A CURRICULUM ACTIVITIES GUIDE TO
WATER
POLLUTION
AND
ENVIRONMENTAL
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A CURRICULUM ACTIVITIES GUIDE
T 0
WATER POLLUTION
and
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES:
ACTIVITIES
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF WATER PROGRAMS
MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT STAFF
TRAINING GRANTS BRANCH
1972
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 20402 - Price $2.25
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This guide was prepared by the Til ton Water Pollution Program, financed
by Grant No. 1TT1-WP-41-01 and supplemental grants from Training Grants
Branch, Office of Water Programs, Environmental Protection Agency and
by a grant from the Ford Foundation. The work of editing and compiling
the guide was done by:
John T. Hershey
Head, Science Department
Germantown Academy
Fort Washington, Pennsylvania
Albert L. Powers
Head, Science Department
Brewster Academy
Wolfeboro, New Hampshire
Stephen P. McLoy
Teacher of Political Theory
Til ton School
Til ton, New Hampshire
Alan D. Sexton
Teacher of Science
George School
Newtown, Pennsylvania
Information on revisions and additionally planned volumes of the guide
may be obtained from:
Training Grants Branch
Office of Water Programs
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C. 20460
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Preface
There is great desire on the part of students today to be directly
involved in their society and its problems. This guide is designed to
bring students and their educational process into direct contact with
their society and their community. This requires that learning occur in
all areas of the society, not just those special places called classrooms.
As one student remarked, "You actually learn by going out and doing what
you are learning in theory, which is something I never did before."
Stepping outside the classroom or expanding the classroom to encompass
the life space of the student is an important aspect of this program.
For it is only there and then that the theory of disjointed, "irrelevant"
facts begin to assume meaning. For this reason, the guide is primarily
activity-oriented.
The activities contained in this guide utilize a process of inquiry
which will lead the student to acquire knowledge and skills needed to
understand and solve the problems of his environment. The activities
_ are designed to arouse his interest and curiosity through direct observa-
tion and investigation. Since there is no planned sequence or order,
^ each user of the guide (student or teacher) will develop his own path of
inquiry. The activities themselves are only meant as a starting point,
\\ a guide; it is expected that in practice the users will expand upon them
_^ both in depth and breadth.
^ Volumes I and II are concerned with only one aspect of the environ-
,, mental problem, water pollution. However, the investigation of water
o pollution itself is not limited to a specific academic field of inquiry.
r If water pollution or any of our environmental problems are to be solved
r* they must be understood in all their manifestations. This means that any
f> study of the problems must be interdisciplinary in nature and must take
^ into account the social and political aspects as well.
The students and teachers who developed this program encountered
numerous frustrations and achieved many successes. There were burned
fingers and cut feet, leaky hip boots, shivering bodies and colds, philo-
sophic "differences," midnight arguments, and some pretty firm convictions.
Pervading all this, however, was the shared knowledge that something was
happening. People were involved - students and teachers together, develop-
ing relationships which created changes in attitude. And those attitudes
caused changes in behavior which have persisted beyond expectation.
Since the initial work in the summer of 1969, teachers and students
have traveled hundreds of miles to lead training conferences, workshops,
and at least nine more major training programs. They have testified in
Congress, conducted research work, taught classes, and formed a national
teacher-training and curriculum development organization, The Institute
for Environmental Education, headquartered in Cleveland, Ohio. The sequel
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Preface
publications to these volumes, on the construction of equipment described
in Volume II, land studies, consumerism, community health, transportation,
a hand guide on introducing environmental studies into the school and
other community organizations, etc., are in preparation now. These are
all results of teachers and students studying and working together on
environmental community problems.
Joseph H. Chadbourne, President
Institute for Environmental Education
11
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Acknowledgments
There were many people who contributed to the completion of this
guide. Special thanks go to Joseph Chadbourne, President of the Insti-
tute for Environmental Education, who conceived the original idea and
secured the backing of the Ford Foundation and of the Department of the
Interior, and to Alan McGowan, Scientific Administrator, Center for the
Biology of Natural Systems, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., who
directed the workshops funded by these grants during the summers of
1969 and 1970.
We are grateful to Robert Snider, Director of Training Grants,
Office of Water Quality, Environmental Protection Agency, who identified
and encouraged the germination of this work at the University School,
Cleveland, 0., in 1967. We also express our warm appreciation to
Bernard Lukco, Environmental Protection Agency, who continued the direc-
tion given by Mr. Snider and tirelessly aided the directors throughout
the 2-year effort. We are also indebted to Dr. Herbert W. Jackson,
Chief Biologist, and F. J. Ludzack, Chemist, both of the Taft Center in
Cincinnati, 0., who provided checks on the technical accuracy of the
aquatic biology, chemistry and bacteriology sections of the guide. E.
Girtsavage and D. Smith from the New England Basins Office of the Depart-
ment of the Interior made available to us a great deal of information
from their training program.
Many thanks are due to the Millipore Co., Bedford, Mass., and to
the LaMotte Chemical Co., Chestertown, Md., for their generosity in
supplying equipment to the workshops, films, and technical advice on
many occasions.
This guide was organized and edited by the team of John Hershey,
Stephen McLoy, Albert Powers, and Alan Sexton. They remained long into
the summer months of 1970 to compile the contributions of numberous
writers: Philip Murphy, Robert Touchette, and William Schlesinger for
the chapter on Hydrologic Cycle; Raymond Whitehouse on Human Activities;
Alan Sexton and Robert Graham on Ecological Perspectives; John Hershey
for Social and Political Factors; and Albert Powers, Alan Sexton, Philip
Murphy, Richard Fabian, and Rodney Page for Appendix 1. These men
assembled the written experiences of the 1969 and 1970 participants; they
then rewrote and produced this guide. Those weeks were tolerable only
because of Susan Bayley's secretarial assistance and light heart.
Preparation and correction of the camera copy was done by Kay Bel a,
Training Grants Branch, Environmental Protection Agency.
A final note of gratitude is extended to the members of the many
schools who are now using the activities and sending suggestions, correc-
tions and new activities to the Institute for Environmental Education.
Good luck and have fun.
John T. Hershey
Project KARE
m
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PROGRAM PARTICIPANTS
1970 Participants
*Abington Friends
Jenkintown, Pa. 19046
Mrs. Maria Peters
*Academy Sacred Heart
Sloomfield Hills, Mich. 48013
Susan Tindall
*Academy Sacred Heart
St. Charles, Mo. 63301
Sister Dorothy Clark
Margaret Schuler
All Saints' Episcopal
Vicksburg, Miss. 39180
Mr. Richard Palermo
Sydney Rabey
Assumption Preparatory
Worcester, Mass. 01606
Father Henry Roy
Paul Del Signore
Athol High
Athol, Mass. 01331
Mrs. Esther Shepardson
Verne Goldsher
Atlantic Junior High
Quincy, Mass. 02171
Mr. Brooks Mai oof
Paul Levine
Attleboro High
Attleboro, Mass. 02703
Mr. Matthew McConeghy
Paul Johansen
Belmont High
Belmont, N. H. 03220
Mrs. Suzanne S. Roberts
Lance Trendell
Brandon Hall
Dunwoody, Ga. 30338
Mr. George Hickman
Jack Mount
Brattleboro Union
Brattleboro, Vt. 05301
Mr. Charles Butterfield
Mary Rivers
Brewster Academy
Wolfeboro, N. H. 03894
Mr. Al Powers
**Buckley Country Day
Roslyn, N. Y. 11576
John Carey
**Burgundy Farm Country Day
Alexandria, Va. 22303
Adam Rosenthal
*Cabin John J. H. S.
Rockville, Md. 20835
Mr. Ronald Smetanick
Kim Coburn
Tory Dunn
**Cohasset High
Cohasset, Mass.
Jon Sargent
02025
*Douglass High
Baltimore, Md. 21217
Miss Jessie Perkins
Paula Partee
*Duchesne Academy
Omaha, Neb. 68131
Sister Elaine Abels
Mary Kelly
Edwin 0. Smith
Storrs, Conn. 06268
Mr. Egbert Inman
Barry Rosen
*Forman
Litchfield, Conn. 06759
Mr. Robert
Chris Colt
Wade
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^Garrison Forest
Garrison, Md. 21055
Miss Winifred McDowell
George
Newton, Pa. 18940
Mr. Alan Sexton
Tim Tanaka
David Kriebel
Jonathan Gormley
*Germantown Academy
Fort Washington, Pa. 19034
Mr. John Hershey
Ellen Harbison
Anne Barrett
*Glenelg Country Day
Glenelg, Md. 21043
Mr. Andy Hauck
Greenfield Junior High
Greenfield, Mass. 01301
Mr. Courtney N. Woodcock
Ron Korzon
Grymes Memorial
Orange, Va. 22960
Mrs. Helene B. Lindblade
J. H. Higginbotham
Hancock
Franklin, N. H. 03235
Mr. William Cameron
Hanover Jr.-Sr. High
Hanover, N. H. 03755
Mr. Ronald Bailey
David Converse
Kennedy Junior High
Peabody, Mass. 01960
Mrs. Lorraine Gauthier
Steve Tessler
Longmeadow High
Longmeadow, Mass. 01106
Mr. Wilfred Blanchard
Deighton Emmons
**Madeira
Greenway, Va. 22067
Emily Carey
Mascenic Regional
New Ipswich, N. H. 03071
Mr. Thomas J. Mclntyre
Linda Rousseau
Mohawk Trail Regional
Shelburne Falls, Mass. 01370
Mr. Nathan Hale
Jeni New
Beth Burrows
Monadnock Regional
Keene, N. H. 03431
Mr. Douglas M. Leslie
Dana Sparhawk
*Mt. Hermon
Mt. Hermon, Mass. 01354
Mr. Richard Leavitt
David Hawley
**Nashua High
Nashua, N. H. 03060
Robert Foudriat
Northfield
East Northfield, Mass,
Miss Alice Kells
Isabel Elmer
01360
*Nottingham Academy
Buffalo, N. Y. 14216
Sister Marjorie McGrath
Melissa Weiksnar
**Parish Hill
Chaplin, Conn. 06235
Steve Curry
*Quincy Central Jr. High
Quincy, Mass. 02169
Mr. Raymond Whitehouse
Miss Marjorie Bollen
Mr. William McWeeny
Diane Dunn
Paul Welch
George Barbaro
Quincy High
Quincy, Mass. 02169
Mrs. Jeannette Mohnkern
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T. L. Hanna High
Anderson, S. C. 29621
Mrs. Sara Huey
Steve Thorne
*Tilton
Til ton, N. H. 03276
Mr. Steve McLoy
William Lawrence
Steve Reisberg
William Keegan
*Vermont Academy
Saxtons River, Vt. 05154
Mr. Peter Sargent
Gunther Mench
**Webster College
St. Louis, Mo. 63119
Benjamin Kohl
West Jr. High
Brockton, Mass. 02401
Mr. Gerald Beals
Jonathan Ehrmann
**Western Jr. High
Bethesda, Md. 20016
Nancy Wallace
Original Participants Who Did Not Attend 1970 Sessions
Belchertown Jr.-Sr. High
Belchertown, Mass. 01007
Mrs. Claire Curry
Andy LeDuc
*6urncoat Senior High
Worcester, Mass.
Mr. Albert J. Bouffard
James Proia
Crosby Jr. High
Pittsfield, Mass. 01201
Mr. Henry Barber
David LaBrode
Forest Park Jr. High
Springfield, Mass. 01108
Mr. Joseph S. Novicki
John Salo
Scott Berger
Billy Santaniello
Kiley Jr. High
Springfield, Mass. 00128
Mr. Martin Manoogian
Randy Locklin
Gerald Baird
Manchester Jr.-Sr. High
Manchester, Mass. 01944
Mr. Arthur Edwards
Scott Whittemore
Marlboro High
Marlboro, Mass. 01752
Mr. Edward J. Clancy
Rebecca Morales
Northampton High
Northampton, Mass. 01060
Mr. Walter Brown
Mark Sullivan
Pioneer Valley Regional
Greenfield, Mass. 01301
Mr. William Giles
Rita Johnson
*Providence Country Day
Bristol, R. I. 02809
Mr. Spofford Woodruff
Somers High
Somers, Conn. 06071
Mr. Edward Hendry
Russ Butkus
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Tantasqua Regional West Springfield
Sturbridge, Mass. 01566 West Springfield, Mass. 01089
Mr. Paul O'Brien Mr. Ronald Czelusniak
David Blake John Swiencicki
Springfield Technical Westfield Jr. High
Longmeadow, Mass. 01106 Westfield, Mass. 01085
Mr. Robert Dooley Mr. John Romashko
Gerard Deslauriers
Weston Sr. High
Ware High Weston, Mass. 02193
Ware, Mass. 01082 Mr. Joseph Jordan
Mr. James Shea Charles Gillespie
Mike McQuaid
* 1969 Schools Under Ford Foundation Grant
** Schools Not Covered By Grants
VII
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
Chapter
I. HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 5
A. Surface Runoff 9
B. Infiltration and Percolation 12
C. Transpiration 16
D. Soil Evaporation and Transpiration 21
E. Evapotranspiration 25
F. Infiltration: Its Effect on Water Quality 27
G. Ground Water Seepage 30
H. Transpiration and Plant Uptake 32
I. Erosion: The Effects of Water on Soil 35
0. Diffusion: Demonstration of Water's Solvent and
Diffusion Properties 38
K. Ground Water: An Examination of the Source of
Water in Streams 40
L. Precipitation: Measurement and Evaluation 43
M. The Water Budget of a Small Watershed 47
II. HUMAN ACTIVITIES 50
A. Farming and Water Quality 52
B. Community Survey 58
C. Drinking Water 66
D. Pollution and Recovery 70
E. Destructive Effects of Water Pollution 74
F. Sewage Treatment 78
G. Biochemical Oxygen Demand in Sewage 83
H. Effect of Oil on Aquatic Life in Recreational Waters . . 87
I. The Effects of Damming or Impounding Water 90
J. Community Water Supplies . 94
K. Investigating Lead Concentrations in Automobile
Exhausts 97
III. ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 100
A. Aquatic System 102
B. Stream Deterioration Due to Effluents 106
C. Stream Variation 110
D. Diurnal Study 113
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E. Population Diversity Index 121
F. Bioassay 126
G. Plankton Growth in Relation to Light 129
H. Water Quality Comparisons by Diversity Index 133
I. Algal Blooms and C02 137
J. Bottom Core Sampling 140
IV. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL FACTORS 144
A. How to Talk Back to Statistics 146
B. State and Local Government Organizations 149
C. State Government Model 156
D. Anti-pollution Laws 159
E. An Elementary Investigation of Local Water Anti-
pollution Programs by Interviewing Government
Officials 163
F. Publication of a Science Journal 169
G. Orientation Program For the Study of Water Pollution . . 171
H. An Anti-pollution Club 180
I. How to Win Friends From Sceptics, Critics, and
Doubtful School Administrators Without
Really Trying 187
J. Moviemaking 193
K. Making Film Loops 198
L. Nonreturnable Containers 201
M. Anti-pollution Art 204
N. Modelmaking 207
0. Student Planning of a Pollution Assembly 210
P. Role Playing 214
IX
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INTRODUCTION
In 1967, a small band of teachers and students began studying
one community's water problems and serving one public pollution
agency. Now there are large bands of teachers and students, located
in many communities, studying many environmental problems and serving
many public agencies. Over those years, a philosophy developed and
some of the studies were written into Volumes I and II of this guide.
This Introduction contains the essentials of that philosophy and a
brief "tour" through the two volumes.
The philosophy is that students, teachers, and community
members can work together as co-learners as they investigate real
problems of the real world. This necessitates a re-examination of
many traditions -- teacher role, textbook, classroom, student re-
sponsibility, Carnegie Unit, the school day, the learning process,
curriculum, etc. -- and a subsequent development of more effective
educational processes.
The following are the elements of our philosophy as they relate
to students, teachers and the educational institutions:
1. Students possess the ability to determine, in cooperation
with each other and with teachers, their educational pro-
gram and the particular means they will utilize in problem
investigation. An outgrowth of this process will be
continuing self-learning.
2. As the students progress they will develop a holistic
approach, which will cause them to synthesize methods of
problem investigation and to develop an awareness of the
interrelatedness of the various components of systems.
3. The perception of the need for acquired skills will become
evident to the students as they become more and more aware
of the complexity of natural systems.
4. The responsive awareness will stimulate the students to
recognize their responsibilities from a long range point
of view. The students will perceive and assume a significant
role in society.
5. In particular, the students develop a mature sense of inter-
personal relationships which allows them to listen to others
and to work effectively as members of teams.
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6. Teachers will move from an authoritarian stance to a
position where they are able to enjoy learning with
students and where they will be able to offer advice
and guidance when it is sought by the students.
7. Changes will take place in the present institutions and
will be in response to the many positive outcomes
generated by the implementation of the above.
Environmental studies programs should be interdisciplinary and
should be planned by students, teachers and community members. The
participants do not study about environmental quality: they in-
vestigate real environmental situations. Multiple references are
used rather than a single text.
Participants in environmental studies programs examine their
life styles and the ways in which these influence environmental
quality. They then work toward the improvement of poor quality
environmental factors and work for the maintenance of high quality
factors.
In dealing with the manmade and natural environments the primary
goal is the development of attitudes and understandings rather than
strictly the exposure to information. In formal and nonformal learning
situations those involved reach the stage where they are actively
seeking answers to questions which they have raised. Constant evalu-
ation and feedback help to develop a process approach, which is not
working toward the development of a curriculum or a course of studies.
Persons of all age levels are potential participants.
The guide is divided into two volumes: Volume I provides process
education activities and Volume II provides seven technical and
operational back-up appendices for these activities.
Three levels of activities are provided: those which increase
awareness; those which allow students and teachers to take actions
related to particular concerns; and those which are on-going problem
investigations.
Awareness activities occur at the beginning of each chapter, and
they usually require little or no equipment. Awareness activities
allow students and teachers to make observations and draw conclusions
about real things in their environment. These activities are followed
by transitional activities which deal with individualized real concerns
that have grown out of awareness activities. The transitional activities
prepare the students and teachers for problem investigation activities.
Transitional studies allow groups to focus on problems which are more
easily defined and which are successfully dealt with within the existing
school time structure. This sort of preparation allows the teachers
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and students to prepare for more complex problem investigations which
may not be fully resolved during a formal course of study. The success
of the investigation, of course, lies in the process pursued to success-
fully carry out the investigation and constructively inform the
community of the status of the problem.
Volume II contains seven appendices which support the studies. In
time, teachers and students should be able to generate activities in
their community using Volume I as a guide. At this point, Volume I
could be placed in a reserve status. On the other hand, Volume II has
a lasting value for several reasons. Appendix 1 consolidates the
technical aspects of watpr quality. As you leaf through Appendix 1 you
will find water chemistry, biological references, both flora and fauna,
computer programs, and equipment references. Appendix 2, Implementation,
outlines techniques for dealing with problems of cost, scheduling, and
motivation. Appendix 3, Limitations, deals with problems of time and
transportation, methods and equipment, and dealing with others. Evalu-
ation is the subject of Appendix 4; behavioral objectives, both
affective and cognitive, are dealt with. Several references are in-
cluded. Appendix 5, contains a comprehensive annotated bibliography
which supplements the specific references in each activity. An asterisk
coding system indicates possible multi-copy acquisitions for a community
(school) reference center. Delineations are made according to elementary
and secondary education emphasis. The last two appendices provide a
comprehensive glossary and safety rules, respectively. These may be
reproduced in quantity.
Each of the activities is written according to a format which in-
cludes the seven parts. The introduction, which briefly describes the
activity, suggests the age or grade range for which the activity is
best suited. Here you will also find any special equipment or require-
ments necessary to complete the activity.
The students and teachers are presented with questions which will
lead them into activities. This approach was chosen because it allows
students to respond as individuals; because it diminishes the authority-
figure role of the teacher; and because it implies that there are few-
if-any ultimates which can be applied to real world situations. After
being led into the investigations the students and teachers will be
attempting to answer questions which relate to unsolved problems of
society at large. The attempt has been made to develop an approach that
will help individuals to work together to improve society. Four
categories of questions are used to involve the co-learners in activities.
The questions which lead to the activities are intended to direct
thinking toward a general area of investigation. Those to initiate re-
quire action if they are to be investigated and help to get the action
started. Questions to continue help to give the problem more definition
and to allow branching-off points. Those which are used to evaluate
help the co-learners to assess the successes and failures and to suggest
areas of further investigation.
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Sections III and IV of the activities deal with equipment and
procedures respectively. The equipment necessary to complete the
activity is listed as well as are outlines of events which will pro-
bably take place. If branch points are likely, as is often the case,
they are indicated. The teacher should try not to steer the activity
in one set direction, but rather be ready and willing to allow students
to pursue these branch points even if it means that the goal of the
original activity is lost for the time being.
The next section on past studies highlights results obtained by
using the activity. The activities which have survived the test of
practical application should reinforce the teacher's efforts to use
them again. Also helpful in this section are descriptions of how the
students were evaluated and what outgrowths stemmed from the activity.
A section on limitations has been included for the benefit of
the user. Here, the various problems likely to be encountered are
listed. Limitations such as costs, extra preparation time, and trans-
portation should be well understood before the activity is used. If
any of these limitations appear to create obstacles which in your
particular case might inhibit the implementations of the activity you
may find some helpful suggestions in Appendix 2.
The last section of each activity contains an annotated bibli-
ography of references which are especially helpful in that activity.
Organizations from which you may obtain continuing or new information
are also noted here.
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Chapter 1 Hydrologic Cycle
Water, one of man's most valuable resourses, moves continually
through a cycle from the atmosphere to the earth, over and through the
earth, and to the atmosphere.! Water quality changes as water moves
through the cycle; therefore, an understanding of the cycle enhances an
understanding of water pollution and its prevention. Climatology, geol-
ogy, geography, and petrology, areas of study related to the hydro!ogic
cycle, also aid in this study.
The hydrologic cycle, illustrated in Figure 1-1, shows many reposi-
tories for water and the processes which convey the water from one
point to another.
Figure 1-1 Hydrologic Cycle Schematic
(From Climate and Man 1941 Yearbook of Agriculture)
The flow of water is made up of many smaller cycles. Rain water
can run off into streams and rivers finding its way to the ocean or it
can infiltrate the soil or further downward to become ground water, or
part of the water table. Water can find its way back to the surface in
many ways: it can seep into lakes and streams which are deep enough to
extend into the water table; it can surface through springs or wells; it
can flow from faults where the underlying strata become exposed, or it
can be tapped by the roots of plants.
^Grover and Harrington, Stream Flow Measurements, Records and Their
Uses (New York City: Dover Publications, 1966), p.l.
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
Transpiration, the giving up of water vapor to the atmosphere by
plants, and evaporation from land and water bodies also returns water
vapor to the atmosphere. The cycle continues when pure water condenses
and becomes precipitation.
The cycle is a global cycle, but it can be studied in small regions
by measuring inputs and outputs of water from these areas.
As water flows through the various pathways of the hydrologic cycle,
its quality is often affected. It may pick up nutrients or pollutants
in the form of dissolved solids as it passes through the soil or under-
lying rocks of a region. While it is in vapor form, water may become
contaminated with foreign materials. Evaporation and transpiration are
purification processes which release water vapor back to the air.
Man affects the hydrologic cycle at many points. Man's pollution
of the air adds to the chemical composition of the rain water. Runoff
from fields and gardens often carries nutrients and pollutants from fer-
tilizers, pesticides, and animal wastes. Effluents which man adds to
rivers and other waterways have a direct effect on the hydrologic cycle.
When the flow of water through a system is studied it is also convenient
and necessary to study the flow of nutrients and pollutants which accom-
pany the water.
In this section, the activities focus on parameters of the hydro-
logic cycle and lead to investigations which allow students to evaluate
the total system within a given region. Such evaluations are referred
to as calculating a total budget for a locale. Such activities show
that the inputs minus the outputs of water containing nutrients and
pollutants are equal to the change of storage within the system.
Activities are designed on two levels. The basic level is designed
to give the student an understanding of the water flow through an area
of the cycle. The advanced level gives an understanding of the nutri-
ents and pollutant-flow which accompany the water. Generally, sugges-
tions for maintaining and continuing activity are concerned with the
physical and biological characteristics within the system and lead to
man's effect on the system.
Inherent in the following activities is the need for the delinea-
tion of a location for study. Any study region is possible if its
boundaries are carefully defined. Boundaries include the air above and
a specific depth in the ground below unless a smaller region is chosen.
A conceptual diagram of the hydrologic cycle of an area of study is
outlined in Figure 1-2.
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
-}
I W POT S OltFACE > WATltj
J '
- ?
Figure 1-2 Hydro!ogic Cycle of Study Area
There are few limitations associated with the activities of this
section. Most can be carried out by a teacher in any situation. They
are capable of being performed on driveways, lawns, and football fields,
or in country watersheds. The activities do not encompass all aspects
of the water cycle.
The following skeleton questions serve to outline the scope of the
section:
1. How much precipitation falls on a particular area? Is it
pure water?
2. What happens to the precipitation that falls on soil?
Where does it go? How does it change?
3. What role do plants have in the hydrologic cycle?
4. What is the source of water in streams? Does this water
naturally contain any nutrients?
5. What is the water and nutrient budget for your study area?
The following resources will be found useful throughout the entire
section. Resources of particular interest are listed at the close of
each activity.
Bibliography
Bruce, J. P., and R. H. Clark, Introduction to Hydrometerolgy,
Pergamon Press, New York City, 1966.
Chorley, Richard J., (ed.), Water. Earth and Man, Methuen and Co.,
Ltd., London, 1969. This book is available in the United
States from Barnes & Noble, Inc.
Life Science Library, Water, Time, Inc., New York City, 1966.
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Hydrologic Cycle
Thomas, H. E., The Yearbook of Agriculture, 1955: Mater, U. S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1955.
Ward, R. C., Principles of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.,
New York City, 1967.
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
A. Surface Runoff
I. Introduction
The purpose of this activity is to examine surface runoff and its
relation to the hydro!ogic cycle. The activity can be performed
by a wide range of grade levels and in many types of study sites.
II. Questions
1. To lead into the activity, ask students: What happens to the
precipitation that falls onto the ground?
2. To initiate the activity, ask students:
a. Is it possible to collect precipitation after it strikes
the ground?
b. Will some of this precipitation be on the surface?
c. What is the effect of various surface slopes?
3. To continue the activity, ask students:
a. What is the chemical composition of surface runoff
water?
b. What is the effect of intensity of precipitation?
c. What is the effect of soil moisture?
4. To evaluate the student, consider:
a. With the limitations involved, did the student's method
eliminate as many external variables as possible?
b. How accurate were the measuring techniques?
c. Did his simulated rain approach a natural condition?
d. Did the student relate this exercise to the hydrologic
cycle and the water quality?
e. Did the student realize that runoff is only one "fate"
of precipitated water which strikes the ground?
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
III. Equipment
1. Shovel
2. Standard size watertight dustpan or some similar water
collecting device
3. Several Number 10 cans at least one of which is marked off
in liters and another with holes in the bottom for simulated
rainfall
4. A 1000 ml. beaker
5. Meter stick or ruler
6. Brunton compass or clinometer (homemade device for measuring
slope is also possible)
7. Funnel and filter paper
8. Flask
IV. Procedure
1. basic Level
a. Select a site with a variety of slopes.
b. Determine an area of 20 cm.2 and excavate a shallow
trench on the downhill edge for the runoff collecting
device (dustpan, tray, etc.).
c. Measure angle of the slope with the Brunton compass or
clinometer.
d. Pour one liter of water into a Number 10 can with holes
while holding can over the delineated area.
e. Filter surface runoff collected and measure the volume
to get percent of runoff.
f. Wait 5 minutes and repeat process to get the effect of
increased soil moisture.
g. Select and delineate an adjacent area or similar site
with the same slope. Repeat the process using a differ-
ent intensity of simulated rainfall.
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Hydrologic Cycle
h. Repeat the process in areas of differing slopes.
i. If further studies are desired, repeat the process
using different soil types and vegetation.
2. Advanced Level
a. Collect (as before) the runoff from various sites
showing differences in ground cover, slope, etc.
b. Using a chemical testing kit, determine and compare the
nutrient content of the runoff from these areas.
c. Correlate variable physical and environmental factors
with changes in water quality of surface runoff.
V. Past Studies
1. Students have found that the moisture of the soil from previous
precipitation can have an effect on the amount of runoff.
2. Students have conducted this activity on driveways, near farm
fields, and in various other areas and have seen the
effects of automobile emissions, animal wastes, and fertir
lizers on surface runoff composition.
VI. Limitations
1. Even distribution of simulated rainfall may be difficult to
reproduce.
2. In order to cover many variables, teachers may find it
convenient to break their class down into small groups,
having each assigned an environmental or physical variable
to examine, and to pool data later.
VII. Bibliography
Earth Science Curriculum Project, Investigating the Earth,
Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1967.(Chapter 9 contains a
discussion of the movement of surface and ground water.)
Ward, R. C., Principles of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.,
New York City, 1967. This more advanced text gives a stimu-
lating and complete discussion of surface runoff and its
relation to the hydrologic cycle.
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
B. Infiltration and Percolation: Concepts and Measurements Involved
I. Introduction
This activity acquaints the student with the action of water
absorption, infiltration, and percolation in soil and encourages
him to relate these to the hydrologic cycle and water quality.
The basic level activity may be carried out by 7th graders and
above; the advanced level may be carried out by students who
have a little knowledge of chemistry. The activity will be
carried out in a field or on a lawn where digging temporary
holes is permissible.
II. Questions
!. To lead into the activity, as students:
a. What happens to the precipitation that falls on soil?
b. Where does the water in the soil move and how does it
change?
c. What is the action of water that enters soil?
2. To initiate activity ask students:
a. How would you determine water motion within the soil?
b. What determines the direction of water motion? What
effect does this movement have on water quality?
3. To continue activity ask students:
a. Are there any differences in the speed of water motion?
b. Is there any upward or sideward movement?
c. Does soil type affect the motion or effects of water in
soil?
4. To evaluate the student's performance, consider:
a. Has he demonstrated soil water movement satisfactorily?
b. Was he able to relate infiltration to possible changes
in water quality?
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
c. Does he explain where much of the water he uses goes?
d. Is he concerned as to the effects of the use of tracer
dye?
e. Does he relate man's activities to a possible role in
the quality of infiltrated water?
III. Equipment
1. Basic Level
a. Digging tools
b. Nontoxic dye such as fluorescent Pyla-Tel tracer dye
(food coloring is also possible)
c. Several 10-qt. buckets and other large containers
d. Timing instruments
e. Meter Stick
f. Filter paper, Kleenex, paper towels, or toilet paper
g. Aluminum edging fence
Advanced Level
a. Nonpoisonous leaching chemical, such as sodium phosphate
b. Funnels
c. Sample bottles
d. Hach, Delta or LaMotte kit or suitable qualitative chem-
istry testing kit
e. Soil collection bags
f. Beakers
g. Pipettes and rubber tubing
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
IV. Procedures
1. Basic Level
a. Have students set up a 30 cm. diameter circle of aluminum
edging fence.
b. Have students calculate how long it takes for a given
quantity of water to penetrate the soil after it is
poured into the enclosed area.
c. Have students compare times from various areas.
d. Have students excavate a 15 cm. diameter hole, which is
30 cm. or more deep.
e. Have students excavate smaller holes around the original
hole at various distances from it.
f. Have students fill the original hole with the tracer dye
solution.
g. Have students make periodic checks in the surrounding
holes with absorbent papers to determine flow of water
and dye.
2. Advanced Level
a. Have students excavate an additional experimental hole
and distribute a known quantity of the nontoxic soluble
chemical at the base of this hole.
b. Have students add enough water to bring the concentra-
tion of the solute to 0.1M in the hole.
c. Have students excavate test holes around the original at
various intervals, (between 't cm. and 35 cm.)
d. After appropriate time delay, have students collect moist
soil or accumulated water samples from the surrounding
holes. These can be placed in bags and collection can
be facilitated with tubing and pipettes.
e. Have students test these samples with chemical testing
kits, using the test appropriate for the test chemical
used. This can be a qualitative or quantitative consid-
eration. The student should test control samples from
the same area.
f. Have students compare and contrast their results.
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
V. Past Studies
Past studies show that the flow through the soil test holes will
be enhanced if they are placed on an incline.
VI. Limitations
1. This activity can be done almost anywhere with simple equip-
ment depending on a teacher's resources.
2. Surrounding holes can be made with an auger and be much
smaller if time-saving is a factor. Do not place the sur-
rounding holes too far from the original. Please be sure
to get permission of property owners before you go to work.
VII. Bibliography
Monkhouse, F. J., A Dictionary of Geography, Arnold, London,
1965. This gives dictionary meanings of leaching, infil-
tration, etc., as they pertain to geography.
Strahler, A., Physical Geography, (2nd ed.), John Wiley & Sons,
New York City, 1960. This text contains good information
on hydro!ogic cycle and infiltration, with diagrams.
U. S. Department of the Interior, A Primer on Water, U. S. Gov-
ernment Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1960. This
gives very good information on runoff and infiltration under
different conditions.
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
C. Transpiration: The Concepts and Measurements Involved
I. Introduction
This activity enables students to acquire an understanding of
transpiration and its relationship to the hydrologic cycle.
Seventh graders and above may complete this activity on the
basic level.
II. Questions
1. To lead into activity ask students: What is transpiration
and how does transpiration relate to the hydrologic cycle?
2. To initiate activity ask students:
a. Can a way be devised to measure the rate of transpiration
and determine the factors that limit it?
b. How accurate is this method?
3. To continue activity ask students: How would the transpira-
tion rate change in relation to changes in physical factors
and man's activities such as air pollution?
4. To evaluate the students' performance consider:
a. Did the students gain an understanding of the transpira-
tion process?
b. Did the students devise new tehcniques for demonstrating
transpiration?
c. Did the students relate the process to the hydrologic
cycle?
III. Equipment
1. Basic Level
a. Small potted plant
b. Bell jar
c. Flat surface for bell jar such as a glass plate
d. Plastic scalable bags
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
e. Small graduated cylinder
f. Sensitive balance or scale (±0.1 g.)
g. Vaseline
2. Advanced Level
a. 500 ml. Erlenmyer flask
b. 2-hole rubber stopper to fit flask
c. Glass tubing
d. 20 cm. of rubber tubing
e. Small leafy plant
f. 1-ml. pipette
g. Burette clamp
h. Ring stand
i. Timing device
IV. Procedures
1. Basic Level
a. Have students place a potted plant under a sealed bell
jar.
b. Have students make observations for a short period of time.
c. Have students alter some physical factors and make new
observations.
d. Record and discuss all observations,
or,
a. Have students find a tree with leaves low enough to
reach.
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Hydrologic Cycle
b. Have each student enclose a leaf in a plastic bag.
c. Have students wait an appreciable amount of time and
collect bags.
d. Have students quantitatively determine the amount of
water transpired.
e. Have students record and compare results. Ask them
where the water came from and where it goes.
2. Advanced Level
a. Have students set up apparatus as outlined in Figure
1-1.
b. Have students fill the system completely with water
and record the quantity of water used by the plant at
various intervals.
c. Have students graph the data.
d. Have students repeat the experiment altering some
physical factors.
e. Have students outline the relationship of physical
factors to transpiration.
V. Past Studies
1. Students on the elementary and early secondary levels
marveled at the collection of water by enclosing a leaf
in a plastic bag.
2. Students at the 10th grade level were excited to find
that plants give the atmosphere such a large quantity of
water. One student devised a quantitative method to
measure the amount of water a tree transpired in 24 hours,
3. Students at the 10th grade level were able to qualify
the difference in transpiration between shaded and un-
shaded leaves and leaves of different sizes.
VI. Limitations
There are no limitations foreseen. Teachers should caution
their students that procedures calling for sealed containers
should be closely followed.
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Hydrologic Cycle
VII. Bibliography
Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, High School Biology, Green
Version, (2nd ed.), Rand McNally & Co. , Chicago, 1968T This
is an easy reading basic biology test. Transpiration is
treated on pages 447-449 and includes detailed procedure for
a laboratory investigation of transpiration.
De Wiest, R. J. M., Geohydrology, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
York City, 1965. This is a highly technical treatment of all
aspects of the engineer's concerns; however, the treatment of
transpiration is brief, simple and useful. (See pp. 47-49).
Hill, J. B., and others, Botany, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York
City. This is a collegiate text but easy enough for the good
high school student. There are references to the physiological
aspects of transpiration.
Leopold, Luna, and Walter Langbein, A Primer on Water, U. S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1960.This is a simple
pamphlet with good diagrams which are well worth having in the
classroom. It runs the gamut from the water cycle to water
purification systems, to farm irrigation, and to legal aspects.
Water in relation to plants and soil is treated on pages 26-27.
Morholt, Evelyn, Paul Brandwein, and Alexander Joseph, A Sourcebook
for the Biological Sciences, (2nd ed.), Harcourt, Brace &
World, Inc., New York City, 1966. This is a must for every
biology teacher. Use in this activity for directions for demon-
strating transpiration and plant physiology.
U. S. Department of Agriculture, The Yearbook of Agriculture, 1955:
Water, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, 15". C.,
1955. This is an excellent reference for the price ($2.00).
It deals with water in connection with agriculture, forestry,
and wildlife. It is easy reading with good diagrams and lots
of statistics, although it is a bit old now.
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
Figure 1-3 Diagram for Advanced Procedure
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hydro!ogic Cycle
U. Soil Evaporation and Transpiration
I. Introduction
The purpose of this activity is to provide the student with an
understanding of transpiration and its relationship to soil
moisture content. It is applicable to a wide range of grade
levels and study areas.
II. Questions
1. To lead into the activity ask students:
a. What happens to the water taken up by plant roots?
b. Where does it come from?
c. Where does it go?
2. To initiate activity ask students:
a. Does the use of soil water by plants have any effect
which can be measured in terms of a difference in soil
moisture content in a vegetated or unvegetated area?
b. Does a covering of plants have any effect on the evapor-
ation of moisture from soil?
3. To continue the activity ask students:
a. How might man's land-use activities affect the hydrologic
cycle through an effect on plants and their transpiration?
b. Is transpiration a "good" or "bad" thing in relation to
the role of water in our lives?
4. To evaluate the student's performance, consider:
a. Does he weigh the idea that vegetation inhibits precipi-
tation runoff with the idea that vegetation increases
depletion of soil moisture by transpiration?
b. Does he realize the multirole of plants in the hydrologic
cycle?
III. Equipment
1. A coleus or geranium plant
2. Vaseline
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
3. Soil auger
4. Plastic bags (sandwich bags are excellent)
5. Trowel or small shovel
6. Balance
7. Meter stick
8. Oven or drying device
9. Six tall juice cans
10. Masking tape
11. Seeds of a convenient plant
IV. Procedure
1. Have the students pick four leaves from the plants.
2. Have the students coat the top side of one leaf, the bottom
of another and both sides of a third with vaseline.
3. Have students check the leaves in 24 arid 48 hours.
4. Have students discuss the condition of the leaves in rela-
tion to the untreated leaf and relate this to the biological
role leaves play in transpiration and the water cycle,
or,
1. Have students clear the vegetation from a square of ground
which is 30 cm. per side.
2. Have students take soil samples at various depths.
3. Have students determine the moisture content of these samples
by weighing, drying, and reweighing.
4. The next day, have students take 3 more samples from the
denuded plot and 3 from a vegetated area nearby.
5. Have students determine moisture content of each.
6. Have students discuss the results in terms of the hydrologic
cycle and transpiration,
or,
22
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Hydrologic Cycle
1. Have students place an equal amount of soil in each of 6 juice
cans.
2. Have students add an equal amount of water to each and plant
seeds in 2 of them.
3. Have students cover all the cans with plastic.
4. When the seeds begin to germinate have students uncover the
cans with planted seeds and 2 of the other cans.
5. After 3 days of plant growth, remove the plants and take an
equal weight of soil from each of the cans and determine the
moisture content.
6. Have students compare the moisture contents of each and dis-
cuss the mechanisms which cause different moisture amounts
in each of the 3 types of "can" situations.
V. Past Studies
1. Students have been able to show graphically that soil loses
more water when vegetated than it does in a denuded area
where only evaporation takes place.
2. Students have often been stimulated to argue whether the role
of plants is important in the hydrologic cycle. Replacement
of atmospheric moisture must be weighed with the importance
of soil moisture to man.
VI. Limitations
There are no foreseeable limitations in this exercise although
some parts extend over a lengthy time period. A site location
and materials collection should be no problem.
VII. Bibliography
Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, High School Biology, Green
Version, Rand McNally & Co., Chicago, 1968.This text
provides an explanation of transpiration and ideas for
developing other demonstration projects.
Leopold, Luna, and Walter Langbein, A Primer on Water, U. S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1960. An
excellent pamphlet which deals specifically with the relation
of plants, transpiration, and soil moisture.
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Hydrologic Cycle
Morholt, Evelyn, Paul Brandwein, and Alexander Joseph, A_
Sourcebook for the Biological Sciences, Harcourt, Brace &
World, Inc., New York City, 1966. This reference treats
the physiology of transpiration.
Ward, R. C., Principles of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.,
New York City, 1967. This advanced but excellent text gives
a complete and stimulating coverage of transpiration and its
relation to the hydrologic cycle.
Wilson, Carl, and Walter E. Loomis, Botany, Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, New York City, 1962. A standard reference for
botany, this text treats the biology of transpiration.
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
E. Evapotranspiration
I. Introduction
The purpose of this activity is to show that on a small grassy
area water leaves the grass and enters the atmosphere by the
process of evapotranspi ration. It is a suitable activity for
a beginning study of the hydrologic cycle. Seventh graders can
easily do this study and young students will enjoy it if the
teacher helps them with the water testing.
II. Questions
1. To lead into the activity ask students:
a. Have you ever noticed water collecting on the under-
side of a waterproof material after it has been on the
ground?
b. Where did this water come from?
2. To initiate activity ask students: Can you collect and/or
measure the water from the underside of a waterproof material
after letting the material lie on a grassy area in the sun?
3. To continue the activity ask students:
a. How does the process of transpiration fit into the hydro-
logic cycle?
b. Do you think transpired water is pure?
c. Is this important?
4. To evaluate the students performance consider:
a. Does the student seem to understand the concept of trans-
piration and its relation to the hydrologic cycle?
b. Did he develop additional approaches and techniques for
demonstrating and measuring transpiration?
III. Equipment
1. A plastic sheet (preferably mounted on a stiff form, such as
a form cut from a cardboard box and a clear sheet of plastic
or cellophane stapled to its edges works well)
25
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
2. A small container to collect water from the plastic
3. Water testing kit for advanced study
IV. Procedure
1. Place the collecting equipment on grass, preferably in
sunlight, and leave it there for 30 minutes or more.
2. Collect or observe droplets of moisture which have collected
on the underside of the plastic.
3. If enough water is obtained, chemical testing procedures may
be employed to determine such factors as total dissolved
solids.
V. Past Studies
Students in many situations have been able to appreciate the
demonstration of transpiration and its relationship to the water
cycle by using this experiment.
VI. Limitations
There are no limitations in this experiment.
VII. Bibliography
Earth Science Curriculum Project, Investigating the Earth,
Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1967. This standard text
gives a short treatment of transpiration on p. 215.
Ward, R. C., Principles of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.,
New York City, 1967. This excellent text gives a coverage of
evapotranspiration and its relation to the hydrologic cycle.
Many ideas for continuing study projects can be found.
Wilson, Carl, and Walter E. Loomis, Botany, Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, New York City, 1962. A standard botany text, this
source covers the biology of transpiration.
26
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hydro!ogic Cycle
F. Infiltration: Its Effect on Water Quality
I. Introduction
This activity demonstrates the change in precipitation water
quality as it passes through soil using a lab model. This
activity is applicable to a range of grade levels. Seventh
graders can complete this activity if the teacher assists with
the dissolved solids tests. Students with some chemistry back-
ground can do the activities themselves.
II. Questions
1. To lead to the activity ask:
a. What happens to rainwater after it strikes the soil?
b. Does some soak in?
c. Does this change its quality?
2. To initiate the activity ask:
a. How any quality change that occurs during infiltration
may be measured?
3. To continue the activity ask:
a. What would the variance in change be if two samples of
different soil composition were tested?
b. What would happen in test areas of different vegetation?
4. To evaluate the student's performance consider:
a. Was he effective in using testing equipment and becoming
skilled in testing techniques?
b. Was he able to decide on logical choices for dissolved
solids tests for his type of soil?
c. Was he eager to improve on the experiment and make attempts
to devise new experiments for testing changes in precip-
itated water quality?
d. Did he check the distilled water to find the pH and any
minerals which were already present?
27
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
III. Equipment
1. Chemical testing equipment
2. Sample box with screened bottom
3. Shovel
4. Collecting pan
5. Rainwater or distilled water
6. Number 10 can
7. Funnel (optional)
8. Ringstand (optional)
9. Funnel holder (optional)
10. Filter paper (optional)
11. Beakers (optional)
12. Number 10 nail or punch
IV. Procedures
1. Take a soil sample from the area chosen for study.
Soil samples can be up to one cubic foot (30 - 45 kilo-
grams). Bring the sample back to the lab.
2. Spread the sample in the sample box with the screened
bottom.
3. Make a rain simulator by taking a Number 10 can and per-
forating the bottom with a nail or punch.
4. Measure out one liter of the test water.
5. Simulate rain on the soil sample by pouring your liter
of water into the perforated can and collecting the
seepage in a collection pan placed below the screened box.
6. Do appropriate dissolved solid tests on the seepage col-
lected.
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Hydrologic Cycle
V. Past Studies
1. Some students recorded high iron and copper content in seep-
age water until they realized that their screening was
affecting their results.
2. Students discovered that filtering seepage resulted in
facilitating colorimetric chemical testing.
3. Some students have used rainwater in conducting the experi-
ment. By testing water quality of rainwater and seepage, a
more realistic presentation of the effect of infiltration on
water quality was found.
VI. Limitations
1. This exercise requires a general knowledge in recognizing
dissolved solids and testing for them. Teachers should
let their students decide on the appropriate dissolved solids
tests for the soil sample collected.
2. Careful rain simulation is necessary for realistic and
uniform distribution.
3. Sites should be chosen that are representative and easily
accessible.
VII. Bibliography
Leopold, Luna, and waiter Langbein, A Primer on water. U. S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1960. This
inexpensive pamphlet contains a good description of infil-
tration in various conditions.
Strahlet, A. N., Physical Geography, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York City, i960.Fhis reference contains good general
information on the hydrologic cycle and infiltration diagrams.
Ward, R. C., Principles of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York City, 1967. An excellent general source, this text
contains a detailed and stimulating coverage of infiltration
and its relationship to water quality and the hydrologic
cycle.
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
G. Ground Water Seepage
I. Introduction
This activity demonstrates that rock and soil minerals are dis-
solved in water as it moves from the surface to ground water
and relates these nutrient changes to the water cycle. Students
in a range of grade levels may complete this activity as the
extent of testing is adaptable to the ability of the group. Any
area where ground water seeps to the surface or is otherwise
available for collection is a possible study site.
II. Questions
1. To lead into the activity ask students: Does water quality
change when it soaks into the ground?
2. To initiate the activity ask students:
a. Where can we collect ground water samples?
b. How can we determine the composition of the water quality
change?
3. To continue the activity ask students:
a. How does the change in water quality take place?
b. If this type of solution continues, what will happen to
the soil and rocks of the area?
4. To evaluate the student's efforts consider:
a. Has the student demonstrated how and why seepage water
is of different composition than surface or rainwater?
b. Has the student made any reasonable conclusions as to
where the dissolved materials in the seepage water will
finally accumulate?
c. Does the student relate leaching to a role in the changing
water quality and nutrient composition in the hydrologic
cycle?
d. Does the student realize that infiltration can also be
a water purification mechanism?
e. Does the student relate man's activities and their pos-
sible effect on the quality of ground water?
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
III. Equipment
1. 5 to 10 collection bottles (sterile)
2. Water chemistry testing kit (qualitative or quantitative)
3. Water bacterial analysis materials
IV. Procedure
1. Select an area of rock or soil where seepage of ground water
to the surface is evident.
2. Collect 5 to 10 bottles of water for water chemistry and
bacterial tests.
3. Test the water qualitatively or quantitatively as time
and resources permit.
V. Past Studies
Students and teachers have found that if areas of ground water
seepage are inaccessible, an examination of well or spring
water is feasible.
VI. Limitations
The major limitation of this activity is the determination of a
site with suitable flow for study; however, such seepage is found
throughout the country.
VII. Bibliography and Resources
Baldwin, Helene I., A Primer on Ground Water, U. S. Government Print-
ting Office, Washington, D.C., 1963.TnTs is an excellent pam-
phlet for introductory treatment of ground water.
Ward, R. C., Principles of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.,
New York City, 1967. This somewhat advanced text gives a
complete coverage of ground water and contains ideas for
stimulated students to develop into projects.
Teachers are also advised to contact their state and local Federal
agencies for information on ground water resources of particular
areas. The Soil Conservation Service is a particularly helpful
agency.
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Hydrologic Cycle
H. Transpiration and Plant Uptake
I. Introduction
This activity is designed to help students realize that water is
being taken in and given off by plants as part of the water cycle.
It can be carried out in varying degrees beginning at the 1st
grade level. Few time and travel problems occur because local
weeds, shrubs and trees may easily be found in the immediate area.
II. Questions
1. To lead into the activity ask:
a. What happens to a plant if it is not watered?
b. Why do plants have to be watered more than once?
c. What is happening to the water?
2. To initiate the activity ask:
a. How is water released from the plant and why don't we
see it?
b. How can we show that water is being given off?
c. How can we measure how much water is being given off?
3. To continue the activity ask:
a. If a small plant gives off a given amount of water, how
much does an oak tree give off?
b. How much would a forest give off in a certain time
period?
c. Are the biological activities of plants involved in pollu-
tion?
d. Does a given plant give off an equal amount of water from
day to day or under variable physical conditions?
4. To evaluate the student's performance consider:
a. Did the student devise methods for measuring the uptake
and release of water by plants?
b. Were his techniques successful in visibly demonstrating
transpiration?
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
c. Did the student realize the role of plants in the hydro-
logic cycle and possible pollution from plants in a natural
environment?
III. Equipment
1. Plastic bags (one per student)
2. Twist wires for tightening bags around plant stems
3. Bucket
4. Graduated cylinder or some equivalent means of liquid
measure
5. Spade
6. Aluminum foil
IV. Procedures
1. Transpiration activity
a. Locate a place on your campus where there are small plants
with stems so structured that plastic bags can be slipped
over the end. l-.'eeds are ideal (e.g., milkweed).
b. Have each student slip his bag over the end of a stem so
that it will cover as many leaves as possible. Use the
twist wires to tighten the open end around the stem securely.
c. have the students return the next day and cut off the stem
with the bag on it. Bring it back to the classroom and
measure the amount of water that has collected in the bag.
2. Plant Uptake Activity
a. Have the students dig up two or more plants, getting as much
of the root system as possible. Remove all soil from the
roots and place each in a bucket containing a measured
amount of water covering the roots.
b. Have the students check the amount of water in the bucket
at various later times.
V. Past Studies
1. Students have found that they can demonstrate transpiration
using a plant under a bell jar.
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
2. Although students at a particular school found that evapor-
ation from all the plant uptake buckets was uniform, they
devised a method using aluminum foil for eliminating evapor-
ation as a variable.
3. Other students placed transparent plastic sheets on their
lawn and observed the transpired water collecting under them.
VI. Limitations
1. Teachers should try to prevent other students at the school
from disrupting the transpiration experiment.
2. Teachers can avoid problems by locating suitable plants on
their campus before the students begin work.
VII. Bibliography
Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, High School Biology,
Green Versjon, Rand McNally and Co., Chicago, 1968. Writ-
ten for the high school level, this text contains a descrip-
tion of transpiration and ideas for further experiments.
Ward, R. C., Principles of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.,
New York City, 1967.This excellent, more advanced refer-
ence contains a stimulating discussion of transpiration and
its relation to the water cycle.
Wilson, Carl, and Walter E. Loomis, Botany, Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, New York City, 1962. A standard botany text, this
reference contains information on the biology of transpira-
tion.
34
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
I. Erosion: The Effects of Water on Soil
I. Introduction
The purpose of this activity is to demonstrate the erosion
effects of water runoff on various types of soil and slopes.
It is a possible "beginning" activity for students at any
level of understanding and is capable of being performed on
any nearby eroded area.
II. Questions
1. To lead into the activity:
a. Are there any hills or cliffs in your area that are
being eroded?
b. How does the runoff water affect these hillsides?
c. Does the type of soil composition have any effect on
the erosion rate?
2. To initiate activity:
a. What soil composition do these hills have?
b. What is the slope of these hills?
c. How can we measure the ability of water to change
the structure of different soils on a slope?
3. To continue activity:
a. What types of plant life, if any, are found on these
hillsides?
b. Are similar types of plants found in all soil types?
c. How does plant growth seem to affect erosion?
d. How can the amount of rainfall be measured on indi-
vidual hills?
e. How can erosion rates be determined?
f. What are other physical factors in erosion?
4. To evaluate the students' performances:
a. Were the students able to identify various soil types
as to their resistance to erosion?
35
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
b. Were the students able to correlate slope to erosion?
c. Did the students recognize the forces other than water
which act upon the soil?
III. Equipment
1. Rain gauge
2. Meter stick
3. Protractor or clinometer
4. Stakes
5. Hammer
IV. Procedures
1. Have students visit the erosion site and set up rainfall
gauge.
2. Have students drive measured stakes into the ground at the
top, middle, and bottom of the area.
3. Have students measure the slope of the area.
4. Have students describe the soil of the site.
5. Have students examine and describe the plant life of the
area and the root structure of particularly abundant species.
6. After the next rainfall, have students visit the site and
repeat the previous procedures.
7. Have students calculate the amount of soil eroded off a
specific area using the comparative before-and-after measure-
ments from their stakes.
8. Have students correlate the amount of rainfall, slope, vege-
tation, etc., with the amount of erosion.
V. Past Studies
1. Students have often been amazed at the amount of soil which
can erode off an unprotected hillside in a single rainstorm.
2. Some studies have included graphs correlating slope with amount
of erosion.
36
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
3. Students have often been impressed at the amount of solid
material that may enter a stream from such a hillside. The
link between erosion and water pollution becomes visibly
evident.
VI. Limitations
1. Teachers may have difficulty finding a site suitable for
study. Housing developments and road construction areas
can suffice, though open mining pits and steep unprotected
hillsides usually provide the best study sites.
2. There are few other limitations to the study although the
time period should be noted as this is a continuing study.
VII. Bibliography
Coleman, Edward A., Vegetation and Watershed Management, Ronald
Press Co., New York City, 1953.
Earth Science Curriculum Project, Investigating the Earth,
Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1966. This text contains a
description of water forces and their cause of erosion.
Ward, R. C., Principles of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York City, 1967. This rather advanced reference con-
tains a readable and stimulating treatment of water runoff.
37
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
J. Diffusion: Demonstration of Water's Solvent and Diffusion Properties
I. Introduction
The purpose of this activity is to demonstrate the diffusion of
materials in water. Being a lab activity it is easily applicable
to most teaching situations and a range of grade levels.
II. Questions
1. To lead into the activity:
a. What is water?
b. What is a solvent?
c. What is diffusion?
d. Is it possible to use elements, compounds, or both, to
demonstrate diffusion and the rate of diffusion?
2. To initiate activity:
a. How long does it take for differing chemicals to diffuse
in water?
b. Is there a difference in their diffusion rates?
3. To continue activity:
a. Is there a noticeable difference in diffusion of organic
and inorganic chemicals in water?
b. How do effluent wastes from man's activities diffuse?
4. To evaluate the student's performance consider:
a. Did the student relate diffusion to water pollution?
b. Did the student realize the importance of water's solvent
properties in the hydrologic cycle and water pollution?
c. Did he demonstrate varying differences in diffision rates
of various test compounds he chose?
III. Equipment
1. Suitable test chemicals such as potassium permanganate
copper sulfate (CuSfy), iodine, and elemental iron
2. Beakers and flasks
38
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Hydrologic Cycle
3. Effluent wastes from man's activities such as water from
washing or cooking vegetables, sludge from a sewage plant,
factory effluents from local industries, animal wastes
from barns, detergents, etc.
4. Stopwatch
5. Bunsen burner, ring stand, asbestos screen
6. Balance
7. Filter paper
IV. Procedures
1. Add crystals or drops of test chemicals to beakers of water.
2. Observe and time the rate of diffusion throughout the solvent.
3. Have the students do the same with the various test effluents
they have selected.
4. If students select a test material which does not completely
dissolve, have them separate the undissolved material; dry
and weigh it to determine the percentage of their material
which has diffused.
V. Past Studies
Students have easily been able to relate what they have seen in
this activity in the laboratory to what they see as effects of
man on local rivers.
VI. Limitations
Teachers should caution their students about the dangers involved
in the use of sewage wastes.
VII. Bibliography
Earth Science Curriculum Project, Investigating the Earth,
Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1966.
Leopold, Luna, and Walter Langbein, Water, Time, Inc., New York
City, 1968.
U. S. Department of Agriculture, The Yearbook of Agriculture, 1955:
Water, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. ,1955.
39
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Hydrologic Cycle
K. Ground Water: An Examination of the Source of Water in Streams
I. Introduction
The purpose of this activity is to examine ground water as
the source of water in streams. This activity is recommended
for the high school level where it can be conducted successfully
after the location of a small stream which is convenient for
study. This activity requires more than an hour and one-half
to complete.
II. Questions
1. To lead into the activity:
a. Where does stream water come from?
b. What is ground water?
2. To initiate activity:
a. How can one demonstrate ground water as the possible
source of water in streams?
b. How does one collect ground water?
c. What is contained in ground water?
3. To continue activity:
a. How does the ground water differ at various points
along the stream?
b. How does the terrain affect the ground water?
c. What other factors might affect the ground water?
4. To evaluate the student's performance:
a. Does the student understand the relationship between
ground water and stream water?
b. Does the student relate man's activities to a possible
role in the pollution of ground water?
c. Has the student demonstrated the source of water in
the stream picked for study?
40
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
III. Equipment
1. Core sampler
2. Sledgehammer
3. Shovel
4. The rmotne te r
5. Siphon or ladle
6. Sample bottles
7. Meter stick
8. Filtering equipment
9. Dissolved solids water chemistry testing kit
IV. Procedure
1. Have the students excavate test holes in the land beside a
stream. These can be placed at varying distances away from
the stream.
2. Have the students measure the depth to which water fills
these holes.
3. Have the students take samples of the water from various test
holes.
4. Have the students test the composition of the water from their
test holes. Hint: To use colorimetric testing procedures,
filtering or centrifuging of the samples may be necessary.
5. Have the students compare the composition of the water from
their test holes with a sample taken from the stream itself.
V. Past Studies
1. Students often have found that by placing their test holes too
far from the stream they were unable to obtain any water samples.
A graphic illustration of the concept of a water table was thus
evident.
2. In some situations students were able to see that the water depth
in their test holes was very close to that of the stream.
41
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Hydrologic Cycle
3. Comparable water quality composition from the test holes and
stream is often found, indicating a common source. Students
have extrapolated that the water in the stream is most prob-
ably from the water table they isolated in their test holes.
VI. Limitations
1. Teachers may have trouble finding a stream convenient for
this study. However, any small stream will do. Those with-
out steep banks are particularly useful as the students will
have a large area of lowland in which to dig their holes
with a probability of obtaining water in them.
2. Filtering and centrifuging the water samples is often neces-
sary as the suspended solids content of the samples is often
high. This can be done with standard equipment.
3. Students should not be discouraged if there is not immediate
filling of their test holes. The holes may not be deep
enough!
4. Core samplers have a habit of clogging. Patience is required.
VII. Bibliography
Ward, R. C., Principles of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.,
New York City, 1967. Stimulating ideas and explanations of
ground water and stream source are found in this somewhat
advanced but easily readable reference.
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
L. Precipitation: Measurement and Evaluation
I. Introduction
This activity introduces the student to precipitation in the
hydrologic cycle as the input of water and input vehicle of
nutrients to a study area. It is a possible study for all
grade levels and is capable of being performed anywhere it
rains.
II. Questions
1. To lead into the activity:
a. What is rain and how does it form?
b. What does it contain or is it pure?
2. To initiate activity:
a. How can we collect and measure the amount of pre-
cipitation that falls on a particular area?
b. What is the water quality of the precipitation?
3. To continue activity:
a. What role does the chemical and nutrient composition
of precipitation play in the system?
b. By what means does precipitation pick up dissolved
chemi cals?
c. Does the composition of snowfall resemble the compo-
sition of rain?
d. What other means of nutrient input to study areas are
there?
4. To evaluate the student's performance:
a. Did the student devise a means of collecting pre-
cipitation so that he could accurately determine the
amount and quality of the sample he obtained?
b. Did the student understand the role of the nutrient
input of precipitation as far as the system and its
ecology is concerned?
43
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
c. Did the student demonstrate the presence of dissolved
solids in precipitation?
III. Equipment
1. Basic Level
a. Funnels
b. Collection bottles
c. Evaporating dishes
d. Bunsen burner
e. Large, flat procelain dishes up to one inch deep
f. Rulers
2. Advanced Level
a. Demineralizing water wash bottles
b. Chemical testing kit for water quality determination
IV. Procedures
1. Basic Level
a. Have the student collect precipitation in procelain
pans.
b. Have the student calculate how much has fallen in
inches.
c. Have the student evaporate to dryness some of'the col-
lection and observe the residual solid content.
2. Advanced Level
a. Have the student rinse all apparatus with distilled
and then with demineralized water.
b. Have the student collect precipitation as above.
c. Have the student quantitatively analyze the nutrient
content of his collection.
44
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Hydrologic Cycle
V. Past Studies
1. Students have been able to compare the composition of pre-
cipitation from open areas, under trees, near factories,
etc., and through discussion, have been able to realize the
effects of these physical and biological characteristics on
the system.
2. Students have often been able to gain an appreciation of
nitrogen cycle by measuring nitrate input in precipitation.
3. Students have found nitrate, sulfate, chloride, fluoride,
pH, and total dissolved solids, particularly useful deter-
minations in chemical testing.
4. Students often have shown interest in developing new methods
of precipitation collection.
VI. Limitations
1. There are few limitations in this study, particularly since
it is capable of being performed on two levels or more.
2. It can be completed almost anywhere.
3. Teachers should make sure that all apparatus used in advanced
study has been thoroughly rinsed and demineralized. After
such a process it should not be touched as even the dissolved
solid content of sweat may affect results.
4. The nutrient content of rain is often very low.
5. The precipitation should be transferred to collection bottles
soon after its collection, as evaporation from collection
pans will concentrate nutrient composition abnormally.
VII. Bibliography
Borman, F. H., and G. E. Likens, "Nutrient Cycling," Science, 27
January 1967, 155:424-429. This article gives a scientific
but easily readable treatment of the role of precipitation
in nutrient cycling.
Fisher, D. W., e^t a^, "Atmospheric Contributions to Water Quality
of Streams in Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New
Hampshire," Water Resources Research, October, 1968, 4:1115-
1126.
45
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
Likens, G. E., et^ a_l_, "The Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, and
Sodium Budgets for a Small Forested Ecosystem," Ecology,
Late Summer, 1967, 48:772-785. This is a scientific but
stimulating review of precipitation collection procedures.
Ward, R. C., Principles of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York City, 1967.
46
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Hydrologic Cycle
M. The Water Budget of a Small Watershed
I. Introduction
The purpose of this activity is to introduce the student to the
hydrologic and nutrient cycle budgets of a small watershed. It
is an advanced-level study and is best attempted by the student
who has completed a number of the hydrologic cycle activities.
II. Questions
1. To lead into activity:
a. If we outline any particular area of land, what are the
mechanisms by which water enters that area?
b. What are the mechanisms by which it leaves the area?
c. What changes are seen in the form of water while it is
in the area?
2. To initiate the activity:
a. On a particular area of land, what is the total yearly
input of water?
b. What is the total yearly output of water?
c. By what mechanisms does water enter and leave the area?
3. To continue the activity:
a. Within the particular area, what nutrients enter and
leave using the hydrologic cycle as a vehicle?
b. What physical and biological characteristics of the
system affect the amount of water and nutrients flowing
through it?
c. Is it possible to calculate a nutrient and water budget
for the area of study?
4. To evaluate the student's performance consider:
a. Although it will be unusual to have calculated a bal-
anced watershed budget, does the student display an
understanding of such a budget?
47
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Hydro!ogic Cycle
b. Did the student realize that the input minus the output
equals the change in storage within the system?
c. Were the techniques and references used by the student
to calculate input and output reasonable and success-
ful?
d. Did he realize that a long term study is essential for
an accurate calculation of a hydro!ogic or nutrient
budget?
e. Was he aware of the discrepancies involved in such an
activity and did he attempt to explain them?
III. Equipment
1. References of climatological and hydro!ogical data for the
area of study
2. Equipment for measurement and testing of precipitation,
transpiration, evaporation, and flow which has been out-
lined in previous activities and which depends on the number
of parameters the student chooses to study within the partic-
ular area
3. Topographic maps and long-distance measuring devices
IV. Procedures
1. Have the student delineate an area for study.
2. Have the student calculate the area of his system.
3. Have the student calculate the yearly precipitation input.
4. Have the student identify and measure other system inputs.
5. have student identify and measure other system outputs.
6. Using extrapolation techniques and his own and reference data,
if available, have the student calculate the hydrologic
budget for the area.
7. Have the student collect samples of water from various in-
puts (e.g., precipitation) and outputs (e.g., outflow).
8. Have students chemically analyze the water quality for nu-
trients.
9. Using extrapolation techniques and his own and reference data,
if available, have the student calculate the nutrient budget
of the area.
48
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Hydrologic Cycle
V. Past Studies
1. Students in one study were surprised to see that the sulfate
input of their precipitation was nearly equal to the output
in the outflow but that most of the nitrate input of pre-
cipitation remained within the system.
2. Calculated budgets have often been "unbalanced" by as much
as 50%, but students have often been stimulated by the ques-
tions of what happened to all the precipitation that fell,
and why is this stream still running in such a period of
drought.
VI. Limitations
1. The study will be much facilitated if the teacher encour-
ages students to delineate small natural watersheds as
their area of study.
2. Teachers may have trouble locating a watershed which is both
small enough for feasible study and which has a flowing stream
in it.
3. This activity is most valuable as the culminating experience
in an examination of hydrology. Students are able to put as
many previously learned techniques and understanding to work
as they can.
4. Teachers should not forget the importance of continuing data
collection in the study of this type. If this can be arranged,
the activity becomes a continuing one and its value will be
greatly enhanced. If this cannot be arranged, an understanding
of the concepts involved is very possible, but the quality of
the budget calculated will inherently be low.
VII. Bibliography
Borman, F. H., and G. E. Likens, "Nutrient Cycling," Science,
27 January 1967, 155:424-429. This is a scientific but read-
able account of the concepts and work which has been done in
this area at Hubbard Brook Experiment Forest in New Hampshire.
The study is a continuous one and the motivated student will
find further references in its bibliography and in more recent
publications.
Ward, R. C., Principles of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York
City, 1967.
49
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Chapter 2 Human Activities
Any human activity involving water, affects the hydrologic cycle.
Therefore, it is important to see how man's activities cause changes and
it is important to evaluate these changes. In many cases there is a
pressing need to reverse damage now being done and to correct the errors
of the past. These activities show how the individual, the family, and
the community affect our water resources.
Today, individuals consume and discharge water in greater quantities
than ever before. However, today most people obtain a quality of water
that is offered to them by a central supplier in the community. In a
similar manner, their waste water is discharged into a community service
system. In effect, the individual may control his supply and disposal of
water only in an indirect manner. He many not wish to pollute the near-
by lakes and streams but if his sewage is processed centrally he cannot
prevent the polluting unless he can exert enough political or economic
force to redirect the efforts of his community.
Industry has developed in the United States as an extension of the
concepts which operated during the great westward movement. Pioneering
and carving out an existence by overcoming and utilizing the environment
are second nature to many Americans. The concept that America's resources
are limitless and require no management is typified by the inaction of
industry and local governments to voluntarily correct present pollution
practices,
If this attitude is to be corrected, it must be realized that any
decision which affects the natural environment, affects an essentially
fixed resource. All of us must now accept the principle that we must
pay for what we use, whether we use up this fixed water resource in our
recreation, our sewage disposal, industrial production, or our consump-
tion of electricity. That we use our environment is necessary and
acceptable. However, the future must differ from the past in that we
can no longer only take from our environment but must perpetually renew
and reuse what we take rather than follow the old pattern of using and
discarding.
The activities in this chapter are classified under three major
areas of inquiry: social configurations, economic endeavors, and
recreational pursuits. The economic endeavors of man are considered
on several levels according to the magnitude of the enterprise. We
made the following distinctions: proprietorships, small industry,
specialized industry, and conglomerates. A series of activities is
also included to show the relationships between these areas of human
activitity and also relate them to other chapters in the guide.
50
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Human Activities
The following general questions may serve to focus on the scope of
inquiry in this chapter. Let "X" equal the particular human activity
under investigation.
1. What is the influence of "X" on the nitrogen cycle in your area?
2. What is the influence of "X" on the hydrologic cycle in your
area?
3. How do the economic factors of "X" influence its impact on environ-
mental quality?
4. What is the general public's attitude toward the impact "X" has
on the environment?
5. What is the legal situation pertaining to "X"? Are the laws suf-
ficient to preserve the environment? Are the enforcement
procedures adequate?
6. What are the roadblocks to the lessening of "X's" impact on the
environment?
The following resources will be found useful throughout the entire
section. Resources of particular interest are listed at the close of
each activity.
Billings, W. D., Plants, Man and the Ecosystem, Wadsworth Publishing
Co., Belmont, California, 1970.
Life Science Library, Ecology, Time, Inc., New York City, 1969.
McKee, J. E., and H. W. Wolf, Water Quality Criteria, (2nd ed.),
State Water Quality Control Board, Sacramento, California, 1963.
51
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Human Activities
A. Farming and Water Quality
I. Introduction
1. The purpose of this investigation is to involve students in
a study of how farming in general and on a given farm in
particular, affect water quality. In this case we are look-
ing at the effects of agriculture on the water cycle.
2. Any secondary student who has knowledge of the nitrogen
cycle should be able to succeed in at least the introductory
level of this activity.
3. The activity would take at least 3 hours to complete, and
could be spread over a short field trip and several class
sessions. The more advanced activities would take a much
longer period of time to complete.
II. Questions
1. To lead into the activity, ask students what the nitrate
level is in the wells and surface waters on the farm.
2. To initiate the activity, ask students:
a. How are these data going to be obtained?
b. What sampling techniques are going to be used; and what
are the effects of high nitrate?
3. To continue the activity, ask students: What are the factors
in farming practices that might lead to nitrogen in farm
water?
4. To evaluate the students' performance ask:
a. What were the nitrate levels on various areas of the
farm?
b. What factors caused these nitrate levels?
c. What are the effects of agriculture on the nitrogen cycle?
d. Can we "afford" to have these effects?
52
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Human Activity
III. Equipment
1. Introductory Level
a. Hach or Delta kit to determine dissolved solids (can
ascertain nitrate or nitrite levels)
b. Sample bottles
2. Advanced Level
a. Hach or Delta kit
b. Pipettes, burets (titration equipment to do analytical
techniques)
c. Millipore apparatus to do coliform and fecal coliform
counts.
d. Plankton net and collection bottles
e. Soil test kit
IV. Procedures
1. Introductory Level
a. Use Hach or Delta kit to determine nitrate and nitrite
levels in well water, drinking water (if different) and
any surface water (ponds or streams) that are on or near
farm property.
b. Find out by asking the farmer what kind and generally
how much fertilizer he has put on land.
c. Find out if there are any feedlots or other collections
of animal waste, and if so, how large they are, etc.
d. Determine amounts of nitrogen that are in the soil.
e. What is the relationship between nitrogen content of the
soil and nitrogen content of water?
2. Advanced Level
a. Determine the nitrite, nitrate, and ammonia levels in
wells and surface waters near farm diurnally and season-
ally.
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Human Activities
b. Determine variation of flow rate of streams, etc.
c. Determine bacteriological content of abovementioned
waters and how they vary.
d. Determine algal content of surface waters near or on
farm.
e. What is the effect of various crops on the nitrogen
cycle?
f. Does the kind of livestock being raised on the land
affect the nitrogen level of the soil and watershed?
g. Is there a difference in nitrate level between the
runoff water and the soil?
h. Is there any correlation between fertilizer practice and
nitrogen content?
i. Does it matter when the fertilizer is applied?
j. Is there any correlation between high bacteria counts
and algae content?
k. Where is the runoff from the feedlot (or manure pile)
going? What effect does this have on water quality?
On the nitrogen cycle?
1. Be able to ask and answer more sophisticated questions.
V. Past Studies (An Example of a Study)
A study was performed on the Swain, Connely, and Hershey farms
in June of 1970. The study was performed to determine the
effect of agriculture on the nitrogen cycle. The amounts and
kinds of fertilizer added to the farms are listed in Table I.
Farm
Swain
Hershey
Connely
Kind of Fertil izer
Manure &
Manure &
Manure &
10-20-10
15-10-10
15-10-10
*Amount
600 Ibs
600 Ibs
600 Ibs
Added
./acre
./acre
./acre
Crop
Corn
Corn
Corn
*The amount of fertilizer added was the commercial fertilizer added.
It was impossible to determine the manure added. Mr. Swain estimated
the amount of manure added was 20 tons/acre/year.
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Human Activities
The Swain farm had no surface or well water. All of its water
was piped in from Til ton.
The Hershey and Connely farms obtained their water from wells.
Table II shows the results of tests run on the water and soil
from these two farms.
Table II Hershey-Connely Farms
Nitrate Nitrate Nitrogen
Surface water
Well water
Soil
22
26.4
PPm
ppm
.016 ppm
0 ppm
*2% Def
dificiency as determined by the Sudbury soil testing kit.
It was extremely difficult to determine the effect of agricul-
ture on the nitrogen cycles in the sites used.
Reasons:
1. Commercial fertilizers had been used for such a short
period of time.
2. The total area fertilized was relatively small.
The amount of nitrogen in the water tested was relatively high.
Some problems exist in doing a study of this type on a farm with
a small operation. The amounts of fertilizers being put down are
so relatively small, the effect on the enviornment would in turn
be very small.
If this same study were performed on a farm that fertilized hund-
reds of acres or had thousands of head of cattle, a greater
effect on the environment could be ascertained. If the study
were performed on a farm that had been using inorganic fertilizers
for a long period of time the results would be different.
55
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Human Activities
VI. Limitations
A friendly and cooperative fanner has to be located. Some-
times it may be difficult for an entire class to invade a farm;
one can probably send the class in shifts. Clothing should be
rugged and the kind that can get dirty -- one of the advantages
in this kind of study is that the students are "messing" around.
Parents should be aware that this is going to happen, however, so
they can clothe their children accordingly.
The size of the farm will affect the kind of study undertaken.
A small farm would not have the variations of practices to answer
some of the questions asked. In many cases the farms of a given
watershed or area would be practicing similar farming techniques
so a total picture could not be undertaken.
If a choice is available, a farm that is large enough to have:
a) different kinds of livestock, b) different kinds of crops (corn,
clover, hay, etc.), and c) a water supply that drains the areas
studied.
VII. Bibliography
1. Parameters for Detecting Pollutants with Respect to Farming
a. American Public Health Association, Standard Methods for
the Examination of Water and Wastewater, American
Public Health "Association, The.', New York City, 1971.
b. McKee, J. E., and H. W. Wolf, Water Quality Criteria,,
(2nd ed.), Water Quality Control Board, Sacramento,
California, 1963.
2. The Hydrologic Cycle and How It May Be Affected by Farming
a. Bruce, J. P., and R. H. Clark, Introduction to Hydrometeor-
ology, Pergamon Press, New York City, 1966.
b. Thomas, H. E., The Yearbook of Agriculture, 1955: Water,
U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.,
1955.
c. Ward, R. C., Principles of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York City, 1967.
56
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Human Activities
3. Advanced Readings
a. Journal, Water Pollution Control Federation (3900 Wiscon-
sin Ave., Washington, D. C. 20016)
(1) Ames etil, "Phosphorus Removal," May 1970.
(2) Azad and Borchardt, "Algal Growths," November 1969.
Part 2.
(3) Nemerew, "Poultry Hastes," September 1969.
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B. Community Survey
I. Introduction
This activity is intended to arouse the students' interest in the
effects of human activities on a body of water. This is done by
locating sites which might be sources of pollution; collecting
samples for the necessary tests; running the tests; gathering the
data; and making tentative conclusions. Then, by contacting
persons associated with the community, help them to understand
what their water problems are. Any level high school student can
complete this activity.
II. Questions
1. Lead to the activity by asking:
a. What are the possible sources of pollution in a body of
water?
b. What is the effect of a town's sewage and other effluents
on adjacent bodies of water?
2. Initiate the activity by asking students:
a. What are the sources of sewage and other effluents and
specifically where are they located?
b. What types of tests should be utilized?
c. What sites are to be used in the testing process and are
they representative?
3. Continue the activity with these questions:
a. Do we have enough data to reach a conclusion?
b. How will we use our data to arouse public interest?
c. Should letters be sent, people interviewed, information
be handed out, etc.?
4. Evaluate the activity by considering:
a. Did the students understand the testing procedure and
purpose?
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b. Did the students eliminate variables that could produce
errors in the data?
c. Are the students aware of the implications brought about
by improper sewage and other effluent disposal practices?
d. Are the students cognizant of possible approaches that can
be used to initiate public concern?
III. Equipment
1. Sterile bacteria bottles (as many as needed)
2. Sterile Millipore System (media, petri dishes, etc.)
3. Sterile bottles for making dilutions
4. DO bottles for DO, IDOD, and BOD
5. Thermometer
6. Tape recorder to record conversations of interested people
IV. Procedure
1. Field work
a. Sites which could show the possible source of pollution
should be chosen.
b. Bacteria samples are collected.
c. DO samples are collected and fixed immediately.
d. IDOD samples are collected and fixed in 15 minutes. This
will give an indication of the immediate dissolved oxygen
demand that the micro-organisms exert on the DO content
of the water.
e. BOD samples are taken and placed in darkness for 5 days.
At that time they should be fixed and titrated. This
will show the total biochemical oxygen demand of the
sample.
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2. Lab work
a. Prepare all materials for bacteriology in advance.
b. Find the amount of both fecal and coliform bacteria using
the standard Mi Hi pore method. Fecal is done as well
as total coliform because it is an indicator of sewage
in the water.
c. Using the Winkler method, finish the DO and the IDOD
tests. Then, 5 days later, do the BOD test.
d. When all the tests have been completed, gather the data
and tabulate.
V. Previous Studies
1. A group of students studied 6 sites near Wolfeboro, New
Hampshire. Tests for total and coliform bacteria, DO, IDOD,
and BOD were performed. The effects of the effluents on adjacent
waters were studied. Data from the above studies were
presented to a newsman and the influential persons in the
community.
2. The article written by the newsman for the Granite State
News follows :
Water Samples in Wolfeboro Prove
Town is Polluting its Waterways
"Last Friday one group, and again on Monday a second group from the
Tilton School Pollution Program were in the Wolfeboro Area taking water
samples. The two groups, participants in the nationwide program centered
at the school and financed by grants from the Ford Foundation and the
Department of the Interior, were primarily interested in the general
effect of human activities on a body of water. They were attracted to
the Wolfeboro area by the abnormally high bacteria count in Wolfeboro
Bay. In addition to this concern with water pollution, the program has
two additional purposes. By forcing students and teachers into a close
relationship outside the classroom, it is hoped that the program will
serve a teacher training function. And, the program is also to prepare
a learning guide based on the activities of the groups for use in
studying pollution.
"In investigating the effects of human activity on the water supply,
the groups took samples at five sites selected by Albert Powers, head of the
Science Department at Brewster. The first site was on Smith River above
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Wolfeboro Products, up stream from where Wolfeboro might have an effect
on the water supply. The second site was by the dam at the excelsior
mill in Wolfeboro Falls, the third by the sewer outlet in Back Bay, the
fourth by the straw oil catch where the water from behind the shopping
center flows under the railroad tracks into Back Bay, the fifth, under
the bridge in the center of Wolfeboro. The sites were chosen so as to
reveal any change in the condition of the water as it passed through
Wolfeboro and to identify where these changes took place.
SITES TESTED
"At each site, tests were made to measure the oxygen dissolved in
the water and also to measure the presence of bacteria in the water.
Each group performed these tests at the sites with the Monday group
acting as a check on the Friday group. The dissolved oxygen test
measures the amount of oxygen in the water at the time of the test.
From this, it is possible to determine what forms of life the water
will support. Trout, for example, need a high amount of dissolved
oxygen in order to survive.
"A second test, the immediate dissolved oxygen demand, measures
how much of the oxygen is being used. If the amount being used is equal
to the amount in the water then problems result because there is none
left either for fish or organic breakdown.
"A third test performed measures the biochemical oxygen demand or,
in other words, the amount of oxygen required by everything in the
water. The absence of dissolved oxygen in addition to limiting the
forms of plant and animal life also gives rise to hydrogen sulfide and
methane gases. A super-saturated dissolved oxygen reading in which
there is more oxygen in the water than can normally be dissolved at that
specific temperature is also harmful. It appears to give rise to a
higher disease rate and gill damage among fish. The tests revealed a
supersaturated condition at sites two, three, and possibly four.
BACTERIA MEASURED
"Total coliform and fecal coliform counts were made to measure the
bacteria present. The former indicates organic pollution such as sewage
and garbage. The fecal coliform specifically measures the presence of
organic matter from the intestinal tract of men and animals. Basing
their conclusions on the test results and on the Recommended Use Classifica-
tions and Water Quality Standards of the New Hampshire Water Supply and
Pollution Control Commission, they found that only site one was acceptable
for bathing. The remaining sites would be placed in either Class C or D
due to the high bacteria count. Class C is "acceptable for recreational
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boating, fishing, and industrial water supply" while Class D is des-
cribed as "aesthetically acceptable" and "suitable for certain industrial
purposes." Evidence of recent fecal pollution was found at all sites
except number one. And, a significant increase in the coliform count was
found between sites one and two. This would lower the quality of water
from Class B to Class C. The groups found oil and grease along with other
floating solids at all sites except one. Using the Commission's stan-
dards, the remaining sites would all be classified in Class C using this
criteria.
"While the two groups were quick to point out that the test results
were only obtained from two sets of data performed by nonprofessionals,
the similarities in the two did suggest the definite presence of a serious
pollution problem. The results also gave a clear-cut, qualitative proof
of the effects of human activities on a body of water. The groups noted
that the State empowers local governments to set up laws regarding pollu-
tion where state laws do not apply and that any local Board of Health or
any 10 or more citizens could petition the water supply and pollution
control commission if a public water is being contaminated."
Roger Murray
VI. Limitations
1. Before starting, be sure that all health and safety precau-
tions are taken.
2. Before undertaking field work, obtain permission to trespass
on any private properties involved.
3. A boat or float should be used in any study involving obviously
polluted waters.
4. Prepared Petri dishes must be kept cool until the time of
inoculation to prevent the growth of any bacteria which might
have been introduced.
5. The sample must be inoculated soon after the time of collection
to prevent the growth of coliforms which miaht have been
introduced.
6. Rigorous precautions must be taken to insure the growth of
only those coliforms originating within the sanple.
7. Two samples should be taken from each site as a check on the
validity of the results.
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8. When counting colonies, respect the potential diseases within
the Petri dishes.
9. One method for testing the dissolved oxygen should be
selected and carried throughout the entire study to insure
uniform results.
10. It should be kept in mind that the Hach kit will not measure
fractional parts of dissolved oxygen.
11. When on field studies testing for IDOD and BOD, a dark cool
place should be readily accessible.
12. If there is a considerable distance between the site and the
equipment, chemicals to the dissolved oxygen should be
brought along to prevent aeration (i.e., a steep inclination
of 10 feet).
VII. Bibliography
1. Parameters of Pollution with Respect to Human Activities
a. American Public Health Association, Standard Methods for
the Examination of Water and Wastewater, American
PUblic Health Association, Inc., New York City, 1971.
This gives a complete list of reagents, procedures,
and some standards for all tests used.
b. McKee, J. E., and H. W. Wolf, Water Quality Criteria,
(2nd ed.), State Water Quality Control Board,
Sacramento, California, 1963.
c. Needham, J. G., and P. R. Needham, A Guide to the Study of
Fresh Water Biology, (5th ed.) ,~Holden-Day, San Francisco,
1962. This guide has an excellent Algal and Macro-
invertebrate Key.
d. Pelczar, Michael J., and Roger D. Reid, Microbiology,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City, 1965. Pages 500-
512 give an excellent description of the coliform
group of bacteria as indicators of possible fecal
contamination. Page 513 gives a list of the effects
of sewage on the environment.
e. Renn, Charles, A Study of Water Quality, La Motte Chemical
Co., Chestertown, Md., 1968~An elementary study of
water and how it can be altered by unnatural (i.e.,
"human activities") conditions.
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f. Well, R., Design, Specifications Guide, Goodwin
Hydrodynamics, Inc., Weirs Beach, N. H. It
contains an elementary discussion of BOD.
2. Advanced Readings
a. Journal, Water Pollution Control Federation (3900
Wisconsin Ave., Washington, D. C. 20016.)
(1) Albertson and Sherwood, "Phosphate Extraction,"
August 1969, Part 1.
(2) Azad and Borchardt, "Algal Growth," November
1969, Part 2.
(3) Barth e_t_ aj_, "Phosphorus Removal," November
1969, Part 1.
(4) Burkhead and McKinney, "Activated Sludge,"
April 1968.
(5) Connell and Fetch, "Handling Gas Chlorine,"
August 1969, Part 1.
(6) Hansen e_t aj_, "Idealized Sedimentation Theory,"
August 1969, Part 1 .
(7) Hoover and Arnoldi, "River Pollution," February
1970, Part 2.
(8) Lighthart and Oglesby, "Bacteriology of an
Activated Sludge," August 1969, Part 2.
(9) Lutge, "Submerged Effluent Collections,"
August 1969, Part 1.
(10) McDonnell and Hall, "Benthal Oxygen Uptake,"
August 1969, Part 2.
(11) Mercer e_t al_, "Ammonia Removal," February 1970,
Part 2.
(12) Moore et^ a]_, "Viruses in Waste Water," February
1970, Part 2.
(13) Nebiker et^ al_, "Sludge Dewatering Rates,"
August 1969, Part 2.
(14) Tchebanoglous, "Tertiary Treatment," April 1970.
(15) Thomas and Brown, "Chlorination," April 1968.
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Human Activities
(16) Tenney et_ aj_, "Sludge Conditioning,"
February 1970, Part 2.
ALL of the above are very detailed, complete, bio-
chemical studies. Very specific, very informative.
The texts are for the average student but are
advanced for someone who is not science-oriented.
b. Sawyer, C. N., and P. L. McCarthy, Chemistry for Sanitary
Engineers, (2nd ed.), McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York City, 1967. This is very complete and deals
with advanced applications for chemistry.
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C. Drinking Water
I. Introduction
1. This activity is primarily for urban schools where field
work is sometimes difficult. This activity can be done
completely in the classroom and the time varies between
3 and 10 class days depending on the depth of study desired.
This is suitable for students on the junior or senior high
school level.
2. This activity gives the students an appreciation of their
drinking water supply. This is to be done by having them
discover the source of their water and how it is treated to
make it pure. In the end they should realize that the water
they pollute is going to be used by another community like
theirs, which will also have to clean it.
II. Questions
1. To lead to activity ask: Where does our drinking water
come from?
2. To initiate the activity ask:
a. How can we find out where the water comes from?
b. Is there a difference between the water we drink and the
water at the source?
c. How can the difference be accounted for?
3. To continue the activity ask:
a. How is the water made fit to drink?
b. Is there a difference between distilled water and tap
water?
c. Is tap water the same all over the city?
d. How could a difference be accounted for?
e. What is the cost of cleaning the water?
4. To evaluate the student's performance ask:
a. How is our water purified?
b. Why is it cheaper and better not to pollute the source
of our drinking water?
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c. Why must some cities' water supplies be so far from the
city?
d. How do you think your water system can be improved? Why
hasn't it been imporved?
e. How do large rainfalls affect your system?
f. How does drought affect your water system?
g. How does pollution in your water supply affect you
physically and economically?
III. Equipment
1. Introductory Level
a. Untreated samples of water from the city's drinking source
b. Maps showing the city's intake water system
c. Books and movies on water purification if it is not
possible to visit a plant
d. Evaporating dishes
e. Hach or Delta kit, if available
2. Advanced Level
a. Same as above
b. hi Hi pore equipment
c. Material for building a rudimentary model purification
system
IV. Procedure
1. Introductory Level
a. Trace the city's intake pipe to its source. Discuss
the importance of the location. Find out if there are
any industries at the source or if it is being used as a
sewage dumping ground.
b. Compare water from the tao and from the source (supplied
by teacher). Have students note sensual differences be-
tween the two. Have them feel, smell, and observe color
differences. Do Not Have Them Taste Water.
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c. Pour water samples into evaporating dish and let evap-
orate. Measure the difference in the amount of
suspended solids.
d. Use Hach or Delta to determine chemical differences.
Suggested tests: pH, chlorine, fluoride, turbidity, iron,
and manganese.
e. Draw up summary of findings. This should generate dis-
cussion which leads into the next step.
f. Present information on how your water is purified.
g. Figure the cost per person for cleaning water.
2. Advanced Level
a. Same as above but in greater detail, especially for part
(d).
b. Run tests for bacteria. Refer to the bibliography.
c. Visit a filtration purification plant if possible.
d. Set up your own model purfication plant.
e. Have speakers^
f. Discover the economic soundness of cleaning polluted
water for drinking versus clean water.
V. Past Studies
To a certain extent some of the parts of this activity are
traditional experiments. This activity was not performed in its
entirety by the writers of this publication.
VI. Limitations
Even with very little it should be possible to conduct this
activity. The water from the supply can be picked up by
students from different areas; several gallons will be needed.
flaps, free information, and assistance can be obtained from
the local water board.
VII. Bibliography and Resources
1. Books
a. Fair, Gordon Gaskew, Water and Wastewater Engineering,
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John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York City, 1966.
This book gives some general description of water
systems in towns and cities, but is mostly a guide
to the engineering of said systems.
b. Leopold, Luna, A Primer on Hater, U. S. Department of the
Interior, Washington, D. C., 1966. This book gives a
general description of how and why town and city
water systems work.
c. Microbiological Analysis of Water, Millipore Corp.,
Bedford, Mass, (application report A. R. *81), 1969.
d. Millipore Experiments in Microbiology, Mi Hi pore Corp.,
Bedford, Mass., 1969.The above two booklets describe
methods of testing water quality and bacteriology
counts. Millipore equipment is used.
e. Renn, Charles E., A Study of Water Quality. LaMotte
Chemical Co., Chestertown, Md., 1968. This is a brief
booklet discussing water quality standards, water
purification, and waste water disposal.
2. Movies
a. Pure Water and Public Health, Cast Iron Pipe Research
Association.This is a good description of the
purification process but use only as a last resort.
It is largely selling cast iron pipes. Write to
1168 Commonwealth Ave., Boston, Mass. 02134.
b. New Water For a Thirsty World, Office of Chief Engineer,
Bureau of Reclamation, Code 841, Building 67, Federal
Court, Denver, Col. This is a good description of
the desalination process.
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D. Pollution and Recovery
I. Introduction
In this activity students will become interested in seeing the
effects of a town or city on a given waterway. The fieldwork is
uncomplicated, consisting of sampling the water above and below
the community. The most striking results will be obtained by test-
ing above and below a town or city that has a substantial amount
of industry with little, or no waste processing equipment. Two
questions should be answered in this survey: what influence does
industrial waste have on the over-all environment of a waterway
and what is the recovery-rate of a stream as the distance from
the effluent is increased? A follow-up investigation should be
undertaken to study the influence of the factors as they apply to
recovery rate.
II. Questions
1. Lead the activity by asking: What effect industrial waste
has on the over-all quality of this water system?
2. Initiate the activity by asking:
a. Where should your water samples be taken in this stream?
b. Why did you choose these locations? (This should lead to
a discussion as to the desirability of collecting above,
immediately below, and a considerable distance below the
effluent.)
c. Which chemical tests do you feel will prove most signifi-
cant for this survey?
d. Which tests should be done at the site, and which may be
brought back to the lab?
3. Continue the activity by asking:
a. Do you notice any prominant physical or biological changes
in the immediate environment?
b. If we came back here tomorrow and collected samples, do
you think there would be a considerable variance in data?
c. What tests, other than chemical, would prove helpful in
an over-all evaluation of this stream?
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4. Questions such as these may help to evaluate the efforts of
the students:
a. Did the investigation hold the interest of the majority
of the students?
b. Did they seem eager to enlarge on the subject; as to
which chemicals were doing the most damage to the system,
where the most pollution was coming from, what action
should come next?
c. Did all, or most, of the students enter eagerly into the
task of testing the samples from the three sites? (See
II 2 b)
III. Equipment
1. Other than the laboratory testing kits very little is needed
to carry out this investigation. The students should be en-
couraged to plan most of the procedures, and collect the
needed field-work equipment.
2. Sample equipment might include:
a. Collection bottles and fixing solutions for dissolved
oxygen tests (Winkler Method)
b. Collection bottles, any size, for general samples
c. Collection bottles for bacteria; so labeled
d. Testing kits and equipment, (i.e., Hach, Delta, or LaMotte
kits, pH testing kit, pipettes and chemicals for Winkler
tests for dissolved oxygen) DO meter (for comparison with
winkler test)
IV. Procedure
1. Collect water samples from 3 locations on the river; above,
immediately below, and a considerable distance below the
industrial waste.
2. Take a meter reading, if possible, for dissolved Q£ at each
location.
3. Fix the oxygen in one bottle from each location with solutions
of manganese sulfate, and alkali-iodide-azide. (For Winkler
test—dissolved oxygen.)
4. Collect bacteria samples from each location.
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5. Return to lab and make tests.
V. Previous Studies
1. Previous studies of this investigation have pointed out to
the students which dissolved solids are most closely allied
with industrial waste.
2. Some students are surprised that a stream that shows a high
degree of pollution just below an effluent shows a remarkable
degree of recovery over a comparatively short distance.
3. It has been noted that with most students there is a great
desire to investigate the cause of each pollutant, and to
work toward finding ways to eliminate the source. This in-
vestigation stimulates interest in over-all "ecotactics."
VI. Limitations
Other than the bacteria cultures, which are demanding, very few
factors can hinder significant results from this investigation.
Extreme accuracy is not important, as the comparison between
above and below samples is very conclusive. Transportation to
collection sites is the only real concern. Suitable clothing
should be worn. Hands should be thoroughly cleaned after collect-
ing heavily polluted water.
VII. Bibliography
Klein, L., River Pollution 3 Control, Butterworth & Co., London,
England*, 1966. It gives very complete coverage of total river
pollution problems and is an advanced text.
Mackenthum, K. M., The Practice of Water Pollution Biology, Depart-
ment of the Interior, Washington, D. C., 1969. This may be of
some use for sampling techniques. It has little to offer over
the testing kits.
McKee, J. E., and H. W. Wolf, Water Quality Criteria, State Water
Quality Control Board, Sacramento, Calif., 1963. This is a
very complete compilation of standards for all industrial and
household uses of water. Standards for most stages are
listed according to water usage.
Ruttner, F., Fundamentals of Liminology, University of Toronto
Press, Toronto, Canada, 1969. Pages 56 to 104 cover all dis-
solved solids found in fresh water but is quite involved for
the beginning student.
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U. S. Department of the Interior, Pollution Control Adminis-
tration, Biological Field Investigation Data for Water
Pollution Surveys, U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C. This is a very fine booklet for general
use on water pollution and costs only seventy cents. It
has a very complete list of ecologic terminology and good
chemical tables, especially on dilution.
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E. Destructive Effects of Water Pollution
I. Introduction
The activity, which has a field and lab procedure, shows the
effects of water pollution on concrete or any other materials.
Eighth-grade students and above can relate certain human activ-
ities, causing water pollution, to the deterioration of
materials stationed in the water. If a situation cannot be
found where pollution is causing deterioration, this may be
simulated in the lab.
II. Questions
1. To lead to the activity determine if there is a body of water
in your area affected by human activities, and then inquire:
a. Does the water have any effect on materials with which it
comes in contact?
b. What are some of the human activities in the area that
would cause pollution?
2. Initiate the activity by asking:
a. How would you determine the cause of the problem?
b. How could you find results and interpret them?
3. Continue the activity with:
a. Can you fit the interpretations into legislative action?
b. How can you set up a controlled laboratory experiment to
simulate the problem? (bioassay)
4. Evaluate the activity by determining:
a. Did the students use a systematic approach to find and
solve the problem?
b. Did the students attempt to make any conclusions from
the tests run?
c. Can the student verify his observations?
III. Equipment
1. Field equipment (depends on the size of the body of water
and whether it is a lake, stream, or river)
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a. Dissolved solids testing equipment
b. Collecting 3-6 bottles of 1 liter capacity
c. Water gear (boots, boats, work clothes, bug spray)
d. Photographic equipment (optional)
e. Flow equipment (stop watch, orange, meter stick, 25 meter
measuring tape)
f. Maps, data sheets
2. Bioassay materials
a. Samples of materials (cement, wood, aluminum boats, iron,
steel)
b. Chemicals affecting materials (sulfurous acids, alkali,
oils, synergism of chemicals)
c. Distilled water
IV. Procedure
1. Field procedure
a. Find a material that is being affected by water problems.
b. Determine factors that cause material deterioration. A
few of these are: natural erosion; corrosion, industrial
wastes and algae (see bibliography).
c. Collect equipment.
d. Take water samples at representative sites.
e. Test samples to see if factors determined in procedure
"b" are present.
f. If possible, study the human activities along the stream
to gain knowledge of effluents added to the water.
2. Lab procedure (if stream and pollution problem is not
available)
a. Determine factors that cause materials to deteriorate.
b. Set up controlled experiments to show how the factors
affect the materials.
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c. Draw conclusions.
V. Limitations
1. Field procedure requires affected area for study.
2. Much time and transportation is needed for testing and
sampling.
3. Lab experiments could also take much time. Note: The more
concentrated the chemicals the quicker the results.
4. Test knowledge of the dissolved solids.
VI. Past Studies
Participants in a Water Pollution study course at Tilton School,
July 1970, made a study of the Daniel Webster Memorial Bridge
in Franklin, N.H., which was affected by cement corrosion. They
also hoped to make an accurate report to the Franklin city offi-
cials. The corrosion could have been blamed on many factors.
It could be natural; it may have been caused by chemicals dumped
from industries on the side of the river; it may have been
caused by dumping of snow (plus salt and sand) over the bridge
onto the cement foundation, during the winter. The tests con-
sisted of DO hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, pH, alkalinity,
sulfates, copper, nitrates and phosphates. They were taken at
areas that would show if any chemicals were added to the river;
such as above and below the entrance of possible effluents.
After gathering results, interpretations were made. Research of
chemicals that corrode concrete was made and compared to results.
The chemicals and their effects are outlined below:
1. Corrosive factors that affect concrete:
a. Water mixed to make concrete should be suitable to drink
(free from acids, alkalies, and oils).
b. Rate of flow of stream affects corrosion; density of
cement is a factor in corrosion.
c. Other factors of corrosion:
(1) Creosote, cresol, phenol, and many vegetable and
animal oils.
(2) Sulfates.
a. Sodium.
b. Magnesium.
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(3) Sulfurous acids ($02) over 25 ppm.
(4) C02 greater than 20 ppm.
(5) Water with greater than 100 ppm of carbonate hardness
if water has low temperature and is constantly
reviewed.
(6) Sewage in waters of low pH and high temperature
favors high ^S which oxidizes into sulfates.
Synergism between C02 and sulfates.
2. By-products of copper electrolite industry:
a. Copper smelting,
b. Waste heat through cooling waters,
c. Waters with added sulfates and sulfuric acids.
3. Electroplating:
a. Use of alkaline solutions and acids,
b. Use of demineralized water for rinsing.
4. Tanning:
a. Needs low concentrations of free C02>
b. Needs low concentration of bicarbonate.
VII. Bibliography
McKee, J. E., and H. W. Wolf, Water Quality Criteria, State Water
Quality Control Board, Sacramento, Calif., 1963. "Quality
Criteria for the Major Beneficial Uses of Water," pages 8°
to 96, discuss concrete corrosion. Also in this same chapter,
there are explanations of industries that could dump
effluents that are destructive: page 98 for the copper in-
dustry; page 99 for electroplating and metal finishing; and
page 106 for the tanning industry.
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F. Sewage Treatment
I. Introduction
In this activity students learn about sewage and waste treatment.
The students learn how sewage is processed in their town and in
neighboring communities. New laboratory techniques and equipment
will be introduced which will enable students to determine the
efficiency of various sewage treatment procedures and to appreci-
ate, in a more precise way, the problems involved in an important
but often neglected or unnoticed part of everyone's life. The
time required may vary from two to four periods or longer depend-
ing on the difficulty of selective procedure, student interest,
and time and equipment available. The activity is designed for
students from 7th grade and up.
II. Questions
1. To lead the activity ask: What happens to the sewage and
waste waters in your community after leaving their point of
origin?
2. To initiate the activity ask:
a. What type (primary, secondary, tertiary) or waste treat-
ment facilities does your community have? (Consult local
authorities, i.e., local health departments and sanitary
engineers.)
b. Are all types of wastes (sewage, runoff) treated in the
same way?
c. How effective is this treatment?
d. Could it be improved? How?
3. To continue the activity ask:
a. Are the methods of elimination of pollutants which you
have encountered the most effective methods possible?
b. If not, why not?
c. What tests can be performed to determine the effective-
ness of treatment plants?
4. To evaluate the student's performance ask:
a. Do you consider the sewage treatment in your community
adequate?
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b. What can we as individuals or members of groups do to
help improve sewage treatment methods?
III. Equipment
1. Introductory Level
a. Sample bottles
b. Microscope
c. Hach or Delta kit
d. Aquatic identification books for identifying micro-
organisms
2. Advanced Level
a. Same as above
b. Mi Hi pore equipment or standard bacteriological materials
c. Titration equipment for Winkler, BOD
d. Materials for constructing a model treatment system
IV. Procedures
1. Introductory level
a. Using microscopes and identification books identify the
organisms found in samples.
b. Using the Hach or Delta kit determine the level of
nitrates in the water. Determine why this level is so
important.
c. Draw diagrams of the local treatment plant.
d. Determine pH. Why is it important in processing sewage?
2. Advanced Level
a. Same as above
b. Using the Hach and Delta, determine the levels for dis-
solved solids you feel are important in sewage treatment
based on what you have learned, in preparing for this
activity and your study of the treatment plant.
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c. Using Millipore filter technique, or other methods, de-
termine the level of bacteria before and after treatment.
Also determine why this level is important.
d. Determine how bacteria are used in sewage treatment.
(Discussion)
e. Determine the level of DO, IDOD, BOD in water before and
after treatment, and in the body of water into which the
treated sewage is dumped. Discuss the significance of
the results (refer to Standard Methods for technique).
f. Build a model sewage treatment plant.
V. Past Studies
1. A group of students from Quincy, Mass., found their bay to be
suffering from rapid biological aging (eutrophication). Also,
it was being polluted by "storm" drains from a combination
storm-sewage system. They studied the advantages and disad-
vantages of secondary treatment, the dangers of daily
chlorination, and the problems of algae.
2. Another group of students from Quincy made a study of the
effects of sludge being pumped into the bay at a rate of 2
million gallons a day. They concern themselves with BOD,
eutrophication and floating solids.
VI. Limitations
If there is no treatment plant in your area it will be necessary
to take field trips. Movies and books may have to replace the
primary learning and experience of visiting the plant. Supple-
mental equipment may consist of: paper chromatography; standard
analytic procedures, quantitative and qualitative analyses, etc.
VII. Bibliography
1. Introduction to Sewage Treatment.
a. Pelczar, Michael J., and Roger D. Reid, Microbiology,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City, 196b.This is
an excellent source for an outline of sewage treat-
ment. Pages 511-522 discuss the biological and
chemical characteristics of sewage and outline
Primary and Secondary Treatment.
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b. Renn, Charles, A Study of Water Quality, LaMotte
Chemicals Co., Chestertown, Md., 1968. An elemen-
tary discussion of water quality and how it can be
altered by unnatural conditions. It is presented
along with good background materials and good
references.
c. U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
"Municipal Sewage Treatment Process," No. 002599.
This is a good film for teacher and student, lead-
ing into and initiating the activity; it is black
and white and slightly outdated.
2. Parameters of Sewage
a. American Public Health Association, Standard Methods for
the Examination of Water and Wastewater, American
Public Health Association, Inc., New York City, 1971.
This is a complete set of directions, from making
reagents to performing tests. It is a good refer-
ence but is quite complicated.
b. Pelczar, Michael J. and Roger D. Reid, Microbiology,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City, 1965. Pages
500-504 contain an excellent discussion of the coli-
form group as indicators of pollution. It is very
complete and can be understood by the "average"
junior high student. Page 513 gives a list of the
effects of sewage on the environment.
c. "A New Prospect," Environment, Vol. 12, No. 2, March 1970.
This is a study of the parameters of sewage and prob-
lems of sewage on the environment. It is a good
study of the effects of sewage on the environment.
3. Advanced Readings
a. Journal, Water Pollution Control Federation (3900 Wiscon-
sin Avenue, Washington, D. C. 20016)
(1) Albertson and Sherwood, "Phosphate Extraction,"
August 1969, Part 1.
(2) Azad and Borchardt, "Algal Growth," November 1969,
Part 2.
(3) Barth et^ al, "Phosphorus Removal," November 1969,
Part 1.
(4) Burkhead and McKinney, "Activated Sludge," April
1968.
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(5) Connell and Fetch, "Handling Gas Chlorine,"
August 1969, Part 1.
(6) Hansen et^ a]_, "Idealized Sedimentation Theory,"
August 1969, Part 1.
(7) Hoover and Arnoldi, "River Pollution," February
1970, Part 2.
(8) Lighthart and Oglesby, "Bacteriology of an Acti-
vated Sludge," August 1969, Part 2.
(9) Lutge, "Submerged Effluent Collections," August
1969, Part 1.
(10) McDonnell and Hall, "Benthal Oxygen Uptake,"
August 1969, Part 2.
(11) Mercer et al_, "Ammonia Removal," February 1970,
Part 2.
(12) Moore et^ al_, "Viruses in Wastewater," February
1970, Part 2.
(13) Nebiker et_ a]_, "Sludge Dewatering Rates," August
1969, Part 2.
(14) Tchebanoglous, "Tertiary Treatment," April 1970.
(15) Thomas and Brown, "Chiorination," April 1968.
(16) Tenney et^ al_, "Sludge Conditioning," February 1970,
Part 2.
(17) Zablatsky and Petterson, "Anaerobic Digestion
Failures," April 1968.
All are very detailed, complete, biochemical
studies, not for the average student or someone
who is not science-oriented.
b. Sawyer, C. N., and P. L. McCarthy, Chemistry for Sanitary
Engineers, (2nd ed.)s McGraw-Hill, New York City,
1967.
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G. Biochemical Oxygen Demand In Sewage
I. Introduction
The BOD test, Biochemical Oxygen Demand, is designed to determine
the amount of oxygen bacteria required to break down sewage.
There are 3 factors in the breakdown of sewage which require
oxygen: (a) carbonaceous organic material usable as a food by
aerobic organisms; (b) oxidizable nitrogen and organic nitrogen
compounds which serve as food for specific bacteria, and (c)
certain chemical reducing compounds which will react with molec-
ularly dissolved oxygen. There is an incubation period of 5 days
in which the 3 factors above are given time to use oxygen. There-
fore, for one to incorporate this activity into the classroom,
one must make time for collection of samples, seeding, and after
incubation, the BOD test. The activity may be designed to fit
almost any age group. It is a good activity with which to teach
lab techniques for 10th graders and older students.
II. Questions
1. To lead to the activity ask:
a. What causes the breakdown of wastes?
b. What must be present for this breakdown to occur?
c. Would it be possible that there may not be enough of this
substance to complete this breakdown of the waste?
2. To initiate the activity ask: How shall we test for this
substance and find out if a BOD exists?
3. To continue the activity tell the students the procedure for
the BOD test and let them continue with testing of sites of
their own choice. Because of the complexity of this proce-
dure, the teacher must answer the students' questions directly.
4. To evaluate the students' actions observe who participates,
how much work each individual does, and how well they do the
work. Also watch the organization the students build up on
their own.
III. Equipment
1. 500 ml. sample bottles
2. 300 ml. sample bottles
3. Some standard method of determining DO
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4. Pipettes
5. Graduated cylinders
6. Beakers
7, Heavy brown paper
8. Tape and marking pencil
IV. Procedure
The procedure given here is very sketchy. For more detail, refer
to Standard Methods.
1. Prepare organic-free dilution water. Distilled water may be
used.
2. Determine the DO content of the dilution water.
3. Determine the DO content of the waste water to be tested.
4. Make several dilutions of the prepared sample so as to obtain
the required depletions. The following dilutions are sug-
gested: 99.9 to 99.0% for strong trade wastes, 99 to 95% for
raw and settled sewage, 75 to 95% for oxidized effluents, and
75% to no dilution for polluted river waters. The dilution
of the samples is called seeding. For example, a 95% dilu-
tion indicates 5 ml. of sample plus 95% sterilized distilled
water.
5. Put an airtight seal on the bottles and store in a dark place
for 5 days at a temperature of 68 degrees F (20 degrees C).
6. During the incubation period, calculate the initial DO con-
tent of the incubated sample. Below is the equation for
calculating the initial DO, (d) content of the incubated
sample.
(x)
}—\X(d) = ppm DO contributed by waste water
x is the amount of the sample used to make up the
incubated sample.
y is the total volume of the incubated sample.
d is the DO content of the waste water.
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- PPm DO contributed by dilution water
y) ~ ppm DO Total DO initially
z is the amount of dilution water used in the incubated
sample.
D is the DO content of the dilution water.
7. After 5 days, determine the DO content of the waste water-
dilution mixture.
8. On the basis of oxygen depletion and the relative proportions
of waste water and dilution water, calculate the oxygen de-
mand of the organic material in the waste water.
- H) = ppm of oxygen demand or BOD
I is the total DO initially.
H is the DO of the sample after incubation.
V. Limitations
The greatest limitation of the BOD test for classroom applica-
tion, is the fact that the procedure runs into much technicality.
However, with some modification, the test may be fitted to
younger age groups. It would be wise to be well-informed before
proceeding. One must also have fairly reliable equipment in
order to procure accurate data. At least a half a day should be
allotted for completing the sample collecting and preliminary
testing before incubation.
VI. Past Studies
1. A group of students concerned themselves with setting para-
meters of sewage influent-effluent flow, concentrating on
the ability of secondary treatment to remove oxygen-demanding
materials from sludge.
2. A team of students attempted to isolate the three classes
(Standard Methods) of oxygen-demanding materials.
VII. Bibliography
1. Introductory Literature
a. Pelczar, Michael J., and Roger D. Reid, Microbiology,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City, 1965. It gives
an excellent operational definition of BOD on page
512.
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b. Wells, R., Design, Specifications Guide, Goodwin Hydro-
dynamics, Weirs Beach, N. H. This is a good
elementary procedure for preparing and performing
BOD.
2. Advanced Reading
American Public Health Association, Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater, American Public
Health Association, Inc., New York City, 1971. This
gives complete information on seed dilution factors,
etc. This is not a good reference for the average
student.
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H. Effect of Oil on Aquatic Life in Recreational Waters
I. Introduction
The Water Quality Act of 1965 states the following: "Standards
of quality shall be such as to protect the public health or
welfare, enhance the quality of water and serve the purpose of
this act." Included among substances banned from recreational
waters are floating debris, oil, scum, and other matter. This
study regards fuel oil discharged by small craft on recreational
waters as hazardous. Concentrations higher than 50 gal. per mi.
may coat the bodies of bathers causing skin irritation. This oil
sometimes blocks sunlight, thus preventing photosynthesis in
aquatic plants at the bottom of the body of water. It can also
stick to the gills of fish and interfere with their respiration.
It may also coat the bottom of the body of water, endangering
spawning areas. 9th graders and above may do this activity.
II. Questions
1. To lead to the activity ask:
a. How does oil on the surface of recreational waters affect
aquatic life?
b. How could a student test the effect of fuel oil on a
certain type of aquatic life?
c. In testing to find this effect, which would be more
advisable to use, plants or animals?
d. How would you collect the living specimens that you
would like to use?
e. What do you think that you would need to perform this
experiment?
2. To determine the quantitative relationship of oil concentra-
tion to the surface color, ask:
a. What is an oil slick?
b. At what concentration of oil does the slick become
visible?
c. At what concentration is an oil slick seen as a silvery
sheen on the surface of the water?
d. At what concentration of oil are bright bands of color
visible?
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3. To evaluate this experiment ask:
a. Why did you use a control during the experiment?
b. Was timing accurate during this work?
c. Were all of the organisms used during this project of the
same species, size, etc., and do you think that any vari-
ations in these could have changed the effects of this
experiment?
III. Equipment
1. Net
2. Container in which to place organisms that are caught
3. Tank in lab to keep organisms in water from natural habitat
4. Beakers
5. Graduated cylinders
6. Pipettes
7. Watch with a good second hand
8. Oil (inexpensive)
IV. Procedure
1. Make field trips to observe oil on lakes and streams.
2. Complete the following to see the effect on fish.
a. Add 10 ml. water to beaker #1, 50 ml. to #2, 100 ml. to
#3, 150 ml. to #4, and 150 ml. to #5 (control).
b. Add 3 ml. of fuel oil to each beaker except control.
c. Note time of addition of oil and time of death of fish.
d. Record data carefully.
V. Previous Studies
1. Chipman and Galtsoff (1949) showed that low concentrations
of oil are toxic to fresh-water fish.
2. Pickering and Henderson (1956) made toxicity studies of oil
on minnows.
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VI. Limitations
1. Be sure to have a small fish net because it is difficult to
remove a small fish from the tank.
2. Make sure that the smallest amount of water (in this case,
10 ml.) is enough to support the size fish you are using.
VII. Bibliography
1. FWPCA, Report of the Committee on Water Quality Criteria,
1). S. Department of the Interior, April 1, 1968. We"
found references to previous studies made on this topic.
2. FWPCA, Water Quality Studies: Clean Water, Training Manual,
U. S. Department of the Interior, October 1969. It
contains good references to the effect of oil on the
surface of water.
3. McKee, Jack E., and Howard W. Wolf (eds.), Water Quality
Criteria, State Water Quality Control Board, Calif., 1963.
This book contains good references to fuel oil.
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I. The Effects of Damming or Impounding Water
I. Introduction
This investigation was devised to determine the long-range effects
a dam has on river and the difference in the present-day condi-
tion of the river above and below the dam. 8th graders and older
students with a background in the various water pollution tests
may complete this activity.
II. Questions
1. Lead to the activity by asking:
a. What biotic and abiotic factors are involved in a stream's
equilibrium?
b. How would a dam interfere with these factors? Specific-
ally, which factors would be altered?
2. Initiate the activity with:
a. How would you measure the changes caused by the dam?
b. What tests might be performed to measure such changes?
3. Continue the activity with:
a. What are the interrelationships between abiotic and
biotic factors?
b. How would different dams effect different purposes, for
example, a recreation dam as opposed to one used for
flood control? Would a dam used to generate electricity
by hydroelectric power produce problems different from
those created by a steam-generating plant located at the
dam?
4. To evaluate the activity:
a. How did the student solve problems which arose from the
physical characteristics of the site (depth of stream
too great to be measured without a raft, the problems of
gaining access to a dam, etc.)?
b. What have the students found to be the advantages and
disadvantages of impounding water?
c. Has the student gained an understanding of the term
"watershed"? Can he outline the watershed of this river?
Can he predict the effects of an unusual condition which
might occur upstream?
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d. Can the student offer explanations for differences he
noted up and down stream from the dam?
e. Does the student feel he has gained an understanding
of the problems involved in the planning and maintenance
of such a body of water?
III. Equipment
1. Hach kit, Delta-50 kit or LaMotte kit
2. Dissolved oxygen meter
3. Secchi disk for measurement of turbidity
4. Meter stick
5. Rope or chain
6. Styrofoam ball or orange
7. Watch with second hand or stop watch
8. Thermometer
9. Life raft perhaps
10. Core sampler
11. Kemmerer sampler for collection of water at great depths
IV. Procedure
1. Selection of a site
The site should be employed only after some investigation.
One must determine whether or not access to the dam can
be gained. The best way of locating a site may be to
check the map, and then to be in touch with the personnel
at the dam so that selection of site will be made easy.
2. Short range versus long range procedures
Rather than simply performing the tests once, one might
perform them over a succession of days or months. In
addition one might find statistics from previous studies
of the area and compare these to the data one has
collected.
3. Actual testing
Turbidity, dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, pH, and
temperature may be determined above and below the dam.
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Tests for rate of flow might be performed. Additional
studies of settling rates of suspended particles, the
contents of a core sample, and various tests of deep
water samples may be carried out.
4. Correlation
Comparison graphs of biotic and abiotic factors might be
made from these conclusions on the dam's effect on the
abiotic and biotic factors. It is wise to be in touch
with the State Health Department, for it is from them that
previous data may be obtained.
V. Previous Studies
1. A group of students studied a dam and the river at sites
above and below the dam. They were amazed at the effect
of impounding the water on the surrounding community.
2. Another group studied a flood-control dam which was also
used for recreation. It was interesting to determine
whether both could be done simultaneously and still
effectively.
3. A group was interested in the trees of the area surrounding
the dam and suggested further study.
4. Still another group in its study, attempted to determine
whether siltation occurred and what its long range effects
might be.
5. In one study, students discovered that the installation of
a sewage treatment plant, several miles above the dam
site produced startling results in the bacteria dnd dis-
solved oxygen counts. (Further investigations as an out-
growth of this situation, in the classroom).
VI. Limitations
1. Short-range Study
a. Access to the desired site cannot be assured due to the
abutments in the structure of a dam. Thus, the student
must bring a long rope with which to suspend a bucket,
thermometer, etc., to test the water. In such cases,
the core and Kemmerer Samplers are helpful.
b. The Kemmerer Sampler presents many problems. A chain
must be used to suspend the sampler. One must make sure
this chain is straight, in order that the "messenger"
can slide freely down it. In hauling up or letting down
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the chain, the hands may be hurt by friction caused.
To prevent this, a winch or rubber gloves should be
brought along.
c. Below the dam, at your site, make sure the water is not
so turbulent as to prevent access.
d. In getting rate of flow, make sure your raft is far
enough removed from the generator's intake valves so
that it is not affected by the undercurrent (i.e.,
sucked in)
e. Suggestion: If your dam is used for the production of
electricity, take a tour of the plant if at all
possible. It is interesting.
2. Long-range Study
a. One note may be made here and that is that water
pollution surveys do not date back to before the 1940's
in most cases. Because of this, the dam on which the
study is performed must be relatively young.
b. Suggestion: If at all possible make a comparison
between the bottom topography of the stream before
and after the dam was built.
VII. Bibliography
1. Benton, A. H. and W. E. Werner, Jr., Field Biology and
Ecology, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City, 1965.
2. Billings, W. D., Plants, Man and the Ecosystem, Wadsworth
Publishing Co., Belmont, Calif., 1970.
3. Kormondy, E. J., Concepts of Ecology, Prentice Hall
Biological Series, T. H., Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
N. J., 1969.
4. Life Science Library, Ecology, Time, Inc., New York City,
1969.
5. Odum, E. P., Fundamentals of Ecology, (2nd ed.), W. B.
Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa., 1971.
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J. Community Water Supplies
I. Introduction
In this activity it is presumed that the student has an under-
standing of the amount of water needed or used by urban centers.
From this point he will proceed to discover from where this
water comes and what steps are taken to protect the water supply.
Several other avenues are opened as possible future activities
depending on the interest of the student. This activity may be
carried out by 6th through 12th graders.
II. Questions
1. To lead to the activity ask:
Where does your water come from?
2. To initiate the activity ask:
What is the watershed of the water supply?
3. To continue the activity ask:
(At this point several paths are opened which might be
followed to advantage)
a. What are the controls on the human activities within
the watershed? What are the provisions of enforcement
of these controls?
b. If an impoundment exists, what have been the effects
downstream from the dam?
c. Has the evaporation of impounded water caused detri-
mental concentrations of dissolved solids? Are any
impounded supplies faced with this problem?
d. Evaluate the effectiveness of the controls placed on
the watershed by comparing the water runoff with that
of an equal-sized region which is not controlled.
e. If supply is a flowing river, what controls are placed
upon the upstream facilities such as cities, industries,
etc. What are state controls on effluents? If the
river is an interstate one, how do state controls
compare?
f. How does the seasonal variation in the river flow affect
the concentration of contaminants?
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g. If the supply is a deep well, try to trace the under-
ground flow by reference to geologic factors. For
instance, much of the deep water in midwestern plains
states originates in the Rocky Mountains. How does this
long path affect the water quality and flow?
4. To evaluate the student's performance have him describe the
water sources of his urban community and give the factors
which he feels are important to its preservation.
III. Procedure
1. Contact should be made with the public water supply depart-
ment to obtain a map showing the water supply or supplies of
the urban center. The supplies may be surface entrapment,
deep well, or flowing river.
2. If the supplies come from a deep well source, a geologic map
showing underground structures and sand-bearing strata would
be needed. If impounded, a topographic map would be needed
and the region contributing water to the impoundment would
be outlined. (This assumes a knowledge of map reading.)
3. If the source is a flowing river, a topographic map of large
area coverage would be required and the watershed outlined.
The towns, cities, and industries in this watershed should
be designated.
IV. Equipment
1. Appropriate maps
2. Contacts with state and city departments responsible for
public water supply
V. Past Studies
To date, no known past studies on a secondary level have
included a thorough investigation of the sources and methods of
protection for a municipal water supply.
VI. Bibliography
1. McKee, J. E., and H. W. wolf, Water Quality Criteria,(2nd
ed.), State Water Quality Control Board, Sacramento,
Calif., 1963. This is a good reference on the major
uses of water, including domestic water supply.
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2. U. S. Department of the Interior, A Primer on Water,
U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.,
1960. This simplified pamphlet (good for 6th to
12th grade use) explains hydrology and water use,
including city water systems.
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K. Investigating Lead Concentrations in Automobile Exhausts
I. Introduction
In this activity lead concentrations of car exhausts will be
investigated. This project is an outgrowth of water pollution
investigations. It was a natural development which takes
advantage of procedures common to water pollution work. One
of the intentions of this activity was to make a springboard
from which other types of lead concentration-investigations could
be devised.
II. Questions
1. which lead to the activity:
a. Why are large amounts of lead in the air a problem?
b. Where does most of this lead come from?
c. What is lead used for in gasoline?
2. which initiate the activity:
a. Would different types of cars give off differing
amounts of lead?
b. Would the type of gasoline used determine in any way
the amount of lead given off?
c. What types of gasoline give off the most lead?
3. which continue the activity:
How do the lead concentrations given off by automobiles
compare with the amounts given off by other internal
combustion powered machines (i. e., buses, trucks, motor-
cycles, 1awnmowers)?
4. which evaluate the activity:
a. How do the data collected in this activity compare
with other studies in this area?
b. What interfering factors and built-in errors might
there be in this method of testing?
III. Equipment
1. This activity uses a hydrid Hach-Millipore procedure.
Millipore air pollution equipment is used for detecting
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the lead and then the Hach colorimeter is used to give
quantitative results. Standard Millipore air-testing
equipment including filters, number AAWG04700 and pads
number HAWG04750.
2. Tetrahydroxy - p-benziquinone (THQ)
3. Isopropanol
4. Acetone
IV. Procedure
1. Make up standard solutions of lead nitrate to be used to
calibrate the metering system.
2. Draw solutions through filters, solubilize these in 25
ml. of acetone and read on the colorimeter.
3. Make up indicator solution of tetrahydroxy quinone by
dissolving an excess amount of tetrahydroxy - p-benziquinone
in 10 ml. of isopropanol, filter, and then through this
filter pour 10 ml. of distilled water to produce the workable
20 ml. solution.
4. Place 2 ml. of this solution on a pad in a Petri dish.
5. To collect sample place a filter in the sterifill system
and place over the exhaust pipe. A limiting orifice
should be used in the connection to the vacuum source.
The sample should be collected for a standard amount of
time.
6. Place the filter on the THQ-soaked pad, face up, and allow
30 seconds for the purplish color to develop.
7. After 30 seconds place the filter in a colorimeter bottle
containing 25 ml. of acetone and shake vigorously to dis-
solve the pad.
8. Read the sample in the colorimeter on scale Number 2667
using filter Number 2408. The colorimeter should be
calibrated with colorimeter bottle of pure acetone.
9. Compare to standards to gat milligrams of lead per liter
of exhaust.
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V. Past Studies
The author developed this test from Millipore's qualitative
procedure for determining the presence of lead. Lead nitrate
solutions ranging from .01 to .1 grams of lead nitrate were
made up. Because of a lack of time not enough were made up to
make as accurate a test as would be desired. Therefore, it
is hoped that participants will make their own scaling
system. To do this, many standards were made up and pulled
through filters and then measured in the standard way. The
results were then graphed and a formula was devised to give a
result. This formula is:
-0.004 x meter reading + 0.339 = lead nitrate.
However, this only gives the number of equivalent grams of
lead nitrate in the whole sample. A workable number was
desired. Therefore, the number gotten by the formula was
multiplied by .6 which is the amount (by mass) of lead nitrate
that is lead. In this study, a 14 liters-per-minute limiting
orifice was used and samples were taken for one minute. The
answer from above, then, would be the number of grams (or
milligrams) of lead in 14 liters of exhaust. The answer
was then standardized to one liter by dividing by 14. To
summarize, the method of obtaining a quantitative result was to
use this formula:
lead nitrate x .6/14 = mg. of lead per liter.
The tetrahydroxy - p-benziquinone is quite expensive.
It was found that very little was wasted if the filtrate was
reused. No noticeable loss in accuracy was observed. The
indicator solution was found to go bad quite quickly, sometimes
in as little as a few hours. This is the reason for mixing in
such small quantities. The color produced by the lead also
fades quickly.
VI. Limitations
The main limitation of this test is the questionable accuracy
thereof. However, more work in this area could alleviate this
problem. Other limitations are: the expense of the chemicals
and equipment; the expediency with which the test must be
done to preserve accuracy, and the safety factor which must
be kept in mind while working near exhaust pipes.
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Chapter 3 Ecological Perspectives
To understand the effects of pollution, one should study organisms
and determine their relationship to the nonliving part of the environ-
ment in which they live. An ecological perspective results when these
relationships are understood as they affect the quality of the abiotic
envi ronment.
Previous studies' indicate that a single group of organisms (with
the exception of coliform bacteria) is not reliable as an indication of
water quality. Only a total biotic study reveals the true quality of a
body of water.
The activities presented in this section employ techniques of bac-
teriology, aquatic biology, chemistry, geology, physics, and engineering
to delve into aquatic ecosystems. The following fundamental questions
dealing with a given aquatic system outline the scope of this chapter.
1. How many kinds of organisms are present? What else is
present?
2. What is the diversity index above and below an effluent on
a given stream or around the shoreline of a given lake?
3. What is the relationship between any two of the following
to the diversity index of a waterway:
suspended solids
flow
type of bottom
dissolved solids—phosphate, nitrate, sulfate, chloride
iron copper
dissolved gases—oxygen, carbon dioxide, methane
hydrogen sulfide
4. What is the effect of varying concentrations of dissolved
materials such as Cl or phosphate on the species population
or diversity index of a microcosm?
5. Does the diversity index change as one goes downstream?
6. What are the species populations of an aquatic system?
What is the biomass and/or energy flow in a particular system?
TU.S. Department of the Interior, Biological Field Investigative
Data for Water Pollution Surveys (Washington, D.C.: U.S."Government
Printing Office), p.4.
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Ecological Perspectives
7. Do the concentrations of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide
change over a 24-hour cycle? Does the diversity index of an
aquatic system change over a 12-month period?
The following resources will be found useful throughout the
chapter. A bibliography is listed at the close of each activity.
American Public Health Association, Standard Methods for the Ex-
amination of Water and Wastewater, (13th ed.), American Public
Health Association, Inc., New York City, 1971. This book dis-
cusses biological collection techniques, bioassays, and chemical
analysis and contains good drawings of the organisms. Every
school should have at least one of these.
Hedgepeth, J. W., Treatise on Marine Ecology and Paleocology,
Memois 67, Geological Society of America, 1963.This is a
good reference for marine studies. Chapter 4, "Obtaining
Ecological Data in the Sea," is particularly useful.
Needham, J. G., and P. R. Needham, A Guide to the Study of Fresh
Water Biology, Holden-Day, Inc., San Francisco, Calif., 1962.
This guide contains excellent drawings of organisms and is
easily carried into the field.
Usinger, R. L., Aquatic Insects of California, University of Cali-
fornia Press, Berkeley, 1956.This can be used for most
locations within the United States.
Welch, P. S., Limnological Methods, Blakiston Co., Philadelphia, Pa.,
1968. This is highly recommended.
Wilhm, J. L., "Patterns of Numerical Abundance of Populations,"
The American Biology Teacher, March 1969, pp. 147-150. A
diversity index is presented as well as other means of
statistically analyzing biological data.
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Ecological Perspectives
A. Aquatic System
I. Introduction
The purpose of this investigation is to involve students in
studying a total aquatic system. This activity would be car-
ried out to begin the study of Ecological Perspectives. Most
of these activities would take place at the secondary level;
however with proper teacher adaptation, some could be used at
elementary levels. The basic and advanced levels differ mostly
in the accuracy and, therefore, the expense of the equipment
involved.
II. Questions
1. To lead to the activity ask:
How many kinds of plants, animals, and microbes are present
in this aquatic system?
2. Initiate the activity by posing:
How are you going to collect these?
3. Continue the activity with:
What are the physical characteristics of the system?
4. Evaluate the performance of the students by considering
questions such as:
a. How many species were present in the student's samples?
b. How many did the students find?
c. Were the samples representative?
d. What are the pertinent physical characteristics?
e. Did the students study them?
f. How well did the students work (as opposed to hacking)?
g. What seemed to interest them most?
h. Were the students able to fit all the parts together
and form an understanding of the whole system?
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Ecological Perspectives
III. Equipment
(The Equipment and Procedure sections are suggestions only.
Teachers should encourage their students to develop equip-
ment and procedures of their own.)
1. Basic Level
a. Several thicknesses of cloth to filer out microbes
b. Some screen to collect bottom dwelling organisms
c. Container for collected plants
d. A float for estimating stream flow
e. A can for collecting bottom sediment or gravel
f. A microscope
2. Advanced Level
a. A plankton net or membrane filter apparatus
b. A Surber Sampler or Ekman Dredge (you can make your own
quantitative samplers)
c. Containers and keys for collected plants
d. A stream flow meter or a watch with a second hand, a
meter stick, and a float
e. Core sampler, Ekman Dredge, or Kemrnerer Sampler
f. A microscope for counting cells such as Sedgwick-Rafter,
Palmer, or haemocytometer
IV. Procedure
1. Basic Level
a. Pour sample water through cloth and study residue by
making wet mounts on microscope slides.
b. Place screen in rift, then:
(1) disturb bottom by moving stones,
(2) remove organisms from screen and place in container,
(3) sort out species.
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Ecological Perspectives
c. Pick representative plants from various kinds present
and place them in container.
d. Estimate the time it takes for the float to go a given
estimated distance, estimate width and depth, and cal-
culate flow in cubic units per time.
e. Get a bottom sample with a can, determine particle
size with screen, and observe organic matter present.
2. Advanced Level
a. Run a known volume of water through the net or filter,
then determine by microscope the number of kinds pre-
sent per volume of water.
b. Collect bottom sample with Surber, Ekman, or improvised
collector, then determine types present per unit area.
c. Collect representatives of all plant types using quadrat,
if desired, then use keys to identify plants.
d. Calculate the flow using flow meter or watch, meter
stick, and float.
e. Get a bottom sample using core sampler, Kemmerer Sam-
pler, or Ekman Dredge.
f. Determine particle size by using differential settling
or by using a series of different meshed screens.
g. Do a microscopic study of particle size.
h. Determine the percent of organic matter by massing, fire
treating, and remassing.
V. Previous Studies
1. Some 6th graders delighted in drawing what they saw in their
microscopes. They placed their drawings on the bulletin board.
2. A 3rd grade class was extremely interested in picking macroin-
vertebrates from a bottom sample.
3. Second-year biology students reacted strongly to the lack of
diversity in a polluted bottom sample. They had thought that
pollution just happened to the water.
4. A group of freshman students thought that their flow data were
wrong because flow decreased as they went downstream. They
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Ecological Perspectives
investigated further and found out that a water supply
company was taking water from the stream.
5. A freshman class found that an undiluted water sample had
a zero coliform bacteria count. However, the 1:10 and
1:100 dilutions had uncountable numbers. They were chal-
lenged to find a palatable solution.
VI. Limitations
Travel and clothing sometimes present problems. Keys are dif-
ficult to use. Teachers should emphasize general species char-
acteristics and support the efforts of students to help them
make particular identifications. Use pictorial keys if possible.
Keying unknown organisms down to species often requires an ex-
pert. Don't require too much precision.
VII. Bibliography
American Public Health Association, Standard Methods for the Ex-
amination of Water and Wastewater, (12th ed.), American Public
Health Association, Inc., 1965, pp. 634-690. These pages
provide detailed descriptions of various collecting devices,
counting cells, procedures, etc.
Edmonson, W. T. (ed.), Fresh Water Biology, (2nded.), John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., New York City, 1959, pp. 1194-1197. These
pages discuss the collection of plankton, vascular plants, and
macroinvertebrates.
Mackenthum, K. M., The Practice of Water Pollution Biology, U. S.
Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C., 1969, pp. 55-65.
This is a very general text but covers simple techniques.
Morgan, A. H., Field Book of Ponds and Streams, G. P. Putnam's
Sons, New York City, 1930.This book contains very good
general information on collecting and preserving. It discusses
growing organisms in the laboratory.
Pennak, R. W. C., Fresh Waiter Invertebrates of the United States,
Ronald Press Co., New^York City, 1953.Pages 727-735 give
a brief description of equipment and methods and mentions the
kinds of organisms which can or cannot be collected. Photo-
graphs are included.
Smith, Gilbert M., The Fresh Water Algae of the United States,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City, 1950. Pages 27-38
provide information on collection, preservation, and methods
for studying fresh water algae.
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Ecological Perspectives
B. Stream Deterioration Due to Effluents
I. Introduction
The purpose of this experiment is to show the student the effect
of an effluent upon the fauna of a specific area within an aquatic
system. Because of the nature of this experiment these activities
would take place at a secondary level; however, with minor modi-
fications it could be used at an elementary level.
II. Questions
1. To lead to the activity ask:
What is an effluent?
2. Initiate the activity by posing:
a. How could we determine the effect of an effluent?
b. How could you collect the data?
c. How could you compile the data?
d. What do the data show?
NOTE: After the students have discussed the ways in
which the data can be compiled, introduce
diversity index.
3. To continue the activity ask:
Does the effluent affect the bottom dwelling organism in
a stream?
4. To evaluate the activity ask:
a. Did the population diversity change: How?
b. Could you observe the changes that occur without a
close examination?
III. Equipment
(Teachers should encourage their students to develop equipment
whenever possible. Bacteriological equipment may be used if
students are interested in further study.)
1. A plankton net
2. A Surber Sampler or an Ekman Dredge
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Ecological Perspectives
3. Containers for collected plants and animals
4. Lab equipment - microscope, white enamel pans, hand
magnifying glasses
IV. Procedure
1. Select a stream containing at least one effluent.
2. Pick sites 50 meters above and below the effluent which are
suitable for your equipment. If the stream is wide, take
three samples at each site, one close to each bank and one
in the center.
3. Place samples in separate containers, identify by number,
date, and temperature of water.
4. Make a map to show where the samples were collected.
5. If time permits, sample more than one effluent site.
6. During warm weather, refrigerate samples until for study
in laboratory.
7. Pour contents of each bottle into separate white enamel
observation pans.
8. Begin separating, counting, and tabulating.
9. Compile data.
10. Plan your time. Class discussions are very important.
V. Previous studies
1. Some 10th grade students were amazed at the number of
species contained in one-square-foot samples.
2. One member of the team spent an afternoon in working a
method for feeding information into the computer to de-
velop our diversity index.
3. The team selected a stream named NeedleshopBrook. Upon
arrival at the stream, we searched for and found an efflu-
ent entering the stream. Samples were taken above and
below the effluent entrance. Also, samples were taken
200 yards further downstream. Indexing indicated a sharp
reduction of fauna directly below the effluent and a 70%
restoration of the fauna further downstream.
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Ecological Perspectives
4. The data collected at sites along a stream are shown in
Figure B-l. As the stream had effluents added (increasing
site numbers), the population diversity changed.
VI. Limitations
The appropriate stream may be difficult to find within a
reasonable distance from the school and in an accessible area.
Clothing and footwear sometimes became a problem.
30-
Figure B-l
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Ecological Perspectives
VII. Bibliography
Coker, N. E., Streams, Lakes, & Ponds, Harper & Row, New York
City, 1968.
Edmondson, W. T., (ed.), Fresh Water Biology, (2nd ed.), John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York City, 1959.
Morgan, A. H., Field Book of Ponds & Streams, G. P. Putnam's
Sons, New York City, 1930.~~
Pennak, R. W. C., Fresh Water Invertebrates of the United States,
Ronald Press Co., New York City, 1953.
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Ecological Perspectives
C. Stream Variation
I. Introduction
This is an introductory activity for 3rd through 12th graders.
The students can easily become aware of how to sample bottom
organisms and how population diversity varies with water qual-
ity. A short trip to two or more sites is required, but no
specialized equipment is necessary.
II. Questions
1. Lead the activity by asking:
Does the diversity index change as one goes downstream?
2. Initiate by asking:
How could we test for this change?
3. Continue by asking:
a. Why does the diversity change?
b. Does it change drastically on the downstream side of
an effluent?
c. If so, what is the source of the effluent and can it be
stopped?
4. Evaluate by:
a. Listening to the ideas brought up in class discussions.
b. Considering how well did the students work.
c. Reviewing what seemed to interest them the most.
d. Checking follow-up on the experiment (i.e., What is
causing the change and how could the problem be best
controlled?)
III. Equipment
1. Surber sampler
2. Three or more one-gallon or equivalent bottles for each
sampling site
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Ecological Perspectives
3. Preservative for keeping the organisms
4. Suitable clothing
a. Boots, sneakers, etc.
b. Shorts
c. Rubber gloves (if working in contaminated water)
IV. Procedure
1. Collect bottom sample using the Surber sampler or another
suitable collecting device.
2. Determine the number of species per unit area and the
diversity index.
3. Compare and plot data of the stream.
4. Report and discuss findings.
V. Past Studies
A few students found that the stream steadily became worse as
they proceeded downstream. Tney noted with interest the ability
of the stream to cleanse itself from an effluent if given time.
Students in a freshman science course linked the population
diversity with other factors - bacteria and chemical data - and
found a relationship among the three. They felt a great sense
of accomplishment in the study and thought that it was a worth-
while project.
VI. Limitations
Due to the nature of the experiment, the whole class might not
easily do one stream. If there are too many people, it might
be better to break up the class into small groups to survey other
streams in order to arrive at a better picture of the aquatic
ecosystem in that area. An alternative is to choose many sites
along a stream.
Time is also a factor; field trips are generally very time-con-
suming, as is the counting of the organisms. It is neither
advisable, nor necessary at this stage, to ask the students to
identify down to the species level.
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Ecological Perspectives
VII. Bibliography
Morgan, A. H., Field Book of Ponds and Streams, G. P. Putnam's
Sons, New York City, 1930, pp. 26-45.This gives good
general information on collecting and preserving and
discusses bioassays.
Pennak, R. W. C., Fresh Water Invertebrate of the United States,
Ronald Press Co., New York City, 1953, pp. 727-735. This
gives a brief description of equipment and of methods and
mentions the kinds of organisms which can or cannot be
collected. It is illustrated.
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D. Diurnal Study
I. Introduction
This diurnal activity deals with the study of the changes in
carbon dioxide and dissolved oxygen in water over a 24-hour
period by testing at regular intervals. Since the study takes
place over a long (24 hours) period of time, students must
arrange for rest between measurements or teams must be used.
The investigation should convey both the biotic processes in-
volved in the production of carbon dioxide and oxygen and pro-
vide a situation in which the student can independently perform
a scientific experiment. To accomplish this, the following
objectives should be kept in mind:
1. Promote creative thinking toward the solution of a pro-
posed problem.
2. Motivate the student into collecting data to support his
program for solving the problem.
3. Encourage the pursuit of the biotic processes involved in
production of the dissolved gases and their interrelation-
ship with each other and the abiotic factors affecting them.
II. Questions
1. Lead to the activity by asking:
a. Is the concentration of dissolved gases in a body of
water always the same?
b. Are carbon dioxide and oxygen present in the same con-
centrations in a given body of water?
c. Are the concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide
constant in a 24-hour period or over a long period
of time?
2. Initiate the activity by asking how you might determine
whether the concentrations of these gases vary?
3. Continue the activity by asking:
a. What factors may affect the concentrations of the
gases?
b. What effects on organisms are seen?
c. How does the varying concentration of gases available
to organisms affect the entire community?
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Ecological Perspectives
4. Evaluate the performance of the students by considering
questions such as:
a. Did the students use more than one method for the
determination of concentrations of gases?
b. Could the student offer possible explanations, reasons
for his results?
c. Did students pursue a study of the physical factors
affecting concentrations? How did they consider?
d. Did the student consider the effects of gases on or-
ganisms?
e. Did he make a study of these effects?
f. Did he consider the effects on a community of or-
ganisms?
g. Did he consider the effect of oxygen on food produc-
tion or the revierse?
h. Did he pursue these possibilities?
i. How well did the students work?
j. Were they able to relate data and for an understanding
of the whole system?
k. Did they go on to consider the seasonal effects on gas
concentration and what the results of such changes might
be?
1. Does the student consider the possibility of making a
general statement about the possibility of oxygen and
carbon dioxide being limiting factors in an aquatic
envi ronment?
III. Equipment
1. General Equipment
a. Table for testing equipment
b. Chairs
c. Camping equipment, perhaps blankets, sleeping bags
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Ecological Perspectives
d. Large flashlights
e. Alarm clock
f. Food and drink
g. Pencils and paper for recording data
h. Insect repellent
i. First aid kit
j. Sponge and paper towels
k. Masking tape for labelling
2. Equipment for dissolved oxygen determination
a. Dissolved oxygen meter
b. Winkler method equipment (have instructions available)
(1) Manganous sulfate
(2) Alkali-iodide-azide solution
(3) Sulfuric acid
(4) Sodium thiosulfate solution (.0375 N)
(5) Starch solution
(6) Distilled water
(7) Collection bottles with ground glass stoppers
(8) Graduated cylinder
(9) Burettes and stands
(10) Pipettes (2 ml. or 5 ml. calibrated in ml.)
(11) Beakers: 125 ml., 250 ml.
(12) Funnels for filling burettes
c. Hach, Delta, or LaMotte kit
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Ecological Perspectives
3. Equipment for carbon dioxide determination
a. Collection bottles
b. Hach, Delta, or LaMotte kits or alternative procedure
IV. Procedure
1. Oxygen Determination
a. Dissolved oxygen meter
(1) Place probe in water by casting without allowing
probe to hit the bottom.
(2) Check battery, calibrate instrument, and make
temperature reading.
(3) After setting temperature gauge, make oxygen
reading and record data.
or,
b. Follow procedures on dissolved oxygen procedure
sheet (Appendix 1) for Winkler test, keeping the
following precautions in mind": ~~
(1) Be careful to use the proper pipettes for dif-
ferent chemicals. Marking pipettes in order to
distinguish them will help.
(2) Use care in labelling so that chemicals are not
confused.
(3) Use extreme caution in handling sulfuric acid and
alkali-iodide-azide solution. Pipette with CARE.
If either is spilled, flush the area with water.
Carbon Dioxide
a. A collection bottle should be placed upstream in the water,
and it should be filled carefully with no splashing. As
in Winkler, capping of the bottle should be done under
water.
b. Use kit procedure to determine concentration.
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V. Past Studies
Participants in the Summer School Project at University
School on a 9th and 8th grade level did a 24-hour study
taking tests at 2-hour intervals and established an oxygen
and carbon dioxide curve corresponding to the cycle.
KEY
Carbon Dioxide -
Dissolved Oxygen -
2. Students on a junior high level participated in a 24-hour
study taking the carbon dioxide and oxygen counts every
6 hours. When they found a sharp drop in the dissolved
oxygen at 6 p.m., they explained it by noting the dense
cloud cover that had formed since their last reading.
3. Juniors in high school conducted a 24-hour study during
the fall and after noticing that the dissolved oxygen did
not increase considerably from night to mid-day, they con-
cluded it was due to the leaves which had fallen and blocked
the sun 's rays.
4. A group from a summer water pollution program did a 24-hour
study of a local lake and noted that the carbon dioxide
curve was highly irregular. They later realized that the
lighting affected the test results by giving the samples a
yellowish tint thus making the color readings in the test
inaccurate.
5. In 1961 at Webster Lake near Tilton, N. H., a group of sum-
mer trainees recorded the following study:
a- Selection of a site was made after consideration of
factors including accessibility of the site and problems
concerned with setting up and use of the equipment.
b- The equipment was set up inside the Webster Lodge. At
24-hour intervals the tests for carbon dioxide and dis-
solved oxygen were conducted. Two water samples were
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obtained by filling ground glass collection bottles with
water from the site, taking care to fill the dissolved
oxygen bottle completely, thus preventing aeration from
within the bottle. At this time, the dissolved oxygen
reading and temperature of the water were taken with the
Dissolved Oxygen Meter. The purpose of taking two dis-
solved oxygen tests was to make a comparison between
methods. However, the Winkler-Azide Method failed to
give reasonable results probably due to a fault in the
reagents.
c. Once inside the Lodge, the carbon dioxide test was run
using the Hach Kit Method. After each test, the bottles
were flushed with distilled water. (Sterility is not
required in testing for dissolved gasses.)
d. As part of the observations, general weather conditions
are noted along with the data.
Time
10:15 pm
12:
2:
4:
6:
9:
15
15
15
45
15
am
am
am
am
am
Temp
°C
19
19
18
17
17
19
°2
(ppm)
3
4
3
5.2
7.5
8
co2
(ppm)
8
6
8
8
6
4
(light
Dark
9
Remarks:
, air temp. , wind
warm, and
Water disturbed
activity
Dark, cold, and
Same
Cold
Same
still
due to
still
level)
human
as 12:15 am
9
Water
still, li-
as 4:15 am
disturbed
ghter
due to
human
activity
11:00 am 20 7.5 4 Water disturbed due to human
activity
Light, warm, still
1:00 pm 21 6.5 4 Same as 11 am
3:00 pm 21.5 7.5 4 Water disturbed due to human
activity
Light, hot, windy
5:00 pm 23 6.5 4 Same as 3 pm
7:00 pm 22 8 6 Water disturbed due to human
activity
Dark, still, warm
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e. Dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration
change as a result of animal and plant respiration
and photosynthesis. It may be that the dissolved
oxygen was low during the first testing time be-
cause the day had been an overcast one and, perhaps,
less dissolved oxygen had been formed by the photo-
synthesizing plants.
Dissolved oxygen concentrations are inversely pro-
portional to temperature change. For example, be-
tween 5 p.m. and 7 p.m. there was a decrease in
temperature accompanied by an increase in dissolved
oxygen.
f. Dissolved carbon dioxide and oxygen vary in concen-
tration within a 24-hour period due to a variety of
physical characteristics which change as the day pro-
gresses. It would be interesting to determine whether
this fluctuation in gas concentrations might produce
noticeable effects in the biotic community of the lake.
VI. Limitations
1. Make sure the equipment is complete to prevent the necessity
of returning to the lab.
2. Plan your equipment with the physical characteristics of your
site in mind (i.e., mosquitoes).
3. Obtain some method of lighting other than lights that must be
held (i.e., a lantern).
4. Location:
a. Have easy access to your site. Problem locations
would be:
(1) forest with dense undergrowth
(2) steep banks
(3) water which drops off quickly at the banks
b. Locate your site and set up equipment before dark.
5. Surviving the night:
a. Proper clothing, a change of clothes and a sleeping bag
are needed to insure the semi comfort of the participants.
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b. Quick energy food is needed.
c. In most cases, insect repellent is a must.
VII. Bibliography
Benton, A. H., Field Biology and Ecology, (2nd ed.), McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York City, 1965.
Billings, W. D., Plant, Man and the Ecosystem, (2nd ed.) Wadsworth
Publishing Co., Belmont, Calif" 1970.
Buchsbaum, Ralph, Basic Ecology, Boxwood Press, Pittsburgh, Pa.,
1957.
Kormondy, Edward J., Concepts of Ecology, Prentice Hall Biological
Series, T. H. Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1969.
Life Science Series, Ecology, Time, Inc., New York City, 1969.
Odum, Eugene P., Fundamentals of Ecology, (2nd ed.), W. B.
Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa., 1971.
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E. Population Diversity Index
I. Introduction
This activity enables the student to determine the species popula-
tion of macroinvertebrates in a stream. The student may also de-
termine by investigation if the diversity index changes as one
samples at random sites downstream. The activity will acquaint
students with macroscopic sampling techniques and will, hopefully,
provide them with results that will initiate other kinds of water
quality tests and activities. Seventh graders and above may do
this activity.
II. Questions
1. To lead to the activity:
a. How many kinds and numbers of macroinvertebrates are in
the stream?
b. Do you think this diversity index should change as you
go downstream?
2. Initiate the activity with: Where are they found and how
can they be collected?
3. Continue with: If there is a change in the diversity index,
how can you account for it?
4. Evaluate the students by asking:
a. How many species were present in the students'samples?
b. Were the samples representative?
c. Given the change in the diversity index, did the students
account for this change?
d. Were the students interested in the activity?
e. Did any of the students want to pursue the activity
to a greater depth?
III. Equipment
1. Basic Introductory Level
a. Hip boots, screen, (for bottom dwelling organisms - close
mesh), or cloth (i.e., nylon)
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b. Collecting jars with preservative, if it is being used;
shallow pan; and forceps
c. Pan with white background
2. More Advanced Level
a. Surber sampler (for other samplers see Standard Methods
pp. 673-83)
b. Can to rinse attached invertebrates to bottom of net;
collecting jars; shallow pan; forceps
c. Pan with white background; key to identify invertebrates
d. Dissecting scope to facilitate identification
IV. Procedure
Choose several sites randomly spaced along the stream. At each
site take three samples such that the area is well covered. Water
should not be too deep or too shallow and fast running. Avoid
large rocks; find gravelly bottom with hand-size stones or little
larger. Try to make each sample site the same type of bottom and
same area.
1. For Basic Level
a. Place screen, so that it will trap macroinvertebrates that
have been loosened from upstream, at the chosen sites.
Disturb bottom by moving stones above screen.
Note: Area should be constant for all sampling done.
It may be desirable for students to wear boots.
b. Remove organisms from screen and place in a suitable
container.
c. In the lab, place the specimens in pan with white back-
ground; separate them as to kinds and number. (This will
determine species population.)
d. Assign letters to the specimens, each specimen having a
letter, with specimens in each group having consecutive
numbers. For example, if there are 37 worm-like spec-
imens with black heads, these might be in Group A and
have numbers 1 through 37; 14 snails of one type might
be Group B and have numbers 38 through 51, and so on.
e. Randomly select (by putting numbers in a hat and pulling
them out, for example) numbers 1 to 200 and list them.
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Determine the number of "runs" (the numbers of con-
tinuous series of similar organisms). If the numbered
specimen is in the same group as the one immediately
preceding, it is part of the same run; if not, a new
run is started (it does not matter that the specimen
is part of a run three or four runs back; we are con-
cerned only with the specimens immediately following one
another). For example, take the following list, with
groups assigned. Suppose, that the first number chosen
is number 10. Number 10 organism is from Group A. This
will begin run number 1. Organism number 3, chosen next
is of the same Group A and is therefore also included in
run number 1. However, the next organism, number 6, is
of Group D. Hence, a new run, number 2, has begun. The
remainder of the runs are formed in a similar way.
Organism number Group Run
10 A 1
3 A
6 D 2
7 B 3
2 A 4
5 C 5
4 C
9 B 6
1 A 7
These are a total of 7 runs in the 10 spcimens listed.
g. The total number runs reported both as total no./200
specimens and as a Diversity Index.
number of runs
D.I. = number of specimens
2. For Advanced Level
a. Place Surber sampler in water at chosen sampling site.
Pick up stones and remove organisms so that they will
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flow into the collecting net. Note: Be sure to col-
lect all possible organisms in the square foot area.
b. Remove sampler from water and transfer organisms to
collecting bottles. Note: It may facilitate trans-
ferring organisms if the organisms are first placed
in a shallow pan and then in the collecting jars.
c. In the lab, place the specimens in pan with white back-
ground; differentiate them as to kind and total numbers
of each kind.
d. If the students are interested, they should identify the
organisms they have collected with the aid of a dissect-
ion scope and a key. (This would be for advanced stud-
ents and would be useful to relate organisms being found
at different sites on the stream.)
e. To determine the diversity, one divides the number of
types by the square root of the total numbers of indi-
viduals for all samples taken at each site.
D = S (# of Species)
(total # of individuals)
For further interpretation of data consult The American
Bjo1ogy Teacher, "Patterns of Numerical Abundance of
Animal Population," by Jerry Wilhm, Vol. 31, No. 3,
pp. 147-150, March 1969.
V. Previous Studies
1. A freshman class sampled 22 different locations on a water-
shed, collected and massed the macroinvertebrates.
2. A 2nd-year biology class used this method to determine spe-
cies diversity.
3. A field study of this type was used by sophomores, to il-
lustrate the numerical abundance of a population of grasses
on a lawn.
VI. Limitations
Ample time should be provided for collecting samples. Sites
should be well planned before class activity. Since this activity
will probably take longer than one setting, specimens may be kept
in preservatives until time allowed-, however, it is best to work
with live samples (they can be kept up to 4 days by refrigeration)
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Time is required in transferring the specimens from net to jar
(they tend to cling to the net). Often there is a feeling of
inadequacy and a consequential fear to try this activity. If
many samples are obtained, they should be clearly labeled to
avoid mixing; keys are often difficult to apply.
VII. Bibliography
American Public Health Association, Standard Methods For the
Examination of Water and Wastewater, (12th ed.). New York
City, 1965.This gives a complete listing of all bottom
fauna sampling methods and how to use them, pp. 673-682.
Mackenthum, K. M., The Practice of Water Pollution Biology,
Department of the Interior, Washington, U. c.~, iyb9. it gives
a semi-complete listing, but for more information on
sampling methods see Standard Methods.
Morgan, A. H., Field Book of Ponds and Streams, G. P. Putnam's
Sons, New York City, 1930. Both of these books are good
if you are looking up the genus species of your specimens.
Pennak, R. W. C., Fresh Water Invertebrates of the United States,
Ronald Press Co., New York City, 1953.
The American Biology Teacher, Vol. 31, No. 3, March 1969.
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F. Bioassay
I. Introduction
In order to determine the effect of harmful dissolved solids
on a microcosm, the minimum lethal dosage must be determined.
This can be done by experimenting with different concentrations
of dissolved solids and noticing the effect over determined
periods of time. Seventh graders and up may complete this ac-
tivity.
II. Questions
1. Lead into the activity by asking:
a. How could we test the stream's fauna in relationship
to abiotic factors?
b. Are certain combinations of chemicals synergistic? If
so, how could we test for this?
2. Initiate the activity with:
a. Where could the experiment be best controlled?
b. What type of test organisms would be best suited for
our study?
3. Continue with:
a. What do the varying "kill" times indicate?
b. How could this (kill time) be minimized?
4. Evaluate the students by considering:
a. Do the students "stick with it" when the control dies
off first for some strange reason, yet still continue
anew?
b. Was time used wisely (as opposed to hacking)?
c. Did the students try to do as quantitative a study
as possible?
III. Equipment
Like many other experiments in the ecological perspectives group,
the following materials are fairly standard. The following pieces
are for a quantitative rather than a qualitative study;
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1. Battery jars
2. Graduated cylinders
3. Aerators and plastic tubing
4. Test chemical
5. Test animals (fish, macroinvertebrates, plankton)
6. Nets
7. Labels and markers
8. Sample jars
9. Water from which samples are taken
IV. Procedure
1. In the lab, mark all battery jars used.
2. Prepare each jar with the liquid required. REMEMBER
the control!
3. Begin to aerate the jars 30 minutes before you put in any
of the test animals.
4. Collect test animals. (Be sure they are acclimatized to the
lab.)
For further precautions see the limitations section.
5. After the test animals are accustomed to the lab, transfer
them to the test jars.
6. Note the time. Depending upon time limitations, you may
want to check the jars every half hour or daily (obviously
the half hour is more quantitative than the daily check).
7. Remove all dead fish from the jars.
8. For each jar, graph fish kill vs. time of individual deaths.
9. After 96 hours or 100% fish kill, which ever comes first,
end the test.
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V. Past Studies
Using the procedure above, studies have been done as to the
effects of an endotoxin produced by the dying of certain blue-
green algae. The algae were killed by copper sulfate at 4 ppm.
The test animals were minnows. The first study did not succeed
due to the use of distilled water instead of stream water. A
second study was immediately undertaken using the above procedure,
Another group of students ran a toxicity test on CuS04 and
found that after 3 hours a 100% fish kill occurred.
VI. Limitations
1. In doing bioassays, keep in mind some of the following
factors:
a. Temperature
b. Oxygen
c. Nutrients
2. As a safeguard against possible killing of the fish in the
lab, try to make the water in the battery jars the same
temperature as was found in the stream. Even more impor-
tant is the oxygen. Remember that the fish need 02; try
to get them as quickly as possible back to the lab to the
aerators. Stream water is chosen in lieu of distilled
for it was discovered that the fish would die fairly quickly
without the necessary nutrients, even though the 02 and
temperature were satisfactory.
3. As mentioned before, time is a very important factor in
that there is a considerable amount of time taken up in
catching the test organisms.
VII. Bibliography
American Public Health Association, Standard Methods for the Ex-
amination of Water and Wastewater. American Public Health
Association, Inc., New York City, 1950. This gives the
standard tests for CO as well as giving identification plates
for some fresh water algae.
Smith, Gilbert M., The Fresh Water Algae of the United States,
McGraw-Hill Book Co:, New York City, 1950. This is a general
text on the identification and classification of fresh water
algae.
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G. Plankton Growth in Relation to Light
I. Introduction
The purpose of this activity is to discover what relationship,
if any, exists between the presence of light and algae growth.
Students make a photometer, then use it to measure the extinc-
tion of light in a still body of water. Data from the light
measurements are then compared to data on the plankton popula-
tion of the water. This activity is most successfully performed
by students in grades 7 to 12, and requires that the students
have a basic understanding of the process of photosynthesis.
II. Questions
1. Questions leading into the activity:
a. What do green plants need to grow?
b. If they don't net what they need what happens to the
plants?
c. What happens if a plant can get all the water and light
it can use?
d. What happens if a plant can get all the light it needs
but can't get enough water?
e. What happens if a plant can get all the water it needs
but can't get enough light?
f. Where is a place where plants can get all the light they
need, but not enough water?
g. Where is a place where plants can get all the water they
need, but no light?
2. Questions initiating the activity:
a. In a nearby still body of water, as you go towards the
bottom, do you reach a point at which there is no light
or less light than at the surface?
b. How many plants would you expect to find there (at the
bottom) as compared to the number you would find at the
top?
c. How are we going to prove that there is a place in the
water where there is less light?
d. How are we going to prove that in this place where there
is less light, that there is also less plant life?
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3. Questions which continue the activity:
a. Does anybody know how to snag up a lot of plants from
the water at a particular depth?
b. Does anybody know any ways to measure how much light
there is in a given place?
c. If you had a camera light meter, how could you use it
under water?
d. If you did not have a camera light meter, could you
make a simple instrument to measure light under water?
e. What else can you think of other than a light meter that
would be sensitive to light?
f. How could you arrange to have a known amount of light
at a known depth so that you could measure the light
the plant took in?
4. Evaluating the student's efforts:
a. Does the student have a reasonable understanding of the
way in which plant growth is dependent on light?
III. Equipment
1. Pond or other suitable body of water
2. A boat, pier, bridge, or bank which will allow students to
lower samples to a depth which will demonstrate a measurable
attenuation of light
3. A light sensitive device such as:
a. Camera light meter in plastic bag or similar waterproof
container and device (such as diving mask) for reading
light meter under water
b. Homemade photometer: an instrument of this sort can
readily be assembled with a variable-register photocell
and an ohmmeter from the school physics lab.(The photo-
cell can be purchased for a dollar or less from a local
electric supply house. It usually comes with two wires
attached. If the wires are clipped to the leads of the
ohmmeter, light registers directly as (milli) ohms of
resistance. Plastic bags or other waterproofing can be
applied as necessary, a project which can be readily
completed with the assistance of a senior physics stu-
dent or a general science instructor.)
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Ecological Perspectives
4. Equipment for collecting plankton:
a. Plankton net
b. Homemade device such as cloth bag or pillowcase on
coat hanger frame dragged through water on a string
5. Microscope for observing plankton
6. Measuring instrument for determining depth
a. Meter stick
b. Knotted or marked cord
7. Containers for samples
IV. Procedure
1. Select a site.
2. Measure light at depth. Readings can be taken continuously
or at intervals which are convenient from the surface to
the bottom or point of light extinction.
3. Collect plankton at depths corresponding to depths measured
for light intensity.
4. Evaluate plankton population at each level.
5. Graph and correlate data to demonstrate relationship between
ligh and plankton growth.
V. Previous Studies
In a study done by students at Peasoup Pond in Franklin, N.H.,
it was found that only 5% of the light striking the surface of
the pond penetrated to a depth of 4 feet. Near the surface of
the pond several types of green algae were present in moderate
concentration; no algae was found in samples at a depth of 4 feet
VI. Limitations
The pond used for the study has to demonstrate enough attenua-
tion of light so that there will be a measurable difference
in plankton concentration from the surface to the bottom. If
the water is too clear, plankton will avoid the very bright
sunlight in the 1 to 2 feet of the pond, and figures could be
produced that would show increasing plant growth with decrease
of light. A very deep pond or lake which was stratified for
temperature could show a difference in photosynthesis on oppo-
site sides of a thermocline.
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Ecological Perspectives
VII. Bibliography
Benton, A. H., and W. E. Werner, Field Biology and Ecology,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City, 1966.
Ruttner, Franz, Fundamentals of Limnology, University of Toronto
Press, Toronto, Canada, 1953.
Smith, Gilbert M., Fresh Water Algae of the United States, (2nd ed.),
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City, 1950, pp. 14-15.
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H. Water Quality Comparisons by Diversity Index
I. Introduction
The purpose of this investigation is to compare the diversity
index of two separate waterways; one with obvious pollution,
the other apparently clear. Suitable locations may be found
through observation of the site, comparing basic properties
noticeable fish kills, sewer or pipe drainage entering lake,
noticeable algae blooms, and odor of water and lake shore.
Young students could do a fair job with sample collecting,
but perhaps only high school students should attempt complica-
ted type classification.
II. Questions
1. To lead to the activity, ask how many kinds of plants and
animals are present at this location.
2. Initiate the activity by posing, how are you going to col-
lect these specimens?
3. Continue the activity with:
a. Does the water depth have any effect on the numbers and
kinds of organisms present?
b. Does pollution affect the total number of animal and
plant samples collected?
c. Are there any specific plant or animal groups that are
affected more than the others by pollution? (This may
be a benefit as well as a detriment.)
4. Evaluate the performance of the student by considering
questions such as:
a. Did the group collect a representative sample of the
area?
b. Did all students appear to be working willingly and to
their capacity?
c. What part of the investigation seemed to interest them
most?
d. Were the students able to draw adequate conclusions to
satisfy the problem?
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III. Equipment
(Equipment can easily be adapted to availability. Even for
advanced groups sophisticated equipment is not needed.)
1. Fine mesh cloth to filter bottom samples for microbes
2. Screening to screen out larger invertebrates
3. Seines or fish nets to collect small fish or aquatic
insects
4. Containers for holding plant and animal specimens
5. A small rubber boat or raft (any floating craft that will
hold one person)
6. Meter stick for measuring depth of water
7. Sounding line
i
8. Microscope
IV. Procedure
1. Collect all varieties of plants present at a shallow depth.
2. Seine or net samples of small fish, amphibians, water insects,
or other forms of animal life at shallow depths (up to one
meter).
3. Screen out large invertebrates from soil samples at shallow
depths with coarse screening.
4. Examine the lake bottom at shallow depths for bottom dwellers
(snails, clams, mussels, etc.).
5. If the group is mature enough, repeat procedures (3 & 4) listed
above, at water depths of 2 and 3 meters.
6. Bring material back to laboratory, sort as to like kinds,
and classify all specimens where possible.
7. Compare collections from each site and determine the effect
pollution has on organism diversity.
8. Within each waterway, determine what effect water depth has
on numbers of individual specimens.
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V. Previous Studies
1. A group of high school students was surprised to find that
the number of mussels per square meter was greater in a
polluted lake than in a nonpolluted one. This led to spec-
ulation as to how far this pollution could go before the
trend was reversed.
2. In comparing lake bottoms from polluted and nonpolluted water
systems, the students noted that polluted sand botti is were
covered with a layer of silt or mud; the clear lakes had much
less sediment. They wondered whether the increased vegeta-
tion could have anything to do with this situation.
3. The presence of large masses of spirogyra in the shallows of
a still lake became a signal to a 6th grade class that the
water was polluted.
VI. Limitations
Class size may hinder effective control and accomplishment of
this investigation. Transportation is always a problem. In
studying water that shows pollution signs, care must be taken to
protect the student from contamination. If adequate protection
is not available, then the site should be ignored. Classifica-
tion should be attempted according to the ability and maturity
level of the class. Keying to class or order is adequate for
younger groups.
VII. Bibliography
Jacques, H. E., Plant Families--How to Know Them, Wm. C. Brown
Co., Oubuque, la., 1941. A general key is given for all
plant families.
Morgan, K. M., Field Book of Ponds and Streams, G. P. Putnam's
Sons, New York City, 1930. It gives helpful information on
collecting and classification, and it has some helpful photo-
graphs.
Needharri, J. G., and P. R. Needham, A Guide to the Study of Fresh
Water Biology, Holden-Day, Inc., San Francisco, Calif., 1969.
Pennak, R. W., Fresh Water Invertebrates in the United States.
The Ronalds Press Co., New York City, 1955. This is a good
guide to fresh water forms most often found in common water-
, ways of New England. Keys are quite easily followed by
younger students.
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Prescott, C. W., How to Know the Fresh Water Algae, Win. C. Brown
Co., Dubuque, la., 1964.This contains a rather comprehen-
sive and difficult key to the algae of fresh water. The
practiced student has little or no trouble finding most
species.
Smith, Gilbert M., Fresh Water Algae of the United States.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City, 1950. It contains a
complicated key to the algae which should not be used by
the inexperienced student.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Biolnoical Field Data, for Uater
Pollution Surveys, U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C., 1966. This is a good book for terminology
and equipment description for water sampling and could be
helpful for even the very young student.
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I. Algal Blooms and C02
I. Introduction
The purpose of this investigation was to determine the regularity
properties of C02 in relationship with algal blooms. It might
be best handled by students that have taken either biology or
chemistry. This could also be handled, although maybe at a less
quantitative level, by those who have not yet had such courses.
The test is conducted by running C0£ and algae counts and plot-
ting the resulting graph between the two.
II. Questions
1. Lead the activity by asking:
a. How do plants affect the life in a given body of water?
b. What do the plants need for growth?
c. What gases do plants give off?
d. What gases are utilized by the plant in the photosynthesis
process?
2. Initiate the activity with:
a. How could we test for these gases (i.e., why test for
them)?
b. Would there be a relationship between the amounts of cer-
tain gases and the amount of algae?
3. Continue the activity with:
a. Could these gases be controlled?
b. Does an algal bloom control the C0£ or the C02 control
the bloom?
4. Evaluate the students by considering:
a. Do we have enough data to reach a valid conclusion?
b. Did the students understand the procedure?
c. Did they try to refine the procedure in its rough
spots?
d. Were they inspired to take on new outgrowths?
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III. Equipment
1. Basic level
a. Method for testing C02 (Hach, Delta, LaMotte, etc.)
b. Sample bottles
2. More advanced level
a. Same as above
b. Bioassay equipment using plankton as organisms
IV. Procedure
1. Basic Level
a. Take C02 test.
b. Take water samples for plankton analysis.
c. Count the plankton.
d. Graph the results: number of plankton vs. corresponding
C02 levels.
2. More advanced level
a. Follow the preceding procedure.
b. Run a bioassay using plankton as test organisms.
c. Purpose: to create an algal bloom.
d. Introduce C02 into the system at different levels.
e. Keep close tabs on the pH.
f. Test for C02 changes.
g. Discuss the importance of a rise or fall of C02 in the
system.
h. Graph the resulting data.
V. Past Studies
Some students while investigating the first question noticed
in their study that certain data when plotted showed an inter-
esting bell-like curve. This curve indicated a high and/or low
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range at which algae might exist in bloom conditions. Time
ran out before sufficient data had been collected in order
to answer the last question.
Other students, for a recent lab report undertaken in a 10th
grade chemistry class, studied this area. They found that
there were certain limitations in running a bioassay in the
lab using C02 as a nutrient. The lab was not a true success
in that the test organisms died because of the increase of
pH caused by the added C02. This did, however, force them
into the field where they found varying concentration of
C02 occurring, naturally. This made them ask themselves why
the pH was higher in the ponds and lakes than in their bio-
assays. Thus, they were hot on the trail of a possible
natural-existing buffer in the water.
VI. Limitations
The main limitation in the exercise lies in the advanced level
of the experiment. That is, the C02 levels in the different
jars were of such concentrations that the C02 in the water
caused a significant drop in the pH. This is because carbonic
acid is formed (when C02 changes to carbonic acid.) This is
why it is felt that a suitable buffer was needed.
Another important limitation is that most C02 tests are no more
than a free acidity test in that phenolphthaleine is the indica-
tor. Therefore, if the sample that you are working a test for
has a higher pH than 9, any C02 that is present will be masked
by this alkalinity. Perhaps a possible outgrowth of this could
be a chemical that would neutralize the carbonic acid in the
water which then could be measured.
VII. Bibliography
American Public Health Association, Standard Methods for the Ex-
amination of Water and Wastewate'r, American Public Health
Association, Inc., New York City, 1965. Pages 78-85 and
pages 739-744 give the standard tests for C02 as well as
giving .identification plates of some fresh-water algae.
Smith, Gilbert M., The Fresh Water Algae of the United States,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City, 1950.This is a general
text on the identification and classification of fresh water
algae.
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J. Bottom Core Sampling
I. Introduction
This activity is designed to acquaint high school students with bottom
sampling in general and organic analysis of bottom samples in par-
ticular. Approximately three 1-hour periods will be required. The
setting for the investigation should be one which will enable the
student to obtain a core with relative ease as well as a core which
will evidence clear layering from season to season. Generally the
best locations are around bodies of water which undergo regular
flooding every spring and gradual emergence during the summer months.
The dark layer which will be noted usually represents the rather fine
organic material that is deposited in the shallow and calm waters of
the summer season while the alternating band of coarser and lighter
colored gravelly material is representative of sediment which is laid
down in the more turbulent waters of the springtime. It is important
that students practice taking cores beforehand and develop skill in
driving the core sampler and retrieving the samples. See Figure 3J-1.
wood block
(softens hammer blows)
2-3 inch pipe
handle for retrieving
(% inch steel rod in-
serted through pipe )
filed cutting edge of
pipe
Figure 30-1
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Ecological Perspectives
II. Questions
1. Lead to the activity by asking:
a. Can you think of any way to obtain a record of some of
the materials which have been suspended in our streams
and lakes and deposited on the bottom over the past
several years?
b. Explain.
2. Initiate the activity with:
a. Do you feel that the amount of organic material being
laid down each year in a specific body of water is re-
lated, in some way, to the amount of pollution that
this area has experienced?
b. Explain.
3. Continue the activity with:
a. Can you think of several different ways to analyze chem-
ical variations and interpret the ecological history which
is indicated in core samples?
b. Explain.
4. Evaluate the students' work by noting what significant dif-
ferences they discovered in the different layers and by
evaluating how they reconstructed the ecological history.
III. Equipment
1. Core sampler
2. Large flat cake pan or other suitable pan for placing
the core to be analyzed
3. Drying oven
4. Spatula
5. Cm. scale
6. Merck burner (Bunsen burner may be used if a Merck is
not available)
7. Ring stand
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8. Triangle
9. Extra large crucible, size 3, (an evaporating dish may be
used if a crucible is not available)
10. Cent-0-Gram balance
IV. Procedure
1. The core may be obtained and removed immediately by gently
sliding it out onto a cake pan.
2. After bringing the sample to the lab select the areas for
analysis. Cut sample bands of desired width (approx. 1 cm.)
and place each band to be analyzed in a previously weighed
crucible.
3. Dry sample at 70-80°C in an oven overnight to remove moisture.
(An alternate method of drying is to line the core tube with
vaseline before the sample is taken and allow the sample to
dry in the tube over the weekend or for 2-3 days and then re-
move. The core then has less tendency to fall apart in the
removal process. The outer edge in contact with the vaseline
must be shaved off before analysis.)
4. Weigh each crucible and dried sample.
5. Heat sample for 45 minutes to burn off all organic material.
(If the art department has a firing oven, the sample may be
fired until it conies to constant weight.)
6, Cool and weigh.
7. Heat again for 15 minutes, cool, and weigh. If weights agree
within to.03 grams, the sample can be considered to be at con-
stant weight. If sample is not at constant weight heat, cool,
and weigh unti1 i t is.
8. Determine the weight of sample.
9. Determine percentage of organic material.
V. Past Studies
A core sample was obtained for the first site of the Winnipesaukee
River. Although several cores were obtained, only one was used
for analysis due to limited time. Choices of where to take samples
from the core will vary from sample to sample according to mud
stratification. In our sample, layers of similar given grain size
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(fineness) were chosen. We used Bunsen burners for heating and
glowing embers were noted in the samples up to 30 minutes after
heating began. Our samples were left for 2 hours and the second
heating gave constant weights. No effort was made to determine
minimum heating time with Bunsen burners. Heating time would
vary according to the percentage of organic material present. The
following results were obtained:
Sample Location on Core % Organic Material
A 1st cm. from top 4.9%
B 2nd cm. from top 2.2%
C llth cm. from top 1.5%
D 12th cm. from top 3.1%
From this one test no definite interpretations can be made. Since
class investigations would be expected to produce more analyses,
the significance of any patterns which might develop should be
interpreted with respect to the ecological history of the area.
VI. Limitations
1. Heating to burn organic materials may require much extra time
depending on percentage of organic material present and how
hot a flame is available.
2. If cores are obtained with no stratification it is difficult
to determine where to take samples.
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Chapter 4 Social and Political Factors
A constructive approach to pollution problems requires more than a
knowledge of pollution results; we also need to understand the human
motives and actions that produce them, as well as comprehend the polit-
ical process that we must initiate to change those results. It is
difficult to define or limit the scope of the activities which appear
in this section, for in a general way, virtually all human activity
is either social or political.
There are several general approaches that may be taken on this
subject. One of the most direct approaches to social and political
factors, however, is to begin with the present, find out how we got
here and where we should go from here. To find out where man is, the
student must begin to relate the scientific aspects of pollution to the
social and political factors. The question, "Where are we now?", must
be answered as completely as possible. Our political institutions must
be defined and evaluated to see what hope for solutions lies in them.
Existing laws must be examined as well as procedures for enforcement.
In other words, the political structure at all levels must be examined
to determine what type of vehicles exist and what, in fact, is going on.
This in itself is not an easy task; some of the activities which follow,
such as the construction of government models, clearly demonstrate the
overlaps in authority, and the ambiguous seats of responsibility which
now exist among government agencies.
Next, to determine what factors allowed this situation to develop,
it is beneficial to study the history of our laws and those political
institutions relevant to water pollution, as well as the feelings and
sense of responsibility of various individuals and companies. The
history of the relevant laws can be determined through research. Most
states have law libraries available to the public. Others may be found
in a local courthouse, university,or even a local attorney's office.
Any of these is a good place to begin.
Of particular value is the development of industrial polluters.
Each business can be analyzed from many points of view. Its record of
water pollution violations, obtainable from the state pollution com-
mission or whatever body is charged with the regulation of water quality
in your state, is of particular interest. A company's economic history
can be determined from past annual reports and corporate histories
available either from the company itself or through a local brokerage
house.
The state engineers associated with water quality can be queried,
and corporate executives should be questioned. They are able to relate
past, present, and future policies of the corporation in terms of their
responsibility to stockholders, the community in which they operate, and
the natural resources they consume or destroy. Very often decisions made
by management concerning natural resources are made according to narrow,
inadequate economic criteria. They are often not conscious that
decisions concerning the management of natural resources involves the
allocation of an essentially fixed resource.
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Social and Political Factors
Personal interviews are very valuable in recognizing the difficulty
in reaching solutions when the problem involves particular people whose
rights, prejudices, and very often, simple lack of interest, must be
considered. Often games, particularly those which utilize role playing,
are also helpful in further illuminating these conflicts.
In conducting these interviews, students may probe into other com-
peting considerations for the use of our resources.
This brings the students to the last phase of investigation:
"Where do we go from here?" Do we have an obligation to future
generations to maintain the quality of our natural environment, and, if
so, how do we go about preserving it? Model legislation activities,
as well as the formation of clubs and lobbies, are helpful in focusing
attention on specific problems.
This section also involves communication. Environmental problems
which already exist as well as those pending must be recognized and
widely discussed.
Possible alternatives must be made known before any final decisions
concerning our natural resources are made. If a lobby is to be success-
ful , it must have wide support; if model legislation is to be enacted,
it, too, must have the support of citizens and legislators alike. All
of this involves communication of one kind or another. Students are more
than willing to undertake activities in this area and may utilize any
media from video tape to statistics.
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Social and Political Factors
A. How to Talk Back to Statistics
I. Introduction
This activity is designed to help students read articles on
water pollution critically; it should also help them increase
their general awareness. Select the articles according to
the groups' reading ability and their scientific background.
Do not underestimate the students' ability to follow news
articles; they are very curious about news.
II. Questions
1. To lead to the activity, ask:
Is the information you read in your article reliable?
2. To initiate the consideration of the statistics'reliability,
ask:
a. Who says so (where did the data come from)?
b. How does he know (qualify the source)?
3. To continue refining the evaluation of the article, ask:
a. What is missing?
b. Did somebody change the subject?
c. Does it make sense?
4. To evaluate the students' success, check the following:
a. The student should formulate an opinion on the article
and back up his views with several important factors.
b. The student should be able to present the complete
subject in an acceptable manner.
c. The student should be able to demonstrate particular
types of distortions or misusage of data by converting
the data to a low quality advertisement or poster.
III. Equipment
Materials for writing and illustrating should be available.
Copies of the article must be made or bought. If the students
rework the data, serious consideration should be given to pub-
lishing their work.
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Social and Political Factors
IV. Procedure
1. Get an article, make copies, and assign the reading.
2. Have a class discussion where you introduce the questions.
3. Let the students do another version or let the students
seek out several views on the same subject and then reapply
the questions to be able to compare the articles.
V. Previous Studies
Seniors were required to subscribe to the New York Times and to
read front-page articles which dealt with statistics or data.
They could be counted upon to read about drugs, economics, and,
in particular, water and air pollution. After reading 3-5
articles and evaluating them, the critical evaluation based on
the five questions became automatic. A carryover into the
evaluation of advertisements was notable. When students pre-
sented data as a result of polls they had taken, usually they
did not do a superficial job. This could carry over into lab
conclusions and evaluations.
VI. Limitations
Reproduction of articles for educational purposes is usually
permissible. Make it a policy to acknowledge sources and,
when possible, tell the author you used the material for
educational purposes.
VII. Bibliography
1. Freund, John E., Modern Elementary Statistics, Prentice Hall,
Inc., Englewood, N. J., 1960. This text acquaints
students with the theoretical aspects of statistics.
This is recommended for high school students.
2. Huff, Darrell, How to Lie With Statistics, W. W. Norton
and Co., New York City, 1954.This book is a study
of the use and misuse of statistics. It is written
humorously and can be understood by junior high
students. It is recommended for all ,who undertake this
activity. This is available in paperback.
3. Johnson, D. A., and W. H. Glenn, The World of Statistics,
Webster Publishing Co., Manchester, Mo., 1961. This is
a book on the basics of statistics for junior high on
up.
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Social and Political Factors
4. Reichman, W. J., Use and Abuse of Statistics, Oxford
University Press, New York City, 1962. This is a
general work on statistics designed for the high
school student which covers the calculation of
statistics and their use and abuse.
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Social and Political Factors
B. State and Local Government Organization
I. Introduction
This activity is to introduce any junior or senior high school
student to state and local governmental structure. As a
result, the student should know where to go in his local or
state government to deal with a water pollution problem.
Students will probably develop a schematic diagram to display
the governmental breakdown. This activity may be done by any
student above the 7th grade.
II. Questions
1. After arriving at a site of water pollution, ask the
following questions to lead to the activity:
a. Do you see anything at this site which is an indication
of water pollution?
b. What are some possible sources?
2. Initiate the activity by asking:
a. What do you think we as a group can do to stop this?
b. Do you know the legal restrictions concerning water
pollution?
c. Where would you find them?
3. Continue the activity with:
a. Are you able to correlate the information you have
found?
b. How could you resolve the problem of organizing the
information?
c. Would a visual aid be more feasible for total group
comprehension?
4. Questions which help the teacher evaluate the students'
efforts:
a. What initiative do the students show in responding?
b. How do they perform as a group and as individuals?
c. Does the schematic accomplish your objective?
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Social and Political Factors
III. Equipment
1. Use of school library
2. Pamphlets released by Legislative Services, Comptroller's
Office, and Water Pollution Board
3. Poster board, pens, magic markers, and rulers
IV. Procedure
1. The students should be taken to one site and exposed to a
particular pollution problem. The local area should be scan-
ned beforehand for various pollution offenders along bodies
of water. The school itself determines whether the students
can find the necessary source material themselves or whether
these need to be placed in the library prior to the time of
the activity. Such things as proximity to state agencies and
class schedules will help in determining which course of
action should be taken.
2. Either through use of the library or student investigation,
the students will obtain information concerning state laws
and state agencies. Hopefully, their research will lead to
questions dealing with the water pollution aspect. They will
discover the necessity of understanding a relationship between
the various state agencies in order to deal with them more
effectively. At this point, the teacher may suggest a
schematic diagram for student use.
3. Students may show interests in other aspects; this should be
encouraged. The following areas may be used for future ac-
tivities or the students may wish to work in groups on some
or al1 of them:
a. Relationship of federal and local agencies
b. Operative efficiency of state commissions
c. Reorganization plan development for a more efficient state
organization
d. State, federal, and local laws dealing with pollution
e. Biological studies of pollution
f. Social aspects
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Social and Political Factors
V. Past Studies
Students and teachers at the Tilton School Water Pollution Pro-
gram made such a study during the summer of 1970. They visited
the state capitol at Concord, N. H., and obtained information
from the General Court Manual and from antiquated schematic dia-
grams. After visiting many governmental departments, they
settled upon the basic agencies which could be helpful.
The students conducted interviews with the comptroller to find
where the money came from and how it was spent on the state and
local levels. Then they made a schematic diagram of the govern-
ment organization and a second and more technical one of the
water pollution department.
Presented with a hypothetical problem that involved working
through the government, the students showed greater interest and
ability to analyze because of their increased grasp of the govern-
mental organization. Figures 4B-1 through 4B-3 show the results
of the study by a 9th grader.
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Social and Political Factors
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Social and Political Factors
VI. Limitations
This activity could vary from an hour to several days, according
to the students' desire to delve into such a project. If the
instructor gathers certain information ahead of time, it is
possible to work within normal class periods. If the state
capitol is far away transportation could be a problem for those
wishing to visit.
VII. Bibliography
Pamphlets published by the state, or local governments are useful
New Hampshire publishes through the Department of State, A
Manual for the General Court. Any reports by temporary ad-
visory commissions are also valuable.
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Social and Political Factors
C. State Government Model
I. Introduction
This is an activity for the high school level which could follow
one in which the state government structure in the area of water
pollution has been studied (such as Activity B, in this chapter).
It is assumed that the students have been impressed with the com-
plexity of governmental operations; the duplication of efforts;
the inefficiencies of the various bureaus, commissions, boards,
etc. It is, therefore, anticipated that the students might wish
to develop their own organizational plan for water pollution con-
trol. The students may then wish to make suggestions to their
legislators or to special appointed task forces so that the
immediate serious problems might be solved by minimizing the
usual red tape and delays.
II. Questions
1. Lead to the activity by asking:
a. Why does it take so long to get things done?
b. Why is it so hard to get questions answered?
c. Are you surprised by the complexity of the structure of
the state government?
d. Do you think the present one can operate efficiently and
effectively?
e. Do you notice that various aspects of the water pollution
program come under different agencies?
2. Initiate the activity with questions such as:
a. Can you name all the people and organizations that might
be concerned with water pollution?
b. Do you think that certain areas are not covered?
c. Do you think that efforts are being duplicated?
d. Do you think that you can come up with a better type of
organization?
e. What are some desirable changes that are in order?
f. How do you think that the changes can be brought about?
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Social and Political Factors
3. Continue the activity by asking:
a. Now that you have developed a plan which you think is
more efficient and effective, do you wish to pass this
on to your legislators?
b. Can you name some other individuals and organizations
that might be interested in your plan?
c. If no party or parties show any interest in your plan,
do you wish to revise or alter the plan?
4. Evaluate the students' efforts with questions such as:
a. Did this activity interest the students?
b. Did they wish to extend the study?
c. Did they really feel that they were making a contribution
to the solution of the problem?
III. Equipment
No equipment is needed. Various booklets on the structure of
state governments - from the state in which the school is located
or (if a boarding school) from home states. Typewriters, dupli-
cating, or copying machines are in order.
IV. Procedure
1. After students have expressed their dissatisfaction with the
present system of water pollution control, suggest (or have
the students suggest) that they develop a better system which
would more efficiently coordinate all the agencies,
commissions, etc.
2. Have the students block out a table of organization.
3. Compare the students' plan with the one proposed by their
state.
4. Suggest follow-up by writing letters and enclosing the plan
to legislators and others who might be interested.
5. Students may be encouraged to make charts and posters explain-
ing what they hope to accomplish.
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Social and Political Factors
V. Previous Studies
1. Studies of government structure in other courses might have
given the students an idea of the complexity of government
structure.
2. Experiences in the past in seeking out information, such as
letter writing and interviewing,might give clues to the
problems involved.
3. Some students may have experienced the feeling of powerless-
ness, the credibility gap, and the great difficulty in
getting direct answers to questions.
4. The bibliography contains a list of documents acquired in
two days at Concord, N. H. Three tries were required to
obtain the table of organization and it was three years old.
VI. Limitations
The only limitation is time. Depending on the type of course
that is being offered, this activity can be as short or as long
as desired, provided that the interest is there. It is possible
to go on to another unit while replies to letters or any follow-
up studies are underway.
VII. Bibliography
State of New Hampshire Citizens' Task Force: 1. Over-all Report;
2. Reports of the Consultant; and 3. Reports of the
Subcommittees.
"State of New Hampshire Citizens' Task Force Chart of the Reor-
ganization of the Executive Department," Concord Daily
Monitor, January 7, 1970.
State of New Hampshire, "Table of Organization of the State
Government."
State of New Hampshire, "Table of Organization of the Water
Supply and Pollution Control Commission."
Similar reports should be available from all state and regional
governments.
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Social and Political Factors
D. Anti-pollution Laws
I. Introduction
This activity is designed to determine what circumstances in a
given area allow cases of obvious pollution to continue. While
it is true that the time gap between creation and enforcement of
laws is one of the primary causes, this is not always the case.
If anti-pollution laws do exist, it may be that a gap also exists
between what is considered to constitute pollution and what
legally constitutes a case of pollution. In other words, both
legal and illegal polluters have been found to exist.
In order to make such determinations, the students are required
to wade through many legal documents as well as carry out inter-
views. Therefore this activity is suggested for senior high
school students.
II. Questions
1. Lead to the activity by asking:
a. Why isn't something being done about citing a local
polluter?
b. How can you determine the legal status of an industry?
2. To initiate the activity ask:
a. What agencies (public and private) are directly concerned
with industrial pollution in your river basin?
b. Which ones make the regulations?
c. What are they?
d. What people should be contacted for information? Local?
State? Federal?
e. What questions do you want answered? For example, is
there a water quality standard in your state?
3. To continue the activity ask:
a. What types of testing have been done?
b. Should you make tests of your own?
c. Who interprets the results of the testing?
d. What is the mechanism for reporting violations?
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Social and Political Factors
e. How do you survey local industry?
f. What steps are being taken toward sewage abatement?
g. Who is responsible for enforcement of water pollution
regulations?
4. To evaluate the student consider:
a. What types of background material did the student
gather?
b. Were the questions formulated in advance of personal con-
tact with resource people?
c. Was the plan of attack well planned and viable?
d. Can the student differentiate between legal and illegal
pollution practices?
e. Is the student aware of public recourse that can be
brought against the illegal industrial polluter and the
steps in this process?
III. Equipment
No special equipment is required unless the students do testing in
the field.
IV. Procedure
1. Select a site of obvious water pollution.
2. Determine the industrial or private persons who are contri-
buting to the pollution.
3. Investigate the local, state,and federal agencies concerned
with pollution in your area and determine what laws are now
in existence.
4. Select one specific industrial polluter and secure back-
ground material on the corporation, i.e.,
a. How is it polluting and to what degree (may be necessary to
perform tests)?
b. When did it begin?
c. How many people are employed?
d. What are its gross earnings?
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Social and Political Factors
e. What responsibility does it feel it has?
5. If a violation is occuring, discuss the courses of action
regarding it. You may want to do one of the following:
a. Go to the corporation's management and ask about the
responsibility to meet legal standards, past actions,
and projected activities.
b. Go to the local politicians about the specific corpora-
tion.
c. Go to the relevant enforcement agencies with your data
and attempt to find out what they are doing.
V. Limitations
You may have difficulty arranging interviews. Some people are
reluctant to talk freely about the situation. This often includes
politicians, factory managers, and heads of agencies on all
levels.
Conflicting evidence may occur in the data collected by personal
interviews. Biases and backgrounds of the persons being inter-
viewed should be taken into account.
Interpretations of the law may be a problem at times even for the
"experts."
If violations are found and reported, don't expect instant action!
Legal mechanisms often take a great deal of time.
VI. Past Studies
This activity was carried out by a group of Tilton School students,
A small tannery was discovered polluting the Pemigewasset River in
Franklin, N. H. Tests above and below the tannery were made to
determine the exact nature of the pollution. It was discovered
that the tannery was polluting beyond the limits set by the
State Water Pollution Control Commission. Although a violation
was found to exist, the State allowed this until completion of
sewage abatement by the tannery.
VII. Bibliography
Camp, Dresser, and McGee, Report on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment^
City of Franklin, N. H., January 1965. This is a consulting
engineering firm's report on the treatment of this city's
municipal and industrial sewage.
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Social and Political Factors
State of New Hampshire, Laws Relating to the Water Supply and
Pollution Control Commission, January 1970.
U. S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Control Adminis-
tration, Report on the Pollution of the Merrimack River and
Certain Tributaries, Part 1. It contains the summary, con-
clusion, and recommendations for the cleaning of these
rivers.
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Social and Political Factors
E. An Elementary Investigation of Local Water Anti-pollution Programs
by Interviewing Government Officials
I., Introduction
This activity could be used in classes for 6th through 12th
grade students to,evaluate the evident effectiveness of the
government to deal with water pollution. The students should
become aware of and develop an interest in the local problems
of their communities.
II. Questions
1. Lead to the activity by asking what are the water pollution
problems in our community.
2. Stir interest by asking:
a. Who are the people responsible for controlling these
problems?
b. Do they use the authority given them effectively?
3. The teacher may evaluate the activity by considering:
a. What were the students' results?
b. What reasons were there for these results?
c. Were the students' questions well prepared?
d. Was the students' back-up knowledge sufficient?
III. Equipment
None is required.
IV. Procedure
1. Find out a few problems in your community by reading the news-
paper.
2. Determine which laws pertain to these problems.
3. Make up an outline of questions.
4. Set up the interview.
5. Record the results and your reactions by writing articles or
reports.
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Social and Political Factors
V. Past Studies
This outline was followed by 6th grade students for interviews
regarding pollution problems in two communities. Problems
were encountered in dealing with community officials. The
following reaction was written as a result of a 3 day trip to
Washington to find out what was going on. The article
appeared on pages 75-77 of the March 1970 issue of the Academy
Science Journal published by Germantown Academy, Ft. Washington,
PeTThe authors were seniors in 1970.
Moving Around on Pollution
"On March 4th, a Wednesday, four leaders of the Wissahickon
Lobby met with Professor Zandi of the University of Pennsylvania
Ecology Department. The professor is an authority in matters
of pollution and its treatments. Another meeting took place on
March 6th with Samuel S. Baxter who is the Commissioner of
Philadelphia's Water Department. Both interviews were very
educational and further indicated the number of highly paid
pollution fighters who are sitting around doing nothing.
"Mr. Zandi was very impressed with the enthusiasm of the
Wissahickon Lobby; however, he seemed to be very pessimistic as
to any positive results. Mr. Zandi suggested some kind of
coordinator or advisor who could tie all the loose ends together.
It is important to note that Mr. Zandi did not have all our
material and therefore could not review the situation to its
furtherest point. One must also take into consideration the
role of the University which is purely educational. You might
call it a noninvolvement policy. Mr. Zandi proposed that he
would come to our school once a month and check the project's
progress and offer his advice. There was no settlement as to the
future; however, Mr. Zandi said he would look into a student
advisor on a weekly basis (senior doing graduate work in actual
pollution).
"Our interview with Commissioner Baxter dealt more with the
legal aspects of pollution. He is presently involved with an
article entitled, "Are Things As Bad As They Seem?" Mr. Baxter
felt there were many other problems that were more pressing than
the problem of pollution. He posed questions sucn as, "Many people
want all the streams and waterways as clean as possible. Can
the 4 million people living in metropolitan Philadelphia expect
to physically clean up the streams?" Mr. Baxter is in a bind as
are all officials handling this problem; however, is this a
valid excuse for the hoarding of enthusiasm!
"The shortage of money was brought up by the Commissioner, but
how is it that a newly-formed lobby such as ours is capable of
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Social and Political Factors
raising money, but not a large organization such as the Philadelphia
Water Department? It also seems as though the people themselves
are aiding the various extents of pollution by rejecting any
increase in taxes for the fight against pollution. Many enjoy
the reduction in taxes due to the amount paid by the companies
who must pay taxes because of the pollutants they feed into the
air and the water. It has even been mentioned that various people
don't want anything done for that specific reason. I'd say that
was a little selfish on the people's end of the pole. Will it
take a critical situation to move people, or can we join in and
work at it now?
"Mr. Baxter's problem is much more complex than the one we
have here at the Wissahickon and this makes ours much easier to
clean up. An example would be the storm sewerage problem in the
city. After it rains much waste and pollution is carried into
the sewers, however, it only amounts to 3% of the Delaware
River's pollution. For the city of Philadelphia to clean that
3% up, it would cost approximately $3 billion. In 3 years the
Department has spent $75 million on treatment plants. This is
all very impressive, but somehow something can be done on the
Wissahickon that is not going to cost $75 million. The
Wissahickon is no Delaware River; however, if we were situated
on the Delaware, the impression that was made by certain figures
would have been much less agreeable.
"Our feeling is one of optimism, and the problems of the larger
scale pollution fighters do not necessarily involve us. With
the number of students we have working on the Lobby and the amount
of information we have piled up, one can't help but look at
things in a bright light. Things are moving, and the right
people (industrial and sewage polluters) are now beginning to
worry, is there .a better indication?"
Bill McKay '70
Sal Siciliano '70
The following reaction was written as a result of a trip to the
capitol of Pennsylvania. It was a research trip for a student
lobby. This article appeared in the December 1969 issue of the
Academy Science Journal, published by Germantown Academy,
Ft. Washington, Pa.
Pollution and the Law
"On November 26, 1969 I traveled to Harrisburg to interview
a Mr. Smurda of the Department of Health about water quality.
My reason was to gather legal data on the relation between
water quality and the law. My hope was to find out the different
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Social and Political Factors
legal ways in which to help my school in its attempt to unpollute
the Wissahickon Creek. As my interview went on I was increasingly
impressed that though there are laws, there is no real way to stop
filth from being poured into our streams unless the companies
decide to do something on their own.
"The first thing which I was shown, was a copy of the laws
as they now stand. I immediately turned to the page which told
of the penalties for constant waste disposal into streams and
found the following:
'Any person who shall continue to discharge sewage or
permit the same flow into the waters of the Commonwealth,
contrary to the preceeding provisions of this act, or after
the expiration of the time fixed in any notice from the
board to discontinue an existing discharge of sewage into
the waters of the Commonwealth shall, upon conviction thereof
in a summary proceeding, be sentenced to pay a fine of not
less than twenty-five dollars and not exceeding one hundred
dollars for each offence, and a further fine of ten dollars a
day for each day the offense is maintained and, in default of
the payment of such fines and costs, the person or the member
or members of any association or co-partnership, or the
officer or officers of :any corporation, responsible for vio-
lation of this act, shall be imprisoned in the county jail
one day for each dollar of fine and costs unpaid.1
"The part of this which is most distressing is the fact that
a simple appeal can delay indefinitely the payment of fines which
might even reach a meaningful size in the area of $10,000 or more.
"For the most part the rest of the articles which I was shown
offered little that those people at my school did not already
know. All the figures that I saw agreed with our own and showed
that many levels including the total soluble phosphate level is
500% (approx.) higher than it should be.
i
"The one thing that I think really struck me was that the
State knows who is polluting the creek and even goes to the
trouble of listing who these people are. This was the list as
taken from the implementation plan for interstate waters
Schuykill River basin.
Industrial Wastes-Discharges -- Nicolet Industries, Certainteed,
Lansdale Tube-PhiIco, Merck, Sharp & Dohme, Precision Tube,
Leeds and Northrup, Phil co-Ford TV, McNiel Labs.
Sewage -- Ambler MSS, Ambler South MS, North Wales MSS,
Abington T. MSA, Gwynedd Jr. College, Silverstream Nursing
Home, Delaware Valley Independent Sewage, Selas Corp.,
Aidenn Lair, Upper Gwynedd T. MSA, Sheraton Motor Inn.
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Social and Political Factors
"The most distressing thing is that the State knows who is
throwing things into our creek, yet they can do very little.
Something must be done within the near future, and it must be
done by the people involved. If reform cannot come fast enough
from the Government, cooperation must come from all involved."
Nick Backrack '70
The following article appeared in the February 1970 issue of the
Academy Science Journal, published by Germantown Academy Ft.
Washington, Pa.The author was in the class of 1970.
Washington Excursion
"This was the first trip to Washington concerning Federal
anti-pollution laws and programs. We entered Washington with a
naive attitude that people would be eager and willing to help
us, but when we left we realized the problems that confront an
anti-pollution program.
"The first obstacle to overcome is getting an appointment.
Time can be lost if this is not done before arriving in Washington.
We lost one afternoon of work because we did not have a definite
appointment. A definite time and day will resolve this problem.
"Another problem we incurred was that we can be given the
run-around quite easily. To solve this problem we need somebody,
inside Washington, or out, who is able by his name to get us
action. At this point, only a few people seem interested in what
we have to say. The only two places were we found any interest
were Mr. Cutler of Senator Muskie's staff and Representative
Cough!in's office. In both these places, we found people willing
to listen and talk with us. Mr. Cutler was helpful by naming
other people we could contact for help. These were Thomas
Jarling, Minority Counselor Public Works; James Smith, the Con-
servation Foundation, Washington; the League of Women Voters;
and the Administration.
"We should not, however, look to Washington as our sole means
of help. Although help from Washington is nice, we must start
looking around us for help because this is where we can apply the
most pressure. We should look for a group to help us. If there
is none, we should form one. This can be done in several ways.
One way, that Mr. Cutler agreed with, was an association. This
association would be made of schools from throughout the Delaware
Valley. With business and community backing, we can use this
group to get things done as well as applying pressure. We can
also join lobbies in both Harrisburg and Washington. Being part
of a lobby will also open doors and bring us more power.
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Social and Political Factors
"Mr. Cutler also stated that unless the waters we are inves-
tigating are interstate, we must work within State and local
laws. If the waters are interstate, then it comes under
Federal jurisdiction.
"Although the trip was not a complete success, we did learn
something. The next group that goes down must be ready before-
hand. It must have specific questions to ask and definite
appointments. Members must be ready to be given some run-around,
but also they should realize it and try to stop it. We must
also get contacts in Washington who can help us get appointments
in Washington."
Pieter Flatten '70
VI. Limitations
In some large cities, there might be a problem in getting an
interview. And, many times one official will refer you to
another, which makes things difficult for reasons of transporta-
tion and time.
VII. Bibliography
English teachers generally can provide a bibliography which gives
references on writing reaction papers.
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Social and Political Factors
F. Publication of a Science Journal
I. Introduction
This activity introduced the student to the communications aspect
of pollution studies -- a science journal as one key to reaching
other people through students' activities. This project would
involve more than science; the English, history, and art depart-
ments are important contributors to the overall results. The
student is eager to share his enthusiasm and ideas with others;
the result is a spreading involvement in pollution activities.
Grades 7 through 12 will find this a good activity. In one
case, a second grade remedial reading class made a significant
contribution to one science journal.
II. Questions
1. Ask students if they feel a need exists for communication con-
cerning pollution.
2. Initiate the activity by asking the students what method they
consider most appropriate for the establishment of communica-
tion and whether or not a science journal would help in creat-
ing an awareness of the problem.
3. Continue the activity by asking to what activities the estab-
lishment of a journal could lead.
4. Evaluate the activity by determining:
a. Are students interested in participating in some way in the
journal's production?
b. Are they concerned about communicating their ideas with
others?
III. Equipment
Equipment requirements vary according to resources available.
Your journal could be a mimeographed series of reports stapled
together or a sophisticated, printed manual. You will need
paper, typewriters, mimeograph, stamps, and envelopes for mail-
ing, and people to work.
IV. Procedure
Suggest to students that they write up their various activities and
collate them into a booklet. Devise a method to choose 8 or 9
students who will be in charge of general production such as
reader service, editing and correcting articles, and collating
material. A suggested mailing list would be the area independent
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Social and Political Factors
and public schools. This type of activity allows students of
all age to participate. Perhaps, if you have the time and the
materials, you can print copies for parents and alumni to
generate interest. Encourage every student to contribute, not
necessarily scientific articles, but ones dealing with pollution
in general.
V. Past Studies
Germantown Academy, Ft. Washington, Pa., last year started pro-
duction on the Academy Science Journal. Nine students from the
Biology 2 section were in charge of general production, and the
first articles were contributed by the biology, physics, and
chemistry departments. However, after a couple of issues,
students nonscientifically oriented were contributing write-ups
on projects and activities, varying from the invention of a
flow meter to 1st grade essays on the meaning of pollution.
Artistic students contributed diagrams, drawings, and cartoons.
The Journal's content increased in size slowly, but the variety
of the content broadened considerably. Eventually the journal
was sold for 25$ each to members of the local Watershed Associa-
tion to raise money for some projects. The students in grades
1 - 5 were so enthused that they made and sold a booklet of draw-
ings and essays on pollution. The money they raised was used to
buy a filter for the school incinerator. The Academy Science^
Journal is printed monthly and contains 80 typewritten pages.
It is distributed free of charge to approximately 200 schools.
The purpose of the Academy Science Journal as stated on the
title page is:
"As faculty of the science department of Germantown
Academy, we uphold the belief that many of our students
are capable of making significant scientific contribu-
tions at the secondary level. These students possess the
initiative and scientific curiosity to determine problems,
conduct research, and translate the information into
meaningful conclusions.
"We feel that their investigations warrant publication
in order that others may share in their activities."
VII. Bibliography
Science journals on any level are the best bibliography. Check
with your school librarian.
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G. Orientation Program For the Study of Water Pollution
I. Introduction
This activity is set up as a discussion for a group orientation
study of water pollution. The group can be a traditional class.
It could also be a community group (e.g., students from several
high schools that do not offer a course in water pollution).
The questions should stimulate the group into shaping a skeleton
from which the leader can plan a study agreeable to all. It
would be helpful to get through the whole activity in one session,
However, the rate of progression must be determined by the group.
Tape recording the discussion would have value; the group leader
could use it as a reference in the future. The questions are
set up under the precept that the group will be situated by a
polluted body of water. Perhaps it will be the one the group
decides to study. This natural setting should act as a motiva-
ting device, as seeing the problem would increase awareness and
hopefully concern among the group.
II. Questions
These questions are to provide thought-provoking topics for
discussion. The first three sections play a specific role in
the progression of the orientation.
1. To lead into the activity - these questions are to "set the
stage," to lead the group to concentrate on water pollution.
They lead into the real investigation.
a. What is pollution?
b. Can you identify by sight any pollution in this water?
c. Are natural things like leaves and twigs pollution?
d. How is a scientific approach to the problem relevant?
e. What can science tell us about the problem?
f. Can this information help us to solve the problem?
g. How can data and facts help us?
h. Why is a social approach important?
i. How can a social approach help to solve the problem?
j. How can public relations help with a commercial approach
to fighting pollution?
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Social and Political Factors
k. On which commercial enterprises should attention be
focused?
1. What type of public relations is important?
m. Reflecting recent months, pollution plays an important
role in politics. How can politics influence pollu-
tion?
n. How can his outlook on pollution affect the fate of
a politician?
2. To initiate the activity - the trend should be set in a
meaningful direction at this point. Discussion now centers
about the objectives of the group. These shall be recog-
nized by covering the points to each numbered theme question,
a. Should we study a specific body of water?
b. What would you like to find out about the pollution
of this water?
-chemical
-bacterial
-historical
-aquatic life
-public influence
c. Are we going to try to solve the pollution problem?
-(apply what was discussed in A)
-when
d. How shall we divide the group, if at all?
-scientific
-social
-commercial
-legislative
-political
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e. Whom shall we involve in fighting this pollution?
-peers
-family
-community
f. What type of information shall we request, and what
commercial enterprises shall we contact?
-only water polluters
-any polluters
-research agencies
-factories
-small enterprises
g. What information shall we seek?
-history
-general information
-a role we can assume now
h. What shall our group objective be?
-(tie together what was discussed)
To continue the activity - now that the atmosphere is set and
the group objectives outlined, these questions focus on plan-
ning the group's activities. The extent of the use of the
questions will vary, especially in the case of high school stu-
dents. Many will have to have been answered by other than the
group in preparation of a type of contract, be it a community
group.
a. Where shall we begin?
-introduce limitations set by
authorities, if it is necessary
-frequency of group sessions
-summarize B and make it concrete
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-independent work
-funding
-publicity
To evaluate the students' performance - these questions
can be applied to a classroom situation if the need for
an evaluation persists. If it is a community group, this
evaluation may be unnecessary. The leader will have to
evaluate a group of high school students if their schools
request it. Evaluation may also be necessary if credit
is to be given for the study.
a. Did the group member help set a meaningful trend to
the discussion?
b. Did he (she) make specific personal objectives of
the study?
c. Did he (she) help with the setting of the group
objective?
d. Did he (she) introduce relevant discussion matters
not included in the outline?
III. Equipment
The equipment used should be decided by the leader. Some may
prefer to keep the whole orientation a discussion. Others may
find nonscientific aids helpful. Listed below are a few sug-
gestions:
1. Should the students desire to observe the water more closely,
the following supplies may prove useful:
-bucket
-rope
-hand lens
-old cloth (as a net)
-tin cans
-plastic bags
-jars or bottles
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Social and Political Factors
2. Current mass media about pollution may prove helpful through
the orientation.
IV. Procedure
Begin the orientation with questions. Although they need not
be carried out exactly, the questions are prepared to facilitate
discussion of relevant matter. The leader must "play it by ear"
as each group will be directed differently.
V. Past Studies
1. A discussion held in the natural setting has proved effective
at Grymes Memorial School, Orange, Va.
2. The role play technique has been used with great success at
Nottingham Academy in Buffalo, N. Y. Its use fosters under-
standing of various situations and opinions among students.
It is a technique especially good for a student who refuses
to try to understand a situation.
3. It is important that the students have an understanding of
the pollution problem. A raw scientific approach without
any orientation is more apt to "fail" than a study where the
students actually understand the significance of any scien-
tific methods before they begin.
4. Notice the work "leader" is substituted for teacher. A study
of water pollution is something new and different to most
students. It is more important to learn about it than be
taught about it. However, the need for an experienced moder-
ator still exists. This person may or may not be a "teacher."
Hopefully, the teamwork that should result will put all group
members on the same level, regardless of their age.
5. Role playing activities:
a. A constant consumer of high phosphate detergents argue
about detergents. (If others are introduced, the argu-
ment should become a discussion.)
(1) High-phosphate-detergent consumer
-if phosphates are that bad, the government should
outlaw their use
-the laundry must be clean, and there are no com-
parable substitutes
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Social and Politica Factors
-phosphates tend to make the water 'wetter',
and this especially is necessary in hard water
areas
-I have to use up the detergents I've already
purchased.
(2) Anti-pollution-conscious consumer
-phosphates are a main contributor to algae
growth and increased bacteria growth, thus
causing eutrophication.
-it is up to each individual to fight pollution
to the best of his ability.
-which do you value more - clean clothes or
clean water?
-if we do not purchase them, store owners and
manufacturers will be forced to act quicker.
(3) Detergent manufacturer
-research has been going on for many years.
-automatically banning phosphate detergents
would present serious problems.
-housewives like modern detergents and will
not settle for soap.
-if housewives were really so antipollution,
why are they still buying high phosphate
detergents?
(4) Grocery store owner
-must stock all different products so a con-
sumer may purchase according to individual
choice.
-obligation to provide an outlet for manufactured
products.
-must not let viewpoint overpower the wants of
consumers.
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Social and Political Factors
-competitive reasons force me to stock favor-
ite laundry aids.
b. A purchaser of brightly-colored tissue products which
contain nonbiodegradable dyes is angry beceuse the
store she patronizes stocks only white tissue now. This
is a discussion among any nimber of the four or more
poss ib1e ro 1 e pi aye rs.
(1) Angry 2_u_rchjJSer_
-these products brighten UD the bathroom decor.
-if they are banned, so should other luxury items
that po'l 1 ute worse .
-these products are much softer.
-somebody has to buy them.
(2) Anti-pollj-ition crusader
-unnecessary pollution created.
-white tissue product? do the job just as well.
-individuals should fight pollution to the best
of their ability.
-such products are a waste of money.
(3) Manufacturer
-color is a vvay of brightening life.
-nobody is obliged to buy them,
-dye pollution from fabric mills, etc. is worse.
-manufacturing not stopped for economic reasons.
(4) Store, owner
-color discretion is not right.
-comparable products that pollute less are still
stocked.
-unsightly dye pollution is created in manufac-
turing - let us stop as much as we can.
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Social and Political Factors
-convince manufacturers such products are un-
necessary luxuries.
c. A boatowner is upset with the new law concerning water-
craft sewage disposal. He discusses it with a friend.
(1) The Law
-illegal to discharge sewage from watercraft
into water.
-head may be sealed permanently and still comply
with the law.
-all users of the state's waterways must comply.
(2) Boatowner
-silly law to bring sewage back to land where it
will receive inadequate or no treatment.
-pollution control device is too expensive for the
seldom-used head.
-out-of-state boaters are being cheated.
(3) Anti-pollution crusader
-better to have sewage concentrated than discharged
throughout the waterways.
-other states will be encouraged to form better
standards.
-obligation of all boaters to comply.
d. The role plays should then be analyzed:
-did the person play his role all the way through?
-could a concensus be attained?
-were any dependencies among various roles cited?
-were resolutions suggested; could they be sug-
gested?
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Social and Political Factors
VI. Limitations
1. In a community group, the problem might arise if partici-
pants are not acquainted. The leader must be prepared
to help resolve this problem, as a study of water pollution
requires real teamwork. The discussion approach which this
particular paper deals with should help overcome this ob-
stacle a bit.
2. Students may have trouble understanding problems of fight-
ing pollution. It is important that they understand the
viewpoints of those involved as professionals. This is an
area where they assume the role of a designated position.
In a given situation they are to work out a problem ver-
bally, trying to adhere to their role under group oberva-
tion. It is interesting and often advantageous to have
the students exchange roles about halfway through. The
examples below are representative of typical problems en-
countered in an effort to fight pollution. They are accom-
panied by points that often occur in the situation. There
are undoubtedly supplements. The points given are not par-
alleled.
VII. Bibliography
This paper was put together by drawing on experiences. No
specific references were consulted. To initiate and sustain
an activity such as this, the best resources are current mass
media.
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Social and Political Factors
H. An Anti-pollution Club
I. Introduction
This activity is designed for high school students who are
interested in starting a club dealing with different facets of
pollution.
II. Questions
1. Lead to the activity by asking:
a. What problems of pollution in your area would you like
to see remedied?
b. How could student action help resolve that solution?
2. Initiate the activity with questions such as:
a. What specific aspect of possible action would students
be most interested in?
b. What type of student or school organization would be
most effective and useful to enable students with their
crusade?
c. What angle of consideration of this aspect would be most
effective in dealing with the problem?
3. Continue the activity with:
a. Could an outside institution help the organization in any
way?
b. Could increased publicity further spur or expand the
program?
c. Have all of the facets (i.e., side effects, sources, re-
lationship to the total pollution scope, consequences,
etc.) been dealt with?
d. Are there any similar problems in the area?
e. Are there any other schools or organizations that might
need help or could benefit from your organization's
experiences?
4. Consider evaluating students with questions such as:
a. What did your group accomplish?
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Social and Political Factors
b. How did the results, conclusions, or experiences compare
with those anticipated?
c. How could the plan be improved?
III. Equipment
The equipment required will be determined by the activities of
the club.
IV. Method
The method for starting an organization will vary depending on
the school itself and the kind of program desired. Students
interested in the numerous aspects of pollution (i.e., science,
legislation, philosophy, etc.) should be encouraged to partici-
pate because differing skills are needed in any project. If
the students show an interest in establishing a club or similar
student organization, help them out by:
1. Finding out the procedures for establishing a club.
2. Defining the purpose of the club (write a charter).
3. Publicizing the club.
In defining purpose, the activities that the club hopes to carry
out or the possible lines of action should be considered.
After the club has been functioning for a length of time, it
might be advisable to sit down as a group and list or outline
the activities the group has engaged in. This outline should
include the failures as well as the successes. From this out-
line, a short explanatory program of what the club is doing
could be evolved very easily.
The program could utilize any posters and/or charts and anything
else that the club has produced to explain and exemplify pol-
lution.
A 10 to 30-minute slide program with a narrator and sufficient
subject matter can be very effective. It could be presented
to students in other schools to encourage them to form their
own club.
V. Club functions
1. Cleanup of polluted areas.
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Social and Political Factors
Organize a basic plan for the cleanup of community rivers,
streams, and highways. Make use of volunteer community
citizens. Review the sites to get an idea of how and what
to clean up. Needed materials could include trash containers,
vehicles for pick-up, and transportation. It is recommended
that plastic or canvas bags be used for waste instead of paper
bags.
2. Underground newspapers.
Underground newspapers are effective tools for the students to
work with because they are not limited by the censorship of the
administration. Organizing a paper that will be published regu-
larly is a Herculean task. As the group starts work they have
to raise money for supplies and decide on the purpose and format
of the paper. Usually money can be obtained by soliciting stu-
dents and organizations. Some problems are: interest has to be
maintained; the paper has to eventually pay for itself; and the
staff should be organized and committed.
3. Distribution centers (books).
As club activity, a booth can be set up and operated by the
students to sell or distribute material concerning pollution.
Buttons, posters, and stickers can be made by the students and
sold for a profit. A number of "important" students can be se-
lected to receive these materials free, in order to stimulate inter-
est. Material which could be distributed could include pam-
phlets on water and other kinds of pollution which are free
upon request from the Federal government; the Congressional
Record which is informative; and school newspapers concerned
with pollution subjects. This keeps a constantly changing
pile of materials at the booth.
4. Erosion.
Find an erosion problem in your community that needs attention.
Determine what would be involved to correct the problem. If
it is a major undertaking, seek the help of the community. If
it is a small project, gather the needed equipment and materials
and set up a work day for the club and other interested students.
5. Colleges and Elementary Schools.
Contact colleges in the area to see how a cooperative (i.e.,
sharing data equipment, ideas, personnel) can evolve in an
academic area. Contact elementary school teachers to see how
your club activities can be shared with the younger students.
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Social and Political Factors
6. Conrnuni cation.
Communication has an important role in any activity as it is
necessary to make information public so that it can be an
effective force in the school and community. The methods of
communication available are unlimited. Inside the school, use
the school newspaper or the distribution of dittoed sheets at
information centers. Outside of the school the students could
set up an underground newspaper and talk to the local radio
stations and newspapers about time and space to discuss their
activity.
7. Poster and Art Exhibits.
For any art exhibits, proper hanging space must be available.
There are several exhibits made-up for exhibition in schools;
one is available from Eastman Kodak Company. These exhibits
are of photographs taken by students and judged by profession-
als, and rated 1st, 2nd, or 3rd. You can find out about these
exhibits by asking the local Kodak shop; for other exhibits ask
a local museum.
Poster contests can be sponsored in your school by the art or
the science department. All you need to do is to arouse enough
enthusiasm for the project so that you have enough contestants.
One idea for promoting the enthusiasm is to make materials avail-
able to the students. Often, when some kind of prize is offered,
more of the older students will participate. Otherwise, your
best participants will be the students in the lower grades.
Having any kind of exhibit in the halls of a school building
will help in bringing the students together. You will find a
contest motivates some students who would not have been mo-
tivated otherwise.
8. Field Trips.
Field trips are interesting and useful to a club. But trips
should be to areas of interest and have relevancy such as areas
of established pollution. The date, time, and methods of trans-
portation should be set up before the designated time. It is
possible to get help or maybe permission from authorities if
you write ahead of time or call to ask.
The purpose of the trip, either testing or knowledge-seeking,
can be discussed beforehand to look for key points during the
trip. In the case of testing water, legal complications should
be taken into consideration.
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Social and Political Factors
VI, Past Studies.
L A group of high school students in St. Louis (University City
high School) set up a political newspaper, which helped to
initiate some changes within the school structure.
Limitation: Initial costs and motivation of students to
'stick it out1.
2. Statf.;-»vide cleanup of streams, river, and highways in Vermont.
All communities west; asked to help. General agreement for
future involvement evolved. People became aware of the
pollution problem and worked for a common goal.
3. Paper drive- by students of the Vermont Academy which was publi-
cized beforehand for people to call in and ask for pick-ups.
The paper was sold to a factory that reuses it.
4. In North I'uir.cy, Md-,5., students volunteered to help beautify
a mental retardation center. Donations were given by local
florists and American Legion Post. Other students from dif-
ferent schools also helped.
Limitations: Follow up is necessary to care for plants
(project was stopped by school closing).
b. At Germantown Acaoemy, a group of 40 to 50 students was formed
to lobby the Pennsylvania State Legislature. Students soon
found out that they could not be effective unless they had the
facts, Several subcormii ttees were formed to look into the
interaction of Federal agencies, state agencies, and local au-
thorities. Further interest developed in writing the history
(economic arid social) of each polluter in the watershed. For
this activity small groups of 2 and 3 investigated the corpora-
tions by consulting the Sanitary Water Board's health violation
records, interviewing corporation executives and engineers, and
reading annual reports and other public relations material. The
resulting write-ups and block diagrams were circulated among
all lobby members. Letters were written to legislators and
their reactions noted in the Academy Science Journal. As a by-
product of the investigations and Tetters, tHe school now re-
ceives 2 copies of the Congressional Record, White House press
releases on ecology and "pollution, and Federal legislation
documentation (public laws). Many of the students reacted by
showing deep interest in working within the system to accom-
plish anti-pollution programs. The material they had studied
in history, they acknowledged, was an important part of their
background which they had not realized before.
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Social and Political Factors
VII. Limitations
Often financing a club is difficult. Selling buttons and stickers
is a good way to raise quick money; but some pro.iects are ex-
pensive and donations must be sought from local lumber companies,
manufacturers, furniture companies, florists, chemical plants,
scientific, electronic firms, and even the Army Reserve.
It is important to maintain the program after it is once started.
Make sure that you are not doing too many things at once; if some
activities begin to fade due to the lack of manpower, try to in-
terest the students in joining the more active project. Change
the pace occasionally with non-related money-raising projects,
such as a car wash. Be sure that your activities are varied.
There should be at least one major action program in operation.
Be sure to inject new ideas as the old activities are resolved.
Occasionally a school administration does not endorse student
programs which it feels are destructive to the normal school
routine. You might overcome this if you can get the administra-
tion not only to attend the meetings, but also to participate in
the projects. It will help build a closer relationship.
Sometimes transportation, as well as distance, is a factor. Make
sure vehicles are available, that time is available to complete
the project.
If space is a limiting factor, make use of homerooms, study halls,
etc.
VIII. Bibliography and References on Community Action Groups
Hall, D. M.,Dynamics of Group Action, The Interstate Printers
and Publishers, Inc., Danville, 111., 1964. This is a hand-
book on group behavior. If you are originating a club or
group, you will be interested in the problems of establish-
ing goals and objectives. It will help you to understand the
how, why, who, when, what, and where. It will give you a
background in both the theory and practice of group work.
Mann, John, Changing Human Behavior, Charles Scribner's Sons,
New York City, 1965. This book illustrates the problems
created by advance technology. In order to survive, we
must change. The author gives the reader a background in
significant attempts to assess the effectiveness of cur-
rently-used behavioral change procedures. Chapter 7 is
especially good in the following areas; the effect of group
size, composition of groups, group power structure, the
effects of group discussion, the effects of group inter-
action, the influence of objective feedback, principles of
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Social and Political Factors
behavior change in the small group, and group dynamics.
Chapter 8 deals with effects of mass media and the lab as
opposed to the field setting. Chapter 9 concerns atti-
tude changes. Intergroup contact and implications of
social action are discussed in Chapter 10.
Martyn, Henry, Roberts Rules of Order. Robert Scott and Fores-
man, Chicago, 111., 1915.
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Social and Political Factors
I. How to Win Friends from Skeptics, Critics, and Doubtful School Admin-
istrators Without Really Trying
I. Introduction
This activity is designed to get students involved in a campaign
to elicit interest, help, and support from people in a school
system (chiefly administrators) who may not be in sympathy or
agreement with the focus on an environmental approach to education.
These activities are intended to demonstrate that the cost and
public relations aspect may serve to enhance such a program
rather than hinder its development.
II. Questions
1. Pose the following questions to the students to initiate or
lead into a discussion relating to problems in those schools
where a gulf exists between students, teachers, and adminis-
trators regarding the implementation of a viable environmental
program.
a. How might a small group of students communicate effectively
with their principal, headmaster or similar administrator?
b. What problems seem to underlie the difficulty (cost, public
relations, scheduling)?
c. What angle of consideration of this particular aspect
cited would be most effective in dealing with the specific
problem?
d. How do you think that student action might help solve the
problem and what limitations do you anticipate?
III. Equipment
Materials for writing and illustrating should be available to the
student as well as certain statistical data relevant to environ-
mental education, books, and newsworthy articles which would assist
the student in carrying out this type of activity.
IV. Procedure
The method for seeking assistance and support from school adminis-
trators will vary depending upon the inherent problems of that
institution and the type of environmental program desired by that
school. Those students interested in specific aspects of pollution
should be encouraged to take an active role in this activity.
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Several procedural approaches are described below. One or more
of them may be used as indicated by the problem in the school,
perhaps combinations of two or more procedures may be used, or
procedures not developed here but devised by the group to fit
the particular situation.
1. Use of existing clubs, organizations, or groups.
Make a checklist of all the extracurricular clubs and organi-
zations in your school and select those groups which would be
used to promote the cause of environmental education. Here
are a few suggestions.
a. Art Clubs might be asked to sponsor a photography contest
on pollution or pollution sculpture display in the
school library. This would bring attention and interest.
b- Science or Biology Club might be asked to form a splinter
group called the Ecology Action Group which could actively
campaign for the type of school program desired. They
could distribute printed material on the merits of envir-
onmental education, generating further interest by use
of bulletin board displays, posters, or conducting an
all school assembly to "educate" all on the aims and
goals of the specific program wanted at their school.
c. Debating Clubs might devote an entire school term to
debating issues related to the pollution problem. School
Publications would ideally serve as an effective instrument
to disseminate information and keep the community up to
date on progress of the "campaign." A special column
on Environment in the newspaper, various pictures of
worthwhile and pertinent activities accomplished by the
school's participants could add much to the overall
support of such an endeavor.
2. Large Group Activity.
a. There is no better way to impress people of the significance
of a particular need than the large group activity to
improve or call attention to something.
b. Those students most interested or skilled in matters of
organization might like to coordinate an all campus or all
school cleanup. This would require committees to handle
such areas as publicity, manpower, collection, sites, and
disposal.
c. A clean-up activity might be followed in a month or two by
a beautification project undertaken by a smaller group or
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groups. The local newspaper could be called in to help
the cause by a well-placed feature article employing
several pictures.
3. Improvisation of Equipment.
Since the cost of any program is a main obstacle to overcome
in the eyes of an administrator, those activities which show
how experiments may be done at minimal expense are important.
Students who are familiar with certain procedural techniques
described in the guide should be asked to demonstrate how
alternate methods may be used. Drawing from examples in the
Bacteriology of Water section and the Hydrologic Cycle part,
substitutions of more sophisticated equipment may be shown.
4. Public Relations.
a. Many schools are concerned about their public image.
The probability of conflicts and the subsequent loss of
prestige make many an administrator hesitant about the
school's direction in a full-fledged program of environ-
mental education.
b. Through the use of questionnaires, students may seek public
information about certain issues relating to pollution.
For example, sewage treatment in the school's area may be
the topic for one questionnaire, or the district water
supply may be another timely topic for polled opinion.
c. Radio programs and P.T.A. discussions by the students might
be effective for large-scale communication. Involvement
of parents, such as a car pool for necessary transportation,
would bring in a very important interest group and, at the
same time, create an awareness of the sincere effort by the
students in achieving their goals.
d. A very successful method of arousing public interest is the
local newspaper. Students who have had journalistic
experience should be encouraged to write weekly articles
and to document their news items with actual accounts of
student activities which are concerned with the environmental
crisis.
V. Past Activities
1. Germantown Academy in Fort Washington, Pa.
Students at this school solicited certain business concerns in
their community for help. Financial donations and specific
equipment were given in many cases. In others,a cooperative
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arrangement was worked out whereby the industry provided some
service for the school in return for student services. For
instance, potato sacks were given to students for use in
erosion control. Military surplus was solicited for possible
useful materials and equipment.
2. The George School in Newtown, Pa.
Students at George School made a study of the Neshaminy Water-
shed. The results were of great public interest in the region
and a copy was sent to President Nixon. Response to the
study from federal and state officials was great. Such publicity
would give impetus to any school program.
3. Mount Hermon and Northfield Schools in Massachusetts.
Water quality parameters on the Connecticut River were studied
in depth by several classes at these schools. Their work
received attention from the Connecticut River Watershed Council ,
and consequently, they were asked to prepare a document for
publication. One student working on an independent project
made a thorough study of effects of biodegradable detergents
on fish and other organisms. This brought widespread response
from many companies and governmental offices. The value of
these student-oriented activities is obvious when you are
seeking support from school administrators.
4. Quincy High School in Quincy, Mass.
Innovating relevant curricula into the school system takes
time, effort, and special study. However,at this public high
school, teachers and students worked together to design an
anthropology course which would include physical anthropology
for half the course. Later a course on Environmental Studies
was developed which was presented by the Social Science
Department and the Science Department employing a team approach
to the teaching.
5. Douglas High School, Baltimore, Md.
When some opposition to the implementation of an environment
program in this school appeared, the City Science Supervisor
was invited to see the students at work on their selected
projects. This approach has strong persuasive power in con-
vincing school officials.
A student-authored booklet, "A Study of the Gwynns Falls
Stream" was distributed to interested area teachers and school
administrators.
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VI. Limitations
1. Perhaps the greatest obstacle to be encountered in attempting
to implement an environmental studies program is that of
scheduling. Many schools are so regimented that it may be
difficult for students and teachers to find the time needed for
these activities. Since such a diversity of specific problems
may arise here, it would be beyond the scope of this document
to attempt a solution to all of them.
2. It may be possible to offer "time-trades" with other teachers.
They may, for example, be much more willing to give up some
of their lab or classtime in exchange for some of yours. It
may be possible to convince athletic departments that an out-
side activity such as an all-school cleanup may be a worthy
substitute for gym classes one day. Such tactics as these
are only beginnings, but as enthusiasm grows among the students,
faculty, and administration the possibilities are endless until
finally the whole school may choose to revolve around an envir-
onmental theme.
3. One must also consider the possibility of alienating the local
industrial polluters. This can be avoided by taking a positive
rather than a negative approach to the pollution problem. It
is better to ask, "How can we_ work together to alleviate the
problem?" If tact is used, you may find that industry is as
interested as you are in working toward a solution and may
even contribute in helping solve problems. A strong word of
caution might be given to those who are impulsive and impatient
in their dealing with the public at large.
"Resolving in essence the quest of human survival and the
quality of human life on a planet of fragile hospitality -
this is an issue which must become of immediate concern to
all segments of society." Ecotactics, Part VII.
VII. Bibliography and Resources
Abelson, H. I., Persuasion, Sprinaer Publishing Co., New York City,
1959.
Hall, D. M., Dynamics of Group Action, The Interstate Printers &
Publishers, Inc., Danville, 111., 1964.
Hi 11 court, William, Field Book of Nature Activities and Conserva-
tion, G. F. Putnam's Sons, New York City, 1961.
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Hovland, C. I., A. A. Lumsdaine, and P.O. Sheffield, Experiments
on Mass Communications, Princeton University Press, 1949.
Mann, John, Changing Human Behavior (Chanter 8, "Attitude Change
Produced by Interpersonal Influence"), Charles Scribner's Sons,
New York City, 1965.
Mitchell, John C., and C. L. Stallings (eds.), Sierra Club Handbook
for Environment Activists: Ecotactics, Pocket Books, New York
City, 1965.
Phillips, Edwin A., Field Ecology, D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, 1965.
This is a BSCS Lab Block for high school students.
The Hampshire Environmental Information Center (HEIC) in cooperation
with the Coalition for Environmental Quality (CEQ), University
of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass. This Center is intended to
provide the Northeast area with one centralized point for the
collection and dissemination of information related to environ-
mental matters.
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J. Moviemaking
I. Introduction
Movies are an innovative, motivational teaching technique
which stimulate student interest, learning, and creativity.
A movie project provides students with the opportunity to
interact with peers and teachers to develop skills in the
various areas involved in this type of activity and to
increase understanding of the subject being covered. With
adequate planning a moviemaking project can be introduced
at any level, elementary through college. The complexity of
the project depends on the age group involved.
II. Questions
1. Elementary level - The moviemaking project should be
an integral part of a specified unit of study designed to
make it more meaningful to the students.
a. How would you like to make a movie about ?
b. What are some of the things we might have in our
movie?
c. What are some things our movie should tell people?
d. What are some of the jobs we must do to make the
movie?
It might be feasible at this time to discuss the specific
area or areas the film should include and a format of
possible scenes.
High school level - The questions and discussions will be
at a higher level of complexity.
a. What is the aim of the movie?
b. What effect is the movie trying to create?
c. What message is to be made by the film?
d. What equipment will be needed for the project?
e. What time limitations are involved?
f. Should we film all the facts on the subject being
covered?
g. Who is going to do the filming?
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The moviemaking project at this level provides an excellent
opportunity for teamwork, because the students can become
involved in the more refined areas of this type of activity.
III. Equipment
1. Movie camera
2. Film
3. Light meter
4. Tripod
5. Editing equipment
6. Projector and screen
7. Lighting equipment
8. Notebooks
IV. Procedure
1. Decide on suitable areas for filmmaking activities.
2. Plan an itinerary that will provide as much sequence as
possible.
3. Break students into teams to work on various aspects of
the movie. Students should be working in their interest
area. Teams might be assigned to:
a. Care and cleaning of equipment.
b. Arrange for lighting.
c. Arrange for filming on private land (good public
relations experience).
d. Do the filming.
e. Arrange for or do film development.
f. Edit the film.
V. Previous Studies
Several groups in the Water Pollution Program (WPP) at Tilton
School were successful in making suitable movies on water
pollution. These can be obtained by contacting the program
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coordinator. The paragraph below was written after 2 days of
filming. A list of scenes filmed also appears.
"The purpose of this movie is to follow a river from its
headwaters to the Atlantic Ocean, showing the effects of human
activites on the river. As we started to do this, we noticed we
could divide the river into three parts. The first part is at
the headwaters of the Fowler River which flows from Mt. Cardigan
to Newfound Lake. In this section there are no human activities
to affect the river. At Newfound Lake, the first influences of
human activities are noticed as the lake is widely used for
recreation. At this point the second phase of the movie starts.
The outlet of Newfound Lake runs into the Pemigewaset River a
few miles downstream. The Pemigewaset, polluted at this point,
runs through Bristol to Franklin, where it meets the Winnipe-
saukee River and becomes the Merrimack River. The second phase
ends up with the Merrimack flowing to Concord. Along this phase
we see the introduction of human activities which will later
increase. The third phase follows the Merrimack from Concord
through all the towns along the river, until it empties into
the Atlantic Ocean. Along this part of the river we observe the
effects of heavy human activity upon the river. To give a
better picture of what we wish to portray, we will be using one
movie and two slide projectors running at timed intervals with
the movie projector.
"Slides: the slides will be taken to show the area where
the scene was shot. They will be used as a transition element,
pulling some of the scenes together.
"Scenes That Have Been Shot
Scene 1. Sunrise on Mt. Cardigan.
Shot at two frames per second. The
first 30 seconds will be seen without
slides as the sun jumps up. Time: 90 seconds
Scene 2. Water dripping from a rock.
This shows the water as it first
seeps down the rocks. Time: 45 seconds
Scene 3. Water pool.
Shot from just below scene 2. Time: 15 seconds
Scene 4. Moss and Stream.
The stream joins with another. Time: 26 seconds
Scene 5. Water bugs in pool.
Used zoom to capture bugs. Time: 20 seconds
Scene 6. Waterfall Time: 20 seconds
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Scene 7. Bullfrog and bubbles.
Just below falls.
Scene 8. Welton Falls trail.
First shot on the Fowler River.
This stream is much larger than
those in the previous scenes. The
slides will serve as a transition.
Scene 9. Small waterfalls along Fowler.
Scene 10. From bridge to Fowler.
As in scene 8 there is a great jump
in the size of the stream. So
slides will be used as a transition.
Scene 11. From lichen to suds.
Focus through lichen to suds.
Scene 12. Spider web
'The scenes listed above were shot for part 1.
are for part 3.
Scene 1. Pan bridge to boats off pier.
Newburyport.
Scene 2. Boats in bay off pier.
Newburyport.
Scene 3. Shooting toward Plum Island.
Newburyport.
Scene 4. Below Rt. 495 bridge of river
and trees at Haverhill.
Scene 5. At Lawrence, looking upstream
from bridge on south side.
Scene 6. At Lawrence, effluent and
steam pipes taken from bridge.
Scene 7. At Lawrence, effluent pipe
taken from bridge.
Scene 8. Looking upstream from bridge
on the north side.
Scene 9. At Lawrence, looking down-
stream from bridge on north side.
Time: 15 seconds
Time: 15 seconds
Time: 25 seconds
Time: 15 seconds
Time: 11 seconds
Time: 20 seconds
Those that follow
Time:
Time:
Time:
Time:
Time:
Time:
Time:
Time:
Time:
20 seconds
15 seconds
15 seconds
15 seconds
15 seconds
15 seconds
15 seconds
15 seconds
15 seconds
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"In a communications class, some juniors in high school made
movies as a substitute for term papers. In a nigh school science
class, students made a documentary movie on pollution and the
environment.
"We have found in our experiences that one must focus on a scene
for at least 12 seconds, as it takes a viewer that long to com-
prehend and enjoy the scene."
VI. Limitations
In some schools the cost of the equipment may be prohibitive.
Thorough investigation of various sources indicates that some
companies are quite willing to donate necessary equipment. The
local camera store might be a possible source.
Students using the equipment should be carefully versed in its
operation.
VII. Bibliography
Hughes, Robert, Film Book I, the Audience and the Filmmaker,
Grove Press, Inc., New York City, 1959.This is a book for
both teacher and student. It is "concerned with the
situation of the serious filmmaker - how he works and what
he is up against." The chapter which presents an interview
with Fellini is most exciting.
Monier, P., The Complete Techniques of Making a Film, Amphoto,
New York City, 1960. This is a book for the individual
who has never picked up a camera before. It can be as a
reference by junior high school students and older.
Peters, J. L. M., Teaching and the Film, International
Documents Service, UNESCO, New York City, 1966. This book
on the techniques of filmmaking can be used by the high
school student.
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K. Making Film Loops
I. Introduction
The film loop is a good way to stimulate interest and discussion
on any topic; loops are 5 minutes long. If the student partici-
pates in the making of one of these on the water pollution
problem, he is able to transmit his feelings to others by
another communication media. j
II. Questions
1. To lead into the activity ask students:
a. Are the movies and other audiovisual aids that we have
representative of this locality?
b. What do you think would make a better presentation?
c. Where do you think we should go to make a film loop?
2. To initiate activity ask students:
a. Who would like to try to make a film loop?
b. What do you think will make this an effective film loop?
3. To continue the activity ask students:
a. How could this benefit other persons in our community?
b. What can we do to make this available to other people?
4. To evaluate the students'performance consider such questions
as:
a. Did everyone contribute to this activity?
b. Is the loop representative of the community's pollution
problem?
c. Is this loop representative of the pupils' concept of
the pollution problem?
III. Equipment
1. Super 8mm or 8 mm movie camera
2. Film
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3. Light Meter
4. Tripod
5. Editing equipment
6. Film loop projector and screen
7. Flood lights (if necessary)
Some companies will donate equipment or money to schools that are
planning to have the students make movies.
IV. Procedure
1. Make a survey of your community to find suitable areas.
2. Plan an itinerary that will provide as much sequence as
possible.
3. Make a definite plan and format for taking the film footage.
4. Edit your film.
5. Have a loop made of the edited film (send it out for loading).
6. Add sound track if desired.
V. Previous Studies
At Germantown Academy Biology 1 and 2 students did loops to dem-
onstrate standard methods in biology laboratory techniques.
These loops are now used by the students to prepare for lab.
VI. Limitations
1. Photographic equipment of good quality should be available.
2. The cost of needed materials may be prohibitive for some
situations.
3. Individuals undertaking this project should have an adequate
knowledge of the problem areas in the community.
4. There should be a thorough understanding of the limitations
of camera that is to be used for this project.
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VII. Bibliography
Hughes, Robert, Film Book I, the Audience and the Filmmaker,
Grove Press, Inc., New York City, 1959. This is a book for
both teacher and student. It is "concerned with the situa-
tion of the serious filmmaker - how he works and what he is
up against." The chapter which presents an interview with
Fellini is most exciting.
Monier, P., The Complete Techniques of Making a Film, Amphoto,
New York City, 1960. This is a book written for the individ-
ual who has never picked up a camera before. This book can
be used by junior high school students and older.
Peters, J. L. M., Teaching and the Film, International Documents
Service, UNESCO, New York City, 1966. This is a book on the
techniques of film making, which can be used by high school
students.
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L. NonreturnabTe Containers
I. Introduction
This activity allows students to identify and react
effectively to the problem of nonbiodegradable containers.
Basic questions are provided; however, it is projected that
questions will be posed by students that will require
considerable class discussion. This activity may be carried
out by junior and senior high students.
II. Questions
1. To lead to the activity ask:
a. What varieties of nonreturnable containers are produced?
b. What disposal methods are used by private and public
communities?
c. Does disposal present a problem? (If so, specify.)
2. Initiate the activity by asking:
a. How can our concern for this problem be channeled?
b. Is an advertising campaign the method to follow?
c. Can our aid help mitigate the problem?
3. Continue the activity with:
a. What public agencies and companies should be contacted
for information?
b. Is it plausible to appeal to the public through small
projects under the auspices of various organizations
such as the school?
c. In what manner can the greatest success be achieved?
4. Evaluate the students by considering:
a. Is success for this type of project possible on a
large scale?
b. Has personal involvement increased?
c. Has community concern and cooperation increased at
all?
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III. Equipment
1. Trash cans filled with various types of nonreturnable
containers
2. Photos of dumps or other areas used for the deposit of
these containers
3. Maps and data for recording survey
IV. Procedure
1. Large group opening of class-teacher will utilize the
discussion from Part II and/or provide articles for the
students to read and evaluate in small groups and report
on to the large group. (Articles identifying the problem
posed with nonbiodegradeable containers.)
2. The teacher will invite the students to form their own
group to evaluate the problem of nonbiodegradeables in
their community. Areas for investigation might include:
pathways for container wastes; compilation of material
examples of nonbiodegradeables (NBD); companies that make,
sell, and service NBD containers for our community; and
an overview on the recycling of NBD materials.
3. Small group activity to plan approaches to the various
offenders in order to communicate directly with them and
discuss from the standpoint of either recycling or non-
production ways to correct the problem.
V. Past Studies
A group of students at Germantown Academy became aware of the
possibilities of recycling and started a chain letter to others
urging a boycott of nonreturnable beverage containers. They
also prepared a model legislative package for use on a state
level.
VI. Limitations
1. The students must be encouraged continually to make their
investigations seriously, particularly when approaching
businessmen and manufacturers.
2. It is important for the student to value what he is
investigating. The investigation should be of the
student's own volition, and the teacher must allow for
individual differences in approach to the issue.
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3. The students must not be led into thinking change will
occur overnight; however, they should, on the other hand
be encouraged to be persistent in their efforts and
thorough in their followup.
VII. Bibliography
Periodicals nowadays feature nonbiodegradeables frequently. If
a file is begun on the subject by clipping newspapers and weekly
news journals, a supply of information will develop quite quickly.
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M. Anti-pollution Art
I. Introduction
This activity gives students a chance to express their personal
attitudes towards pollution through creative art forms.
Students will become more aware of the environmental crisis,
and through their art, pass this awareness on to others. This
activity can be used with any age group and requires no back-
ground or artistic ability.
II. Questions
1. To lead into the activity ask some questions similar to the
following:
a. How can we communicate our concern about the pollution
problem to others?
b. Could posters, collages, and other art forms be useful
in communicating this concern?
2. To actually start the activity ask:
a. What materials could be used in making this art?
b. Should we run an antipollution art contest?
3. To continue the activity, ask questions like:
a. Should we use slogans, humor, and cliches in our
posters?
b. If we run a contest, who will be involved? Just
the c,lass, one grade, the entire school, the whole
community?
c. Should there be a prize as an incentive for this
contest?
4. To evaluate the students' efforts:
a. Who is doing the activity, and with how much
interest and enthusiasm is he going about it?
b. How well has each student planned his project?
c. Are the participants working?
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III. Equipment
1. Litter (have the students collect this themselves)
2. Glue
3. Magic markers
4. Poster paper
5. Paints and brushes (Note: if posters are to be displayed
outdoors, be sure to use weatherproof paint.)
6. Lots of enthusiasm and imagination
IV. Procedure
1. Be enthusiastic and interested about this project and your
students will be too. Start off by taking your class to
the scene of actual pollution: a nearby river, pond,
beach, etc.
2. Have them observe the pollution and react to it, then
start collecting the trash, some of which may be used in
the actual making of their art projects.
3. Plan the project and collect any additional materials to be
used in individual projects.
4. Begin to create an expression of your attitudes about
pollution, using unique materials and ideas.
V. Previous Studies
1. One school recently held an environmental art contest for
Earth Day (1970) in which not only posters and collages
were entered, but also an assortment of oddities ranging
from mobiles to a piece of artwork made using an old
toilet. The contest was judged by certain faculty and
student members of the environmental pollution class at
the school, and prizes consisted of humorous, yet anti-
pollution type gifts, such as waste paper baskets and
fly swatters (instead of DDT).
2. The team from Beta Group, Tilton School in New Hampshire,
decided that the items of metal trash were heavy enough to
require welding. "Some of the collection we had to work
with resembled parts of animals and plants to us. Pieces
were spread out on the floor and arranged and rearranged
by trial and error. We adopted the theme that pollution
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is killing our natural flora and fauna, so in the future
man might only be able to enjoy synthetic plants and
animals made from these pollutants.
"We produced a crane or heron-type bird, a cattail,
a turtle, and a skull, and crossbones. We made a sign by
bending wire to form the words: pollution era-flora and
fauna. These we stapled to a plank with a tacker
stapler and balanced the sign on another item from the
collection."
VI. Limitations
1. Few posters will be produced if students are not
enthusiastic or if the activity is not publicized enough.
2. Posters placed outdoors become weather-beaten, colors
may run.
3. If a contest is held, it could last too long.
4. Students should be allowed ample time to plan and work
on their projects.
5. A contest with prizes would probably be more suitable for
younger students (up through junior high) than for high
school and up.
6. Heavy metal items may require welding, but are worth
examining for other methods of joining. Welding could be
done in the school maintenance shop, the vocational
education shop or any privately-owned shop where the
operator can be interested in helping the group with the
project.
7. Cast iron pieces are difficult and costly to weld to
steel pieces.
VII. Bibliography
Lynch, John, How to Make Collages, Viking Press, New York
City, 1961.
Rottger, Ernst, Creative Paper Design, Reinhold Book Corp.,
New York City, 1968.
Schwartz, Therese, Plastic Sculpture and Collage, Hearthside
Press, Great Neck, N. Y., 1969.
Seyd, Mary, Designing with String, Watson-Guptill, Inc., New
York City, 1967.
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N. Modelmaking
I. Introduction
This activity interests the students in making models of
buildings, plants, and equipment. In this project, for all
grades, it is intended that the students will do research on
models thus learning about the control of pollution.
II. Questions
1. Lead to the activity by asking: what buildings or
equipment can be found that help control pollution?
2. Initiate the activity with:
a. How could you build a model of this kind?
b. What materials could you use to make this?
c. Would you make an actual working model or a cardboard
one?
3. Continue the activity with:
a. How would you make it work if you make a working
model?
b. What would a model like this show people who do not
know about sewage plants, buildings, and equipment?
4. To evaluate students, ask:
a. Is the model well constructed for the time allotted?
b. If it is a working model, does it work correctly?
c. Does the student know how it works; could he explain
the process?
d. Does the student feel he has gained an understanding
of why we have such plants?
III. Equipment
1. Working model
a. Cement mixture
b. Sand, rocks, etc.
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c. Motor to run mixing device
d. Aeration device
e. Settling tank
f. Glass tubing
g. Glue (waterproof)
h. Paint
i. Labels
2. Nonworking model
a. Cardboard and boxes
b. Paint
c. Glue
d. Glass tubing
e. Wood splints
f. Pins
g. Settling basin (small washing basin)
h. Sand and gravel
i. Labels
IV. Procedure
1. Make or get a blueprint of your idea.
2. Do research as to how it works and material needed for
construction.
3. Construct the model.
4. Paint parts as necessary.
5. Label parts.
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V. Previous Studies
Models often serve as the best illustration of things too
large to see all at once. At Germantown Academy, two
topographical maps (approximately 32 x 8 feet each) are under
construction to show the entire Wissahickon Valley watershed
and the school campus. When completed, the model will be
mounted on the side walls of the science lecture hall.
Several overlays will be used to illustrate biological,
bacteriological, chemical, social, and political aspects of
the watershed.
VI. Limitations
1. Materials may be hard to work with.
2. Glue may be hard to work with (watery, not flowing, etc.).
3. Time may be too short.
4. Small models take a long time to filter materials, thus
patience is needed.
5. Projects may leak.
VII. Bibliography
"Aquarius . . . New Concept in Water Treatment," Neptune
Micro Floe, Inc., Neptune Meter Co., Oregon.
Goodman, Brian, Package Plant Criteria Development, National
Sanitation Foundation, Michigan, 1966.
Municipal Sewage Treatment Processes, U. S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D. C.
Sewer and Sewage Treatment Plant Construction Cost Index,
FWPCA Division of Construction Grants, Washington, D. C.
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0. Student Planning of a Pollution Assembly
I. Introduction
This activity is designed to motivate students to plan a slide
show on their local pollution problems to be shown at a school
assembly. Such an assembly might act as a springboard to
further activities on a larger scale if it is successful in
bringing an awareness of local conditions to the student body.
An assembly of this kind can be planned and produced by
students at any level. Since it is possible to classify
pollution into four categories: air, water, sight, and
sound. With minor variations, this activity could be done
with a tape recorder concentrating on sound pollution.
II. Questions
1. Lead to the activity by asking:
a. Is the student body as a whole aware of our local
pollution problems?
b. What might we do to make them aware?
c. Does merely telling them about pollution have as
great an effect as showing it to them?
d. Would a slide show, illustrating pollution in our city,
town, be interesting to the students?
2. Questions which initiate the activity:
a. Which sights in our area are particularly offensive?
b. What pictures would really have an effect on the
students in our school?
c. Have any areas become polluted recently so that they
might remember them as they were before?
d. Are there any areas of potential natural beauty which
have been spoiled by pollution?
3. Questions which continue the activity:
a. Should we focus it on one site, showing it from many
angles, times of the day, etc., or should we expand
to cover many sights in the area?
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b. Are there rivers that become more polluted as you
pioneered downstream so that you could show a progression
from beauty to pollution?
c. Should we have a sound track to accompany the slides?
d. Should we break up into groups in order to produce the
show (i.e., editors, directors, photographers, sound
coordinators, projection men, tape or record technicians,
etc.)?
4. Questions which help the teacher evaluate the students'
efforts:
a. Does the student try to produce a show which will have
an effect on others or is he merely doing what he
thinks is interesting? (Of course, he could be doing
both successfully.)
b. How did the students and teachers in the audience react?
c. Did any long-term projects result from the assembly?
d. Were these or other students motivated to become
involved in further assembly programs in the school?
III. Equipment
1. Cameras
2. Projector and screen
3. Tape recorder or record player (if a sound track will
accompany si ides)
IV. Procedure
1. The organization should be accomplished in the classroom.
The activity can be accomplished in two ways depending on
your circumstances. A class field trip approach may be
utilized to take the pictures or students may be organized
to take the pictures on their own time after school.
2. The students should agree on the total impact they wish to
create on the audience and conscientiously strive for it.
Most of this will occur during editing and arranging of the
slides and coordinating of sound.
3. Sufficient time must be allowed for the slides to be
developed and returned.
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4. A date must be arranged for the assembly so that the
students have a goal and real purpose to work towards.
5. After slides are obtained, the real work begins. They must
be arranged and edited to create the desired effect. It may
sometimes even be necessary to cut out good slides if there
is an overabundance; one or two slides of certain scenes
are sometimes more shocking than a dozen. The level of
sophistication in coordinating sound and slides will vary
according to available equipment and the students' talents;
however, they should be aware that the two do interact with
each other and if used carefully can become a real asset
to the production.
6. There may or may not be any introduction or narration,
depending again on the total effect desired by the students.
V. Past Studies
Young people seem to enjoy nothing more than working with cameras
these days and the results of their efforts are often surprising.
A group of students at Til ton School produced a film and slide
show titled "The River" which they eventually showed to the
participants of the water pollution program and which they
plan to enter in an amateur film contest.
These students took about a week to complete filming. They
began with a spring at the top of Cardigan Mountain in New
Hampshire and followed the path it took to reach the Atlantic
Ocean. The beginning slides included beautiful pastoral scenes,
but these soon gave way to scenes of extreme pollution. As the
spring became a stream and the stream a river, it passed the
Franconia Paper Mill, which in 1954 contributed 96% of the
pollution in the Pemigewasset River. Moving through Franklin,
N. H., the Pemigewasset becomes the Merrimack River, and the
students continued taking scenes of pollution in Concord,
Manchester, and on into Massachusetts. After the picture
taking was finished and the slides had been returned, we edited
and added sound with a tape recorder. (Later this became a multi-
media show and the students added a motion picture film in the
center, showing their slides on both sides of it.)
VI. Limitations
Most schools have slide projectors as well as tape recorders or
record players. Many suitable cameras are available or, if not,
either the teacher, the students, or their parents can usually
make one or several available for use. The class may decide
to share the cost of having the slides developed or the school
may have money available for this purpose. If none of the
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above is true, try asking the local camera store to lend you a
camera and necessary equipment. In short, equipment is not a
limitation. However, some problems may be encountered in travel
if the sites chosen are not within walking distance. The
problems here depend on the size of the class of the group
actually doing the photography. Car pools might be organized
among the parents and the group can be broken down into smaller
units. Perhaps each unit could be in charge of photographing
only one site thus reducing the total number who must visit each
s i te.
VII. Bibliography and Resources
Blaker, Alfred A., Photography for Scientific Publication,
W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, Calif., 1965.
This is especially good for techniques on small objects,
insects, etc.
Boucher, Paul Edward, The Fundamentals of Photography,
(3rd ed.), Van Nostrand Publishers, New York City, 1955.
This is a good book for the fundamentals of working a
camera and is also available in 4th edition, 1963.
There are many good books on the fundamentals of photography -
your selection need only take into account the level of
sophistication of your equipment.
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P. Role Playing
I. Introduction
This activity is designed to familiarize students of 7th grade
level and up with the function of local government and how they
can take part in a town's decision making process. The setting
is the local Town Hall where a special meeting has been called
to consider the proposal that motor boating be banned on a
nearby lake.
II. Questions
1. To lead into the activity, ask:
What type of people would you expect to find present at a
local town meeting on this issue?
2. To initiate and continue the activity, ask:
a. Why would these people act and think as they do?
b. Where could you find information on each character role?
c. Which character would you like to be (followed by
character assignments)?
3. To continue the activity, ask the students:
Why they are playing the roles the way they are?
4. To evaluate the activity, ask the students to write a
reaction paper. Note whether they really understand what
was going on. Recapitulate the activity with the students
to assure that they followed the development.
If a tape recording has been made, this will be helpful.
If more than one class has been recorded, play the tapes
so that the classes may compare their activities.
III. Equipment
A tape recorder
IV. Procedure
1. Students are asked to imagine what various special interest
actions could be expected to be in attendance at the town
meeting and what statistics and facts these people might
use to support their position.
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2. Students are encouraged to identify with one of these
factions by imagining themselves in this role for a few days
prior to the actual meeting. See past studies in Section V.
3. Follow these tips on parliamentary procedure:
a. Always wait until the moderator has recognized you
before you begin to take the floor.
b. Always stand when speaking.
c. Always be courteous as you present your argument. Do
not state opinions without being able to draw examples
and give proof. Be accurate about dates and statistics.
d. Do not ask a question directly to or speak to other
members in the audience - always put such matters through
the Chair.
e. If you propose an amendment to the article in question,
do not forget that the amendment must be prepared as a
motion, seconded and then voted upon separately before
going to the original question for ratification.
f. Address the moderator as Mr. Chairman or Mr. Moderator.
g. If there are many people trying to be recognized at the
same time, you must stand and wait until you have an
opportunity to speak.
h. You may through the Choir ask for an opinion from any of
the local town officials (i. e., town counsel, local
board of health official, local planning board official,
town engineer).
V. Past Studies
Procedures outlined in Section IV were carried out. Discussion
of the motor boating ban article was lively and enjoyable and
lasted for an hour and 15 minutes. Suggested characters which
were used in this particular role play were:
1. Chamber of Commerce president or member: enthusiastic
about the possibilities for making money on tourist trade
in the area. Feels that preventing people from using
powered craft at the lake will cause people who plan to
develop property around this region into motels, ice cream
stands, hamburger stands, and other franchises to lose the
money they invested.
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2. Members of a rapidly organized group who call themselves
"The Lake Boat Owners and Water Skiers Federation" (sports
loving, "Pepsi-generation" types).
3. Local members of real estate and brokerage firms feel that
both they and people from cities would be discriminated
against.
4. A representative from your school (pick your own character).
5. A private lot and boat owner who has recently received
permission through the planning board to build a cottage on
the lake. He feels that such a ruling would be unfair to him
since he assumed that when he invested the majority of his
life savings in this recreational area that there would be no
restrictions on his recreational activities.
6. An old resident who is basically fed up with newcomers
intruding more and more into what had been to him an area
of peace and tranquility for as long as he can remember.
7. A poorly-motivated individual who is a rather shady
character and has a personal financial interest in selling
a product which he claims will eliminate oil scum.
8. Local representative of the John Birch Society who sees
this bill as another example of unnecessary social control
which is detrimental to the American traditional concept
of personal freedom.
9. Representative of local Conservation Committee who
wishes to preserve the natural beauty and environmental
qua!ity of the area.
10. Moderator of the town meeting.
Participants found useful in their role participation, the brief
guide to parliamentary procedure which is included in the
procedure section.
VI. Limitations
1. Students may have no experience in role playing or
parliamentary discussion. It may be useful to spend 10
minutes in a dry run dealing with the suggested issue.
2. A student with a rather forceful personality is needed as
the moderator.
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3. Students must have the time to obtain a thorough knowledge
of their role and how it relates to the issue in order to
guarantee enthusiastic participation.
VII. Bibliography
If possible, select games the students are familiar with and use
the rule books as a basis of discussion.
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 197Z 514-144/30 1-5
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