PROGRESS REPORT
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For sale by The Superintendent of Document?, (j.S. Government Printing Oihee
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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
a progress report
DECEMBER 1970 - JUNE 1972
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5, Library (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Boulevard, 12th Floor
PUBL.SHED NOVEMBER ,972 ChiC3gO. IL 60604-3590
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY • WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
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To the American People:
Earth Day 1, in April of 1970, signaled the awakening of an environ-
mental conscience in this nation. Clearly we Americans had abused
our natural heritage.
The air was cluttered with pollutants difficult to control and unhealthy
to breathe. Our waters from the Potomac to the Snake Rivers had
been severely ravaged by the works and neglect of man. We littered,
abused and wasted our land with little or no thought for the shape
of the future. Pesticides were poorly controlled, and we exposed our
fellow citizens every year to some 900 new chemical compounds whose
environmental or human impact were largely unknown.
That was eight months before the creation of the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency. After more than a year of operation, this is now
history. Unfortunately, those problems and others remain and probably
will for some time, but we are making progress. In the environment as
elsewhere real progress comes one step at a time.
In our first year we set national ambient air quality standards that will
protect the health of every American citizen.
In our first year we attempted to open up the whole process by
which we determine which pesticides we can tolerate in the environ-
ment and for what purposes.
In our first year we established three National Environmental Research
Centers to conduct on-going studies on the health and ecological
effects of environmental contaminants as well as to pursue the search
for technological controls of all forms of pollution.
In our first year we completed some major studies on the recovery of
municipal waste which chart a definite course for use in solid waste
management.
These efforts are not a cause for alleluias — or predictions of the
millenium. Rather, they are the sound foundations upon which real
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William D. Ruckleshaus
progress depends. I believe in the first year of this Agency, we have
plotted a course in which demonstrable and visible improvement of our
air, land and water will increasingly occur in the next few years.
On balance, a great deal of attention has been paid to this Agency and
to the cause we served in this first year. Hardly a week has gone by
without the emergence of new environmental issues: the Cross-Florida
Barge Canal and a jet port in the Everglades; the Supersonic Transport
and the Alaska Pipeline; national air quality standards and the Refuse
Act Permit Program; mercury in the water and asbestos in the air;
NTA and PCB's; DDT and 2,4,5-T.
In fact, the rate at which environmental impact statements arrive in our
EPA offices around the country leads one to believe that everything is
an environmental issue. Perhaps that is the greatest measure of our
progress in the first year. The fact is sinking in among all elements of
our society that, sooner or later, everything is an environmental issue.
Dr. Barry Commoner propounds as the First Law of Ecology "Every-
thing is Connected to Everything Else." I believe in this country we are
beginning to realize the validity of that proposition, but more im-
portantly, we are beginning to search out the connections and we are
striving to understand them.
The real significance of the debate over individual environmental issues
in the Agency's first year does not lie in the specifics nor in the dispo-
sition of each case. The significance lies in the debate itself. The fact
that it occurred—that questions never before asked about our personal
and corporate actions were raised is a new, and I think, permanent
element in American life.
I believe it's all to the good.
WILLIAM D. RUCKELSHAUS
ADMINISTRATOR
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CONTENTS
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Letter to the American People from William D.
Ruckelshaus
I. INTRODUCTION
Creation of EPA .-..
Environmental Legislation
Summary of Major Accomplish-
ments
Legislative Initiatives
AIR & WATER PROGRAMS
II. AIR QUALITY
Air Quality and Emission Standards
Emission Control Technology—
Stationary Sources
Emission Control Technology—
Mobile Sources
Air Quality Monitoring
Financial and Technical Assistance
The Economics of Clean Air
III. WATER QUALITY
Water Quality Standards
Water Quality Monitoring
Basin & Regional Planning
Oil & Hazardous Materials
Water Supply Program
Assistance Programs
Economics of Clean Water
CATEGORICAL PROGRAMS
IV.
V.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT....
Nature of the Solid Waste Problem
Objectives of the Solid Waste Pro-
gram
Program Operation
Accomplishments
PESTICIDES
Registrations and Tolerances
Environmental Surveillance
Market Surveillance
Monitoring of Accidents
Research
VI. RADIATION
Criteria Development
Technology Assessment
Surveillance and Inspection.
VII. NOISE
Public Hearings
Report to Congress
Proposed Legislation
VI
vii
viii
xi
xii
4
4
5
6
10
11
12
14
16
19
20
22
29
29
32
32
33
34
35
36
36
37
37
38
38
39
40
41
41
42
45
ECONOMIC IMPACT
VIII. ECONOMIC IMPACT OF POLLU-
TION CONTROL
Background
Approach
Micro Study
Macro Study
Pollution Abatement Cost Sum-
mary
REGIONAL, STATE AND LOCAL
ACTIVITIES
IX. REGIONAL, STATE AND LOCAL
ACTIVITIES
State & Local Assistance Programs
Regional and State Profiles
State Reorganization
Citizen Action
ENFORCEMENT
X. ENFORCEMENT
Water
Air
Pesticides
Refuse Act Permit Program.
RESEARCH AND MONITORING
XI.
XII.
RESEARCH
Organization
Multifaceted Problems
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITOR-
ING
FEDERAL ACTIVITIES
XIII. FEDERAL ACTIVITIES
Pollution from Federal Activities....
Control of Pollution from Federally
Owned Facilities
Control of Pollution from Federally
Supported and Authorized Ac-
tivities
Environmental Impact Statements
INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES
U.N. Conference
Multilateral Organizations
Bilateral Cooperation
Special Foreign Currency Programs
Exchange of Information
Viewing World Developments
47
47
48
49
50
55
59
59
67
83
84
89
90
92
93
93
97
97
100
102
109
109
109
110
111
114
114
115
116
116
117
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INTRODUCTION
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CREATION OF EPA
The Environmental Protection Agency's creation was
recommended to President Nixon by the President's
Advisory Council on Executive Organization, headed
by Roy L. Ash. The Ash Council recommendations
ultimately resulted in Reorganization Plan No. 3 of
1970, which President Nixon submitted to Congress
on July 9, 1970. In the absence of negative Congres-
sional action, the provisions of Reorganization Plan
No. 3 took effect on December 2, 1970.
The creation of EPA brought together in one Agency
a variety of research, monitoring, standard-setting and
enforcement activities formerly scattered through sev-
eral departments and agencies.
With its broad mandate, the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency is developing competence in areas of
environmental protection which previously have not
been given sufficient attention, such as the problem of
noise as a degradation of the Nation's environment.
Thus, for the first time, there is a governmental struc-
ture for approaching pollution control problems in
terms of the total environment, perceiving it as a
single, interrelated system.
In brief, these are the principal functions that were
transferred to EPA:
Federal Water Quality Administration. Charged
with the control of pollutants which impair water quality,
FWQA was broadly concerned with the impact of
degraded water quality. It performed a wide variety
of functions, including research, standard-setting and
enforcement, and provided construction grants and
technical assistance.
Certain pesticides research authority from the De-
partment of the Interior. Authority for research on the
effects of pesticides on fish and wildlife has been pro-
vided to EPA through transfer of the specialized
research authority of the pesticides act enacted in 1958.
Interior retains its responsibility to do research on all
factors affecting fish and wildlife. Under this provi-
sion, only one laboratory was transferred to EPA—
the Gulf Breeze Biological Laboratory of the Bureau
of Commercial Fisheries. EPA works closely with the
fish and wildlife laboratories remaining with the Bureau
of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife.
National Air Pollution Control Administration. As
the principal Federal agency concerned with air pol-
lution, NAPCA conducted research on the effects of air
pollution, operated a monitoring network, and promul-
gated criteria which served as the basis of setting air
quality standards. Its regulatory functions were similar
to those of the Federal Water Quality Administration.
NAPCA was responsible for administering the Clean
Air Act, which involved designating air quality regions,
approving State standards, and providing financial and
technical assistance to State control agencies to enable
them to comply with the Act's provisions. It also set
and enforced Federal automotive emission standards.
Elements of the Environmental Control Adminis-
tration. ECA was the focal point within the Depart-
ment of Health, Education and Welfare for evaluation
and control of a broad range of environmental health
problems, including water supply, solid wastes, and
HiiiiiimiimmuiiiiiimimiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiM
EPA HEADQUARTERS, WATERSIDE, MALL, Washington, D.C.
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radiation. Programs in ECA involved research and
development of criteria and standards, and the admin-
istration of planning and demonstration grants. From
ECA, the activities of the Bureaus of Water Hygiene
and Solid Waste Management and portions of the
activities of the Bureau of Radiological Health were
transferred to EPA. Other functions of ECA, includ-
ing those related to the regulation of radiation from
consumer products and occupational safety and health,
remain in HEW.
Pesticides research and standard-setting programs
of the Food and Drug Administration. FDA's pesti-
cides program consisted of setting and enforcing stand-
ards which limit pesticide residues in food. EPA
now has the authority to set pesticide standards and
to monitor compliance with them, as well as to con-
duct related research. However, as an integral part of
its food protection activities, FDA retains its authority
to remove food with excess pesticide residues from
the market.
General ecological research from the Council on
Environmental Quality. The authority to perform
studies and research relating to ecological systems, in
addition to EPA's other specific research authorities,
helps EPA measure the impact of pollutants. The
Council on Environmental Quality retains its authority
to conduct studies and research relating to environ-
mental quality.
Environmental radiation standards programs. The
Atomic Energy Commission was responsible for estab-
lishing environmental radiation standards and emission
limits for radioactivity. Those standards have been
based largely on broad guidelines recommended by the
Federal Radiation Council. The Atomic Energy Com-
mission's authority to set standards for the protection
of the general environment from radioactive material
was transferred to EPA. The functions of the Federal
Radiation Council were also transferred. AEC retains
responsibility for the implementation and enforcement
of radiation standards through its licensing authority.
Pesticides registration program of the Agricultural
Research Service. The Department of Agriculture was
responsible for several distinct functions related to
pesticides use. It conducted research on the efficacy
of various pesticides, as related to other pest control
methods, and on the effects of pesticides on non-target
plants, livestock, and poultry. It registered pesticides,
monitored their persistence and carried out an edu-
cational program on pesticide use through its extension
service. It conducted pest control programs in which
pesticides were utilized extensively.
By transferring the Department of Agriculture's
pesticides registration and monitoring function to EPA,
and merging it with the pesticides programs transferred
from HEW and Interior, the new Agency was given
a broad capability for control over the introduction of
pesticides into the environment.
The Department of Agriculture continues to conduct
research on the effectiveness of pesticides. It furnishes
this information to EPA, which has the responsibility
for actually licensing pesticides for use, after consider-
ing environmental and health effects.
EPA, as a new Federal force in the environment,
presents substantial opportunity to accomplish posi-
tive environmental improvement. It is an independent
regulatory Agency with no adjudicative powers, re-
porting directly to the Office of the President. No
longer is the setting and enforcement of environmental
quality standards in the hands of an agency which
also has a promotional interest. EPA's sole charge is
to see that the standards it sets and enforces, ade-
quately protect the total environment.
Another significant aspect of EPA is that it pro-
vides a mechanism for a coordinated approach to
environmental improvement. No longer will there be
water pollution and solid waste disposal agencies urg-
ing solutions to waste disposal problems, which only
serve to exacerbate or create serious air pollution
problems. And, no longer will Federal environmental
research plunge off in all directions, unrelated to any
overall plan for dealing with the total environment.
EPA intends to make major decisions publicly and
openly. For example, in January 1971 a Federal court
ordered EPA to decide whether the pesticide DDT
should be suspended and prohibited from interstate
transport. The Agency took the unprecedented step
of imposing a 60-day deadline on itself to make the
decision and requested comments from the public as
to whether DDT posed an imminent hazard, which
would require suspension under the Federal Insecti-
cide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act. More than 500
submissions were received which were considered along
with data compiled by EPA's Pesticide Office and sci-
entific experts. EPA's final decision was that the statu-
tory test for suspension had not been met. However,
the potential harm proposed by DDT did warrant
an aggressive administrative process called "cancella-
tion" under the Act, to determine whether, on a risk-
benefit basis, the registration of DDT products should
be continued. EPA then issued a 23-page opinion
which detailed reasons for the DDT decision, as well
as related decisions on 2,4,5-T, Mirex, aldrin and
dieldrin.
ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
Since EPA is a new initiative in guaranteeing en-
vironmental quality, it is worthwhile to review the
efforts of the Federal Government which have cul-
minated in the establishment of this Agency.
The evolution of Federal pollution control legis-
lation represents the attempt by Washington to come
to grips with the seriousness of pollution problems
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consistent with traditional concepts of Federalism. The
States and Federal Governments played their respec-
tive roles and despite the Donora, Pennsylvania, air
pollution disaster of 1948, in which 20 died and 6,000
were made ill, major Federal pollution programs were
first initiated in water. Until 1948, the States had exclu-
sive control over the problems of water pollution.
With the passage of the Federal Water Pollution Con-
trol Act of 1948, the Federal Government began to
move in.
In 1956, the Water Pollution Control Act was
amended, and these changes set up the basic structure
of Federal water pollution enforcement procedures for
the next 14 years. The 1956 amendment provided for
an enforcement conference to be called by the Fed-
eral Government and to include all interested parties,
especially the States. In six months, if no action was
taken to abate the problem under study, a hearing
could be held. The hearing was to be followed by
another six-month waiting period, after which the case
could be taken to court. This procedure required an
accusation that a State had failed to act, before the
Federal Government could go to court. Until the cre-
ation of EPA, only one case had appeared in court.
The Water Quality Act of 1965 made far-reaching
changes in the Federal role. It provided for the set-
ting, by the States, of water quality standards, subject
to the approval of the Secretary of HEW (now EPA).
It also provided for the creation of a Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration, which would assume
administrative control for these programs from the
Public Health Service.
Again in 1966, with the signing of the Clean Water
Restoration Act, Federal involvement increased. This
Act provided for another increase in Federal construc-
tion grants.
The Water Quality Improvement Act of 1970
changed the name of the Federal authority designed
to deal with water pollution to the Federal Water
Quality Administration. This new Act contained tighter
regulations related to oil and vessel pollution, Alaskan
village demonstrations, a program to solve the acid
mine drainage problems and several other functions.
In the area of air pollution, the legislative program
is essentially the same with a later timetable. Despite
the Donora disaster of 1948, and the emergence of
the smog problem in Los Angeles in the early 1950's,
Federal air pollution legislation was not enacted until
1955.
Finally in 1963, following the London "Killer
Smog" of 1962, in which 700 died, Congress passed
the Clean Air Act. Essentially, its enforcement pro-
cedures were the same as those developed for water
pollution: a conference, hearings and court action if
no abatement. This Act also provided funds for further
research into the problems of air pollution and its
control and provided grants for the development of
State and local air pollution control agencies.
In 1965, with the passage of the Motor Vehicle
Air Pollution Control Act, the Federal Government
recognized the need to control pollution caused by
automobiles. It initiated the procedures which resulted
in the first vehicular controls in 1968.
The major thrust of Federal concern for air pollu-
tion came with the passage of the Clean Air Act of
1967 which allows for the designation of air quality
control regions, either within a State or interstate.
After such designation, the Secretary of HEW (now
EPA) set air quality criteria for specified air pollu-
tants. The State, or States, set air quality standards,
subject to the Secretary's approval, and then provide
an implementation plan, also subject to approval.
The Clean Air Amendments of 1970 now allow
EPA to set air quality standards nationwide, not just
within regions. The Act further provides stricter regu-
lations on auto exhaust emissions, and stronger en-
forcement procedures which permit EPA, as the
successor to HEW, to move with more flexibility and
authority.
The Resources Recovery Act of 1970 added new
facets to the earlier Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965,
including not only solid waste "disposal" but also solid
waste "recovery" and "recycling." This addition stipu-
lates that special studies and demonstration projects
be undertaken to determine means of recovering mate-
rials and energy from solid wastes. The Act also pro-
vides for grants to promote area-wide solid waste
planning by cities and States, including methods for
collecting, separating and disposing of trash; to train
personnel of all kinds; and to build new, state-of-the-
art, solid waste facilities for recycling or recovering
energy or material resources.
To meet the expanding need for electricity, the util-
ities have been turning principally to nuclear power
stations. EPA does not have licensing power over the
nuclear power industry. That authority belongs to the
Atomic Energy Commission, primarily through its
power to issue construction and operating permits for
reactors. But EPA can influence the safe siting and
operation of these reactors with authorities transferred
in the President's Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970.
These authorities are the establishment of radiation
standards to insure that no significant harmful effects
will occur in the population, the approval of thermal
effects standards set by the States, and the reviewing
of environmental impact statements for nuclear fa-
cilities.
Title IV of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970
is the "Noise Pollution and Abatement Act of 1970".
It created an Office of Noise Abatement and Control
within EPA which was given authority to carry out a
one-year study of the noise problem to identify and
classify causes and sources of the noise problem and
its effect on human health and welfare.
Probably the most significant piece of Federal leg-
islation enacted in recent years is the Environmental
IX
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TABLE 1—ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
ADMINISTRATOR
William D. Ruckelshaus
DEPUTY ADMINISTRATOR
STAFF OFFICES
OFFICE OF
LEGISLATION
OFFICE OF
CIVIL RIGHTS &
URBAN AFFAIRS
ASST.
ADMINISTRATOR
FOR
PLANNING &
MANAGEMENT
ASST.
ADMINISTRATOR
FOR ENFORCEMENT
& GENERAL
COUNSEL
OFFICE OF
ADMINISTRATION
OFFICE OF
WATER
ENFORCEMENT
OFFICE OF
PLANNING &
EVALUATION
OFFICE OF
GENERAL COUNSEL
OFFICE OF
RESOURCES MGT.
OFFICE OF
GENERAL
ENFORCEMENT
REGIONAL OFFICES
OFFICE OF
INTERNATIONAL
AFFAIRS
OFFICE OF
FEDERAL ACTIVITIES
OFFICE OF
PUBLIC AFFAIRS
ASST.
ADMINISTRATOR
FOR AIR &
WATER PROGRAMS
ASST.
ADMINISTRATOR
FOR CATEGORICAL
PROGRAMS
ASST.
ADMINISTRATOR
FOR RESEARCH &
MONITORING
OFFICE OF
AIR PROGRAMS
OFFICE OF
WATER PROGRAMS
OFFICE OF
PESTICIDES
PROGRAMS
OFFICE OF
RADIATION
PROGRAMS
OFFICE OF
SOLID WASTE
MGT. PROGRAMS
OFFICE OF
MONITORING
OFFICE OF
PROGRAM
OPERATIONS
OFFICE OF
RESEARCH
1
REGION I
BOSTON
1
REGION III
PHILADELPHIA
REGION II
NEW YORK
1
HEGION V
CHICAGO
REGION IV
ATLANTA
1
REGION VII
KANSAS CITY
REGION VI
DALLAS
1
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO
REGION VIM
DENVER
REGION X
SEATTLE
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Policy Act of 1970. This requires every agency of
the Federal Government to take into account, and to
make public, the environmental impact of each major
action, as well as to discuss alternatives which were
considered and which might minimize environmental
damage. Already, the procedures of this Act have
influenced many projects, and caused the redesign of
others, in order to reduce their impact on the en-
vironment.
SUMMARY OF MAJOR
ACCOMPLISHMENTS
In his message to Congress on the Organization of
EPA, President Nixon said: "The Environmental Pro-
tection Agency would focus on setting and enforcing
pollution control standards."
This task was to be accomplished even though the
creative activity of 1970 had moved the country ahead
of existing legal tools to rectify specific environmental
problems. The existing Federal and State laws and
the capability to enforce them were unwieldy.
Although EPA started with some difficult legal
machinery, its unified, coordinated approach promised
more effective standards and the enforcement of those
standards. It also had the benefit of laws just recently
passed, such as the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970.
The Atomic Energy Commission, for example, pro-
tected the environment from radiation hazards while
at the same time it promoted nuclear power. The
Department of Agriculture controlled the use and
abuse of agricultural chemicals while simultaneously
seeking higher farm yields. Three different depart-
ments had roles in the handling and control of pesti-
cides. Such division of responsibility precluded any
possibility of a Federally integrated, coordinated ap-
proach to the total environmental pollution problems.
In 1971, national ambient air quality standards
were set to protect the health of every American citi-
zen. Right now, each State is drafting its plan to
implement those standards and achieve the rigid dead-
lines for the preservation of our air resources. There
has been a great deal of discussion about the rigorous-
ness of some of these deadlines. But no matter whether
they can be totally achieved in every case, no one can
dispute that solid and far-reaching progress is being
made in restoring the quality of our air.
EPA also concluded hearings on new auto emission
standards. It announced the registration of fuel addi-
tives to reduce auto pollution and held a special auto
emission control conference in which the Adminis-
trator made clear to the industry precisely what he
expected of them. The first "clean car" incentive con-
tracts were awarded, and the Army announced the
development of an experimental motor vehicle which,
it said, meets the 1967 emission standards.
A permit program was inaugurated to regulate the
discharge of wastes into navigable waterways and their
tributaries within the continental U.S. The Refuse Act
permit system is not perfect; the division of adminis-
trative authority between several agencies of govern-
ment is not sound management. The program does not
apply to all discharges—only those not discharged
through a municipal system; therefore, the permit sys-
tem is cumbersome and incomplete.
But, based on the limitations of the present state of
the law, it is the best system that could be devised,
and is a giant step toward cleaner water. For the
first time, there will be a Nationwide inventory of
industrial waste being discharged directly into our
waterways. These discharges will be controlled through
the permit program, or its successor in the new water
bill; and through this control our water will be pro-
tected as never before.
Enforcement of water quality standards and con-
trols through the permit program alone, of course,
cannot solve the problem of water pollution. A major
part of the problem resides in the fact that most
municipal sewage treatment plants are woefully out-of-
date. For this reason, a major portion of EPA's budget
is earmarked to provide localities with funds for the
construction of modern municipal sewage treatment
plants, including new experimental pilot plants that
might conceivably demonstrate a better, more efficient
way of disposing of municipal sewage. A number of
these projects have begun to yield results.
An attempt has been made to open up the whole
process of determining which pesticides can be toler-
ated in the environment and for what purposes. Much
greater public participation in making a decision, as to
what risks are acceptable for what benefits, has been
sought. In the new pesticide legislation pending before
Congress, the necessary authority has been sought to
control the use of any pesticide and, thereby, much
more carefully maximize the benefit of a chemical and
minimize or eliminate the environmental hazard.
To meet the growing demand for electricity, the
utilities are increasingly turning toward nuclear-power
stations. As "an advocate of the environment" EPA
has direct responsibility to protect the health of the
people living near nuclear plants. EPA must also pro-
tect the rest of the environment—plants and animals—
from any other adverse effects of this activity, such as
excessive discharge of waste heat into waterways.
Also, under its review of environmental impact state-
ments authority, EPA studied many such statements
prepared by the AEC for various nuclear facilities,
and in many cases, was able to effect changes.
EPA was deeply involved in providing financial and
technical assistance to the Colorado State Health De-
partment on the problem of a building for which radio-
active tailings from uranium mines had been used as
construction fill for the foundations.
Three National Environmental Research Centers
have been established to conduct on-going studies on
the health and ecological effects of environmental con-
XI
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taminants, as well as to pursue the search for techno-
logical controls of all forms of pollution. The integrated
research program conducted through these centers,
and their satellite laboratories, enables EPA to estab-
lish environmental standards on the basis of scientific-
ally verifiable data. The research program is beginning
to place the Agency in a predictive, instead of reactive,
position with regard to environmental protection and
the introduction of new elements into our habitat.
Since the beginning' of EPA, some major studies
were completed on the recovery of municipal waste,
which chart a definite course in solid waste manage-
ment. It is clear that useful basic technology to re-
process municipal waste has been developed. The
problem in many applications is not technology, but
markets. There are currently no substantial markets
for the products recovered by solid waste systems. So,
as the Agency works with cities to increase their per-
formance in the collection and handling of wastes
at costs they can afford, EPA will concentrate its
efforts, as well, on analyzing and recommending ways
to increase the demands for resources received from
municipal waste.
In a new area of environmental concern, EPA
established its Office of Noise Abatement Control.
Currently, the Office is evaluating the health hazards
of noise and reviewing promising advances in noise
suppression technology. Although the major effort thus
far has been in the area of aircraft noise suppression,
investigations of other noise sources are expected to
be substantially broadened. EPA has prepared spe-
cific recommendations to Congress on new programs
to further combat noise pollution.
The December 2, 1970, stroke of the Presidential
pen did not bring an immediate solution to these prob-
lems, since at that point, EPA was merely an idea
embodied in words on a piece of paper. The job re-
mained to turn that idea into a reality. The existing
facilities, programs and people who were to come
under the aegis of EPA were scattered throughout the
country and the Federal establishment. They, their
work and their tools had to be brought together both
physically and organizationally. For the first time, their
efforts had to be realigned into some kind of coordi-
nated program that reflected the interdisciplinary
nature of environmental pollution.
This vast organizational effort, moreover, was com-
plicated by the fact that the urgency of the attack on
pollution demanded that vital on-going programs not
be disturbed or delayed by the realignment. Indeed,
work also had to begin immediately on a host of new
programs and initiatives included in EPA's mission.
Internally, EPA started organizing itself to cope
with a myriad of interrelated problems. By February
of 1971, the Administrator had named five officials as
acting Assistant Administrators—three of them in
major functional areas: enforcement, research and
monitoring, and planning and management; one to
supervise the programs concerned with air and water;
and one to supervise pesticides, solid wastes and radi-
ation programs.
In that same period, the Administrator also set up
10 Regional Offices along boundaries already in use
by other Federal agencies, with the Regional Admin-
istrators reporting directly to him. This reflected the
Administrator's belief that much of the work of the
Agency should be done through the Regional Offices;
they would be the "cutting edge" of the Agency's
effort. These efforts were the sound foundations upon
which real progress depended. EPA has plotted a
course in which demonstrable and visible improvement
of air, water and land will increasingly occur in the
next few years.
The establishment of the Environmental Protection
Agency was a landmark decision to replace a hap-
hazard, fragmented approach to environmental quality,
with a coordinated, sustained effort to the protection
and the enhancement of our atmosphere and living
space. By consolidating in EPA the responsibility for
research and standard-setting, monitoring and enforce-
ment with regard to six major environmental concerns
—air, water, and noise pollution, pesticides, radiation,
solid waste disposal—recognition has finally been given
to the interrelated nature of environmental problems.
There is little sense in removing impurities from the air
only to liquefy them and put them in the water, or
solidify them and put them on the land. The mandate
of EPA is to view the environment as a whole—to be
an advocate for its preservation, to be sure that one
problem is not aggravated while another problem is
solved, and to educate and lead the Nation to a new
awareness of peoples' relationship to the delicate bal-
ance of life on this planet.
In many ways, what EPA has done since its cre-
ation is less important than what it has learned or
affirmed about the problems of environmental degrada-
tion, and the people and groups who have made a
cause of it. What has been learned about society pro-
vides invaluable insights into the chances for ultimate
resolution of the Nation's environmental difficulties.
LEGISLATIVE INITIATIVES
Although much progress has been made in building
a set of laws that are workable and rational, some
important legislation requested in last year's Presi-
dential Environmental Message is still before Congress.
Other vital legislative programs have been recently
proposed. The following list shows the major bills now
awaiting Congressional action.
Major Initiatives Still Awaiting Final Legislative Action
(1971):
1. Regulation of toxic substances
2. Comprehensive improvement in pesticide con-
trol authority
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3. Noise control
4, Preservation of historic buildings
5. Power plant siting
6. Regulation of environmental effects of strip and
underground mining
7. More effective control of water pollution through
a greatly expanded waste treatment grant pro-
gram and strengthened standard-setting and
enforcement authorities
8. A National Land Use Policy Act
9. Substantial expansion of the wilderness system
10. Expanded international cooperation to deal
with oil pollution
11. Prevention of oil spills through navigation aids
12. Amendments to Land and Water Conservation
Fund
1972 Action Program
Disposal of Toxic Wastes
A Toxic Wastes Disposal Control Act to ensure
that the increasing use of land and underground
disposal of toxic wastes does not pose a hazard
to health. Under the proposed bill, which would
amend the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act, States would regulate disposal of toxic
wastes on and under the land, including "deep
well" disposal, pursuant to guidelines established
by the Environmental Protection Agency, with a
provision for Federal enforcement action if a
State fails to establish its own program.
Sediment Control
A Sediment Control Act would call for States
to establish regulatory programs to control sedi-
ment affecting water quality from earthmoving
activities such as building and road construction.
Sulfur Oxides Emission Charge
A charge on sulfur emitted into the atmos-
phere from combustion, refining, smelting and
other processes. The charge is designed to sup-
plement regulatory provisions of the Clean Air
Act in controlling sulfur oxides emissions, one
of the most harmful of air pollutants. The charge
would begin in 1976 and apply in all regions
where the air quality did not meet national stand-
ards for sulfur oxides during 1975.
A charge of 15<- per pound of sulfur would be
levied in areas failing to meet the primary (health
protection) ambient air quality standards estab-
lished under the Clean Air Act, with a 10^ per
pound charge levied in areas that meet the pri-
mary standard but fail to meet the more stringent
secondary (damage to property and vegetation)
sulfur oxide standards. No charge would be lev-
ied in areas meeting both primary and secondary
standards.
Clean Energy Generation and Conservation
Eighty-eight million dollars in 1973 budget for
additional development of a broad spectrum of
new technologies for producing clean energy.
Issuance by the Department of Housing and
Urban Development of revised standards for Fed-
erally insured apartments and other multi-family
structures requiring insulation that will reduce up
to 40 percent of heat losses from such structures,
with fuel savings exceeding the additional insula-
tion costs within a five-year period.
Council on Environmental Quality and Office
of Science and Technology to conduct survey with
other Federal agencies to determine additional
actions they might take to conserve energy.
Recycling
The Treasury Department is clarifying the avail-
ability of tax exempt treatment industrial revenue
bond financing for the construction of recycling
facilities built by private concerns to recycle their
own wastes.
Integrated Pest Management
Research, development, and demonstration pro-
grams on integrated pest management, a sys-
tematic approach to pest control that involves
judicious use of selective chemical pesticides in
conjunction with maximum use of natural pest
control techniques, such as predators, steriliza-
tion and pest diseases.
Expansion of current research and development
activities in integrated pest management through
a new, large-scale program involving the U. S.
Department of Agriculture, the National Science
Foundation, and the Environmental Protection
Agency, and conducted by leading universities.
Expanded U. S. Department of Agriculture pro-
gram of field testing of promising new methods of
pest detection and control.
Federal encouragement for development of uni-
versity training programs and State certification
of crop protection specialists needed to ensure
widespread implementation of integrated pest
control techniques.
Expansion of USDA field scout programs to cover
nearly four million acres of crops this growing
season. This program permits elimination of many
unnecessary pesticide applications by using the
scouts to determine when such applications actu-
ally are needed.
Development of standards by the Departments of
Labor and Health, Education, and Welfare under
the Occupational Safety and Health Act to pro-
tect farm workers from pesticide poisoning.
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Increased Research on Pollution
Request in 1973 budget for an increase of $23
million in research to reduce aircraft noise, and
new funds to reduce street traffic noise.
Request in 1973 budget for an additional $12
million for research on health effects of pollution,
regional air pollution modeling, and improved
pollution measurement and instrumentation.
Strengthen Land Use Policy Bill
Amendments to the pending Administration Land
Use Policy Bill would require States to control
siting of major transportation facilities and impose
sanctions on States failing to implement adequate
land use programs.
States not implementing adequate programs by
1975 would be subject to incremental seven per-
cent annual reductions in Federal funds allocated
to them under the airport and highway assistance
programs and the Land and Water Conservation
Fund. Funds so withheld would be allocated
among States with acceptable programs.
Controlling Development of Wetlands
Amendments to the Internal Revenue Code to
limit in coastal wetlands certain Federal tax bene-
fits for new development, thereby discouraging
unnecessary development in these environmen-
tally critical areas.
Predator Control
Executive Order barring the use of poisons for
predator control on public lands, except in emer-
gencies.
Proposed legislation to shift the emphasis of the
current direct Federal predator control program
to one of research, technical and financial as-
sistance to the States to help them control preda-
tors with means other than poisons.
Endangered Species
New legislation to permit earlier identification and
protection of endangered species, so that action
can be taken before a species is so depleted that
regeneration is difficult or impossible. The new
legislation would also for the first time make the
taking of endangered species a Federal offense.
Migratory Species
Secretary of State authorized in conjunction with
the Department of the Interior to seek agreement
with Mexico to add 33 families of birds—includ-
ing eagles, hawks, owls, and many wading birds—
to the protected list established by the two
countries.
Legacy of Parks
Legislation submitted to the Congress to create
a Big Cypress Fresh Water Reserve, empowering
the Federal Government to acquire requisite legal
interest in 547,000 acres of private lands in the
Big Cypress Swamp in Florida to protect the
unique Everglades National Park.
New legislation to establish in the San Francisco
Bay region a Golden Gate National Recreation
Area, combining a number of existing parks,
undeveloped military reservations, and private
lands. The area would encompass 24,000 acres
of beaches, rugged coastline, and readily acces-
sible parklands; the area would extend approxi-
mately 30 miles along the Pacific Coast north
and south of the Golden Gate Bridge in San
Francisco.
As a result of activities of the Property Review
Board, established by the President in 1970,
20 additional parcels of public lands are being
made available for park and recreation use. The
20 properties announced today for inclusion in
the legacy of parks program include all or por-
tions of the Alvord Estate in Phoenix, Arizona;
Camp Elliott in San Diego, California; San Luis
Obispo, California; Outer Market Annex, Palm
Beach, Florida; Gap Filler Annex, Winter Gar-
den, Florida; Boca Grande Light Station, Gaspa-
rilla Island, Florida; Panama City Jetties, St.
Andrews Bay, Florida; Federal Correctional In-
stitute, Tallahassee, Florida; Crooked River Light,
Carabelle, Florida; Dinner Key Air Station,
Miami, Florida; Veterans Administration Hos-
pital, Topeka, Kansas; Veterans Administration
Center Reservation, Leavenworth, Kansas; Vet-
erans Administration Hospital, Bedford, Massa-
chusetts; Federal Correctional Institution, Milan,
Michigan; Chillicothe Station, Ross County, Ohio;
Former Naval Air Station, Tillamook County,
Oregon; Roosevelt Roads, Puerto Rico; Fort
Hood, Killcen, Texas; Veterans Administration
Hospital, Waco, Texas; Fort Douglas, Salt Lake
City, Utah.
These 20 parcels constitute 2,853 acres with an
estimated fair market value of $4.6 million. Com-
bined with 63 parcels already made available
during the past year, this program will provide
14,585 acres of parkland, in 31 States and Puerto
Rico with an estimated fair market value of
more than $56 million.
Wilderness Areas
Proposal of 18 new wilderness areas that would
add 1.3 million acres to the wilderness system.
These 18 areas are in addition to 18 areas already
proposed by this Administration, and pending
before the Congress.
The 18 proposed new areas and their acreages
are as follows:
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Weminuch, National Forest, Colorado, 346,833
acres
Eagles Nest, National Forest, Colorado, 87,755
acres
Emigrant, National Forest, California, 105,376
acres
Aqua Tibia, National Forest, California, 11,920
acres
Mission Mountains, National Forest, Montana,
73,207 acres
Glacier, National Forest, Wyoming, 182,510
acres
Blue Range, National Forest, Arizona, New
Mexico, 177,239 acres
Aldo Leopold, National Forest, New Mexico,
188,095 acres
St. Marks, National Wildlife Refuge, Florida,
17,746 acres
Wolf Island, National Wildlife Refuge, Geor-
gia, 4,168 acres
Moosehorn, National Wildlife Refuge, Maine,
4,598 acres
San Juan Islands, National Wildlife Refuge,
Washington, 355 acres
Cape Remain, National Wildlife Refuge, South
Carolina, 28,000 acres
Bosque del Apache, National Wildlife Refuge,
New Mexico, 32,500 acres
Bryce Canyon, National Park, Utah, 16,303
acres
Black Canyon, National Monument, Colorado,
8,780 acres
Colorado, National Monument, Colorado,
7,700 acres
Chiricahua, National Monument, Arizona,
6,925 acres
TOTAL 1,300510 acres
The Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior
will accelerate identification of areas in the East-
ern United States having wilderness potential, in
order to increase the opportunities for wilderness
experience within the regions where most of our
people live.
Off-Road Vehicles
Executive Order directing Secretaries of Agri-
culture, Interior, Army and the Board of Direc-
tors of the Tennessee Valley Authority to issue
regulations for controlling the use of these vehi-
cles on Federal lands. Regulations to designate
specific areas where their use is or is not per-
mitted, prescribe operating conditions that will
be necessary to minimize damage to the natural
resources of the Federal lands, and ensure com-
patability with other recreational uses, taking into
account noice and other factors.
United Nations Fund for the Environment
Proposal for a United Nations Fund for the
Environment to help stimulate international co-
operation on environmental problems, which
would bring to bear new resources on worldwide
problems through activities such as monitoring
and cleanup of the oceans and atmosphere. Rec-
ommendation that the fund establish an initial
funding goal of $100 million for the first five
years, with the United States providing its fair
share on a matching basis.
Control of Marine Pollution
The United States is preparing for a 1973 Inter-
governmental Maritime Consultative Organization
(IMCO) Conference to draft a convention bar-
ring intentional discharges to the sea of oil and
hazardous substances from ships. In conjunction
with the Law of the Sea Conference scheduled
for 1973, the United States is examining meas-
ures to control the effects of developing under-
seas resources. In the preparatory work for the
1972 U.N. Conference on the Human Environ-
ment, progress has been made on an agreement
to regulate the dumping of shore generated
wastes, and further work in this area has been
scheduled by IMCO.
Protecting Children
In addition to other Federal activities, Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare will use
grants and technical assistance to initiate programs
in more than 50 communities to test children in
high-risk areas for lead concentrations.
Youth Programs
The President's Environmental Merit Awards Pro-
gram, initiated last October by the Environmental
Protection Agency in cooperation with the U. S.
Office of Education, awards national recognition
to successful student projects which lead to en-
vironmental understanding or improvement. More
than 2,000 high schools throughout the entire
50 States are already participating in the program.
The Department of Agriculture's expanded field
scout demonstration program, designed to permit
more effective pest control with substantially less
pesticides, v/ill employ over 2,000 high school and
college students.
The Environmental Protection Agency recently
initiated in its Seattle Regional Office a pilot pro-
gram to use young people in its monitoring and
other activities, with the program to be expanded
if it proves successful.
ACTION volunteers and youth employed through
the Neighborhood Youth Corps, Job Corps and
college work-study programs will work with city
governments to help alleviate lead-paint hazards.
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PROG
XVI
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AIR QUALITY
The American public has become increasingly con-
cerned during the last 20 years about the harmful
effects of air pollution on human health, welfare and
the quality of life. This concern is reflected in a suc-
cession of increasingly more stringent laws, at all levels
of government, to control emissions from stationary
and mobile sources of air pollution.
The first organized Federal program on air pollu-
tion was developed in 1955 when legislation was en-
acted authorizing the Public Health Service to carry
out a modest air pollution research program and to
provide technical assistance to State and local gov-
ernments, which traditionally have had primary re-
sponsibility for dealing with community air pollution
problems.
In 1963, Congress passed the landmark Clean Air
Act. This law authorized financial assistance to State
and local governments for the initiation and improve-
ment of control programs, Federal-interstate abatement
actions, and the publication of criteria describing the
effects of pollution. The law placed special emphasis on
gaseous pollutants, particularly exhaust emissions from
motor vehicles, and sulfur oxides from stationary
sources.
In 1965, amendments to the Clean Air Act gave the
Federal program authority to curb motor vehicle emis-
sions. Federal standards were first applied to 1968
model motor vehicles.
The Air Quality Act of 1967 required a new and
more comprehensive approach to the problem. It
called for the Federal government to designate air
quality regions on the basis of meteorological and
urban factors, and to publish criteria documents (de-
scribing the effects of pollutants), accompanied by
related documents on the types and costs of techniques
available to carry out source control. Armed with these
data, State Governors were required to establish air
quality standards and regulating control programs
aimed at meeting such standards for designated regions.
The work accomplished under the 1967 legislation
paved the way for enactment of the Clean Air Act
Amendments of 1970, which were signed into law on
December 31, 1970.
AIR QUALITY AND
EMISSION STANDARDS
The 1970 Clean Air Amendments require EPA to
set national ambient air quality standards. In April
1971, EPA promulgated national air quality standards
for six common classes of pollutants: sulfur oxides,
particulate matter, carbon monoxide, photochemical
oxidants, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons. As re-
quired under the law, two types of standards have
been set: primary standards to protect against damage
to public health, and secondary standards to protect
against all other damage (property, animals, vegeta-
tion, materials, visibility, aesthetics, etc.).
Under the Act, the States must submit implemen-
tation plans to achieve the national air quality stand-
ards. During 1971, EPA promulgated guidelines to be
followed by the States in developing these plans. The
guidelines require States to provide for attainment
within three to five years, and maintenance of the
national standards through the development of air
pollution control strategies, which besides the required
source emission limitations could include other meas-
ures, such as land use and transportation control
measures.
State implementation plans also must include emer-
gency action plans designed to prevent significant harm
to the health of persons during high air pollution epi-
sodes. EPA has defined, for the five most common air
contaminants, the levels at which significant harm to
the health of persons can be expected to occur. State
plans must provide for action designed to prevent sig-
nificant harm levels from occurring.
In addition, EPA has listed seven specific kinds of
legislative authority that will be needed by State
air pollution control agencies to meet the requirements
of the Clean Air Act. The State air pollution control
officials must have authority to:
1. Adopt emission standards and limitations and
any other measures necessary for attainment and
maintenance of national standards.
2. Enforce applicable laws, regulations and stand-
ards, and seek injunctive relief.
3. Abate pollutant emissions on an emergency
basis to prevent substantial endangerment to the
health of persons.
4. Prevent construction, modification, or opera-
tion of any stationary source at any location
where emissions from such source will prevent
the attainment or maintenance of a national
standard.
5. Obtain information necessary to determine
whether air pollution sources are in compliance
with applicable laws, regulations, and standards,
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including authority to require record keeping and
to make inspections and conduct tests of air pol-
lution sources.
6. Require owners or operators of stationary
sources to install, maintain, and use emission
monitoring devices and to make periodic reports
to the State on the nature and amounts of emis-
sions from such stationary sources; also authority
for the State to make such data available to the
public as reported and as correlated with any
applicable emission standards or limitations.
7. Where a plan sets forth a control strategy
that provides for application of inspection and
testing of motor vehicles and/or other transpor-
tation control measures, such plan shall set forth
the State's timetable for obtaining such legal
authority as may be necessary to carry such
measures.
8. EPA, under the Act, has important residual
enforcement power in the event of failure of a
State to perform according to law or regulation.
During 1971, EPA approved portions of 21 regional
air pollution control plans for sulfur oxides and par-
ticulate matter. The plans were prepared by State gov-
ernments prior to the Clean Air Act Amendments of
1970. However, the approved portions include regu-
lations for attainment and maintenance of national
primary (health-related) air quality standards for par-
ticulate matter or sulfur oxides or both. In some in-
stances the plans also provide for the achievement of
the national secondary standards for these pollutants.
By July of 1972 13 State plans were approved, four
plans required additional legal authority within the
States and 38 plans are being proposed and promul-
gated by EPA.
Stationary Sources Emission Standards
Unlike ambient air quality standards, emission stand-
ards are limitations placed on the actual sources of
pollution. Emission standards are key elements in the
State implementation plans. EPA is developing two
types of Federal emission standards. The first is a set
of standards on especially hazardous air pollutants,
Houston Smokestack pouring out from the burning of old Batteries, Houston, Texas.
Documorica 1*110 to
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which may not be as widely distributed or prevalent
as pollutants covered by the State implementation
plans. The second is a set of performance standards
on industrial operations, which limit the pollution
effluent on new or modified industrial facilities to best
available and demonstrated control techniques. These
standards are designed to prevent pollution as our
industrial capability expands.
Proposed emission standards have been published
for three hazardous air pollutants. The hazardous pol-
lutants—asbestos, beryllium, and mercury—are the
first to be identified as such under the 1970 Clean Air
Amendments. The proposed standards would apply to
various types of facilities producing, manufacturing,
or using these substances or products containing them.
Both existing and new plants would be covered.
Hearings on the proposed standards were held during
January and February 1972. The standard for each
pollutant is scheduled to be made final shortly.
The first group of new source performance standards
have been promulgated for steam generators, sulfuric
and nitric acid plants, cement plants, and municipal in-
cinerators. The standards are based on capabilities of
the best adequately demonstrated emission reduction
systems, taking into account the costs. The standards
apply primarily to new plants, but also to existing plants
which are modified in such a way as to increase or alter
the nature of their emissions. In developing these stand-
ards, EPA conducted tests of existing sources, consulted
industry experts, studied published reports, and con-
sidered available information on industrial practices in
the United States and abroad.
Two more groups of industries may be covered by
proposed new source performance standards during
1972. By that time it is hoped that all the major sta-
tionary sources of pollution will be covered by either
ambient standards, hazardous pollutant standards, new
source performance standards, or a combination of
these.
Mobile Sources Emission Standards
EPA has announced several mobile source standards
that will provide the 90 percent reduction in the
level of auto emissions by 1975-76 required by the
Clean Air Act.
Final regulations by which 1975 and 1976 model
cars will be judged for their compliance with the Clean
Air Act of 1970 were promulgated in 1971, including
standards for carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons be-
ginning with the 1975 model year. These would limit
emissions to 3.4 grams of carbon monoxide and 0.41
grams of hydrocarbons per vehicle mile. By compari-
son, allowable emissions from 1970 automobiles were
equivalent to 34.0 grams of carbon monoxide and 4.1
grams of hydrocarbons per vehicle mile in terms of the
test procedure adapted for use in 1975. The 90 percent
reduction in permissible levels is required in the Clean
Air Act.
EPA also has promulgated a new exhaust emission
standard for nitrogen oxides, which will limit emissions
to 3.0 grams per vehicle mile beginning with the 1973
model year. This will be the first Federal limit placed
on emissions of nitrogen oxides from motor vehicles.
By comparison, emissions from 1971 cars that are not
equipped with nitrogen oxides control systems average
4.0 grams per vehicle mile. In addition, the regulations
require a further reduction in the nitrogen oxides limit
to 0.4 grams per vehicle mile beginning with the 1976
model year. This limitation is in accord with the Acts
requirement for a 90 percent reduction in nitrogen
oxides by 1976.
The new regulations also provide for changes in the
present EPA testing procedure, beginning with the
1975 model year, which will more accurately reflect
the driving experience of the motor vehicle population
in major urban areas.
EPA has also issued final regulations to require auto
makers to provide instructions for the proper main-
tenance of air pollution control systems. The regula-
tions took effect in the 1972 model year, although
their provision for EPA's review of these instructions
is not effective until the 1973 model year.
The Clean Air Act authorizes EPA to ensure that
motor vehicles remain in compliance with Federal
emission standards throughout the vehicle's useful life.
The new regulations define "useful life" as follows:
For light-duty vehicles, five years or 50,000 miles.
For heavy-duty gasoline engines, five years or
50,000 miles.
For heavy-duty diesel engines, five years or 100,-
000 miles.
The regulations applicable to maintenance instruc-
tions would require manufacturers to provide informa-
tion on the maintenance of exhaust, crankcase, and
evaporative-emission control systems, and on ways to
identify and correct malfunctions in those systems.
In May of 1971, EPA conducted public hearings at
which domestic and foreign automobile manufacturers
were requested to describe their efforts to develop
systems to meet the stringent 1975-76 emission limits.
The results of these hearings are described in EPA's
report to Congress of July 9, 1971, on the develop-
ment of systems to reduce automobile emissions, and
are intended to provide information to assist in deter-
mining the feasibility of producing low emission ve-
hicles by 1975.
EPA Federal Laboratory, Ann Arbor, Michigan: Tests begin
in the formulation of EPA National Air Standards.
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EMISSION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
—STATIONARY SOURCES
EMISSION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
—MOBILE SOURCES
During 1971, the research and development program
for stationary source air pollution control moved for-
ward on a broad front, toward the goal of developing
and demonstrating technology in support of the EPA
objective of enforcing and preserving air quality in an
economic and timely manner.
A significant part of this effort in line with the
President's Energy Resources Message to Congress
June 1971, was devoted to continuing work on the
large-scale demonstrations of sulfur oxides stack gas
cleaning processes. Test programs have been underway
since mid-1970 and new tests will begin during 1972.
Work in advanced processes has continued in the
development of fluidized bed combustion of coal in
limestone as a means of providing low-pollution, low-
cost power. Progress is also being made in the plan-
ning and laboratory testing of several other advanced
systems.
Progress in the area of pollutant control by fuel
processing has also been made. The program on physi-
cal desulfurization and de-ashing of coal has reached
the point where overall potential has been reasonably
well established. Further work will concentrate on
washability testing, already over 50 percent complete,
and will include pilot and demonstration activities on a
promising new approach uncovered in work on desul-
furization and cleaning of fine coal. A program has
been initiated in cooperation with other Federally
sponsored fuel conversion projects to undertake pollu-
tant control evaluation and optimization. A new tech-
nique for chemical desulfurization of coal was es-
tablished and work initiated on denning hazardous
pollutants contained in fossil fuel.
In the industrial process area, progress has been
made in several areas. In the iron and steel industry,
the primary problem of controlling pollution from slot-
type coke ovens is nearer solution because of the Coke
Charging system under a joint, EPA-American Steel
Institute project. The system is scheduled to go into
operation in mid-1972. Other industrial process dem-
onstrations are in the contract negotiation or develop-
ment stage, including control of sinter plants, Kraft
pulping operations, iron foundries, and secondary alu-
minum furnaces.
An R & D program to develop combustion modifica-
tion techniques and technology to control nitrogen
oxides emissions was planned and initiated. Although
the program is only in its infancy, preliminary results
from field testing of utility boilers and in-house studies
show that combustion modification is a generally ap-
plicable method to significantly reduce nitrogen oxides
emissions. Major emphasis is on coal combustion, but
the program is designed to develop technology appli-
cable to all fuels and boiler classifications.
A prototype stratified charge engine being developed
jointly by the U.S. Army and the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency has met EPA's 1976 emission stand-
ards in initial low-mileage tests. EPA and the Army,
together with private industry, have been working on
this program for the past two years. The test engine is
mounted in a one-quarter-ton light truck. A light duty
motor vehicle does not fully meet the Federal emission
standard until it has demonstrated satisfactory reduc-
tions through its useful life. It remains to be seen how
well this engine will perform in the durability tests.
However, this engine, which is one of three engine
systems being worked on as part of the Advanced
Automotive Power Systems Program, is the cleanest
EPA has ever tested and represents a significant ad-
vance in emissions control technology. EPA is increas-
ing its activity on this engine system, hoping to further
reduce emissions while maintaining acceptable fuel
economies and durability.
Other research on low emission vehicles is being
carried out under the Federal Clean Car Incentive
Program. This program is intended to stimulate the
development by private researchers of unconventional
approaches to the initial 1975-76 auto emission objec-
tives of the Clean Air Act, to provide data to assist
EPA in evaluating the auto industry's effort to meet
those objectives, and to determine whether more strin-
gent emission reductions may be possible. The first
contracts to deliver prototype low-emission vehicles
for testing under this program were awarded during
1971. The contracts are for the development of a
lightweight, diesel-powered vehicle, the exploration of
a new approach to catalytic muffler systems for con-
ventional internal combustion engines, and the devel-
opment of a hybrid system using a heat engine and
electric battery combination. The contracts call for
delivery of a prototype vehicle and exhaust emission
test results, and provide options for EPA to lease the
vehicle for testing.
EPA started operations this year of the first Federal
laboratory specifically designed for motor vehicle pol-
lution control activities. The laboratory, in Ann Arbor,
Michigan, is expected to play a vital role in the Federal
Government's efforts to insure a low-pollution auto-
mobile by 1975 and in making the tests that are neces-
sary before engines used in automobiles, trucks, and
buses can be certified as meeting Federal air pollution
control emission standards.
AIR QUALITY MONITORING
Weather stations at 10 U.S. cities have been desig-
nated "regional air pollution monitoring stations" in a
network that eventually will keep tabs on worldwide
air quality.
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The National Weather Service, a component of the
Commerce Department's National Oceanic and At-
mospheric Administration (NOAA), and EPA will
cooperate in the measurement and analysis of atmos-
pheric turbidity (particles in the air) and precipitation
chemistry (atmospheric impurities in rain or snow).
NOAA's Environmental Data Service will store the
information and disseminate it in this country and
abroad.
To determine current levels of air pollution so that
meaningful control strategies can be developed which
will result in the national ambient air quality standards
being met, it is necessary to have a broad base of data
on air quality. Gathering and evaluating these data are
tasks that require a joint Federal-State-local effort. To
this end, EPA operates its own air monitoring net-
work and also provides extensive support to State and
local monitoring activities.
State and local governments have the primary re-
sponsibility for maintaining surveillance of air quality
in their areas of jurisdiction. Establishment and opera-
tion of air monitoring networks are among the pur-
poses for which program grant funds provided by EPA
can be used by State and local agencies.
In the guidelines promulgated by EPA in August
1971, for the States in the preparation, adoption, and
submittal of implementation plans, minimum require-
ments were specified that must be met by State air
quality surveillance systems as part of their implemen-
tation plans. Such systems must be completed and in
operation not later than two years after EPA approves
the plan. EPA has worked with State and local agen-
cies to evaluate their present systems and to develop
plans and schedules for modifying and augmenting
them where necessary. Once implementation plans have
been submitted and adopted, States are expected to be
able to accelerate expansion of their monitoring activi-
ties during 1972.
An EPA-developed instrument for measuring ozone,
an important constituent of photochemical smog, has
come into general use. Because of its ability to oper-
ate for long periods without any need for maintenance
or recalibration, this instrument has grown rapidly in
popularity, until it is now made and sold by a half-
dozen domestic manufacturers and at least one over-
seas.
A second instrument, that has emerged from EPA's
laboratories, measures nitric oxide (an important smog-
forming gas emitted by all combustion sources, includ-
ing automobiles) by electronically sensing the radia-
tion generated in its reaction with ozone. Five manu-
facturers now offer nitric oxide analyzers sufficiently-
sensitive to respond reliably, even to low levels of this
important pollutant.
EPA's instrument development group has further
modified its nitric oxide analyzer by adding a catalytic
converter that changes nitrogen dioxide into nitric
oxide, thus making possible the measurement of "NOX",
jargon for the sum of the concentrations of the two
gases. Parallel measurements of NO and NOX, sub-
tracting the one from the other, provide the analyst with
the ability to measure nitrogen dioxide, which is more
important from the health aspect.
Following the enactment of the Clean Air Act
Amendments of 1970, with its shift of emphasis to-
ward the measurement and control of pollutants at
their sources, there has come an increasing aware-
ness that at least, for some time to come, most source
measurements will be made by adapting existing in-
struments, such as those described above, to the task.
Because the levels of pollutants to be measured at
sources are thousands of times higher than those for
which the instruments were designed, a reliable dilu-
tion system was required. One such system, with the
added advantages of totally removing solids such as
soot or fly ash, and of operating without moving parts,
was developed by an EPA scientist and is being evalu-
ated both by EPA and by several instrument makers.
Through an interagency agreement with the Atomic
Energy Commission, EPA is funding the development
of an X-Ray instrument that will permit the rapid
measurement of a large number of trace metals occur-
ing in airborn particles. This research will eventually
result in field instruments that will permit detailed
studies of the occurrence of many metallic and non-
metallic elements in polluted air.
EPA is also supporting an effort at the National
Bureau of Standards in air pollution measurement tech-
nology. For example, NBS has worked with EPA to
develop a method for certification of sulfur dioxide
permeation tubes for on-site calibration of monitoring
devices. Similar calibration devices for carbon monox-
ide, nitrogen oxides, and ozone are planned with EPA
support.
In fulfilling its mission of recommending measure-
ment methods and instruments to the States and local
agencies, EPA has undertaken a major program of
methods standardization. An important segment of this
program involves the establishment of a laboratory or
instrumental method as being "equivalent to", that is,
producing the same analytical result when examining
the same sample, as a specified standard method.
FINANCIAL AND
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
In Fiscal Year 1972, EPA estimates of grants to
State, interstate, and local air pollution control agen-
cies total $42.9 million, representing an increase of 42
percent over grants made in Fiscal Year 1971. The
Regional Activities Chapter summarizes this support
for Fiscal Years 1971 and 1972. Amounts shown for
each State include grants to local control agencies.
EPA provides technical assistance to States in the
adoption and submittal of plans to implement national
ambient air quality standards as authorized by the
-------
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970, including assist-
ance in the development of air quality monitoring sys-
tems, emissions inventories, plans for effective enforce-
ment of standards, land use and transportation con-
trols, control regulations, and emergency episode plans.
After all implementation plans have been submitted,
emphasis will shift to insuring that States carry out the
plans.
In addition to direct technical assistance, EPA has
contracted with 10 consulting firms, one serving each
of the 10 EPA Regions, to assist States in preparing
plans on an on-call basis. These companies are capable
of completing all phases of implementation plans, from
emission source inventory to recommending abatement
schedules. Many States took advantage of this source
to assist them in meeting the requirements of the 1970
Amendments.
THE ECONOMICS OF CLEAN AIR
Section 312(a) of the Clean Air Act Amendments
of 1970 requires an annual report to Congress on the
prospective costs and impacts of governmental and pri-
vate efforts to carry out the provisions of the Act. The
1972 report includes cost estimates, computed 'for the
first time on a national level, for controlling major air
pollutants from most (but not all) stationary and mo-
bile source types. For mobile sources three pollutants
are covered: carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and ni-
trogen oxides. For stationary sources five pollutants are
covered: particulates, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides. Three general
classes of stationary sources are considered: solid waste
disposal (open burning and incineration), stationary
fuel combustion (heating and power generation), and
industrial processes (17 types). Mobile source types
studied include light duty and heavy duty road vehicles
only. Stationary source control costs are projected for
the five Fiscal Years 1973—1977. Mobile source con-
trol costs are given for the 1968-1977 model years to
show the relative impact of increasingly more stringent
Federal standards since 1967. In 1972, uniform emis-
sion standards were selected without going through the
various steps of emission inventories and diffusion cal-
culations to determine acceptable emission standards
for achieving air quality standards in each air quality
control region. The basis for the selections was the
sample limitation procedures promulgated in the Fed-
eral Register, Volume 36, Number 158, Part II, "Re-
quirements for Preparation, Adoption, and Submittal
of Implementation Plans", August 14, 1971.
Estimated Costs of Reducing Air Pollution
A private outlay of about $35 billion is estimated
over the period of Fiscal Years 1973-1977 to imple-
ment the stationary and mobile source emissions reduc-
tions postulated in the 1972 study. Mobile source con-
trols are projected to cost $24.7 billion for the 1973-
1977 model years ($26.9 billion for the 1968-1977
model years). The cost of controlling the stationary
source types is projected to be $10.1 billion. All cost
estimates are in 1970 dollars.
Table 2 compares the source emission reductions
likely to be achieved in Fiscal Year 1977 under assumed
emission standards with potential emissions from these
Hollywood Freeway 8:30 A.M.
Documerio.i Photo
-------
source types if no controls were implemented beyond
those normally found in practice.
The Fiscal Year 1977 costs of the control technology
likely to be used by the sources studied are given both
as total investment in that year (purchase plus installa-
tion cost) and as annualized cost (capital charges plus
operating and maintenance costs). Federal, State and
local subsidies (accelerated amortization, investment
tax credit, etc.) have not been considered in calculating
private industrial emission control costs.
TABLE 2.—National Emission Reductions and Costs Under Assumed Standards for Fiscal Year 1977
(Cost in 1970 Dollars) '
Source Class
Type
Mobile Sources 4
Solid Waste Disposal . . .
Stationary Fuel Combustion:
Small & Intermediate
boilers
Steam-electric power
TOTAL
Industrial Process Studied:
Asphalt Batching
Cement
Coal Cleaning
Grain Plants: Handling
Feed
Gray Iron Foundries . .
Iron and Steel
Kraft (Sulfate) Pulp . . .
Lime
Nitric Acid
Petroleum Products &
Storage
Petroleum Refineries
Phosphate
Primary Nonferrous
Metallurgy:
Copper . . .
Lead
Zinc
Aluminum
Secondary Nonferrous
Metallurgy
Sulfuric Acid . . . . .
TOTAL
Industries Not Studied . . .
Miscellaneous Sources Not
Studied 5
National Total 6
Emission Reductions and Cost Under Assumed Standards
Emission Level without further control 2 rwrpjxp nf Pnmcmn I PVPI Total Contro1 Cost
(Thousands of Tons per Year) "percent) ^ (Millions of Dollars
Part
450
1,830
2,330
5,600
7,930
403
908
342
1,430
362
260
1,991
536
609
241
350
314
39
71
49
34
38
7,977
. 10,150
7,940
36,280
SOS CO
1,490 165,000
260 6,720
7,660 —
27,600 —
35,260 —
— —
— —
— —
— —
— —
— —
— —
— —
3,010 12,100
3,335 —
213 —
555
— —
920 —
8,033 15,900
1,530 9,750
280 19,740
46,850 217,110
HC NOX Part
28,000 9,900 4
2,530 510 96
— 4,800 84
— 6,000 49
— 10,800 72
— — 86
— — 93
gy
— — 93
— — 94
— — 88
— — 96
— — 85
— — 94
— 230 —
1,349 — —
197 — 59
— — 54
g
— — 33
0
— — 89
— — 83
— — 74
1,546 230 86
1,610 — 0
7,750 5,250 0
41,440 26,690 39
SO, CO HC
4 66 72
0 92 86
83 — —
90 — —
88 — —
— — —
— — —
— — —
— — —
— 94 —
— — —
— — —
— — —
— — 78
99 99 94
84
89 — —
75
— — —
81 — —
89 98 80
000
000
81 57 17
NOi Investment
44 $
0 $
0 $
0 $ 4
0 $ 5
— $
— $
"r
— $
— $
89 $ 4
0 $
0 $
60 $10
7
472
879
,660
,539
272
89
21
395
19
348
841
132
29
37
378
31
313
65
A1
*+ j.
923
32
169
,135
0
0
,146
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
-p
$
$
$
*P
$
*P
$
$
•p
$
$
$
$
$
Annual
8,385 7
224
1,116
1,360
2,476
63
35
9
83
4
126
306
40
7
14
73
15
100
16
is
-LO
256
9
39
1,213
0
0
$12,298
1 Standards assumed in the 1972 Report to Congress, "The Economics of
Clean Air " Blanks in the table indicate that emission levels meet applicable
regulators or that emissions are negligible or do not exist.
2 Emission abbreviations are particulates (Part), sulfur oxides (S0«), carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxides (NOO.
3 Projected costs are the initial investment expenditures for purchasing and
installing control equipment (total investment) and the continuing annual costs
for interest, property taxes, insurance, depreciation, etc., and for operating
and maintaining of equipment (ultimate annual cost). Cost of government
programs is not included.
* Includes light duty and heavy duty road vehicles only. Control of par-
ticulate and sulfur oxides from mobile sources was not considered in this
study.
5 Forest fires, structural fires, solvent evaporation, agriculture burning,
natural gas production and transmission, coal refining, etc.
' To nearest 10,000 tons.
7 All mobile source emission control investment costs are assumed to be
expended in Fiscal 1977 Annual costs are based on Alternative 1 in Table 3-3
for meeting 1975 and 1976 vehicle emission standards.
-------
The aggregate price impact of private investment in
air pollution control is projected to result in less than a
one percent cumulative increase in consumer prices
through 1977, with over half of the increase caused by
a 10 percent rise in the price of new automobiles. Other
key price increases projected are four percent for elec-
tric power, and 2.5 percent for iron and steel, cement,
and sulfuric acid. The remaining projected industrial
price increases are 1.5 percent or less.
An examination of the impact on families of different
income levels indicates that middle income groups
would be affected relatively more than low or high
income groups.
New construction is the investment activity most
heavily affected by projected price increases. New public
utility construction is affected most because of increased
prices for copper, electricity, iron and steel, iron cast-
ings and passenger cars and trucks. Higher passenger
car and truck prices will increase investment costs for
transportation. Projected price increases will also raise
prices for machinery, electric industrial equipment and
apparatus and communications equipment.
Export prices for agriculture products, chemicals and
chemical products and passengers cars and trucks
would increase, but the net impact on exports and
balance of payments is difficult to predict because the
relationship of demand to projected price increases is
unknown.
Thus, the net adverse economic impact of the stipu-
lated air pollution controls is projected to be small.
Benefits of Air Pollution Control
The direct and indirect costs of pollution control
should be judged in comparison with the direct and
indirect costs of the damage which could be mitigated
by such control.
Quantitative scientific information on the extent of
damage caused by these pollutants to health and welfare
is substantial enough to indicate the need for Federal,
State, and local abatement programs, but still far short
of the level of detail needed to assess monetary damage
costs with the same precision as control costs. Neverthe-
less, it is possible to develop crude estimates of the
pecuniary costs of air pollution damage to health, mate-
rials, vegetation, and property values. Extrapolating
from data presented in a 1970 study by Barrett and
Waddell1 for the Public Health Service, the total U.S.
emission levels, without application of the standards
assumed in the 1972 report, imply direct costs of human
mortality and morbidity in the neighborhood of $9.3
billion annually, and damage to property values around
$8 billion annually, for a total annual damage cost of
about $25 billion by 1977. The extrapolated damage
costs are given in Table 3. The Barrett-Waddell study
1 "The Cost of Air Pollution Damages: A Status Report" by
Larry B. Barrett and Thomas E. Waddell, Public Health Serv-
ice, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, July 1970.
TABLE 3.—Projected National Annual Damage Costs'
By Pollutant in 1977 (1970 Dollars in
Millions)
Damage Class
Part.
SOx
Pollutant
Ox2
NOx
CO
Total
Health $3,880 $ 5,440 $ 3 $3 $ 3 $ 9,320
Residential Property 3,330 4,660 3 3 3 7,990
Materials and Vegetation. 970 3,680 1,700 1,250 01 7,600
TOTAL $8,180 $13,780 $1,700 $1,250 $ * $24,910
1 Based on "The Cost of Air Pollution Damages: A Status Report" by
Larry B. Barrett and Thomas E. Waddell, Public Health Service, Department
of Health, Education and Welfare, July 1970.
2 Assumed proportional to HC emissions.
3 Not available due to lack of data.
4 Assumed to be neglig.ble.
did not include health costs ascribable to CO, HC, NOX,
and oxidants (Ox) because of an almost complete lack
of data upon which to base any estimates. (Oxidants are
irritant components of smog produced in the atmosphere
by the interaction between HC, NOX, and sunlight.)
When, in addition, the as yet unestimated pecuniary
costs of air pollution effects on industrial, commercial,
and cultural property, esthetics, visibility, odor, soiling,
etc., are considered, the $25 billion total appears rather
conservative.
Table 4 attributes projected 1977 damage costs by
source class, assuming strict proportionality between the
total weight of a pollutant emitted by a source class
(Table 2), and the damage cost of the pollutant as-
signed to the source class in Table 3. On this basis, sta-
tionary fuel combustion ranks as the most damaging
source class, while solid waste disposal (incineration)
is the least damaging.
TABLE 4.—Projected National Annual Damage Costs'
By Source Class in Fiscal 1977 (1970
Dollars in Millions)
Source Class
Mobile
Solid Waste
Stationary Fuel Combustion . . .
Industrial Processes Studied . .
Industries Not Studied . . . .
TOT&L
Health
$ 220 2
230
. 4,950 3
. 1,780
1,260
880
. . $9,320
Damage Class
Mate-
Resi- rials
dential and
Property Vege-
tation
$ 190 $1 740
190 200
4,240 3,650
1,530 920
1,080 460
760 630
$7,930 $7,600
Total
$ 2 150
620
12,840
4,230
2,800
2,270
$24,910
Percent
8.6
2.5
51.5
17.0
11.2
9.1
100.0
i Based on "The Cost of Air Pollution Damages: A Status Report" by Larry
B. Barrett and Thomas E. Waddell, Public Health Service, Department of
Health, Education and Welfare, July 1970.
2 Health damage costs due to CO, NOx, and 0» not included due to lack of
data. Entry is health damage cost ascribed only to minor amounts of vehicle-
related particulate and SO* and, therefore, considerably understates probable
costs.
3 Health damage costs due to H0\ from stationary fuel combustion not
included due to lack of data.
-------
It should be understood that this method of allocating
damage cost by source class assumes that a unit of
emission of a certain pollutant from one source is as
uniformly damaging as a unit of emission of the same
pollutant from another source. In the case of mobile
sources, it is possible these assumptions considerably
understate attributable health damages. This possibility
derives from the fact that auto exhausts are so near to
people's breathing level and autos are so concentrated
where urban populations walk, work, and drive.
If reductions in damage are equated to benefits, then
it is possible to compute from the foregoing assumptions
and data a crude estimate of the value of benefits
obtained from the emission reductions summarized in
Table 2. Table 5 gives the projected national annual
benefits (damage cost reduction) attributable to these
emission reductions in Fiscal Year 1977. Under the
assumptions made, computed total benefits in 1977 of
$14.2 billion are generated by the $12.3 billion esti-
mated to be spent in that year for emission control—
a benefit/cost ratio of over one-to-one. When it is con-
sidered that due to lack of data the value of the health
benefits generated by reductions in CO, Ox, and NOX,
has not been included in Table 2, then the one-to-one
benefit/cost ratio appears conservative.
The lack of data on the health costs of CO, Ox, and
NOX seriously biases the results in Table 5 against the
efficacy of mobile source emission controls. However,
in 1977, without the controls mandated by the Clean
Air Act, mobile sources would produce nationally 76
percent of national Ox (smog) formation.
Research sponsored by EPA now underway is ex-
pected to lead eventually to better data for ascribing
damage costs to different pollutants and their interac-
TABLE 5.—Projected National Annual Benefits (Dam-
age Cost Reduction) By Source Class in
Fiscal 1977 (1970 Dollars in Millions)
Benefit Class
Source Class
Mobile . .
Solid Waste
Stationary Fuel Combustion
Industrial Processes Studied
Industries Not Studied . .
TOTAL BENEFIT < . . . .
Health
i
172
3,812 2
1,413
0
0
$5,397
Resi-
dential
Property
i
145
3,267
1,302
0
0
$4,615
Mate-
rials
and
Vege-
tation
$ 945
119
$2,366
734
0
0
$4,164
Total
Benefit
$ 945 '
436
9,445
3,350
0
0
$14,176
Control
Cost
(Table
1-1)
$ 8,385 3
224
2,476
1,213
0
0
$12,298
Walue of benefits from reducing CO, NCK, and HC emissions not available
due to lack of data.
' Health damage cost due to NOx from stationary fuel combustion not in-
cluded due to lack of data.
3 Based on Alternative 1 in Table 3-3 for meeting the 1975 and 1976 vehicle
emission standards
•t Benefit computation based on proportional reduction of damage costs in
Table 1-3 excluding "miscellaneous" source damage costs since these are
generally not controllable and, therefore, can not become benefits.
tions. Presently, however, the assignment of damage
cost to pollutants lacks a solid empirical basis. Accord-
ingly, the cost-benefit results presented above should be
considered as very tentative.
Consideration of Other Abatement Strategies
In August 1971, EPA published guidelines for the
States in developing regional abatement implementation
plans for achieving the national ambient air quality
standards for the pollutants studied in this report. The
emission reductions simulated in the 1972 report are
based on the same emission limitations given in the
guidelines, but no attempt was made to relate these
reductions to regional changes in air quality.
Ideally, strategies could be developed which achieve
the national ambient air quality standards by the legal
deadlines at the least net cost to the region affected. To
do this, however, requires a detailed emission inventory
of sources in each region where the ambient air quality
standards are violated plus very detailed information on
the cost and efficiency of control techniques and fuels
available to those sources. The use of computerized
meteorological dispersion models would then be needed
to translate emissions from these sources into average
concentrations at points within the region where stand-
ards are being violated Once the meteorological impor-
tance of each source to these points is estimated and
the cost to each source to achieve certain levels of
emission reduction is also estimated, it would be pos-
sible to compute the set of source emission reductions
which achieves the air quality standards at "least cost"
to the region. The "least cost" approach to achieving
national air quality standards will require that some
sources abate their pollution to different degrees than
others because of differences in location and process
efficiency.
The emission controls for stationary sources assumed
in the 1972 report are probably more representative of
strategies expected to be proposed in State abatement
implementation plans than any other set of controls
which could be postulated for a nationwide estimate.
Yet in many cases the actual regional approach imple-
mented will be less expensive than that assumed in this
report, and in a few selected regions more costly
methods will be employed and still not succeed in
reaching air quality standards by 1975.
In some regions the critical pollutants are those asso-
ciated with mobile sources. New car emission standards
are set nationally, but options available to a State in
controlling pollution from mobile sources include adopt-
ing policies to encourage and support urban mass
transportation systems and to discourage the current
heavy reliance on private automobiles, requiring retrofit
of in-use automobiles with effective emission control
devices, requiring conversion of private and public fleets
to cleaner gaseous fuels, instituting state systems for
inspection of proper operation of mobile source emis-
sion controls and improving urban traffic patterns.
-------
WATER QUALITY
Almost any day, in the United States, the signs of
water pollution in large population centers and in the
countryside can be seen. Pollution may appear as sur-
face oil slicks, in which old tires, debris and picnic
remnants are trapped and float sluggishly by, or evi-
denced by public health notices warning the citizen not
to swim or wade in the water. Pollution may be mani-
fested in less obvious ways by masses of aquatic weeds
and bad taste in the drinking water supplies. Even more
subtle will be the often unseen-changes in the aquatic
life of the river, the loss of sport fish and increase of
sludge worms and other "tolerant" life-forms such as
carp.
This urban example is repeated throughout the
Nation. As society and economy have grown, the
wastes generated by population and technology have
increased. Population growth is a principle pollution
factor. In 1971, the Nation's population was well past
the 200 million mark. This number of people is ex-
pected to double in the next 50 to 60 years. Staggering
demands will be placed on our natural resources to
support this population. Waters are needed for con-
sumptive purposes, such as non-recycled public water
supply, food production and processing, and some in-
dustrial uses, as well as for non-consumptive uses, such
as reaction, industrial cooling, and sport and commer-
cial fishing. As demands for water will increase, so
will the production of wastes that threaten the environ-
ment.
Not only the rate but the pattern of population
growth concentrates and magnifies pollution. Urban
and suburban sprawl covers green spaces and reduces
clean environment in the very areas where people most
need it. Intensive development has occurred particu-
larly along the Nation's coastlines, in the very estuarine
areas most sensitive to environmental degradation. In
the President's 1972 Environmental Message special
attention is given to these areas. Amendments are pro-
posed to the Internal Revenue Code to limit in coastal
wetlands certain Federal tax benefits for new develop-
ment, thereby discouraging unnecessary development in
these environmentally critical areas.
Higher individual incomes and expectations have led
to increasing demands for food and consumer goods,
for more and better housing and highways and for a
whole range of conveniences. In most cases, production
of wastes is "built-in" to technology; as industrial pro-
duction increases, with attendant demands for water, so
does the per capita production of wastes, many of
which find their way to the waterways.
Consumer use and production of goods have greatly
increased the demand for electric power—power pro-
duction has doubled every 10 years since World War II,
and this rate is expected to continue. Great amounts of
water are used in producing electricity, and waste heat
from both fossil fueled and nuclear generating plants
constitutes a serious, and increasing, threat to the
Nation's waters.
Not only is the volume of industrial production in-
creasing, but the very complexity of the products and
wastes creates severe challenges for waste treatment
technology. New chemical products appear on the mar-
ket every day, often without sufficient research into the
environmental consequences of using them.
Mining and transporting natural resources also pose
increasing dangers for the environment. Greater use of
supertankers and pipelines to transport oil and hazard-
ous materials, as well as increasing use of offshore and
underwater mining, will greatly increase the dangers of
accidental oil pollution and other hazards.
The growing popularity of deep well disposal of
wastes presents yet another serious threat to water
resources. Although carefully controlled deep well in-
jection may contribute to groundwater management,
improperly carried out, this method of disposal may
result in contamination of groundwater or intercon-
nected surface water supplies. A proposed Toxic
Wastes Disposal Act would regulate disposal of toxic
wastes on and under the land pursuant to guidelines
established by EPA.
Production of greater quantities of better quality
food for American citizens has caused increasing pol-
lution problems. Higher agricultural productivity has
been based on irrigation and use of chemical fertilizers
and pesticides. Runoff carries salts and chemicals,
many of which are highly toxic and have long-lasting
environmental effects, into streams. These diffuse waste
sources are most difficult to control or treat. The pos-
sibility of irreparable and disastrous ecological conse-
quences, particularly from persistent pesticides, has led
to increasing demands for controlling or eliminating
their use; no one can predict with certainty the impact
of such a move on agricultural productivity.
EPA is developing an index to evaluate water pol-
lution. This index uses data which measures deviations
from established standards for water quality as a basis.
It describes bodies of water with respect to prevalence,
duration, and intensity of water pollution.
In 1970, an assessment of the prevalence of pollu-
tion indicated that 27 percent of America's stream miles
10
-------
were polluted. In 1971, 29 percent of the Nation's
waters were polluted. Although the assessed prevalence
of water pollution in 1971 indicated an increase, dif-
ferences in the methods and data used in the calcula-
tion make comparisons difficult.
Every part of the U.S. has some water pollution, but
it is not distributed uniformly. In 1971, there were
almost twice as many polluted stream miles east of the
Mississippi River than west of it.
The 1971 pollution index considers the duration and
intensity as well as the prevalence of pollution. The
relative water pollution of the Federal regions, in
Table 6 is not significantly changed when the frame of
reference shifts from prevalence of pollution to one of
prevalence, duration, and intensity.
The distribution of pollution becomes more appar-
ent when the focus is shifted from political to natural
drainage basin boundaries. The degree to which water
pollution is concentrated now becomes evident. Three
Basins (Ohio, Southeast, and Great Lakes) contain 23
percent of the nation's stream miles, but 49 percent of
the polluted stream miles (Table 7). Extensive pol-
lution is very nearly limited to the Ohio, Great Lakes,
and Southeastern drainage systems, and though the
Northeastern watersheds are in a class with the other
three, with respect to duration and intensity of pollu-
tion, they tend to dominate that measure as well.
On the basis of the available data, of the four ap-
parently significant shifts in reported pollution that
took place in the Ohio, Gulf, Missouri, and Northeast-
ern Basins—three are so obscured by variations in
procedure that it is difficult to evaluate the degree of
real change. Both the Gulf and the Missouri Basins
reported an enormous improvement in compliance with
water quality standards. But in each case, the 1970
assessment failed to make allowance for legally sanc-
tioned breaches of water quality criteria that resulted
from precipitation; and in both cases, that exception.
is significant. In the case of the Ohio River Basin, the
1970 assessment concentrated on the quality of major
waterbodies overlooking smaller tributaries. But in
Ohio many streams are polluted at the source as a re-
sult of acid drainage of mountain coal mines. Failure
to account for this total prevalence of pollution in 1970
is at least partly responsible for the increase in reported
pollution in 1971. Thus the conclusion is that substan-
tially the same number of river miles were polluted in
1971 as in 1970.
It should be noted that the line of water pollution
does seem to be holding in face of rising population
and industrial production. Also, while national statis-
tics do not indicate a marked change in water quality,
some individual water bodies have been notably im-
proved, e.g. Lake Washington. In coming years, as
comparable data are developed, the water pollution in-
dex will be able to better identify trends in water
pollution for the Nation.
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
Federal enforcement authority on interstate and
navigable waters has been strengthened over the years
since initial enactment of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act in 1956. The most significant increase in
these authorities stemmed from the Water Quality Act
of 1965, authorizing the establishment and enforce-
ment of water quality standards for interstate and
coastal waters.
The water quality standards authorized by the 1965
legislation are the keystone of America's clean water
Washington, D.C.:
Debris collected from
the Potomac and
Anacostia rivers
by students.
11
-------
program. The Act called upon the States to establish
standards for their interstate waters. These State stand-
ards could then be accepted as Federal standards by
the Secretary of the Interior (now by the Administra-
tor of the Environmental Protection Agency). To set
standards, the States had to make crucial decisions in-
volving the desired uses of their water resources, the
quality of water to support these uses and specific plans
for achieving such levels of quality. The standards are,
in effect, blueprints for the national program.
Water quality standards are composed of three parts:
those uses that are designated for each separate stretch
of interstate or coastal waters, the criteria established to
assume that these uses will be attained and a plan of
implementation and enforcement which outlines the
pollution abatement measures which will be required
to meet those criteria. First responsibility for imple-
TABLE 6.—Relative Incidence of Water Pollution
EPA Region
1 Boston . . . . . .
II New York
III Philadelphia
IV Atlanta
V Chicago . .
VI Dallas
VII Kansas .
VIII Denver
IX San Francisco . . . .
X Seattle
Continguous U.S
East of Miss. River
West of Miss. River . . .
Pollu-
tion
Index
10
10
.20
17
28
98
04
06
.07
02
.12
.19
.06
Per-
cent
of
Miles
Pol-
luted
164
42 4
34 7
37 9
64 5
21 5
12 5
25 0
23.5
19 4
29.3
385
20.6
tion
Inten-
sity
624
448
579
455
427
367
329
233
204
108
.408
.482
275
Dura-
tion-
Inten-
sity
as a
Per-
cent
of
U.S,
Mean
153
111
142
112
105
90
81
58
72
26
100
118
67
Percent
of
Polluted
Miles
64
2 7
11 7
19 4
243
13 1
3 1
7 4
5.2
7 2
100
63.9
36.1
menting and enforcing water quality standards rests
with the States. But, once accepted by the Administra-
tor, the standards become Federal standards and are
subject, if necessary, to Federal enforcement. In the
absence of timely and acceptable action by a State to
adopt water quality standards on interstate streams, the
Administrator can initiate action to establish Federal
standards. Heavy emphasis has been placed on resolv-
ing differences so that State standards can be fully
approved. Negotiations have been underway with the
States concerned, and a number of States have agreed
to complete their standards.
Even where standards have been approved, there is
a need to refine and improve certain aspects of the
water quality criteria to assure that the criteria applied
will adequately protect the intended water uses. Con-
tinued emphasis must be given to improving our knowl-
edge of water quality characteristics and requirements
and incorporating this information in approved criteria.
WATER QUALITY MONITORING
Effective implementation and enforcement of water
quality standards, development of regional and basin
plans, administration of grants and preparation of re-
ports assessing costs of pollution control and abate-
ment progress require up-to-date, accurate and readily
available data. This has always been a requirement, but
the need has intensified with the establishment and
implementation of water quality standards and the
resulting necessity of identifying priorities in waste
treatment facility construction.
Thus, EPA has been expanding its data collection
activities to identify compliance and noncompliance
with water quality standards; improvements in water
quality resulting from pollution abatement measures,
such as waste treatment facility construction; and
emerging water quality problems that should be cor-
rected before crises arise.
TABLE 7.—Water Pollution Index Summarized for Major Drainage Areas, 1970 & 1971
Major Watershed
Ohio
Southeast
Great Lakes
Northeast
Middle Atlantic ....
California . . ...
Gulf
Missouri
Columbia
U.S.
U.S. Less Ohio
U.S. Less Columbia ....
Stream
Miles
28 992
11,726
. . . 21,374
32,431
31,914
.... 28,277
64,719
10,448
30443
. . . 260,324
231 332
229,881
1970
9,869
3,109
6,580
11,895
4,620
5,359
16,605
4,259
7 443
69,739
59 870
62,296
Polluted Miles
1971
24,031
4,490
8,771
5,823
5,627
8,429
11 604
1,839
5 685
76,299
52 268
70,614
Change
+ 13,746
+ 1,381
+ 2,191
— 6,072
+ 869
+ 2,499
— 5,001
— 2,420
— 1,758
+ 5,435
— 8311
+ 7,193
1971
D.I
Factor
.423
.744
.445
.609
.472
.270
.346
.306
.116
.408
401
.431
Index
1970
.14
.20
.14
.22
.07
.05
.09
.12
03
.11
.10
.12
1971
.35
.28
.18
.11
.08
.08
.06
.05
02
.12
09
.13
12
-------
A portion of a coordinated State/Federal water qual-
ity monitoring network is already in operation. It pres-
ently utilizes approximately 400 stations funded and
operated by EPA, 220 stations funded by EPA, and
operated by the U.S. Geological Survey, 200 stations
jointly funded and operated by the State and Federal
agencies, and 5000 State-funded and operated stations.
Data from this network will be supplemented by the
findings of the many short-term intensive field studies
of specific water quality problems that are conducted by
EPA.
In addition to water quality data, detailed knowledge
of waste sources, treatment and discharges is also
necessary. Municipal sewage and industrial wastes are
the two largest sources of pollutants. EPA completed
the processing and analysis of data on municipal waste
facilities which was collected in a cooperative Federal-
State inventory. Because the need for timely and accu-
rate data in this area is so critical, procedures were
developed and implemented for keeping the inventory
updated. Data from the implementation plans of the
water quality standards are being correlated to and
integrated with the inventory to show schedules for
providing additional municipal waste disposal facilities.
As for industrial wastes, an inventory of industrial
manufacturing and processing plants has been initiated
on a voluntary basis to obtain data on discharges other
than those into navigable waters.
Again, data from the implementation plans of the
water quality standards will be a valuable addition to
the inventory. This inventory, like that of municipal
facilities, will be continuously updated.
With the recent and pending water pollution control
legislation, data on waste sources and discharges have
become even more important. States are required to
show that a proposed municipal facility is a part of, and
in conformity with, a basin, regional or metropolitan
pollution control plan before the project is declared
eligible for a construction grant. Regulations also
prescribe the provision of data on all waste discharges
TABLE 8.—Water Quality Standards Approved Under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as Amended
(as of February 1972)
State
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Status
P
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
F
FA
FA
PA
FA
FA
FA
Approval
Dates
2/15/68
2/20/68
10/05/71
9/27/68
1/17/69
8/07/67
11/19/69
1/09/69
1/26/72
10/21/68
10/09/69
3/04/71
2/15/68
4/21/70
3/13/68
7/30/71
1/17/69
7/18/67
3/13/68
6/28/71
8/07/67
2/15/68
6/07/71
1/27/68
7/18/67
1/20/71
1/16/69
6/30/71
4/25/69
3/05/71
State
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
Status
FA
PA
FA
FA
FA
PA
FA
P
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
Approval
Dates
3/20/69
12/23/71
2/12/68
12/17/69
6/03/68
12/12/68
3/02/71
7/30/71
8/07/67
7/16/71
8/07/67
11/25/70
4/17/68
6/18/68
11/26/69
5/06/68
2/08/68
6/26/68
7/30/70
2/29/68
1/17/69
12/19/68
6/25/71
6/27/68
8/16/68
12/01/70
3/13/68
7/26/71
7/09/68
11/19/68
8/21/69
13
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TABLE 8.—Water Quality Standards Approved Under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as Amended
(Continued)
State
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Status
FA
FA
FA
PA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
P
Approval
Dates
7/18/67
7/26/71
8/07/67
3/04/71
5/16/68
1/20/71
8/07/67
5/22/70
3/04/68
9/13/68
1/02/69
2/28/68
2/17/70
7/18/67
9/13/68
12/17/68
1/16/70
5/21/68
10/07/71
1/30/68
11/19/68
1/20/71
10/21/68
4/21/69
12/23/71
8/07/67
6/28/71
2/28/68
State
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Status
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
Approval
Dates
1/27/68
5/02/69
12/31/68
6/27/68
8/24/71
1/17/69
2/22/71
1/22/68
5/21/68
7/30/71
1/24/68
11/27/68
4/17/68
1/17/69
6/12/68
12/30/68
2/28/68
4/28/70
Wisconsin
Wyoming
District of Columbia
Guam
Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
Legend:
FA—Fully approved water quality standards—anti- 46
degradation statement included
F—Approved water quality standards—antidegrada- 1
tion statement not included
PA—Partially approved water quality standards-—anti- 4
degradation statement included
P—Partially approved water quality standards—anti- 3
degradation statement not included
STATUS SUMMARY
States
Fully approved with antidegradation statement (FA) 46
Standards approved wholly or in part 54
Approved antidegradation statement 50
in the immediate proximity of a proposed plant which
may affect its design and operation. For these reasons,
additional data will be required on wastes character-
istics and strengths.
In addition to the municipal and industrial inven-
tories, a new collection effort has been initiated to
provide data on thermal discharges from electric power
generating plants. By agreement with the Federal Power
Commission, data for this inventory are collected by
that agency through a questionnaire on the environ-
mental control information.
To achieve the objectives of a coordinated informa-
tion program, it is essential that the data collected be
evaluated and made available to all users. EPA's exist-
ing computerized data Storage and Retrieval system
(STORET) makes these data available for analyses
and use by both State and Federal organizations.
Quantitative analyses of changing trends in water
quality, and of the progress in abating pollution nation-
wide, will be essential in guiding the course of the
national water pollution control effort. It will also con-
tribute to the assessment of national environmental
conditions and trends required under the National
Environmental Policy Act of 1969 by indicating
whether we are gaining or falling behind in pollution
control.
BASIN AND REGIONAL PLANNING
Basin and regional water quality management plan-
ning are essential in pollution control. They are directed
at protecting both the private and public investment
interests in water quality through attainment of the
water quality standards in a cost effective manner.
Clean water will be achieved only by controlling
present and future wastewater discharges in river basins.
It must be insured that these results are lasting; that
actions today are adequate to meet the needs of the
future; and that provision is made for the future growth
of population and industry.
14
-------
-35*
"•rrj"'^i
\
,-./
A. J , /
Docuinericji Photo
Discharge from Denver Metro Sewage Treatment Plant into
South Platte River, Denver.
For these reasons, water quality management plan-
ning is a major element not only of the water program,
but also of the total national effort for environmental
enhancement. EPA participates not only in the water
and related land resource planning programs of the
Federal establishment, but joins with local and State
government in their development of water quality man-
agement plans both in river basins and regional areas.
At the Federal level, EPA's water planning activities
are mainly of two types. The first type, participation in
the general planning for the development of the water
and related land resources in entire river basins, is
normally conducted under the aegis of the Water
Resources Council. In this type of study, EPA's mission
is to assure that not only water quality, but all environ-
mental aspects, receive due recognition in the develop-
ment of the Nation's land and water resources.
In addition to Federal basinwide resources planning
activities, EPA reviews proposed water resources proj-
ects on an individual basis to assure that these projects
do not have an adverse effect on the environment.
Storage for water quality may be included in many
Federal reservoirs but only after the best practical
methods of treatment of wastes is undertaken.
EPA assists State and local government in their
development of water quality management plans for
river basins and regional areas. These plans provide the
basis for the public investment to construct water
treatment facilities. (See the Regional, State, and Local
Activities chapter for more information.)
In order to maximize the effect of Federal assistance
in planning at the State and local level, EPA has imple-
mented a formal agreement with the Department of
Housing and Urban Development and an informal
working arrangement with the Farmers Home Admin-
istration through which EPA's planning guidelines are
used by these agencies. The aim is to assure that Federal
programs avoid duplication of effort and provide
quicker service to State and local entities.
Mathematical models are the basis for an effort to
provide nationwide river basin models for planning pur-
poses. In order to stimulate the States' interest in whole
basin systems rather than individual projects, the models
will be tailored to simulate those water quality parame-
ters deemed most important in each basin now and in
the future.
Planners will use the models to predict the effects on
water quality of alternative wastewater management
schemes in the basin. By analyzing alternatives the
planners can select a cohesive comprehensive plan for
the basin to provide cost effective answers to such
questions as treatment, sophistication, staging of waste-
water treatment controls, possibilities of regionalizing
treatment facilities, effects of proposed impoundments
on water quality, effect of nonpoint sources of wastes
throughout the system, potential for algae problems in
an estuary and a host of others.
This effort is using the expertise within EPA, joining
-------
TABLE 9.—Number of Spills Reported by Regions for Month of March
NUMBER OF SPILLS REPORTED BY
REGIONS FOR MONTH OF MARCH
Total Spills Reported for March 1972-191
Total Spills Reported for 1972 -682
0-10
11-20
21-over
I INDICATES GREATEST
POTENTIAL, ACTUAL
OR INDIRECT DAMAGE TO
AQUATIC LIFE, PUBLIC
HEALTH AND WELFARE
Federal and State forces in a coordinated attack on
some massive planning problems and stimulating the
application of modern techniques by State and local
planners to act effectively to protect and revitalize the
Nation's essential water resource. Basins and regional
plans provide a blueprint for both meeting present
pollution abatement problems and avoiding similar
problems in future years.
OIL AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Over 10,000 spills occur annually in the navigable
waters of the U.S. Spills are defined as non-continuous
discharges or dumping which occur as a result of
accidents, malfunctions of equipment, human error,
deliberate discharges of bilge or ballast water and con-
venience dumping of hazardous materials and oil into
sewers, streams, estuaries or coastal waters.
Approximately 75 percent of the spills involve petro-
leum products and include crude oil, refined products
ranging from grease to gasoline and waste lubricating
oil. In the last year, over 2000 significant spill incidents
occurred and those account for about 90 percent of the
total volume of oil spilled. It is estimated that over
15 million gallons of oil were discharged.
Sources of Oil Spills
(1970 Data)
% of total number
% of total volume
Vessels 33
Onshore Facilities .... 19
Offshore Facilities .... 24
Other 24
14
59
26
1
The remaining 25 percent of the spills involve
hazardous materials which include poisons, corrosive
materials, oxidizing agents, radioactive materials, and
other compounds and mixtures which severely affect the
aquatic environment. Specific materials include creosote,
ammonia nitrate, combined pesticides and insecticides,
chromic acid, isopropyl alcohol, polyethylene latex, and
zinc cyanide. The toxicity of individual substances is
the critical factor to be considered.
16
-------
For both oil and hazardous materials the source of
the discharges is linked to transport, transfer, storage,
manufacturing and production operations. The goals of
EPA are to eliminate the spills, reduce discharges re-
sulting from operational practices and minimize the
impact of spills on the environment. To accomplish
these goals, a three phase program has been developed
by EPA and the Department of Transportation largely
through the U.S. Coast Guard and the Office of Pipe-
line Safety which includes response, prevention and
enforcement.
In this regard the National Oil and Hazardous Sub-
stances Pollution Contingency Plan has been revised
and updated to reflect the role of EPA during emer-
gencies involving spills. In accordance with the Plan,
EPA maintains the lead role in providing advice on
environmental priorities, cleanup techniques and serves
as on-scene coordinator for inland spill incidents. EPA
is also responsible for continuous updating and revision
of the National Contingency Plan and for providing a
Chairman for the National Response Team.
Initiation of EPA's ability to respond to a major oil
spill occurred just as it was formed. On December 1,
1970, a production well on a Shell Oil Company plat-
form exploded, igniting adjacent wells. An estimated
4,000,000 gallons of oil were spilled during a period of
4l/2 months. This major disaster resulted in the loss of
four lives, the destruction of millions of dollars in
equipment and immeasurable damage to the environ-
ment. EPA continuously provided technical assistance
to the U.S. Coast Guard and the U.S. Geological Survey
in addition to the conduction of extensive assessments
of biological damage. The Arizona Standard and the
Oregon Standard collided under the Golden Gate Bridge
during a heavy fog. About 20,000 barrels of oil
escaped along the coastline and into the Bay proper.
EPA assembled a team of scientists to investigate and
document the extent of environmental damage. An
emergency response contract was activated to provide
remote sensing coverage of the oil spill.
On June 2, 1971, EPA, at the request of Ohio, pro-
vided direct support in the removal of endrin (a highly
toxic pesticide) which had been deliberately dumped
into a small lake near Portmouth, Ohio. The endrin
destroyed all aquatic life in the lake and had the poten-
tial to prevent the use of the lake for years unless all
traces were removed. EPA provided the expertise,
design and construction of a carbon absorption filter
which treated the lake water and removed the endrin.
On June 20, 1971, after an agricultural chemical
warehouse fire, EPA received a request from North
Carolina to provide emergency assistance for the re-
moval of a mixture of pesticides and herbicides trapped
in drainage ditches and a swamp. Immediate action was
required because of the toxic fumes surrounding the
area, residual chemicals in the destroyed foundation,
and the potential of seepage into a nearby public
water supply well. EPA's expertise was provided
J
New Orleans, Louisiana 3/10/71: Oil leaks from offshore well!:.
New Orleans, Louisiana: A dynamite blast extinguishes an oil well fire.
* - ,3
f-r
-------
enabling the successful treatment and disposal of the
material at an isolated and sealed burial site.
In addition to response actions by regional teams,
EPA established emergency response contracts with six
technical firms to provide support to Regional Offices
during major spills. EPA was to provide assistance in
conducting chemical, physical and biological studies and
performing remote sensing services. These services were
activated on five occasions during the past year.
During 1971, EPA has provided on-scene coordina-
tion or advice on 60 percent of the major incidents.
The continuing success of the response program is
dependent upon rapid action at the State and local
levels. Many coastal States now have response pro-
grams, and EPA is encouraging all States, local agen-
cies and port authorities to develop similar programs.
EPA published criteria to aid States, municipalities
and industries in preparing emergency planning.
It is estimated that during 1971 over 12 million
gallons of oil remained in the environment and less
than one percent of the hazardous materials spilled
were removed or mitigated. Greater emphasis must be
placed on rapid action by the discharger and more
effective cleanup methods. Regulations specifying meth-
ods and procedures for removal of oil and hazardous
materials are being developed. In order to disseminate
current research information EPA co-sponsored, along
with the American Petroleum Institute and the U.S.
Coast Guard, the 2nd Conference on Prevention and
Control of Oil Spills which was held in Washington,
D.C., on June 15-17, 1971.
The positive solution of the spill problem is through
prevention. Regulations to prevent oil spills from non-
transportation related facilities are currently being de-
veloped by EPA. Emphasis has been placed on fail-safe
design concepts to minimize human error and reduce
equipment failure.
A special prevention study by industries at four
major industrial areas was completed in February. This
report has served as the basis for development of an
EPA prevention program to reduce spills by requiring
industries which handle, store, manufacture and trans-
In March, 1972, a barge carrying liquid chlorine became
stuck to the Me Alpine Dam at Louisville, Kentucky, and
could not be set free. If the tanks on this barge were punc-
tured the liquid chlorine would be turned into a poisonous
Documerica Photo
gas that could devastate Louisville. In^the days that followed,
the E.P.A. along with the Coast Guard, the Army Corps of
Engineers and local groups fought this accidental environ-
mental crisis.
18
-------
port oil and hazardous materials to submit a spill pre-
vention plan. This program is being carried out through
the Refuse Act Permit Program. A special provision is
included in selected industry permits which requires
that a plan be submitted for approval by EPA.
A study was completed by EPA, the District of
Columbia, Maryland and Virginia to evaluate the oil
handling practices in the Washington area and to ini-
tiate a prevention program. A similar study of Balti-
more Harbor was jointly funded by EPA and Maryland
to determine the sources, causes and steps to be taken
to eliminate spills of both oil and hazardous materials.
Although the primary efforts of EPA have been di-
rected to response and prevention of spills in U.S.
navigable waters, significant steps have been taken at
the international level to reduce discharge and spillage
into the oceans and boundary waters. In the U.S./
Canadian Conference on Great Lakes Pollution, two
studies were completed involving response to and pre-
vention of spills. EPA provided the sub-group chairman
for the study on prevention of spills from onshore facili-
ties and served on the committees for development of
a joint U.S. contingency plan and prevention methods
for vessels.
EPA provides input to the Inter-Governmental Mari-
time Consultative Organization (IMCO) and its Ma-
rine Pollution sub-committee. With IMCO's expanding
role to prevent operational and accidental discharges
of oil and hazardous materials into the oceans, EPA's
efforts have been increased to provide guidance at the
international level to ensure compatibility of interna-
tional criteria with that of the U.S.
In the coming months, emphasis will be placed on
promulgation of removal and prevention regulations.
These regulations, together with the provisions of the
1970 Water Quality Act relative to the reporting of
oil and hazardous materials spills, the penalties for ille-
gal discharges of oil, the penalties for failing to comply
with regulations and the liabilities for the cleanup of
oil spills, will be actively enforced.
Contingency plans at the Regional, State and local
levels will be updated and refined in order to integrate
new technological concepts associated with detection,
surveillance, prediction, containment, cleanup and dis-
posal of oil and hazardous materials. Federal, State and
local agencies will be encouraged to develop contin-
gency plans within the coming year.
Response to hazardous materials spills will be
strengthened. A technical advisory group on hazardous
materials will be formed and consist of experts in toxi-
cology, biochemistry, medicine and other related fields
to study the problems of personal safety and the threats
to public health.
With the promulgation of the oil prevention regula-
tion, an active program will be initiated for non-trans-
portation facilities. Efforts will be directed toward post-
spill inspections to determine compliance with
regulations and the Corps of Engineers Permit Program
prevention schedules. Offshore facilities will require
special review to insure compliance with regulations.
"Fail-safe" design requirements are essential to the
development of an effective program. Analysis studies
will be continued for facilities and Federal installations
handling, storing, manufacturing and transporting oil
and hazardous materials. Findings will be used to pre-
pare guidelines, regulations, manuals and model codes.
EPA training seminars have been held and are neces-
sary at a local level to keep abreast of new technology
to minimize discharges. This program will provide a
constant exchange base for new technology.
On a continuing basis EPA will participate in inter-
national activities dealing with tanker operations, de-
sign, ocean dumping, designation of hazardous mate-
rials, technology transfer, and other related programs.
Through the Department of State, advice and assist-
ance will be provided to other countries and operational
programs, such as those with Canada and IMCO.
WATER SUPPLY PROGRAM
EPA is responsible for conducting a series of activi-
ties designed to promote an adequate supply of safe
drinking water for all Americans. These activities in-
clude the establishment of standards for potable water.
The standards apply directly to over 600 water sup-
ply systems serving interstate carriers (trains, planes,
busses, and vessels). These systems also serve a resi-
dent population of 80,000,000 people.
As of luly 1, 1971, there were 658 water supply
systems serving interstate carriers. Five hundred and
twenty-nine of the systems were in general compliance
with the federal drinking water standards and classified
as approved. One hundred and twenty-nine systems were
not in compliance with the standards. However, the
deficiencies were not sufficient to prohibit their use,
and they were therefore approved on a provisional
basis. During 1971, seven supplies were classified use-
prohibited due to serious violations of the drinking
water standards.
Although Federal enforcement action, taken through
the Food and Drug Administration, is limited to pro-
hibiting interstate carriers from using supplies which
may cause the spread of communicable disease, most
States have adopted the standards and apply them to
all community water supplies.
EPA conducts evaluations of State water supply pro-
grams at the request of the States. The findings and
recommendations are used to upgrade State programs.
In 1971, an evaluation of Tennessee was completed and
similar evaluations were initiated in Maryland, Ken-
tucky, New Mexico, Wyoming and Idaho.
EPA is conducting a series of pilot studies of
Federally-assisted water supply systems to determine
their adequacy and safety. A study has been completed
on water supplies constructed by the Corps of Engi-
19
-------
neers at recreational areas in Ohio and Indiana. A
similar study has been initiated on a series of Bureau
of Reclamation water supplies in Kansas, California
and along the Colorado River. Plans have been devel-
oped to study water supply systems serving the travel-
ling public along Federal interstate highways in Vir-
ginia, Oregon and Kansas.
A pilot study of bottled water has also been con-
ducted, and a report of findings is being prepared. In
addition to conducting studies, EPA provides a pro-
gram of training and technical assistance to upgrade
water supply systems. A variety of courses is available
at the National Environmental Research Center in
Cincinnati. Selected courses are conducted at various
field locations.
EPA makes federal funds available to aid the con-
struction of new or improved municipal sewage treat-
ment plants and experimental pilot plants. These grants
are explained in the Regional, State, and Local Activi-
ties Chapter.
In 1971, a survey was conducted to update EPA
estimates of the scope and cost of construction of
municipal waste treatment facilities, planned through
Fiscal Year 1976—which are needed to meet current
water quality standards implementation schedules, or
other current standards or enforcement requirements.
The survey was directed to 2294 municipalities
whose population was greater than 10,000 persons,
or whose facilities were serving more than 10,000
persons. The estimated total cost of constructing needed
waste treatment facilities for the five-year period Fiscal
Year 1972 through Fiscal Year 1976 for these mu-
nicipalities is just over $14 billion. This estimate is
based on 1971 construction costs and excludes the
cost of needed combined sewer overflow control facili-
ties. When the construction needs for communities
less than 10,000 are included, then the total cost of
projects planned over the period Fiscal Year 1972
through Fiscal Year 1976 reaches $18.1 billion.
ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS
Technical assistance is another key program avail-
able to help States solve pollution problems. A great
many of the water pollution problems facing the Nation
call for technical study to determine the sources or
causes of the pollution and to find the most appropri-
ate abatement measures to remedy the situation. Often,
the problem is complex and requires extensive field and
laboratory study. Acid mine drainage, coastal and es-
tuarine pollution, groundwater contamination, and pes-
ticide and toxic chemical pollution are examples of
pollution problems for which the most effective and
appropriate corrective action is frequently unknown
and for which specific technical study is necessary be-
fore abatement action can be pursued.
EPA assists the State, interstate and other water
pollution control agencies and individuals in develop-
ing their technical capabilities and provides financial
assistance for this purpose through program grants.
These agencies conduct a great many technical investi-
gations required to carry out an effective water pollu-
tion control program, but frequently they find it neces-
sary to call for outside assistance to handle problems,
or parts of a problem, which exceed their capabilities.
To meet these needs, EPA provides technical assistance
of various kinds ranging from technical advice and
consultation to extensive, long-term field and labora-
tory studies. Within the limits of available resources,
this assistance is provided on request, primarily to the
State and interstate water pollution control agencies,
but also to other public agencies, including other Fed-
eral agencies, and individuals.
During 1971, EPA responded to over 55 major re-
quests for technical assistance and innumerable re-
quests for advice, information, reviews and comments
on technical problems.
EPA operates both a voluntary fish kill reporting
system and an emergency fish kill response system.
Examples of assistance available to State agencies in-
vestigating a fish kill are field investigation, sample
analysis and autopsy of fish to establish cause of death.
Abatement and control of industrial sources of water
pollution in 1971 involved development of effluent in-
formation guides for 20 basic industrial categories, the
application of advanced waste treatment techniques,
guidelines for review of Refuse Act Permits, a volun-
tary national industrial waste inventory, and technical
support for enforcement, standards compliance and the
Justice Department's pursuit of legal actions against
polluters. In 1972, effluent guideline development will
continue with emphasis on types of industry not pre-
viously studied. Criteria are being developed for
ocean and deep well disposal. Expertise will be used to
review Refuse Act Permit applications, the implemen-
tation of effluent monitoring, ocean disposal permit
review, assistance in upgrading wastewater treatment
and technical support to enforcement actions.
In 1971, technical assistance to State, interstate and
local agencies, and to universities, industry and individ-
uals accounted for approximately 20,000 technical
assistance acts. These include:
EPA's application and implementation of demon-
stration and research findings by other agencies
and the mining industry concerning mine drainage.
Projects in the control of Animal Wastes, Irri-
gation Return Flows and General Land Runoff,
Highway Construction and Land Development
Wastes, Logging and Forestry Wastes and Prob-
lems with Rural Sanitation Facilities.
A National Eutrophication Control Program has
begun which involves a field survey of the extent of
eutrophication in 1,200 lakes of the U.S. The
survey also includes the use of questionnaires. The
other aspect of the program is the implementation
20
-------
Tires discarded in Lake Tahoe.
I)oeuim'ric;i Photo
of methods to control the extent of eutrophication
in lakes and impoundments. The means of controll-
ing eutrophication is by reducing the amount of
phosphorus entering into the water bodies, pri-
marily through upgrading or constructing treat-
ment facilities.
A program designed from the National Estuarine
Pollution Report to maintain the national data base
needed to combat estuarine, coastal, and oceanic
pollution problems effectively, to assist States in
developing effective attacks on such pollution, and
to support enforcement and research directed at
such problems. This program includes an oceans
islands project to combat unique pollution prob-
lems in these particular ecosystems.
Efforts in preventing freshwater pollution are
continuing. Upgrading and development of criteria,
technical assistance, special Great Lakes and
eutrophication control programs, deep well dis-
posal, and surface and ground waters are areas of
vital concern.
Another important part of technical assistance to
State and local governments is the Manpower Develop-
ment and Training Program. EPA's main objective in
manpower is to assure that there is enough skilled man-
power, both professional and sub-professional, in all
sectors of the economy to meet EPA's mission to abate
and control pollution. All of EPA's program activities
require trained manpower to accomplish their goals.
Thus, EPA must assure that manpower in requisite
numbers and skills are available at the times and places
needed to get the job done. The intention of this objec-
tive is not that EPA should build massive programs to
train and supply all manpower needs. Rather, EPA
should provide leadership and develop programs to fill
the unmet needs.
21
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ECONOMICS OF CLEAN WATER
EPA has been conducting a series of economic studies
aimed at gaining deeper understanding and assisting
the Executive Branch and the Congress in formulating
national policies and legislation. Studies have been
undertaken and are continuing to provide estimates for
the total municipal and industrial costs for achieving
current water quality standards. Areas included in the
studies are combined sewer and storm overflow control
costs; effluent guideline cost criteria; and costs of non-
point sources of pollution including mining, oil spills,
agriculture and thermal and radioactive discharges from
power plants. Collectively, these studies represent the
most intensive and comprehensive effort ever made to
understand the costs of water pollution control.
The findings of EPA's economic studies are submitted
to Congress annually. The first report projected munici-
pal investment requirements for the period 1969 to
1973 and assessed the impact of funding required to
meet municipal waste treatment needs on the municipal
governments and bond markets. The second report
examined the influences that determine investment levels
and concluded that the critical factors were to be found
in the dynamics of the situation, in the interaction of
investment with time-conditioned growth, replacement,
and demand for higher plant efficiencies. It was also
found that regional cost differences, transmission costs,
and the influence waste loadings were extremely impor-
tant factors in analyzing the economics of water pollu-
tion control.
Various aspects of the socio-economic problems of
water pollution were presented in the second report.
These included discussions and conclusions about in-
vestment trends and needs, Federal cost sharing, priority
systems for grant funds, public treatment of industrial
wastes and regional waste handling systems. In addi-
tion, several estimates discussed in earlier reports were
reviewed in view of the latest available information.
These included investment estimates for collecting
sewers, separation of storm sewers, industrial waste
treatment and cooling facilities, and sediment control
and acid mine drainage reduction.
The Water Quality Improvement Act of 1970 re-
quired that a complete investigation and study of all
methods of financing the cost of water pollution control,
other than methods authorized by existing law, be made
and the results submitted to Congress by December 31
of each year. To meet this requirement, EPA structured
a study which dealt with pollution sources of all types
including, but not limited to, municipal, industrial, agri-
cultural, land and acid mine drainage, oil and accidental
spills and debris. Questions of responsibility, ability to
pay and equity were addressed in allocating potential
funding requirements among the private sector and the
various levels of government. The study examined the
feasibility of a wide range of financing possibilities in
the light of the analysis outlined above. Potential
methods included conventional financing; loan arrange-
ments; user, influent and effluent charges; taxation;
insurance-type arrangements and others. In addition,
potentials for reducing financing requirements by means
of structural policy alternatives were assessed.
The Economics of Clean Water 1972 further investi-
gates the methods and means for financing the costs of
water pollution control, concentrating on industrial
water use, discharge and treatment. The report analyzes
the use of water by industry as a raw material; outlines
the major assumptions and data sources for the calcu-
lation of industrial waste treatment costs; presents the
range of capitalization levels and annual costs that have
been calculated to coincide with levels of industrial
effluent treatment dictated by current interpretations of
water quality standards; evaluates treatment currently
provided to industrial wastes by industry-supplied and
public waste treatment plants; and, finally, assesses
manufacturers' waste treatment investments since 1968,
projects investments and annual costs consistent with a
policy of full compliance with effluent standards by
1976, and relates those costs to annual cash flow and
prices of manufactured goods. The following are some
specific results of the most recent Economics of Clean
Water 1972.
Industrial—Capital Expenditures
The costs (in billions of 1971 dollars) of the com-
ponents of the level of industrial waste treatment as of
1968 are:
Total capital required to meet quality
standards $8.1
Available capital stock as of 1968 .. . $3.9
Industrial treatment .... $2.4
Public waste treatment
serving industry $1.5
Unmet capital demands as of 1968. . $4.1
Unmet capital demands as of 1971. . $3.0
These figures as presented in Table 10 are broken
down by industrial categories. Capital requirements are
distributed through the various manufacturing sectors
in a manner that strongly reflects their water use char-
acteristics and has only a slight correlation with out-
put values. Chemical manufacturers, primary metals
production, pulp and paper production, petroleum re-
fining, and food processing account, respectively, for
27 percent, 18 percent, 17 percent, 12 percent and 11
percent of the indicated investment, and 29 percent,
32 percent, 15 percent, nine percent, and five percent of
reported water intake. That there is a concentration of
water use within industries is shown by the fact that 85
percent of the capital requirement associated with
water pollution abatement comes from only a little
more than a third of values added by manufacturers.
22
-------
These figures are current as of 1968 and are only an
approximation because data are reported on industrial
investment in a manner that will not permit direct
correlation with the calculations made in this report.
The $3.9 billion of works-in-place as of 1968 appears
to represent about 50 percent of the waste treatment
required by water quality standards with, however,
enormous variation in degree of compliance to be found
between one industry and another.
The above figure of $8.1 billion to cover capital re-
quirements dictated by current interpretations of water
quality standards was obtained by use of an industrial
cost model. Industrial waste treatment costs (Table 10)
are dependent on flow volumes, residuals characteris-
tics, waste segregation opportunities and available
technology. Such considerations are generalized for
industrial categories and then evaluated on the basis
of reported flows and flow to cost relationships, in order
to calculate treatment costs for such treatable discharge.
Such treatment costs may vary greatly depending on
the efficiency with which abatement procedures are ap-
plied in any given plant, even within an industry. Al-
though the most likely level of capitalization is about
$8.1 billion, it could be as high as $12.2 billion.
In the eventual resolution of the industrial waste
handling situation, it is not likely that the maximum
investment of $12.2 billion will occur under existing
abatement requirements. The association of capital
requirements with water use practices has enormous
implications for the dimensions of ultimate costs.
Higher treatment costs, other things being equal, are
a direct consequence of wasteful use of water. Water
is wasted largely because it has had many of the char-
acteristics of a free good. Imposition of a wastewater
treatment requirements—or other cost-incurring con-
straints on water utilization—will, it has been demon-
strated both in theory and in practice, lead to produc-
tion practices that are less water-intensive, and thus
have lower associated waste treatment values.
Several modifications of the evaluation model were
attempted in order to arrive at a realistic assessment
of capital requirements. One took into account the
modification of water utilization practices that accom-
panies installation of waste treatment as well as hard-
ware and construction costs. Without altering the re-
lationships among treatment process components, water
use coefficients were substituted for the observed ones
—though all substitutions were made by recourse to
observed conditions—and investment and annual cost
calculations were produced to reflect the altered vari-
ables. The most likely investment level ($8.1 billion)
is thought to be the one associated with "median"
efficiency.
Industrial—Annualized Costs
The initial capital cost of facilities represents less
than a fourth of the total cost of industrial waste treat-
ment. Once installed, facilities must be operated and
maintained. Given the composition of the set of treat-
ment requirements evaluated here, operation and main-
tenance accounts for 35 percent of the annual cost.
Interest, at current rates, accounts for a large share
of annual charges for waste treatment. Some 40 per-
cent of the annual costs of the modelled treatment sys-
TABLE 10.—Industrial Waste Treatment Situation Summary, 1968
SIC
7fl
77
9/|
7fi
?8
?q
SO
31
V
W
W
Ti
Sfi
37
INDUSTRY
Food & Kindred Products
Textiles
Lumber & Wood Products
Paper & Allied Products
Chemicals & Allied Products
Petroleum & Coal
Rubber & Plastics
Leather
Stone Clay & Glass
Primary Metals
Fabricated Metal Products
Machinery
Electrical Equipment
Transportation Equipment
Manufacturing
(1971 dollars)
Capital
By Industry
193.8
48,8
9.7
529.5
343 2
342.1
3.0
17.0
20.0
216.3
6.7
14.8
23.8
17.4
1787.0
(2425.0)
Supplied
Publicly
315.3
63.6
2.3
79.3
191.5
7.1
22.7
17.3
22.0
125.9
51.4
48.8
92.2
923
1131.7
(1535.7)
MILLIONS OF
Median
Requirement
913.3
234.8
115.8
1235.6
867.6
817.4
82.9
86.5
156.5
1089.8
999
807
113.5
798
59642
(8093.4)
19E7 DOLLARS
Deficiency
4042
122.4
103.8
626.8
332.9
468.2
57.2
52.2
114.5
747.6
41.8
17.1
(2.5)
(12.5)
3045.5
(4132.7)
Maximum
Requirement
997.5
251.4
186.1
1550.5
2436.8
1096.1
96.0
86.8
182.3
1620.5
124.1
100.1
129.5
122.7
8965.7
(12166.4)
Deficiency
488.4
139.0
174.1
941.7
1902.1
746.9
70.3
52.5
140.3
1278.3
66.0
36.5
13.5
13.0
6047.0
(8205.8)
23
-------
tem, and 27 percent of the annual costs of the system
of works that industry reported to be in operation in
1968, can be attributed to interest payments implicit
in the value of the capital stock. To make the sequence
of major and minor replacement expenditures required to
sustain the stock of physical capital, the firm faces a
continuing capital demand, one that is estimated to
equal the capital cost within a 20-year period, and to
account for 25 percent of the annual costs of the mod-
elled system of waste treatment works. The annual costs
(operation, maintenance, debt service, and replace-
ment) associated with the $8.1 billion capital invest-
ment requirement is $1.6 billion. The annual cost asso-
ciated with the higher $12.2 billion figure is $2.4
billion.
The projected cash outlays associated with attain-
ment of effluent standards over the years 1968-1976
that manufacturers must anticipate is $20 billion (1971
dollars) (Table 11). While incremental annual costs
will probably amount to only about two-tenths percent
of aggregate values added by manufacturers, up to four
percent of total capital spending of some industries will
be required to comply with standards, and as much as
one percent of values added in some industries (pulp
and paper, steel) will be added by waste treatment costs.
If such costs were absorbed, the incremental costs in
1968 would have reduced the pre-tax profits of manu-
facturers by nine-tenths percent. However, as seems
more likely, if additional costs are passed on to con-
sumers, with full maintenance of margins, prices of
manufactured goods may increase by 0.1 percent.
Municipal—Capital Expenditures
The estimated total cost of constructing waste treat-
ment facilities planned through Fiscal Year 1976 and
needed to meet current water quality standards or
enforcement requirements is $18.1 billion, (Table 12)
according to a survey conducted by EPA. However, a
lower estimate of $14.3 billion of required investment
to achieve water quality standards by 1976 resulted
from the Waste Treatment Facilities Evaluation model
(Tables 13 and 14).
As well as differing from the model estimate, the
1971 survey estimate differs from the 1970 survey
estimate of $12.6 billion. Among the reasons for this
variance are: a different time period for each survey;
a 15 percent inflation rate in the cost of construction
in the period between the two surveys; a tightening of
water quality standards or implementation schedules
in certain situations; and more comprehensive assess-
ing and reporting.
TABLE 11.—Projected Cash Outlays Associated With Attainment of Discharge Standards by 1976 (Median
Efficiency)
MILLIONS OF 1967 DOLLARS
OUTLAYS, 1968-1976
SIC
20
22
24
26
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
Industry
Food & Kindred Products
Textiles
Lumber & Wood Products
Paper & Allied Products
Chemical & Allied Products
Petroleum & Coal
Rubber & Plastics
Leather
Stone, Clay, Glass
Primary Metals
Fabricated Metal Products
Machinery
Electrical Equipment
Transportation Equipment
Manufacturing Total
(1971 Dollars)
Maximum Cost Total
(1971 Dollars)
Minimum Cost Total
(1971 Dollars)
Net
Investment
722
186
99
856
324
475
80
70
138
873
93
66
90
62
4,134
(5,610)
5,430
(7,369)
1,416
(1,922)
Growth
189
82
*
145
573
55
38
18
27
560
48
5
34
13
1,786
(2,424)
1,845
(2,504)
880
(1,194)
Replacement
302
84
28
410
432
282
29
29
48
421
36
24
40
26
2,191
(2,973)
2,520
(3,420)
1,267
(1,719)
Interest
474
131
44
641
671
439
45
45
75
659
56
37
62
40
3,419
(4,639)
3,939
(5,345)
1,976
(2,669)
Operations
413
77
26
591
729
265
36
29
108
917
70
48
83
59
3,451
(4,683)
4,637
(6,292)
1,792
(2,432)
Total
2,100
560
197
2,643
2,728
1,516
228
191
396
3,430
303
180
309
200
14,981
(20,329)
18,609
(25,252)
7,322
( 9,936)
Total
1971
Dollars
2,850
760
267
3,587
3,702
2,057
309
259
537
4,655
411
244
419
271
20,329
•Rate of improvement in water productivity is greater than rate of growth of output.
24
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TABLE 12.—Survey Results of Estimated Construction Cost of Sewage Treatment Facilities Planned for the
Period FY 1972-1976 (Millions of 1971 Dollars)
FY-1972
FY-1973 >
FY-1974 '
FY-1975
FY-1976
Total
TOTALS 5,278.2 6,080.0 3,198.2 2,236.5 1,289.3 18,082.2
Alabama 33.5 9.6 9.5 7.9 5.1 65.6
Alaska 4.1 26.4 2.3 7.5 — 40.3
Arizona 10.7 8.9 — 6.2 1.4 27.2
Arkansas 12.5 27.7 11.3 10.0 — 61.5
California 280.4 930.9 218.4 369.0 340.8 2,139.5
Colorado 23.3 14.4 8.4 30.0 6.1 82.2
Connecticut 96.2 95.1 53.5 — — 244.8
Delaware 7.8 8.8 79.0 2.5 5.6 103.7
Dist. of Columbia 62.7 40.9 — — — 103.6
Florida 313.0 125.7 89.4 106.3 17.0 651.4
Georgia 36.3 89.6 15.8 — 12.6 154.3
Hawaii 15.0 28.5 4.6 24.1 — 72.2
Idaho 15.7 8.6 7.4 .3 .4 32.4
Illinois 336.7 332.5 240.8 382.9 38.7 1,331.6
Indiana 161.3 207.2 121.7 22.1 27.6 539.9
Iowa 16.8 78.8 72.7 21.8 7.2 197.3
Kansas 19.8 28.8 5.9 3.2 11.6 69.3
Kentucky 46.8 35.0 14.3 39.5 27.1 162.7
Louisiana 68.5 40.6 28.2 17.7 .1 155.1
Maine 25.4 100.5 15.0 35.4 25.0 201.3
Maryland 201.5 204.0 214.6 15.7 36.6 672.4
Massachusetts 206.5 190.8 149.9 80.0 — 627.2
Michigan 331.8 523.2 307.3 100.4 130.0 1,392.7
Minnesota 142.3 112.1 41.5 30.8 12.9 339.6
Mississippi 32.5 17.4 7.4 14.5 18.2 90.0
Missouri 9.2 160.0 71.9 38.1 27.4 306.6
Montana 13.7 2.7 7.8 — 3.0 27.2
Nebraska 1.8 28.7 23.5 24.1 15.7 93.8
Nevada .4 30.7 10.8 1.3 — 43.2
New Hampshire 21.3 36.9 62.8 58.5 10.5 190.0
New Jersey 461.9 554.4 105.6 299.6 6.3 1,427.8
New Mexico 17.8 12.8 .1 — — 30.7
New York 1,047.1 422.4 140.8 102.0 167.2 1,879.5
North Carolina 36.6 66.5 31.3 18.2 1.1 153.7
North Dakota 1.4 3.7 1.7 — .3 7.1
Ohio 277.2 250.3 313.3 62.7 156.8 1,060.3
Oklahoma 14.4 24.2 28.5 8.1 39.8 115.0
Oregon 41.5 72.3 9.9 13.0 12.6 149.3
Pennsylvania 187.2 343.3 259.0 105.8 1.2 896.5
Rhode Island 9.9 35.6 25.7 — — 71.2
South Carolina 31.2 29.5 33.3 18.8 17.8 130.6
South Dakota 9.3 1.7 2.8 3.3 .9 18.0
Tennessee 120.6 31.0 17.4 11.9 7.8 188.7
Texas 127.5 165.5 110.3 34.4 11.5 449.2
Utah 14.5 3.5 2.5 1.4 5.5 27.4
Vermont 5.3 13.5 13.5 6.3 3.7 42.3
Virginia 100.0 243.3 81.1 11.0 61.5 496.9
Washington 38.1 67.8 23.8 52.6 5.8 188.1
West Virginia 38.2 32.5 2.1 23.0 — 95.8
Wisconsin 135.1 97.2 21.3 6.6 3.9 264.1
Wyoming 1.5 2.4 — — — 3.9
Guam 2.2 10.5 — 4.1 .7 17.5
Puerto Rico 4.2 48.6 76.0 .8 .5 130.1
Virgin Islands 8.0 2.5 2.5 3.1 3.8 19.9
' Separate costs for FY 1973 and FY 1974 estimated from FY 1972/1974 total.
25
-------
The evaluation model results in an estimate of $14.3
billion needed to be invested during the period Fiscal
Years 1972-1976 in order tb overcome deficiencies in
present facilities and to keep pace with growth, capital
replacement and inflation. On the other hand, the sur-
vey result of $18.1 billion is an aggregation of State
and local estimates of their construction activity dur-
ing this same period. There are several basic metho-
dological differences between the survey and the model:
The model uses statistically derived cost func-
tions, whereas the survey relies on community-
generated cost data.
TABLE 13.—Five-Year "Backlog" Capital Elimina-
tion Schedule (Millions of 1971 Dollars)
Year
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
"Backlog"
at
Year End
5081.0
3871.2
2740.9
. . . 1706.1
. . . 784.9
. ... 0.0
Growth
691.7
768.1
853.0
947.2
1051.9
Total Investment, 1972-1976
"Backlog" . .
Growth
Recapitalization . .
Recapitah- Invest-
zation ment '
588.4 2870.9
682.2 2870.9
777.6 2870.9
874.6 2870.9
972.9 2870.9
14,354.5
6,147.0
4,311.8
3,895.7
1 Includes 7.5 percent cost increase factor for the period.
The model uses statistically estimated growth
and replacement factors and calculates the con-
struction required to maintain the capital stock of
treatment plants and to provide for additional
population and industrial wastes.
The model also includes a specific factor which
adjusts for price increases in construction activi-
ties. As noted in the survey discussion, State and
local intentions are expressed in 1971 dollars.
A primary purpose of the survey is to give an indi-
cation of each local government's construction plans
in the municipal waste treatment sector. The survey
reflects the summation of local activities which, when
viewed in the aggregate, presents an estimate of desired
construction activity which may or may not commence
during the period Fiscal Year 1972-1976, e.g. com-
pressing of the 20 year California program into
five years. The purpose of the model is slightly dif-
ferent in that it provides an estimate of the investment
activity between 1972 and 1976 that local govern-
ments will be required to undertake in order to main-
tain their current growth and replacement needs and
make progress toward constructing those facilities re-
quired to meet water quality standards.
Evaluation of Benefits and Costs
Aside from the specific municipal and industrial
sectors, attention to the marginal benefits and costs of
various treatment levels from a national point of view is
necessary to insure that the water pollution goals sought
are defensible in terms of their net benefit to society.
TABLE 14.—Model Investment Schedule Investment Needed to Reduce Backlog by 1976 (Millions of 1971
Dollars)
TOTALS .
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California . . ...
Colorado . . .
Connecticut
Delaware
Dist of Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
14,354.5
201.0
28.7
86.1
100.5
1,550.3
258.4
71.8
14.4
215.3
502 4
387.6
43.1
86.1
488.1
617 2
172.3
215.3
143.5
Louisiana . . . .
Maine ...
Maryland . .
Massachusetts
Michigan .
Minnesota
Mississippi . .
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada . .
New Hampshire . .
New Jersey . . .
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina .
North Dakota
Ohio
129.2
43.1
272.7
143.5
760.8
373.2
114.8
258.4
57.4
100.5
43.1
28.7
229.7
86.1
1,004.8
258.4
57.4
890.0
Oklahoma . . .
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia . ...
Washington . . .
West Virginia ....
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Guam
Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
. . 186.6
186.6
631.6
43.1
143.5
287
244.0
1 205 8
129.2
28 7
330.1
. . . . 315.8
114.8
5024
287
201.0
26
-------
An analysis of the marginal costs and benefits to levels
of treatment suggests:
Because costs accelerate rapidly as higher levels
of treatment are achieved (Table 15 and Table
16) the total cost of meeting very high levels of
treatment approaching zero discharge could be
many times those required to meet current water
quality standards.
The improvement in beneficial uses of water
from a no discharge policy is likely to be modest
compared to the costs. The ultimate goal of any
pollution control program is to achieve certain
environmental quality objectives. These goals have
traditionally been set forth in standards of quality
that deal with preventing adverse effects or achiev-
ing certain beneficial uses. For example, higher
water quality provides such beneficial uses as water
supply, recreation and fish and wildlife. The least
costly method of meeting these objectives is to
tailor effluent reductions to meet those ambient
objectives. To the extent that the effluent reduc-
tions are more stringent than those which are
required, excessive costs are incurred needlessly.
This is particularly true at high control levels
where control costs escalate very rapidly. A study
of cost and benefits in the Delaware Estuary per-
formed by the Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration illustrates the relationship of bene-
fits to costs in the following table:
TABLE 15.—Index of Pollution Control Investment
Costs Related to Level of Abatement
Dissolved
Oxygen (mg/1)
6.5
5.5
5.0
4.0
Index of Costs
of Control
575
320
150
100
Index of
Recreational
Benefits
128
115
105
100
The Delaware study is now nearly a decade old.
EPA recognizes the paucity of information con-
cerning economic measures of benefits and is
making a concerted effort to refine costs and
develop methodologies for quantifying benefits.
A number of adverse environmental impacts
would occur such as higher energy consumption
and solid waste problems. Disposal on land will
increase dramatically, resulting in potential soil
and water contamination. High effluent limitations
would also encourage deep-well disposal with great
potential for long-term damage to underground
water supplies.
Large resources devoted to achieving small in-
creases in water quality benefits have the effect of
withdrawing resources from other environmental
efforts or other national priorities.
Level of
Removal
(Percent)
100 . .
99
98 ... .
95
85
Increased
Percent of
Removal
1
1
... 3
. . . 10
. .
Cost
Inoex
500
250
200
150
100
Cost Per
Increased
Percent of
Removal
250
50
17
5
"'
TABLE 16.—Total Control Costs as a Function of
Effluent Control Levels
Index of
Control Costs
(in$)
100
Percent
Reduction
100
50-
40-
30-
20-
98
:95
.85
Source: Interior 1965 Saline Water Conversion Study
Young and Pisano: "Nonlinear Programming Applied to Regional Water
Resource Planning".
FWPCA: Cost of Clean Water, 1968, Volume I
FWQA- Cost of Clean Water, 1970, Volume IV.
Although considerable insight into and understanding
of the economics of water pollution control have been
gained through .past studies, there are still many unan-
swered questions concerning the costs of pollution
abatement and the impact that efforts to cleanse our
environment will have on the national economy. The
challenge, however, is clear: if the Nation's water re-
sources arc to be enjoyed without the burden of increas-
ing water pollution, now is the time to institute prudent
action to clean up our streams. The people and their
government have accepted the challenge. HPA reflects
their determination and will give continuing emphasis
to devising policies and programs which will create a
cleaner environment in the most expeditious and eco-
nomical manner.
27
-------
28
-------
SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT
NATURE OF THE SOLID
WASTE PROBLEM
Solid waste problems vary widely across the United
States, but are generally characterized by unnecessarily
high collection costs and disposal practices that are
environmentally and aesthetically unacceptable. These
problems are most intense in the urban complex and
are generated not by lack of adequate technology and
financial capacity, but primarily by lack of incentives at
the local level to operate sound solid waste management
systems; institutional and political constraints for maxi-
mizing system productivity and utilization of environ-
mental safeguards; public attitudes; and obsolete financ-
ing and institutional practices.
Some cities have critical problems typified by an
inability to locate disposal sites, an inability to efficiently
operate or control the collection and disposal system, or
an inability to raise revenues to cover increasing costs
for collection and disposal service. Other cities have
very few major problems, typified by long range acquisi-
tion of disposal sites, efficiently controlled regional col-
lection and disposal systems, and an ability to obtain
needed operating and capital funds.
Moab dump, considered a recreational asset.
Approximately $5.5 billion is spent annually on solid
waste management. Even though costs in some areas
may increase as dumps are converted to sanitary land-
fills and incinerators are upgraded to meet environ-
mental standards, extrapolations of costs from exem-
plary systems indicate that, if properly managed, the
total national costs for proper solid waste management
need not rise much above the present level.
There are many barriers to affecting change at the
local level. Political realities exist which make it diffi-
cult for neighboring communities to join together in
obtaining economies of scale in waste collection and
disposal. For many areas, solid waste management has
historically been funded by revenues generated by
property taxes. As these funding mechanisms reach
their revenue generating limit and waste management
costs rise, collection and disposal service deteriorates.
Lack of attention to solid waste management by
local government means that many systems are not
managed efficiently. There is a lack of effective ordi-
nances for collection and disposal at the local level.
Many communities lack the proper management tools
and mechanism to operate an efficient, low cost system.
The general public is apathetic to solid waste man-
agement problems. Generally, the public is willing to
pay the full cost for solid waste services and envi-
ronmental control measures, but few systems take ad-
vantage of this fact and utilize revenue raising mecha-
nisms which are, in some cases, constrained. In some
parts of the country, there is also a great public concern
about proximity to disposal sites like sanitary landfills,
which aggravates the problem of finding acceptable dis-
posal sites in densely populated areas.
Resource recovery offers significant potential as an
alternative to the disposal of solid waste, but will not
materialize as a real alternative for most urban areas in
the near term. The principal problem in this area is not
with the technology of resource recovery, but lack of
adequate market demand for materials and fuel recov-
ered from the solid waste stream.
Documerica Photo
-------
30
-------
r
Klean Steel Manufacturing Corp., Flowood, Mississippi, has
a 2,000 horsepower mill which shreds 300 cars a day. Steel
rods made from shredded autos are being used as reinforce-
ment in portions of Interstate 55.
Documerioa Photo
-------
OBJECTIVES OF THE SOLID
WASTE PROGRAM
In light of the above assessment of solid waste prob-
lems, EPA's solid waste program has concentrated the
majority of its resources in pursuit of the following
objectives:
1. To demonstrate that existing solid waste prob-
lems can be solved by:
a. upgrading local methods for managing solid
waste collection to the best demonstrated
practice;
b. replacing poor incinerators and open dumps
with economical, environmentally sound
disposal practices now available;
c. recovering resources from waste where mar-
ket conditions permit;
d. creating institutional change to maximize
and sustain productivity and utilization of
environmental safeguards.
2. To perfect sanitary landfilling as a disposal
technique by solving remaining problems as-
sociated with leachate, gas and settlement.
3. To develop techniques and institutions to han-
dle the collection, transport and disposal of
hazardous wastes.
4. To encourage greater resource recovery
through such means as Federal purchasing
power or market incentives for resources re-
covery.
At the same time, EPA's longer-term objective is
increased resource conservation. This is broadly de-
fined to include all substances, energies, manpower,
and conditions which are valued. Maximum resource
conservation may be accomplished for different locales
by disposing of wastes in a sanitary landfill, with a
park or a golf course as the eventual end use, or by
recycling waste materials by converting them to other
uses such as energy production.
PROGRAM OPERATION
The chief program tools that OSWMP utilizes to
achieve its objectives are:
1. Planning grants awarded to State and local
agencies to develop plans which will upgrade the
environmental aspects of solid waste management
and rationalize delivery systems.
EPA currently has solid waste planning grants
with 49 States and 20 local and regional agencies.
Planning grants concentrate on obtaining survey
data to plan waste facilities, studying alternative
collection and disposal or recycling systems, de-
termining appropriate local ordinances or State
legislation and examining alternative financing and
management systems. Since solid waste planning
grants were initiated, the number of State solid
waste programs has increased from five to 50.
The number of full-time State solid waste person-
nel has increased from 13 to over 200.
As States complete their plans, emphasis will shift
from issuance of State grants to the issuance of
local/regional grants focusing on environmental,
self-financing and regulatory aspects.
Grant award criteria, promulgated in regulations,
have been structured toward "real world," "im-
plementable" plans and away from surveys and
models that end up on shelves. Regional office
grant monitoring and review procedures will con-
centrate on aspects leading toward implementation
of the rational delivery system and environmen-
tal solution.
2. Technical assistance will be provided to lo-
cal and regional solid waste agencies to improve
the environmental aspects of their systems while
lowering overall systems costs.
Major technical assistance will be targeted to cities
or areas which have a capacity (resources and
willingness to utilize resources) to improve their
solid waste management.
In July 1970, a program called Mission 5000,
was launched. The objective is to close 5000 of
the 15,000 open dumps across the Nation in two
years through local action. In 14 months, the
program succeeded in closing, or converting to
sanitary landfill, 800 of these sites.
Mission 5000 efforts will be focused on the public
education to make citizens and local decision-
makers aware of solid waste problems, potential
solutions, and local progress in implementing such
solutions.
3. Demonstration grants will be utilized to dem-
onstrate that existing solid waste management
problems can be solved by local communities
through the rational application of existing knowl-
edge and technology.
Prior to incorporation into EPA, the solid waste
program had placed primary emphasis on tech-
nology development. This effort, which included
research and development, pilot plant operation
and demonstration, received over two-thirds of the
total funds and one half of the man years ex-
pended by the program since its inception in 1965.
Most of EPA's 60-odd "demonstration grants"
32
-------
awarded to municipalities since 1965 have been
heavily equipment-oriented.
After moving to EPA, internal studies indicated
that the time had come to shift the solid waste
program priorities away from technology develop-
ment to an effort designed to upgrade current
practices to acceptable levels (managerically and
environmentally) that utilize existing knowledge
and technology. This is not to say that technol-
ogy should play no role in EPA's solid waste pro-
gram, but rather that it should not dominate
EPA's concern as it has in the past. Technology
should be pursued by EPA only under strict con-
ditions, and focus primarily on practical modifi-
cations of existing technology.
Priority will be given to those projects which create
the institutional change required to improve labor
productivity, provide sound financial support for
waste management, and replace poor incinerators
and open dumps with economical, environmentally
sound disposal practices.
The availability of grants and the award criteria
have been publicized and grants are being actively
"solicited."
4. Resources recovery demonstration grants will
be awarded to demonstrate resource recovery
where adequate local markets exist.
Criteria for these grants, setting stringent technical
and economic requirements for EPA financial par-
ticipation, were announced in the Commerce Busi-
ness Daily on March 24, 1972.
Market conditions will be investigated prior to, or
in conjunction with, applicant selection for Section
208 funding. Systems must be commercially viable:
i.e., should have a net cost competitive with alter-
native disposal techniques on a given area. Systems
must be technically sound; the system must be past
the pilot plant stage.
In addition, EPA is studying another increasingly
critical aspect of the solid waste problem: the
disposal of hazardous wastes. Biological, radiation,
pesticide, and toxic mercury wastes are examples
of materials which present serious disposal prob-
lems.
As part of a study to determine the advisability
and feasibility of establishing a system of national
disposal sites, EPA currently is assessing the
amount, locations and present means of disposal of
hazardous materials, and is recommending desired
disposal methods, warning potential sites, and
estimating the costs of operating such a system.
In addition, President Nixon, in his 1972 Environ-
mental Message proposed Federal regulation of land
and underground disposal of all toxic substances.
ACCOMPLISHMENTS
Several technical assistants and resource recovery
demonstrations highlight the accomplishments of EPA's
solid waste management program.
Technical Assistance
1. Cleveland, Ohio, is an example of a city which
was forced by financial constraints to examine the
efficiency of its solid waste management system.
With Federal assistance, Cleveland implemented
changes in solid waste collection that resulted in
$4 million savings in one year (potentially another
$5 million in 1972) and then upgraded its disposal
techniques. This amounted to a 30 percent reduc-
tion in total waste management costs.
2. River Rouge, Michigan, utilizing technical as-
sistance from EPA, rerouted collection vehicles
and altered crew sites. Total system costs were
cut in half.
3. Utilizing technical assistance, southeast Oak-
land County, Michigan, rerouted collection ve-
hicles and saved approximately 15 percent of total
waste management costs. One community, Hunt-
ington Woods, also altered equipment and crew
sizes and cut collection costs in half.
4. Chilton County, Alabama, implemented a rural
collection system and areawide sanitary landfill
under an EPA demonstration grant. This success-
ful concept has been adopted by a number of
other rural counties without Federal financial
assistance.
Resource Recovery
1. Franklin, Ohio project, is a 150-ton per day
plant (24 hour basis), funded under an EPA
demonstration grant, which mechanically sepa-
rates glass, aluminum, paper fiber and ferrous
metal. The process is based upon a hydra-pulper
which shreds and slurries incoming municipal
refuse. Firm market agreements were negotiated
with local industries for the recovered materials.
2. In St. Louis, Missouri, shredded municipal
refuse (input of 300 tons per day in one eight
hour shift) is being used as a supplementary fuel
in a coal electric utility boiler in this EPA demon-
stration project. This system has great potential
given its broad market applicability, low capital
investment requirements, increasing demands for
fuel, etc.
3. Local private industry in Jackson, Mississippi
is successfully operating an automobile shredder,
attracting abandoned hulks from a three State
area. Shredded scrap is sold to private industry for
making steel for use as roadside barriers along
interstate highways.
33
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PESTICIDES
There are presently some 34,500 registered prod-
ucts manufactured from one or more of 900 chemical
compounds to be used against harmful weeds, insects,
plant diseases and other pests attacking wildlife, live-
stock and food crops. Although farmers are the larg-
est users of pesticides, about half of the registered
products are for non-farm uses in and around homes,
industrial plants, commercial buildings and other insti-
tutions.
In 1970, U.S. production of these products
amounted to 1,034 million pounds, including 59 mil-
lion pounds of DDT products (the lowest since 1949),
one million pounds of mercury fungicides, 89 million
pounds of the aldrintoxaphene group, 15 million
pounds of parathion, and 12 million pounds of 2,4,5—T.
As in the other programs, EPA's attack on the prob-
lem has been multi-pronged. One approach has been
simply to cancel the registration of certain products
that EPA's scientists determined were too danger-
ous for their intended uses. In 1971, such cancella-
tions involved some 1,800 to 2,000 DDT products of
about 250 companies, 1,300 aldrin/dieldrin products
of 377 companies and 307 2,4,5-T products of 107
companies.
Another EPA pesticide control mechanism is the
statutory authority to establish safe limits on pesticide
residues in food. By forcing food producers to comply
with these limits, EPA is launching a direct attack on
the unnecessary and careless use of these chemicals.
Many of the pesticide accidents which occur are, in
fact, due to misuse. A major proportion of pesticide
chemicals are applied by commercial applicators for
agricultural purposes and for structural control of pests.
Federal Pesticides activities were in somewhat unique
situation at the time Reorganization Plan No. 3 was
promulgated, establishing EPA. It was not a complete
ongoing program like Water Quality, Air Pollution and
Solid Wastes. Program activities were divided among
three major Federal agencies:
Research on the effects of pesticides in fish and
wildlife was conducted by the Department of
Interior. Under the provision of the Reorganiza-
tion Plan 3, the Gulf Breeze Biological Laboratory
of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries was trans-
ferred from Interior to EPA.
Establishing standards limiting pesticide residues
in food and for conducting related research, was
the responsibility of the Food and Drug Admin-
istration, Department of Health, Education and
Welfare. When EPA was created the Perrine
Primate Laboratory in Florida, Community Stud-
ies Office in Chamblee, Georgia, and the unit
responsible for pesticide residue tolerances, peti-
tion review and control were shifted from FDA
to the new Agency. However, as part of its food
protection activities, FDA retained responsibilities
for monitoring residues in foods, and for regula-
tory activities to remove food from the market if
it is found to contain excess residues.
Pesticide registration and enforcement activities
provided for under the Federal Insecticide, Fungi-
cide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and related
research and soil monitoring activities were for-
merly conducted by the Department of Agricul-
ture. These functions were also transferred to
EPA. The Department of Agriculture retained
pesticide research activities on livestock, poultry
and plant effects, several other pest control pro-
grams and the education program on pesticide
conducted by the Department's Agricultural Ex-
tension Service.
There are two administrative procedures under the
present FIFRA which can be invoked to limit the use
of pesticides detrimental to man and the environment.
The milder one, "cancellation", allows the continued
shipment of the pesticide products in interstate com-
merce while a decision to prohibit future use is re-
viewed; the stronger administrative procedure, "sus-
pension", prohibits the further sale in interstate com-
merce of the product with possible recall action until
administrative appeals and reviews are finished and a
final decision made.
Notice of cancellation was issued in August 1970,
on products containing DDT for certain specific uses.
In January of 1971, a notice was issued which can-
celled registrations of all products containing DDT
because of serious question effects of its use. In March
of 1971, EPA began prehearing conferences concern-
ing the 42 product formulators involved in accordance
with the administrative approval provisions contained
in the enabling legislation.
The registration of the product Mirex produced by
the Allied Chemical Company was cancelled March
1971. In this case the manufacturer requested an ad-
visory committee as provided under Section 4c of
FIFRA, and the National Academy of Sciences was
asked to list experts to serve on the committee. Due to
the complex procedures which must take place, final
34
-------
action on the cancellation of this product could con-
ceivably take one to two years.
Notice of cancellation was issued March 1971, can-
celling the registrations of all products containing aldrin
and dieldrin because of similar serious questions about
product safety. About 80 companies have invoked the
administrative appeal procedure described above requir-
ing an advisory committee and some companies have
also requested public hearings. These procedings could
also be lengthy.
Notices of suspension were issued as of April 1970,
concerning some uses of 2,4,5-T. Again, the adminis-
trative appeal procedure was invoked by the companies
for referral to an advisory committee which issued its
report in May 1971. A public hearing was called for in
the fall of 1971 to obtain additional facts on 2,4,5-T
while a suspension order continues to prohibit the use
of this herbicide on food crops for human consumption.
The DDT cancellation involved approximately 250
companies and 1,800 to 2,000 products, and the
aldrin/dieldrin cancellation involved 377 companies
and about 1,300 separate products. The 2,4,5—T
suspensions resulted in recall actions for over 307
products and 107 companies. Under present law,
companies that appeal cancellation of Federal regis-
trations may continue to market their products in
interstate commerce pending final resolution of ad-
ministrative appeals. After seven months of public
hearing testimony and additional hearings by the
parties concerned, it was decided that most uses of
DDT would be banned after December 31, 1972.
EPA's action does not bar the use of DDT in the
cases of emergency public health measures, such as
might follow an outbreak of malaria or other insect-
borne epidemic. Another exception to the ban is
for three minor crops: green peppers, onions, and
sweet potatoes in storage, for which no effective al-
ternative has been developed.
The overall activities of EPA's pesticides program
are contained in six functional areas: Product Registra-
tion and Tolerance, Setting Standards and Criteria,
Technical Assistance, Environmental Surveillance and
Research, and Market Surveillance and Enforcement.
REGISTRATIONS AND TOLERANCES
New product applications, as well as amendments to
and registration renewals, have been received at an
average rate of 450-600 a week. This includes renewals
for projects registered five years ago of which there is a
total potential of about 10,000 in Fiscal Year 1972.
Registration applications and amendments in the review
process increased to a peak of 5,422 in Fiscal 1972,
but have since been reduced to 1,424 in April 1972.
The objective of the review procedures is to protect the
public health and the environment, while at the same
time providihg efficient review from the manufacturers'
viewpoint. Handling and review time of applications is
being reduced to a median range of 45 to 60 days
through more efficient procedures, without sacrifice in
the quality of the review.
The Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act requires the
establishment of tolerances for pesticidal chemicals on
or in food and animal feeds. No such pesticide product
can be registered until appropriate tolerances have been
established.
There were 212 petitions in the review process at the
start of February 1971. Due to changes in the adminis-
trative definition of residue tolerances, only a small
change in the over 90-day backlog level had been noted
until recently. Recently added toxicologists have begun
to reverse the trend of the over 90-day backlog from 64
in December 1971, to 36 in March 1972. The objective
is to protect the public health and the environment by
not allowing chemical concentrations of residues higher
than safe levels. Once the petition backlog is reduced,
it is expected that selective reexamination of previously
Docuinoriojl Photo
Dusting sulphur to retard mildew on grapevines: Fresno, California.
35
-------
established tolerances can be begun, as well as process-
ing all new petitions within the 90-day statutory time
frame.
A special in-house scientific review group has been
established to review present registrations of products
containing mercury, arsenic and lead, heptachlor and
chlordane, endrin, benzene hexachloride, lindane, toxa-
phene, strobane, captan, folpet, difolatan, carbary and
2,4-D and any others whose use may raise substantial
questions as to safety. Recommendations on mercury,
arsenic and lead have already been completed; chlor-
dane and heptachlor are expected to be completed by
mid-1972. The 10 other listed products are expected
to be reviewed during Fiscal Year 1973.
TABLE 17.—CROPLAND RESIDUE STUDIES
TABLE A.—Five States in U.S. With Highest DDT
Residues
State
Alabama
California
Georgia
Michigan . .
Mississippi
Average
Residue
(ppm)
1 13
1 46
124
2.67
207
Percent
90.9
83.0
100.0
25.6
893
Range ,
0.05-8.08
0.01-41.81
001-6.31
0.01-78.36
0 03-13 14
No. of
Samples
22
59
14
39
28
ENVIRONMENTAL SURVEILLANCE
The activities of environmental surveillance include
community health studies, soil residue and estuarine
monitoring and some limited amount of air monitoring.
It is expected that ultimately these data will provide
for more adequate use controls, reevaluation of certain
pesticide tolerance levels, as well as improved proce-
dures for diagnosis and treatment of pesticide poison-
ing in man. As these monitoring studies are designed
to provide more closely interrelated end-data, they
will provide an alert system for delayed effects of
pesticide chemicals on man, a warning system for reg-
istration re-examinations, setting residue tolerances for
market surveillance and improving the amount and
kinds of technical assistance to States.
Epidemiological studies of human case subjects in
areas of heavy pesticide usage is the only program of
its kind in the U.S. There are currently 14 ongoing
State studies in Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida,
Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Michigan, Mississippi, New Jer-
sey, South Carolina, Texas, Utah and Washington.
These studies are contracted through State health agen-
cies and with local universities. These are long-term
studies to detect any delayed or obscure health ef-
fects that may result from long periods of low level
exposure to any of a variety of pesticide chemicals.
Ambient air at selected sites in 30 States is being
monitored for pesticide residues, and these data will
be correlated with human health status.
Profile studies of pesticide residues are being moni-
tored in soils in 36 states and five urban areas in
Fiscal Year 1972. Soils are the most important stor-
age area of the environment for pesticides, as well as
other contaminants. Recognizing a need for more in-
tensive examination of specific problem areas, sam-
pling has been carried on in the corn and cotton belt
regions; also special studies have been conducted on
cattle feed lots, commercial catfish farms, peanut grow-
ing land, and vegetable and orchard areas.
Mercury and arsenic have been found to be wide-
spread in soils in a number of States, and DDT seems
to be as wide-spread in non-crop areas as in crop areas.
In addition to the expanded monitoring program,
studies are being made to determine the distribution
of mercury, cadmium and other heavy metals of the
soil component of the environment; and the fate and
persistence of the herbicides 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, picloram
and their contaminants.
By 1978 nationwide soil residue monitoring is pro-
jected to include:
Cropland—about 2500 stations a year in 48
states
Non-cropland—about 1000 stations a year in
48 states (forest, range and pasture)
Urban areas—about 20 cities of 50 states a
year
Estuarine Monitoring was started in 1965 by the
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries and until the present
time the program has been designed toward discreet
problems of commercial estuarine fisheries. Oysters
and clams have been primarily sampled in the past
because of their commercial value and also because as
sessile forms they are particularly well suited for pesti-
cide monitoring. Samples are being taken monthly at
170 coastal locations and are normally collected under
contract with States. The present program has been
redesigned to cover 200 primary estuaries and subse-
quently expand to 600 secondary estuarine areas that
show significant levels of pollution.
MARKET SURVEILLANCE
Market Surveillance includes the activities of sam-
pling pesticides and devices at manufacturer, wholesale,
distribution and retail outlets, by field inspectors and
their subsequent examination in field chemistry labora-
tories and the centralized headquarter biological labora-
tories. Post-market surveillance is undertaken for a
two-fold purpose: for labeling violations for enforce-
ment purposes and for the investigation of use records,
historical information on accidents and epidemiological
safety information accumulated since original marketing
36
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TABLE B.—Nine States in U.S. With Highest
Dieldrin Residues
TABLE C.—Comparison of DDT Residues Between
Cities and Cropland
Stats
Florida
Illinois . . .
Iowa
Kentucky
Michigan
North Carolina
South Carolina . .
Va./West Va
Average
Residue
(ppm)
0.6
.. 0.11
0.06
. . . 0.06
0.07
0.09
.... 0.06
0.07
Percent
35.3
61.9
53.3
54.8
25.6
25.0
27.3
25.9
Range
0.01-0.52
0.01-1.42
0.01-0.42
0.01-0.65
0.01-1.01
0.02-1.53
0.02-0.56
0.01-1.60
No. of
Samples
17
139
150
31
39
28
11
27
as a basis for reexamination of previously submitted
registration data. A natural selective sampling schedule
is expected to provide for the collection of about 6,000
product samples in 1972.
MONITORING OF ACCIDENTS
Present reporting of pesticide accidents are directed
primarily to human accidents and cover less than one
percent of what has been generally estimated to be
50,000 accidents and incidents occurring each year. A
major constraint has been the overall inadequacy of
current reporting of human and other accidents and
incidents. Also in recent years the millions of pesticide
containers and packages of all sizes have become
disposal problems for farmers, commercial applicators,
industry and local and State agencies. Prior to the EPA
reorganization, field investigation of pesticide accidents
and incidents involving humans were very limited.
Fewer than 200 human accidents were investigated in
Fiscal Year 1971, and less in previous years, along
with limited numbers by other Federal and State
agencies. Since one of the outstanding basic deficiencies
in this area is the reporting system, present efforts are
being directed toward working with States and other
Federal agencies. A comprehensive national pesticide
accident investigation and reporting system is being
developed. Also, EPA is strengthening its Regional
Office capabilities to work with State agencies in
developing uniform and productive programs.
A scientist
in an EPA laboratory
conducting research
to identify
pesticide residues.
City and State
Bakersfield California
Carnden New Jersey
Houston Texas
Manhattan Kansas
Miami Florida
Milwaukee Wisconsin . . . .
Salt Lake City Utah
Waterbury Connecticut
city
036
1.36
0.35
0.78
593
. 1.07
0.49
098
Cropland
1 46
014*
No sample
No sample
089
002
0.22*
059*
"Average from composite of States.
The Food and Drug Administration operates two
mechanisms that provide data on pesticide accidents.
A Clearinghouse on Poison Control collects data from
580 local non-Federal supported poison control centers.
The FDA collects information on about 130,000
poisoning cases annually from these centers, and of
these, 5,000 to 6,000 relate to poisonings with
pesticides.
RESEARCH
New scientific research on the effects of selected
products is underway to provide a basis for registering
or cancelling registration of these products. Continuing
research on effects of pesticides and other metabolites
on human health, animals and aquatic life is being
conducted. Controlled animal exposure studies using
primates and rats as test-animals are part of EPA's
efforts to learn more about the basic hazards of pesticide
chemicals. Bioassays with aquatic animals and orga-
nisms have been undertaken to determine acute and
chronic effects of pesticides on aquatic life.
Research for regulation purposes represents only part
of the total research effort. Simultaneously, research is
being conducted to develop alternatives to pesticides,
such as so-called biological controls which do not
pollute the land and water, or new pesticides which
quickly break down into harmless substances after
performing their function. This research effort involves
EPA, NSF, and the Department of Agriculture with
much of the work being done by the academic
community.
In the years to come, EPA will seek the strengthening
of regulatory controls on the uses and users of pesti-
cides, rather than just on the distribution of pesticides.
Proposed legislation calls for Federal control over the
use of pesticides in all applications, and the licensing
and training of commercial pesticide applicators for
hazardous, restricted use pesticide applications. On
the public front, EPA and other agencies are conducting
a major information program to encourage the public
to use pesticides more carefully.
37
-------
RADIATION
inspection program for measuring radiation lev-
els in the environment.
6. Technical assistance to other agencies and
State radiation protection programs.
7. Training of personnel for radiation protection
programs.
EPA has the basic responsibility to protect the pub-
lic from the adverse effects of ionizing and non-ionizing
radiation. This authority comes from Executive Re-
organization Plan No. 3 of 1970, transferring to EPA
specified functions and resources from the Atomic
Energy Commission, the Bureau of Radiological
Health, and the Federal Radiation Council. These
transferred functions provide EPA with the authority to:
1. Establish generally applicable environmental
radiation standards for the protection of the gen-
eral public from radioactive materials.
2. Perform research, development, surveillance
and inspection, provide Assistance to States and
provide training and research grants.
3. Advise the President with respect to radiation
matters directly or indirectly affecting health, in-
cluding guidance for all Federal agencies in the
formulation of radiation standards and in the
establishment and execution of programs in co-
operation with the States.
In addition, Section 309 of the Clean Air Act re-
quires EPA to evaluate the environmental impact of
Federal activities as described in the Act.
EPA's responsibilities in radiation are carried out
through programs of criteria development, technology
assessment, surveillance and inspection and training
and assistance. The major programs are as follows:
1. Development of radiation protection criteria,
standards and policies.
2. Evaluation and assessment of the impact of
new and developing radiation technology on man
and the environment.
3. Research on environmental effects of radia-
tion exposure.
4. Development of methodology for measuring
and controlling radiation exposure.
5. Maintenance of a national surveillance and
CRITERIA DEVELOPMENT
Although significant research programs have been
conducted for many years, the effects of very low lev-
els of radiation over long periods, such as encountered
from routine emissions of nuclear power plants, re-
main virtually unknown. Recognizing this, EPA has
adopted what it considers to be a prudent, conserva-
tive policy, and bases development of radiation stand-
ards and guidelines on the following criteria.
1. All radiation is potentially harmful.
2. The biological risk associated with low levels
of exposure is proportional to these risks that
have been estimated at higher exposure levels.
3. Exposure to radiation should always be as
low as practicable.
4. No exposure should be allowed without the
expectation of some net benefit to society.
This last criteria indicates that standards for each
source class of radiation, e.g., nuclear power plants,
fuel reprocessing plants, mining, etc., should be treated
on an individual basis.
In fulfillment of its responsibility for setting gener-
ally applicable radiation standards, the Environmental
Protection Agency now has underway a major review
of all existing Federal radiation protection criteria,
standards, guidelines, and policies. This review is con-
ducted in cooperation with the Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare; the Department of Defense;
and the Atomic Energy Commission and is scheduled
for completion in 1972.
As part of this review, EPA has awarded and is
monitoring contracts with the National Academy of
Sciences (NAS) and the National Council for Radia-
tion Protection and Measurements (NCRP). The NAS
contract calls for review of the scientific bases for the
evaluation of risks at low levels of exposure. The
NCRP contract involves development of dosimetric
models for selected radionuclides and realistic units
for measuring hazardous non-ionizing radiations.
A further accomplishment in this area has been the
completion of a draft technical report, "Estimates of
Ionizing Radiation Doses in the United States, 1960-
2000" in June 1971. The study will be used in EPA's
overall review of the scientific basis for radiation pro-
tection guidance.
During 1971, final "Radiation Protection Standards
38
-------
in Uranium Mines" were published in the Federal
Register (FR, July 9, 1971). These standards placed
tighter restrictions on the amount of radioactive mate-
rials allowed in the air of uranium mines, effective
July 1, 1971.
Further accomplishment in this area has been the
preparation of testimony for the Joint Committee on
Atomic Energy Hearings relative to the uranium mill
tailings problem in the western United States.
During 1971, the Environmental Protection Agency
prepared testimony for presentation before the Sub-
committee on Legislation, Joint Committee on Atomic
Energy, June 23, 1971, on EPA's responsibilities re-
garding radiation protection standards, and the ther-
mal effects of effluents from nuclear power reactors.
It has also prepared testimony for the hearings on 10
CFR Part 50 related to proposed AEC guides for
light-water-cooled nuclear power reactors.
TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
In this critical area, EPA has the responsibility for
evaluating major Federal actions involving ionizing and
non-ionizing radiation, and the design, construction, op-
eration, modification, or discontinuance of applications
of technology related to these radiations in order to
assess the impact on the environment and population.
All new Federally sponsored or regulated activities or
extensions thereof are evaluated, as well as all indus-
rial and commercial products or processes, which may
have an effect on the environment and result in addi-
tional radiation exposure.
EPA also has the responsibility to determine the
potential impact of nuclear applications or other uses
of radiation, and the appropriate measures to control
and minimize all potential adverse effects. Environmen-
tal impact statements submitted by other Federal agen-
cies on applications of radiation-related technology are
evaluated. Program guidance and technical assistance
are provided to States, relative to applications of nu-
clear technology and other radiation uses in order to
Control room of San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station.
San Clemente, California: The San Onofre Nuclear Gener-
ating Station Unit 1, placed in operation in 1967.
-------
minimize the impact of such actions on the environ-
ment and the public.
One of the major roles of EPA is assessing the en-
vironmental impact of the nuclear power program. On
the one hand, there is the critical need for electricity;
on the other hand, generation of electricity involves
environmental impact.
President Nixon, in his message on Clean Energy
to the Congress on June 4, 1971, pointed out that the
Nation's demand for electricity is fast outstripping its
generating capacity. "A sufficient supply of clean energy
is essential," he said, "if we are to sustain healthy
economic growth and improve the quality of our
national life."
To meet this expanding need for electricity, the utili-
ties have been turning principally to nuclear power
stations. As of today, there are about 20 nuclear reac-
tors in operation around the country. By 1975, there
may be as many as 100. By 1990, the number may be
as high as 300 more. Best estimates indicate that by
1990 over one-third of the total U.S. energy require-
ments will be met by nuclear power.
The environmental impact of these nuclear reactors
is a major concern of EPA. As an "advocate of the
environment" EPA has a direct responsibility to pro-
tect the health of people living near these plants—
and near the facilities that process their fuel and re-
ceive their radioactive wastes—against the adverse
effects of the plants' radioactive emissions and dis-
charges of waste heat.
The impact of the nuclear power program is deter-
mined by review of the impact of individual plants and
by studies of various classes of nuclear facilities, such as
light-water-reactor power plants, reprocessing plants,
mining, etc., on the basis of both immediate and long-
term environmental impact. Anticipated future develop-
ments such as the breeder reactor program are being
evaluated in terms of environmental impact.
Individual actions affecting the environment are re-
viewed through the mechanism of the environmental
impact statement review process. A total of 49 environ-
mental impact statements reviews were completed
during 1971. Of these reviews, 15 related to nuclear
power plants, 20 to NASA projects and the remainder
to a wide variety of nuclear activities. Four additional
reviews are in progress.
Criteria and guidelines have been established to
enable EPA to classify its comments into four cate-
gories: EPA is in general agreement with the proposed
action or has no objection to it; inadequate information
is contained in the draft statement; major changes
should be made in the proposed action; and the pro-
posed action is unsatisfactory.
Studies of classes of nuclear activities and studies of
the anticipated impact of future developments have
been continued. Significant progress was made in this
activity during the year. Several internal studies were
completed on: plutonium and actinide production and
release and environmental movement; fast breeder re-
actor operating experience; transportation problems
associated with high radiation activity wastes; impact of
non-power applications for nuclear energy; and models
for estimating the dose contribution from several
nuclear facilities in the same geographic area.
Work was completed or continued in depth in several
critical special field study areas. A final report was com-
pleted on the Yankee Pressurized Water Reactor in
Rowe, Massachusetts. Analysis of samples from the
Connecticut Yankee Reactor (Haddam Neck) field
study is about 90 percent complete. Arrangements were
completed for a study at the Oyster Creek Nuclear
Power Plant in New Jersey. All of these studies provide
information on radionuclide concentrations in reactor
effluents and determination of critical exposure path-
ways. These data are used to enable accurate assess-
ment for impact review activities, and for design of
environmental surveillance programs.
Satisfactory progress was made on the long range
study at the H. B. Robinson Nuclear Facility in South
Carolina. The primary purpose of this study is to detect
the possible accumulation of radionuclidcs in the
environs of nuclear reactors in which cooling water is
recycled.
An additional data gathering activity that will provide
information to the technology assessment program is
the study being conducted at the Nuclear Fuel Services
Spent Fuel Reprocessing Plant in West Valley, New
York. This study is about 90 percent complete.
Accurate measurements of radioactivity release are
required to correctly evaluate environmental impact.
New techniques for the measurement of krypton-85,
tritium and iodine-129 were developed during the
year by personnel at the Winchester, Massachusetts
Laboratory.
SURVEILLANCE AND INSPECTION
EPA conducts surveillance and inspection programs
to obtain base line data on the levels of existing environ-
mental radiation; determine any change occurring in the
radiological quality of the environment, the magnitude
of this change, and the nature and probable source of
the contaminant; provide data for estimating population
exposure to ionizing and non-ionizing radiation; and
determine if environmental levels are within established
radiological guidelines and standards. EPA also pub-
lishes periodic environmental radiological quality data
from Federal, State and utility surveillance programs.
Specific accomplishments during the past year in this
area include the following:
1. Operated national environmental radiological
surveillance networks for milk, water, food, and
tritium and published the results of these analyses
monthly in a section of Radiation Data and
Reports.
40
-------
2. Published an addendum to the report, "Radio-
active Waste Discharges to the Environment from
Nuclear Power Facilities", bringing these data up-
to-date through 1970.
3. Completed or initiated contracts with six States
(Michigan, New Hampshire, South Carolina, New
York, New Jersey and California) to provide
timely environmental surveillance data as an input
to the National Environmental Radiation Moni-
toring Program.
4. Supervised a contract with Battelle Memorial
Institute for the completion of a draft program for
the automatic data processing system for environ-
mental data.
5. Conducted an Analytical Quality Control Serv-
ice for the radiation data from the State programs.
Twenty-three States currently participate in this
program and invitations have been issued to about
20 utility companies requesting their participation
in a cross-check and standards program.
6. The Western Environmental Research Labora-
tory participated in Project Cannikin, the under-
ground nuclear detonation conducted at Amchitka,
Alaska.
7. Prepared an environmental surveillance guide
for the conduct of environmental sampling pro-
grams around nuclear power facilities.
8. Provided off-site environmental radiation sup-
port for nuclear weapon test activities at the
Nevada Test Site and demonstrated feasibility of
utilizing aerial sampling techniques for evaluation
of radioactive gaseous release from nuclear plants.
9. The Eastern Environmental Radiation Lab-
oratory provided off-site radiation safety support
to NASA for Apollo launch.
These programs and studies are being undertaken to
protect the public health and welfare from both imme-
diate and long-range environmental impact of the nu-
clear energy program and from non-ionizing radiation
sources. Strategies for achieving these environmental
goals have been developed and are continually assessed
and reviewed as information from these programs be-
comes available.
NOISE
Title IV of P.L. 91-604 established the Office of
Noise Abatement and Control in EPA on December
31, 1970. EPA's role under this title was to be an
interim one, the principal responsibility being to iden-
tify and classify causes and sources of noise and to
determine their effects on public health and welfare.
The law called for studies on the effects of noise on
people, wildlife, and property and the expected growth
of noise problems through the year 2,000. It also au-
thorized EPA to hold hearings and demonstrations to
supplement research activities. The results of these
efforts were included in a special report to the Presi-
dent and the Congress at the end of 1971.
One source of assistance for the Report was the
National Bureau of Standards which has expertise in
the noise field. Contracts were negotiated with a num-
ber of universities and other organizations with acous-
tical expertise. Both Federal and private organizations
gathered information in the following areas: the effect
of noise on living things and property; sources of noise
and their current environmental impact; current and
future control technology; the economic implications of
noise; laws and regulatory schemes for noise abatement;
government, industry, professional and voluntary asso-
ciation programs; and an assessment of noise abate-
ment programs and legislation in other nations.
PUBLIC HEARINGS
Shortly after work started on the report, EPA be-
gan a series of eight regional public hearings to develop
supplementary information on current state-of-the-art
on noise pollution control technology and on attitudes
of the public, industry and State and local government
towards the problem.
The hearings were organized with a panel of experts
in the field of noise. In this way, the hearing record
included not only the formal presentations of the wit-
A typical source
of noise pollution
under EPA study.
-------
nesses but also discussions between the witnesses and
the experts. Beginning in Atlanta, Georgia, early in July
and ending in Washington, B.C., in November, each
hearing ran for two to four days and presentations from
some 225 witnesses were heard. In addition to witnesses
from industry and State and local governments, repre-
sentatives from 32 different public affairs and environ-
mental organizations also made statements.
Topics covered at the hearings included: noise from
construction and transportation equipment, including
snowmobiles and other recreation vehicles; noise con-
siderations in architecture and planning activities; laws
and enforcement schemes; noise in and around the
home; and the physiological and psychological effects
of noise. Complete transcripts of each hearing were
published and represent an important contribution to
literature in the field of noise.
REPORT TO CONGRESS
The results of the public hearings, and the studies of
Federal and private organizations formulated the com-
prehensive Report to the President and the Congress.
The following topics are discussed in the Report.
Effects of Noise on Living Things and Property
It has not been demonstrated that people are having
their lives shortened by exposure to audible noise. The
effects of noise on people have not been successfully
measured in terms of excess deaths, shortened lifespan,
or days of incapacitating illness. There are only hints
that such effects might exist.
However, there is clear evidence that exposure to
noise of sufficient intensity and duration can perma-
nently damage the inner ear with resulting permanent
hearing losses that can range from slight impairment to
nearly total deafness. It can also result in temporary
hearing losses, and repeated exposure to noise can
result in chronic hearing losses. Evidence is also ap-
parent that noise can interfere with speech communica-
tion and the perception of other auditory signals; dis-
turb sleep; be a source of annoyance; interfere with the
ability to perform complicated tasks and can especially
disturb those tasks that demand speech communication
or response to auditory signals; and adversely influence
mood and disturb relaxation.
With the exception of the extensive body of litera-
ture exploring the effects of noise upon auditory struc-
tures and hearing, well controlled experiments substan-
tiating nonauditory effects of noise on animals are rare.
In the case of wildlife, such studies are virtually non-
existent.
The ambiguities, and conflicts in reports of non-
auditory physiological, metabolic, sexual, and other
physical effects of noise suggest the need for a research
program to study the effects of long-term, low level
chronic noise exposure in animals. Concurrently, the
effects of noise on true wildlife in its native habitat
requires detailed investigation.
There is little data available regarding the effects of
acoustical energy on structures other than aircraft, in
which case high frequency, high intensity noise has been
implicated in mental fatigue in certain components.
High intensity, low frequency acoustical energy, such
as associated with pulsejets and other high intensity
pulsation sources, has been observed to set structural
components such as windows, light aluminum or other
sheet metals into sympathetic vibratory motions. Since
shock and vibration do play a major role in certain
types of mechanical deterioration and equipment fail-
ures or malfunctions, it is evident that a complex
relationship exists.
The heavy concentration of construction equipment
in certain urban areas may produce a combination of
vibratory energy transmission through soil and sup-
porting structures, which could conceivably affect
fragile structures such as glass and certain particularly
susceptible materials including plastics and thin alu-
minum panels. Further investigation is needed on the
exact nature of this problem.
Sources of Noise and Their Current
Environmental Impact
Several significant observations regarding the nature
of noise and the methods of measuring its magnitude
are made in this Report. Although many of these con-
clusions are tentative because of the lack of statistically
sound community noise baselines, the general trends
appear straightforward and give useful perspective for
the overall nature of the problem.
The outdoor daytime residual noise level in a wilder-
ness area, such as the Grand Canyon rim, is on the
order of 16 decibels, on the farm 30 to 35 decibels;
and in the city 60 to 75 decibels. Areas in which the
daytime outdoor median noise level exceeds the range
of 56 to 60 decibels, categorized as "noisy urban",
are not well suited to detached residential housing.
Areas in which the daytime outdoor median level
exceeds 66 decibels are not suited to apartment living
unless the buildings are air conditioned, so that the
windows may be kept closed to enable conversation
indoors. If the outdoor median noise levels are above
71 decibels, special sound proofing is necessary to
preserve the indoor noise environment.
A significant increase in noise in the past 20 years
has resulted from the rapid growth of commercial
aviation and from its use of jet aircraft that are about
10 to 20 decibels noisier than the older, smaller piston
engined aircraft. A somewhat lesser increase in noise
has resulted from the construction and use of freeways
located within urban and suburban residential areas.
It is estimated that at least 2000 square miles of urban
and suburban area have been severely impacted by
noise from these two major sources.
42
-------
The rapid increase in the use of noisy recreational
vehicles and home lawn care equipment powered by
poorly muffled internal combustion engines has con-
tributed to noise in both wilderness areas and residen-
tial neighborhoods.
Research shows that approximately 22 to 44 million
people have lost part of the utility of their dwellings
and yards to noise from traffic and aircraft on a con-
tinuous basis, and another 21 million at any one time
are similarly affected by noise from construction activ-
ity. Further, many people are exposed to potentially
hazardous noise when operating noisy devices. Al-
though the number thus exposed cannot be accurately
assessed, a total of 40 million people might be reason-
able.
Thus, not including the contribution of appliances,
noise appears to affect at least 80 million people, or 40
percent of the population. Roughly one-half of the
total impact of noise represents a potential health haz-
ard (in terms of hearing impairment potential alone),
and the remaining half represents an infringement on
the ability to converse in the home. Such impact esti-
mates clearly show the need to reduce the number of
devices that emit potentially hazardous noise levels and
to reduce the outdoor noises that interfere with the
quality of life.
Current and Future Control Technology
Much of the Nation's economy and the high stand-
ard of living result from technical innovation and the
development of new and better machines by industry.
Generally, the performance criteria for these machines
are defined in terms of the useful work that they will
accomplish and the value of this work with respect to
its cost. The success of any new product is determined
in the market place primarily in terms of the potential
economic value of the product to the customer relative
to its total cost.
In the case of acoustical devices such as musical
instruments, hi-fi sets, and speech communication
equipment, sound characteristics are a primary per-
formance criterion. However, for the other devices,
noise is generally an unwanted by-product not asso-
ciated with the primary performance criteria. Only
when a need for less noise is articulated, does noise
become one of the primary performance criteria. The
information feed back process from the public to
industry generally takes many years and often pre-
sents a conflicting set of needs.
One of the best examples of the possible long-term
noise accommodation among industry, public, and the
market place is the standard American passenger car.
In its 60-year history, it has evolved from a noisy, low-
powered vehicle to a relatively quiet efficient high-
powered vehicle. Cities and towns set regulations re-
quiring that all cars be muffled in the 1920's. Without
further action in the public sector, industry has made
progress toward quieting the automobile interior to
TABLE 18.—Order-of-Magnitude Estimates of Ex-
posure to Home Appliance and Build-
ing Equipment Noise Expressed in
Millions of Person-Hours Per Week
Noise Source
Group 1: Quiet Major
Equipment and
Appliances
Fans
Air Conditioner . . . .
Clothes Dryer
Humidifier
Freezer
Refrigerator
Speech
Interference
eMratde S—
1200
242
94
10
0
0
Sleep
Interference "
Slight M°de
o
121
10
15
0
0
Hearing
Damage Risk
S"g« e^e
o
0
0
0
0
0
Group II: Quiet Equip-
ment and Small
Appliances
Plumbing (Faucets,
Toilets)
Dishwasher
Vacuum Cleaner . . .
Electric Food Mixer. .
Clothes Washer . . .
Electric Can Opener
Electric Knife
535
461
280
222
215
117
1
267
4
0.5
1
0.5
0.2
0.1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Group III: Noisy
Small Appliances
Sewing Machine. . . .
Electric Shaver ....
Food Blender ....
Electric Lawn Mower
Food Disposer
Group IV: Noisy
Electric Tools
Home Shop Tools . .
Electric Yard Care
Tools
19
6
2
1
0.5
5
1.5
0.5
1
0.2
1
0.5
2
.1
9
5
0.5
0.3
0.5
1
0.4
'"These figures are not directly interpretable in terms of person-hours
of lost sleep or speech interference.
gain wider acceptability in the market place; and thus
has also attained reasonably acceptable exterior noise
levels.
However, in most product areas, there has not been
any method of placing before the public the data to
provide for consumer choices between alternatives.
Thus, industry has not been able to ascertain what
purchasing habits the public might adopt. Source noise
standards and implementing regulations should be pro-
mulgated for those products which are capable of caus-
43
-------
ing excessive noise. Such standards should have time
scales for achievement that are consistent with indus-
trial design, prototype test, and production cycles to
encourage the most economical and effective incorpo-
ration of noise performance criteria into the design of
the product.
Priority should be given to the sources that may
constitute a potential hazard for hearing. In addition,
priority should be given to all types of aircraft and
large highway vehicles associated with the airport and
freeway noise. Finally, priority should be given to con-
struction equipment and the noisier elements of city
traffic, so that the people living in major cities will be
able to enjoy conversation outdoors. Without an effec-
tive local, State, and Federal regulatory program, to-
day's noise problems will affect an ever increasing
number of people. The technical components of an
effective noise abatement plan must include both con-
trol of noise at its source and preventive intervention
in terms of balanced transportation system planning,
land use planning and upgrading of building construc-
tion quality.
Economic Implication of Noise
Information on the adverse effects of noise and the
costs associated with various types of abatement meas-
ures was obtained during public hearings held by EPA.
However, the rudimentary state of knowledge regard-
ing costs, benefits, and the impact of abatement expen-
ditures upon the national economy makes it extremely
difficult to undertake an economic analysis related to
this problem.
As background material, EPA commissioned a study
of the economic impact of noise. This study provides a
general overview of some aspects of the problem, dis-
cusses the limitations of existing data, and indicates the
need for additional research and analysis in this area.
To evaluate alternative noise abatement strategies, there
are three major types of economic considerations to be
evaluated: the magnitude of the benefits derived in
terms of damages avoided and positive gains attained;
the costs of attaining various levels of control included;
the impact of abatement costs on the economy. With
a better understanding of these economic factors, it
should be possible in the future to evaluate alternative
control strategies and to identify cost-effective solutions.
Laws and Regulatory Schemes for Noise Abatement
There are some general observations that can be
made regarding the laws and regulatory schemes for
noise abatement and control. With regard to aircraft
noise, there is a jurisdictional problem. State statutes
exhibit increased technical proficiency in understand-
ing the evolving technologies for noise control as com-
pared with city ordinances. However, States are con-
strained in many instances by Federal preemption of
the regulatory field (an example being aircraft) or con-
flicts with interstate commerce matters or other Federal
constitutional powers. City ordinances are, in general,
vague and technically deficient. However, some city
ordinances are becoming more sophisticated through
the use of objective standards with decibel levels. The
courts are becoming increasingly involved in the con-
troversies over noise control. In general, however, pri-
vate suits for money damages have not accomplished
a great deal regarding noise suppression.
One of the major problems in the State and local
levels of government is that of enforcement. In general,
noise statutes, no matter how well written, are often
rendered ineffective due to insufficient funding and
staffing at the local level.
Government, Industry, Professional and
Voluntary Programs
State and local efforts on noise control show that
over half of the States and cities have no agency re-
sponsible for noise abatement, and of those that do
have some type of program, the responsibility is frag-
mented throughout several agencies. Reflecting the lo-
cal nature of many of the noise problems, a greater per-
centage of the cities, as compared to the States, have
specific noise programs, and personnel assigned to them
on a continuous basis.
Most local governments feel that if noise criteria,
involving such issues as land use and human reaction
to noise, were available in measurable terms, they could
develop and implement more meaningful programs
appropriate to their local requirements within three
to five years.
The importance of the effects of noise abatement and
control is reflected by the concerted efforts of many
industrial, professional and voluntary associations
throughout the country. Their noise abatement re-
search and development programs, their programs in
hearing conservation for the protection and well-being
of personnel, and their initiative in establishing cri-
teria and standards reflect not only an awareness of a
significant problem, but a willingness and ability to
attack the problem so it may be resolved or controlled.
The efforts of these organizations reflect the absence
of governmental influence. Furthermore, their efforts
have not been a mere reflex reaction to public dissatis-
faction with noise problems that have been projected
in recent years. Instead, the efforts of many of the
organizations reflect active engagement during the past
15 to 20 years.
Interest in noise and noise related problems is dem-
onstrated by the activities of over 100 professional/
industrial organizations. The Acoustical Society of
America is perhaps one of the larger professional soci-
eties that is directly engaged in a broad spectrum of
noise and acoustical problems. It is currently develop-
ing a program which will establish means for defining
environmental problems in societal and technical terms
and for disseminating information to the community.
44
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The Society of Automotive Engineers and the Ameri-
can Society of Mechanical Engineers are two societies
that have directed efforts over the years to preparing
suggested standards for the safety and protection of the
public.
Hearing conservation, since 1947, has received the
primary emphasis from the Subcommittee on Noise in
Industry of the American Academy of Ophthalmology
and Otolaryngology. This group has prepared and dis-
tributed guides and manuals, and participated in sym-
posia concerned with industrial hearing loss. Two in-
dustrial hygiene organizations, the American Industrial
Hygiene Association and the American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists, also have substan-
tial involvements in noise related problems.
The American National Standards Institute is the
national organization, representing industry, the in-
dividual consumer and the government, which meets
demands for voluntary national standards. Through
its committees on acoustics, bioacoustics, and shock
and vibration, the Institute coordinates the work of
standards development in the private sector in the
areas of noise and noise related problems.
Activities of professional and industrial organiza-
tions are also extended to testing procedures, certifi-
cation, and rating of various noise producing prod-
ucts. For example, the American Society for testing
and Materials has proposed a standard method to
test sound absorption and acoustical materials in
reverberation rooms.
PROPOSED LEGISLATION
The legislation which established the Office of Noise
Abatement and Control also stated that EPA shall be
consulted by other Federal agencies in dealing with
noise problems which the Administrator has determined
to be a public nuisance or otherwise objectionable. This
requirement interrelates with those regarding environ-
mental impact statements and Council on Environmental
Quality guidelines concerning noise nuisances.
Beginning early in May, 1971, a series of conferences
were held with other Federal agencies to review their
activities in the field of noise control prior to the issu-
ance of interim guidelines for noise control activities for
these agencies. The guidelines are still being reviewed.
Although much has been accomplished, there is still
much work to be done. The eventual reduction of noise
in the Nation requires the establishment of a balanced
set of noise goals that will enable priorities to be set for
systematic exploitation of existing technology and de-
velopment of new technology.
EPA will continue to seek the strengthening of regu-
latory controls as emphasized by the proposed legisla-
tion. The Agency also will continue to evaluate the
health hazards of noise and review promising advances
in noise suppression.
TABLE 19.—Highlights of Proposed Noise Control Act
FEDERAL PROGRAMS
NOISE CRITERIA, SOURCE IDENTIFICATION,
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
NOISE EMISSION STANDARDS
AIRCRAFT NOISE STANDARDS
LABELING
LOW-NOISE PRODUCTS
RESEARCH, TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
AND PUBLIC INFORMATION
IMPORTS
Coordination of all Federal programs of noise research &
noise control.
Develop and publish documents on criteria, identifying major
sources, and control technology and cost information.
Adopt regulations setting emission standards for products
identified as major sources, from among four specified gen-
eral categories.
EPA review process regarding FAA aircraft noise regulations.
Promulgate labeling regulations on noise emissions by addi-
tional sources (1) capable of affecting public health or wel-
fare, or (2) sold on basis of noise protection qualities.
Determine low-noise emission products for preferential pur-
chasing by federal agencies.
Conduct and fund research on effects, measurement and con-
trol of noise. Provide technical assistance to state and local
governments. Disseminate noise information to the public.
Assist Secretary of Treasury in issuance of import regulations
equivalent to domestic product emission standards and label-
ing regs.
45
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46
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ECONOMIC IMPACT OF
POLLUTION CONTROL
This chapter presents an overview of recent studies
which were conducted to assess the economic impacts
of air and water pollution abatement requirements on a
number of industrial activities.
The studies were conducted under contract with the
Council on Environmental Quality, the Environmental
Protection Agency, and the Department of Commerce.*
The Council of Economic Advisers provided guidance
on economic methodology for the studies.
Adequate data are not yet available on all the ways
in which pollution control requirements will affect in-
dustrial activity, Environmental standards as well as the
changes being induced in the way materials are ex-
tracted, processed, transported, fabricated, consumed
and ultimately disposed of are not only extensive but
still evolving. Comprehensive studies would require a
great deal more time to conduct than was allotted to
these preliminary analyses.
In view of these recognized limitations, none of the
studies can be considered definitive presentations of
total impact on the industrial activities examined or on
the economy. However, it is reasonable to believe that
the relative relationship of postulated standards and
pollution abatement cost consequences are at least
indicative of the nature and order of magnitude of the
economic impacts.
In general, the studies found that for existing laws the
impact of those pollution control costs that were esti-
mated and examined would not be severe in that they
would not seriously threaten the long-run economic
viability of the industrial activities examined. However,
the estimated impact is not inconsequential in that there
are likely to be measurable impacts both on the
economy as a whole and on individual industries.
BACKGROUND
Pollution abatement regulations have been imple-
mented by government at all levels in order to reduce
the substantial and rising costs society has been bearing
as a result of pollution. These costs are reflected to
varying degrees—sometimes subtly, sometimes directly
—in such factors as increased demands for medical
services, property devaluations, lost man-hours of pro-
ductive work, lower crop yields, shorter useful lives of
man-made structures, animal losses, and soiling costs,
as well as in such considerations as aesthetics and the
quality of life.
In the absence of public action, the full costs to
society of producing goods are not reflected in the prices
of goods since society rather than the producer bears
the costs of pollution. Environmental regulations are a
means to "internalize" these costs by requiring pro-
ducers to bear the costs of pollution abatement. As
prices change to reflect pollution abatement costs, con-
sumers can be expected to shift their purchases to rela-
tively less expensive goods which are produced with
lower pollution abatement costs. Hence, more low-
pollution and fewer high-pollution products will be
produced. As a result, less pollution will be created,
fewer resources will be required for pollution abate-
ment, and more resources will be available for meeting
society's demands for other goods and services.
However, the process of reallocating society's eco-
nomic resources outlined above can in the short run
have adverse as well as positive impacts on society.
Specifically, transitional economic dislocations may
occur. For example, although sales and employment
may be rising in one industry while falling in another,
the employees laid off from one industry are not likely
to be immediately hired by the other industry due to
such considerations as geography, skill requirements,
and lack of knowledge of job opportunities.
The purpose of the economic impact studies was to
begin to develop a better understanding of the nature
and order of magnitude of the adverse impacts of
environmental regulations on the economy as a whole
and on individual industries and regions within the
economy.
Although these studies focused on adverse economic
impacts, it should be noted that there will be positive
economic impacts as well. An example of positive
economic impacts, which were not addressed by the
microeconomic studies, is increased profits and employ-
ment (a) in the industries that produce pollution abate-
ment equipment and services, (b) the industries that
produce relatively low-polluting products, and (c) some
of the firms in the industries that are impacted by
environmental regulations (i.e., firms that absorb the
market shares previously held by firms that are not
efficient when measured by their use of total resources,
including the environment, and thus close when they
must incur pollution abatement costs).
Examples of positive economic impacts, which were
not addressed by either the microeconomic or macro-
economic studies, are (a) possible productivity in-
*The Economic Impact of Pollution Control—a summary
of recent studies, March, 1972.
47
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EPA Federal Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina: Determining the effects of carbon monoxide on
human performance, while establishing EPA's National Air
Standards.
creases where environmental regulations stimulate tech-
nological developments (e.g., changes in production
processes which both increase productivity and reduce
pollution), and (b) increases in the average level of
productivity in some industries as environmental regula-
tions result in the closing of plants that are inefficient in
their use of total resources. Further, no attempt was
made to quantify the economic benefits of a cleaner
environment (e.g., higher crop yield, increased man-
hours of productive work) or to compare these benefits
with the costs of pollution abatement. Finally, since the
macroeconomic analysis employs the conventional
national income accounts framework, it overstates the
net costs (or understates the net benefits) to society
because such accounting fails to include the benefits of
a cleaner environment.
APPROACH
One macroeconomic study and 11 microeconomic
studies were conducted. The macroeconomic study used
a computer-based econometric model to determine the
impact of pollution abatement costs on such macro-
economic variables as growth of GNP, inflation, unem-
ployment, interest rates and balance of trade and
payments.
The microeconomic studies concentrated on major
elements of 11 specific industries selected in part
because of availability of pollution abatement cost data
from the Environmental Protection Agency and in part
because they were thought to represent a reasonably
complete spectrum of industrial activities that might
experience significant dislocations and impacts. The
microeconomic studies concentrated on such variables
as sales, prices, profits, plant closings, employment and
community impacts in the industries studied.
While effects on related (customer, supplier, and
competing) industries were examined, the simultaneous
impacts on different industries and their cross relation-
ships were not studied in detail.
In interpreting the findings of these studies, it is im-
portant to be aware of the nature and limitations of the
cost data and the key assumptions which were used.
Although these are outlined in each report in detail,
some of the major considerations are outlined below:
1. Cost Definitions. The investment costs of pol-
lution control equipment were defined to include
the direct incremental investment required to at-
tain environmental standards (a) for existing fa-
cilities and (b) for new facilities. The operating
costs for pollution control equipment were de-
fined to be incremental and net of any produc-
tivity increases or by-product revenues. It should
be noted that the figures used in these studies
sometimes differ from the cost estimates prepared
by others. However, in general, a significant por-
tion of such differences can be explained by the
fact that the costs were estimated using definitions
different from those above.
2. Water Pollution Abatement Costs. The water
cost data were estimated under the assumption
that the relevant standard is the best practicable
treatment—roughly the industrial equivalent of
secondary treatment. If the pending water quality
bill set more stringent standards to be met at any
time in the next decade, investment and engi-
neering decisions would undoubtedly be affected
and higher costs would result.
3. Air Pollution Abatement Costs. The air cost
data were estimated in most cases under the as-
sumption that the same set of emission standards
would apply in every state. The standards as-
sumed were those published by EPA in the guide-
lines for developing state implementation plans.
If the states adopt different control strategies in
order to meet national ambient air quality stand-
ards, the costs would vary accordingly. The studies
did not include consideration of the proposed
sulfur tax.
4. Other Pollution Abatement Costs. Only air
and water pollution abatement costs associated
with Federal standards were considered. If lo-
calities implement more stringent standards or
other standards (e.g., standards for odors), the
total pollution abatement costs would be higher
than assumed in these studies. Further, although
some solid waste costs were reflected in the air
and water estimates, these were not comprehen-
48
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sively estimated. Because the volumes of solid
waste, which will require recovery and disposal,
will vary appreciably depending upon how air,
water and solid waste control requirements are
addressed, no meaningful and comprehensive solid
waste control costs can as yet be estimated.
5. Phasing. The year in which the pollution
abatement costs must be absorbed is a significant
determinant of economic impact. For the purpose
of the studies, it was assumed that all pollution
abatement costs for existing plants and for those
to be completed by 1976 would be incurred by
1976. Further, it was assumed that the water pol-
lution abatement costs would be incurred in equal
increments over the period and that those for air
would be incurred over the five year period 1972—
1976 in the following annual proportions: five
percent, 10 percent, 35 percent, 40 percent, 10
percent respectively.
6. Time Frame and Coverage. The microeco-
nomic studies covered only the period 1972-
1976. The macroeconomic study covered the pe-
riod 1972-1980. For the macroeconomic study
the cost estimates for the period 1972-1976 in-
cluded the same estimates as used for the micro-
economic studies plus additional estimates of pol-
lution abatement costs for other industries im-
pacted by environmental regulations. For the
1977-1980 period, the cost estimates included (a)
the operating and maintenance, interest, and re-
placement costs on the facilities and equipment
installed by 1976 in all industries, plus (b) the
capital and operating costs associated with the
equipment required for control equipment in
facilities expected to be built during the period.
7. Technology. Most cost estimates were based
on end-of-Iine control technologies. Since some of
these are still in the early stages of development,
the actual cost of these technologies may vary
considerably, in either direction, from current
estimates. To the extent that firms meet abate-
ment requirements by production process changes
rather than end-of-line controls, the costs em-
ployed in these studies could be over-estimated.
8. Inflation. It was assumed that the prices of
pollution abatement equipment and services re-
main constant relative to other prices over the
decade. In fact, the prices of pollution abatement
equipment and services could rise faster than
other prices due to significantly increased demand
which is likely to peak in mid-decade. If this oc-
curs, the costs employed in these studies would be
understated.
All of the cost data were estimated by the Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency. Although the data were
examined with the assistance of industry experts iden-
tified with assistance of the National Industrial Pol-
lution Control Council (NIPCC), the cost estimates
provided to the contractors represented the views of
the interdepartmental task force and were not neces-
sarily endorsed by the industry experts. The contrac-
tors were asked only to assess the economic impact of
the cost data given them. They were not asked to
assess the accuracy of the cost estimates. Since defini-
tive cost estimates could not be developed, ranges of
estimates were given to the contractors so that they
could test the sensitivity of the impact to different cost
estimates. However, in some cases, additional cost
analyses conducted simultaneously with the economic
studies indicated that the actual costs could be higher
than even the high range of estimates given the con-
tractors. These additional analyses are noted below in
summarizing the contractor reports.
MICRO STUDY
The microeconomic studies indicated that none of
the industries studied would be severely impacted in
that the long-run viability of no industry is seriously
threatened solely by the pollution abatement costs es-
timated. However, profits will decline for some firms
in most of these industries because firms will not be
able to pass on the full cost of pollution abatement to
consumers in the form of higher prices. Costs will not
be passed on completely either because substitute or
foreign produced products are available so that none
of the firms in the industry can pass on their full costs
or because the price increases of the smaller firms
which have higher unit abatement costs are con-
strained by those of the larger firms with lower unit
abatement costs. Accordingly, some firms will earn
lower profits, some will curtail production, and some
firms and plants will be forced to close.
However, the studies indicated there will be some
price increases as a result of environmental regulations.
Depending on the industrial activity in question, prices
are likely to rise from zero percent to 10 percent over the
period 1972-1976. This is equivalent to average an-
nual increases of from zero percent to two percent with
the bulk of the increases likely to come in 1974 and
1975.
Most of the firms or plants that will be forced
to close are currently marginal operations (e.g.,
smaller, older less efficient producers) that were al-
ready in economic jeopardy due to other competitive
factors. In such cases, the impact of environmental
standards is only to accelerate closings that would
have occurred anyway. The pollution abatement costs
either eliminate already slender profit margins or re-
duce them to a level at which they fail to justify the
required capital expenditures in pollution abatement
equipment (in terms of an adequate return on invest-
ment).
49
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There are approximately 12,000 plants currently
operating in the industrial activities studied. Of these
it is expected that approximately 800 would close in
the normal course of business between 1972 and 1976.
It would appear from the contractors' evaluations that
an additional 200-300 will be forced to close because
of pollution abatement requirements. Many of these
additional closings would appear to involve plants that
were vulnerable for other reasons and, hence, that were
likely to have closed anyway a few years later.
These plant closings and production curtailments
will have both direct and indirect impacts. The direct
impacts include the loss of jobs and reduced value of
equity. An indirect impact is that related (customer
and supplier) firms will be forced to close or reduce
production. For example, farms which have marketed
their produce to a cannery that closed might be un-
able to find new markets for their produce. Another
indirect impact is that the communities where such
plants are located may suffer local recessions—an im-
pact which will be most severe in one-plant towns.
The studies suggest that direct job loss attributable
to environmental regulations in the affected industry
activities examined may range from 50,000 to 125,000
jobs over the 1972-76 period.* These figures represent
approximately one percent to four percent of total
employment in the industry activities studied. The direct
average annual unemployment created in these indus-
tries represents .05 percent of the 1970 total national
work force. However, the studies suggest that these esti-
mates could be substantially higher if the economy is
not at full employment.
While the total plant closings in the industries in
which plant closings might have a community impact
appear to be about 150, the data presented are not in
sufficient detail to determine the number of these com-
munities that will be significantly impacted.
It is important to note that the figures reported in the
preceeding paragraphs apply to the industrial activities
studied; neither the positive nor negative impacts on
other industrial activities have been included. However,
in a general sense these other impacts are considered
in the macroeconomic study.
In Table 20, a brief description of the impact of
pollution abatement costs on each of the industry
activities studied is presented.
MACRO STUDY
The macroeconomic study indicated that the national
economy will not be severely impacted by the imposi-
tion of pollution abatement standards. However, the
impact is not insignificant.
In general, the dynamics of impact are as follows.
Pollution control costs are assumed to affect the econ-
omy in the form of higher product prices and new
demands for investments in pollution control facilities
by industry ($26 billion in 1971 dollars over the
1972-80 period). Prices rise as a result of the cost-push
impact of pollution control costs. In the absence of
compensatory macroeconomic policies, the effect of
rising prices, which tends to slow the growth of demand
in the economy, outweights the stimulating impact of
investments in pollution control facilities. Consequently,
the rate of growth of GNP in constant dollars is re-
tarded. The increase in unemployment is tied to the
slowdown in real product growth. The current account
balance of international trade deteriorates primarily as a
result of the increase in domestic prices relative to world
prices.* Monetary and fiscal policy adjustments can be
initiated to completely offset the slowdown in GNP and
employment declines but at the expense of more rapid
price rises and further decline in the balance of inter-
national trade.
The impact of pollution control abatement costs is
discussed below in the context of three alternative pro-
jections of the national economy:
1. A baseline projection assuming a return to a
near full employment economy and no pollution
control costs.
2. The addition of pollution control costs to the
baseline projection using best estimates of pollu-
tion control costs as well as a variant with costs
50 percent higher than the best estimates.
3. The addition of compensatory monetary-fiscal
policies and pollution control costs to the baseline
projection.
To put these findings in perspective, the key assump-
tions and possible sources of bias are discussed, fol-
lowed by a brief description of the methodology
employed in this study.
Baseline Projection
The baseline used in this study was constructed to
push the economy toward full employment. This trend
toward full employment shows the unemployment rate
falling to 4.4 percent by 1976. Over the 1971-76
interval, the value of GNP in constant dollars grows at
an average annual rate of 5.2 percent and consumer
*These figures represent the total number of people dis-
employed as a result of environmental regulations. They are
not net figures because they do not account for the number of
people (conceivably the same people that are disemployed)
who find employment in the industry over the same period.
In many industries the net figures indicate that more people
find jobs than lose them.
*For lack of data, this exercise assumes that price increases
resulting from pollution control occurs only in the U.S. To
the extent that similar price rises do take place in the econo-
mies of our major trading partners, the trade effects are over-
stated.
50
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TABLE 20.—Pollution Control Capital and Operating Costs (All Figures in 1971 Dollars)
Estimated
Average
(1972-1976)
Industry Annual
Control Capital
Expenditure
($ Million)
Steel
Fruit & Vegetable
Canning & Freezing
Pulp and Paper . . .
Iron Foundries .
Petroleum Refining
Cement
Aluminum
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Baking
Leather Tanning . . .
Electric Utilities
TOTALS
Marcoeconomic
Study
596
36
251
70
169
24
228
68
14
12
3
18
1,181
2,670
3,780
Estimated
1974 Capital
Expenditures
($ Million)
2,000
350
2,900
320
1,690
130
280
90
30
40
260
20
8,900
17,010
35,200
Estimated
Pollution
Control Capital
Expenditure
as Percent of
Estimated
1974 Capital
Expenditures
30%
10%
9%
22%
10%
19%
66%
76%
47%
30%
1%
86%
13%
16%
11%
Estimated
1976
Pollution
Control
Annual Costs
($ Million)
904
21
198
125
112
43
287
94
20
27
2
11
1,388
3,232
4,550
Estimated
1976
Value of
Shipments
($ Million)
25,500
12,300
42,300
4,600
39,100
1,800
3,300
2,300
560
510
12,100
1,100
40,700
186,170
980,000
Estimated
Pollution
Control Costs
as a percent of
Estimated Value
Value of
Shipments
3.5%
0.2%
0.5%
2.7%
0.2%
2-4%
8.6%
4.2%
3.6%
5.3%
1.0%
3.4%
1.7%
0.4%
Estimated
Total Price
Changes
1972-1976
5.5%
2.0%
6.8%
3.5%
1.5%
4.5%
6.5%
4.0%
5.0%
5.8%
1.5%
7.0%
—
0.3%
prices by four percent.** Because this study concen-
trates on the changes in the economy due to pollution
control costs, the specific details of the baseline case are
not at issue here.
Impact of Pollution Control Costs
Constant dollar GNP grows more rapidly in 1972
than in the baseline case as a result of additional
demand generated by pollution control investments.
However, reflecting the impact of higher prices for
consumer and capital goods, constant dollar GNP falls
below the baseline in 1973 and remains below the
baseline throughout the decade. As shown in Table 21,
the annual rate of GNP growth averages three-tenths
percentage points lower over the ! 972-76 interval
(average annual growth rate drops from 5.2 to 4.9 per-
cent) and one-tenth percentage points lower over the
decade (from 4.8 to 4.7 percent). These averages are
not fully informative because the assumed time-phasing
of pollution control investments concentrated in 1975-
1976 lowers the growth rate by one-half of a percentage
point in those years, whereas the economy recovers
somewhat near the end of the decade.
The impact on prices is felt immediately, with the
most significant increases occurring in plant and equip-
ment prices as a result of cost increases in steel, non-
::'*These guidelines were provided to the contractor before
the Phase II economic policy was announced.
ferrous metals and electricity. Over the 1971-76 inter-
val, fixed investment prices rise at an annual rate of
five-tenths percentage points above the baseline, while
the consumer price index increases by two-tenths per-
centage points on an annual basis from a baseline aver-
age of four percent per year. Here again, the largest
price increases occur in mid-decade. Inflationary pres-
sures ease considerably by 1976, and near the end of
the decade prices rise at a lower rate than in the baseline
case. In large part this is a result of lesser incremental
pollution control costs in conjunction with a greater de-
gree of excess capacity in the economy.
The unemployment rate is slightly higher (one-tenth
to two-tenths percentage points from a baseline ot 4.6
percent) over the decade with employment declines
nearly offset by new jobs created by pollution control
investments.
Fixed investment, excluding those for pollution con-
trol purposes, declines slightly over the decade as a
result of slower GNP growth, rising prices and a lower
level of capacity utilization in the economy. By 1976,
investment levels for non-pollution control purposes
are 3.2 percent below the baseline level of $112 billion
in 1958 dollars and 1.3 percent below by 1980. Total
fixed investment lies above the baseline until 1976
when pollution control investments fall sharply. The
resultant decline leaves total fixed investment $.6 bil-
lion below the baseline in 1980.
Net exports of goods and services fall below the
base case with imports rising due to domestic price
51
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increases. The current account balance declines by
more than $1 billion per year over the 1972-76 period
from a baseline of $2 billion in current dollars. Less
confidence should be placed on the reliability of these
trade results because the model deals with such impacts
very crudely. However, given the assumption that for-
eign prices will not increase due to environmental regu-
lations overseas, it is clear that net exports would de-
cline.
Although the previous results were based on best
estimates of pollution control costs, another variant was
run assuming that pollution control costs were 50 per-
cent higher, in part to account for any costs which
may have been excluded. In general these new results
(Table 21) were simply about 50 percent greater than
before for nearly all variables, e.g., GNP growth over
the 1972-76 interval slowed by .45 percentage points
instead of three-tenths. Thus, except for the unemploy-
ment rate, which increased by more than 50 percent,
variations in economic variables were roughly propor-
tional to the percentage variation in pollution control
costs.
Impact with Monetary-Fiscal Policy Adjustments
Assuming that the Federal Government may try to
offset some of these impacts, the contractor experi-
mented with monetary-fiscal policy changes in order to
bring the economy back to its baseline path with
respect to GNP growth and the level of unemployment.
Although it is not at all clear that the particular mix of
adjustment policies selected by the contractor, relying
primarily on government spending, would be the most
appropriate one, the results are nevertheless indicative
of the magnitude of adjustments required and the im-
pact of expansionary policy changes.
The fiscal stimulus required to return the economy
to its baseline growth path is substantial. Federal spend-
ing over the nine year projection period sums to over
$70 billion above the baseline case, implying annual
increases in expenditures less revenues of from seven
to $10 billion during the last half of the decade.
This stimulus does bring the economy back to the
baseline growth path but in the process it aggravates
the impacts on prices and the balance of payments.
TABLE 21.—Average Yearly Baseline Level and Absolute Differences From the Baseline
Units
Input of Best Estimate of
Pollution Control Costs
72-76
77-80
72-80
Input 150% of Best Estimate
of Pollution Control Costs
72-76
77-80
GNP—baseline average
With Pollution Control Costs (P.C.)
With P.C. and Monetary Fiscal Policy
Offsets*
billion of
1958 dolars
872.2 1062.8 956.9
-4.7 -7.6 -6.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
872.2 1962.8 956.9
—7.0 -13.1 -9.7
.4
1.6
.9
Annual Growth of Constant Dollar GNP —
baseline average
With P.C.
With P.C. and Offsets
Unemployment Rate — baseline average
With P.C.
With P.C. and Offsets
Net Exports of Goods and Services — baseline
average
With P.C.
With P.C. and Offsets
Annual Rate of Inflation (CPI) — baseline
average
With P.C.
With P.C. and Offsets
Fixed Investment Less P.C. Investment —
baseline average
With P.C.
With P.C. and Offsets
percent
percent
billions
of current
dollars
percent
billion of
1958 dollars
5.17
—.29
0.0
4.82
.1
.06
2.0
—1.2
—1.5
4.0
.23
.29
124.8
—2.3
—1.9
4.35
.16
0.0
4.43
.15
0.0
.45
-.15
—2.5
3.73
-.30
.23
153.6
-2.5
—2.8
4.80
-.09
0.0
4.64
.12
.03
1.3
-.7
-1.9
3.87
0.0
.26
137.6
-2.3
-2.3
5.17
-.46
.01
4.82
.18
.04
2.0
-1.7
-2.3
4.0
.34
.49
124.8
-3.5
—2.9
4.35
.37
-.01
4.43
.28
—.02
.45
.4
-4.3
3.73
-.78
.36
153.6
—2.7
—4.3
4.80
-.09
0.0
4.64
.22
.01
1.3
—.8
-3.2
3.87
—.15
.43
137.6
-3.1
-3.4
The contractor experimented with monetary fiscal policy adjustments to force the economy back to baseline values of GNP and unemploy-
ment In the case in which costs were increased by 50%, the policy offsets do not quite achieve resumption of baseline product and employment
paths only because the contractor lacked the time to refine the policy effects.
52
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Inflationary pressures increase slightly in 1972-76 but
do not ease off after that period as they did when only
pollution control costs were added. For the 1972-80
period, the consumer price index rises by about one-
quarter of one percentage point annually above the
baseline.
The sustained price increases further aggravate the
current account balance, generating an average annual
decline in net exports of about $2 billion per year
over the 1972-80 period.
Interest rates were essentially unchanged because
the policy adjustments employed in the study were
designed to maintain stable interest rates.
In this case, the effect of raising pollution control
costs by 50 percent produces somewhat more than pro-
portional impacts on the economic variables. The
federal budget deficit must be increased to attain base-
line GNP levels while prices and the balance of pay-
ments deficit increase by slightly more than 50 percent.
Assumptions and Sources of Bias
This section looks at issues which may have biased
the results in the areas of the basic pollution control
cost data, the method of inserting costs into the model
and the model itself. Finally, a few comments are
made concerning the probable direction of bias in the
macro-impact results.
1. The Input Data
a. Coverage—pollution control costs were in-
cluded for 15 industry groups which were con-
sidered the major sources of industrial pollution.
It is probable that other sectors are affected but
the empirical impact is expected to be negligible.
As shown earlier, pollution control costs are pre-
dominately air and water for industry which ex-
clude costs in the areas of solid waste disposal,
governmental water pollution abatement activities
and public air pollution abatement. The absence
of these figures implies the assumption that there
are no incremental costs in industrial solid waste
disposal and that no adjustments were made to
increase revenues of state and local governments
above the baseline projections.
b. Cost data issues—aside from any difficulties in
the engineering cost work, there are some con-
ceptual issues, although the direction of possible
bias is not clear. For example, investment costs in
the water area include a 20 percent upward re-
vision in part to compensate for down time
required to install abatement facilities while down
time should be reflected as a decline in production,
not as an increase in aggregate demand.
c. Cost phasing—phasing patterns clearly have an
important impact on the timing of economic ef-
fects, e.g., assumptions used herein produce the
most significant effects in 1974-76. However, it is
not clear that other phasing assumptions would
reduce impacts over the decade as a whole.
d. Costs of pollution control facilities—a key as-
sumption underlying the cost data is that the prices
of abatement facilities relative to other prices re-
main constant over the decade. In fact, if new
demand is significant enough and especially if
demands are bunched, prices of facilities might rise
at a much greater rate relative to other prices in
the economy. If these effects occur, costs would
be understated. Obviously, the time phasing as-
sumption might have a critical impact on the basic
cost numbers.
e. Foreign trade assumptions—no allowance was
made in the results for any price increases of
world prices as a result of pollution control efforts
outside the U.S. or the use of higher cost U.S.
goods in production processes elsewhere. To the
extent that foreign prices do rise, net exports
would rise. Further analyses are to be made that
consider increases in world prices. There is also
a probability that the U.S. may be exporting pollu-
tion control equipment in the future, a factor
which could improve the balance of trade but has
not been included in this study.
2. Problems of the Treatment of Cost Data in the
Model
As mentioned above, a critical assumption in this
study is that pollution control costs are entirely
unproductive. By making this assumption we have
by-passed an area of intense controversy where a
great deal of research is now taking place.
Land Use in BIythe, California.
Documericji Pho
-------
Abatement costs are assumed to be based on
end-of-line control technologies. In fact, a lower
cost approach may be adopted relying on man-
agerial improvements or changes in basic pro-
duction processes. Such changes would affect
the results both with respect to the magnitude of
costs which in turn affects the magnitude of in-
creases in prices and in cost of capital.
There are many ramifications of this issue. For ex-
ample, pollution control efforts may spur increases
in labor productivity because of a more rapid
adoption of new technologies, which often tend
to produce fewer pollutants per unit of output. It
can also be argued that cost increases may
eliminate marginal firms and thereby average labor
productivity could increase if aggregate demand
is maintained at full employment. The results
also ignore possible feedbacks on labor productiv-
ity from improved health, etc., as a result of less
pollution which could lead to results different from
those indicated by the study.
3. Problems with the Econometric Model
It is not clear at this point what the nature of bias
may be from incorrect specification in the model
itself. Clearly the model was not designed to
handle the special case of pollution control and
thus refinements could be made (such as produc-
tion functions by industry to account for pro-
ductivity impacts varying with pollution control
technologies). Whether such changes would sub-
stantially alter the results reported is not known.
One part of the model which may be weak is the
trade sector, which is quite simple, including only
four-five sectors. For example, if imports fall
off more than proportionately as GNP declines,
then net exports would not fall as much as they do
in current results. Another issue is the inability of
the model to capture employment loses due to
plant shutdowns or cutbacks as profits, in some
cases, are squeezed. Because the model relates
unemployment only to aggregate variables, it may
understate the impact of pollution control costs
on unemployment. While we are not sure bias in
the model is significant, we do believe that further
study and refinement may be warranted in order
to realistically capture pollution control impacts.
4. Possible Direction of Bias
As a result of this complex set of qualifications, in
which some have biases in opposite directions and
other factors have unknown effects, no statement
can be made with confidence about the direction
of net bias in the present study.
Methodology
Pollution control costs are assumed to affect the
economy in several respects: the efficiency of capital
on the aggregate production function is reduced, prices
of consumer and capital goods increase, the cost of
capital per unit output increases and finally pollution
control investments generate new output and employ-
ment in industries producing abatement facilities. It is
worthwhile emphasizing that the quantitative magnitude
of the first three negative impacts hinges importantly on
our assumption that pollution control costs are en-
tirely "unproductive" in the sense of generating new
capacity in industrial establishments.
1. Prices
Annual costs in the form of percentage cost in-
creases were inputed into the industrial sector
of an input-output table. These cost increases are
initially converted to first-round price increases
by industry markup factors which range from
eight-tenths to one. These price increases are then
passed on through other industries which use other
products as inputs, assuming that all raw material
price increases are passed on 100 percent. After
taking account of these inter-industry effects, these
price increases were passed on through another
series of markup factors for final demand com-
ponents, such as cars, shoes, and plant equipment.
This set of price increases is then used to move the
economy off the baseline growth path.
2. Aggregate Production Function
Pollution control investments are included as a
factor boosting aggregate demand in the economy,
thereby generating output and employment, but
were not considered to augment the productive or
capacity-augmenting capital stock of the nation.
No adjustment was made for reducing the effi-
ciency of labor in the aggregate production func-
tion, although this effect is probably small corn-
pared to that for capital stock.
3. Cost of Capital
Since pollution control expenditures are assumed
not to be capacity-augmenting, some further ad-
justment was necessary to reflect the negative
incentive this would have on industry's considera-
tion of new investments which would augment
capacity. This adjustment was necessary because
the determination of investment in the macro
model did not explicitly consider the impact of
more capital required per unit of output. This was
done by boosting the "user cost of capital" by the
ratio of pollution control costs to baseline invest-
ment levels. Conceptually, this is equivalent to
raising the cost of capital needed to produce a unit
of output. To provide some feeling for the compli-
cated set of factors which affect investment (ex-
cluding pollution control) demands in the model,
54
-------
we note that it is negatively affected by the slow-
down in GNP growth, the rise in capital goods
prices, the rise in the cost of capital and by the
decline in the degree of capacity utilization. Off-
setting these factors to some degree, investment
demand is stimulated by the increase in wholesale
prices.
POLLUTION ABATEMENT
COST SUMMARY
The following tables present EPA's estimates of pollu-
tion abatement costs for air, water and solid waste for
the period 1972-1976.
Table 22 contains EPA's estimate of the total pollu-
tion abatement costs to be spent over the period 1972-
1976. These costs include the costs that are already
being incurred (e.g., municipal trash collection and dis-
posal) plus the additional costs required to meet exist-
ing environmental standards by the end of the period.
TABLE 22.—Total Pollution Abatement Costs *
Aggregate Summary 1972-1976
($Billion-1971)
Pollutant/Medium Investment Annual Cost A Annual Cost
Air
Public
Private
Mobile , .
Stationary
Total
Water
Public
Federal
Municipal
Private
Manufacturing
Utilities
1
12
11
24
1
12
8
3
3
16
11
30
1
14
8
2
4
25
19
48
2
22
14
5
Total ... 24
Solid Waste . _!_
Grand Total 49
25
35
90
43
36
127
These figures include the costs associated with maintaining the
current pollution abatement effort as well as the costs associated
with upgrading this effort to achieve existing air and water pollution
abatement standards. The derivation of these estimates is explained
in "Derivation of Cost Estimates" below.
A Annual costs include operating, maintenance, interest, and
depreciation.
B Cash expenditures include investment plus annual costs less
depreciation. For example air pollution control total cash expendi-
tures ($48) equal investment ($24) plus annual costs ($30) less de-
preciation ($6). Water pollution control total cash expenditures ($43)
equal investment ($24) plus annual costs ($28) less depreciation ($9).
Table 23 contains EPA's estimates of only the
additional costs (over and above those currently being
incurred) associated with existing environmental
standards.
EPA estimates that $127 billion will be spent on
pollution abatement over the period. This is broken
down relatively evenly between air, water and solid
waste—$48 billion, $43 billion, and $36 billion
respectively.
Slightly more than half of this total, $68 billion, will
be required over and above current practice to meet
existing environmental standards. These additional costs
do not break down evenly. Since little air pollution
abatement has been practiced, additional expenditures
of $43 billion are estimated to be required to meet
standards. About half of these are for automobile
(mobile source) pollution abatement. In the water area,
a great deal of pollution abatement is practiced; hence,
only $25 billion of additional costs are estimated to be
required. For solid waste disposal, no additional costs
are estimated since no new standards have recently been
or are expected to be set.
TABLE 23.—Incremental Pollution Abatement Costs*
Aggregate Summary 1972-1976
($Billion-1971)
Pollutant/Medium Investment Expenditures B Expandi?ures B
Air
Public . ...
Private
Mobile
Stationary
1
11
11
3
11
10
4
20
19
Total . 23
Water
Public
Federal ... 1
Municipal . . 9
Private
Manufacturing 5
Utilities 3
Total 18
Solid Waste .... —
Grand Total .... 41
24
3
2
8
32
43
1
11
8
5
25
68
•"These figures include the costs required to upgrade current pol-
lution abatement efforts to achieve existing standards under the
Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
of 1967. There are no federal standards for solid waste disposal. The
derivation of these estimates is explained in "Derivation of Cost
Estimates" below.
A Annual costs include operating, maintenance, interest, and
depreciation.
B Cash expenditures include investment plus annual costs less
depreciation.
55
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These pollution abatement cost estimates are based
upon the best available information; principally upon
the 1972 editions of Economics of Clean Air and
Economics of Clean Water, and upon 7965 National
Survey of Community Solid Waste Practices. In pre-
paring these estimates many assumptions about the
phasing of required investments, the rate of industrial
growth and the value of equipment in place have been
necessary. The actual circumstances may, of course,
differ from those assumed. Accordingly, EPA attributes
a degree of uncertainty of approximately 20 percent to
these estimates.
Cost estimates associated with noise pollution abate-
ment, water pollution abatement for feedlots and con-
struction, radiation controls, land reclamation and
disposal of solid waste generated by air and water
pollution abatement systems have not been included.
Therefore, this summary cannot be considered to be a
comprehensive summary of all pollution abatement
costs.
Total Pollution Abatement Costs
AIR
Public—Public expenditures were derived from
OMB estimates of costs of controlling air
pollution from Federal facilities.
Private—
Mobile—Investment costs are based upon the
sum of new investments plus assembly
line testing as reported in Table 3-7 of
the Economics of Clean Air. Each
fiscal year has been converted to a
calendar year by subtracting half of
the current fiscal year and adding half
of the next fiscal year (i.e. CY'76 =
(!/2XFY'76) + (1/2XFYT7)). The
figures have also been multiplied by
1.05 to convert 1970 dollars to 1971
dollars.
Annual costs are based upon the
sum of annual operating and mainte-
nance costs plus gasoline price in-
creases as reported in Table 3-7.
Adjustments have been made as
above. Estimates of annual deprecia-
tion (10%) and interest charges
(10% ) have been added to the above
costs. These have been based upon the
accumulated new investments plus as-
sembly line testing from 1968 as re-
ported in the above-mentioned table.
Stationary—Investment costs have been based
upon the $10.1 billion investment re-
ported in Table 1-1 of the Economics
of Clean Water. This has been multi-
plied by 1.05 to convert 1970 dollars
to 1971 dollars.
Annual costs are based upon the
$3.9 billion annual costs in 1977 for
all stationary sources also reported in
Table 1-1. The portion of the total
projected investment assumed in place
each year was as follows: 1972 = five
percent; 1973 = 15 percent; 1974=50
percent; 1975 = 90 percent; 1976=100
percent. Hence, annual costs were es-
timated to be 260 percent of the $3.9
billion annual costs reported in Table
1.1.
Depreciation was assumed to be 6.7
percent of the investment in place each
year, or 17 percent (6.7 percentx260
percent) of the total projected invest-
ment.
WATER
Public-
Federal—Federal expenditures were derived
from OMB's estimates of the costs of
controlling water pollution from Fed-
eral facilities.
Municipal—Municipal investments were derived
from page 125 of Volume 2 of the
Economics of Clean Water. Estimates
in current dollars were converted to
1971 dollars by applying an annual
inflation factor of 7.5 percent.
Annual costs were based upon the
estimated equipment in place in 1971
(Table 4, Volume 1, page 120 of the
Economics of Clean Water) plus the
projected investments. Annual costs
were assumed to be 12 percent of
equipment in place. Of this total 5.5
percent is interest costs, 3.5 percent is
operations and maintenance, and three
percent is depreciation.
Private—
Manufacturing—Manufacturing investment was
derived from Table 35, Volume 1,
page 89 of the Economics of Clean
Water. These estimates were multi-
plied by 1.357 to convert from 1967
dollars to 1971 dollars.
Annual costs were based upon the
equipment in place in 1968 (Table
33, Volume 1, page 84 of the Eco-
nomics of Clean Water) plus the pro-
jected investments. Annual costs were
56
-------
assumed to be 19 percent of equip-
ment in place (7.7 percent interest,
7.3 percent operations and mainte-
nance, 40 percent depreciation).
Electric Utilities—Expenditures for electric utili-
ties were derived from the thermal
pollution control costs reported in the
Economic Impact of Pollution Con-
trol. Annual costs include an estimate
for the costs associated with thermal
loss.
SOLID WASTE
Solid waste expenditures were based upon those
reported in the 1968 National Survey of Community
Solid Waste Practices. Investments of approximately
$120 million were estimated to have been financed
through municipal bond issues in 1967. For the 1972-
1976 period it was assumed that $1 billion, or approxi-
mately $200 million per year would be invested.
The annual costs of $4.5 billion estimated for 1967
were converted to 1971 dollars using the cost of living
price inflator (19.6 percent), and were projected to
grow steadily through 1976 at an annual rate of four per-
cent. No estimates of depreciation costs are available.
EPA has not added to these costs any expenditures
for upgrading facilities. It is anticipated that any
expenditures of this nature will be offset by cost reduc-
tions due to increased efficiencies.
These figures are lower than those reported in the
Council on Environmental Quality's 7977 Annual Re-
port for two reasons:
(1) The CEQ report covers a six year period, 1970—
1975, rather than a five year period; and,
(2) CEQ includes estimated expenditures for up-
grading facilities, where as EPA does not.
Incremental Pollution Abatement Costs
AIR
Public—Public expenditures for air pollution con-
trol have been assumed to be entirely
incremental.
Private—
Mobile—Incremental investment and annual
operating and maintenance costs were
assumed to be those listed in Table
3—7 of the Economics of Clean Air
after adjustment for calendar year less
the level of expenditures in 1971
(1971 investment=$342 million, 1971
annual costs=$547). Depreciation and
interest were taken to total 20 percent
of the accumulated incremental invest-
ment.
Stationary—All of the air pollution control
expenditures for stationary sources
were considered to be incremental.
WATER
Public—
Federal—All of the federal investments in water
pollution control were assumed to be
incremental. The majority of the an-
nual costs ($200 million/year) were
considered to be continuing costs as-
sociated with current control practices.
Municipal—Incremental investment expendi-
tures were considered to be the growth
plus the backlog investment listed on
page 125 of the Economics of Clean
Water as adjusted to 1971 dollars.
Annual costs and depreciation were
calculated as a percentage of the ac-
cumulated incremental investment in
place.
Private—
Manufacturing-—Incremental investments were
considered to be the net investment
plus growth investment from Table
37, Volume 1, page 96 of the Eco-
nomics of Clean Water less the invest-
ment reported (excluding deprecia-
tion) for the period 1968-1971 in
Table 35, page 89 of the same volume.
Annual costs and depreciation were
calculated as a percentage of the ac-
cumulated incremental investment.
Utilities—All of the expenditures for control of
the thermal pollution from electric utili-
ties were considered to be incremental.
SOLID WASTE
Because there are no new Federal standards for solid
waste disposal, none of the expenditures were considered
to be incremental. Costs associated with the control of
air pollution from incinerators are included in the air
pollution control cost estimates.
57
-------
58
-------
REGIONAL,
STATE
AND LOCAL ACTIVITIES
/ want to assure you that we have no ambition to
usurp the State role or to coerce States into action. We
hope only to lead, to guide, to offer vital assistance and
to maintain the strengths of different State attacks on
environmental degradation. I also want to assure you
that if the States do not act, the Federal Government will.
William Ruckelshaus
Februarys, 1971.
Since the citizens of one State cannot be expected to
protect the air and water of the citizens of another
State, a Federal presence is needed as long as the
pollution which clouds the air and clogs the streams
respects no political boundaries. This Federal presence
is needed also to enable all States to meet their respon-
sibility to the environment fairly. The separate States
compete for industry to provide jobs for their citizens,
revenues for their government, and prosperity for their
merchants. That competition cannot be allowed to lure
some States into relaxing their regulatory role at the
expense of the environment. The Federal presence
behind the States strengthens EPA's role as regulator,
insuring that no State should suffer disadvantage be-
cause of vigilant protection of its environment.
To enable States to fight pollution, EPA has set up
10 Regional Offices to assist States and to administer
State and local assistance grants. EPA's Washington
Headquarters administers additional grants.
A strong feature of EPA is an emphasis on decen-
tralization. To enable the Agency to work closely with
all levels of State and local government and industry,
the Administrator decided to establish 10 Regional
Offices along boundaries aready in use by other Federal
agencies. He announced that much of the work of the
Agency would be done through the Regional Offices,
headed by Regional Administrators.
The Regional Administrators possess broad authority
to act for EPA in matters within their jurisdiction. They
exercise authority in the fields of enforcement, surveil-
lance and analysis, and air, water, pesticides, solid
waste, and radiation program operations, including
EPA's State and local assistance grants programs.
STATE AND LOCAL
ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS
The job of controlling pollution is an enormous one,
both in terms of costs and in terms of manpower
requirements. Few, if any, State and local governments
have revenues large enough to meet the many and
increasing demands confronting them. The largest share
of EPA's resources are, therefore, spent for direct
assistance to States and communities. EPA's State and
local assistance grants programs represent 85 percent of
EPA's budget. These programs have been decentralized
and are now administered through the Regional Office
structure. This decentralization places Regional Admin-
istrators in a position to be more effective and more
responsive to the needs of States and localities in en-
vironmental matters. These grants include Waste Water
Treatment Works Construction Grants, Water Pollution
Control, State and Interstate Program Grants, Water
Pollution Control Comprehensive Basin Planning
Grants, Air Pollution Control Program Grants, and
Solid Waste Planning Grants.
Grants Procedural Process
The establishment of EPA brought together 21
separate, categorical grant programs which had been
operating in the predecessor agencies. EPA's initial
objective was to integrate these grant activities into a
common framework to support the Agency's mission
and to respond to the President's desire and efforts to
reform the grant-making processes of the government.
EPA has standardized grant regulations, policies, forms,
and reporting procedures; consolidated all research,
demonstration, and training programs in Headquarters,
with a centralized grants administrative function serving
all programs; and decentralized State and local assist-
ance grant programs to the Regional Offices.
EPA has been actively involved in the President's
Federal Assistance Review (FAR) Program to stream-
line Federal domestic assistance by increasing reliance
on State and local governments and other recipients of
Federal assistance, improving interagency coordination,
and improving intra-agency assistance systems. The
Agency has been strengthening liaison with (a) Federal
Regional Councils (established in the 10 Federal Re-
gions to develop and maintain close working relation-
ships with State and local governments, to coordinate
grant programs in a manner responsive to other levels
of government, and to develop means to react better to
specific regional, State, and local problems); and (b)
Federal Executive Boards (operating in 25 cities, to
provide association of top executives in support of
government-wide Presidential policies, to help solve
community problems, and to enhance the image of the
59
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TABLE 24.—Allocation of Grant Funds for Wastewater Treatment Works Construction
State or Territory
"Alabama ... ....
*Alaska ...
Arizona
"Arkansas
'"California . .
*Colorado
'"Connecticut
*Delaware ...
'"District of Columbia
* Florida . . ....
Georgia .
'"Hawaii
"Idaho
"Illinois
"Indiana
*lowa
Kansas
Kentucky . .
"Louisiana
"Maine ....
"Maryland . .
"Massachusetts
"Michigan
"Minnesota ...
"Mississippi
"Missouri
"Montana
"Nebraska
Nevada . ...
"New Hampshire
"New Jersey . .
"New Mexico
"New York
North Carolina . . .
"North Dakota
"Ohio
"Oklahoma
"Oregon . .
"Pennsylvania
"Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
"Tennessee ...
"Texas
Utah
"Vermont
"Virginia . .
Washington
West Virginia .
"Wisconsin
"Wyoming .
"Guam .
'" Puerto Rico
"Virgin Islands .
"American Samoa
"Trust Terr of Pac . .
Subtotal ...
Allocation for serious water pollution
problems • .
Total
1970
$ 14,672,000
1,637,900
6327 100
8,599,200
65,554,900
8,072 600
11,117 600
2,541,600
3,780 500
21,353,200
17,305,100
3,398,600
3,743,800
42,287,100
20,042,500
12,203,800
9,839,400
13,625,800
14,513,900
4,981,500
13,550,900
21,983,500
33,033,200
14,928,100
10,377,700
18,690,000
3,714,500
6,668,600
1,881,900
3,369,200
25,737,700
4,958,900
69,938,200
19,881,800
3,626,400
40,850,400
10,596,800
8,134,100
47,534,200
4,341,100
11,028,700
3,815,600
15,815,700
40,479,900
4,655,900
2,542,800
17,302,800
12,528,700
8,798,000
17,130,900
2,240,300
1,667,200
11,085,000
1,523,200
800,000,000
$800,000,000
1971
$ 14 680 000
1,622 500
6 316 000
8,580 800
65,557 000
8,084 200
11 117 800
2,571 000
3 788 000
21,331,100
17,289,000
3,410 900
3,787,400
42,294,100
20,052,000
12,221,800
9,842,200
13,609,300
14,510,200
4,994,600
13,550,700
21,980,200
33,043,400
14,930,100
10,359,900
18,690,300
3,724,200
6,674,300
1,888,000
3,367,200
25,741,700
4,976,300
69,927,900
19,863,000
3,632,000
40,849,800
10,588,200
8,138,900
47,525,100
4,338,400
11,021,800
3,799,800
15,814,700
40,467,200
4,672,900
2,528,700
17,295,300
12,536,600
8,805,000
17,137,000
2,248,600
1,649,400
11,067,200
1,505,400
800,000,000 '
200,000,000
$1,000,000,000
1972
$ 18 745 300
3 835 500
7 742 700
8 401 500
141 049 600
9 642 600
64 227 400
3 894 000
14 746 000
53,127 400
29,299 300
5 440 500
5,038,900
89 236 800
37,601,300
21,513,200
9,825 300
14,063,400
25,744,300
9,971,900
48,867,400
40,852,600
118,966,400
24,972,100
19,115,600
35,753,100
3,033,900
6,481,800
2,134,800
7,763,300
67,854,500
7,179,100
373,045,800
22,700,300
2,699,100
79,573,100
11,170,800
12,935,900
94,642,100
6,911,400
11,466,600
2,910,600
35,430,300
48,912,300
4,626,900
3,193,100
33,849,100
15,142,300
7,619,400
52,319,600
1,451,700
614,200
22,108,400
546,700
1,800,000,000
200,000,000
$2,000,000,000*
1973 Estimated
$ 50 118 000
4 398 000
25 794 000
27 987 000
290 352 000
32 118 000
44 124 000
7 977 000
1 1 007 000
98 799 000
66 786 000
1 1 202 000
10,374 000
161 727 000
75,576,000
41,109,000
32,727 000
46,845,000
53 016 000
14,460,000
57,078 000
82,788,000
129,147,000
55,371,000
32,259,000
68,064,000
10,104,000
21,591,000
7,113,000
10,734,000
104,310,000
14,784,000
264,705,000
73,953,000
8,988,000
155,004,000
37,242,000
30,432,000
171,621,000
13,821,000
37,695,000
9,696,000
57,102,000
162,930,000
15,414,000
6,471,000
67,644,000
49,608,000
25,383,000
64,287,000
4,836,000
1,236,000
39,465,000
909,000
396,000
1,323,000
3,000,000,000
4
$3,000,000,000 3
'States and Territories with matching grants programs (as of 10/15/71).
' Although the total allocation is identical in 1970 and 1971, the existing formula in Section 8(c) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as
amended, provides that per capita income of each State is the basis for allocating a portion of the appropriation. Therefore, a change in a State's
per capita income from the latest two years available would cause a change in their allocations for 1970 to 1971.
2 FY 1972 allocation based on administration proposed revision to Section 8.
3 FY 1973 allocation based on $3 billion dollars distributed by population among States.
4 $200 million for serious pollution problems is incorporated in reallocation of the above funds.
-------
Federal Government as a model enterprise in the com-
munity). EPA participation in these programs has
developed rapidly. The Agency now is a full member on
all 10 Federal Regional Councils and an active partici-
pant on most Federal Executive Boards.
Wastewater Treatment Works Construction Grants
The Wastewater Treatment Works Construction
Grants, EPA's largest program, assists in the construc-
tion of waste treatment works to prevent the discharge
of untreated or inadequately treated sewage or other
wastes into any waters. These grants are much needed
because of the rapid population growth in urban cen-
ters. In 1956, a program was initiated to provide Fed-
eral funding to communities to streamline or build
sewage treatment facilities. Today, municipalities,
States, and interstate agencies can service grants of at
least 30 percent of the cost of the project. These grants
may be increased to 50 percent if a State is paying at
least 25 percent of the total cost. From the inception of
the Federal grant program in 1957, through July 1971,
nearly $3 billion had been provided for over 12,000
projects. During the last half of 1971, the level of fund-
ing rose to $2 billion annually. By the end of 1974,
EPA expects to have projects funded and underway
that will provide secondary treatment for almost all
municipal waste water.
EPA provides localities funds for the construction
of modern treatment plants, including experimental pilot
plants that might well demonstrate a better, more effi-
cient way of disposing of municipal sewage. In the past
r, a number of these projects showed promise.
iong them:
year, _
Among them:
A full scale demonstration of the removal of phos-
phates from water by the addition of minerals with
minimum modification of the installation in
Richardson, Texas.
The technical and economic practicality of utilizing
waste "pickle liquor" (ferrous chloride) to remove
phosphorus from raw sewage has been developed
in some six different projects.
A small scale plant study at Batavia, New York,
has demonstrated that the use of pure oxygen
instead of ordinary air in secondary treatment can
increase the capacity of the sewage treatment plant
significantly.
Another plant study in St. Michaels, Maryland, has
demonstrated how secondary treatment effluent can
be disinfected with ultra-violet light.
A method of regenerating powdered carbon for
sewage treatment has been developed on a small
pilot plant scale at Lebanon, Ohio.
Water Pollution Control State and
Interstate Programs Grants
The Water Pollution Control Act authorizes EPA to
assist State and interstate agencies in establishing and
TABLE 25.—Assistance From Other Federal Agencies for Wastewater Facilities and Related Projects
Legislation
Appalachian Regional
Development Act of 1965
Public Works and
Economic Development
Act of 1965
Lead Agency
Department of
Commerce
Department of
Commerce
Purpose of Grant
Increase con-
tributions for
public works
projects in
Appalachia
Increase Federal
grants for public
works in eco-
nomically dis-
tressed areas
Max. Federal
Grant
80% of project
costs
80% of project
(100% on Indian
reservations)
EPA Role
EPA administers
Sections 212 and 214
of this act and receives
funding on a transfer
basis from Commerce
EPA administers grants
for waste treatment
works after funds
transferred from Com-
merce. EPA also
certifies for adequacy
sewer loans and grants
Approximate Funding Level
Approximately $4.0 million
per year ($2.4 million
received through 2/28/71)
EPA administers approxi-
mately $6-$10 million
annually (4.4 million re-
ceived through 2/28/71).
Additional $5-10 million
administered by commerce
for sewer loans and
grants.
Housing and Urban
Development Act of 1965
HUD
Loans and grants
for water supply
and collecting
sewers
50% of project
costs
EPA certifies for ade-
quacy sewer loans
and grants
Approximately $150 million
per year (55% water
supply & 45% collecting
sewers). Fy 1972—$100
million in this approximate
ratio—$100 to revenue
sharing after 1/1/72
Consolidated Farmers
Home Administration
Act
Department of
Agriculture
Loans and grants,
water supply,
sewers, and
waste treatment
facilities in
rural areas.
50% of project
costs
None
For water supply, sewers,
and waste treatment
facilities in Fy 1972—
$42.0 million.
61
-------
•«w
T*<
maintaining adequate water pollution control programs.
This program began in 1957 with an annual funding of
$2 million. As of Fiscal Year 1971, the annual figure
had grown to $10 million, and State and interstate
agency expenditures have increased more than seven
times. These funds have been utilized for all phases of
State and interstate agency programs, including tech-
nical assistance and planning, laboratory and field
equipment, training programs, monitoring and surveil-
lance, and enforcement activities. To qualify for a grant,
each State and interstate agency must prepare a plan
describing how the grant will be utilized to strengthen
its pollution control program. Funds are pro-rated on
the basis of financial need, population and the extent of
the water pollution problem. States must provide match-
ing funds based on per capital income, from a minimum
of 33% percent of the Federal amount to a maximum
of 66% percent of the Federal amount.
Air Pollution Control Programs
Air Pollution Control Program grants are awarded
directly to air pollution control agencies to equip State
and local governments to prevent and control air pollu-
tion. The Clean Air Act provides for funding for
planning new programs, developing these programs,
establishing programs which have been authorized by
State and local government and improving and main-
taining existing programs for the prevention and control
of air pollution. Funds also are designated to support
program planning activities in air quality control regions
as part of a regional approach to the control of air
pollution. The result has been a significant expansion of
State and local activity. In Fiscal Year 1971 there were
51 State control programs and 153 local and regional
programs. EPA supplies up to 75 percent of the fund-
ing to regional programs, up to 66% percent to control
Washington, D.C.: Four clanficrs under construction at the
Blue Plains sewage treatment plant, supported joiii/ly by
EPA and the Washington. D.C. Di-pt. of Sanitary Engineer-
ing-
n, D.C.: Recalcinating furnace at Blue Plains sew-
age treatment plant.
-------
agencies for improvement grants, up to 60 percent to
regional programs and up to 50 percent to control
agencies for maintenance grants. Program maintenance
grants assure State and local governments that EPA will
continue to support their efforts. Support to air pollu-
tion control agencies will continue as long as air quality
objectives and State implementation objectives are met.
Water Pollution Control Comprehensive
Basin Planning Grants
Water Pollution Control Comprehensive Basin Plan-
ning Grants serve as an incentive to State and local
governments to cooperate in the development of plans
for the cleanup of a river basin or a portion of one.
These plans, after development by State or local agen-
cies, certification by the Governor and approval by
EPA, provide the basis for the public investment to
construct water treatment facilities. The plans consider
both point and nonpoint sources; alternative strategies,
including possibilites of regionalizations; institutional
and management requirements; and environmental is-
sues. As an example, the recently completed Dallas-
Fort Worth regional plan developed by the North
Central Texas Council of Governments provides the
full methodology which will guide the public investment
of $600 million in waste treatment facilities over the
coming years. This plan provides the intense detail
required to meet the water quality goals for the upper
Trinity River Basin, and will be fully integrated with a
similar plan in the Houston area, in the lower Trinity
River. An interesting feature of the Upper Trinity plan
is the location of proposed industrial areas adjacent to
the waste treatment facilities, so that treated waste
waters can be utilized by industry.
The planning agencies in the Trinity Basin received
a 50 percent planning grant from EPA. Thirty-eight
agencies are now receiving such grants. To date, EPA
has approved plans for more than 400 basin and
regional areas throughout the Nation.
TABLE 26.—Summary of Grants for State and Local Control Agency Programs
State or Territory
Air
1971
Water
Total
Air
1972
Water
Total
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Carolina
$ 43,203
55,466
347,500
90,152
2,870,044
522,000
530,869
205,112
234,134
949,918
552,829
27,605
64,937
1,468,457
512,615
215,112
141,324
535,614
183,916
74,093
1,426,251
698,009
1,533,572
447,798
95,359
772,226
135,086
133,408
163,000
55,869
1,587,669
257,558
2,836,675
620,180
21,456
$ 190,500
20,000
75,500
115,700
661,100
88,000
167,400
85,900
87,800
266,300
218,700
71,100
44,100
428,000
230,000
121,200
97,600
165,000
184,100
63,000
181,300
264,600
357,800
155,400
145,100
196,700
39,000
66,400
24,900
63,500
311,900
52,300
650,400
264,600
37,200
$ 233,703
75,466
423,000
205,852
3,531,144
610,000
698,269
291,012
321,934
1,216,218
771,529
98,705
109,037
1,896,457
742,615
336,312
238,924
700,614
368,016
137,093
1,607,551
962,609
1,891,372
603,198
240,459
968,926
174,086
199,808
187,900
119,369
1,899,569
309,858
3,487,075
884,780
58,656
$ 405,926
61,387
347,500
269,884
4,134,262
522,000
770,512
231,932
234,134
1,113,975
801,798
60,695
127,634
2,337,857
1,142,721
470,426
296,999
670,413
487,649
202,273
1,426,251
1,129,922
2,150,442
648,428
290,416
956,945
186,985
211,694
163,000
130,409
2,053,369
257,558
4,178,741
965,362
65,343
$ 277,350
30,600
115,200
168,900
1,008,000
136,350
251,250
129,000
130,200
415,200
320,700
103,500
65,850
646,350
350,700
184,950
143,850
246,000
269,400
95,400
275,850
401,700
540,150
237,000
205,800
296,100
59,250
101,550
38,250
97,350
468,300
79,650
968,100
387,600
56,100
$ 683,276
91,987
462,700
438,784
5,142,262
658,350
1,021,762
360,932
364,334
1,529,175
1,122,498
164,195
193,484
2,984,207
1,493,421
655,376
440,849
916,413
757,049
297,673
1,702,101
1,531,622
2,690,592
885,428
496,216
1,253,045
246,235
313,244
201,250
227,759
2,521,669
337,208
5,146,841
1,352,962
121,443
63
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Solid Waste Planning Grants
The Solid Waste Planning Grants program awards
grants to State, interstate, municipal, and intermunicipal
agencies for developing comprehensive plans for solid
waste management, in coordination with State air and
water pollution control plans. EPA will fund up to
two-thirds of the costs for these planning programs.
Agencies have typically used their grants, in addition
to surveys and plans, to develop and pass legislation
and regulations, and to carry on public relations and
information activities.
Solid waste management plans are basically oriented
toward the development of policies and procedures in
order to guide the activites of State solid waste manage-
ment agencies in solving their problems. The plans also
provide a framework within which local and regional
plans might be formulated and provide support for
legislation. Interstate plans, on the other hand, are more
oriented to the design of operating-level regional sys-
tems including collection, transportation, disposal, pos-
sible reclamation and reuse and overall management
systems. Plans formulated at each level are coordinated
with comprehensive plans of each respective jurisdic-
TABLE 26.—Summary of Grants for State and Local Control Agency Programs* (Continued)
State or Territory
Air
1971
Water
Total
Air
1972
Water
Total
Ohio 1,257,189 447,300
Oklahoma 236,877 117,600
Oregon 567,650 96,900
Pennsylvania 2,562,671 488,300
Rhode Island 106,473 111,000
South Carolina 345,623 157,400
South Dakota 33,441 38,500
Tennessee 801,281 208,200
Texas 1,426,216 427,000
Utah 101,551 55,400
Vermont 59,920 43,700
Virginia 478,067 210,500
Washington 1,125,000 136,300
West Virginia 256,462 110,200
Wisconsin 199,494 193,000
Wyoming 33,536 23,600
American Samoa 219 —
Guam 10,823 75,000
Puerto Rico 149,310 195,000
Virgin Islands 39,181 73,000
Subtotal 30,200,000 9,400,000
1971
Interstate Agencies Air Water
Delaware River Basin Commission — 133,500
(Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania)
Interstate Commission on the Potomac River Basin — 50,400
(District of Columbia, Maryland, Pennsylvania,
Virginia, West Virginia)
Interstate Sanitation Commission — 137,800
(Connecticut, New Jersey, New York)
New England Interstate Water Pollution Control
Commission — 87,400
(Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hamp-
shire, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont)
Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission...
(Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, New York, Ohio,
Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia)
Subtotal
190,900
600,000
1,704,489
354,477
664,550
3,050,971
217,473
503,023
71,941
1,009,481
1,853,216
156,951
103,620
688,567
1,261,300
366,662
392,494
57,136
219
85,823
344,310
112,181
39,600,000
Total
133,500
50,400
137,800
87,400
190,900
600,000
2,199,387
344,004
639,403
3,005,808
188,675
516,948
64,441
881,045
2,038,558
133,944
84,302
722,294
1,125,000
376,631
701,071
53,041
3,005
21,272
254,850
41.479
42,900,000
Air
671,700
177,000
148,350
734,100
163,200
226,500
58,350
306,450
636,900
84,150
66,300
312,600
205,950
161,400
299,250
36,300
111,450
288,750
109,800
14,100,000
1972
Water
200,250
76,800
207,450
132,450
283,050
900,000
2,871,087
521,004
787,753
3,739,908
351,875
743,448
122,791
1,187,495
2,675,458
218,094
150,602
1,034,894
1,330,950
538,031
1,000,321
89,341
132,722
543,600
151,279
57,000,000
Total
200,250
76,800
207,450
132,450
283,050
900,000
30,200,000 10,000,000 40,200,000
42,900,000 15,000,000 57,900,000
* Water Grants are made to State or Interstate Agencies.
Air Grants are made to State or Local Agencies.
64
-------
tion, and take into account other environmental prob-
lems, population, land use, capital and operating
budgets, public facilities, pertinent regulations, govern-
mental framework and transportation systems. To ac-
complish this, EPA now has solid waste planning grants
with 46 states, five interstate agencies, and eight regional
TABLE 27.—Grantees Under Section 3(C) Water Basin Planning Grants 1968 to 1971
(AWARD PERIODS SHOWN IN PARENTHESES)
ARKANSAS
Northwest Arkansas Regional Planning
Commission—Upper White River, Fay-
etteville-Springfield Area (3/71-3/74)
CALIFORNIA
California Water Resources Control
Board—San Francisco Bay Delta
(6/68-6/7I/)
Humboldt County California Board of
Supervisors—Humboldt Bay (6/69-
6/71)
Santa Ana Watershed Planning Agency
—Santa Ana River Basin (11/68-
11/71)
Association of Monterey Bay Area Gov-
ernments—Monterey Bay Area, Mon-
terey Bay SMSA (1/71-1/74)
Joint Administrative Committee of
Santa Marqarita—San Luis Rey Rivers,
Santa Marqarita (11/71-6/73)
COLORADO
Denver Metropolitan Regional Council
of Governments—Upper South Platte
River Basin, Upper Denver SMSA
(6/71-6/73)
FLORIDA
East Central Florida Regional Planning
Council—Oklawaha River Basin
(2/70-2/73)
Tampa Bay Regional Planning Council
—Tampa Bay, Tampa Bay-St. Peters-
burg SMSA (3/71-3/74)
Metropolitan Dade County — Florida
East Coast, Miami SMSA (6/71-
6/73)
Jacksonville SMSA (11/71-6/73)
West Palm Beach SMSA (11/71-
6/73)
IDAHO
ADA of Governments Council—Boise
River Basin, Boise SMSA (12/70-
12/73)
INDIANA
Indianapolis Department of Metropol-
itan Development—White River, Indi-
anapolis SMSA (6/71-6/73)
IOWA
Dickenson County Board of Supervisor
—Spirit Lake (11/71-6/73)
MAINE
Northern Maine Regional Planning
Commission—Aroostook and Prestile
River Basins (11/70-5/72)
MARYLAND
Maryland Environmental Service—Bal-
timore Harbor (2/69-2/72)
MINNESOTA
Metropolitan Council of the Twin Cities
Area, Mississippi River Basin, Minne-
apolis-St. Paul SMSA (2/70-2/73)
St. Cloud Metropolitan Area Sewer
Commission, Mississippi River Basin,
St. Cloud Area (10/70-10/72)
MISSISSIPPI
Pearl River Basin-Jackson SMSA
(11/71-6/73)
Pat Harrison Waterway (11/71-6/73)
MISSOURI
East-West Gateway Coordinating Coun-
cil-Mississippi River Basin, St. Louis
County Area (12/70-12/72)
NEBRASKA
Nebraska Soil and Water Conservation
Commission-Salt Creek-Lincoln SMSA
(12/70-12/72)
NEVADA
Clark County Nevada Board of Com-
missioners—Las Vegas Wash
(11/68-11/71)
NEW YORK
Erie & Niagara Counties Regional Plan-
ning Board—Niagara River, Buffalo
SMSA (6/71-6/73)
OHIO
Ohio Department of Natural Resources
—Great Miami River (12/68-12/71)
OREGON
Lane Council of Governments—Willa-
mette River Eugene SMSA (3/69-
3/72)
Coos-Curry Council of Governments—
Southern Oregon Coast (4/71-4/71)
PUERTO RICO
Environmental Quality Board—Com-
monwealth of Puerto Rico (3/69-
3/72)
SOUTH DAKOTA
Black Hills Conservancy Sub-District—
Cheyenne River Basin—Belle Fomche
River Basin (10/70-10/73)
TEXAS
Guadalupe-Blanco River Authority—
Guadalupe River Basin (6/69-6/72)
North Central Texas Council of Govern-
ments—Upper Trinity Basin, Dallas
SMSA & Fort Worth SMSA (5/68-
5/71)
Sabine River Authority—Sabine River
Basin, Texas & Louisiana (6/70-
6/73)
San Antonio River Authority—San An-
tonio River Basin (5/70-5/73)
Texas Water Quality Control Board—
Galveston Bay Area (12/70-12/73)
Trinity River Authority—Middle Trinity
River Basin (11/71-6/73)
UTAH
Salt Lake, Provo-Orem SMSA (11/71-
6/73)
VIRGINIA
Virginia Statewater Control Board—
Lower James River, Richmond SMSA,
Petersburg-Colonial Heights SMSA,
Norfolk-Portsmouth SMSA, Hampton-
Newport News SMSA (6/71-6/73)
WASHINGTON
Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle—
Green & Cedar River Basins, Seattle
SMSA (6/71-6/73)
Walla Walla Regional Planning Com-
mission—Walla Walla County
(11/71-6/73)
Snohomish County—Seattle SMSA
(11/71-6/73)
WISCONSIN
Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Plan-
ning Commission—Milwaukee River
Basin (5/68-5/71)
INTERSTATE
NEBRASKA-IOWA
Omaha-Council Bluffs Metropolitan
Area Planning Agency—Missouri River
Basin, Omaha-Council Bluffs SMSA
(9/69-9/72)
KANSAS-MISSOURI
Kansas City SMSA Metropolitan Plan-
ning Commission — Missouri River
Basin, Kansas City Region (1/71-
1/74)
WISCONSIN-MINNESOTA
Duluth-Superior Council of Govern-
ments—St. Louis River Basin
(11/71-6/73)
65
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TABLE 28.—Solid Waste Planning Grants Under Section 207
(START DATE SHOWN IN PARENTHESES)
ARIZONA
Department of Health (7/1/71)
ARKANSAS
Pollution Control Comm. (10/1/67)
CALIFORNIA
Department of Health (6/1/66)
COLORADO
Department of Public Health
(6/1/66)
CONNECTICUT
Department of Health (6/1/66)
DELAWARE
Department of Health and Social Serv-
ices (6/1/67)
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
Department of Sanitary Engin.
(2/1/68)
FLORIDA
Department of Health & Rehabilitative
Service (6/1/67)
GEORGIA
Department of Public Health
(9/1/66)
HAWAII
Department of Health (6/1/66)
IDAHO
Department of Health (6/1/66)
INDIANA
Board of Health (12/1/69)
IOWA
Department of Health (7/1/71)
KANSAS
Department of Health (2/1/68)
KENTUCKY
Department of Health (6/1/66)
LOUISIANA
Board of Health (9/1/166)
MAINE
Department of Health and Welfare
(6/1/66)
MARYLAND
Department of Health & Mental Hy-
giene (1/1/67)
MASSACHUSETTS
Department of Public Works (7/1/69)
MICHIGAN
Department of Public Health (6/1/67)
MINNESOTA
Pollution Control Agency (6/1/68)
MISSISSIPPI
Board of Health (3/1/69)
MISSOURI
Division of Health (8/1/68)
MONTANA
Department of Health (6/1/67)
NEBRASKA
Department of Health (7/1/71)
NEW HAMPSHIRE
Department of Health & Welfare
(6/1/70)
NEW JERSEY
Department of Environmental Protec-
tion (6/1/66)
NEW MEXICO
Health and Social Services Department
(10/1/67)
NEW YORK
Department of Environmental Conser-
vation (6/1/66)
NORTH CAROLINA
Board of Health (9/1/66)
NORTH DAKOTA
Department of Health (7/1/67)
OHIO
Department of Health (9/1/66)
OKLAHOMA
Department of Health (6/1/66)
OREGON
Department of Environmental Quality
(9/1/66)
PENNSYLVANIA
Department of Environmental Re-
sources (6/1/66)
RHODE ISLAND
Public Utility Commission (6/1/66)
SOUTH CAROLINA
Pollution Control Authority (6/1/66)
SOUTH DAKOTA
Department of Health (9/1/68)
TENNESSEE
Department of Public Health (1/1/67)
TEXAS
Department of Health (1/1/67)
UTAH
Department of Social Services
(9/1/67)
VERMONT
Agency of Environmental Conservation
(7/1/69)
VIRGINIA
Health Department (9/1/66)
WASHINGTON
Department of Ecology (9/1/66)
WEST VIRGINIA
Department of Health (6/1/66)
WISCONSIN
Department of Natural Resources
(3/1/71)
WYOMING
Department of Health & Social Serv-
ices (6/1/68)
GUAM
Department of Public Works
(11/1/69)
PUERTO RICO
Environmental Quality Board
(9/1/67)
VIRGIN ISLANDS
Office of Lieutenant Governor
(7/1/71)
INTERSTATE:
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA-
MARYLAND-VIRGINIA
Metropolitan Washington Council of
Governments (3/1/69)
GEORGIA-TENNESSEE
Chattanooga Area Regional Council
of Governments (6/1/68)
IOWA-NEBRASKA
Omaha-Council Bluffs Metropolitan
Area Planning Agency (7/1/68)
KANSAS-MISSOURI
Metropolitan Planning Commission-
Kansas City Region (3/1/68)
OHIO-KENTUCKY-INDIANA
Ohio-Kentucky-Indiana Regional Plan-
ning Authority (7/1/69)
MISSOURI-ILLINOIS
East-West Gateway Coordinating
Council (10/1/71)
MISSOURI-KANSAS
Mon-Kan Bi-State Planning Commis-
sion (7/1/71)
REGIONAL:
GEORGIA
Oconee Area Planning & Development
Commission (7/1/71)
INDIANA
Marshall County Planning Commis-
sion (7/1/71)
MINNESOTA
Head of the Lakes Council Govern-
ments (7/1/71)
MISSOURI
Bootheel Regional Planning Commis-
sion (10/1/71)
OHIO
Board of Cuyahoga County Commis-
sioners (8/1/71)
OREGON
Lane Council of Governments
(7/1/71)
Mid-Willamette Valley Council of
Governments (9/1/71)
PENNSYLVANIA
Central Pennsylvania Joint Planning
Commission (9/1/71)
Turnpike District Planning & Devel-
opment Commission (9/1/71)
TEXAS
North Central Texas Council of Gov-
ernments (9/1/71)
WASHINGTON
County of Pierce (7/1/71)
-------
agencies. Since solid waste planning grants were initi-
ated, the number of State solid waste programs has
increased from five to 48.
Research and Development Grants
Research and Development Grants are awarded in
the areas of air pollution, pesticides, radiation, solid
waste, water hygiene, and water pollution control. These
can be obtained from EPA Headquarters by public or
private agencies, institutions and individuals to assist in
research projects relating to the causes, control and
prevention of pollution that support projects directed
towards the discovery and development of new infor-
mation and technology in the chemical, physical, bio-
logical and sociological sciences. This includes the iden-
tifying of pollutants, the rate and persistence of pol-
lutants, the effects of pollutants, the treatment processes,
the non-treatment methods of pollution control and the
ultimate disposal of pollutants.
Demonstration Grants
EPA Headquarters awards Demonstration Grants in
the fields of water pollution control, air pollution and
solid waste. Public or private agencies, institutions, and
individuals can use these to support surveys and demon-
strations of new methods related to the causes, control
and prevention of pollution. They are designed to
evaluate the application of research findings.
REGIONAL AND STATE PROFILES
REGION I
The States of Region I constitute two percent of the
U.S.'s total area, six percent of the population, and eight
percent of the manufacturing establishment.
Although 25 percent of New England's population is
concentrated in the Boston area, there have been some
striking environmental improvements in this area.
Boston Harbor, polluted by municipal sewage and
industrial waste, is now the cleanest it has been in 20
years because of EPA support. Its beaches are now
open for public bathing, and many of the Harbor's
shellfish areas are reopened for harvesting.
An EPA grant has been given to Boston for the
construction of an underground sewage retention facility
to prevent polluted runoff from pouring into the Basin
during periods of heavy rainfall. If this demonstration
project is successful, it will be employed in other areas
of the U.S.
TABLE 29.
REGIONAL OFFICES
I-BOSTON IV-ATLANTA VIM-DENVER
II-NEW YORK V-CHICAGO IX-SAN FRANCISCO
HI-PHILADELPHIA VI-DALLAS X-SEATTLE
VII-KANSAS CITY
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Since 1956 when the Federal Construction Grants
Program was initiated, there have been 640 waste treat-
ment facilities projects. In 1971 alone, there were 67
projects.
The EPA Water Program has 110 active research
and development projects in New England. There are
11 active solid waste research and development grant
awards and some air research grants. Grants have also
been awarded to the States' pollution control agencies
and the New England Interstate Water Pollution Con-
trol Commission.
A significant accomplishment has been the cleanup of
New Hampshire's Pemigewasset River which essen-
tially had been dead for the past 40 years. With EPA
financial support, seven treatment plants were con-
structed on the "Pern," which has now become one of
the finest trout streams in the Region.
Connecticut
Connecticut has 70 active construction projects, more
than any other State in New England. In Fiscal Year
1972 alone, 25 new projects were planned with total
eligible cost amounting to $96.2 million. A unique
accomplishment involving Federal, State, municipal and
labor union cooperation was initiated in seven Con-
necticut communities in the training of 40 Vietnam
veterans as waste treatment plant operators, which is
the first program of its kind in the country. Solid waste,
pesticides and radiation programs were placed under the
new Connecticut Department of Environmental Protec-
tion which began operating October 1, 1971. Radiation
program responsibilities of the new Agency include
medical as well as environmental aspects. The Connecti-
cut legislature through Public Act 845 (approved
July 8, 1971) enacted comprehensive solid waste man-
agement legislation. It included, among other things, a
grant-in-aid program to communities for practically all
types of solid waste facilities.
Maine
Maine continues to lead in the development of safe-
guard regulations for the control and prevention of oil
pollution. New regulations were enacted which detail
actions for regulation and enforcement of oil spill
cleanup to public waters from any source. The Gover-
nor of Maine adopted the State solid waste plan on
September 2, 1971. However, the plan which was
developed under a grant from EPA needs legislative
support.
Massachusetts
Massachusetts proceeded with its reorganization
process combining 170 existing State agencies and
assigning them to one of nine cabinet offices. The
Executive Office of Environmental Affairs, one of the
new cabinet offices, will combine the functions of
several environmental programs including air, water,
solid wastes, and pesticides under a single agency.
Massachusetts passed legislation authorizing any group
of 10 or more residents to sue a polluter. The statute
permits action against air and water pollution as well
as against excessive noise, and destruction of seashores,
wetlands and historic sites. Community noise standards
were developed and proposed for adoption by Boston.
Massachusetts, Vermont and New Hampshire
The three States of Massachusetts, Vermont and New
Hampshire established a tri-State Radiation Surveillance
Program for the Vermont Yankee Atomic Power Plant
at Vernon.
New Hampshire
The New Hampshire legislature prepared legislation
authorizing the creation of the Winnipesaukee River
Basin Region which will join together six towns and
two cities in a regional sewage and waste disposal
system. Present plans call for a single, regional facility
to eventually serve all of the communities. This project
is a national landmark approach to the regional treat-
ment concept. Administrator Ruckelshaus thought so
highly of this project that he allocated $1 million from
his discretionary anti-euthrophication program funds
for the purpose of improving the efficiency of an
existing primary treatment plant at Laconia which
should help prevent further euthrophication of Lake
Winnisquam.
Rhode Island
Rhode Island is making progress toward municipal
and industrial abatement. The Blackstone Valley Sewer
District Commission has further extended its multi-
million dollar interceptor system from East Providence
to the Woonsocket area, thereby abating substantial
industrial discharges to the Seekonk River. Geigy
Chemical Corporation, one of the largest industrial
dischargers in the State, is completing its 1.2 MGD
treatment plant. This Cranstone, Rhode Island plant
should have a marked, favorable effect on the water
quality of Pawtuxet River. Rhode Island adopted legis-
lation (Chapter 265 of the Public Laws of 1971, the
Solid Waste Disposal Companies Act) to set up solid
waste collection and disposal on a Statewide basis as a
privately operated public utility. The legislation is
controversial and did not provide for administrative
capability in the Public Utility Commission.
Vermont
On July 1, 1971, the State of Vermont instituted a
new permit program with temporary discharge-fee pro-
visions. It is believed to be the first effluent charge
system in the Nation. Penalties for violation of any
provision of the permit act can amount to $10,000, or
imprisonment of not more than five years, or both.
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Vermont is also one of the first States to adopt a
Statewide land use planning and control program.
Planning task forces were established to implement
provisions of the Act.
New England Interstate Water Pollution
Control Commission (NEIWPCC)
The Commission has sponsored and developed a
unique surveillance technique for determining isotherms,
(lines of equal temperature) in large bodies of waters
using aerial infra-red and other photographic methods.
The Commission continues to operate the New England
Regional Wastewater Institute, located in South Port-
land, Maine, which offers one-year technical courses as
well as shorter one and two week specialized courses
for wastewater treatment plant operators.
All States in Region I have submitted the required
air quality standards and all have been approved.
REGION II
Region II embraces the most densely populated area
in the U.S. Twenty-eight million people inhabit its
59,500 square miles. Despite staggering troubles of
overcrowding and extensive industrialization, the staff
of Region II has achieved some notable successes.
Under pressure from the EPA Regional Enforcement
Division, 12 industrial firms in New York and New
Jersey voluntarily imposed strict controls that restrict
the discharge of toxic mercury from their plants into
local waterways. Implementation plans to achieve com-
plete elimination of mercury discharges at all 12 plants
are now well underway, and abatement efforts have
already reduced mercury effluent to a small fraction of
their former levels.
At the same time there are many obstacles to EPA's
progress. For example, the Passaic Valley Sewage Com-
mission collects, and partially treats, wastes from 1.2
million people, 30 cities, and 1,700 industries in
northern New Jersey. The Commission is able to
remove only 12 percent of the waste material and is
forced to discharge the rest into New York Harbor's
upper bay, constituting a major source of pollution in
the New York City area.
New York
A comprehensive air pollution control implementa-
tion plan has been submitted by New York. The State
legislature enacted necessary legislation authorizing
enforcement of the plan. Construction began on the
much-needed North River sewage treatment plant in
New York City. This is part of a $774 million project
and the State is funding more than $57 million of that
amount. A mathematical model has been developed to
facilitate the assigning of sources of solid waste to
disposal sites. Rules and regulations implementing the
1970 State pesticide law have been adopted, thereby
enabling the State to establish a list of 72 restricted
pesticides. A contract was entered into with AEC to
conduct environmental surveillance around nuclear
facilities. A field study of the Nation's first commercial
nuclear fuel reprocessing plant has been conducted.
New York State has enacted an amendment to its air
pollution code to include "noise" as an air pollutant.
The State is developing a State-wide noise pollution
control program.
New Jersey
New Jersey has initiated a full-scale, State-operated,
motor vehicle emission testing program designed to con-
trol hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide air pollutants.
This program is a part of the New Jersey air pollution
control implementation plan. A water quality standards
revision conference for the New Jersey coastal area has
been requested by the Governor. As of December 1,
1971, the State led the Nation in the total number of
disposal sites meeting the criteria of the Mission 5000
Program. The New Jersey Energy Council was formed
by executive order in the fall of 1971, to investigate and
assess the siting and other environmental factors of
existing and proposed nuclear facilities within the State.
Puerto Rico
An air pollution control implementation plan was
submitted. As part of the requirements of this plan,
Puerto Rico adopted its first comprehensive regulations
for the control of air pollution. Puerto Rico has sub-
mitted "Regulations for the Control of Radiation" for
approval by its Commission for the Control of Radia-
tion. A strong enforcement program has been initiated
for the closing down of open burning dumps or their
conversion to sanitary landfills.
Virgin Islands
A comprehensive air pollution control implementa-
tion plan has been submitted. A study has been under-
taken to develop a comprehensive plan for solid waste
management for the Islands.
REGION III
Region III occupies only 3.4 percent of the U.S.
land area, but has 11.5 percent of its population. Most
of Region Ill's people are concentrated in the Eastern
Seaboard megalopolis, where average density is 193.5
people per square mile. Manufacturing in Region III
contributes 13 percent of the Nation's employment and
63 percent of the U.S. mine-pollution problem. As a
result of EPA grants this year, Region III States have
doubled their spending on water pollution during the
last four years.
With EPA's assistance, Maryland's Environmental
Service developed an environmental plan. It now bears
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responsibility for the operation and maintenance of
some 27 state-owned sewage treatment plants and waste
disposal units. The State also passed oil spill regulations
and the first power plant siting act in the U.S. Heavy
metals, oil, and grease contained in material dredged
from Baltimore Harbor are being deposited in a diked
area rather than the Chesapeake Bay.
In 1960, West Virginia's Kanawha River was prac-
tically an open sewer. The State and Federal Govern-
ment began cleaning up the Kanawha, and by 1971
EPA was supervising an intensive purification program.
At present there is an improvement in the river's taste,
odor, oxygen content and water quality. By 1975 it
should be up to normal standards.
In Pennsylvania, there was a three million gallon
oil spill at Berks Associates, Inc., oil reclaiming plant.
EPA contributed funds to clean up and minimize the
damage and it helped to eliminate 15 million gallons
of oil sludge in the Berks Company's waste lagoons.
Since thermal pollution promises to be a major prob-
lem in the future, as power demands increase, EPA has
been concerned with methods of preventing or minimiz-
ing its adverse effects on the environment. In Virginia,
EPA is encouraging a Virginia Institute of Marine
Science study—the first of its kind—to provide the first
detailed "before and after" analysis of waste heat dis-
charges into an estuary from a nuclear power plant.
An example of the effectiveness of interstate coopera-
tion is the agreement between the District of Columbia,
Maryland and Virginia to give the Metropolitan Wash-
ington Council of Governments the responsibility for
area air pollution control planning. This agreement pro-
vides a more coordinated attack on the problem, and
affords the opportunity for total Federal grants which
would not otherwise be available to the individual
jurisdictions.
Delaware
Regulations governing drinking water standards were
adopted. These regulations set chemical, bacteriological,
physical, source and protection standards for all public
water suppliers in the State. Also, requirements for
bacteriological, chemical, and physical sampling fre-
quency and manner of sampling were set forth. The
adjustment of fluoride concentration and the chlorina-
tion of all public water supplies are required. There
has been one recent encouraging incident involving air
enforcement. The Department of Natural Resources
and Environmental Control has taken a vigorous stance
against Delmarva Power and Light Company for violat-
ing a Federally approved air implementation plan with
respect to the use of sulfur in fuels, has cooperated
fully with EPA, and shows every indication of being a
vigorous State enforcement agency. Delaware plans
to have a quarterly, longitudinal study on tritium, gross
alpha and beta and gross gamma. Radioactive samples
have been taken from six stations on the Delaware
River for study of tritium and gross gamma scans.
Daily air samples are taken for gross beta count. A
noise bill has been drafted and is being reviewed. A
pesticide law was passed July, 1971. Present enforce-
ment activities involve the removal of pesticides intra-
state which do not meet the standards of the Act. Three
open dumps were eliminated and replaced with ap-
proved disposal methods.
District of Columbia
The Eighth Planning District of Northern Virginia
and the Washington Metropolitan Council of Govern-
ments developed an agreement which is intended to
lead to the first attempt to develop an integrated water
quality management plan for a portion of the Washing-
ton Metropolitan Area. Construction was started on the
expansion and upgrading of the Blue Plains Sewage
Treatment Plant in Washington, D. C. On July 27,
1971, the Department of Environmental Services was
established. The new Department is the result of com-
bining functions of the old Department of Sanitary
Engineering, Environmental Health Administration, and
related responsibilities of the Department of Human
Resources. This new Department has responsibility for
air, water and solid waste activities. Radiation Protec-
tion Standards have been drafted and are being
reviewed. The actual legislation was passed in July,
1970. D.C. has scheduled and surveyed hospitals for
annual inspection. There has been an intensive program
mounted to collect as many radium sources as possible
for shipment to the Southwestern Radiological Health
Lab. Nine hundred and eighty-one environmental sam-
ples including air, water, and sewage were monitored
for radioactivity. Three hazardous radium sources from
the public school system in Washington, D. C., have
been removed. Noise abatement regulations were
drafted and sent out for review. A request for a grant
for two mobile, sound monitoring stations was sent to
EPA Region III. A traffic noise study was conducted
to determine average noise levels at a busy intersection,
a hospital area and a residential area. Also, a noise
study on aircraft noise from National Airport was made.
Plans for an asphalt plant were disapproved due to
noise level criteria in the zoning regulations.
Maryland
A mandatory certification law for all wastewater
treatment facilities operators was implemented. The
water supply surveillance capabilities of the Maryland
Water Supply Program was improved by the addition of
two permanent positions to the field investigation staff.
Also, a Statewide notification procedure was estab-
lished, whereby the Maryland Water Supply Program
will notify the appropriate county health officers of the
detection of sodium content in drinking water which
may present a health hazard to those consumers on a
sodium-strict diet. Maryland holds monthly "enforce-
ment conferences" in which all parties interested in
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water enforcement in the State participate. Maryland's
"Power Plant Siting Bill' has become effective. Monitor-
ing equipment has been installed, and is operating
around the Calvert Cliffs nuclear reactor site. Prelimi-
nary monitoring surveillance was established in the
lower Susquehanna River Basin where proposed reac-
tors are scheduled. Maryland is receiving $12,500 for
three years from the Atomic Energy Commission to
assist the on-site surveillance of the Calvert Cliffs
nuclear reactor. Maryland is also attempting to identify
tritium concentration in the lower Susquehanna and the
Calvert Cliffs area. Four noise bills have been intro-
duced. Plans have been developed to inform the public
of noise effects and available means of control. The
State has provided technical assistance and/or informa-
tion to other State agencies, citizens groups and private
citizens on specific noise problems, and noise pollution
in general. State Regulation 4309 requires each county
to develop plans for solid waste management. Thirty
open-dumps were eliminated and replaced with accept-
able disposal methods.
Pennsylvania
Tax reform and State taxation providing for tax
credits in certain cases relating to the environment have
been approved. The Department of Environmental Re-
sources was established to consolidate State Environ-
mental functions. A grant of $275,000 was awarded to
the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania to develop, during
an 18-month period, a water quality management plan
for the Pennsylvania portion of the Lake Erie Drainage
Basin. In 1971, the Pennsylvania Department of En-
vironmental Resources beefed up its State Environ-
mental Strike Force, consisting mainly of lawyers
assisted by a few engineers. This force has been
responsible for instituting numerous law suits under the
Pennsylvania Clean Streams Law (150 stream miles
were cleaned up), and only recently filed a multi-count
suit in conjunction with the Allegheny County authori-
ties against United States Steel's numerous plants south
of Pittsburgh. The Atomic Energy Commission is pro-
viding $10,000 a year, for three years, to aid Pennsyl-
vania in the surveillance of three nuclear power reactors
within the State. In January 1972, the Motor Vehicle
Noise Bill came into existence. This includes trucks,
motorcycles and cars. Pennsylvania has also established
procedure on handling public noise complaints (Public
Health Nuisance Law). All of the 67 counties have
been requested lo develop and implement plans for solid
waste management. During 1971, 62 counties were
actively engaged in preparing county plans. Two re-
gional planning grants have been awarded. Susque-
hanna Economic Development Authority is developing
solid waste management plans for a 10-county region.
The Pennsylvania Turnpike Development Planning
Commission is developing solid waste management
plans for a six county region. These grants will demon-
strate the feasibility of multi-governmental bodies join-
ing together to cope with a common problem—solid
waste management. Approximately 400 violation notices
were issued to landfill operators who were in non-
compliance with State solid waste regulations. Legal
actions were filed, and won, against 50 landfill opera-
tions for non-compliance with the court rulings in favor
of the State in all 50 cases. Regional Solid Waste Man-
agement personnel conduct visits to each solid waste
disposal site at least once monthly, and the results are
computerized. During 1971, 41 open-dumps were
eliminated and replaced with acceptable disposal
methods.
Virginia
A joint resolution was adopted directing the Vir-
ginia Advisory Legislation Council to study the desira-
bility of establishing a single, State agency to regulate
and control all environmental pollution. The Virginia
legislature passed a bill which transfers the Division
of Water Resources from the Department of Conser-
vation and Economic Development to the State Water
Control Board. Rules and regulations for the disposal
of solid waste were enacted by the State legislature
effective April 1, 1971. Thirty-two open dumps were
closed during 1971 and replaced with approved dis-
posal systems. The Virginia State Water Control Board
adopted a policy which reequires that water quality
management plans be developed for all planning dis-
tricts within the State. They further passed regulations
which give the Board legal power to enforce the pro-
visions of duly approved water quality management
plans. A grant of $399,890 was awarded to develop
a water quality management plan for the Lower James
River Basin. A detailed study of the pollution prob-
lems of the Occoquan Creek Watershed was made and
a comprehensive plan for their solution was developed.
Treatment facilities to be installed in the basin will
employ the latest and most advanced technology. Sim-
ilar plants will be constructed by Alexandria, Arlington,
Fairfax and Prince William to improve and protect
the Potomac River. The Radiological Health Section
of the Bureau of Industrial Hygiene has been engaged,
during 1971, in the development of the regulations to
implement Virginia's radiation law. The Bureau of
Industrial Hygiene is working on a State plan to con-
form with the State of Virginia's participation with the
Williams-Steiger Occupational Safety and Health Act
of 1970, which will improve the coverage of occupa-
tional noise in the State. "Resolution 51" was passed
by the legislature. This provided for a report submitted
in December, 1971, titled "Virginia Pesticide Study and
Recommendations".
West Virginia
The Ohio River Basin Commission was established
January 13, 1971. The West Virginia Water Supply
Program developed a 44-week training course which
will be initiated in 1972 for the education of water
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treatment plant operators in the rural localities of the
State. One hundred and six gross alpha and beta anal-
yses on public water supply have been done. All coun-
ties were instructed to formulate county-wide plans
for solid waste management. A solid waste management
plan for an eight-county region was completed and
implemented. During 1971, 17 open dumps were elim-
inated and replaced with acceptable disposal methods.
During 1971, all six States within Region III devel-
oped and submitted implementation plans in conform-
ance with the Clean Air Act, as amended.
REGION IV
Region IV, which in recent years has had a rapid
growth of population and industry, has 31,8 million
people and an area of 371,000 square miles.
Atlanta, the principal polluter of Georgia's Chatta-
hoochee River, was served with a 180-day notice on
December 10, 1971, to halt violations of Federal-State
water quality standards or to face the possibility of
court action. As a result, Atlanta committed itself to
one half the cost of the cleanup of the Chattahoochee.
In addition to the Atlanta achievement, the most
dramatic EPA action has been the cleanup of the
Coosa-Etowah River complex in Georgia, where the
Federal enforcement conference exerted strong pres-
sure for pollution abatement.
In Tennessee, Nashville-Davidson County was one
of the first metropolitan areas in the Southeast to initi-
ate an effective water pollution abatement program. In
1970, it began operation of an entirely new wastewater
treatment facility and expanded one it had built in
1956. Presently, it is completing designs for a $21
million wastewater treatment facility with a daily ca-
pacity of 25 million gallons. Since January, 1970,
Memphis began a five-year program for full secondary
waste treatment, which includes interceptor sewer con-
struction, a main pump station, and a new wastewater
treatment plant.
EPA has awarded grants to Florida, South Carolina,
Georgia, Tennessee, and Kentucky to set up practical
solid waste programs. Orange County, Florida, will use
solid refuse to provide a large housing and recreation
area near Orlando. This project is expected to become
a national model for solid waste disposal.
Alabama
A new air pollution law was passed, which gives the
State Commission comprehensive legal authority and
responsibility for controlling and preventing air pollu-
tion in the State. This Act completely replaced the Air
Pollution Control Act of 1969 which was considered by
the Federal Government to have inadequate legal au-
thority to control air pollution. A new law was enacted,
which established a Water Improvement Commission
with professional and citizen-at-large representation.
The new Commission replaces the former one that was
industry-oriented. Also, the new Commission has re-
ceived a considerable increase in funds (although still
minimal), over that received in previous years. The
Pesticide Act of 1971 for Alabama became effective
January 1, 1972, as did Act #1957 which regulates
custom application of pesticides. The Pesticide Act of
1971 requires certification by users prior to purchase of
certain restricted pesticides. The State Matching Con-
struction Grant Program authorized and made all
projects initiated during Fiscal Year 1971 retroactive. A
mandatory wastewater treatment plant operator certifi-
cation program was initiated. The State Solid Waste
Management Act was passed in 1969, and became fully
effective on September 12, 1971. Another State law was
passed, which authorizes cities and counties to form solid
waste management authorities which may both establish
user fees and make their services mandatory. Twenty-
six county-wide solid waste collection and disposal
systems have been established, eight more counties have
begun implementing county-wide systems, and 17 addi-
tional counties are actively planning for county-wide
collection and disposal systems. The number of sanitary
landfills in Alabama was increased from less than 10
in 1967, to approximately 50 at the present.
Florida
Florida has enacted new provisions and amendments
to its 1969 Air Pollution Statute which provides for
establishment of a permit system and prohibition against
open burning. The State passed a $100 million refer-
endum for matching Federal waste treatment facility
grants. The State is now eligible for the 55 percent
grant. The State Department of Pollution Control filed
a $20 million suit against a phosphate mining and
processing industry for a major spill in the Peace River,
and also, for the first time, cited major agricultural
polluters (muck farmers) as contributors of pollution.
The State has an active water quality management
planning program with five active Federal grants. A
mandatory treatment plant operator certification pro-
gram has been initiated. Florida has completed and
published a State solid waste management plan. Legisla-
tion was passed which prohibits open burning of solid
waste, effective July 1, 1971. The closure, or conver-
sion, to sanitary landfill of 7141 dumps was reported,
of which 91 qualified for Mission 5000. Approximately
55 new landfill site and operational plans have been
approved by the State.
Georgia
Georgia amended its 1967 Air Quality Control Act
to provide for civil penalties for violators. It established
a permit system and the authority to inspect pollution
control devices on motor vehicles. The State legislature
has, as requested by the Governor, reorganized the
entire pollution control •effort in the State, and has
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established a Department of Environmental Control
patterned after EPA. The State Pollution Control
Authority continues its active enforcement program.
Although the legislature established a matching grants
program, the stipulations put on it preclude the State
from being eligible for the 55 percent Federal grant.
A mandatory treatment plant operator certification pro-
gram has been initiated. The State Board of Health
adopted rules and regulations for solid waste collec-
tion and disposal. The Solid Waste Management Act
was passed by the State legislature. A Constitutional
amendment was passed by the State legislature allowing
cities and counties to establish solid waste management
districts which must now be approved by the voters.
State government reorganization placed the solid waste
agency in the Environmental Protection Division, De-
partment of Natural Resources. The State solid waste
management plan was completed and published, ac-
cepted by EPA, and adopted by the Governor of
Georgia. Enforcement actions have been instituted and,
to date, 22 cease and desist orders have been issued
and one injunction has been brought; acceptable disposal
sites have increased from two percent to 20 percent.
A survey of solid waste management in nursing homes
was completed, and a survey of industrial solid waste
management was begun. Nine solid waste management
training courses have been held throughout the State.
An on-site landfill operator training course was set up
and is being implemented.
Kentucky
The legislature recently passed legislation which
created a new Department of Environmental Protection
which provides more enforcement authority to the State
Pollution Control Agency. The legislature has also
doubled the funds for pollution control and is in the
process of voting on a matching grants program. The
solid waste agency was elevated to division status in
the Health Department; recent legislation will move it
to a new Department of the Environment. The State
solid waste management plan has been completed and
published, accepted by EPA, and adopted by the
Governor of Kentucky. Enforcement actions have been
initiated, 25 informal and five formal hearings have
been held, with four convictions resulting from the for-
mal hearings. Ninety-eight dumps were reported closed,
of which 46 qualified for Mission 5000. One hundred-
ten permits for sanitary landfills have been issued. A
survey of industrial solid waste management was
started.
Mississippi
The State established a matching grants program for
waste treatment facilities, making them eligible for the
55 percent Federal grant. A bill was passed in the State
legislature allowing counties to establish solid waste
management districts. Standards and guidelines for
sanitary landfills were adopted. The State solid waste
management plan was completed and published, ac-
cepted by EPA, and adopted by the Governor of
Mississippi. County-wide solid waste management plans
were prepared for 15 counties. Sixteen municipal dumps
were converted to sanitary landfills. Storage and col-
lection practices were improved in 17 cities. Air pollu-
tion from the open burning of solid waste was abated or
eliminated at over 200 municipal dumps. Potential water
pollution problems were abated or eliminated at 16
dumps.
North Carolina
North Carolina has amended its Air Act to include
limitations on open burning, as well as emission limits
on fuel burning equipment. The State upgraded classi-
fication for all its major streams to Fish and Aquatic
Life. The North Carolina Pesticide Law of 1971 was
enacted and became effective January 1, 1972. The
law covers the use of certain pesticides and requires
permits for restricted products. A Regional Sewage
Disposal Planning Act was passed. The North Caro-
lina Clean Water Bond Act was passed. A Constitutional
Amendment termed "Environmental Bill of Rights" was
passed, and is to be voted on at the next General Elec-
tion. The North Carolina Environmental Policy Act of
1971, passed, effective October 1, 1971-September 1,
1973. A solid waste management act was passed by
the State legislature rules and regulations for solid
waste management were adopted. Forty-five dumps
were reported closed or converted to sanitary land-
fills, 35 of which qualified for Mission 5000. Basic
county-wide solid waste management plans were de-
veloped for over 90 (90) of the State's 100 (100)
counties.
South Carolina
The State is presently upgrading the classification of
over 200 streams. The legislature has significantly
increased the Pollution Control Authority's staff and
budget. The State Matching Construction Grant Pro-
gram Act was passed by the Senate, and is expected
to be passed by the House. The State solid waste man-
agement plan was completed and published, accepted
by EPA, and adopted by the Governor of South Caro-
lina. Rules and regulations for solid waste management
have been separately developed and adopted by the
State Board of Health and the Pollution Control
Agency's solid waste programs. Thirty-nine dumps
were reported closed or converted to sanitary landfills,
of which 36 qualified for Mission 5000. A on-site land-
fill operator training course was set up and is being
implemented.
Tennessee
A new water pollution control law with provisions
for matching wastewater treatment facilities grants and
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stronger enforcement was enacted. The legislature has
doubled the budget and staff of the Pollution Control
Agency. A new strip mining law was passed by the
legislature and is awaiting approval by the Governor.
A State solid waste act was passed. Legislation was
passed establishing a State grant program to financially
assist local governments in the operation of approved
disposal operations. A training program for waste dis-
posal operators and managers of waste disposal systems
was developed and is being implemented. Ten registered
disposal operations have been approved. A survey of
industrial solid waste management was begun.
REGION V
Region V, encompasses 325,000 square miles, has
a population of 43.6 million, about 20 percent of the
total U.S. population, and accounts for about a third
of the gross national product. Manufacturing activity
in the area represents a third of the national total.
Region V contains portions of four of the five
Great Lakes (Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie). Lake
Erie is the most notorious example of pollution; a
body of water "dying" as a direct result of high popu-
lation density and industrial concentration. But Erie
is only the most obvious case of neglect. Thousands of
smaller lakes in Region V suffer from eutrophication
or "premature aging", a condition resulting largely
from untreated phosphorous wastes.
Encouragingly, some of the Nation's most original
and effective anti-pollution actions have been taken in
the Great Lakes area, and Region V is one of the
most active Federal jurisdictions in the battle against
environmental degradation.
The Detroit-Cleveland area, reacting to EPA's ini-
tial onslaught, has instituted a cleanup campaign. By
the end of the present decade, Lake Erie is expected
to be well on its way toward recovery.
Although seven of the Nation's 20 operable nuclear
power reactors are located in Region V, they are
expected to increase to 11 of 29 national reactors by
the end of 1971, and 27 of 97 national reactors by
the end of 1976. EPA has lent significant impetus to
an encouraging trend toward the construction of cool-
ing towers in connection with reactor thermal dis-
charges.
Indiana was the first to ban discharge of nearly all
phosphates into lakes and streams. A fine of $1,000
can be imposed on any firm discharging detergents
with a phosphate content of more than 12 percent, a
proportion far below that of most commercial cleans-
ing preparations.
With the encouragement of EPA, the Minnesota
Pollution Control Agency has adopted animal feed lot
regulations applying to 15,000 operators. The rules
require drainage from outdoor feed lots to be trapped
by dikes, thereby preventing uncontrolled runoff into
streams and lakes.
One of the major tools for encouraging cleanup of
water pollution in Region V has been the water qual-
ity standards violation notice (180-day notice). Forty-
six of the 57 notices that have been issued by EPA
have been issued in Region V.
Fast, effective response to oil spills has been devel-
oped by Region V in cooperation with other Federal
and State agencies. A spill of 200,000 gallons of oil
in Saginaw Bay in October, 1971, was quickly cleaned
up through on-the-scene efforts supported by EPA.
EPA efforts were the primary force behind removal of
550,000 gallons of fuel oil from a stranded freighter
in Lake Huron, after fears were expressed the oil
would spill out and pollute nearby beaches.
EPA also took steps following complaints from citi-
zens to install sophisticated air pollution monitoring
equipment on Chicago's South Side to determine the
impact of steel plant pollution on neighborhood resi-
dents.
Illinois
Illinois implemented a source-oriented environmen-
tal radiation surveillance program for its nuclear power
stations. It recognized the need to adequately staff its
water quality management functions and has taken
positive steps to do so. A series of 10 public hearings
have been authorized by the Illinois Pollution Control
Board to regulate the application of fertilizers and
animal manure on farms to reduce input of nutrients
to Illinois waters. Some 17 plan reviews and perform-
ance specifications of Federal installation waste treat-
ment facility projects were performed, and environ-
mental impact statements on 43 highways and two
bridges were filed for review and comment. The Illi-
nois Pollution Control Board, with assistance from the
State Environmental Protection Agency and the Attor-
ney General's Office, has conducted approximately 500
hearings on varied pollution matters. In addition to
adopted effluent standards, the board has also adopted,
upgraded and revised water quality standards for all
the waters of the State. An air implementation plan has
been submitted for the purpose of carrying out the
requirements of the Clean Air Act, and emission regula-
tions have been adopted which will hopefully achieve
primary ambient air quality standards.
Indiana
Comprehensive radiation protection regulations were
adopted by the State Board of Health, with standards
for radioactive waste discharge limits compatible to
Atomic Energy Commission regulations. A pesticide
model use and application act, which regulates the
distribution, sale, and use of pesticides and provides
for the appointment of a Pesticide Review Board was
passed. Indiana has agreed to increase its staffing of
the air pollution control program. A one plan review
and performance specification of a Federal installation
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waste treatment facility project was performed, and
environmental impact statements on 17 highways
were filed for review and comment. The State has
agreed to a comprehensive study of environmental
pollution control authorities and organizational struc-
ture and program resource needs, by an independent
study organization, which will be financed by EPA.
In 1971, 55 enforcement actions were initiated and 15
actions were referred to the Attorney General for en-
forcement by the Indiana Stream Pollution Control
Board, the State's pollution control agency. The State
has added to its water pollution abatement programs by
the adoption of revised water quality standards for the
waters of Lake Michigan and the Calumet River and the
proposal of a revised implementation plan to meet the
revised standards adopted in 1970. The State has also
adopted standards designed to protect natural spawning
areas, rearing or imprinting areas and migration routes
of Salmonoid fishes. Indiana has submitted an imple-
mentation plan to carry out the requirements of the
Clean Air Act. It has also passed legislation broaden-
ing the powers of the State agency to carry out air
pollution control programs, and it has adopted emis-
sion regulations which will hopefully achieve primary
ambient air quality standards.
Michigan
A contract was negotiated with the Department of
Public Health to provide data in support of the Na-
tional Environmental Radiation Monitoring Program.
A stringent solid waste law was adopted in 1971. The
Michigan Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act
of 1949 was amended to control restricted use of
pesticides. An active and forceable position was taken
with regard to water pollution control activities in the
critical southeast Michigan area which encompasses
Detroit and environs; an improved working relation-
ship with local governments has been established. Some
17 plan reviews and performance specifications of
Federal installation waste treatment facility projects
were performed, and environmental impact statements
on 20 highways and one bridge were filed for review
and comment. The Michigan Water Resources Com-
mission, the State's pollution control agency, issued
63 Final Orders of Determination against, and entered
into 36 stipulations (voluntary agreements) with, mu-
nicipalities and industries responsible for causing pol-
lution. A successful watercraft pollution control com-
pliance inspection and enforcement program was ini-
tiated by the combined efforts of county sheriffs, ma-
rine deputies, conservation officers, and the staff of
the MWRC. The purpose of this program is to assure
that all toilet-equipped recreational and commercial
watercraft are equipped with either a holding tank or
an incinerating device. The MWRC has also adopted
revised temperature criteria for all of the waters of
the State. Public Act 200 was passed which requires
wastewater discharges to pay annual surveillance fees
for increased State monitoring of the streams, and to
list each year the toxic and critical materials that the
company uses or produces in its operations. The State
has submitted its implementation plan for the purpose
of carrying out the requirements of the Clean Air Act.
Minnesota
Significant modifications in off-site environmental
radiation surveillance networks were made. An agree-
ment was executed with a nuclear power company to
perform on-site surveillance. Legislation was enacted
pertaining to dispoal of junk cars and wastes from
cattle feed lots, as well as an increase in appropriations
to strengthen the solid waste program. The Minnesota
Economic Poisons and Device Law and the Minnesota
Spraying and Dusting Law were amended. The Eco-
nomic Poisons Law changed the registration fee for
products; it now requires dealers to obtain a calendar-
year license, changes expiration date of registration
trom June 30 to January 1, each year, and adds a new
section for the handling, discarding, storing and dis-
playing of pesticides. The Spraying and Dusting Law
requires licensing of aerial applicators; licensing of
applicators who apply pesticides to public waters to
pass Federal examinations; identification cards to be
carried by all licensed applicators; makes it unlawful
to misrepresent the effect of methods and materials
used; authorizes the Commissioner to inspect equip-
ment and set standards for operational use; permits
filing of damage claims arising from application of
pesticides; provides nonresident applicators to appoint
Commissioner of Agriculture as their agent, upon
whom all legal processes may be served; makes it un-
lawful for licensee to permit judgment to remain un-
satisfied for more than 30 days; grants the Commis-
sioner authority to enter public or private premises
for necessary inspections; broadens enforcement pro-
cedures including assistance from the County Attorney
or Attorney General; authorizes the Commissioner to
enter into cooperative agreements with any Federal,
State, or local governmental units; and authorizes the
Commissioner, after notice and a hearing, to deny, sus-
pend or revoke a license. Minnesota enacted its State
Matching Grants Program for sewage treatment works
construction. Some six plan reviews and performance
specifications of Federal installation waste treatment
facility projects were performed, and environmental
impact statements on 11 highways and three bridges
were filed for review and comment. Enforcement ac-
tions include the continuing suit of Reserve Mining
Company and Northern States Power Company's Nu-
clear Plant at Monticello. The State has also filed suit
against the City of Bemidji and is continuing negotia-
tions with the Western Lake Superior Sanitary Dis-
trict. Minnesota's Pollution Control Agency previously
adopted water quality and effluent standards which
provided a high degree of protection for the waters of
the State. The State has submitted an implementation
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plan to carry out the requirements of the Clean Air
Art
Act.
Ohio
Ohio's Health Department purchased more than
$50,000 of laboratory equipment as a first phase of
expanding its environmental surveillance program. The
Governor adopted the completed Statewide solid waste
plan. The legislature and Governor's Office recognized
the deficiency in the State environmental programs, and
initiated actions toward enactment of legislation to
consolidate its programs into a single agency. The State
took a step forward in air pollution control by adopt-
ing comprehensive emission regulations. Some six
plan reviews and performance specifications of Federal
installation waste treatment facility projects were per-
formed, and environmental impact statements on 28
highways and one bridge were filed for review and
comment. The State has agreed to the performance of
a comprehensive study, by an independent study firm,
of the organizational structuring and manpower plan-
ning for an integrated State agency, which will have
responsibility for environmental protection activities
related to air, water and solid waste pollution problems.
This is the first study of this scope to be sponsored by
EPA. Value of the contract being negotiated with
Stanford Research Institute is anticipated to be
$52,000. The study began in January, 1972. A suit was
filed in the Cuyahoga County Court of Common Pleas
against the City of Cleveland by the Water Pollution
Control Board. Up to this time, the OWPCB did not
involve itself extensively with large metropolitan areas
in Ohio. In addition, legislative action is pending which
would consolidate pollution abatement efforts in the
State by the creation of a new agency. The State is
moving forward in an attempt to develop revised stand-
ards which would be Federally approvable. In addition,
it is developing effluent standards and a uniform effluent
reporting system. The State has begun a very active air
pollution control program. Legislation has been passed
which broadens the powers of the State agency to carry
out air pollution control programs; emission regulations
have been adopted which will hopefully achieve pri-
mary ambient air quality standards; and an implemen-
tation plan has been submitted for the purpose of
carrying out the requirements of the Clean Air Act.
Wisconsin
Modifications were made in surveillance networks
and surveillance data submitted was updated in sup-
port of the National Environmental Radiation Moni-
toring Program. Wisconsin initiated the development
of a Statewide solid waste management plan with the
aid of an EPA planning grant. The legislature also
adopted a solid waste management enabling act. Pub-
lic hearings were initiated with regard to the develop-
ment of proposed animal waste control regulations.
Some seven plan reviews and performance specifica-
tions of Federal installation waste treatment facility
projects were performed, and environmental impact
statements on 32 highways and two bridges were filed
for review and comment. The State's pollution control
agency, the Department of Natural Resources, has
adopted revised temperature standards for Lake Michi-
gan waters. In addition, the State submitted an imple-
mentation plan for the purpose of carrying out the re-
quirements of the Clean Air Act.
REGION VI
Region VI, the third largest Region, has an area of
550,000 square miles and a population of 20.3 million.
Statistically, more than 60 percent of Region VI's popu-
lation is concentrated in 37 standard metropolitan
areas that usually coincide with the area's major indus-
trial complexes and ecological problems. Region VI
leads the Nation in mineral production, which includes
petroleum, natural gas, natural gas liquids, cement,
sulphur, stone, bauxite, sand and gravel, molybdenum,
potassium salts and copper, and produces some 75 per-
cent of the Nation's rice.
As a result of an EPA-initiated conference to avoid
widespread use of the persistent pesticide, toxaphene,
which had polluted Lake Meredith, a major water
supply source for 11 Texas cities, the U.S. Department
of Agriculture withdrew its support of this poison.
Texas outlawed its use, and New Mexico abandoned
its backing of a program to use toxaphene against range
caterpillars on two million acres of pastureland in the
Canadian River Basin.
The American Smelting & Refining Company at
El Paso has installed a pilot plant operation for re-
moving sulful oxide from smelting operations and pro-
ducing elemental sulfur which does not create the
problems for the environment that conventional conver-
sion to sulfuric acid would.
Following a seminar in January 1971, attended by
more than 500 consulting engineers, State and local
officials, a broad application of advanced waste treat-
ment technology began in the Region. At the end of
1971, most new wastewater treatment plant construc-
tion projects involved some degree of new technology.
Arkansas
The enactment of comprehensive solid waste man-
agement legislation and adoption of a state solid waste
plan were two major milestones. The air pollution con-
trol implementation plan was completed by the
Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and Ecology
(ADPCE). The State more than doubled its air
sampling network with the addition of six communi-
ties. Arkansas enacted legislation which permits state
financing assistance (with pay back feature) of 25 per-
cent to communities for the construction of wastewater
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treatment facilities. Eleven new wastewater treatment
facility projects were approved for construction at a
total cost of over $3.5 million. The ADPCE adopted
water quality standards for intrastate streams and com-
pleted a stream survey of the White River Basin. A
grant for $85,930 was awarded to the Northwest
Arkansas Regional Planning Commission to develop a
basin plan for the Upper White River Basin.
Louisiana
Sixteen open dumps serving 765,000 persons were
converted to sanitary landfills. Louisiana completed its
air pollution control implementation plan and modified
laws and regulations regarding air pollution control in
1971. A statewide air sampling network was estab-
lished, and a major study of cotton gin operations was
initiated. The Louisiana legislature created the Joint
Legislative Committee on Environmental Quality in
order to develop a management and resources develop-
ment program for the Atchafalaya River Basin (Wet-
lands Project). Louisiana enacted legislation which
permits state financial assistance (with pay back fea-
ture) of 25 percent to communities for the construction
of wastewater treatment facilities. Six new wastewater
treatment facility projects were approved for construc-
tion at a total cost of over $17.3 million. The State also
adopted water quality standards for intrastate streams.
New Mexico
New Mexico established the Environmental Improve-
ment Agency in 1971. A study of solid waste problems
associated with recreational areas and the Albuquerque
Solid Waste Study were completed. Under the State
Solid Waste Program, an aggressive program is being
pursued in the development and operation of a recy-
cling system involving abandoned cars. The State com-
pleted its air pollution control implementation plan,
developed an adequate air monitoring network, com-
pleted a comprehensive emission inventory, established
an industrial source sampling team, developed air en-
forcement policies and guidelines, filed three lawsuits
for abatement of air pollution and eliminated open
burning in 20 cities. Nine new wastewater treatment
facilities were approved for construction at a total cost
of $5.2 million. New Mexico was the first State in
Region VI that approved a direct State grant assistance
program for the construction of municipal wastewater
treatment facilities. It developed a model ordinance
regulating the discharge of industrial wastes into muni-
cipal systems. The State Planning Office of New
Mexico has opposed construction of the Tucson Gas
and Electric transmission line from San Juan, New
Mexico, to Tucson, Arizona, due to potential esthetic
damage to the environment.
Oklahoma
Oklahoma initiated a statewide training program to
help local communities solve their solid waste problems.
The State completed its air pollution control imple-
mentation plan and modified laws and regulations for
air pollution control. The State Health Department's
Division of Air Pollution Control added a laboratory
facility and expanded its statewide air sampling net-
work. Oklahoma enacted legislation which permits State
financial assistance (with pay back feature) of 25 per-
cent to communities for the construction of wastewater
treatment facilities. The State also adopted water
quality standards for intrastate streams, and provided
laboratory facilities to local health departments for
stream and effluent monitoring. Twenty-seven new
wastewater treatment facility projects were approved
for construction at a cost of over $28.0 million.
Uocumerica Photo
High School students testing water in Fort Smith, Arkansas.
Texas
The first solid waste planning grant in Region VI
was awarded to the North Central Texas Council of
Governments. The two-year project covers 11 counties.
The State Health Department established municipal
solid waste rules, standards and regulations. The State
is participating in the Corpus Christi Area Oil Spill
Control Association by contributing resources to the
two-year study. Texas completed its air pollution con-
trol implementation plan. The Texas Air Control Board
increased its staff and capabilities, completed 30-day
-------
Recreational development of Lake Travis, Texas.
Documerica Photo
air pollution surveys in all major cities and along the
Houston ship channel, and added a complete central
laboratory and two mobile laboratories. Texas enacted
legislation to provide 25 percent State matching funds
(with pay back feature) for the construction of waste-
water treatment facilities, and the Texas Water Quality
Board (TWQB) certified 89 new projects at a cost of
over $91.6 million. A model ordinance regulating the
discharge of industrial waste into municipal systems
was prepared by the TWQB. Legislation was also
passed which requires all municipalities with popu-
lations over 5,000 to establish water pollution abate-
ment programs and enact and enforce regulations to
control the discharge and character of wastes into
municipal sewerage systems. A grant for $321,650 was
awarded to the Trinity River Authority to develop a
basin plan for the Trinity River.
REGION VII
Region VII comprises an area of 285,467 square
miles and has a population of 10.7 million. Most of its
environmental problems derive principally from agricul-
ture, such as cattle feedlot runoff, meat and sugar beat
processing wastes and fertilizer drainage.
EPA has completed many projects begun under the
Federal Water Quality Act for research, development,
and demonstration of methods for treating waste water
carrying agricultural and food processing wastes. Region
VII has had 1,623 projects for the construction of
wastewater treatment facilities and interceptor sewers
receiving EPA support.
A portion of the projects in the Missouri Basin Re-
gion completed by Region VII are as follows:
1. Led local, industrial and regional groups in
aiding the development of a water quality man-
agement system for the Lake of the Ozarks.
2. Developed an implementation schedule calling
for secondary treatment of municipal wastes at all
cities along the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers.
3. Placed industrial districts in Kansas City on
180-day notice to act on interstate pollution of
Missouri River, cleanup measures for gross air
pollution and development of a solid waste and
sanitary landfill management plan for Kansas City.
4. Prepared a guide providing comprehensive
technical support for a policy of secondary treat-
ment for waste discharges into the Missouri River.
5. Completed a demonstration grant to Grand
Forks, North Dakota, to develop technology
needed for the treatment of potato processing
wastes, to Union Stockyards at Fargo, North
Dakota, for treatment of cattle transport wastes
and to Pratt, Kansas, for design of feedlots to
prevent drainage.
6. Gave funds for construction of a primary waste
treatment plants to reduce discharge in the
Missouri River.
7. Helped St. Charles, Missouri, build primary
and secondary treatment plants to reduce discharge
in the Mississippi.
8. Awarded grants to St. Louis to build a two-
plant sewer system and pumping station for
primary waste treatment.
All Region VII States are committed to secondary
treatment of wastes by 1975.
Iowa
Iowa completed a study of runoff sediment and asso-
ciated chemicals from farmlands and demonstrated
efficacy of soil conservation practices as a means of
control and abatement of water pollution. The State
legislature enacted a Conservancy Act which provides
a structure for administering a control program for
farm pollution and established a Chemical Technology
Review Board, primarily to manage the usage of chem-
ical pesticides. The Water Pollution Control Commis-
sion has exercised tight control over operations of
wastewater treatment, citing several negligent operators
and referring cases to the State Attorney General for
legal action; at the same time, an outstanding program
has been undertaken to train operators at Kirkwood
College in Cedar Rapids. The legislature passed en-
abling bills for Statewide management of solid waste;
the Des Moines metropolitan area has established a
regional solid waste agency, which is expertly managed
and serving as a national demonstration. All major
sources of air pollution in metropolitan areas are on
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rigid compliance schedules. As might be expected,
citizen environmental groups are exerting considerable
pressure; they are centrally organized through the Con-
federation of Environmental Organizations at Ames.
Nebraska
Legislation has established a Department of Environ-
mental Control, with authority over air, water and solid
waste management. The Legislature also made a direct
appropriation to initiate the State matching program
for municipal wastewater treatment. Of considerable
interest is the establishment, by legislation, of 24
Natural Resource Districts which will exercise some
authority over pollution control, primarily that from
agriculture. Nebraska has undertaken an extensive pre-
operational survey of the Missouri River in connection
with the anticipated 1972 start-up of two nuclear
power plants—adjacent States of Iowa and Missouri
are cooperating; post-operational surveys are planned.
Considerable research in cattle feedlot waste control is
underway, with the development of engineering tech-
nology; an excellent cooperative program prevails with
the feeding industry and local government, as well as
the State and Federal agencies participating.
Kansas
The State is the first to develop a fully implemented
waste control program for all concentrated animal-
feeding operations; also it is first to complete interim
basin planning for water quality. Legislative action in
1971 established a solid waste management plan and
regulation of pesticides usage. The State Health Board
adopted air pollution regulations and made disinfection
of municipal and selected industrial water-borne wastes
mandatory. Research was pursued which demonstrated
the effective use of lime in bio-treatment processes for
reduction of phosphates in wastewater.
Missouri
The citizens of the State voted overwhelmingly in
favor of $150,000,000 of bonds to provide the State's
share of municipal wastewater treatment faculties.
Legislation banning the discharge of waste from water-
craft into the intra-State waters was passed—a matter
of considerable importance in the heavily used lakes
of southern Missouri. The State agency initiated a spe-
cial program for heavy metal monitoring in critical
areas. It also adopted a plan of action for dealing with
emergency situations. The Air Pollution Control Com-
mission secured a compliance schedule from Union
Electric at St. Louis on particulates and sulphur dioxide
emissions; limits imposed are more stringent than
existing Federal standards. Research was completed at
the St. Louis wastewater plant, which resulted in
advanced odor control techniques. The Midwest Re-
search Institute at Kansas City developed futuristic
technology to manage concentrated animal wastes.
REGION VIII
Region VIII is comprised of more than 575,000
square miles and populated by a total of only 5.6
million people. The second largest of EPA's Regions,
it occupies more than 16 percent of the Nation's total
land area, but is the most sparsely populated territory
in the U.S.
The Region's environmental problems arc associ-
ated chiefly with the extraction and processing of natu-
ral resources, agricultural activities and population
density. The latter is concentrated in Denver and Salt
Lake City. Solutions to the Region's environmental
problems are complicated by a water shortage.
EPA developed a plan for handling anticipated
waste loads for a recreation center in Summit County,
Colorado. The Agency aided in the construction of a
100,000 gallons-a-day advanced waste treatment plant,
and is helping to add a process for more complete
removal of solids, organics and phosphates.
EPA's Southwestern Radiological Health Labora-
tory closely coordinates its efforts with the State of
Utah's radiation surveillance program, which includes
studies of thyroid abnormalities, congenital defects,
and cancer. EPA is supporting a radiation ecology
study at the University of Utah and operates a mo-
bile radiation scanning unit throughout the Region.
EPA and the National Park Service are jointly
developing a water quality management plan for Yel-
lowstone National Park. EPA is also presently evalu-
ating Wyoming's drinking water supply.
EPA has been working with the U.S. Department
of the Interior in developing environmental protection
clauses in the contracts for power plant development
in the Four Corners area of Colorado, New Mexico,
Arizona and Utah.
EPA is actively involved in the Western U.S. Water
Plan Study, which embraces the full range of water
resources and pollution problems. Under EPA's Permit
Program, 90-95 percent of industries and others af-
fected in the Region have complied with the Federal
requirements and have submitted their applications.
The Regional Office has had success in influencing
other Federal agencies to become more environmen-
tally conscious. For example, there has been coopera-
tion between EPA, Utah and Hill Air Force Base
concerning a new location for a fire rescue exercise.
Colorado
Colorado established a State matching grant pro-
gram to assist communities constructing wastewater
treatment facilities and a training program for operators
of wastewater treatment plants. The Denver Regional
Council of Governments received a $200,000 grant from
EPA to develop a water quality management plan for
the Denver metropolitan area. A low speed terminal
was obtained for use of the STORET program. Mech-
anisms were established to deal with problems attend-
ant to noise pollution.
79
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Montana
Montana is considering creating mechanisms to deal
with noise pollution problems. The legislature created
an Environmental Quality Council with powers to hold
hearings, develop policy and review projects. It cre-
ated a Department of Natural Resources by consoli-
dating existing resource functions into one agency.
A previously authorized state matching grant program
for construction of municipal wastewater treatment
facilities was funded. Air quality standards and emis-
sion standards applicable to the non-ferrous metals
industry were adopted, and a pesticides use and appli-
cation law was passed which is scheduled to be imple-
mented in 1972. Also passed were an Insecticide,
Fungicide and Rodenticide Act and a Food, Drug and
Cosmetic Act. The Executive Reorganization Act
consolidated a number of environmental programs into
one agency within the Department of Health, and also
consolidated or eliminated a number of boards, com-
missions and other similar bodies.
North Dakota
North Dakota's legislature approved legislation re-
quiring mandatory certification of water and waste-
water treatment plant operators and approved legisla-
tion controlling water well construction and well pump
installation, as well as legislation providing controls
for noise pollution. A State loan program was estab-
lished to assist municipalities constructing wastewater
treatment facilities, air pollution control regulations
were revised and a permit system was adopted to
control the construction and operation of state treat-
ment facilities. Mechanisms were established to deal
with noise pollution problems, and it is now manda-
tory that a qualification and competence test be passed
in order to be licensed as an aerial applicator.
South Dakota
Air pollution control regulations were adopted in
South Dakota, including air quality standards, a con-
struction and operation permits system, regulation of
open burning, fuel consumption and incineration and
industrial processes. In addition, regulations were
adopted for controlling pollution from feedlot opera-
tions. The legislature authorized a State matching grant
program for construction of water pollution control
facilities and approved legislation regulating surface
mining by, among other things, requiring reclamation
of affected land and providing for penalties for viola-
tion of the act. The Black Hills Conservancy District
has been awarded a comprehensive water quality man-
agement planning grant. A low speed terminal was
obtained for use of the STORET program.
Utah
Utah received a comprehensive basin planning grant
for the Jordan River-Utah Lake hydrologic area. Regu-
lations for control of particulate matter from process
sources and ambient air quality standards were adopted.
Wyoming
Wyoming's air pollution control budget was nearly
doubled, and the Wyoming Water Plan was completed
for three of the four major basins in the State. Five
training courses for wastewater treatment plant oper-
ators were conducted, and approximately 50 operators
completed the course work. These operators are being
tested under Wyoming's new voluntary certification
program. Finally, several major industrial sources were
brought into compliance with air quality standards and
14 towns abandoned dump burning in favor of sanitary
landfills.
REGION IX
Region IX's total land area is 389,854 square miles
and its population is almost 23 million. More than
half of the population is concentrated in the Los
Angeles-San Diego and San Francisco Bay locales.
Like Region VIII, Region IX has a climate that can
be generally described as semi-arid. In addition, its
varied rugged topography causes several serious, lo-
calized air pollution problems where physical fea-
tures contribute to the creation of atmospheric in-
versions.
EPA has been more concerned, however, with the
Region's water pollution difficulties, leaving the leader-
ship of the air clean-up to those State and local groups
that had been battling for pure air long before EPA
arrived on the scene. Consequently, it has concentrated
its major efforts in five areas, the San Francisco Bay
and Delta, the Lower Colorado River, the Southern
California Coast, the Island of Oahu and the Lake
Tahoe Basin.
An enforcement conference held in Honolulu re-
sulted in a three-year plan for the cleanup of Pearl
Harbor.
EPA has helped support a study for the control of
water pollution in California. It has mounted a mas-
sive campaign against California's water polluters and
has demanded that San Francisco clean up all sewage
discharged into its Bay.
Concern about increasing nutrients from wastes
dumped by recreation-seekers into Lake Tahoe re-
sulted in an enforcement conference in 1966 and the
setting of a time schedule for the removal of all
sewage from the Tahoe Basin. EPA has been giving
technical assistance in developing plans for controlling
the Tahoe environment.
Because of the Region's arid nature, EPA's initial
wastewater reclamation research efforts took place in
there. This accounts for 50 percent of all wastewater
reclamation in the U.S.
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Arizona
Arizona has submitted an air quality standards im-
plementation plan which is now under review. The
State has also completed an interim basin plan for
water quality management planning.
California
California has submitted an air implementation plan
which is currently under review. Significantly, Califor-
nia has a law equivalent to NEPA, requiring environ-
mental impact statements on State-funded projects.
This program is administered through the Lieutenant
Governor's office. California has been very active in
regional planning: it has created a comprehensive
regional agency to design and manage the Bay Area's
sewerage system; two California COG's (the Associa-
tion of Monterey Bay Area Governments and the
Santa Ana Watershed Planning Agency) have received
hefty planning grants ($868,000 and $630,000, re-
spectively) for studies; and the State established a pilot
project to develop procedures for a statewide total
environmental monitoring program. California has also
been a leader in water pollution control, taking action
which made possible the approval of the State-Federal
water quality standards for California, adopting a
thermal-pollution control policy, and implementing a
$200 million clean water bond to provide State match-
ing funds for wastewater facilities. California has also
tightened controls on: the use of pesticides, particu-
larly DDT; the storage, transfer, and disposal of haz-
ardous materials; and airport noise. It has submitted
interim basin plans.
Guam
Guam has developed and submitted an air imple-
mentation plan, which is under review. It has also
submitted interim basin plans.
Hawaii
Hawaii has submitted an air implementation plan
which is being reviewed. It has also submitted interim
basin plans. Hawaii is also taking part in the model
state program for comprehensive environmental qual-
ity control. This is, in part, a spin-off from the Pearl
Harbor Enforcement Conference. Honolulu has pub-
lished a solid waste management plan.
Nevada
Nevada has submitted an air implementation plan,
currently undergoing review. It has also established a
Commission of Environmental Protection-to coordinate
all State environmental programs.
Samoa
Samoa has developed and submitted an air imple-
mentation plan which is now under review.
Dooumoriea I'hoto
Aerial view of Urban Development in Phoenix, Arizona.
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REGION X
Region X, where 83 percent of its 835,000 square
miles of much unspoiled wilderness is owned by the
Federal Government, has a total population of 6.4
million people, extensive natural resources in the form
of forests, farmlands and hydroelectric power and a
wealth of clean and unexploited land, air and water.
There are 43 pulp and paper mills in the Region
which are a major source of both air and water pol-
lution.
Pollution in Oregon's Willamette River was a seri-
ous problem for 40 years. The turning point came
with the establishment of Federally-approved State of
Oregon water quality standards and implementation
plans, combined with passage of tough State pollution
control legislation and the crackdown on polluters by
the State of Oregon, backed by firm Federal posture.
Now, all five pulp mills have installed primary treat-
ment facilities and four of the five no longer discharge
sulfite cooking liquids into the river. The fifth mill will
complete its process conversion and cease discharges
in 1972. The Willamette is now safe for swimming.
Eight pulp mills have polluted Puget Sound for
years. After Federal-State enforcement conference
meetings in 1962 and 1967, most agreed to treat their
effluent, but on delayed schedules. Presently, EPA is
pursuing an aggressive program to assure Puget Sound
pulp mill cleanup.
Region X's "Industrial Waste Guide on Logging
Practices" is an example of EPA's major role in set-
ting standards to protect the environment—in this case,
standards of performance in forest land use manage-
ment. EPA aggressively urges the Federal forest man-
agement agencies to require proper logging practices
not only to protect the environment in Federal forests,
but also as the good example to private forest land
owners.
EPA has played a leading role in facing up to the
threat of thermal pollution. It requires that off-stream
cooling facilities are necessary at any new thermal
(nuclear) powerplant located on inland waters or
estuaries.
An EPA representative is assigned to the technical
advisory board formed to review data concerning the
trans-Alaska pipeline proposal and participates in
making recommendations to the Secretary of the In-
terior. Through this arrangement, EPA is involved in
impacting problems involving the classical confronta-
tion between wilderness protection and economic de-
velopment.
Alaska
In 1971 the State legislature established a Depart-
ment of Environmental Conservation in a reorgani-
zation and strengthening of environmental programs
and resources. EPA funds assisted with the develop-
ment of a State solid waste management plan, a State
survey and evaluation of solid waste needs of Kenai
Peninsula and a local proposal for waste management
plan for Greater Anchorage Borough. The State estab-
lished an air pollution control program; adopted re-
vised water quality standards approved by EPA; and
initiated significant effort towards the State waste dis-
charge permit plan. Mission 5000 courses were held in
Anchorage, Fairbanks and Juneau.
Idaho
The State legislature approved significant amend-
ments to the Idaho Air Pollution Code, adopted a 25
percent construction grant matching program, amended
its Solid Waste Management Act, expanded a solid
waste program from sites to solid waste management
system, and reorganized environmental activities in the
new Environmental Improvement Division under the
Department of Health. Other State actions included a
notification program for closing dumps polluting water,
six dumps were closed or converted to landfills; par-
ticipated in EPA funding to collect data on industrial
wastes throughout the State; initiated industrial waste
discharger program; adopted kraft pulp mill emission
regulations and established compliance schedule; estab-
lished training school for new persons entering the
wastewater treatment plant operator field; and passed
stronger pesticide legislation including licensing of gov-
ernment agencies and pesticide dealers.
Oregon
The Oregon Nuclear and Thermal Energy Council
was created with responsibilities in regulations and
power plant site certification. The Radiation Control
Program was realigned and the surveillance program
was enlarged for pre-operational monitoring of the
Trojan Nuclear Power Plant area. The State adopted
the first sulfite pulp mill emission regulation in the
Nation, as well as adopting a Statewide secondary
treatment requirement for industrial wastes in all
waters (including coastal). It also adopted enabling
legislation allowing removal of exemptions for forest
slash disposal and agricultural field burning. In addi-
tion, voters approved a one million dollar bond issue;
$80 million for sewage works treatment construction,
and $20 million for solid wastes, sewage and plan-
ning. Regulations and licensing of pesticide disposal
sites were approved, and the State enforced the dis-
continuance of sales of DDT in Oregon. Authority
and responsibility for solid waste management was
transferred from the Department of Health Services
to the Department of Environmental Quality. The
State has closed or converted 15 dumps to landfills.
Training opportunities were established for treatment
plant operators and the Mission 5000 course was also
offered.
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Washington
The State reorganized the Department of Ecology
along functional lines and added the Shoreline Man-
agement Act, the Environmental Policy Act, and the
Oil Pollution Act to its environmental legislation.
The State Solid Waste Management Plan, assisted by
EPA funding, was completed and approved. In addition,
14 regional-local solid waste management plans were
completed via $269,000 in the 1970-1971 State budget.
Twenty-two dumps were closed or converted to landfills.
The Pesticides Control Act was passed, including appli-
cation tests and applicator licensing. Pesticide containers
were also monitored for amount and composition of resi-
due. Enabling legislation removed exemptions for
agricultural field burning and forest slash disposal. The
Radiation Control Program submitted an EPA con-
tract proposal to provide surveillance at AEC Han-
ford works and Trojan Nuclear Power Plant. The
Thermal Power Plant Site Evaluation Council pre-
pared for the 1972 public hearings on certification of
the Hanford #2 nuclear plant.
STATE REORGANIZATION
Most of the improvements and innovations effected
by the States in their air and water pollution control in
recent years have been achieved without major reor-
ganization of State-level pollution control agencies.
Thus, many of the measures necessary for these agen-
cies to respond affirmatively to the widespread concern
over environmental degradation have been undertaken
either under existing State statutes, or by enlarging in
various ways the authority of the existing pollution
control agencies. Nevertheless, another highlight in
recent developments at the State level has been the
major reorganization of the State's organizational struc-
ture for administrating its pollution control program.
During 1970—71 major reorganizations were adopted
in 13 States—Alaska, Arkansas, Connecticut, Illinois,
Maine, Nebraska, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York,
Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Vermont, and Washing-
ton. In addition, proposals for the restructuring of State-
level agencies were advanced by the Governor and/or
other bodies in a number of other States, and all pros-
pects pointed to continued interest in reorganization of
environmental protection programs in the 1972 State
legislative sessions.
A number of these recent reorganizations and several
earlier ones have been analyzed in depth in Managing
the Environment: Nine States Look jor New Answers,
(Elizabeth H. Haskell, Victoria Price, and associates,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C., April
1971). This work concludes that the objectives being
sought in these reorganizations are as follows:
1. Consolidate fragmented activities to make pro-
I'll
Region Ten Office, Seattle, Washinaton.
gram administration match the integrative way
problems occur in the environment.
2. Reduce the proliferation of boards and com-
missions to make State government more manage-
able, and in some cases change their role and
composition to "professionalize" State environ-
mental policy-making and make policy-makers
more responsive to elected leaders and the public.
3. Transfer pollution control programs from the
health department to broaden pollution concerns
beyond health.
4. Create a stronger regulatory role for the State
and an agency advocate for the environment.
5. Design a new environmental department that
will be more publicly visible, thus demonstrating
the State's commitment to environmental protec-
tion and rallying environmental interest groups to
form a stronger political base for environmental
control.
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6. Increase accountability of public officials and
public programs.
7. Facilitate administrative efficiencies.
The 1970-71 reorganizations increased to 20 the
number of States which recently have consolidated vari-
ous pollution control functions in a single agency other
than the State health department. Table 30 gives an
overview of the functions consolidated in these agencies.
Two models are guiding the States in these organiza-
tions. One is the EPA-like configuration, which is best
exemplified by the reorganizations in Alaska, Arkansas,
Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, Oregon, and Washington.
These agencies combine air, water and possibly other
environmental protection programs such as solid wastes,
pesticides, radiation and noise. The other—the super-
department concept adopted in Connecticut, Delaware,
New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and
Wisconsin—combines these environmental functions
with all or most of the functions of the typical con-
servation or natural resources management agency.
Another development in the reorganization of State
control pollution agencies has been the reduction or the
complete elimination of polluting interest representa-
tion on state pollution boards. A New York Times
survey (Hill, Gladwin, "States Curtailing Polluters on
Pollution Control Units," New York Times, Decem-
ber 19, 1971.) shows that the number of air or water
boards reflecting interests dropped from 35 to 32 during
1971. The number of full-time State environmental
agencies rose from eight to nine. More than a dozen
States mapped such changes or revamped their regu-
latory machinery in that direction.
The potential conflicts of interest arise from member-
ship of executives of polluting corporations, representa-
tives of major polluters such as agriculture and local
government and State officials who have been spokes-
men for agriculture or industry. There is a repeated
correlation between persistent pollution and pollution
linked control boards.
A good example is Alabama whose boards had heavy
industrial representation. Alabama was confronted by
extensive mercury pollution of waterways and in April
1971, there was an air pollution episode in Birmingham.
In November, Birmingham's industry was temporarily
shut down for two days because of health hazards.
Today, Alabama's old pollution boards have been re-
placed with new ones structured to exclude polluter
influence.
During 1971 some States passed laws abolishing
polluter interest boards and in others, boards were
restructured to lessen potential polluter influence and
increase the representation of the public at large. In
still other States, proposals for more democratic boards
are scheduled to be put before the new legislative ses-
sions during 1972.
CITIZEN ACTION
This past year has seen the continued growth and
professionalization of the citizen environmental move-
ment. There is full recognition that these groups are
viable, and that they are becoming a permanent institu-
tion of the community. Citizen groups are striving to be
well-informed and solidly credible and many important
victories have been achieved. Greater professionalism
has been developed because of the need for technical
competence in the challenging environmental problems
in the community. There has also been a positive move-
ment of private industry and the citizen environmental
organizations toward greater cooperation to solve local
problems. There is more public recognition that serious
environmental problems exist, greater appreciation of
the effectiveness of citizen groups and a growing com-
petence on the part of these groups as the complexities
of the issues are recognized.
Citizen groups have brought considerable pressure
on both the private and public agencies for compliance
with Federal as well as local environmental laws. They
have lobbied for new laws, such as the one that now
bans the development of heavy industry along the
Delaware coast. They brought suit against projects
which were environmentally detrimental, and in several
significant instances have caused major public and
private works to be halted. The citizen groups have
been using the power of environmental impact state-
ments to bring to the attention of the general public,
as well as Government and corporate agencies, pro-
grams which were considered environmentally destruc-
tive. In most cases, citizen groups have demonstrated a
capability of in-depth study and professional skill in
dealing with these complex environmental issues.
Citizen groups were involved in numerous com-
munity projects that were of serious concern to their
own localities, but reflected the national recognition of
the environmental problems which are EPA's legislated
responsibilities. Communities have been much involved
in recycling projects this year which have been a
tangible working area for them. The groups have
developed from anti-litter campaigns to more complex
separation centers that dispose of paper, glass and
aluminum cans. There are now recycling centers in
many communities throughout the country. These ac-
tivities are often frustrated by the difficulties of separa-
tion and transportation of waste materials to the
markets that will pay. Nevertheless, the efforts of
citizen groups to clean up and reuse waste materials has
had a big impact on the paper industry, and has created
a demand for wastepaper from that industry. The
aluminum can manufacturers have been working closely
with community groups to recover the increasing num-
ber of beverage cans produced and discarded. A citizen
group in Missouri has opened a three-State glassphalt
factory to reuse old glass for roadbuilding material.
In Birmingham, Alabama, the Alabama Conservancy
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TABLE 30.—EPA Type Control Agencies
State and New Agency
Alaska
Dept. of Environmental Conservation
Arkansas
Dept. of Pollution Control and Ecology
Connecticut
Dept. of Environmental Protection . .
Water
X
X
X
POLLUTION CONTROL FUNCTIONS
Air Wastde at'on c"es Noise Other Major Control Funct.ons
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
—
X
y
— — —
X — Conservation programs
Delaware
Dept. of Natural Resources and Env. Control
Florida
Dept. of Pollution Control
Illinois
(1) Pollution Control Board .
(2) Environmental Protection Agency
Maine
Dept. of Environmental Protection
X X — —
XXX —
Minnesota
Pollution Control Agency
Mississippi
Air and Water Pollution Control Comm.
Nebraska
Dept. of Environmental Control
New Jersey
Dept. of Environmental Protection . .
New York
Dept. of Environmental Conservation .
North Carolina
Dept. of Air and Water Resources . .
Oregon
Dept. of Environmental Quality ....
Pennsylvania
Dept. of Environmental Resources
X X
Puerto Rico
Environmental Quality Board
South Carolina
Pollution Control Authority
Vermont
Agency of Environmental Conservation
X
XXX
XXX
XXX —
X X X X
Washington
Dept. of Ecology
Wisconsin
Dept. of Natural Resources
X
X
X
X
X —
X —
Natural resources
management
— — Conservation programs
Soil, water, and coastal
zone management
— — Weather modification
Municipal water supplies
— Limited land use controls
— Limited land use controls
X — —
X — —
X X
X —
Public water supplies
Conservation programs
Natural resources
management
Conservation programs
Natural resources
management
Water resources
management
Conservation programs
Natural resources
management
— — Conservation programs
Water use management
— — Water use management
Municipal water supplies
Conservation programs
Water use management
Limited land use control
programs
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TABLE 31. — Composition of State Pollution Boards
Note: This table is not a classification of States' air and
water pollution conditions
• Means state pollution board with regulatory authority
contains members associated with basic pollution
sources (industry, agriculture, county and city gov-
ernments).
O Means state board is free of such representation.
"No Boards" means air and water pollution regulation
statewide is handled by a full-time state agency.
Combi-
Air Water nation
Board Board Air-Water
Board
Alabama O 0 —
Alaska — No Boards —
Arizona — No Boards —
Arkansas — — •
(l)California . . . O • —
Colorado . • • —
Connecticut .... — No Boards —
Delaware — — •
Florida — — 0
Georgia . • • —
Hawaii . . — — O
Idaho . • O —
Illinois — No Boards —
Indiana . • • —
Iowa . . . • • —
Kansas ... . . — — 0
Kentucky , • • —
Louisiana • • —
Maine . . — — •
Maryland — No Boards —
Massachusetts 00 —
Michigan • • —
Minnesota . — — •
Mississippi ... — — •
Missouri • • —
Montana — — O
Nebraska — — •
Nevada ... — — •
New Hampshire • • —
New Jersey — No Boards —
New Mexico — — 0
(2)New York — No Boards —
North Carolina . . — — •
North Dakota • • —
Ohio . . • • —
Oklahoma . . — — •
Oregon — — ^
Pennsylvania — — ^
Rhode Island . — No Boards —
South Carolina . . — — •
South Dakota . • • —
Tennessee • • —
Texas • • —
has opened an Environmental Information Center to
assist the community in their attempts to solve local
environmental questions.
These are but a few of the thousands of community
projects in which citizen groups are engaged. They look
to EPA as their source of support for information,
legislation and technical assistance. Dedicated to the
environmental cause, they are vitally interested in how
this new Agency works and what they can do to assist it.
National organizations such as the League of Women
Voters, the Garden Clubs, the Conservation Founda-
tion, National Wildlife Federation, and many others
have worked closely with EPA to provide information
programs for the public and to provide helpful feed-
back about public opinion. In October 1971, EPA
extended an invitation to 250 of these national head-
quarter citizens and service and professional organiza-
tions, to a day of briefings by the EPA Assistant Ad-
ministrators, and to technical workshops on the EPA
program areas. Each workshop had a prominent citizen
leader as a "citizen reactor." Over 400 participants
registered. At the conclusion of the program there was
a request for a continuation of such briefings, particu-
larly at the local or regional level so that constituent
groups could benefit. It is hoped that the Regional
EPA Offices will continue this process.
This grassroots movement has spread throughout the
U.S. school system. High school, as well as junior high
and elementary students, are talking ecology and are
taking courses in environmental studies. Many schools
have encouraged community environmental projects,
and most communities now have local recycling centers
at various schools. Last November, in recognition of
the impressive efforts of high school students, President
Nixon announced a program to bring appreciation to
those outstanding environmental projects by establish-
ing the President's Environmental Merit Awards Pro-
O
gram. Almost 3000 high schools enrolled. Recently, the
program was expanded to include junior high and
elementary school studies which again shows the com-
mitment and serious attention of the community to
environmental problems. For example, the high schools
of Oak Park and River Forest, Illinois, have established
Utah • • —
Vermont O O —
Virginia O O —
Washington ... — No Boards —
(3)West Virginia . • — —
Wisconsin — — •
(4)Wyommg • — —
(1) Pollution sources represented in regional branches of State
Water Board.
(2) State Environmental Board is advisory
(3) Water pollution under State Division of Water Resources.
(4) Water pollution under State Department of Health and Social
Services.
86
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a community pollution control center to study and
monitor community air and water problems and to pro-
mote better environmental awareness in the community.
In the Fort Worth area, over 40 high schools and
numerous junior high students joined together to collect
over two million pounds of paper, and raised almost
$7000. They bought thousands of trees to reforest the
Trinity River shoreline, following plans developed by
a leading landscape architect. A high school in San
Clemente, California, has completed a detailed study
of their bay area. The Bishop O'Connell High School in
Arlington, Virginia, has finished an extensive audio-
visual study of water pollution problems in the Metro-
politan Washington area, as well as in the States that
are part of the Potomac Watershed. Some of their film
and slides suggest violations of State and Federal water
pollution control laws. The students are awaiting verifi-
cation of their data. They plan to take formal action
against the polluters.
The citizen environmental movement has made a
major contribution to environmental improvement and
protection. Although conflicts between varied interests
have been aroused by citizen activity and there have
been some excesses, EPA recognizes their overall posi-
tive contribution. There is an encouraging development
of cooperation on the part of industry with such groups
—a sign that they are responding with flexibility and
commitment. Citizen groups have become increasingly
aware that environmental problems are "for real." As
David Lilienthal said recently, "If environment is a fad,
it is man's last fad."
8th grade students from Huntington Beach, California, picking up trash during ret en period.
87
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ENFORCEMENT
One of EPA's major accomplishments has been a
vastly accelerated enforcement program. Prompt and
decisive action has been taken against both individual
companies and municipalities which are not moving
ahead vigorously to solve their own pollution prob-
lems.
Eight days after EPA's establishment, the Adminis-
trator served the cities of Atlanta, Cleveland and
Detroit with violation notices, giving them 180 days
to take corrective action on severe water pollution prob-
lems or risk prosecution. (The three cities subsequently
did take such action and were granted financial as-
sistance by EPA to help meet agreed-upon schedules
for water improvement. By the end of 1971, 63 such
180-day notices were issued to 52 municipalities and
11 industries.) On January 15, 1971, EPA initiated
cancellation proceedings for products and uses of such
pesticides as DDT, aldrin, dieldrin and Mirex.
In the first few months, EPA took other significant
actions. On December 17, 1971, it called on the Jus-
tice Department to prosecute a plywood and paper
company in Ohio for discharging wastes into the Great
Miami River. Similarly EPA called on the Justice
Department to prosecute a major steel company for
discharging wastes into the Cuyahoga River. EPA also
announced a reconvening of the Lake Superior En-
forcement Conference to move ahead on the abatement
of mining and sewage pollution of Lake Superior.
In its first two months, the Agency initiated five
times as many enforcement actions as all of its prede-
cessor agencies combined in any two month period.
These actions underlined the Agency's intent. EPA's
presence was felt and taken seriously.
In September, the Florida Power and Light Company
agreed to begin an extensive construction program to
halt the discharge of heated water into .Biscayne Bay.
The agreement was contained in a consent decree which
the department filed to terminate a water pollution suit
brought against the Florida utility on March 13, 1970.
The suit, which charged that the heated water damaged
marine life in the bay, was the first brought by the
Government to stop thermal pollution.
In November of 1971, the Agency invoked emer-
gency powers to restrain industry in Birmingham, Ala-
bama, to abate air pollution in that city. EPA obtained
restraining orders in U.S. District Court in Birmingham
to halt emission of air pollutants by 23 industries. The
authority for the action was provided under Section
303 of the Clean Air Act of 1970.
This was the first time that EPA had taken enforce-
ment action under emergency powers of the Act. The
move followed measurements showing that pollution
reached a level of 771 and 758 micrograms of particu-
late matter per cubic meter of air during two succes-
sive days. The EPA recommended alert level is for a
24-hour average measurement of 375 micrograms of
particulate matter. The "warning" level is 625 micro-
grams, and the "emergency" level is 875. At the latter
level, significant harm to health can be expected. Sec-
tion 303 of the Clean Air Act provides EPA with
emergency powers to seek restraining orders to halt
air pollution when there is an "imminent and substan-
tial endangerment to the health of persons."
These enforcement actions frequently produced the
desired result of obtaining voluntary compliance with
Federal standards. Last September, for example, sugar-
beet refineries in 15 states voluntarily agreed to stop
discharging organic wastes from their plants; this pol-
lution-control program will cost the industry about
$13 million.
Birmingham, Alabama 4/27/71: U.S. Steel open-hearth fur-
naces contributing to pollution that led to the issuance of
the first EPA-Clean Air Act restraining order, against 23
firms here, on 11/18/71.
-------
Birmingham, Alabama, 11/18/71: The U.S. Steel plant following its court-ordered shutdown.
WATER
While EPA is working to increase its enforcement
authority in the water area, the existing Federal water
pollution control legislation represents EPA's broadest
enforcement mandate at the present time.
Under authority first provided in 1956 and since
expanded, Section 10 of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act provides for the abatement of pollution
of interstate or navigable waters (or intrastate where
requested by the Governor), which endangers the
health or welfare of any persons. Amendments to the
Act in 1965 additionally provided for the abatement
of pollution, which lowers the quality of State waters
below the water quality standards established for those
waters, under the authority of those amendments.
Consequently, two different enforcement procedures
are provided depending upon the circumstances of a
particular case.
Where there is judged to be "pollution of waters
which is endangering the health and welfare of per-
sons in a State other than that in which a discharge
or discharges (causing or contributing to such pollu-
tion) originates" the Act provides a three-step pro-
cedure. First, the Administrator must call a conference
of Federal, State, and any interstate water quality
representatives. At this conference, a nonadversary
proceeding, opportunity is given to every person con-
tributing to the pollution or affected by it to make a
full statement of his views. Following the conference
the Administrator then makes recommendations for
"necessary remedial action" to the appropriate State
water pollution control agency. If, after six months,
"action which in the judgment of the Administrator is
reasonably calculated to secure abatement of such pol-
lution" has not been taken, the Administrator must
then call a public hearing before a Hearing Board of
five or more persons appointed by him. Finally, if the
recommendations of the Hearing Board to secure
abatement are not carried out within six months of
the hearing, the Administrator may request the Attor-
ney General to bring suit on behalf of the United
90
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States to secure such abatement. In 53 actions taken
under this procedure, only four cases have reached
the second step, and only one case has reached court
action.
Despite its limitations, the enforcement conference
has been an effective mechanism for bringing to light
complex and long-standing pollution problems. Because
the conference brings together representatives of all
State and interstate water pollution control agencies in
the conference area, as well as other interested persons
including affected industries and municipalities, the
open forum so created is most helpful in developing
statistics, technical information, and a general under-
standing of the pollution problems involved. No other
As of 3/31/72
TABLE 32.—Summary of Water Enforcement Ac-
tions Pursued by EPA Since Decem-
ber 3, 1970
Preliminary Consolidated Listing
1. 180-Day Notices 91
2. Enforcement Conference-type Actions . . . .46
Water Quality Standards-Setting
Conference . . 1
New Enforcement Conferences 9
Reconvenings and Additional
Sessions of Conferences . . . . 12
Progress Sessions . . . . 4
Approvals of Conference
Abatement Recommendations 20
3. Actions under the Refuse Act . , . 264
Civil Actions Referred to Justice Depart-
ment by EPA Headquarters and Re-
gional Offices 49
Criminal Actions Referred to Justice
Dept. by EPA Headquarters and Re-
gional Offices . . .68
Non-filing of Section 13 Permit Applica-
tions—Cases referred to Justice De-
partment by EPA Headquarters and
Regional Offices ... . 69
Civil Actions initiated by Justice Dept.
with Assistance by EPA Regional
Offices . . ... 30
Criminal Actions initiated by Justice
Dept. with Assistance by EPA Regional
Offices . . ! 48
4. Actions referred under Section 11 of the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act exclusively 9
Total ... 410
enforcement procedure presently available to EPA
could develop abatement plans for the number of mu-
nicipalities and industries involved in a conference. The
Lake Erie Conference, for example (involving Michi-
gan, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York)
established detailed remedial programs for 110 cities
and 130 industries.
Seven new conferences have been called in the first
year of the Environmental Protection Agency: Long
Island Sound, Galveston Bay, Western South Dakota,
Pearl Harbor, and the Ohio River. Seven conferences
have been recommended: Dade County, Florida, the
Escambia River and Bay, Perdido Bay, Lake Michi-
gan, Lake Superior, the Monongahela River and the
Potomac River.
The second enforcement procedure under the Fed-
eral Water Pollution Control Act is used where there
is judged to be discharges which reduce the quality of
interstate waters below the water quality standards
established under authority of the 1965 amendments
to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act. Under
this procedure, the Administrator first serves notice
upon the violator and other interested parties, notably
the appropriate State and interstate water pollution
control agencies that such violation of water quality
standards has, in fact, occurred and must be abated.
While the legislative history of the Act directs EPA
to hold an informal hearing at the request of a State,
the discharger, or other interested party, EPA has
provided by regulation for such a hearing in every
instance, so that if possible voluntary agreement on an
abatement plan can be reached during the 180-day
period which must elapse before court action may be
initiated, and thus the necessity for a lengthy suit
eliminated. Should the violator fail to agree to and
begin action directed toward the abatement of the
pollution within 180-days of the notice of violation, the
Administrator may request the Attorney General to
bring suit.
To date, no court action has been initiated. In the
case of a steel company in the Lake Erie Basin which
failed to comply with the remedial action requirements
of the Lake Erie Enforcement Conference, and also
failed to comply with water quality standards after the
expiration of the 180-day period, the Administrator
recommended to the Attorney General that he bring
suit against the company under the Refuse Act, as
well as under the water quality standards enforcement
authority.
During 1971, another authority, in addition to the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act, was called into
play to assist in resolving water pollution problems.
The Refuse Act, Section 13 of the River and Harbors
Act of 1899, prohibits the discharge of refuse into
navigable waters without a permit, or in violation of
the conditions of a permit, and was administered for
many years by the Army Corps of Engineers primarily
in the interest of navigation.
91
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Although court decisions had supported the use of
the Refuse Act in water pollution abatement cases, it
was not until 1970 that the 1899 Act came into promi-
nence as a viable water quality enforcement mecha-
nism. It was used as a basis of the suit brought against
an electric utility company in Florida to protect Bis-
cayne Bay. It was the basis for 10 Federal suits to
abate the discharge of mercury into navigable waters
which were brought when voluntary abatement action
was discovered to be a threat to water quality and
public health.
The Environmental Protection Agency has rec-
ommended action under the Refuse Act to the Depart-
ment of Justice in 152 cases during the first year of
the Agency's establishment. One important case is
that of ITT Rayonnier, a paper mill on Puget Sound
which had failed to meet the requirements of the 1967
remedial action schedule of the requirements of the
State discharge permit. After several weeks of nego-
tiation among Federal and State officials and repre-
sentatives of the company, a civil suit was filed, to-
gether with a stipulation under which the company
agreed to undertake a $20 million abatement program.
The Department of Justice has initiated separately 28
civil and criminal actions under the provisions of the
Refuse Act.
AIR
EPA's authority for protecting and enhancing the
quality of our air rests in the Clean Air Act of 1965
which was dramatically strengthened by the Clean Air
Amendments of 1970. The Amendments require na-
tional standards for significant new pollution sources
and for all facilities emitting hazardous substances. A
framework is established for the States to set emission
standards for existing sources in order to achieve the
national air quality standards. The Act further requires
stringent national emission standards for new automo-
biles—a 90-percent reduction from existing levels of
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide by 1975, and a
90-percent reduction of nitrogen oxides by 1976.
Hence, for the next two or three years the emphasis
in the clean air program will be the establishment of
broad standards. Under the timetable of the Act, en-
forcement will come later when the guidelines are fully
drawn.
Under the Clean Air Act, all trucks sold in the
United States must have a valid certificate attesting that
the engines meet applicable air pollution control stand-
ards. Automobiles are subject to a similar requirement.
In January of 1971, EPA revoked the conditional cer-
tification for two heavy duty trucks manufactured by
the Ford Motor Company which did not meet the ap-
plicable hydrocarbon emission standards. This revoca-
tion was the first such action since exhaust testing was
required of trucks in 1970. Pending certification of the
engines, Ford was required to stop sales of the engines
and modify any still in its hands before they could be
sold. Within one month of the revocation of certifica-
tion. Ford completed appropriate modification of the
TABLE 33.—Status of Refuse Act Enforcement Actions Pursued by EPA Since 12/3/1970
(as of March 31, 1972)
Dtsposttion of filed cases
Type of Action
Cases referred by EPA to Justice:
Civil
Criminal
Non-filers:
Civil
Criminal
Remaining . .
Total — direct EPA referrals
Justice-initiated Cases, assisted by EPA:
Civil
Criminal
Total — Assisted Justice Dept. . .
Total — all Cases with EPA
Involvement
Total
#of
Actions
49
68
5
4
60
186
30
48
78
264
ff of
Cases
filed
27
19
5
4
0
55
30
48
78
133
Fined
13
1
14*
23*
23
37
Stipula-
tion
1
1
1
1
2
Court
Order
Consent
Decree
6
1
7
7
7
14
Dis- Pending
missed in Ct.
— 20
— 6
1 3
— 3
1 32
— 22
— 25
— 47
1 79
Cases
dropped
of prose-
cution
declined
2
7
14
23
—
—
23
Cases
pending
in
Justice
Dept.
20
42
46
108
—
—
108
Fines imposed total $22,750 for these 14 cases
• "Fines imposed total $43,294 for these 23 cases
92
-------
engines enabling them to meet the applicable stand-
ards and qualify for certification.
The EPA requested that the Department of Justice
sue the Ford Motor Company for delivering some 1972
model cars and light duty trucks to dealers before
required emission tests were completed. The tests were
required to obtain certification that new motor vehicles
were in conformity with applicable Federal emission
standards. While the manufacturer took steps to mini-
mize the danger that uncertified vehicles would be
driven or sold, the company's shipment of automobiles
and trucks to dealers before certification made en-
forcement of Federal standards much more difficult
inasmuch as the shipment was made prior to any judge-
ment as to probable compliance.
The Clean Air Act provides that any person may
commence a civil action against the EPA Administra-
tor when there is alleged a failure to perform any non-
discretionary act or duty prescribed in the Act. At
least 60-days advance notice must be given to the
Administrator at the EPA headquarters in Washing-
ton before such suits are filed. In 1971, EPA proposed
rules for giving notice of civil suits against alleged
violators of standards and abatement orders under the
Act. The proposed guidelines provide for the service
of notice of lawsuits to individual States, alleged viola-
tors, the Administrator and appropriate EPA Re-
gional Administrators. The guidelines say that such
notices must identify the complainant and describe with
reasonable specificity the act or failure to act, or in the
case of alleged violators, the violation, the location and
the dates of such violations.
A Federal interstate air pollution abatement con-
ference concerning pollution in the Mt. Storm and
Keyser, West Virginia, and Gorman and Luke, Mary-
land, area was held in May of 1971. The Conference
was called under the Clean Air Act, as amended, which
calls for EPA to take such action at the request of
any State whose Governor alleges that residents of his
State are adversely affected by pollution originating in
another State. In this case, Maryland's Governor re-
quested a conference because of effects on evergreen
tree farms in Maryland of pollution alleged to origi-
nate from a power plant in Mt. Storm, West Virginia.
Also, the Governor of West Virginia requested that
the conference consider other possible sources of air
pollution in the area, specifically a pulp and paper
plant at Luke, Maryland.
Recommendations for the control of interstate pol-
lution in the area involved were issued by EPA in
October 1971, as a consequence of the May confer-
ence. The recommendations were effective immedi-
ately, and called for reduction of emissions of sulfur
oxides and particulate matter from the power and
paper plants, reduction of emissions of odorous sulfur
compounds from the pulp and paper plant, and pro-
vision for abating emissions of particulate matter from
several small sources in the area.
PESTICIDES
With respect to pesticides, EPA presently has im-
portant enforcement responsibility under the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA).
The responsibility, however, extends only to the regis-
tration and proper labelling of pesticides. Comprehen-
sive pesticide control legislation to replace FIFRA has
been proposed by the President. The bill is designed
to prevent misuse of pesticides by controlling their
application, which FIFRA does not do. EPA is work-
ing closely with Congress on this new legislation which
would give EPA essential new enforcement authorities
in the pesticide area (more details in Pesticide Section).
REFUSE ACT PERMIT PROGRAM
On December 23, 1970, President Nixon signed
Executive Order 11574 announcing the implementa-
tion of the Refuse Act Permit Program, which speci-
fied that it be a joint effort by EPA and the Corps of
Engineers "to regulate the discharge of pollutants or
other refuse matters into the navigable waters of the
United States or their tributaries."
The Executive Order provided that the Corps would
be responsible for granting, denying, conditioning, re-
voking, and suspending Refuse Act permits, and in so
doing would accept the opinions of EPA on matters
of water quality.
The Corps also considers the opinions of State water
quality agencies, as indicated by their action on re-
quests for the State's certification that the proposed
discharge will not violate water quality standards, or
by a written comment on this subject. Section 21 (b)
of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act provides
for this State participation, and says that no permit
will be granted if the State denies certification. This
is consistent with Section 10(b) of the same Act,
which gives the States primary responsibility for pol-
lution control within their own boundaries. EPA works
very closely with the States in gathering complete in-
formation, developing conditions and suggesting rea-
sonable treatment methods. EPA also determines if
interstate waters are affected, and makes the certifica-
tion or denial if there are no applicable water quality
standards, if the State waives its right to certify or if
the standards are not being properly applied. Like the
State, EPA can direct that the permit be denied.
EPA recognizes fully the primary responsibility of
the States to prevent and control water pollution under
Section 21(b). The Agency has maintained constant
communication with each State, working out proce-
dures to insure that the Permit Program is compatible
with existing State programs. There are important
values to be preserved in having the line operating
responsibility conducted to a maximum extent by State
officials. This does not minimize the Federal role in
upgrading standards and setting the pace. At the same
93
-------
time, it gives full recognition to the State role and
attaches great importance to it.
The President's Order also requires that in addition
to the EPA and State agencies the Corps will consult
with the Departments of Interior and Commerce. All
these agencies consider the effect the discharge will have
on possible uses of the receiving water: swimming, fish-
ing, growth of plants and wildlife, navigation and
aesthetic purposes.
In addition, the Corps may deny an application for
permit if, in their judgment, an obstruction to naviga-
tion will result, violating Section 10 of the River and
Harbor Act. Thus, the Permit Program was designed
to be administered by the Corps with EPA serving as
principal environmental consultant. Two memoranda
of understanding were drawn up establishing a policy
of cooperation between the two agencies. In the first,
the responsibilities of each are defined, and it is speci-
fied that either shall consult with the other at least
30 days before issuing guidelines, instructions, policies
or procedures. Also differences between local person-
nel will be resolved by forwarding them to Washington;
ultimately the Corps will accept EPA's findings on
matters of water quality.
The second memorandum regards enforcement.
Where conditioning or threat of suspension of the
permit is not sufficient to enforce water quality stand-
ards, the Justice Department may be asked to seek
either injunctive action, or criminal action, which can
involve a fine of up to $2,500.
In filing a permit application each discharger sub-
mits to the Corps a form which describes the plant loca-
tion and effluents and general information on plant
processes. Those applicants who are on a list of critical
industries supply data both on the 11 parameters in
Part A of the form, and on those parameters specified
for their particular industrial classification in Part B.
Part B includes a total of six physical and biological
parameters, 45 chemical parameters, and eight radio-
logical parameters.
Frequently the discharger will receive a permit on
the condition that he install certain treatment facilities
by a specific reasonable date, and that he show prog-
ress on the installation by specific interim dates. This
is called an implementation plan.
When the permit is issued, it requires that the dis-
charger live up to applicable water quality standards,
and that he monitor the discharge and report on it
at regular intervals. If the discharger does not meet
the conditions of the permit, including the time sched-
ule of the implementation plan, he is subject to legal
proceedings.
At the same time that the Corps is sending copies
of the application to the State, EPA, NOAA, and
Interior, a notice and description of the application is
sent to appropriate State agencies, local governing
bodies, conservation groups, and the local news media.
This allows interested groups and citizens to be aware
of the proposed discharge and express any opinions.
If there is sufficient interest, a public hearing is held.
Such publicity is one of the beneficial side effects
of the Permit Program. Under the stimulus of public
interest and a nationwide program, some States are
strengthening their own permit programs, particularly
in adding requirements for monitoring, and in specify-
ing interim dates for implementation plans. RAPP
permits are not issued without implementation dates.
As the State programs are strengthened, they also tend
to become more uniform.
Public awareness also encourages expanding appli-
cation of water quality standards to streams which now
have no applicable standards, and encourages upgrad-
ing water-use classification. That is, bodies of water
which may now be designated for use for agricultural
or industrial use only, may require dischargers to
attain a specific level of treatment. If the use is up-
graded to require water clean enough to allow fishing
and provide a healthy environment for fish, then dis-
chargers must attain a higher level of treatment. Waters
designated for use for swimming would require still
more treatment.
Research into better treatment methods has been
stimulated by RAPP. At present, the best available
treatment may be far below what we would like to
see; the ultimate goal of research would be complete
recycling and reuse.
This eventually can be of financial benefit to indus-
tries. At present, some polluters have been unaware
of the final chemical compounds they discharge as a
result of their plant operations. Now industry is be-
coming more aware of its own contribution to water
pollution and is cooperating in pollution control. Some
plants have discovered outfalls they did not know
existed and others have consolidated discharge pipes.
To win the battle against water pollution, it must
be found out what discharges each company is making,
and it must be decided what level of treatment that
company needs. This is not easy and it has not been
done, and the permit program is a very effective mech-
anism for requiring companies to come forward with
the information on which such judgments can be made.
The most beneficial side effect of RAPP is probably
the data being gathered and computerized. A useful
amount should be available by July 1972. This will
assist research firms, States wishing to upgrade their
programs and criteria, and industries, as well as Fed-
eral planners.
By any measure the Permit program is a large under-
taking. During the first year a total of 20,000 applica-
tions were received by Corps of Engineers of which
9,000 were transmitted to EPA for review. The bulk
of this review process was conducted in the 10 EPA
Regional Offices.
EPA is strongly convinced that the Permit Program
will continue to be an effective complement to its
other water enforcement procedures. It is, for example,
94
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often technically difficult to establish legally that a dis-
charger is the cause of, or a contributor to, a violation
of water quality criteria. On the basis of data sup-
plied in the application for a permit, EPA will impose
special conditions designed to insure abatement of any
criteria violations. If the permittee discharges in viola-
tion of the permit conditions, EPA can bring a suit
under the Refuse Act without the technical necessity
of establishing that the permittee's discharge is a cause
of the criteria violation.
In summary, then EPA views the several authorities
available to it as mutually supportive and applies them
as appropriate to achieve effective, suitable abatement
action.
TABLE 34.—Refuse Act Permit Program (As of December 31, 1971)
Applications Rec'd
Critical Industries '
Non-Critical Industries . .
Applications Complete . .
No. Sent to States for Action
No. of Final State Actions 2
No. of Recommendations to the
C.O.E
No. of C.O.E. Final Actions 3 . .
COE 1
19,909 1387
15,566 1046
2,964 341
9
0
2
26
0
ii
647
491
156
1
34
0
1
1
III
2030
1452
578
13
12
2
1
1
IV
1857
1449
408
55
18
10
7
1
V
1544
1239
302
116
116
5
5
0
VI
1368
1073
295
141
43 4
533
16
12
VII
984
778
206
449
345
2
2
2
VIM
611
515
96
38
20
12
1
1
IX
191
128
63
51
44
5
1
0
X
511
467
44
12
7
5
3
2
EPA Total
11,130
8,638
2,489
885
589
576
63
20
1 "Critical Industries" are those which are deemed to have an important effect on water quality. This group includes approximately 40 SIC
categories
2 Final State Actions are: format certification, informal comment, waiver, or denial of certification.
3 Numbers of Corps of Engineers' final actions — number of permits issued.
4 Done only in exceptional cases in this Region
95
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MONITORING
96
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RESEARCH
The setting of anti-pollution standards and the en-
forcement of these standards require a sound scientific
base. So much remains to be learned about how to
protect the environment that research is the full-time
occupation of one in every four people on EPA's pay-
roll, and the part-time occupation of hundreds more.
The need for research is put into even clearer perspec-
tive by the fact that over 75 percent of all EPA
research efforts are conducted outside the Agency by
means of contracts and grants, thereby multiplying the
effectiveness of the EPA research staff.
ORGANIZATION
Most EPA research is applied. While one of the
aims of research is to define and prevent environ-
mental problems before they develop, all such research
should be applicable in solving environmental prob-
lems. Further, EPA must constantly respond to prac-
tical immediate situations. For example, the Clean Air
Amendments provided that EPA set nationwide stand-
ards for the six main types of air pollution: sulfur
oxides, particulates, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,
nitrogen oxides, and photochemical oxidants. EPA had
to define the levels of these pollutants that endanger
human health and to define how the pollutants were
to be measured, as well as to determine the steps the
States should take to achieve the standards. The States
were required to develop implementation plans and
to submit them to EPA by January 31, 1972.
Research accounted for nearly $125 million of EPA's
Fiscal Year 1972 budget. Almost 1,900 scientists, tech-
nicians, and support personnel, representing 59 differ-
ent scientific disciplines and specialties, comprise EPA's
in-house research team.
EPA's research falls into four main categories: the
processes and effects of pollutants; the technology to
abate pollution; the results of pollution abatement; and
man's long-range impact on the environment. Pollution
problems are intimately related to one another. Because
of this, EPA's research emphasizes the study of all
types of pollution (solid waste, pesticides, radiation,
and noise), and polluted media (air, water, and land),
when dealing with any environmental concern.
Research personnel came from existing environ-
mental control programs in five Federal Government
agencies: a water quality program from the Depart-
ment of Interior; water hygiene, air pollution control,
and solid waste management programs from the De-
partment of Health, Education, and Welfare; radiation
exposure control programs from HEW and the Atomic
Energy Commission; and pesticides control programs
from the Department of Agriculture, the Fish and
Wildlife Service of the Department of the Interior, and
HEW's Food and Drug Administration. Before their
reorganization into EPA, these researchers in the dif-
ferent agencies conducted research independently from
one another, without one agency having leadership
responsibility. The results were often overlapping re-
sponsibilities, as well as failure to recognize some pol-
lution problems.
Implementation of EPA's research program is con-
ducted by four National Environment Research Centers
(NERC's). The NERC's are located in Research Tri-
angle Park, North Carolina; Cincinnati, Ohio; Corvallis,
Oregon; and Las Vegas, Nevada. These field units report
directly to EPA Headquarters. The NERC's represent
a new concept in environmental research by bringing
together research on air, water, pesticides, etc. They
have jurisdiction over a combined total of 42 full-fledged
laboratories located in 18 states stretching from College,
Alaska, to Perrine, Florida, which are valued conserva-
tively at $55 million. Supplementing these facilities are
more than 130 related resources, such as water craft,
instrumental aircraft, field stations, and monitoring sites.
The organization of the laboratories and other resources
was a major concern during 1971. A plan to relate
Hf*
EPA Environmental Control Lab., Cincinnati, Ohio.
97
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laboratory resources to EPA missions and programs has
been prepared by the Agency's "Laboratory Study Task
Force."
Processes and Effects
A $53 million budget is allocated for studying the
processes and effects of pollutants. This program is
implemented through all four NERC's. Such pollutants
as chemical substances, biological materials, radiation,
noise, and heat are identified. Also, pollutant sources,
and physical and biological paths are identified. The
effects of pollutants on man, other living organisms and
non-living things are studied, and models for the total
eco-system are developed. Processes and effects include
the health effects of pollutants; the ecological and other
non-health effects of pollutants; the movement and
transformation of pollutants; the measurements, meas-
urement methods, and instruments used in assessing
pollution problems; and water supply research.
A large threat to the Nation's health is the 250
million tons of manmade waste annually dumped into
the air. Consequently, researchers are conducting a
nationwide study—the first of its kind—on the effect
of air pollution on humans. The Community Health and
Environmental Surveillance Studies (CHESS) directed
by the Research Triangle Park NERC, is comparing the
health of those who breathe polluted air with that of
those who are not exposed to such pollution. Working
in over 30 different communities throughout the coun-
try, EPA scientists and technicians have the cooperation
of 38,000 volunteers. They eventually hope to have
200,000 such volunteers who are willing to have their
health monitored. Communities have been selected
with high and low sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, par-
ticulate and photochemical pollution. With the coopera-
tion of school, hospital, and government officials, the
scientists are seeing how each pollutant affects a
person's short and long-term health.
CHESS is attempting to answer a host of questions:
What effect does long exposure to polluted air have on
school absenteeism? Is there an increased frequency of
acute and chronic respiratory disease in highly polluted
environments? Do pollutants concentrate in specific
organs and cause their malfunction? Does the death-
rate rise and fall in rhythm with a day's pollution? Is
there a correlation between heart attack and high pol-
lution? Already, some tentative answers are coming in.
CHESS closely relates with EPA's air pollution
standards by providing data on the health effects of
various levels and types of pollutants. It is hoped that
the new air standards will lower the levels of pollution
in CHESS communities and improve health and welfare.
CHESS will provide the means of measuring the
amount and effect of those improvements.
Marked geographic differences in mortality exist in
this country, and a logical explanation for such differ-
ences is the effect of the environment. Therefore, in
cooperation with the CHESS project, EPA is com-
paring morbidity and mortality data with data on
drinking water quality. Such correlations will not give
definite answers, but they can develop leads for more
specific studies.
EPA plans to use specialized Army aircraft in a
National Eutrophication Survey. The Agency will em-
ploy both fixed wing aircraft and helicopters in a nation-
wide aerial survey of approximately 1,200 lakes. The
purpose of the project is to identify bodies of water in
the U.S. with potential or actual eutrophication (ac-
celerated aging) problems brought on by the discharge
of excessive amounts of phosphates into them from
various sources. Phosphates are nutrients that cause
rapid growth of algae in bodies of water. When the
algae decay, the process depletes the supply of oxygen
;
Ann Arbor, Michigan: EPA's first Federal Laboratory specifically designed to perform automobile pollution control research.
98
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and results in premature "aging" of a lake or pond,
including the disappearance of desirable varieties of
fish. Lake Erie has been widely cited as a classic exam-
ple of eutrophication.
The survey would determine the present conditions
of the lakes, where the overabundance of nutrients is
coming from, and where the condition of the lakes can
be improved by curbing the phosphorus reaching the
water from municipal treatment plants. It is an integral
part of EPA's control program to assist State and local
governments, through construction grants, in reducing
excess phosphates by additional municipal waste treat-
ment.
EPA is also developing a series of "water models."
Essentially, this kind of mathematical model is a set of
analytically related factors in a defined system which
simulates the causes and effects of pollution on a living
body of water. These factors can be varied, and a
correlation between causes and effects can be identified.
It has been discovered for example, that every lake,
stream, and river tolerates pollution differently, depend-
ing on its physical and chemical characteristics. The
onset of eutrophication depends on the water's tempera-
ture, mineral content, natural aeration, chemical input,
flora, and fauna. In some lakes, the addition of rela-
tively small quantities of phosphates could tip the
balance and bring on eutrophication. In other lakes,
for different reasons, nitrogen might be the critical
variable. As yet the most harmful pollutants can not be
predicted.
Armed with the predictive ability of such water
models, however, planners will be able to strategically
place and size treatment plants, and to design the best
kinds of treatment plants to remove the offending chem-
ical. In a related research effort, the Southeast Water
Laboratory at Athens, Georgia, reporting to Corvallis,
is beginning to use a $750,000 eco-systcm simulator
to examine how fertilizers, pesticides, and rural runoff
from industry, fiber production, paper processing,
poultry processing, and phosphate mining, all effect
streams and fish and plants therein. The simulator is
an actual water course for which all variables, such as
aeration, mineral content, diurnal cycles (sunlight, tem-
perature, etc.) and turbidity are controlled. These
factors can be changed to see how each influences the
evolution of pollutant effects in streams. The pollutants
can also be varied to see how they effect stream life.
In a similar vein, atmospheric models are being de-
veloped to control and abate air pollution.
In 1971 the environmental effects of a nuclear power
plant which was submerged in 250 feet of water were
studied. The program, handled by General Dynamics
under contract, showed that fewer organisms would be
killed at a submerged plant than at a plant located on
the coast.
Technology
EPA allocated $69 million for fiscal 1972 to provide
the technology necessary to abate and control air and
water pollution and to improve solid waste manage-
ment. This research function includes municipal en-
vironmental protection technology, applied science and
technology, air pollution technology and solid waste
control. These programs are conducted through the
NERC's and their associated laboratories.
Developing technology for water pollution control of
municipal wastewaters is of chief concern. The num-
ber of sewered communities in the U.S. is just under
13,000. These facilities serve only 63 percent of the
Nation's population. As a result, raw or inadequately
treated sewage from millions of people flows into the
streams. And, although many communities have been
installing and improving their waste treatment facilities,
over 1,000 communities outgrow their treatment sys-
tems each year. It is estimated that waste loads from
municipal systems will increase nearly four times over
the next 50 years. In addition to the sewage wastes,
storm drainage systems in urban areas are a serious
problem. Presently serving over 14 million square miles
of urban area, storm drainage systems discharge, with-
out treatment, the collected runoff from rainfall and
snowmelt into water bodies. Significant projects dealing
with municipal wastewater during 1971 included the
development of methods for upgrading existing treat-
ment plants, the removal of phosphorus from lakes by
the addition of chemicals, the development of tech-
niques to control and treat combined sewer overflows
and storm water discharges and the development of
engineering methodology for reaeration of rivers and
lakes.
The pollution load coming from industrial sources,
agriculture, mining and marine sources is another
concern of technology research. Pollution coming from
industrial sources is equivalent to the pollution caused
by a population of approximately 400 million. Because
of the "slug"-like load which is characteristic of animal
feedlot runoff after significant rainfall, the concentration
or organic pollutants emanating from agricultural
sources may be as high as 100 times that of raw munici-
pal sewage. Other forms of agricultural pollution include
nutrients and pesticides, as well as salts and other
pollutants in irrigation return flows. Already research
and demonstration projects funded by grants have
found solutions to many of these pollution problems.
Pollution resulting from mining is also a concern of
technology research. An estimated four million tons of
acid from mine drainage discharges annually into more
than 4,000 miles of U.S. streams. There are many
active grant and contract programs conducting research
and demonstration projects on this problem. In fact,
very shortly an estimated 11 states should be participat-
ing in solving this pollution problem.
The daily amount of solid waste discarded by house-
holds and commercial and industrial establishments is
equivalent to seven pounds per capita. The situation is
compounded by the fact that nearly every means of
99
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disposing of these wastes (burial, burning, deep sea
disposal), contributes to pollution. At the same time,
these wastes have the potential to become new resources
for fuel, raw materials and even animal feed supple-
ments.
Under the authority of the Solid Waste Recovery Act
of 1970, much of the research for solid waste tech-
nology is being conducted by the contract and grant
mechanism. For example, under a demonstration grant,
the Union Gas and Electric Company of St. Louis has
developed a system which generates electricity by burn-
ing ordinary municipal refuse.
Cellulose-containing materials, such as paper, rags
and glass, constitute 50 to 60 percent of all municipal
waste. In addition, millions of tons of crop residues and
wastes from lumber, pulp and paper industries must be
disposed of annually. Consequently, EPA is supporting
a study at Louisiana State University aimed at convert-
ing the cellulose in these solid wastes into new, useful
products.
During 1971, the ongoing programs in the field of air
pollution technology, were managed by the Office of Air
Programs, and therefore are discussed in the Air Quality
Section. However, research related to the abatement
and control of air pollution from stationary sources will
now be conducted by the Office of Research and Mon-
itoring. The major emphasis of this research will be
related to the desulfurization of fuel gases from thermo-
electric power plants.
Implementation
Two and a half million dollars is used for the de-
velopment and evaluation of courses of action which
implement environmental protection. This research func-
tion is concerned with techniques for selecting environ-
mental standards and for assessing both the benefits
and the anticipated costs of achieving those standards.
The former emphasis on technological capability and
economic feasibility is avoided. Techno-economic con-
siderations are weighed against ecological, environ-
mental and human considerations. Economic analyses
are used to evaluate the costs and benefits of pollution
control methods. Research is being continually con-
ducted to refine these analytical techniques. Fiscal
solutions, together with more effective pollution control
laws for their application, are being examined in an
effort to make pollution control enforcement more
effective, to provide incentives for environmental
quality and to minimize public funding of pollution
control. The complex interaction among population
growth, economic growth and technological change is
also being examined in order to avoid pollution result-
ing from this interaction.
Finally, research which helps the Agency to comment
on environmental impact statements is being conducted.
For example, one major undertaking has been to
coordinate EPA's input into the Southwest Energy
Study, which concerns the construction of a power plant
capability in or near the Four Corners area (the point
at which Utah, Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico
all meet).
Environmental Studies
The broad area of man's effect on the total environ-
ment is the concern of EPA's environmental studies
which provide understanding of the total effects of
environmental policy. Such studies as the future of
cities, metropolitan areas and regions to ascertain
what they will, or should, be like are conducted. The
purpose of these studies is to enable EPA to move
from a position of reacting to environmental crises to
one of anticipating and shaping events.
MULTIFACETED PROBLEMS
Some multifaceted problems were handled by re-
search during 1971 such as the controversy over the
use of phosphate versus non-phosphate detergents. The
public was aware that phosphate-containing products
cause eutrophication. But some of the non-phosphate
products also suffered serious shortcomings, such as
accidental poisoning of young children by caustic de-
tergents. In particular, nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA, a
major contender to replace phosphate in detergents)
was believed to cause cancer. Consequently, after re-
search on this difficult dilemma, EPA retreated from
its former strong position against phosphate deter-
gents. In October 1971, EPA announced that the
Agency's immediate policy would depend on the pub-
lic's choice of detergent according to the local situa-
tion: where there is no eutrophication problem, for
example, the housewife can choose phosphate deter-
gents; where there is a local eutrophication problem,
however, she could use a non-phosphate detergent. If
this latter housewife has small children, immediate
EPA policy suggests that she make the choice herself
between the non-phosphate and phosphate detergent.
Longer-term EPA phosphate policy, however, would
call for removing household detergents at municipal
sewage treatment plants before they could enter local
waters.
It is imperative that EPA's research be delivered to
users and be put to maximum practical use. In co-
operation with industry, EPA has published and dis-
tributed data on more than 200 water pollution re-
search and demonstration projects. Grant, contract,
and EPA research activities generate technical pollu-
tion control reports on current information concern-
ing air, pesticides, solid waste, water and radiation.
These reports are printed in government publications
and professional journals and as contractor reports.
Reprints are available to other Federal, State, and
municipal agencies, as well as, to the public.
Under the Agency's technology transfer program,
the latest available technological data concerning pol-
100
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TABLE 35.—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Chess Community
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CHESS COMMUNITY
• Number of Communities
VIRGIN ISLANDS,
PUERTO RICO
TABLE 36.—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Research Laboratories
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
RESEARCH LABORATORIES + National Environmental Research Centers
D Major Laboratories under Research Centers
Perrme
101
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lution technology have been incorporated into four
process design manuals. Available to municipal and
design engineers, these publications deal with sus-
pended solid removal, carbon absorption, phosphorous
removal and the upgrading of existing treatment
facilities. In 1971, 12 seminars, attended by a total of
1,200 engineers, were held to disseminate information
concerning the manuals and other subjects.
The Challenge Ahead
More research is needed of our environment in all
areas. To maximize the benefits from extramural re-
search endeavors, all grants and contracts are now
being reviewed by the Research Office for relevancy to
EPA's missions and specific ongoing programs. There
is temptation to recoil at the complexity of the environ-
mental problems still ahead; yet, these problems can-
not be researched piecemeal. They must be considered
with the broadest possible perspective, taking into
account all environmental implications. Otherwise, the
solutions might cause still other, perhaps more serious,
problems.
ENVIRONMENTAL
MONITORING
The efficient control of variables affecting environ-
mental quality requires the use of reliable and timely
information. Thus, the key to effective environmental
quality management lies in the ability to continually
monitor environmental characteristics and to provide
interpretation of the data obtained. Such data are es-
sential throughout the pollution abatement effort—
from initially identifying the problem to finally pro-
viding direct evidence in enforcement actions.
The monitoring of the Nation's environmental qual-
ity is a cooperative effort involving Federal, State and
local agencies. Its main objectives are to characterize
existing environmental conditions, identify trends, eval-
uate compliance with standards and assess the inter-
change of pollutants among air, water, soil and living
matter. Monitoring of all media is necessary in order
to take into account the "total body burden"—that is,
how much of a given substance an individual is ex-
posed to whether it comes from air, water or land.
The collection and timely evaluation of reliable in-
formation on environmental quality always has been
needed, but now it is a requirement with the estab-
lishment and implementation of air and water quality
standards and the resulting necessity of developing
abatement strategies. Regardless of the number of con-
trol facilities and devices installed or the number of
environmental quality management plans completed,
in the final analysis, program effectiveness only can
be measured in terms of actual environmental quality
improvements. And, this can be achieved only through
adequate monitoring of environmental quality.
EPA monitoring activities are carried out in two
ways: through networks and special studies. The net-
works are made up of permanent stations located in
urban and non-urban areas throughout the nation.
These networks, now being implemented, serve to
identify overall environmental quality, regional and
national trends and problem areas. Where information
is not provided by the networks as needed, special
studies are performed. Together, these two categories
of monitoring provide the environmental quality in-
formation needed by EPA to carry out its mission.
Monitoring of pollution source emissions and efflu-
ents on a routine basis is also necessary. This activity,
however, is the primary responsibility of pollution con-
trol facility managers and of local and State pollution
control agencies. Currently, emphasis is being given to
the integration of the formerly widely scattered moni-
toring activities into a unified program for total envi-
ronmental assessment. When completed, these inte-
grated networks will provide full assessment of pollu-
tants, such as pesticides, not limited to one medium—
air, water or land—and that are difficult to combat by
single media-oriented control programs.
There are over 3300 stations in the United States
where air quality measurements are taken. State and
local agencies operate about 3000 stations with the
remaining 300 operated by EPA. Complexity of the
monitoring stations varies considerably. Some stations
are equipped with automatic instruments where as
many as 10 pollutants are monitored continuously. In
some cities, these stations automatically transmit con-
tinuous data to a central location for display and analy-
sis. Most, however, employ very simple devices for
period collection of samples.
EPA's 300 station air quality monitoring network is
national in scope and represents a progressive growth
of types and numbers of monitors since the particulate
pollution network was first installed in 1953. All of
the stations in this network are stationary, that is,
fixed at one point. The great bulk of sampling is con-
ducted on an intermittent basis, usually for a 24-hour
sampling period at two-week intervals; however, a con-
tinuous monitoring network of six stations using highly
sophisticated collector-analyzers was established in
1961. In all, over 40 pollutants found as particulates,
102
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gases and liquids are routinely measured. As States
and cities expand their capability for measuring the
more common pollutants, EPA's role will be redirected
toward coordination of these efforts and monitoring of
non-routine pollutants.
The EPA air contingent also conducts a number of
special investigations. During the summer of 1971, in-
strumentation for monitoring carbon monoxide and
photochemical oxidants (ozone) were installed in about
40 major cities to provide data for implementation
plans required of the States. Studies were also con-
ducted to determine the air quality on and around
roadways, within buildings adjacent to the expressways
and around airports. Surveillance programs have been
established to monitor emissions from new and in-use
light duty motor vehicles. This information is impor-
tant since it supports the setting of standards.
A program to measure the effect of air pollution lev-
els on selected human populations in nine communities
is in progress. Study results provide epidemiological
data in support of air quality standards setting. Total
suspended paniculate, SO-.., tapwater, NO2, oxidants,
and other pollutants are routinely measured in each
community.
Air quality data collected through the above moni-
toring activities are required by EPA, many local and
State agencies and other organizations. To satisfy these
needs, the National Aerometric Data Information Sys-
tem (NADIS) was recently established. During the
past year, most historical air quality data collected by
State and local agencies have been entered into the
system. Mechanisms for routine storage and analysis
of current data have also been established and are
operational.
In addition, the National Emissions Data System
(NEDS) has been established to store for rapid re-
trieval and data analysis all point source and emission
inventory data supplied from implementation plans,
rapid surveys and point-source tests. These data will
be used to assist EPA, State and local agencies in
evaluating the success of their pollution control pro-
grams.
The EPA water quality monitoring network is cur-
rently in the implementation stage. Approximately 900
Federally-funded stream and open-water stations (60
of which employ automatic monitors) are in opera-
tion throughout the nation. From 10 to 30 pollutants
are routinely evaluated at each station. Sampling fre-
quencies vary from continuous to once annually, de-
pending on the particular pollution and the station of
concern.
A considerable amount of short-term water quality
monitoring is also currently performed. Over 5000
locations are sampled for periods ranging from several
days to several months each year. Information gath-
ered in these surveys is used to support EPA enforce-
ment actions, develop mathematical models for simu-
lating water quality responses, support research stud-
ies on the fate of pollutants and assess the effective-
ness of pollution control practices.
All data collected through these long- and short-
term activities are entered into EPA's computerized
water data Storage and Retrieval (STORET) system.
Additionally, water quality data collected at approxi-
mately 1000 long-term and 5000 short-term, State-
operated monitoring stations also are entered into
STORET by the State agencies.
The EPA program in pesticide monitoring has de-
veloped significantly over the past year. Routine moni-
toring of pesticides in air, water, land, and biological
matter is now underway on a nationwide basis. The
recent development of analytical methods for measur-
ing in air 10 of the most common pesticides allowed
the implementation of an eight-station pilot network
for assessing atmospheric levels of pesticides. Pesticide
monitoring in rivers, lakes, and estuaries is conducted
as part of the water monitoring sub-network. In 1971,
pesticide levels in water were determined routinely for
over 300 locations. The national soils monitoring pro-
gram for pesticides consists of sampling 13,300
sites covering both crop lands and non-crop lands. In
1971, samples were taken at 3000 of these sites. In
addition, fish and shellfish were collected at over 300
locations and analyzed for pesticide content.
TABLE 37.—Monitoring and Surveillance—Air
Estimated Numbers of Air Quality Monitoring Stations
FY 1969
Types of Stations
Simple ....
Complex
Total
Federal
250
15
265
Includes stations operated by
State :
1,500
180
1,680
Total
1,750
195
1,945
Federal
250
15
265
FY 1970
State
2,000
230
2,230
Total
2,250
245
2,495
Federal
250
7
267
FY 1971
State'
2,500
250
2,750
Total
2,750
267
3,017
Federal
268
13
281
FY 1972
State '
2,732
337
3,069
Total
3,000
350
3,350
local agencies
Note: The numbers of stations are estimated based on the number of instruments available at the end of the year; there is great vari-
ability in the capabilities of individual stations Simple stations generally have capability to sample for suspended particulates, while complex
stations include continuous gas sampling capability.
103
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A study of health effects resulting from pesticide
exposure covering 14 separate areas is also in progress.
Its purpose is to evaluate the effects on human health
from repeated exposures to pesticides. As part of this
study, samples of food, water, air and soil along with
human tissue are collected and analyzed.
Radiation monitoring in the United States consists of
the collection of air, water, precipitation, milk, human
bone and total diet samples for analysis of specific
radionuclides such as plutonium, strontium, cesium
and tritium. The radiation monitoring stations are
nationwide in scope and serve as an alert to initiate
more indepth studies if so indicated. EPA also provides
monitoring services in direct support of the Atomic
Energy Commission's (AEC) underground nuclear
testing program. Overall, there are 180 stations where
air samples are taken, over 200 stations where water
samples are taken, and nearly 100 milk sampling sta-
tions. Additional sampling sites are on a standby basis.
Mobile and aerial monitors are also on standby for
radionuclide monitoring and sampling during each nu-
clear test. EPA is currently expanding its monitoring
activities to also provide information related to nuclear
power operations on a nationwide basis.
A monitoring program for assessing noise levels and
trends on a nationwide basis is in the planning stage.
Long-term monitoring stations are needed to obtain
baseline information on the range of noise levels nor-
TABLE 38.—Monitoring and Surveillance—Water
Monitoring Stations (Cumulative)
Key Locations, Long-Term: ' .
EPA Funded
State
Non-Key Locations, Long-Term: 2 .
Other Federal Agencies
State
3
1
2
1968
667
367
300
,500
,000
,500
1969
800
400
400
3,700
1,000
2,700
1970
1,385
885
500
8,000
5,000
3,000
1971
1
8
5
3
,375
875
500
,000
,000
,000
1972
1,800
800
1,000
10,000
5,000
5,000
1973
1974
6,000 9,000
3,000 4,000
3,000 5,000
Not Available
Not Available
1975
12,000
5,000
7,000
1976
15,000
5,000
10,000
Federal & State Short-Term Stations :
(Mostly Inactive)
10,000 15,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 Not Available
1 Key locations, long-term monitoring stations are stations on major navigable waters in the vicinity of State and International boundaries
and major metropolitan areas as well as in the contiguous zone for the purpose of measuring water quality for compliance with established
water quality criteria.
2 Non-key, long-term monitoring stations are on Interstate and Intrastate waters for measuring compliance with water quality standards
within a State. A majority of these stations are operated by Federal agencies such as U.S. Geological Survey, TVA, Corps of Engineers, and Bureau
of Reclamation that sample primarily for purposes other than water quality control.
3 Federal and State short-term stations are operated to develop supplemental information through an intensive sampling program to obtain
detailed information on a particular problem or problem area. When the required water quality data has been obtained, over a period of two weeks
to two years, the sampling is stopped
TABLE 39.—Monitoring for Residues of Pesticides
Residues Monitored m Soils, Land Run-Off, Sediments, and Crops to Provide Data for Evaluation of Label Registration
Applications and Residue Tolerance Petitions.
(Projected)
Number of Sites Sampled
Number of Samples Collected for Analyses of:
Soil ...
Crops
Water . . .
Bottom Sediments
Biologicals (Fish, Fish Foods, Etc.)
FY 1969
2,003
2,000
615
168
128
FY 1970
2,542
2,150
1,000
142
14?
284
FY 1971
1,783
1,575
1,183
200
FY 1972
2,233
2,233
1,200
150
150
200
FY 1973
3,750
3,750
2,300
150
150
400
Non-cropland sampling in 10 States: Idaho, Washington, Nebraska, Georgia, Maine, Arizona, Wyoming, Iowa, Virginia and Maryland.
Cropland sampling is performed throughout the continental United States, except Oregon, Montana, Minnesota, Kansas and Texas.
Urban area sampling is provided in 20 cities across the nation (e.g., Bakersfield, California; Camden, New Jersey; Houston, Texas; Salt
Lake City, Utah; Greenville, Mississippi; Sikeston, Missouri, Charleston, South Carolina; Memphis, Tennessee; Richmond, Virginia; Mobile,
Alabama).
Additional cities sampled are: Baltimore, Maryland; Newport News, Virginia; Macon, Georgia; Gadsden, Alabama, and Hartford, Connecticut.
104
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mally encountered across the Nation and to identify
trends in these levels with time. Special studies are
being carried out as necessary to identify and charac-
terize specific sources and causes of noise and the
effects of noise on humans, wildlife and property.
A national solid waste data network is being imple-
mented. It will serve to inventory and analyze on a
nationwide basis information pertaining to solid waste
legislation, the administration and management of
solid waste programs, solid waste generation, solid
waste characterization and solid waste management
systems. This information is essential and must be
readily available to decision-makers responsible for
the effective and efficient control of solid waste prob-
lems at the local, county, State and Federal level.
In large measure, the success of an environmental
pollution control program rests upon the reliability of
the data provided by monitoring activities. Meaningful
assessments of environmental quality, whether they be
within one, or among several, environmental media,
require valid data. When such assessments are made
in support of an enforcement action, the data used
must be legally defensible. That is, the data's validity
must be clearly demonstrable to the satisfaction of a
court of law.
The acquisition of reliable, comparable and legally
defensible data requires EPA-wide use of a set of
standardized measurement and calibration procedures,
an interlaboratory quality control program, a labora-
tory performance certification program and a stand-
ardized laboratory record-keeping procedure. These
serve not only to ensure data uniformity and reliability,
but also to document the quality of the data produced.
Standardization and quality control programs were
under varying stages of development by the various
EPA environmental monitoring activities at the time
EPA was established. Emphasis is currently being
given to the coordination and integration of these pro-
grams as their development proceeds.
Emphasis is also being given to the development and
adaptation of advanced monitoring techniques, such as
remote sensing from aerial platforms, for use in moni-
toring the environment. These techniques show much
promise and, eventually, may significantly reduce the
amount of manual sampling and analysis now required
to provide adequate nationwide coverage of the environ-
ment.
-
Collection of water samples.
105
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TABLE 40.—Monitoring and Surveillance—Radiation
Network
Date
Initiated
Number
of
Stations
Frequency
of
Sampling
Analysis Performed
Radiation Alert Network 1956
Pasteurized Milk Network 1960
Institutional Total Diet 1961
Sampling Network
Tritium Network, (Tap 1964
Water, Precipitation and
Surface Water)
Carrier Water Supply 1960
Human Bone 1961
70
63
29
660
Daily
Monthly
Quarterly
117 Monthly/
Quarterly
3-Year
Intervals
Variable 125 Samples
per Quarter
Gross beta field estimate with laboratory analy-
sis of selected samples for fission, products,
pultonium, and tritium. To alert EPA and the
states to increased levels of radioactivity in
precipitation and airborne particulates.
For measures of radionuclide levels in pas-
teurized milk and for establishing environmental
trends.
Measures the level of exposure in the total
diet of a selected population group.
Tritium analysis in order to provide surveillance
at selected surface water stations downstream
for potential sources of tritium release.
Test for gross alpha and gross beta radiation
and specific radionuclides when gross levels
are unusually high.
Test for strontium 90 content in relation to
calcium.
TABLE 41.—Number of Stations at Which Various
Parameters are Evaluated in the Water
Quality Monitoring Network
Parameter
Number
of Stations
Temperature
PH
Dissolved Oxygen
Specific Conductivity
Chloride
Nitrogen . .
Common Ions . .
Phosphorus ..
Dissolved Solids .
Turbidity .
Coliform .
Hardness
BOD .
Color
Suspend Solids . . .
Pesticides
Radioactivity . .
Minor Elements . .
Carbon
885
853
788
732
687
673
655
618
594
586
582
514
451
379
367
338
258
246
124
106
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108
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FEDERAL ACTIVITIES
POLLUTION FROM
FEDERAL ACTIVITIES
The Federal Government carries on many activities
that have an impact on environmental quality. It main-
tains installations and buildings; manages lands; con-
structs water resource development projects; dredges
waterways; and operates huge fleets of vehicles, ves-
sels and aircraft. Today, the Federal Government owns
approximately 20,000 installations and one-third of
the country's land. In addition, each year it awards
well over 100,000 procurement contracts for the manu-
facturing of materials, supplies and equipment. It pro-
vides financial assitance to support highway construc-
tion, housing development, urban renewal, farming op-
erations, economic development and recreation projects.
It licenses construction and operation of nuclear power
plants; leases timber harvesting and other uses on Fed-
eral lands; and issues permits for dredging, filing in,and
for discharging of industrial wastes into navigable waters.
There are several major programs designed to pre-
vent and abate environmental pollution from Federal
activities. All Federally owned or operated facilities
must meet environmental standards. Those who receive
Federal contracts, loans, grants, licenses and permits
must comply with environmental standards. In addi-
tion, the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
(NEPA) requires Federal agencies to prepare a de-
tailed statement on the environmental impact of all
major Federal actions which significantly affect the
environment.
These broad-ranging programs were established to
insure that the Federal Government's own activities
will not cause environmental degradation. EPA partici-
pates heavily in these programs, providing the Federal
agencies with technical assistance on a broad range of
pollution control and environmental planning subjects.
CONTROL OF POLLUTION FROM
FEDERALLY OWNED FACILITIES
On February 4, 1970, President Nixon issued Execu-
tive Order 11507 requiring that all buildings, installa-
tions, structures and other properties owned by or
leased to the Federal Government be designed, oper-
ated and maintained to conform with air and water
quality standards and related plans of implementation,
including emissions standards, adopted pursuant to the
Clean Air Act and the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act. In those cases where there are no such standards
in force for a particular geographic area or in those
cases where more stringent requirements are deemed
advisable, EPA may establish air and water quality
Municipal golf course built on sanitary landfill: Jackson, Miss.
DocllllM'nr;! I'llolo
-------
standards for the purpose of the Order, including re-
lated schedules for implementation.
The Order directs each Federal agency to maintain
surveillance over its facilities to ensure that the stand-
ards are met on a continuing basis. In addition, the
agencies must consult with EPA concerning the best
techniques and methods available for the protection
and enhancement of the environment and the adequacy
of the performance specifications for proposed pollu-
tion control measures.
Since issuance of Executive Order 11507, there have
been a number of legislative and executive changes
which have a direct bearing on the President's pro-
gram. Both the Clean Air Act and the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act were amended to place greater
responsibility on the Federal agencies to ensure that
their facilities meet Federal, State and local pollution
control and abatement requirements. The Solid Waste
Disposal Act was amended to require the Federal
agencies to comply with guidelines issued by the Ad-
ministrator for solid waste disposal at facilities under
their jurisdiction. Federal agencies were directed by
Section 402 of the Clean Air Act to consult with EPA
concerning measures to abate noise pollution problems.
TABLE 42.—Remedial Actions to Control Pollution
from Existing Federal Facilities *
Budget Authority
1971
1972 1973
Environmental Protection Agency .......... 2.8 3.9 4.0
Department of Defense .................. 86.8 153.9 232.2
Atomic Energy Commission ............... 0.5 2.4 8.1
Department of Transportation .............. 1.0 7.7 7.2
Department of the Interior ................ 6.2 46.9 11.9
Department of Agriculture ............... 7.2 20.8 29.3
Department of Commerce ................. 0.2 0.5 4.1
General Services Administration ........... 1.5 18.4 0.0
National Aeronautics & Space Admin ......... 0.7 3.0 0.9
National Science Foundation ............. — — —
Department of Health, Education & Welfare ... 0.0 0.9 4.8
Department of State ..................... — — —
Smithsonian Institute .................... 0.0 — —
Federal Power Commission ............... — — —
Department of Justic (Prisons) ............ 0.1 2.6 0.0
U. S. Postal Service .................... 0.4 1.4 2.0
Department of Housing & Urban Development — — —
Veteran's Administration ................. 4.4 6.3 4.5
Appalachian Regional Commission .......... — — —
Tennessee Valley Authority ............... 0.1 0.1 0.2
Department of Army (Civil Works) ......... 3.8 11.6 5.4
Totals ............................ 115.7 280.4 314.6
*CAs reported by Agencies and verified by Examiners for the
Special Analysis for Selected Environmental Activities, January 18,
1972)
Executive Order 11507 requires that Federal agen-
cies complete or have underway by December 31, 1972,
remedial actions necessary to achieve compliance with
existing air and water quality standards. Since the
Order was issued, the agencies have been designing,
and initiating necessary abatement measures. The
President's budget requests for 1971, 1972, and 1973
included $116 million, $280 million, and $315 million,
respectively, for pollution abatement needs at Federal
facilities. Table 42 presents the budget requests by
each agency for Fiscal Years 1971, 1972, and 1973.
These funds represent a substantial increase over those
budgeted in prior years and indicate the high priority
given to the program.
This does not mean that the task of controlling pol-
lution from Federal facilities will be finished by Decem-
ber 31, 1972. Some air and water quality standards
have come into effect since the Executive Order was
issued and standards will continue to evolve during
the next few years. Thus, Federal agencies must view
pollution control as a continuing responsibility. In addi-
tion, in some cases it has been necessary to grant
extensions to projects subject to the deadline because
pollution control technology is not now available. In
such cases, the agencies must schedule appropriate
abatement projects as soon as the necessary control
technology is developed.
EPA provides technical advice and assistance to the
Federal agencies in this effort. Such assistance includes:
advising the agencies on the types of corrective options
required and the scheduling of such actions; reviewing
agencies' fiscal plans for the Office of Management and
Budget and recommending budget priorities for projects
contained in the plans; and working with the agencies in
justifying their budget requests to the Congress.
CONTROL OF POLLUTION FROM
FEDERALLY SUPPORTED AND
AUTHORIZED ACTIVITIES
Several programs have been initiated in response to
legislative and executive mandates that actions be taken
to control pollution from federally supported and
authorized activities. Section 306 of the Clean Air
Amendments of 1970 specifies that no Federal agency
may enter into any contract for the procurement of
goods, materials or services where the contract is to
be performed at a facility which has given rise to a
conviction for any offense of violating clean air stand-
ards. This prohibition continues until the Adminis-
trator of EPA certifies that the condition giving rise to
a conviction has been corrected.
To implement the provisions of Section 306, the
President issued Executive Order 11602 on June 30,
1971, which requires the Federal Government to use its
procurement activities, grants and loans to achieve
environmental goals. EPA is currently developing
110
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regulations to institute a fully operational program to
insure that Federal financial assistance goes only to
those who comply with clean air requirements.
Already the Federal purchasing power has been used
to specify certain qualities in the products which it
buys. For example, the General Services Administra-
tion has changed its procurement specifications to
require that paper purchased by the Federal Govern-
ment contain a specified minimum percentage of
recycled material. Another example is the President's
TABLE 43.-Environmental Impact Statement Process
DRAFT STATEMENT
DRAFT
STATEMENT FILED
WITH CEQ
•'.<••' '.' Jr^.
- . DRAFT STATEMENT
'"•*»,,, PUBLIC
STATE AND LOCAL
AGENCIES
REVIEW DRAFT
directive that Federal vehicles, whenever possible, will
use low-lead or unleaded gasoline.
Section 21b of the Water Quality Improvement Act
of 1970, requires that any applicant for a Federal
license or permit to conduct an activity which may
result in any discharge into navigable waters must pro-
vide a certification from the State that the activity will
not violate applicable water quality standards. The
licensing or permitting agency must notify EPA of such
applications and certifications. In those cases where
standards have been set by EPA or where the State
does not have the authority, such certification must be
obtained from EPA.
The Resources Recovery Act of 1970, Section 2lib,
requires that each Federal agency which issues any
license or permit for disposal of solid waste shall, prior
to the issuance of such license or permit, consult with
EPA to insure compliance with guidelines being
developed by this Agency.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
STATEMENTS
NEPA requires that all Federal agencies include in
every recommendation or report on proposed legisla-
tion or other major action significantly affecting the
environment a detailed statement assessing the environ-
mental effects of the action, the adverse impacts that
cannot be avoided, alternatives to the proposed action,
the relationship between short and long-term uses of
the environment and any irreversible commitment of
resources involved. These statements are often called
702 statements or environmental impact statements.
These environmental impact statements are reviewed
by Government agencies which have jurisdiction by law
or which have special expertise on the environmental
impacts involved. Because of its authority and expertise
in the six primary areas of pollution control—air, water,
pesticides, radiation, solid waste, and noise—EPA re-
views virtually every impact statement that is filed.
EPA's comments are available to the public, as are
copies of the impact statements. The facets of the
impact statement process which involve widespread
coordination and review and public disclosure, are
intended to make certain that full consideration is in
fact given to the impact of all major Federal actions
on the environment.
The impact statement requirement has had an impor-
tant effect on the planning process of the Federal
Government. Since the National Environmental Policy
Act was signed on January 1, 1970, more than 2,500
statements concerning major Federal actions have been
filed. Of those, many of the actions have been signifi-
cantly modified to avoid environmental hazards pointed
out by EPA, other agencies and the public. Some
projects have even been halted while additional environ-
mental studies are conducted.
Ill
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Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Cooling towers used in waste heat
discharge.
For instance, in the case of the Trans-Alaska Pipe-
line, EPA suggested that the responsible agency, the
Department of Interior, investigate the environmental
effects of the whole water and land transportation sys-
tem, not just the pipeline portion of the system; that
alternative routes be studied; that consideration be
given to using a single corridor for a number of pipe-
lines rather than using separate corridors for each
pipeline; that the effectiveness and dependability of the
seismic and leak monitoring systems be further investi-
gated; and that the consequences of the pipeline on the
permafrost be further studied. The Department of
Interior has recently released the results of a major
new investigation into the environmental consequences
of the project. This inquiry was in direct response to
the questions raised by concerned groups, including
EPA.
Similarly, the Tocks Island Lake Project which
involves construction of a dam near Stroudsburg, Penn-
sylvania, on the Delaware River also raised some con-
cerns in EPA. In its September 1971 comments on the
draft impact statement for this project, EPA requested
additional information on the Tocks Island Reservoir
Project in regard to water quality. After a review of
this information, EPA concluded, in its comments on
the final impact statement issued in December of 1971,
that water quality in the proposed reservoir would be
a serious environmental problem under existing waste
treatment conditions in the Upper Delaware Basin.
EPA suggested land use controls and well-designed
liquid and solid waste disposal plans to prevent pre-
Peach Bottom, Pennsylvania: A high-temperature gas-cooled
reactor nuclear power plant.
-------
mature aging of the lake. The Council on Environ-
mental Quality instructed the Corps of Engineers not
to initiate construction until additional studies could
be completed on means to remedy the environmental
problems associated with the dam and until plans to
remedy the environmental problems could be developed.
EPA also commented on the Atomic Energy Com-
mission's revised environmental impact statement on
the Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant, to be built on
the shores of the Chesapeake Bay. EPA's comments
indicated that the plant would probably exceed Mary-
land State temperature standards more frequently than
suggested in the statement. In addition, EPA stated its
opinion that the proposed method of reducing power
output in order to meet standards would not be prac-
tical during periods of peak power demand. Further,
it was indicated that current Maryland standards may
not be sufficient to adequately protect aquatic life, and
that a tentative agreement between EPA and the State
of Maryland was reached to revise Maryland's water
quality standards. Finally, EPA suggested that addi-
tional cooling for the Calvert Cliffs Plant be further
evaluated and that the operation of the first reactor be
closely monitored to determine the impact on the
Chesapeake Bay.
Although EPA's primary mission objectives are to
prevent, abate, and control pollution, it too must pre-
pare impact statements on its own actions if they will
have a significant impact on the environment. EPA pub-
lished proposed procedures implementing NEPA in the
January 20, 1972, Federal Register. These procedures
established the administrative framework within EPA
for analyzing the environmental effects of wastewater
treatment construction grants and other programs and
for preparing any necessary impact statements. These
procedures have already been implemented, and over
20 impact statements have been prepared and circulated
for interagency review.
Clearly, the Federal Government is devoting sub-
stantial resources in terms of money, manpower and
expertise to the President's commitment to control
pollution from Federal activities and to the develop-
ment of sound environmental planning in Federal
decisionmaking. EPA's Federal activities program is a
significant contribution to that commitment. EPA will
continue to provide its assistance and expertise to the
Federal agencies in their efforts to operate in a manner
consistent with a clean, safe environment.
113
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INTERNATIONAL
ACTIVITIES
Environmental problems overlap national boundaries
and transcend ideological barriers. Because the oceans
and atmosphere are global systems, pollution in any of
their part effects many nations. The smoke and toxic
effluents of one country pollute others. Penguins of
Antarctica and fish in the deep ocean contain DDT
although they are thousands of miles from the pollution
source.
Because pollution is global, unilateral action alone is
not sufficient to combat it. Many of the initiatives
needed to attack world environmental problems are
new, require coordinated action and demand novel
methods of international organization and cooperative
action. Recognizing this fact, President Nixon said in
transmitting his 1970 Report to the Congress on
Foreign Policy for the 1970's: "We know we must act
as one world in restoring the world's environment,
before pollution of the seas and skies overwhelms every
nation." The United States and other nations are seek-
ing to combat pollution through international coopera-
tive action, and EPA is acting to support this effort.
EPA is responsible for developing and implementing
international cooperative agreements, coordinating its
activities with other nations and maintaining contact
with other United States agencies involved in foreign
affairs. EPA deals with multilateral organizations, bi-
lateral programs, science and technology and interna-
tional exchanges. Specialists participating in EPA's
international activities come from EPA Headquarters,
the Regional Offices, Research Centers and labora-
tories.
EPA pursues its international activities in an effort
to encourage world-wide action to prevent further de-
terioration of the environment, to reduce, and if pos-
sible to eliminate existing pollution and to improve
the quality of life for present and future generations.
The information and experience gained through co-
operative efforts enhance the Agency's knowledge and
expertise which in turn contributes to the domestic pro-
gram. The assessment and transfer of pollution abate-
ment technology from other countries also assists EPA.
Most of the Agency's international activities today
are directed toward the exchange of information, co-
operative research, data collection and the production
or promotion of environmental investigations. Some
cooperative activities consist of action programs for
preventing or reducing pollution. Most require the ex-
change of informational material or personnel. Many
stem from United States membership in a wide variety
of international organizations; others arise from new
and pressing needs to meet immediate environmental
problems.
U.N. CONFERENCE
During 1971 EPA devoted particular emphasis to
assisting in the preparations for the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment, which was held
in June 1972 in Stockholm. The Conference was the first
major world-wide environmental conference and may
well be a landmark in the development of international
environmental cooperation. The Conference was in-
tended to be a global convocation to stimulate action on
environmental problems affecting the interests of all na-
tions. Special attention in the session was given to ways
to reconcile national activities in the fields of environ-
ment and economic development. Five Conference
topics of special interest were marine pollution, monitor-
ing and surveillance, conservations, soils and a declara-
tion on the environment.
EPA specialists have taken an active part in the work
of the Preparatory Committee. They participated in the
work of the Working Groups on. Marine Pollution, and
Monitoring and Surveillance of Global Pollution, and in
other aspects of Conference preparation. They led U.S.
preparations for the agenda items on the Identification
and Control of Pollutants and Nuisances of Broad
International Significance.
MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS
EPA participates in the work of a number of multi-
lateral intergovernmental organizations concerned with
environmental matters. During 1971, EPA specialists
took an active part in the continuing environmental
activities of the United Nations specialized interna-
tional organizations, such as the World Health Organi-
zation (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organiza-
tion (FAO), the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Inter-
national Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). They were
active in the WHO/pAo Codex Alimentarius Com-
mission on pesticide residues in food and in the UN's
Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of
Marine Pollution (GESAMP).
EPA experts play an active role in the work of the
Environment Committee and Sector Groups of the
Organization of Economic Cooperation and Develop-
ment (OECD), which is comprised of the major in-
dustrial nations of the free world. OECD is concent-
trating on economic and trade effects of environmental
protection measures, particularly in the fields of water
management, air pollution, noise abatement and the
undesirable effects of pesticide residues.
In the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's Com-
mittee on Challenges of Modern Society (NATO/
114
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CCMS), which, at the suggestion of President Nixon,
is working on special problems of industrialized so-
cieties, EPA specialists are leading cooperative pro-
jects on air pollution and development of low pollution
motor vehicles. They are also participating in projects
in advanced wastewater treatment and the investigation
of river basin management on the St. John River be-
tween Maine and New Brunswick.
EPA is assisting the efforts of the Intergovernmental
Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO), partic-
ularly in preventing marine pollution from oil spills.
It is also assisting the Economic Commission for Eu-
rope (ECE), by taking part in the 1971 Prague Sym-
posium on environmental problems. The ECE is serv-
ing as a forum for information exchange between
Eastern and Western nations on pollution control.
The international community made progress last
year in developing cooperative approaches to gather-
ing and compiling global economic and scientific in-
formation, which will assist in understanding the level
and effects of environmental pollution. The interna-
tional monitoring of global pollutants is of growing
interest. At the request of other nations EPA is pro-
viding detailed information on U.S. standards and
abatement methods. The Agency is serving as an
International Reference Center for air pollution at the
request of the World Health Organization.
BILATERAL COOPERATION
One of the most rapidly developing areas of inter-
national environmental cooperation is in the bilateral
field. EPA is actively participating in this growing
field and is working to expand its bilateral activities.
Major bilateral programs are developing with the
neighboring nations of Canada and Mexico. During
1971 EPA experts joined in the preparations for the
June U.S.-Canadian Ministerial Meeting on Great
Lakes Pollution. This meeting concluded a Great Lakes
Water Quality Agreement between the two nations to
combat pollution on the Great Lakes.
Meanwhile close U.S. and Canadian pollution con-
trol cooperation on the Red River, Rainy River and
Lake of the Woods, St. Croix River and in the Great
Lakes and their connecting channels continued within
the framework of the International Joint Commission,
a unique and competent international body created by
the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909. The Commis-
sion is also investigating air pollution in the Detroit-
Windsor area. EPA officials are active on all the Com-
mission's pollution advisory boards. They also took
part in discussions with Canadian officials concerning
possible oil spill pollution from tankers along the
southern west coast boundary between the two coun-
tries.
Close bilateral cooperation with Mexico is also un-
der development. In 1971, EPA met with its Mexican
counterparts to assist in establishing an air monitoring
I 1C1-M
Polluted section near Gulf Coast, 100 miles south of HauMon, TV.ra.s.
system for Mexico City, exchange of information and
experience for establishing national air and water
standards in Mexico, and agreement on a loan of air
monitoring equipment for exchanging comparable data
on the effects of air pollution at high altitudes. They
also took part in Mexico's first pollution abatement
conference in Monterrey.
Bilateral exchanges with Japan, France and other
countries also moved ahead in 1971. The U.S. and
Japan have exchanged environmental information for
many years under the U.S.-Japan Cooperative Pro-
gram on Natural Resources. Joint air and water pol-
lution programs began in 1970 and in June 1971 the
two Governments agreed to exchange information on
curbing air pollution from automobiles and on apply-
ing advanced technology to sewage treatment. EPA
representatives also took part in the first U.S. trade
exhibit on pollution abatement technology in Japan
which resulted in large sales of U.S. equipment. They
also took part in the exchange of experts and docu-
mentation in air and water legislation and standards.
With France, EPA specialists are cooperating in plan-
ning of the pollution-free model city, Le Vaudreuil.
Cooperative activities are also underway or under con-
sideration with Germany, Spain, Switzerland, Sweden
and the United Kingdom.
During 1971, EPA air pollution officials visited the
USSR at Soviet invitation as part of a bilateral scien-
tific exchange agreement. Polish authorities visited the
U.S. to discuss possible air and water pollution and
solid waste management cooperation, and EPA ex-
perts made a return visit to Poland. An EPA team
115
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visited Romania to discuss advanced wastewater
treatment. In trilateral discussions EPA, Canadian and
United Kingdom officials met in a continuing series of
talks on pesticides, and EPA, Swedish and Canadian
officials continued consultations on phosphates and
NTA.
SPECIAL FOREIGN
CURRENCY PROGRAMS
Activities under EPA's Special Foreign Currency
Program were developed and broadened during 1971.
Fifteen joint projects in air and water pollution and
solid waste management were conducted with India,
Israel, Poland and Yugoslavia valued at $3.5 million
in Fiscal Year 1971.
These cooperative activities relate directly to EPA
and foreign country needs. They merge the scientific
and resource capabilities of the countries in a con-
certed attack on specific environment problems while
contributing valuable knowledge and experience to
supplement the Agency's domestic programs. Admin-
istered by the Office of International Affairs, the pro-
gram is funded from excess foreign currencies accru-
ing to the United States under various U.S. programs
in countries overseas. During Fiscal Year 1972 ap-
proximately 7.5 million dollars were available to fund
new cooperative activities under the program.
In addition, EPA activities supported through dol-
lar grants and contracts in countries, other than those
under the Special Foreign Currency Program, draw
upon the skills and knowledge of foreign experts to
assist domestic programs. Awards made include those
to institutions in England, France, Japan and Sweden.
EXCHANGE OF INFORMATION
During the past year, EPA engaged in a broadening
program of exchange activities with other nations.
EPA briefed over 1,200 visitors, including the science
attaches of Embassies in Washington and Foreign Press
Corps, other government officials, scientists, engineers,
journalists and industrialists. EPA specialists met with
a wide range of foreign experts, among them the for-
eign news editors of 15 leading Southeast Asian news-
papers; representatives of 20 Japanese firms; labor
representatives from Australia, Germany, France and
Israel; Members of Parliament from Brazil, Italy,
Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom;
and local government officials from New Zealand and
Australia.
The Agency continued an extensive information
program, distributing technical and descriptive mate-
rial to pollution agencies and experts around the globe
and mailing pertinent information to U.S. Science
Attaches throughout the world. Plans have been initi-
ated to develop an Agency-wide International Visitors
Service and regional tours of EPA facilities throughout
the country for foreign visitors. Steps are now being
taken to assist the Agency for International Develop-
ment to train environmentalists from developing
nations.
Opening day of the Trout season of Kings River, Fresno, California.
Documerica Photo
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VIEWING WORLD DEVELOPMENTS
EPA's expanding international activities in 1971 re-
flected the growing awakening to the international
nature of common environmental concerns. Like the
United States, many nations realize the need to up-
grade their environmental programs and organizations
and to broaden their policy and legislative authority
to deal with environmental degradation. Australia,
Canada, France, Germany, Great Britain, India, Japan,
New Zealand, Norway, Singapore, Switzerland and the
United States have reorganized or plan to improve
their environmental protection programs. Multilateral
organizations stepped up their environmental activities,
and the international community as a whole took a
giant step forward in employing international coopera-
tion as a tool in preserving environmental quality. The
year also saw a major stride toward a cooperative
approach to combating international pollution and en-
vironmental problems. A number of developing nations
question the need for strong pollution abatement efforts
in light of their pressing economic development needs.
Many nations, however, recognize that the broadening
and strengthening of cooperative programs is essential
if countries are to deal effectively with the problem
of global pollution.
TABLE 44.—Special Foreign Currency Program
Program & Country
Cumulative
obligation
through
FY 1971
Number of
projects
Estimated
obligation
for FY 1972
Estimated No.
of projects
Estimated
obligation
for FY 1973
Air 3,427,153
India —
Poland 315,727
Yugoslovia . . 3,111,426
Water 254,000
India . . —
Poland —
Yugoslovia 54,000
UAR —
Pakistan —
Tunisia —
Israel 200,000
Solid Waste 33,566
India 33,566
Poland —
Yugoslovia —
Pakistan —
Pesticides & Toxic Mat —
India —
Poland —
Radiation 161,000
India 81,274
Poland —
Yugoslovia —
UAR —
Israel 80,240
Noise —
Poland —
Yugoslovia —
OIA Program Support —
10
3,078,000
11
3,100,000
Estimated No.
of projects
2
8
1,065,000
920,000
750,000
790,000
1,450,000
800,000
4
4
1
1,720,000
2,150,000
520,000
950,000
250,000
350,000
650,000
350,000
350,000
450,000
1
2
1
1
2
650,000
2,150,000
325,000
325,000
200,000
1,125,000
525,000
300,000
1
4
2
1
1,900,000
3,550,000
1,400,000
500,000
3,175,000
375,000
7
1
296,000
775,000
46,000
250,000
2
2
275,000
50,000
450,000
1
1
3
100,000
1,200,000
100,000 1
50,000
750,000
450,000
50,000
3
2
2
Total 3,876,233
15
7,794,000
28
12,975,000
42
' Includes $343,000 as transfer to National Science Foundation for Translations.
2 Includes $60,000 as transfer to National Science Foundation for Translations.
117
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