6941
c. 1
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Region 5
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
DECEMBER 1991
A Risk Analysis of Twenty-six
Environmental Problems
5* jr
-------
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION 5
REGION 5 COMPARATIVE RISK PROJECT
1KAPT WORKING DOCUMENTS
FOR
ANALYSIS OF 26 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5, Library (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Boulevard, 12th Floor
Chicago, IL 60604-3590
DECEMBER 1991
-------
C>
-------
TRBI£ OF CONTENTS
I. Introduction
Environmental Problem Analysis i
General Risk Assessment Methodology i
Ranking Methodology ii
Problem Area Rankings vii
II. Problem Areas
Discharges to Surface Waters 1
Drinking Water Supplies 14
Physical Degradation of Water and Wetland Habitats 37
Aggregated Ground Water Contamination 54
Storage Tanks 67
Managed (RCRA) Hazardous Waste Facilities 78
Abandoned/Superfund Hazardous Waste Sites 104
Lead 116
Municipal Solid Waste Sites 123
Industrial Solid Waste Sites 140
Accidental Chemical Releases 158
Pesticides 184
Sulfur and Nitrogen Oxides 223
Ozone and Carbon Monoxide 231
Airborne Lead 237
Particulate Matter 240
Hazardous and Toxic Air Pollutants 244
Indoor Air Pollutants Other than Radon 250
-------
Indoor Radon 258
Asbestos 261
TSCA Chemical Control 270
Worker Exposure to PCBs 285
Physical Degradation of Terrestrial Ecosystems 292
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 305
COg And Global Warming 312
Radiation Other Than Radon 321
-------
REGION 5 COMPARATIVE BISK PROJECT
I3KAF11 WUKKJLNS DOCUMENTS
FOR
ANALYSIS OF 26 ENVTBCMffiNTAL
'The tl.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is developing a process for
targeting Agency resources based upon current risks to human health and
ecosystems. EPA's 1987 national study, ^nflr>?s'h**3 Business, initiated the
comparative risk emphasis for decision making. One of the "tools" being used
to develop the risk-based planning process is the analysis of relative risks
at a Regional level. The analysis of environmental threats provides some of
the information needed to more effectively target our Region's risk reduction
efforts. This document is a compendium of working drafts which were used for
the ranking of relative risks. These drafts contain more detailed information
than the May 1991 report, Summary of the Analysis of 26 EnviTmtmtJiiTtal Problems
(EPA/905/9-91-016) . The purpose of this document is to provide other govern-
mental and non-governmental groups examples of the detailed analyses which
were involved in the ranking of the 26 environmental problems in Region 5.
The twenty-six environmental Problem Areas, defined by EPA Headquarters, are a
combination of sources of pollution, pathways of exposure and specific
contaminants or Impacts. The Problem Areas were analyzed to determine the
magnitudes and characteristics of the risks remaining in the environment after
the application of current regulatory controls. These "best estimates" of
risk were based on calculations using actual data when available. When
sufficient data were not available, extrapolation from limited information or
best professional judgement was used, which resulted in semi-quantitative
analyses of moderate uncertainty. Potential impacts of disinvestments or
investments in regulatory programs were not considered here.
GENERAL RISK
AID SXKESSOR ASSESSMENT
The toxicity and stressor assessment consisted of two distinct processes, 1)
hazard identification and 2) dose-response evaluation. Such information was
generally obtained from peer reviewed, published analyses. For chemicals,
EPA's hazard identification process consists of 1) a review and analysis of
the available toxicological data, 2) a weighing of the evidence that a
substance causes various toxic effects and 3) an evaluation of whether a toxic
effect in one setting will occur in other settings. Sources of toxicological
data include 1) human epidemi ologioal studies, 2) laboratory and field studies
en animals and 3) in vitro, or test tube, studies. The dose-response evalua-
tion is carried out to estimate the incidence of the adverse effect as a
function of the magnitude of exposure to a toxic substance. For this report,
-------
toxioological and other stressor information (e.g., physical degradation of
systems) best representing the problem area was examined.
Tne exposure assessment is a qualitative or quantitative description of
contact with a toxin or stressor in terms of intensity, frequency, duration
and route. For chemicals, exposure assessments can be used to link exposure
with dose; where exposure is the amount of a chemical available for absorption
and dose is the amount of a chemical available for interaction with metabolic
processes. For this report, general information on the significant exposure
routes (i.e., inhalation, ingestion, etc.) was evaluated. Data (real, modeled
or estimated) was assegs<=d which permitted the estimation of human exposure to
chemicals or the situations, such as waste sites, which are representative of
the problem area. The numbers of people and types of ecosystems and wildlife
potentially affected by differing exposure scenarios was determined wherever
possible. Because of limited data, ecological exposure assessments were
qualitative for most problem areas.
RISK
Risk characterization combines the toxicity and stressor information with the
exposure data to derive risks. The risk characterization is the product of
the risk assessment and is a major component of the risk management decision-
making prx
UNCERTAINTY IN THE RISK ASSESSMENT
At all steps in the risk assessment process a description of uncertainty in
the results was developed. Precise quantification of uncertainty was often
not possible. A qualitative description of uncertainty as either substantial,
moderate, or low was considered appropriate when accompanied by a thorough
discussion in the text. Due to the uncertainty existing in the risk assess-
ment process, the working drafts of the problem areas are subject to change
and should not be considered absolute.
RBNKENS hernia»unGY
TTnf jni.shed Eaiginggg TIP**^ simple numerical scores of one through four, where
the difference in numbers represented the order of magnitude of risks. For
this report, a similar scoring scheme was used. For instance, a "high" risk
is given a value of 4 and a "low" risk a value of 1. Therefore, a relative
difference of up to 10,000 may exist between risks scored as "low" and those
scored as "high". This approach assisted in identification of the magnitude
of risks without excessive use of potentially imprecise numbers. More
importantly, this approach helped place problem areas into general risk
categories of high, medium-high, medium-low and low in regards to risk, which
was a reasonable objective for the ranking given the uncertainty in the risk
analysis.
ii
-------
HEALTH RISK ANALYSIS
Risk analyses were performed using U.S. EPA cancer and non-cancer assessment
approaches as described in the Risk Assessment Guidelines of 1986. The
analysis was conducted to derive average risks. This was accomplished by a
weighting to the exposed populations. The "Maximally Exposed Individual"
(MEI) approach was not a part of the analysis, however, realistic maximum
risks to exposed populations were included.
Cancer Risk Assessment
Calculation of potential lifetime cancer risks requires knowledge of 1) cancer
slope factor of the specific chemicals of concern and 2) lifetime averaged
doses to the exposed population. The cancer slope factor (q^) is a measure
of the upper 95th percent confidence limit of the slope of the dose-response
curve. Therefore, actual risks are unlikely to be greater than calculated
using the cancer slope factor and may, in fact, be less. The cancer slope
factor varies directly with the potency of the carcinogen such that the
greater the cancer slope factor, the greater the cancer causing potential of
the chemical. The potential individual lifetime cancer risk is calculated as
shown below:
Individual Lifetime Potential Cancer Risk = (Cancer Slope Factor) X
(Averaged Lifetime Dose)
The potential number of cancer cases in a given population can be calculated
from the individual lifetime cancer risk as follows:
Total Potential Lifetime Cancer Cases = (Individual Cancer Risk) X
(Population)
An example of deriving average cancer risks based upon the exposed populations
is provided below:
Environmental
Concentration
1.00 ppm
0.20 ppm
0.04 ppm
Population Exposed
1,000
10,000
1.000.000
Total 1,011,000
Individual
Lifetime (70 year)
Cancer Risks
1 x 10'*
2 x 10'3
4 x 10"5
Potential
Cancer Cases
10
20
40
Total: 70
or one case/year
By dividing the potential 70 cancer cases by the total exposed population of
1,011,000, the average population-weighted cancer risk is 6.9 x 10"5 for the
total population. Note that high risk populations are included in the
analysis.
The number of potential annual cancer cases was placed into the following
scheme for ranking. In order to give a greater weighting to known human
carcinogens, the potential annual cancer cases were multiplied by the appro-
111
-------
priate cancer class factor. The final score was calculated by adjusting the
Potential Annual Cancer cases for carcinogen type as indicated below.
Potential 1.00 for Type A carcinogens Adjusted Potential
Annual x 0.67 for Type B carcinogens = Cancer Cases
Cancer Cases 0.33 for Type C carcinogens (Interim Score)
The cancer classifications are as follows: Type A: Known Human Carcinogen,
Type B: Probable Human Carcinogen, Type C: Possible Human Carcinogen.
Score*
Adjusted Potential
Cases Final Score Health Risk Category
1,000 - <10,000 4 High
100 - 1,000 3 Medium-High
10 - 100 2 Medium-Low
<1 - 10 1 Lew
For problem areas which were difficult or impossible to separate potential
cancer cases by carcinogen class, there were two default options. One used
the cancer class factor for Type B carcinogens, while the other used the top
10 most prevalent chemicals attributed to the problem to derive a distribu-
tion.
Non-Cancer Risk Assessment
For chemicals or situations having non-cancer impacts, exposure assessments
were conducted using EPA's Reference Doses (for chronic effects) or Health
Advisories (for acute effects) . The Reference Dose (RfD) is defined as an
estimate of the maximum daily exposure to the human population (including
sensitive subgroups) that is likely to be without appreciable risk of delete-
rious effects during a lifetime. The relationship between the actual daily
dose and the reference dose is defined by the Hazard Index (HI) , where:
Daily Dose
Hazard Index = -
Reference Dose
An example for calculating His is provided below:
Contaminant Exposure Daily Dose Reference Hazard
Concentration (2 Liter/day) (70kq-bw) Dose Index
10 mg/Liter 20 mg/day 0.3 1 x 10"4 3,000
mg/kg-bw-day mg/kg-bw-day
(liver toxicity)
Therefore, individuals exposed to a chemical at 10 mg/L in water would be
ingesting 3,000 times the Reference Dose. Since the Hazard Index is defined as
the ratio of the Daily Dose to the Reference Dose, as the Hazard Index becomes
iv
-------
greater than one the potential risk increases proportionately. In this
situation, the likelihood of liver taxicity is great, as indicated by a Hazard
Index of 3,000. Because risk is a function of hazard and exposure, popula-
tions exposed must also be considered as shown below:
Exposed
Effect Population Hazard Index
Liver toxicity 50 3,000
Liver toxicity 10.000 10
Total: 10,050
A weighted hazard index, based upon population would be derived as follows:
50 (3,000) + 10,000 (10)
= 25
10,050
Therefore 10,050 people would be at risk with an average hazard index of 25.
Some chemicals (i.e., pesticides) can also cause short-term, acute effects.
Therefore, acute health indices, such as health advisories, were utilized
where appropriate. In these cases, the potential risk was represented as a
function of the ratio of the short-term, acute dose to the health advisory
limit.
Non-Cancer scoring methodology was set forth in Unfinished Business, using
population exposed, Hazard Indices, and biological endpoints.
Population Exposed score
>10,000,000 4
100,000 - 10,000,000 3
1,000 - 100,000 2
<1,000 1
Hazard Indices Based Upon
Reference Doses (RfD)
and Health Advisories (HA) Score
>1,000 4
100 - 1,000 3
10 - 100 2
<1 - 10 1
Biological Effect (Endpoints)
Severity scoring for non-cancer was based upon the severity endpoints for
biological effects as in Unfinished Business (Table I). These factors
(population exposed, RfDs and biological endpoints) were combined in the
following manner:
-------
Interim
Total = Population x Hazard Index + Biological Effect Score
Score Score 2
This provides total scores ranging from 1-16 and these can be grouped into
overall scores of 1-4 and general risk categories
Interim
Total Score Final Score Health Risk Category
13-16 4 High
9-12 3 Medium-High
5-8 2 Medium-low
0-4 1 Low
As discussed in Unfinished Businggg, some data, such as disease or accident
rates, are better expressed as incidence rates, as follows:
Average individual = annual incidence
risk estimated population at risk
This provides probability estimates which may be converted into a score and
substituted for Hazard Indices scoring described above, when appropriate. All
impact resulting in deaths were scored on the cancer scale.
Average Individual Risk score
<10'2 4
10'4 - 10'2 3
>10'6
- 10'6 2
Cancer and non-cancer scores of the problem areas were ranked separately. The
overall health risk score was based on the highest of either the cancer or
non-cancer risk score.
ECODDGICAL RISK ANALYSIS
The ecological assessment consisted of three major components: 1) Severity,
2) Reversibility of Damage, and 3) Geographic Area Affected. Animal popula-
tion estimates, while valuable, were generally not included in the analysis
due to lack of data. The final scoring of each problem area for ecological
risk involved a combination of 1) the severity (low, medium, or high), 2) the
reversibility of the effect in the ecosystem (low, medium or high) if the
pollution source or impact would cease, and 3) the extent of the geographic
area affected (i.e., acres, sq. miles, miles of river) as discussed below.
For Problem Areas impacting more than one type of ecosystem, each ecosystem
was evaluated individually and the overall risk ranking was based on the
ecosystem with the greatest risk.
VI
-------
Severity and Reversibility
Both of these indices were scored using a scale of 1-3.
Severity
High; Loss of entire ecosystem(s) in the impacted areas (s), or complete
loss of several critical (i.e., important to ecosystem stability,
valuable or endangered) species. Score; 3
Medium; Stressors which threaten or may threaten the long-term viability
and stability of an ecosystem (s), or reduce the population of one
or more critical species threatening their long-term survivabili-
ty. Score; 2
Low; Marginal effects on the health of an ecosystem (s) or critical
species with no significant long-term threat to ecosystem stabili-
ty or species populations. Score; 1
Reversibility of Damage
Low; (1) When stressor removed, the ecosystem and critical species will
not recover to original condition or viability or (2) full recov-
ery will require greater than one century. Score; 3
Medium; Ecosystem(s) and critical species will obtain near pre-stressor
conditions, with reasonable viability, speciation, and populations
or (2) full recovery will take greater than ten years but less
then a century. Score; 2
High; Ecosystem (s) or species will likely attain original conditions,
viability, speciation and populations
with in ten years or less. Score; 1
Geographic Area Score
A geographic area score was derived based on the percentage of the ecosystem
type affected by the stressor. The score for the ecosystem types listed on the
next page was a function of the size of the affected area relative to total
area.
Affected Area Score
> 1% of total 4
> .1% of total 3
> .01% of total 2
< .01% of total 1
VII
-------
Eoosvstem Type Total Area
Great Lakes (U.S. and Can.) 94,250 square miles
Other lakes 3,830 square miles
Rivers and streams 62,000 river miles
Harvested+potential cropland 72 million acres
Grassland incl. Prairie 2.34 million acres
Forests 56.4 million acres
Wetlands 22 million acres
Geographic Area
The scoring system for ecosystem types not listed above (i.e. Dunes, urban
areas) was as follows:
Affected Square Miles Score
10 - 500 1
J.U — 3UU J.
500 - 5,000 2
5,000 - 50,000 3
50,000 - 500,000 4
A total score for each ecosystem, based upon the three factors but weighting
'geographic area1 greater than 'severity1 or 'reversibility' was as follows
with a final score and general risk category for each Problem Area determined
by the most adversely impacted (highest scoring) ecosystem.
Interim
Total Score = Severity + Reversibility X Geographic
2 Area Score
Highest Interim Tot^l Score Final Score Final Category
8-12 4 High
5-7 3 Medium-High
3-4 2 Medium-Lew
1-2 1 Low
RANKINGS
The twenty-six environmental Problem Areas, as defined by EPA Headquarters,
were ranked based upon current risks and according to the human health
and ecological risk methodology described above. For three Problem Areas:
Accidental Chemical Releases, CO^ and Global Warming, and Stratospheric Ozone
Depletion, the rankings were developed on the basis of future potential risks.
The results of the ranking process are presented in Table II. Approximately
one order of magnitude separates each of the four risk levels; high, medium-
high, medium-low and low. Because of the uncertainty in the estimates, it was
considered inappropriate to rank problems within a given risk level. As a
'comparative' risk analysis, threats to larger populations or larger portions
viii
-------
of ecosystems ranked higher than those affecting smaller populations or
smaller portions of ecosystems. The Problem Areas, as defined for the purpose
of resource allocation, do not provide for a strictly consistent comparison.
For example, indoor air pollution is not comparable to the disaggregated risks
of the numerous outdoor air pollutant Problem Areas. In addition, because the
risk assessments were semi-quantitative and had various degrees of uncertainty
associated with them, the rankings are accurate to one risk group. Therefore,
a medium-high risk problem could be ranked as a high or a medium-low risk in
the future if more data were to become available.
-------
Table I
Distribution of Non-Cancer Health Endpoints
on the Severity Scoring Scale
(Note: l=less severe; 4=most severe.)
Score = 1
herpes (non-infectious)
liver-increased enzymes
reduced corneal sensitivity
sensory irritation
giant cell formation
nasal irritation
nasal cellular irritation
eye irritation
dental mottling
Score = 2
allergic reactions
kidney-hyperplasia
kidney-hypertrophy
liver-increased weight
decreased sensory perception
irritability
decreased testicular weight
uterine hypoplasia
pulmonary irritation
nasal ulceration
mucosal atrophy
pulmonary congestion
decreased mid-expiratory flow rates
dental erosion
leishmaniasis
symptomatic effects (headache)
increased blood pressure
low birth weight
decreased heme production
impaired heme synthesis
increased infections
kidney atrophy
jaundice
multagenicity-cytogenic
retinal disorders
tremors
post implantation losses
testicular degeneration
spermato damage
increased resorptions
bronchitis
pulmonary impairment
lung injury
respiratory-^iemorrhage
aggravation of asthma
increased respiratory disease
bronchoconstrictions
increased respiratory infections
gastrointestinal disease
Score = 3
aggravation of angina
bone marrow hypoplasia
methemoglobinemia
kidney-tubular degeneration
hepatitis A
acetylcholinesterase inhibition
increased spontaneous abortion
pneumonia
Pontiac fever
alveolar collapse
fibrosis
lung structure changes
cataracts
Legionnaires disease
fetotoxicity
kidney- necrosis
livers-necrosis
learning disabilities
neuropathy
convulsions
aspermia
emphysema
pulmonary edema
Score = 4
increased heat attacks
teratogenicity
mutagenicity-hereditary disorders
retardation
mortality
-------
Table II
REGION 5 COMPARATIVE RISK RANKINGS
Ecological Risk Ranking
Human Health Risk Ranking
HIGH
Accidental Chemical Releases*
CO2 and Global Warming*
Hazardous/Toxic Air Pollutants
Municipal Wastewater Discharges
Non-point Source Discharges
to Surface Waters
Pesticides
Physical Degradation of
Terrestrial Ecosystems
Physical Degradation of Water
& Wetlands Habitat
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion*
MEDIUM HIGH
Abandoned/Superfund Sites
Industrial Wastewater Discharges
Ozone & Carbon Monoxide
Sulfur & Nitrogen Oxides
MEDIUM LOW
RCRA Hazardous Waste
Storage Tanks
LOW
Industrial Solid Waste Sites
Municipal Solid Waste Sites
Possible Risks Not Assessed:
Aggregated Ground-Water
Airborne Lead
Lead
Particulate Matter
Radiation other than Radon
No Known Impacts:
Aggregated Drinking Water
Indoor Air Pollutants
Indoor Radon
PCBs Worker Exposure & TSCA
•Ranking reflects risk of future impacts.
"Pre-manufacture Controls portion of this problem area is not ranked.
HIGH
Accidental Chemical Releases*
Indoor Air Pollutants
Indoor Radon
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion*
MEDIUM HIGH
Hazardous/Toxic Air Pollutants
Lead
Non-point Source Discharges
Ozone & Carbon Monoxide
Pesticides
Radiation other than Radon
Sulfur & Nitrogen Oxides
MEDIUM LOW
Abandoned/Superfund Sites
Aggregated Drinking Water
Aggregated Ground-Water
Airborne Lead
Industrial Solid Waste Sites
Industrial Wastewater Discharges
Municipal Wastewater Discharges
Particulate Matter
PCB Worker Exposure - TSCA **
Storage Tanks
LOW
Municipal Solid Waste Sites
Physical Degradation of
Terrestrial Ecosystems
RCRA Hazardous Waste
No Known Impacts:
Physical Degradation of Water & Wetlands
Habitat
XI
-------
PROBLEM AREAS 1,2,3
FROBLfM AREA, TTTEE- Industrial, Municipal and Nbnpoint Source Discharges To
Surface Welters
PROBUM AREA. DEFDOTICN AND DESCKEPHCN
This assessment ocnbines three problem areas: the effects of chemical and
biological contaminants discharged by municipal sewage treatment plants and
their collection systems through combined sewer overflows (CSOs), discharges by
industrial point sources, and chemical discharges from nonpoint sources.
Although there are over 25,000 point source dischargers in the Region, this
assessment will focus on the information available on Major dischargers. Major
dischargers include any discharge ever one million gallons per day, or those
that have been identified as having a potential to adversely impact receiving
waters. The list of major dischargers is reviewed annually, and changed as
needed. Based en the review of databases that identify all facilities, such as
the International Joint Oommission (IJC) reports on Municipal Point Sources, the
Region believes that major dischargers account for over 90% of point source
discharges to surface waters. Presently, there are approximately 494
industrials and 665 municipal facilities identified as majors.
Industrial point sources include wastewaters from mining, manufacturing,
commercial and silvicultural operations that are discharged through discrete
conveyances such as pipes or channels. The largest volume of discharges in the
Region are from electric utilities. Within the Great Takes basin, there are 40
utilities classified as "major" dischargers (that is, they have flows greater
than one million gallons per day or have the likelihood to adversely impact the
receiving water) and these sources discharged an approximate average daily
volume of 20.2 billion gallons per day in calendar year 1989. In the other
basins (the Mississippi, the Ohio and Hudson Bay drainage basins) in the
Region, there are 84 such point sources, and they discharged approximately 22
billion gallons per day during the same time period. From the remainder of the
major industrial point sources, there were approximately 4.2 billion gallons
per day discharged to the Great lakes and their tributaries and 1.7 billion
gallons per day discharged to the other basins in the Region. The vast
majority of the flow discharged to the Great Tay
-------
The Great Lakes and their tributaries receive approximately 4.8 billion gallons
per day from 218 major municipal sewage treatment facilities. In the other
basins, 447 major municipal sources discharge an approximate volume of 4.0
billion gallons each day. It is estimated that twenty to twenty five percent
of the waste sent to these plants is industrial in nature, rather than the
domestic sewage that they were designed and built to treat. These industrial
wastes are form the electroplating and metal finishing industries, the
chemical industry, and the pulp and paper industry. Many of the plants that
serve older cities are connected to combined sewer systems that transport not
only domestic and industrial waste, but also serve as storm sewers. Because
these systems are of fixed capacity, they are equipped with locations known as
overflows, where, during rain events, a mixture of stormwater and sewage can be
directly released to the environment prior to receiving any treatment.
In addition to those pollutants discnsspid above, municipalities can discharge
pathogens, residual chlorine and chlorination products.
Nonpoint sources of pollution are those that are from diffuse sources such as
runoff from agricultural operations or urban areas. Additional examples of
nonpoint sources include: those pollutants that are already in the environment,
either temporarily trapped in contaminated sediments, in the water column, in
groundwater that eventually enters surface water, or in the biota; pollutants
deposited from the air; poorly designed or operated septic systems; and so on.
Because land use greatly affects nonpoint source pollution, it is worth noting
that approximately 45% of the land within the Region is identified as
agricultural. Some 4.5 % of the surface area has been urbanized, a large
portion of that occurring on the shoreline of the Great Lakes.
Pollutants associated with nonpoint sources include nutrients and pesticides
from agricultural runoff, organic and inorganic toxicants associated with urban
runoff, materials previously discharged by industrial and municipal point
sources that are trapped in sediments, and dissolved or suspended solids.
Given the degree of industrial activity in this region, those pollutants
previously discharged, and already in place in the environment, are of
particular importance. This particular assessment will attempt to only address
the impacts from the chemical portion of nonpoint source discharges. To the
extent possible, physical impacts, such as siltation, are addressed in the
Hiysical Alteration of Water and Wetland Habitats.
HUNAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
TCKECTIY ASSESSMENT
Five chemicals are evaluated below for the purposes of assessing the threat
to human health. These chemicals include Chlordane, DDT/DDE, Dieldrin, Mercury
and PGBs. Dioxin was also considered, but a review of the available data
revealed that dioxin is not as ubiquitous as the other chemicals, but rather is
limited to bays and impoundments. Dioxin may represent a significant risk to
small populations, but did not appear to greatly influence the average risk to
the population of the Region. The other chemicals appear frequently in either
surface water, sediment of fish tissue residue analysis.
-------
The properties of each of the five chemicals is summarized below:
Chemical
Chlordane
DDE
Dieldrin
Patency*
1.3
.34
16.0
Mercury
PCBs
7.7
Class
B
B
B
Reference Dose* Endpoint
.00006
.00005
B
.0003
.0001
*units are mg/kg/day'
,-1
Liver carcinomas,
reproductive effects,
neurotoxicity.
Liver tumors.
Liver carcinomas, re-
productive effects,
neurotoxicity, liver
damage, immune system de-
pression.
Reproductive and
neurologic effects.
Liver tumors, reproduct-
ive effects, liver damage,
stomach, thyroid and kid-
ney damage.
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Human exposure to environmental toxins in surface waters can occur through
the consumption of contaminated fish, drinking water intakes, dftrmal contact and
incidental consumption of surface waters during recreation. This assessment
focusses on risks due to the consumption of fish. In the judgement of the
regional office, this pathway constitutes the greatest threat to humaiY health.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) 1988 estimate of commercial fish
consumption is 19 grams per day (g/d). This figure tracks with the values used
by the states in setting water quality criteria for the protection of human
health, which range from 6.5 g/d to 30 g/d. The USDA has further stated that
the consumption of commercial fish is depressed in the regional states by
approximately 20% due to consumption of sport fish. A recent survey of the
habits of sport fishermen and their families, indicated that it is not
unreasonable to expect each member of an anglers family to consume 19 g/d of
sport fish.
Given that information, four exposure groups will be evaluated:
-Sport fishermen that consume 19 g/d of sport fish from the Great Lakes,
-Nbnfishermen that eat a mixture of ccranercial (80% or 15 g/d) and Great
Lakes fish (20% or 4 g/d)
-Sport fisherman that consume 19 g/d of non-Great Lake sport fish,
-Non fishermen that consume 15 g/d of commercial fish and 4 g/d non-Great
lakes sport fish.
The number of sport fishermen was estimated by the ratio of licenced fishermen
-------
to total population in the Great lakFts states. Eleven percent of the total
population are licenced fishermen. According to 1988 census estimates
30,232,600 people live in Region 5 counties that are adjacent to the Takes or
otherwise in the basin. We calculated that 26,907,014 are not sport fishers,
and the remaining 3,325,586 are. Outside of the basin or counties adjacent to
the lakes, reside 16,195,400 people. Of these, 14,413,906 do not sport fish and
the remaining 1,781,494 do.
Contaminant levels for commercial fish are from an Food and Drug Administration
study of fish in the marketplace conducted in the late 1980s. Levels for Great
r^kftg fish are from the 1987 UC Water Quality Board Report, supplemented with
data from the State of Michigan. Data for the non-Great Takp« basin is from the
Draft National Bioaccumulation Study performed by the Agency. Average
contaminant levels were used and are summarized below:
Qmnercial Fish (FDA)
Chemical Amount fmcr/kcf)
Chlordane
DDE
Dieldrin
PCBs
.0019
.009
.005
.0009
Great lakes Sport Fish (UC/MI)
Chemical Amount fmcr/kcri
Chlordane
DDT/DDE
Dieldrin
Mercury
PCBs
.186
.367
.09
.166
1.32
Non-Great lakes Sport Fish (EPA)
Chemical Amount fmcr/kcrt
Chlordane
DDE
Dieldrin
Mercury
PCBs
.017
.13
.013
.23
.85
HUMAN HEAI3H RISK CHARAOHRIZAnON
Cancer Risks Using the above exposure assumptions, cancer risks were
calculated. Risks were combined assuming additivity among the chemicals
evaluated. Tnis is consistent with the assumptions used by the states of
Minnesota, Illinois and Wisconsin in their standards setting process. The
results are summarized below:
Population
GL Fishers 3,325,586
GL Nonfishers 26,907,014
Non-GL Fishers 1,781,494
Non-GL Nonfishers 14,413,906
Lifetime Risk
3.25(E-3)
6.86(E-4)
1.85(E-3)
3.95(E-4)
Potential
10,808
18,458
3,296
5,693
-------
The total potential life time careers are 38,255 or 547 cases per year assuming
a seventy year life. The average weighted population cancer risk 8.24(E-4).
The above risks were driven by the risk of consuming PCBs, which accounts for
85% of the risk in Great Tflkps sport fishermen and 96% of the risks in nonbasin
fishermen.
Noncancer Rjsks Using the above assumptions, noncancer risks were
calculated vising a Hazard Index approach. The Hazard Index quantifies the
extent to which a population is above the Reference Dose for chronic, noncancer
effects such as reproductive impairment, neural effects or kidney damage. We
assumed additivity to aggregate the impacts of the various chemicals. The
results are summarized below:
^ Population
GL Fishers 3,325,586
GL Nonf ishers 26,907,014
Non-GL Fishers 1,781,494
Non-GL Nonfishers 14,413,906
Hazard Index
354.41
88.22
186.39
54.22
Weighted Risk
1.18(E49)
2.37(E+9)
3.32(E+8)
7.82(E+8)
The total weighted risk is 4.66(E+9), or an average Hazard Index of 100 for the
entire regional population. As with cancer risks, the noncancer risks are
driven by PCBs: 70% of the risks to Great lakes fishermen and 86% of the risks
to nonbasin fishermen.
The sources of PCBs in the environment are difficult to establish. One
important source is contaminated sediments. At one site on Lake Michigan,
Waukegan Harbor, the sediments were found to be contaminated to the point of
being 50% PCBs (500,000 parts per million). Contaminated sediments are present
at 41 of the 42 Area of Concern identified by the L7C as requiring remedial
attention. In the Great Lakes, air deposition of toxics also contribute a load
to the basin. Lastly, point sources, especially large metropolitan areas with
combined sewer systems, discharge large volumes of waste into surface waters.
Because most of the toxics above bioconcentrate and biomagnify (see the
discussion in the following section), very dilute concentrations are of
environmental significance. Unfortunately, the analytical techniques presently
available do not allow detection of some of these compounds (notably PCBs) at
those levels of concern.
For the above reasons, the risks posed by contaminated fishes are not broken out
into source categories.
ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
TOXICEIY ASSESSMENT
There are seven types of materials that have ecological effects which are
discharged by point and nonpoint sources: nutrients, oxygen demanding
materials, pathogenic organisms, disinfectants, inorganic toxicants, organic
toxicants and heat. Nutrients typically refer to various compounds of nitrogen
and phosphorous. Their effect is a stimulation of growth in algae. Such
-------
increased growth allows the dominance of less desirable forms of algae, leads
to increased to increased turbidity in the water column, and unless controlled,
leads to culturally induced eutrophication. Such eutrophication is a vicious
cycle of intense algal production, progressive deoxygenation of bottoms
sediments and then the water column, and ultimately, severe shifts in the
natural ecosystem to one dominated by a few species of pollution tolerant
organisms.
Oxygen demanding materials are usually described by biochemical or chemical
oxygen demand (BOD and ODD respectively). They act on aquatic systems by
removing oxygen from the water column either through chemical oxidation (ODD)
or, most likely, by biological and chemical means (as measured by BOD). The
effect of lack of oxygen is that fish and desirable species of zooplankton and
macroinvertebrates can no longer survive. As with culturally induced
eutrophication a more or less permanent shift in the structure of the ecosystem
occurs" until the causal agents are removed and the system has an opportunity to
return to its natural state.
Microbial pathogens are associated with municipal sewer systems and nonpoint
runoff that has been contaminated with septic system waste or waste from animal
feeding operations.
Municipal sewage systems typically disinfect their effluent with chlorine to
prevent the discharge of any pathogenic organisms. This chlorine is often
responsible for the "disinfection" of portions of receiving waters. In these
affected stretches, aquatic life is absent either from having been killed as a
result of the discharge or from not being able to inhabit the affected area.
Inorganic toxicants include heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, mercury, copper
and zinc; and other inorganic compounds such as cyanide or dissolved solids.
The toxic effects of theses ccnpounds include lethality, impairment of
reproductive success and behavioral changes in fish and macroinvertebrates.
The particular effect depends on the concentration to which a particular
organism is exposed and the sensitivity of the species. For heavy metals, the
toxicity is often effected by the chemistry of the water bodies: sc"¥g metals
are less toxic in harder water. Ecosystem effects may include minor inpacts
such as a small change in species diversity (as measured by standard indices
that consider the number and richness of species as well as the number of
individuals) or major impacts such as loss of certain types of species
previously suited to the habitat. Once released into the environment, these
compounds become temporarily trapped in bottom sediments, the water column or
the biological component.
Organic toxicants, such as PCBs, dioxins, pesticides, solvents, chlorination
products from municipal sewage treatment plants, and other synthetic organic
compounds, have the same type of effects that the inorganic toxicants discussed
above exhibit. In addition, many of these compounds can bioconcentrate in an
organism and biomagnify through the food web. For example, a zooplankton can
bioconcentrate the ambient concentration of PCBs 500 times during its life.
The eggs of a herring gull, a tertiary predator in the same ecosystem, show a
biomagnification of 25 million times the ambient concentration of PCBs. Thus
these compounds have the ability to exert effects in predators even when the
ambient water concentration is very low. Predators, even those that are
extensively terrestrial, can suffer reproductive disorders, behavioral
-------
abnormalities and other ill effects induced by these cxnpounds.
The discharge of heated water from power plants and primary metals
manufacturing can cause significant local effects. Aquatic life can be absent
from the area because it is siirply too hot for them to survive. Shifts in the
composition of fish and insect communities can occur so that the natural system
is replaced by neat tolerant species.
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
For the purposes of this assessment, the types of ecosystems considered are
very broadly defined. This is due to limitations in the databases available to
the Region for use in conducting the analyses.
Rivers and Streams There are approximately 249,000 lineal miles of rivers and
streams in the Region. It is estimated that 17 to 20% of these stream miles
are within the Great lakes basin. These systems are sensitive to the influence
of toxic substances, oxygen depletion and portions are sensitive to
eutrcphication (nutrient enrichment) . The Ohio River, for example, is a system
of 20 pools and has the characteristics of both a river and a series of lakes
with relatively low detention times. Rivers and streams tend to be more
resilient than a lake, recovering quicker after a stressor is removed because
it is being constantly replenished with water from upstream. This same
characteristic can, however, carry a toxic effect over a greater dijgtanop and
influence more of the system that the same stressor might have done in a lake
system.
Reservoirs Within the Region, there are approximately 5.5
million acres of inland lakes and reservoirs. These systems are especially
sensitive to nutrient enrichment (eutrophication) and the impacts of toxic
chemicals. Most of these systems are relatively small, and do not have the
ability to flush themselves quickly, so that impacts remain with the system
even after the stressor is removed.
Great Lakes The Great Takes contain approximately 20% of the fresh water on
our planet. Four of the five lakes receive discharges from the Region. There
are approximately 4,595 miles of Great Lakes shoreline, and nearly 88,000
square miles of surface area associated with Lake Superior (31,700 square
miles), Lake Huron (23,000 square miles), Lake Michigan (23,300 square miles)
and Lake Erie (9,910 square miles) . Hydraulic retention tiro»g in the individual
lakes range from a high of 199 years in Lake Michigan, through 99 years in Lake
Superior and 22 years in Lake Huron to a low of 2.6 years in Lake Erie. The
ability of the lakes to purge themselves of pollution, therefore, varies
dramatically. The Great Takes contain a vigorous sport fishery, although it is
supported by an extensive program of introducing nonresident species, such as
Ooho salmon in certain areas. Bioconcentration and biomagnification of toxic
organics present a threat to non-aquatic species such as mink, gulls and bald
eagles. The lakes and their shores are especially sensitive to nutrient
enrichment, impacts from toxic compounds and oxygen depletion.
ECOLOGICAL RISK CHARAdERIZATICN
Rivers and Streams According to the reports submitted by the states to the
-------
Region under section 305 (b) of the Clean Water Act, 31% of the streams and
river miles which had been evaluated are impaired. For the purposes of those
reports, impairment is defined as some type of physical, chemical or biological
degradation. Nearly half of those impaired stream and river miles, 14% of the
total miles assessed, are not meeting their designated uses, which means that
those sections are not meeting the Clean Water Act goals of having a f ishable
and swimmable stretch of water.
For the 14%, or nearly 35,000 lineal miles, of rivers and streams in the
Region, the impact of point and nonpoint sources is highly severe. When a
designated use is not attained, the aquatic ecosystem which is best suited for
that site has been completely destroyed and/or replaced by a substandard
system. As explained above, these systems can generally be expected to be
moderately resilient. However, because of the potential for the temporary
trapping of previously discharged material in contaminated sediments, and the
difficulty of recolonization by aquatic organisms due to the construction of
dams and other man-made obstacles, the reversibility of the damage is at best
moderate and often low for these reaches.
Where systems are identified as impacted but not classified as not supporting
the designated use, the severity of the damage is moderate to low. There are
approximately 40,000 miles of streams and rivers in this situation (or about
17%) . These impacts are generally minor changes in the structure of the aquatic
ecosystem as measured by various indices, such as diversity indices. Typically
few species are absent, rather they are threatened. Because damage is not as
severe in these systems, the resiliency is high and the reversibility of the
damage is likely in a relatively short timeframe after the stress is removed.
The specific sources of these impacts is difficult to assess. Typically, more
than one type of source can affect a given stretch of water. According to the
1990 305 (b) reports, of all of the impaired stream and river miles in the
Region, nonpoint sources .Impacted 81%, municipal point sources impacted 39%,
and industrial point sources impacted 19%. Please note that the nonpoint
source data do include the deposition of sediments which physically altered the
habitat. This effect can not be broken out.
Ti?1"*5 ^"fl Reservoirs The most recent 305 (b) reports were not
instructive on the impacts on these systems because the support of the f ishable
and swimmable goals were not aggregated. The 1988 reports however, indicated
that of the 5.5 million acres of lakes and reservoirs, only 1.9 million acres
(34%) fully support designated uses, 3.1 million acres (56%) are Impaired but
not identified as not supporting uses, and .5 million acres (10%) do not
support designated uses. Again, where designated uses are not supported, the
desired ecosystem is completely eliminated and/or replaced by a less diverse,
more pollutant tolerant system. Such an effect is highly severe. As discussed
above, the ability of these systems to flush themselves and recover is poor,
and the reversibility of the damage, once a designated use is not supported, is
low.
As with rivers and streams, lakes that are simply impaired, but continue to
support the designated use, have a relatively moderate to low severity of
impact. Community structures tend to be slightly askew, but not sufficiently
damaged to severely impair their function or to never recover. The ability of
these systems to fully recover after the stress is removed is at best moderate,
-------
because of the difficulty in cleansing the system and re-establishing lost
species.
The particular sources responsible are difficult to establish. The largest
source identified in the national summary of the 1988 305 (b) reports is the
runoff from agricultural operations, a nonpoint source that impacted over 55%
of the impaired lake acres. Nutrients were identified as the responsible
agents. Municipal point source impacted about 15% of the impaired acres, and
industrial point sources impacted approximately 8%.
Great lakt** There are 4595 miles of Great Lakes coastline in the region.
315 miles (7%) are identified as fully supporting their designated uses in the
1990 305 (b) reports, 992 miles (22%) are identified as partially supporting
uses, and 3288 (71%) are identified as not supporting designated uses. This
uniqu^ ecosystem is severely disrupted in those areas where the designated uses
are not being attained. Native species are often absent, or those that are
present are subject to unacceptable levels of other stresses such as
reproductive or behavioral abnormalities. Where uses are being partially
supported, the long term viability of the system is threatened. In both cases,
the timeframes for recovery is extended. Decades to centuries may be required
for the systems to recover once the stressors are removed or controlled.
The 305(b) reports identify the impact of toxic chemicals as the most
widespread influence. The source of these materials is difficult to judge from
the available data. There have been 29 areas of concern identified by the
Water Quality Board of the X7C in the four lakes that receive discharges from
the region. All but one report problems with sediments contaminated by the
past discharge of toxic material. Three areas of concern have had contaminated
sediments classified as hazardous waste under the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (PCRA). All but seven report that the water column is tainted with
toxic chemicals. Effluent data from point sources id of little help in identify
sources, because the level necessary to protect water quality is typically two
to three orders of magnitude below the ability of the present science to detect.
Consequently, the vast majority of dischargers report that they discharge below
detectable quantities of compounds like PCBs or dicodns.
Nutrients are identified as the second most widespread influence on the
shoreline ares. Again, the precise sources are difficult to establish.
Typical sources are nonpoint runoff from agricultural land and the CSOs and
effluent discharges from municipal point sources.
Eutrophication has been a concern since algae blooms began to choke the lakes
in the mid sixties and Lake Erie was pronounced dead in the early seventies.
Presently all of the lakes which receive discharges from the region meet the
in-lake target for phosphorous, the material that effectively controls the
production of algae. Lake Erie is the warmest, shallowest and most productive
lake and still is threatened by culturally induced eutrophication. At present
that threat is of low severity, as controls are in place that ensure that
effects will be marginal, if all other factors (such as water levels and
atmospheric temperature) remain more or less constant. The reversibility of
the damage is medium to high based on the experience of phosphorous control in
the past and the relatively low hydraulic residence time.
The Great lakes basin ecosystem is impacted beyond the aquatic environment.
-------
Several species of predators such as eagles and gulls are the victims of the
bioconcentration and bianagnification of toxic conpounds. No quantitative data
was available to assess the relative magnitude of the impact, but it should be
noted that these predators are having difficulty reproducing and becoming re-
established in the basin.
UNCHOMMY
The primary source of the data used in this assessment were the 1990 305 (b)
reports submitted by the six states in the region. These reports are assembled
using available information with a view to provide a snapshot of the receiving
water quality on each state. Several important limitations to the data must be
understood.
First only about 30% of the stream miles in the region were evaluated for the
purposes of the 305 (b) reports. The results were extrapolated to the total
resource to produce the statistics used in the risk characterization. This is
accepted practice for preparing the national report to Congress, but it should
be understood that the monitoring locations are not randomly selected, but
chosen to tell the story of stream impacts and recovery and may, therefore,
introduce some bias into the report.
Second, the endpoints vary from state to state. Each state evaluates the
health of its streams by comparing results to its unique set of water quality
standards. These standards include a designated use for each portion of every
stream, lake and river in the state. Such uses include cold water fisheries,
waxmwater fisheries, seasonal salmonid habitat, general use waters, and so on.
Each use is coupled with a standard expressed in terms of biological integrity,
chemical concentration and/or narrative requirements. Both the use
designations and the associated criteria vary from state to state, and are not
necessarily directly comparable.
Region 5 staff have reviewed each states reports and aggregated the data as
best we could to produce the most meaningful summary. Professional judgement
was used as needed to combine and report these results.
10
-------
fect"g g'BimaTy
Revers''^'' 1 ity Geo
Aquatic- 1. Nbnattainment of High/Low-
Rivers and Streams designated uses, Medium
complete system
impairment.
2. Partial
impairment of
eoosystem.
Medium-
Low/High
35,000 stream miles
40,000 stream miles
Aquatic-
Inland Lakes
1. Nonattainment of High/Lew
designated uses,
complete system
500,000 acres
2. Partial
impairment of
designated uses.
Medium/Medium 3.1 million acres
Aquatic-
Great Lakes
1. Nbnattainment
for shoreline
complete loss of
function.
2. Partial
impairment.
High/low
Medium-
Lcw/Modium
3,228 shore miles
992 shore miles
3. Eutrophication Lou/Medium 9,910 square miles
11
-------
References
Botts, L. 1983. Toxic Fallout: The Invisible Great Lakes Problem.Great
lakes Waste and Pollution Review magazine. Vol. 1. No. 2. p. 7-10.
Clark, Milton and William Sanders. 1990. Memorandum: "Evaluation of FDA
Marketplace Fish and Other Data."
Colburn, T. 1988. Great lakes Toxics Working Paper. The Nature
Conservancy.
\
U.S. EPA. 1990. Share the Costs - Share the Benefits: Agricultural Nonpoint
Source Cost-share Programs. Office of Water.
U.S. EPA. 1989. Approvals and Disapprovals of Individual Control Strategies
Submitted Under Section 304(1) of the Clean Water Act. Federal Register Vol
54. No. 106. P24030-24035.
U.S. EPA. 1990. Draft National Bioaccumulation Study
U.S. EPA. 1990. OWES Data Sheets. Office of Water Enforcement and Permits.
U.S. EPA. Office of Policy and Program Analysis. 1990. Pollutant Loadings
to the Great Lakes and Chesapeake Bay.
Elliot, J.E., R.W. Bulter, R.J. Nordstrom, and P.E. Whitehead. 1988.
Progress Notes. Canadian Wildlife Service.
Gilbertson, Micheal. 1989. Effects of fish and wildlife populations. In:
Halogenated biphenyl, terphenyls, naphthalenes, dibenzodioxins and related
products. Elsevier Science Publishers.
Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Section 305 (b) Report.
Indiana Department of Environmental Management. 1990. Section 305 (b) Report.
International Joint Commission. 1987. Report on Great Lakes Water Quality.
International Joint Ccranission. 1989. Report on Great Lakes Water Quality.
International Joint Commission. 1987. Summary Report of the Workshop on
Great lakes Atmospheric Deposition.
Michigan Department of Natural Resources. 1990. Section 305(b) Report.
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. 1990. Section 305(b) Report.
Niimi, A.J. 1983. Biological and Tbxicological Effects of Environmental
Contaminants in Fish and Their Eggs. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 40:306-312.
12
-------
Workshop on Great lakes Atmospheric Deposition.
Michigan Department of Natural Resources. 1990. Section 305(b)
Report.
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. 1990. Section 305 (b)
Report.
Niimi, A.J. 1983. Biological and Toxicological Effects of
Environmental contaminants in Fish and Their Eggs. Can. J. Fish.
Aquat. Sci. 40:306-312.
Ohio Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Section 305 (b)
Report.
The Consrvation Foundation and The Institute for Research on
Public Policy. 1990. Great Lake**, Great Legacy.
U.S. Depatment of Agriculture. 1989. "Consumption and Family
Living." Agricultural Statistics
Wegman, R.A. J.G. Gallagher, and J.A. Friedman. 1988. Air Toxic
Contamination of the Great Lakes. Environmental Prespectives. A
fiaryx^gfi Embassy Newsletter.
West, Patrick, et. al. 1989. Michigan Sport Anglers Fish
Consumption Survey
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. 1990. Section 305 (b)
Report.
13
-------
Project -
DRAFT
PROBLEM 4.
PROBLEM ARE& TTTIE: AO3?EGAIED HJBLEC AND IKTVA3E DRINKING WATER SUPPLIES
PRQHE£M AREA EEFENITION:
Recognition of the risk to human health presented by contamination of
drinking water supplies apparently dates back to about 100 A.D., when the
Roman Empire constructed aqueducts to bring upland water to their city
located on the banks of a river.
Early civilizations developed along waterways, and it is noteworthy to
realize that lack of water will destroy a civilization. In the southwestern
United States there was once a flourishing civilization of people usually
referred to as "cliff dwellers." These people migrated, leaving only ruins
to indicate their existence. There is evidence to show that the reason for
the migration was a prolonged drought. These people were much further
advanced in what we now consider a civilization than any of the other natives
who inhabited the continental United States at the time. That civilization
was virtually eliminated by a lack of water supply.
It is difficult to attribute the progress of western nations to their
ingenuity in developing water supplies, but it is a fact that the nations
which are the most highly developed technically and which have the highest
standards of living are those which have constructed the most adequate and
pure water supplies and transmission systems. Many underdeveloped areas on
Earth have yet to develop adequate water supply systems. Their high death
rates can, at least in part, be attributed to their lack of progress in
developing water supplies and medical care.
Recognition that a good water supply is necessary for a healthy thriving
community was not a special insight for the United States or any other
country. The long and difficult struggle was borne of necessity and x
activated by fear. It was as late as 1798, following a severe epidemic, that
Aaron Burr, heading up a group of citizenry, who decided to do something
about the problems associated with the water supply of New York City. Almost
every American city, in the early days of public water supply, was forced to
provide clean drinking water because of epidemics. As late as the 1930's,
typhoid fever was the scourge in some of the larger comnunities of North
America, particularly along Lake Michigan.
Most States have operated drinking water programs since the early 1900's
which improved public health protection by assuring safe and reliable
drinking water in the major communities. Whenever possible, consumers have
been encouraged to obtain water from a public water system in order to enjoy
the advantages of qualified supervision under the control of a responsible
public agency. This philosophy, along with the advancements being made in
water supply engineering and treatment, have made an unquestionably
significant improvement in the quality, safety and reliability of drinking
water over the last 100 years.
14
-------
The importance of drinking water quality was recognized by the federal Safe
Drinking Water Act of 1974 which was amended in 1986. The original
regulations encouraged all States to adopt the minimum federal drinking water
standards which were then considered to provide minimal protection of public
health. The amendments of 1986 expanded the scope of these regulations to
accommodate the risks identified by a new understanding of hydrogeology,
water chemistry, environmental degradation and health effects. While the
risk of a drinking water-related epidemic may be regarded as unlikely in most
large public water systems of the Region, this specific threat remains in the
smaller, less technically competent communities. Rural and private water
supply systems continue to present a significant risk for several reasons.
- Many small water supplies are not regulated under an enforceable well
construction code. As a result, systems are constructed which tail to
provide even minimal protection of the water supply. Substandard well
construction allows contaminated surface water to enter the well; improper
well abandonment allows unfiltered surface water to enter the aquifer;
septic tanks, drainage fields and dry wells, and other disposal facilities
are commonly sited within the zone of influence of the water supply wells;
small production wells are commonly found to tap the upper portion of
shallow aquifers where nitrate and other surface contaminants have not yet
attenuated; makeshift repairs, using inadequate materials and procedures
often result in pressure loss and the infiltration of contaminants,
allowing holding tanks to flow back into distribution lines and threaten
consumers when water pressures are restored. These are just a few
representative examples of the threat presented by unenforceable well
traction regulations.
The majority of small water supplies are without benefit of a competent,
certified water supply operator. All drinking water facilities are
subject to mechanical and constructional failure. Larger water utilities
maintain a constant vigilance of all components, and are prepared to x
handle common maintenance requirements. Smaller utilities, having at
least minimal safeguards such as proper well construction in place may
lack the incentive to provide such surveillance, and most of the smallest
systems lack financial capability. In these systems, problems
representing even serious health risks are usually discovered only through
regulatory procedures which are considered inadequate by most water supply
experts. Region V States are therefore unanimous in their support of
operator training, certification and outreach efforts. All States,
including Indiana, which is only now adopting a federally recognized
drinking water program, continue to devote a substantial portion of their
resources to maintaining a field staff, and provide outreach materials to
assist those communities unable to access needed technical expertise.
As stated above, problems associated with public drinking water supplies
are commonly identified through the compliance monitoring programs being
enforced by the State agencies. Thousands of violations occur each month,
and the most significant of these violations (i.e. those considered to
present a more immediate health risk) rarely remain unaddressed. The fact
that States are addressing acute incidents of noncomplianoe should not
suggest that those violations considered to be relatively insignificant
15
-------
should be ignored. Intermittent monitoring violations may present a small
risk of cjontamination being undetected within a single water system, but
the sheer number of violations occurring in unrelated systems is cause for
concern. The Region V office alone issues an average of over 250 quarterly
and well over 1,000 annual violation letters per year to small public water
supplies in Indiana. The vast majority of these violations are for failure
to monitor the water supply. Essentially all of this non-compliance is due
to ignorance of SDWA regulations. Appropriate enforcement can alleviate
some of this ignorance, but actions must be timely, appropriate and
consistent. The issue of non-compliance by small water systems is often
side-stepped by stating that such facilities serve only a minor portion of
the population. This statement is for the most part, true, but most
noncommunity water supplies serve transient populations (travelers), which
may potentially affect a significant portion of an area's population.
Other non-community water supplies serve schools and factories which may
provide most of the drinking water a person may consume during a 24-hour
period. When relative risks within the single arena of drinking water are
weighed, we find that it is more important to address violations affecting
the largest populations. Thus, the resources which are available are
directed toward this goal. The message which would appear to accompany
these actions should not downplay the significance of nan-compliance by the
small utilities. Considering the potential for health related problems at
these systems (inadequate well construction codes and the lack of operator
certification or technical expertise), the overall risk presented by non-
compliance is overwhelming.
The above discussions identify what is considered to present the most
significant risk to public health by drinking water. Additional risks are
arise from inadequate response to these situations. Perhaps the most visible
threat is the increasingly common use of home water treatment devices. Many
consumers are aware of the findings of environmental groups, and the lack of
timely and effective State response to recognized situations serves to fuel
public concern. Home water treatment devices and bottled water are x
industries growing at rates unprecedented in the past, far exceeding the
development of appropriate health regulations. This situation now threatens
the basic support of public water supplies. Home treatment devices in
particular have an undeniable place in public health protection, but they are
not without risk. In almost every case, the risk presented by reliance upon
a home treatment unit far exceeds that of a public water supply violation.
Lack of consumer education encourage inappropriate use of these devices,
often leading to a false sense of security. The primary issue is that of the
availability of sufficient resources to operate a comprehensive public water
supply program. While most States within Region V are actively working to
increase their resource bases, Michigan and Illinois must fight simply to
prevent State funding reductions which may occur this year.
Selection of Representative Contain TTytnt^
Currently, the U.S. EPA has promulgated regulations for 30 drinking water
contaminants which are expected to have adverse impacts on human health, and
secondary regulations for contaminants which affect the aesthetics of
drinking water. In addition, EPA has established monitoring requirements for
16
-------
other contaminants. Under the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986,
Congress stipulated that EPA set monitoring and MCL requirements for 83
additional contaminants by June 1989. Since it will not be possible to
quantitatively assess the risks for all drinking water contaminants or even a
subset of those which are regulated, we have selected representative drinking
water contaminants from each of the major groupings: microbiological
contaminants, inorganic chemicals, volatile organic chemicals (VOC),
pesticides, disinfection by-products, radionuclides and corrosion by-
products.
Contaminants were selected by reviewing quantitative and qualitative
information sources. In general, quantitative information was obtained from
the Federal Reporting Data System (FRDS) national database. The specific
information that was retrieved included: type of public water system,
populations served, water supply source (surface, ground), frequency of MCL
violations per contaminant, highest concentration found for each contaminant.
In addition, other region-specific databases were consulted for occurrence
and concentration data for those contaminants which have been more recently
regulated, such as the VDCs and pesticides. Additional data and qualitative
information on private water supplies as well as public was obtained from
interviewing experienced state and Federal staff for their professional
judgements regarding representative chemicals. The cxsTtaminants that were
selected met the following criteria:
- The monitoring data were either confirmed or viewed with confidence with
respect to accuracy.
- Ihe data indicated that the chemicals occurred with the highest frequency
and were known to inpact a significant number of people in Region V.
- Water facility information (population, number of sources, types of
sources) collected from the water supply systems was valid.
\
- The contaminants have historical significance with respect to public
health concerns.
Under these criteria, we will attenpt to provide a relatively complete
measure of the total risk from public drinking water systems.
The contaminants of concern and the attendant rationale for their selection
follows.
Total Coliform/Microbioloctical Contaminants
There are many historical records with reported cases of disease transmission
from microbial agents in drinking water supplies. Pathogenic and
nonpathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa and cysts can all be transmitted
via ingestion of contaminated drinking water. Cases of waterborne disease in
Region V have involved such diverse contaminants as Giardia lamblia.
Campylobacter, and a multitude of pathogenic coliforms and viruses. Since
there are literally hundreds of possible microbial agents, agent-specific
monitoring of water supplies is not practiced. Instead, the indicator
17
-------
organisms of the ooliform bacteria group are used to evaluate the
bacteriological quality of water. Turbidity is also an important parameter
since it acts to shield bacteria during the disinfection process, thus making
disinfection less effective. Available information seems to indicate that
there may be no direct relationship between turbidity levels and coliform in
drinking water and the incidence of waterborne disease. Turbidity is an
important indicator of the effectiveness of surface water treatment and
therefore, is currently regulated for surface water supplies only. Thus, its
significance throughout the Region is unknown. Therefore, turbidity will not
be evaluated in this report. Besides total ooliform violations data,
additional data is needed to relate disease incidence to drinking water.
This additional data would consist of the following:
- Disease incidence reports by state
- Surveys of water systems which experienced a contamination problem
- Special studies or investigations conducted by State, local or Federal
health agencies which involved data collected from drinking water
supplies
Nitrate as Nitrogen
Nitrate present in drinking water in excess of 45 mg/L (10 mg/L as nitrogen)
is associated with the incidence of methencglobinemia, which can cause "blue
baby" syndrome. This problem is mainly confined to infants less than 6
months of age and primarily to agricultural areas. Although there have been
no cases of metherooglobinemia reported in Region V in recent years,
nitrate is the second most frequently occurring contaminant and appears to be
chiefly a problem for small ground water supply systems serving less than
1000 people and private well users in agricultural areas.
Lead was regulated as a primary drinking water contaminant at .05 mg/L in
1976. Since that time, additional toxicological information indicates that
lead concentrations in drinking water far below the MCL are capable of
producing adverse health effects, particularly in younger children, infants
and fetuses. Lead causes damage to the nervous system, the blood-forming
processes (hemopoietic), the gastro-intestinal system and the kidneys. More
recent studies show that lead also causes cognitive damage, retards growth
and can raise blood pressure in adult males, even at low exposure levels.
Health effects range from relatively subtle biochemical changes at low doses
(it has been learned that blood lead levels in children such as 15 ug/dL are
capable of producing measurable neurological changes) to severe retardation
or death at higher levels. Lead is also regarded as a B2 carcinogen from the
weight of evidence
Currently, the MCL for lead is being revised downward to reflect our greater
knowledge of its adverse effects and widespread occurrence in water supply
distribution systems. In Region V, there were very few violations of the
18
-------
lead MCL (about 6) reported in the FRDs database. This is to be expected,
since natural lead occurrence is relatively rare. Most lead in drinking
water results from the corrosion of distribution systems. Since most
distribution systems have likely been flushed prior to sampling, a large part
of lead exposure (due to the inappropriately high MCL and monitoring
practices) are missed by the FRDs database. New information is available
substantiating a concern for lead levels in the Region; therefore, we have
chosen lead as one of our study chemicals.
Trihalomethanes (THM) are volatile organic compounds which are formed when
chlorine vised in the disinfection process comes in contact with organic humic
and fulvic acids. While four different by-products are formed (chloroform,
bromoform, dichlorobromomethane, and dibrcnochloromethane) , chloroform is the
species found in the highest concentration. The THMs are regulated
collectively as total IHMs. The interim MCL is set at 1.0 mg/L and applies
for the total concentration of any combination of THMs present. Projections
regarding cancer risks from THMs will be based on the chloroform exposure
levels for chlorinated surface water supplies. The population exposed to
THMs would be those surface water systems serving populations of 10,000 or
more customers (as per the regulations these systems are required to
chlorinate) and any other surface supplies that chlorinate.
The Office of Drinking Water is preparing a mandatory disinfection treatment
rule for ground water. The anticipated proposal date is January 1991, with
promulgation approximately one year later. ODW is also preparing a rule
which will limit the levels of disinfectants and disinfection by-products in
finished drinking water. The anticipated proposal date for this rule is
September 1991. Promulgation is planned for 1992. Chemicals which have been
confirmed as subject to this rule include total trihalomethanes, haloaoetic
acids, chlorine dioxide, chlorite, chlorate, chlorine and chloramine.
Several other chemicals may potentially be added to this rule as well. s
Radionuclid«?g
Radium 226-and Radium-228 were regulated under an interim primary standard
which combined MCL of 5 pCi/1 under the SDWA in 1976. This MCL used gross
alpha as a screen (15 pCi/1) for these regulated alpha emitters, since that
time, the Office of Drinking Water has been developing new regulations and is
expected to publish a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking in January 1991. This
Notice is expected to propose MCLGs, MCLs, Best Available Technologies (BAT)
for setting MCLs and as conditions for receiving variances and exemptions and
monitoring requirements for radon-222, radium-226, radium-228, gross alpha,
natural uranium, and beta particle and photon emitters. All radionuclides
that will be considered are classified as Group A, known human carcinogens;
thus, the MCLGs will be proposed as zero. The Agency is considering
proposing a separate MCL for each radium isotope which centers around 5
pCi/L.
19
-------
Data on the average occurrence of radium in public water supplies in Region V
is not available from FRDS database since measured concentrations for
conpliance monitoring are not reported. However, EPA's Office of Radiation
Programs conducted a nationwide survey in 1980-81 of 2,500 public ground
water supplies in 27 States representing 45% of the drinking water nationally
consumed. The population weighted average value for radium-226 in all
community drinking water supplies is estimated to range between 0.3 and 0.8
pCi/1, while that for radium-228 is estimated to be in the range of 0.4-1.0
pCi/1. These results are described in Federal Register. Vol.51, Mb. 189,
Sept. 30, 1986. The ERDS database indicates that for one year (1989), the
average violation level was 8.6 pCi/1. Currently, we are awaiting results
from the National Inorganics and Radionuclides Survey (NIRS) conducted by EPA
from 198.4-87 in order to estimate exposure. Final survey results have not
been generally released.
Radon is another concern of the State public water supply programs. It has
been estimated that between 5,000 and 20,000 lung cancers occur annually in
the U.S. because of radon levels in indoor air. About 1-7% of these cases
result from the release of radon from drinking water sources related
activities such as showering, bathing, flushing toilets, cooking and washing
clothes and dishes. In an average lifetime of 70 years, it is estimated that
between 2000 and 40,000 lung cancer deaths will occur as the result of radon
levels in public water supplies (primarily ground water) in the U.S. The
average radon concentration in water supplies varies between States.
Currently, there is no good database on radon levels specific to Region V.
Wisconsin is the only State that completed a conclusive survey. The NIRs
survey will provide additional data on radon occurrence. The present
combined national data available show the population weighted average
concentration for radon in public drinking water supplies from ground water
is about 420 pCi/1. Due to data uncertainties, the population weighted
average concentration in both ground and surface supplies is estimated to
range between 50 and 300 pCi/1. At the present time, it would be difficult
to assess cancer risks based on little data, however, the drinking water
program feels it is appropriate to assess such risks under the drinking water
problem area. The ODW is planning to propose an MCL for radionuclides,
including radon after January 1991. the MCL is expected to fall between 200
and 500 pCi/1.
Trichloroethylene
Trichloroethylene was regulated as a primary regulated drinking water
contaminant at .005 mg/L in July 1987. It is classified as a Class B2
probable human carcinogen based on the weight of toxicological evidence.
Acute oral exposures (15-25 ml) to TCE in humans has resulted in vomiting,
abdominal pain and transient unconsciousness, while longer-term occupational
exposures suggest damage to the liver. The major source of TCE released to
the environment is from its use as a metal degreaser. Since the TCE is not
spent during its use, the majority of all TCE produced is released to the
environment. TCE released to the air is degraded within a few days. TCE
20
-------
released to surface waters migrates to the atmosphere within a few days or
weeks where it is also degraded. However, TCE that is released to the land
migrates readily to the ground water where it remains for months to years.
TCE does not easily degrade in ground water, but under certain conditions,
but under certain conditions, may degrade to dichloroethylene and vinyl
chloride. We have selected TCE because it is a common contaminant in ground
and surface water, with higher levels found in ground water. National
surveys of drinking water supplies have shown that 3% of all public water
systems using ground water contain TCE at levels of 0.5 ug/L or higher.
Approximately 0.4% have levels greater than 100 ug/L. In Region V, about
3.5% of the wells contained some measurable level of TCE, with 0.5% of all
wells exceeding a 10*5 lifetime cancer risk. Unlike other chlorinated
compounds, TCE does not bioaccumulate in animals or food chains.
Tetrachloroethylene
Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) is another chemical which falls under the
classification of VDCs. Originally slated for promulgation at the same time
as TCE in July 1987, it was withdrawn from the group due to newly available
bioassay data. This data created a controversy surrounding its weight of
evidence classification as a B2 or C carcinogen. Currently, PCE is
classified as a B2 carcinogen and is scheduled for promulgation of an MCL and
MdG in June 1990. The MCL and MCD3 will be .005 rag/L and zero,
respectively. PCE also has many industrial uses and, like TCE, is not spent
during its use but is released directly back into the atmosphere. During its
disposal, it is usually discharged directly to land and surface water. PCE
released to air degrades within days or weeks. PCE released to water
degrades slowly. It is very mobile in soil and easily travels to the ground
water where it remains for months or years. Under certain conditions, PCE is
degraded to TCE and then to dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride. National
surveys of drinking water supplies have shown that 3% of all public water
systems using ground water contain PCE at levels of 0.5 ug/L or higher. x
About 0.7% have PCE levels above 5 ug/L. In Region V, about 3% of all public
ground water systems have measurable levels of PCE, with 1% of all wells
exceeding a 10-5 lifetime cancer risk.
1.1. 1—TrichlorogtlvMig
Trichloroethane (TCA) was regulated as a primary drinking water contaminant
at 0.2 mg/L in July 1987. It has been placed in the category of class D
carcinogens which have not been evaluated as to their human carcinogenic
potential due to insufficient data. The major source of TCA released to the
environment is from its use as a metal degreaser. As with the other two
previously discussed VDCs, TCA is not consumed during metal degreasing; thus
all of it is released to the environment. TCA released to the air degrades
slowly with an estimated half life of 1 to 8 days. TCA released to surface
waters migrates to the atmosphere in a few days or weeks. TCA which is
released to land does not sorb onto soil and travels quickly to ground water.
It slowly hydrolyzes in ground water with an estimated half-life exceeding 6
months. As with TCE, TCA does not bioaccumulate in animals or food chains.
TCA is a good representative chemical because it occurs widely in the
environment. It is a cannon contaminant in ground water and surface water,
21
-------
with higher levels measured in ground water. National drinking water surveys
have found that 3% of all public water systems using ground water contain TCA
at levels of 0.5 ug/L or higher. Approximately 0.1% have TCA levels above
100 ug/L. In Region V, about 2% of the public water wells showed measurable
levels of TCA.
Toluene
Fill in
Alachlor
Alachlor is currently scheduled for promulgation in June 1990. The proposed
MCL is 0.002 mg/L and the MdG is zero. Alachlor has been classified as a B2
carcinogen due to the weight-of-evidence of human carcinogenic properties.
Alachlor had one of the largest production volumes of any pesticide. It is
applied to the soil either before or just after the crop has emerged and is
rapidly metabolized by crops after application. It is widely used for corn
and soybean crops. In the soil, alachlor is degraded by bacteria under both
anaerobic and aerobic conditions. Alachlor is not photodegradable and does
not hydrolyze under environmental conditions. Alachlor is moderately mobile
in sandy and silty soil and has been shown to migrate to ground water. On a
national basis, alachlor has been measured in both surface and ground waters.
Federal and State surveys of surface water have reported alachlor to occur at
levels of 1 ppb. In Region V, available data indicates that alachlor has the
potential to contaminate both ground and surface water widely. Alachlor is
widely used in Region V due to the high corn and soybean production. We will
provide more summary statistics on the occurrence of atrazine from the
Monsanto survey and State pesticide surveys. This information will be the
same as that provided by the aggregated ground water write-up, with the
addition of any surface water statistics.
Atrazine \
Atrazine is currently scheduled for promulgation in June 1990. The proposed
MCL and MCLG is 0.003 mg/L. Atrazine has been classified as a C (possible
human carcinogen) due to the lack of evidence of its human carcinogenic
potential and incomplete evidence of its animal carcinogenic potential. The
STORE! 1988 national database indicates that atrazine has been found in 4,123
of 10,942 surface water samples and in 343 of 3,208 ground water samples.
These samples were collected at 1,659 surface water locations and 2,510
ground water locations. The 85th percentile of all non-zero samples was 2.3
ug/L in surface water and 1.9 ug/L in ground water. This information serves
to provide a general idea of its occurrence. Atrazine is moderately to
highly mobile in soils ranging in texture from clay to gravelly sand.
Studies show that under aquatic field conditions, atrazine is relatively
stable under environmental pH conditions, but does dissipate due to leaching
and to dilution from irrigation water, with residues persisting for 3 years
in soil on the sides and bottoms of irrigation ditches. Atrazine degrades in
soil by photolysis and microbial processes. It was selected for this study
because of its wide use in Region V for corn and soybean crops.
22
-------
The data and summary statistics will be the same as those vised by the Ground
Water Protection write-up, since groundwater occurrences and exposure is a
subset of aggregated drinking water. Any surface water information and
summary statistics will be included here.
Several inorganic contaminants are scheduled for regulation or revised
regulation that have not been included in this analysis. The FRDS data and
national monitoring data show that these contaminants do not occur very
frequently in public water supplies, and when they do, are quickly remedied.
One such contaminant is fluoride, which is regulated as a primary drinking
water contaminant and has a Maximum Contaminant level (MCL) of 4.0 mg/L. The
MCL is designed to protect against crippling skeletal fluorosis, an adverse
health effect. In addition, a secondary MCL was set at 2.0 mg/L to protect
against objectionable dental fluorosis which involves staining or pitting of
tooth enamel. Fluoride at levels from 0.8 to 1.7 mg/L appears to be
beneficial in reducing dental caries and osteoporosis. Long term consumption
of water containing fluoride at 8 to 20 mg/L reportedly causes mottling of
teeth and fluorosis.
Several synthetic organic contaminants other than pesticides, including PCBs
and nonvolatile organic solvents are scheduled for regulation but have not
been included in the analysis either. National monitoring data indicate that
these contaminants do not occur frequently in public water supplies and would
therefore, present a small risk in comparison to other ccntaminants.
Numerous contaminants that are currently regulated, such as inorganics and
pesticides are also not included. What has been reported in FRDS over the
last 10 years Indicates that there are very few MCL violations for most
regulated inorganics, radionuclides and pesticides. Therefore, if most of
these parameters were included in the analysis, they would provide little
additional information.
\
Sources. Contaminants. Exposure Pathways and Effects:
All public and private drinking water supplies should be regarded as
potential sources of contaminants in the analysis, as stated by the problem
definition. However, under the Safe Drinking Water Act, the State and
Federal governments are not mandated to regulate private drinking water
supplies, thus information regarding the quality of private drinking water
supplies is not readily available. That information will have to be supplied
by local county and State health departments and we are currently trying to
obtain that information. It is also recognized that these limited data bases
may be biased since most information obtained on private water supplies
results from potable water contamination incidents, and calls for assistance
on other health-related concerns about water. However, with the addition of
some private well information from the aggregated ground water, and whatever
we can get from the States, we will attempt to provide at least a qualitative
assessment with summary statistics for private ground water supplies.
There are three possible routes of exposure from drinking water as a source
of contaminants. These include ingest ion, inhalation and dermal contact.
The major route of exposure from most drinking water contaminants is through
23
-------
ingestion, however depending on the physical properties of the contaminant,
i.e. , volatility, Kbw, etc. , inhalation of VOCs such as trichloroethylene can
occur as the conpound is released into the air from use of hot water such as
showering, bathing, or washing dishes. Sane studies have shown that
absorption of chemicals via inhalation of indoor air can be equal to that of
ingest ion.
As with the VQCs, similar concerns exist for the inhalation of radon in
drinking water. Radon is released from drinking water under the same
conditions as VDCs. The health concerns associated with radon relate to lung
cancer from radon inhalation and radiotaxicity associated with ingestion. As
to whether these risks should be aggregated under the Indoor Radon problem
area or under Aggregated Public and Private Drinking Water Supplies was
fligr-nggAd at length. It was felt that with respect to allocation of
resources, inhalation risks from radon and VDCs should be counted under the
drinking water report. This is because the Office of Drinking Water is
developing MCEs and monitoring requirements for radon and it will be a
regulated parameter under the Public Water Supply piujraui. However, it is
estimated that the regulatory levels being considered for drinking water (200
- 500 pCi/L) contribute less than 1% to the total amount of indoor radon.
TTMMJ Hravffm RISK ASSESSMENT
ANAiarrcai.
The general methods used for the public health risk assessment will be
discussed in this section. In analyzing the public health risk posed by
drinking water, we will look at cancer and noncancer risks separately and
later discuss the combination of these risks. Within the two broad
categories of cancer and noncancer, we will look at both individual and
population risks. Population risk will be defined as the risk posed to all
persons exposed to this concentration in Region V. Individual risk is the
risk posed to an individual potentially exposed to the chemicals at an
average concentration. In both the individual and population risk analyses,
we will consider reasonable average exposures instead of worst case or most
exposed individual scenarios. In addition, we will be looking at typical
exposures for both chronic and acute adverse health effects.
The methodology format will essentially encompass the four major steps taken
in any risk assessment, i.e. - hazard or toxicity evaluation of the selected
chemicals, exposure assessment to the selected contaminants, characterization
of the chemical's potency or dose-response relationship, and risk
characterization. In addition, uncertainties and results will be discussed.
The individual purposes, methods, assumptions and limitations will be
discussed under each section of the risk analysis.
TQXrCTIY ASSESSMENT
In this section, we will present both cancer and noncancer toxicity
information on the representative chemicals described in the previous
24
-------
section. For the carcinogens, the purpose of this step is to determine the
relationship between the dose and the probability of developing cancer. This
relationship predicts the level of risk associated with a certain exposure.
In using the EPA-approved linearized multi-stage model, we assume that at low
doses, the dose-response curve is linear and intersects the origin
(nonthreshold carcinogens). The equation: "potency times dose equals
incremental cancer risk" is then used to determine the upper-bound
probability of incremental cancer risk for low doses of carcinogens. The
information presented in Table 1 includes the U.S. EPA weight-of-evidence
carcinogenicity classification, the oral and inhalation cancer potency
factors (slope factors), the unit risk factors for ingestion (ug/L) and
inhalation (ug/m3) for a 10"6 excess lifetime cancer risk.
For noncarcinogens, the purpose of this step is to determine the relationship
between dose of a contaminant and the probability of developing an adverse
health effect. Unlike the dose-response relationship for carcinogens, these
relationships are thought to involve a threshold below which an adverse
health effect will not likely occur. This is because the human body is able
to detoxify and repair systemic damages up to a certain point. The toxicity
information for noncarcinogens is listed in Table 2 and includes the Maximum
Contaminant Levels (MCLs) for drinking water, the oral and inhalation
chemical reference doses (RfD) for chronic exposures, the one and ten-day
Health Advisories (exposure doses considered by the Agency to be acceptable
for acute exposures), and toxicological effects and endpoints.
The approach that will be used to assess the noncarcinogenic risks will be
the Hazard Index, which is the actual daily delivered dose divided by the RfD
for the chemical. The higher the exposure dose above the RfD, the higher the
individual exposure ratio. Therefore, at doses below the RfD, it is likely
that no adverse effects will occur.
Of the contaminants examined, the carcinogens include two Class A (human
carcinogens) contaminants, i.e., combined radium 226-228 and radon 222.
Several probable human carcinogens (Class B) are also included such as, \
tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethylene, alachlor, total trihalomethanes
(evaluated using chloroform), and inorganic lead. Since IRIS is not kept
regularly updated, the oral and inhalation cancer potency factors (CPF) and
unit risk factors were obtained from the OERR/ORD Health Effects Assessment
Summary Tables (HEAST) of fourth quarter, PY 1989. Other values were
obtained from the U.S. EPA Region 3 Reference Concentration Worksheet,
Version 4.1. One Class C (possible human carcinogen) chemical, atrazine was
also evaluated, although no risk factors have been determined yet. Thus,
atrazine will only be assessed in terms of noncarcinogenic risks. Other
selected contaminants, which have not yet been evaluated with respect to
evidence of human carcinogenicity (Class D), include 1,1,1-trichloroethane
and toluene. These will also be assessed for noncarcinogenic risks.
The toxicity assessment for all selected contaminants (see Table 2)
summarizes toxicity values which were also obtained from the HEAST tables.
and verified through the Office of Drinking Water (ODW) materials. All other
toxicology information in the table was obtained from the ODW Health Advisory
documents for the respective chemicals. Only the chronic oral and inhalation
RfDs have been listed in Table 2. The Health Advisory values reflect acute
25
-------
exposure limits in drinking water. Two chemicals, lead and nitrate should
also be evaluated with respect to both subchronic and chronic exposure
periods due to the sensitive population subgroups (fetuses, infants, young
children) at risk. Therefore, subchronic RfDs and longer-term Health
Advisory values for these contaminants should also be listed in Table 2. The
table will be revised if time permits.
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
The purpose of this step is to estimate the concentrations in drinking water
at which exposure occurs, identify and estimate the sizes of the exposed
populations, identify the pathways of exposure and delivered doses. The
assessments for carcinogens and noncarcinogens, individuals and populations
will be based on realistic maxiim™ and average exposures utilizing whatever
monitoring data is available for public drinking water supplies. Exposures
will be aafaimod to be constant over a 70-year lifetime. The risk analysis
should include where possible, the derivation of average risks by weighting
to the exposed populations. Wherever possible, real data on chemical
concentrations in drinking water and exposed populations will be used. Human
population numbers are based on the 1988 estimate from the Bureau of Census,
State agency estimates, and information reported in the Federal Reporting
Data System (FRDS) database.
Table 3 presents all estimated potential populations at risk from the
selected contaminants. These values are compiled largely from the FPDS
violation database for public water supplies. The private well population
information was supplied by the offices of the State Public Water Supply
programs. The total State populations reflect only populations served by
public water systems. The exposure information necessary to perform the risk
characterizations is listed in Table 4. The third column of Table 4
indicates some special population subgroups, which ideally should be broken
out and performed as separate risk characterizations. The population values
for each contaminant are a combination of one or more population subgroups
and were derived using population values from Table 3 and applying a
combination of assumptions. The general assumptions are listed below. The
specific assumptions for some exposures will be discussed in the risk
characterization.
Assumptions Used In Exposure Assessment
Adult body weight - 70 kg.
Child's body weight - 10 kg
Drinking water consumed by adult - 2 Liters/day
Drinking water consumed by child - 1 Liter/day
Air breathed by adult - 20 m3/day
26
-------
Lifetime length - 70 years:
vising this assumption, 100 % of the population would fall
between 0-70 years. If we assume an even population distribution
over the 70 years, then 14.3 % of the population falls within each
decade between 0 and 70 years.
About 30% of the private wells are located near or are influenced by
agricultural activities
The Reference Dose is the appropriate estimate of daily exposure to
the human population (including sensitive subgroups) that is likely to
be without appreciable risk of deleterious effects during a lifetime.
\
The Hazard Index (HI) is the indicator of anticipated nohcarcinogenic
health effects. An HI of 1.0 indicates a safe level at which the
health effect is not expected to occur.
In several cases in Table 4, the population exposed is a rough-cut estimate.
Although there were many ways the exposed populations and subpopulations
could be qualitatively defined, a corresponding quantitative estimate could
not be derived due to lack of data. Specific instances included the
quantification of private well users located near deeper sandstone aquifers
which often naturally contain deposits of uranium, radium and radon. In
Region 5, these are notably found in Wisconsin along the eastern arc
stretching between Kenosha and Green Bay, Wisconsin and in east central
Illinois northward into Wisconsin.
Another instance involved alachlor and atrazine exposure for which no data
are available from public water utilities. In this case, we assumed that
very few public supplies exceeded the proposed Mds for either pesticide.
HUMAN HEALTH RISK CHARAC3IKEZATICN x
Methodology:
For the carcinogens, this section combines the estimated drinking water
concentrations and exposure assumptions (which are encompassed in the oral
and inhalation Chronic Intake Factors) to produce a chronic daily intake
(dose). The dose and cancer potency estimates are used to calculate the
upperbound individual excess lifetime cancer risks presented by each chemical
(see Table 5). The individual risk can be multiplied by an estimate of the
estimated exposed population (from Table 4) to obtain an estimate of the
number of cancer cases expected over 70 years (see Table 6). The average
population weighted cancer risk for the total population can be obtained
also. The data are provided in tabular form for easy comparison.
In the noncarcinogen risk assessment, the estimated drinking water
concentrations for a given year and exposure assumptions (oral Intake Factor)
are again combined to derive an oral chronic or subchronic daily intake
(dose); however, in this case both subchronic and chronic intake factors are
provided depending on the type of health effect being assessed. The Hazard
27
-------
Index for the desired health effect is then obtained from the ratio of the
dose to the chronic or subchronic oral RED. The noncancer endpoints are
clearly specified in Table 2. This information will also be presented in
tabular form to facilitate analysis and scoring.
Summary of Findings:
Of the available data presented in Table 5 for the calculation of individual
carcinogenic risks, the contaminant showing the highest specific risk is
TTHMS assessed as chloroform. However, we know that in Region 5, a
substantial risk is presented by lead in public and private water supplies.
At this time, the data are not available to express the calculation. In
addition, the radium and radon are also expected to present significant
individual risk. Table 6 combines the estimated individual incremental
lifetime cancer risks, resulting from exposure to these chemicals in drinking
water, with the potentially exposed population to obtain estimates of
additional cancer cases over a 70-year period. The total number of
additional cases resulting from oral and inhalation exposure is about 300
cases or 0.43 cases annually. The chemical presenting the greatest risk to
the population was tetrachloroethylene, followed by TTHMs. it is anticipated
that radium, lead, and radon will also present significant population risks
over a 70-year lifetime.
The noncarcinogenic risks are presented in Table 7. The chemical posing the
most significant individual risk is nitrate. However, it is expected that
lead would also pose a very significant individual and population noncancer
risk.
Ooliform contamination cannot be easily assessed in the same, way as the other
noncarcinogens since no RfD applies. As previously discussed, ooliform
bacteria are used as indicators of bacteriological quality. When ooliform
violations occur (either MCL or monitoring/reporting), the risk of ingestion
of pathogens increases. The FEDS database does not report the specific x
levels of coliform density for MCL violations, but only that a violation has
occurred. Therefore, the average levels are unavailable The most useful
information would be the waterborne incidence in Region V and agent-specific
information. Discussions with State public water supply offices indicated
that no waterborne outbreaks have been reported in the last 1-5 years.
Private water supply data are unavailable.
Several other factors can contribute to the occurrence of coliform violations
or risk of disease incidence. These include public and private well
construction code violations and the paucity of certified operators at public
water systems. Based on recent information collected from the States, little
data are available regarding private well code violations such as iirprcper
sealing or siting. Improper construction and inadequate casing are expected
to occur less frequently. Regarding public wells, sanitary surveys are
regularly conducted by State engineers to detect such code violations. It is
estimated that from 0-5% of the community wells and 0-20% of the nanoanmunity
wells may have well code violations. It is also estimated that anywhere from
3-20% of the municipal supplies are without a certified operator at any given
time. Generally, ncaxxxnmunity and private supplies do not have certified
28
-------
operators, although the numbers for noncoiranunities should increase with the
implementation of the surface water filtration, total coliform and
disinfection rules.
The coliform FRDS data are not discernible for this type of risk analysis.
In addition, microbiological contaminants do not fit the methods used for
noncancer risk assessment. We cannot develop a useful Hazard Index since
contaminant concentrations are not documented in the FRDS database and the
population exposures are not well-defined. A much better approach would be
to use national waterborne disease incidence data scaled down to Region V.
"Waterborne Diseases in the United States", CRC Press, 1986, page 166,
reported a statistic of 29, 185 cases of waterborne illness between 1981-
1983. This is an average annual incidence of 14,593 cases/year from both
public and private supplies. This can be scaled down by population for
Region V by 20% or about 3,000 cases/year in Region V. Since about one-half
of waterborne outbreaks in community water supplies and one-third in
norK3ommunity water supplies are reported (above reference, page 85), this
figure can be at least doubled to 6,000 cases. The average individual risk
can be calculated by dividing the annual incidence by the population at risk.
Avg. Indiv, Risk= Annual Incidence (6,000 cases/year) - 4.8 E-4
Annual Est. Popn. at Risk (12, 624,420)
Uncertainty
Many of the iincertainties stem from use of the FRDS database as a primary data
source. There is great potential for inaccurate data in the system, especially
regarding populations and chemical concentrations. Since the FRDS database only
reports violations and those chemical levels, it is easier to get a concentration
for worst-case exposure than maximum average or average exposures. Therefore, some
of the exposure levels were obtained from national surveys and scaled down to Region
V. In these instances, the chemical concentrations were directly applied if the
survey was judged as adequately representative of Region V. The populations were
directly scaled down by 20% with the assumption of even population distributions
across regions.
One of the larger uncertainties was developing a population figure for the various
population exposure groups. In most cases, an attempt for Regional consistency was
made by using population figures and assumptions applied by the other Divisions.
This was especially true v*ien we assessed risks to well users located near active
and inactive hazardous waste sites.
The uncertainty analysis will be developed further in the next draft.
29
-------
TABLE 1
Coliform
Nitrate v
Lead
TTHMs*
TCE
PCE
1,1,1-TCA
Toluene
Atrazine
Alachlor
Radium
226-228
Radon 222
rwymrr:
Carcin-
ogen
Class
NA
NA
B2
B2
B2
B2
D
D
C
B2
A
A
VtUC EftRAMEEHS
Oral CPF
(slope-
factor)
ma/ka/d) "1 -
NA
NA
1.4 E-4
6.1 E-3
1.1E-2
5.1 E-2
NA
NA
NO
NO
3.6 E-5
NO
OF LK1NK1NG
Inhal.CPF
(slope
factor)
NA
NA
NO
8.1 E-2
1.7 E-2
3.3 E-3
NA
NA
NO
NO
NO
1.8 E-6
NKEER OJNranlNAN'J
Oral Unit
Risk Factor
(ua/IA
NA
NA
0.88
1.7 E-7
3.1 E-7
1.4 E-6
NA
NA
NO
NO
1.0 E-9
NO
IS
Inhal Unit
Risk Factor
NA
NO
NO
2.3 E-5
1.7 E-6
9.5 E-7
NA
NA
NO
NO
NO
X
NO
* TTHMs (Total Trihalomethanes) is expressed as chloroform
TCE - Trichloroethylene
PCE - Tetrachloroethylene
TCA - Trichloroethane
NA - Not Applicable
NO - Not Determined
30
-------
I
s.
I
31
I8
i
£
•I*
1
i
|P « E? 9
I
51
g
S1
i-
D
r-
i|
i:
«»• *
-------
Table 3
POTENTIAL POPUIAEIGNS AT RISK
State
IL
IN
MI
MN
OH
WI
Ind.
lands
Reg V
Total
Total State
Population (millions)
11.9
5.581
9.239
4.306
10.588
4.510
.024
46.148
Popn. Served by
Surface Wtr. Sys.
(000)
7,398.
2,119.
5,272.
1,271.
6,340.
1,597.
0
23,997
Popn. Served by
Groundwtr. Sys.
(000)
4094
3462
3426
2708
4247
2914
24
20,875
Popn. Served
by Private
Wells (000)
1,400 (12%)
1,500 (27%)
2,309 (25%)
1,008 (23%)
2,647 (25%)
1,800 (40%)
0
10,664
NOTE; Numbers do not add up due to reporting inaccuracies in FBDB data base,
rounding off, rough State-specific estimates of private well use.
\
* Populations and percentages are estimated
32
-------
Table 4
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
CONTAMINANT
Total Coliform
Microbiological
Agents*
Nitrate as
Nitrogen
SOURCE TYPE
Ground and
surface
Ground and
Surface
TfflMs as
Chloroform
Surface
Ground and
Surface
Radium 226-228
Radon
VOCs: TCE,
PCE, TCA,
Toluene
Ground
Ground
Ground and
Surface
Alachlor
Ground and
Surface
POPULATION
CHARACTERISTICS
Users of PWS in
violation and
private wells
Pregnant women,
children using
PWS in violat,
private wells
in agric. areas
Users of PWS
surface
supplies
Pregnant women,
all users of
PWS with pos.
detections,
private well
users
PWS and private
well users
PWS and private
well users
Users of PWS in
violat., pub.
and priv. well
users near in-
active and
active haz.
waste sites*)
Users of PWS
w/levels over
thresh.(2ppb),
private wells
in agric. areas
POTENTIAL
POPULATION
EXPOSED
EXPOSURE
ROUTE
12,624,420 Ingestion
643,720
Ingestion
24,000
11,000,000
Ingestion,
Inhalation
Ingestion
11,841,000
11,841,000
27,077,574
Ingestion
Ingestion,
Inhalation
Ingestitti,
Inhalation
3,200,200
Ingestion,
Inhalation
Atrazine Ground and Users of PWS 3,200,200 Ingestion
surface w/levels over
thresh.(3ppb),
private wells in
agric. areas
* "Violation" refers to both type MCL and Monitoring/Reporting.
oo some double-counting of populations that are exposed to both active and
inactive hazardous waste sites. Assume 70% of population are simultaneously
exposed. Those populations will likely sustain higher risks.
•3-3
-------
S
S'
E-
D
n-
)
W ^ .00
W ^J H1
¥ ¥
6 tu
I 8 I i '& I
5
1 s g 1 I
£ 8
S
NJ ^ U)
S
i^ r #> a
oj H vo y
S S S
•3/1
-------
TABLE 6
ESTIMATED PCOH7FIAL CANCER CASES
FCR HONKING
Lifetime Canoer
Risk Level
Estimated
Exposed Poon
Potential
Canoer Cases
(70-vr Lifetime}
TIHMs
TCE
PCE
Radium
226-8
Radon
Subtotals
oral -7.3 E-6
Inh 4.9 E-5
oral -1.4 E-6
Inh 1.1 E-6
oral 8.2 E-6
Inh 2.8 E-7
oral
Inh
24,000
24,000
27,077,574
27,077,574
27,077,574
27,077,574
0.18
1.18
38
30
222
8.1
39.3 Inh Cases
260.18 Oral Cases
Total
299.48 Cases
300
35
-------
W > Uf>
<£> C£J CVI
3
S
C*4 C-*
E
J
36
-------
i. L.
Draft
Comparative Risk Project
Problem 5.
Problem Area: Riysical Degradation of Water and Wetland Habitat
Problem Area Definition and Description:
A. Wetlands
Both the U.S. Amy Corps of Engineers (Corps) and the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) have a role in wetlands protection.
Section 404 of the dean Water Act as arrended provides for a permit system to
be administered by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) for the placement
of dredged or fill material into waters of the United States, including
wetlands. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) is responsible
for establishing guidelines for consideration of water quality impacts of
wetland fill projects. However, some activities that impact wetlands, such as
drainage and excavation, are not regulated by the dean Water Act. In
addition, certain wetlands can be damaged and filled without going through
the individual permit system despite efforts to increase the coverage of
wetlands under the existing system of regulations.
The Corps, for instance, has developed a series of 26 permits that allow for
the placement of dredged or fill materials associated with designated
activities without the submittal of an application, analysis of the
environmental impacts or compensation for losses. While most of the permits
do not adversely impact wetlands or the general ecological setting, several
do have widespread impacts that are cumulatively adverse in nature and scope.
Permit 26 is the most problematic of all. Without requiring notificefcion to
resource agencies, it allows for the fill of up to ten acres of isolated
wetlands that are located above the headwaters of streams. While dredging and
drainage may account for most of the historic losses, there is no doubt that
Nationwide permit 26 significantly contributes to much of the wetland loss
that is described below.
Physical degradation of Waters of the United States including wetlands has
occurred since the settlement of America. It is estimated that in the
1600's there were over 200 million acres of wetlands in the lower 48 States.
Since that time over 54% of the natural wetlands have been lost due to
activities such as dredging and filling, channelization, drainage,
impounding, mining, shoreline stabilization, and agriculture. Of the
remaining 99 million acres of wetlands left in the United States, 94 million
acres are fresh water wetlands. It is this class of wetlands that has
sustained over 94% of the recent losses in the Nation. Development and
agriculture have been the biggest culprits.
Another problem associated with habitat losses due to fill is sedimentation
in rivers, lakes and wetlands. For example, it is estimated that 87% of the
wetlands lost are due to agricultural drainage, an activity that is generally
37
-------
exempted under the Clean Water Act. 24% of the lakes and 53% of the rivers
that are iirpaired can be related to sedimentation. Sedimentation, as related
to point and nonpoint sources, is discussed in more detail in the Surface
Water Report.
Table 1 provides a status of wetlands in each of the Region's six States.
Table 1
Wetlands Remaining in Region 5 States
Remaining
Remaining %
Land
Illinois 36,096,000
Indiana 23,226,240
Michigan 37,258,240
Minnesota 53,803,520
Ohio 26,381,080
Wisconsin 35,938,560
0 1,254,506
0 750,633
0 5,583,400
0 8,700,000
0 482,800
0 5,331,392
3.5
3.2
15.0
16.2
1.8
14.8
85%
87%
50%
42%
95%
46%
Totals 209,552,238 22,102,731 12.3
National 105,513,885 5.0 53%
Table 2 provides a summary of the coastal wetlands associated with the Great
Lakes.
Table 2
of U.S. flnaghal Wetlands for
the Five Great lakes
Lake
No. of
Wetlands
Total
Percent of
Lake Superior and 348
St. Mary's River
Lake Michigan 417
Lake Huron, Lk St.
Clair, St. Clair 197
River
66,175
121,230
70,245
22
40
24
38
-------
Table 2, Oont'd
lake Erie and
Niagara River 96 20,038 7
Lake Ontario and
St. Lawrence River 312 20,797 7
Total 1,370 298,485 100
Table 3 provides a summary of wetlands lost and probable causes of loss in
specific geographic regions along the Great Lakes.
Table 3
Historic Wetland Losses
Great Lakes Basin
Wetlands Acres Lost Causes
Lake Erie . 6,240 Drainage, Erosion
Detroit R. Resid/Commerical
Flooding
Lake St. 12,999 Drainage, Flood
Clair Resid/Commercial
\
Bay de Noc 1,423 Drainage, Erosion
Resid/Commercial
Les Cheneaux 1,278 Erosion, Drainage
Islands
Three of the Region's States have loss rates that far exceed the national
average. In fact, of the ten States with the highest wetland losses, three
are in Region 5. In the States of Michigan and Minnesota, the largest
portion of wetlands are found in the northern roost reaches of the States that
have not been subjected to extensive human development and are generally
considered unsuitable for normal agricultural uses.
The National decline in wetlands from 1780 to 1980 is dramatic. Losses in
particular regions of the country are even more startling. For example, the
mid-western States of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota, and
Wisconsin account for over 41 million acres of wetlands lost since the
country was settled. This amounts to roughly one third of all wetlands lost
in the history of our nation. The average annual loss of wetlands in the
1970's was approximately 440,000 acres per year. Losses of wetlands in the
39
-------
Great T^«=» Basin have recently been estimated at approximately 20,000 acres
per year. While these rates have decreased over the past several years,
annual losses of thousands of acres still occur in each of the Region's
States. At the present time the loss of wetlands in the nation is 48 acres
every hour of the day.
Table 4 presents the status of wetlands in the Region as documented by the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1987.
Table 4
Status of Wetlands in Region 5 States
Historic I/
State
Acres
Drained
Acres
EXJ sting
Illinois > 7.0 > 1.0
Indiana > 7.0 < 1.0
Michigan 5.0-7.0 5.0-7.0
Minnesota 5.0-7.0 > 7.0
Ohio > 7.0 < 1.0
Wisconsin 2.0-5.0 2.0-5.0
All figures are millions of acres as reported by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, National Wetland Inventory 1987.
From this data, it can be observed that historically, agricultural drainage
represents approximately 87% of the losses of wetlands. At the present time
there are some drained wetlands that could be restored by elimination of the
drainage systems. Urban development is responsible for 8 percent of the
losses, and the losses are generally permanent. Table 5 provides a listing
of the major functions of wetlands found in the region.
Table 5
Functions of Wetlands
. Ground water recharge and discharge
. Flood storage and desynchronization
. Shoreline anchoring and dissipation of erosive forces
. Sediment trapping
. Nutrient retention and removal from water column
. Food chain support
. Habitat of fish and wildlife
. Active human recreation
. Passive human recreation, aesthetics and heritage values
. Toxic organics retention
. Human food and fiber production
. Native plant reserves
. Biological diversity
40
-------
Table 6 presents recent statistics on activities that stress wetlands
including fanning and development.
Table 6
Indicators of Stress on Wetland Systems
Number of Farm land acres 116.0 Million Acres
Number of New Housing Starts 409.0 Thousand New Houses
Number of Wetland Permit 1471 Applications
Applications
Region's Population 46.0 Million People
Data is based upon 1986 Census Information and Corps of Engineers Data
Reported in 1987.
Human Health Risk Assessment
While there are generally no direct human health impacts associated with the
destruction of wetlands, there are a number of secondary impacts that need to
be addressed. Secondary health impacts can result from the consumption of
fish that contain toxic chemicals that have biomagnified (For further
information on this subject, please refer to the Risk Assessment Chapter
dealing with Surface Waters.). Since one of the major functions of wetlands
is to trap sediments, nutrients and organics, wetlands may contain high
levels of organic contaminants that are available to insects, plants and
fish. Organics are passed through the food chain and accumulated in fish
tissue. Reports on fish tissue contamination are issued annually by the
states in Region 5 through fish advisories.
The second major risk to human health is the increased potential for flood
damage, including loss of life, sickness related to contamination of food and
water supplies, loss of property, damage to property, loss of jobs and food
crops, costs of remediation, etc.
At the present time, the impacts of wetland loss, hydrologic modifications,
and sedimentation on human health and safety have not been quantified.
41
-------
Ecological Risk Assessment
Chemical and Physical:
Wetlands can either trap or release suspended solids depending on the
spatial and chemical variability of the wetland, and the size, shape and
density of the materials. Toxic organic compounds and metals have an affinity
for solid surfaces and, therefore, may travel with these suspended solids.
Consequently, studies need to be developed to help understand the processes
that inmobilize solids within a wetland. However, for this risk study, it is
sufficient to say that the premature release of toxic sediments in wetlands
can generally be controlled if wetlands are not disturbed nor hydrologically
overloaded.
Unfortunately, with the continuing loss of wetlands, there is less storage
capacity and less retention time in the wetlands. Therefore, the residence
time to process organics is lost and the general water quality functions of
wetlands is not attained. Losses of wetlands has stressed existing wetlands
in such a way as to cause releases of nutrients and organics with the
increased frequency of flooding in certain areas, most notably in the rapidly
urbanizing areas.
Biological:
Wetlands provide the necessary habitat for plants and animals and have been
noted as areas where great biological diversity occurs. Beyond this general
statement, it is noted that wetlands provide significant habitat for a large
percentage of the Nation's Threatened and Endangered Species. Table 7
provides data that was recently compiled. There is no known Region 5
specific data base that is readily available.
Table 7
\
Total Threatened or Endangered Species Associated witti
Wetlands Habitat in the United States
Species Percentage
Plants 3
Mammals 15
Birds 31
Reptiles 31
Amphibians 50
Fish 51
Source: Mittsch and Gosselirik, 1986.
42
-------
Toxicity Assessment:
There is no known data available that characterize the toxicity of
pollutants found in wetlands. Scientific data is being developed to estimate
how nutrients and organics are processed in wetlands. Generally, wetlands
have the ability to trap organics by slowing the flow of water, increasing
resident time in an area, providing substrates for interaction of organics
and storing organics in plant materials and sediments. Wetlands are more
efficient when there is a higher diversity of plant materials to slow flow
and create substrate. Organic material in the wetlands react with organics
to adsorb the organics and tie them in forms not generally available to
plants and animals.
Ground Water Related Issues:
The closing of Super-fund sites without adequate protection for the wetlands
on-site and off-site has been and will continue to be a concern. Pumping of
ground water at sites for the purpose of treating toxic waste creates an
adverse situation for wetlands by dewatering the wetlands. Currently, there
has been too little coordination between Superfund and Water programs to
adequately describe a method to protect wetlands in areas adjacent to the
Superfund clean-up sites. There are no current data available to determine
the overall impact that the Superfund program is having on the wetlands.
This is an area that requires study if the loss of wetlands in the Region is
to be successful turned around.
Ecological Risk
In Region 5, there are two scenarios that must be discussed to portray the
characterization of wetlands. In the States of Illinois, Indiana and Ohio,
wetlands losses have been severe. In these rapidly growing States, 85-95% of
the wetlands have been lost and the remaining wetlands have been and xcontinue
to be stressed through the alteration of the watersheds in which they are
found. Channelization, deforestation, compaction of soils, introduction of
exotic species such as purple loosestrife, use of wetlands for dumps and
agricultural uses such as grazing have all had severe impacts on wetlands.
Many of the above mentioned activities are either unregulated or difficult to
control.
For the purposes of this risk assessment, the degradation of waters of the
United States, including wetlands, will be characterized into two categories:
urban and rural wetlands. Table 8 provides a summary of the major activities
that threaten or stress urban and rural wetlands.
Table 8
Major Threats or Stresses to Wetlands
Urban Wetland Component:
. Industrial Development
. Residential Development
43
-------
. Stonnwater Retention Structures
. Airport Development
. Highway Development
. Marina Development
. Ground water withdrawals
. Surface water withdrawals
. Wastewater Treatment Operations
. Alteration of surface flow patterns
Rural Wetland Component:
. Agricultural Conversions
. Agricultural Drainage
.' Channelization
. Hydropower Development
. Mining Operations
. Highway Construction
. Dredging for Navigational Channels
. Stream Improvements/Impoundments
. Shoreline Stabilization
. Superfund Clean Up Programs
Region 5 has a population of over 46 million people, of which nearly 15
million people live within the collar counties that surround the Great Lakes.
Approximately 35% of the Great lakes shoreline has either industrial or
residential development and that percentage is expected to increase to nearly
40% (1,730 miles) by the year 2000.
These components can be further categorized by the type of stressors related
to each component and the ability of the environment to accommodate the
stressors in terms of long term or short term impacts and the reversibility
of the impacts. Table 9 provides information on the stressors and sources
affecting wetlands. The stressors are ranked as follows:
Filling is ranked as having High severity since the process of filling is
generally irreversible and completely eliminates the existing functions and
values of wetlands. Filling also has at least one highly significant
secondary impact - displacement of flood storage capacity to another, usually
off site, location which creates a high potential for flood/stormwater damage
within a given watershed. Diking is rated as having High severity, although
in some site specific areas the severity might be medium. It creates a
situation where water is excluded from existing wetlands and, thus,
decreases the functions and values of wetlands. As with filling, diking
creates off site impacts associated with displacement of water. Drainage has a
Medium severity in urban areas and a High severity in rural areas due to
impacts on wildlife habitat. Some functions, such as habitat and food
production, are lost. Other functions are available at modified levels of
effectiveness, e.g., flood storage, open space, food production, shelter.
Drainage creates Highly severe human impacts by the alteration of hydrologic
regime in both the urban and rural areas, allowing stormwater movement to
occur at a faster rate with higher flows downstream than under normal
44
-------
HA/HD
HA/HD
HA/HD
HA/HD
HA/HD
HA/HD
HA/HD
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
circumstances. Under all three of these stressors, wetland functions are
lost, sometimes irretrievably.
Table 9
Stresses and Sources Affecting Wetlands
Stressor Source
Filling Agriculture
Dredging/Disposal
Urban Development
Rural Development
Highway Construction
Mining
Stream Impoundment/
Dam Construction
Shoreline Stabilization
Stressor Source
Diking Agriculture
Dredging/Disposal
Shoreline Stabilization
Highway Construction
Urban Development
Rural Development
Stream Impoundment/
Dam Construction
Stressor Source
Draining Agriculture
Urban Development
Rural Development
Highway Construction
Stream Improvement/
Dam Construction
Superfund Clean Up
Operations
HA/HD
HA/HD
HA/HD
HA/HD
HA/HD
HA/HD
HA/HD
Endpoint Reversible
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
Ervfooint Reversible
_
HA/HD
Yes
HA/HD
HA/HD
HA/HD
HA/HD
HA/HD
No
No
No
No
Yes
a. The practicality of reversing wetland destruction must realistically be
addressed on a site specific level.
b. HA/HD means Habitat Alteration and Habitat Destruction
While some of the wetland functions may be reclaimed if the Stressor is
removed, generally it is assumed that the degradation of the environment is
irreversible. There are some major exceptions, as indicated in Table 9,
where the removal of drainage systems and dates would allow for restoration
of the wetland functions and values. But in many cases the wetlands and
their watersheds have become highly stressed due to the loss of stabilized
upland, that act as buffers, resulting in the inability to reclaim the
original wetland functions and values. Many times drainage and diking
45
-------
activities are i*!*8" accompanied by other site management activities such as
tree .removal fear agricultural activities. Loss of the forest cover in buffer
zones excludes many wildlife types since the habitat destruction is so great.
The ecological risks associated with the destruction of wetlands was
evaluated based upon the amount of stress being put on the ecosystem by man-
made structures directly related to population growth in the Region. Ihe
dramatic increases in property values are making it attractive for developers
to use land that would have been considered marginal in years past because of
poor drainage or proximity to a flood or wetland area. Table 10 provides
information on the indicators of wetland stress related to population and
development.
Table 10
Land Use in
Qrett LakM Basin
Estimated Population
Along Great Lakes Shore
• I" ,'U.iK.Mm I If
tlt»
*JO
Total • 15.3 Mtllon
Table 11 presents a measure of wetland pressure related to the number of
public notices issued by the Corps of Engineers and the number of violations
related to unauthorized wetland fills in a typical year.
46
-------
Table 11
Corps of Engineer Section 404 Permit Data and
Enforcement Data as Indicators of Pressure en Wetlands
CORPS OF ENGINEERS PKHULT AND ENFORCEMENT DMA
FY 1987
Corps District 404 Permits 404/10 Permits Enforcement
St Paul 359 103 344
buffalo 20 74
Rock Island 44 28 27
Chicago 56 40 119
Detroit 86 351 203
Louisville 25 30 80
Huntington 21 16
Pittsburgh 7 5
St. Louis 5 3
Michigan3 198
Grand Total 821 650 773
a. The State of Michigan receives an average of 3,500 permit application per
year, of which approximately 200 are covered under the Memorandum of
Agreement between the USEPA and Michigan for the Assumption of the Wetland
Permit Program.
Table 12 presents a summary of U.S. EPA enforcement activities on a Regional
and National Basis. The need for enforcement is an indicator of
wetland loss. Much of the loss due to unauthorized activities is not
reported due to inadequate staffing at all levels and the remoteness of some
wetland areas.
Table 12
Summary of Regional and National Enforcement Statistics
Section 309(a} Administrative Orders:
Year National Total Regional Total
1986 68 0
1987 56 6
1988 93 31
1989 42 24
47
-------
Table 12, Oont'd
Section 3 09 fa) Administrative Penalty Complaints
Y*^T National Total Regional Total
1986 not available
1987 not available
1988 15 7
1989 8 5
Civil/Griff "inal Referrals to the Department of Justice
Y^ar National Total Regional Total
1986 4 0
1987 11 1
1988 11 1
1989 6 3
Rpgolution of ca?es endin in 1989; 68
Nation^] Tpfttal Regional Total
Compliance with orders 31 20
Final Orders 7 4
Civn Referrals 2 0
Voluntary Compliance 24 3
Table 13 presents a summary of data which represent the comparison of Region
5 wetland characteristics and rankings versus the other nine regions.
Jteble 13
troriie on region a uxparea TJO i
(Based on 1988 Data)
CATEGORY NUMRfTO PERCENT
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
States (plus Territories) 6
Number Corps Districts 9
Public Notices Received 1471
Public Notices Reviewed 994
% total reviews within na
11.1
16.3
12.8
15.4
32.1
jcner Ksgic
RANK
2 (tie)
l(tie)
5
1
5
Region
6. PN Reviews as function 102.5 125.0
of National reviews
48
-------
Table 13, Cont'd
7. Enforcement Actions 55 24.6 1
8. Wetland acreage 15 15.6 2
Millions of Acres
9. Population 46 19.2 1
Millions of People
10. Population/Wetland Ac. 18.0 na 1
11. iBermits/wetland ac. 16.0 na 1
12. Permits/population 36.9 na 1
13. ADID projects
completed 6 42.8 1
current 5 25.0 1
14. Elevations
404(c) 1 5.5 4(tie)
404 (q) 1 5.0 5(tie)
This data indicates that Region 5 has the second highest number of wetlands
(after excluding many of the Federally owned wetlands that normally are not
under pressure in the State of Alaska) and that the Region's wetlands are
under the most pressure for development. From enforcement data provided by
the Corps of Engineers in 1987, it is noted that Region V ranked third behind
Regions 3 and 4 with 773 unauthorized actions.
Ecologically the combined impacts of wetland fill, wetland drainage,
sedimentation in lakes and streams and hydrologic modifications of hydrologic
regimes result in significant, widespread and generally irreversible
problems in the natural environment. These contributions have significant
implications for both the rural and urban settings and cause major economic
problems in terms of flooding, loss of recreation and erosion.
*Welfare
Environmental Costs:
Table 14 provides a listing of ecological and economic factors related to
welfare damage costs.
* A contractor is responsible for estimating regional welfare/economic
damages. Therefore, the information contained in this section is intended
to assist the contractor.
49
-------
Table 14
Ecological and Economic Factors
As Indicators of Welfare
Decreased floral and faunal species diversities
Loss of food chain support
Loss of feeding, nesting, and breeding habitat
Loss of habitat for fur bearers
loss of habitat for fish spawning
Loss or deterioration of aquifer recharge
Loss or deterioration of capacity to act as biof ilters
of contaminants, sediment and
nutrients
Loss or deterioration of ability to desynchronize flood events
. Loss of aesthetic values
. Cost of alternative forms of flood control
. Loss of fish and wildlife for fishing and hunting
. Loss of passive recreation opportunities
. Reduced water quality
. Increased costs for alternative water quality clean up
costs to meet standards for both ambient water and drinking water
supplies
The costs associated with the destruction of wetlands are significant:. Loss
of wetlands means the loss of habitat for migratory waterfowl. Recent
estimates by the National Wildlife Federation have indicated a continuing
downward trend in habitat and therefore the populations of waterfowl.
Drainage of wetlands coupled with wildlife management systems has caused a
shift in the biological diversity and abundance of several waterfowl
species. Changes in species composition has been estimated from duck
harvesting data in Michigan and indicates that Mallards, American Widgeon,
Green-winged Teal, Blue-winged Teal and Wood Ducks have increased in species
composition while Black Ducks, Gadwall, Northern Shoveler, Pin-tails and all
diving ducks have decreased. Table 15 provides trend data for various
environmental indicators over the past two decades. In recognition of the
losses Congress has prepared a North American Waterfowl Plan and has
appropriated $50 million for the purchase and/or restoration of critical
habitat in Canada, Mexico and the Unites States. Much of the focus of the
plan is on the Prairie Pothole Region located in the Dakotas and Minnesota.
50
-------
•Cable 15
Recent Trends in Environmental Indicators
Indicator 1970 Data 1989 Data Trend
Mallard Ducks 10.3 million 6.1 million
Wetland Losses 500,000 acres 300,000 acres +
per year per year
Rangeland 70 % 70 % same
overgrazing
Wildlife 331 452 +
Refuges
Agriculture 13 mill acres
Transformations
Designated 868 9,278 +
Wild and Scenic
Rivers
It is important to note that, in part, the loss of wetlands is directly tied
to the development 'of refuges to preserve the last remanent of the wildlife
populations. Refuges serve to concentrate animals for management purposes.
While there are positive benefits to providing stabilized areas for wildlife,
there are also severe problems associated with the practice. Many of the
problems are associated with the perception that all wildlife can and should
be managed in designated areas. Wildlife populations may be susceptible to
over grazing in refuges and exposed to diseases that could severely impact
the size and health of the populations.
Recreational Costs:
Sane birds migrate 8,000 to 10,000 miles each way during the spring and fall
migrations. These birds rely upon the wetlands as their refueling stops
along the way. Therefore, the wetlands are significant to the continuation
of the migratory birds. Coupled with that is the uniqueness of the species
that migrate. Over 100,000 Sandhill Cranes migrate to and from Wisconsin
annually. Horicon Marsh in south central Wisconsin attracts over 265 species
of migratory birds annually. Therefore the diversity of species is dependent
upon wetlands.
Manufacturing and merchandizing sporting goods is very important to the
economies of Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan. If one percent of the total
outfitting and hospitality revenues of these States can be attributed to
activities in or depending on wetlands, the value is over $27,000,000 per
year. On a national basis, hunters spend about $46,000,000 per year to
pursue the sport of waterfowl hunting. Even in the passive recreational
51
-------
activities (non-oonsunptive wildlife-related activities) such as wildlife
photography, hiking, birdwatching, and camping, a total of $1,054,000 was
spent in Wisconsin in 1989.
The State of Michigan has produced some recent estimates of both the value of
wetland acres and the consumptive and nonconsumptive recreational ^<=ro*ndg for
Great Takes Coastal wetlands in the State. The following are estimates of
the average annual value of fish and wildlife in coastal wetlands:
Use/Activity Econondc Value
Sport Fishing $286.00/wetland acre/year
Nonconsunptive Recreation 138.24
Waterfowl Hunting 31.23
Trapping of Fur bearers 30.44
Commercial Fishing 3.78
Totals $489.69/wetland acre/year
Using this approach, the coastal wetlands in Michigan (105,855 acres) are
worth over $51.8 million dollars annually.
Further, the commercial fishery in the lakes has been impaired for a number
of years. Figures available for 1977 indicate that over 1.3 million pounds
of fish were caught in Saginaw Bay and 0.5 million pounds from Western Lake
Erie with a total commercial value of $354,750.00. Due to the presence of
chemicals and the loss of coastal wetlands, high value fish, such as lake
whitefish, no longer spawn in the coastal wetlands.
If wetlands continue to diminish, revenues related to these activities will
surely fall and, at least in the three northern States of the Region, will
have a significant economic impact. x
Flooding Damages:
Damage from floods has been severe in many urban and rural areas of the
Region. For instance, the Illinois Department of Transportation has
estimated that the recent floods in the Chicago region in 1986 and 1987
resulted in $34 million and $100 million in flood damage respectively. In
direct response to the human costs associated with flooding, urban areas such
as Chicago have undertaken extremely costly projects to eliminate flooding
problems. For instance, the City of Chicago has spent over $3.0 billion
dollars on a stormwater control system to offset the losses of the natural
wetlands and floodplains of the area. It was recently estimated that the
costs associated with the purchase of energy to pump and treat stormwater
associated with the Tunnel and Reservoir system has been three +iw& more
costly than the costs would have been to restore the wetlands of the Des
Plaines River.
Further, counties such as DuPage in Illinois are preparing plans for
stormwater control that may cost taxpayers as much as $60.0 million in
52
-------
implementation costs. Many of these costs could have been avoided by
protection of the wetlands.
Recent estimates of restoration costs for disturbed lands have ranged from as
low as $500/acre to approximately $50,000/acre depending on the type of land
involved. Many of the reports on restoration and mitigation projects do not
include complete financial data. The Wetlands Protection Section of U.S.
EPA, Region 5, have recently estimated that it could cost as much as 300%
more to build in a wetland as to build in a comparable upland parcel.
53
-------
Aggregated Ground Water Contamination ^";
t
PROBLEM 6. '
I. Problem Area Description
A. Introduction
Aggregated ground water contaminant source risks have been
analyzed to assess the cumulative impact on the Region's
ground water resources and provide an estimate of the
relative contaminant contribution of the major sources to
human health, ecological impacts and welfare costs. The
major sources of contamination include waste disposal
facilities (landfills, septic systems, land spreading)
direct discharge to ground water, (injection wells),
storage facilities, spills and ag. chemical application.
t Risk is evaluated from two perspectives, residual and
potential impacts.
B. Magnitude of Ground Water Contamination Problems
Since the Region V states' economies rely on industrial and
agricultural activities, there are a variety of sources of
contamination found in the Region. In addition, Region V
has approximately 20 percent of the U.S. population of
which 50 percent relies on ground water for potable water
supplies. Although ground water resources are in general,
of high quality, numerous contamination incidents and the
great numbers of potential sources <• f contamination pose a
chronic risk to the integrity ot the Region's ground
water. To illustrate the magnitude of the numbers of
potential and known contaminant sources a compilation of
these sources is presented in Table L.
TABLE I
\
Source Number in Reoion V
CERCLA NPL 267
CERCLIS Total sites 6200
Further Action needed 3216
RCRA TSD 1000
Generators 125,000
Solid Waste 750
Total 2980
Operating 1070
Closed 1910
UST Leaks 11,600
Total Tanks 345,000
Spills 9200/yr
54
-------
UIC Class I
Class II
Class III
Class V
Federal Facilities
Pesticides Handling Facilities
Septic Systems
20
10,000
4
30,000 minimum
250
350
3,000,000
Citizen Complaint or GW Contamination 700/yr
i incidents reported.
In addition, there is extensive land application of various
pesticides and nitrate base fertilizers in Region V.
The types of contaminants associated with these sources
include volatile organics, non aqueous phase liquids,
pesticides, heavy metals, inorganic salts and nutrients.
For this study the representative chemicals used to
evaluate the residual and potential risk to populations and
ecosystems due to ground water contamination are:
* Trichloroethylene
* Toluene
* Nitrates
* Alachlor
* Atrazine
* Fecal Coliforms (indicators of biological agents)
These chemicals will serve as the basis for the
health impacts analysis.
C. Geographic^ Analysis of Contaminant Sources
Ground water contaminant sources impact every populated
area in Region V. For most contaminants sources, there
appears to be a strong correlation between population
densities and numbers of sources in a given area. The
notable exceptions are agricultural chemical use which
obviously is applied in rural areas and Superfund NPL sites
which are just as likely to be found in rural areas as
urban and suburban areas.
This distribution of contaminant sources exposes the
majority of the 23 million people dependant on ground water
to potential degradation of their drinking water supplies
as discussed in the heath effects section.
55
-------
in addition, the numbers of potential and known ground
water contaminant sources in the Great Lakes Areas of
Concern, industrial areas such as Sauget and numerous
disposal areas near surface water bodies pose localized
threat to the integrity of these aquatic ecosystems. These
potential impacts are discussed in the ecological impacts
section.
Finally, we will attempt to compile information on a county
wide basis to better regime our analysis of the spacial
distribution of contaminant sources relative to population
and surface water bodies. This analysis will aide in the
identification of geographic "hot spots" which may require
special consideration under phase II of this project. An
outline for this analysis is presented below.
1. Region-vide Analysis
Data for most potential sources of contamination can be
presented on a state-wide basis. We are endeavoring to
obtain data on a county-wide basis. However, most of
the data necessary for this analysis is not yet
available. An outline of the desired level of data
analysis is provided below.
a. County-wide analysis.
In order to evaluate the geographic distribution of
known potential ground water contaminant sources, we
would like to present the data on a county-wide
bases.
The principal sources of contamination to be
presented this way will be:
1. CERCLA Sites, state and Federal Lists
2. RCRA Treatment, Storage and Disposal Sites
3. RCRA Generators
4. Spill Inventories
5. Solid Waste Landfills
6. Underground Storage Tanks
7. Underground Injection Wells by Class
8. Agricultural Land Use
56
-------
9. Locations of Pesticide Studies of Ground Water
Contamination
In addition, narrative discussions of septic systems and
road salting will be presented.
In order to properly evaluate the county-wide source
inventories the following information will also be
collected.
1. Census data by county
2. Public water supply data, number per county
(ground water/surface water population served)
3. Perform a general ground water vulnerability
assessment (estimate vulnerability H, M, L based
upon available state susceptibility maps)
An analysis this data will provide rough estimates of the
magnitude of risk to county populations to ground water
contamination using the following information.
For known contaminant sources (residual risk) - compile:
population impacted, identify ecological impacts, identify
principal contaminants.
Potential risk will be estimated based on number of
sources, proximate population and ground water
vulnerability.
Such an analysis will provide estimates of the spacial
distribution of ground water contamination incidents and
will enable us to estimate the relative impacts 6f each
contaminant source type.
2. Great Lakes Basin Study
The Great Lakes Basin will be assessed a special subset
of the ground water data analysis. The following
information will be provided for the assessment of
contamination in the Great Lakes Basin.
a. County-wide analysis. In order to evaluate the
geographic distribution of known potential ground
water contaminant sources, we would like to present
the data on a county-wide bases.
b. Table showing percentage of known and potential
sources in Basin vs. entire Region
57
-------
58
-------
59
-------
c. Estimate of population directly impacted by ground
water contamination
d. Narrative discussion of ecological impacts (in that
section of report)
See attached maps for sample data gatherings efforts.
In general, based on our preliminary assessment of existing
data, the Great Lakes Basin would have lower overall
residual public health risks due to ground water
contamination. This conclusion is based on the following
factors:
{ * Major population centers use lake water for their
potable water supplies
* Most vulnerable and productive farmland lies outside
the Basin
* Most CERCLA sites are outside the Basin
However for ecological impacts, the Great Lakes Basin has
several impacted harbors and associated rivers which are
severely impacted. A contributing factor in many areas is
ground water contamination. The percentage of the total
impact is difficult to estimate, but it would appear to be
as high as 20 percent of the problem in some areas such as
the Grand Calumet Basin, and Connecting Channels.
II. Human Health Impacts
Ground water is a source of drinking water for 50 percent of
the residents of Region V. Contaminated ground water can
affect human health only when it impacts drinking water
supplies. In this section both residual risk and potential
risk will be discussed. In general, residual carcinogenic
risks due to contaminated ground water are minor for the
population at large. There are two factors responsible for
this low incidence of excess cancers due to drinking water.
They are:
* Less than 4 percent of public water supplies and about 5
percent of the private water supplies are currently
contaminated with carcinogens above the MCL level.
* Usually, it takes less than three years to install
treatment systems or replace wells for public water
supplies, therefore the time of exposure is minimized.
60
-------
However, there are subpopulations, namely small community
water systems and residential wells where the risks are
greater due to longer exposure times and the potential for
higher concentrations of contaminants. This is due primarily
the lack of resources to replace contaminated water supplies
use of shallow wells and in the case of residential wells, the
lack of periodic monitoring which lead to longer 'term
exposures to contamination. These subpopulations
significant as Table 2 demonstrates.
are
TABLE 2
Population Type
Population that relies
on ground water
Population using small
(<3300) community PWS systems
Residential Wells users
Percent of Total Population
50%
15%
10%
In other words, 50 percent of the ground water using
population relies on small community and residential wells.
Since the numbers of MCL violations are greater for these
subpopulations, there are small communities and single
residents exposed to a significantly higher risk than the
general population.
As an example, exposure to pesticides is greater in
residential wells and small community systems. From our
analysis of available pesticides contamination data, Atrazine
and Alachlor are representative of the most widely used and
toxic pesticides in Region V. Because of their extensive use
they are the most commonly detected pesticides in ground
water. The greatest frequency of detections of pesticides and
MCL violations occur in areas rated highly vulnerable to
ground water contamination and where wells less than 100 feet
deep are commonly used. For example, 38 percent of such wells
tested in Minnesota had at least trace levels of Atrazine (2
percent above MCL). However, less than two percent of the
vulnerable public water supply wells in Illinois had
detectable levels of pesticides.
However, when the data is extrapolated across the Region as
was done in the Monsanto Study, the population exposed to
levels above the MCL for Atrazine and Alachlor are 29,000 and
3000 respectively. The excess cancers_ would be less than one
for the Region even for a lifetime exposure.
61
-------
A detailed discussion of the cancer and non-cancer risks can
be found in the public water supply discussion as well as the
individual contaminant source reports. Both the cancer and
non-cancer residual risks are not considered large due to the
stringent standards and regulatory infrastructure. The
potential health risks are much greater provided no action was
taken to mitigate and prevent ground water contamination. A
summary of the health risks and rankings are presented below.
and Conclusions
Based upon an analysis of the impacts due to the various
contaminant sources and their impacts on drinking water
supplies the following conclusions were developed.
1. Carcinogenic Risks
Based upon estimates of exposed populations and expected
exposure levels, an estimate of potential excess cancers
is being developed. A compilation of excess cancer
estimates will be performed once WMD completes its
analyses. Estimates of excess cancers for a given percent
of the population using ground water as a potable water
supply is presented in Table 4.
TABLE 4 - Potential Excess Cancers by
Exposure Level 100% Pop. 50% Pop. 10% Pop.
1 x 10~7 2.3 1.15 0.23
1 x 10~6 23.0 11.50 2.30
1 x 10~5 230.0 115.00 23.00
1 x 10~4 2300.0 1150.00 230.00
1 X 10~3 23000.0 11500.00 2300.00
Currently approximately 5 percent of public and private drinking
water wells are contaminated above the MCL for carcinogens.
However, due to the numbers of potential contaminant sources and
the lag time due to contaminant migration, it is not unreasonable
to assume that the majority of wells may become impacted in the
long term if nothing is done to mitigate ground water contamina-
tion and or treat and replace the contaminated wells. Therefore
we feel an estimate of 500-1000 excess lifetime cancers is
reasonable.
2. From the Drinking Water Section's VOC study of 1985-87, it
was determined that approximately 50 percent of the
contaminated public water supplies could be attributed to
NPL sites. An additional 25 percent of these contaminated
wells were handled under the CERCLA emergency response
authorities. Therefore 50 percent of the contaminated
62
-------
public water supplies were due to unknown sources such as
old spills, undetected Class V wells or unknown waste
disposal areas.
3. Residual Carcinogenic Risks
For residual carcinogenic risks all reports concluded that
if prompt detection and mitigation were performed the
excess cancers due to each source of contamination would be
in the fractions of an excess cancer. This is due to the
small population currently exposed and the short duration
of the exposure, especially for larger public water
supplies.
4.' Non-carcinogenic Risks
Based upon the WMD analysis of active RCRA facilities, it
appears that the Rfd values for PCE and chromium (primary
pollutants of concern) were not exceeded in ground water
samples taken at corrective action sites. In addition, the
drinking water assessment indicates that contamination
levels would be less that 10 times the Rfd.
However for water born disease impacts the risks are
higher. For the estimated 4.6 million people using
residential wells an estimated 10,000 cases of
gastroenteritis may occur annually 1.1 Region V (We assume
that the number of cases are actually 10 times the reported
cases to the CDC).
5. The large difference between the potential excess cancers
and the calculated residual risk is strong evidence that
the public water supply program and the- CERCLA remedial and
emergency response programs are effective in protecting
public health when existing threats occur. Therefore a
significant disinvestment in these programs would likely
lead to more cancer cases and chronic health problems in
the general population.
6. The subpopulations of residential wells and small community
systems are much more likely to be subject to higher
contaminant concentrations due to the use of shallow wells
and low pumping volumes. Also there is evidence that these
populations are exposed to contamination for longer periods
of time than populations served by larger public water
supplies. The present percent of small systems with
contamination above the 10~^ individual risk level is about
2 percent or 46,000 residents. Even with existing program
controls, this population could increase over time. This
high risk group is deserving of the agency's attention.
63
-------
III. Ecological Impacts
Ground water impacts ecological systems via the discharge
of contaminated ground water to surface water bodies and
wetland areas. To estimate the magnitude of ground water's
contribution to ecosystem degradation, we relied on
antidotal information from special studies such as the
Connecting Channels Study, Grand Calumet and other RAP
areas as well as the assessments developed for the RCRA and
CERCLA sources. In addition, WMD will be providing
addition data on CERCLA and other facility impacts by
ecoregion. Also Ag. Chemical discharges into small streams
are be factored into the nonpoint source analysis.
\
As a means of estimating the magnitude and relative risk
posed by ground water to ecosystems, we worked with Water
Quality to assess the States' Nonpoint Source Management
Plans, the Section 304(1) medium and long lists to evaluate
the potential areas impacted by nonpoint source
contamination which could include ground water.
Findings
From current analyses it is evident ground water can have a
significant impact in localized areas but is not likely the major
contributor of nonpoint source contamination region-wide. Most
of these impacts would be reversible, provided the sediments
could be remediated. For a detailed analysis of ecological
impacts from all sources of contamination, see the surface water
assessment report. Based upon a review of the WMD draft reports,
it appears that CERCLA and RCRA corrective actions could be
better targeted to both ecological impacts by giving area,s with
documented surface water quality impacts higher priority for
investigation and remediation.
All reports concurred that ecological impacts could be
significant locally but that contaminated ground water is not the
major source of surface water contamination. See figure l for a
comparison of the relative contaminant contribution from various
sources. Ground water would appear to be, on average,
responsible for 15 percent of the total contaminant contribution
to surface water.
In addition, spills on land could adversely impact local habitat
directly or via contaminated ground water leaking away from the
spill and discharging in wetlands or other low spots. Effective
spill response capabilities are essential in minimizing
ecological damage.
64
-------
CO
o
9 co
co 5
o
a
a
*§ V. «
5 o a
i | 1
Mi
c o «
l
o
(O
O *-*
«O v
S
o o
§ <
o «
M a
CO
a>
o
o
CO
o
8
o
o
**
CO
S
a
•
CO
QC
o
o
a
2
E
O
g
o
0)
65
-------
Remedial actions can also impact habitat. For sites with nearby
wetlands, pump and treat ground water remediation efforts can
lower water tables and adversely impact the vegetation in
wetlands. In areas where this is a concern, the extraction well
network and pumping schedule should be designed to minimize
impacts on wetlands.
IV. Welfare Risks
Contractor is supposed to perform this analysis. However we
want to ensure the following factors are adequately
considered:
1. Cost of Remediation
i
2. Time it takes to fully clean a contaminated site
3. Impacts on property values
4. Costs of replacing public water supply and residential
well supplies or providing treatment.
5. Impacts on industry, storage facilities (costs,
restrictions in business)
6. Disposal costs of hazardous waste and refuse.
It is apparent, that while contaminated ground water incidents
don't impact most residents, they have a significant impact
locally and directly and indirectly impact the cost of goods and
services in the U.S. An OSWER report on ground water resource
damages supports this assertion. While residual public health
and ecological risks are low, the resource cost of keeping these
risks low is very high. If such measures are notx taken,
significant health and environmental impacts would result.
66
-------
7. STORAGE TANKS
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
The Storage Tanks problem area covers the risks to human health
and the environment posed by the following types of storage tank
facilities:
o Underground storage tanks used for storing petroleum
products or regulated substances.
i
o Ground level or on ground storage tanks used for
storing petroleum products or regulated substances.
o Above ground storage tanks used for storing petroleum
products or regulated substances.
The types of risks to human health and the environment from
storage tanks that fall within this problem area are those
resulting from the routine or continuous release of petroleum
products or regulated substances to the soils, surface water,
ground water, and air. Typically, these releases occur in the
form of undetected leaks.
Stored substances falling within this area are petroleum products
and regulated substances, including gasoline, diesel fuel, motor
oils, heating oils, solvents, lubricants, and inorganic acids and
bases. These substances can contaminate soils, water, and air
with such toxic substances as benzene, toluene, xylene, t
ethylbenzene, chlorinated solvents, petroleum hydrocarbons, and
heavy metals.
This problem area does not include risks arising from the
following types of facilities or releases:
o Storage tanks used to store hazardous wastes. These
facilities fall within the Active Hazardous Waste
Facility problem area.
o Acute accidents or releases from storage tanks,
including tank collapses or explosions. These releases
are covered under the Accidental Chemical Release
problem area.
There are an estimated 342,4*? registered underground storage
tanks containing petroleum products or regulated substances in
Region V.(1) The number of confirmed releases is at least
12,289.(1) However, the estimated universe of releases is
67
-------
-------
approximated at 10-30% of the total registered tanks.(2>
This section of the Comparative Risk Project for U.S. EPA Region
V focuses exclusively on underground storage tanks and the
effects releases from these units may have on public health and
the environment. The assessment and analysis of the UST problem
area presented in this report rely on several assumptions due to
the lack of pertinent or available data. These assumptions are:
1) the majority of USTs in all Region V states contain petroleum
products, in particular, gasoline; <1) 2) USTs are primarily used
by retailers, e.g., gas stations; (S) 3) there is a high
correlation between population density and the concentration of
USTs; (i> 4) USTs are generally located in disturbed or altered
environments due to urbanization. (A>
Petroleum products can include a wide variety of commercial
products including crude oil, gasoline, fuel oils, and
lubricants. There are a number of compounds associated with
petroleum, primarily saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons. In
addition, it is common practice to enhance the performance of
petroleum products by adding various compounds. Some of the
additives nay be acutely or chronically toxic. Benzene, toluene,
ethylbenzene, and xylene are the compounds that are best known to
have potentially serious adverse health and environmental
effects. A number of studies have been conducted on the human
health effects of these constituents, but there is relatively
little data on their ecological impact.
HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
Toxicity Assessment
The epidemiological literature is replete with studies suggesting
a relationship between exposure to gasoline or its constituents,
principally benzene, and the incidence of certain types of
cancer. To date, only benzene has been causally linked to
cancer. NESCAUM's(*) recent study evaluating the health effects
from exposure to gasoline offers the following summary of
findings from the literature: C5>
Based on an assessment of the available literature, gasoline
is presumed to be carcinogenic to human beings. This
finding is based largely on the fact that benzene, a
volatile component of gasoline, is an established human
carcinogen. Any exposure to gasoline would also involve
xposure to benzene. In addition, limited animal
(*) Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management.
68
-------
evidence is now available that toluene and xylene, which are
also gasoline components, are carcinogenic in rodents.
Finally, evidence from epidemiological studies on gasoline
suggests that exposure to this hydrocarbon mixture may
itself be carcinogenic to humans, irrespective of benzene's
carcinogenicity.
The epidemiological evidence regarding benzene
carcinogenicity is widely accepted. The evidence regarding
the human carcinogenicity of the gasoline mixture, however,
is subject to significant uncertainties. These
uncertainties stem from the limited sensitivity of
epidemiological studies to identify carcinogens
i (particularly weak carcinogens), the complexity of the
chemical exposures associated with the petroleum industry,
and the lack of any clearly defined target organ which
gasoline may specifically affect. Moreover, the fact that
many epidemiological investigations have been conducted,
each one analyzing several types of cancer, raises the
concern that apparently significant associations may
actually have been random statistical fluctuations.
Nonetheless, a more qualitative analysis of the study
findings suggest that clearer positive associations could be
established upon more rigorous analyses. Such associations
involve the [bladder, kidney, liver, lung, blood forming
tissue, and skin as organs of concern].
A multitude of non-cancer health effects have been attributed to
ingestion, inhalation, or dermal exposure to gasoline or its
constituents. The most sensitive endpoint for gasoline is kidney
toxicity, which has been shown to result from human equivalent
exposure in the 2 to 4 mg/kg/day range. <5) The most sensitive
endpoints for principal constituents of concern include /
hematoxicity associated with benzene exposure in the range of 0.1
to 1 mg/kg/day and neurobehavioral, hematological, and
immunological effects associated with toluene exposure in the
range of 0.5 to 1.5 mg/kg/day. <5> Reproductive and fetotoxic
effects have been associated with exposure to xylene at an
equivalent dose level of 17 mg/kg/day. (5)
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
The primary exposure pathways of concern in regard to leaking
storage tanks are via contaminated groundwater and soil. Human
health exposure may occur through ingestion of contaminated
water, inhalation of vapors and dermal exposure from contaminated
water while showering, washing clothes or dishes, or through
inhalation of vapors penetrating the basement or foundation
69
-------
walls. In unusual cases, vapor concentrations may reach levels
conducive to fire or explosion. More often, the tell-tale odor
of petroleum is sufficiently penetrating to provide early warning
and avert the acute hazards posed by vapor build-up. Vapor
inhalation may also occur outdoors in areas adjacent to a leaking
tank, but this is generally viewed as a less troublesome exposure
pathway.
In addition to the public health hazard posed by the problems
outlined above, there is an occupational health and safety hazard
of some significance resulting from the exposure of thousands of
environmental remediation workers involved in the removal of
leaking underground storage tanks. Failure to render tanks
properly inert and improper handling during the removal process
may result in explosion. There have been four deaths recorded in
Region V this year due to explosion of such tanks. (6> The Region
has averaged 3-4 deaths of this nature annually during the past
several years. (6)
The population potentially at risk in Region V is defined for
purposes of this study as those dependent upon groundwater as a
primary source of drinking water supplied without benefit of
routine monitoring and treatment for volatile organic compounds
(VOCs). Such measures would otherwise prevent ingestion of
petroleum-contaminated water. Estimated population supplied by
groundwater-based public water systems serving populations of
3,300 or less and population dependent upon private wells are
presented below for the six states in Region V (See Table 1).
Primary water supply systems serving 3,300 customers or less are
not yet required to test for volatile organics. Effective
January 1, 1991, all systems serving 25 people or more will be
required to sample each water supply source, initially on a
quarterly basis, to determine the presence and extent of VOC
contamination. *7> Assuming the regulations are observed by
smaller systems and are effectively enforced by the Agency, this
requirement will substantially reduce the estimated population at
risk of ingesting contaminated groundwater.
Note that the population potentially at risk constitutes
approximately 30 percent of total Regional population and ranges
from a low of 22 percent in Illinois, a heavily urbanized state,
to a high of 46 percent in Indiana, a comparatively more rural
state. Minnesota and Wisconsin, which are the two most
groundwater-dependent states in the Region, vary significantly in
their estimated populations at risk due to the former state's
reliance on larger-scale water supply and delivery systems.
70
-------
TABLE 1
POPULATION AT RISK
Peculation Served Iv:
Small Public
Water Systems (•)
(000)
1,351 »
1,994 *
1,890 *
817 +
1,838 *
1,506 *
9,396 •
Private
Wells (••)
(000)
1,162 •
555 «
924 •
431 •
1,086 »
486 *
4,644 •
Subtotal
(000)
2,513
2,549
2,814
1,248
2,924
1,992
14,040
I of Total
State t Regional
Population (•••)
22
22
30
29
27
41
30
Illinois
Indiana
Michigan
Minnesota
Ohio
Wisconsin
Region V
(*) Groundwater-based systems serving 3,300 people or less.
(•*) Estimated at 10* of total population. Estimate obtained from U.S. EPA Region V,
Office of Water Quality.
<•*•) Population at Risk as a percentage of estimated total populations in 1988 (Bureau of
the Census). Note that these percentages differ from those reported for grounduater
source dependency by virtue of the fact that larger-scale, grounduster-based systems
routinely monitor and correct for unacceptable levels of volatile organics.
Populations served by these systems are therefore not considered at risk.
71
-------
HUMAN HEALTH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
Both cancer and non-cancer risks associated with ingestion of
contaminated groundwater and inhalation of vapors emanating from
contaminated water have been estimated in NESCAUM's recent study
of health effects resulting from exposure to gasoline. (5)
Estimates were based on an analysis of case studies involving
leaking underground petroleum storage tanks in the New England
states. Since comparable case study analyses were not available
for the states in Region V, the NESCAUM exposure scenarios have
been used to derive estimated annual cancer deaths and non-cancer
hazard indices for the population at risk in the North Central
Region. These data and estimates are presented in Table 2
(annual cancer deaths) and Table 3 (non-cancer hazard indices).
It is important to emphasize that, due to limitations inherent in
the data upon which these estimates are predicated, relatively
conservative (but not worst-case) simplifying assumptions have
been introduced whenever necessary to fill primary data gaps or
inadequacies. Thus, the resulting estimates are designed to
overstate real-world risk levels to some extent.
There is considerable uncertainty regarding the comparative human
health effects of exposure via ingestion of contaminated drinking
water versus inhalation of vapors and dermal exposure from
contaminated water while showering, bathing, washing hands,
dishes, or clothes. Comparative exposure levels simulated from
modeling efforts reported in the literature range from 90+
percent to parity for ingestion versus inhalation. <8> Dermal
exposure has been estimated at relatively insignificant levels by
comparison to either ingestion or inhalation. ft>
We have confined our attention to cancer and non-cancer risks
associated with daily ingestion of two liters of drinking water
contaminated by low levels of petroleum or its by-products.
Higher exposure levels are assumed to trigger a taste or odor
response which effectively serves to limit subsequent exposure.
It is further assumed that few, if any, would be subjected to a
lifetime of exposure. Available evidence points to much shorter
exposure periods. The subchronic level of seven years provides a
suitably conservative assumption for purposes of this analysis.
72
-------
TABLE 2
Cancer Risk Assessment
Estimated Mean Exposure
Gasoline
Benzene
Illinois
Indiana
Michigan
Minnesota
Ohio
Wisconsin
Region V
Motes;
(mg/kg/day)
1.7 x 10-1
1.4 x 10-2
Population at Risk
v (000)
2,513
2,549
2.814
1.248
2,924
1,992
14,040
(••)
Population Exposed
(000)
166
168
186
82
193
131
926
Subchronic
Cancer Potency
(mg/kg/day)
0.0035
0.026
Estimated (*•*)
Cancer Deaths
(70-yr Lifetime)
10
10
11
5
12
8
56
Estimated Lifetime
Cancer Risk
(Subchronic
6.0 x
3.6 x
Estimated
Annual Cancer
Deaths
0.143
0.143
0.157
0.071
0.171
0.114
0.799
exposure)
10-5
10-5
Population at risk is that
Table 1).
(••) Population exposed * population at risk x 0.20 (mid-point of range, proportion of tanks nationally estimated to
be leaking) x 0.33 (proportion of high-priority leaking tanks with confirmed or potential groundwater
contamination reported by states in Region V).
(•*•) Estimated cancer deaths resulting from Subchronic exposure (7 years or less) over 70-year lifetime. It is
implicitly assumed that, in a majority of cases, groundwater contamination will be discovered within a 7-year
period. It ia considered unlikely that many people would be exposed to low levels of petroleum contaminants in
their water, levels below the observed taste and odor thresholds, for period* exceeding seven years.
73
-------
TABLE 3
Non-Cancer Risk Assessment
Exposure Reference Dose (5> Hazard Index
(ing/kg/day) (mg/kg/day) (Exposure/RFD)
Gasoline 1.7 x 10-1 0.1 1.70
i
Benzene 1.4 x 10-2 0.1 0.14
Toluene 8.1 x 10-3 0.5 0.02
Xylene 8.6 x 10-3 1.2 0.01
Calculation of non-cancer risk has also been derived with reference
to the ingestion of contaminated drinking water. The non-cancer
hazard index is computed by dividing estimated exposure levels by
the corresponding oral reference doses. Note from the estimates
outlined below that ingestion-induced exposure levels for gasoline
exceed the oral reference dose for non-cancer effects. Benzene
exposure levels are well below the corresponding reference dose for
benzene. Toluene and xylene exposure levels are orders of magnitude
below their respective reference doses and do not appear to present
serious health concerns.
ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
Toxicitv Assessment
It is assumed that the majority of underground storage tanks located
in Region V states handle gasoline. The compound of principal
concern in gasoline is benzene. Benzene is widely recognized as a
human carcinogen.
In the event of a release of gasoline or other petroleum product
from an underground storage tank, a number of scenarios may result.
Depending on extent of release and proximity to sensitive receptors,
a release could result in potentially significant adverse ecological
effects. The extent of damage to an ecosystem would depend on a
number of factors including nature of released material, type of
habitat, ecosystem stability, and affected species.
74
-------
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Under time and budgetary constraints, locations of USTs in Region V
states were not identified; therefore, this section contains no
site-specific data. Generally, there is a distinct correlation
between urban population clusters and UST locations. This is true
because the majority of USTs are used by gasoline retailers. It is
also true that most USTs are located in areas that are not in their
original natural state; the areas have been disturbed as a result of
urbanization. This does not, however, exclude the possibility that
a leaking UST can have significant effects on the environment.
Ground water, surface water, soil, and air are the primary
environmental concerns associated with leaking USTs. Contamination
from leaking USTs can create environmental problems that can lead to
an increase in plant and animal morbidity and mortality.
In a national survey conducted by Versar, SCS, and Franklin
Associates, 12,444 release incidents from USTs were identified
between 1970 and 1984. (3> Of those 12,444 releases, 68 percent were
releases to soil; 45 percent released to ground water; 22 percent
released to surface water; and 15 percent released to air. (3>
Gasoline was identified as the released material in 70 percent of
the reported incidents. (3)
Releases from USTs have the potential to adversely affect surface
water. There are, of course, a number of factors that will
influence the incidence of surface water contamination from leaking
USTs. To be considered: proximity of tank to body of water;
materials leaking from tank; amount of released material; ground
water flow; and local soils and geology. Available data
concentrates on effects on human health rather than on the
environment and does not include specific information pertaining to
UST leaks and surface water contamination. /
If conditions exist that allow the flow of released material to
surface water, the negative ecological impacts can be extensive.
Historically, leaks from USTs have not had an overwhelming impact on
surface water due to the fact that soil and ground between the leak
and the surface water body acts as an attenuator.
Leaking USTs can affect ecosystems via soil contamination and by
releasing to groundwater, which can ultimately contaminate aquifiers
and surface water. Soil contamination may adversely affect
terrestrial organisms at the lowest level of the food chain. This
may expose higher-order organisms to adverse health consequences due
to ingestion of contaminated food sources. Groundwater
contamination may result in adverse health effects upon plant and
animal life at the surface. Ingestion of contaminated water where
it emerges in springs or wetland areas represents one exposure
75
-------
pathway. Groundwater may in turn contaminate surface waters,
thereby presenting immersion or ingestion hazards for a wide range
of terrestrial and aquatic organisms.
ECOLOGICAL RISK CHARACTERIZATION
Severity
Ecological damage resulting from underground storage tank releases
generally can be considered low in severity. Water quality data
collected in Region V states indicates some contamination; however,
benzene has not been identified as a contaminant and there is no
specific data related to leaking underground storage tanks.
Reversibility of Damage
It is difficult to determine the time frame in which the affected
ecosystems will recover from contamination due to leaking
underground storage tanks. Oil and gas spills to surface water will
evaporate quickly (depending on the extent of the release). If
sediments are contaminated, the period of recovery will be extended
accordingly. Water temperature and turbidity will also affect the
rate of recovery. Groundwater contamination is more complex, and it
is difficult to determine the rate of recovery. Contaminated
groundwater may affect the overall water supply, which in turn may
affect both plant and animal life.
GREAT LAKES ASSESSMENT
Water Quality Management Within the Great Lakes.
\
An increasing volume of information is available concerning water
quality problems in the Great Lakes watersheds. The joint
U.S./Canadian Great Lakes National Program office in Chicago and the
International Association for Great Lakes Research in Madison,
Wisconsin were both contacted to obtain such information. Although
leaking storage tanks within the Great Lakes basins are undoubtedly
contributing to observed water quality problems, there is no
evidence to suggest that leaking tanks are a significant
contributor. The literature reviewed does not include leaking tanks
among the issues of concern.
76
-------
REFERENCES
(1) Halloran, George, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Region V, Office of UST/LUST, memorandum to Lorna Veraza
dated June 18, 1990. Information current through May 31,
1990.
(2) Range derived from survey of technical and regulatory
literature.
(3) Versar, Inc., Analysis of the National Data Base of
Underground Storage Tank Release Incidents, report to U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste, June
4 13, 1986.
(4) Assumptions follow from recognized association between
retail product distribution and proximity to client
population clusters.
(5) Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management,
Evaluation of the Health Effects from Exposure to Gasoline
and Gasoline Vapors. Final Report, August 1989.
(6) Telephone conversation with Mr. Gerald W. Phillips, Chief of
the Office of UST/LUST, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Region V, June 1990.
(7) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "National Primary
Drinking Water Regulations; Synthetic Organic Chemicals;
Monitoring for Unregulated Contaminants," Final Rule, 52 FR
25690, July 8, 1987.
(8) Shehata, A. Terry, "A Multi-Route Exposure Assessment of
Chemically Contaminated Drinking Water," published in
Toxicology and Public Health. Vol. 1, No. 4, 1985.
77
-------
6. ACTIVE HAZARDOUS WASTE FACILITIES
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
The Active Hazardous Waste Facilities problem area covers the
risks to human health and the environment posed by facilities
which generate, store, treat, and dispose of hazardous wastes.
Additionally, this area covers risks associated with the
transportation of hazardous waste. Specific facilities and
activities covered in this problem area include:
o Hazardous waste generating sites, including industrial
plants and other facilities producing and accumulating
1 hazardous wastes which meet the definition of a
"Generator" under 40 CFR 260
o Hazardous waste storage facilities storing wastes in
tanks and containers
o Hazardous waste treatment facilities which treat wastes
through physical, chemical, or biological means
o Hazardous waste incinerators
o Boilers and industrial furnaces using hazardous waste
as fuel
o Hazardous waste surface impoundments
o Hazardous waste land treatment facilities
o Hazardous waste landfills and waste piles
o Inactive solid waste management units at active
hazardous waste facilities x
o Hazardous waste recycling units which are exempted
under current regulation, such as solvent recycling
columns
o Hazardous waste transportation.
The types of risks to human health and the environment resulting
from active hazardous waste facilities falling within this
problem area include those resulting from accidental or non-
accidental releases of hazardous wastes and waste constituents to
air, soils, surface water, and ground water.
Substances within this problem area include the approximately 450
hazardous wastes listed by EPA in 40 CFR 261, which include
various solvents, process wastes, and discarded commercial
chemical products, and wastes failing any of the waste
78
-------
characteristic tests defined in 40 CFR 261. Waste
characteristics resulting in designation as a characteristic
hazardous waste include:
o Ignitability
o Corrosivity
o Reactivity
o EP Toxicity
This problem area also includes risks from mixed radioactive/
hazardous wastes.
This problem area does not include:
o Risks arising from acute accidents or releases from
hazardous waste facilities, including tank collapses or
explosions. These release are covered under the
Accidental Chemical Release problem area.
o Risks arising from use and disposal of polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs).
o Risks arising from disposal of hazardous waste
generated by conditionally exempt small quantity
generators in municipal landfills.
o Risks or ecological damages associated with the
discharge of treated hazardous waste waters under terms
>of an NPDES permit or Pretreatment agreement.
o Risks due to wastes failing the organic toxicity
characteristic. These wastes are not included in this
problem area at this time because the rule is not in
effect, and information is not available on these waste
rr materials since they are not currently part of the RCRA
regulated universe. However, these wastes will be
within this problem area once the rule takes effect in
September 1990. The rule will probably significantly
increase the number of facilities and amount of waste
regulated under the RCRA Subtitle C program.
Population of Hazardous Waste Facilities in EPA Region V
The population of active hazardous waste facilities in Region V
includes several broad categories of facilities, such as
generators, interim status or permitted hazardous waste
management facilities, and other management facilities which may
be exempt from interim status and permitting requirements, such
as blenders and burners of hazardous waste fuels.
79
-------
There are approximately 16,600 large quantity generators of
hazardous waste in Region V (1). Some of these generators treat
or dispose of wastes on site, and are also classified as
treatment, storage, and disposal facilities (TSDFs). However,
the majority of these generators temporarily store wastes in
tanks and containers before shipping wastes off-site for
treatment or disposal. There are an estimated 1800 large
quantity generators who accumulate wastes in tanks on-site prior
to off-site shipment (2). About 420 large quantity generators
have been identified as having violated ground water protection
standards in Region V (1).
In addition to large quantity generators, there are approximately
37,80*0 small quantity generators (SQGs) in Region V. These SQGs
also generally store wastes on-site prior to shipment off-site
for treatment or disposal. There are an estimated 2,400 SQGs
which accumulate wastes in tanks on-site for shipment (2). About
70 SQGs have been identified as having violated ground water
protection standards in Region V (1). .. ._ . - ; • . ^"4
»!• - ' * •*..-
There are approximately 1230 interim status or permitted
hazardous waste treatment, storage, or disposal units in Region
V, located at approximately 1078 operating hazardous waste
management facilities (3). These units include surface
impoundments, waste piles, landfills, incinerators, land
treatment units, storage and treatment tanks, and container
storage units. Additionally, there are about 150 facilities
which burn hazardous waste fuel (which are exempt from interim
status and permitting at this time) in industrial boilers,
utility boilers, or furnaces (4).
The estimated distribution of interim status and permitted TSDFs,
boilers and furnaces, and generator accumulation tanks is ... -
provided in Table 1.
Facilities which have or have had regulated active hazardous
waste units are subject to the corrective action requirements for
solid waste management units which are releasing or threaten to
release hazardous constituents to the environment. Approximately
1345 hazardous waste facilities are estimated to require
corrective action for one or more solid waste management units.
(5). The distribution of these facilities is shown in Table 2.
HDXAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
TOXICITY ASSESSMENT
Active hazardous waste management facilities manage a wide
variety of wastes containing hazardous constituents. A random
sample of 49 hazardous waste units in Region V was selected to
evaluate potential risks. The bro?d categories of wastes and
hazardous constituents reported by these facilities include:
80
-------
II "JI
-
81
-------
TABLE 2: DISTRIBUTION OF CORRECTIVE ACTION FACILITIES
Number of Facilities
Facility Type :eguiring Corrective Action
Storage and Treatment 1004
Land Disposal 302
Incinerators 39
Source: Corrective Action Reporting System, EPA Region V
o Chlorinated and non-chlorinated solvents, including
1,1,1 trichloroethane, trichloroethylene,
tetrachloroethylene, methyl ethyl ketone, toluene,
xylene, etc.
o Electroplating solutions and vastevater treatment
sludges containing heavy metals (e.g.,cadmium,
chromium, nickel) and cyanides.
o Acids and bases from electroplating, metal finishing,
and other processes, including sulfuric acid, nitric
acid, chromic acid, and sodium hydroxide.
o Process wastes and sludges from petroleum refining,
chemicals manufacturing, and wood treating containing
heavy metals and toxic organics.
\
o Characteristic wastes which are ignitable, reactive,
corrosive, or toxic.
In order to evaluate risks, several hazardous constituents which
are representative of common waste streams reported for these
facilities were selected. These wastes include halogenated
solvents, non-halogenated solvents, heavy metal bearing sludges,
and metal finishing solution wastes. These constituents were
also found to be present as environmental contaminants at six or
•ore sites in a sample of 19 corrective action sites from Region
V files. Table 3 lists hazardous constituents reported at 19
sites and their frequency of occurrence at corrective action
sites sampled.
82
-------
TABLE 3: FREQUENCY OF
IDENTIFICATION OF CONSTITUENTS
REPORTED AT 19 CORRECTIVE
ACTION SITES REVIEWED
CHEMICAL
PCB
vinyl chloride
Methyl ethyl ketone
Toluene
Xylene
Chloroform
Benzene
1,1,1 Trichloroethane
Trichloroethylene
Tetrachloroethylene
Ethylene chloride
Phenol
Creosote
Lead
Cadmium
Chromium
Nickel
Mercury
Arsenic
Cyanide
TOTAL
COUNT
1
3
2
5
2
4
7
4
9
6
1
2
1
10
8
8
6
4
5
4
PERCENT
5.3%
15.8%
10.5%
26.3%
10.5%
21.1%
36.8%
21.1%
47.4%
31.6%
5.3%
10.5%
5.3%
52.6%
42.1%
42.1%
31.6%
21.1%
26.3%
21.1%
Source: Sample of HRS Scoring Summaries and RCRA Facility
Investigation Reports for 19 Region V facilities.
83
------- OCR error (C:\Conversion\JobRoot\000007JO\tiff\2000SAIM.tif): Saving image to "C:\Conversion\JobRoot\000007JO\tiff\2000SAIM.T$F.T$F" failed.
-------
TABLE 4: CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS OF HAZARDOUS COHSTITDEHTS
CONSTITUENT
sassz2s==«3==s"=
Tetrachloroethylene
Benzene
Trichloroethylene
Lead
Cadiim1
Chroiiui
LEVEL OF SLOPE FACTOR TOHOR
CARCINOGEN ROOTE CONFIDENCE ORAL INH ORAL
(•q/kq/d)-l(iq/kq/d)-l
Y
y
y
Y
Y
Y
Oral, Inb
Oral, Inb
Oral, Inb
Oral, Inb
Inb
Inh
B2
A
B2
B2
Bl
A
5.1E-02
2.9E-02
1.1E-02
NA
NA
NA
9.5E-07
8.3E-06
1.7E-06
HA
l.SE-03
1.2E-02
Liver
Leukeiia
Liver
NA
NA
NA
SITE
INH
Leukeiia,
Liver
Leukeiia
Lunq
NA
Resp. Tract
Lunq
Source: "Health Effects Assessment Sunary Tables*, Fourth Quarter, PY 1989, U.S.EPA, OSHES.
TABU 5: SUBCERONIC AND CHRONIC EFFECTS OF HAZARDOUS CONSTITUENTS
CONSTITUENT
Tetrachloroethylene
Subchronic
Chronic
Cadiiui
Chronic
Chroiiui
Subchronic
Chronic
RfD EFFEa OF CONCERN
ROOTE ORAL INH ORAL INH
(•g/kq/d) (iq/kq/d)
Oral
Oral
Oral
NA
0.0005 Kidney
Oral 0.1 NA Hepatotox. NA
Oral 0.01 NA Hepatotox.
NA
10 NA Hepatotox. NA
1 NA Hepatotox. NA
UNCERTAINTY
FACTOR
100
1000
10
100
1000
Source: "Health Effects Assessment Senary Tables", Fourth Quarter, FY 1989, O.S. EPA, OSUER.
85
-------
are under development for an expanded list of organic
contaminants. Assuming that these standards will be enforced, it
is not plausible to project that long term (e.g., 30 years)
exposures to contaminants from active hazardous waste sites will
occur through surface supplied public water systems.
To assess potential exposures through ground water and air,
estimates of the populations residing within 1 and 5 kilometers
of the sample facilities were obtained from EPA's Graphical
Exposure Modeling System (GEMS) by using unit latitudes and
longitudes (6). The facilities were then divided into groups
based on populations residing within 1 and 5 kilometers.
The sample population data was then used to estimate the total
populations residing within 1 and 5 kilometers of land disposal
units, storage and treatment units, incinerators, and units
requiring corrective action within Region V.
The population potentially exposed to hazardous constituents
released from incinerators migrating via the air was assumed to
be the total population residing with 5 km of incinerators
located within the Region.
The population potentially exposed to hazardous constituents
through ground water contamination was estimated based on the
following assumptions:
o Exposures through ground water would occur through
private residential wells, and not through public wells
supplying public systems due to Safe Drinking Water Act
requirements for public system safety.
o Areas with residential populations of less than 1,000
within 1 km of the hazardous waste unit, or less than
25,000 within 5 km, are primarily rural/suburban in
nature and drinking water for these residents would be
provided by private wells.
Using these assumptions, the potentially exposed population was
calculated by:
o Determining the percentage of units in the sample with
populations of less than 1,000 within 1 km, and 25,000
within 5 km.
o Scaling up to the universe of operating units and units
projected to undergo corrective action by using the
resulting percentages.
The estimated potentially exposed populations, populations within
1 and 5 km of operating or corrective action units, are shown in
Table 6.
86
-------
TABLE 6: ESTIMATED POTENTIALLY EXPOSED POPULATIONS (1)
Population within 1 Ki
Population within 5 Ki
Potentially Exposed Pop,
Groundwater, IKi (4)
Potentially Exposed Pop,
Groundvater, 5 Ki (5)
LAK> DISPOSAL STORAGE AND TREATMENT
DKITS UNITS
OPOATIK COSMCTIVI OPERATING) 2) COMECTIVE
ACTIOI ACTIOM(3)
284,000 434,300 802,700 1,932,700
10,084,500 15,618,100 21,892,500 52,710,000
64,900 100,500 114,700 276,100
1,146,600 1,775,700 2,866,900 6,902,500
INCINOATORS
OPE1ATING 001MCTIVE
ACTIOI
107,600 100,000
2,493,800 2,315,600
8,000 8,000
262,500 262,500
TOTAL
OPEEATIK COUECTIVZ
ACTIOI
1194300 2467000
34470800 70643700
187600 384600
4276000 8940700
(1) Estiiates of populations are based on a sample of 49 operating Subtitle C facilities. Population figures
were obtained frot 0.5. EPA's Graphical Exposure Modeling Systei (GEXS) using the actual latitudes and
longitudes of the saiple facilities.
(2) Operating storage and treatment excludes facilities which have only container storage areas.
(3) Corrective action storage a&d treatment includes facilities which have only container storage areas
currently operating.
(4) Potentially exposed populations through groundwater were calculated by assuming that facilities with
populations of less than 1000 people within 1 Ki radius were predominantly rural areas in which residents relied
on private well water. It was assumed that significant exposures would not occur through public water systems
drawing on groundvater due to Safe Drinking Hater Act requirements.
(5) Potentially exposed populations through groundwater were calculated by assuming that facilities with
populations of less than 25000 people within 5 Ki radius were predominantly rural areas in which residents relied
on private well water. It was assumed that significant exposures would not occur through public water systems
drawing on groundwater due to Safe Drinking Hater Act requirements.
87
-------
HUMAN HEALTH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
Cancer Risks
Cancer risks were estimated using three different methods for
different types of RCRA units, based on the data available.
Operating Land Disposal Units and Corrective Action Units
For operating land disposal units and units projected to undergo
corrective action, cancer risks were calculated based on
contaminant levels observed in ground water at a sample of land
disposal sites requiring corrective action. The concentrations
used are pre-cleanup levels, which exceed applicable ground water
protection standards for operating units, and also exceed
probable cleanup levels for corrective action units. Thus, under
the current RCRA program, these levels of contaminants would not
be expected to be allowed .to occur over a long time period
without remediation.
Therefore, the estimate prepared is an upper bound risk for
active hazardous waste land disposal units and corrective action
sites under "pre-remedial" conditions. The estimate is based on
a limited sample of sites for which data were available. The
method used will tend to overestimate "pre-remedial" risks from
operating sites because these facilities should on average result
in lower environmental contamination than older units (e.g.,
those undergoing corrective action) due to minimum technology
standards and waste treatment standards.
The estimated individual incremental lifetime cancer risk
resulting from these units and corrective action sites ranges
from 2 x 10-4 to 3 x 10-6. Individual risk estimates and
population risks for operating land disposal units and corrective
action sites were estimated as follows: '
o Conservative average "fenceline" concentrations for the
selected constituents were calculated by taking the
average of the individual site maximum concentrations
reported for the constituents for the sample of sites.
o Individual risk levels associated with these
concentrations were calculated, assuming that
populations within 1 km would be exposed on average to
contaminants diluted by a factor of 10 below the
"fenceline11 concentration, and that populations within
5 km would be exposed on average to the fenceline
concentration diluted by a factor of 1000.
88
-------
o 75 percent of land disposal units and corrective action
sites were assumed to eventually result in ground water
contamination (based on a sample of Region V HRS
scoring results)
o The populations of operating units and corrective
action sites were apportioned by risk level, based on
the sample percentage at the given risk level, as
follows:
32 percent of sites would result in cancer risks
of 2 x 10-4 to people residing within 1 km using
private wells, assuming dilution/attenuation by a
factor of 10 between the property boundary and
average well within 1 km, based on exposure to
tetrachloroethylene.
i
68 percent of the units will result in cancer
risks of 7 x 10-6 to people residing within 1 km
using private wells, assuming dilution/attenuation
by a factor of 10 between the property boundary
and average well within 1 km, based on exposure to
benzene and trichloroethylene.
32 percent of the units will result in cancer
risks of 2 x 10-6 to people residing within 5 km
using private wells, assuming a dilution/
attenuation factor of 1000 between the property
boundary and the average well between 1 km and 5
km of the property boundary.
68 percent of the units will result in cancer
risks of 7 x 10-8 to people residing within 5 km
using private wells, assuming a dilution/
attenuation factor of 1000 between the property
boundary and average well within between 1 km and
5 km of the property boundary.
Calculations of individual cancer risks for ground water
contamination from these units are shown in Table 7.
t
When applied to the potentially exposed population, these risk
levels result in an estimate of 4 additional cancer cases over a
70 year period from operating land disposal units (0.05 cases per
year) and 24 additional cancer cases from corrective action units
over a 70 year period (0.3 cases per year).
89
-------
II O
II O
K
B2
up
O
£
I
*
ii fc. "
n t> n
n K n
U3
90
-------
Storage and Treatment Tank Units
Frr storage and treatment tank units, cancer risks were estimated
b.5ed on risk levels projected in the "Hazardous Waste Tanks Risk
Analysis, Draft Report" (7). This report provides estimates of
risk ranges for cancer risks for hazardous waste storage units
with secondary containment in conditions where both the primary
and secondary containment fail. The individual incremental
lifetime cancer risk in these cases is estimated to be 1 x 10-3
in about 10 percent of the cases, 1 x 10-4 in 10 percent of the
cases, and 1 x 10-7 in 20 percent of the cases (it is assumed to
be less than 1 x 10-7 in the remaining cases). The resulting
cancer risk estimate is approximately 1 additional cancer case
over a 70 year period.
The calculations for storage tanks are based on the following
assumptions:
o 5 percent of tanks have non-zero risk (i.e., will have
a failure of primary and secondary containment
resulting in ground water contamination)
o 10 percent of these tanks will pose an individual risk
of 1 x 10-3
o 10 percent of these tanks will pose an individual risk
of 1 x 10-4
o 20 percent of these tanks will pose an individual risk
of 1 x 10-7.
The estimate of the percentage of tanks with non-zero risk is a
conservative estimate based on professional judgement. It is
probable that the actual percentage of tanks experiencing long
term failure of primary and secondary containment will be much
less than 5 percent.
Incinerators
For incinerators, risk assessments for three incinerators (8) in
EPA Region V were sampled. The maximum individual Lifetime
cancer risk calculated for these incinerators was 1 x 10-6. This
estimate was then used to project 2 additional cancer cases over
a 70 year period, based on exposure at the l x 10-6 level for all
residents within 5 Km of operating incinerators.
Hazardous Waste Fuel Burners
Cancer risks from hazardous waste fuel burners were calculated by
adjusting national estimates of cancer risks from these
facilities reported in the OSWER comparative risk assessment (9)
to the population of fuel burners in Region V on a proportional
91
-------
basis. The estimated number of additional cancer cases over the
70 period is 1 case.
Cancer Risk Summary
Tables 8 and 9 provide details on the calculations of cancer
risks for operating units and corrective action sites. The total
estimated incremental annual cancer cases attributable to this
problem area is about 0.4 cases per year, with a total of about
32 cases attributable to this area over a 70 year period. 75
percent of these cases are attributable to sites requiring
corrective action, rather than to operating units.
Several points should be made to put these estimates in their
proper context.
First, virtually all the estimated additional cancer cases are
attributable to ground water contamination at "pre-remedial"
concentrations, and the risk calculation assumes continual
exposure to contaminated ground water from operating units and
corrective action sites over a long time period. However, the
RCRA program is designed to be a virtual "zero discharge" program
with respect to ground water. That is, the program is designed
to prevent any future discharges of hazardous constituents from
operating facilities to ground water, and to require the cleanup
of any past environmentally significant discharges of
constituents to ground water.
Therefore, continued permitting, inspection, and enforcement of
current standards into the future should drive actual risks from
both operating land disposal units and corrective action sites
towards very low levels; however, without this activity to
inspect facilities and enforce standards, risks could be
significant.
Second, risks from discharges to the environment allowed under
the program, such as emissions from incinerators and ^hazardous
waste fuel burners, are relatively low even under conservative
assumptions if emissions meet applicable requirements.
Incinerators and hazardous waste fuel burners account for an
estimated 3 additional cancers cases (0.04 per year) in the
Region.
Third, the estimate does not include risks arising from a variety
of .activities generally thought to pose relatively low levels of
risk, such as hazardous waste generation, accumulation at
generator facilities, and storage in containers. The number of
generators greatly exceeds the number of TSDFs, and generators
are frequently located in densely populated cities. Generally,
these generators accumulate wastes in containers or tanks before
shipping them off-site; in fact, the number of tanks estimated to
exist at generator sites in the Region for waste accumulation
92
-------
TABLE 8: ESTIMATED POTDCIIAL CAHCER CASES
FROM OPERATING SITES
LIFETIME CANCER
RISK LEVEL
Land Disposal Units (1)
2.0E-04
7.0E-06
2.0E-06
7.0E-OS
Storage and Treatment
Tank Units (2)
l.OE-03
l.OE-04
l.OE-07
Incinerators (3)
l.OE-06
Hazardous Haste Fuel
Burners (4)
HA
TOTAL
ADDITIONAL CANCERS,
ANNUAL BASIS
POTENTIAL
ESTIMATED ADDITIONAL
POPULATION CANCEI
EXPOSED CASES
15,400 3
33,300 0
273,900 1
588,400 0
600 1
600 0
1,100 0
2,493,800 2
MA 1
8
0.1
(1) Estimated cancer risks from land disposal units were derived based on
contaiinaot concentrations in ground water at corrective action sites.
Tin*, they are expected to represent an upper bound cancer risk.
(2) Estimated risk levels for storage and treatment tanks were derived froi
the 'Hazardous Waste Tanks Risk Analysis: Draft Report/ prepared by Id
Inc. and Pope-Reid Associates for U.S. EPA, OSWES, March, 1986.
(3) Estimated risk levels for incinerators were derived froi the health risk
assessments for the following Region V facilities: Cheiolite Facility
Incinerator, St. Mary's Peerless Cement, and Dov Cheiical Coipany.
(4) Estimated based on adjusting risk estimates in the "Regulatory Analysis for
Maste-As-Fuel Technical Standards", Industrial Economics, prepared for
U.S.EPA, OSH, October 1986, to reflect the number of burners in Region V.
93
-------
TABLE 9: ESTIMATED POTENTIAL CANCER CASES
FROM CORRECTIVE ACTION SITES
LIFETIME
RISK
i
TOTAL
CANCER
LEVEL
2.0E-04
7.0E-06
2.0E-06
7.0E-08
ADDITIONAL CANCERS,
ANNUAL BASIS
ESTIMATED
POPULATION
EXPOSED
91,100
197,400
2,117,500
4,588,000
6,994,000
POTENTIAL
CANCER
CASES
18
1
4
0
24
0.3
94
-------
exceeds the number estimated to exist at TSDFs. Although the
facility-specific risks from accumulation in containers and tanks
is probably very small, the cumulative risk may be found to be
significant if data are developed to better characterize
potential hazards.
Non-Cancer Risks
Potential non-cancer risks were evaluated by comparing chronic
and subchronic exposures to Rfds for the selected constituents.
Table 10 provides the results of this analysis. The potential
concentrations estimated for the constituents, and associated
chronic and subchronic doses, did not exceed the Rfd for
subchronic or chronic exposures for tetrachloroethylene or
chromium. Rfds are currently not available for the other
constituents analyzed.
i
The exposure were closest to exceeding the Rfd for
tetrachloroethylene (exposure was equal to 0.4 x Rfd). The
potential health effect that may occur due to exposure to
tetrachloroethylene in excess of the Rfd is liver damage. The
uncertainty factor for this effect is high. Thus, exposure at
this level could potentially result in liver damage under
conservative assessment of available toxicological data, but
would not be likely to result in damage.
Because tetrachloroethylene as used in this analysis is an
indicator chemical, the results of the assessment can not be
directly extrapolated to potentially exposed populations across
the Region. Rather, the results should be interpreted as an
indication of the numbers of people potentially exposed in Region
V to levels of toxic constituents from hazardous waste facilities
which are of the order of magnitude which could potentially pose
a threat to their health through chronic exposures.
Interpreted in this way, the results indicate that about 100,000
people within Region V may be potentially exposed to hazardous
constituents from active hazardous waste sites at concentrations
which are near those levels which pose a potential long-term
health hazard.
i
ECOLOGICAL RISK
EPA has recently completed a study of available information on
ecological risks associated with RCRA Subtitle C facilities (10),
including both operating hazardous waste management units and
inactive units requiring corrective action. The results of this
study generally indicate that:
o Due to the focus of the RCRA program on risks to human
health, relatively little information is available on
ecological risk associated with facilities.
95
-------
CO
£
£
M
EH
CO
U
en
6
u
u.
u.
u
X
EH
I?
u
cc
u
o
1
tj
1
2
o
2
b.
O
2
0
M
EH
J
5
y
, 1
J2
o
..
o
fH
U
CD
£H
II
EH II ~4 n
O2 II 0 V
aw ii
< M || 00
N EH II
< 0 II
X D II
a n
n
II n r>
II O 0
M J || II
D 2 II U U
OCC II rH ^
O II
n
n
n
II n CM
w a n o IH
J * O — « II O 0
2 H CJ — II 00
O 2 < U
H b II
II
II
2 II 0 0
O ii in in
. , it — k .—
M n cn n
EH g — II
< U iH || O O
2 H — II
EH •£ ^^> ||
2 S "•"* II
(d \ II
U 2 IT II
2 H 6 II
O «-" II
U II
II
II
II
— ' II iH iH
•on • o
\ || O •
j D tr n o
(C d, j^ j|
2 PC \ n
o sr n
6 II
*•* n
n
n
II 0>
II C
II 0)
II *
EH II >.
H II 4J
en a) o
II 0-H
M || h C
EH II 0 0 0
CO || >H b -H
2 II £ £ C
O II U U O
U II 0 £ b
II h 3 £
II 4J CO U
II 0>
II H
II
II 0
II •
II 0
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
0 0 II
0 0 II
• • II
OOJJ
II
II
H
II
in in ll
0 0 II
i i li
U U II
rH in n
II
H
II
li
r> N ll
o <-i II
0 0 II
• • II
O 0 II
ll
II
ll
ll
^r rr II
0 0 II
0 0 II
• • II
0 0 II
II
u
II
II
II
n
u
u
u
ii
u
0 H (I
fH (I
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
ii
U 0
!3
K N
li <
U II SB
^— J II
C II U
O U II M
6 M-H II 2
3 £ C II O
•H o O II K
E Si \* II S X
O 3 £ II U U
w co cj ii co a
£ II D 2
O II CO M
II II
II *r II
II • II
II 0 II
II II
II II
II II
II II
II II
II II
II II
II II
II
It
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
11
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II II
II II
II II
M II
II II
H 0 II
ii a ii
II < II
UN i,
!!£ !!
u n
n u n
II M ||
II 2 X II
II O W II
n a a n
II S 2 II
II U M II
96
c
0)
01
•p >
10 4->
U A
1— (
^H C
01 0
> -H
4J
IT (0
C 3
•H C
U 0)
O 4J
4J 4J
-H n
II
•H
C -P
•H 3
(H
•O-H
0) *O
tM 4^
0) U
CO 0)
.O-H
O **-!
0)
CO b
o o
•H 4J
vo
U 0) h
4J *J 0)
C CO 4J
0) 3 0
OT1 >
CT3
O0 w1
U C
•• • -H
0) > fl»J
0) hC
0 C 3-H
h o co u
aTJ
0 0> X £
PC 0) O1
C 3
0 C«w 0
•HOW
$ CO 4J 4J
Q 0) C
0 4J-H 0)
CD O< 3
0) CO
h C TJ O
«ft ff ft.
W b MH
•H 0 X
CO 4J 01
CUV
O 0 C ^
•H -H 0
4J 0) ^H U
0 > 0) O
k-H 0
4J 4J C CO
C 0 01 W
0) 0) n
O O£ CO
U U 4-* *4>
iH fS
o^ >_^
-------
o 52 sites with ecological damages were identified in the
study; documentary evidence was available for only 16
of these sites. Because ecological information has not
been collected systematically, and is available for so
few sites, the information available is probably not
representative of the nature and extent of ecological
risks.
o In the professional judgement of EPA Regional staffs,
many Subtitle C facilities probably pose ecological
threats, but there is little factual information
available to support this judgement.
For this study, seven assessments of ecological damages at RCRA
Subtitle C facilities, including both operating facilities and
units undergoing corrective action, were available for review.
Additionally, a sample of facilities were mapped to evaluate
proximity of facilities to wetlands, surface waters, and
woodlands. Finally, information from the national study was used
to qualitatively characterize potential risks and ecological
effects.
TOXICITY ASSESSMENT
RCRA Subtitle C facilities manage a wide variety of wastes which
may be toxic to flora and fauna. Observed ecological damages
from RCRA facilities include fish kills, diseased benthic
(sediment) habitats, chronic or behavioral effects on aquatic and
terrestrial plant and animal species, oyster mortality, reduced
flora and fauna species diversity, and reduced productivity in
wetland habitats (10). These damages are associated with
releases of toxic heavy metals, organochlorine and other
pesticide wastes, and other toxic organics constituents.
Within Region V, ecological assessments of sites with known
releases of contaminants to surface waters and soils have
identified a range of ecological results, from no apparent
effects at the Modern Plating Corp. site, JDF site, and Paxton II
landfill, to dead vegetation and reduced animal populations at
the Four County Landfill. In general, the majority7 of the
limited number of ecological assessments available did not
identify significant ecological impacts.
From the national study of ecological threats, the primary routes
through which ecological damages occur are through migration of
contaminated ground water and/or surface runoff to surface waters
or wetlands. In 75 percent of the identified cases, ground water
discharge to surface waters was the route of concern; in 42
percent of the cases, overland flow to surface waters was the
route of concern (10).
97
-------
The principal ecological damages of concern Identified at
Subtitle C facilities are toxic effects on aquatic and wetland
organisms, resulting in mortality, reduced species diversity, and
reduced productivity. In 83 percent of cases, damages to surface
water environments were or primary concern; in 50 percent of the
cases, damages to wetlands were of concern (10). Only one case
identified toxic effects of terrestrial wildlife.
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
The primary types of waste management units contributing to
ecological risks identified in the national study (10) were
operating land disposal units (landfills, impoundments, and waste
piles) and inactive units requiring corrective action. A sample
of land disposal units in Region V were mapped to estimate the
number of land disposal units in proximity to wetlands, surface
waters and woodland in the Region.
The percentages identified in the sample were applied to the
total numbers of land disposal units and units projected to
require corrective action in the Region to develop a rough
estimate of the number of units potentially threatening wetland
or surface water contamination (assuming corrective action units
are distributed similarly to operating units). About 25 percent
of these units were estimated to be within 1 Km of a wetland, and
86 percent within 1 Km of a surface water. The total number of
units estimated to be within 1 Km of a wetland is 385, and within
1 Km of a surface water, 1324. The estimates by state and for
the Region as a whole are shown in Table 11.
Operating land disposal units are designed, constructed,
operated, and monitored to prevent unauthorized (e.g., without a
NPDES permit) releases of contaminants to surface waters or
ground waters. Thus, it is unlikely that a large percentage of
these operating units would pose a threat to surface welter or
wetlands with continued inspection and enforcement under the RCRA
program.
Units requiring corrective action, however, typically do not meet
current operating criteria and frequently have had confirmed
releases to the environment, of a sample of corrective action
site hazard scoring calculations reviewed for this study, 46
percent showed concern about surface water contamination. Should
this number be representative of the universe of corrective
action sites, 620 sites would be projected to pose some risks to
surface water or wetlands ecosystems.
Information on the extent of damages at sites, and environmental
concentrations of contaminants in surface waters, benthic
deposits, or organisms, are very scant. Therefore, to obtain a
relative gauge of the potential ecological hazards from
corrective action sites, an estimate was developed of the average
98
-------
TABLE 11: ESTIMATED NUMBERS OF LAKD DISPOSAL QUITS AMD CORRECTIVE ACIIOI
FACILITIES LOCATED 1* PROXIMITY TO SD8FACE WATERS, WETLANDS, 01 WOODED AREAS
STATE
Illinois
Indiana
Michigan
Minnesota
Ohio
Wisconsin
3S33S3S33333
TOTAL
PERCENT OF
SITES (3)
SS33S3333333
LAID DISPOSAL
OHITS (1)
29
89
17
10
36
14
33:33383333=333
195
CORRECTIVE ACTION
FACILITIES (2)
311
309
244
86
312
83
TOTAL
SITES
340
398
261
96
348
97
ESTIMATED
SITES,
1 KM OF
WETLAKD
85
100
65
24
87
24
1345 1540
385
ESTIMATED
SITES,
1 KM OF
WOODLAND
207
243
159
58
212
59
939
251
ESTIMATED
SITES,
1 KHOF
SURFACE WATQ
293
342
225
82
299
83
1324
611
861
(1) Land disposal units include landfills, surface iipoundients, and waste piles within Region.
(2) Distribution of corrective action facilities by state is based on distribution of active
txeatient, storage, and disposal facilities, since corrective actions vill generally occur
at solid waste lanageient units at these facilities.
(3) The percent allocation of units or facilities near wetlands, surface waters, or wooded areas
is based on lapping a saiple of 28 Region V facilitiess.
99
-------
daily and annual pollutant loadings through leachate discharge
from an "average" corrective action unit of about 20 acres in
size. The assumptions on which this estimate is based are:
o Average size is 20 acres. No data were available on
the size distribution of corrective action sites in
Region V; therefore, 20 acres was chosen for this
example calculation based on professional judgement.
o Average net infiltration (precipitation -
evapotranspiration) for Region V is 5 inches, assuming
no runoff (11)
'o The units is unlined and does not have a leachate
collection system
o All leachate generated flows to surface water through
surface runoff or ground water without attenuation or
transformation in route
o Concentrations of constituents are the mean values of
the maximum observed among a sample of corrective
action sites.
This calculation is intended as an example of potential loadings
and is not intended to be representative of discharges from the
"average" unit in Region V.
The results of this calculation are shown in Table 12 for 6 toxic
constituents frequently found in ground water at corrective
action sites. The table shows the average concentration in
leachate of the constituents, and total pounds of constituent
released per day and per year. The average daily flow of
leachate from the units, assuming the units is at moisture
equilibrium (outflow « inflow), is about 7500 gallons per day.
N,
In general, the calculated pollutant loadings from leachate would
not be anticipated to pose a serious water quality problem if
discharged to even a relatively small sized stream (e.g., 5
million gallons per day, or 8 cubic feet per second) due to
dilution. For example, Table 12 provides estimates of the
increase in concentration of the released constituents that would
be observed on average in a 5 MGD stream. The discharge would
only raise the most concentrated contaminant,
tetrachloroethylene, by about 0.36 ppm, under a set of very
conservative assumptions concerning dilution and attenuation
between the site and discharge. Other constituent concentrations
would be raised by less than 0.1 ppm. Since tetrachloroethylene
is quit volatile, it would not be expected to persist in a stream
after discharge from ground water.
•100
-------
TABLE 12: EXAMPLE POLLUTANT LOADINGS FROM LEACHATE,
20 ACRE LAND DISPOSAL UNIT OR CORRECTIVE ACTION FACILITY
CONSTITUENT
3;===================
Benzene
Tetrachloroethylene
Trichloroethylene
Lead
Cadmium
Chrbmium
LEACHATE
AVERAGE
CONCENTRATION
(rag/1)(2) LBS/DAY
0.12
3.48
0.20
0.44
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.22
0.01
0.03
0.00
0.00
LBS/YR
3
79
5
10
0
0
CONCENTRATION
INCREASE, 5 MGD
STREAM
0.01
0.36
0.02
0.05
0.00
0.00
(1) Calculated based on an average of 5 inches net infiltration
per year for a 20 acre unit/site.
(2) Average concentrations taken from survey of corrective
action reports.
101
-------
In contrast to discharges to streams, discharges to relatively
static water bodies such as wetlands or ponds are more likely to
significantly degrade quality due to the accumulation of toxics
at relatively high concentrations, poor nixing, and lack of
dilution.
Discharges from larger sites would be expected to result in
higher loadings of toxic pollutants, which would in turn have
greater potential effects on the receiving stream.
GREAT LAKES ASSESSMENT
No specific information was available concerning the effects of
RCRA facilities on the Great Lakes. Approximately 52 percent of
the sample sites selected for this study were located within the
Great Lakes basin, which results in a projection of about 670
corrective action units and 100 active land disposal units within
the basin. Assuming 86 percent of these are located within 1 Km
of a surface water, abut 580 corrective action units and 86
operating units could potentially contribute to toxic loadings to
the Great Lakes.
No data are available to project the potential toxic loadings
from these sources to the Great Lakes. Based on the information
discussed in the preceding section, it would be expected that the
total contribution of toxics would be a significant but
incremental contributor to degradation of Great Lakes quality.
Given the dilution available in route and within the lakes, only
very limited local effects on aquatic organisms would be expected
to be observed at near shore locations.
REFERENCES
(1) Personal communication from Lorna Jereze, EPA Region V, to
Eric Hillenbrand, July 2, 1990. Based on information from
Hazardous Waste Data Management System. ^
(2) Estimated based on information from Pope-Reid, Inc., and
ICF, Inc., "Hazardous Waste Tanks Risk Analysis: Draft
Report," prepared for U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste,
March, 1986.
(3) Hazardous Waste Data Management System, Printout for April
25, 1990.
(4) U.S. EPA Region V, database on Marketers and Burners of
Hazardous Waste Fuel.
(5) U.S. EPA Region V, Corrective Action Reporting System, data
provided on July 2, 1990.
(6) U.S. EPA, "Graphical Exposure Modeling System," 1986.
102
-------
(7) Pope-Reid, Inc., and ICF, Inc., "Hazardous Waste Tanks Risk
Analysis: Draft Report," prepared for U.S. EPA, Office of
Solid Waste, March, 1986.
(8) Information from risk assessments for the Peerless St.
Mary's Cement Kiln, 3M Chemolite Incinerator, and Dow
Michigan Incinerator.
(9) U.S. EPA, "OSWER Comparative Risk Assessment: Report of the
Health Effects Workgroup, Draft Final," U.S. EPA, Office of
Policy, Planning and Information, July 1988.
(10) U.S. EPA, "The Nature and Extent of Ecological Risks at
Superfund Sites and RCRA Facilities," U.S. EPA, Office of
Policy Planning and Evaluation, June 1989.
i
(11) Lu, J.C.S., Eichenberger, B., and R.J. Stearns, "Leachate
from Municipal Landfills," Noyes Publications, 1985.
103
-------
9. ABANDONED HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES " ' "
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
The Abandoned Hazardous Waste Site problem area covers the risks
posed to human health and the environment by abandoned waste
treatment, storage, disposal, or recycling facilities, illegal
dumpsites, and other abandoned waste sites. Specific categories
of sites covered within this problem area include:
o Superfund National Priority List (NPL) sites, including
Federal facilities on the NPL
o State Superfund sites (sites being remedied under state
' equivalents to the Superfund program)
o Other sites reported to EPA and listed on the CERCLIS
site list, including Federal Facility sites, sites
which have been scored using the Hazard Ranking System,
and sites remaining to be scored.
o Other unmanaged hazardous waste sites which are no
longer in operation.
This problem area includes a variety of different types of
abandoned sites, including hazardous waste facilities, municipal
and industrial waste facilities, recycling facilities, illegal
dumps, and contaminated sediment sites. Contaminated harbor and
river sediments, while not unique to Region V, are of relatively
higher importance in Region V due to the geographic extent and
concentrations of the contamination, as well as the importance of
the Great Lakes to the area. While this category will be more
explicitly addressed in the Surface Water problem area, in so
much as they are included in the WasteLAN/CERCLIS, they are dealt
with here as well.
The types of risks covered within this problem area include risks
to environmental quality and human health arising from:
i
o Exposure to contaminants through migration via air,
surface water, and groundwater, and through food chain
exposures,
o Direct contact with wastes or contaminants
Characteristics of Abandoned Hazardous Waste Sites
There are currently 267 sites in Region V on the National
Priorities List (NPL) - 246 final and 21 proposed. In all, there
are over 6200 sites that have been or are to be reviewed for
possible addition to the NPL. About 2900 of these sites have
been analyzed to some degree and no further remedial action is
104
-------
planned. The remainder have had or will have some sort of
additional site characterization work done on them.
For this analysis, the Region selected a group of 51 sites, 49 on
the NPL and two non-NPL sites. The Endangerment Assessments for
these sites were reviewed and used as the basis for
characterizing the rest of the Region's sites with respect to
health risks, chemicals of concern, exposure pathways,
populations exposed, and the degree of excess cancer and non-
carcinogenic risks. Risks factors derived from these sites were
applied to the estimated exposed populations at all sites to
arrive at estimates of lifetime excess cancers and other health
effects.
Overall, about 47% of the NPL sites in the Region are
characterized as in a rural setting, 31% in a suburban setting,
and 22% as in an urban area. Almost 50% of the sites are larger
than 20 acres. While the wastes come from a large number of
different sources, the majority are from four industries -
fabricated metal products, chemicals and allied products,
electroplating, and primary metal products. The predominate
liquid wastes present at sites include solvents, organic
chemicals, metals, oily wastes, acids/bases, and polychlorinated
biphenyls. The predominate solid wastes present at sites include
municipal wastes, metals, organic chemicals, fly and bottom ash.
(2)
HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
The 51 sites reviewed represented the potential for a worst case
of 68 excess cancers over 70 years, and the risk of 22 excess
cancers in the most probable scenario. Extrapolating these
results on a weighted basis to the other approximately 6150 sites
in the WasteLAN/CERCLIS database (1) presents an estimated total
lifetime risk of 1094 excess cancer cases from abandoned
hazardous wastes sites. On an annual basis, this represents
approximately 16 additional cancer cases per year.
TOZICITY ASSESSMENT /
A list of potential carcinogens found at significant
concentrations at a majority of those sites included:
polychlorinated biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
benzene, nickel, methyl chloride, vinyl chloride, and
trichloroethene. Their Cancer Potency Factors (slope factors)
ranged from 0.011 mg/kg/day for trichloroethene to 0.434 for
polychlorinated biphenyls.
For non-carcinogenic risks, the Hazard Indexes (Chronic Daily
Intake/Reference Dose) were calculated for arsenic, chromium,
cadmium, lead, toluene, zinc, and several others at various
locations studied. The Reference Doses for these chemicals
105
-------
ranged from 0.01 mg/kg/day for nickel to 5.0 mg/kg/day for
chromium.
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Groundwater contamination was the exposure pathway of concern in
the overwhelming majority of the cases (91.3%). Groundwater was
withdrawn for drinking water within three miles of 86% of the
sites, and there were operable wells within one mile of 96% of
the sites. Of those drinking water wells within three miles, the
population served was greater than 10,000 in 45% of the cases,
from 3,000 to 10,000 in 26% of the cases, from 1,000 to 3,000 in
21% of the cases, and less than 1,000 in only 8% of the cases.
(2) The next most freguent pathway was air (4.7%), and then
surface water (4.3%). (2)
The estimates of population exposed at the 51 sites studied
ranged from 38 persons drinking groundwater up to 34,000 with a
threatened water supply. (7,8,9,10,11)
HUMAN HEALTH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
Cancer Risks
Cancer risks were calculated based on the most probable cases,
not the maximum. The values selected were based on reasonable
exposure pathways now and in the future - but not on such worst
cases as a residential well in the middle of a site, or landfill
leachate being used for drinking water. Wherever appropriate, a
reasonable aggregate risk number was selected.
The analysis results were extrapolated to the universe of Region
V sites by assigning them risk values in proportion to their
perceived potential for human health and ecological damage.
Applying the risk factors of NPL sites to sites that had been
scored and didn't make the NPL would have resulted in excessive
and unrealistic numbers - however, it was agreed that all sites
in the Region V universe carry at least some level of risk. So,
after Regional discussions, and after separating out the 267 NPL
sites, it was agreed (6,11,12) that the risks from Region V's
remaining universe of 5939 sites should be apportioned as
follows:
o 50% of the universe (2984 sites) was classified as: No
Further Remedial Action Planned - These were assigned
risks equal to 25% of the average risk level of the
sites reviewed with Hazard Ranking System scores in the
range of 35-45.
o 50% of the universe (2959 sites) were designated as:
High or Medium Priority for Further Action - these
sites were further divided - with 70% of the 2959 sites
106
-------
(2071) classified (by the Regional office) as Medium
Priority for Further Action and assigned the risk level
equal to the average risk level of the sites reviewed
that scored below 35 on the Hazard Ranking System.
o The remaining 928 sites were classified as: High
Priority for Further Action and assigned risks equal to
the average risk level of the sites reviewed with
Hazard Ranking System scores 35-45.
o NPL sites were assigned risks in the same proportion as
the 51 reviewed sites.
o Potential populations exposed were calculated based on
' the averages population figures in each of those
categories.
RISK/POPULATION FACTORS (Analysis of 51 sitesi
Average Excess Cancers
Population Exposed Risk uer Site (70 vrs)
Band 1 7844
HRS >45
Band 2 6267
HRS 35-45
Band 3 7844
HRS <35
.000123 .97
.000093 .58
.000015 .16
TOTAL EXCESS CANCERS (Projected to all Region V sites)
SITE CATEGORY NUMBER OF SITES TOTAL CANCERS
No Further Remedial 2984 119
Action Planned sites '
Medium 2071 333
Priority Sites
High 928 542
Priority Sites
NPL Sites 267 100
Total Region V Lifetime Excess Cancers 1094
107
-------
Non-cancer Risks
At the 51 sites evaluated, Hazard Indices greater than l were
calculated for 21. At 16 of those 21 sites, an HI of 1 was
exceeded only in the worst case scenario. Hazard Indices of up
to 245 were calculated in worst case scenarios for the sample
sites, and up to 29 in the most probable cases. The most
frequent chemicals for which hazard indices greater than 1 were
calculated were arsenic, chromium, copper, zinc, and toluene.
The most frequent non-cancerous health effects for which indices
greater than 1 were calculated were for reproductive changes,
liver and renal dysfunctions. (3)
NON-CANCER RISK/POPULATION FACTORS (Analysis of 51 sites)
Hazard
Population Exposed Index Average Risk
(HI)
Band 1 HRS >45
Cases:
Most Likely 100 1.14 1.14
Worst 5721 8.1-245.0 40.1
Band 2 HRS 35-45
Most Likely 6334 1.5-1.8 1.73
Worst 3062 1.5-29 19.2
Band 3 HRS <35
Hazard Index < 1
Risks from non-carcinogenic contaminants were calculated
according to the model provided by Region V. The results were
extrapolated to the universe of Region V sites in basically the
same way as the cancer risks. The 51 studied sites had Hazard
Indices greater than 1 at 10% of the sites in the most probable
case, and 41% in the worst case. These percentages were applied
to the remainder of 267 NPL sites, and the highest priority
scored sites. The average population exposed per site and per
case was also applied. Because of the proportion of sites that
did not exceed a Hazard Index of 1, and because of anomalous
results in trying to apply Region V's model to the lowest risk
case, it was assumed that the excess risk was negligible for
sites with indices less than 1.
108
-------
TOTAL NON-CANCER RISK (Allocated to Region V sites^
\J
-I
SITE CATEGORY
NPL
Sites
High
Priority
Medium
Priority
CASE
Likely
Worst
Likely
Worst
Likely
Worst
NUMBER SITES
27
101
120
490
2071
POTENTIAL
POPULATION
EXPOSURE
10,110
125,840
27,480
460,600
Hazard Index «
HAZARD
INDEX
1.14
40.1
1.73
19.2
Cl
ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
The^Endangerment Assessments for the 49 NPL sites and two non-
siteV-wejre reviewed for ecological risks, chemicals of conpefl
iways, and to the degree possible, effects
exposure
sensitive
local populations
Assessments were revie
the rest of the Region's s
were grouped into three bands
System scores. However,
inadequate assessments.
the sites with as
endangerment Jjf'about one third
endangered species, and the^vfability of
wildlife.
each and
base;
;ding
half
ecological ris
found potential
sndangerment
"characterization of
them. The sites studied
to their Hazard Ranking
sites had no or
Further analysis of
ological
to entire
universe
Extrapolating
6206 sites, about one half were estimated
some^po"tential for ecological risk, and with one third
having moderate to significant potential risk.
TOZICZTY ASSESSMENT
Ecological effects at Superfund sites can be severe'. Death,
depressed reproduction, and decreased genetic diversity in plant
and animal life can result from toxicant release at hazardous
waste sites. Most of these sites are contaminated with chemicals
that are persistent and bioaccumulative (e.g., PAHs, PCBs, lead,
cadmium) and have contaminants present that are acutely toxic to
aquatic organisms when present in sufficient concentrations. At
lower concentrations, these toxicants can present serious
long-term threats to the environment. (Summary of Ecological
Risks, Assessment Methods, and Risk Management Decisions in
Superfund and RCRA, June 1989).
109
-------
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
In this study of ecological risks from Region V Superfund sites,
limited quantitative information was available. This paucity of
information partially is due to reliance on the current Hazard
Ranking System (HRS) for placement of sites on the NPL. The
inclusion of ecological factors in the current HRS is limited;
ecological hazard is scored simply in terms of the distance from
a site to the nearest "sensitive environment." Under the current
HRS scoring algorithm, NPL listing is impossible for sites where
ecological risks are the sole concern. Obviously, sites that
score just below the NPL listing threshold based on human health
concerns can be pushed past the threshold based on ecological
concerns, but ecological risks is not the driving factor.
Because Superfund remedial action is less likely to occur at a
site if it is not listed on the NPL, this is a crucial decision
point in the Superfund program, and one is which ecological risk
is not an important consideration. The proposed revision to the
HRS (53 Rea. 51962, December 23, 1988) would expand the
consideration of ecological concerns, but at this time it is
uncertain to what extent the revisions will affect site placement
on the NPL.
The Endangerment Assessments for 49 of Region V's 267 NPL sites
and two non-NPL sites were reviewed for ecological risks,
chemicals of concern, exposure pathways, and to the degree
possible, effects on sensitive ecosystems, endangered species,
and the continuing viability of indigenous wildlife, diversity
attributed to a specific site. Over half of the 51 studied had
no ecological assessment or one limited to listing species and
surrounding land uses without any attempt to characterize
ecological effects. Generally, the Endangerment Assessments
focused on groundwater because of its human health implications.
Although groundwater is a less important pathway for ecological
effects, there were sites in each of the three Hazard Ranking
System categories defined where contaminated groundwater or
landfill leachate exceeded AACS and CACs, LCSOs, and LOELs. In
fact, nine of the 51 sites studied listed groundwater or surface
water concentrations that exceeded at least one of the standards.
At one site, discharges to a river from site leachate violated
AACs or CACs for six different contaminants. Two violated CACs
even after dilution in the river. In virtually all of these
cases, the contaminants were metals - copper, zinc, chromium, and
lead - polychlorinated biphenyls exceeded a standard at only one
site. At that one site, the Endangerment Assessment noted that
the immediate population of robins and shrews were facing
reproductive failure because of polychlorinated biphenyls
contamination of soils and exposed sediments.
The analysis noted a number of Endangerment Assessments where
ingestion of fish was one of the human health exposure pathways
assessed because fish near the sites had elevated levels of
110
-------
contaminants in their fat tissues. And it is well documented
that such contamination is a persistent problem in the Great
Lakes. The study also found instances where livestock and milk
was contaminated by residues from a site over a mile away.
The local US Fish and Wildlife Service representative was
contacted regarding one of those sites where the site had caused
local tree die offs and fish kills, and was strongly suspected of
causing depressed fish populations in a stretch of the Ohio
River. This site was discharging into a sensitive and important
wetland and creek that are part of the National Wild and Scenic
Rivers System, the Endangerment Assessment failed to mention
this.
These same Endangerment Assessments brought out the frequent
difficulty in trying to separate out the effects of a particular
site on an ecosystem. For example, the Midco I site has the
potential for ecological effects - being near a river, wetlands,
wooded areas, and very near Lake Michigan. However, Midco I is
also in a complex of 31 hazardous waste sites in a highly
disturbed industrial area. A majority of the land in this area
was originally wetlands that were filled by steel mill slag. Any
depressed ecological diversity or reproductive failures were the
result of an overall pattern of habitat destruction and
environmental neglect.
An important note is that ecological risk cannot always be
remediated at Superfund sites without causing additional harm.
For example, the existence of widespread sediments are impacts in
the Great Lakes basin, where contaminated sediments are a
difficult problem. While many of the Great Lakes bird species
have shown marked recoveries in reproductive success over the
past few years, fish-eating birds in areas of highly contaminated
sediments continue to have reproductive problems. This would
seem to argue for remedial measures. However, the EAs at two
sites with contaminated river sediments where more extensive
ecological assessments were done argued against remedial
measures. They found that the toxic constituents in the
sediments were effectively sealed by covering sediments, and that
any clean-up activities would release the toxins that were now
immobilized. Also, conversations with U.S. EPA and U.S. FWS
staff experts pointed out that the damage to ecosystems from the
effects of bringing the machinery and activities for a major
remedial effort into isolated wildlife areas would be immediate,
acute, and perhaps irreparable.
ECOLOGICAL RISK CHARACTERIZATION
Results from these 51 sites can be generalized to all Superfund
sites within the region in order to estimate region-wide
ecological threats from Superfund sites. Caution must be used in
such a generalization; these sites are not necessarily truly
111
-------
representative of all Region V sites. For instance, 49 of the 51
sites are on the NPL, while only two are non-NPL sites.
Region-Wide, 267 of the ca. 62 sites that have been reviewed are
on the NPL. Nevertheless, projecting results from the 51 sites
to the entire region can provide valuable insight into the extent
and severity of ecological threats from Superfund sites within
the region.
Approximately one-half of the 51 sites studied had essentially no
ecological assessment performed. Roughly one-third of those
sites that had an ecological assessment show potential for
significant ecological impacts. For sites with no ecological
assessments, we can estimate lower and upper limits for the
proportion of sites that may have significant ecological harm.
In some instances site ecological Eas may be omitted because site
and contaminant characteristics imply that extensive ecological
damage seems unlikely. Thus 0% represents the lower limit on the
proportion of sites with no ecological Eas that have possible
significant ecological impacts. However, many other factors
influence whether ecological Eas are performed, including fund
and personnel availability and natural resource trustee and
public involvement. If we assume that the absence of a site
ecological EA implies nothing about the possibility for
ecological damage, then the proportion of these sites that have
the potential for significant ecological damage is expected to be
the same as that for sites with ecological EAs. Thus one-third
represents the upper limit on the proportion of these sites where
ecological damage is likely. Using these crude approximations we
estimate that between 17% and 33% of Superfund sites in the
region show potential for significant ecological harm. This
estimate coincides well with a similar estimate derived from a
nation-wide EPA study of 52 Superfund sites (EPA 1989). In that
study, the authors estimated that 18% to 35% of the sites across
the country (both NPL and non-NPL) have the potential for
significant ecological impacts.
We can estimate the total number of sites in the region that show
the potential for significant ecological harm by assuming that
the above analysis can be extrapolated to the universe of Region
V Superfund sites. Currently ca. 6200 sites in Region V have
been or will be reviewed for NPL listing, with 2984 (48%) of the
sites classified as no further action required. The destination
of these sites are not requiring further action is based
primarily on human health considerations. Ecological concerns
are largely not considered, and significant ecological effects at
some of these sites is likely. Nevertheless, for the purpose of
illustration we assume that these 2984 sites have no significant
adverse ecological impacts. Applying the factors of 17% and 33%
to the remaining 3226 sites give an estimate of between 550 and
1100 sites in Region V that have the potential for significant
ecological effects.
112
-------
These effects can be quantified somewhat by projecting results of
the nation-wide Superfund study to Region V. That study
presented a nationwide estimate based on a pool of 52 Superfund
sites for the number of stream miles with surface water
contamination, sediment contamination, and fish kills, and the
acreage of soil contamination, defoliation, and wetland
contamination (EPA 1989). Although many assumptions were
included in those derivation, the authors felt that the estimates
provided an adequate rough quantification of the extent of
ecological impacts at Superfund sites. We can derive similar
measures for Region V by using the rations of are contaminated
per Superfund site from the National study. Using the upper
limit of 1100 sites with the potential for significant ecological
effects, it is estimated that Region V Superfund sites are
responsible for up to 25 stream miles with contaminated surface
waters, 350 stream miles with fish kills, 1700 stream miles with
contaminated sediments, 13,000 acres with contaminated soil, 4600
acres of defoliation, and 4600 acres of contaminated wetlands.
Many of the toxicants responsible for this contamination are
persistent in the environment and tend to bioaccumulate (e.g.,
heavy metals, PAHs, PCBs). With remediation these contaminants
would present significant long-term threats to the biota at these
sites. At any give site ecological effects are often relatively
small-scale, limited to local biota in direct contact with the
contaminants. Some sites, however, result in fairly large-scale
contamination, usually associated with large rivers or lakes.
When considered at the region-wide scale, the large number of
Superfund sites with localized effects and the few sites with
large-scale effects can constitute a considerable ecological
threat.
UNCERTAINTIES
Health Risk Analysis
This analysis is felt to be a reasonable estimate the risks from
abandoned waste sites. There are several areas of significant
uncertainty - one being that the risks presented in/ the
endangerment assessments for the NPL sites themselves are the
risks at the sites without any remedial actions. Presumably, a
significant number of the sites on the WasteLAN/CERCLIS database
will be undergoing some degree of cleanup - by the Federal
government, the state, or private parties. Presumably, these
remedial actions will lower their risks to the order of 1E-6.
Attempting to quantify that change was beyond the scope of this
analysis.
A major uncertainty was in the data on populations exposed. Only
a few Endangerment Assessments had good exposure data, and many
had no population data whatsoever. Estimates were made based on
the exposure route and the site characteristics, but the
113
-------
available information was often crude at best. In most cases,
higher exposure estimates were selected as the most
environmentally conservative, except when these were felt to
unreasonably affect the results.
Ecological Assessment
The quantitative analysis performed in this risk study was
hampered by the paucity of information on ecological effects at
Superfund sites with the region. Many sites had little or no
ecological assessment performed, and those that did varied
considerably in the type, dept, and quality of data collected.
Risk estimates based on the available data must represent an
underestimate of the ecological risk, since the collection of
more data would reveal more effects.
In scaling, sites classified as "requiring no further action,"
which is based almost solely on human health effects due to the
nature of the MRS, were used. Because the assumption was made
that all of these sites would therefore not require any further
action based on ecological risks, is underestimating the
ecological risk.
The lack of detailed ecological information was the main source
of uncertainty in this analysis. Also, projecting results from
the 51 sites to all sites within the region may not be completely
valid. We do feel, however, that this projection provides an
adequate rough generalization of the extent of ecological risks
from Superfund sites.
REFERENCES
(1) Dibblee, Seth; Region V memo to V. Thomas, "Comparative Risk
Analysis at Superfund Sites," June 18, 1990
(2) NPL Characterization Project. Region V Results. U.S. EPA
Report, January 26, 1990 '
(3) U.S. EPA, Chemical.Physical, and Biological Properties of
Compounds Present at Hazardous Waste Sites. Office of Waste
Programs Enforcement, September 27, 1985
(4) Personal Communication, Wm. Kurey, E.S. Fish & Wildlife
Service, Ashton, Ohio
(6) Personal Communication, Milt Clark, U.S. EPA Region V
(7) Personal Communication, Paul Bertram, U.S. EPA, Great
Lakes National Program Office, Chicago
114
-------
(8) Personal Communication, Office of the Mayor, Wausau,
Wisconsin
(9) Personal Communication, Office of the Mayor, Eau Clare,
Wisconsin
(10) U.S. Department of Commerce, "County Population
Estimates,"Bureau of the Census, August, 1989
(11) Personal Communication, Amy Blumberg, U.S. EPA Region V
(12) Personal Communication, Vicki Thomas, U.S. EPA Region V
(13) Colborn, Great Lakes Toxics Working Paper. Department of the
' Environment, Government of Canada, 1988
(14) Personal Communication, Wm. Franz, U.S. EPA Region V
(15) Personal Communication, Erin Moran, U.S. EPA Region V
115
-------
SUPPLEMENTAL ANALYSIS - ENVIRONMENTAL LEAD EXPOSURES
DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
Lead in the environment is an area of newly heightened concern
that was evaluated as part of the Abandoned Hazardous Waste Site
problem area. However, because the routes of exposure, types of
exposures, and analytical method for assessing this problem are
substantially different than those associated with current NPL
sites, a separate analysis was prepared.
There are a number of sources of lead in the environment - and
some controversy as to the pathways and their relative
contributions to the problem. The primary sources of lead are
airborne lead from gasoline combustion, smelter and other metals
processing operations, lead in soils, lead solder in food cans,
and lead from deteriorating paints. There are other significant
sources of lead exposure - including lead in household water
pipes, water coolers, and occupational exposures. Although this
analysis does not attempt to separate out the various sources of
lead exposure, it generally emphasizes children as the
individuals at greatest risk, an, therefore, discounts
occupational exposures (which are regulated by OSHA).
HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
TOXICITY ASSESSMENT
There is no currently accepted reference dose for lead. Thirty
(30) ug Pb/dcl was used previously, but the reference dose is
being lowered as a result of more recent understanding of the
health effects of low level blood lead concentrations. (1,2)
Significant physiological effects have been noted at blood levels
of 10 to 15 ug/dcl. (2)
BLOOD LEAD LEVELS HEALTH EFFECTS
10-15 ug/dcl Fetal development problems,
(pre-and post inhibition of heme synthesis,
natal) neurobehavioral and growth deficits.
5-30 ug/dcl Potential impairment of hearing;
inhibition of enzyme system, vitamin D
and calcium metabolism, and cognitive
development; reduced IQ scores;
neurological damage.
30-40 ug/dcl Peripheral nerve dysfunction,
frankanemia, potential organ damage.
Above 80 ug/dcl Coma, convulsions, profound retardation,
seizures, death.
116
-------
The damage related to neur logical functions - retardation,
decreased IQ scores, developmental problems, behavioral
abnormalities, cognitive dysfunction - are considered
irreversible. (2)
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Deteriorating lead-based paint in older homes has traditionally
been considered the predominant exposure route, but more
recently, ingestion and inhalation of household dust has been
found to be the main source.(2) And, while lead-based paints
certainly contribute to the levels of lead in that dust,
apparently airborne lead from automobiles is the greatest
contributor.
U.S. EPA estimates that automobile fuel combustion has
historically accounted for 88% of total lead emissions.(6) Mean
blood lead levels dropped 36.7% (from 15.8 ug Pb/dcl to 10 ug
Pb/dcl) between February, 1976 and February, 1980. This drop was
noted across all races, ages, sexes, and socio-economic groups.
During that same period, there was a 38% drop in lead in
gasoline, and a 55% drop in lead use by petroleum refineries.
(2,4) The resultant decrease in airborne lead concentrations is
the only apparent explanation for this drop in blood lead levels.
Apparently, the airborne lead adheres to aerosols which strike
and condense on the surface of buildings. The aerosols
evaporate, and the lead particles dry and fall to the ground,
contaminating the soils around the foundations. Soils
immediately adjacent to homes are most likely to be blown and
tracked into the house - often mixing with lead-laden dust from
deteriorating paint. For example, the State of Minnesota (5)
found the following foundation soil lead levels:
Percentage Above Levels
Level (ppm) Statewide Urban Areas
100 90% '
500 14%
1000 7% 34%
Note: 1000 ppm is the State's Superfund action level for lead.
HEALTH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
The effects of lead are most pronounced at an early age, and
developing children below the age of five are considered the
individuals at greatest risk. Lactating women are another
significant risk group.(1,2,4) Also, the demographic and
socioeconomic implications of lead poisoning are profound.
117
-------
Elevated blood lead levels are positively associated with race,
income, and degree of urbanization. (1,2,7)
There is a consistent racial difference in blood lead levels
across all categories. Blood lead levels of black children 6
months to 5 years averaged 6 ug/dcl higher than those of white
children - even when corrected for income and place of residence.
Overall, 12.2 % of black children had blood lead levels above 30
ug/dcl, compared to 2.0% of whites. (2,7)
As a rule, the lower the income, the greater the blood lead
levels. This has been found across all age groups, but is most
pronounced in the 6 months to 5 years age. The same is true for
degree of urbanization - the higher the degree of urbanization,
the ,higher the blood lead levels, particularly for those in the 6
months to 5 year group. (1,2,6,7) Some of these changes can be
attributed to general health, sanitation, and nutrition, as well
as the age and condition of housing.
Nationally, between 17% (2) and 25% (6) of children in SMSAs are
considered to be at risk of adverse health effects due to
environmental exposure to lead. Some additional number of
fetuses are at risk due to maternal exposure. However, this does
not adequately describe the true risks. There are significant
concentrations of the black population living in poverty in the
central cities. The high birth rates, proportionately higher
numbers of young children, and the tendency for higher blood lead
levels associated with that population place them at an even
higher risk. Almost 58% of the children 6 months to 5 years of
age in this population are estimated to have blood lead levels
above 15 ug/dcl. (2)
Data from the Environmental Defense Fund's March, 1990 report
entitled Legacy of lead; America's Continuing Epidemic of
Childhood Lead Poisoning, provides the following information on
children in the SMSAs within Region V with blood lead levels
above 15 ug/dcl:
TOTAL SMSA POPULATION TOTAL NO 'PERCENT
POPULATION 0.5-5 YEARS >15 ug/dcl >15 ug/dcl
31,091,970 3,230,844 463,154 14.33
UNCERTAINTIES
While the figures for the populations exposed and at risk are
high, they are the best documented of any of the projections in
the Abandoned Hazardous Wastes Problem Area. In fact, the
greatest difficulty in this problem area is in summarizing the
118
-------
tremendous amount of data available in a meaningful way. There
have been more than 12,000 studies on environmental lead
exposures, many with detailed population and exposure data. The
data presented here is a compilation of the most recent
information available.
REFERENCES
(1) Public Health Service, The Nature and Extent of Lead
Poisoning in Children in the United States; A Report to
Congress. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry, July, 1988.
i
(2) Fiorini, Krumbhaar, Silbergeld, Legacy of lead; America's
Continuing Epidemic of Childhood Lead Poisoning.
Environmental Defense Fund, March, 1990
(3) U.S. EPA, Federal Register. "Gasoline Lead Phase-down
Program," August 27, 1982
(4) Center for Disease Control, Weekly Report. "Blood-lead
Levels in U.S. Population,11 National Center for Health
Statistics, March 19, 1982
(5) Soil Lead Report to the Minnesota State Legislature.
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Minnesota department of
Health, June, 1987
(6) U.S. EPA, Air Quality Criteria for Lead. Review Draft. Vol
IV of IV. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards,
Research Triangle Park, September, 1984
(7) Mahaffey, Annest, Roberts, Murphy, " National Estimates of
Blood Lead Levels, 1976-1980: Association with Selected
Demographic and Socioeconomic Factors," New England Journal
of Medicine, 307:573-579; September 2, 1982
119
-------
ABANDONED HAZARDOUS WASTE FACILITIES - CALCULATION METHODS AND
ASSUMPTIONS
A. General Approach
The Endangerment Assessments for 49 of Region V's 267 NPL
sites and two non-NPL sites were reviewed for human health
and ecological risks, chemicals of concern, exposure
pathways, populations exposed, and the degree of excess
cancer and non-carcinogenic risks. The risks factors were
applied to the exposed populations and to arrive at
estimates of lifetime excess cancers and other health
effects.
i
B. Chemicals of Concern and Toxicity
Which chemicals of concern the 51 Endangerment Assessments
evaluated varied considerably from site to site,depending on
the activities and the wastes disposed of at the individual
sites. Some larger sites had over 100 chemicals potentially
of concern. The initial list of chemicals of concern for
this study was based on the potential carcinogens and non-
carcinogenic contaminants that were found at significant
concentrations at a majority of the sites. They included
the potential carcinogens polychlorinated biphenyls,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, nickel, methyl
chloride, vinyl chloride, and trichloroethene - whose Cancer
Potency Factors ranged from 0.011 mg/kg/day for
trichloroethene to 0.434 for polychlorinated biphenyls. The
non-carcinogenic chemicals selected included arsenic,
chromium, cadmium, lead, toluene, zinc, and several others
specific to individual locations. Their Reference
Doses/Acceptable Intake doses ranged from 0.01 mg/kg/day for
nickel to 5.0 mg/kg/day for chromium. The Hazard Indexes
(Chronic Daily Intake:Reference Dose) were calculated based
on those values.
B. Potentially Exposed Human Populations i
The 51 sites selected by the Regional office represented a
cross-section of the region's sites. The populations
exposed were taken from the Endangerment Assessments
whenever possible. In the majority of cases, this
information was inadequate at best, and, in many cases,
simply missing. The best estimates possible were made from
data provided by the site Remedial Project Managers (10) or
other sources.
The cancer risks were calculated based on the most probable
cases, not the maximum. The values selected were based on
reasonable exposure pathways now and in the future - but not
on such worst cases as a residential well in the middle of a
site, or landfill leachate being used for drinking water.
120
-------
Wherever appropriate, a reasonable aggregate risk number was
selected.
C. Extrapolating the Results to the Universe of Sites
The analysis results were extrapolated to the universe of
Region V sites by assigning them risk values in proportion
to their perceived potential for human health and ecological
damage. There are currently 267 sites in Region V on the
National Priorities List (NPL) - 246 final and 21 proposed.
In all, there are over 6200 sites that have been or are to
be reviewed for possible addition to the NPL. About 2900 of
these sites have been analyzed to some degree and no further
, remedial action is planned. The remainder have had or will
have some sort of additional site characterization work done
on them. (1)
Applying the risk factors of NPL sites to sites that had
been scored but didn't make the NPL would have resulted in
excessive and unrealistic numbers - but in discussions with
U.S. EPA staff, virtually everyone agreed that all sites in
the Region V universe carry at least some level of risk.
So, after discussions with Region V staff, and after
separating out the 267 NPL sites, it was agreed (6,11,12)
that the risks from Region V's remaining universe of 5939
sites should be apportioned as follows:
o 50% of the universe (2984 sites) was classified as: No
Further Remedial Action Planned - These were assigned
risks equal to 25% of the average risk level of the 50
sites reviewed with Hazard Ranking System scores 35-45.
o 50% of the universe (2959 sites) were designated as:
High or Medium Priority for Further Action - these
sites were further divided - with 70% of the 2959 sites
(2071) classified (by the Regional office) as Medium
Priority for Further Action and assigned the risk level
equal to the average risk level of the 51 sites
reviewed that scored below 35 on the Hazard Ranking
System.
o The remaining 928 sites were classified as: High
Priority for Further Action and assigned risks equal to
the average risk level of the 51 sites reviewed with
Hazard Ranking System scores 35-45.
o NPL sites were assigned risks in the same proportion as
the 51 reviewed sites.
o Potential populations exposed were calculated based on
the averages of potentially exposed population per site
in each of those caJigories.
121
-------
The non-cancer human health risks were calculated by
comparing the calculated body dose levels (Chronic Daily
Intake, or GDI) to the reference doses/AIC/AIS. if the
ratio of these two numbers - the Hazard Index (HI) - exceeds
1, the non-cancer risk is deemed unacceptable. Risks from
non-carcinogenic contaminants were calculated according to
the model provided by Region V. Briefly, the range of Hazard
Indices were multiplied by their corresponding exposed
populations. The average Hazard Index was determined by
adding the resultant numbers and dividing it by the sum of
the population. This provides a total population at risk
and an average risk factor (the average Hazard Index).
These results were extrapolated to the universe of Region V
i sites in basically the same way as the cancer risks. The 51
studied sites exceeded Hazard Indices at 10% of the sites in
the most probable case, and 41% in the worst case. These
percentages were applied to the remainder of 267 NPL sites,
and the highest priority scored sites. The average
population exposed per site and per case was also applied.
Because of the proportion of sites that did not exceed the
Hazard Index, and because of anomalous results in trying to
apply Region V's model to the lowest risk case, it was
assumed that the excess risk was negligible for these sites.
D. Potential Ecological Effects
The Endangerment Assessments were also reviewed for
ecological risks, chemicals of concern, exposure pathways,
effects on sensitive ecosystems, endangered species, and the
viability of local populations of indigenous wildlife.
About one third of the sites analyzed which contained
ecological assessments found potential for ecological
endangerment. Extrapolating that to the entire universe of
6206 sites leads to the estimate that about one half are
calculated to have some potential for ecological risk, with
one third of that number having moderate to significant
potential risk.
-------
-------
10. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE SITES
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
The Municipal Solid Waste Sites problem area covers the risks to
human health and the environment posed by open or closed land
disposal facilities (including landfills and open dumps) used to
dispose of municipal refuse, municipal water and sewage treatment
sludges, and municipal incinerator ash. It also includes the
risks from municipal waste incinerators and from municipal
surface impoundments.
These facilities can threaten human health and the environment
through air emissions of volatile toxic chemicals and methane
gas, isubsurface methane migration resulting in potentially
explosive conditions in structures, and ground and surface water
contamination by landfill leachate containing organic and
inorganic toxic contaminants and/or pathogenic substances.
Contamination may occur through subsurface migration, runoff,
evaporation or wind erosion.
The types of substances disposed at these facilities include
mixed municipal and commercial refuse, household hazardous waste,
hazardous waste from conditionally exempt small quantity
generators, sewage treatment sludge, incinerator ash, and water
treatment sludge. These wastes may include some toxic
contaminants, including solvents and heavy metals.
This area does not include hazardous or industrial waste disposal
sites. Additionally, it excludes municipal solid waste sites
that have been included on the National Priorities List.
Population and Distribution of Municipal Solid Waste Sites
There are 1070 operating municipal solid waste landfills in
Region V and 27 operating municipal combustors. The population
of open municipal solid waste landfills and operating municipal
combustors distributed by state is shown in Table 1 (1).
In addition to these operating landfills, there are over 1910
closed municipal landfills in EPA Region V, based on reductions
in the population of operating municipal facilities reported by
the states between 1981 and 1989. The distribution of recently
closed sites is show in Table 2 (2).
HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
The municipal solid waste sites problem area for Region V
includes 1070 operating landfills, 1910 closed landfills, and 27
municipal solid waste and sludge incinerators. Human health
risks have been estimated quantitatively only for operating
municipal solid waste landfills, due to limitations of available
123
-------
TABLE 1: DISTRIBUTION OF OPERATING
REGION V MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
LANDFILLS AND INCINERATORS, BY STATE
STATE
Illinois
Indiana
Michigan
Minnesota
Ohio
Wisconsin
TOTAL
LANDFILLS
152
50
66
77
125
600
1070
MUNICIPAL
COMBUSTORS
2
1
5
10
5
4
27
TABLE 2: ESTIMATED DISTRIBUTION OF
RECENTLY CLOSED REGION V MUNICIPAL
SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS, BY STATE (1)
STATE
Illinois
Indiana
Michigan
Minnesota
Ohio
Wisconsin
TOTAL
CLOSED
LANDFILLS
108
99
404
294
555
450
1910
(1) Based on the number of operating landfills
reported in 1981, from JRB Associates,
"Evaluation of RCRA Subtitle D Facilities,"
prepared by JRB Associates for U.S. Congress,
Office of Technology Assessment, June 29, 1984.
124
-------
data. These risks have been estimated based on adjusting risk
calculations from the regulatory impact analysis for criteria for
municipal solid waste landfills, to reflect Region V specific
information on populations and environmental setting.
Human health risks for the 1910 closed municipal solid waste
landfills in the Region were not estimated due to a lack of
available data on these facilities. These risks are discussed
qualitatively below. It is anticipated that the risks posed by
the most hazardous of these facilities will also be covered in
the Abandoned Waste Site problem area, since some municipal solid
waste landfills are being remedied under Superfund. However,
risks posed by less hazardous sites, including risk arising
through methane migration, may not be addressed through CERCLA or
similar state programs in all cases.
TOXICITY ASSESSMENT
Documented contaminants from municipal landfills include a set of
approximately 200 constituents, including:
o Conventional pollutants, such as biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), iron,
chloride, and ammonia.
o Heavy metals, such as arsenic, antimony, cadmium, and
chromium
o Organic chemicals, including vinyl chloride,
tetrachloroethylene, dichloromethane, carbon
tetrachloride, and phenol.
In the regulatory impact analysis for proposed criteria for
classification of municipal solid waste landfills, OSW evaluated
risks to human health and the environment posed by selected
hazardous constituents found in municipal landfill leachates.
These constituents were selected to represent the maximum likely
risks to be posed by municipal landfill leachates based on their
prevalence in samples of leachate taken from multiple facilities,
average concentrations found in leachate, toxicity, mobility, and
persistence (3).
The constituents selected for risk modeling in the RIA were vinyl
chloride, arsenic, iron, tetrachloroethane, dichloromethane,
carbon tetrachloride, antimony, and phenol. Five of the
contaminants are carcinogens. The non-cancer effects of these
contaminants are neurotoxicity, cardiovascular changes, and
kidney and liver damage. Information on the carcinogenicity and
toxicity of these compounds is presented in Tables 3 and 4 (4).
125
-------
TABLE 3: CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS OF HSW LEACHATE CONSTITUENTS
DENT
•ethane
achloride
ide
CARCINOGEN
Y
Y
Y
Y
ROUTE
Oral, Inb
Oral, Inh
Oral, Inh
Oral, Inb
LEVEL OF
CONFIDENCE
C
82
A
A
SLOPE FACTOR
ORAL
(•g/kg/d)-l
5.8E-05
1.5E-05
4.2E-05
NA
INH
(•g/kg/d)-l
2.0E-01
1.3E-01
2.3E+00
4.3E-03
TUMOR
ORAL
Liver
Liver
Liver
Skin
SITE
INB
Liver
Liver
Lung
Resp. Tract
Vinyl Chloride
Arsenic
Source: "Health Effects Assessment Sunary Tables - Fourth Quarter, FY 1989", D.S.EPA, OSWER, October 1989.
TABLE 4: SOBCHROHIC AND CHRONIC EFFECTS OF USD LEACHATE CONSTITUENTS
COKSTITnENT
Carbon Tetrachloride
Subchronic
Chronic
Antiiony
Subchronic
Chronic
Arsenic
Subchronic
Chronic
Phenol
Subchronic
Chronic
ROOTE
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
ORAL
(•gAg/d)
7E-03
7E-04
4E-04
4E-04
1E-03
1E-03
0.6
0.6
RFD
INH
(•g/Kg/d)
NA
NA
NA
HA
NA
NA
NA
NA
EFFECT OF
ORAL
Liver Lesions
Liver Lesions
Blood Cheiis.
Blood Cheiis.
Keratosis
Keratosis
Reduced Fetal
Body Height
Reduced Fetal
Body Height
CONCERN
INH
NA
NA
NA
NA
IA
NA
NA
NA
UNCERTAINTY
FACTOR
100
1000
1000
1000
1
1
l
100
100
Source: "Health Effects Assessment Sunary Tables - Fourth Quarter, FY 1989", U.S.EPA, QSWER, October 1989.
126
-------
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Two principal routes of exposure or risk were considered in this
analysis: exposure due to migration of contaminants from
municipal solid waste landfills through ground water, and risks
arising through subsurface methane gas migration. These routes
were selected based on data availability and previous risk
assessments (3,5), which indicate that these are the principal
routes through which risks to human health may occur.
Estimates of potentially exposed or at risk human populations
were developed for operating landfills based on a sampling of 10
percent (or 31) of the operating landfills located in Ohio,
Michigan, Minnesota, Illinois, and Indiana. Information for
municipal waste landfills in Wisconsin was not available in time
to allow inclusion of a sample of Wisconsin landfills in the
study set.
Initially, the sample facilities were plotted on USGS topographic
maps, and total populations within 500 meters and 1 kilometer of
the sample facilities were estimated by counting the number of
residences within these radii and assuming an average of four
people per household. Populations for Wisconsin were
extrapolated from those estimated for the other five states in
Region V.
Populations potentially exposed to contaminants through ground
water were then estimated by:
o Determining the land use character (rural, suburban,
urban) of the area around the sample facilities.
o Assuming that in rural areas residential water supplies
will generally be private wells.
o Assuming that the entire population residing with 1 Km
of rural facilities were potentially exposed (absent
any information on direction of ground water flow).
t
o Calculating the estimate of potentially exposed
population for the sample facilities.
o Scaling up to the Regional level from the sample
population of facilities.
The estimated potentially exposed population is shown in Table 5.
The large majority of municipal solid waste landfills in the
sample were located in rural areas. This method should somewhat
overestimate the potentially exposed population because it
assumes all people residing within 1 Km of rural landfills are
potentially exposed.
127
-------
TABLE 5: ESTIMATED POTENTIALLY
EXPOSED POPULATIONS FOR OPERATING
LANDFILLS, GROUND WATER AND METHANE GAS
STATE
Illinois
Indiana
Michigan
Minnesota
Ohio
Wisconsin
TOTAL
TOTAL
NUMBER OF
LANDFILLS
152
50
66
77
125
600
1070
ESTIMATED
POPULATION,
GROUND WATER
25080
7083
11344
2647
37500
106725
190379
ESTIMATED
POPULATION,
METHANE GAS
8360
1875
5775
1925
14063
37775
69773
TABLE 6: ESTIMATED INCREMENTAL
CANCER CASES DUE TO GROUND WATER
EXPOSURES
RISK
LEVEL
5E-05
5E-06
1E-07
1E-09
TOTAL
ESTIMATED
PERCENTAGE
OF POPULATION
EXPOSED
22%
37%
22%
20%
100%
ESTIMATED
POPULATION
EXPOSED
41387
70357
41387
38076
191207
ESTIMATED
INCREMENTAL
CANCER CASES
2.1
0.4
0.0
1 0.0
2.4
128
-------
Populations at risk due to methane gas migration were estimated
as the populations residing with 500 meters of the landfill,
based on the assumption that methane rarely migrates in the
subsurface environment for distances greater than 500 meters ( ).
The estimate of the potentially at risk population is shown in
Table 5.
HUMAN HEALTH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
Cancer Risks
Cancer risks were estimated using the cancer risk ranges
developed in the regulatory impact analysis for municipal solid
waste landfills. Risk estimates from the regulatory impact
analysis were used for facilities located in a "Migration
Potential (MP) IV" category location; this category represents
facilities located in areas of high net precipitation and short
ground water travel times (shallow ground water and relatively
permeable subsurface conditions).
The risk estimates presented in the RIA represent average
individual lifetime cancer risks due to exposure to leachate
contaminated ground water. The analysis calculates these
averages based on a 300 year modeling period, in order to provide
time for risks to be manifested (e.g., for cap failure, leachate
release, and contaminant migration) under a variety of different
design and location scenarios.
The RIA apportions facilities by risk range. For MP IV
facilities, the distribution of facility risks is as follows (3):
o Approximately 10 percent of facilities have risks
greater than 1 x 10E-5 (high)
o 17 percent have risks in the range of 1 x 10E-5 to 1 x
10E-6 (medium)
o 9 percent have risks in the range of 1 x 10E-6 to 1 x
10E-8 (low) (
o 10 percent have risk lower than 1 x 10E-8 (very low)
o 54 percent had zero risk because no wells were in the
vicinity of the facility
For calculating the risks for this assessment, facilities and
exposed populations were apportioned to risk ranges based on
these percentages, adjusted to eliminate the zero risk category
(because the risk ranges were applied to an actual estimate of
the potentially exposed population). Risks were then calculated
by applying the midpoint of the risk range to the exposed
population. The results of this analysis are shown in Table 6.
129
-------
In summary, the estimate indicates approximately 2.4 additional
cancers over a 70 year operating period, or 0.03 additional
cancers per year in the potentially exposed population.
Closed municipal solid waste landfills probably pose a similar or
greater threat of environmental contamination and resulting risks
than operating landfills due to changes in the state-of-the-art
of protective landfill design, and operation of these landfills
prior to the implementation of RCRA Subtitle C standards for
hazardous waste management. For example, new landfills in Region
V states such as Wisconsin are required to be lined and have
leachate collection, while few landfills had these protective
measures prior to 1980.
The population at risk from closed facilities was not able to be
estimated due to data and time limitations. However, as a group,
closed landfills in Region V are likely to be smaller and more
rural than currently operating landfills, due to increases in
landfill costs associated with designing-in a higher level of
environmental protection and resulting economies of scale. For
example, in 1981, there were approximately 2,980 municipal solid
waste, landfills in Region V (of which 575 were classified as open
dumps), nearly three times the number of currently operating
municipal solid waste landfills (2). Thus, closed landfills may
have an average exposed population similar to the sample
facilities, which were predominantly located in rural areas.
Cancer risks that may arise due to air exposures to emissions
from municipal incinerators were not estimated due to a lack of
information.
Non-Cancer Risks
Non-cancer health effects were initially evaluated in developing
the regulatory impact analysis for criteria for municipal solid
waste landfills. Modeled exposures were found to be
substantially lower than the Reference Doses (Rfds) for the
constituents due to the low concentrations of the constituents in
leachate (3). Since non-cancer health effects demonstrate
threshold doses below which no health effects are observed (No
Observed Adverse Effect Levels, or NOAELs), and Rfds are based on
these levels, no cases of non-cancer health damages were
projected in the RIA.
Risks From Explosions
There is a risk of explosion due to methane gas migration from
municipal waste landfills to nearby structures. Methane may
collect in confined spaces within structures at levels exceeding
the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) and result in an explosion if
provided a source of ignition. There are documented cases of
such explosions.
130
-------
In general, horizontal methane migration in the subsurface
environment is limited because methane vents through the ground
surface. Typically, only structures located in proximity to a
landfill, or on a filled area, are at risk. However, were
venting is prevented by pavement, locally saturated surface
soils, or frozen surface soils, or where sewers or underground
utilities provide a highly permeable pathway, methane may migrate
substantial distances (up to approximately 1000 yards) (6).
Region V states typically will have frozen ground conditions for
a substantial portion of the year.
Based on the sample of facilities, it is estimated that
approximately 17,500 structures are within 500 meters of
municipal solid waste landfills in Region V and may be
susceptible to methane gas collection. Assuming these are
residences with an average of four inhabitants, approximately
70,000 people may be at a small risk of injury due to explosion
from methane migration.
ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
The major routes of contaminant releases from municipal solid
waste landfills are surface runoff of leachate (e.g., discharged
from surface seeps in above-ground landfills) and leachate
discharge to ground water. In either case, the ecological
damages associated with these facilities would occur in surface
waters or wetlands through surface runoff or discharge of
contaminated ground water from hydraulically connected surficial
aquifers.
There is very limited documentation available on environmental
damages resulting from MSW landfills. One documented damage case
study identified damages to wetlands and nearby lakes from a 300
acre landfill leaching into these waters. Note that a 300 acre
municipal waste landfill is a relatively large landfill (top 10
percent in size). Projected ecological damages from these
releases included toxic effects on freshwater and estuarine fish
and macroinvertebrates (7).
TOXICITY ASSESSMENT '
MSW landfills may release a large variety of contaminants to
surface or ground waters. Constituents released include
biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, chlorides,
ammonia, aluminum, arsenic, barium, vinyl chloride, heavy metals,
pesticides, and volatile organics. BOD and COD effect aquatic
environments by depleting oxygen, which may affect fish and other
aquatic organisms. Other of these constituents, including
ammonia and aluminum, are toxic to marine organisms.
The effects any release of leachate on surface waters will
largely depend on the ultimate concentration of the contaminants
131
-------
in the receiving body of water. In general, the volume of
leachate flowing from an average landfill is low, but the
relative concentrations of constituents are high compared to
other sources of surface water contamination. This relationship
is discussed further below.
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
The number of surface waters or wetlands at potential risk of
damage due to municipal solid waste sites in Region V were
estimated based on the sample of 31 operating facilities. 93
percent of the study set of 31 facilities, or an extrapolated
total of 991 sites, were determined to be located within one
kilometer of surface water such as lakes, ponds, rivers, creeks,
or intermittent streams. Thirty one percent of the sample sites,
or ah extrapolated total of 335 sites, were determined to be
located within one kilometer of wetlands. Table 7 summarizes
this information.
ECOLOGICAL RISK CHARACTERIZATION
As previously mentioned, ecological risks from municipal solid
waste sites are, in general, poorly documented. Limited case
study information exists for relatively large landfills, but most
landfills are substantially smaller than these sites. For
example, the case cited above was for a 300 acre landfill; the
average landfill in Region V based on the sample and survey
information is about 20 acres.
To obtain a relative gauge of the ecological hazard from
municipal solid waste sites, an estimate was developed of the
average daily and annual pollutant loadings through leachate
discharge from an average landfill. The assumptions on which
this estimate is based are:
o Average landfill size is 20 acres
o Average net infiltration (precipitation -
evapotranspiration - runoff) for Region V is 2.5 inches
(9) i
o The landfill is unlined and does not have a leachate
collection system
o All leachate generated flows to surface water through
surface runoff or ground water without attenuation or
transformation in route
o Concentrations of constituents are mean values obtained
from a large sample of leachates (8).
132
-------
TABLE 7: ESTIMATED NUMBER OF
OPERATING LANDFILLS LOCATED NEAR
WETLANDS AND SURFACE WATERS
STATE
Illinois
Indiana
Michigan
Minnesota
Ohio
Wisconsin
TOTAL
TOTAL
NUMBER OF
LANDFILLS
152
50
66
77
125
600
1070
ESTIMATED
LANDFILLS
1 KM OF
WETLAND
30
8
41
67
0
188
335
ESTIMATED
LANDFILLS
1 KM OF
SURFACE WATER
122
50
41
67
125
517
922
133
-------
The results of this calculation are shown in Table 8 for 11
conventional and toxic constituents commonly found in leachates.
The table shows the average concentration in leachate of the
constituents, and total pounds of constituent released per day
and per year. The average daily flow of leachate from the
landfill, assuming the landfill is at moisture equilibrium
(outflow = inflow), is about 3750 gallons per day.
To provide context for these estimates, the equivalent municipal
waste water treatment plant effluent volume has been calculated
as part of this example, assuming a water discharge limitation
for BOD of 30 ppm. The equivalent waste water treatment plant
discharge is about 300,000 gallons per day at 30 ppm BOD. A
300,000 gallon per day flow is equivalent to effluent flow from a
city |Of about 5,000 people. The concentrations in plant effluent
of the leachate constituents which result in equivalent loadings
in pounds to that from leachate is shown in the table.
In general, the calculated pollutant loadings from leachate would
not be anticipated to pose a serious water quality problem if
discharged to even a relatively small sized stream (e.g., 5
million gallons per day, or 8 cubic feet per second) due to
dilution. For example, the discharge would only raise the BOD
level in 5 million gallon per day stream by about 2 ppm, and the
chloride level by about 0.6 ppm. However, discharges to
relatively static water bodies such as wetlands or ponds may
significantly degrade quality due to the relatively concentrated
nature of the leachate, poor mixing, and lack of dilution.
An estimated 93 percent of the landfills in the Region are within
1 Km of surface water bodies. Thus, about 2800 open and closed
municipal landfills are estimated to be within 1 Km of surface
waters, and may be contributing to the degradation of these
waters through surface runoff and ground water discharges.
Potentially more importantly, an estimated 31 percent of open and
closed landfills, or about 925, are estimated to be located
within 1 Km of a wetland.
GREAT LAKES ASSESSMENT ,
Actual information on the contributions of municipal solid waste
sites to the degradation of the Great Lakes is limited. For this
assessment, an upper bound estimate of the total potential
pollutant loadings from municipal solid waste landfills in Region
V to the Great Lakes was prepared based on the following
assumptions:
o Average landfill size in Great Lakes basin is 20 acres
o Average net infiltration (precipitation -
evapotranspiration - runoff) within basin is 2.5 inches
(9)
134
-------
td
O (X
ry 5^ 5
W O S
< EH" Q ~
EH K O \
Z EH 3>
W 2 0 S
tJ W 0 •—
< u o
> Z -
H O 0
DUO
O n
Ed
II
II
n
M
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
CM r> OOOOOO
II
II OOOOOOOOOOO
|| CM in CM f> m rH VO
II n r^ vo co en
II vo H i^ CM
II CM n
co H
U U
oa
< o
EH CM
W
EH
£C
o
•4
H
u<
Q
2
i^
W
O
2
w
^
03 II
J II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
> II
< II
Q II
\ II
CO II
• 0 II
*4 II
II
II
II
II
Z II
O II
H ~> ||
EH CM II
<5 s— ' n
^^11
w & n
U B II
Z ^ II
O II
U II
II
II
II
EH II
Z II
U II
P II
EH II
H II
EH II
CO II
Z II
O II
U II
II
II
II
CMf^r-ICMVOOOOOOO
r^ co CM
cftt^Hnin^'incMCM^'in
f- 1 ON r^ r-- o • • • «o
cnr^vo CMOOOO •
CM CM O
0)
C
(0
A Q)
4J -O
0) -H
o • u
W 4J O
O Q) «H
0) E .H EH £
T3 (03 £ O O
•H -H C iH O C -H
b C -H O i(i)
QQrHO§3Q)4-l^ClO
OOX!)-lErH£a)(Ct-HUl
CQUCJM^,<(XEHU><:
O
tn
•
CM
(8 $ > J3
u a< u
CM
135
-------
o All landfills are unlined and without leachate
collection systems
o All leachate generated by landfills within 1 Km of a
surface water flows to surface waters leading to Great
Lakes through runoff or ground water, without
attenuation or transformation in route
o No degradation, biotransformation, or other reduction
in pollutants discharge occurs between point of
discharge to surface water and ultimate discharge to
Great Lakes
o Concentrations of constituents are mean values obtained
from a large sample of leachates (8).
i
The percent of landfills in the Region V states within the Great
Lakes basin was estimated based on approximate percentages of
land within the basin by state.
The results of these calculations are shown in Table 9. The
potential loadings calculated are significant, with an upper
bound estimate of BOD loadings of 19,093 tons per year. However,
actual loadings are likely to be a fraction of these calculated
upper bounds due to both the presence of landfills with liners
and leachate collection, and attenuation, degradation, and
sequestration in soils and surface waters between the landfill
discharge point and ultimate discharge to the Great Lakes.
For purposes of comparison, the equivalent waste water treatment
plant discharge at 30 ppm BOD was calculated to provide some
comparison of scale. The total theoretical BOD loadings from
open and closed municipal solid waste sites are equivalent to
about 420 million gallons per day of waste water treatment plant
effluent at 30 ppm BOD.
In addition to the potential contributions made by landfills,
there is speculation that incinerators are contributing to
contamination of Lake Michigan through deposition of air
emissions. However, no data are available at this time to
evaluate the potential contributions of this source to pollutant
loadings to the Great Lakes.
UNCERTAINTIES
There are substantial uncertainties and assumptions throughout
this analysis, most of which have been presented within the
appropriate portions of the paper. However, several key
uncertainties should be emphasized;
136
-------
rsi eg o
eg .—i •—i o oo
I
o eg n r—
ii OTegiOtnwoooooo
T+ M in o\ » •—i
O >-• ii
a T? s
^ § ::
I—i 43 II
"JS
eg eg
137
-------
o All human health risk estimates were developed by
adjusting national estimates of risk to the population
of Region V facilities. Due to the manner in which
national estimates are derived, and in which they were
adjusted, this technique will provide results which
are, at best, of the correct order-of-magnitude.
o The basic assumptions used in adjusting risks have been
selected to be relatively conservative. For example,
it has been assumed that all landfills are unlined,
that all people residing within 1 Km of rural landfills
may be exposed to contaminated ground water (regardless
of ground water flow direction), and that they will be
exposed for very long periods of time, even though
i ground water concentrations would be expected to
fluctuate.
o No actual facilities within Region V were modeled, nor
were contamination data obtained for specific Region V
facilities. Such data may be available within state
files, but were not able to be obtained for purposes of
this effort.
o Very limited data are available with which to evaluate
ecological impacts of municipal solid waste landfills.
An attempt has been made to bound this issue based on a
rough analysis of theoretical pollutant loadings to
surface waters and wetlands from landfills. These
estimated loadings have been calculated based on very
conservative assumptions concerning leachate
generation, fate, and transport.
o Similarly, very limited data are available with which
to evaluate effects of municipal solid waste landfills
on the Great Lakes. An attempt has been made to bound
this issue based on a rough analysis of theoretical
pollutant loadings to the Great Lakes from municipal
landfills within the Great Lakes Basin. These
estimated loadings have been calculated bas^d on very
conservative assumptions concerning leachate
generation, fate, and transport in both the subsurface
environment and in surface waters.
REFERENCES
(1) State listing of solid waste facilities obtained from Region
V and the environmental agencies in the states of Illinois,
Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin.
(2) "Evaluation of RCRA Subtitle D Facilities," JRB Associates,
prepared for the U.S. Congress, Office of Technology
Assessment, June 29, 1984.
138
-------
(3) "Draft Regulatory Impact Analysis of Proposed Revisions to
the Subtitle D Criteria for Municipal Solid Waste
Landfills," Temple, Barker, and Sloan, Inc., prepared for
U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste, Economic Analysis Staff,
May 11, 1987.
(4) "Health Effects Assessment Summary Tables, Fourth Quarter,
FY 1989," U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response.
(5) "OSWER Comparative Risk Study, Report of the Health Effects
Workgroup," U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste, Office of
Policy Planning and Information, July, 1988.
(6) Hillenbrand, E. "Institutional Methods for Controlling
'Methane Hazards from the Beantown Dump, Montgomery County,
MD.," JRB Associates, prepared for U.S. EPA, Region III,
1983.
(7) "The Nature and Extent of Ecological Risks at Superfund
Sites and RCRA Facilities," ICF, Inc., prepared for U.S.
EPA, Office of Policy Planning and Evaluation, Office of
Policy Analysis, Pub. No. EPA-230-03-89-043, June, 1989.
(8) "Ecological Risk Characterization Methodology," Versar,
Inc., prepared for U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste, April,
1988.
(9) Lu, J.C.S., Eichenberger, B., and R.J. Stearns, "Leachate
from Municipal Landfills,", Noyes Publications, 1985.
139
-------
-------
11. INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE SITES *—-'' ^ wlu **
In analyzing the comparative risks of this problem area, the most
important issue is the scarcity or absence of data. Readily
available data on the population of industrial solid waste
facilities are limited, and, when available, are often aggregated
at the national level. While states are in a better position to
generate data on specific facilities, this information is not
easily accessible.
There are virtually no data with which to assess the risks that
industrial solid waste facilities pose to people or the
environment. Although the toxic constituents in various types of
industrial wastes are known and can be evaluated, the data needed
to translate known potential health effects of these toxic
constituents into risks posed to populations or ecological
systems are currently unavailable. Basic data needs include the
concentrations of toxic constituents in the solid wastes managed
at industrial facilities, estimates of the potential for
uncontrolled releases of contaminants from these facilities, and
information on the potentially exposed populations residing near
these facilities.
Until data on the characteristics of existing industrial solid
waste facilities are available and the potential risks from the
major types of facilities are assessed or modeled, rigorous,
defensible assessments of risk cannot be made. Currently, any
risk assessments must largely depend on assumptions or
professional judgement, subject to substantial uncertainty. Data
that can fill current gaps and meet some of these needs are
scheduled to be collected in the relatively near future.
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
The Industrial Solid Waste Sites category includes any open
industrial solid waste land disposal facility not subject to
regulation under Subtitle C of RCRA. Specific types of
facilities included in this category are:
i
o Commercial and on-site industrial waste landfills
o Mining waste disposal sites, other than those coal mine
waste sites regulated under the Surface Mine
Reclamation Act. Mine waste is characterized as a high
volume, low hazard waste. As such, it is distinct from
the majority of industrial solid waste and will be
addressed separately in the discussion below.
o Construction and demolition debris sites.
140
-------
Types of waste management units at these facilities include
landfills, surface impoundments, land application units, and
waste piles.
These facilities can threaten human health and the environment
through air emissions of toxic materials, subsurface methane
migration, and ground and surface water contamination by landfill
leachate containing organic and inorganic toxic contaminants
and/or pathogenic substances. Contamination may occur through
subsurface migration, surface runoff, evaporation or wind
erosion.
The types of substances disposed at these facilities include a
wide variety of industrial waste materials, including process and
waste treatment sludges, office wastes, discarded equipment,
stripping and cleaning residues, food processing wastes, and
incinerator ash. These wastes may include some toxic
contaminants, including solvents and heavy metals, at
concentrations below those which trigger regulation under
Subtitle C of RCRA (for example, below the organic toxicity
characteristic concentration limits). On-site and off-site
facilities typically differ greatly in terms of the variety of
wastes disposed and volume of waste.
This category excludes:
o Oil and gas waste sites, such as brine pits
o High and low-level radioactive waste disposal sites
o Closed industrial waste sites at operating RCRA
Subtitle C facilities, which are covered under the
Active Hazardous Waste Facilities problem area
o Other closed industrial waste sites, which are covered
under the abandoned hazardous waste site problem area.
It is important to note that Subtitle D specifically excludes
certain waste from its definition of industrial solid waste. In
proposed rules for solid waste disposal facility criteria (40 CFR
Parts 257 and 258, August 30, 1988), the Agency excluded mining
waste and oil and gas waste from the definition of industrial
solid waste. EPA, however, has revised its approach to mine
waste and currently expects to include this waste within the
scope of Subtitle D.
Population of Industrial solid Wast* Facilities in Region V
Because of the absence of comprehensive inventories of
facilities, the population of active industrial Subtitle D
facilities in Region V must be estimated. Several estimating
procedures are available and are discussed below.
141
-------
Estimates of the population of industrial Subtitle D facilities
were developed using national level data collected for EPA in the
mid-1980s. Two studies were used for the estimate: "Subtitle D
Study Phase 1 Report" (subsequently referred to as the Phase 1
Report) (1) and "Screening Survey of Industrial Subtitle D
Establishments" (subsequently referred to as the Screening
Survey)(2). The major advantage of the studies is their
comprehensiveness in addressing the range of facility types
regulated by Subtitle D.
Estimates of Region V facilities developed using these studies
are presented in Exhibit 1. That exhibit first presents each
study's estimate of the national total of industrial solid waste
facilities by type of facility. As shown, the Phase 1 Report did
not iinclude waste piles and the Screening Survey did not include
demolition landfills. For those type of facilities where direct
comparisons can be made, the Phase 1 Report consistently
indicates higher numbers. That report is based on a 1984 survey.
The Screening Survey was conducted in 1985.
The first method used to estimate Region V's share of the
nation's industrial solid waste facilities was to determine the
Region's share of industrial activity and apportion facilities
accordingly. Two measures of industrial activity were used to
apportion facilities: the number of industrial establishments,
and the number of employees in the 22 industrial segments that
account for the bulk of industrial solid waste. Region V's share
of all U.S. industrial establishments and employment in the 22
industry segments is also shown in Exhibit 1.
Using these regional shares, estimates of Region V industrial
solid waste facilities were computed. The low and high estimates
were based on the differences in the region's share of
establishments (21.5 percent) and employment (23.1 percent).
Separately, an estimate of Region V facilities was obtained using
a database created and maintained by DPRA, a consulting firm
under contract to EPA. This database may be based on the results
of the Screening Survey, although DPRA staff were unable to
confirm that assumption (3). The estimate obtained from DPRA is
also presented in Exhibit 1.
Exhibit 2 presents the results of an alternative procedure used
to estimate the number of industrial and demolition landfills.
In this procedure the total number of Subtitle D landfills in the
Region V states was computed from state-level data in the Phase l
Report. These state-level data included municipal and "other"
landfills in addition to industrial and demolition landfills. By
using national averages for the share of all Subtitle D landfills
accounted for by industrial and demolition landfills, estimates
of the population of these types of facilities in Region V were
derived.
142
-------
>
c
o
•H
D1
01
OS
c
•rH
CO
CD
£l
•H
rH
•H
L)
(0
b
01
4J
CO
(0
•a
•H
rH
O
CO
_J
^^
10
"£
4->
CO
3
TJ
C
H
•C
0)
4-1
g
-H
4J
CO
H
• •
rH
4->
•H
Xt
•H
x:
x
0) CO
4-> 0>
W rH
(0 -H
3 d.
1 CO
•H 4-1
rH -rH
a c
a 3
(0
c
T3 O
C-H
(0 4J
t-J (0
u
0) co
CJ 4->
10 C
MH 01
r4 E
3 TJ
CO C
3
O
a
E
•H
c co
O rH
-H rH
4J -H
•H <*H
rH 73
O C
E (0
Q ^
CO
rH
rH
•H
<4H
•a
c
m
ij
CO
NH
0)
^
J^
3
CO
rH
<0
c
0
•H
4J
(0
z
g
0
M
CO
0)
•P
(0
g
•H
4-»
CO
w
rtj
z
o
en
in
»
in
rg
n
OJ
»
VO
rH
rH
(n
in
»
rg
rH
rH
in
•
n
•0
0)
4J
(0
g
•H
4J
CO
0)
CO
0) 4-1
•H M
s&
rH 0)
O
(0 rH
0)
• CO
CO 10
•X!
l~i fi|
•H >i
(0 Xt
4J
O
EH
in
n
n
*
in
CO
o
n
•.
^
n
in
rg
*
in
rH
<4J
55
r^
in
fx
*
rg
>i
0)
t
3
CO
CP
c
•H
c
0)
0)
o
CO
^
Xt
in
•
rH
rg
in
•
rH
rg
<#>
in
•
H
rg
<*>
in
•
rH
rg
in
•
rH
rg
CO
C
• CO
CO -H
• rH
D Xt
10
O CO
01
01
(0 10
XI-H
CO rH
4J
> CO
3
c-o
0 C
•H -H
CP
0)
rH
•
n
rg
<*>
rH
•
O
rg
<*>
rH
•
o
rg
diP
rH
•
n
rg
H
•
n
rg
4-1
C
• 0)
D 0
rH
<4H Ol
0 E
0)
0)
»H rH
(0 fO
XI-H
CO rH
4J
> CO
3
c -a
0 C
•H -H
CT1
0)
OS
<;
rg rg
». »
rH rH
vo in
CO ^1
^* r~
» >
CO PO
r- eo
in en
in in
•* 0
in rH
r^ co
•O
0)
4J X!
(0 U 0^
E 0-H
•H rH X!
4J
CO
01 ••
4J
CO ^H
OJ O
•H a
4J Q)
•H tl
rH
•H rH
0
10 0)
x:
OH
c
O >i
•HXt
cr
0)
OS
VO rH
•*»• n
rH (M
^ ^
rH r-H
in ^r
fM (Ti
en o^
vo o
r- rg
rg in
«. •.
n n
<*
lH <
'•3 OH
CO 04
o
O"*
C E
•H O
C r4
0)
A
3 C
CO O
-H
rH tJ>
rO 0)
•H OS
r<
4J C
W-H
3
•a co
C 0)
•H -H
4J
TJ-H
01 rH
4J-H
(0 O
E (0
^—J ^LJ
4-»
CO
U
143
-------
Exhibit 2: Estimated Industrial Landfill
Facilities in Region V
Industrial Landfills Demolition Landfills
U.S. total 2,067 2,067
landfills
Facility type 21.4% 15.8%
share of total
Region V total 442 326
i
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Subtitle D Study
Phase 1 Report," PB87-116810, National Technical
Information Service, Springfield, VA, October 1986.
As shown in these exhibits, these procedures for estimating the
number of industrial Subtitle D facilities in Region V do not
produce consistent results. Estimates using the state-level data
available in the Phase 1 Report are substantially lower than the
estimates using the national data from the two surveys.
Additional data was collected on the population of industrial
facilities directly from state agencies. These data only
addressed landfills, not other types of facilities. The
available data from Minnesota and Ohio appeared to cover
landfills comprehensively. Less comprehensive data were
available from Indiana, which provided data only on industrial
monofills and solid fill facilities (essentially demolition
landfills), and from Michigan, which provided a list of municipal
and industrial landfills that contained asbestos. No data on
industrial landfills were available from Illinois or Wisconsin.
The available data are summarized in Exhibit 3. (
These state-provided data are very incomplete and only address
landfills. Nonetheless, they may suggest that the previous
estimating procedures, presented in Exhibits l and 2, tend to
overestimate the population of industrial facilities in Region V,
at least those based on national estimates.
144
-------
Exhibit 3: Industrial Landfills in Region V
Industrial Landfills Demolition Landfills
Illinois NA NA
Indiana 11 14
Michigan 32 17
Minnesota 49 83
Ohio 31 NA
Wisconsin NA NA
Total 123 114
i
Sources: Listings and inventories of industrial landfills
provided by regulatory agencies in Illinois, Indiana,
Michigan, Minnesota, and Ohio.
At a minimum, they suggest that any estimate of industrial
facilities must be assumed to have a substantial degree of
uncertainty associated with it.
Characteristics of Industrial Solid Waste Facilities
The Screening Survey discussed the degree to which the population
of facilities is concentrated in a few industries. For the four
types of facilities addressed by the Screening Survey—landfills,
surface impoundments, land application units, and waste piles,
the majority of facilities is operated by a few industry
segments. For example, almost half of all identified landfills
are operated by the stone, clay and glass industry and 75 percent
are operated by that industry and the food products, paper, iron
and steel, and electric power generation industries. The most
concentrated case is the 73 percent of land application units
operated by the food products industry. Exhibit 4 presents the
degree of concentration for each of the four facility types.
This exhibit also shows similar patterns of concentration for the
quantity of waste managed by industry in the four types of
facilities. It should be noted that the industry segments that
operate the majority of facilities typically do not also manage
the majority of the waste generated by all industry. For
example, the electric utility industry manages 62 percent of the
industrial wastes that go to industrial landfills, but only
operates 6 percent of the total number of industrial landfills.
Conversely, the stone, clay, and glass industry operates 46
percent of all industry landfills, ,-jUt only manages 9 percent of
all solid waste disposed of in industrial landfills.
145
-------
What Exhibit 4 clearly demonstrates is that industrial solid
waste management is dominated by a relatively small number of
industries. Whether the issue is the population of facilities or
the quantity of wastes managed, the bulk of activity for a given
type of facility can be found in five or six industries.
A mail survey conducted in 1984 provided data on the size of and
volume of wastes managed by industrial and demolition landfills
(4). That survey estimated that 71 percent of industrial
landfills are less than 10 acres in area and that 98 percent are
smaller than 100 acres. Similarly, 61 percent of demolition
landfills are smaller than 10 acres in area and 97 percent are
smaller than 100 acres.
Statistics on the quantity of waste accepted by these facilities
showed similar patterns. Of industrial landfills, 79 percent
accepted less than 30 tons of waste daily and 97 accepted less
than 500 tons per day. Seventy-five percent of demolition
landfills accepted less than 30 tons of waste per day, while 97
percent accepted less than 500 tons per day.
Other descriptive data on industrial facilities are not currently
available. For example, data on characteristics relevant to the
risks these facilities pose are absent, including the extent to
which facilities are lined, the presence of monitoring systems,
the frequency of releases from facilities, populations in close
proximity, drinking water wells within close proximity. As noted
at the end of this section, data collection relevant to some of
these issues will begin shortly.
Volume of waste Managed in Region V
Data on the volume of industrial solid waste managed in Region V
are particularly limited. The Screening Survey provided national
estimates of wastes managed by type of facility. Region V's
share of these national estimates can be estimated with the
procedure previously employed to estimate the Region's share of
industrial facilities. That procedure uses the Region's share of
industrial activity measured by establishments and employment to
estimate the Region's share of industrial solid waste.
Exhibit 5 presents the results of this estimate for the types of
facilities addressed by the Screening Survey. The obvious
finding from this estimate is that surface impoundments are used
to manage the predominate share of industrial solid wastes in
Region V.
146
-------
Exhibit 5: Estimated Quantity of Industrial Waste
Managed in Region V
(millions of metric tons)
Surface Land Appli- Waste
Landfills Impoundments cation Units piles
U.S. total 78 6,685 90 70
Region V share
LOW est. 17 1,436 19 15
High est. 18 1,543 21 16
Sources: Westat, Inc., "Screening Survey of Industrial Subtitle
D Establishments," draft final report, submitted to
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December 29, 1987
and County Business Patterns. 1987. Bureau of the
Census.
Mine Wastes in Region V
Mine wastes stand somewhat apart from other industrial solid
wastes. They are characterized as "high volume, low hazard" by
EPA and have been the subject of regulatory assessment and
development by EPA for years.
The Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) has certain
regulatory responsibility for all U.S. mines. Although MSHA has
no mandate to regulate risks to the general population or to
ecological systems, the agency does maintain limited information
on mine waste and is particularly concerned with the integrity of
surface impoundments.
MSHA maintains an inventory of the nation's mines and of all
surface impoundments at those mines. The current inventory
indicates that there are 23 impoundments in Region V, all located
in Minnesota and Michigan. Most of these impoundments are
located at iron mines; the remainder are at copper mines and
quarries. While a few of these impoundments function as fresh-
water reservoirs, most are either tailings ponds or sedimentation
ponds.
One of the most salient characteristics of these impoundments is
their size, substantially larger than other industrial solid
waste management facilities. MSHA's inventory indicates that the
surface areas of these impoundments range in size from 29 to
7,800 acres (i.e., over 12 square miles) and their heights range
from eight to 160 feet. The approximate volume of these
147
-------
impoundments ranges from 400 acre-feet to 500,000 acre-feet.
HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
No information on waste characterization at industrial
non-hazardous solid waste facilities was available. No detailed
estimate of the quantities of wastes at these facilities was
available, nor were data available for the types of waste managed
at facilities. The following assessment is then largely based on
assumptions about industrial solid waste and industrial Subtitle
D facilities in Region V.
Industrial non-hazardous waste facilities in Region V are assumed
to handle waste primarily from pulp and paper industry, iron and
steel industry, utilities and stone quarries. The majority of
the waste is expected to be inorganic/organic/ash. Slag and
foundry waste can also be expected to be present in these solid
waste disposal facilities. These wastes are expected to contain
sulfites, cellulosic residues, acetones, methanol, gypsum, stone,
asbestos, silicates of limes, toluene, lead, mercury, arsenic,
benzene, xylene, phenol, carbon dichloride, carbon disulfide,
hydrogen cyanide, chrome, and heavy metals. Most of the
inorganics will be present as metal oxides and hydroxides, but
may be soluble under acidic conditions. In general, toxic
constituents will be present at relatively low concentrations,
below EP Toxic levels and, in the future, below the Organic
Toxicity Characteristic limits.
Demolition debris waste disposal facilities handle mainly
construction wastes: broken bricks, plaster, insulation
material, wooden material, stone aggregate, reinforcing bars,
glass, plastics, roofing, sheeting, scrap, broken concrete,
asphalt, stone, piping and other building materials.
Mining waste facilities handle waste resulting from mining,
smelting and refining operations. Wastes resulting from
crushing, screening, washing and floatation are also mining
wastes. Heavy metals, sodium, potassium, sulfates, and cyanides
may be present in such waste. i
These waste descriptions, based on the type of industry present
in Region V, are the anticipated waste composition in industrial
solid waste facilities. This description aims at highlighting
the general nature of the waste to be expected at these
facilities, rather than comprehensively inventorying waste
characteristics. Because the characteristics of industrial waste
vary from one industry to another and also within the industry,
the waste profiles outlined are by no means representative of all
the types of wastes that may be found in the industrial solid
waste disposal facilities.
148
-------
In the absence of availability of information on the waste
characteristics handled at individual waste disposal facilities,
and any construction details and monitoring data at these
facilities, a semi-quantitative approach to illustrate potential
risks was chosen. Previous studies have focused on professional
judgment driven by assumptions to derive a the quantitative
evaluation of the risks posed by these facilities. These reports
have tried to model releases and exposures to hypothetical
maximally exposed individuals (MEI), while making assumptions
about the chemicals to which the MEI will be exposed, the
concentration and duration of exposure, and the location of the
MEI. Assumptions about exposure levels to various segments of
population, and the number of people exposed were also made in
previous evaluations.
i
This human health risk assessment addresses the general category
of chemicals that individuals may be exposed to and the effects
of such exposures by bounding the problem. The method used to
derive an upper bound risk estimate involves:
o Assuming that toxic constituents are present in
industrial wastes at all facilities in the Region at
levels just below the Subtitle C toxicity
characteristic levels.
o Assuming that all facilities are located in areas where
private wells are used as a water source, with an
average potentially exposed population of 500 people
per facility.
o Assuming a dilution/attenuation factor of 100 between
the point of leachate discharge from the waste site to
the receptor (5).
TOXICITY ASSESSMENT
The severity and adverse effects of exposure to a chemical depend
on the properties of the chemical exposure, the concentration and
duration of exposure. In the absence of this data, (the exposure
effects are evaluated based on the general class of chemicals and
their adverse effects.
Industrial Subtitle D facilities do not pose consistent risks.
Demolition debris waste management units should not pose
substantial risks because of the inert nature of the material in
such facilities. Industrial waste and mining waste facilities
will pose a larger exposure risk.
Exposures may occur from heavy metals such as lead, chrome,
mercury, and cadmium from industrial landfills and from organics
such as toluene, xylene, carbon tetrachloride, TCE and benzene.
These toxic chemicals may be present in the industrial landfills
149
-------
due to the nature of operations in the major industries
represented in Region V: pulp and paper, iron and steel,
utilities. So long as the concentrations of these chemicals do
not exceed EPA criteria for hazardous waste, these toxic
chemicals may be present in non-hazardous industrial waste. Most
of the metals in industrial waste sludge are in the form of
hydroxides or oxides, and as such are stable, but can easily be
soluble under acidic conditions.
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Exposure from chemicals originating in individual waste
facilities will primarily take place through drinking water. The
chemicals may be mobilized into groundwater and also discharged
intq surface waters. Leachate generated in landfills, surface
impoundments and land application units handling industrial waste
is expected to be typically high in heavy metals such as lead,
chromium, cadmium and mercury, but lower than that expected in
leachate from hazardous waste facilities.
No data were available on actual concentrations of constituents
in leachates from industrial facilities or at potential exposure
points. Additionally, no data were available to directly
estimate the potentially exposed population.
For this assessment, exposures through ground water contamination
affecting private wells were judged to be the most probable route
of significant exposure. Exposures through surface waters and
public water systems supplied by ground water or surface water
were judged to be less important or likely to occur due to:
o High levels of dilution of leachate or contaminated
ground water entering surface waters
o Monitoring and treatment of public water systems
supplied by ground water or surface water to prevent
exposures above Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) and
Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLGs).
An upper bound on the population potentially exposed through
private wells was developed based on:
o Estimated facility population of 600
o Assume all facilities are located in rural/suburban
areas using private wells
o Assume an average of 500 residents within 1 Km of the
landfill.
The upper bound estimate of potentially exposed population is
300,000 people throughout the Region.
150
-------
HUMAN HEALTH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
Cancer Risks
Exposure to carcinogens was evaluated based on two common organic
chemicals frequently found at abandoned industrial waste sites
undergoing remediation: trichloroethylene and chloroform.
Chemical exposure concentrations were assumed to be 5 x 10"3 mg/1
and 6 x lO'^mg/l, respectively, for the cancer exposure
assessment, based on the Toxicity Characteristic rule (6). An
exposure period of 30 years was assumed. Slope factors were used
to assess cancer risks from exposure to these chemicals (see
Exhibit 6).
To evaluate excess cancer cases from the risk posed by these
chemicals it was assumed that the modeled chemicals are leaching
from 600 landfills/waste handling units. This estimate is
conservative and based on the assumption that, in the absence of
regulation, most of the industrial landfills and other waste
handling facilities are unlined and do not have leachate
collection. It is estimated that there are between 350 and 500
industrial waste landfills in Region V excluding demolition
debris.
An exposed population of 500 people per site was assumed for each
of the 600 waste handling facilities. The excess cancer cases
over a 70 year period calculated based on these assumptions are
3.1. The cancer cases per year resulting are estimated to be
0.04.
Non-Cancer Risks
Because no data were available on the actual composition of waste
handled and leachate generated by industrial solid waste
management facilities, eight common industrial chemicals expected
to be found in the industrial solid waste leachate (chloroform,
carbon tetrachloride, phenol, chromium, mercury, toluene, cadmium
and cyanide) were selected to represent the leachate from
industrial solid waste for purposes of evaluating nqn-cancer
risks through chronic exposures.
For assessment of chronic exposure chemical concentrations in the
waste handling facilities were assumed to be equal to or below
the Subtitle C Toxicity Characteristic levels, such that the
industrial waste would be just below the threshold of being
hazardous. A dilution and attenuation factor (DAF) of 100 was
used to derive the concentration at the point of exposure for
each of the regulated chemicals. This assumption was made as
dilution and reduction in concentrations of the chemicals will
occur during groundwater transport of these chemicals.
151
-------
B
.*
a
~*
K
U
~4
«
I
-I
U
Li
e
o
u
vO
4J
X
U
o
IH
Ph
IH
O
u
a,
CO
s1
o
M
s
X
o
M
CO
M
(X
M
Q
U
CO
<
fa
U
K
2
EH
Z
M
Z
o
M
H
S
iT*
z
u
u
25
8
OS
fi£
fa
H
a.
B
CO
co
a
X
z
M
J
2
o
X
z
M
"I
1?
2
o
•
X
z
M
J
2
2
o
0J
M
|jj
3C
Z
M
X
Z
M
j3
K
0
STITUENT
§
^*^
CM
»^
^^
•H
•«•*•
i-i
•^
I
iH
1
*— fc
•o
^^
0»
^^
I
«H
^^
•o
01
^
^^
O<
E_
N
D
tt
R
H
II
H
II
II
-------
Three toxicological end points were evaluated: teratogenicity,
kidney effects, central nervous system effects. All chemicals
having the same end point effect were considered to be
synergistic, and their hazard indexes additive. Carbon
tetrachloride and phenol have end points as tetratogenicity,
while carbon tetrachloride, phenol, chromium, mercury and cadmium
have adverse effects on kidneys. Carbon tetrachloride and
mercury are toxic to the central nervous system.
Hazard indices for each of these end points were evaluated. A
cumulative hazard index for all the chemicals modeled was
calculated. The hazard index is equal to the sum of the hazard
quotients for each of the chemicals considered for a particular
toxic end point evaluation, where the hazard quotient is the
ratip of the exposure concentration and the reference dose for
that chemical. There is concern for potential health effects
when the hazard index for an effect exceeds unity (threshold).
This approach assumes that exposure to different chemicals at
sub-threshold levels can result in adverse health effects if the
individual quotients for a particular effect add to more than l.
The results of this analysis are shown in Exhibit 7. As shown on
the Exhibit, Hazard Indexes for all effects were below unity.
The hazard index for kidney damage was closest to 1, estimated at
0.7. However, because of the threshold behavior of non-
carcinogenic effects, this hazard index level should not result
in adverse effects in the exposed population. No teratogenic
effects or adverse effects on the central nervous system are
expected from exposure to the chemicals modeled under the
assumptions made in the exposure assessment.
ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
Discharges to the environment from industrial solid waste
facilities may result in adverse effects to the ecological
environment. The nature and severity of these impacts will
depend on the size of the waste handling facility and the volume,
characteristics, and duration of the discharges of chemicals from
the facility. The component of the ecosystem affected adversely
will depend upon the media into which the chemicals are released.
Aquatic life will be impacted by releases to surface waters,
whereas plants and avian species will be affected by releases to
air and water.
Both acute and chronic effects may be observed. Ecological
impacts such as fish kills, impairment of health and reproductive
capabilities, and bioaccumulation in the food chain may result
from discharges to the environment. These impacts may be
reversible or non-reversible and severity of their effects will
depend on the resiliency of the ecological system impacted and
the presence of any fragile or endangered species in that system.
153
-------
O
0)
W
0)
0)
O
(h J*
OS "*^
0»
H
Z
u
EH
M
EH
CO
Z
8
1 0
II
H
1
1
1 f
1 0
1 1
1 H
I r-
H
1
CM
^S
o
•
0
CM
O
1
H
\0
CM
O
H
i-H
e
n
o
lorof
£
O
0
in
o
u
lO
CM
tH
O
*
o
n
0
u
m
<»
0
i
H
r»
a
•o
•^
VI
0
•-I
j:
u
«
u
JJ
0
EH
1
Vi
«
0
o
CM
o
1
ta
iH
CM
^H
o
•
o
o
o
+
H
rH
. i
O 1
i
t
H
> H
B II
U II
Z Z II
H II
BO ff rH B 1C II
N < M Z N EH H
< B < Q < Z II
X H X M X W H
EH X OH
0 0 0 H
M- M* M » X M
ZX ZX Z X W II
aw o w o w H u
•a a K a H a a w u
X Z XZIIXZiMll
OH O M || O M w II
154
-------
Ecological impacts can be evaluated only if information on the
type and population of the exposed species, its stability,
chemicals they are exposed to and duration of exposures is
available. Such data relevant to industrial solid waste
facilities were not available. As a result, no attempt was made
to quantitatively evaluate risk assessment for ecological
exposures.
It is assumed that larger ecological impacts will result from
surface impoundments handling mining waste because of their size
relative to other industrial solid waste facilities. Discharges
to surface water and air may take place from industrial waste
handling facilities resulting in adverse ecological impacts. At
this point in time, such impacts cannot be quantitatively
evaluated.
GREAT LAKES ASSESSMENT
Available data on industrial waste sites were insufficient to
support an assessment of potential impacts of industrial solid
waste sites on the Great Lakes.
UNCERTAINTIES
The reliability of this assessment is low due to the lack of data
and the extensive reliance on professional judgement and
assumptions in developing risk estimates. Assumptions encompass
all compartments of the risk assessment: the chemicals
considered, concentrations of exposure, the duration of exposure,
and the size of population exposed. Although the analysis
attempted to keep the chemicals modeled and their concentrations
representative of the waste being considered, and to provide a
reasonable estimate of the upper bound risk, it must be
highlighted that a different set of assumptions could lead to
completely different risk estimates.
There are substantial data gaps that prevent a careful assessment
of the risks posed by industrial Subtitle D facilities. The
areas where better data are needed include: i
o The population of facilities by type of facility
o Characteristics of facilities related to risks
posed to the human population and ecological
systems
o Waste characteristics by type of facility and by
industry
o Potential for releases by type of facility
155
-------
o Risk assessment models for major types of
facilities
State regulatory agencies are an obvious source of data on the
population of facilities. Acquiring data from states, however,
requires on-site work which was not within the scope of this
effort.
EPA's final rule for municipal landfill criteria will also
include a notice that industrial facilities covered by Subtitle D
meet notification requirements. Those requirements include basic
information on the facility and limited data on the potential for
exposure of populations or ecological systems to wastes managed
by these facilities. The final rule is scheduled for September
1990,and industry is expected to have 18 months to meet the
notification requirement.
This summer, EPA's mine waste work group will initiate several
studies to better assess risks from these wastes. The studies
will include a national survey of sites, an environmental
analysis at a variety of type of facilities, and a sampling
effort. Results are expected in 12 to 18 months.
REFERENCES
(1) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Subtitle D Study
Phase 1 Report," PB87-116810, National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, VA, October 1986.
(2) Westat, Inc., "Screening Survey of Industrial Subtitle D
Establishments," draft final report, submitted to U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, December 29, 1987.
(3) Personal communications with Robert Clickner, Westat, Inc.,
Rockvilie, MD, June 14, 1990 and Ross Boelling, DPRA, Inc.,
Manhattan, KS, June 15, 1990.
(4) Westat, Inc., "Census of State and Territorial Subtitle D
Non-Hazardous Waste Programs," prepared for the(U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, October 1986.
(5) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Preamble to Toxicity
Characteristics Revisions," 55 FR 61, March 26, 1990.
(6) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Toxicity
Characteristics Revisions, Final Rule," 55 FR 61, March 26,
1990.
(7) "Evaluation of the Health Effects from Exposure to Gasoline
and Gasoline Vapors," Northeast States for Coordinated Air
Use Management, August 1989.
156
-------
(8) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Health Effects
Assessment Summary Tables, Fourth Quarter, FY 89," U.S,
Environmental Protection Agency, OSWER, October 1989.
157
-------
12. ACCIDENTAL CHEMICAL RELEASES TO THE ENVIRONMENT
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
The Accidental Chemical Release to the Environment problem area
covers risks to human health and the environment posed by
accidental or episodic (non-recurring) chemical releases from:
o Manufacturing facilities, including refineries,
chemical plants, metal manufacturing and finishing
plants, and other similar operations.
o Product storage facilities, including tank farms and
warehouses.
o Product and waste transportation equipment,including
pipelines, barges, railroads, and trucks.
The threats posed by these releases are of several types:
o Risks of injury and death due to fires and explosions
associated with chemicals.
o Risks of illness and death due to exposure to released
chemicals, which may be acutely toxic, carcinogenic,
teratogenic, or mutagenic. Exposures may occur through
direct contact, air emissions, and surface and ground
water contamination.
o Environmental damage caused by air, surface water,
ground water, and soil contamination, particularly
damage to surface water and wetlands.
Virtually any chemical product or waste may be accidentally
released during production, storage, and transportation. 40 CFR
302 lists over 800 hazardous substances for which EPA has
designated reportable quantities, requiring that accidental
releases of the chemical over the reportable quantity be reported
to EPA. A wide variety of acids, bases, solvents, organic
chemicals, pesticides, and heavy metal compounds are listed
hazardous substances. Additionally, spills of crude oil and
petroleum products must be reported.
This category excludes:
o Routine releases of chemicals to air or surface water
which are permitted or regulated under the Clean Air
Act or Clean Water Act, such as releases from process
or tank vents
158
-------
o Routine releases of contaminants to surface waters,
soils, or ground water from abandoned waste sites,
active hazardous waste facilities, and storage
tanks.
Data on the number of accidental releases occurring fn Region 5
were made available through the Emergency Response Notification
System (ERNS) data base. The data base is maintained by the
United States Department of Transportation (USDOT) and is made up
of release reports received by USDOT, USEPA, and the United
States Coast Guard. Whenever a release of a reportable quantity
of a hazardous substance occurs it must be reported to USDOT,
USEPA, or the US Coast Guard. These agencies, in turn, file a
report with USDOT so that the incident may be recorded in the
ERNS data base. The data base is meant to be a comprehensive
listing of all the accidental releases to the environment that
occur in the United States. However, many references cite
tendencies for the data base to under report the number of
releases of reportable quantities that occur.
Population of Accidential Chemical Releases
The Emergency Response Section in Region 5 believes that the ERNS
data base contains between 25% and 45% of the accidental releases
that occur in Region 5. For that reason, the number of releases
reported by the ERNS data base for Region 5 was taken as only 35%
(the average of 25% and 45%) of the total releases that had
occurred.
Using this assumption, approximately 9,220 releases of reportable
quantities of oil and hazardous substances occurred in Region V
in 1989. These releases include 4,850 from manufacturing and
storage facilities, 2,110 from trains, barges, ships, air
transport, and trucks, and 800 from pipelines. A breakdown of
the data by source of spill is shown in Table 1.
The Region 5 Emergency Response Section characterizes the
majority of the spills and releases that they deal with as
emanating from fixed facilities. When an analysis 'of the ERNS
data was performed to determine the most frequent source of
releases, releases from fixed facilities were shown to account
for 62% of the releases that occurred in Region 5 from 1987
through 1989. Table 2 presents a summary of percentages of
releases that occurred in Region 5 by source of release. The
second largest category were transportation-related releases
(this category includes air, rail, highway and marine release
events). This category accounted for 23% of releases during the
same time period.
Table 3 presents a breakdown of the percentages of releases by
type of material. The data indicate that oil was the most
frequently released material. Approximately 43% of the releases
159
-------
in
§
o
S 2
O «-
N.
§
3
S
(M «- 5> f- CO O»-fOO»
«» in » co o> K Jvi rj CM
OJ — K( «- -•
O'««-
«\j oj in
(V io o>
in
O
S
N.
S!
!C
-------
•i s
°g
II
• CO
« 2
-< N.
S5
5«
a
o
o
X
N.
|
8
o
I*
5»
ac
3 f
O
o
X
I*
oe
2«
o
o
M
(M
IU
O N-
KI oo CM in
rg m «-
". ^ *•; °:
CM in
CM in O CM
rg 4
«» KI ru r»
•-' o' to d
e «3 -o co
•* d «- ••
co o KI in
rg •- r- —
* O>
in >» IM KI
o KI in CM
CM d •» d
•O •- r- N.
in «- >o o
>»«»•«- o
•- o -» o
•* oo CM rg
in co O- N-
rg d K d
CM KI «- o
N! KI
Ul
at
S
£
•?
S8
"B oo
o •-
is
II
5 S
V
C 2
« X
£ -
*a
o z
fe X
*• O
41
S i
S 3
is
S»
o
x i
o *r «- rg oj
W 1/t O O *-
^* OJ fO
in o •-
*f CM CM
CM co <•» o rg
IM «-' .^ d d
«- K co o o
o -» oo e •-
>» «- o o o
«- O> CM O O
C> •» 1^ O «3
03 o N- o rg
K KI o «- rg
^ o a*
o> (> o o v-
K! o ~ o d
-
co in oo o o
o » o o »-
in rg KI o o
•o » 03 o o
O N.' C> C> O
•- •>* CO O O
KI «- rg o o
00 l> K. •- O
in o o «-
Kl IM •- O
«M »- «- O O
•- o in o o
>-^ f CO » IM O
d -O
-------
reported to ERNS from 1987 through 1989 were characterized as oil
releases.
When the data on releases were broken down by location, four
counties were identified that accounted for 23% of all releases
in Region V during 1989. These counties were Cook County,
Illinois (Chicago), Wayne County, Michigan (Detroit), Cuyahoga
County, Ohio (Cleveland), and Hamilton County, Ohio (Cincinnati).
Including the adjacent counties of Lake and Will in Illinois and
Lake in Indiana, the Chicago area was responsible for 12% of the
releases that occurred in Region V during 1989. By including
Oakland and Macomb counties with Wayne County, the Detroit,
Michigan area was the location of another 10% of the releases.
When the data for source of spill were broken down by county,
similar results were achieved. The same four counties accounted
for 21% of all Region 5 releases in 1989 that occurred at fixed
facilities. They also accounted for 23% of the transportation
releases that occurred that year.
When information on the type of material released was analyzed
for location, the same four counties were identified as the most
frequent locations of accidental releases. Cook County, Illinois
accounted for 6.4% of the oil releases, Wayne County, Michigan
accounted for 6.5%, Cuyahoga County, Ohio contributed 4.4% of the
total, and Hamilton County, Ohio was the location of 3.6% of the
reported oil releases. These four counties accounted for a total
of 21% of the oil releases in Region V during 1989.
Table 4 gives the average characteristics of PCB spills and
releases occurring in Region 5 from 1987 to the present as
reported to the National Resource Center. The data are broken
down by state. The average size of those spills reported in
gallons is presented for each year as is an average size for all
reported spills. The same information is shown for spills
reported in units of "pounds" and "other". Finally, the number
of spills reported with a size of 0 is shown. These correspond
to a report where the size of the release was not known. The
percentage of the total reports represented by the reports with
unknown quantity is also given for each year and for the overall
data.
HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
TOXICITY ASSESSMENT
Region 5 has identified seven chemicals that make up the majority
of spills and releases occurring in the six state area. These
chemicals include PCBs, dioxin, lead, cyanide (via cyanide wastes
from electroplating operations), organic solvents, chromium and
ammonia vapor. Tables 5 and 6 present the potency and reference
dose factors used in this comparative risk assessment for
162
-------
TABLE 4: Characteristics of PC8 Releases in Region 5 as Reported to NRC
QUANTITY
avg per
NUMBER YEAR STATE
U 1990 Illinois
38 1989 Illinois
57 1988 Illinois
35 1987 Illinois
Totals and Averages:
7 1990 Indiana
16 1989 Indiana
'13 1988 Indiana
12 1987 Indiana
Totals and Averages:
13 1990 Michigan
51 1989 Michigan
45 1988 Michigan
57 1987 Michigan
Totals and Averages:
3 1990 Minnesota
20 1989 Minnesota
14 1988 Minnesota
14 1987 Minnesota
Totals and Averages:
18 1990 Ohio
34 1989 Ohio
38 1988 Ohio
34 1987 Ohio
Totals and Averages:
(without largest spill)
3 1990 Wisconsin
10 1989 Wisconsin
3 1988 Wisconsin
9 1987 Wisconsin
Totals and Averages:
REGION TOTALS AND AVG'S
(without largest spill)
gallons sites
1710
1336
2356
357
5759
11
1697
70
4044
5822
318
1581
2772
725
5396
40
348
188
284
860
1298
407
1002078
1892
1005675
5676
451
463
5
78
997
1024509
24510
11
33
44
31
119
4
12
9
9
34
11
36
32
47
126
3
19
14
13
49
15
21
30
27
93
92
3
9
1
6
19
440
439
site
155
40
54
12
48
3
141
8
449
171
29
44
87
15
43
13
18
13
22
18
87
19
33403
70
10814
62
150
51
5
13
52
2328
56
other sites
30
0
2
0
32
2
8
15
0
25
0
24
1
0
25
0
0
0
0
0
11
7209
23
2
7245
0
0
0
10
10
7337
2
0
1
0
3
1
1
2
0
4
0
4
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
2
6
2
1
11
0
0
0
1
1
24
avg per
s i te unknown
15
n/a
2
n/a
11
2
8
7.5
n/a
6
n/a
6
1
n/a
5
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
5.5
1201.5
11.5
2
659
n/a
n/a
n/a
10
10
306
1
5
12
4
22
2
3
2
3
10
2
11
12
10
35
0
1
0
1
2
1
7
6
6
20
0
1
2
2
5
94
X of
sites
7.14
13.16
21.05
11.43
15.28
28.57
18.75
15.38
25.00
20.83
15.38
21.57
26.67
17.54
21.08
0.00
5.00
0.00
7.14
3.92
5.56
20.59
15.79
17.65
16.13
0.00
10.00
66.67
22.22
20.00
16.85
163
-------
TABLE 5: CARCINOGENIC HEALTH EFFECT INFORMATION
CHEMICAL
CANCER POTENCY
VALUE
(mg/kg/day)-1
Inhalation Oral
CLASSIFICATION
UNIT RISK
FACTORS
CHROMIUM III
CHROMIUM VI
PCBs
CYANIDE
2,3,7,8-TCOD
LEAD
AMMONIA
Not evaluated for
hunan carcinogenic
potential
OOE+01 n/a
A: inhalation 1.20E-02
-------
s
"S
f
a £
en «* •>
2X "O
5 =
B £ S,
at .* u
°* ? u.
Ul
£g
3
<0
O
IU
i
i
X
^
<
IU
z
CO
z >- ac
1- U —
_/ iu O
Z IU Z
IU
1
u
8
0
I i
u
u c
— o
§ i
I!
o
!J
§
1
L.
u
41
(A
2 |
tl C X £ • •
xfif f -Illll!
2-i-|fx^f.^|^
fl'S*!15. 55s
" ^ ~
s
1
u
'c
1
-
§ §
in •-
u
S |
* -8
^ M
Kl
O CM
• 0
« 1
ID V
<5 «
1 €J
5 1
** "^
4)
^
•>
21
. c. o 8
' $ x Si
— £ *
-* ** u
^ ^. ^. C
gii = s
O 9 S «j
-------
1
<0
a
41
(A U
UJ C
O X 'D
Q „ ...
S ]» i(
UJ 'V
S g u.
u. ^ X
UJ
gg
Ik
3
"S
O
to
UJ
gf
1
Z
_J
UJ
Z
1—
X 1— Z
1- %5f u<^ +* x
»- -n — D. CV^OuT)*'^
4l4lwOI«34lIi4IV— V
u E 4) C — 01 41 — 4» — C —
o— u .c C v o 5 y
fc/ _ _ _ • u 3 x £ i. u 01 v
tlli^l^^^
•- ~i
i
5
ee
u
«
C
i
-1
^
§ §
in «-
o
5 'i
i i
u 3
V M
Kl
? g
41 i
in 4)
_) _1
tooio^ o^ OQ en
< E Ja w < "O i ^ E
X • >. 4>v. 4><
u • 41 ^ O Ol • ^ O Ol •^QOIO
«^ 30^ Q)^ Q>«~ 4>
56 O •• E O •• E O (M
x •• IP «- e ii «- E n r^ •
o x >* u >» C** •-
C ^ ^ 3 ^ ^J 3 ^ 1^ 3 ••
•*• C3 ^* **•* 3 ^s 3 *"*•» 3 df
?55j *'?5j3*'?i;J3ww
IJJB «P^ ^rf UJ ^ ^ ^ 4^ V
°J=!cS ^» «z S
U U Z — •- -1
U <
" «• (
'i J
I4
i
s
Of
X
u
a
c
a
£
I
41
«
i. 'o 8
O r_ L.
•i ^ 8-
— » *^ t.
v* ^ ^ C
O O O 41 M O
^j jjW ^ u "B *j
a • a E • C 0 41 —
U)
^
166
-------
carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic effects respectively.
Additional health information is provided such as hypothesized
endpoints for noncarcinogenic health effects and any health
advisories noted in USEPA's IRIS data base. Reference doses,
slope factors, and other data appearing in Tables 4 and 5 are
taken from Health Effects Assessment Summary Tables. Fourth
Quarter FY 1989 and the IRIS Data Base.
Oil and petroleum products (fuel oil, diesel oil, gasoline)
produce a wide variety of health effects due to the different
makeup of each product. The toxicity of these hydrocarbons is
generally considered indirectly proportional to their viscosity,
with those materials having high viscosity considered to be less
toxic. Gasoline can produce significant central nervous system
toxicity with a potential aspiration hazard. Fuel oil and diesel
oil are generally nontoxic in normal, ingested doses. However,
ingestion may lead to lipoid pneumonia if aspiration occurs. The
release of fuel oil, diesel oil, or gasoline is considered a more
serious threat to ecosystems than to human populations.
The USEPA has classified PCBs as probable human carcinogens based
on evidence that PCBs cause cancer in animals (ref). PCBs
produce non-cancerous health effects as well. The health effects
produced vary according to the duration of exposure and the
exposure pathway (ref). Inhalation of air contaminated with PCBs
can lead to skin irritation in humans if the PCB concentration
exceeds 0.05 mg in a cubic meter of air and the exposure lasts
longer than two weeks. For air exposures of less than two weeks,
no quantitative data are available that support the
identification of human health effects. Likewise, no
quantitative data are available to support the identification of
non-cancerous health effects due to ingestion of PCBs. However,
doses have been identified below which only a minimal risk of
non-cancerous effects can be assumed. Direct contact with PCBs
can produce non-cancerous health effects in humans for exposures
lasting more than two weeks. These include skin irritation and
liver effects. No quantitative data are available to aid in the
identification of human health effects due to direct contact with
PCBs when exposures last two weeks or less. '
Although it is suspected that lead is a potential human
carcinogen, USEPA's Carcinogen Assessment Group has recommended
that a numerical estimate not be used in assessing the risks
associated with lead. The group felt that too many uncertainties
were involved with quantifying this risk. They added that the
current state of knowledge in lead pharmacokinetics indicated
that an estimate derived by standard procedures would not
adequately describe the risks to exposed populations. However,
under Section 109 of the Clean Air Act, USEPA has set a primary
national ambient air quality standard for lead of 1.5 micrograms
per cubic meter. This is a health-based quantity. In addition,
a maximum contaminant level (MCL) of lead in drinking water has
I1
167
-------
been set at 0.05 milligrams per liter. Currently, this value has
interim status. USEPA OSWER has released a directive stating
that soil concentrations for lead must not exceed 500 to 1000
ppm.
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
The acute (short-term) exposures associated with releases are
identified as inhalation of airborne contaminants resulting from
a release and direct (dermal) contact with released material. A
secondary exposure pathway would be ingestion of contaminated
material after dermal contact.
The Emergency Response Section also is concerned with the chronic
(long-term) effects of spills and releases. Potentially
important pathways for chronic exposures include ingestion,
direct contact, and inhalation of groundwater and surface waters
contaminated by spilled and released materials. Inhalation of
air is also viewed as an important pathway when dealing with
releases of heavy metals such as lead.
FOBS
Eating contaminated fish can be a major source of PCB exposure to
humans. By comparison, exposure through breathing outdoor air
containing PCBs is small. Breathing indoor air contaminated by
PCBs may be a major source of human exposure, especially in
buildings that make use of PCB containing devices. Exposures
also occur through direct contact with PCBs or surfaces
contaminated by PCBs.Information on five PCB spills and releases
that occurred in Region 5 identified a variety of exposure
pathways. Two of the five events resulted in direct exposure of
human beings from airborne spray during the release. Direct
contact also occurred from tracking through PCB contaminated oil
before cleanup activities were initiated and in a third case
after an ineffective cleanup. Inadvertent ingestion of this
tracked material was a probable exposure path in one instance
where small children were part of the exposed population. Two
other events documented in Region 5 resulted in contamination of
surface waters. Exposures stemming from direct contact with the
PCB-contaminated water during recreational activities occurred in
both cases. Neither of the events resulted in the contamination
of drinking water supplies, although one of the releases resulted
in elevated levels of PCBs in fish. Human exposures from
ingesting contaminated fish taken from the polluted stream must
be accounted for in this case.
Data from five PCB release events were available for the purposes
of this project. The first two events occurred at fixed
facilities and resulted in the release of PCB-contaminated oil to
surface waters. In one case, the contaminated surface water fed
a river which ran through a State recreation area (including
g.
168
-------
wetlands) that bordered the site. The release originated from a
waste oil lagoon and was limited in size to 200 gallons.
Exposures through direct contact were not a factor as the effects
of this release were .minimized by an immediate removal action.
In the second case, PCB contaminated oil was released from
transformers and capacitors and entered the surface water through
a storm drain (outfall) pipe. Direct contact exposures were
likely since the release was not immediately identified and
access to the site was not restricted. Free standing
contaminated oil was observed around the transformers/capacitors
before the cleanup began. Air monitoring was performed during
the cleanup but no levels above background were recorded. Soil
samples taken in the area of the release event showed an average
Aroclor 1254 concentration of 135 ppm. The average concentration
of Aroclor 1260 in the same area was 1000 ppm. After the cleanup
action, all samples dropped below the detection limit. Samples
taken from the contaminated surface water identified elevated PCB
levels in the fish that inhabited the affected streams. The
reported values ranged from 18 ppm for carp (whole body) samples
to 0.3 ppm measured in small mouth bass fillets. An average
concentration of 5.9 ppm was obtained for the nine fish samples
taken. High concentrations of PCBs were noted in sediments and
bank soils as well. The elevated levels of PCBS found in the
fish and surface waters resulted in the county health advisory
board banning all recreational water activities, including
fishing, for an area extending from two miles upstream of the
release to three miles downstream.
A third PCB release involved the transport of a leaking
transformer along Interstate 70. The release contaminated
approximately 7.5 miles of the highway. Data indicate that 15
people were exposed to the airborne spray as they were working
along the road when the truck carrying the leaking transformer
passed by. Approximately 400 gallons of PCB contaminated oil
were released resulting in the contamination of numerous passing
cars, one lane of the highway, and the berm along the edge of the
road (this berm was made of gravel and was removed during the
cleanup). Data taken at the site indicated that the highest
concentrations occurred in the areas along the bermiwhere the
truck pulled off 1-70 and came to a halt. The average
concentration for all samples reported in units of ppm was 2312.
Although the road remained closed for several days, the cleanup
was effective as shown by the data taken. Therefore this event
is assumed to result in no long-term health effects.
A ruptured pole-mounted capacitor resulted in the contamination
of a residence and two vehicles parked outside. Four adults and
two children were exposed to this PCB contaminated oil through
direct contact. Data taken at the site during cleanup activities
showed extensive contamination to the interior of the house as
well as the outside. Two of the adults and the two children who
resided in the contaminated home were exposed for 11 days before
169
-------
being evacuated. An average concentration of 74 ppm was obtained
for samples taken in the house. Samples taken from clothing
resulted in an average concentration of 163 ppm. Once samples
indicated that the cleanup was effective, the family was allowed
to move back in. Because of the age of the children (5 and 10
years), inadvertent ingestion of PCB contaminated oil must also
be considered as a viable exposure pathway.
The last release event for which sampling data are available
involves an office building which experienced two PCB spills
approximately 14 years apart. During the first event, PCB
contaminated oil escaped the transformer vault through floor
cracks and was found in a stairwell and a telephone/electrical
equipment room. Fourteen years later a valve was broken during a
transformer changeout resulting in a release. Although the spill
was confined to the vault, residues from the initial spill were
identified through sampling activities associated with the
cleanup of the second release. A limited number of workers were
exposed to the events because of their location. However, long-
term exposures may have occurred to some workers as a result of
the ineffective cleanup following the first release.
Organic Solvents
An accidental release of organic solvents was documented at a
recycling facility in Region 5. According to a report filed by
the USEPA Technical Assistance Team, the roof over a wastewater
treatment facility collapsed under the weight of water and ice.
The falling debris sheared the valve off a tank containing
approximately 10,000 gallons of ink solvents. Nearly 6,000
gallons escaped the tank before the release was brought under
control. Before cleanup could be completed, heavy rains caused
1,500 gallons of the spilled material to enter a surface water
from which the town drew its water supply.
Three exposure pathways are associated with this release:
o The contamination of surface water due to runoff of the
spill is the primary concern here since the surface
water serves as a source of water for the town where
this site is located
o Direct contact with contaminated liquids must be
considered since the spill was not immediately
cleaned up, and
o Air exposures due to volatilization of the organics
in the spilled solvent.
The human populations susceptible to exposures from this site
included commercial and residential developments. A school was
reported to be in the affected area as well. These populations
170
-------
were located within 0.25 miles of the site. The size of the
affected population was estimated at over 100 persons.
Although several organic compounds were listed (including
toluene) that could make up part of the organic solvents spilled
from the tank, no positive identification of the chemical
constituents in the spill has been made. Quantifying the risks
associated with this release are therefore impossible. Data were
taken that showed organic vapors remained in the air above the
tank which released the solvents. However, the constituents of
the vapor were not identified.
Cyanide Wastes
A leaking 6000 gallon tank in the wastewater treatment building
of an electroplating facility located in Region 5 was determined
to be releasing cyanide to the environment. Approximately one
half inch of liquid had accumulated within a concrete dike
surrounding the tank. A creek located twenty feet north of the
wastewater treatment building was not contaminated as the dike
confined the cyanide waste to the area around the tank. The
presence of acids such as HC1 and HNO3 in the same area created
the potential for an HCN release. Although the threat of such a
release was abated before it could occur, the cyanide spill
itself constituted a threat to human health through direct
contact. Accessibility to the site was not restricted and dermal
contact with the contaminated liquid by children, transients and
vandals may have occurred before the spill was cleaned up. This
site was bordered by residences to the south, east and west. It
was determined that over 100 people lived within a quarter mile
of the site. One source of information identified a school as
one of the primary populations impacted by contamination at the
site. Samples were taken of the plating waste for analysis. The
results showed that the waste contained 15 mg/kg of amenable
cyanide and 51 mg/kg of total cyanide. The tank was sealed and
the cyanide waste drummed. Final disposal is still pending.
HUMAN HEALTH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
I
Hwang, Falco, and Nauman have estimated PCB cleanup levels (as
doses in ug/day) that corresponded to different levels of risk
depending as a function of human exposure pathway and the
location of the exposed population. Table 7 presents a compiled
summary of the results for several types of PCBs. Data obtained
from the five reports on PCB spills were averaged to determine
the average populations exposed per event as a function of
exposure pathway. Four of the five reports contained data
suitable for estimating the exposed population. The exposed
population for each of the four sites was identified for each
exposure pathway. Then an average population was determined by
exposure pathway for all four sites. As shown in Table 3, 169
PCB releases occurred in Region 5 during 1989. The number of
171
-------
a a a
o 41
f i.
CD
UJ
O I/I
I 2
z ^
8 |
_i i-
— <
ERMISSIBLE PCB SC
SURFACE CONTAHIN
3IL (i.e. ppm)
£ a »
N. Ul >»
UJ O S
— i u a.
CD Z
< 3 W
«- w 5
X
1
(A
tl
1
u
I
M
u
I.
tl
i
u
a <•»
41 ^
4J — •
L. .A r\
o a x
M a. •Q
ti x.
<- u a
ti u 5
yaw
i E ti
0 U .X
c £ £
5 c
z —
UJ
u
z
UJ
ac
UJ
u.
UJ
ac
1C £
• Cfl
u
0
c
rl
O u
in
o
tc 2
•- v*
o
o
C
•- »
§ r
0 N-
O
1 "
I
I 2
€
id route
cposure
5 ti
g §
• f
-l "5
c" c" c" § *"
z z z 5
• » • C flO
O O O IB U
u u u i- a.
~a "a ~a i " ~a>
U. u. U. g g .£
» . • — • L.
fa 01 < *" o
c c a. — c
(Q (D UJ 4^ 41
X Ti 3 VI C U
£ S g
* E (s.
R § >
si
_
^ 4^ O (0 4^ ^^
SIA C X « X —
41 5 C X — ft_
.K «L x ^^ •••
a oi .- o a 4-0)
c C »- — c ti u
— — a *. — o ti a
- - -5 S^^ig
e o -E ? r 3 "8 !
vi in — _ -o «>._>•-
X
1
u
CA
4*
L>
i
i
^
u
a
u.
o
at
e
•g
a
o
tl O
a M
c ^
$'%
•o
) Short -term, 10
I Based n average
a J3
t/i
ti
o
z
X
1
'o
IA
?
1
u
«•*
a
u
£
'5
in
l Children ages 1
u
*•*
1
'o
IA
O)
O
I
E
u
a
u
'a
4^
"x
in
l Children ages 1
•o
(
W
L.
CA
i
X
tl
IK
41
8
u
c
u
o
x
•8
21
tf)
L.
ft/
U
i
u
I
0
I
tl
a
l Inhalation rate
ti
L.
a
x
L.
x
•S
1
•+•
172
-------
releases for each identified exposure pathway was calculated by
multiplying the total number of releases by the fraction of times
a pathway was identified (e.g. Direct contact with contaminated
surface water occurred in 2 of the four reports. Therefore the
fraction was 2/4 or 50%). Table 8 identifies the exposure
pathways and the estimated exposed human populations. No attempt
was made to calculate the risks. The data obtained from the
spill reports indicated that comparison to the risk values
determined by Hwang, Falco, and Nauman was inappropriate.
Conditions as described in the site reports did not fit the
assumptions made in calculating the risks.
The quantifying of human health risks for the release reports
reviewed here was not attempted. Several factors influenced the
decision to address the risks associated with accidental releases
qualitatively rather than quantitatively. Insufficient data were
identified to quantify the risks associated with the other
releases described here. In cases where concentration data were
available, they did not always correspond to the concentration
that populations may have been exposed to during the event (i.e.
accurate acute exposures could not be determined). The length of
the project prevented development of full risk assessments for
each of the site reports in compliance with the requirements of
the Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund. Volume 1; Human
Health Evaluation Manual. Based on the number of releases
occurring in Region 5 it is doubtful that quantifying the risks
at these sites would be truly representative of the actual risks
present in Region 5 as a result of accidental releases.
Noncancer health effects for materials frequently released in
Region 5 are presented in Table 6. The effects range from eye
and skin irritation for PCBS to death (for inhalation exposure to
1500 ppm of ammonia). Altered functioning of organs such as
kidneys, lung, and liver are also noted. Although the noncancer
health effects may be severe, the populations exposed to
accidental releases are usually small and confined to areas
immediate to the release site. The time of exposure is usually
short as well. However, there are instances in the Region where
releases occur and go unreported leading to long-term exposures.
Such events may contaminate soil, surface water, and possibly
ground water (They may volatize into the air as well, but
concentrations tend to dilute quickly). Such releases also pose
the threat of an increased incidence of cancer in Region 5.
Chromium VI, PCBs, dioxins, and lead entering the environment
from accidental releases may lead to an increased incidence of
cancer in Region 5. Those releases that are not cleaned up may
result in exposures via ingestion of contaminated water supplies
and inhalation of volatized components of those water supplies
during domestic use.
173
-------
z
o
W
(X
z
H
cn
a
H
cn
CO
o
EH
8
o
u
cn
2
X
H
cn
o
O4
2
Cn
O
cn
H
EH
z
o
Q H
W EH
cn <
o 3
a D
X (X
u o
04
z
o
U H
O EH
S3
U EH
> Z
< U
U
z
o
o
PJ
g>4
rtj
cn 2
o E
X <
w cu
0 0
0 0
o o
eo n
in
r»
E E
a a
a a
o o
0 0
o o
H H
J-l
Q)
•P Z
EH EH fl O
CJ CJ 5 i-H M
W < -H EH
K EH o) o cn
HZ u cn H
Q O it O
U <4H Z
fc H
3
cn
0 0 O
o o o
000
^ r» H
^- <-l rH
f>J H
E E E
Ou 0^ Oi
Q4 CX O<
0 O 0
o o o
O O M?
H H
.C -H
U O
•H >-i cn
4-1 0)
•P T3
TJ BJ Q>
CJ 5 -P
4-> (0
(0 0) C
C O-H
•H It E
E HH «J
(fl U +J
4J 3 C
C CO O
0 U
U
O
o
o
o
o
o
H
H
EH
cn
U
00
U
J
00
4
EH
174
-------
The air transport medium remains an exposure route of great
concern. The data reviewed for this report on air releases were
limited and did not enumerate exposed populations or quantify
concentrations or exposures. Some release reports were reviewed
that cited deaths occurring due to air exposures to chemicals.
These appear to be confined to occupational exposures caused by
human error or malfunctioning equipment. As such, guidelines
and/or programs like the Organization Resources Counselor, Inc.
(ORC) Recommendations for Process Hazards Management of
Substances with Catastrophic Potential and the State of New
Jersey's Toxic Catastrophe Prevention Act may help industry
improve administrative and engineering controls on process
systems thereby reducing the probability of accidental releases
to an acceptable level.
i
In Region 5, the majority of releases occur at fixed facilities.
A reduction in the number of these releases would greatly reduce
the risks to human health. Locales that have the highest number
of releases include the greater Chicago area, the Detroit area,
Cleveland, Ohio and Cincinnati, Ohio. These are the top
industrialized metropolitan areas in Region 5. Again, programs
that address process and plant hazard management may have a
positive impact on reducing human exposures to accidental
releases in Region 5.
ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
TOXICITY ASSESSMENT
Oil
Research on the effects of oil on wildlife and resources has
identified certain characteristics common in freshwater spills.
The impacts on ecosystems of interest in the Great Lakes are
summarized below.
Algae: Phytoplankton are largely unaffected by spilled oil
except to certain components of oil. Filamentous and benthic
algae suffer some impacts but also exhibit resistance and appear
to recover quickly. Blue-green algae may actually increase after
a spill.
Macrophyte vegetation: Submerged species and the submerged
portions of emergent species are generally not affected.
However, emergent species and those at the water's edge are
affected and may die because of surface oiling.
Invertebrates: Impacts in real spills appear to be minimal or
short-lived. The group most affected have been insects that
dwell on the air/water interface.
175
-------
Fish: Larvae and fry have generally suffered more impact than
adults. Some adult fish have exhibited tainting of flesh.
Birds: Exposure to toxic effects occurs through ingestion, and
absorption. Effects may be transferred to eggs and chicks.
Oiling of feathers has also produced problems with heat
regulation and buoyancy. The Peregrine Falcon inhabits the Great
Lakes Region and is a Federal endangered species. Therefore,
bird protection and cleanup may be important considerations.
Mammals: The effects are similar to those for birds. Surface
oiling will change the insulative properties of the fur.
Mortality can result from ingestion.
' PCBs
For aquatic life, PCB concentrations in water of less than 0.014
ug total PCBs/L (ppb) appear to afford a reasonable degree of
protection. LC-50 values for fish listed as inhabiting the Great
Lakes ranged from 54 ug/L for Aroclor 1242 and 1254 in Bluegills
to a reported high of 540 ug/L for Aroclor 1016 in the same
species and 560 ug/L in Channel Catfish.
Among small mammals listed among the species inhabiting the
coastal wetlands of the Great Lakes, the mink is one of the most
susceptible PCB poisoning. A dietary level as low as 100 ug
PCBs/kg fresh weight produced death and reproductive toxicity in
mink. A tolerable daily limit has been estimated at less than
1.5 ug/kg body weight. Mink given a single oral dose of three
different Aroclors (1221, 1242, 1254) produced LD-50s of 0.88
(avg.), 3.0, and 4.0 g/kg body weight, respectively. Recent data
indicate that certain hexachlorobiphenyls (such as 3,4,5,3',4',5*
HCBP) are extremely toxic to mink. Concentrations as low as 0.1
mg/kg fresh weight diet produced an ID-50 in 3 months and
completely inhibited reproduction in survivors. However, other
HCBPs (2,4,5,2',4',5' HCBP and 2,3,6,2',3',61 HCBP) were not
fatal under similar conditions and did not produce adverse
reproductive effects. The signs of PCB poisoning in mink include
anorexia, bloody stools, fatty liver, kidney degeneration, and
hemorrhagic gastric ulcers.
For birds, total PCB levels in excess of 3,000 ug/kg fresh weight
(diet) have been frequently associated with PCB poisoning. As a
group, birds are more resistant to acutely toxic effects of PCBS
than mammals. Oral exposures given to Mallards in single doses
resulted in LD-50 greater than 2 g/kg body weight. Signs of PCB
poisoning among birds include morbidity, tremors, beak pointed
upwards, and muscular incoordination. At necropsy, the liver
frequently contains hemorrhagic areas and the gastrointestinal
tract is filled with blackish fluid. One field study listed the
probable cause of mortality of many ring-billed gulls as PCB
poisoning. Ring-billed gulls are a species of bird that inhabits
176
-------
the wetlands around the Great Lakes.
Lead
Adverse effects on aquatic biota have been reported at waterborne
concentrations as low as 1 to 5 ug/1 for lead. The observed
effects included reduced survival, impaired reproduction, reduced
growth, and high bioconcentration. Terrestrial plants suffer
adverse effects at total concentrations of several hundred mg of
lead per kilogram of soil. Plants residing in low pH or low
organic content soils readily accumulate lead. Inhibited plant
growth, reduced photosynthesis, and reduced mitosis and water
absorption are some of the reported effects.
Although the evidence supporting the claim that ingested lead
shot is a major cause of mortality in waterfowl and other birds
is overwhelming, the use of lead shot is being phased out. By
1991-1992 all uses of lead shot for hunting waterfowl must be
eliminated nationwide. Other forms of inorganic lead have not
been shown to produce subclinical signs of lead toxicosis in bird
populations. However, it should be noted that lead poisoning has
been reported in eagles, vultures, and falcons (i.e. birds of
prey). Most cases result from the ingestion of lead shot in food
items. This may be important since several species of these
birds inhabit the Great Lakes Region (including the endangered
Peregrine falcon). The outward signs of lead poisoning in birds
are loss of appetite, lethargy, weakness, tremors, drooped wings,
and impaired locomotion, balance and depth perception. Reports
show that death follows exposure to lead poisoning in 2 to 3
weeks (Friend, 1985).
Fish that are continuously exposed to toxic concentrations of
waterborne lead exhibit signs of lead poisoning: spinal
curvature, anemia, darkening of tissue, degeneration of the
caudal fin, reduced ability to swim against the current, adverse
respiratory effects, elevated lead concentrations in blood, bone,
gill, liver, and kidney, muscular atrophy, paralysis, growth
inhibition, renal pathology, retardation of sexual maturity, and
death. Although lead is concentrated by biota from water, no
convincing evidence exists to support a claim that it is
transferred through food chains.
Although some domestic and laboratory animals have exhibited
reduced survival at acute oral lead doses, data are missing for
toxic and sublethal effects on mammalian wildlife. Based on
laboratory studies researchers have concluded that organolead
compounds appear more toxic than inorganic lead compounds, food
chain biomagnification is negligible, and younger organisms are
more susceptible to adverse effects from lead exposure (USDOI,
1988).
177
-------
Diozin
Laboratory studies on 2,3,7,8-TCDD have reported that exposures
of aquatic organisms, birds, and mammals result in acute and
delayed mortality, and carcinogenic, teratogenic, mutagenic,
mistopathologic, immunotoxic, and reproductive effects. The
effects vary greatly among exposed species. The summary of some
laboratory studies on the effects of this material on wildlife is
presented below.
Accumulation of 2,3,7,8-TCDD from the aquatic environment was
noted for algae and macrophytes, and channel catfish. Effects in
channel catfish included fin necrosis, erratic swimming,
hemorrhaging from anus and lower jaw, BCF of 2181 and mortality.
i
Mallards have an acute oral LD-50 value of more than 108 ug/kg of
body weight for 2,3,7,8-TCDD. Some of the signs of intoxication
observed included excessive drinking, loss of appetite,
hpoactivity, weakness, muscular incoordination, fluffed feathers,
falling, tremors, convulsions, and -inmobility. Death occurred
between 13 and 37 days after exposure. Remission was observed in
survivors, however, by day 30 of posttreatment. Although there
may be no scientific evidence of biomagnification of PCDDs in
birds, it has been hypothesized that piscivorous birds have a
greater potential to accumulate PCDDs than the fish that they eat
(NRCC, 1981).
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Exposures of birds and mammals to the materials reviewed
typically occur by direct contact and ingestion. Fish are
exposed through ingestion as well. By far the most important
geographic area impacted by accidental releases within Region V
is the Great Lakes Region. Data obtained from the US Coast Guard
showed that releases and spills into the Great Lakes were more
likely to originate from non-vessels than from vessels.
Therefore most of the releases were close to shore and more
likely to adversely impact wetlands and marshes and the birds and
mammals that live there. '
Much data on the background concentrations of PCBs, dioxins,
lead, and chromium in biota are presented in the US Department of
Interior's Contaminant Hazard Reviews. Several levels of
interest in Region 5 are reported below.
Material Species Concentration Remarks
Lead Plankton 4 ppm dry weight Great Lakes
Lead Fish (0.1-0.13) ppm Lake Ontario
Lead Wingbone (9-12) dry weight Male, Wisconsin
Lead Robin 79 ppm dry weight Feather, Illinois
'178
-------
Material
Dioxin
Dioxin
Dioxin
Dioxin
Chromium
Species
Concentration
(28-695) ppt
(12.8-17.7) ppt
Channel
Catfish
Channel
Catfish
Black-crowned 21 ppt
Night-Heron
Municipal 16 ppt
Sewage Sludge
Freshwater 1-49 ppm
Sediments
Remarks
Michigan Rivers
Lake Ontario
Green Bay and
Lake Michigan, 1982
Milwaukee, 1982
Wisconsin
ECOLOGICAL RISK CHARACTERIZATION
The principal ecological effects of concern associated with
accidental chemical releases are effects on aquatic ecosystems,
including effects on birds and mammals which come in contact with
water contamination physically or through ingestion of
contaminated water organisms. Generally, spills occurring on
land which do not immediately run off into surface waters can be
contained and cleaned up before serious, irreversible ecological
damage occurs.
The effects of acute spills on aquatic ecosystems depends upon
the material spilled, its volume, and the volume and mixing
characteristics of the water body into which the material is
spilled. Frequent results of major spills of oil and hazardous
substances include kills of fish, birds, and mammals. About 500
of the spills reported in Region V annually, or 5 percent, occur
to the marine environment.
In dynamic environments, such as streams, the local effects of
spills are frequently transient and reversible. That is, while
the spill may result in one-time kills of fish, birds, and
mammals, the effects are dissipated relatively rapidly over time
due to dilution of the spilled materials. However, for large
spills which exceed the dilution capacity of the receiving water
body, releases to dynamic environments can spread the effects of
the spill rapidly over a large geographic area, greatly
magnifying the ultimate impacts of the spill. The 2 million
gallon Ashland oil spill to the Ohio river demonstrated the
importance of geographical spreading in magnifying ecological
effects of major spills which exceed the dilution capacity of the
receiving stream.
In static aquatic ecosystems, such as wetlands and lakes, the
effects of a major spill can persist for a long period unless
measures are taken to actively remove the toxic materials. While
the effects may be contained in geographical extent, materials
can persist in toxic levels until diluted or degraded.
179
-------
The most frequently spilled material in Region V is oil, which
accounts for 43 percent of all reported spills (approximately
3900 spills in 1989). In sufficient volume, oil spills can
result in kills of fish, birds, and mammals through ingestion of
toxic levels of oil and oil constituents, and through physical
contact (e.g., oiling of fur and feathers). Although most oil
spills are relatively small, a major spill to the Great Lakes
could result in severe ecological effects, including kills of
migratory waterfowl, aquatic mammals, and fish. About 18 percent
of all oil spills in Region V in 1989 occurred in three major
metropolitan areas adjacent to the Great Lakes: Chicago,
Cleveland, and Detroit.
RISK SUMMARY
The most important health effects associated with accidental
releases are short-term (acute), non-cancer effects that affect
very localized areas. In the vast majority of cases, the
populations affected by releases is small. However, some
releases have the potential to produce catastrophic effects
especially when releases involve toxic chemicals in the vapor
phase. Prevailing wind speed and direction are important
variables when dealing with releases where air is the major
transport medium.
The health effects associated with the chemicals identified as
major concerns in Region V range from skin irritations to
possible mortality. Some effects such are systemic in nature
while others are local. Non-cancer effects or more likely to
result from accidental releases than cancer effects. This is due
to the short-term nature of release events. Although some
residual is usually left behind after cleanup, those levels
should be low enough as to not produce cancer effects from a
single episode.
Other types of releases may actually produce the opposite
effects. Releases from leaking drums or tanks that go undetected
or unchecked can lead to soil contamination, surface, water
contamination/ and even ground water contamination. Releases of
this type lead to exposures through direct contact with and/or
ingestion of contaminated water or soil. These effects can
produce long-term effects and usually result in more extensive
cleanup efforts when they are discovered.
An event such as an accidental release of toxic gas or vapor
(like HCN or ammonia) results in exposure by inhalation. It is
possible for such a release to have catastrophic consequences,
therefore, programs and guidelines on process hazard management
may prove useful in minimizing these releases. Such programs may
be doubly effective in Region 5 since the majority of releases
are from fixed facilities.
180
-------
Other paths such as dermal contact and ingestion generally play
only minor roles. Typically, populations in the immediate
vicinity of a release or who are located close by and downwind
receive the highest exposures.
The risks associated with accidental releases must be discussed
qualitatively. Data are not generally available from EPA sources
that allow exposures resulting from accidental releases to be
calculated. In some cases where exposure data are available,
risks can be quantified, but in other cases the chemical of
interest does not possess an EPA-verified reference dose. In
cases where cleanup levels have been established with the help of
quantitative risk assessment (as is the case for PCBs), residual
risks may be minimized with respect to the current level of
knowledge concerning a pollutant. More work must be performed in
this area as important data are lacking for many chemicals of
interest.
REFERENCES
Boca, Lankford, and Gundlach, Environmental Impacts of Oil and
Hazardous Material Spills with Emphasis on Winter Conditions in
the Upper Great Lakes Region. U.S. Army Engineering District,
Detroit, Corps of Engineers, Detroit, Michigan, AD-A214 349,
November 1986
Commonwealth Edison Company, PCS Remediation Plan for the IBM
Building Chicago. Illinois. October 1986
Levin, Carl, Letter Report with Attachments to Carol Finch, Great
Lakes National Program Office, U.S. EPA, "U.S. Coast Guard Data
Runs", MSIS System, Printout for January 1, 1980 to September 30,
1989, May 1990
Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Report on Inspection to
Determine Compliance with the PCS Disposal and Marking
Regulations. September 1986
i
Raley, Gerald, Letter Report to Dr. Sheldon Simon, Regional PCB
Coordinator, U.S. EPA Region 5, "Capacitor Fluid Spill January
19, 1985 Vincennes, Indiana", February 1985
Roy F. Weston, Inc., Site Assessment and Emergency Action Plan
for Liquid Disposal, Inc., Utica, Michigan, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, January 1985
Roy F. Weston, Inc., On-Scene Coordinator's Report, Dayton Tire
and Rubber Company, Phase II Dayton, Ohio, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, May 1989
181
-------
Speight, G.R., Jr., Letter Report to Sheldon Simon with
Attachments, "Summary of Discharge Reports", January 1987 to May
1989, May 1989
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, County
Population Estimates: July 1, 1988, 1987, and 1986, August 1989
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease
Control, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry, Toxicological Profile for Selected PCBs.
ATSDR/TP-88/21, June 1989
U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service,
Chromium Hazards to Fish. Wildlife, and Invertebrates; A
synoptic Review. Contaminant Hazard Reviews Report No. 6, January
1986
U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service,
Polvchlorinated Biphenyl Hazards to Fish. Wildlife, and
invertebrates; A synoptic Review. Contaminant Hazard Reviews
Report No. 7, April 1986
U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service,
Dioxin Hazards to Fish. Wildlife, and Invertebrates; A synoptic
Review. Contaminant Hazard Reviews Report No. 8, May 1986
U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Lead
Hazards to Fish. Wildlife, and Invertebrates; A synoptic Review.
Contaminant Hazard Reviews Report No. 14, April 1988
U.S. Department of Transportation, Various printouts from the
Emergency Response Notification System (ERNS) Data Base, June
1990
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Memorandum from G. Schweer
(EAB) to J. Kim (CRB), PCB Spill Exposure Scenarios, April 18,
year illegible
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Exposure Assessment Group,
Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Development of
Advisory Levels for Polychlorinated Biohenvls fPCBsl Cleanup. May
1986
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Unfinished Business: A
Comparative Assessment of Environmental Problems, Appendix II
Non-Cancer Risk Work Group, Table A-2, pgs. A-7 through A-9,
February 1987
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Effects Assessment
Summary Tables, Fourth Quarter FY 1989, January 1990
182
-------
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Health and
Environmental Assessment, Comparative Risk Project, Guidance for
Health and Ecological Assessment, May 1990
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Health and
Environmental Assessment, Supplement to Organization and Format
for Comparative Risk Project, May 1990
Weston-Sper Technical Assistance Team, Region V, "Emergency
Action Plan for I.J. Recycling Facility, Fort Wayne, Indiana,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December 1986
Weston-Sper Technical Assistance Team, Region V, Removal Action
Plan, Dayton Tire and Rubber Company, Dayton, Ohio, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, January 1988
Weston-Sper Technical Assistance Team, Region V, "Site Assessment
and Removal Action Plan for C & M Plating, Roanoke, Indiana",
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October 1988
Weston-Sper Technical Assistance Team, Region V, "Outline of
Events for Indiana Jones Recycling Facility, Fort Wayne,
Indiana", U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, February 1989
183
-------
13: PESTICIDES
ini t-ion and Description
The pesticides problem area will address the risks to humans and
the environment arising from the application, runoff, and
residues of pesticides. It includes risks to people applying
agricultural pesticides, including farm workers who mix, load,
and apply them. Also included are risks to the public and non-
target plants and animals as a result of short range drift,
overspray, and misuse. Some of the more dangerous pesticides
included in the study are paraquat dichloride and carbofuran.
Disposal of pesticide waste mixtures has resulted in the
generation of highly toxic, largely unknown byproducts that have
entered the air and caused serious health problems. Suburban
spraying of property, often done with high pressure systems, can
result in contamination of neighboring property, residents, pets,
and livestock. Aside from direct exposure, additional pesticide
risks stem from exposure through ingestion of residues on foods
eaten by humans and wildlife. Bioaccumulation and food chain
effects are also included in this category. Note that accidental
releases, groundwater contamination, and indoor air pollution
from pesticides are respectively included in the Accidental
Releases, Aggregated Groundwater, and Indoor Air Problem areas.
In Region V, pesticide application to major crops (corn,
soybeans) involves large volumes of herbicides and significant
insecticide usage. The analysis will focus on herbicide use, and
consideration will be given to the largest volume insecticides,
and to other pesticides with unique toxicity.
Region V contains a large portion of the Great Lakes Basin, which
will be examined for impacts of agricultural chemical application
and runoff. A discussion of agricultural impacts on the Great
Lakes Basin appears in the section on Ecological risk.
Storage and production of pesticides could have a major impact on
Region V. The Region houses several of the largest holders of
the suspended and canceled pesticide, dinoseb, including one with
over 1.5 million gallons located on the shores of the Great
Lakes. In addition, there are 4056 pesticide producing and
custom blending establishments in Region V (FATES Database,
Office of Compliance Monitoring, 2/90), which require close
monitoring and inspection to ascertain compliance with the
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) . A
brief discussion of enforcement activities and accomplishments
will illustrate the importance of monitoring compliance with the
law.
184
-------
HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
Selection of Pesticides for Analysis
Over 600 active ingredients are registered for use in the United
States, from which over 25,000 products are on the market. In
order to determine chemicals which are representative of Region
v, a selectj-oii pioucoo *a.j uuiJ6i"Lo.]icn tic ictcrrr.inc r'.ujTT c^^pc
and major chemicals used on those crops and also to determine the
chemicals of highest risk used in Region V but for which volume
and/or acreage were not substantial.
Information on Pesticide Use and Agriculture in Region V
To begin the selection process, the overall use of pesticides in
the Region was examined. Table 1 shows Region V acreage treated
with herbicides, insecticides and other pesticides. Region V
acreage treated with herbicides represents 28 percent of the
United States (U.S.) acres so treated; Region V acreage treated
with insecticides comprises 22 percent of U.S. acres, and for
other pesticides, including fungicides, treatment represents 15
percent of U.S. acres treated with such chemicals. Statistics on
farming were obtained from the most recent Census of Agriculture
(1987).
Two States in Region V contain over 40 million acres of "prime"
farmland, which is defined as land that has the best combination
of physical and chemical characteristics for producing food,
feed, forage, fiber, and oilseed crops and is also available for
these uses, (Basic Statistics, 1982, National Resources
Inventory). Minnesota and Illinois each contain 21 million of
these acres, which is almost 20 percent of the amount used as
prime cropland nationwide (232 million acres). Of the over 400
million acres of cropland in the United States, over 282 million
acres consist of harvested cropland, and over 72 million of these
acres, or 26 percent, are in Region V, according to the 1987
Census of Agriculture. A little over 53 million acres/in Region
V are currently in federal acreage reduction programs. Table 2
shows Region V figures for these programs. Acres set aside under
the Annual Commodity Acreage Adjustment in Region V represent 23
percent of U.S. acres set aside for this purpose and acres set
aside under the Conservation Reserve Program represent 10 percent
of U.S. acres under this program. Additional agricultural
statistics from the 1987 Census of Agriculture for Region V and
the U.S. are found in Appendix 2. It is interesting to note
usage of agricultural chemicals in Region V represents 24 percent
of the U.S. total.
Table 3 shows major pesticides used in Region V with acreage and
pounds applied. This information was provided by Region V
States. From this list, the major volume chemicals, are evident.
With over 40 million pounds/year for both atrazine and alachlor,
185
-------
^•"V t*"^ *-^
, CO CO W
^
§
S
ii
0
/ . . .14-1
" D«n
(11 (11 (11
O 0 O
4M>
co 01 in
Ol Ol rH
NM^ >•** S«^
T
•^
L
4.
I
£
4-
5
S
+J
1
1
•**
>
1
K
§o o
o o
o o o
V
3 ,n
H CO
O W
8 2
(fl F^
1 g
^ *• ^ 1+ t-l
VO CO CO O H
in n vo z M
i-^ «~* w*
-------
IN
a
w
3
> D
W
.9
I
in
in
rr
(N
(N
CO
CM
in
r>
S
IN
0
<*>
vo
n
r>
JH
rH
o\
O
-------
c
5 Q
P ^
,*a
'•""g
!-H '(0
: +J i->
i-3
«'
tf°|
!tis
o
Sjf
"S in E
4J CO 4J
•o28
^ i
o
IS«
*J ID M
H 4-1 O
9 t-i
IIs
« O C
T! O
P » -H
I'"
H
£3
.'1
I'
S1! .
£«TJ
a
g
•H
4J
Li £ C ^H Tl
ft) p u q
^ -51
o o p
S^^ Er§
a
•y i
S -o
'132
:SS
i •a JJ
i C o
B ff10 "
l,*jfS
•b w ^H u
i< c
Q) 3 5 o
§> C .q
ID Ll
01 0 O TJ
TJ J2B.§
S egi
;*?
i a i
B
a
«-H
15
I U
r-l «J jT O
S "Q 0 5
3 Q) *H IB
C b. Wi£
9 W -*O
^«
o
§gi
•H rH
•P a i->
8?
«:
edjj
•H Q,
-------
x
H
(0
>
H
5
a
CO
^3
_ _ ^f
'•H 5
S w
^ U4
w
K
j
J2
2
S
§
1
^
•K
CP
^
"8
•H
rH
<
*
^
1
s
OQ
4J
1 Active
Ingredien
0
o
o
o
o
o
o
VO
rH
A
o
o
0
0
o
o
o
A
1
s
atrazine
W
o"
o
o
o
o
o
o
VO
i-H
A
o
0
o
o
o
0
o
A
8
•3
alachlor
W
o"
o
o
o
o
0
o
en
A
o
o
0
o
o
o
CA
A
i-H
3
M
metolachl
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
in
A
o
0
o
o
o
0
rH
A
1
3
cyanazine
w"
o
o
o
o
o
00
A
o
o
o
o
o
in
r-
A
§
ti
£
-5
1 triflural
W
o
0
o
o
o
CM
T
A
0
O
O
O
0
O
rH
C
0
N
a
basagran
to
0
o
o
§
CM
O
0
o
0\
VO
at
•f
§
&
butylate
•
&
1
0
o
o
00
H
VO
o
0
H
,_(
H
CO
H
?
fa
triallate
o"
o
o
o
o
o
VO
in
A
0
0
o
00
in
H
Q
(S)
O
O
o
00
H
O
0
o
o
VO
CO
CM
1
^
O
o
o
0
o
CO
0
0
o
VO
H
Oi
1
s
propachlo
in
o
o
o
o
o
rH
CO
o
o
0
CO
CM
rH
8
O
i
o"
o
o
, o
o
co
o
0
o
VO
^»
00
i
s
1
b
o*
o
o
o
CO
rH
O
o
0
rH
in
VO
rH
i
&
2
chlorpyri
-------
these two chemicals far exceed other chemicals in volume applied
in Region V. Following next are metolachlor and cyanazine, each
between 10 and 20 million pounds/year applied in the Region." The
chemicals "weighing in" next are trifluralin, basagran and
terbufos, with between 1 and 8 million pounds/year applied.
Chloramben appears to be a major volume chemical, with over 2
million pounds applied in the Region, but will apparently not be
reregist-tJit!o, cuiu untticiuj.*; t_njc^> iiot. 0.^^00.1." 111 L^ic c^r^lycic.
Perhaps the most widely used chemical in Region V is 2,4-D, which
is used in agriculture, turf treatment, industrial vegetation
control, and by homeowners, although, by volume, 2,4-D does not
equal the major agricultural herbicides.
/
Table 3 also lists several pesticides used in the lawn care,
turf, and golf course industries. The General Accounting Office,
using a 1988 U.S. EPA estimate of use of pesticides on lawns by
lawn care operators and homeowners, found that 67,000,000 pounds
of active ingredients are applied each year, across the U.S.
Although pest problems are not distributed evenly across the
U.S. , an approximation of the amount applied in Region V was made
using the proportion of the U.S. population found in Region V
(46,428,000/243,300,000), which is 19%. Using this
approximation, over 12 million pounds of active ingredients are
used annually on Region V lawns. Further discussion of this
topic will appear in the section on lawn care and turf uses of
pesticides. Finally, Table 3 also lists carbofuran and paraquat
dichloride which present unique ecological and toxicity effects,
respectively, although their usage in the Region is much less
than other pesticides.
TOXICITY ASSESSMENT
Each pesticide was examined for evidence of human toxicity,
cancer and non-cancer, and for ecological effects. For cancer
risk, both risks from food residues and to applicators were
evaluated according to the 1987 "Unfinished Business" Report.
For non-cancer risk from pesticide residues in food, data did not
permit a separate analysis. Where no carcinogen category has
been assigned, the Reference Dose for non-cancer health effects
was used to analyze risk for applicators, along with available
exposure assessments from U.S. EPA documents, such as Special
Review Position Documents, and Registration Standards (now called
Reregistration Documents).
Following is a partial list of pesticides used in Region V, with
toxicity factors. With over 600 active ingredients registered by
the U.S. EPA, it was not possible to analyze all for Region V.
Pesticides analyzed were those for which appropriate information
was available. The suspended and canceled pesticides found in
Great Lakes sediments and in Great Lakes fish will be discussed
briefly under the section on Agricultural Impacts on the Great
Lakes Basin.
190
-------
Partial List of Pesticides Used in Region V/Toxicity Factors
Chemical
active
inqred.
Reference Dose*
(mg/kg/day)
Oncogen Class.**
Ql*
atrazine
aiacmor
metolachlor
cyanazine
trifluralin
basagran
terbufos
chlorpyrifos
carbofuran
paraquat
butylate
triallate
2,4-D
propachlor
aldicarb
triclopyr
pendimethalin
MCPP
dicamba
isofenphos
0.005 Cq
u . u ± I;Z
0.15 C
0.002
0.003 Cq
0.0025
0.00013
0.003
0.005
0.0045 E
0.05
0.013
0.01 D
0.013
0.006
0.025(not verified)
0.04
0.001
0.03
not available from IRIS
2.2 X 10E(-1)
r\ r\ TT i r\ T~« / o \
pending
neg./l species
7.7 X 10E(-3)
insufficient
neg./2 species
neg./l species
neg./2 species
inconclusive
pending
undetermined
negative
not available
undetermined
undetermined
neg./l species
not available
Canceled and Suspended Pesticides Found in Region V in the
Great Lakes and in Tissues of Great Lakes Fish
chlordane
heptachlor
aldrin
dieldrin
mirex
0.00006
0.00001
0.00003
0.00005
0.000002
B2
B2
C
B2
*
**
3 X 10E(-6)
1 X 10E(-6)
2 X 10E(-8)
1 X 10E(-7)
p e n d i n/g ; p o s
species
/I
Integrated Risk Information System
List of Chemicals Evaluated for Carcinogenic Potential,
U.S. EPA Memorandum, Office of Pesticide Programs, Health
Effects Division, March 9, 1990.
191
-------
EXPOSURE ESTIMATES
Exposure to pesticides can occur through various routes,
including residues in food, during application-related tasks, and
after use of the pesticide, through drift, runoff, and other
modes of transport. In order to evaluate the risk from each
route of exposure, the first step is to calculate the population
exposeu.
Since 19% of the U.S. population is found in Region V, this is
the population assumed to be exposed to pesticide residues in
food. The level of exposure is minimal because most residues are
negligible in foods as consumed, after preparation (washing,
peeling, and cooking).
There are several populations exposed during mixing and loading
pesticides, when the pesticide is applied to the field using farm
equipment or aerial application methods, and later, when workers
enter the field to perform hand labor tasks. Applicator
populations will include certified applicators, which fall into
two categories: private applicators, which are primarily farmers,
and commercial applicators, which are categorized into pest
control groupings, such as agricultural, ornamental and turf,
structural, forest, and rights-of-way. Applicator numbers appear
in Table 4.
For more general exposure to widely used chemicals, such as
homeowner use of lawn chemicals, the population considered will
be the U.S. population in Region V (46,428,000), as an estimate
of the number of people exposed.
HUMAN HEALTH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
To analyze human health risk from consumption of pesticide
residues in food and from pesticide use in Region V, the highest
volume pesticides were examined for evidence of cancer and non-
cancer effects in animal testing, as described above./
Pesticide Residues in Food: Cancer Risk
The "Unfinished Business" Report (1987) looked at 7 oncogenic
pesticides and calculated the number of cancer cases in the U.S.
population making several assumptions. For the purposes of the
Region V analysis, a proportion of the calculated number of
cancers was made using the population in Region V compared to the
U.S. population. Region V houses approximately 19 percent of the
U.S. population. The Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP)
estimated that the total annual population risk from dietary
exposure to oncogenic pesticides was 6000 people/year. For
Region V there would be an estimated 1140 people/year. The
derivation of this value is outlined below.
192
-------
TABLE 4
SELECTED EXPOSURE POPUIATICNS/REGICN V
~--~* - f' - -= -*~~1 -: ^^.»-^v-o TTV1QQ
Illinois
Indiana
Michigan
Minnesota
Ohio
Wisconsin
Total
T>H^73't-P
40,918
22,529
11,649
35,606
18,665
25,193
154,560
Corroercia.1
8,068
8,551
4,942
7,236
7,654
8,518
44,969
CERTIFIED APPLICATORS IN REGION V
TOTALS FOR SELECTED CATEGORIES
Total Commercial Applicators
Ag/Plant
Forest
Ornamental & Turf
Aquatic
Right of Way
Industrial/Structural, Health
Other /Including Wood Pres.
Total Private Applicators
44,969
13,384
3,129
17,222
1,775
7,087
15 ,062
3,081
154,560
193
-------
OPP looked at 7 oncogenic pesticides and estimated the risk from
dietary exposure to these chemicals would be 100,000 people per
lifetime for each chemical. Calculations using tolerances, which
are the legal amount of a pesticide which can remain on or in a
food commodity, are a "worst case" estimate of how much residue
can be found in food. More realistic estimates are much lower
and the Dietary Risk Evaluation System (formerly the Tolerance
Assessment System) permits analysis using average exposure
numbers, which are as much as 50 fold lower than calculations
using LuxeiAiiv-c vo.i^o. Tcr thic rcaccn. no° rH^-Mori tn<=
lifetime estimate by 50 to derive a more realistic estimate of
2000 people per lifetime for each chemical. For a yearly
estimate, dividing by 70 years per lifetime, the value is 30
people per year per chemical. An estimate of the number of
pesti'cides which may be oncogenic, as determined by animal
testing and other data, was 200 of the 600 active ingredients,
based on the number of pesticides which have been reevaluated for
carcinogenic potential to date. The annual population risk from
dietary exposure to pesticides in food was therefore determined
to be 6000 people/year (30X200). For Region V, this number was
scaled down based on the U.S. population (1988 Census of the
U.S.) found in Region V (46,428,000/243,300,000 = 0.19). The
annual population risk from dietary exposure to pesticides in
Region V is therefore 1140 people/year, as determined by the
Comparative Risk Project Ranking Methodology (Revised 7/11/90,
p.l). (Interim Score: 1140 X 0.67= 764).
Pesticide Residues in Food: Non-Cancer Risk
Available data did not permit separate analysis of the non-cancer
risk from residues in food. The assessment in "Unfinished
Business" and that provided by OPPE on 7/26/90, analyzed dietary
risk using only pesticides with oncogenic risk numbers.
Risks to Pesticide Applicators: Cancer Risk
As stated above, the "Unfinished Business" Report used
extrapolation from long term animal studies to estimate human
risk on a nationwide basis. Since oncogenicity studies are based
on lifetime daily oral exposure, several adjustments were made,
as follows:
1. Yearly exposure is used for risk calculation and
average daily exposure is calculated by dividing yearly
exposure by 365.
2. Workers are exposed for 40 years of a lifetime of 70
years.
3. Dermal and inhalation absorption versus oral
absorption, if known, was factored in.
OPP estimated the average lifetime population risk to be 35
persons/lifetime/chemical. The yearly risk/chemical would then
be 0.5 person/year/chemical (35/70 years in a lifetime). Since
194
-------
about 200 pesticides were estimated to be oncogens, the yearly
risk was estimated to be 0.5 X 200 or 100 persons/year.
Based on 100 persons/year for the nation, an estimated number for
Region V applicator risk was calculated as follows, using the
total number of certified applicators in the region. There are
200,000 Region V certified applicators and 1,249,016 total
c er r. 111 eci jL & -L.U. Lnc nc.ti.icn, tnci"c^cr~c
(200,000/1,249,016) X 100= 16 persons/year. (Interim score 16 x
0.67 = 11)
Risks to Pesticide Applicators: Non-cancer risk
Early Analysis; During the preliminary evaluation, for
pesticides without quantitative cancer risk assessments, the
reference dose was used to calculate risk to applicators (see
page 5). As described in the problem statement, available EPA
documents, which included Special Review Position Documents, and
Reregistration Documents (formerly called Registration Standards)
were used to obtain .exposure assessments for chemicals used in
the Region. Exposure populations were estimated from numbers of
certified applicators in categories known to use particular
pesticides and other available information. Using methods
prescribed by the Comparative Risk Technical Steering Committee
for Region V, Final Risk evaluations were made. The majority of
pesticides analyzed were in the medium to low category, as
follows:
Chemical Final Risk Score
Terbufos Medium-High
Triallate Medium-Low
Cyanazine Medium-Low
Paraquat Dichloride Low
2,4-D Medium-Low
Other pesticides were not included in this portion of the
analysis because applicator exposure information was not
available. Most risks were medium-low using this method of
analysis. The analysis includes the same assumptions made during
previous assessments, for example, protective clothing is worn
and certified applicators exercise appropriate precautions when
applying pesticides.
Analysis Using QPPE Report (7/26/901: Analysis Using OPPE Report
(7/26/90): OPPE provided a summary of non-dietary risks from
pesticide use. Six pesticides were used to calculate non-cancer
risks to applicators and farm workers. The Temple, Barker, and
Sloane report was used to obtain rough estimates of the
195
-------
population of farm workers and applicators for Region V, as
follows:
Total farm workers: 2 million (Includes unpaid workers,
hired workers, farm operators and ground applicators;
migrant workers were not added.)
Total off-site workers: 540,000 (Includes all hired workers
and commercial ground applicators.)
Using this population range, the overall ranking was found to be
Medium- High.
Other Impacts on Human Health from Pesticides in Region V
Several other potential impacts on human health exist in Region
V, which include the use of pesticides in the lawn care, turf and
golf course industries, the use of insect repellents, such as
DEET, due to concern about Lyme Disease from spread within
Region V of the Deer tick, the impacts of having 4056 pesticide
producing and custom blending establishments in Region V, and
non-occupational exposure to pesticides. These analyses were
qualitative, and are described below.
Lawn Care/Turf/Golf Course Use of Pesticides
Use of pesticides in the lawn care and turf industries, has been
estimated by U.S. EPA to be 67 million pounds of active
ingredient per year. Using a population proportion, this amount
scales down to over 12 million pounds of active ingredient per
year applied to lawns by professional lawn care operators and
homeowners in Region V. There are 17,222 certified applicators
in the turf/ornamental category in Region V, which apply
pesticides for about 3-4 hours per day during the late Spring to
early Fall season. Estimates by industry technical
representatives indicate the solutions applied are rather dilute,
with less than 1 percent active ingredient with 6-7 percent
fertilizer. The major pesticides used in the industry are 2,4-D,
MCPP, pendimethalin, diazinon, chlorpyrifos, dicamba, and
isofenphos. One company indicated that no pesticides requiring
respirators were used in their operations. In addition, the
company requires protective clothing to be worn when hauling
concentrated material and when filling tanks. During
application, boots and clean uniforms are worn and gloves are
encouraged. Over the next few years, as the Agency looks into
the lawn care industry and evaluates the risks from this use of
pesticides, more information on exposure will become available
and this can be used to make a quantitative evaluation of risk.
Discussions with golf course superintendents indicate that most
courses have at least one certified applicator on staff. Little
quantitative usage information was available, however,
conversations revealed that private golf courses tend to treat
196
-------
fairways and greens, while public golf courses tend to treat only
greens. Golf courses range from 90 to 200 acres in the Region,
with an average of 150-160 acres for an 18 hole course. Starting
with the 1990 season, Wisconsin is requiring that all commercial
applicators keep records of all pesticides used, including
restricted use and general use pesticides. Most golf course
superintendents are interested in gathering information which
reiieccs me tiue ptacticea in -tKei*' i/uius-k*ry. In. the future,
more information will develop to use in the quantitative
evaluation of risks from the use of pesticides on golf courses.
Insect Repellents/DEET
Use of insect repellents has increased greatly over the last few
years. USA Today found that sales of "OFF" insect repellent had
increased by 50 percent during the summer of 1989 (USA Today,
9/1/89). It can be reasonably estimated that most of the Region
V population at one time or another has used insect repellents,
and people using State Parks would be a potentially high exposure
group. In Region V, over 150,000 people used State parks in
1987, as shown in Table 5, (Statistical Abstracts of the U.S.,
1989). The Centers for Disease Control have tabulated numbers
and average annual incidence rates of reported Lyme disease cases
per 100,000 population. For Region V States the incidence in
1987-1988 was as follows:
State Incidence (per 100,000)
(1987-1988)
Illinois 8
Indiana 3
Michigan 41
Minnesota 161
Ohio 10
Wisconsin 604
With increasing concern for Lyme disease and the spread of the
Deer tick in Region V (in 1980, 226 cases of Lyme disease were
reported from 14 States, and since 1982, 13,825 cases were
reported from 42 States- Minnesota and Wisconsin reporting the
most in the Region), it can be expected that use of repellents
will most likely continue to increase. DEET is currently under
reassessment, and when more information is known on the toxicity
and exposure associated with the use of DEET, the Agency will
provide this information to states and the general public in
order to reduce the risks even further. In the interim, the
Agency recommendation is to use products with no higher that 15
percent DEET for children and infants, and to apply such products
sparingly to the outside of clothing.
-------
TABLE 5
REGION V POPULATION VISITING STATE PARKS/1987
Illinois
Indiana
Olio
Michigan
Minnesota
Wisconsin
Total
Aufis
263,000
54,000
193,000
253,000
3,441,000
119 ,000
4,323,000
T-*.__ IfT-* rtrtrt \
J-*Oj \ 4 i-t- W W /
34,711
8,279
65,568
17,575
5,267
9,927
141,327
Day &
Overnight
/Tri rvrvA >
35,190
9,885
68,164
22,845
6,001
11 ,275
153,360
State Pop
r-v-i nrvn \
11,615
5,556
10,855
9,240
4,307
4,855
46,428
198
-------
Pesticide Producing and Custom Blending Establishments in
Region V
There are 4056 pesticide producing and custom blending
establishments located in Region V. This represents 30% of the
total number of establishments in the United States (13,744). An
attempt was made to look at the activities associated with
syntnesis 01 pesLi<~iu<=s, olic v-wi.iLinG.Licr. cf active ir.~r?c!i'?ri'i:'r
with inert pesticide ingredients to make manufacturing use
products and the further dilution into pesticide products and the
risks associated with these activities. A FIFRA/TSCA Tracking
System report was obtained with pesticide producing
establishments and products made at each location. The Toxic
Release Inventory System was then accessed to look for use of
toxic chemicals at locations where pesticides are synthesized and
formulated. About 25-30 locations were found to have reported
threshold quantities of toxic chemicals and to be associated with
the production of agricultural chemicals, as determined by
Standard Industrial Codes. The search provided only a general
idea of this association and from this, no quantitative risk
assessment was possible. In the future, as reporting becomes
more sophisticated,^ such an assessment may become possible.
Non-Agricultural Pesticide Use
The Won-Occupational Pesticide Exposure Study (NOPES) looked at
32 household pesticides and exposure of specified populations to
these pesticides. The objective of the NOPES was to estimate the
levels of non-occupational exposure to selected household
pesticides, primarily through indoor air, but also looked at
drinking water, food, and dermal contact. The study was
conducted in two locations of the United States: Jacksonville,
Florida, and Springfield and Chicopee, Massachusetts in order to
look at areas of, respectively, high and low to moderate non-
agricultural pesticide use.
Results of the NOPES study showed five pesticides were detected
at least once in minute quantities in the majority of households
sampled: chlordane, chlorpyrifos, heptachlor, orthophenylphenol,
and propoxur.
Region V could be considered primarily similar to the low-
moderate non-agricultural pesticide use, with perhaps some high
use areas in the southern parts of Indiana, Ohio, and Illinois.
Other conclusions of the NOPES:
1. Airborne concentrations of pesticide residues were
higher indoors than outdoors.
2. There were seasonal variations in ambient residue
levels.
3. Short term variations in residue levels were influenced
by recent pesticide applications, indoor ventilation,
199
-------
and ambient temperatures.
4. Usage categories did not correlate with airborne
residue concentrations.
5. The study suggests levels could be reduced if labels
are read closely and followed, and with improved
guidance on how to safely dispose of unused pesticides.
The LfA COnC-lUSlOll was cu<±c tut; <~oiu_eiu lui lit-uucui nca.t.j. x-Lok
from exposure to pesticides found in the study is low to
negligible. The Indoor • Air Quality Health Risk Assessment
provides further analysis of this problem area.
Ecological Risk Assessment
The assessment of ecological risk from pesticides in Region V
will include examination of a pesticide with known toxicity,
carbofuran, discussion of the endangered species protection
program, an evaluation of the agricultural impacts on the Great
Lakes, and a brief look at wetlands in Region V. Many of these
topics are qualitative in nature, because there is no standard
agency method for such assessments.
V
Carbofuran and Avian Toxicity
Carbofuran presents a risk to non-target species, which include
many avian varieties. There are documented cases of bird
poisonings after use of the granular formulation of the
pesticide. Carbofuran is used on corn and soybeans and there
were over 800,000 pounds applied to fields in the Region in one
recent year. Documented cases of poisonings in Region V are
relatively few, however, it is reasonable to assume the potential
exists for further bird poisoning incidents and currently, the
registrant is working with the agency to design better
application methods.
Endangered Species in Region V
The headquarters assessment of current Region V needs for
endangered species found few species and assessed impacts from
pesticide use as "low". To project future needs for Region V,
Temple, Barker and Sloane used U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(FWS) listings and The Nature Conservancy listings to determine
potential candidates for protection under the OPP endangered
species protection program. Each species will be evaluated for
pesticide impacts over the next few years (jeopardy opinion) and,
given the extent of pesticide use in Region V, it is likely
several impacts will be discovered as more species are mapped.
For currently mapped species, an assessment was made using the
guidance format. For each endangered species below, the
biological effect is death, the severity would be high, the
200
-------
reversibility is non-existent (death=extinction) , and the numbers
affected will be few, according to the Guidance from the
Comparative Risk Technical Steering Committee.
c.
For the Kirtland's Warbler in Michigan, the .ecosystem is
forest/coniferous, and the geographic area is Jack pine forest
areas of a certain tree height. The species migrates when trees
grow aoovy tut; ci xLi^aj. neA^ni,.
For Prairie Bush Clover in Minnesota, the ecosystem is grasslands
and agricultural fields, and the geographic area is sloping sides
of grassy fields, often bordering on agricultural fields or
pastureland. These areas present a high risk of exposure from
spray drift application of pesticides.
For the Iowa Pleistocene Snail in Illinois, the ecosystem is
aquatic/rivers or streams, and the geographic area is the shores
of bodies of water with changing shoreline. Aquatic pesticides
would be of particular concern to these species. In addition,
since areas mapped to date are found on public lands, management
of the lands by departments of natural resources could be of
concern if pesticides are in the management scheme, and if run-
off is to the mapped areas.
The endangered species protection program is determined to
provide and to disseminate the information to all responsible
parties so that endangered species can be protected in an
atmosphere of cooperation and agreement by State and federal
agencies.
Other species for which jeopardy from pesticides has been
declared by FWS, include the Minnesota Trout Lily in Minnesota
and the Fresh Water Mollusk in Indiana and Ohio.
The projected map review schedule provides for review of maps in
40 counties of Region V. There will be 14 maps to review in
Illinois, 2 in Indiana, 5 in Michigan, 4 in Minnesota, 4 in Ohio,
and 10 in Wisconsin. See Appendix 1 for the list of counties and
species to be reviewed in Region V.
As the endangered species program grows and develops, activities
in this area will increase in Region V. Activities will include,
distribution and review of maps, pilot program activities in
Illinois and Michigan, distribution of Species Fact Sheets and
Pamphlets, and the development of enforcement of misuse and
misbranding violations. The endangered species program is
expected to become final in the next few months and as data is
developed, gathered and organized on pesticide effects on
wildlife, it can be expected that more consultations will take
place with FWS and additional species will be taken into the
protection program.
201
-------
Agricultural Impacts on the Great Lakes Basin
Cropland in the Great Lakes Basin counties comprises 18.5 mil-lion
acres or 18 percent of the total area of the Great Lakes Basin
counties (101.7 million acres). According to a Draft Report from
the Great Lakes National Program Office (GLNPO), U.S.
Agricultural Tillage Practices in the Great Lakes Basin, 1988,
major crupj-cuiu a.j.^a.^ wl i_ii<= L.«.o:.;i arc fcur.f. in Rosier. V ir_
northwest Ohio, the Saginaw River and Bay area, and east-central
Wisconsin. Corn is the largest crop in the basin, followed by
soybeans and small grains. (It is not clear from the report
whether acreages reported were acres harvested, or simply acres
of cropland, regardless of current usage.) Looking at acreages
devoted to cropland, the Great Lakes Basin represents 26 percent
of harvested cropland in Region V states. Portions of the
cropland are similar, with corn representing the major Region V
and Great Lakes Basin crop and soybeans the second major crop for
each.
Acres in Major Crops in Great Lakes Basin/Region V States
^G.L. Basin Region V States
Total Cropland 18.5 million 107.2 million
(26% of Region V (72..2 million
cropland harvested) harvested)
Corn 7.8 million 26.7 million
(42%) (37%)
Soybeans 4.5 million 22.6 million
(24%) (31%)
Small grains 3.1 million 11.6 million
(17%) (16%)
Tillage practices in the Great Lakes Basin were examined in 1988
by GLNPO and the conservation Technology Information Center
(CTIC). Conventional tillage is used more extensively than
conservation tillage, which is used on 27 percent of the cropland
in the Basin. Conservation tillage is used for 38 percent of the
corn crop but only 25 percent of the soybean crop. It is
interesting to note that LaPorte and Porter counties in northwest
Indiana have 95.2 percent and 89 percent, respectively, of the
acres used for corn production in conservation tillage. The
counties showing the highest proportion of acres in cropland,
which are found in Ohio, also showed the lowest rates of
conservation tillage in the basin. The draft report indicates it
would be difficult to evaluate the effect of conservation tillage
on nutrient and agricultural chemical run-off on a regional or
lake-wide scale. Research done by the U.S. EPA in the Lake Erie
basin found no significant differences in runoff, tile flow, and
pesticide losses between conservation tillage and conventional
(Fall plowing) test plots (Logan et.al., 1989). However, the
report underscores the difficulty in gathering accurate
202
-------
information on soil type and tillage practices on each and on
run-off in the Great Lakes basin. More research and information
on tillage practices on all agricultural acres can be expected
over the next few years, as Best Management Practices improve and
become part of farm operations in the Region. To emphasize the
importance of developing methods to reduce erosion, it is useful
to look at information found in Basic Statistics, 1982, which
provides estimate^ ui L.UC a.vCj.a.y<= cu^^al crccicn. en ICC 2
cultivated cropland in tons/acre, as follows: Illinois: 7.1,
Indiana: 6.3, Michigan: 4.5, Minnesota: 6.9, Ohio: 4.2,
Wisconsin: 6.8.
Great Lakes. Great Legacy?. published by the Conservation
Foundation, 1990, discusses agriculture in the Great Lakes Basin
and the possible sources of non-point pollution in the area,
including runoff of pesticides and nutrients from agricultural
fields and nutrients from urban area.
Estimates of pesticide usage cited in the Conservation Foundation
report show about 16,900 tons of pesticides are applied annually
in the U.S. portion of the Great Lakes Basin. In addition, usage
of fertilizers is greatest on major crops in the Great Lakes
basin. The environmental fate of pesticides and nutrients is not
well known, according to the report. The environmental fate of
these substances depends on water solubility, whether the
chemicals adhere to soil particles, persistence in the
environment, volatility, formulation and precipitation. One
source estimates that 4-20 percent of the pesticides applied is
taken up by plants and perhaps less than 0.1 percent reaches the
target pest. The remainder may follow one or more routes,
including soil, air, and water (surface and groundwater).
(Waddell, T.E., Bower, B.T., Cox, K. , Managing Agricultural
Chemicals in the Environment: The Case for a Multimedia Approach,
Washington, B.C.: The Conservation Foundation, 1988, p. 42;
Younos, T.M. Weigmann, D.L., "Pesticides: A Continuing Dilemma",
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, 60, No.7, (1988):!,
199) .
Although the fate of applied pesticides is not well known, two
phenomena have been well described in the scientific literature:
the bioaccumulation of pesticides in fish and the effects of
increased nutrient loadings on the balance of aquatic life forms.
Pesticides and nutrients can enter the Great Lakes ecosystem
through sediment transport produced by soil erosion from
agricultural activities. Once these substances reach the
sediments of the Great Lakes, they can leach into the water
gradually and enter the food chain or upset the balance of
aquatic life in the lake.
Region V States are concerned about the contamination of fish in
the Great Lakes and issue yearly health advisories to sport
fishers. Traditionally, these advisories are based on FDA action
203
-------
levels for suspended and canceled pesticides, including aldrin,
dieldrin, chlordane, heptachlor, DDT, and mi rex. Several studies
of fish consumption have been undertaken in Region V. • For
example, a recent study by the Michigan Department of Health
found that average fish consumption is 16.1 g/day for a sample of
2600 holders of sport fishing licenses. Of the 16.1 g/day
consumed, 56 percent or 9 g/day represents commercially purchased
tisn ana t^ peiceiiL ui / y/ua._y j-c^j-co-iatLo lc.cc.lly cc.Ug^it cpcrt
fish. The population eating sportfish in Michigan was estimated
to be about 2.5 million people. Other studies have been done by
the Wisconsin Department of Health, and by the health agency for
Ontario.
Over the next few years, the fish issue will continue to be
debated between the various agencies, State and federal, which
are responsible for public health, the environment and
agriculture. The accumulation of data on residues in fish will
continue along with studies on the effects of the residues on
human health and the environment. As better data are gathered
and as residues of pesticides in Great Lakes fish continue to
decrease over time, a consensus will eventually be reached on
this issue. ,.
Wetland Areas and Pesticides
The impacts of pesticides on wetlands are largely unknown.
Discussions with the Region V Wetlands Office (Ehorn) have
indicated the majority of agricultural impacts in the Region have
been due to drainage of wetlands to make farmland. This may have
reduced critical habitat and could potentially impact the
survival of critical species, if left unchecked. The primary
impacts on wetlands in the Region are from development
(urbanization) . A thorough assessment of wetlands appears in the
Wetlands Problem Area.
Region V Pesticide Enforcement Activities
Activities related to enforcement of the pesticide statutes in
Region V have shown that enforcement actions are proportional to
the level of agricultural activity. As shown in the following
table, the Region V percentage of agricultural follow-up
inspections, which constitute investigations of alleged misuse of
pesticides, were just over 21 percent, which is similar to the
percentage of pesticide use in the region, compared to nationwide
use.
The majority of enforcement actions under the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), are carried
out at the State level. All Region V states have entered into
cooperative enforcement agreements with the U.S. EPA to carry out
compliance inspections and follow-up investigations under FIFRA.
204
-------
In the 1990 fiscal year, new program areas have been added to the
traditional enforcement related activities -of the Regional
pesticide sections. States are now receiving program development
funding to develop outreach and, eventually, enforcement
capabilities in the areas of Ground Water, Endangered Species and
Worker Protection from the impacts of pesticides. These efforts
are expected to intensify over the next few years as rules and
programs due 1x110.0.x^cG. en. Llxc r^Ci.Licnc.1 level. In tvr1"1. «;•»-a+•<=<;
will then add enforcement activities under the new program areas
in addition to the ongoing enforcement activities. These new
program areas are particularly dependent upon regional and state
involvement for success.
An example of the new direction enforcement is taking is the
enhanced inspections in Southeast Chicago and Northwest Indiana.
The checklist for these inspections emphasizes environmental
aspects of the facility (ie.: storage/disposal practices, and
spill/cleanup procedures, etc.). This is an effort by Indiana
and Illinois to determine what the pesticide producers do with
their excess wastes and containers. Appendix 3 contains the
checklist for enhanced inspections.
Each year, Region V* conducts approximately 8-10 Good Laboratory
Practice audits of laboratories in the Region performing testing
required under FIFRA. The majority of testing labs are found in
the eastern half of the United States and three Regional Offices
(including Region V) have their own laboratory auditors to help
perform this function, whereas laboratory audits in the western
half of the United States are largely performed by the National
Enforcement Investigations Center, in Colorado.
Summary of Regional and National Pesticide Use Enforcement
Statistics: See Attached Summary.
205
-------
SUMMARY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL ENFORCEMENT STATISTICS
FY 87
Region 5 Nation
FY 88
Region 5 Nation
COOPERATIVE AGREEMENTS MISUSE INSPECTIONS
arrr-iniitiiral
Follow-up
Inspections
(FUI)
Non-Ag (FUI)
Total FUI
Total FIFRA
Inspections
Percent of
Total that
were FUI
453 2,492
706 3,590
1,159 6,082
4,843 46,486
23.9 13.1
601 1,989
665 2,766
1,266 4,755
5,007 31,173
25.3 15.3
FJ^FCRCEMENT ACTIONS FROM FOLLOW-UP INSPECTIONS
Civil/
criminal
actions
Warning
Letters
Issued
Cases
referred
to EPA
Fines
Assessed
Total Use
Follow-up
Inspections
Percent
Actionable
«
43 278
227 1,171
4 37
15 245
289 1,731
25.0 28.5
33 277
294 1,166
2 54
5 254
334 1,751
26.4 36.8
FY 89
Region 5 'Nation
556 2,863
587 4,426
1,143 7,289
5,462 55,825
21.0 13.1
17 276
220 1,469
9 53
59 306
305 2,104
26.7 28.9
TOTALS FOR LAST 3 YEARS
RESIGN 5 NATIONAL PERCENT OF NATIONAL
Agricultural FUT
Kfon-Agricultiiral
FUI
Total FIFRA
Inspections
1,610
1,958
15,312
7,344
10,782
133,484
21.9
18.2
11.5
206
-------
APPENDIX 1
207
-------
EPA'S ENDANGERED SPECIES PROTECTION PROGRAM
SUMMARY OF 1990 DRAFT MAP REV1EU PRODUCTION SCHEDULE
JUNE 21. 1990
PRODUCTION DATE
06/13/90
06/29/90
07/09/90
07/09/90
07/09/90
07/09/90
07/09/90
07/09/90
07/16/90
ui y io/ TV
07/23/90
07/23/90
07/23/90
07/30/90
07/30/90
08/06/90
08/06/90
06/06/90
08/13/90
08/13/90
08/13/90
08/13/90
08/13/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/27/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
NO
TM
VA
sc
GA
MO
MS
UV
NC
(n. •
NM
NV
UT
AL
HE
AR
KS
UI
WY
MI
MT
OR
SO
CO
MO
OK
TX
IA
II
IK
LA
MM
OH
AZ
NUMBER OF KAPS (COUNTIES)
22
U,
9
6
2
1
4
4
8
6
1
9
11
33
23
7
10
1
5
8
2
11
12
33
22
40
13
14
3
1
4
4
15
TOTAL
411
ASSUMPTIONS:
1.
2.
When 1990 interim pamphlets are approved, production of the 1990 review
for production of the paophlets.
Attached is a schedule arranged alphabetically by state that outlines the
out for review. The total NUMBER OF KAPS consists of the following:
will be delayed to allow
projected to be sent
a. Except for Arizona, only those states/counties with dates in the WOOUCTIO* DATE colum,
are counted. Other states/counties (i.e., California, Florida) My be added at a later
date.
b. Although the state and county are repeated for each species SMpped in the county, a county
is only counted once.
c. Counties that contain red-cockaded woodpecker and/or eastern indigo snake only are not
counted.
3. The PftOOUCTIOH DATE is a projected date. When Mps are being drafted by the contractor,
cfrcumtances nay delay the production of some naps. For exaofile, depending on the Quality of the
species distribution information furnished by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, it my take
additional tine to clarify area to be napped.
eos
-------
EPA'S ENDANGERED SPECIES PROTECTION PROGRAM
1990 MAP REVIEW PRODUCTION SCHEDULE
PRODUCTION
DATE
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
08/06/90
08/06/90
08/06/90
08/06/90
08/06/90
08/06/90
08/06/90
08/06/90
08/06/90
08/06/90
08/06/90
08/06/90
08/06/90
08/06/90
07/16/90
07/16/90
07/16/90
07/16/90
07/16/90
07/16/90
07/16/90
07/16/90
07/16/90
07/16/90
07/16/90
JUNE 21. 1990
fOOTMOTE REGION
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
05
OS
05
05
OS
OS
OS
OS
OS
OS
05
05 •
OS
OS
OS
05
OS
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
04
IK
04
04
04
04
04
04
04
04
04
COUNTY
SPECIES
IA
1A
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
R
IL
IL
IL
IL
IL
IL
IL
IL
IL
IL
IL
IL
IL
IN
IN
IN
KS
KS
KS
KS
KS
KS
KS
KS
KS
KS
KS
KS
KS
KS
Cf
KT
rr
rr
KT
KY
KY
KY
cr
KY
KY
CLINTON
CLINTON
DES KOINES
DUBUQUE
JACKSON
LOUISA
MUSCAT I NE
POTTAWATTAMIE
POTTAUATTAMIE
SCOTT
WINNESHIEK
UOODBURY
WOOD BURY
ADAMS
ALEXANDER
COOK
GAL LATIN
HANCOCK
HENDERSON
JO DAVIES
LEE
MASSAC
MERCER
PIKE
PULASKI
ROCK ISLAND
WHITE
DE KALB
GIBSON
POSEY
BARTON
BARTON
CLARK
CLARK
COMANCHE
CCMANCME
KEADE
MEADE
PHILLIPS
PHILLIPS
RICE
RICE
STAFFORD
STAFFORD
BARREN
BELL
BUTLER
BUTLER
BUTLER
BUTLER
EDNONSON
EDMONSON
EDMONSON
GREEN
GREEN
PEARLY MUSSEL, HIGGINS' EYE
SNAIL. IOWA PLEISTOCENE
PEARLY MUSSEL, HIGGINS' EYE
PEARLY MUSSEL, HIGGINS' EYE
PEARLY MUSSEL, HIGGINS' EYE
PEARLY MUSSEL, HIGGIHS' EYE
PEARLY MUSSEL. HJGGINS' EYE
PLOVER, P1P1NU
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
PEARLY MUSSEL, HIGGINS' EYE
BUSH-CLOVER, PRAIRIE
PLOVER, PIPING
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
POCKETBOOK, FAT
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
BUCK-CLOVER, PRAIRIE
POCKETBOOK, FAT
POCKETBOOK, FAT
PEARLY MUSSEL, HIGGINS* EYE
PEARLY MUSSEL, HIGGINS' EYE
BUSH-CLOVER, PRAIRIE
PEARLY MUSSEL. ORANGE-FOOTED
PEARLY MUSSEL, HIGGINS' EYE
POCKETBOOK, FAT "
PEARLY MUSSEL, ORANGE-FOOTED
PEARLY MUSSEL. HIGGINS' EYE
POCKETBOOK. FAT
PEARLY MUSSEL. WHITE CAT'S PAW
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
POCKETBOOK, FAT
PLOVER, PIPING
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
PLOVER, PIPING
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
PLOVER, PIPING
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
PLOVER, PIPING
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
PLOVER. PIPING
TERN. INTERIOR LEAST
PLOVER, PIPING
TERN. INTERIOR LEAST
PLOVER. PIPING
TERN. INTERIOR LEAST
SHRIMP. KENTUCKY CAVE
DACE. BLACKSIOE
PEARLY MUSSEL, ORANGE-FOOTED
PEARLY MUSSEL, PINK NUCKET
PIGTOE. ROUGH
POCKETaoOK, FAT
PIGTOE. ROUGH
POCKETBOOK, FAT
SHRIMP, KENTUCKY CAVE
PIGTOE, ROUGH
POCKETBOOK, FAT
209
-------
ERA'S ENDANGERED SPECIES PROTECTION PROGRAM
1990 HAP REVIEW PRODUCTION SCHEDULE
PRODUCTION
DATE
JUNE 2V, 1990
REG10H
COUNTY
SPECIES
07/09/90
08/13/90
08/13/90
08/13/90
08/13/90
08/13/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
-
.
-
-
-
-
.
-
-
•
—
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
•
-
-
-
•
-
.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
03
05
05
05
05
05
05
OS
05
05
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
07
LA
LA
LA
LA
LA
LA
LA
LA
LA
LA
MD
HI
MI
MI
MI
MI
MN
MN
MN
MN
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO -
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
MO
RAPIDES
RED RIVER
ST. TAMMANY
TANGIPAHOA
TERREBONNE
UNION
VERNON
WASHING! UK
WEBSTER
WINN
HARFORD
ALGER
CHARLEVOIX
CHIPPEUA
EMMET
LUCE
HOUSTON
LAKE OF THE WOODS
WASHINGTON
WIHOMA
BENTON
BOLLINGER
BUTLER
BUTLER
CAMDEN
CEDAR
CEDAR
CLARK
COLE
DALLAS
DUNKLIN
FRANKLIN
GASCONADE
GREENE
GREENE
HICKORY
JASPER
JEFFERSON
LAWRENCE
LEWIS
MARION
MILLER
MILLER
MISSISSIPPI
NEW MADRID
NEWTON
OSAGE
OSAGE
PEMISCOT
PIKE
POLK
RALLS
RIPLET
RIPLET
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADED
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADED
WOODPECKER, REO-CCCKADEO
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADEO
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADEO
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADED
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADED
MJUUCCUkCK, KCil-UAAAUCU
WOODPECKER. RED-COCKADED
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADED
DARTER, MARYLAND
PLOVER, PIPING
PLOVER, PIPING
PLOVER, PIPING
PLOVER, PIPING
PLOVER, PIPING
PEARLY MUSSEL. HIGGINS' EYE
PLOVER, PIPING
PEARLY MUSSEL, HIGGINS' EYE
PEARLY MUSSEL, HIGGINS1 EYE
DARTER. NIANGUA
PEARLY MUSSEL, CURTIS'
PEARLY MUSSEL. CURTIS'
PEARLY MUSSEL, PINK MUCKET
DARTER. NIANGUA
DARTER, NIANGUA
PEARLY MUSSEL, PINK MUttET
POCKET800K, FAT
PEARLY MUSSEL. PINK MUCKET
DARTER, NIANGUA
POCKET800K, FAT
PEARLY MUSSEL, PINK MUCKET
PEARLY MUSSEL, PINK MUCKET
CAVEFISH, OZARK
DARTER, NIANGUA
DARTER, NIANGUA
CAVEFISH, OZARK
PEARLY MUSSEL, PINK MUCKET
CAVEFISH. OZARK
POCKETBOOK, FAT
PEARLY MUSSEL, HIGGINS' EYE
DARTER, NIANGUA
PEARLY MUSSEL, PINK MUCKET
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
CAVEFISH, OZARK
DARTER, NIANGUA
PEARLY MUSSEL, PINK MUCKET
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
POCKETBOOK, FAT
DARTER, NIANGUA
POCKETBOOK, FAT
PEARLY MUSSEL. CURTIS'
PEARLY MUSSEL, PINK MUCKET
210
-------
EPA'S ENDANGERED SPECIES PROTECTION PROGRAM
1990 HAP REVIEW PRODUCTION SCHEDULE
JUNE 21, 1990
PRODUCTION
DATE
07/23/90
07/23/90
09/05/90
09/05/90
UT/ W«*/ 7V
09/05/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
*
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/20/90
08/13/90
08/13/90
08/13/90
08/13/90
COUNTY
SPECIES
07/09/90
07/09/90
07/09/70
07/09/90
-
-
.
-
-
.
-
-
-
-
-
-
.
-
-
-
-
2
-
-
-
-
2
-
-
-
-
.
-
-
.
-
-
-
5
2
2
2
2
-
2
2
2
.
2
2
2
-
2
2
2
-
06
09
05
05
OS
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
• 06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
10
10
10
10
02
04
. 04
04
04
04
04
04
04
04
04
04
04
04
04
04
04
04
MM
NV
OH
OH
nu
OH
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OR
OR
OR
OR
PR
sc
sc
sc
sc
sc
sc
sc
sc
sc
sc
sc
sc
sc
sc
sc
sc
sc
SCCORRO
CLARK
GALLIA
PICKAWAY
uicuTurrnN
WILLIAMS
ALFALFA
BEAVER
CLEVELAND
COTTON
ELLIS
HARMON
HARPER
HASKELL
JACKSON
KAY
LOGAN
NCCLAIN
MCCURTA1N
MUSKOGEE
NOBLE
OSAGE
PUSHMATAHA
ROGER MILLS
TEXAS
TEXAS
TILLMAN
TULSA
UAGONER
WOODS
WOODWARD
KLAMATH
KLAMATH
LAKE
LAKE
PUERTO RICO
ABBEVILLE
AIKEN
ALLENDALE
BARNWELL
BEAUFORT
BEAUFORT
BERKELEY
CALMOUN
CHARLESTON
CHARLESTON
CHESTERFIELD
CLARENDON
COLLETON
COLLETOM
DARLINGTON
DILLON
DORCHESTER
PENNYROYAL . TOOSEM'S
WOUNDF1N
PEARLY MUSSEL. PINK MUCKET
MAOTOM, SCIOTO
PEARLY MUSSEL. PINK MUCICET
PEARLY NUSStL. wniit CAI a r«.
TERN. INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, -INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKAOED
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
TERM. INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADED
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
PLOVER, PIPING
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
TERN, INTERIOR LEAST
SUCKER, LOST RIVER
SUCKER, SHORTNOSE
CHUB, MUTTON TUI
SUCKER, WARNER
TOAD, PUERTO RICAN CRESTED
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADED
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADED
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKAOED '
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADED
STORK, WOOD
WOODPECKER. RED-COCKAOED
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADED
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKAOED
STORK, WOOD
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADED
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADED
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADED
STORK, WOOD
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADED
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADEO
WOODPECKER, RED-COCKADED
STORK, WOOD
211
-------
EPA'S ENDANGERED SPECIES PROTECTION PROGRAM
1990 MAP REVIEW PRODUCTION SCHEDULE
JUNE 21, 1990
PRODUCTION
DATE FOOTNOTE REGION STATE COUNTY
07/09/90 - 03
07/09/90 - 03
07/09/90 - 03
07/09/90 • 03
07/09/90 - 03
07/09/90 - 03
«T tf*\ »rV% . O*
07/09/90 • 03
07/09/90 - 03
07/09/90 - 03
07/09/90 - 03
07/09/90 - 03
07/09/90 - 03
07/09/90 • 03
07/09/90 • 03
07/09/90 - 03
07/09/90 - 03
08/06/90 • 05
08/06/90 - OS
08/06/90 • OS
08/06/90 • OS
08/06/90 • 05
08/06/90 - OS
08/06/90 • OS
08/06/90 - 05
08/06/90 • 05
08/06/90 - OS
07/09/90 - 03
07/09/90 - 03
07/09/90 - 03
07/09/90 - 03
07/09/90 - 03
08/13/90 - 08
SPECIES
VA
VA
VA
VA
VA
VA
v*
VA
VA
VA
VA
VA
VA
VA
VA
VA
VA
WI
UI
WI
WI
WI
WI
WI
WI
WI
WI
UV
wv
wv
wv
wv
RUSSELL
RUSSELL
SCOTT
SCOTT
SCOTT
SCOTT
-------
APPENDIX 2
213
-------
CO
D
*f
-5
V
B
»
«
3
c
z
|
r
t
X
Q
•H
"S
O
4
C
•H
rS
^
43
Q
5
r-(
r-l
M
>
g
-H
ST
S
(S
CO
o\
s
p»
CO
cn
,-1
&
>.5«
ill
m
T
in
to
to
UJ
f
in
If
o
^_
IT
O
T
If
fM
(N
O
r-
tn*
^
n
CO
r>
in*
*r
o
8
to*
to
in
v
CO
fM
CO
(N
rH
S
in
r-i
r-
CM
o
to
r»
CM
to
I
1
in
v
v
PI
r-
S
Pt
CO
rr
PN
Vfi
in
i>
«er
f-l
O
V
fN
CO
cn
H
fM
fM
CO
p»
o
H
ri
^
rH
rH
V
CO
CO
C
iH
to
8
VO
CM
^
ON
CM
CO
iH
to
in
0
ri
CM
iH
O
PI
^
VO
cn
in
g
to
*T
^
P»
P)
fM
pi
in
PN
i
1
•k
*
*
O
H
«£
^
3
c.
v
^r
^»
pi
r>
r»
c
vc
if
PI
VO
ON
CO
PI
CO
o
fM
cn
o
ON
in
o
$
S
ON
n
r-
f-
•i
^-
a
in
PI
cn
CM
o
i-t
ON
cs
t~
v
r-
1-1
^
CM
fM
*
n
in
§
«
a
•§. 1
l-sl
TT
rr
CO
fM
to
CO
•»
PI
to*
PI
f
r^
r~-
fN
rH
O
t;
VO
PI
o
d"
•9
r~
S
ri
to
in
ON
CO
CM
a
cn
CM
CM
I-l
rH
in
ON
cn
CO
ri
t
»T
1
I
rM
Tfr
to
s
m
p,
i
^
CO
PN
Tf
cn
8
r
5
c
r-
O
^r
n
n
n
P*
PI
PN
in
fN
ri
ON
n
^
o
n
CO
8
fx
»,
CO
§
CO
\o*
CO
cn
in
r-
r«
CO
rH
VO
ri
rH
0
S
ri
to
en
r-
in
I
S
i in
214
-------
w
D
.5
•H
4-
2
c
s
c
b
1
X
o
S
g
•H
M
10
•H
1
rH
rH
M
§
f"
CM
co
en
CO
en
rH
(M
CO
VO
in
to"
n
CM
VC
\c
oc
Oh,~
r-H
in
n
CM*
n
in
o
^i
CM
in
^i
v
CM
O
rH
CO
rH
CM
rH
n
CM
en
CO
rH
in
r-
CM
0
ON
CM
CO
co
*
0
CO
rH
rH
^
V
CJ?
O
CM
«T
to
CO
o
rH
^^
"g g 0 0
*^1 S la r?
s t J —
n
Ol
S
rH
f- \
O
CO
rH
CM
n
en
en
a
n
in
O)
CM*
in
rH
VO
O
CO
rH
CO
fM
to*
0
to
rH
rH
rH
m
rH
CM
CM
CO
CM
'
r>
CM
CJ1
en
VO
"*
• o o
q-3 g
m
&£ r4
«o —
215
-------
o
in
o)
OJ
o
in
en
in
(0
CN
VO
01
fM
in
vo
O
in
in
r>
in
vo
>
g
VO
in
in
fM
vo
If!
R
en
r-
en
in
8
§
8
216
-------
APPENDIX 3
217
-------
Disposal questions apply to pesticides and pesticide related wastes,
storage questions apply to pesticides and pesticide containers.
l. Are disposal records maintained? yes no
2. Identify the types and amounts of wastes or containers held for
disposal, and the type of disposal practices
used?
3. Are containers triple rinsed before disposal?
What do you do with the rinsate?
_no,
4. Do you store any excess pesticides or containers on site?_
no
no Where?
Off site?
a. Is this a temporary or a permanent site?
b. Are there identification signs around the storage or
containment area? yes no
c. Is the storage or containment area they are stored in
secure and locked? yes no
d. Is the facility separated from any streams? yes
_no, areas of runoff? yes no, Flood plains?
_no
e. Is there diking around the storage area?
f. Are there any drains in the storage are?
_no
no
5. Do any of the pesticides you store carry the signal words danger,
poison or warning? yes no, Are any classified as a hazardous
waste? yes no
6. Do you keep records of any pesticide spills or inadvertent
releases into the environment? yes no, Have there been any
spills at or above 100 Ibs or 1000 gallons [which would necessitate
reporting under the Bnergency Planning and Comrainity Right to Know Act
(EPCRA)]? yes no
7. Is there an available floor plan of the storage area?
no, Is this provided to the fire department? yes
no, Is
the fire chief furnished with the home telephone number of the person
responsible for the pesticide storage facility? yes no, Is
this also provided to the Regional emergency response team, U.S. Coast
Guard, and the National Agricultural Chemicals Association (NACA)?
8. Do you have an established spill/cleanup procedure? yes
no, Are the telephone numbers of the area hospitals, public
health service, fire department available? yes no
9. Is there a fire extinguisher on the premises?
218
-------
10. Do you store or dispose any pesticides containing heavy metals,
including but not limited to arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, meicury,
manganese, zinc, chromium, tin, thallium and selenium? yes
no,
How are the containers and pesticides disposed of?
Are they encapsulated prior to disposal?
219
-------
References
Great Lakes
1. Pranckevicius, P.E., Schroer, K., Manne, B., Anscombe, F., Draft,
U.S. Agricultural Tillage Practices in the Great Lakes Basin, 1988;
U.S. EPA, Great Lakes National Program, Chicago, Illinois 60604.
2. Thomas E. Wadell and Blair T. Bower with Kathy Cox, Managing
Agricultural uienucais iu i_ue EliviiuiiiiKiiiL.; Tuc Coo<= lor a ILLltiruCcIia
Approach (Washington, D.C.: The Conservation Foundation, 1988), P. 42.
3. Tamim M. Younos and Diana L. Weigmann, "Pesticides and
Groundwater: A Guide for the Pesticide User" (Ithaca, N.Y.: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Agriculture,
1988).
4. International Joint Conmission, Great Lakes Water Quality Board,
1987 Report (Windsor, Ontario: International Joint Commission, 1987).
5. "Michigan Futures Team Plans Long-Range Agriculture Strategy",
Great Lakes Comnission Advisor 1, No. 9 (1988): 6.
6. Tamim M. Younos and Diana L. Weigmann, "Pesticides: A Continuing
Dilenma", Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, 60, No. 7
(1988): 1, 199.
7. Richard Frank and Peter Boyer, "State of Integrated Pest
Management Programs in the Great Lakes Basin and on a Global Basis",
prepared for the Science Advisory Board, International Joint
Contnission, April, 1988.
8. Great Lakes Great Legacy? The Conservation Foundation,
Washington, D.c., and The Institute for Research on Public Policy,
Ottawa, Ontario, 1990.
Pesticide Usage Data
9. Pike, D.R. , Knake, E.L. , Kuhlman, D.E. , McGlamery, M.D., Paj^ky,
N.R., Pesticide Use in Illinois: Results of a 1988 Survey of Major
Crops; University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, College of
Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service, Circular 1301, January
1990.
10. Minnesota Agricultural Statistics 1985; Compiled and Issued by
the Minnesota Agricultural Statistics Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Statistical Reporting Service Cooperating With the
Minnesota Department of Agriculture, July 1985, pp. 50-53.
11. Aim, A.A., Butler-Fasteland, M.; Herbicide Usage for Forest
Management in Minnesota, 1983-1987; Northern Journal of Applied
Forestry, Vol.6, No.2: June 1989; pp. 82-84.
220
-------
12. Acreage, Yield, and Production by Districts and Counties in
Minnesota, 1988-1989, for Corn, Dry Beans, Alfalfa Hay, All Hay, Oats,
Barley Rye, Soybeans, Sugar Beets, All Sunflowers, Oil Sunflowers,
Spring Wheat, Winter Wheat and All Wheat.
13. Restricted Use Pesticide Sales by County and by Product for 1988.
(Minnesota- Confidential Business Information) .
14. Wisconsin, 1985, Pesticide Use, Wisconsin Department of
Agriculture, iraae aria u^iisuitei ruuutx.i_.i.uii. 5
15. Michigan Agricultural Statistics 1989; Michigan Department of
Agriculture, MASS-89-01. 88 pages.
16. Telephone Coimiunication, Tom Jordan, Purdue University/ U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service; 1988
Pesticide use Survey for Major Agronomic Crops in Indiana (In
Preparation) .
17. Waldron, Acie C. , and Carter, H. , Pesticide Use on Major Crops in
the Ohio River Basin of Ohio and Summary and State Usage, 1986. 267
pages.
18. Waldron, Acie C. , Curtner, R.L. , and Fingerhut, B.A. , Pesticide
Use on Fruit and Vegetable Crops in Ohio, 1983, Ohio State University/
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service.
Pesticides and Fish
19. University of Wisconsin Sea Grant Institute, "The Fisheries of
the Great Lakes, 1984-1986 Biennial Report (Madison, Wisconsin, Sea
Grant Institute, 1986.
20. R. Norstrom, D. Hallett, and R. Sonstergard, "Coho Salmon
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) and Herring Gulls (Larus argenatus) as
Indicators of Organochlorine Contamination in Lake Ontario" , Journal
of the Fisheries Research Board of ranaria 35, No. 22 (1978): 1401-
1409.
j
21. Summary and Analysis of Existing Sportfish Consumption Advisory
Programs in the Great Lakes Basin, The Great Lakes Fish Consumption
Advisory Task Force, Henry A. Anderson, M.D. , and Lee Liebenstein, Co-
Chairs, State of Wisconsin, May 1990, Report prepared by John W.
Hesse, Michigan Department of Public Health.
Nonpoint Source Pollution
22. Michigan Department of Natural Resources, "Michigan's 1988
Nonpoint Pollution Assessment Report", Draft, Lansing, Michigan, 1988.
23. Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Ohio Nonpoint Source
Assessment.
221
-------
Other
24. Unfinished Business: A Conparative Assessment of Environmental
Problems, Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation, U.S. EEA,
February, 1987.
25. Dietary and Non-Dietary Risk from Pesticide Use/Analysis for
Regional Conparative Risk Project, Office of Policy, Planning and
Evaluation, U.S. EPA, July 26, 1990.
222
-------
DRAFT
14. SULFUR OXIDES MID NITROGEN OXIDES (INCLUDING ACID DEPOSITION)
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
Sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides cause a wide variety of primary and
secondary effects. Primary effects include health, visibility/ and
welfare impacts. A major secondary effect is acid deposition, which
results from chemical transformations of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen
to compounds sometimes referred to as acid aerosols. This process
results in the production of acid rain, snow, and fog, as well as dry
deposition. Acid deposition alters the chemistry of affected aquatic
and terrestrial ecosystems, damaging plant and animal life. Sources are
a wide variety of industrial, commercial, and residential fuel and
related combustion sources. This problem also includes visibility
effects resulting from the long range transport of sulfates.
HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
TOXICITY ASSESSMENT
Primary National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were established
to define levels of air quality which are necessary to protect public
health, with an adequate margin of safety. The NAAQS for sulfur dioxide
are 80 /ig/m3, annual arithmetic mean and 365 /xg/m3, maximum 24-hour
concentration not to be exceeded more than once per year. The NAAQS for
nitrogen dioxide is 0.053 parts per million (ppm), annual arithmetic
mean concentration.
Exposure to sulfur dioxide can significantly increase the incidence of
acute and chronic respiratory diseases as well as cause permanent damage
to lung tissue. Exposure to nitrogen dioxide is also associated with
respiratory illness and lung damage.
Acid aerosols irritate the lungs, causing constricted breathing. These
effects are of particular concern to asthmatics, who are especially
vulnerable. In addition, studies have shown that rising acid aerosol
levels correspond to increased hospital admissions for acute respiratory
illnesses. Exposure to acid aerosols has also been associated with
increased incidence of chronic cough and bronchitis, as well as
premature death.
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Sulfur dioxide is emitted primarily in the combustion of fossil fuels,
particularly coal. The use of coal-fired power plants by the utility
industry accounts for approximately 63 percent of nationwide emissions
of sulfur dioxide. Other sulfur dioxide sources include industrial
processes such as petroleum refining, pulp and paper manufacturing, iron
and steel production, and industrial boilers.
223
-------
Region V emissions contribute more to the national total than any other
region, with 1,932 major facilities (greater than 100 tons per year)
emitting a total of 7,121,721 tons of sulfur dioxide per year. This
corresponds to 31 percent of total national emissions. In addition,
parts of 29 counties in Region V are classified in the Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR) as not attaining the primary or secondary National
Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for sulfur dioxide and 75 counties,
which are not listed in the CFR as nonattainment, have been issued State
Implementation Plan (SIP) calls to revise a deficient SIP. This
corresponds to approximately 5.5 million people and 7.8 people living in
these areas respectively. Further, review of 1987 through 1989
monitoring data indicates that 13 counties in Region V have recorded
/ values exceeding the National Ambient Air Quality Standard.
Nitrogen oxide emissions are also the result of fossil fuel combustion,
namely the combustion of coal, natural gas, oil, and gasoline. Major
emitters include the utility industry, industrial sources, and mobile
sources. There are no areas in Region V which are classified in the CFR
as nonattainment for nitrogen dioxide, no areas that have been issued
SIP calls, and no areas with a monitored violation of the NAAQS.
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides interact with sunlight and water
vapor to form acidic sulfate and nitrate particles, often referred to as
acid aerosols. These acid aerosols can fall to the earth as acid rain,
snow, or fog, as well as join with dust and other dry airborne particles
to fall as dry deposition. Given the limited data available, it is
estimated that approximately 23 million people in Region V live in areas
where sulfate levels exceed 7.0 /ig/m3 and approximately 9 million of
these people live in areas where sulfate levels exceed 10
HCMAN ra*T.TH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
To characterize health effects due to acid deposition, Region V is using
a method developed by RCG/Hagler, Baily Inc. under contract to EPA. In
this method, ambient sulfate levels are used in the following equations
to calculate the annual number of deaths, hospital emissions, children
with respiratory symptoms, and adults with respiratory symptoms
resulting from exposure to acid aerosols. In Region V, only sulfate
levels above 7.0 /ixg/m3 were used in the equations to calculate annual
deaths and annual hospital emissions. To calculate the number of
children and adults with respiratory systems, sulfate levels greater
than or equal to 10 jig/m3 were used.
Annual Deaths = (0.000037) (Sj - 10) (POPp
where, j = location of monitoring site
S. = Annual average sulfate level recorded at
monitoring site j (if > 7.0 Mg/m3)
= exposed population at monitoring site j
224
-------
Annual Hospital admissions = (0.000086) (S./9) (POP.)
where, j = location of monitoring site
S. = Annual average sulfate level recorded at
monitoring site j (if > 7.0 Mg/m3)
POP- = exposed population at monitoring site j
Children With Respiratory Symptoms = (0.035) (C)
where, C = the number of children in areas where the
annual average sulfate level is greater than
or equal to 10
Adults With Respiratory Symptoms = (0.05) (M) + (0.02) (W)
where, M = the number of men in areas where the annual
average sulfate level is greater than
or equal to 10 Mg/m3
W = the number of women in areas where the annual
average sulfate level is greater than
or equal to 10
Monitoring data (visually 1989 annual concentration) and 1980 census data
were used in the above equations to assess health impacts. It was
estimated that exposure to acid aerosols in Region V results in 485
annual deaths and over 2,000 annual hospital admissions. In addition,
it is estimated that nearly 109,000 children and 227,000 adults in
Region V experience respiratory symptoms.
It is highly certain that people in Region V are experiencing adverse
health effects due to acid aerosols. It should be noted, however, that
the quantitative estimates of health effects proposed in the method
presented above are based on epidemiological study results, which
demonstrate association, but not causation. There is, therefore, some
uncertainty regarding the magnitude and in some cases even the existence
of the presumed causal relationship presented between the pollutants and
human health. Also, although sulfate aerosols were the best indicator
for the data which was available, acidic sulfate aerosols' are actually a
more valid indicator. Finally, it is difficult to accurately determine
the number of people exposed. Problems associated with determining this
number include basing judgements on the limited monitoring data
available, estimating the area for which the monitor is representative,
and estimating the number of people in this area who are actually
exposed to the pollutant. This process leads to a moderate degree of
uncertainty.
225
-------
ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
TOXICTTY ASSESSMENT
Acid deposition can severely effect aquatic systems by lowering the pH
of surface waters. At pH levels of 5.6, there is a decrease in the
diversity of the invertebrate community. When waters have an acid
neutralizing capacity (ANC) less than zero and a pH less than 5, they
are considered to be acidic. At this level, most fish die or cannot
reproduce. In addition, many aquatic organisms cannot survive. Waters
which are sensitive to acid but are not yet acidified may also
experience episodic acidification during spring snow melt or heavy
/rainstorms. Generally, young fish and eggs will not survive these
episodes.
The degree to which waters will be affected depends both on the level of
acid deposition within the watershed and the ability of the soil and
bedrock to act as a buffer. The buffering capacity of an increasing
number of watersheds will be consumed if the current rate of acid
deposition persists, thus causing more waters to become acidified.
In addition to acidifying surface waters, acid rain can leach toxic
metals, including mercury, from the soil and deposit them in the
waterways. This problem is particularly evident in Region V states,
where biologists have found unsafe levels of mercury in fish in inland
lakes in Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.
Studies have also indicated that the nitrogen compounds present in acid
rain may act as a fertilizes, causing excessive growth of algae. When
the algae die, the decaying algae depress oxygen levels, thus
contributing to eutrophication. This, in turn, can threaten fish
population.
Forests are also threatened by acid deposition. Exposure to highly
acidified rain or fog can injure leaves and needles. Further, tree
growth may be stunted by alteration in soil chemistry caused by leaching
of nutrients, such as magnesium and calcium, from the soi^ and by
contamination of the soil with heavy metals, such as aluminum, that are
released from soil particles. In addition, acid deposition can destroy
flora and kill nitrogen-fixing microorganisms that nourish plants.
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
In the states east of the Mississippi, rain is almost always acidic.
Contour maps of annual precipitation throughout the United States
indicate that rain in Region V ranges from a pH of approximately 5.3 in
Minnesota to a ph of 4.2 in eastern Ohio. On average, the majority of
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio experience rain with a pH of 4.4
to 4.6.
226
-------
ECOIOGICAL RISK CHaRaCTERIZATION
The effect of acid deposition on Region V lakes was evaluated using data
provided in the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program's
"Interim Assessment - The Causes and Effects of Acidic Deposition:
Volume IV." In this report, four areas of Region V were studied: North
East Minnesota, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, North Central
Wisconsin, and the Upper Great lakes. These areas are depicted in
Figure 14-1 and the results of the lake survey are presented in Table
14-1. Lakes less than 2000 hectares (approximately 494,000 acres) were
studied.
Figure 14-1. Areas Studied
•v— —
}
f
f
i
\
~m ,
' ^ v y
i
!
i
i
i
i
\
*-~
^r
/
^
r-t
,^.^
2A: North East Minnesota
2B: Upper Peninsula of Michigan
2C: North Central Wisconsin
2D: Upper Great
227
-------
Table 14-1. pH Levels of
in Region V
VttJ
pH
/
£
5.0
•v\lJ
pH
5.0
to
5.5
pH
<
5.5
Number of
Tnkas
Percent of
lake Area
Area in
Hectares
(Acres)
Number of
IrllCPS
Percent of
lake Area
Area in
Hectares
(Acres)
Number of
lakes
Percent of
lake Area
Area in
Hectares
(Acres)
North
East
Minnesota
0
0%
0
0
0%
0
0
0%1
0
Upper
Peninsula
of Michigan
95
2%
680
(1,680)
42
1%
340
(840)
137
3%
1200
(2,520)
North
Central
Wisconsin
30
0%1
0
133
2%
1,960
(4,843)
163
2%
1,960
(4,843)
Upper
Great
T alctag
0
0%
0
0
0%
0
0
0%
0
less than 0.5%
228
-------
WELFARE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
Research on the visibility problem over the past few years has yielded
considerable insight into the aerosols responsible for visibility
degradation and sources associated with those aerosols. Sulfates are
responsible for a major portion of the visibility problem, with organic
aerosols being the other significant contributor. The problem is most
severe in Ohio, Indiana, and the South Central portion of Illinois, with
a median summer visual range of 15 km. The median visual range for
Northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and minnesota is approximately twice this
distance, or about 30 km.
Tto be completed by contractor.
229
-------
References
United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1991 Framework for Grand
Allocations; Workbook for May Meeting; Draft. Prepared by Temple,
Barker & Sloane, Inc. for Office of Air and Radiation. 24 April 1990.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Clean ATT- Farf-jg; Causes and
Impacts of Acid Rain. Issue No. 16. 2 February 1990.
NAPAP ^nterim Assessment: Volume IV (to be added)
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Unfinished Business: A
Comparative Assessment of Environmental Problems. Office of Policy
Analysis and Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation. February 1987.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region I. Unfinished Business
in New England; A Comparative Assessment of Environmental Problems.
December 1988.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region X. Comparative Risk
Project. June 1988.
230
-------
DRAFT
15. OZONE AND CARBON MONOXIDE
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
Ozone and Carbon Monoxide are major pollutants in many areas, arising
from both mobile and stationary sources. Damage to human health,
forests and crops can be severe. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are
critical precursors to ozone formation, but the direct effects of VOCs
are included in the Air Toxics problem area. To the extent that VOCs
result in ozone, those ozone effects are captured by this problem area.
HUMAN HBAT.Tff RISK ASSESSMENT
TOXICTTY ASSESSMENT
Primary National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were established
to define levels of air quality which are necessary to protect public
health, with an adequate margin of safety. The NAAQS for ozone is 0.12
parts per million (ppm) . The standard is attained when the expected
number of days per calendar year with maximum hourly average
concentrations above 0.12 ppm is equal to or less than 1. The primary
NAAQS for carbon monoxide are 9 ppm for an 8-hour average concentration
and 35 ppm for a 1-hour average concentration, neither of which is to be
exceeded more than once per year.
Exposure to unacceptable levels of ozone can cause various health
effects. Studies indicate that healthy individuals exposed to ozone may
experience chest pain, coughing, wheezing, pulmonary and nasal
congestion, labored breathing, sore throat, nausea, increased
respiratory rate, and loss of lung function. Exposure to ozone has also
been associated with increased asthma attacks, reduced resistance to
infection and damage to lung tissue.
There is growing concern that long-term exposure to ozone at current
levels may lead to chronic effects. Preliminary data indicates that
these effects take the form of irreversible lung injury and/or lung
disease such as lesions in the lung. Children and outdoor workers are
considered to be most susceptible because, on average, they spend more
time outdoors. Further, children may be particularly sensitive because
their lungs are still developing.
Carbon monoxide can impair breathing, vision, alertness and mental
function, aggravate existing conditions such as angina, and, under acute
conditions, cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness, unconsciousness, and
death.
231
-------
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Ozone is not emitted directly into the air, but rather is formed by a
series of chemical reactions involving precursor emissions of volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) and oxides of nitrogen. VOCs are emitted from
sources including automobiles, dry cleaners, bakeries, auto body paint
shops, household cleaning products, and any sources using solvents.
Oxides of nitrogen are emitted in the combustion of fossil fuels,
predominantly from motor vehicles.
There are 81 counties in Region V that are classified in the Code of
Federal Regulations (CFR) as not attaining the NAAQS for ozone, and 36
additional counties, which are not listed in the CFR as nonattainment,
that have been issued State Implementation Plan (SIP) calls for
violations of the NAAQS for ozone. This corresponds to approximately
25.8 million people and 3.3 million people, respectively, living in
these areas. Further, of the 93 Region V counties that were monitored
in 1988, 88 recorded values above 0.105 ppm and 63 recorded values above
0.125. This corresponds to over 28 million people in Region V who are
living in areas where ambient concentrations exceed 0.105 ppm, with over
25 million of these people living in areas where ambient concentrations
also exceed the NAAQS.
Due to growing concern that the current ozone standard may not provide
an adequate margin of safety to protect public health, Region V is using
0.10 ppm as a threshold for health impacts rather than the NAAQS of 0.12
ppm. This is a conservative approach and does not reflect EPA's current
official position.
Carbon monoxide is produced by incomplete combustion of carbon fuels.
The major source of carbon monoxide is motor vehicle exhaust,
particularly when engines are burning fuel inefficiently as they do when
vehicles are started, idling, or moving slowly, other sources include
incinerators and industrial processes
With respect to carbon monoxide, parts of 10 counties in Region V are
listed in the CFR as not attaining the NAAQS. In addition, there are 26
counties, which are not listed in the CFR as nonattainmenb, that have
been issued SIP calls for violations of the NAAQS for carbon monoxide.
Further, review of 1987 through 1989 monitoring data indicates that
portions of the population of 12 Region V cities are exposed to carbon
monoxide levels violating the NAAQS of 9 ppm C> 9.5 ppm), and portions
of the population in three of those cities are exposed to levels
exceeding 15 ppm (> 15.5 ppm). Using expert judgement, it was estimated
that approximately 1,460,000 people were exposed to levels exceeding 9.5
ppm and 117,000 of these people were exposed to levels exceeding 15.5
ppm.
232
-------
HUMAN TraAT.TH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
To characterize health effects resulting from exposure to ozone, Region
V is using a method developed by ROG/Hagler, Baily Inc. under contract
to EPA. This method uses the following equations to calculate the
annual number of asthma attacks and the annual number of people days of
respiratory restricted activity.
Annual Number of Asthma = (0.4) (POPp (EXDAY.) (0.00037)
Attacks at Location j
Annual Number of People Days
of Respiratory Restricted = (0.96) (POPj) (EXDAYj) (0.00116)
Activity at location j
where, j = location of monitoring site
POP- = exposed population at monitoring site j
EXDAY. = number of days where the ozone
concentration exceeded 0.10 ppm at
monitoring site j
Using 1988 monitoring data along with corresponding county populations,
5,806 annual asthma attacks and 436,861 annual people days of
respiratory restricted activity in Region V were estimated to result
from exposure to ozone.
Methods developed by ROG/Hagler, Baily Inc. under contract to EPA were
also used to characterize public health effects resulting from exposure
to carbon monoxide. It was estimated that at carbon monoxide
concentrations greater than 9 ppm but less than 15 ppm, 10 percent of
the exposed population are at moderate risk of increased angina pain and
90 percent of the exposed population are at low risk of mild symptoms.
At concentrations above 15 ppm, 10 percent of the population are at high
risk of increased angina pain and the remaining 90 percent of the
population are at moderate risk of mild symptoms. Results based on
review of 1987 through 1989 monitoring data indicate that 11,600 people
in Region V are estimated to be at high risk of experiencing increased
angina pain while 146,000 are at moderate risk. In addition, it is
estimated that 105,000 people in Region V are at moderate risk of
experiencing mild symptoms, while 1,314,000 are at low risk.
It is highly certain that people in Region V are experiencing adverse
health effects due to the significant ozone problem. It is also highly
certain that people in various areas in Region V are experiencing
adverse health effects due to exposure to carbon monoxide. However,
only a moderate degree of certainty can be associated with the exact
number of people experiencing the specific health effects which are
presented above. The greatest difficulty in determining exact figures
arises in assessing the number of people exposed. First, it is not
certain that all exceedances of the NAAQS were monitored. In
particular, we are confident that there are numerous areas in Region V,
which are not monitored, that have ambient ozone concentrations
233
-------
exceeding the cut-off of 0.10 ppm. Since only monitoring data was used,
the figures presented above are likely to underestimate the risk.
Second, the area for which the monitor is representative must be
determined. Finally, the number of people in this area who are actually
exposed to the pollutant must be determined. This process leads to a
moderate degree of uncertainty.
ECOIDGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
TOXTCTTY ASSESSMENT
Plant responses to ozone include biochemical and physiological
alterations, visible foliar injury, reduction in growth, losses in
yield, and alterations in reproductive capacity. The majority of the
evidence available focuses largely on reduction in growth and yield
resulting from long-term exposure to various ozone concentrations.
Although the actual amount of yield loss due to decreased aesthetic
value or appearance is important for crops such as tobacco, spinach, and
ornamentals, it is difficult to quantify. Consequently, ozone induced
yield loss is primarily quantified in terms of reduction in weight or
volume. It is noted, however, that plant appearance can be affected by
exposure to concentrations as low as 0.041 ppm for several weeks or 0.10
ppm for 2 hours.
Damage to white pine in the eastern United States and Canada has been
associated with repeated exposure to peak ozone concentrations of 0.08
ppm or greater. In addition, it is believed that ozone is a major
contributor the decline in growth rates of red spruce at numerous high-
elevation sites throughout the Appalachian Mountains.
The Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards produced a study
entitled "Interrelation of Experimental Exposure and Ambient Air Quality
Data for Comparison of Ozone Exposure Indices and Estimating
Agricultural Losses." In this study, crop yield data from 12 National
Crop loss Assessment Network (NdAN) studies were regressed against
various exposure indices. While no single exposure index provided the
best fit every time, a near optimal overall fit could be produced by
cumulating hourly concentrations over time and placing greater weight on
concentrations of 0.06 ppm or higher. The SUM06 index cumulates all
concentrations greater than 0.06 ppm for the three highest consecutive
months.
Mean SUM06 values were determined using 1982 through 1987 monitoring
data from agricultural or forest sites. Region V ranges from 0-10 parts
per billion (ppb) in Minnesota, the Northern Peninsula of Michigan and
part of Wisconsin, to greater than 35 ppb in southern Illinois and Ohio.
234
-------
ECOLOGICAL RISK CTARACTERIZATION
Data presented in a report from the staff at Corvallis, Oregon was used
to predict the impact of current ozone exposure on crop yield, for those
crops which are most susceptible to ozone, and which are grown in
significant quantities in Region V. Monitored ambient ozone
concentrations (SUM06) were combined with composite predicted relative
yield loss functions to estimate soybean and wheat loss at specific
geographic sites. Using these point estimates, crop losses were
projected for all areas where the crop is cultivated. Die area-weighted
yield loss was determined to be approximately 7 percent and 12 percent
for soybean and wheat, respectively. In 1989, the states of Region V
collectively planted 24.1 million acres of soybean and 7.6 million acres
of wheat. This corresponds to approximately 888,760 thousand bushels of
soybean and 365,414 thousand bushels of wheat. Applying the area-
weighted yield loss figures to 1989 agricultural data results in an
estimated loss of 66,900 thousand bushels and 49,830 thousand bushels of
soybean and wheat, respectively, in Region V.
WELFARE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
To be completed by contractor
235
-------
References
Hays, S.R., H.M. Richmond, A.S. Rosenbaum, T.S. Wallsten, R.G. Whitfield, and
R.L. Winkler. Chronic lung Irriury Risk Assessment for Ozone. June
1990.
Tingey, David T., Andrew A. Herstrom, William E. Hogsett, and E. Henry lee.
United States Environmental Protection Agency/ NSI Technology. Impact
of Current Levels of Ozone on Crop Production In Region 5. June 1990.
United States Department of Agriculture. Crop Production; 1989 Summary.
National Agricultural Statistics Service. January 1990.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Unfinished Business: A
CemmaTative Ass^^sment of Environmental Problems. Office of Policy
Analysis and Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation. February 1987.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Review of the National Ambient
AIT Qnality Standards for Ozone: Asspgpment of Scientific and Technical
Information: OAOPS Staff Paper. Air Management Division, Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards. June 1989.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region X.
Project. June 1988.
Comparative Risk
236
-------
DRAFT
16. AIRBORNE LEAD
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION AMD DESCRIPTION
Air emissions of lead result from many industrial and chemical
processes. This problem area includes direct exposure to airborne lead.
It does not include exposure to lead from drinking water delivery
systems, or lead found in homes and buildings from leaded paint.
HUMAN TreaT/m RISK ASSESSMENT
TOXEdTY ASSESSMENT
Primary -National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were established
to define levels of air quality which are necessary to protect public
health, with an adequate margin of safety. The NAAQS for lead is 1.5
maximum arithmetic mean averaged over a calendar quarter.
Children six years old or younger are generally considered to be most
vulnerable to the adverse health effects of lead. Some types of
physical and behavioral effects have been observed at lower blood levels
in children than adults and the developing brain of a child appears to
be more susceptible. In addition, there is a greater opportunity for
children to be exposed to certain lead sources through normal play
activities and by putting foreign substances into their mouths. When a
child is exposed to lead, it is likely that more will be absorbed due to
a higher incidence of nutritional problems among children, which enhance
lead adsorption. Pregnant women are also considered to be at high risk,
primarily due to the potential for exposing the fetus.
The toxic effects of lead at high levels are firmly established, and
growing evidence suggests that lower levels also may pose serious risk
to human health. At severely elevated levels of lead in blood, children
have been found to experience life-threatening brain damage, persisting
mental retardation, severe anemia, kidney disorders, anorexia, abdominal
pain, and vomiting. At slightly lower levels significant nerve
dysfunctions in the body, an impaired ability to formulate concepts,
lower IQ, and altered behavior were found. Even at relatively low blood
lead levels interference in the manufacture of heme has been detected.
Heme is an important element in the energy metabolism of cells, the
liver enzymes that detoxify chemicals, and the formation of hemoglobin
(the major constituent of red blood cells which carry oxygen throughout
the body) . Adults with elevated blood lead levels may experience a wide
range of effects including increased blood pressure, headaches,
irritability, abdomina pain, functional changes in the peripheral
nervous system, frank anemia, coma, and severe brain damage. Adverse
health effects from elevated levels of lead in blood range from mental
retardation and permanent nerve damage to behavior disorders
237
-------
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Lead gasoline additives, nonferrous smelters, and battery plants are the
most significant contributors to atmospheric lead emissions.
Transportation sources in 1988 contributed 34 percent of the annual
emissions. This contribution has decreased substantially from
approximately 83 percent in 1975, due to regulations issued in the early
1070s which required gradual reduction of the lead content in all
gasoline. The annual gasoline pool has changed dramatically since the
mid-1970s, when about 100 billion gallons of leaded gasoline contained
over 2 grams of lead per gallon. Today only about 10 billion gallons of
leaded gasoline contain 0.09 grams per gallon. In addition, the states
of Region V use a smaller percentage of leaded gasoline than many
states, particularly those in the western half of the country.
Due to the-diminishing leaded gasoline problem, point sources, primarily
nonferrous smelters, will be the focus of Region V's assessment.
Reviewing 1987 through 1990 data, four areas in Region V recorded
monitored violation of the NAAQS for lead.
HUMAN BFfrjfPH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
All of the four monitors registering violations of the lead standard in
Region V were located in cities. The city population was therefore
considered to be a reasonable representation of the number of people at
risk of experiencing adverse health effects due to exposure to airborne
lead. Using 1980 population data, the total number of people considered
to be at risk in Region V is 139,494.
It should be noted that the monitoring network for lead is somewhat
limited, and we are not confident that all violations of the NAAQS for
lead are being monitored. Therefore, although it is fairly certain that
at least 139,494 people in Region V are exposed to unhealthful levels of
lead, this number is likely to underestimate the risk.
238
-------
References
United States Environmental Protection Agency. National &JT Quality and
Emissions Trends Report. 1988. Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards. March 1990. EPA Publication No. EPA-450/4-90-022.
United States Environmental Protection Agency- Unfinished Business: A
Comparative Assessment of Environmental Problems. Office of Policy
Analysis and Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation. February 1987.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region X. Camparative Risk
Project. June 1988.
239
-------
DRAFT
17. PARTICULATE MATTER
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
Airborne particulate matter smaller than 10 microns (FM^) causes
adverse health, welfare, and ecological effects. Major sources include
a variety of industrial and commercial processes, motor vehicles, wind
blown dust, and residential heating.
HUMAN TTFTyrnff RISK ASSESSMENT
TOXICTTY ASSESSMENT
Primary National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were established
to define levels of air quality which are necessary to protect public
health, with an adequate margin of safety. The NAAQS for EM,0 are 150
Mg/m3, 24-hour average concentration and 50 MQ/n3/ annual arithmetic
mean. The standard is violated if either expected value is greater than
one.
Particulate matter, especially the more respirable particles smaller
than 10 microns nominal diameter, causes a variety of respiratory
problems. These effects include increased incidence of respiratory
disease, especially in children; aggravation of existing respiratory
diseases, particularly bronchitis; reduced resistance to infection;
increased respiratory symptoms; and reductions in lung function. The
ultimate effect, according to epidemiological studies, is premature
mortality, particularly in elderly and ill persons. Particulate matter
also causes various lesser effects such as irritation of the eyes and
throat.
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
The following are significant sources of HLp in Region V: /Steel nulls, (-^
including coke batteries, blast furnaces, sinter plants, steel furnaces,
coke byproduct plants, and slag handling; industrial open dust sources,
including unpaved roads, paved roads, and storage piles; iron and
aluminum foundries; asphalt and asphaltic concrete plants; portland
cement plants; lime plants; construction materials plants, particularly
conveyors, quarrying, and other materials handling; construction and
demolition; grain terminals, including loading and unloading,
particularly ship loading and terminal loading; landfills; brick kilns;
boilers; and surface mining.
At the time the NAAQS for FM,0 were promulgated, the United States
Environmental Protection Agency made judgments of the likelihood that
the standards would be violated in each area of the country. Areas with
greater than 95 percent probability of violating the NAAQS were
generally classified as Group I. Areas with less than 95 percent but
greater than 20 percent probability of violating the NAAQS were
240
-------
generally classified as Group II. Areas with less than 20 percent
probability of violating the NAAQS were classified as Group III. Region
V has 8 areas classified as Group I and 40 areas classified as Group II.
Since the time the NAAQS were promulgated, substantially more PM,0
monitoring data have became available. These monitoring data formed the
basis of the FM,0 exposure assessment and human health risk
characterization.
In Region V, the areas with the highest PM,0 concentrations are also
among the most populated areas in the Region. In general, the highest
concentrations are found in heavy industrial areas, which are found in
highly urbanized areas. Therefore, particulate matter causes more
adverse human health impacts than other more evenly distributed (or more
rural oriented) environmental contaminants.
By associating monitored PM,0 concentrations with population, it is
estimated that 2.8 million people in Region V live in areas with PM,0
concentrations in excess of the NAAQS. It is also estimated that over
3.5 million people in Region V are exposed to annual average
concentrations in excess of 38
HUMAN HEALTH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
To characterize health effects resulting from exposure to PM^, Region V
is using a method developed by RCG/Hagler, Baily Inc. under contract to
EPA. This method uses the following equations to calculate the annual
number of premature deaths and the annual number of restricted activity
days.
365 J
Annual Deaths = Z S (1.6 X 10'8) (PM,^ - 150) (POPp
d=l j=l
where, d = day of the year
j = location of monitoring site
POP. = exposed population at monitoring site j
PM^j = measured particulate concentration (Aig/m3)
on day d at location j (provided it
exceeds 150)
Annual Restricted J
Activity Days = S (0.046) (PM,0j - 38) (POPj)
j=l
where, j = location of monitoring site
POPj - exposed population at monitoring site j
PM,0j. = measured annual average particulate
concentration 0/g/m3) at location j
(provided it exceeds 38)
241
-------
Reviewing 1987 through 1989 monitoring data along with 1980 census data
(usually township population), it was estimated that exposure to EM^ in
Region V results in 25 annual deaths and over 2.3 million annual
restricted activity days.
ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
Particulate matter has similar effects on animal populations as it does
on the human population. However, studies on wildlife cannot readily be
performed either through epidemiological or laboratory approaches.
Effects of particulate matter on plant life have also not been
adequately studied. Therefore, we were unable to characterize
ecological effects of particulate matter.
WELFARE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
To be completed by contractor
242
-------
References
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Unfinished Business: A
Comparative Ass^^sment of Enviioiimentq] Problems. Office of Policy
Analysis and Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation. February 1987.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region X. Comparative Risk
Project. June 1988.
243
-------
DRAFT
18. HAZARDOUS/TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
This problem area covers outdoor exposure to airborne hazardous air
pollutants from routine or continuous emissions from point and non-point
sources. Pollutants include asbestos, various toxic metals (e.g.,
chromium, beryllium), organic gases (benzene, chlorinated solvents),
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs, such as benzo(a)pyrene,primarily
in particulate form), gasoline vapors, incomplete combustion products,
airborne pathogens, cooling towers, and a variety of other volatile
organic chemicals and toxics. This problem area also covers exposure
through both inhalation and air deposition of these pollutants to land
areas. Runoff of deposited pollutants to surface waters is addressed in
the Non-point Sources section. Major sources of these pollutants
include large industrial facilities, motor vehicles, chemical plants,
commercial solvent users, and combustion sources. This category
excludes, to the extent possible, risks from pesticides, airborne lead,
radioactive substances, chloroflourocarbons, emissions from waste
treatment, storage and disposal facilities, storage tanks, and indoor
air toxicants.
Data presented in the Office of Air Quality, Planning and Standards'
"Cancer Risk from Outdoor Exposure to Air Toxics" (September 1989) was
used in this report to determine cancer risk in Region V. The study was
also based on 'information contained in 10 area specific or national air
quality based risk-related reports on air toxics, 14 EPA source category
and pollutant specific studies, risk assessments performed for the
development of National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants,
and source specific risk data contained in the EPA Air Toxic Exposure
and Risk Information System data base. National data was apportioned to
the region by population using the following equation:
Region V Data = National Data
Population of Region V
Population of Nation
As will be discussed below, this assumption is considered to be
reasonable.
HUMAN ffKfiT-T'H RISK ASSESSMENT
TOXIdTY ASSESSMENT
The carcinogens selected for evaluation include acrylonitrile, arsenic,
asbestos, benzene, 1,3-butadiene, cadmium, carbon tetrachloride,
chloroform, chromium (hexavalent) , coke oven emissions, dioxin, ethylene
dibromide, ethylene dichloride, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde, gasoline
vapors, hemchlorobutadiene, hydrazine, methylene chloride,
244
-------
perchloroethylene, products of incomplete cxnibustion, trichloroethylene,
vinyl chloride and, vinylidene chloride.
The cancer rates presented in the studies used in the national report
were updated, as necessary, based on unit risk factors used by EPA.
Although the pollutants studied varied from proven human carcinogen to
probable human carcinogen to possible human carcinogen, all were treated
in the analyses as carcinogens.
Pollutants selected for evaluation of non-cancer effects include
acetaldehyde, acrolein, arsenic, benzene, beryllium, carbon disulfide,
carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde, hydrogen
sulfide, methyl ethyl ketone, methyl methacrylate, methyl isocyanate,
nitrobenzene, perchloroethylene, phenol, phthalic anhydride, styrene,
tetramethyl lead, toluene diisocyanate, and vinyl chloride.
Exposure to airborne pollutants can result in non-cancer health effects
ranging from subtle biochemical, physiological, or pathological effects
to death. Various organ systems may be affected including the
pulmonary, nervous, gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and hematopoietic
systems. In addition, hepatic, renal, reproductive, and developmental
toxicity have been observed.
In the national study, cancer risk estimates were derived giving equal
consideration to measured and modeled data, provided that one estimate
was not clearly preferable. Cancer rates for a pollutant and source
category were extrapolated to nationwide estimates based on the
geographic scope of each study examined. Direct extrapolation to total
nationwide estimates was possible for most pollutants due to their
inclusion in at least one study of nationwide scope. In instances where
a pollutant was included only in a study of limited geographical scope,
the concentration of the pollutant/source category in the area studied
relative to the national concentration was considered. This information
was then utilized to extrapolate nationwide estimates.
It is specifically noted that Region V conducted a risk assessment in
Southeast Chicago for a variety of air toxicants. Those results were
not independently utilized, however, since they were incorporated in the
national study which was used as the basis to estimate population risks
for this problem area.
The national population utilized is 243,400,000. The population assumed
in this analysis for Region V is 46,150,000 or, approximately 19% of the
national population. Further, information from the Toxics Release
Inventory indicates that Region V emits about 556,000,000 pounds of air
toxics per year while approximately 2,427,570,100 pounds per year are
emitted nationally. This corresponds to a regional contribution of
approximately 23 percent. Therefore, while this comparison is
reasonably similar, the use of population will provide a more
conservative estimate.
245
-------
HUMAN HEALTH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
Cancer Risk
In the studies used in "Cancer Risk from Outdoor Exposure to Air
Toxics", aggregate maximum lifetime individual risks exceeding 10'4 were
reported in almost every case. Risks of 10"3 or greater from individual
pollutants were reported adjacent to various types of sources. Average
lifetime individual risks in urban areas from exposure to many
pollutants were generally between 10~4 and 10"5 but ranged form 10"3 and
10~6. These levels were the result of combined exposure to mobile and
stationary sources.
In the national study, estimates of annual cancer incidence were
initially derived by estimating the annual cancer cases per million
population for each pollutant source category combination reported in
the data sources. These estimates were then modified as necessary to
reflect updated unit risk and emission factors. Total nationwide annual
incidence were then estimated by summing across all pollutant/source
categories.
The procedure outlined above results in an estimate of 1,577 to 2,540
cancer cases per year, nationally, caused by exposure to the pollutants
listed previously. With Region V comprising approximately 19 percent of
the Nation's population, apportioning national data to the region by
population results in a projection of 299 to 482 cancer cases per year
in Region V. (It is noted that these national numbers are different
than those presented in the national report since the risks due to waste
treatment storage and disposal facilities, radionuclides, and radon have
been subtracted. This is consistent with the problem area definition
and description.)
With respect to uncertainty, it should be noted that cancer unit risk
values used in this study are based on many assumptions and are
therefore somewhat uncertain. Further, the fraction of the total risk
attributable to pollutants and source categories not covered in the
study is unknown. Nevertheless, the study is valuable as a reasonable
indication of the magnitude of potential cancer risk caused by this
specific group of pollutants and is therefore, in general, considered to
be moderately to highly certain.
Non-Cancer Risk
Non-cancer risks from exposure to toxic pollutants that are routinely
emitted to the air by industrial or commercial sources are being
evaluated by the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards in a Broad
Screening and Urban County Study. Based on analysis of the preliminary
data available from the study, it is reasonable to conclude that
environmental acute and chronic exposures to toxic air pollutants have
the potential to adversely impact public health, although the exact
magnitude of the increased risks identified in this project is unclear.
246
-------
It is expected that short-term intermittent releases may be expected to
effect greater numbers of individuals than long-term emissions.
Specifically, the preliminary results of the Broad Screening portion of
the study indicate that: 1) approximately 48 percent of the chemicals
studied exceeded the health reference levels for chronic exposures; 2)
long-term (annual) exposures were estimated above the Lowest Observed
Effect Level (LOEL) for 3-5 percent of the chemicals studied; 3) more
frequently, 58 percent of exposures exceeded health reference levels for
short term (24-hour) exposures; and 4) in hundreds of U.S. cities,
exposure to multiple pollutants was of concern, with concentrations in
260 cities exceeding the hazard index. The preliminary results of the
Urban County portion of the study indicate that: 1) using long-term
modeling of both average and maximum emissions, a substantial number of
facilities were estimated to cause exceedances of health levels, with 31
percent of the 131 facilities exceeding chronic health effect levels for
9 chemicals; 2) using short-term modeling, more pollutants and
facilities were associated with exceedances of IDELs with and without
uncertainty factors applied, with 75 percent of the 131 facilities
exceeding acute health effect levels for 42 chemicals; and 3) for
chemicals of concern, substantial numbers of facilities were associated
with exceedances of the health reference level, and a small percentage
of facilities emitted pollutants in quantities exceeding the IDELs.
It is acknowledged that there is some uncertainty associated with
characterizing non-cancer health risks at exposures greater than the
reference dose and less than the LOEL. Nevertheless, using the Broad
Screening portion of the study, it is estimated that 50 million people
and 38 million people nationally are exposed to levels of pollutants
which are greater than health reference levels for acute effects and
chronic effects respectively. Providing that regional characteristics
are similar to national characteristics, an estimate of Region V values
can be determined using population as an indicator. National data was
therefore apportioned to the region by population resulting in an
estimate of 9.5 million people and 7.2 million people in Region V
exposed to levels of pollutants which are greater than health reference
levels for acute effects and chronic effects respectively.
Regarding uncertainty, data was insufficient to predict ambient
concentrations of most air pollutants. In addition, data pertaining to
various non-cancer endpoints for many pollutants was minimal. Further,
inhalation studies are scarce. The degree of certainty associated with
this study is therefore considered to be low to moderate.
ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
Great Lakes ecosystem effects as a result of atmospheric emissions of
air toxicants are discussed in the "Non-point Source Discharges to
Oceans, Tate>g and Rivers" problem area. However, it is specifically
noted that atmospheric deposition is generally believed to be the major
pathway for many toxicants reaching the great lakes, particularly for
the upper lakes which are more isolated from centers of population and
247
-------
industry. Percentages of total inputs of chemical contaminants to Lake
Superior attributable to atmospheric deposition, for example, have been
estimated as follows: 90% of FCBs, 97% of EOT, 96% of BaP, and 97% of
lead. Observed effects in the ecosystem as a result of toxicants in the
lakes have included reproductive difficulties in birds, crossed bills
and club feet in birds, and tumors in fish and turtles.
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
To be completed by contractor
248
-------
References
Arimoto Richard. Ihe Atmospheric Deposition of Chemical Contaminants to the
Great Lakes. 11 August 1987.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Cancer Risk from Outdoor
Exposure to AIT- Toxics; External Review Draft. Office of AIT- Quality
Planning and Standards. September 1989.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Toxic: Air Pollutants and
Noncancer Health Risks: Sunnrery of Screernncr Study: External Review
Draft. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. May 1989.
249
-------
DRAFT
19. INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS OTHER THAN RADON
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
This category applies to exposure to accumulated indoor air pollutants,
except radon, primarily from sources inside buildings and homes. These
sources include gas ranges, foam insulation, pesticides, tobacco smoke,
cleaning solvents, and paints. The pollutants include tobacco smoke,
asbestos, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, pesticides, and numerous
volatile organic chemicals such as benzene and formaldehyde.
Occupational exposures are included, as is inhalation of contaminants
volatilized from drinking water.
Data obtained in national studies which were used in the Office of
Policy, Planning and Evaluation's "Unfinished Business: A Comparative
Assessment of Environmental Problems" and the Office of Air and
Radiation's "Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, Volume II:
Assessment and Control of Indoor Air Pollution" was primarily used in
this report to calculate risks in Region V. National data was
apportioned to the region by population using the following equation:
Region V Data = National Data
Population of Region V
Population of Nation
As will be discussed below, this assumption is considered to be
reasonable.
HUMAN TrafrT-T*T RISK ASSESSMENT
TOXEdTY ASSESSMENT
The carcinogens selected for evaluation include environmental tobacco
smoke; the following volatile organic chemicals: benzene, para-
dichlorobenzene, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, tetrachloroethylene,
and trichloroethylene; formaldehyde; asbestos; and pesticides.
Considerable epidemiologic data is available which associates smoking
with cancers of the lung, larynx, oral cavity, esophagus, bladder,
pancreas, and kidney. In addition, epidemiologic studies have
established a clear link between exposure to environmental tobacco smoke
(passive smoking) and lung cancer. (This conclusion is supported by the
1986 Surgeon General's Report and a 1986 report of the National Academy
of Sciences.) These studies have also indicated increases in brain
tumors and hematopoietic cancers.
With respect to indoor exposures to volatile organic pollutants, L.A.
Wallace performed a study which estimated the risk to the national
population associated with exposure to six pollutants: benzene, para-
250
-------
dichlorobenzene, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, tetrachloroethylene,
and trichloroethylene. Potency estimates used in this study were
developed by EPA's Carcinogen Assessment Group.
Formaldehyde was determined to cause cancer. The upper-bound unit risk
based on a lifetime exposure to 1.0 /ug/m3 is estimated by the Office of
Pesticides and Toxic Substances to be 1.3 x 10"5.
Asbestos is a known carcinogen. Exposure to asbestos, particularly at
the high levels experienced in occupational settings, has been
associated with increased cases of lung cancer, mesothelioroa, and
gastrointestinal cancer. In addition, cigarette smoking and exposure to
asbestos have a strong synergistic interaction in the development of
lung cancer. While exposure to ashpistns increases the lung cancer rate
in non-smokers by approximately a factor of 5, it increases the lung
cancer rate in smokers by roughly a factor of 50. Mthough asbestos is
also related to Asbestos is, a chronic (non-cancerous) disease involving
fibrosis of the lung and pleural tissues, these effects will not be
studied.
Pollutants selected for evaluation of non-cancer effects include
environmental tobacco smoke, pesticides, carbon monoxide, formaldehyde,
nitrogen dioxide, and volatile organic compounds. Non-cancer effects
from environmental tobacco smoke include cardiovascular effects,
increased susceptibility to infectious disftasps in children, chronic and
acute pulmonary effects in children, mucous membrane irritation, and
allergic response. Pesticides are known to affect the nervous system,
liver, and reproductive system as well as to produce an allergic
response. Carbon monoxide can impa-iy breathing, vision, alertness and
mental function, aggravate existing conditions such as angina, and,
under acute conditions, cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness,
unconsciousness, and death. Non-cancer health effects of the
formaldehyde, nitrogen dioxide and volatile organic conpounds are noted
in Table I.
RE
Typically, nearly 90 percent of a person's time is spent indoors. In
addition, indoor concentrations of many pollutants are significantly
higher than outdoor concentrations. Consequently, for most individuals,
indoor exposure to air pollutants is significantly greater than outdoor
exposure.
There are approximately 19 million housing units in Region V, with many
new housing units built each year. The Department of Energy estimates
that air exchange rates in new construction are typically 50 percent
lower than the national average. Given this trend in air exchange
rates, the concentration of indoor pollutants will double if emission
rates remain unchanged.
Sources of indoor pollutants vary. Exposure to environmental tobacco
smoke is a result of cigarettes, cigars, and pipes.
251
-------
Emissions of volatile organic cxatpounds from oven cleaners and hair
sprays, arts and crafts materials and home workshops, solvents from
cleaning and waxing agents, and paints and refinishing compounds, and
volatilization from drinking water may increase exposure to a variety of
air toxics. The Environmental Protection Agency's Total Exposure
Assessment Methodology study has found such carcinogens as benzene,
ethylbenzene, trichloroethane, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene,
carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, and meta- and para-dichlorobenzenes to
be commonly present in indoor air.
Since extensive measurements do not exist for the wide range of
potential indoor carcinogens, modeling on the basis of limited
measurements is at present the only method for assessing the cancer risk
of many pollutants. As noted previously in this Problem Area section,
nationally developed procedures were utilized. Specifically, the
lifetime risk of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and volatile
organic chemicals were estimated from an equation which utilizes a dose-
response function for the pollutant, the amount of the pollutant
inhaled, and the exposure lifetime in years.
A study of environmental tobacco smoke was performed by J. L. Repace and
A. H. Icwrey which uses a phenomenological model to calculate the
potency estimate. This model predicts lung cancer deaths per person-
years per milligram of tobacco tar inhaled per day.
Urea-formaldehyde foam insulation, which came into widespread use in the
late 1970's, emits formaldehyde. Consequently, many individuals have
been exposed to significant indoor concentrations. The office of Air
and Radiation's "Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, Volume II:
Assessment and Control of Indoor Air Pollution" indicates that 9,000,000
mobile home residents nationally are exposed to concentrations ranging
from 0.03 to 8 ppm. Apportioning this data to the region by population
results in a projection of 1,706,450 mobile home residents in Region V
exposed to this concentration range.
Asbestos fibers are found primarily in thermal insulation and surfacing
materials such as those sprayed on or trolled on ceilings and
fireproof ing on structural members. Disturbance of these materials can
cause the asbestos fibers to become airborne. The fibers can then be
inhaled by the occupants of the building. In Region V, it is estimated
that there are 739,800 commercial and public buildings and schools, of
which approximately 151,200 contain friable asbestos-containing material
(FACM), 105,800 contain damaged FACM, and 66,400 contain significantly
damaged FACM.
Using a census-derived estimate of 30 occupants per commercial and
public building, it is estimated that 4,378,000 people occupy commercial
and public buildings containing FACM. Using QED's School Guide 1989-
1990, it was estimated that the average occupancy of a school building
is 440 people. This results in a projection of approximately 3,354,000
people occupying school buildings containing FACM. Thus the total
number of people in Region V occupying buildings containing FACM is
252
-------
approximately 7,732,000. Similar calculations result in a projection of
5,362,000 occupants in buildings with damaged FACM and 3,333,000
occupants in buildings with significantly damaged FACM.
Both carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide are emitted from combustion
appliances.
While national studies were utilized to estimate human health impacts of
indoor air pollutants, the studies were directly applied to Region V in
this problem area. Providing that Regional characteristics are similar
to national characteristics, a valid estimate of regional values can be
determined using population as an indicator. National data was
therefore apportioned to Region V based on population. While it is
believed that the population of Region V may spend slightly more time
indoors, on an annual basis, compared with the national average, the
effect of this was not considered in the following analysis. The
overall effect of this would suggest that the following risk estimates
for Region V would be slightly underestimated.
The population assumed in this analysis for Region V is 46,150,000. The
national population utilized is 243,400,000.
HEALTH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
Cancer Risk
The phenomenological model of Repace and Lowery concludes that domestic
exposure to environmental tobacco smoke is likely to increase the risk
of lung cancer by 26%. Nationally, based on 1988 population data, the
total number of lung cancer deaths due to domestic and work place
exposure was estimated by Repace and Lowery to be 6,724 per year.
Apportioning this data to the region by population results in a
projection of 1,275 lung cancer deaths per year in Region V. It is
noted that the Science Advisory Board is expected to be making
conclusions in the fall of 1990 regarding a report prepared by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) with respect to
the effects of environmental tobacco smoke. Preliminary estimates
indicate a range of impacts which are approximately inclusive of the
lung cancer deaths per year noted above, with a low value of 1,800, a
high value of 6,100, and a single value of 3,800. Prorated to Region V,
a single value of 720 lung cancer deaths per year is estimated.
To estimate uncertainty, Repace and Lowery used an exposure-response
relation to compare their results with those of other studies. Repace
and Lowery calculated the expected risk ratio and risk rate for a 1981
American Cancer Society group studied by Garfinkel, the odds ratio in a
1985 case-control study by Garfinkel, and the risk ratio for domestic
passive smoking derived from the 13 epidemiological studies analyzed by
the National Research Council. In every case, the calculations agreed
with observational results to within 5 percent. Further, the estimates
currently being reviewed by the Science Advisory board are approximately
within the range of these studies. The findings of the impacts of
253
-------
environmental tobacco smoke referenced above are therefore considered to
be highly certain.
L.A. Wallace's study of six volatile organic pollutants (benzene, para-
dichlorobenzene, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, tetrachloroethylene,
and trichloroethylene) was based on monitoring results from 600 homes in
four states. The study concluded that, nationally, 1,240 deaths per
year could be attributed to these pollutants. Apportioning this data to
the region by population results in a projection of 235 deaths per year
in Region V. Because the study only considers domestic exposure and not
the combination of domestic and workplace exposure, this number may be
underestimated.
The expected number of cancer cases per year due to formaldehyde was
estimated to be 326. This number was calculated assuming an average
concentration of 1030 Mg/m3 (approximately 0.8 ppm) and a 70 year
lifetime.
Insert assumptions used ty Esn in 40^07^1 ni ng nnm>var of fj^r^-p cases/ as
well as uncertainty discussion. It is estimated that, in Region V,
1,025 cancer cases annually result from exposure to airborne asbestos.
Risk due to pesticide exposure was estimated using the "Nonoccupational
Exposure Study." While application of many pesticides has been severely
restricted or canceled, one cancer case per year is estimated in Region
V due to pesticide exposure.
Non-Cancer Risk
A. J. Wells performed a study of adult mortality resulting from passive
smoking. In this stud, , he made preliminary estimates of the number of
fatalities due to heart disease and enphysema based on epidemiological
studies evaluating the relative risk resulting from exposure to
environmental tobacco smoke. Wells estimated that, nationally, 32,000
deaths and 170 deaths were due to heart HisAaso and emphysema
respectively. This corresponds to 6,067 deaths and 32 deaths due to
heart disease and emphysema respectively in Region V.
The numbers presented by Wells are believed to be reasonable. Among
approximately 33 million smokers, there were 120,000 active smoking-
attributable heart disease deaths in 1985. By comparison, Wells
estimates 32,000 passive smoking-attributable heart disease deaths in
roughly 72 million nonsmokers. This estimate does not seem excessive
considering that tobacco smoke is known to be one of three major risk
factors for heart disease death, as well as synergistic with the other
two factors, hypertension and elevated serum cholesterol, which are also
common in nonsmokers. In general, Wells1 estimate is considered to be
moderately certain.
With respect to carbon monoxide, using data provided by the Consumer
Products Safety Commission, 57 annual deaths due to carbon monoxide are
estimated to be the result of faulty consumer appliances in Region V.
254
-------
The !lNonoccupational Exposure Study" concluded that non-cancer risks due
to pesticide exposure were generally low. Finally, health effects and
estimates of population exposed to nitrogen dioxide, formaldehyde and
volatile organic compounds are presented in Table I.
ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
No analysis was conducted because ecosystem effects are not anticipated.
WELFARE DAMAGE
To be completed by contractor
255
-------
Table I. Non-Cancer Health Effects
Source/Chemical
Health Effects
Estimated No. Persons at Risk
Formaldehyde
Nitrogen
Dioxide
Volatile
Organic
Compounds
-Sensory irritation
-Pulmonary irritation
-Pulmonary edema
-Decreased pulmonary
function
-Increased infection
(children are
more susceptible)
-Possible increased
bronchial
reactivity
in asthmatics
-Sensory irritation
-Headaches
-Hepatotoxic effects
-Neurotoxic effects
-1,706,450 in mobile homes
-3,677,291-4,202,618 in energy
efficient residences
-workplace/public building
exposure during remodeling
or initial occupancy
unknown
-23,000,000 in homes with gas
cooking utilities
-1,846,000 asthmatics with
increased risk or severity
if exposed
-"tight buildings" including
an unknown percentage of
workplace/public buildings
and remodeled residences
(1/5 to 1/3 of buildings in
U.S. are estimated to have
areas where more that 20%
of employees suffer acute
discomfort
256
-------
References
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Unfinished Business: A
Comparative Assessment of Environmental Problems. Office of Policy
Analysis and Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation. February 1987.
EPA Study of
A Report to Congress.
United States Environmental Protection Agency.
Containing Materials in Public Buildings
February 1988.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Indoor ATT Pollution: The
Magnitude and Anatomy of Problems and Solutions: A Scoping Study:
Draft Report. Prepared by GAMBIT Technologies Inc. and Versar Inc. for
Office of Program Development, Office of Air and Radiation Programs. 17
August 1987.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Report to Congress on Indoor
AIT Quality. Volume II; Assessment and Con*"rol of Indoor AIT* Pollution.
Office of Air and Radiation. August 1989. EPA Publication No.
EPA/400/1-89/001C.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Nonoccupational Pesticide
Exposure Study (NOPES). Atmospheric Research and Ejqjosure Assessment
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park. January 1990. EPA Publication No.
EPA/600/3-90/003.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region X. Comparative Risk
Project. June 1988.
257
-------
DRAFT
i
20. INDOOR RADON
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
Radon is a radioactive gas produced by the decay of radium, which
occurs naturally in almost all soil and rock. Health risks occur
when radon migrates into buildings through foundation cracks or
other openings such as sumps, utility ports, or uncovered crawl
spaces. Radon can also enter the atmosphere of a building when it
volatilizes from the drinking water supply.
As radon gas undergoes radioactive decay in a building's
atmosphere, it produces a series of short-lived radioactive decay
products. When inhaled, some of these decay products are
deposited in the air passages of the respiratory system and emit
alpha particles which can damage tissue of the bronchial
epithelium and lead to lung cancer.
Radon is a known human carcinogen to which the entire population
of the nation is exposed to some extent. This problem area will
evaluate the health impacts of exposure to indoor radon on the
population of the region.
HUMAN Traar/rtT RISK ASSESSMENT
TOXICTTY ASSESSMENT
Radon is classified as a Group A human carcinogen. Studies of
laboratory animals and human epidemiological studies have produced
well documented evidence that exposure to radon decay products
causes lung cancer. USEPA has relied heavily on the results of
epidemiological studies of underground miners in developing its
radon risk models. These epidemiological studies, despite widely
varying exposure conditions, have demonstrated remarkably
consistent dose-response relationships. Excess relative risk
calculation derived from five major studies of underground miners
show a range of 1.1 percent to 3.6 percent increase in lung
cancer per Working Level Month (WIM) of radon exposure.
USEPA employs a relative risk model to project the number of lung
cancer deaths associated with exposure to indoor radon. The
Agency's model is derived from, and essentially averages, the
results of the relative risk models developed by International
Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP 50) and the National
Academy of Sciences (BFTR IV) as modified by recommendations from
USEPA's Science Advisory Board.
USEPA's relative risk model assumes that the incidence of excess
lung cancer associated with exposure to indoor radon is
proportional to the baseline incidence of lung cancer in the
population as a whole. This implies that the health impact of
radon is mutiplicative with other risk factors which cause lung
cancer (e.g. smoking) and that the incidence of lung cancer due to
indoor radon will vary with other population characteristics such
258
-------
DRAFT
as age, sex. and occupation. USEPA's current central estimate of
the lifetime rate of lung cancer deaths due to radon is 360
deaths/million person - WIM.
Radon may also be responsible for cancer other than lung cancer.
A recent epidemiological study conducted by Hershaw et. al. showed
a significant correlation between indoor radon concentrations and
the incidence of myeloid leukemia, melanoma, cancer of kidney, and
certain childhood cancer. Ihe study suggests that 13-25 percent
of all myeloid leukemia cases may be attributable to radon
exposure.
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
USEPA estimates the average indoor radon exposure level in the
United States to be 0.25 WIM/year. This is equivalent to an
annual average indoor radon concentration of 1.3 pCi/L, assuming
75 percent residential occupancy time and a 50 percent equilibrium
factor between radon and its decay products. There is now
evidence available to suggest that average radon levels in Region
V exceed the national average value. USEPA, in conjunction with
the States of Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin,
has conducted random winter-time screening measurements of over
7000 homes. In addition, the State of Illinois Department of
Nuclear Safety had completed a random survey of radon screening
levels in over 2000 homes located in 47 Illinois counties. In
order to determine the average annual level of exposure in the
region, it is necessary to convert the basement or first floor
winter-time screening measurements obtained from the surveys to
housewide annual averages. This has been done using conversion
factors supplied by USEPA's Office of Radiation Programs that are
based on a population of more than 500 homes located in climate
zones similar to Region V's where both short term winter time
measurements and annual measurements were available. The ratios
of winter timpi screening measurements to annual averages used in
this analysis are 1.3 for homes without basements and 2.0 for
homes with basements. Applying these ratios to the results of the
random radon screening surveys for the six Region V States yields
the following annual average radon concentrations:
Annual Average
State Radon Concentration (pCi/L)
Illinois 2.4 pCi/L
Indiana 2.2
Michigan 1.1
Minnesota 2.5
Ohio 2.3
Wisconsin 1.7
Population weighted
Regionwide average 2.0 pCi/L
259
-------
L
DRAFT
(A discussion will be included here of the frequency distribution
of radon concentrations.)
HUMAN HFAT.TH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
CANCER RISK
An estimate of annual lung cancer deaths attributable to exposure
to indoor radon in Region V can be calculated by applying USEPA's
relative risk modeling approach to the exposure assessment
information presented above. The specific methodology employed
has been developed by USEPA's Office of Radiation Programs and
involves the application of the following equation:
! + _§_
X
Where: C^ is annual lung cancer deaths due to radon
Cf is the yearly State lung cancer deaths (all causes)
X is the State annual average radon level (in pCi/L)
Applying the equation yields the following results for each
Region V State and the Region as a whole.
Deaths
Illinois 1500
Indiana 630
Michigan 660
Minnesota 480
Ohio 1630
Wisconsin 520
Total Region 5420
(A discussion of confidence limits and uncertainty will be
added here as well as a frequency distribution of risks)
ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
No ecological risk assessment has been performed for indoor radon
because there are no documented ecological impacts.
260
-------
** •*
INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS OTHER THAN RADON
DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
ASBESTOS IN COMMERCIAL AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS AND SCHOOLS
Asbestos may be defined as a group of naturally occurring minerals that
separate into fibers. There are six asbestos minerals that are used
commercially; Chrysotile, Amosite, Crocidolite, Anthophyllite Asbestos,
Tremolite Asbestos, and Actinolite Asbestos. Chrysotile and Amosite are the
most frequently found asbestos minerals in the asbestos-containing materials
found in commercial and public buildings and schools.
Several life-threatening diseases such as, lung cancer and mesothelioma and to
a lesser degree gastrointestinal cancer can be caused by exposure to airborne
asbestos fibers. Historically, these diseases have been experienced in
occupational settings of high levels of asbestos exposure. Since no safe
threshold level has ever been established for airborne asbestos fibers, the
effects of low level exposure to the occupants in commercial and public
buildings, as well as schools, can be estimated by extrapolation from
occupational exposure levels.
To analyze the degree of risk from asbestos exposure in public and commercial
buildings and schools we must understand not only the inherent health hazards
associated with asbestos, but also the likelihood that the public will be
exposed to asbestos in these buildings. This likelihood, in turn, depends on
the presence of airborne asbestos fibers and the tendency for asbestos fibers
to be released into the occupied areas.
Nationally there are approximately 3.7 million commercial and public buildings
and schools. Approximately 20% of these buildings contain friable asbestos-
containing material.
In Region V, using the number of commercial, public, and school buildings
along with the number of buildings which contain friable asbestos, it can be
estimated as to the number of building occupants who are at risk to the
exposure of airborne asbestos.
261
-------
HUMAN HEALTH RISK
TOXICITY ASSESSMENT
Asbestos is a known carcinogen. Exposure to the airborne asbestos fibers can
cause cancer diseases such as, lung cancer and mesothelioma which are the most
common cancers related to asbestos. Lung cancer has been associated with
exposure at occupational levels to all of the commercial asbestos types. It
is responsible for the greatest number of deaths from exposure to asbestos.
Mesothelioma, a rare cancer of the membrane that lines the chest and abdominal
cavities, has been strongly associated with exposure to asbestos (1). The
latency period for these cancer diseases, related to asbestos, can be from 20
to 40 years.
The data available on the incidence of these cancer diseases has been derived
from studies of high exposure levels experienced in occupational settings. A
study of 632 asbestos insulation workers, between 1943 and 1974, showed 200
cancer deaths as compared to 52.02 expected deaths based upon data provided by
the U.S. National Office of Vital Statistics (2). Such statistics are not yet
available for low level asbestos exposure in non-occupational settings such
as, commercial and public buildings and schools.
As is typically done for other carcinogens, health effects associated with low
level non-occupational exposure to airborne asbestos fibers in commercial and
public buildings and schools have been inferred by extrapolating data from
laboratory and occupational studies. However, we should be aware that the
validity of extrapolating from high level exposure to low level exposure has
never been demonstrated empirically. The fact remains, whether the exposure
level to asbestos fibers is high or low, the health risk is there.
Asbestos is also related to a non-cancerous disease known as Asbestosis.
Asbestosis is a chronic disease involving fibrosis of the lung and pleural
tissues. Asbestosis is mainly associated with high occupational exposure to
asbestos. Its cause is almost non-existent in non-occupational settings, such
as, commercial and public buildings and schools.
262
-------
EXPOSUR^ ASSESSMENT
The concern here is to focus on the asbestos fiber as an indoor air pollutant
in commercial and public buildings and schools. Since a safe threshold level
for exposure to airborne asbestos fibers has not been established, any level
of exposure is hazardous. It should be reiterated that the asbestos fiber is
hazardous only when it becomes airborne.
In the commercial and public buildings and schools, asbestos fibers are
present in several kinds of asbestos-containing materials (ACM) classified as:
1. Surfacing ACM material
2. Thermal system insulation (TSI)
3 Miscellaneous ACM usually non-friable
Materials in the first two categories are of particular interest in
determining the likelihood of exposure in commercial and public buildings and
schools since they tend to be friable and may release fibers more readily than
the non-friable ACM in category 3. The release of the asbestos fibers can be
caused by deterioration of ACM, air erosion, disturbance, such as drilling,
cutting, sanding and by just plain vandalism. When the asbestos fibers become
airborne, they are held in suspension for long periods of time due to their
aerodynamical configuration and microscopic size. Fibers can then be easily
inhaled or ingested by the building occupants.
In Region V, there are approximately 739,800 commercial and public buildings
and schools (3). Of this number of buildings, there are approximately 151,200
buildings with friable asbestos-containing material (FACM), 105,800 buildings
with damaged FACM, and 66,400 buildings with significantly damaged FACM.
Higher levels of exposure will be present in the buildings with significantly
damaged FACM,
There are approximately 7,115,600 occupants in commercial and public buildings
containing FACM (1) and approximately 3,354,000 occupants in school buildings
containing FACM. Combined, in Region V, there are approximately 10,469,600
occupants in commercial and public buildings and schools that contain FACM.
Further analysis has revealed there are approximately 7,224,000 occupants in
commercial and public buildings and schools with damaged FACM and
approximately 3,245,600 occupants in commercial and public buildings and
schools with significantly damaged FACM.
263
-------
HUMAN HEALTH CHARACTERIZATION
CANCER RISKS
In arriving at the cancer risk from asbestos in commercial and public
buildings and schools, there are variables and uncertainties in the available
data. In Region V, the numbers of commercial and public buildings and schools
and their respective populations have been established with some degree of
accuracy. However, one of the biggest obstacles is the inadequate data on
prevailing asbestos fiber levels to which these building occupants are
exposed. Also, the contributing risk factor of the building population such
as age, race, and sex are unknown. Therefore, it is necessary to make some
assumptions.
In our analysis, Region V used Nicholson's Risk Models (5). The Models'
results are directly in proportion to asbestos fiber concentrations so that
determination of the statistical cancer risks associated with higher or lower
levels can be calculated. The Risk Model used an arbiturary exposure level of
0.01 f/cc which is also the U.S. EPA suggested clearance level for asbestos
abatement projects. An exposure level of 0.005 f/cc has been applied to this
analysis which is lower than the suggested clearance level. This level is
approximately the mean average between 0.01 f/cc clearance level and the 0.002
f/cc level identified in school buildings with FACM in one school district
surveyed by the U.S. EPA. (1) "Arbitrarily selected levels of airborne
asbestos fibers are applied to illustrate the sensitivity of the Model." (1)
The assumption was also made that the occupants of commercial and public
buildings and schools have the age, race and sex distribution of the United
States occupational population. Also, it was assumed that the proportion of
occupants exposed to airborne asbestos is the same as the proportion of such
buildings that contain asbestos.
In presenting our findings, the building occupants were split into two
categories:NON-CUSTODIAL OCCUPANTS and CUSTODIAL OCCUPANTS. Studies have
shown that custodians of buildings potentially face a higher level of exposure
to fibers than do other occupants of the same buildings. This higher level of
exposure is based on the fact that much of the asbestos is located in areas
frequented by custodians, such as boiler rooms, and that custodians are
engaged in activities which can possibly disturb FACM. (1)
In Table 1, the estimated cancer cases and deaths of non-custodial occupants
of commercial and public buildings and schools was based on the fiber level of
0.005 f/cc. In Table 2, the estimated cancer cases and deaths of custodial
occupants of commercial and public buildings and schools was based on the OSHA
permissible exposure level of 0.2 f/cc, the OSHA action level of 0.01 f/cc and
the phase contrast microscopy detection limit of 0.01 f/cc. (1)
264
-------
Non-Cancer Risk
As mentioned earlier, the Asbestosis was only non-cancerous disease associated
with asbestos is exposure. Since Asbestosis is related to high occupational
exposure to asbestos fibers, it has not been identified as a health risk to
asbestos exposure in commercial and public buildings and schools.
265
-------
CONCLUSION
The known fact is that asbestos is a carcinogen. The unknown fact is whether
or not there is a safe level of exposure to airborne asbestos fibers. As
previously stated, we can only assume that any level of response is hazardous.
In Tables 1 and 2, Nicholson's Risk Models (5) were used in projecting the
cancer risk in Region V for of 10,469,600 occupants of commercial and public
buildings and schools containing FACM for the lifetime of the buildings based
on 50 years. In Table 1 for 10,365,300 non-custodial occupants, an exposure
level of .005 f/cc was used. In table 2 for 104,300 custodial occupants, the
risk results are shown at various exposure levels.
As previously mentioned, the cancer risk is directly proportional to the level
of exposure. (1) In Table 1, using Nicholson's Risk Models at an exposure
level of 0.005 f/cc the probable cancer cases would be 42,756. In Table 2,
the probable cancer cases would be 8,448, 4,229, and 433 at exposure levels of
0.2 f/cc, 0.1 f/cc, and 0.01 f/cc respectively. If the exposure level of
0.005 f/cc is increased to 0.01 f/cc, then the cancer cases would double to
85,512.
The level of exposure is the key to the risk. This exposure level can vary
substantially in buildings with significantly damaged FACM. This can also
vary with the disturbance of the FACM. This disturbance can be caused by
normal activities within the buildings or it could be caused by improper
asbestos abatement activities. These types of activities can be controlled or
regulated.
One very important area at risk that must be considered is the residential
area. It is estimated there are approximately 19 million housing units in
Region V. Many of the occupants of these housing units not only face possible
exposure to airborne asbestos fibers in the house but also possible exposure
in commercial and public buildings and schools. It follows that untold
numbers of men, women and children face possible exposure solely in the home
environment.
This situation also exists in the numerous auto repair shops where the
mechanics are exposed to high levels of asbestos fibers when replacing
asbestos laden brake shoes and pads. The necessary data is not available to
estimate the numbers of persons at risk in this environment.
This problem area, Asbestos as an Indoor Air Pollutant, does not affect the
Great Lakes.
266
-------
TABLE 1
NON-CUSTODIAL OCCUPANTS - REGION V
EXPOSURE LEVELS 0.005 f/cc
Cancer Cases
Cancer Deaths
Lung Cancer
G.I. Cancer
Mesothelioma
Total Deaths
Public and
Commercial Buildings
29,265
12,133
1,213
14,147
27,493
TABLE 2
Schools
(Students-Teachers-Staff) Total
13,491 42,
5,678 17,
568 1,
6,420 20,
12,666 40,
756
811
781
567
159
CUSTODIAL OCCUPANTS - REGION V
Cancer Cases
Cancer Deaths
Lung Cancer
G.I. Cancer
Mesothelioma
Total Deaths
INCLUDING SCHOOL
At Average of
0.2 f/cc
8,448
3,560
360
4,010
7,930
267
CUSTODIANS
At Average of At Average of
0.1 f/cc 0.01 f/cc
4,229 433
1,780 178
180 18
2,010 201
3,970 397
-------
RANKING - HUMAN HEALTH RISK
Cancer Risk
Using an arbitrary exposure level of 0.005 f/cc for non custodians and an
exposure level of 0.2 f/cc for custodians and assuming variables, such as age,
race and sex, distribution remains constant and also takes into consideration
the exposed population in the residential area, then:
Annual Cancer Cases x 1.0 for "A" carcinogen = Interim Score
1025 x 1.0 = 1025
Interim Score Score
1025 = 4
Note that the asbestos problem area was not ranked separately but included in the
indoor air pollutants other than radon problem area.
268
-------
REFERENCES
(1) "EPA Study of Asbestos-Containing Materials in Public Buildings',"
February 1988
(2) "Cancer Risks of Asbestos Exposure,"' I.J. Selikoff-1977
(3) Temple, Barker & Sloane, Inc., "Framework for Assessing Regional OPTS
Program Implementation Needs," February 1990
(4) "QED'S School Guide 1989-1990"
(5) "U.S. EPA Airborne Asbestos Health Assessment Update," June 1986
(6) "Airborne Asbestos Levels in Schools," U.S. EPA June 1983
269
-------
PROBLEM AREA TITLE
TSCA Chemical Control
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITIGN AN) DESCRIPTION
The TSCA Chemical Control problem area includes all aspects of the comrercial manufacture,
processing, distribution, use and disposal of new and existing chemical sib stances (except
pesticides; tobacco and tcbacco predicts; any source material, or byproduct material as
defined in the Atomic Energy Act of 1954; any article the sale of which is sibject to the
tax imposed by section 4181 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954; and any food, food
additive, drug, cosnetic or device as defined in section 201 of the Federal Food, Drug and
Cosmetic Act). This problem area is different from all of the other problem areas covered
in the Comparative Risk Project, e>cept for Pesticides, in that the approach toward
regulating chemicals that may present unreasonable risks to life'and to the environment
across all media relies heavily on a forward looking, pollution prevention perspective. The
goal is to prevent a problem from occurring rather than dealing with a problem after it has
occurred. At the same time, TSCA Chemical Control also has the ability to gather
information on production, exposures, health effects, emissions, use and disposal of
chemicals already in conmerce and to regulate existing chemicals that pose an unreasonable
risk to life and to the environment that can not be adequately regulated through other
regulatory mechanisns. The result is that TSCA Chemical Control overlaps many of the problem
areas in the Comparative Risk Project. A summary of the overlaps is shown in Table 1.
These overlaps all result from TSCA's ability to regulate existing chemicals already in
comrerce. The portion of the TSCA Chemical Control problem area that deals -nth regulation
of new chemical sib stances, with new uses of existing chemical substances and with
270
-------
information gathering about existing chanicals, is unique and does not overlap any of the
other problem areas.
New Chemical s
Section 5 of TSCA, which established the Premanufacture ratification (PMN) requirement for
manufacturers and importers of new chemical substances, provides the mechanist) for the
evaluation of a new chemical substance (a chemical not already listed in the TSCA Inventory
for conmercial use in this country) for its potential health and ecological effects before
the chemical is distributed in comnerce. Risks are evaluated using all existing information
about the chemical1 s toxicity, the projected use and distribution of the chemical, and its
structural similarity to chemical s whose toxicity is better understood.
The result of this PMN review process is either to take no action or to regulate. If the
decision is to regulate, then the Agency has several options. EPA can prohibit or limit the
manufacture, processing, distribution in conmerce, use, and disposal of a new chemical if
EPA decides that:
a. the chemical will present an unreasonable risk of injury to human health or the
environment, or
b. there will be significant exposure to the chemical, but there is insufficient
information of the health and environmental effects of the chemical to permit a
reasoned evaluation.
There have been 5 possible outcomes from the decision to regulate. These are:
a. The company may withdraw the PMN and not introduce the chemical into conmerce.
b. The company may develop toxicity information sufficient to permit a reasoned
evaluation of the health or environmental effects of the substance prior to the
conclusion of the PMN review period ("upfront" or "voluntary testing).
271
-------
c. The company may develop and provide to EPA other information on the potential
effects of the sib stance or its analogues, the potential exposures, or both, which
if accepted by the Agency, would negate the potential unreasonable risk
determination.
d. The company may, together with EPA, suspend the notice review period, and
negotiate and enter into a consent order. The consent order would permit limited
manufacture, processing, distribution in commerce, use, and disposal of the
substance pending the development of information. A consent order may contain a
requirement that toxicity data be submitted to ERA when a specified volume of
chemical has been prodxed. This production volume level is set where ERA
estimates that profits from the chemical will support the cost of testing.
e. The company may refuse to withdraw the PMN, negotiate a consent order with EPA,
and/or conduct upfront testing or develop other information. EPA would then
unilaterally develop an order to ban manufacture or import.
Since the PMN process was begun in 1979, 12,128 (as of mid 1989) new chemical submissions
have been reviewed. Of these submissions, the review process has lead to the decision to
regulate in 1,078 cases, or about 9 percent. This means that the risk assessment analysis
has shown that 1 new chemical in 11 poses an unreasonable risk to life or to the
environment. Of the 1,078 cases where unreasonable risks were predicted, the largest
subgroup consisted of 565 PMNs (roughly 1 in 22 PMN submissions) which were withdrawn in the
face of pending regulation. Although there is no guarantee that the PMN review process has
identified all of the new chemical substances that could ultimately become health or
272
-------
TABLE 1
Overlaps of the TSCA Chemical Cbntrol Problem Area
TSCA Chemical
Problem Area Control Overlap
1. Industrial Wastewater Di charges to Oceans, Lakes and Rivers Yes
2. Mumicipal Wastewater Discharges to Oceans, Lakes and Rivers Yes
3. Aggregated Puolic and Private Drinking Water Supplies Yes
4. Nan-point S>urce Discharges to Oceans, Lakes and Rivers Yes
5. Physical Degradation of Water and Watland Habitats N>
6. Aggregated Ground Water Oontami nation Yes
7. Storage Tanks ND
8. RCRA Hazardous Waste Yes
9. Hazardous Waste Sites — /bandoned/Superfund Sites Yes
10. Municipal Solid Waste Sites Yes
11. Industrial Solid Waste Sites Yes
12. Accidental Chemical Releases to the Environment Yes
13. Pesticides Yes
14. Sulfur Oxides and Nitrogen Oxides (including Acid Deposition) No
15. Ozone and Carbon Monoxide No
16. Airborne Lead No
17. Particul ate Matter No
18. Hazardous/Toxic Air Fbllutants Yes
19. Indoor Air Pollutants other than Radon Yes
20. Indoor Radon ND
21. Radiation other than Radon No
22. Physical Degradation of Terrestrial Ecosystems/Habitats No
273
-------
environmental problems, it has greatly redxed the chances that something like PCBs or vinyl
chloride will get into comnerce and be widely distributed only to have to be subsequently
controlled at great cost.
Evaluating chemical related risks and making regulatory decisions before a sib stance enters
the market place is the best pollution prevention strategy. Intervention prior to
permitting risks to occur is the basis of the New Chemicals Program. In reaching a decision
whether to permit a new chemical to enter the market place, EPA tries to encourage safer
chemicals to succeed in comnerce and replace their riskier counter parts which are already
available. Therefore, a "relative risk" policy has always been a component of the Naw
Chemicals Program. The "relative risk" policy allows EPA to minimize regulatory burdens on
new chemical substances that will substitute for nore toxic chemicals that are already in
wide-spread use. This policy is designed to reward and encourage industrial innovation if
it results in the development of safer new chemicals.
Information Gathering Regarding Existing Chemicals
Section 8 of TSCA provides the mechani sn for the Agency to request infor-fliation from anyone
who manufactures or processes or proposes to manufacture or process a chemical substance.
The Agency maintains the TSCA Chemical Substance Inventory (Inventory) which contains
information detailing the identity of all chemicals in commerce in this country, the
identity and location of facilities manufacturing chemical sib stances, and the quantity of
each chemical sub stance produced. The Inventory i s updated every time a new chemical enters
comnerce and is updated every 4 years with new information on production facilities and
production volimes. Any person who manufactures, processes, or distributes in comnerce any
chemical substance or mixture is required to maintain records of significant adverse
reactions to health or the environment alleged by anyone to have been caused by the chemical
274
-------
abstance or mixture. These allegations must be made available to the Agency upon request.
Similarly, anyone who conducts any health and safety when asked to do so must submit the
study to the Agency. These same people must promptly submit any information which
reasonably supports the conclusion that the chemical substance or mixture presents a
substantial risk of injury to health or the environment. Finally, under the Preliminary
Assessnent Information Rule (PAIR) and the Comprehensive Assessment Information Rule (CAIR),
information is gathered on manufacturing processes, exposures and emissions resulting from
the manufacture and processing of specific chemical substances or mixtures.
Information gathered under Section 8 has 2 main purposes. First, it is used to constrict
and maintain the TSCA Inventory which is essential to the functioning of the New Chemical
Program. Second, it is used to gather information about chemicals already in cormence that
are now of concern because of what has been learned about the potential risk to health or
environment. This information can be used for regulatory purposes.
Regional Responsibility
The Regional responsibility in the new chemical review and information gathering portions of
TSCA is enforcement. The Region constantly looks over the shoulder of the regulated
cormunity examining chemical prediction (manufacture and import), prediction processes,
distribution, and use. The objective of this examination is to assure that all of the
information that is supposed to be submitted is in fact being submitted. Emphasis is on
making certain that new chemicals do not enter conmerce without benefit of the PMN process.
Regional Compliance efforts are crucial for gathering accurate information which is used in
screening systems. Outreach, inspections, and enforcement (all are regional functions) are
essential to ensure the integrity of the data. EPA needs all the data, not just the data
that the manufacturer wants the Agency to have.
275
-------
Since the emphasis of this program is on collecting and analyzing information, and since
this process is only as valid as the information that the Agency receives, it is imperative
that a powerful enforcement program is established in every region to ensure the submission
of accurate and timely information. Without a powerful enforcement program, the Agency1 s
decision making process will be seriously impaired.
HufflN HEALTH RISK ASSES9COT
For the purposes of this comparative risk project, the ffew Chemicals Program in teadquarters
has assembled a wealth of risk assessment information on the potential risks posed by
thousands of chemicals. The information gathering provisions of TSCA have also assembled
considerable information regarding existing chemicals. All of this information resides at
Headquarters. Unfortunately, the vast majority of the information submitted in PMNs is
claimed to be Confidential Business Information (CBI). A good deal of the information
gathered on existing chemicals has also been claimed to be CBI. Since CBI information was
used in the risk assessnents performed in PMN review, it is impossible to present the
specifics of chemical identity, production site, production volume, worker exposure,
community exposure, and disposal. Not being able to use this critical information severely
restricts the preparation of a Regional - specific assessment of human health and
environmental risks.
TOoem ASSESSMENT
The inaccessibility of the chemical specific toxicity data, as explained above, makes it
very difficult to provide information in this section. It must also be remembered that
toxicity information does not usually exist for new chemicals and that the Agency relies
heavily on structure activity relationships to predict toxicity. Through experience gained
276
-------
in reviewing PMN chemicals, it has been possible to expect certain kinds of toxicity from
certain classes of chemicals, and the Agency has developed a List of Chemicals of Concern by
Category. Hunan health concerns are sumiarized in Table 2.
EXPOSURE ASSESSOR"
As with toxicity assessment, the inaccessibility of exposure information makes it impossible
to present quantitative data in this section. Since new chemicals are not in commercial
production at the time a PMN is submitted, all exposures are estimates. From the point of
view of worker exposure, respiratory and dermal exposures are the most important. Estimates
of exposures predicted to result from distribution of the new chemical in commerce, use and
disposal would depend on the chemical, its physical chemical properties, and the way it is
used. Dermal exposure would likely be reduced in importance from the workplace, and
inhalation and ingestion would likely be the significant exposure routes.
The exposed population for many proposed new chemicals is very grail and in some cases may
be limited to a snail ntnber of well trained professionals. In other cases, the proposed
use and production of the new chemical could be so large that, for all practical purposes,
HIWi \ftL~M RISK CHW/VCTEREKTION
Again, the inaccessibility of information prevents a quantitative presentation in this
section. However, some conclusions can be drawn from other information. As was pointed out
in problem area definition discussion, 565 PMNs for new chemicals have been withdrawn in the
face of control regulations (1). These 565 chemicals were expected to have caused effects
which were severe enough to have warranted control. Since the PMNs ware withdrawn, these
chemicals will not enter conmerce in this country and all the expected effects eliminated
before they could occur. This includes "some" PMN chemical s which would have been banned if
the PMN had not been withdrawn. The action taken with certain chemical classes is shown in
277
-------
TABLE 2
List of Chemicals of Concern to fiman tealth by Category (2)
Category
Azrylates
/fcrylate Polymers
Alkoxysllanes
Epoxldes
Hydrazines
Isocyanates
Peroxides
Vinyl Sulfones
Effects
Oncogenicity
Oncogenicity
Chronic Lung
Toxicity
Oncogenicity,
Reproductive
Toxicity
Oncogenicity,
Chronic Toxicity
Skin and .Lung
Sensitization,
Other Lung Effects
Oncogenicity
Mitagenicity
Oncogenicity
/\ction
Issue 5(e) order for worker
protection
Issue 5(e) order for worker protec-
tion if average molecular weight
< 1000 or if average molecular weight
> 1000 and at least 2% of species with
molecular weight < 500
Consent order with testing trigger if
inhalation exposures can be controlled
with respirators or else ban pending
upfront testing
Issue 5(e) order for,worker protection
and triggered testing
Ban pending upfront testing. If
result is acceptable, issue consent
order for worker protection
Concern is for molecular weight < 1000
Issue 5(e) order for worker protection
Ban pending upfront testing
278
-------
Table 2. The rrost comon action for these classes of chemical s is to issue a consent order.
In all, about 9 percent of all PMN reviews (1 in 11) result in the decision to regulate (1).
Even if the vast majority of these chemicals would only have been of concern in the
workplace, there are still some chemicals that would have caused effects so serious that
they would have been banned from comnerce if the PMN had not been withdrawn. Had these new
chemicals not been studied in the PMN process, major deleterious health effects probably
would have occurred.
It is difficult to estimate how mxh of the national risk posed by new chemicals would occur
in Region V. Data collected to create the Toxic Chemical Release Inventory under the
Emergency Planning and Gannunity Right-to-Know Act indicated that 25 percent of all of the
industries in the nation in standard industrial codes 20-39 (the manufacturing sector) were
in the 6 states in Region V (3). Although all industrial groups are not equally distributed
across the nation, Region V does have a sizable representation from those industries that
manufacture or import chemicals. It at least would be a reasonable ballpark estimate to
assure that, since Region V has 25 percent of the nation1 s manufacturing facilities, Region
V has roughly 25 percent of the chemical prediction (manufacture and import) facilities in
the nation. Extrapolating one more step, Region V then can be expected to have 25 percent
of the national risk resulting from new chemicals. With 25 percent of the national risk
being concentrated in just 6 states, control of new chemicals is a very important hunan
health problem in Region V.
ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
For the purposes of this comparative risk project, the Naw Chemicals Program in Headquarters
has assenbled a wealth of risk assessnent information on the potential risks posed by
thousands of chemicals. The information gathering provisions of TSCA have also assembled
279
-------
considerable information regarding existing chemicals. All of this information resides at
Headquarters. Unfortunately, the vast majority of the information submitted in PMNs is
claimed to be Confidential Business Information (CBI). A good deal of the information
gathered on existing chemicals has also been claimed to be CBI. Since CBI information was
used in the risk assessments performed in PMN review, it is impossible to
present the specifics of chemical identity, production site, production volune, aquatic
exposure, terrestrial exposure, and disposal, tot being able to use this critical
information severely restricts the preparation of a Region V specific assessment of
environmental risks.
TODdCITY ASSES9ENT
The inaccessibility of the chemical specific toxicity data, as explained above, makes it
very difficult to provide information in this section. It must also be remenbered that
toxicity information does not usually exist for new chemicals and that the Agency relies
heavily on structure activity relationships to predict toxicity. Through experience gained
in reviewing PMN chemicals, it has been possible to expect certain kinds of toxicity from
certain classes of chemicals, and the Agency has developed a "List of Chemicals of Concern
by Category. The list of chemicals and chemical categories of concern, because of
potential environmental impact, is shown in Table 3.
EXPOSURE ASSES9ENT
As with toxicity assessment, the inaccessibility of exposure information makes it impossible
to present quantitative data in this section. Since new chemicals are not in comnercial
production at the time a PMN is submitted, all exposures are estimates.
280
-------
Estimates of exposures predicted to result from distribution of the new chemical in
commerce, use, and disposal vould depend on the chemical, its physical chemical properties,
and the way it is used.
ECOLOGICAL RISK CHARACTERIZATION
Again, the inaccessibility of information prevents a quantitative presentation in this
section, hbwever, some conclusions can be drawn from other information. Chemicals listed
by category shown in Table 3 would be regulated as shown in the table. As was pointed out
in problem area definition discussion, 565 PMNs from new chemicals have been withdrawn in
the face of control regulations (1). These 565 chemical s were expected to have caused
control. Since the PMNs were withdrawn, these chemical s will not enter conmerce in this
country and all the expected effects eliminated before they could occur. This includes
"seme" PMN chemical s which would have been banned if the PMN had not been withdrawn. In
all, about 9 percent of all PMN reviews (1 in 11) result in the decision to regulate (1).
Some of those chemical s would have been banned from conmerce if the PMN had not been
withdrawn. Had these new chemicals not been studied in the PMN process, major ecological
effects likely would have occurred.
It is difficult to estimate how much of the national risk posed by new chemicals would occur
in Region V. Data collected to create the Toxic Chemical Release Inventory under the
Emergency Planning and Coimnity Right-to-Know Act indicated that 25 percent of all of the
industries in the nation in standard industrial codes 20-39 (the manufacturing sector) were
in the 6 states in ftegion V. Although all industrial groups are not equally distributed
across the nation, Region V does have a sizable representation from those industries that
manufacture or import chemicals (not limited to the traditional chemical manufacturers). It
281
-------
TABLE 3
Li st of Chemical s of Concern to the
Category Effect
Aliphatic Anines Aquatic Toxicity
Alkoxy si lanes
Chronic Lung
Toxicity
Environment by Category (2)
Action
Ban pending upfront testing
Upfront ecotoxicity testing
Anionic Surfactants
(Includes linear alkyl benzene
sulfonates; carboxylic acid
and phosphoris acid terminated
anionic surfactants; mono,di and
trial kyl anionic surfactants; and
di and polyacid terminated
anionic surfactants)
Cationic fyes
Dithiocarbamates
Hydrarines
(Includes hydrazides, semi-
carbazides, nydraaanes,
ssnicartazcmes, and
thiol analogues
Neutral Organics
Itmionic Surfactants
Ftolyanionic Fblymers
Ffclycationic Fblymers
Cationic (Quaternary
Anronium) Surfactants
(Includes mono,di, and
trial kyl surfactants.
16 carbon chain the rrost toxic)
Substituted Triazines
Aquatic Toxicity Ban pending upfront testing
Aquatic Toxicity
Aquatic Toxicity
fcotoxicity
Aquatic Toxicity
Aquatic Toxicity
Aquatic Tbxicity
Aquatic Toxicity
Aquatic Toxicity
Aquatic Tbxicity
Ban pending upfront testing
Ban pending upfront testing
Ban pending upfront testing
Ban pending upfront testing
Ban pending upfront testing
Ban pending upfront testing
Ban pending upfront testing
Ban pending upfront testing
Ban pending upfront testing.
Refer to OPP for terrestrial
exposure.
Soluble salts of Zinc
Aquatic Toxicity Ban pending upfront testing
282
-------
at least would be a reasonable ballpark estimate to asame that, since Ragion V has 25 per-
cent of the nation1 s manufacturing facilities, Region V has roughly 25 percent of the
chemical production (manufacture and import) facilities in the nation (3). Extrapolating
one more step, Region V then can be expected to have 25 percent of the national risk
resulting from new chemicals. With 25 percent of the national risk being concentrated in
just 6 states, control of new chemicals is a very important problem in Region V.
Note than this problem area was not ranked.
283
-------
1. Dwain Winters, vbhn felone, Charlie Auer and Larry Culleen, OTS Briefing for Linda
Fisher — ffew Chenicals/PMN Process, May 24, 1989.
2. List of Chemicals of Concern by Category, PMI Focus Meeting: Gfeneric tegulatory
Findings, Updated April 1990.
3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Toxic Substances, The Toxics-Release
Inventory, A Nation Perspective, 1987, Pib. N). EPA 560/4-89-005, June 1989.
284
-------
WORKERS EXPOSURE TO PQI£HDQRINATED BIPHENYLS
PROBLEM AREA EEETNTEICN AND DESCRIPTION
PCBs are compounds which belong to a broad family of organic chemicals known
as chlorinated hydrocarbons. Its excellent chemical and thermal stability,
fire resistance, non-conductivity and low solubility in water have resulted in
widespread industrial use. PCB have been widely used as dielectric fluids in
transformers and capacitors, hydraulic fluids in hydraulic systems, and heat
transfer fluids in heat transfer systems.
It was not until the 1960's that indications of the toxicity of PCBs began to
emerge. As the evidence of PCBs toxicity accumulated in the late 1960's and
early 1970's, the United States Congress responded by including in the Toxic
Substances Control Act of 1976 (T5CA) a provision to prohibit the manufacture
of PCBs. The processing, distribution in commerce, and use of PCBs is
prohibited except in a totally enclosed manner. A large volume of PCBs have
been released to the environment over the years. This release occurred
primarily through spilling and discharging to surface waters, disposal onto
land and into landfills and through release to the air.
Since PCBs are very persistent chemicals and are widely distributed throughout
the environment, humans have been and will continue to be exposed to them.
Once released to the environment, PCBs do not readily decompose into new
chemical arrangements with reduced toxicity, instead they bioaccumulate in the
fatty tissues of the organisms that consume them. Fish are known to bio-
concentrate PCBs. Consumption of fish has been identified as the primary
route of human exposure to PCBs. The general population is also exposed to
PCB levels in the breathable air.
Occupational exposure is the other source of human exposure to PCBs and will
be the focus of this comparative risk study. PCBs are no longer manufactured,
however, the potential for occupational exposure still exists, since PCB-
containing transformers and capacitors remain in use. The useful lifetime of
many of these transformers can be 30 years or more. Large capacitors,
containing about 2-3 gallons of PCBs, have a service life of 15-20 years.
It is estimated that there are 37,480 Askarel transformers in Region 5 which
represents about 23% of all Askarel transformers in the U.S. (1). The
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates 3.3% of these transformers,
containing PCBs currently in use, will leak in any year (2). Occupational
exposure to PCBs used in transformers may occur during servicing,
transportation or as a result of leaks.
In addition, potential occupational exposures exist in the servicing of
appliances containing PCB capacitors and in the disposal of the used PCB
capacitors. Occupational exposures to PCBs can also occur in the use of
manufactured items containing PCBs, such as hydraulic systems, heat transfer
systems, air compressors and gas transmission turbines (3).
285
-------
Due to limited current information on human health exposure to PCBs, the
comparative risk study on workers' exposure covers only the occupational
exposure during the following activity:
.Routine maintenance of PCS and PCB-contaminated transformers
.Repair of bushings on KB and PCB-contaminated transformers
.Cleanup of spills involving PCB or PCB-contaminated transformers and PCB
capacitors
The other potential exposures mentioned above and contamination of ambient air
and water by PCBs, and consumption of PCB contaminated fish are not included
in this discussion.
HLMAN HEAL3H RISK ASSESSMENT
TCKICITr ASSESSMENT
PCBs are classified as B2, a probable human carcinogen as reported in the U.S.
EPA's Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) data base (4). EPA recommends
that all commercial PCB mixtures be considered to have a similar carcinogenic
potential and are PCB mixtures in category B2. Hie National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIQSH) reccmnends that PCBs be regarded as
potential human carcinogens in the work place(5). The cancer potency factor
of 1.1 (mg/kg-bw/day)""1 taken from the U.S. EPA's IRIS data base is used in
the cancer risk assessment.
Human studies to date show that skin irritations such as acne-like lesions and
rashes can occur on PCB exposed workers (6). Other occupational exposure
studies suggest that PCBs might cause liver cancer (7). Reproductive and
developmental effects may also be related to occupational exposure to PCBs and
eating PCB contaminated fish (8,9). Although there are no conclusive data,
the suggestive evidence provides an additional basis for public health concern
about human exposure to PCBs.
NIOSH recommends 0.001 milligram of PCBs per cubic meter of air (mg/m3) as the
occupational permissable exposure limit (PEL) for all PCBs for a 10-hour
workday, 40-hr workweek.(10) On the other hand, the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) recommends the PEL limits of 0.5 mg/m3
(chlorodiphenyl, 54% chlorine) and 1.0 icg/nr (chlorodiphyenl, 46% chlorine)
for an 8-hour workday.
286
-------
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Inhalation and dermal exposure are the primary routes of occupational exposure
to PCBs. The exposed population used in this study was assumed to be wearing
protective clothing such as disposable suits and gloves. Only workers doing
repair and maintenance of PCB transformers were assumed to be wearing air
purifying respirators, reducing the PCB air concentration (21 ug/in3) by about
90%. Inhalation exposure to PCB was the only route of exposure used in the
calculation of the human health risk.
The population exposure was determined from the estimated time a worker spends
in a specific activity and from the total pieces of electrical equipment
containing PCBs still in use and would be subject to repair and maintenance
(12,13). Table 1 show the estimated population exposure for each activity.
Table 1. Estimated Population Exposure
Activity Number of Systems Number of Vtorkers (e)
In Use
Routine Maintenance(a) 37,480(Askarel transformer) 38
61,505 (mineral oil transformers >500ppm) 62
588,995 (mineral oil transformer 50-500 ppm) 589
Repair and Bushing(b) 687,980(d) 18,576
Replacement
Spill Cleanup(c) 687,980 341
723,606(capacitors) 358
a) It takes 2 hours to do routine maintenance of one transformers
b) Repair of leaking bushing requires a maximum of 3 people working
6hr/day/transformer/person; maximum of 3 days for completion of work.
c) Typical spill cleanup is a 2 person job. Maximum hours estimated from
initial cleanup to final decontamination (including post sampling) is 15
hrs per person.
d) Sum of all the PCB containing transformers in use.
e) Calculation based on time per activity per piece of electrical equipment,
total pieces of electrical equipment and working 40 hrs/wk for total of 50
weeks.
287
-------
PETATTT RT53C
CANCER RISK
The cancer risks developed in this comparative risk study are based on
inhalation exposure to PCBs. This occurs in the course of intimate contact
with electrical equipment either routinely maintained or repaired and serviced
which, in some cases, necessitates partial or complete disassembly. In
addition, cleanup personnel will also be intimately exposed to PCBs in the air
and volatilizing from surfaces resulting from spills and leaks from PCB and
PCB-contaminated electrical equipment. Hie estimates are based on
occupational exposure on limited tasks for which we have definitive
information. Case study analyses are not available from other sources.
Repair and replacement of leaking bushings, which require more personnel
working over a longer period per task and thus with a longer exposure to PCBs
when compared to work in the other tasks addressed, show the highest potential
for cancer incidents.
Table 2. Summary of Cancer Risk Assessment
Activity Estimated Population concentration Individual Lifetime Total
Exposure ug/nr Cancer Cases (c) Cancer
Cases
Routine Maintenance
Repair and Bushing
689 2.1(a)
18,576 2.1
3.7x10^
l.lxlO"3
0.3
20.0
Replacement
Spill Cleanup 699 0.3(b) l.lxlO"4 0.07
Average Risk = l.OxlO"3
a) PCB air concentration as determined in the maintenance area where PCB
contaminated equipment is handled (4).
b) 1982 study of PCB air concentration from personal breathing zone by job
task (15).
c) Calculation based on the assumed respiration rate of 15 m3/day with mild
exertion in an 8 hour day; working 30 years in his lifetime, adjusted to
actual time exposure (16).
288
-------
To rank this risk, an "Interim Score" must be developed which is the multiple
of the annual cancer cases (Table 2) and the cancer class factor (.67) for
PCBs, a Class B carcinogen:
Ann. Cancer
Cancer x Class = "Interim Score"
Cases Factor
20 .67 13
The risk category is based on a "Final Score" determined from the given
"Interim Score" range which in this case is 10-100. This range indicates that
repair and bushing replacement is in a medium-low risk category.
RTSK
Applying the same methodology as given in the Region 5 guidelines, the non-
cancer scoring indicates that even though there is more intimate contact and
exposure to PCBs in transformer repair and bushing replacement than in routine
maintenance and spill cleanup, this task is, also in a low health risk
category.
There may be some uncertainty in the risk categories developed since our data
was based on information from a very small segment of the utilities
interviewed.
If occupational exposure to PCBs during the use of hydraulic and heat transfer
systems, air compressors, and gas turbines had been considered, the risk
category may have been higher. However, these exposure routes were not
considered because available information was not definitive.
B008DDGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
The ecological risk was not considered since this comparative risk study
addressed only PCB exposure in the workplace.
289
-------
References
1) EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) "Askarel Transformer Analysis
Presentation to Environmental Agency." March 22, 1988.
2) Final Report for Task 1-04, "PCB Spill Cleanup Policy Evaluation, Prepared
by Westat, Inc. December 12, 1988.
3) Hesse, J.L., "Polychlorinated Biphenyl Usage and Sources of Loss to the
Environment in Michigan, in Proceedings of the National Conference on
Polychlorinated Biphenyls, November 19-21, 1975, Chicago EPA-560/675-004.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Toxic Substances, 1976, pp
127-33.
4) EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1988. IRIS (Integrated Risk
Information System), CRAVE (Carcinogen Risk Assessment Validation Endeavor)
for polychlorinated biphenyls. (Verification date 4/22/87). On-line:
input pending Cincinnati, Ohio: Office of Health and Environmental
Assessment, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office.
5) NIQSH (National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health). 1986.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs): Potential Health Hazards from Electrical
Equipment Fires or Failures. Department of Health and Human Services.
NIOSH Publ. 86-111.
6) Fischbein 4, Wolff, M.S., Bernstein, Selikaff, IJ. "Dermatological Findings
in Capacitor Manufacturing Workers Exposed to Dielectric Fluids Containing
Polychlorinated biphenyls." Arch Environ Health 37:69-74.
7) Brown, D.P. 1987. "Mortality of Workers Exposed to Polychlorinated
Biphenyls — An Update." Arch. Environ. Health. 333-357.
8) Fein, G.G., Jacobson, J.C., Jacobson S.W., Schwartz, P.M, Dowler, J.K.
"Prenatal Exposure to Polychlorinated Biphenyls Effects on Birth Size and
Gestational age."1982 J. Pediatrics 105: 315-320.
9) Jacobson, J., Jacobson, S. and Humphrey, H, "Effects of in Utero Exposure
to Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Related Ctontaminants on Cognitive
Functioning in young children." 1990. The Journal of Pediatrics 79: 38-45.
10) Toxicological Profile for Selected PCBs (Aroclor-1260,-1254,-1242, 1232 -
1221, and 1016). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. U.S.
Public Health Service.
11) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Criteria
for a Recommended Standard Occupational Exposure to Polychlorinated
Biphenyls (PCBs). September 1977
12) Information given by an electric servicing facility through telephone
inquiry.
290
-------
13) EPA (Eavironmental Protection Agency). "Framework for Assessing Regional
OPTS Program Implementation Needs" Prepared by Temple, Barker & Sloane,
Inc. for the Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances, February 1990.
14) ENSR In-house - Air IVbnitoring data. 1989.
15) MDseley, C.L., Geraci, C. and Burg, J. "Polychlorinated Biphenyl Exposure
in Transformer Maintenance Operations." Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J 43: 170-174
1982.
16) Clark, J. "Comparative Assessment and Cost Benefit Analysis of Remedial
Alternatives for the OXC Site. "Canirunication to W. Sanders. December 7,
1987.
291
-------
22. PHYSICAL DEGRADATION OF TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
When we first approached this environmental problem area, it
appeared almost overwelming. The physical degradation of
terrestrial ecosystems from their natural state could include
nearly every physical impact of humanity on the environment.
This approach did not appear to be a realistic or useful basis
for assessing the physical risk to the Region's ecosystems.
Meetings we held to establish a working definition, yielded a
spectrum of suggestions, if not conflicting, either too narrow
or too broad to be used as a foundation for further analysis.
We decided to develop a hypothesis about non-chemical
stressors to the environment and what their impacts mean for
the ecosystems in our Region. We conducted literature
searches and gathered data from a wide variety of sources to
determine whether we could identify the the most significant
stressors to the environment and the natural resources,
including ecosystems at risk.
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
The ecological risk posed by the physical degradation of
terrestrial ecosystems in Region 5 results from numerous and
often interrelated sources. The most prevalent degradatory
impacts include deforestation, erosion, loss of species
diversity and populations, and loss of rare indigenous
natural ecosystems. The U.S. EPA's statutory authority to
protect terrestrial natural resources through National
Environmental Policy Act, as amended, charges the Federal
Government with using all practicable means to "fulfill the
responsibilities of each generation as trustee of the
environment for succeeding generations." Given this
responsibility, this analysis attempts to identify the
physical threats to the health and integrity of the
terrestrial ecosystems within Region 5.
The majority of land in Region 5, heavily forested in its
pristine condition, has been extensively clear cut for
agricultural use. While converting land for agriculture is
no longer rapidly expanding, agricultural practices have
significant degradatory impacts on the Region's natural
resources, including wildlife habitat, species diversity and
soil fertility. Other significant impairment of terrestrial
resources result from forest management practices and
mining. All the terrestrial ecosystems in the Region,
forest, agricultural, urban, and grasslands, including dune
and prairie, are impacted by one or several physical
stressors.
HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
There are no human health impacts of physical degradation of
terrestrial ecosystems.
292
-------
ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
Analytical Approach
This report analyzes both specific stressors and specific
impacted ecosystems. Agricultural practices, forest
management practices and mining are major stressors due to
their severity or geographic magnitude of their impacts.
The three specialized terrestrial ecosystem types that are
threatened in Region 5 include prairie, dune and old growth
forest.
STRESSORS
Agricultural Management Practices
Agricultural cropland is by far the largest terrestrial
ecosystem in Region 5, comprising 44.5 percent of the total
land area of the six states in Region 5 by 1987 estimates.
Some of the most productive soils in the world are in Region
5, particularly the mollisols, which are rich in organic
material, and benefit from ample precipitation from both
Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Mexico weather systems. Total
cropland acreage remained fairly constant between 1982 and
1987 for the entire Region, with each State realizing an
incremental increase except Minnesota, which decreased
slightly. (See Problem Area Appendix 1.) The majority of
these increases are due to converted pastureland.
Agricultural land management practices, as a stressor to the
environment, are significant due to the magnitude of Region 5 land
affected. These degrading practices can be categorized into
several specific practices.
o Planting crops in patterns that do not conform to the
contours of landscape.
o Plowing harvested fields.
o Plowing stream banks adjacent to crop fields for weed
control, and left barren.
o Plowing along roads adjacent to crop fields for weed
control, and left barren.
o Planting crops of a single genetic strain or monoculture.
Non-conforming planting patterns, post-harvest, stream bank
and roadside plowing result in soil erosion from unimpeded
water runoff and loose topsoil susceptible to displacement by
wind. Erosion, both water and wind driven, becomes a serious
impact when the topsoil erosion rate exceeds the natural
topsoil generation process potentially leading to a longterm
loss in fertility with both food production and wildlife
impacts. Several recent studies indicate that current
agricultural practices result in a soil loss rate exceeding
the soil generation rate, which will result in a significant
293
-------
reduction in crop yields by the next century in corn and
soybean fields.
All plowing activities cause a loss in food and cover for
wildlife, especially severe during the non-growing season.
The reduction of populations of wildlife species, dependent on
harvested plants for food and winter cover, results in a
potentially permanent disturbance to the food web. Stream
bank plowing, while likely to cause severe erosion due to its
charateristic slope, also results in loss of habitat for a
richly diverse and abundant wildlife community.
Monoculture planting increases crop vulnerability to blight,
herbivores and weather conditions. As a result, single gene
pool planting requires more intensive fertilizer and pesticide
use to alleviate potential production fluctuations.
Forest Management Practices
The second largest terrestrial ecosystem is forest, accounting
for 26.5 percent of the total region according to U.S. Soil
Conservation Service estimates. (See Problem Area Appendix 1.)
Regionwide, 3,146,000 acres or 4.9 percent of forest lands
were lost between 1952 and 1987. During this period, the
three northern States in the Region had their forest lands
diminish, while the three southern States in the Region
realized net gains in forest. However, between 1982 to 1987
the amount of forest land has remained constant, increasing
only 0.5 percent or 275,300 acres. Each Region 5 State
realized an incremental gain.
Forest Management Practices, or silviculture, have a significant
impact on Region 5 forest ecosystems due to their long term effect.
Forty-two percent, or 27,526,400 acres, of forest land in the
Region is owned by the timber industry. The degrading silviculture
practices include the following.
o Short rotation management and monotypic reforestation, or
single species planting, for future timber supplies.
o Clear cutting forest for harvesting for the timber
industry.
o Logging support activities, including construction and
maintenance of roads for worker and timber
transportation, as well as clearing for and construction
of logging camps and temporary storage areas for cut
timber.
Monotypic reforestation is a common technique, including use
in short rotation management, for harvesting the greatest
amount of lumber over the least amount of time. Forests are
characterized as monotypic, diverse, i.e., ecologically
balanced) or old growth. Monotypic forests are established
for a particlular purpose such as pulp/paper or lumber
294
-------
production. While these forests satisfy specific societal
needs, they do not support extensive or balanced ecosystems of
animal and plant communities. A single type of tree, all of
one age, does not provide for the needs of varying wildlife
species. In addition, the lack of decay does not support the
growth of vegetation necessary for food and cover of many
wildlife species indigenous to forest ecosystems. In
addition, to assure the growth and profitability of the
monotypic forest, intensive pesticide use is necessary to
counteract its vulnerability to disease and insect infestation
resulting from its genetic uniformity. A monotopic forest is
more susceptible to decimation by a single disease or insect
type.
The unnatural forestation cycles from short rotation
management significantly reduce the life span of forests from
over 200 years to around 70 years. The sensitive soils of
forested ecosystems may not be able to withstand repetitive
harvesting of this nature, reducing soil fertility, and in
turn, may endanger the existence of future forests. Selective
cutting of proportionate numbers of trees across species and
leaving materials for decomposition can prevent irreversible
damage. Likewise, if reforestation takes into account tree
species, genetic variety and age differences, a more natural
and diverse ecosystem can be recreated and self-sustaining,
less vulnerable to stressors.
Clear cutting practices, even if only small strips of forest,
result in significant habitat impacts, eliminating numerous
species. Habitat fragmentation occurs from disturbing
wildlife paths, effectively restricting migration, feeding and
colonizing behaviors. The smaller undisturbed area supports
less species diversity and effects wildlife reproduction, if
not in the short term, after several generations. The more
severe, short-term effect is loss of population due to
insufficent numbers within the species for mating to occur.
Where mating has not been curtailed, the restricted gene pool
may increase the local species susceptibility to disease in
the long term.
Reduction of the biological diversity of the vegetation, and
unnatural alterations in animal species populations may occur
as a result of all silviculture practices. Logging activities
and the supporting road construction result in a loss of soil
fertility and generation, and broken canopy areas from
clearcutting, the former resulting in long term habitat
degradation and the latter resulting in habitat fragmentation.
As logging is further mechanized, the equipment used to haul
lumber leaves behind skid trails. Construction of trails,
landings, and haul roads results in soil compaction and soil
displacement, which adversely impacts the localized
productivity of the soil.
295
-------
Mining
Mining is a terrestrial ecosystem stressor that occurs
throughout the Region. Sand and gravel pits are the most
extensive, and exist in all of the Region's ecosystems. Other
natural resources mined in the Region include clay, peat,
lime, and coal. The clay mines occur in all Region 5 States
except Wisconsin. Michigan produces approximately 75 percent
of the Region's peat and with the remainder occurring in the
farm belts of the southern tier of States in Region 5
primarily in the southern half of the lower peninsula which is
largely agricultural. Minnesota has the most peat of 48
contiguous States, but production is relatively low, and
existing peat mines are in forested areas. Ohio produces just
over half of the Region's lime, followed by Michigan and
Wisconsin. Most of the lime mining occurs in agricultural
areas. Impacts on forested areas in the Region result from
iron strip mining in Minnesota and Michigan, and underground
and strip mining for coal and clay in southern Ohio, Indiana,
and Illinois. (See Problem Area Appendix 2.) Other mines with
less severe impacts on Region 5 forest land include peat,
copper, pigments, gold, silver, zinc, lead, flourspar, lime,
cement, tripoli, gypsum, and abrasives.
Impacts of mining on agricultural, forest and natural grasslands
ecosystems are severe and often irreversible. The following are
the practices associated with mining that have a degradatory impact
on each of the ecosystems.
o Strip mining, or surface extraction of natural
terrestrial resources.
o Auger and tunnel mining, or underground excavation of
mineral resources.
Strip mining results in the long term or permanent loss of
agricultural and forest ecosystems. Destruction of habitat
occurs through loss of vegetation, wildlife cover and food
sources as well as disruption due to noise and vibration from
blasting. Soil erosion occurs due to barren and sloped
surface soil. Soil compaction and displacement resulting in
the loss of fertility occur due to construction of roadways
and housing to service mines. In addition, there are
contaminated tailings build-up in disposal areas. The
combination of soil erosion, compaction and contamination
result in long term loss of soil fertility. Tailings runoff
potentially cause ground and/or surface water contamination to
be addressed by Point and Non-noint source, and Aggregated
Groundwater problem areas. Air quality impacts from fugitive
dust do not fall within this problem area. Auger and tunnel
mining result in localized loss of surrounding ecosystem land
at mine shaft openings. The other impacts are the same as
those associated with strip mining, except erosion.
296
-------
RARE INDIGENOUS ECOSYSTEMS
Prairie
There are currently 162,111 acres of prairie of different
types and qualities remaining in Region 5. Before extensive
settlement, prior to 1850, prairie accounted for 61% of
Illinois, 33% of Minnesota and 6% of Wisconsin, with very
small percentages in the other three Region 5 States. Table
1 displays past and present acreage data for prairie in the
three Region V States where prairie was most prevalent. The
remainder of prairie lands continue to diminish for other land
uses or become degraded or fragmented beyond their
susta inabi1ity.
Table 1 Prairie Acreage
State
Illinois
Minnesota
Wisconsin
Total
Presettlement
21,624,000
18,000,000
2,100,000
41,724,000
Current
10,000
150,000
2111
162,111
% Remaining
0.05
0.83
0.10
0.39
(The data in Table 1 also include wet prairies and wet mesic
prairies, about 25 percent of Wisconsin's acreage and unknown
for the other states, which constitute wetlands and are not
addressed within the terrestrial ecosystems.)
Table 2 Wisconsin Prairie
Prairie Type
Dry Prairie
Dry Mesic Prairie
Mesic Prairie
Total
Presettlement
105,000
630,000
840,000
1,575,000
Current % Remaining
1107
148
89
1344
1.05
0.02
0.01
0.09
Table 2 shows the presettlenient and current acreages of
Wisconsin prairie by terrestrial prairie type. No Regional
compilation of data was available. Each State program differs
in focus and data available.
ECOLOGICAL RISK CHARACTERIZATION
The loss or degradation of natural prairies can only be
assessed as an ecosystem or natural community composed of both
animal and plant species. Loss or degradation occurs not only
with changes in land use but also changes in the structure of
the natural community. The habitat structure is vulnerable to
changes in wildlife and plant populations as well as changes
297
-------
in the proportions in which they exist. The quality of
prairie is a measure of the health and sustainability of the
habitat.
Physical stressors to the prairie ecosystem include
agriculture, development activities and recreation. In
addition to the primary destruction that results from these
stressors, the unintentional introduction of exotic species of
plants and animals upset the habitat structure. Opportunistic
weeds are hardier than many prairie plant species and compete
effectively for nutrients and soil space. "Established exotic
species are often eradicable because most are opportunists
that reproduce and disperse rapidly and adapt to new
environmental challenges easily," according to Environmental
Quality. 1980. Likewise, exotic animal species upset the food
web by alterring the predator/prey balance.
The shrinking of the geographic areas of prairie exacerbate
declining habitat quality discussed above, as the community
becomes too small to buffer non-prairie species. The habitat
becomes unstable from physical degradation concurrently with
the decreasing reproduction opportunities that result from
reduced population size. For example, in Minnesota, there are
51 prairie reserves, the majority of which are less than 100
acres, which is too small to sustain as an ecosystem. There
is insufficient continuous prairie acres to enable the long-
term survival of species such as prairie chickens, other
prairie bird species, i.e., marbled godwits, badgers and bison
in these areas.
Only 500 acres of tallgrass prairie remain in Minnesota. Rare
prairie plant species include the chestnut-collared longspur,
Sprague's pipit, and the western prairie fringed orchid. These
remnants contain the last remaining tracts of northern
tallgrass prairie in the Midwest and Canada.
Pasture- and rangelands in the Region 5 have provided a refuge
for animals indigenous to prairie, and are sometimes referred
to as "substitute prairie." In 1987, there were 16,406,000
acres of pastureland decreasing by 8.7 percent over the five
year period before. Rangeland is a rarity in the Region, with
157,400 acres in Minnesota in 1987 which decreased 21 percent
over the same period. If this present rate of loss were
extrapolated into the future, rangeland in the Region would be
entirely diminished by the year 2010 further diminishing
habitat suitable for some of the already threatened prairie
animal species.
Dunes
Dunes result from wind and water deposits of lake bottom sand
traveling in counterclockwise currents around the Lakes. This
action of wind and water over a sustained period begins the
natural succession that constitutes the dune ecosystem. The
298
-------
dunes are initially stabilized by marram and other indigenous
grasses. The succession continues as the grasses are
supplanted by native wildflowers, which are eventually
replaced by shrubs. Forests end the succession in two phases,
first oak, and then maple and beech. Wildlife species
specific to dunes ecosystems colonize the respective niches
created by the succession of plant communities.
Tracts of dune land occur intermittently along Lake Michigan
shoreline from Manitowoc County in northern Wisconsin, around
the southern tip and up the Michigan coastline to the
northernmost area of the lower peninsula. The width of the
dunes vary according to their location. In Wisconsin, on the
leeward side of Lake Michigan, dunes occupy a relatively
narrow strip of land, 100 to 300 feet wide along the shore.
County acreages of dune land average less than 500 acres. Few
dunes exist along the Illinois shoreline. In Indiana, the the
dunes widen significantly. In the Indiana Dunes National
Lakeshore and Indiana Dunes State Park in Porter County, there
are 980 acres.
Michigan dune lands are by far the largest tracts of dune in
the Region. Located on the windward side of Lake Michigan,
large tracts inland of the lake are comprised of "blown out"
land from the windswept sands, making difficult the
delineation of the actual dunes. Ottawa County in
southwestern Michigan contains over 17,000 acres of dune and
blown out land.
ECOLOGICAL RISK CHARACTERIZATION
The sandy soil of the dunes is naturally unstable, and
continues to shift with the wind. As such, the dune lands are
a unique terrestrial ecosystem that are facing possible
extinction in their natural form due to human encroachment.
Both construction and recreation are stressors to the dune
ecosystem. For development purposes, these lands have been
"stabilized," fundamentally alterring the natural evolution of
the terrain. Unnatural stabilization is accomplished through
introduction of exotic plant species, and by primary physical
alterations including driving beams into the ground and
constructing wind breakers to enable development of homes and
industry. The impact is potentially reversible, but unlikely
because development is located here specifically for the
aesthetic amenities associated with lakeshore/dune property.
Recreation is a stressor to the dune ecosystem. The impacts
resulting from trampling is the displacement of sand and the
exposure of root systems. Recently, severe impacts have
resulted from off-road vehicle recreation leaving ruts and
scars on the dune tracts. The unnatural destabilization of
the plant cover, delays the natural succession through the
loss of vegetation, as well as increasing the area's
vulnerability to noxious weeds. While many exotic species
299
-------
cannot survive in the shifting sand, weed species, introduced
inadvertantly by recreationers, once established, threaten the
indigenous species. For example, in low lying areas, the
purple loosestrife has replaced the indigenous cattails.
Old Growth Forest
Only a small fraction of original old growth forest remains in
Region 5. The largest tract of old growth forest is in the
Boundary Waters Canoe Area (BWCA) of Minnesota. Other smaller
tracts exist in National and State Parks, and are scattered on
private and public lands throughout the Region. The remaining
old growth is second growth forest that was intially logged
during settlement in the mid- to late-1800s.
ECOLOGICAL RISK CHARATBRIZATION
Physical degradation of old growth forest has impacts similar
to those discussed in relation to commercial forestry but the
ecosystem affected has greater wildlife and plant diversity
and populations. This diversity results in a more intricate
ecosystem structure which, in turn, is more fragile, yet more
stable than that of a new forest ecosystem. The fragile
wildlife-rich ecosystem is more severely impacted by habitat
fragmentation. Other forms of physical disruption including
trampling small plants and soil compaction significantly
impact this complex food web, as well.
Clearing results in localized and peripheral reductions of
plant and animal species. The loss of diversity in forest
ecosystems causes alterations in native animal species
populations. As pioneer tree and undergrowth populations
decline through the reduction of old growth forest, the local
gene pool declines as well, which potentially leaves an entire
species in a localized area more vulnerable to disease. Snags
and rotting logs, crucial life bearers in the old growth
ecosystem, are notably absent in young forests. Species of
concern include the Pileated Woodpecker and various vole
species.
References will be forthcoming.
300
-------
f T Ul r C 3 -n 3IT n
<04IC1>J-0»k1
a>0.k10~313IIO
-J r >- > k 0 4 'jj /fn
3 r
3} r i* ^ i k
irk>-»43
0.3 k 3 ^Q.
: s* " o
H 1 T «- C
c 4 o /t :
« » 1 C *
n N rt-Ti i
.
0.' 0} W -J A
O ** O i-» O N.1 M C' O »••
u ic o a 10 >£ (if O (ll 01
OOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOO
0> 01
o> o o o o 10 a o it M
xOOMOOMO A 01
a ii
M 01 01
OOOOOMifOMO)
0) O O O O 01 U O ll (il
in o M o x en io o o oi
A 010 O ll 0) x O 0) x
01 01
M M
AOOxOOOOOM
(tlOC-CftOUxOxA
M M
x O
MOAOOOOOOll
OlQOOOGDGOiI
A A
A f- O O O O O O O M
M 01 O O O O O O O 01
x C" M 01 x 10 •?•
C" 0"' -J -J 10 10 01 O x f
t 1
M h* »•*
1 5> A3> U A
01 ffi 0 01 M If O U ~
O M C '71 A x C '7> x
x 'J •_' -JL' CO -J C f.1 x
cr «
« k 3
430.
a."-
* k
r 07
'• *
P O 7
TOO.
0 QH
•3 k
HU3
k fi k
G.4 r
II k
0
1
4
K
rt-
k
3
0.
O3
fl *•
C 3
4 0
1 f
X
cr
« k
4 3
II CL
trc
C 1
-I..-J-
I Hk
: rt-3
L f
Ck
•0 3
a
-i
rt-1
k k 7)
rt-3 C
*•* 1
0-0 k
3 0 •-
t
3JCUI
1 k I
4 rt-k
k 4 n
II 1 •-
n 11
4 •
3 CL
II 4
C k 1
II 3 k
rt- a>
k N)
0 3
10
4
n
k T
^34
'£ rt-
G
M
2 * ?
Tin fl
Ul'l H
•^ H
Wt O
* i.
C rt-
1 "
n o
4 3
rt-
V. 0
4 4
k i
LL 1
H 4
Til
4 rt-
4 1
It"-
k
4
II
0
C
n
4
H
0)u.k1(T313IIO
I"") 4 • CO CL 3 ft. •
3 X S *• O 6.
c 4 o .1- :
E Ii rt-T 1
f-> .'J
Ul K)x
fjl 01 c1* CO x
il U O M G O '0> O -J u!
M01Ci0OMOIOAl!
f-i K!
A Q O x G 'Jl A O IJS -J
(ll G O M O 01 M O 01 10
OOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOO
« m
A MX
M Abl xU
(ll 0> O 01 O 01 0) O M 0>
x x
U x
01 Ox 010)
ui o A o o x o> o a o
0) 0> M O O M 10 0 10 O
M M
M x
|0 CDMM Mu>
OOxQO>OMCii A
u> u>
OlOOxOOOOOA
K> x
AOO>GOOOOllO
(.nOOOAGDOdlC
01 1.1
OulCOCOUOxO
(ll « Q O O d M O A u)
C» M x C» K! fj
A 01 M ?> x (if (if -J A
oi '.n o a> a x 03 x A
O 10 x Ul -j CS 01 O 0> •?•
10 ™ x CO O (I1 Ct' O A li'
1
x M
1 O (il A -J '£
c- ui f j A ui o o r j o
il A «if G -.1 01 O x (if
1
1 x
f • f
4 7 *-
3 P
0
Si
0) 1
MX
x C
i 5 *-
0 C 0
u
k n" »
313
II
.-v
k :
H 4
It 1
C x.
1 C
4 «
H 4
3 *'
• 10
3 03
4
k
CL
0
4*
rt-
k
Mi nor* L«r
ttt Cou«r-/U"C4
* CL
CSC
C 1
r *-tr
k Hk
3 rt-3
a. i
Ck
Q.
-1
rt- 1
k k 30
rt-3 C
*•* 1
0"0 k
3 0 H
1
33CI/I
1 k J
4 rt-k
k 4 H
II 1 H
O T
4 4
3 CL
» 4
C k 1
II 3 k
E
» r
4 3
i a.
,f'i
• K>
Z
' 3 ft' n
4,,;
4
f.
T i J
c •- 'i i fj c o c o i V r (
*- -j j. " -j ••• c *• -, ! f i
24 T
1 lit
ni ii
n 4 H-
fu • O
E '0
H u.
c rt-
ii o
4 3
Ii
rt-
MO
4 4
k 1
C.1
Ii 4
4 .T
4 1
if-
k
r
4
H
0
C
1
n
4
II
•• O CL
II TO Hn
C 4 C ,T :
E II rt-li 1
M M
i£ ul A
1C ^1 A H ii A
O M G Ul G A C*' '31 u1 x
O x G M C A 01 10 11 M
U1 fj
A '0U
lu C5 x -J A
Ul 03 G A O 10 O O '-1 10
x x
Ul 01
1IOOOOOQHOO
AOOOOOOAOO
U (if
<0 il x
M x O M O 01 01 O 0) 0)
xOIOC»O AOlOOdl
A A
x Olll M01
O U O 0> O (if 01 0 A x
10 ,0
01 G M
AOOOAi0i0OAO>
OOOOOA100AU
x x
CO 0>
M O O ll O x 0> O M 01
xOO AOUOxdfO
U U
-J 01 x
MOO>QOOOOO>O
-ft 0*
11 M Q G O x A G A A
f J x O O O t-j '1 C 01 0!
C1 x M
G 01 (t1 x '0 M £ x CT G
x A C"> -J G P •-! * G M
-J 0> ul 'Ji A 01 C S CD A
fO CO x f J C 'i 'jf A M ul
1
x 1 x 1
M 01 01 A C* (il
G (0 Ul G x x x u! A
A C5 u3 G x CO O "J (J
1
fj 1 1
G tj O 01 'i' O C A O
u; -J ji] :.1 if! 3> -J r x
era
« k *•
433
0.3
* 4
3 OH
x C rt-
•04k
01
MX
P O *•
1 O3
0 Q3
13 4
k n 0
3 1 rt-
M
r
U k
k 3
it a.
rt-
c o
1 0
4 C
x 4
Z \
CL C
27 4
k
3 *•
10 3
4
k £
a. N
•ii
0
*
It
k
0.
O3
0 *•
C 3
* 0
X
cr
» *
M a.
ac
C 1
k Hk
3 rt-3
0. 1
Ck
a,
i
rt-1
k k 31
rt-3 C
Ot) k
3 0 H
1
DEW
1 k I
4 rt-k
k 4 H
* 1 x
P •>!
4 *
3 a.
« *
C k T
* 3 k
C
k r
4 3
a.
-1 x
k M
Z
x*
•J5MO
OS T
4
k D
H? 4
-ii* **
CO
M
301
2 4 T
1 liC
O1 II
31 » H-
13* il
33 rt- •
M k O
• "-4
ii a
C rt-
1 H-
n o
4 3
II
rt-
1/10
t!
**•
33
4
II
0
C
n
4
x T.I T- c m r •? n i c r E
i04iei*-0k»i ink*
CS CL k 1 r 3 1 7- t 0 147*
j M x 7^ 1 * * £ H 1 *• ~ S
OO.k-l3kHk43 1 ~ 0 *
33 n 4 k O! Q. 3 0. t "* 1 £• 4 7
r 4 1 3 C X i 3 1 CD 1
3 33 » *• P u. 1 t%i X
U IT HO |
c 4 o it- ; i
» k 1 C» 1
E* .1-13 1 1
1 M E
1 P 0 *•
x x 1 1 O It
i- x i e on
• • 1 "0 0
0> A U 1 H I 3
-J 01 O H 1 k rt 1*
01 O Q 0> O CO Q O M !0 1 II
i r
1 »" 7
i n u
U M 1 rt-
• - 1 C P
O CO H 1 1 0
A H _ A -J 1 4 C
i00OOOOxCinU.'l3 X
i a. c
i «
1 73 4
1 k
1 3 *•
Ii0 3
1 4
1 H x
OOOOOOOOOO 1 k 10
oooooooooo i a. N
1
i -n
1 0
H H 11
U U 14
• • 1 *
A M 1 rt-
M MO) «H 1 H
aoouoo>aoc*u< i k
1
1 O3
1 0 *•
1 C 3
U M 140
• • 111
C" 0» IX
U OH UM 1 cr
•ffOOOOOOOA0> 1 * k
1
1 (EC
I C 1
x H i r*-o-
• - 1 k Hk
H H 1 3 rt-3
-J MH M 1 CL 1
(POOOOIAUOOIO) 1 Ck
xOOOOCAOOUM 1 CL
1
1
1 -l
1 rt-1
1 k k 33
1 rt-3 C
•M -J 1 *•* 1
il 0> 1 OT! k
HOOOOQ|0OO>O 1 1
1
1
1
1
1 SC'-I
1 1 k I
MM 1 4 rt-k
N 11 1 k 4 H
I0O-OOOOOOOO 1 H 1 H
(ilOtilOOOCOOO 1
1
1 P T|
1 4 4
1 3 0.
1 II 4
MM 1 C k 1
• • 1 II 3 k
010) 1 an
05 U 1C
0)03QGOGC''Qxxlk r
UUOOOONGOICO 1 4 3
1 1 S.
1
1
111 f f 1
10 CO KJ il f ™ (il (if A 1 rt- O
Ul "tf 11 -*J M A OF 10 01 1 k K
11 CO 10 x 01 UI O O M -*J 1 H
10AU
(fluid! OlH 1 ~ T
10 G Cif H A O O H u' 1 •«] ,-r »
ic o a f -i tu o
3
-s
a>
o>
0)
3
CL
-------
u
L
0
t— t *
*
•r- 4
-r-j -ri4l
c iJ
o !«
Q- i.1!
°- ;:
<=T |_ '
u.
OBI
ft) 4*
£ :I
S- o u
"=£ 4! 3
E 1»
Proble
F'Ky»ic*l D » g f" -i
1" » r »- * *• t r' i » 1 R «
rM-cnPRSK2.UKl
z'
B?"
* z -•
u
*
41 &
z
*-4 |_
TJ V.
c »
_) 4
3
4 r «
I 4 3
D £
* *
k. U
x L «
x » 4
44- »
t 4 L
x 0 C
4 0.0
V. tl-ri
3 £4>
IT 4 4
L4>
V-
T
Urban ar
id Built-Uf
r* Land
4 II
N
L L
0 »
£ 3
.ri 0
CU
•o
4
x
4*
L
0
k.
•0
0 4
£ £
•ri 4
a
*
K -0
D ;
L r-.
0 *3
U 4"
•0 4
Z u.
4
-1 II
» L ;
•ri U 4
OCX
£ £.
•riG C
xO 1.
xOU
MX
Illinois
Land Cov*rX
U«» in 1982
v •?• O l/i i" x r. o x
x T 3 G iN in f{ G O
x 1 1
f
'£> •£ O x r>- Z' ro o x
n cr* o o o x
n to
o o.
m o o T o T x o o «
OTOOTlDOOOO
in n T T
0 (T,
(M x o « r- o o o o n
x« o T
r. N
in u) o N o o o o o in
in co o N « o « o o -ri4l
• • \. t
N n 4> *
t 4
ID T D ™ •£ O T O G x o.
rj o « ro N ci o in
TiO x 41
T in £ »
t-
43
1 T
£4- £
4x 4
.fl-- J
1. 3
D •
fli nor Lar
id Cob**r/U*4
4
1.
0
k.
•0
O 4
0> x
£ £
-ri 4
a.
*
L x
t *
J J.
0 3
0 4>
»
T 4
£ 0.
4
J II
£ L. £
4 U 4
•* "2.
iO 0
DO 1.
£ 5X
4 0
OH) £
XT)"
V £ »
•ri 4 II
C-IZi
T x n C' O 'N x .,-, ,T
G i' Z' Q T T Z' ," X
] 1
Z r- G i n (M Q iT' rj
T f- x . J CO ll)
1 1
T G O C T il I'M T ffi T
m « G i 'J i' f j O M G T
Cfi OJ LT M x T N
N ID o u> G o o o r-in
CO S O !{• x G G O ff' m
O x
TT
MOOOOOOTOO
ST'DDOGOODON
« n
OixOvDOOTOOC
in N
O 0)
xToxjjmoooin
OTOOlOiOOOOO
N- ID O <0 W O r- O O 0)
TOOMIMOOOOB
nn in ix
n T
ft ft
n (M
xxompomoxn
MN O0> O
M T
ft ft
in in
X X
oooooooooo
oooooooooo
u
I
3
0
*
NOONOOOOOT x
W T N -ri 4'
(^ W 4> *
1. 4
GCiQiD0>DTQOIB tt
O(n T 4)
• -II
0 U
•ri L
4' 3
L 0.41 M 3 T *
J4> 0*3 LKX
ox 0.1. ; o> 3
£ TINSZl.*-! D4M
•Dx £ 4 £T 1.41*1- xtin
£»4x4£l-4-DO 44-'££
x3»«l.£xx* -ri*C
C +' Di*044x_IN R1.U
0 II £ L £.£ 1. 4 •DO 3>L |
i. 4 4 O-H 1. 3 I »0> X*Z
I.- a o; i^ r D a: fi L- x a.i-k.
3
* N B.
U » ?
» ;x
*
fr.
i"1'^
'_i OJ Si
4 »
t 4 L
mac
1
x a £
4 fi.0
i. H-ri
3 £41
a: 4 4
I.*
1-
t)
43
1 T)
£4< £
4x 4
L 3
T I
-ID
1. 1.
0 *
C 3
-ri 0
cu
4
4>
K
L
0
k.
N
O T>
x 4
x
£ »
•ri O1
£
* 4
II E
N. T
1. £
TJ -V
£ li
4 4
* M
I M 4
£Cx
0 H
•riC C
OIQ L
*DU
OCX
R*gi oriHi d*
Land Coc<«-r/
Ux» in 1982
ci f; b L-' L:. c 'N !f L:'
G O t' G G T G x o
1 r 1 1
i j x x .,-, (\| -• ,7 r- T
LI N T N 'i' T 1 (M 0>
O u"* 1 CJ t T
1
(I) 0 T fw x iy x x f_ 33
Q fw u> Uj ID G £' Q 04 C4
co r- (J' in o cj T ID m co
(0 tj. x x u; 04 O O O T O x o (0
ID D O O D O O ID O N
XN T ID
N x in o o> n o u o 0> o
TNOXXQXXOT
«« xp. T
» »
x (X
ONIDOTOTO
TMOWxoinOTT
M B> ^ T ** D
MT TH T
» (D
in in
OOTOOOOOOT
ooNoooooor-
in in
DOOOr-GGOUlO
T r- x ,0 01 ' o
o r*- x T
n x 0 * 3
Ox U.L «
Tl O^ »Z £
i T\ 3 £ 1. *_!
£ * 4x 4 £^ 4T!O
4 1. x 4' J I 3£U
x 3 * * L. £xx 4
0.4' 01 * 0 4 4 x -1 N
0 II T i. £ J L 4TKD
1. 4 4 C -ri V 3 I * ffi
u i. a: L. z r> a in u. x
302
-------
i— i
X
c
Q.
Q.
N N N
X X X X X X X
U)\D TTfMN CDO^
NNNOCMnt
m •* ^ u3 vD N •*
Ol
en T)
.- 4! tfl C —
in o n •- m 3
CM CO CPC
0 Ql Q C - 0
O C 0 ••« •- X •-
IA C •« t) « 0 0»
•H -H r C -« -H Ol
ll)
0
T) L
C Q)
Federal L<
and
Census Wa
Small
Water
Rreas
id Rural
3 Transpor
tation
«D
1 T)
C4l C
Jl~_|
L 3
DO)
•D M
f m.
Minor Lar
id Cover /Usi
0
*H
41
M
V.
0
li.
"8 "E
S 5
Ol
"« c
0 OL
I-
«4- C
Percent t
d Pasturel<
Croplarit
CM
CD
Oi
It
in
•
,-, Q . . , -
X X X X X X X
03 OJ N CM .(M O N
X X X X X X X
CD N CD CA Q N 03
OOOO^DD
X X X X X X X
^« CM "^ m ^ m m
CM CM CM CM CM CM CM
X X X X X N X
f-t j\. m »-* *-t CM m
m ^ o in in in ^r
X X X X X X X
•* O> O N ^ 03 C7^
N N in t c\j \D in
X XXXX N X
sin •«• in CD N CD
X X X X X X X
01 \D -i U3 vfl CM in
-<« NmcDinTr
m •» •* in \o CM •*
it
c « -D
•H 41 W C -H
Ifl 0 1! ••< «) 3
CM CO O>C
0 Ol 5! C ••< 0
0 C 0 - — X -H
ui c •** "U '•^ o o
•p-4 -rf ^ C ^ -H Qj
303
-------
__ ^v
« \i
cc
OJ
304
-------
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
Problem Area Definition and Description
Stratospheric ozone shields the earth's surface from dangerous ultraviolet
(UVB) radiation, in response to growing scientific evidence, a national and
international consensus has developed that unabated use of CFCs and halons
will result in depletion of stratospheric ozone. To the extent depletion
occurs penetration of UV-B radiation will increase resulting in potential
health and environmental harm, including increased incidence of certain skin
cancers and cataracts, suppression of the immune response system, damage to
crops and aquatic organisms, increased formation of ground-level ozone, and
increased weathering of outdoor plastics.
HUMAN HEAUH RISK ASSESSMENT
Toxicity Assessment
Under current atmospheric conditions the ozone layer blocks most of the
damaging ultraviolet radiation (UV-B) from penetrating the earth's surface.
The major consequences of ozone depletion would be an increase in harmful UV-B
radiation, particularly that in the more damaging region of the UV spectrum.
On the basis of both epidemiological studies that relate to the natural
variation in UV-B exposure to skin cancer incidence and laboratory studies in
which tumors have been induced and promoted by UV-B, researchers have
conclusively demonstrated that both basal and squamous skin cancers are
associated with cumulative exposure to UV-B (NAS, 1984). While infrequently
fatal (somewhat less than 1 percent of cases currently result in fatalities),
these are the two most common types of skin cancer, with approximately 500,000
cases per year (Scotto, 1986). A relatively good understanding exists of
these cancers, with a 1 percent ozone depletion projected to increase basal
skin cancer by 1 to 3 percent and squamous skin cancer by 2 to 5 percent (U.S.
EPA, 1986, based on data in Scotto, 1986).
Melanoma is a less common but far more deadly type of skin cancer. In
1985, there were abour 25,000 cases and 5,000 fatalities in the U.S. (Scotto,
1986). Recent studies of melanoma have tended to reinforce the hypothesis
that UV-B is one of the causes of melanoma, although the relationship appears
much more complex, and is perhaps related to peak and possibly youthful
exposure (EEA, 1985). Recent efforts to quantify this relationship have
produced the following dose-response relationship: a 1 percent ozone depletion
is projected to increase melanoma incidence by 1 to 2 percent and melanoma
fatalities by 0.3 -3 1.5 percent (EPA, 1986, based on data in Scotto, 1986).
Exposure Assessr.—-
Measurements taken over the past several decades of the chemical
ccmpcsiticn of the earth's atacsphere have demonstrated that human activities
are altering its makeup. In particular, the atmospheric concentrations of
CFCs and halons, which destroy stratospheric ozone, have been increasing. For
example, the atncspheric ccr.cantraticns of C7C-11 and 12 have been increasing
305
-------
at an annual rate of 5 percent during the past decade (WMO, 1986). other
gases which act to slow-or offset the destruction of ozone have also been
increasing. For example, carbon dioxide levels have increased by 25 percent
since the beginning of the industrial revolution (WMD, 1986) and methane
concentrations have increased at an annual rate of 017 parts per million
during the past decade (EPA 1987).
Future changes in atmospheric concentrations of these gases will determine
the net impact on the ozone layer. The scenario used in the 1987 EPA
regulatory iinpact analysis to characterize what would happen absent controls
assumed the following growth rates:
Table 1. - Projected Global Growth Rates for Ozone-Modifying Compounds
1986-1992 1992-2000 2000-2050 2050-2075
CFC-11
CFC-12
CFC-113
CFC-114
CFC-115
Halon 1211
Halon 1301
HCFC-22
Methyl Chloroform
Carbon Tetrachloride
Carbon dioxide
Nitrous oxide
Methane
4.34
5.32
7.03
4.95
3.20
9.77
3.46
4.37
4.70
4.90
rh
2.71
3.06
4.09
2.79
2.73
4.80
2.20
2.74
2.78
2.91
(z)
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.93
3.16
2.50
2.50
2.50
0.5%/yr
0.2%/yr
(2)
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
(21
1 Average annual rates in percent.
2 0.017 parts per million/year.
Measurements of changes in atmospheric concentrations of ozone modifying gases
provide only indirect evidence that human activities nay be altering The ozcne
layer. Another method for analyzing the risk cf ozone depletion is the use cf
atmospheric models to project future ozone trends based on assumed changes in
atmospheric levels of ozone modifying gases.
Using the parameterized 1-D model, EFA examined the potential impact of its
trace gases scenarios on ozone depletion. Table 2 shows the results of its
analysis. For the baseline scenario, depletion is projected to begin around
the turn of the century and increase sharply through the next century.
306
-------
Table 2 - Estimated Ozone Depletion for Baseline Scenario
Year- Percent depletion
2000 1.0
2025 4.6
2050 15.7 '
2075 50.0
For projections of future ozone depletion, the largest quantitative
uncertanties involve assumptions concerning future emissions of CFC's and
other trace gases with respect to modeling the atmospheric consequences of
trace gas growth."tnere exits the possiblity that sane overlooked factor or
oversimplified process has lead to over or under predictions of changes in
ozone.
Human Health Risks Characterization
B
Estimates of UV-45*effects on basal squamcus, and melanoma skin cancer using
race, age, and sex as variables have been presented in An Assessment of the
Risks of Stratospheric Modification. To reflect differences in cuir^fi^ UV
exposure, the assessment split the population into three geographic regions.
For each Region, the current and expected size and age distribution were
projected to the year 2000, based on estimates of migration and birth/death
rtes. After 2,000 these distribution;were held constant. In addition three
difference growth rates (emission scenarios) for ozcr.e modifying compounds
were analyzed.
307
-------
TABLE 3
Human Health Effects: Central Case
Additional Cumulative Cases and Deaths by Region V Population
(Region V Population Equal to 22 Percent of U.S. Population)
HEALTH EFFECTS
Non-MelancCTP Skin Tumors
Additional Basal Cases
Additional Squmaous
Additional Deaths
Melanon« sir-jn Tumors
Additional Cases
Additional Deaths
POPULATION
ALIVE TODAY*
140,000
85,000
3,600
2,700
900
NUMBERS
BORN 1985-2029"
1,100,000
800,000
30,000
24,000
7,000
NUMBERS
BORN 2030-2074°
3,900,000
2,500,000
30,000
95,000
25,000
a/ Analysis period for health effects: 1985-2074.
b/ Analysis period for health effects: 1985-2118.
c/ Analysis period for health effects: 2030-2164
SOURCE: U.S. EPA (1986), An Assessment of the Risks of Stratospheric
Modification, draft report. Washington, D.C.
308
-------
TABLE 4
Human Health Effects: Emission Scenarios
Additional Cumulative "cases and Deaths Over Lifetime of People in Region V
Alive Today and Born in the Next 88 Years
HEALTH
EMISSIONS SCENARIOS
Low Central High
Non— Melanoro-*
IVimors
Additional tta<=^i Cases
Additional Squamous Cases
Additional Deaths
350,000 5,100,000 18,000,000
180,000 3,500,000 16,000,000
7,800 140,000 650,000
Melanoma
Additional Cases
Additional Deaths
10,000 120,000 4,200,000
2,500 33,000 110,000
SOURCE: U.S. EPA (1986), An Assessment of the Risks of Stratospheric
Modification draft report. Washington, D.C.
For the Central case emission scenario the report predicts the following
additional cases and deaths per year for the next 88 years:
(1) For non-melanoma skin tumors - 58,000 additional basis cases per year,
39,000 additional squamous cases per year, and 1,600 additional deaths
per year.
(2) For melanoma skin tumors - 1,400 additional cases per year and 300
additional deaths per year.
309
-------
ECOLDGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
Toxicity Assessment
Plant life, including many commercially important crops, also appear
sensitive to increased UV-B radiation [Teramura, 1987]. Decreases in the
stratospheric ozone column have also been linked to tropospheric ozone
formation, an air pollutant that has well documented deleterious effects on
many crops, with important economic consequences [Heck et al., 1984; Adams,
Hamilton and McCarl, 1986]. These combined UV-B and tropospheric ozone
effects imply that continued stratospheric ozone depletion may impose economic
costs on the agricultural economy.
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
/
The six states that form Region V /• Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, 1
Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin contain 121 million Acres of the .nations most
productive farmland. More corn and soybeans are produced here/Than in any
other area in the nation. There are nearly 65 million acres p'f forests /dotted
with Aspen, Birch, VJalnut, Hemlock, Hickory, Maple, Oak, and Evergreens'. The
great lakes contain 94,000 square miles of water where salmon, trout,/walleye,
whitefish, and perch are found. /
ECOLOGICAL RISK CHARACTERIZATION
Plant science research suggests increases in UV-3 may substantially inpact
the yield of important commercial crops, but the evidence is still very
limited. More research has been conducted on the relationship between UV-B
and soybean yields than on the other crops [Teramura, 1987 ]. Over the course
of 5 growing seasons different soybean cultivars were exposed to two levels of
UV-B asserted to correspond to 16 and 23 percent stratospheric ozone
depletion. In some experiments, yield losses of up to 25 percent were
observed for both the 16 and 23 percent depletion levels. At 1987 production
levels this would mean a 6.5 million ton loss in soybean productions in Region
V States. However, there are limitations associated with using these data in
developing dose response relationships. These limitations include drought
effects in two of the five years. Further, some experiments suggest no
statistically significant impact of UV-B on yield, while other observations
suggest an initial increase in yields at the 16 percent level, followed by a
decline at higher depletions. In addition, there are uncertainties in how the
results elicited from specific cultivars should be translated to the mix of
cultivars grown under commercial conditions now and in the future.
Yield adjustments for corn are more limited than for soybeans. Only one
study has found statistically significant yield depressions due to increased
UV-B. Specifically, Eisenstark et al. [1985] report a 7 percent corn yield
reduction at a 23 percent ozone depletion. At 1987 production levels this
would mean a 6.5 million ton loss in corn production in Region V States.
310
-------
The effects of tropospheric ozone on crop yields are much better
understood. Extensive research by Heck and associates in the NCIAN program
and others have identified a large number of commercially important
agricultural crops that are sensitive to ambient levels of tropospheric ozone.
More work is needed to confirm and quantify the relationship between
stratospheric ozone depletion and tropospheric ozone formation. Additional
information is also needed to solidify the understanding of the relationship
of UV-B radiation of the productivity of forests.
The aquatic resources most effected by UV-B would be phytoplankton and
larvae of several fish species. Fhyoplankton spend much of their time near
the surface of the water (eutrophic zone) and are therefore, exposed to
ultraviolet radiation. A reduction in their productivities would be important
because these plants directly and indirectly provide the food for all fish.
311
-------
AND GLOBAL WARMING
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
Sinoe the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, human activities have
led to increased concentrations of greenhouse gases1 in the atmosphere.
Scientists have concluded that the increase in greenhouse gases will
eventually change global climate. In 1979, the National Academy of
Sciences estimated that doubling carbon dioxide (CQ^ concentrations
over preindustrial levels would lead to an increase of 1.5 to 4.5°C (2
to 8°F) in global air temperatures. In 1985, the World Meteorological
Organization, the United Nations Environment Programme, and the
International Council of Scientific Unions reaffirmed these estimates.
While the global climate is continuously changing as a result of natural
causes, current greenhouse warming is different from past climate
changes. Not only will temperatures be higher than they have been in
the last 125,000 years, but the rate of temperature change will be
unprecedented. Past climate changes of comparable magnitude have
generally occurred over tens of thousands of years. The change in
temperature resulting from the greenhouse effect, however, is estimated
to take less than a century.
Carbon dioxide, the most abundant greenhouse gas, is responsible for
approximately half of the total anthropogenic greenhouse forcing. Since
the industrial revolution, the concentration of OOj in the atmosphere
has increased 25 percent and continues to increase at a rate of 0.4
percent per year. Fossil-fuel combustion and deforestation are the
primary sources of this increase in atmospheric
Methane in the atmosphere has more than doubled in the past 300 years
and is currently responsible for about 18 percent of anthropogenic
greenhouse forcing. Currently, total methane emissions are increasing
at a rate of 1 percent per year. Agricultural sources, particularly
rice cultivation and livestock, seem to be the most significant
contributors to recent increases in methane concentrations. Other
important sources of methane emissions include landfills, coal seams,
melting permafrost, natural gas exploration and pipeline leakage, and
biomass burning associated with deforestation.
1Gases in the atmosphere allow sunlight (shortwave radiation) to pass
through the air and heat the Earth's surface. The Earth's surface absorbs the
sunlight and emits thermal radiation (longwave radiation) back to the
atmosphere. Several gases in the atmosphere, often referred to as greenhouse
gases, absorb some of the outgoing thermal radiation and heat the atmosphere.
The atmosphere emits thermal radiation, both upward to outer space and
downward to the Earth's surface, further warming the surface. This is known
as the "greenhouse effect".
312
-------
Chlorofluorocarbons (CPCs) currently acxxxint for about 14 percent of
anthropogenic greenhouse forcing. CPCs are used in refrigerants,
aerosol propellants, foam-blowing agents, and solvents. While efforts
like the "Montreal Protocol" will probably result in a reduction of CPCs
in the future, the total impact of CPCs on the greenhouse effect will
most likely increase for some time because of the long lifetime of these
gases.
Nitrous oxide has increased in concentration by 5 to 10 percent in the
past 200 years and is currently increasing at a rate of 0.25 percent per
year. The cause of this increase is uncertain, but nitrogen-based
fertilizers, land clearing, biomass burning, and fossil-fuel combustion
are all contributors. Oceans are a significant natural source of
nitrous oxide. Including both natural and anthropogenic sources,
nitrous oxide contributes about 6 percent to the enhanced greenhouse
effect.
The contribution of ozone to global wanning was not estimated. However,
it should be noted that both ozone increases in the troposphere and
lower stratosphere and ozone decreases in the upper stratosphere tend to
warm the Earth's surface.
It should also be noted that water vapor is an important natural
greenhouse gas. When the climate warms, more water will evaporate into
the atmosphere from the warmed surface and thus enhance the greenhouse
effect. This, in turn, will result in the production of still more
water vapor through evaporation.
The information presented in this section is primarily based on the
Office of Policy, Planning, and Evaluation's report entitled "The
Potential Effects of Global Climate Change On The United States". In
this study, regional outputs from three General Circulation Models
(GCMs) were used: the Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS); the
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics laboratory (GFDL); and Oregon State
University (OSU). All of these models estimate climate change caused by
a doubling of OQ^ in the atmosphere. The regional estimates of doubled
00^ changes were combined with 1951-1980 climate observations to create
doubled CO^ scenarios. In addition, the GISS model was used to estimate
how climate may change between now and the middle of the next century.
In addition to the GCMs, weather observations from the 1930s were used
to parallel global warming, paleoclimatic warmings were used to provide
evidence of how species respond to climate change, and expert judgement
regarding potential effects was used to supplement the scenarios.
The following results are not predictions, but rather indications of the
impacts that could occur as a result of global warming. The analytic
approaches described above were used as tools to determine the potential
sensitivities and vulnerabilities of systems to climate change.
313
-------
HUMAN
RISK ASSESSMENT
Human illness (morbidity) and mortality are linked to weather patterns.
A variety of human illnesses show sensitivity to changes in temperature
and/or humidity which accompany changes in season. Stroke and heart
attacks, for example, increase with very cold or very warm weather and
allergic Hjeoaaog such as asthma and hay fever increase in spring and
summer when pollens are released. Mortality rates, particularly for the
elderly and very ill, are influenced by the frequency and severity of
extreme temperatures.
Indirectly, the incidence or severity of respiratory diseases such as
emphysema and asthma are likely to increase due to increases in air
pollution which are frequently associated with climate change.2
Also, the life cycles of disease-carrying insets, such as mosquitos and
ticks, are affected by changes in temperature and rainfall, as well as
by habitat (which is itself sensitive to climate) . If global climate
change results in conditions conducive to supporting larger disease-
carrying insect populations, the incidence of related diseasps may also
increase.
Overall regional increases in mortality and morbidity were not
estimated. A study was performed, however, which projected changes in
mortality certain cities, both with and without acclijnatization. While
these estimates should not be used as predictions of individual city
behavior, they are useful as illustrations of sensitivity. Estimates
for cities in Region V are therefore included as Figure 04-1.
Figure O4-1.
Estimated Future Mortality With and Without
Acclimatization
City
Chicago
Cincinnati
Detroit
Mii,.-teapolis
Number of Deaths Per Season
Summer
Current
173
42
118
46
Without
412
226
592
142
With
835
116
0
235
Winter
Current
46
14
16
5
Without
2
6
2
1
With
96
0
37
0
2Increases in ozone concentrations, in particular, are associated with
increasing temperature. Higher temperatures will speed reaction rates among
chemicals in the atmosphere, causing higher concentrations of ozone. Also,
longer summers will result in longer "ozone seasons" and thus a greater
potential for ozone problems.
314
-------
ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
TOXICXTY jtftfpypHfTrr
If current trends continue, the rate of climate change could be much
quicker than rates of natural migration and adaptation. Climate zones
may shift hundreds of miles northward, and animals and especially plants
may have difficulty migrating northward rapidly enough. The presence of
urban areas, agricultural lands, and roads would restrict habitats and
block many migratory pathways. Inhabited ranges and populations of many
species are likely to decrease, and in many cases become extinct. The
effects could last for centuries and would be virtually irreversible.
Climate change may significantly alter forest composition and reduce the
land area of healthy forests. Higher temperatures may lead to drier
soils in many parts of the United States. Consequently, trees that need
wetter soils may die, and their seedlings could also have difficulty
surviving these conditions. Studies of the potential effects of climate
change on forests predict northward shifts in ranges and significant
changes in composition, although specific results vary depending on
sites and scenarios used.
Higher temperatures may lead to more aquatic growth, such as algal
blooms, and decreased mixing of lakes (longer stratification). This
would deplete oxygen levels in shallow areas of the Great Tqy«a<; and make
them less habitable for fish. Fish in small lakes and streams may be
unable to escape temperatures beyond their tolerances, or their habitats
may simply disappear. Warmer temperatures could also exceed the thermal
tolerance of many marine fish and shellfish in some southern locations.
Higher global temperatures will expand ocean water, melt some mountain
glaciers, and may eventually cause polar ice sheets to discharge ice.
Sea level rise due to global warming is generally estimated to range
between 0.5 and 2.0 meters (1.5 to 7 feet) by 2100. Historically,
wetlands have kept pace with a slow rate of sea level rise. Some
marshes and swamps, however, will probably be unable to adjust to this
rate of sea level rise. While some wetlands will be able to survive by
migrating inland, it is estimated that for a 1-meter rise, 26 to 66
percent of wetlands would be lost, even if wetland migration were not
blocked.
In most regions of the country, climate change alone could reduce
dryland yields of corn, wheat, and soybeans with site-to-site losses
ranging from negligible amounts to 80 percent. These decreases would be
primarily the result of higher temperatures, which would shorten a
crop's life cycle. Even under the more extreme climate change
scenarios, the production capacity of U.S. agriculture was estimated to
be adequate to meet domestic needs. However, a decline in crop
production of this magnitude would reduce exports, which could
significantly impact food-importing nations.
315
-------
Higher temperatures will speed reaction rates among chemicals in the
atmosphere, causing higher concentrations of ozone in many urban areas.
In addition, the length of the summer season would be increased, which
implies an increase in the "ozone season". Although the inpacts of
higher temperatures on acid rain have not been analyzed, it is likely
that sulfur and nitrogen would oxidize more rapidly under higher
temperatures.
Due to the nature of global warming, the entire region and, in fact, the
entire Earth may be affected by climate change.
ECODDGICAL RISK CHMWCTERIZRIION
In "The potential Effects Of Global Climate Change On The United
States", the effects of global warming on various regions of the country
were studied. In the "Great Lakes" region, impacts on lakes and aquatic
ecosystems, forests, and agriculture (among other topics) were studied.
As indicated in Figure O4-2, the "Great Lakes" study area included all
of Region V. The results of this portion of the report will therefore
be used to characterize the impacts of global warming on Region V.
Figure 04-2. Great Lakes study area.
Cornwall
INDIANA j^- OM|0
PENNSYLVANIA
316
-------
All three GCMS that provide the basis for the clijnate change scenarios
show dramatic increases in temperature for the great lakes region. The
seasonal and annual temperature and precipitation patterns predicted by
the models are depicted in Figure 04-3. The combination of significant
increases in temperature and relatively small increases in precipitation
make GFDL the most severe scenario of the three. OSU is the mildest,
due to the smaller increases in temperature; GISS falls in the middle.
Figure O4-3.
Average change in temperature and
precipitation in GISS, GFDL, and OSU
ntriels.
A. Temperatur*
B. Precipitation
1L-- '
NC - No Cltangt
and Aquatic Ecosstems
Global climate change could affect the great lakes by lowering lake
levels, reducing ice cover, and degrading water quality in rivers and
shallow areas of the lakes. It is estimated that higher temperatures
may cause lake levels to fall by 0.5 to 2.5 meters (1.7 to 8.3 feet) .
(A 1 meter drop would result in average levels below historic lows. )
Even if precipitation increases, lake levels would continue to fall
because higher temperatures would reduce the snowpack and accelerate
evaporation. It should be noted that estimates of lake level drop are
sensitive to assumptions about evaporation and that under certain
limited conditions, lake levels could rise.
317
-------
Wanner winters are expected to reduce ice cover on the great lakes, with
ice formation generally limited to near-shore and shallow areas. In
addition, the duration of ice cover on the lakes would be reduced by 1
to 3 months. This reduction in ice cover could have negative impacts
because the ice protects sane aquatic life, such as whitefish, and
protects shorelines against the erosive inpact of high-energy waves.
Higher temperatures may lead to more aquatic growth, such as algal
blooms, and increase stratification. The reduced turnover of the lakes
could disrupt mixing of oxygen and nutrients, possibly affecting the
abundance of life in the lower and upper layers of the lakes. It is
likely that oxygen levels in shallow areas of the Great Takes would also
be depleted, thus make these areas less habitable for fish. In
addition, fish in small lakes and streams may be unable to escape
temperatures beyond their tolerances, or their habitats may simply
Forests
The composition and abundance of forests could change significantly.
Higher temperatures and lower soil moisture could reduce forest biomass
in dry sites in central Michigan by 77 to 99 percent. These mixed
hardwood and oak forests could become oak savannas or grasslands. In
northern areas like Minnesota, boreal and cedar bog forests could became
treeless bogs, and mixed northern hardwood and boreal forests in upland
areas could become all northern hardwoods. It is anticipated that
productivity may decrease on dry sites and bogland sites, but may
increase on some well-drained wet sites. Softwood species may be
eliminated and replaced by hardwoods, such as oak and maple. It is
uncertain whether forests in the southern part of the region will die
back leaving grasslands or whether new species will be able to migrate
or will be transplanted and flourish. In addition, the rate of forest
migration is likely to be slower than the climate change. Consequently,
the total range of many species would be reduced.
Agriculture
Studies indicate that temperature and precipitation changes could reduce
crop yields throughout the region, with the exception of the
northernmost latitudes where yields could increase depending on rainfall
availability. The reduction in yields in the southern portion of the
region would primarily result from the shortened growing season caused
by extreme summer heat. Production in the north would increase largely
due to a longer frost-free season which would result in increased
yields.
Corn yields throughout most of the region could decrease from 3 to 60
percent depending on climate and water regime (dryland or irrigated) .
It should be noted that yields in Duluth, for example, may increases as
much as 49 to 86 percent. While current corn yields are lower in Duluth
than in more southern sites, increases in yield of this magnitude could
318
-------
result in a dryland yield equal to other sites and an irrigated yield
exceeding other locations.
Dryland soybean yields are expected to decrease by 3 to 65 percent
throughout all but the northernmost part of the region. There dryland
yields are estimated to decrease by 6 percent under the GTOL scenario,
but increase by 109 percent under the wetter GISS scenario. Irrigated
yields in the north are estimated to increase by 96 to 135 percent.
Even with percent increases in yield of this magnitude for northern
areas, Duluth may still have yields lower than in areas to the south.
319
-------
References
United States Environmental Protection Agency. The Potential Effects of
cinhai climate Chancre On The United States. Office of Air Policy
Planning, and Evaluation. December 1989. EPA Publication No.
EPA-230-05-89-050.
320
-------
RADIATION CJIMKR TENS RADON
PROBLEM AREA DEFTNTTiaN AND DESCRIPTION
The evaluation of this problem area assesses some of the health risks
associated with exposure to ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. The
evaluation concentrates on sources of radiation exposure for which USEPA
currently has regulatory authority or could potentially have regulatory
authority. Sources of ionizing radiation treated here include consumer
products, building materials, and industrial and commercial air
emissions from sources such as power plants, process waste piles,
hospitals, and facilities which process and use nuclear materials.
Sources of non-ionizing radiation qualitatively evaluated as part of
this problem area include sources of radio frequency, microwave, and
electromagnetic radiation. This includes television and radio
transmitters, radar, electrical power lines, and radiation from home
appliances and wiring. The health impact of natural background
radiation and medical exposures (x-rays, radiation therapy) are
estimated as part of this problem area only for the purpose of comparing
with the sources of ionizing radiation discussed above. Radiation
resulting from nuclear accidents is included and the accidental releases
problem area and exposure to UV resulting from ozone depletion is
included in the stratospheric ozone problem area.
HUMAN TraaTfm RISK ASSESSMENT
Exposure to ionizing radiation other than radon and non-ionizing
radiation is ubiquitous in our technological society. Due to the
significant differences in the state of our knowledge regarding the
effects of ionizing and non-ionizing radiation the sources and impacts
of each are addressed separately.
IONIZING RADIATION
'IXJXXCXTY Ag
Ionizing radiation refers to radiation that strips electrons from atoms
in the medium through which it passes. The adverse effects of exposure
to ionizing radiation, and hence of radioactive materials, are
carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, and taratogenicity. From the perspective
of total societal risk, cancer induction and genetic mutations are the
most important effects. Both cancer induction and genetic mutations are
believed to be stochastic effects; i.e., the probability of these
effects (the risk of occurrence) increases with dose, but the severity
of the effect is independent of dose. Furthermore, there is no
convincing evidence of a threshold of exposure below which the risks are
zero.
Evidence of the deleterious effects of exposure to ionizing radiation
comes from both human epidemiology and animal studies. The human
epidemiologic data for cancer induction are extensive. Thus, as the EPA
noted in the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) supporting the recent
radionuclide NESHAES (National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants) rulemaking, "the risk can be estimated to within an order of
magnitude with a high degree of confidence. Perhaps for only one other
321
-------
carcinogen - tobacco smoke - is it possible to estimate risks more
reliably." (EPA89a)
The unit used in radiation dose assessment is the rad (radiation
absorbed dose). One rad is the dose corresponding to the absorption of
100 ergs per gram of tissue. Since not all forms of ionizing radiation
produce the same effect per rad, the rem is used as the unit of dose
equivalence. For materials taken into the body, the dose will be
delivered over the period that the material remains in the body. Thus,
the convention has been established to integrate the dose over the
entire period that the material will remain in the body and assign the
total dose to the year of exposure, resulting in the committed dose
equivalent (rem). Finally, since irradiation of the organs and tissues
of the body may not be uniform, the radiation protection community has
introduced the concept of the effective whole-body dose equivalent (rem
FJDE). The EDE is calculated by weighting the doses received by the
various organs by risk based factors and then summing the weighted organ
doses to derive the EDE. The collective population exposure is given in
person-rem EDE, and is derived by simply summing the exposures of the
individuals in the population. In this report, the doses are given in
rem or millirem (1/1,000th of a rem) EDE for individuals and person-rem
EDE for populations. The quantification of radiation exposures and
resulting cancer risks are based on the following estimates:
Lifetime exposure to 3 mrem/y EDE = IE-4 lifetime fatal cancer risk;
1E+6 perscn-rem/year EDE = 400 fatal cancers/year; and
Total Cancer Incidence/Fatal Cancer Incidence = 2, a 50 percent
mortality rate once a cancer has been expressed.
The risk factors used in this report are consistent with those used by
the EPA in the recent radionuclide NESHAPS rulemaking (EPA89a). They
are based on a linear extrapolation of the dose response exhibited by
the Japanese A-bomb survivors (and other human epidemiologic evidence),
using the relative risk projection model (primarily), and assuming that
there is no risk threshold. The EPA believes that the estimated fatal
cancer risk of 400 per 1E+6 person-rem EDE represents a best estimate,
and that the actual risk likely lies within the range of 120 to 1,200
fatal cancers per 1E+6 person-rem EDE. For radiation exposure of the
whole body the total incidence of cancer does not exceed the incidence
of fatal cancer by more than a factor of two. It should be noted the
risk coefficient has been extrapolated from high doses and high
dose rates. At the lower doses and dose rates associated with levels of
exposure in the environment, the possibility that the actual risk could
be zero cannot be ruled out on epidemiologic grounds due to the high
rate of cancer. The current consensus of scientific opinion is that no
threshold exists.
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
Sources of ionizing radiation are grouped into four major
classifications: natural background; occupational exposures; medical
exposures; and roanmade and technologically enhanced sources. The
estimated exposures and risk associated with the specific components or
322
-------
facilities within each of these categories are summarized in Tables 1-4,
respectively. The basis for the estimates are discussed in the
following sub-sections.
Natural Background Radiation
The doses and potential risks associated with exposure to naturally
occurring background radiation and naturally occurring radionuclides
have been estimated in a number of national and international reports
(EPAB1, NCRP87, UNSCEAR82). These exposures are divided into three
components; external exposure to terrestrial radiation, external
exposure to cosmic radiation, and internal exposure to naturally
occurring radionuclides. Table 1 presents the individual and population
exposures, and the resulting cancer risks from these sources. Exposures
to radon and radon progeny are excluded as they are included in the
Indoor Radon Problem Area. Exposures and risks to technologically
enhanced sources of naturally occurring radiation are addressed in the
section on Manmade and Technologically Enhanced Sources.
The estimated external exposures include shielding correction factors
for the time spent indoors and take into consideration the additional
indoor exposures associated with construction materials that contain
elevated levels of naturally occurring radionuclides. The dose
contribution from construction materials is also included in the section
on Manmade and Technologically Enhanced Sources.
The internal doses are the effective whole body dose equivalent from
naturally occurring internal emitters, as reported in NCRP 93 (NCRP87).
The values do not include the lung dose from radon and radon progeny. A
constant value for internal dose is used, representing the national
average. It was not considered feasible to estimate differences in
internal dose among states. In addition, other than radon progeny,
which are not addressed in this report, the dominant contributor to the
internal dose from naturally occurring radionuclides is K-40, which is
under homeostatic control and, as a result, does not vary significantly
among individuals.
The population doses were estimated using published values of the
projected 1990 population (BC87), as the 1990 census data were not
available for this report.
323
-------
Tfble 1: Natural Backyard Radiation - Sumery of Individual and Population Exposures and Risks
Individuals
Population
State/Source
Illinois
Cosmic*
Terrestrialr
Internal
Totals4
Indiana
Cosmic
Terrestrial
Internal
Totals
Michigan
Cosmic
Terrestrial
Internal
Totals
Minnesota
Cosmic
Terrestrial
Internal
Totals
Ohio
Cosnric
Terrestrial
Internal
Totals
Wisconsin
Cosmic
Terrestrial
Internal
Totals
Region 5 Totals
Average
Lifetime Fatal
Cancer Risk
9E-4
9E-4
1E-3
3E-3
9E-4
1E-3
1E-3
3E-3
9E-4
1E-3
1E-3
3E-3
9E-4
8E-4
1E-3
3E-3
3E-3
9E-4
9E-4
1E-3
3E-3
9E-4
1E-3
1E-3
3E-3
3E-3
Average
Exposure
(mrem/y)
27.4
26.6
38
92.0
27.6
28.7
38
94.3
27.6
29.2
38
94.8
28.5
25.1
38
91.6
27.7
28.0
38
93.7
27.8
29.2
38
95.0
94.0
Population
at Risk1
11,612,000
11,612,000
11,612,000
11,612,000
5,550,000
5,550,000
5,550,000
5,550,000
9,293,000
9,293,000
9,293,000
9,293,000
4,324,000
4,324,000
4,324,000
4,324,000
10,791,000
10,791,000
10, 791, 000
10,791,000
4,808,000
4,803,000
4,803,000
4,808,000
46,378,000
Exposure
(person- rem/y)
3.2E+5
3.1E+5
4.4E+5
1.1E+6
1.5E+5
1.6E+5
2.1E+5
5.2E+5
2.6E+5
2.7E+5
3.5E+5
8.8E+5
1.2E+5
1.1E+5
1.6E+5
4.0E+5
3.0E+5
3.0E+5
4.1E+5
1.0r*6
1.3E+5
1.4E*5
1.8E+5
4.6E+5
4.4E+6
Fatal
Cancers
per Year
127
124
177
428
61
64
84
209
103
109
141
352
49
43
66
158
120
121
164
404
53
56
73
183
1744
Total
Cancers
per Year
255
247
353
855
123
127
169
419
205
217
283
7D5
99
87
131
317
239
242
328
809
107
112
146
365
3488
1 1990 population projections taken from "Table No. 27. State Population Projections: 1987-2010" in the 1
Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1988. 108th Edition. Washington. D.C.. 1987.
2 Fran Table 1 of EPA81. The cosmic ray and terrestrial doses include shielding.
3 From Table 2-4 of MCRP Report Ho. 93, "Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the Reputation of the united States," 1987. The internal
dose is the effective Uwle bod/ dose from naturally occurring internal emitters. However, it daes not include the lung dose
fran the irhalation of redan and its progeny. For the purpose of this analysis, it is assured that the internal dose does rot
vary significantly among locations. This is a reasonable assumption since the dose is predominantly due to K-40, Uiich is
under hcmeostatic control and does not vary significantly among individuals.
4 Totals may not add cue to independent rounding.
324
-------
The differences among states in rhe individual external
exposures reflect differences in the external dose rates due to (1) the
differences in the concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides
in soils, and (2) the differences in cosmic radiation associated with
different elevations and latitudes. The differences among the states
within the region are relatively small primarily because the comparisons
are made on the basis of the average conditions within each state in the
region. However, the differences in terrestrial radiation, and, in some
cases cosmic radiation, among areas of a smaller scale within a state,
such as at the county level or smaller, can be substantial. Ihis occurs
because local differences in soil type and geology can be large and
significantly affect the terrestrial radiation fields. In addition, the
cosmic ray field atop a mountain is significantly different than in a
valley. Both types of differences tend to average out when looking at
state wide averages (population risks), but can be substantial on a
smaller (individual risk) scale. Further, when considering that people
spend different amounts of time indoors, and that the structural
material of a building can affect the indoor radiation fields, the
variability in external dose can be even greater, perhaps on the order
of 10 to 20 mrem/yr, depending on the structural material of the
building alone (UNSCEAR82).
Occupational Radiation Exposures
A wide variety of Federal and State agencies regulate occupational
exposure to ionizing radiation, with uniformity of worker protection
established by Federal Guidance developed by the EPA and issued by the
President. Current Federal Guidance (FR87) establishes a basic limit of
5 rem EDE per year for occupational exposure, and Federal agencies with
regulatory responsibility are in the process of conforming their
regulations to this recommended limit.
The major classes of occupational exposure include: Department of
Energy (DOE) weapons production of research facilities; nuclear fuel
cycle facilities; Department of Defense (DOD) facilities; non-fuel cycle
facilities licensed by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) or
the Agreement States to use byproduct, source, and special nuclear
materials (this includes hospitals and other medical facilities); air
transportation; and mineral extraction and processing industries that
process materials with elevated concentrations of naturally occurring
uranium or thorium and their progeny.
In this report, estimates of the exposures and cancer risks to workers
at each of these types of facilities except the mineral processing
facilities are given. The lack of data for mineral extraction and
processing industries is not believed to present a significant
underestimate of the risks, as the primary exposure is to radon and its
progeny which are not included in this problem area.
Table 2 presents the estimated exposures and risks from occupational
exposure. For uranium fuel cycle and DOE facilities, the estimates are
presented by site, and represent exposures of individuals with
measurable exposures. The values given for nuclear power plants
represent averages of 5 years of exposure data. Such average data
provide a better estimate of collective risk as they capture the
325
-------
variations in exposure during different phases of operations, e.g., at
power, normal refueling, and special maintenance. For nuclear power
reactors it should also be noted that the doses are assigned to the unit
where the exposure was incurred. Due to the widespread use of temporary
workers during outages, the individuals receiving such exposures may or
may not reside in the region. For medical, DOD, and other NRC-licensed
facilities, and air transportation crews, the exposure data are only
available in terms of national totals. The exposures and resulting
risks were apportioned to the region on the basis of population. The
exposure estimates for each of these components, with the exception of
air transportation crews, are based on measured exposures.
Table 2: Occupational Radiation Exposure - Sunny of Irtfividal and Population Benares and Risks
Indstry/Site
Individuals
Average
Lifetime Fatal
Cancer Risk
Average
Exposure
(mrero'y)
Population
at Risk1
Peculation
Exposure
(person- reVy)
Fatal
Cancers
per Year
Total
Cancers
per Year
Nuclear fuel Cycle
Power Reactors
Big Rode Point fl
BraicUxd 1 & 2°
Byron'
D. C. Cook 1 & 2
Davis-Besse
Dresden-2 & 3
Fermi 2s
Keuau-ee 7
La Salle 1 & 27
Monticello
Palisades
Perry 18
Prairie Island 1 & 2
Pt. Beach 1 & 2
Quad Cities 1 & 2
Zicn 1 & 2
Reactor Totals4
Other Fuel Cycle
1E-2
8E-3
2E-3
7E-3
2E-3
2E-2
1E-2
5E-3
7E-3
1E-2
6E-3
1E-2
5E-3
1E-2
2E-2
1E-2
1E-1
Spent
Fuel Storage Inst. 2E-2
Fuel Cycle Totals
DCE Facilities
Monsanto Research
Mart Lab.
Argore Nat'l Lab.
Chicago Operations
Fermi Nat'l Lab.
Martin Marietta
Portsmouth
RMI Cotpeny
1E-2
3E-2
2E-3
4E-3
1E-3
1E-3
4E-3
580
470
100
430
90
940
660
290
420
890
390
660
310
. 660
1,160
780
590
1,060
594
1,720
120
260
60
60
230
390
2,140
1,081
1,766
1,444
2,723
1,336
516
1,498
1,015
1,624
1,336
824
1.119
1,686
1,510
22,008
132
22.140
616
128
1,087
470
195
2.3E+2
1.0E+3
1.1E+2
7.6E+2
1.3E+2
2.6E+3
8.8E+2
1.5E+2
6.3E+2
9.0E+2
6.2E+2
8.8E+2
2.6E+2
7.4E+2
2.0E+3
1.2E*3
1.3E+4
1.4E+2
1.5E+2
7.4E+1
3.3E+1
6.5E+1
2.8E+1
4.5E+1
0.05
0.2
0.02
0.2
0.03
0.5
0.2
0.03
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.2'
0.05
0.2
0.4
0.2
2.6
0.03
2.6
0.03
0.02
0.007
0.01
0.006
0.009
0.09
0.4
0.04
0.3
0.05
1.0
0.4-
0.06
0.3
0.4
03
0.4
0.1
0.3
0.8
0.5
5.2
0.06
53
0.06
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
326
-------
Table 2 (cent): Occupational Radiation Exposure - Sunnary of Individual and Population Exposures and Risls
Individuals
Peculation
Average
Lifetime Fatal
IndLEtry/Site Cancer Risk
Feed Materials
Production Center
DOE Totals
DO) Facilities5
tRC-Licensed Facilities
Medical
Facilities5
Manufacturing &
Distribution
Other Users'
Industrial ,
Radiography^
MC Totals
Air Transport*
Region 5 Totals
5E-3
3E-3
2E-3
3E-3
5E-3
4E-3
8E-3
3E-3
1E-2
5E-3
Average
Exposure
(mnaVy)
310
182
90
150
270
210
450
175
630
315
Population
at Risk1
568
3.152
11,000
51,000
2,200
23,000
1,020
77,220
18,550
128,910
Exposure
(person- rem/y)
1.8E+2
5.85*2
9.9E+2
7.7E+3
5.9E+2
4.8E+3
4.6E+2
1.4E+4
1.2E*
4.1EH
Fatal
Cancers
per Year
0.04
0.12
0.2
1.5
0.1
1.0
0.09
2.7
23
8.1
Total
Cancers
per Year
0.07
0-24
0.4
3.0
0.2
2.0
0.2
5.4
4.6
16
1 Based on rurber of workers with measurable exposures.
2 Data represents a 5-year average, 1982-1966, of data presented in BR89.
3 No data available, estimates based on average* values for BURs.
4 Totals may rot add due to independent rounding.
5 Based on data in Table 4 of EPAS&a, estimates are for exposures in 1960.
6 Based on data in NCRP87.
7 Data referenced in HJREG 0713 but represents less than 5 operating years.
8 Mo data exists in MJREG 0713 therefore ft* and FVR 5-year average values were used (Brooks MJREG 0713).
For air crews, the exposures are estimated based on average exposure of
0.7 mrem/hr to enhanced cosmic radiation, and 900 hours/year exposure.
The value of 0.7 mrem/hr corresponds to the dose rate at 39,000 feet,
the typical cruising altitude of modern jets, and reflects the NCRP's
recent revision of the quality factor for neutrons. The value does not
take into account the increased dose rates associated with either solar
flares or polar latitudes. Solar flares, which range from 2 to 12 per
year and last from a few minutes to a week, can increase the dose rate
by several hundred times (BA89). Nine hundred hours/year exposure
represents the upper range of 620 - 900 air hours per year derived from
data presented in EAA90 for flight crews.
Two additional points needed to be made regarding the estimated risks.
The first is that the number of fatal cancers are estimated using 200
fatal cancers per 1E+6 person-rem. This approximate value, one-half the
value used for estimating risks to the general population, may be
327
-------
derived from Table V-26 in NAS80 and reflects two facts. One, that for
the continuous lifetime exposures on which the estimate of 400 fatal
cancers per 1E+6 person-rem is based, approximately 60 percent of the
risk is associated with exposures received in the first 19 years of life
(EPA89a). And two, virtually all occupationally exposed individuals
are 18 years of age or older.
The second point concerns the lack of estimates of maximum individual
risk. Unfortunately, the need to protect the confidentiality of the
workers makes it impossible to derive cumulative exposures for
individuals. An upper-bound for maximum individual risk can be obtained
by assuming 47 years of exposure at the 5 rem per year limit. Ihis
would result in a total exposure of 235 rem. Using a risk coefficient
one-half that used for members of the general population, this would
correspond to a maximum lifetime fatal cancer risk of roughly 8E-2.
Medical Radiation Exposures
Radiation is one of the principal tools of diagnostic medicine and of
cancer therapy. Thus, the exposure is deliberate and its benefits are
thought to outweigh the potential risks. The exposure data presented in
Table 3 for medical radiation are derived from NORP Report No. 93
(NCRP87). Since there are no documented statistical data or citations
in the literature which would allow for the calculation of medical
exposures by state or region, the collective exposures and cancer risks
have been apportioned simply on the basis of population. This is
believed to be reasonably accurate, since medical health care practices
do not differ greatly among different regions of the country.
Table 3: Medical Radiation Exposure - Sumery of Individual and Population Exposures and Risks
Indivicuals
Type of Exposure
Medical X-Rays
Average
Lifetime Fatal
Cancer Risk
4E-5
Radicpharrcaceuticals 2E-4
Region 5 Totals
Average
Exposure
(nran)
87
320
Population
at Risk
19,500,000
185,000
19,6ffi,000
Peculation
Exposure
(person- rem/y)
1.7t*
5.9E+4
1.8B6
Fatal
Cancers
per Year
679
24
702
Total
Cancers
per Year
1,357
47
1,405
1 Lifetime risk of a single average exposure, see text.
2 Totals may not add de to independent ranting.
Extreme caution should be exercised in interpreting the risk estimates
provided for medical exposures. The estimates of the lifetime
individual fatal cancer risk are based on a single average exposure, as
no data are available on cumulative individual exposures. In addition,
the lifetime fatal cancer risk and the estimates of excess cancers are
based on the risk coefficients for the general population. However, the
age distribution of those receiving medical exposures differs from that
of the general population, being highly skewed towards older
individuals. While older persons are generally believed to be more
radio-sensitive, actual cancer induction may actually be lower due to
328
-------
the long latency period of cancer induction. Thus, some of the
estimated excess cancers may never actually be expressed due to the
death of the individual from other causes.
Manmade and Technologically Enhanced Sources
Exposures to manmade and technologically enhanced sources includes
exposures of member of the general public who live in the vicinity of
the sources which were identified above as causing occupational
exposures and/or those members of the public who travel by airplane.
The EPA's Office of Radiation Programs has estimated the exposures to
both nearby individuals and the populations within 80-km of sources that
are felt to pose the greatest hazard of releasing radioactive materials
into the ambient air (EFA84b and EPA89b). The estimates of exposure and
risk that are presented in Table 4, with the exception of air travel and
construction materials, are derived from those estimates and only
include exposure to effluents released to air. Exposure to radioactive
materials via liquid pathways is not estimated, but is roughly
comparable to exposures to radioactive materials released to air from
industrial sources.
Table 4: Nanaade and Technologically Enhanced Radiation -
Sunery of Individual and Peculation Exposures and Risks
Individuals
Industry/Site
Range of
Lifetime Fatal
Cancer Risk
Maxinun
' Exposure
Peculation
Population
at Risk1
Exposure
(person-ran/y)
Fatal
Cancers
per Year
Total
Cancers
per Year
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Uraniun Conversion Operations
Allied Chemical
Metropolis, IL < 1E-6 - 3E-5
Pouer Reactors
Byron 1*
Quad-Cities
< 1E-6 - 3E-6
.9E-1
9E-2
1 &2*
Dresden 2 & 3*
LaSalle 1 & 2*
Zien 1 & 2*
Donald C. Cock
1 & 2*
Big Rock Point*
Fermi 2*
Palisades*
Hsnticellc*
Prairie Island
1 S2*
Davis-Besse 1*
Perry 1*
Keuaunee*
La Crcsse*
< 1E-6 -
< 1E-6 -
< 1E-6 -
< 1E-6 -
< 1E-6 -
< 1E-6 -
< 1E-6 -
< 1E-6 -
< 1E-6 -
< 1E-6 -
< 1E-6 -
< 1E-6 -
< 1E-6 -
< 1E-6 -
1E-5
1E-5
1E-5
cE-6
6E-6
5E-6
5E-6
3E-6
SE-6
c€-6
3E-6
5E-6
3E-6
5E-6
4E-1
4E-1
4E-1
2E-1
2E-1
2E-1
2£-1
9E-2
2E-1
2E-1
9E-2
2E-1
9E-2
2E-1
500,000
2.0E+0
2.0E+0
6.0W
6.05+0
6.0E+0
4.C&K)
4.05+0
3.0E+0
3.0W
2.0E+0
3.0E«0
4.0E+C
2.0W
3.0E*Q
2.05*0
3.05+0
8E-4
7E-4
2E-3
2E-3
2E-3
1E-3
1E-3
1E-3
1E-3
7E-4
1E-3
1E-3
7E-4
1E-3
7E-4
1E-3
2E-3
1E-3
4E-3
4E-3
4E-3
2E-3
2E-3
2E-3
2E-3
1E-3
2E-3
2E-3
1E-3
2E-3
1E-3
2E-3
329
-------
Table 4 (cent): Naraade and Technologically Enhanced Radiation
Sunary of Individual and Population Erasures and Risks
Irdivi duals
Population
Range of
Lifetime Fatal
Industry/Site Cancer Risk
Point Beech
1 S2* <
BraioVeod 1 & 2* <
Reactor Totals3 <
Other Fuel Cycle -
Fuel Cycle Totals <
DCE Facilities1
Reactive Metals
Ashtabula, OH <
Feed Materials
Production Center
Femald, OH <
Hard Facility
Miamsburg, OH <
Portsmouth Gaseous
Diffusion Plant
Piketcn, OH
Argome National
Laboratory
Argome, IL
Battelle Memorial
Institute
Coluitxs, OH
Fermi National
1E-6 - 6E-6
1E-6 - 6E-6
1E-6 - 1E-5
Maximjn
EjQosure
(mraVy)
2E-1
2E-1
4E-1
Population Exposure
at Risk (person- ren/y)
40,800,000
4.0BO
4.0E+0
6.1E+1
Fatal
Cancers
per Year
1E-3
1E-3
2E-2
Total
Cancers
per Year
2E-3
2E-3
5E-2
None Assessed in Region 5
1E-6 - 3E-5
1E-6 - 4E-5
1E-6 - 3E-5
1E-6 - 1E-6
< 1E-6
-------
Table 4 (cent): Harnade and Technologically Enhanced Radiatim
Sunny of Individual and Pcculaticn Exposures and Risks
Indivicuals
Industry/Site
Range of
Lifetime Fatal
Career Risk
Haxinun
Exposire
(nreiVy)
Peculation
Pcculaticn Exposure
at Risk (person-rem/y)
Fatal Total
Cancers Cancers
per Year per Year
Uet Process
Fertilizer Plants* < 1E-6 - 3E-6
Air Transport
Construction
Materials
Region 5 Totals
not estimated
not estimated
< 1E-6 - > 4E-5
9E-2 1,400,000 2.0E+0 8E-4 2E-3
46,330,000 6J&4 26 52
46,380,000 1.6E+5 65 130
1E+0 46,380,000 2.3E+5 91 182
1 Population within 80-km
2 Risks are ***** on reference ft* and PUR in EPA85b. Pcculaticn at risk has been limited to the state population.
3 Totals may not add due to independent rounding.
* Model or reference facility.
The estimates for the exposure of the general population to industrial
sources are based on both site-specific assessments and extrapolations
from reference facilities. Where reference facilities provide the
basis, the site name is marked with an asterisk (*). For actual
facilities, the exposure of the maximally exposed individual reflects
either an actual off-site residence, or the fencepost exposure
reference facilities were Enhanced Radiation -
used, the maximum exposure is based on an individual assumed at a close-
in location (typically 150 m) in the predominant wind direction. Where
the original assessment used a reference facility, collective popula-
tions are estimated using the generic population distributions that were
assessed and the number of facilities in the region. If the projected
population obtained in this manner exceeded the regional population, the
population at risk was constrained to the regional population.
In assessing the exposures and risks due to air travel, only collective
exposures and risks are given. The collective risk is based on 0.7
mrem/hr, 1.5 hours/trip, and a total of 340 million trips/year (NCRP87).
The collective dose was then apportioned to the region on the basis of
population.
The projection of cancer and deaths resulting from construction
materials is based on the national average dose rate of 3.5 mrem/yr.
applied to the population of the region as a whole (NAS80).
331
-------
NON-IONIZING RADIATION
TQXrCITY ASSESSMENT, EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT, AND HDMAN HEALTH BISK
CHARACTERIZATION
The biological effects of non-ionizing radiation are not well
understood. At this time, the risks and impacts associated with manmade
non-ionizing radiation found in the environment cannot be accurately
assessed.
Non-ionizing radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum which
does not strip electrons from atoms creating ions. This non-ionizing
radiation consists of a broad range of electromagnetic phenomena
including long-wavelength ultra-violet light, visible light, infra-red
light, microwaves, radio-^waves, and the electric and magnetic fields
associated with electrical power and equipment (60 Hertz).
This type of radiation has long been known to have biological effects
through a so-called "thermal" mechanism. That is, a mechanism whereby
the radiation absorbed by a body results in a heating of the body's
tissue. Almost all present-day exposure standards for non-ionizing
radiation limit exposures to below "thermal" thresholds.
In addition to the thermal effects, scientists have observed phenomena
that are not explained by "thermal" mechanisms. These phenomena have
variously been called "athermal" or "nonthermal" bioeffects. Although
the scientific literature has published reports of nonthermal bioeffects
for some time, there has been an absence of "hard" scientific data
corroborating such effects. This has led to skepticism about
experiments displaying nonthermal effects.
Some scientists have suggested that nonthermal effects might possess
unique properties that make traditional concepts of radiation dose
inappropriate for describing some types of bioeffects of non-ionizing
radiation. For example, "windows" in frequency and field intensity have
been suggested to explain differences found in very similar scientific
experiments. It has been hypothesized that effects might occur within
these windows and not outside of them. If this is true, the traditional
assumption would not hold that more exposure to the field would cause a
more pronounced effect.
Bioeffects and Sources of Non-Ionizing Radiation
Until recently, the only nonthermal effect observed from non-ionizing
radiation were behavioral changes in animals exposed to very high
intensities at higher (radio and microwave) frequencies. However,
recent epidemic-logic studies at extremely low frequencies (60 Hertz)
have indicated potential cancer effects in children. Moreover, a
limited number of cellular level experiments have been performed that
indicate the carcinogenicity is a plausible but not confirmed result of
exposure to extremely low electromagnetic fields.
332
-------
Epidemiologic studies suggesting a correlation between power frequency
exposure and cancer include:
o elevated incidence of cancer in children exposed in
residences in proximity to electrical transmission and
distribution lines;
o elevated incidence of cancer in children whose father's were
occupationally exposed; and
o occupational exposure to electromagnetic fields.
The elevated risks associated with these types of exposure is not well
characterized. The reported evidence is statistically significant in
some case-controlled studies of cancer in children. This human
evidence, though, is observational in nature, and some have suggested
that these studies did not control potentially relevant factors which
might also lead to these statistical differences.
What is most striking about these epidemiologic studies is the type of
exposure which has been correlated with cancer. The focus of exposure
has been to power frequency (60 Hertz) magnetic fields at relatively low
levels (2-3 milliGauss or, equivalently, 0.2-0.3 microTesla). In
comparison, this level is well below the earth's static magnetic field
of about 600 milliGauss (60 microTesla). Also, an electrical wire
carrying 1 ampere of current produces 0.2-0.3 microTesla at a distance
of 3 feet from the wire.
Sources of this level of magnetic (and electric) fields at and near
power frequencies are ubiquitous. Sources include electric blankets,
fluorescent lamps, TV receivers, computer terminals, hair dryers,
electric razors, microwave ovens, stereo headphones, coffee makers,
subway cars and platforms, powerlines (at the edge of the right-of-way),
etc. Data on exposure of the general public to these power frequencies
are limited.
Cellular experiments with low frequency non-ionizing radiation have
neither confirmed nor refuted the results of the epidemiologic studies.
Although many studies have not linked non-ionizing radiation to
bioeffects, a few studies have noted changes in brain tissue calcium
efflux and some other effects after exposure to electric and crossed
electric/magnetic fields.
Major sources of population exposure to high frequency sources include
special radars used by the military and civilian sector for air traffic
control. Some radio transmitters may constitute sources of high level
population exposure. In addition, some foreign sources operating above
power levels allowed in the United States likely result in high levels
of exposure to populations living near the border.
•?•?'
W^J v
-------
Population Exposure
Almost all exposure to non-ionizing radiation cannot be physically
sensed. Most exposure can be inferred by knowing the characteristics of
electrical or electronic equipment that are the sources of such
radiation. Power lines and power transformers are examples of such
equipment. Special instruments are available to measure the electric
and magnetic field components of non-ionizing radiation.
Two notable studies have examined population exposure to power frequency
and radio frequency non-ionizing radiation. These are a study by Silva,
et al. (SI85) sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute which
compared human exposure during agricultural and recreational activities
near power lines to exposure during domestic activities in the home. An
EPA study (HA86) has also characterized population exposure to radio
frequency non-ionizing radiation.
Most types of population exposure are likely to be comparable in all
regions of the United States. Individual variability in the types of
electrical equipment used in the home is more likely than conmercial and
military sources to determine personal exposure levels. In some
instances, power transmission lines, power distribution lines, large
electrical generators and motors, radars and radio transmitters
constitute local "hot spots" of exposure. Actual population exposure
is, however, difficult to infer without detailed measurements.
At our current level of understanding, it is not possible to establish
direct links between population exposure to non-ionizing radiation and
cancer. In fact, we are even uncertain as to which parameters are
important to assessing exposure; i.e., magnetic field component,
electrical field component, level of intensity of the field, frequency
of the field, duration of exposure, etc.
EOODDGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
At the levels of environmental radioactivity of concern to this project,
radiation exposure has little or no adverse effects on organisms other
than man or on the environment.
The adverse effects associated with low-levels of radioactivity in the
environment are cancer, genetic effects, and birth defects. Such
effects, even if extremely rare or undetectable, are of concern to
humans. However, for organisms other than man, the concern is not with
individual organisms but on the viability of the species and the
function and structure of the ecosystem as a whole. The following
briefly summarizes the research and demonstrates that low-level
radiation is of concern only to humans and may be considered in-
consequential in terms of its potential ecological effects.
During the 1960s and 1970s a vast amount of radiobiological research was
performed to assess the impacts of radiation on plant and animal
communities. The research included a large number of comprehensive
laboratory and field studies motivated primarily by concern over fallout
from weapons tests. Excellent reviews of the literature are provided by
334
-------
Turner (TU) and Casaretti (CA68). A more recent review was prepared by
the Office of Radiation Programs in 1986 (EPA86).
In summary, it appears that at prolonged exposures of ecosystems below a
few rad per day there are no detectable adverse ecological impacts.
Turner concludes that, though the community interactions to prolonged
exposures to ionizing radiation are complex and difficult to predict,
doses on the order of several hundred rads per year would be needed to
cause extinction of a species. Such exposures can occur following a
major nuclear accident (e.g., Chernobyl), but are not associated with
the production and use of radioactive materials. Nor are they
associated with uncontrolled sites where previous activities have
resulted in the contamination of the site with radioactive materials.
WELFARE ASSESSMENT
The potential welfare effects associated with radiation exposure can be
divided into two broad categories:
o costs associated with effects on human health, and
o costs associated with commercial damage.
The costs associated with health effects include direct medical costs
and lost productivity due to the inability to conduct normal work
activities. The 1988 report Cancer Facts and Figures, published by the
American Cancer Society, estimates that for 1985 the total economic cost
of cancer was $71.5 billion. This includes direct medical costs and
indirect costs associated with lost productivity. The American Cancer
Society estimates that there were 985,000 new cases of cancer in the
United States in 1988. Since, over a 30 year period, the per capita age
adjusted cancer death rate has increased at a rate of less than one
percent per year, the estimate of 985,000 cancers can be used to
estimate the approximate cost per cancer. Escalating the 1985 cost by
7.5 percent per year inflation in health care services (BC87), and
assuming the cancer incidence remains virtually unchanged, results in an
economic cost of cancer in 1990 dollars of approximately $100,000 per
case. In Region 5, the total costs of radiogenic cancer would be on the
order of $500 million per year, or roughly 2.7 percent of the regional
cost of all cancers.
The costs associated with commercial damage caused directly by radiation
are negligible. Unlike many other categories of environmental
pollutants, radioactive contaminants and background radiation do not
cause direct ecological damage. However, the contamination of
facilities and sites where radioactive materials have been or are
produced and used, can result in considerable cleanup costs. For
commercial facilities, the costs of decontaminating and decommissioning
the facilities and the sites are reflected in the costs of the products
or services. For sites owned by government agencies, the costs will be
borne by the taxpayers. Restoration of the sites operated for the
Department of Energy has been initiated. Current estimates place these
restoration costs in the hundreds of billions of dollars. Whether or
not such costs will actually be incurred is uncertain at this time, and
no estimate is made of the costs on a regional basis.
335
-------
Other welfare effects associated with other classes of pollutants are
generally not applicable to ionizing radiation. Radioactive effluents
do not impair visibility, result in esthetic damage, or result in
recreational losses. Nor, do they, at the levels corresponding to
normal operations, result in commercial harvest loses or destruction of
property. Agricultural losses due to accidental releases are not
assessed.
336
-------
REFERENCES
BA89
BC87
BR89
CA68
EPA89a
EPA89b
EPA86
EPA84a
EPA84b
EPA81
FAA90
FR87
Barish, R. J., Understanding In-Flight Radiation - A Reference
Manual, published by In-Flight Radiation Protection
Services, New York, NY, 1989.
U.S. Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States:
1988. 108th Edition, Washington, D.C., 1987.
Brooks, B.C., Occupational Radiation Exposure at Commercial
Nuclear Power Reactors - 1986. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, NUREG-0713, Vol. 8, Washington, D.C., 1989.
Casaretti, A.P., Radiation Biology. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewocd
Cliffs, NT, 1968.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental
State
ment - NESHAPS for Radionuclides: Background Information
Document - Volume I; Risk Assessment Methodology. EPA
520/1-89-005, Office of Radiation Programs, Washington,
D.C., September 1989.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Impact State
ment - NESHAPS for Radionuclides: Background Information
Document - Volume II; Risk Assessments. EPA 520/1-89-005,
Office of Radiation Programs, Washington, D.C., September
1989.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Effects of Radiation on
Aquatic Organisms and Radiobiological Methodologies for
Effects Assessment. EPA 520/1-85-016, Office of Radiation
Programs, Washington, D.C., February 1986.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Occupational Exposure to
Ionizing Radiation in the United States. EPA-520/1-84-005,
Office of Radiation Programs, Washington, D.C.,
September 1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Radionuclides; Background
Information for Final Rules - Volume II. EPA 520/1-84-022-2,
Office of Radiation Programs, Washington, D.C., October
1984.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Population exposure to
EPA/SEPD-80-12, Office of Radiation Programs, Washington,
D.C., April 1981.
Federal Aviation Administration, Radiation Exposure of Air Carrier
Crewmembers. Advisory Circular 120-52, March 5, 1990.
The Federal Register. Vol. 52, No. 17, January 27, 1987.
337
-------
HA86 Hankin, N.N. , The Radiofrequency Radiation Environment; Environ
mental Exposure Levels and RF Radiation Emitting Sources.
EPA 520/1-85-014, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency/
Office of Radiation Programs, Washington, D.C. , July 1986.
NAS80 National Academy of Sciences, The Effect on Populations of Expo
sures to low levels of Ionizing Radiation: 1980. Committee
on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations,
Washington, D.C. , 1980.
NCRP87 National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements,
Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United
States. NCRP Report No. 93, Bethesda, MD, 1987.
SI85 Silva, J.M. , Hummon, N.P. , Huber, D.L. , Zaffanella, L.E., and
Deno, D.W. , AC Field Exposure Study; Hunan Exposure to 60—
Hz Electric Fields. EA-3993, Interim Report, prepared for
the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) under Research
Project 799-16, April 1985.
1U Turner, F.B. , Effects of Continuous Irradiation of Animal Popula
tions. work performed for the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Division of Biomedical and Environmental Research, under
contract AT(04-1)GEN-12 with the University of California.
UNSCEAR82 United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic
Radiation, Ionizing Radiation; Sources and Biological
Effects. United Nations, New York, 1982.
Additional References Not Cited in the Report
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Evaluation of the Potential Carcinoge—
nicity of Electromagnetic Fields. EPA 600/6-90-005a, Workshop Review Draft,
Office of Radiation Programs, Washington, D.C., June 1990.
Elder, J.A. and Cahill, D.F. , Biological Effects of Radiofrequency Radiation.
EPA 600/8-83-026f, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research
and Development, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1984.
Elder, J.A. , A Reassessment of the Biological Effect^ of Radiofreouency Radia-
tion, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Radiation Programs,
Washington, D.C., July 21, 1987.
U.S. Knvi mrni(pnfcal Protection Agency, Federal Radiation Protection
Proposed Alternatives for Controlling Public Exposure to Radiofrequencv Radia
tion. Notice of Proposed Recommendations published in the Federal Register.
July 30, 1986.
Foster, K.R. and Guy, A.W. , "The Microwave Problem," Scientific American. Vol.
255, No. 3, p. 32, September 1986.
338
-------
August 22, 1990
ADDENDUM
OTHER THAN RADON
Response to state Comments
State Comment: Medical exposures should not be treated similarly to other
radiation exposures in that they involve risk/benefit consideration not
present in the other exposure situations.
Response: We agree with this comment. The health risk ranking of this
problem area was not based on medical exposure health risks. Risk
estimates were included in the report only for purposes of comparison.
State Comment: There is an apparent inconsistency in the exposure assumptions
that 60 percent of the risk is associated with exposures received in the
first 19 years of life when compared to the belief that older persons
are general more radio-sensitive.
Response: We believe that this apparent inconsistency is explained in the
report. As stated in the report: "While older persons are generally
believed to be more radio-sensitive, actual cancer induction may
actually be lower due to the long latency period of cancer induction.
Thus some of the estimated excess cancers may never actually be
expressed due to the death of the individual from other causes."
State Conment: Exposure to electromagnetic fields should be included in the
project.
Response: Exposure to electromagnetic fields is included in the discussion of
non-ionizing radiation. Unfortunately our state of knowledge concerning
this potential hazard has not progressed to the point where quantitative
risk estimates can be computed.
339
-------
-------
|