion that, given the rather short residence
times in the warmer water, no ecological damage will occur.
Conclusions
My analysis of the likely effects of a generating
station such as Case IV leads me to conclude that the
thermal discharge from such a station is likely to have
-------
914
A. Robertson
little if any detectable effect on the ecology of the
organisms, exclusive of the fish of Lake Michigan. I
reach this conclusion despite our present inadequate
knowledge of the details of the environmental physiology
and ecology of the organisms in the lake. Although
there is certainly a great deal yet to be learned as to the
exact results of any particular thermal discharge, the
extremely small fraction of the lake affected has
convinced me that the detrimental effects, even if badly
misjudgedj would still be relatively minor.
Of course, stations of other designs and
producing quite different temperature changes in the lake
might have much more effect on the ecology. Consequently,
consistent with the conservative position I have taken, I
favor standards forbidding discharges that would of
themselves or in combination with the existing discharges
change the overall temperature of the lake to any
appreciable extent. For localized situations the amount of
bottom area or shoreline exposed to elevated temperatures
should be restricted as should the time any mass of water
may be exposed to appreciable temperature increase.
Standards of this type will protect the ecology of the
lake, while still allowing the development of a number
of generating stations such as Zion.
-------
915
-------
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-------
917
A. Robertson
standards set by the State of Maryland for the Calvert
Cliffs nuclear plant?
DR. ROBERTSON: No, sir, I am not.
MR. DUMELLE: In the permit for the plant, as I
understand it, they restricted the detention time within
the condenser to 4 minutes, and the temperature rise to
10 degrees Fahrenheit.
Could you state, in your opinion, from your
experience on time-temperature mortality rates, whether
the 20 degree 2-minute detention time in the Zion Plant
is equivalent to the 10 degree 4-minute ratio of the Calvert
Cliffs Plant? What I am asking is: Is the dosage rate
or the mortality rate linear or is it some other relation-
ship for any given type of organism?
DR. ROBERTSON: I am not a physiologist, but my
opinion on this is that I have no reason to believe that
it would be linear.
MR. DUKELLE: Would you think that the higher
temperature would cause more mortalities than the lower
temperature, even though the product of the two — the
time-temperature —
DR. ROBERTSON: Talking 20 in 2 minutes and 10
in 4 minutes, is that correct?
MR. DUi'-'lELLE: les, sir.
-------
915
A. Robertson
DR. ROBERTSON: My opinion again on this is that
the differences would be — the different effects between
these two would probably be relatively minor.
MR. DUMELLE: Thank you.
MR. STEIN: Are there any other comment r> or
questions?
You referred several times to Dr. Beer and Dr. Pipes,
Are they still working together?
DR. ROBERTSON: Yes, sir, I believe they are.
MR. STEIN: The next time they prepare 3 drrft,
I wish they would let me know.
Thank you very much.
DR. ROBERTSON: Dr. Pipes will be testifying
later and I am sure he wi^1
-------
919
fi. C. Raney
STATEMENT OF EDWARD C. RANEY,
PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY, CORNELL
UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, NEW YORK
DR. RANEY: My name is Edward C. Raney. I am
Professor of Zoology at Cornell University, Ithaca, New
York, and Director of Ichthyological Associates, 301
Forest Drive, Ithaca, New York. I hold the M.S. (1935)
and Ph.D. (1938) in Zoology from Cornell University and
my scientific specialty is the study of the ecology,
behavior and systematics of fishes. I have been involved
in teaching and research in biology at Cornell since 1936,
and I have been a full professor there since 1952. For
the past 30 years many of my field and laboratory studies
have involved the effects of heated effluents on fishes
and other aquatic organisms. These studies have resulted
in more than 100 published papers in the primary literature,
During the course of these studies I prepared and published
in 1969 a bibliography of more than 1,800 published papers
under the tital of "Heated Effluents and Effects on Aquatic
Life with Emphasis on Fishes."
Ichthyological Associates, which is an
unincorporated group of aquatic biologists involved in
-------
920
E. C. Raney
ecological research, was founded by me in 1966 to make
ecological investigations in situations which have been or
were about to receive heated discharges.
This statement is presented on invitation by
the Commonwealth Edison Company, Chicago, Illinois. The
observations, opinions and conclusions presented herein are
mine and do not necessarily represent the views of the
Commonwealth Edison Company or Cornell University.
This presentation deals with fishes, and
particularly those which live irt or might ultimately be
found in Lake Michigan. Although I have not made
personal studies of Lake Michigan, I am familiar with the
species which now inhabit the lake, have studied many of
them, and have perused the considerable literature which
is now available on the fauna of Lake Michigan and have
conferred with many of the active research workers now
studying the lake.
I am familiar with the general principles
regarding temperature and fishes which have been based on
many studies made over the past 40 years„ I have also had
the opportunity to study the results of the introduction by
jet of heated discharges as measured by hydraulic and other
models and am familiar with the scholarly but practical
statement which was presented before this group by
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921
E. C. Raney
Dr. Donald W. Pritchard. Also, I have examined many heated
outfalls in eastern United States and have advised or
participated in detailed studies of many.
Thus, I appear before you as a student of fishes
and other aquatic organisms who has the greatest regard
for living things, including people. My studies convince
me that with proper siting, based on ecological and
hydrological studies, and the careful design of intake
and discharge structures, that Lake Michigan can be used
as a source of disposal of waste heat which would result
from the production of a large amount of electricity.
1 am also convinced that the present and future demands for
electricity coupled with the present and prospective
economic situation and with due regard for human ecology,
including the "good life," that one of the highest and
best uses of some water from Lake Michigan would be as
cooling water for large nuclear powerplants. This, I
believe, can be done without detrimental effects to aesthetic
or recreational values including the natural (or unnatural)
biota. In my opinion, once-through cooling is to be
preferred to the use of the enormous and urrly cooling
towers which are beginning to dot the landscape of inland
areas. Little or no survival is likely of the organisms in
water which is needed to supply the evaporative cooling
-------
922
E. C. Raney
in these towers
I emphasize that my remarks are not necessarily
applicable to other lakes, rivers and streams. However,
other large, deep, cold lakes should be particularly
examined as possible sources of cooling water and no doubt
they will be used in the future as additional studies
show the ecological realities and after the present near-
hysteria regarding thermal discharges has subsided.
Fishesof Lake Michigan
The deeper or offshore waters of Lake Michigan
originally had a fish population dominated by lake trout,
lake whitefish, and a number of related species known as
lake herring, bloater or chub, and the burbot. Some trout
were present including the introduced brown and rainbow,
but these normally utilized the streams for spawning and
it was here that most were available to the sport fishery.
In inshore waters, the yellow perch, walleye, a
number of species of small suckers, minnows and darters
were found, particularly in the summer. All of these
fishes are subject to year class fluctuations wherein an
occasional spawn would be much more successful and could
dominate the fishery for a species for several years.
With the introduction of the landlocked form
of the predatory sea lamprey (about 1936) from a point
-------
923
E. C. Raney
below Niagara Falls where it had occurred for a long period,
the populations of larger fishes such as lake trout
and lake whitefish were reduced to a point where commercial
lake trout fishing was virtually abandoned. The alewife
and smelt were also introduced. The former is useful as
a forage fish and at times occurs in great numbers and
is subject to large dieoffs which can create a tremendous
public nuisance.
More recently the coho salmon was introduced and
is maintained by stocking. It is now a local and
important source of sport fishery. Even more recently the
Chinook and sockeye salmons have been introduced.
Large expenditures have been made to reduce the
lamprey population and lake trout have been stocked and
the population has increased. Some taken recently have
shown signs of scarring by the lamprey which, although
reduced by various control methods, is still present.
Thus, it may be seen that the major changes in
fish populations which have occurred in recent years is
not associated particularly with the industrial activities
of man, but are due mainly to interactions of fish species.
Many are optimistic about the present fishery based upon the
several species of Pacific salmon, but particularly coho.
However, knowledgeable biologists expect problems.
-------
924
E. C. Raney
Temperature
By a long evolutionary process aquatic organisms
have adapted to various environmental factors. Water
temperature is one of the most important and may become a
problem to a given species of fish when by natural or other
means the water temperature increases to a point where it
reaches or exceeds the lethal temperatures for a critical
period of time, and when escape is impeded. However, motile
species such as fishes may (and do) avoid such areas where
temperatures are critical.
Water temperatures below lethal levels may also
be a problem if blocks to the migration or other seasonal
movements are such as to prevent spawning. Normally
this generalization applies to anadromous (uprunning)
fishes such as the smelt, trout or salmon. However, these
migrations are usually timed in the spring or fall so
that the most critical season of high summer temperatures
is avoided.
Temperature Requirements of Fishes
1) Pishes are "cold-blooded." The body tissues
quickly change to the temperature of the surrounding water
because the gills must be exposed to permit the passage of
oxygen and carbon dioxide.
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925
E. C. Raney
2) Pishes can perceive minute differences in
temperature; much less than 1 degree P.
3) Pishes have a lower and an upper lethal
temperature limit or tolerance. The lethal temperature
is specific for each species and the requirement for
different stages in its life history such as spawning,
development of eggs, development of fry, growth and
development of young, etc., may differ. These limits
permit adjustment to differences in seasonal temperatures
as well as of those of 5 degrees P. or more locally from
place to place, from day to day, or night and day. The
juvenile and adult of each species of fish may have a
different upper lethal temperature limit. The actual
lethal point may be modified by other factors, such as
dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, salinity, silt, light
intensity, and ions of heavy metals.
4) Pishes" and other aquatic organisms are able
to acclimate to a given temperature (within the lethal
limits) and do so regularly with temperature changes
accompanying the seasons. A fish when permitted to
acclimate may choose a final preferred temperature.
5) Once acclimated to a given temperature,
fishes and other aquatic organisms acclimate more readily
to an increase than a decrease in temperature.
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926
E. C. Raney
6) The activity of fishes and other aquatic
species usually increases with a rise in temperature.
However, the relationship can be reversed.
7) It has been shown that fishes can and will
follow a temperature gradient. They normally follow this
gradient to or toward their preferred temperature.
The behavior of a given fish species often
depends on the magnitude of change of temperature to which
it may be exposed. It may be attracted to the higher (or
lower) temperature, it may avoid by swimming away from
higher (or lower) temperatures, or it may not react.
Observations on the behavior of fishes as
affected by temperature have been studied. These
experiments are usually done with young or yearling.
One other point that I would like to make, because some
of the results obtained on laboratory studies are applied
to a few conditions when perhaps they should not — or
perhaps they do not apply. Such studies are, and in some
respects probably always will be, relatively limited
because it is necessary to work with small fishes or the
smaller sizes of large fish species due to the nature
and size of available equipment and funds. Space and time
limitations are obvious. Normal behavior patterns
involving territory, pecking order, and the like, may be
-------
927
E. C. Raney
disturbed.
In order to acclimate fishes to certain
temperatures they are usually fed regularly and this may
result in a conditioned response. Reactions to
artificial periods of light and dark as opposed to normal
photo-period may give difficulty. Some bottom fishes
must or prefer to have contact with the bottom or other
objects. Other fishes prefer shelters like brush piles,
and still other cannot tolerate crowding. Typical schooling
species may not act normally when a single specimen is
studied. Concurrent effects of light intensity, oxygen,
and pH may be important.
Preferred Temperature
A species of fish, which is used to or acclimated
to a given water temperature may move tovrard (or away
from) a higher or lower temperature. This is illustrated
by the results of the following experiment on the alewife,
which is now abundant and ecologically important in Lake
Michigan. In August six specimens of alewife were
acclimated at 77 decrees F. for 48 hours. They were
introduced into an experimental apparatus where the water
temperature was "Jk dep-rees P., and they were offered two
alternatives, 7^ degrees F. or 82 decrees F. They
proceeded to the area and occupied water of 82 degrees F.
-------
928
E. C. Raney
This, of course5 illustrates the point that if they like
it, they can go for a warmer temperature.
After a short period, these same six specimens,
and we used six because it was a schooling species,
were introduced into a similar experimental tank where
the water temperature was 80 degrees P., but where the
alternative temperature of 86 degrees P. was available.
The latter temperature was avoided. And this illustrates
the simple proposition that if the temperature is high
they avoid it and swim away from it, and this is what they
do with heated plumes.
In another experiment, using six specimens,
the results were similar. They were acclimated at 77
degrees P., introduced into water of 75 degrees P., and
were attracted to water 83 degrees P. A short time later
the same fishes were placed in water of 80 degrees P.
They avoided the alternative temperature which was 86
degrees P. In the above experiments the water
temperatures exceeded those generally expected in Lake
Michigan. However, it illustrates the expected reaction of
a species, such as the alewife, if and when it comes close
to a heated plume. Anxiety with regard to an expected
large mortality of the alewife, if and when it comes close
to a heated plume. Anxiety with regard to an expected
-------
929
E. C. Raney
large mortality of the alewife in heated plumes is
unfounded and except under unusual conditions no such
mortality is expected.
Additional data are given in Table 1 with
regard to some fishes found in Lake Michigan.
(The table above referred to follows.)
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930
-17-
Table 1 — The Final Preferred Temperature in degrees F for Various
Species of Fishes Found in Lake Michigan. Young or
Yearling Fishes were Used in the Experiments Except
Where Noted by Asterisk Where T.-.'o-Year-Old Fish were
Involved. Modified after Ferguson, 1958.
Species
Carp
Smallmouth Bass
Yellow Perch
Muskellunge
Burbot
Yellow Perch
Brown Trout*
Brook Trout
Sockeye Salmon
Rainbow Trout
Whitefish*
Lake Trout
Chinook Salmon
Final Preferendum
89
82
75
75
70
70
54-63
57-61
58
56
55
54
53
Authority
Pitt, Garside and Hepburn (1956)
Fry (Ms., 1950)
Ferguson (1958)
Jackson and Price (Ms., 19^9)
Grossman, et al. (Ms., 1953)
McCracken and Sparkman (Ms.,
19^8)
Tait (Ms., 1958)
Graham (19^8), Fisher and
Elson (1950)
Brett (1951)
Garside and Tait (Ms., 1958)
Tompkins and Fraser (Ms., 1950)
McCauley and Tait (Ms., 1956)
Brett (1951)
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931
E. C. Raney
Only a few with relatively high temperature
preferences are listed. The carp, for example, has a
temperature preference of approximately 89 degrees F. The
smallmouth bass, yellow perch, muskellunge and burbot are
usually spoken of as cool water fishes which in
experimental apparatus have shown preference of from 70
degrees to 75 degrees F. In most the salmonid fishes
and their relatives, which are of major interest in Lake
Michigan, both sport and commercial, the preference is
generally from 53 degrees to 63 degrees F. Obviously
these cold water fishes are not going to be found at these
temperatures at all times but they do tend to move toward
these temperatures if available and other needs, such as
food, is met in such localities.
Lethal Temperature
The lethal temperature is that at which a fish
dies after a given time. Such temperatures are avoided
by motile aquatic organisms. Fishes avoid the hotter
parts of plumes.
Fishes are occasionally killed near heated water
outfalls where temperatures increase or decrease rapidly.
This seldom happens. These are usually high temperature
phenomena. When it does, small free-living fish or young
are mainly affected. Most large fish are able to swim
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932
E. C. Raney
away to safety. Sudden increases in river temperatures
of 11 degrees to 16 degrees P. are sufficient to drive
fishes away from lethal conditions.
This may be illustrated by findings in the mile-
long canal carrying heated water from the Connecticut
Yankee Power Company plant at East Haddam, Connecticut.
Incidentally, the plant has been in operation for some
3 years now. I have been involved in these studies since
1965 as a member of the advisory board. Connecticut Yankee
is potentially a much more adverse situation than is
Zion. Cooling water is carried to the river through the
canal. In 1968, biolgosits observed movements of fishes
in and out of this canal. V/ater temperature differences
may be as great as 19 degrees F. Pishes were
concentrated in the canal up to a water temperature of
95 degrees P. No fishes were found in the canal in the
range between 95 degrees and 102 degrees P.; the latter
was the highest temperature recorded in the summer of
1968. Pish were collected again when the temperatures
in the canal dropped to 93 degrees P. The great
concentration in the outfall canal is illustrated by the
results of a collection on 7 November 1968, when 1,466
fish were taken in a 5-minute trawl haul. Yet, no
mortality was observed, and there were people observing
-------
933
E. C. Raney
them. In a canal we estimated that 40,000 catfish were
present at the time under these conditions.
At a later time after 4,000 of them were tagged,
and they left the canal, some of these fishes were found
as far as 50 miles away. Here again, there was no evidence
of mortality, no direct observation of them. This is a
very important point.
Pronounced changes in effluent temperature
at Lake Michigan plants will rarely occur and mortalities
of fishes and other biota caused by temperature differences
are predicted to be nil. During the critical period in
summer in the mixing zone few or no fishes are expected
to be present and other motile aquatic organisms may be
scarce.
However, a concentration of fishes and an extended
period of feeding may often occur in the heated water during
the cold season. An attraction to the warmer water in
spring and fall often creates a valuable unseasonal
recreational fishery.
Winter Temperatures
All of the species found in and near Lake
Michigan are able to live in winter temperatures of 32
degrees to 40 degrees F. Many of the important sport and
commercial fishes in Lake Michigan prefer cold or cool
-------
934
E. C. Raney
water. Some species which are normally found in the
shallows in summer become inactive when the water
temperature is below 40 degrees P. and some go into or near
the bottom silt: they are not usually active until early
April or May when the water again reaches approximately
40 degrees F.
Avoidance
It is obvious that lethal maximum temperatures
for motile organisms are inappropriate to predict the effects
when such species encounter higher temperatures (plumes)
because such a measure ignores the behavior of the
organisms and the time which an organism might be In
contact with such a temperature. It is proper to use such
a measure only for organisms which cannot avoid and which
remain in the increased temperatues. For example, some
benthic organisms. Further, it is important that such
conditions such as oxygen, salinity, pH, and time of
exposure be considered. A far more appropriate measure
is the upper avoidance temperature.
It is obvious that all parts of any lake,
such as Lake Michigan, cannot be all things to all fishes
at all times. The distribution of various species
varies with season. Because of its depth and stratification
the depper water offers a habitat to those fishes which
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935
E. C. Raney
must have cool water. Shallow areas, in the case of the
lake trout, or tributaries, in case of smelt, provide
necessary spawning grounds. Plants would not be
constructed in areas where migratory paths would be
affected. The warm water fishes, among those underlined
in Table 2, are expected to be, ana normally are, found in
the shallower areas in summer.
(The table above referred to follows.)
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936
-18-
Table 2 — Provisional Maximum Temperatures Recommended as
Compatible with the Well Being of Various Species
of Fish and their Associated Biota. From: Table
III-l, Water Quality Criteria, Report of the National
Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the
Interior, April 1, 1968, Washington, D. C. Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration.
93°F Growth qf catfish, gar, white or yellow bass, spotted bass,
buffalo, carpsucker, threadfin shad, and gizzard shad.
90°F Growth of largemouth bass, drum, bluegill, and crappie.
84°F Growth of pike, perch, walleye, smallmouth bass, and
sauger.
80°F Spawning and egg development of catfish, buffalo, threadfin
shad, and gizzard shad.
75°F Spawning and egg development of largemouth bass, white,
yellow and spotted bass.
68°P Growth or migration routes of salmonids and for egg
development of perch and smallmouth bass.
55°F Spawning and egg development of salmon and trout (other
than lake trout).
48°F Spawning and egg development of lake trout, walleye,
northern pike, sauger, and Atlantic salmon.
Note: The fishes underlined above are those found in Lake Michigan.
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937
E. C. Raney
These warm water species are those which are
expected to be most common near the heated outfalls.
However, except perhaps for occasional short periods the
cold-water fishes never were abundant in these shallow
areas. Parenthetically I remark that the beach bottom
plant which is presently under construction and will go
into operation next year, also has a Jet effluent, and
the artificial alum plant, also known as the Salem plant,
located on the lower Delaware River, which is under
construction, will go into operation in two years. It
has the same type of a jet effluent which was worked out
by Don Pritchard and his partner at the Vicksburg model.
Thus it is predicted that for smelt, brook,
brown and rainbow trout, lake whitefish, chubs, and salmon,
no mortalities would be involved nor would significant
mortalities occur in the food chain which could possibly
affect those fishes.
Summary
1) Dire prediction by some ecologists over the
years have failed to materialize in the situations I have
studied. I am confident that predictions of disaster for
the ecosystem from heated effluents for Lake Michigan will
be proven to be false. Some changes will occur. Some may
be considered for the better. I suspect that many
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938
E. C. Raney
predictions appear to be based on the uneasy feeling that
heated water is a pollutant in the usual sense (domestic-
chemical) . Heated water does not leave a residue and
ultimately passes to the atmosphere, and is not a pollutant
in the usual sense.
2) My conclusions are based upon personal
experiments with heated water and observations at heated
outfalls of both nuclear and other steam plants located
on the Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, and Susquehanna
Rivers, as well as a careful study of hundreds of published
reports.
3) These conclusions are also based on the
design of the Zion plant of Commonwealth Edison Company and
upon the discharge arrangement (Case IV) as given by
Dr. Donald W. Pritchard. It assumes a jet effluent with
rapid turbulent mixing and a minimal disturbance of the
environment by heated water. Each site and nuclear plant is
unique in some respects and the following predictions made
for the Zion site may not be applicable to others, in my
summary.
4) Most organisms including fishes will be
denied some living space. At Zion this involves a very
small area close to the heated outfall.
Yesterday I believe that Mr. David Currie asked
-------
939
E. C. Raney
one of the witnesses with regard to this matter — I
predict that for any of these heated outfalls that for an
area very close to the pipe that you are going to have
some loss. If it hits the bottom you are going to lose
some benthic organisms. However, in this connection at the
Connecticut Yankee atomic plant we have found that just
off the heated canal, which may be 19 degrees above
ambient, that the benthos is actually increased. I think
that it is — as a conservative measure, that you can
expect some denial of living space.
What does this amount to? In most cases, a few
acres.
5) Even during the worst summer conditions, the
isotherms produced by using a jet effluent indicate that
outside a small mixing zone near the effluent most summer
water temperatures would be below the upper lethal
temperatures for the "fishes and associated organisms
normally found near the Zion plant in the summer.
Basically the problem of lethality with regard
to fishes has been over-emphasized, and I agree with Dr.
Pritchard in the study of reported cases — and I have
studied hundreds of them — in most of these cases of
reported mortality, it has been due to chlorine or other
chemicals such as zinc and sometimes copper.
-------
940
E. C. Raney
6) Hardly any of the shallow shore area located
near the Zion plant will be blocked by temperature, and
production will be affected only in the area close to the
small plume. The fishes which are normal inhabitants of
the shore habitat during the warmer summer months will be
unaffected except for a few acres near the outfall.
7) Even under the most critical summer
conditions it is not expected that the fishes or other
biota will be placed under serious stress, which would
affect the size or the quality of the population or have
any effect on the ecosystem.
8) Except for a few acres near the base of the
plume, the seasonal temperature requirements for reproduction
and other aspects of the life history of the fishes which
are seasonally present in the Zion area are predicted to
be satisfactory.
9) Pishes which normally live in the Zion area
are adapted to the changes in temperature which occurs in
the environment at the several seasons and may avoid, be
attracted to or not react to temperatures in various parts
of the plume.
10) No permanent reduction in species diversity
in fishes or associated biota is foreseen either in the
vicinity of the plant or in the lake in general due to the
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E. C. Raney
operation of the plant. Some local but insignificant
changes may occur seasonally. Compared to natural changes
including year class fluctuations, any change in fish
populations which might be attributed to heated effluents
would be miniscule and insignificant to a commercial or
sport fishery.
11) The heated effluents from nuclear powerplants
are not expected to affect the pier fishing for yellow
perch in Lake Michigan. This fishery has fluctuated from
year to year and is expected to continue to do so.
12) Many of the fishes present such as walleye
and yellow perch are subject to great variation in year
class strength. These usual year-to-year variations will
not be affected significantly by the predicted patterns
of heated effluent from the Zion plant.
13) The eggs and larvae of fishes are not
expected to be a problem. Most of the eggs are deposited
in nests or are heavier than water and stick to the bottom.
Relatively few are present in the water column. At Zion
the fast passage through the condenser system would
involve few eggs and larvae and cause insignificant
mortality. These are the results of the experiments done
in California back in 1950.
Young chinook salmon have passed through
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E. C. Raney
condensers with a 25-degree P. rise and fast passage
(approximately 5 minutes) with little or no mortality;
95 percent or more survived for 10 days after the trials.
Actually, the report after 10 days shows no mortality
for Chinook salmon and 95 percent of the striped bass
passing through the same system survived for 10 days after
the passage, not causing damage to the ecology of Lake
Michigan.
15) If mortalities occur, they are likely only
close to high temperature plumes. The design of the Zion
plume avoids this problem.
Conclusion
The approval of the use of a reasonable mixing
zone set on the basis of engineering, ecological, hydrologi-
cal, and meteorological studies will permit the use of
many points along the shore of a cold lake, such as Lake
Michigan, as Dr. Pritchard has so ably pointed out.
We have the knowledge to design powerplants so as
to mitigate possible environmental effects. Such large
structures will.'cause some changes in the local
environment. However, I believe they can be operated
without hurting recreational uses including the sport and
commercial fisheries.
Properly designed discharges will have no effect
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943
E. C. Raney
outside of their mixing zones, and even within those
zones, very little area is exposed to a substantial
temperature increase. A 1-degree F. to 5-degree F. rise
or fall in temperature has little meaning ecologically
for aquatic organisms living inshore or near the surface
of Lake Michigan. These temperatures are within the
daily range of variation at inshore points and the variation
in temperature from place to place on a given day often
exceed the above figures. Such changes will not cause
damage to the ecology of Lake Michigan.
This concludes my prepared paper. Like some
of my colleagues I would like to say something about the
so-called "white paper" which was prepared and which has
been distributed at this meeting by the U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service of the Department of the Interior.
The conclusions involving fishes and other
aquatic life appear to have been produced on request
after a conclusion had been reached 4 months previously
with regard to a 1 degree F. rise. The conclusions were
drawn by unnamed persons who made unwarranted assumptions
regarding the heat load and behavior of the heat, and who
appear to have had very little knowledge of the behavior
of fishes and about heated plumes.
I predict that fishes and other aquatic life
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E. C. Raney
and the like will not be adversely affected by the
judicious placement of a large number of nuclear plants
on Lake Michigan.
MR. STEIN: Does that conclude your statement,
sir?
DR. RANEY: Yes, sir, Mr. Stein.
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E. C. Raney
MR. STEIN: Are there any comments or questions?
Yes, Mr. Dumelle.
MR. DUMELLE: Dr. Raney, the Federal report on
page 75 has this sentence and I Just want to make sure that
I understand your position. It says, "Available information
on the effect of thermal shock on larval fishes ... indicates
that the expected temperature rise alone experienced by
these fishes while passing through the cooling system would
be very injurious or immediately lethal."
Do I understand you correctly that you disagree
with this statement?
DR. RANEY: Had I been writing 4 years ago I
might have written the same statement. But what I have done
is to look into the literature and find out what happens^
and we have also run experiments at beach bottom facilities
starting in 1966, and our experience is that fast passage
with a 20 degree Delta T killed very, very few organisms of
any kind.
Now, the literature that I have already quoted —
the report by Kerr which appeared in the report of the
California Pish and Game Department used two fishes which we
usually think of as sensitive fishes: king or Chinook
salmon and striped bass. They had a Delta T of 25 degrees;
passage was fast. No significant mortalities appeared.
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E. C. Raney
Ninety-five percent of the striped bass were alive after 10
days and most aquarias cannot do that good even without
subjecting them to any heat sense.
The Chinook salmon passed through 25 degrees Delta
T, 5-minute passage, without mortality after 5 days, so that
I think that the person that wrote this on page 95 had a
gut experience that would be very, very harmful. Experiments
to date indicate that it is not, if you have fast passage
and a relatively high Delta T, 20 degrees.
MR. DUMELLE: Those experiments, however, do not
include all types of species, do they?
DR. RANEY: That is right, sir., At the present
time, my group is studying the behavior in this regard of
84 species which live in the Delaware estuary. Other groups,
Wes Pipes' colleagues, Lawrence Beer and others — are also
studying the problem, and we are actually accumulating
information at a terrific rate. I suppose in this next
couple of years we will probably learn more about
temperature effects on fishes and other aquatic organisms
than we have learned in the last 40 years. The reason
for this — and this is partly in answer to a query of Mr.
Stein's — is that for the first time ecological and
experimental studies having to do with heat are tied to an
economic base where you can actually do the work in the way
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E. C. Raney
that it should have been done many, many years ago. For
example, after we have studied a place for a year or two, we
begin to know what the additional problems are that need to
be studied; but we are going to know a great deal more than
my colleagues who originally started studying the fishes of
Lake Michigan, for example, when they had one boat and two or
three men and they were stuck in this situation maybe for
10 years. Fortunately we now have the economic basis which
will Justify the kind of ecological studies which should
have been done long, long ago.
MR. DUMELLE: Dr. Raney, are you familiar with
the Calvert Cliffs plant and permit in Maryland?
DR. RANEY: Yes, sir.
MR. DUMELLE: One of the restrictions on that
permit, as I understand it, is an intake velocity into the
condenser system of a half a foot per second with a baffling
arrangement* so that the fish can swim away from the intake
and not be drawn into it. If that is the case, and if, as
you say, that no harm will come to these fish, are there any
organisms in Chesapeake Bay which are more sensitive to this
kind of a temperature rise, which I think is 10 degrees,
incidentally?
DR. RANEY: Sir, I have to describe the situation
at Calvert Cliffs, which is a 500-foot-long curtain wall,
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E. C. Raney
which extends down into the water at a depth of 26 feet. Now.
this curtain wall was designed so that the water would be
taken from the deepest part of the adjacent bay so as to get
1 or 2 degrees of cooler water. Now, in my opinion, what
happened there was that we got 1 or 2 degrees as heat, and
we get less plankton because most of the time the plankton
is not concentrated near the bottom but it is closer to the
surface, although there might be daily migrations to and
from the surface.
So that we took these two points — and I say we,
I was not involved in the planning at that stage — but we
got a few degrees, we were going to save the plankton, but
what we did was to create a hell of a fish trap and I am
certain that we are going to have troubles. But we have
proceeded to undertake studies under my direction on the
Pacific Coast so that when this plant goes into operation
that we will be effectively able to lift these fishes
out from in front of the 24 or 28 screens — I have forgotten
how many there are now but there are a g;reat number of them --
and to pass them through a sluiceway and. back out to the lake,
So you see, I hope you don't think that I am
disagreeing with you on the facts, because actually I was
there and I know what they are. We sacrificed fishes to
gain cold water and save plankton.
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E. C. Raney
MR. DUMELLE: Thank you.
MR. STEIN: Are there any more questions?
You know with that recital — and I guess we are
all familiar at least in Washington with Calvert Cliffs —
if we have troubles and then we are working out that with a
study, our purpose here is to avoid those troubles, isn't it?
DR. RANEY: Was that a question, sir?
MR. STEIN: Yes.
DR. RANEY: That is exactly right. That is our
purpose here. And from what we know and what we have
presented and will present, and particularly from the actual
field studies done by Dr. John Ayers, a former colleague
of Cornell, I can certify that we can avoid the problems
by having a reasonable mixing zone and that a great deal of
the water of Lake Michigan can be used for cooling and that,
in my opinion, will be — in terms of the human ecology, this
would be the highest and best use of that water particularly
when we can do it without interfering with other
recreational values including the sport fishery.
MR. STEIN: Do you have any more, Mr. Dumelle?
MR. DUMELLE: I Just want to make sure I understand
Dr. Raney.
At Calvert Cliffs, then, you sacrificed the fish to
save the plankton. Does this mean, then, that you would
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E. C. Raney
have injured the plankton in some way had you not done this?
And, if so, at what temperatures or at what intake velocity
would this abrasion or this cooking have occurred?
DR. RANEY: Well, if you create a screening system
at the end of a long canal, as the fishes approach the screen
they sense the screen using their lateral line system which
picks up low frequency vibrations. They immediately turn
and face toward the current and they start swimming and they
swim and swim and swim for days or months, but don't get
anywhere. They just stay in the same position. I have
observed this at the Santa Onofre nuclear plant in California
and I am sure that this is what happens, and ultimately they
fall back against the screens. These screens are vertical
trouting screens. They come up and are washed off by a
jet and they fall into a bin and they are taken out to a
local dump or they are ground up and passed back into the
ecosystem. The latter system is probably preferable.
Now, the point here is that we ought to prevent
the fishes from getting into these places in the first place
rather than to design a pumping system later to try to get
them out, which they tried to do at Santa Onofre.
Now, I dislike to criticize a colleague, but the
recommendation was made early at the Calvert Cliffs with
regard to a system — she had good reason for making it.
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E. C. Raney
She wanted cooler water; she wanted to save the plankton.
Her field happens to be diatoms. (Laughter) Personally, I
am a student of fishes, striped bass, white perch, the other
80 species in the area, because these things are at the top
of the food chain which people are most interested in, in
the protection of these organisms.
MR. STEIN: Do I understand you right that we are
going to protect the organism in the biota that the
professor happens to specialize in? (Laughter)
DR. RANEY: Well, you see, it just happens that my
specialty coincides with the most important things.
MR. STEIN: It always does. I have never seen it
to fail, but you take the plankton specialist or the diatom
specialist and that is the most important thing to them.
That is a little subjective test, I think.
MR. DUMELLE: Can the fish swim against the
half-a-second-per-minute cuW5ent?
DR. RANEY: Can what?
MR. DUMELLE: Can the fish swim against the
half-foot-per-second current and can they escape from it?
DR. RANEY: We have been working for the last 2
years on the swimming speed of fishes. I have found in the
Susquehanna and the Delaware River system that after a fish
gets to a size when it does not pass through a screen,
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E. C. Raney
virtually all of the species can swim more than a half foot
per second. Many of them can swim as much as a foot per
second. This is particularly true of the estuarine species.
So that if you design a screen with a four-screen current
of a half to one foot per second and have a bypass through
which the fish can escape, you have, I think, about the most
effective design you can get. But the bypass part of it is
very important because regardless of the swim speed, the
fish cannot swim forever at a half foot or one foot or any
other speed.
MR. STEIN: By the way, I think that is the point
and maybe I am mistaken on this, but if I am, Dr. Raney, I
would like to be corrected. It is like having a fish on the
line. It isn't a question of how fast the fish can swim,
although that is important, but against a constant pressure
they have to give up sooner or later.
DR. RANEY: They do unless you have the type of
screen that we are working on now. Incidentally, I will put
in a plug for the U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries in this
regard. Danny Bates of Portland, Oregon, has for the last
15 years been working on a horizontal traveling screen, and
I think that this is our best hope at the moment of all of
the screening devices that I have seen in the world. I think
this is the one that gives us some hope — this screen,
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E. C. Raney
which is like a fireplace screen which rotates something like
a ski tow does. You place it at an angle across a canal,
and as the fish come down, they turn, face away from the
screen, and they are guided downstream to a bypass where
you direct them and put into this a trap and that takes
them 70 or 80 miles away, or bypasses them back into a near
body of water.
This is very, very important, but the technology
for this is not immediately available. This is something
that, if it had been available , we could have used, for
example, at the Zion plant. It is not that close, but
within the next 4 years I think you will see Rex Chainbelt
or Carswell or some of these other companies introducing
this.
MR. STEIN: Sir, isn't that Just the point?
The time for ecology or the time we have to work on —
and I know the time you have for development — may be
different in the framework, but if we are dealing with these
plants and then we have a device that has been in development
for 15 years and we need 4 years to go — and I fully
accept your estimate — that is 19 years. And if we have
made a mistake with the plants in authorizing one of these
plants and then we have to wait for a 19-year study and
development to straighten something out, we may be in some
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E.G. Raney
difficulty. I think the facts and testimony you are giving
are very pertinent,, but I think you are pointing up some of
the problems that, I think, the panel faces.
DR. RANEY: Mr. Stein, could 1 comment on that,
please?
MR. STEIN: Yes.
DR. RANEY: This is exactly right. In the last
2 years, I think we have learned more than we have the last
40 years with a great many aspects of fish behavior and
fish physiology and how to do and doing ecological studies.
For many years, within the United States Bureau
of Fisheries and other governmental agencies, certainly at
the universities — and I can speak better to this point —
many people have worked with budgets that would not enable
them to do much more than to crawl. Those days are over,
thank heavens. In other words, the press, the environmental
press is such now that funds are available so that we can do
these things that many of us have realized needed to be done
but that money was never available.
MR. STEIN: Thank you.
I know you said you were speaking for yourself,
and not necessarily the industry. But I hope you possibly
were speaking for all of us when you said on Page 16, "We
have the knowledge to design powerplants so as to mitigate
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E. C. Raney
possible environmental effects."
Well, if we could all agree on that I think we
have made a tremendous advance. If you agree with that,
maybe we can put that forward as a basis for moving forward
with this conference.
DR. RANEY: I do indeed agree with that and am
sure that, as a company and the conferees such as yourselves
come closer, exchange ideas more freely, I am certain that
we can get a situation where Lake Michigan will be properly
used and not ever abused.
MR. STEIN: Now, I just have one last point as
a point of clarification. It is on page 3. You say plants
will be used in the future and they say after the present
near hysteria regarding thermal discharge has subsided —
who do you mean has started it? The State and Federal
officials, the public, or the power officials, or the power
companies? Who is hysterical?
DR. RANEY: Well, I live in a little different
part of the world than you do, sir. I am certain you never
have riots or anything of that sort in Washington, but high
above Cayuga's waters we occasionally have what I think is
environmental hysteria and unfortunately some of my very
close colleagues are leaders of this.
If you have looked into the literature which I am
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956
E. C. Raney
quite sure that you have not had time to do, you would see
or read dozens and dozens of papers which treat the problem
of heat as a pollutant. Now, I am sure that your agency is
not responsible for this.
MR. STEIN: Dr. Raney, you know of a little secret
because I don't have time to look into the literature. I
don't cut off the experts at meetings like this and I can
get a full evaluation.
DR. RANEY: Thank you, sir.
MR. STEIN: But if you look at this meeting, sir,
I wonder where that hysteria is? I don't see how many
people we have gotten here from the public. I bet if you
went through this meeting you would find a vast majority of
the audience are representatives of the power industry.
I don't see any evidence of not only hysteria,
I am not sure how much public interest we have here.
DR. RANEY: Mr. Stein, unfortunately you didn't
have a chance to join us last Friday when the Illinois
Pollution Control Board met. The meeting was very ably
chaired by Mr. Currie, but we did have what I think is an
example of hysteria when a person gets up from the audience
and, while not listening to any evidence, points at a
speaker or a member of the panel and says, "I would like to
see you fry." What he meant was, "I would like to see you
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E. C. Raney
in hell." And this is a Catholic priest that was doing
this.
Now, I am a poor country boy, so I don't understand
these things, but I would say that this is hysteria.
MR. STEIN: I am not up on theology. (Laughter)
Are there any other comments or questions?
Thank you very much, Dr. Raney.
How much more have —
MR. FETTEROLF: Just a minute.
Tens of thousands of people fish for yellow perch
around the shoreline of Lake Michigan. It is a very
valuable species as far as the public is concerned.
The "white paper" expresses concern that the
incubation period of yellow perch eggs may be shortened
naturally in 1 year and 3 in Lake Michigan, by
natural lake temperatures reaching 64 degrees Fahrenheit
during incubation; and they further express concern that
this will result in mortality of many eggs.
Would you comment on this?
DR. RANEY: I would be most happy to.
The yellow perch has a range which extends at
least to South Carolina. I know that it occurs in Lake
Waccamaw which is on the border of North-South Carolina, and
here you have this kind of situation where these yellow
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E. C, Raney
perch down in that part of the world get along perfectly
well. They do in Virginia, and they do throughout the
Chesapeake Bay area0 They are better some places than
others, and they do in southern New York and they do in
northern New York, and I am sure that although I feel
rather sympathetic for the person who wrote that,
they are going to continue to get along very well in
Lake Michigan.
Now, with the yellow perch and the walleye, you
have this peculiar situation that you have what are called
dominant year classes, and I can't say that we understand
all of the factors that makes for a dominant year class,
but what this means, as of this year, for example, you
might have a great deal of spawn and all of the eggs sur-
vive, but when they hatch out all of the oyster pods
and copepods are just right, and so that they grow and a
great, many more of them survive than did the year before
or perhaps the year after.
Now this year class may dominate the fishery
for a half dozen years after they get big enough to come
into the fishery., Walleyes do this also, and all walleye
fishermen are cognizant of that.
Well, although the evidence is based on a little
bit of science, the author, I think, was trying to, as
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E. C. Raney
Dr. Pritchard, so ably express it. I think he was trying
to state the facts but without looking at the overall
reality of what happens in the yellow perch world.
MR. STEIN: Thank you.
MR. FETTEROLF: I have one more question. As a
biologist, I am very concerned over one point which was
brought out in the"white paper," and that is that cold
water species such as the whitefish are making a come-back
in Lake Michigan at this time. We are not certain of all
of the areas where these fish spawn.
The "white paper," and — from my personal
contact with biologists at Ann Arbor — has brought out the
point that when coregonid eggs hatch, the larvae apparently
must go to the surface of the lake to take in some air to
fill their swim bladders.
Now, you have stated in your paper that a
temperature of 1 to 5 degrees Fahrenheit warmer at the lake
surface will not produce a shock on these coregonid larvae
in their very delicate condition, as they rise from the
bottom or as they would go through a plume, say, it would
have even a greater temperature effect.
Now, I would like you to comment on that and
defend your position if you would, please.
DR. RANEY: Carlos, thanks for giving me an
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960
E. C. Raney
opportunity to do that.
I have read this statement sometime ago that all
fishes that have a duct between the air bladder and the gut
— a rather indelicate thing to be talking about here —
with these small fishes, supposedly they have to come to
the surface and take a little gulp of air, and they fill
their air bladder and if they don't do this they don't
survive.
I am not at all certain that this is true, but
we will assume that it is true.
There are another group of fishes that do not
have this duct. The duct has disappeared. These are the
so-called spiny-rayed fishes. So they Just fill their air
bladder by using the gases from their vascular system.
Now, if this is true, this larval whitefish
happened to have been spawned unfortunately near a plume,
and if he rose or was carried into the most heated part
of the plume, he would undoubtedly not survive. Now, the
passage through a temperature such as 5 degrees or
down to 1 degree — I doubt whether this would be
significant.
Now, what we have to do — Mr. Petterolf, who
asked the question is a very able biologist and I am
sure he knows this — what we have to do is to evaluate
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E. C. Raney
this in overall terms with regard to the population
dynamics of the whitefish. How much mortality can we
take from these accidental happenings, such as the place-
ment of a few dozen or 20 or 30 plumes around the lake?
What are the probabilities that a given young whitefish
will happen to be unfortunate enough to choose this place
to rise to get his first gulp of air and try to relate
this to the overall population?
As I look at it — you see, out of 100,000 of
these young whitefish only a couple are going to survive
anyway, so that we will consider this as part of the
natural mortality. In other words, the plume is a predator
in this regard. He would act just like another fish would
act if it happened to be nearby and ate this poor young
whitefish and this, of course, happens.
MR. STEIN: Did I understand you, again? You
are ready to have a hot water plume equated to a fish predator
and let that kill fish and just write it off?
DR. RANEY: Well, no, it is a matter of evaluating
what you have. Are you going to take a few acres of hot
water near the outlet pipe and say we can't have this
because occasionally we might kill some fish? Or are you
going to take this and permit once-through '.Doling, saving
all of these many millions of dollars that are going to be
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E. C. Raney
squandered on cooling towers and use these millions of
dollars in public funds for worthwhile projects: cleaning
up pollution, domestic, chemical; and cleaning up ghettoes?
MR. STEIN: Dr. Raney, I understand your position
perfectly, and I really admire your candor.
I think we have a very good presentation here.
Are there any other questions?
If not, thank you very much, sir.
M. BANE: Mr. Chairman, it is clear that we
won't be able to finish our presentation today within
the 5i30 limitation or anything like it.
As I said this morning, several of our witnesses
are on time schedules which would make it most inconvenient
for them to be here tomorrow — witnesses who have testified
today — and I, therefore, would like to propose, if it is
agreeable with you, that our witnesses who have been pre-
sented today be opened up at this time for any questions
from the public, and that thereafter they be released.
MR. STEIN: Right. I think that might be appro-
priate.
Without objection from the conferees, are there
any members of the public who have any questions to ask at
this point?
Mr. Dumelle, go ahead.
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C. Bane
By the way, I don 't want to foreclose — I
did this for the public. But may I make the suggestion,
Mr. Bane, if it is agreeable to the official people,
if any people from the State or the Federal Government
have questions, you will have people here tomorrow
who you feel can reasonably answer those questions? Is
that agreeable?
MR. BANE: Yes. Yea, we simply won't be able
to have everybody that we presented today. Those that we
can hold over, we will. We will have Dr. Pipes, who
has been the director of these studies and who has a good
overall view of it.
MR. STEIN: Then, let's just take Mr. Dumelle's
questions now and terminate it.
MR. BANE: All rinrht.
MR. DUMELLE: Dr. Pritchard.
MR. BANE: Dr. Pritchard, please.
MR. STEIN: Do you want to ask a question?
MR. DUMELLE: I want to ask Dr. Pritchard a
question. I don't know if he is here.
MR. STEIN: By the way, which people are going —
sir, Mr. Mavo would like to know which oeople are goine
to leave and which people are roing to be here tomorrow in
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C. Bane
case they do have Questions. I wonder if you could let
him know that.
Is Dr. Pritchard here? I guess not.
I.'IR. EAlIi;: He has cone. Ho has left town. So,
Mr. Durnelle, all I can suggest is: Can we have your ques-
tions in writing, and we will see that you get answers and
that the answers are distributed also to the chairman.
MR. STEIN: If he isn't here, we will try 'co ask
those questions tomorrow and maybe Mr. Dumelle and Mr.
Mayo can frame them. The reason we went along with this
is we thought everyone would wait around and be here to
answer these questions, we deal with independent
contractors too, and I recognize your position. But
I think rather than pursue this, this vesry well
may be a cul-de-sac you can get into.
You will know which people are here toraorrov/.
Let the poeple here reframe their questions accordingly
and we will try to get the best information we can when
we resume.
Nov:, wo will ~o back UD to the Bal Tabarin Room
tomorrow, and I think in view of the fact that we are
running sl'lf:ntly 1/jhii.ad, we will arrain reconvene at 9:00
o'.lock and we will stand recessed until then.
(The conference adjourned at -?:25 p.m.)
* U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1971 O - 422-409 (Vol. 2)
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